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1952 Madras State Legislative Assembly election

2026-05-07T06:39:17Z

Ankitchadha: created new info - done

{{Short description|none}}
{{For|Lok Sabha election|1951–52 Indian general election in Madras State}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2020}}
{{Infobox election
| election_name = 1952 Madras Legislative Assembly election
| country = India
| type = legislative
| ongoing = no
| previous_election = 1946 Madras legislative assembly election
| previous_year = 1946
| outgoing_members = 
| election_date = 2–25 January 1952
| elected_members = 1st Madras State Assembly
| next_election = 
| next_year = [[1957 Madras Legislative Assembly election|1957 (Madras)]]{{efn|In 1953 and 1956, the states of [[Southern India]] were [[States Reorganisation Act, 1956|reorganized along linguistic lines]] into their present-day boundaries. This resulted in the creation of several other states from [[Madras State]] which also held elections for their legislative assemblies}} → [[1955 Andhra State Legislative Assembly election|1955 (Andhra)]] → [[1957 Kerala Legislative Assembly election|1957 (Kerala)]] → [[1957 Mysore Legislative Assembly election|1957 (Mysore)]]
| seats_for_election = All 375 seats in the [[Madras Legislative Assembly]]
| majority_seats = 188
| registered = 36,600,615
| turnout = 54.75%
| image1 = Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari.jpg
| leader1 = [[C. Rajagopalachari]]
| party1 = Indian National Congress
| leaders_seat1 = [[Madras Legislative Council|MLC]]
| seats1 = '''152'''
| popular_vote1 = '''6,988,701'''
| percentage1 = '''34.88%'''
| image2 = CPI symbol.svg
| leader2 = [[M. Kalyanasundaram]]
| party2 = Communist Party of India
| leaders_seat2 = [[Tiruchirappalli – II Assembly constituency|Tiruchirappalli North]]
| seats2 = 62
| popular_vote2 = 2,640,337
| percentage2 = 13.18%
| image4 = 
| leader4 = 
| party4 = Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party
| leaders_seat4 = —
| seats4 = 35
| popular_vote4 = 1,803,377
| percentage4 = 9.00%
| image5 = 
| leader5 = 
| party5 = Socialist Party (India, 1948)
| leaders_seat5 = —
| seats5 = 13
| popular_vote5 = 1,299,282
| percentage5 = 6.48%
| map_image = 1952 Madras State Legislative Assembly election results by district.svg
| map_caption = Results by district
| title = [[List of chief ministers of Tamil Nadu|Chief Minister]]
| before_election = [[P.S. Kumaraswamy Raja]]
| before_party = Indian National Congress
| after_election = [[C. Rajagopalachari]]
| after_party = Indian National Congress
}}

The '''1952 Madras Legislative Assembly election''' was held for 9 days from 2 January to 25 January 1952,<ref>{{Cite web |title=1st Assembly - Overview |url=https://assembly.tn.gov.in/archive/1st_1952/overview.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250607001710/https://assembly.tn.gov.in/archive/1st_1952/overview.php |archive-date=2025-06-07 |access-date=2025-08-31 |website=www.assembly.tn.gov.in |language=en}}</ref> and the votes were counted on 27 March 1952 to elect all 375 members of the [[Tamil Nadu Legislature|Legislative Assembly]] of [[Madras State]] (present-day [[Tamil Nadu]]). They were the first elections held in the state following [[partition of India|Indian independence]]. Although voting was held in 1952, the [[Election Commission of India]] officially designated it as taking place in 1951.

No party won an outright majority in the election, though the [[Indian National Congress]] (INC) emerged as the largest party with 152 seats and more than a third of the vote. The [[Communist Party of India]] (CPI) came in second with 62 seats, followed by the [[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party]] (KMPP) with 35 seats. [[C. Rajagopalachari]] of the INC was elected [[List of chief ministers of Tamil Nadu|chief minister]] as a consensus candidate.

This was the only election for Madras State where it still encompassed the [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-speaking areas of what is present-day [[Andhra Pradesh]], as it split off to form [[Andhra State]] in 1953. The separation consolidated the non-Brahmin INC faction led by [[K. Kamaraj]]. Opposition to his [[Modified Scheme of Elementary education 1953|education policy]] led to Rajagopalachari's resignation in 1954 and Kamaraj was elected chief minister in his stead.

== Background ==
[[File:India Administrative Divisions 1951.svg|thumb|Indian administrative divisions, as of 1951]]

===Factionalism in Congress===
In the years after the [[1946 Madras legislative assembly election|1946 election]], factionalism was common place in the Congress party in Madras. During 1946–51, three different Congress chief ministers headed the Madras government. [[T. Prakasam]] was the Chief Minister of Madras presidency immediately after the 1946 election. As a Telugu speaker, he was often at odds with the Madras Provincial Congress Committee president [[K. Kamaraj]]. Kamaraj forced the resignation of Prakasam within a year. In 1947, [[Omandur Ramaswamy Reddiar]], Kamaraj's nominee, became the Chief Minister. When Reddiar showed signs of independence, Kamaraj engineered his removal by a vote of no confidence in Congress Legislature Party on 31 March 1949. [[P. S. Kumaraswamy Raja]], the next Chief Minister who formed the Government on 6 April 1949 was believed to be a stooge of Kamaraj. He retained the chiefministership till the 1952 election when he lost his seat in [[Srivilliputhur Assembly constituency|Srivilliputhur constituency]].<ref name="Duncan B. Forrester">{{Cite journal| first = Duncan B. |last = Forrester| title = Kamaraj: A Study in Percolation of Style | journal = Modern Asian Studies| volume = 4| issue = 1| pages = 43–61| publisher = Cambridge University Press| year = 1970| jstor = 311752| doi=10.1017/s0026749x00010970|s2cid = 145472845}}</ref><ref name="I. N. Tewary">{{Cite book| last = I. N. Tewary| title = Political system: a micro perspective| publisher = Anmol Publications PVT. LTD.| year = 1999| location = New Delhi | pages = 13| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=32tA0QGMCiQC&q=kamaraj+1952+election&pg=PA13}}</ref> The main factions within the Madras Congress Party during this period were: 1) the Andhra (Prakasam) faction, 2) the Rajaji faction 3) Kamaraj faction (Tamil non-Brahmin members) and 4)the [[Bezawada Gopala Reddy]] and [[Kala Venkata Rao]] faction supported by the All India Congress Committee president [[Bhogaraju Pattabhi Sitaramayya|Pattabhi Sitaramayya]]<ref name="kumar">{{Cite book| last =Kumar| first = Prasanna A.| title = Dr. B. Pattabhi Sitaramayya: a political study| year = 1978| pages = 96| publisher = Andhra University Press| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=5mkdAAAAMAAJ&q=Gopala+Reddi,+Kala+Venkata+Rao| isbn = 81-7099-619-8}}</ref>

The Prakasam faction later split from the Congress to form the [[Hyderabad State Praja Party]]. The party merged with the [[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party]] in June 1951.

===Communists in electoral process===
In 1951, the [[Communist Party of India]] (CPI) which had been waging an armed struggle during 1948–51, gave up the attempt to wrest power through force and joined the political mainstream. At the 1951 congress of the party, "People's Democracy" was replaced by "National Democracy" as the main slogan of the party and the decision was made to contest the elections. One of the armed movements supported by the CPI was the [[Telangana Rebellion]] in the [[princely state]] of [[Hyderabad State|Hyderabad]]. Though the rebellion was crushed by 1951, the communists retained widespread support in the neighboring [[Andhra state|Andhra]] region. This was due to their policy of linguistic nationalism (the demand for a separate state of [[Telugu language|Telugu]] speaking people) and their support base amongst the [[Kamma (caste)|Kamma caste]] which was opposed to the [[Reddy]] supported Congress. Till then, all the previous elections had been conducted on a limited franchise based on property ownership qualifications. The election of 1951 was the first one to be based on a universal franchise. The Communists had the support of most of the first time voters – landless peasants and agricultural labourers.<ref name="ems">{{Cite book| last =Namboodiripad| first = E.M.S.|author-link=E.M.S. Namboodiripad| title =The Communist Party in Kerala: six decades of struggle and advance| year = 1994| pages =273 | publisher =National Book Centre| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=mKTaAAAAMAAJ}}</ref><ref name="welch">{{Cite book| last = Welch| first = Claude Emerson| title =Anatomy of rebellion| year = 1980| pages =253| publisher =SUNY Press| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=XSngDaqpkoYC&pg=PA253| isbn = 0873954416}}</ref><ref name="kude">{{Cite book| last =Kude| first = Uttam Laxmanrao| title =Impact of Communism on the working class and peasantry: a case study of Maharashtra| year = 1986| pages =173–177| publisher =Daya Books| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=B3Cg9H7lVkgC&pg=PA176| isbn = 8170350271}}</ref><ref name="sundarayya">{{Cite book| last =Sundarayya| first =P| title =Telangana People's Struggle and Its Lessons| year =2006| pages =102–143| publisher =Foundation Books| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=TPjIh1G0TmcC&pg=PA102| isbn =8175963166}}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090902080022/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,854557,00.html Foreign News: Shocking Truth, Time Magazine 10 February 1947]</ref> They also had a strong presence in the agrarian district of [[Tanjore]] in Tamil Nadu where they were supported by the Dravidar Kazhagam.<ref name="gough1"/>

===Split in the Dravidian Movement===
The [[Dravidar Kazhagam]] (DK), the main opposition party to the Congress in the Tamil speaking areas of the state split in 1949. [[C. N. Annadurai]], once a protege of the DK leader [[Periyar E. V. Ramasamy]], quit the DK and founded a new party – [[Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam]] (DMK). Both the DK and the DMK were secessionist advocates for [[Dravidistan]]- a separate state for Dravidians.<ref name="jeyaraj"/><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl1520/15201330.htm |title=Celebrating a half century, The Hindu 26 September 1998 |access-date=15 December 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050329142734/http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl1520/15201330.htm |archive-date=29 March 2005 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Some of the old guard of the [[Justice Party (India)|Justice party]], which had been renamed as Dravidar Kazhagam in 1944, refused to accept Periyar's leadership. Led by [[P. T. Rajan]], they insisted they were still the real Justice party and contested the 1952 elections under the "Scales" symbol.

==Constituencies==
According to the Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies (Madras) Order, 1951, made by the President under sections 6 and 9 of the Representation of the People Act, 1950, the Madras Legislative Assembly consisted of 375 seats to be filled by election, distributed in 309 constituencies and 62 two-member constituencies in each of which a seat had been reserved for Scheduled Castes and four two-member constituencies in each of which a seat had been reserved for Scheduled Tribes. Three seats were uncontested. The elections were conducted for the remaining 372 seats.<ref name = "analysis">{{cite web |url=http://www.assembly.tn.gov.in/archive/Resumes/review_01assly/ch01.pdf |title=A Review of the Madras Legislative Assembly (1952-1957)|archive-date=4 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110904134752/http://www.assembly.tn.gov.in/archive/Resumes/review_01assly/ch01.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The two member constituencies were established in accordance to Article 332 of the [[Constitution of India|Indian Constitution]]. The voting method and the plurality electoral formula were defined in The Representation of People Act, 1950.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://lawmin.nic.in/legislative/election/volume%201/REPRESENTATION%20OF%20THE%20PEOPLE%20ACT,%201950.pdf |title=The Representation of People Act, 1950 |access-date=10 November 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150824033852/http://lawmin.nic.in/legislative/election/volume%201/REPRESENTATION%20OF%20THE%20PEOPLE%20ACT,%201950.pdf |archive-date=24 August 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Out of the total 309 constituencies in the undivided [[Madras State]], 66 were two member constituencies, 62 of which had one seat reserved for [[Scheduled castes and scheduled tribes|Scheduled Caste]] candidates and 4 for [[Scheduled castes and scheduled tribes|Scheduled Tribe]] candidates.<ref name=A>[http://www.assembly.tn.gov.in/history/history.htm The State Legislature – Origin and Evolution] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100413233934/http://www.assembly.tn.gov.in/history/history.htm |date=13 April 2010 }}</ref> These constituencies were larger in size and had greater number of voters (more than 1,00,000)<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://164.100.47.132/lssnew/constituent/vol4p5.pdf |title=Constituent Assembly of India Debates Vol IV, Friday 18 July 1947 |access-date=10 November 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110703135909/http://164.100.47.132/lssnew/constituent/vol4p5.pdf |archive-date=3 July 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> when compared to general constituencies. Two separate list of candidates, a general list and a reserved list, contested in those constituencies. Each voter had to cast two votes – one for each list.

The two winners were chosen as follows:

* '''Reserved Member''' – Candidate with the most votes among the reserved (SC/ST) list candidates
* '''General Member''' – Candidate with the most votes among the rest of the candidates excluding the Reserved Member (including both reserved and general lists).

This system led to anomalies. In some cases like the Coimbatore – II constituency in the [[1957 Madras legislative assembly election|1957 election]], both elected members belonged to the reserved list – the candidate with second highest number of votes in reserved list secured more votes than the highest vote getter in the general list. Multiple members were elected only in the 1952 and 1957 elections as double member representation was abolished in 1961 by the enactment of Two-Member Constituencies Abolition Act (1961).<ref>{{cite book | first1=Zoya| last1=Hasan | first2=Eswaran| last2=Sridharan| first3=R| last3=Sudharshan| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zgt2JdUrsHUC | year= 2005| title=India's living constitution: ideas, practices, controversies| publisher= Anthem Press| pages=360–63| isbn=1-84331-136-4 }}</ref>

==Political parties==
The main opponents for the Congress in Madras were the CPI, Prakasam's [[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party]] (KMPP) and the [[Krishikar Lok Party]] led by [[N. G. Ranga]] (a breakaway group from KMPP's predecessor - the Hyderabad State Praja Party). The [[Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam]] (DMK) did not contest the 1952 election. Instead it supported the candidates of the [[Vanniyar]] caste based parties – the [[Commonweal Party]] and the [[Tamil Nadu Toilers Party]] – and five independents in [[Chengelpet]], [[Salem District|Salem]], North and South [[Arcot]] districts. The candidates they backed had to sign a pledge to support DMK's agenda in the legislative assembly.<ref name="jeyaraj"/><ref>{{cite journal | title=The DMK and the Politics of Tamil Nationalism| author=Robert L. Hardgrave | journal=Pacific Affairs| year=1964–1965| volume=37|issue=4| pages=396–411| jstor=2755132| doi=10.2307/2755132}}</ref> The Dravidar Kazhagam also did not participate directly in the election. However, it supported the Communists in an effort to defeat the [[Indian National Congress]] which it claimed was a Brahmin dominated party. It also supported a number of other parties and Independents in the election.<ref name="gough1">{{Cite book| last =Gough| first = Kathleen| title = Rural Society in Southeast India| year = 2008| pages = 141–146| publisher = Cambridge University Press| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=GZwD7EqLcAUC| isbn = 978-0-521-04019-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | title=Urban Life and Populist Radicalism: Dravidian Politics in Madras| author=Lloyd I. Rudolph| journal=The Journal of Asian Studies| date=May 1961| volume=20|issue=3| pages=283–297| jstor=2050816| doi=10.2307/2050816| s2cid=145124008}}</ref> The [[Justice Party (India)|Justice party]], led by [[P. T. Rajan]] contested in nine seats.

==Election==
Polling was held in nine phases (2, 5, 8, 9, 11, 12, 16, 21 and 25 January) in January 1952.<ref>{{cite web |title=DETAILS OF TERMS OF SUCCESSIVE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLIES CONSTITUTED UNDER THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA |url=http://www.assembly.tn.gov.in/archive/list/assemblies-overview.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090303204611/http://assembly.tn.gov.in/archive/list/assemblies-overview.htm |archive-date=3 March 2009 |access-date=11 February 2010 |work=[[Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly]]}}</ref> In all, 2,507 persons filed their nominations-2,472 men and 35 women. Of these, the nominations were rejected in respect of 79 candidates-78 men and one woman. Seven hundred and fifty-one candidates withdrew their nominations in time-741 men and 10 women.<ref name = "analysis"/>

==Results==
<section begin=Results />{{election table|title=Summary of results of the 1952 Madras Legislative Assembly election<ref name="MadrasECI1951">{{cite web | url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/STATISTICALREPORTS_51_MADRAS.pdf | title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1951 : To the Legislative Assembly of Madras | publisher=Election Commission of India | access-date=2014-10-14 |archive-date=27 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127201450/https://eci.gov.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/STATISTICALREPORTS_51_MADRAS.pdf}}</ref> |sortable=yes}}
!colspan=9|[[File:India Madras Legislative Assembly 1952.svg]]
|- style="background-color:#E9E9E9; text-align:center;"
! class="unsortable" |
! Political party !! Flag !! Seats Contested !! Won !! % of Seats !! Votes !! Vote %
! class="unsortable"|Govt. Formation
|- style="background: #90EE90;"
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
| [[File:Flag of Indian National Congress.png|70px]]
| 367 || 152 || 40.53 || 69,88,701 || 34.88
| rowspan="2" style="background-color:#90EE90;text-align:center"|Leading Party

|-
| {{Full party name with color|Socialist Party (India, 1948)}}
|
| 163 || 13 || 3.47 || 12,99,282 || 6.48
|-
| {{Full party name with color|Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party}}
|
| 148 || 35 || 9.33 || 18,03,377 || 9.00
| rowspan="2" style="background-color:#00FF00;text-align:center"|**Full support
|-
| {{Full party name with color|Communist Party of India}}
| [[File:CPI-banner.svg|70px]]
| 131 || 62 || 16.53 || 26,40,337 || 13.18
|- style="background: #00FF7F;"
|{{Full party name with color|Krishikar Lok Party}}#
|
| 63 || 15 || 4.00 || 6,29,893 || 3.14
| rowspan="4" style="background-color:#00FA9A;text-align:center"|*Outside support, joined the cabinet in 1954
|-
| {{Full party name with color|Republican Party of India}}
| [[File:Flag of various Republican Parties of India.svg|70px]]
| 37 || 2 || 0.53 || 3,39,680 || 1.70
|- style="background: #00FA9A;"
|{{Full party name with color|Tamil Nadu Toilers' Party}}*
|
| 34 || 19 || 5.07 || 8,52,330 || 4.25
|- style="background: #00FF00;"
|{{Full party name with color|Commonweal Party}}**
|
| 13 || 6 || 1.60 || 2,18,288 || 1.09
|- style="background: #00FF00;"
|{{Full party name with color|Madras State Muslim League Party}}**
| [[File:Flag of the Indian Union Muslim League.svg|70px]]
| 13 || 5 || 1.33 || 1,86,546 || 0.93
| rowspan="4" style="background-color:#00FF7F;text-align:center"|#3 KLP legislators and 15 Independents joined Congress
|-
| {{Full party name with color|Justice Party (India)}}
|
| 9 || 1 || 0.27 || 82,231 || 0.41
|-
| {{Full party name with color|All India Forward Bloc}}
|
| 6 || 3 || 0.80 || 1,38,203 || 0.69
|- style="background: #00FF7F;"
| {{Party name with colour|Independent politician}}#
|
| 667 || 62 || 16.53 || 47,58,768 || 23.75
|- class="unsortable" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"
! colspan = 3| Total seats
! 375 !! style="text-align:center;" |Voters !! 3,66,00,615 !! style="text-align:center;" |Turnout

! colspan = 2| 2,00,38,423 (54.75%)
|}<section end=Results />

== Government formation ==

=== Election of C. Rajagopalachari ===
{{main|Chief Ministership of Rajagopalachari}}
The composite Madras State then included parts of [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Kerala]] and [[Karnataka]] with a total of 375 assembly members. The [[Indian National Congress]] was reduced to a minority with 152 members in an assembly of 375. It won 4 seats from the 29 in [[Malabar (Northern Kerala)|Malabar]], 43 of the 143 in the Andhra areas, 96 of the 190 Tamil constituencies and 9 of the 11 seats from [[Kannada]] speaking areas. [[Kumaraswami Raja]], the incumbent Chief Minister lost the election along with five members of his cabinet ([[Bezawada Gopala Reddy]], [[Kala Venkata Rao]], [[Kalluri Chandramouli|K. Chandramouli]], K. Madhava Menon and [[M. Bhaktavatsalam]]).<ref name="baliga">{{Cite book| last =Baliga| first = B.S|title =Madras District Gazetteers: Coimbatore| publisher = Superintendent, Govt. Press| year = 2000| pages = 155–6 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=JhxuAAAAMAAJ&q=menon}}</ref><ref name="T. V. R. Shenoy">{{cite news|title=From Rajaji to Jayalalithaa|author=T. V. R. Shenoy|url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2001/aug/22flip.htm|date=22 August 2001|publisher=Rediff}}</ref>

A large number of CPI members were elected from Andhra region of Madras state which had for some years demanded a separate state for Telugu speaking areas. In February 1952, the non-congress members convened under [[Tanguturi Prakasam|T. Prakasam]], leader of the KMPP, at Madras to form the United Democratic Front (UDF) and issued a "Common Minimum Program". They claimed to control 166 seats (CPI and CPI backed independents – 70, KMPP – 36, Tamil Nadu Toilers Party – 19, Commonweal party – 6, FBL (MG) – 3, SCF – 1, JUSP −1 and Independents – 30). Prakasam wrote to the Governor [[Sri Prakasa]] staking his claim to form the Government as the leader of the single largest formation. The Congress did not want the Communists taking power or to impose Governor's rule in the state. It brought Rajaji out of retirement to form the Government as a consensus candidate.<ref name="baliga"/><ref name="Richard Leonard Park">{{Cite journal| first = Richard Leonard |last=Park| title = Indian Election Results| journal = Far Eastern Survey| volume = 21| issue = 7| pages = 61–70| publisher = Institute of Pacific Relations| date = 7 May 1952| jstor = 3024481| doi=10.2307/3024481}}</ref><ref name="Deva">{{Cite book| last =Deva| first = Narendra| title = Selected Works of Acharya Narendra Deva: 1948-1952| publisher =Radiant Publishers| year = 1999| pages = 409|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oqjaAAAAMAAJ&q=prakasam | isbn = 81-7027-176-2}}</ref><ref name="Walch">{{Cite book| last =Walch| first = James| title = Faction and front: party systems in South India| publisher =Young Asia Publications| year = 1976| pages =160 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7WoFAAAAMAAJ&q=%22164+seats%22}}</ref>
Kamaraj, President of the Madras Provincial Congress Committee was of the opinion that the UDF should be allowed to form the Government as he had predicted the weak coalition might eventually fall apart. However other leaders such as [[T. T. Krishnamachari]] and [[Ramnath Goenka]] wanted Rajaji to be nominated to form the Government.<ref name="P. Kandaswamy"/>

Rajaji was invited by Sri Prakasa to form the Government on 1 April 1952 and was sworn in on 10 April 1952. He refused to run for a by-election and the Governor nominated him for the assembly's upper house (Legislative Council). It was considered to be a "constitutional impropriety" as the nomination of a member to the council could be done only at the recommendation of the cabinet. But in this case, the Governor acted unilaterally when no cabinet had been formed yet.<ref name="I. N. Tewary"/><ref name="T. V. R. Shenoy"/><ref name="hindu2"/> On 6 May, the incumbent [[List of Speakers of the Tamil Nadu Legislature|Speaker of the assembly]], [[J. Shivashanmugam Pillai]] of the Congress was reelected as the Speaker defeating independent MLA Swayamprakasam by 206 votes to 162.<ref name="kaliyaperumal">{{Cite book|last=Kaliyaperumal |first=M |title=The office of the speaker in Tamilnadu : A study |publisher=Madras University |year=1992 |pages=91 |url=http://dspace.vidyanidhi.org.in:8080/dspace/bitstream/2009/4880/5/MAU-1992-055-4.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721181440/http://dspace.vidyanidhi.org.in:8080/dspace/bitstream/2009/4880/5/MAU-1992-055-4.pdf |archive-date=21 July 2011 }}</ref> On 3 July, Rajaji was able to win a vote of confidence with the support of 200 members with 151 opposing (and 1 neutral).<ref name="assembly.tn.gov.in">{{cite web |title=A Review of the Madras Legislative Assembly (1952-1957) |url=http://www.assembly.tn.gov.in/archive/1st_1952/Review_1-52-57.pdf |publisher=Madras-2 Legislative Assembly Department |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211103025116/http://www.assembly.tn.gov.in/archive/1st_1952/Review_1-52-57.pdf |archive-date=3 November 2021 |date=March 1957 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.assembly.tn.gov.in/archive/Resumes/review_01assly/table16.pdf |title=A review of the Madras Legislative Assembly 1952–1957 |archive-date=4 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110904135215/http://www.assembly.tn.gov.in/archive/Resumes/review_01assly/table16.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="economist">{{Cite book| title = Eastern Economist, Annual Number| work = Eastern Economist| year = 1965| pages = 1172| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=YTS5AAAAIAAJ&q=july+1952| last1 = Economist| first1 = Eastern}}</ref><ref name="subramaniam">{{Cite book| last =Subramaniam| first = Chidambaram|author-link =C. Subramaniam | title =Hand of destiny: memoirs, Volume 1| publisher =Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan| year = 1993| pages = 166 | isbn = 9788172760496|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=DOdHAAAAMAAJ&q=200+151}}</ref> This was the first time such a "confidence motion" was moved in any legislature in India.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.assembly.tn.gov.in/archive/Resumes/review_01assly/ch14.pdf|title=A Review of the Madras Legislative Assembly (1952–1957) : Section I, Chapter IV|work=[[Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly]]|access-date=11 February 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110904134905/http://www.assembly.tn.gov.in/archive/Resumes/review_01assly/ch14.pdf|archive-date=4 September 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> He was able to secure the majority by engineering a series of defections from the UDF and with the help of other parties:

* The support of the 6 members of [[Commonweal Party]], (one of the two parties representing the cause of [[Vanniar]]s) was obtained by giving a cabinet position to its leader – [[M. A. Manickavelu Naicker]]. 19 members of the other Vanniyar party – [[Tamil Nadu Toilers Party]] led by [[S. S. Ramasami Padayachi]] also supported the vote of confidence but did not join the cabinet. (They later joined the Kamaraj cabinet in 1954).<ref name="jeyaraj">{{Cite web |url=http://www.dailymirror.lk/DM_BLOG/Sections/frmNewsDetailView.aspx?ARTID=64191 |title=The Decline and Fall of Tamil Seccessionism in India Part 3 by DBS Jeyaraj, The Daily Mirror 10 October 2009 |access-date=22 November 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091013121535/http://www.dailymirror.lk/DM_BLOG/Sections/frmNewsDetailView.aspx?ARTID=64191 |archive-date=13 October 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Susanne Hoeber Rudolph">{{Cite book| last = Susanne Hoeber Rudolph| title = The Modernity of Tradition: Political Development in India| publisher = The University of Chicago Press| date = 15 July 1984| pages = 58| isbn = 978-0-226-73137-7}}</ref><ref name="rameshrao">{{Cite book| last =Rao| first =Ramesh N.| title = Coalition conundrum: the BJP's trials, tribulations, and triumphs| publisher = Har Anand Publications| year = 2001| pages = 32–33 | isbn =9788124108093|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_wtuAAAAMAAJ&q=rajaji}}</ref>
* Many independents joined Congress and became Congress Legislators. The strength of the Congress Legislative Party (CLP) which was 152 on 1 April 1952, increased to 165 by 3 May and to 167 by 30 September.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.assembly.tn.gov.in/archive/Resumes/review_01assly/table01.pdf |title= A review of the Madras Legislative Assembly (1952–1957) Section II |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110904135045/http://www.assembly.tn.gov.in/archive/Resumes/review_01assly/table01.pdf|archive-date=4 September 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* Rajaji split the [[Krishikar Lok Party]] and KLP legislators P. Thimma Reddy, Neeladri Rao Reddy and Kumisetti Venkatanarayana Dora joined the Congress.<ref name="Sharma">{{Cite book| last =Sharma | first = Sadhna | title = States politics in India| publisher = Mittal Publications| year = 1995| pages = 61| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=i0HdDbdKa8UC| isbn = 81-7099-619-8 }}</ref><ref name="hanumanthrao">{{Cite book| last =Rao| first = Vadakattu Hanumantha| title = Party politics in Andhra Pradesh, 1956-1983| publisher = ABA Publications| year = 1983| pages = 128 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FlomAAAAMAAJ&q=kamisetti}}</ref>
* The 5 members of the [[Madras State Muslim League]] provided their support to congress to prevent the communists from gaining power.<ref name="Aziz">{{Cite book| last =Aziz| first = Abdul M.| title = Rise of Muslims in Kerala politics| publisher = CBH Publications| year = 1992| pages = 41, 44 | isbn = 9788185381251|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I0UFAQAAIAAJ&q=+rajaji}}</ref>

=== Election of K. Kamaraj ===
Andhra State was formed from the Telugu-speaking regions of Madras State after a widespread agitation in 1953. The Madras assembly was reduced from 375 to 230, 140 members going to Andhra and 5 to Mysore with the Congress Party controlling 118 seats; an outright majority.<ref name="assembly.tn.gov.in"/> This strengthened the positions of non-Brahmin Congress forces under the leadership of K. Kamaraj. He ousted Rajaji on 31 March 1954 and was elected the leader of Congress Legislative Party. Kamaraj consolidated his position by offering ministerial position to leaders of Tamil Nadu Toilers Party and Commonweal Party. This event marked the end of Brahmin domination in Tamil Nadu Congress.<ref name="James Walch">{{cite book | title=Faction and front: Party systems in South India| author=James Walch| pages=162–163| publisher= Young Asia Publications}}</ref>

==Impact==
Kamaraj resigned his presidency of the Provincial Congress Committee owning responsibility for the election loss and was soon replaced by P. Subbarayan.<ref name="P. Kandaswamy">{{Cite book| last = P. Kandaswamy| title = The political career of K. Kamraj| publisher = Concept publishing company| year = 2001| location = New Delhi | pages = 50| ol = 6874248M| url = https://openlibrary.org/b/OL6874248M/political_career_of_K._Kamaraj}}</ref> Rajaji's nomination to the [[Madras Legislative Council|Legislative Council]] was challenged in the [[Madras High Court]] by [[P. Ramamurthi]], the CPI MLA from Madurai North Constituency. Chief Justice [[P. V. Rajamannar|Rajamannar]] and Justice Venkatarama Ayyar, who heard the public interest writ petition declined to intervene by opining that "the court could not decide political rights or enforce public interest or constitutional conventions".<ref name="hindu1">{{cite web
|url = http://www.hindu.com/2008/09/20/stories/2008092055821100.htm
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080922145409/http://www.hindu.com/2008/09/20/stories/2008092055821100.htm
|url-status = dead
|archive-date = 2008-09-22
|title = A daughter remembers P. Ramamurti
|access-date = 2009-12-17
|author = Vaigai Ramamurthi
|work = [[The Hindu]]
|publisher =[[The Hindu Group]]
|date = 2008-09-20
}}</ref> This precedent set by Governor Prakasa became the first among a long list of constitutional improprieties committed by governors to help the party in power in the central government. The [[Sarkaria Commission]] established in 1983 to examine the balance of power between state and central governments remarked on the precedent that the "Governor's task is to see that a government is formed and not to try to form a government which will pursue the policies he approves".<ref name="hindu2">{{cite web
|url = http://www.hinduonnet.com/2001/05/31/stories/0231000q.htm
|archive-url = https://archive.today/20130103014812/http://www.hinduonnet.com/2001/05/31/stories/0231000q.htm
|url-status = dead
|archive-date = 3 January 2013
|title = Of Governors and Chief Ministers
|access-date = 2009-12-17
|author = C. V. Gopalakrishnan
|work = [[The Hindu]]
|publisher =[[The Hindu Group]]
|date = 2001-05-31
}}</ref>

== Cabinet ==

=== Rajagopalachari's Cabinet ===
{| class="wikitable"
! Minister
! Portfolio<ref name="councilofministers">{{cite web|title=Council of Ministers and their Portfolios (1952–1954) |work=A Review of the Madras Legislative Assembly (1952–1957) |url=http://www.assembly.tn.gov.in/archive/Resumes/review_01assly/table04.pdf |publisher=Government of Tamil Nadu |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017181036/http://www.assembly.tn.gov.in/archive/Resumes/review_01assly/table04.pdf |archive-date=17 October 2013 }}</ref>
|-
|[[C. Rajagopalachari]]
|Chief Minister, Public and Police
|-
|[[A. B. Shetty]]
|Health
|-
|[[C. Subramaniam]]
|Finance, Food and Elections
|-
|[[K. Venkataswamy Naidu]]
|Religious Endowments and Registration
|-
|[[N. Ranga Reddi]]
|Public Works
|-
|[[M. V. Krishna Rao]]
|Education, Harijan Uplift and Information
|-
|[[V. C. Chenniappan Gounder]]
|Prohibition
|-
|[[U. Krishna Rao]]
|Industries, Labour, Motor Transport, Railways, Posts, Telegraphs and Civil Aviation
|-
|[[R. Nagana Gowda]]
|Agriculture, Forests, veterinary, Animal Husbandry, Fisheries and Cinchona
|-
|[[N. Sankara Reddi]]
|Local Administration
|-
|[[M. A. Manickavelu Naicker]]
|Land Revenue
|-
|[[K. P. Kuttikrishnan Nair]]
|Courts, Prisons and Legal Department
|-
|[[Shanmugha Rajeswara Sethupathi|Raja Sri Shanmuga Rajeswara Sethupathi]]
|House Rent Control
|-
|[[S. B. P. Pattabhirama Rao]]
|Rural Welfare, Commercial Taxes and Scheduled areas
|-
|[[Damodaram Sanjivayya|D. Sanjeevayya]]
|Cooperation and Housing
|}
'''Changes'''
* Ministers belonging to Bellary and Andhra constituencies (Naganna Gowda, Sankara Reddi, Pattabirama Rao, Sanjeevayya and Ranga Reddi) stepped down on 30 September 1953, a day before [[Andhra State]] split to form a separate state.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.assembly.tn.gov.in/archive/Resumes/review_01assly/ch02_05.pdf|title=A Review of the Madras Legislative Assembly (1952–1957) : Section I|work=[[Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly]]|access-date=11 February 2010}}</ref> The portfolios of Agriculture, Forests, Fisheries, Cinchona, Rural Welfare, Community Projects and National Extension Schemes were handed over to [[M. Bhaktavatsalam]] on 9 October 1953. [[Jothi Venkatachalam]] was made minister for Prohibition and Women's Welfare. [[K. Rajaram|K. Rajaram Naidu]] became the Minister for Local Administration. C. Subramaniam was given the additional portfolios of education, information and publicity. V. C. Palaniswamy Gounder was put in charge of Veterinary, Animal Husbandry and Harijan welfare.<ref name="jp">{{Cite book
| title = Justice Party golden jubilee souvenir, 1968
| publisher = Justice Party
| year = 1968
| pages =58
| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=rCZYAAAAMAAJ&q=%22jothi+venkatachalam%22+
}}</ref>

===Kamaraj's Cabinet===
Members of cabinet who served between 13 April 1954 – 13 April 1957 under the Chief Ministership of Kamraj are
{| class="wikitable"
! Minister
! Portfolio
|-
|K. Kamaraj
|Chief Minister; Minister of Public and Police in the Home Department
|-
|[[A. B. Shetty]]
|Minister in charge of medical and public health, cooperation, housing and ex-servicemen
|-
|[[M. Bhaktavatsalam]]
|Minister in charge of Agriculture, Forests, Fisheries, Cinchona, Rural Welfare, Community Projects, National Extension Scheme, Women's Welfare, Industries and Labour and Animal Husbandry and Veterinary
|-
|[[C. Subramaniam]]
|Minister in charge of Finance, Food, Education, Elections and Information and Publicity and Law (Courts and Prisons)
|-
|[[M. A. Manickavelu Naicker]]
|Minister in charge of Land Revenue and Commercial Taxes and Rural Development.
|-
|[[Shanmugha Rajeswara Sethupathi|Raja Sri Shanmuga Rajeswara Sethupathi]]
|Minister in charge of Public Works, Accommodation Control, Engineering Colleges, Stationery and Printing including Establishment questions of the Stationery Department and the Government Press
|-
|[[B. Parameswaran]]
|Minister in charge of Transport, Harijan Uplift, Hindu Religious Endowments, Registration and Prohibition
|-
|[[S. S. Ramasami Padayachi]]
|Minister in charge of Local Administration
|}

'''Changes'''

* Following the States Reorganisation Act of 1956, A. B. Shetty quit the Ministry on 1 March 1956 and his portfolio was shared between other ministers in the cabinet.

==List of elected members==

=== Tamil Nadu ===
Election results from constituencies which would later become part of [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Kerala]] and [[Mysore state]] are listed here.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|style="background-color:#ADD8E6"|*
|Non-elected Chief Minister of Madras State
|}
{| class="wikitable sortable" border="1"
! Constituency
! Winner
! Party
! Runner-up
! Party
|---bgcolor=#ADD8E6
|'''Nominated'''
|'''[[C. Rajagopalachari]]'''
|'''INC'''
|
|
|-
|[[Adirampattinam Assembly constituency|Adirampattinam]]
| [[S. Venkatarama Iyer]]
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|K. Muthiah
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|-
|[[Aduthurai Assembly constituency|Aduthurai]]
|[[Narayanaswami Naidu]]
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Samiappa Mudaliar
|JUSP
|-
|[[Alangulam Assembly constituency|Alangulam]]
|[[Chinnathambi]]
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Thangarathnasamy Nadar
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|-
|[[Ambasamudram Assembly constituency|Ambasamudram]]
|[[P. Chockalingam]]
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|Lakshmisankara Iyer
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Arakkonam Assembly constituency|Arakkonam]]
|[[Bhakthavathsalu Naidu]]
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|Vedachalam
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|---
|[[Arantangi Assembly constituency|Arantangi]]
|Mahamad Salihu Maraicair
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Ramaswamy Thevar
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|-
|[[Arcot Assembly constituency|Arcot]]
|S. Panchaksharam Chettiar
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Nagarathinam
|[[Commonweal Party|CWP]]
|-
|[[Aravakurichi Assembly constituency|Aravakurichi]]
|N. Rathina Gounder
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|[[T. M. Nallaswamy]]
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Ariyalur Assembly constituency|Ariyalur]]
|Palaniandi
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|Razar
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Arni Assembly constituency|Arni]]
|V. K. Kannan
|[[Commonweal Party|CWP]]
|W. S. Srinivasa Rao
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Aruppukottai Assembly constituency|Aruppukottai]]
|[[Jayarama Reddiar]]
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|M. D. Ramaswami
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|-
|[[Athoor Assembly constituency|Authoor]]
|Soundaram Ramachandran
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|V. S. S. Mani Chettiar
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|-
|[[Attur Assembly constituency|Attur]]
|P. Subramaniam
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|P. Sellamuthu Padayachi
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Chengalpattu Assembly constituency|Chengalpattu]]
|K. Vinayakam
|[[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party|KMPP]]
|V. L. Raja
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Bhavani Assembly constituency|Bhavani]]
|B. K. Nallaswami
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|N. Palaniswamy Gounder
|[[Tamilnadu Toilers' Party|TTP]]
|-
|[[Bhuvanagiri Assembly constituency|Bhuvanagiri]]
|V. Krishnaswamy Padayachi
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|S. Tiruvenkata Nainar
|[[Tamilnadu Toilers' Party|TTP]]
|-
|[[Chengam Assembly constituency|Chengam]]
|Ramaswami Gounder
|[[Commonweal Party|CWP]]
|Muthukrishna Chettiar
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Cheranmadevi Assembly constituency|Cheranmahadevi]]
|[[S. Chellapandi]]
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|S. Dasaratharam
|SP
|-
|[[Cheyyar Assembly constituency|Cheyyar]]
|Dharmalinga Nayakar
|[[Commonweal Party|CWP]]
|P. Ramachandran
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Chidambaram Assembly constituency|Chidambaram]]
|1) [[Swami Sahajanada (Chidambaram MLA)|Swami Sahajananda]] 2) [[Vagheesan Pillai]]
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]] INC
|3) Swamikannu 4) Sivasubramanian
|[[Tamilnadu Toilers' Party|TTP]] TTP
|-
|Choolai
|Sebastian Cyril Constantine Anthony Pillai
|SP
|D. K. Kannappar
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|Coimbatore
|[[C. Subramaniam]]
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|C. P. Kandaswamy
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|-
|[[Cuddalore Assembly constituency|Cuddalore]]
|1) Rathinam 2) [[S. S. Ramasami Padayachi|Sivachidambara Ramaswami Padayachi]]
|[[Tamilnadu Toilers' Party|TTP]] TTP
|3) Srinivasa Padayachi 4) Ganesan
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]] INC
|-
|[[Cumbum Assembly constituency|Cumbum]]
|[[P. T. Rajan]]
|JUSP
|S. K. Ahmed Meeran
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Dharapuram Assembly constituency|Dharapuram]]
|Senapathi Gounder
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|Nataraja Gounder
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Dharmapuri, Tamil Nadu Assembly constituency|Dharmapuri]]
|P. R. Rajagopla Gounder
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|R. S. Veerappa Chettiar
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|-
|[[Dindigul Assembly constituency|Dindigul]]
|Munisamy Pillai
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|A. Balasubramaniam
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|-
|[[Edappadi Assembly constituency|Edappadi]]
|[[S. Arthanareeswara Gounder]]
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|S. Marimuthu Gounder
|[[Tamilnadu Toilers' Party|TTP]]
|-
|Edirkottai
|[[R. Krishnasamy Naidu]]
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Muthuramanujam
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|-
|[[Erode Assembly constituency|Erode]]
|Raju
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|Deivasigamani Gounder
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Gingee Assembly constituency|Gingee]]
|Aranganathan
|[[Tamilnadu Toilers' Party|TTP]]
|K. Ramakrishnaswamy Pillai
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Gobichettipalayam Assembly constituency|Gopichettipalayam]]
|P. S. Nalla Gounder
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|P. K. Nalla Gounder
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|-
|[[Gudiyatham Assembly constituency|Gudiyatham]]
|1) A. J. Arunachala Mudaliar 3) Rathnaswamy
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|2) P. S. Rajagopala Naidu 4) Kannabiran
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]] CPI
|-
|[[Harbour Assembly constituency|Harbour]]
|Krishna Rao
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Ibrahim Sahib
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|-
|[[Harur Assembly constituency|Harur]]
|1) A. Duraiswami Gounder 2) Nanjappan
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]] INC
|3) Sambasiva Reddy 4) Mariappan
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]] SCF
|-
|[[Hosur Assembly constituency|Hosur]]
|M. Muni Reddy
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|K. Appavu Pillai
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Jayankondam Assembly constituency|Jayankondan]]
|1) Ayyavu 2) [[K. R. Viswanathan]]
|[[Tamilnadu Toilers' Party|TTP]] TTP
|3) Muthukumaraswamy Mudaliar 4) Raghupathi
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]] INC
|-
|[[Kadambur Assembly constituency|Kadambur]]
|Venugopala Krishnaswamy
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Subbiah Naicker
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|-
|[[Kalasapakkam Assembly constituency|Kalasapakkam]]
|Nataraja Mudaliar
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|Periasami Gounder
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Kallakurichi Assembly constituency|Kallakurichi]]
|1) Elaya Pillai 2) Anandan
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]] INC
|3) Govindan 4) Parthasarathy
|[[Tamilnadu Toilers' Party|TTP]] INC
|-
|[[Kancheepuram Assembly constituency|Kancheepuram]]
|Deivasigamani
|[[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party|KMPP]]
|P. S. Srinivasan
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Kangayam Assembly constituency|Kangayam]]
|A. K. Subbaraya Gounder
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Not contested
|Not contested
|-
|[[Karaikudi Assembly constituency|Karaikudi]]
|Chockalingam Chettiar
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Mahalingam Chettiar
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|-
|[[Karur Assembly constituency|Karur]]
|1) M. Manickasundaram 3) T. V. Sannasi
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]] INC
|2) S. Muthusamy Gounder 4) Vadivel Moopan
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]] IND
|-
|Kodumudi
|Nallasivan
|SP
|Makutapathy Gounder
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|Koilpalaya
|V. K. Palaniswamy Gounder
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Ramaswamy Naidu
|SP
|-
|[[Kovilpatti Assembly constituency|Kovilpatti]]
|[[Ramasamy (Kovilpatti MLA)|Ramasamy]]
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Shanmugham
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|-
|[[Krishnagiri Assembly constituency|Krishnagiri]]
|D. Krishnamoorthy Gounder
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|S. Nagaraia Maniar
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Kumbakonam Assembly constituency|Kumbakonam]]
|Varadan
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Somu Rao
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|-
|[[Lalgudi Assembly constituency|Lalgudi]]
|Raja Chidambaram
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|Varadarajan
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Manamadurai Assembly constituency|Manamadurai]]
|[[Krishnaswami Ayyangar]]
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Abdul Gafoor
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|-
|Madukkarai
|R. Kuppuswami
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Chinnadurai
|SP
|-
|[[Madurai North Assembly constituency|Madurai North]]
|P. Ramamoorthy
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|T. Chidambara Bharathi
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Madurai South Assembly constituency|Madurai South]]
|T. K. Rama
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|A. Dharmaraj Santhosam
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|-
|[[Maduranthakam Assembly constituency|Madurantakam]]
|1) [[B. Parameswaran]] 2) V. Venkatasubba Reddi
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]] INC
|3) K. Muthulinga Reddiar 4) Kothandarama Reddiar
|REP SP
|-
|[[Manachanallur Assembly constituency|Manachanallur]]
|Rajagopal
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Arunachalam
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|-
|[[Manapaarai Assembly constituency|Manapparai]]
|Antony Peter
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Kulandaivel
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|-
|[[Mannargudi Assembly constituency|Mannargudi]]
|1) M. Kandaswami 3) Subbiah
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]] CPI
|2) Ramachandra Naidu 4) Thiagu Voikarar
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]] INC
|-
|[[Mayiladuthurai Assembly constituency|Mayuram]]
|1) K. R. Sambandan 2) A. Veloo
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]] IND
|K. Pitchai N. Rangaswami Reddiar
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]] INC
|-
|Mecheri
|S. Subramania Gounder
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|M. Kandasamy Kandan
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|-
|[[Melmalayanur Assembly constituency|Melmalayur]]
|V. Gopala Gounder
|[[Tamilnadu Toilers' Party|TTP]]
|K. Gopala Gounder
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Melur Assembly constituency|Melur]]
|1) S. Chinnakaruppa Thevar 2) P. Sivaprakasam
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]] INC
|3) B. Ponnuchami Ambalam 4) K. Veerana Veduvan
|FBL(MG) CPI
|-
|[[Mettupalayam Assembly constituency|Mettupalayam]]
|Kempi Gounder
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|Azad Abdul Salam
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Mudukulathur Assembly constituency|Mudukulathur]]
|1) [[Mottaya Kudumbar]] 2) [[U. Muthuramalingam Thevar]]
|FBL(MG) FBL(MG)
|3) Sankaran 4) Shanmuga Sundaram
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Musiri Assembly constituency|Musiri]]
|Thangavelu
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|M. P. Krishnaswami
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Mylapore Assembly constituency|Mylapore]]
|[[C. R. Ramaswamy]]
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Krishnamurthi
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|-
|[[Nagapattinam Assembly constituency|Nagapattinam]]
|1) Sivaraj 2) Vadivelu
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]] CPI
|3) Duraisamy 4) Shanmugasundaram Pillai
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]] INC
|-
|[[Namakkal Assembly constituency|Namakkal]]
|1) K. V. Ramaswamy 2) [[M. P. Periaswami]]
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]] INC
|3) T. Sivagnanam Pillai 4) S. Chinnayan
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]] IND
|-
|[[Nambiyur Assembly constituency|Nambiyur]]
|1) [[P. G. Karuthiruman]] 2) P. G. Manickam
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]] INC
|3) C. K. Subramaniam Gounder 4) K. A. Palaniappan
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]] SCF
|-
|[[Nanguneri Assembly constituency|Nanguneri]]
|[[M. G. Sankar|M. G. Sankar Reddiyar]]
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Madaswamy
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|-
|[[Nannilam Assembly constituency|Nannilam]]
|1) [[Muthukumaraswami]] 2) [[Thyagaraja Pillai]]
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]] INC
|3) Anthony Muthu 4) Kalyanasundaram Pillai
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]] CPI
|-
|Nidamangalam
|Venkatesa Sholagar
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|Sambasiva Ayyar
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Nilakottai Assembly constituency|Nilakottai]]
|1) Ayyanar 2) Muthu Thevar
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]] INC
|3) Ponniah Konar 4) Govindan
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]] SP
|-
|Nilgiris
|1) [[Ari Gowder]] 2) K. H. Bomman
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]] INC
|3) R. Raman Nair 4) C. P. Krishnaiah
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]] IND
|-
|[[Oddanchatram Assembly constituency|Oddanchatram]]
|Subramanya Lakshmipathy Naicker
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|K. Karuthappa Gounder
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Omalur Assembly constituency|Omalur]]
|P. Rathinaswami Pillai
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|K. Nanjappa Chettiar
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Panruti Assembly constituency|Panruti]]
|S. Radhakrishnan
|[[Tamilnadu Toilers' Party|TTP]]
|P. A. Ranganatha Padayachi
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Palani Assembly constituency|Palani]]
|M. P. Mangala Gounder
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|[[P. S. K. Lakshmipathy Raju|P. S. K. Lakshmipathi Raju]]
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Palavoor]]
|[[T. Ganapathy]]
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|N. Duraipandi
|[[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party|KMPP]]
|-
|[[Papanasam Assembly constituency|Papanasam]]
|Swayamprakasam
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|Abdul Majid Sahib
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Paramakudi Assembly constituency|Paramakudi]]
|[[Govindan]]
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Natarajan
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|-
|Paramathy
|R. Rangaswami Gounder
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|P. V. Kuppayandi Pillai
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Pattukkottai Assembly constituency|Pattukottai]]
|Nadimuthu Pillai
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Marimuthu
|SP
|-
|[[Pennagaram Assembly constituency|Pennagaram]]
|S. Kandaswami Gounder
|[[Tamilnadu Toilers' Party|TTP]]
|M. N. Raja Chettiar
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|-
|[[Perambalur Assembly constituency|Perambalur]]
|1) Paramasivam 3) Palanimuthu
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]] TTP
|2) Thangavelu 4) Pariannan
|[[Tamilnadu Toilers' Party|TTP]] IND
|-
|[[Perambur Assembly constituency|Perambur]]
|[[S. Pakkirisami Pillai]]
|SP
|M. Santhosam
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Periyakulam Assembly constituency|Periyakulam]]
|1) V. Muthu 2) Mookayya Thevar
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]] FBL(MG)
|3) N. R. Thyagarajan 4) Ponnuchami
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]] SP
|-
|[[Pollachi Assembly constituency|Pollachi]]
|1) [[N. Mahalingam]] 2) P. K. Thirumurthy
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]] INC
|3) Marudachalam 4) Palanisami
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]] CPI
|-
|[[Polur Assembly constituency|Polur]]
|[[M. A. Manickavelu Naicker|Manickavelu Naicker]]
|[[Commonweal Party|CWP]]
|Annamalai Chetty
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Ponneri Assembly constituency|Ponneri]]
|1) O. Chengam Pillai 2) Gajapathi Reddiar
|[[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party|KMPP]] KMPP
|3) [[M. Bhaktavatsalam]] 4) C. Lakshmana Pillai
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]] INC
|-
|[[Pudukkottai Assembly constituency|Pudukkottai]]
|Balakrishnan
|[[Tamilnadu Toilers' Party|TTP]]
|Natesan Ambalakkarar
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Ramanathapuram Assembly constituency|Ramanathapuram]]
|[[Shanmugha Rajeswara Sethupathy]]
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Rajamanickam
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|-
|[[Ranipet Assembly constituency|Ranipet]]
|Kadir Sheriff
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Munuswami Gounder
|[[Commonweal Party|CWP]]
|-
|[[Rasipuram Assembly constituency|Rasipuram]]
|[[T. M. Kaliannan]]
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|K. Ramaswamy
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|-
|[[Saidapet Assembly constituency|Saidapet]]
|1) [[T. P. Elumalai]] 2) N. Ramakrishna Iyer
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]] INC
|3) [[R. Kannan (politician)|R. Kannan]] 4) M. S. Gnanaprakasam
|REP KMPP
|-
|Salem Rural
|C. Lakshma Kandan
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|A. Subramaniam
|[[Tamilnadu Toilers' Party|TTP]]
|-
|Salem Town
|[[P. Varadarajulu Naidu|Varadarajulu Naidu]]
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|[[Mohan Kumaramangalam]]
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|-
|Saliyamangalam
|Samia Koorayar
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|Krishnaswami Vanayar
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Sankarankoil Assembly constituency|Sankaranarayanar Kovil]]
|1) [[Ramasundara Karunalaya Pandyan]] 3) [[Urkavalan]]
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]] INC
|2) [[K. Sattanatha Karayalar]] 4) O. Sappani
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]] IND
|-
|[[Sathankulam Assembly constituency|Sathankulam]]
|[[K. T. Kosalram|Kosalram]]
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|Meganathan
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|-
|[[Sattur Assembly constituency|Sattur]]
|[[S. Ramaswami Naidu]]
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Rajarathnam
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|-
|[[Sedapatti Assembly constituency|Sedapatti]]
|Thinakaraswami Thevar
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Kamana Thevar
|SP
|-
|[[Sholingur Assembly constituency|Sholinghur]]
|M. Subramanya Naicker
|[[Commonweal Party|CWP]]
|V. M. Ramaswamy Mudaliar
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Sirkazhi Assembly constituency|Sirkazhi]]
|[[C. Muthia Pillai]]
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|K. Swamithurai Annagar
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|-
|[[Sivaganga Assembly constituency|Sivaganga]]
|[[R. V. Swaminathan]]
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Velayutham Chettiar
|[[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party|KMPP]]
|-
|[[Sriperumbudur Assembly constituency|Sriperumbudur]]
|T. Shanmugam
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|Seshachari
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Srirangam Assembly constituency|Srirangam]]
|Chitrambalam
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|Srinivasan
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Srivilliputhur Assembly constituency|Srivilliputhur]]
|1) [[D. K. Raja]] 3) [[A. Vaikuntam]]
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]] INC
|2) [[P. S. Kumaraswami Raja]] 4) K. Arumugha Perumal
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]] IND
|-
|[[Talavasal Assembly constituency|Talavasal]]
|A. Sambasivam
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|M. Gopala Chetty
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|-
|[[Tenkasi Assembly constituency|Tenkasi]]
|[[Subramaniam Pillai]]
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Sevagupandia Thevar
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|-
|[[Thanjavur Assembly constituency|Thanjavur]]
|1) [[M. Marimuthu (Thanjavur MLA)|M. Marimuthu]] 2) [[S. Ramalingam]]
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]] CPI
|3) R. Swaminatha Mercondar 4) R. Shanmugan
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]] IND
|-
|[[Tirumangalam Assembly constituency|Thirumangalam]]
|[[K. Rajaram]]
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|T. Manickavasakam
|[[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party|KMPP]]
|-
|[[Thondamuthur Assembly constituency|Thondamuthur]]
|Palaniswami Gounder
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Perumal
|SP
|-
|[[Thousand Lights Assembly constituency|Thousand lights]]
|1) Venkataswami Naidu 2) Sivashanmugam Pillai
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]] IND
|3) Indirani Balasubramaniam 4) Marthandam Pillai
|JUSP SP
|-
|[[Thuraiyur Assembly constituency|Thuraiyur]]
|P. Rangaswami Reddiar
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|A. V. Rangaswami
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Tindivanam Assembly constituency|Tindivanam]]
|1) [[M. Jagannathan]] 2) Venugopala Gounder
|[[Tamilnadu Toilers' Party|TTP]] TTP
|3) Balasundaram 4) Venkatakrishna Reddiar
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]] INC
|-
|[[Tiruchendur Assembly constituency|Tiruchendur]]
|1) [[S. T. Adityan|Adityan]] 2) [[V. Arumugam (Indian politician)|V. Arumugam]]
|[[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party|KMPP]] INC
|3) Subramanya Adithan 4) Pitchu
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]] SP
|-
|[[Tiruchengode Assembly constituency|Tiruchengode]]
|1) S. Arumugham 2) [[T. S. Arthanari]]
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]] CPI
|3) [[Radhabai Subbarayan]] 4) V. K. Ramaswamy
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]] INC
|-
|[[Tiruchirappalli – I|Tiruchirapalli (North)]]
|[[M. Kalayanasundaram]]
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|G. Ramaswami
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Tiruchirappalli – II|Tiruchirapalli (South)]]
|Ramasamy
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Vaiyapuri Sholayar
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|-
|[[Tirukkoyilur Assembly constituency|Tirukkoyilur]]
|1) [[T. D. Muthukumaraswamy Naidu]] 2) A. Muthuswami
|[[Tamilnadu Toilers' Party|TTP]] TTP
|3) Kulasekara Dass 4) M. Rajagopal
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]] INC
|-
|[[Tirumayam Assembly constituency|Tirumayam]]
|1) Palaniyappan 3) Chinnayyaa
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]] TTP
|2) Avudayappan Ambalakkarar 4) Sambasiva Moopan
|[[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party|KMPP]] INC
|-
|[[Tirunelveli Assembly constituency|Tirunelveli]]
|1) [[Arumugam (Tirunelveli MLA)|Arumugan]] 2) [[S. N. Somayajulu]]
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]] INC
|3) P. S. Subramania Pillai 4) Shanmugam
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]] CPI
|-
|[[Tiruppur Assembly constituency|Tiruppur]]
|Arumugam Rangaswami Naidu
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Mathivanam Ramaswami
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|-
|[[Tiruppattur, Vellore Assembly constituency|Tirupattur (41)]]
|E. L. Raghava Mudali
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|R. C. Samanna Gounder
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Tiruppattur, Sivaganga Assembly constituency|Tiruppattur 194]]
|Muthiah Chettiar
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|Veerabhadran
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|-
|[[Thiruporur Assembly constituency|Tirupporur]]
|M. R. Ramachandran
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|S. Murugesa Mudaliar
|REP
|-
|[[Tiruvadanai Assembly constituency|Thiruvadanai]]
|Chelladurai
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|Arumugam Servai
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Thiruvallur Assembly constituency|Tiruvallur]]
|1) M. Dharmalingam 2) V. Govindaswamy Naidu
|[[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party|KMPP]] KMPP
|3) N. Eagambara Mudaliar 4) [[V. S. Arunachalam]]
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]] INC
|-
|[[Tiruvannamalai Assembly constituency|Thiruvannamalai]]
|1) Ramachandra Reddiar 2) Thangavelu
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]] INC
|3) Vadivelu Gounder 4) T. V. Devaraja Mudaliar
|[[Commonweal Party|CWP]] IND
|-
|[[Triplicane Assembly constituency|Triplicane]]
|A. M. Sambandam
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|M. S. Abdul Majeed
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|-
|[[Thoothukkudi Assembly constituency|Tuticorin]]
|[[J. L. P. Roche Victoria]]
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|K. V. P. Swamy
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|-
|Uddanappalli
|P. N. Munuswamy
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|A. N. Nallappa Reddy
|[[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party|KMPP]]
|-
|[[Udumalaipettai Assembly constituency|Udumalpet]]
|Mounaguruswami Naidu
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Thangavelu
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|-
|[[Ulundurpet Assembly constituency|Ulundurpet]]
|[[M. Kandaswamy Padayachi]]
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Natesa Gounder
|[[Tamilnadu Toilers' Party|TTP]]
|-
|Uthamapalayam
|[[A. S. Subbaraj]]
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Muthaiah
|SP
|-
|[[Uthiramerur Assembly constituency|Uthiramerur]]
|[[V. K. Ramaswami Mudaliar]]
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Duraisami Naicker
|[[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party|KMPP]]
|-
|Uthukuli
|Palaniswami
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|Kandasami Gounder
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|Vadamadurai
|Chinnaswamy Naidu
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Srinivasan
|SP
|-
|Valappady
|P. Kandasamy Gounder
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|B. A. Rajarathnam
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Vandavasi Assembly constituency|Vandavasi]]
|1) Somasundara Gounder 2) Dasarathnam
|[[Commonweal Party|CWP]] SCF
|3) Ramanuja Reddiar 4) Velayuthapani
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]] INC
|-
|[[Vaniyambadi Assembly constituency|Vaniyambadi]]
|A. K. Hanumantharaya Gounder
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|M. Erusan
|[[Commonweal Party|CWP]]
|-
|[[Vedasandur Assembly constituency|Vedasandur]]
|V. Madanagopal
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|M. R. Krishnaswamy Reddiar
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Vellore Assembly constituency|Vellore]]
|1) A. K. Masilamani Chettiar 3) H. M. Jagnanathan
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]] INC
|2) R. Radhakrishnan 4) [[K. R. Sundaram]]
|[[Commonweal Party|CWP]] CPI
|-
|[[Vikravandi Assembly constituency|Vikravandi]]
|Govindaswamy Nayagar
|[[Tamilnadu Toilers' Party|TTP]]
|Bashyam Reddiar
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Vilathikulam Assembly constituency|Vilathikulam]]
|[[P. Selvaraj]]
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Sankaralingam
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|-
|[[Villupuram Assembly constituency|Villupuram]]
|Nagarajan
|[[Tamilnadu Toilers' Party|TTP]]
|S. D. Chinnas
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Virudhunagar Assembly constituency|Virudhunagar]]
|[[V. V. Ramaswamy]]
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|Sankarapandia Nadar
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Virudhachalam Assembly constituency|Vridachalam]]
|1) Paramasivam 3) Kathimuthu
|[[Tamilnadu Toilers' Party|TTP]] TTP
|2) Narayanaswamy Pillai 4) Vedamanickam
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]] INC
|-
|[[Washermanpet Assembly constituency|Wasermanpet]]
|[[Jeevanandam]]
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|Radhakrishnan Pillai
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|}

=== Andhra ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Constituency
! Winner
! Party
! Runner-up
! Party
|-
|[[Salur Assembly constituency|Salur]]
|Kumisetti Venkatanarayana Dora
|[[Krishikar Lok Party|KLP]]
|[[A. Yerukunaidu]]
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Cheepurupalli Assembly constituency|Cheepurupalli]]
|Thaddi Chinna Atchanaidu
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|Mudundi Satyanarayanaraju
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|-
|[[Bobbili Assembly constituency|Bobbili]]
|Kolli Venkata Kuruni Naidu
|SP
|Kothagiri Seetharamaswami
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Parvathipuram Assembly constituency|Parvathipuram]]
|Vyricherla Durgaprasad Veerabhadra Deo Bahadur
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Cheekati Parasuram Naidu
|[[Krishikar Lok Party|KLP]]
|-
|[[Srikakulam Assembly constituency|Srikakulam]]
|Killi Appala Naidu
|[[Krishikar Lok Party|KLP]]
|Kavali Narayana
|KLP
|-
|[[Rajam Assembly constituency|Honjaram]]
|Peesuputi Pundareekakshacharyulu
|[[Krishikar Lok Party|KLP]]
|Chelikani Sreeranganayakulu
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|-
|[[Palakonda Assembly constituency|Palakonda]]
|Palavasa Sangam Naiudu
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Moosala Rajaratnam Naiudu
|[[Krishikar Lok Party|KLP]]
|-
|[[Narasannapeta Assembly constituency|Narasannapeta]]
|H. Satyanarayana Dora
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Kasira Basava Raju
|[[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party|KMPP]]
|-
|[[Pathapatnam Assembly constituency|Pathapatnam]]
|Lukulapu Lakshmanadas
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Darapu Govindarajulu
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|-
|[[Tekkali Assembly constituency|Tekkali]]
|Rokkam Lakshmi Narasimham Dora
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|Bandi Kurmanna
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Sompeta Assembly constituency|Sompeta]]
|[[Gouthu Latchanna]]
|[[Krishikar Lok Party|KLP]]
|Pothuru Swamy Babu
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Ichchapuram Assembly constituency|Ichapuram]]
|Neeladri Rao Reddy
|[[Krishikar Lok Party|KLP]]
|Harihara Patnaik
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|-
|[[Vizianagaram Assembly constituency|Vizianagaram]]
|[[Pusapati Vijayarama Gajapati Raju]]
|SP
|Gantlana Suryanarayana
|SP
|-
|Bheemunipatnam
|Kaligotla Suryanarayana
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|J. V. K. Vallabha Rao
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|-
|Alamanda
|K. V. Padmanabha Raju
|SP
|G. B. Appa Rao
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Srungavarapukota Assembly constituency|Srungavarapukota]]
|C. V. Somayajulu
|SP
|T. Venkataramanayya
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Chodavaram Assembly constituency|Chodavaram]]
|Kandarpa Venkataramesam
|[[Krishikar Lok Party|KLP]]
|Bhupathiraju Satyanarayana Raju
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Madugula Assembly constituency|Madugole]]
|Bhojinki Gangayya Naidu
|[[Krishikar Lok Party|KLP]]
|Ilapakurthy Satyanarayana
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|Visakhapatnam
|[[Tenneti Viswanatham]]
|[[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party|KMPP]]
|S. Appala Nayudu
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|-
|Paravada
|Mullapadi Veerabhadram
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|Gothimukkla Jagannatha Raju
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|-
|[[Anakapalle Assembly constituency|Anakapalle]]
|Koduganti Govinda Rao
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|Villuri Venkataramana
|[[Krishikar Lok Party|KLP]]
|-
|Yelamanchili
|Pappala Bapunaiudu
|[[Krishikar Lok Party|KLP]]
|Missule Suryanarayanamoorthy
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Payakaraopet Assembly constituency|Payakaraopeta]]
|Raja Sagi Suryanarayana Raju
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|Sunkari Appala Naiudu
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|Golugonda
|1) Killada Ramamurthy 2) Kankipatti Veerana Padal
|[[Krishikar Lok Party|KLP]] KLP
|Puthala Latdha Patrudu
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Bhadrachalam Assembly constituency|Bhadrachalam]]
|1) Karam Bapanna Dora 2) Y. Venkata Krishna Rao
|[[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party|KMPP]] KMPP
|1) Varsavyi Venkata Thirupathi Raju 2) Sivasam Bojji Dora
|
|-
|Tuni
|Raja Vatsavaya Venkata Krishnam Raju Bahadur
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Yenumula Venkanna Dora
|[[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party|KMPP]]
|-
|[[Pithapuram Assembly constituency|Pithapuram]]
|R. V. Jagga Rao
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|R. Atachayya Rao
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Peddapuram Assembly constituency|Peddapuram]]
|Thota Ramaswami
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|D. V. Subba Rao
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|-
|Burugupudi
|N. Venkatarama Rao
|[[Krishikar Lok Party|KLP]]
|Marina Narasanna
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Rajahmundry City Assembly constituency|Rajamundry]]
|Chitturi Prabhakara Chowdary
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|K. L. Narasimha Rao
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Kakinada City Assembly constituency|Kakinada]]
|Chittajallu Venkata Krishna Rao
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|Kanteti Mohana Rao
|CPI
|-
|[[Ramachandrapuram Assembly constituency|Ramachandrapuram]]
|Kakarlapudi Rajagopalanarasaraju
|[[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party|KMPP]]
|Mallipudi Pallanraju
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Anaparthy Assembly constituency|Anaparti]]
|Padala Satyanarayana Reddi
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|P. Venkata Rao
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|-
|[[Pamarru Assembly constituency|Pamarru]]
|S. B. P. Pattabhi Rama Rao
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|P. Panasaramanna
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|-
|[[Amalapuram Assembly constituency|Amalapuram]]
|Nadimpalli Ramabhadra Raju
|[[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party|KMPP]]
|Bojja Appalaswami
|SCF
|-
|[[Razole Assembly constituency|Razole]]
|Alluri Venkataramaraju and Ganji Nagaswara Rao
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|Akula Buliswami
|[[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party|KMPP]]
|-
|[[Chintalapudi Assembly constituency|Chintalapudi]]
|Motaparithi Kunerao
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|Kamadana Venkatarama Surya Prakasa Rao
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Eluru Assembly constituency|Eluru]]
|[[Garapaty Satyanarayana]]
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|Mulpuri Rengayya
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Tadepalligudem Assembly constituency|Tadepalligudem]]
|C. S. Varaparasadamurthiraju
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Kilambi Venkata Krishnavataram
|[[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party|KMPP]]
|-
|[[Alampur Assembly constituency|Alampuram]]
|[[Pasala Suryachandra Rao]]
|[[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party|KMPP]]
|Thumalapalli Satyanarayanamurthy
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|Undi
|Dantuluri Narayana Raju
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Gottumukkala Venkata Raju
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|-
|[[Bhimavaram Assembly constituency|Bhimavaram]]
|Bhupathiraju Subbaraju
|[[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party|KMPP]]
|Nimmala Sangaiah Naidu
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Narasapuram Assembly constituency|Narsapur]]
|Padela Symasundara Rao
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|Bhupathiraju Lakshminarasaraju
|CPI
|-
|[[Tanuku Assembly constituency|Tanuku]]
|Chitturu Indrayya
|[[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party|KMPP]]
|Chitturi Subba Rao
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Penukonda Assembly constituency|Penugonda]]
|Dwarampudi Basivireddy
|[[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party|KMPP]]
|Nadimipilli Tirupathiraju
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Kovvur Assembly constituency|Kovvur]]
|1) Pinnamaneeni Sreeramachandra Rao
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|2) Alluri Bapineedu
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Jaggayyapeta Assembly constituency|Jaggayapeta]]
|Pillalamarvi Venkateswarlu
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|Bandi Timpatayya
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|Vijayavada
|Tammina Potharaju
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|Maru Pilla Chetti
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|Kanchikacherla
|Vasireddi Rama Rao
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|Kakani Venkatratnam
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Tiruvuru Assembly constituency|Tiruvur]]
|Peta Rama Rao
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|Peta Bappaiah
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|Kankipadu
|Myneni Lakshmanaswamy
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|Edupuganti Bala Veeraghavayya
|[[Krishikar Lok Party|KLP]]
|-
|[[Nuzvid Assembly constituency|Nuzvid]]
|Raja [[Meka Rangayya Appa Rao]] Bahadur
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|P. V. Raghavayya
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|-
|[[Gudivada Assembly constituency|Gudivada]]
|1) Gungi Rama Rao 2) Katragadia Rajagopala Rao
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]] CPI
|3) A. Gopalakrishnayya 4) Mangalagiri Ramdasu
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]] INC
|-
|[[Kaikalur Assembly constituency|Kaikalur]]
|Adusnmolli Venkatasubramanyam
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Atluri Purnachalapathi Rao
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|-
|Divi
|1) Chandra Ramalingaiah 2) [[Guntur Bapanaiah|Guntur Bapanayya]]
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]] CPI
|3) Sreemanthu Raja Yarlagadda Sivaram Prasad Bahadur 4) Gattipati Brahmayya
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]] INC
|-
|Bandar
|G. Anjeneyulu
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|R. Achyawnamaiah
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Vinukonda Assembly constituency|Vinukonda]]
|Pulupula Venkatasivaiah
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|Paladugu Nagaiah Chowdhary
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|-
|Palnadu
|Kola Subba Reddy
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|Kasu Brahmananda Reddy
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|Bellamkonda
|Mandava Bapaiah Chowdary
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|Bojja Adinarayana Rao
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Narasaraopet Assembly constituency|Narasaraopet]]
|N. Nallapati Venkataramiah
|[[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party|KMPP]]
|Kasu Vengal Reddy
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Chilakaluripet Assembly constituency|Chilakaluripet]]
|Karnam Ranga Rao
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|Balineni Nagaiah
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|Sattenpalle
|V. Gopalakrishniah
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|Jetti Ankamma
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|-
|[[Mangalagiri Assembly constituency|Mangalagiri]]
|Darsi Lakshmiah
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|Imgilapati Govinda Rao
|[[Krishikar Lok Party|KLP]]
|-
|Guntur
|Nadimpalli Venkatalakshmi Narasimha Rao
|[[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party|KMPP]]
|Yangalasetry Tirupattayya
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|-
|[[Prathipadu, Guntur Assembly constituency|Prathipadu]]
|Tamma Kotamma Reddy
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Managva Seshayya
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|-
|[[Duggirala Assembly constituency|Duggirala]]
|[[A. Rami Reddi]]
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|K. Kotaiah
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|-
|[[Tenali Assembly constituency|Tenali]]
|[[Alapati Venkataramaiah|Alapati Venkataramiah]]
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Rivissatyanarayana
|[[Krishikar Lok Party|KLP]]
|-
|Amarthalur
|Gorikupudi Joseph
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|Velunolu Seetharamiah
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Repalle Assembly constituency|Repalle]]
|M. Hanumantha Rao
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|[[Kalluri Chandramouli]]
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Bapatla Assembly constituency|Bapatla]]
|Vemmulapalli Srikrishna
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Nankena Venkataraju
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|-
|[[Ponnur Assembly constituency|Ponnur]]
|Kolla Venkaiah
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|Coginam Lakshminarayana
|[[Krishikar Lok Party|KLP]]
|-
|[[Chirala Assembly constituency|Chirala]]
|[[Pragada Kotaiah]]
|[[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party|KMPP]]
|Uthukuri Upendra Gupta
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|-
|[[Ongole Assembly constituency|Ongole]]
|Kasukurthi Malakondiah
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|Madala Narayannaswami
|CPI
|-
|[[Gudur Assembly constituency|Gudur]]
|Pelleti Gopalakrishna Reddy
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Katamareddy Raja Rami Reddy
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|-
|[[Venkatagiri Assembly constituency|Venkatagiri]]
|Padileti Venkatasami Reddy
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Katikinani Kalyan Rao
|[[Krishikar Lok Party|KLP]]
|-
|[[Rapur Assembly constituency|Rapur]]
|D. Dasaratharamiah Naidu
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Ganga Ramanaiah
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|-
|Nellore
|1) Khandavalli Krishna Rao 2)Swarna Vemayya
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]] IND
|3) Anam Chenchu Subba Reddy 4) Ponnaluru Veera Raghava Reddi
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]] IND
|-
|[[Kovur Assembly constituency|Kovur]]
|Basavareddy Sankarayya
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|B. Seshu Reddy
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Atmakur Assembly constituency|Atmakur]]
|Ganga China Kondayya
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|Gangavarapu Thirupathi Naidu
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Kavali Assembly constituency|Kavali]]
|B. Ramakrishna Reddy
|[[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party|KMPP]]
|R. Dasaratharami Reddy
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Udayagiri Assembly constituency|Udayagiri]]
|Kovi Ramayya Chowdary
|[[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party|KMPP]]
|[[Bezawada Gopala Reddy]]
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Kanigiri Assembly constituency|Kanigiri]]
|Gujjala Yellamanda Reddy
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|Devi Reddy Lakhmi Reddy
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Kandukur Assembly constituency|Kandukur]]
|10 Nalamothu Chenchurama Naidu 2) Kamatham Shanmugham
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]] INC
|3) Chukka Kottilingam 4) Guntapalli Venkatasubbiah
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]] IND
|-
|[[Darsi Assembly constituency|Darsi]]
|Sanikommu Kasi Reddy
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|Ravipathi Mohanada
|[[Krishikar Lok Party|KLP]]
|-
|[[Markapuram Assembly constituency|Markapuram]]
|N. Venkatayya
|[[Krishikar Lok Party|KLP]]
|Yekkali Ramaiah
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|-
|Cumbum
|Pidathala Ranga Reddy
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Adapala Ramaswamy
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|-
|[[Nandyal Assembly constituency|Nandyal]]
|Mallu Subba Reddy
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|G. Rami Reddy
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|Koikuntla
|N. Venkatasubba Reddy
|SP
|B. V. Subba Reddy
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Dhone Assembly constituency|Dhone]]
|Venkatasetty Kotrike
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|Venkatasubbiah Nivarthi
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Nandikotkur Assembly constituency|Nandikottur]]
|[[Chandra Pulla Reddy|C. Pulla Reddy]]
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|Subba Reddy
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Kurnool Assembly constituency|Kurnool]]
|D. Sanjeevayya
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|N. Sankara Reddy
|INC
|-
|[[Rajampet Assembly constituency|Rajampet]]
|Panjam Narasimha Reddy
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|Bandam Ratnasabapathi Setti
|SP
|-
|[[Rayachoti Assembly constituency|Rayachoti]]
|[[Adinarayana Reddy]]
|[[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party|KMPP]]
|Gurjala Reddayya Naidu
|SP
|-
|[[Kadapa Assembly constituency|Kadapa]]
|K. Koti Reddy
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|P. Seshiah Chetty
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|-
|[[Badvel Assembly constituency|Badvel]]
|Vedamani Chidanandam
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|Bommu Rama Reddy
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Proddatur Assembly constituency|Proddatur]]
|Kundala Balanarayana Reddy
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Panem Yonamani Reddy
|[[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party|KMPP]]
|-
|[[Kamalapuram Assembly constituency|Kamalupuram]]
|Narreddy Sivarami Reddy
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|Ramalinga Reddy
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Jammalamadugu Assembly constituency|Jammalamadugu]]
|Kunda Ramiah
|[[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party|KMPP]]
|Tatireddy Pulla Reddy
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Penukonda Assembly constituency|Penukonda]]
|Lakshminarayana Reddy
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|Chitambara Reddy
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Hindupur Assembly constituency|Hindupur]]
|Sivasankara Reddy
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Sreenivasa Reddy
|[[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party|KMPP]]
|-
|[[Madakasira Assembly constituency|Madakasira]]
|Siddanna Goud
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|Venkatasivamma
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Kadiri Assembly constituency|Kadiri]]
|K. V. Vema Reddy
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Y. Papireddy
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|-
|[[Dharmavaram Assembly constituency|Dharmavaram]]
|Srinivasalu Kasetty
|[[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party|KMPP]]
|Venkatareddy Gonuguntla
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Kalyandurg Assembly constituency|Kalyandrug]]
|Narayanappa Sanda
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|B. Yeniswamy
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|-
|[[Tadpatri Assembly constituency|Tadpatri]]
|C. Subbarayudu
|[[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party|KMPP]]
|J. C. Nagi Reddy
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Anantapur Urban Assembly constituency|Anantapur]]
|[[T. Nagi Reddy]]
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|N. Sanjeeva Reddy
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Adoni Assembly constituency|Adoni]]
|H. Ramalinga Reddy
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|T. Mallayya
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Rayadurg Assembly constituency|Rayadurg]]
|G. Nagabushanam
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Mullangi Chinna Basappa Chowdary
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|-
|Chattu
|T. N. Vankatasubba Reddy
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Alluru Narsinga Rao
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|-
|[[Madanapalle Assembly constituency|Madanapalle]]
|Dodda Seetharamiah
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|Gudreddigari Srinivasareddy
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|-
|[[Punganur Assembly constituency|Punganur]]
|B. Krishnamoorthy Rao
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Varanasi Raghunatha Reddy
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|-
|[[Pileru Assembly constituency|Pileru]]
|P. Thimma Reddy
|[[Krishikar Lok Party|KLP]]
|N. Bhaskara Reddy
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Palamaner (Vidan Sabha constituency)|Palamaner]]
|Ramabrahaman
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Soma Ram Reddy
|[[Krishikar Lok Party|KLP]]
|-
|[[Chittoor (Vidan Sabha constituency)|Chittoor]]
|Chinama Reddy
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|N. P. Chengalraya Naidu
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Tiruttani Assembly constituency|Tiruttani]]
|[[Kidambi Varadachari]]
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|M. Dorai Kannu
|INC
|-
|[[Puttur (Andhra Pradesh Assembly constituency)|Puttur]]
|Kumaraswami Rajah Bahadur
|[[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party|KMPP]]
|R.B. Ramakrishna Raju
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|Kalahasti
|A. Balarami Reddy
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|T. Venkatasubba Rao
|[[Krishikar Lok Party|KLP]]
|-
|Chandragiri
|A. Adikesavalu Naidu
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|V. Raja Reddy
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|}

=== [[Mysore State]] ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Results by constituency |
* Winner, runner-up, voter turnout, and victory margin in every constituency
! colspan="2" |Assembly Constituency
!Turnout
! colspan="5" |Winner
! colspan="5" |Runner Up
! rowspan="2" data-sort-type=number |Margin
|-
! #k
! Names
!%
! Candidate
! colspan="2" | Party
! data-sort-type=number | Votes
!%
! Candidate
! colspan="2" | Party
! data-sort-type=number | Votes
!%
|-
|1||[[Bellary Assembly constituency|Bellary]]||60.04%||Mundlur Gangappa||{{party name with color|Independent politician}}||19,534||43.37%||A. Sumangalamma||{{party name with color|Indian National Congress}}||17,219||38.23%||style="background:{{party colour|Independent politician}}"|'''2,315'''
|-
|2||[[Brahmavar Assembly constituency|Brahmavar]]||67.83%||S. S. Kolkabail||{{party name with color|Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party}}||22,719||51.76%||Shetty Jagjeevandoss||{{party name with color|Indian National Congress}}||21,171||48.24%||style="background:{{party colour|Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party}}"|'''1,548'''
|-
|3||[[Kundapura Assembly constituency|Kundapura]]||62.55%||Manjayya Shetty||{{party name with color|Indian National Congress}}||24,847||55.41%||V. Srinivasa Shetty||{{party name with color|Socialist Party (India, 1948)}}||19,994||44.59%||style="background:{{party colour|Indian National Congress}}"|'''4,853'''
|-
|4||[[Harapanahalli Assembly constituency|Harapanahalli]]||66.50%||Sirasappa Ijari||{{party name with color|Indian National Congress}}||26,425||51.13%||K. B. R. Kotra Goud||{{party name with color|Independent politician}}||25,261||48.87%||style="background:{{party colour|Indian National Congress}}"|'''1,164'''
|-
|5||[[Hospet Assembly constituency|Hospet]]||59.19%||R. Nagana Gowda||{{party name with color|Indian National Congress}}||26,339||62.33%||Mahabaleswarappa||{{party name with color|Independent politician}}||10,349||24.49%||style="background:{{party colour|Indian National Congress}}"|'''15,990'''
|-
|6||[[Karkala Assembly constituency|Karkala]]||59.32%||[[A. B. Shetty]]||{{party name with color|Indian National Congress}}||18,370||46.60%||Dharmasamarajaya||{{party name with color|Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party}}||14,404||36.54%||style="background:{{party colour|Indian National Congress}}"|'''3,966'''
|-
|7||[[Kollegal Assembly constituency|Kollegal]]||52.55%||S. C. Virupakshiah||{{party name with color|Indian National Congress}}||19,696||59.52%||C. R. Subramani Iyer||{{party name with color|Independent politician}}||13,395||40.48%||style="background:{{party colour|Indian National Congress}}"|'''6,301'''
|-
|8||[[Kudligi Assembly constituency|Kudligi]]||55.50%||Kotrabasavana Goud||{{party name with color|Independent politician}}||20,104||48.90%||T. M. Panchakshariah||{{party name with color|Indian National Congress}}||11,764||28.62%||style="background:{{party colour|Independent politician}}"|'''8,340'''
|-
|9||[[Mangalore Assembly constituency|Mangalore]]||61.15%||L. C. Pais||{{party name with color|Indian National Congress}}||22,285||44.67%||A. Shantha Ram Pai||{{party name with color|Communist Party of India}}||13,818||27.70%||style="background:{{party colour|Indian National Congress}}"|'''8,467'''
|-
|10||[[Moodabidri Assembly constituency|Moodabidri]]||61.54%||N. N. Suvarna||{{party name with color|Indian National Congress}}||26,381||62.47%||Sanjeevanath||{{party name with color|Socialist Party (India, 1948)}}||8,562||20.28%||style="background:{{party colour|Indian National Congress}}"|'''17,819'''
|-
|11||[[Panemangalore Assembly constituency|Panemangalore]]||61.06%||[[Bantwal Vaikunta Baliga]]||{{party name with color|Indian National Congress}}||18,369||44.09%||D. K. H. Alwa||{{party name with color|Independent politician}}||12,553||30.13%||style="background:{{party colour|Indian National Congress}}"|'''5,816'''
|-
|rowspan="2"|12||rowspan="2"|[[Puttur Assembly constituency|Puttur]]||rowspan="2"| 59.77%||K. Venkatramana Gowda||{{party name with color|Indian National Congress}}||42,735||87.52%
|-
|K. Iswara||{{party name with color|Indian National Congress}}||42,299||86.62%
|-
|13||[[Siruguppa Assembly constituency|Siruguppa]]||54.87%||S. Parameswarappa||{{party name with color|Indian National Congress}}||17,798||50.29%||S. Ranganna Gowd||{{party name with color|Independent politician}}||14,370||40.60%||style="background:{{party colour|Indian National Congress}}"|'''3,428'''
|-
|14||[[Udupi Assembly constituency|Udupi]]||68.77%||[[T. A. Pai]]||{{party name with color|Indian National Congress}}||25,309||50.63%||K. Rama Rao||{{party name with color|Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party}}||16,865||33.74%||style="background:{{party colour|Indian National Congress}}"|'''8,444'''
|}

=== Kerala ===
[[File:Malabar District (1951 Census).svg|thumb|[[Malabar District]] during [[1951 Census of India|1951 Census]] (Malabar district along with the [[Kasaragod district|Kasargod Region]] of [[South Canara|South Canara district]] was merged in 1956 with [[Travancore-Cochin]] state to form [[Kerala]])]]
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Constituency
! Winner
! Party
! Runner-up
! Party
|-
|[[Kasaragod Assembly constituency|Kasaragod]]
|M . S . Mogral
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|B. K. Sridharan
|[[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party|KMPP]]
|-
|[[Hosdrug Assembly constituency|Hosdrug]]
|Narayanan Nambiar
|[[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party|KMPP]]
|Kunnikannan Nambiar
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Nattika Assembly constituency|Nattika]]
|Gopalakrishnan
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|Raman
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
| rowspan="2" |[[Ponnani Assembly constituency|Ponnani]]
|[[N. Gopala Menon]]
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|K. C. Sankarann
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]] 
|-
|E. T. Kunhan
|CPI
|A. C. Raman
|KMPP
|-
|[[Tirur Assembly constituency|Tirur]]
|K. Uppi Saheb
|[[Indian Union Muslim League|IUML]]
|K. Ahmad Kutty
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Thrithala Assembly constituency|Thrithala]]
|[[K. B. Menon]]
|SP
|P. K. Moideen Kutty
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Perinthalmanna Assembly constituency|Perinthalmanna]]
|Kunhimahamad Shafee Kallingal
|[[Indian Union Muslim League|IUML]]
|P . Ahmad Kutty Sadhu
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|-
|[[Mannarkkad Assembly constituency|Mannarkkad]]
|K. C. Gopalanunni
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|Kurikal Ahmed
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|-
|[[Pattambi Assembly constituency|Pattambi]]
|V . Sankara Narayana Menon
|[[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party|KMPP]]
|A . Ramachandra Nedungadi
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Ottapalam Assembly constituency|Ottapalam]]
|M . Narayana Kurup
|[[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party|KMPP]]
|C . P . Madhavan Nair
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Palakkad Assembly constituency|Palakkad]]
|K. ramakrishnan
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|P. Vasu Menon
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
| rowspan="2" |[[Alathur Assembly constituency|Alathur]]
|K. Krishnan
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|Y. R. Ramanatha Iyer
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|-
|O. Koran
|KMPP
|E. Eacharan
|INC
|-
| rowspan="2" |[[Malappuram Assembly constituency|Malappuram]]
|Miniyadam Chadayan
|[[Indian Union Muslim League|IUML]]
|Karupadata Ibrahim
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|Mohammad Haje Seethi
|[[Indian Union Muslim League|IUML]]
|Kallayan Kunhambu
|INC
|-
|[[Kottakkal Assembly constituency|Kottakkal]]
|[[Chakkeeri Ahmad Kutty]]
|[[Indian Union Muslim League|IUML]]
|Kunjunni Nedumgadi, Ezhuthassan Kalathil
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|Kozhikode
|K. P. Kutty Krishnan Nair
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|[[E. M. S. Namboodiripad]]
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|-
|Chevayur
|A. Appu
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Ayyadhan Balagopalan
|[[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party|KMPP]]
|-
| rowspan="2" |[[Kalpetta Assembly constituency|Wayanad]]
|Manyangode Padmanabha Gounder
|SP
|Kozhipurath Madhava Menon
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|Chomadi Velukkan
|SP
|Veliyan Nocharamooyal
|INC
|-
|[[Koyilandy Assembly constituency|Koyilandy]]
|Chemmaratha Kunhriramakurup
|[[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party|KMPP]]
|Anantapuram Patinhare Madam Vasudevan Nair
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Perambra Assembly constituency|Perambra]]
|Kunhiram Kidavu Polloyil
|[[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party|KMPP]]
|Kalandankutty, Puthiyottil
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Vadakara Assembly constituency|Vadakara]]
|Moidu Keloth
|SP
|Ayatathil Chattu
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Nadapuram Assembly constituency|Nadapuram]]
|E . K . Sankara Varma Raja
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|K . Thacharakandy
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|-
|[[Thalassery Assembly constituency|Thalassery]]
|C. H. M. Kanaran
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|K. P. M. Raghavan Nair
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Kuthuparamba Assembly constituency|Kuthuparamba]]
|Krishna Iyer
|[[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|Harindranabham, Kalliyat Thazhathuveethil
|SP
|-
|[[Mattanur Assembly constituency|Mattanur]]
|Madhavan Nambiar, Kallorath
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|Subbarao
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Kannur Assembly constituency|Kannur]]
|Kariath Sreedharan
|[[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party|KMPP]]
|Pamban Madhavan
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Taliparamba Assembly constituency|Taliparamba]]
|T. C. Narayanan Nambiar
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|V. V. Damodaran Nayanar
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|[[Payyanur Assembly constituency|Payyanur]]
|[[K. P. R. Gopalan|K. P. Gopalan]]
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|Vivekananda Devappa Sernoy
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|}

==Delimitation and Reorganisation==
On 1 October 1953, a separate [[Andhra State]] consisting of the Telugu-speaking areas of the composite Madras State was formed and the Kannada-speaking area of [[Bellary]] District was merged with the then [[Mysore State]]. This reduced the strength of the Legislative Assembly to 231.

On 1 November 1956, [[Madras State]] was re-organized as per [[States Reorganisation Act, 1956]]. [[Malabar District]] of the State was transferred to the new State of [[Kerala]], and a new union territory, [[Laccadive|Laccadive, Minicoy and Amindivi Islands]], was carved out. The southern part (Tamil-speaking area) of [[Travancore-Cochin]] (present day [[Kanyakumari district]]) and [[Shenkottah]] taluk were merged into the State. Later in 1968, the state was renamed as [[Tamil Nadu]]. This led to re-organization of legislative assembly constituencies during 1957 assembly elections in the State.<ref name="1955ReorgStates">{{cite web | url=http://www.epw.in/system/files/pdf/1955_7/42/reorganisation_of_statesthe_approach_and_arrangements.pdf | title=Reorganisation of States, 1955 | publisher=The Economic Weekly | date=15 October 1955 | access-date=25 July 2015}}</ref>

The strength of the Madras Legislative Assembly was increased to 205 in accordance with the new Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order 1956, made by the Delimitation Commission of India under the provisions of the State Reorganisation Act, 1956.<ref name =A/> The 1957 elections were conducted for these 205 seats.

== See also ==
*[[Elections in Tamil Nadu]]
*[[Elections in Andhra Pradesh]]
*[[Elections in Kerala]]
*[[Legislature of Tamil Nadu]]
*[[Government of Tamil Nadu]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist|30em}}

==Footnotes and References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* [http://eci.nic.in/ Election Commission of India]
* [http://eci.nic.in//eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/STATISTICALREPORTS_51_MADRAS.pdf 1951/52 Madras State Election Results, Election Commission of India]
{{Tamil Nadu assembly elections|state=expanded}}

[[Category:1952 State Assembly elections in India|Madras]]
[[Category:March 1952 in Asia]]
[[Category:1950s in Madras State]]
[[Category:State Assembly elections in Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:State Assembly elections in Karnataka]]
[[Category:State Assembly elections in Kerala]]
[[Category:State Assembly elections in Madras]]

Aladdin – Naam Toh Suna Hoga

2026-05-01T18:06:39Z

Ankitchadha: created a details - done

{{short description|2018 Indian fantasy TV series}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{All plot|date=March 2024}}
{{More citations needed|date=March 2024}}
}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}
{{use Indian English|date=August 2018}}
{{Infobox television
| image = Aladdin - Naam Toh Suna Hoga.jpg
| caption =
| alt_name = [[Aladdin]]
| genre = {{ubl|Fantasy|Comedy|Romance}}
| creator = {{ubl|Alind Srivastava|Nisser Parvej}}
| based_on = {{plainlist|
*{{based on|"[[Aladdin and the Magic Lamp]]" which is associated with ''[[One Thousand and One Nights]]''}}{{efn|name=Origins|''[[Aladdin and the Magic Lamp]]'' was written by [[Hanna Diyab]],<ref name=":2">Arafat A. Razzaque, [https://ajammc.com/2017/09/14/who-wrote-aladdin/ 'Who “wrote” Aladdin? The Forgotten Syrian Storyteller'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190525110047/https://ajammc.com/2017/09/14/who-wrote-aladdin/ |date=May 25, 2019 }}, ''Ajam Media Collective'' (September 14, 2017).</ref><ref name="Horta">{{cite book |last1=Horta |first1=Paulo Lemos |title=Aladdin: A New Translation |date=2018 |publisher=[[Liveright Publishing]] |isbn=9781631495175 |pages=8–10 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=im1SDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT8 |access-date=May 23, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190925092601/https://books.google.com/books?id=im1SDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT8 |archive-date=September 25, 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> and was added to the ''One Thousand and One Nights'' by [[Antoine Galland]], appearing in his French translation ''[[Les mille et une nuits]]''.<ref name="Gallandref">{{Cite book |title=Volume 16, Tome I: Kierkegaard's Literary Figures and Motifs: Agamemnon to Guadalquivir |last1=Nun |first1=Katalin |last2=Stewart |first2=Dr Jon |date=2014 |publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. |page=31}}</ref>}}}}
| developer =
| writer = {{ubl|Shakti Sagar Chopra|Lakshmi Jayakumar}}
| screenplay = {{ubl|Shivam Awasthi|Aanchal Aggarwal Vasani}}
| story =
| director = {{ubl|Maan Singh|Amandeep Singh|Kushal Awasthi|Vighnesh Kamble}}
| creative_director = Pooja Hingorani
| starring = [[Siddharth Nigam]] [[Avneet Kaur]] [[Ashi Singh]] Aamir Dalvi Raashul Tandon [[Smita Bansal]] [[Praneet Bhat]] [[Gireesh Sahdev]]
| theme_music_composer = Souvyk Chakraborty
| opentheme = "Aladdin"
| endtheme =
| composer =
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| num_seasons = 3
| num_episodes = 572
| list_episodes =
| executive_producer =
| producer = {{ubl|Nissar Parvez|Alind Srivastava|Hitesh Thakkar}}
| cinematography =
| editor = 
| camera =  Multi-camera
| runtime =  20–23 minutes
| company =  [[Peninsula Pictures]]
| network = [[Sony SAB]] [[Sony LIV]]
| first_aired = {{Start date|df=y|2018|08|21}}
| last_aired = {{End date|df=y|2021|02|05}}
}}
'''''Aladdin – Naam Toh Suna Hoga''''' ({{Translation|''Aladdin – Must've Heard The Name''}}) is an Indian [[fantasy]] television series loosely based on the ''[[Arabian Nights]]'' story [[Aladdin]]. The series premiered on 21 August 2018 on [[Sony SAB]]. The series involves Aladdin, a kind-hearted thief, as he falls in love with Princess Yasmine, befriends a wish-granting [[Genie]] of the Lamp, and battles Zafar and later the evil enchantress Mallika, and again with Zafar after his rebirth.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-08-06 |title=Top 5 Hindi fantasy TV Shows on Indian Television: Sana Sayyad's Divya-Drishti to Siddharth Nigam's Aladdin-Naam Toh Suna Hoga |url=https://www.pinkvilla.com/tv/news/top-5-hindi-fantasy-tv-shows-on-indian-television-sana-sayyads-divya-drishti-to-siddharth-nigams-aladdin-naam-toh-suna-hoga-1336356 |access-date=2024-11-13 |website=PINKVILLA |language=en}}</ref> While it incorporates many elements from the traditional Aladdin story, such as a young thief, a genie and a princess, it deviates significantly in its narrative and character development. The show's plot introduces new story arcs, original villains, and reimagined character relationships that set it apart from the more linear Disney adaptation. The series went off-air on 5 February 2021.<ref>{{Cite news |date=8 February 2021 |title=Siddharth Nigam posts emotional video on last day of Aladdin Naam Toh Suna Hoga |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/television/celebrity/story/siddharth-nigam-posts-emotional-video-on-last-day-of-aladdin-naam-toh-suna-hoga-1767001-2021-02-08 |access-date=13 October 2024 |work=[[India Today]]}}</ref>

==Series overview==
{| class="wikitable collapsible" style="text-align:center"
|+
|-
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="padding: 0 8px" | No. of season
! rowspan="2" |No of episodes
! colspan="2" | Originally broadcast
|-
! style="padding: 0 8px" | First aired
! style="padding: 0 8px" | Last aired
|-
|style="background:#FF0000"|
| align="center" | 1
| align="center" | 207
| align="center" | {{start date|df=yes|2018|08|21}}
| align="center" | {{end date|df=yes|2019|05|31}}
|-
|style="background:#FF0FF0"|
| align="center" | 2
| align="center" | 250
| align="center" | {{start date|df=yes|2019|06|03}}
| align="center" | {{end date|df=yes|2020|08|28}}
|-
|style="background:#000FFF"|
| align="center" | 3
| align="center" | 115
| align="center" | {{start date|df=yes|2020|08|31}}
| align="center" | {{end date|df=yes|2021|02|05}}
|}

==Plot==
===Season 1===
Mallika, an evil enchantress, tries to take over the world, but her servant Hassan betrays her and turns her into a stone statue. Before becoming a statue, Mallika turns Hassan into a [[Jinn|genie]] and captures him in a lamp.

Five hundred years later, Aladdin is born in [[Baghdad]] as the only son of Ruksaar and Omar, the once royal guard of Baghdad, now termed as a traitor. Aladdin is a kind-hearted, funny, brave, courageous, and hopelessly romantic poet. He dreams to meet his childhood crush Yasmine, the Princess of Baghdad. He brings a magical lamp in exchange for ten thousand gold coins for the grand vizier of Baghdad, Zafar but gets confined in a cave. He rubs the lamp and discovers the Genie of the Lamp, naming him Ginu.

Zafar tries to steal the lamp from Aladdin but fails. Ginu lives with Aladdin disguised as a human. The Sultana puts restrictions on Yasmine, still she disguises herself as a commoner, wandering around Baghdad to address the citizens' welfare. Aladdin and Yasmine often bump into each other. The latter dislikes that Aladdin likes the princess because of her title and introduces herself as Sana. Sharing a love-hate relationship, over time, they become friends and fall in love.

Zafar finds Genie of the Ring in [[Egypt|Misr]]. With the latter's help, he captures Ginu, turns him evil and erases all of his memories. He kills Sultan, frames Aladdin for the murder, and betrays Genie of the Ring by taking away all his powers. A heartbroken Yasmine reveals her truth to a perplexed Aladdin and sentences him to death.

===Season 2===
One year later, Aladdin is still alive, living in [[Egypt|Misr]]. Omar and Bulbul had saved him and helped him escape leading to Omar's death. Aladdin finds Genie of the Ring and discovers Zafar's crimes, seeking revenge. The duo finds two more genies – an uncle and a niece duo, Genie Meanie (Genie of the Bottle) and Chand Changezi(Genie of the Pendant).

They disguise as Ali (Aladdin), a merchant from Ankara, his siblings Sara (Genie Meanie), Chand Changezi (ChaCha), and their servant Jhumru (Anguthi Chaap) to foil Zafar's evil intentions. Gulbadan recognizes Aladdin's innocence and joins him. They try to prove Aladdin innocent, but fail. Later, Yasmine finds out about Aladdin's innocence and breaks down out of guilt. Soon she realizes Ali is Aladdin disguised and confesses her love to him, which Aladdin reciprocates. They turn Ginu back to his good form, and Aladdin is reunited with his mother.

Zafar intends to reach Mallika, the evil enchantress, with the Sonminar's help. He wants to rule the entire world, but Aladdin stops him. Zafar, with the help of his sister, Zeher, finds out Ali and Ginu's truth. Aladdin and the group bring Zafar's offenses in front of Baghdad. Zafar dies, and Zeher escapes from Baghdad. Before his death, Zafar secretly revives Mallika.

A month later, on [[Valentine's Day|Jashn-e-Dilbar]], Aladdin proposes marriage to Yasmine, and they plan their engagement. A disguised Mallika arrives and plans for destruction by using Shaitaan ka Khanjar. She turns Aladdin's mother into the Genie of the Bracelet and persuades Aladdin to bring the three parts of the Shaitaan ka Khanjar. In a fight with Zafar's sister Zeher, Aladdin unknowingly opens a prison from which a lookalike of Zafar comes out and helps Aladdin. He introduces himself as Faraz, Zafar and Zeher's younger brother, who was imprisoned by the brother-sister duo for about 10 years. Together they collect all three parts of Shaitaan ka Khanjar by which Aladdin kills Mallika, and his mother turns back to a human.

Faraz is revealed to be Zafar, who returned, killing the real Faraz. Using the khanjar, catalyses by Mallika's blood, Zafar becomes Aiyyar Zafar. He sends Aladdin and Yasmine to bring the red box from the hell. Then, Aladdin and Yasmine reach the hell to save Omar, now an angel from punishment because he had given Aladdin a piece of the khanjar. They give the Red Box to Zafar and in return, he frees Omar from punishment. Aladdin tells Omar that the real box is with them. Omar sends it to a safer place and knowing Aladdin and Yasmine can bring it back, pushes them into lava, killing them for good and jumps himself. Zafar erases Aladdin and Yasmine's memories from the minds of Baghdad's citizens, and becomes the Sultan. He traps Ginu in his lamp, throws him away, and enslaves Genie of the Ring. Due to Aladdin's death, Chand Changezi and Geanie Meanie die in the world of Genie. Aladdin and Yasmine are reborn in [[Turkistan]].

===Season 3===
18 years later, Aladdin has grown as the spoilt, lazy prince of Turkistan and Yasmine as a kind-hearted thief. After Aladdin manages to catch her, they are banished from Turkistan and reach Baghdad after finding Ginu. After guidance from Genie of the Ring, they start taking lessons from Rukhsaar, now the principal of Baghdad's school. Aladdin tricks Zafar to discover where he has kept the memories of baghdad and turns him against Zeher. Soon, Aladdin falls for Yasmine and discovers that she was the Sultana of Baghdad. He saves her and realizes his love for her.

Aladdin reveals Zafar's wicked plans to Yasmine, and enraged, Yasmine joins hands with Aladdin to defeat Zafar and save Baghdad. He brings Zarina, a scorpion, to terminate Zafar's powers and restore the memries of Baghdad's citizens'. Zarina stings Zafar, and all the memories he had taken away are restored while she gets killed. Aladdin is reunited with his mother Rukhsaar, his namesake brothers Genie of the Ring and Ginu, and his love Yasmine. After many hurdles, Zafar and Zeher are captured and jailed. Yasmine is proclaimed the Sultana, while Zafar and Zeher manage to escape. Later, Yasmine confesses her love to Aladdin, and both get engaged. Zafar performs a ritual and tells them a meteoroid will soon crash on Earth, and the Kaala Chiragh (Black Lamp) which is present in the Red Box, can only stop that. Aladdin, Yasmine, and Zafar travel to Marakkesh to get the lamp. After a series of incidents, Zafar takes over the Black Land its and becomes the master of the Black Genie. Zafar orders him to make him Aiyyar again. Zeher enslaves Anguthi Chaap, but he sacrifices himself.

Anguthi Chaap, before his death, tells Rukhsaar that Zafar can't be killed. He locked his soul in a locket hidden in the Hell. Anguthi Chaap helps her to get there, and Rukhsaar gets the locket.Aladdin, Yasmine and Ginu battle Zafar and the black genie. Rukhsaar goes to Marakkesh to kill Zafar. Rukhsaar frees the soul from the locket, and Aladdin kills him. The Black Genie gets captured in his lamp again, but seeks revenge for his Master's death. Aladdin and Yasmine get married. The series ends with Aladdin and Yasmine ready to fight the evils of the world once again as Ginu senses a danger, since someone releases the black genie.

==Cast==
===Main===
* [[Siddharth Nigam]] as
** [[Aladdin]]/Ali Ababwa:<ref>{{Cite news |last=Farzeen |first=Sana |date=21 August 2018 |title=Aladdin – Naam Toh Suna Hoga actor Siddharth Nigam: Excited to play my childhood hero on screen |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/television/aladdin-naam-toh-suna-hoga-siddharth-nigam-sab-tv-5317941/ |access-date=12 October 2024 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> Rukhsaar and Omar's son; Yasmine's lover-turned-husband; Ginu, Ginie of the Ring, Geanie Meanie and Chand Changezi's master and namesake brother; A kind-hearted, young and handsome boy and a hopelessly romantic poet. He was forced to be a thief, but, his life changes as he discovers Ginu. Soon, he falls for Yasmine and defeats Zafar; Reincarnated as the Prince of Turkistan. (2018–2021)
*** Om Aditya Yadav as young Aladdin (2018)
** Haider: Aladdin's evil duplicate(2021)
* [[Avneet Kaur]] as "[[Sultana (title)|Sultana-e-Baghdad]]" Yasmine<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-05-12|title=Avneet Kaur in SAB TV's fantasy drama Aladdin|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/television/siddharth-nigam-avneet-kaur-aladdin-5174285/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-10-12|website=The Indian Express|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180512165653/http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/television/siddharth-nigam-avneet-kaur-aladdin-5174285/ |archive-date=12 May 2018 }}</ref>(formerly Princess Yasmine) : Shahnawaz and Mehrunissa's daughter; Aladdin's lover-turned-wife; the courageous and beautiful young princess of Baghdad, who roams as a commoner assuring the welfare of her citizens. She is crowned as the [[Sultana (title)|Sultana]] after Zafar's defeat; Reincarnated as an orphan. (2018–2020)
**[[Ashi Singh]] replaced Kaur as Yasmine.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Maheshwri |first1=Neha |title=Ashi Singh replaces Avneet Kaur in 'Aladdin: Naam Toh Suna Hoga' |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/ashi-singh-replaces-avneet-kaur-in-aladdin-naam-toh-suna-hoga/articleshow/76718905.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200701052000/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/ashi-singh-replaces-avneet-kaur-in-aladdin-naam-toh-suna-hoga/articleshow/76718905.cms |archive-date=1 July 2020 |access-date=2020-07-01 |website=Times of India |language=en}}</ref> (2020–2021)
* Aamir Dalvi as
**Zafar:<ref>{{Cite web |last=India-West |first=R. M. VIJAYAKAR, Special to |title=Aamir Dalvi Calls Himself a 'Schizophrenic Actor' |url=https://www.indiawest.com/entertainment/television/aamir-dalvi-calls-himself-a-schizophrenic-actor/article_fa3e8f02-02e3-11e9-8e73-4b338b24b609.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190525073808/https://www.indiawest.com/entertainment/television/aamir-dalvi-calls-himself-a-schizophrenic-actor/article_fa3e8f02-02e3-11e9-8e73-4b338b24b609.html |archive-date=25 May 2019 |access-date=2019-05-25 |website=India West |language=en}}</ref> Zeher and Faraz's brother; A nefarious, deceptive, treacherous usurper and a power-hungry sorcerer; the [[Grand Vizier]] of Baghdad, who betrays the Sultan and seeks the throne of Baghdad; He became the master of the black genie, but still met his demise at Aladdin's hands. (2018–2021)
**Zafar, Faraz and Zeher's father (illusion) (2019)
*Raashul Tandon as Hassan-Ul-Rahman-Bin-Tughluq/Ginu/Genie of the Lamp:<ref>{{Cite news|title=Raashul Tandon talks about his transformation into a negative Genie – Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/raashul-tandon-talks-about-his-transformation-into-a-negative-genie/articleshow/68990209.cms|access-date=2019-05-25|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref> Genie of the Ring's younger brother; Geanie Meanie's love-interest; a comical and kindly [[Jinn|genie]] who has the power to grant wishes to whoever possesses his magic lamp. Aladdin considers him his brother and calls him Ginu. (2018–2021)
* [[Smita Bansal]] as Rukhsaar:<ref>{{Cite news |date=12 October 2020 |title=Smita expresses joy as Aladdin completes two years |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/entertainment/smita-bansal-is-currently-seen-as-rukhsar-in-sony-sabs-aladdin-naam-toh-suna-hoga-154625/ |access-date=12 October 2024 |work=[[The Tribune]]}}</ref> Omar's widow; Aladdin's mother; a kind-hearted woman who never held grudges even to those who are cruel to her. She is detested by the people of Bhaghdad due to his husband's alleged traitorship. (2018–2021)
* [[Praneet Bhat]] as Hussan-Ul-Rahman-Bin-Tughluq/Genie of the Ring/Anguthi Chaap:<ref>{{Cite news |last=Maheshwari |first=Neha |date=30 January 2019 |title=Praneet Bhat is the bad genie on 'Aladdin' |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/praneet-bhat-is-the-bad-genie-on-aladdin/articleshow/67741223.cms |access-date=12 October 2024 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> Ginu's elder brother, a genie found in [[Egypt|Misr]] by Zafar. He helps Zafar in his wicked plans, but joins Aladdin as the former betrays him.(2019–2021)
* [[Gireesh Sahdev]] as Omar: Mustafa's elder brother; Rukhsaar's husband; Aladdin's father; The former trusted army chief of the Sultan, who was falsely termed as a traitor by Zafar years ago and went away thinking that her pregnant wife was dead, as the angry mob put his house on fire. (2018–2020)

=== Recurring ===
* [[Nausheen Ali Sardar]] as Mallika: the evil enchantress, who was turned into stone by Hassan, before which she turned Hassan and Hussan into genies. She gets resurrected by Zafar, but is killed by Aladdin.(2018)
** [[Debina Bonnerjee]] replaced Sardar as Mallika<ref>{{Cite news |date=29 March 2020 |title=Debina Bonnerjee speaks about working in Aladdin; shares why she is in love with her 'villainous' character |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/debina-bonnerjee-speaks-about-working-in-aladdin-shares-why-she-is-in-love-with-her-villainous-character/articleshow/74872847.cms |access-date=12 October 2024 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> (2020)
* [[Divyangana Jain]] as "Sultana-e-Baltish" Zeher-un-Nissa: Zafar and Faraz's sister; a powerful [[toxicologist]] who could make any dangerous venom and helps Zafar to discover Aladdin's truth and deceitfully obtain Shaitan ka Khanjar. She accidentally dies due to her own poison attempting to kill Aladdin. (2019–2021)
* [[Vikas Grover]] as Gulbadan:<ref>{{Cite news |date=31 August 2022 |title=Aladdin – Naam toh Suna Hoga's Vikas Grover excited about Ganesh Chaturthi |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/aladdin-naam-toh-suna-hogas-vikas-grover-excited-about-ganesh-chaturthi-says-i-am-making-modak-myself-i-wont-be-getting-it-from-the-market/articleshow/93901064.cms |access-date=12 October 2024 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> the former [[Grand Vizier]] of Baghdad and Aladdin's cousin, an innocent and kind-hearted person who helps Aladdin to save Baghdad.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/videos/tv/hindi/vikas-grover-to-join-the-cast-of-aladdin/videoshow/64814153.cms|title=Vikas Grover to join the cast of 'Aladdin' | TV – Times of India Videos|newspaper=The Times of India}}</ref> (2018–2020)
* Sonal Bhojwani as Geanie-Meanie/Sarah/Genie of the Bottle:<ref>{{Cite news |last=Maheshwari |first=Neha |date=18 May 2019 |title=Sonal Bhojwani to join the cast of 'Aladdin' |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/sonal-bhojwani-to-join-the-cast-of-aladdin/articleshow/69385735.cms |access-date=12 October 2024 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> Chand Changezi's niece; Ginu's love-interest; A mermaid-shaped genie, who has the ability to freeze time for 30 seconds. She helps Aladdin to defeat Zafar. She dies as Aladdin dies with her magic bottle, when she goes to the Genie world to pray. (2019–2020)
* Krishang Bhanushali as Chand Changezi "ChaCha"/Genie of the Pendant: a 1,500-year-old genie but is able to take the form of a seven-year-old child and can transform into any object. He dies as Aladdin dies with his magic pendant, when he goes to the Genie world to pray. (2019–2020)
* [[Gulfam Khan]] as Nazneen Begum:<ref>{{Cite news |date=3 June 2024 |title=Gulfam Khan Hussain shares trick from her theatre days to learn long monologues |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/gulfam-khan-hussain-shares-trick-from-her-theatre-days-to-learn-long-monologues/articleshow/110666980.cms |access-date=12 October 2024 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> Mustafa's wife; Gulbadan's mother; Aladdin's aunt; A greedy woman who always collaborates with the antagonist whether Zafar or Mallika. She forces Aladdin to thieve to let him and her mother stay in a room on rent; Later, a cook in the Shahi Talimghar and also a small thief along with her husband.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.outlookindia.com/newsscroll/my-family-is-critical-about-my-work-gulfam-khan/1443483 | title=My family is critical about my work: Gulfam Khan | website=outlookindia.com/}}</ref> (2018–2020)
* Badrul Islam as Mustafa: Omar's younger brother; Nazneen's husband; Gulbadan's father, Aladdin's uncle; A comical person who always works with Nazneen in her selfish motives; Later, a cook in Talimghar and also a small thief along with his wife.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/tvs-ashoka-aka-sidharth-nigam-to-play-the-lead-in-aladdin-naam-toh-suna-hoga/articleshow/64222188.cms|title=TV's Ashoka aka Sidharth Nigam to play the lead in 'Aladdin, Naam Toh Suna Hoga' – Times of India|website=The Times of India}}</ref> (2018–2020)
* Chayan Trivedi as Bulbul aka Bulbul Chacha: Omar and Mustafa's cousin; Aladdin and Gulbadan's uncle; Chulbul's grandfather. He is a [[Scientist|scientific inventor]], who helps Aladdin with his various tasks by giving him his new inventions. He is killed by Zafar. (2018–2020)
* Gyan Prakash as
** [[List of Disney's Aladdin characters|Sultan Shahnawaz]]: Mehrunissa's husband, Yasmine's father; the [[Sultan]] of Baghdad. He loves her daughter and wants to make her a good leader. He is killed by Zafar. (2018–2020)
**Jhuman: Shahnawaz's lookalike. (2018)
* Farhina Parvez as Piddi: Yasmine's loyal [[handmaiden]] and friend; Aladdin's friend and former secret admirer; She often comforts Yasmine whenever she is upset. (2018–2019)
* Yashu Dhiman as Mallika Begum Mehrunisa: Shahnawaz's widow; Yasmine's mother; The former Queen of Baghdad. She puts restrictions on Yasmine and asks her to get married and drop the idea of being a Sultana. Later, she helps Yasmine to take care of the people of Baghdad. (2018–2019)
* Prakhar Saxena as Subedar Akbar: Zafar's former right hand, who was deceitfully killed by him. (2018–2020)

* Sonal Kaushal as Shaheen(voice): Reincarnated Yasmine's talking parrot; her best friend and sister-figure; She has a unique sense of humor and a unique style of talking. She talks a lot, thus gaining the nickname "Chatar-Patar". (2020–2021)
* Amit Raghuvanshi as Sheefan: Koyal's brother; Reincarnated Yasmine's admirer; One of the students of Rukhsaar; He is jealous of Shehzada Aladdin and creates problems for him and Ginu as he likes Yasmine. (2020)
* Shivani Badoni as Koyal:<ref>{{Cite news |date=9 October 2020 |title=When Siddharth Nigam pulled a prank on his Aladdin Naam Toh Suna Hoga co-stars Ashi Singh and Shivani Badoni |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/when-siddharth-nigam-pulled-a-prank-on-his-aladdin-naam-toh-suna-hoga-co-stars-ashi-singh-and-shivani-badoni/articleshow/78573691.cms |access-date=13 October 2024 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> Sheefan's sister; Reincarnated Aladdin's admirer; A student of Rukhsaar; She likes Aladdin very much and genuinely cares for everyone. (2020)
* [[Soni Singh]] as Zarina:<ref>{{Cite news |last=Maheshwari |first=Neha |date=23 December 2020 |title=Soni Singh joins the cast of 'Aladdin - Naam Toh Suna Hoga' |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/soni-singh-joins-the-cast-of-aladdin-naam-toh-suna-hoga/articleshow/79917649.cms |access-date=13 October 2024 |work=13 October 2024}}</ref> a shapeshifter, kind-hearted, orphan female scorpion and reincarnated Aladdin's sister-figure; She falls in love with Zafar but gets stabbed by him. Before dying, she stings Zafar which leads to the removal of all dark powers from Zafar, thus freeing the memories of Baghdad's citizens. (2020)
* Karan Khan as Chulbul: Bulbul Chacha's grandson; A scientific inventor like his grandfather, an aid to Rukhsar and Aladdin. (2020–2021)
* Jogesh as Khalibali: A therian guard; He guards the Talimghar as per Zafar's orders. (2020–2021)
* Tushar Kawale as Badal: Bijli's brother; Zafar's brother-in-law. Zafar threw him off a cliff for failing to claim the lamp. (2018)
* Ritu Singh as Bijli: Badal's sister; Zafar's sister-in-law. Zafar threw her off a cliff for failing to claim the lamp. (2018)
* Shweta Khanduri as Aliza: a manipulative harridan killed by Ginu. (2018)
* Nithish as [[Aladdin (2019 film)|Prince Anders]]: a courageous and handsome young Prince from Skanland; Yasmine's former suitor (2019)
* [[Chahat Pandey]] as Meher: Shahnawaz's niece; Yasmine's cousin; the princess of [[Yemen]]. She has a crush on Aladdin, making Yasmine jealous. (2019)
* Shrashti Maheshwari as Gulegulfam: Gulbadan's haughty wife who goes away to her mother's house. (2019)
* [[Vinit Kakar]] as Haiwan-e-Hiblish: the wicked demon who contaminates the water using his toxic venom. (2019)
* Pal John as "Sultana-e-[[Egypt|Misr]]" Adaya: a stubborn young sultana regnant and Aladdin's former fiancée; She helps Aladdin by giving him Atish-e-Aftab. (2019)
* Harsh Vashisht as "Sultan-e-Turkistan" Firoz : Reincarnated Aladdin's father; a dutiful and fair Sultan and a strict father who wants to help Prince Aladdin find the right path.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/harsh-vasishtha-to-enter-aladdin-naam-toh-suna-hoga-says-getting-a-chance-to-explore-comedy-again/articleshow/77769957.cms|title=Harsh Vasishtha to enter Aladdin: Naam Toh Suna Hoga; says 'getting a chance to explore comedy again'|website=Times of India|access-date=26 August 2020|language=en}}</ref> (2020)
* Guneet Sharma as Shiraz:<ref>{{Cite news |date=31 August 2020 |title=Guneet Sharma: Siddharth Nigam is really cooperative and we discuss the scene at length before the shot |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/guneet-sharma-siddharth-nigam-is-really-cooperative-and-we-discuss-the-scene-at-length-before-the-shot/articleshow/77857167.cms |access-date=13 October 2024 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> Prince Aladdin's close friend. (2020)
* Vipul Tyagi as Faiz: a sidekick of Prince Aladdin who helps him in his mischief. (2020)
* Aradhana Sharma as "Sultana-e-[[Aqaba]]" Tamanna: a mysterious sultana regnant who is a cat-woman and also knows magic. She is given the duty by Omar to guard the second part of Shitan Ka Khanjar, but Aladdin somehow takes it with him. (2020)
* [[Kajal Jain]] as Mehjabeen:<ref>{{Cite news |last=Patowari |first=Farzana |date=3 October 2020 |title=Kajal Jain: I always wanted to play a character with grey shade |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/kajal-jain-i-always-wanted-to-play-a-character-with-grey-shade/articleshow/78463658.cms |access-date=13 October 2024 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> a witch, who was Zafar's ex-fiancé and was killed by him years ago; She comes out due to a task given by Rukhsaar to Shehzaada Aladdin and his team to take the magic lantern. She is killed by Zeher (2020)
* Viren Singh Rathore as Allah Rakha: Omar's friend and a protector of truth who is approached by Rukhsaar to get help for Aladdin and other children of Talimghar from Zafar. He fights with Zafar but gets killed due to Zeher's poison. (2020)
* Hetvi Sharma as Sunahari: a little girl rescued by Yasmine from the gang of Zafar. Now, she resides along with Yasmine in the Talimghar. (2020)
* Anila K Kharbanda as Roothi:<ref>{{Cite news |date=14 April 2022 |title=Aladdin actress Anila Kharbanda gets engaged to Chhatisgarh based businessman Pratik Garg in a fairytale-like ceremony; see pics |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/aladdin-actress-anila-kharbanda-gets-engaged-to-chhatisgarh-based-businessman-pratik-garg-in-a-fairytale-like-ceremony-see-pics/articleshow/90842015.cms |access-date=13 October 2024 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> A fairy, who helps Zafar watch the past of reincarnated Aladdin and Yasmine. (2020)
*Riddhi Gupta as Jhoothi: A fairy, who helps Zafar watch the past of reincarnated Aladdin and Yasmine. (2020)
*Prerika Arora as Tooti: A fairy, who helps Zafar watch the past of reincarnated Aladdin and Yasmine. (2020)
* Milan Singh as Zehreeli: a naagin (shape-shifter female serpent), who has the power to see the future. (2020–2021)
* Nirisha Basnett as Sheherzaadi: Black genie's daughter; a powerful author and an aid to Zafar; She is able to trap people in her dark story and create new characters in her story which happens in reality. She is trapped by Aladdin in her own story. (2021)
* Krishna Kant Singh Bundela as Fakir
* Mir Mustafa: Omar’s friend, held captive for 20 years and killed by Zafar. (2019)
===Guest===
* [[Dev Joshi]] as Baalveer from ''[[Baalveer Returns]]''.
* [[Vansh Sayani]] as Vivaan from ''[[Baalveer Returns]]''.
* [[Pavitra Punia]] as Timnasa from ''[[Baalveer Returns]]''.
* Aditya Ranvijay as Bhaymar from ''[[Baalveer Returns]]''.
* Priya Sharma as Nagini from ''[[Baalveer Returns]]''.

==Crossover==
''Aladdin – Naam Toh Suna Hoga'' had a crossover with ''[[Baalveer Returns]]'' from 27 January 2020 to 31 January 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ek6rKCfRPmg|title=Baalveer & Aladdin join forces to fight evil | 27th to 31st Jan | 8pm & 9pm|date=21 January 2020 |via=www.youtube.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nZ24jZr-PJg|title=Behind The Scenes | Maha Episode of Aladdin and Baalveer | Aladdin – Naam Toh Suna Hoga | BaalVeer|date=24 January 2020 |via=www.youtube.com}}</ref>

==Awards==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year !! Award !! Category !! Recipient !! Ref
|-
| rowspan="2" |2018
| rowspan="2" |[[Indian Television Academy Awards]]
|Best Actor in a Negative Role
|Aamir Dalvi
|<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/television/top-stories/story/ita-awards-2018-winners-list-surbhi-chandna-divyanka-tripathi-harshad-chopda-win-big-1407672-2018-12-12|title=ITA Awards 2018: Surbhi Chandna, Divyanka Tripathi, Harshad Chopda win big|website=India Today|date=11 December 2018 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/television/ita-awards-2018-winners-list-5489473/|title=ITA Awards 2018 Winners List|website=Indian Express|date=12 December 2018 }}</ref>
|-
|Best Actor
|[[Siddharth Nigam]]
|
|-
|rowspan="2"|2019
|rowspan="2"|[[Gold Awards]]
| [[Gold Award for Debut in a Lead Role (Female)|Debut in a Lead Role (Female)]]
|[[Avneet Kaur]]
|
|-
|People's Favourite TV Actor
|[[Siddharth Nigam]]
|<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.zee5.com/tvshows/details/gold-awards-2019/0-6-2183/gold-awards-2019/0-1-281729|title=Gold Awards 2019|website=zee5.com}}</ref>
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|tt8806456|Aladdin – Naam Toh Suna Hoga}}
* [https://www.sonyliv.com/shows/aladdin-naam-toh-suna-hoga-1700000001 ''Aladdin Naam Toh Suna Hoga''] on [[SonyLIV]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Aladdin - Naam Toh Suna Hoga}}
[[Category:2010s Indian television series]]
[[Category:2020s Indian television series]]
[[Category:2018 Indian television series debuts]]
[[Category:2021 Indian television series endings]]
[[Category:Television shows about genies]]
[[Category:Hindi-language television shows]]
[[Category:Indian fantasy television series]]
[[Category:Sony SAB original programming]]
[[Category:Works based on Aladdin]]
[[Category:Indian supernatural television series]]
[[Category:Television productions suspended due to the COVID-19 pandemic]]

Bihar Legislative Assembly

2026-05-01T14:14:20Z

Ankitchadha:

{{Short description|Lower house of the bicameral legislature of the Indian state of Bihar}}
{{About|2=the upper house|3=Bihar Legislative Council}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2018}}
{{Infobox legislature
| name = Bihar Legislative Assembly
| native_name = बिहार विधान सभा
| native_name_lang = hi
| coa_pic = Seal of Bihar.svg
| coa_res =
| legislature = [[18th Bihar Assembly]]
| house_type = Lower house
| body = Bihar Legislature
| term_limits = 5 years
| leader1_type = [[List of governors of Bihar|Governor]]
| leader1 = '''[[Syed Ata Hasnain]]'''
| party1 =
| election1 = 14 March 2026
| leader2_type =
| leader2 =
| party2 =
| election2 =
| leader3_type = [[List of speakers of the Bihar Legislative Assembly|Speaker]]
| leader3 = '''[[Prem Kumar (politician)|Dr. Prem Kumar]]'''
| party3 = '''[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]'''
| election3 = [[2025 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2 December 2025]]
| leader4_type = Deputy Speaker
| leader4 = '''[[Narendra Narayan Yadav]]'''
| party4 = [[Janata Dal (United)|JD(U)]]
| election4 = [[2025 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|3 December 2025]]
| leader5_type = [[List of Chief Ministers of Bihar|Leader of the House]] (Chief Minister)
| leader5 = '''[[Samrat Choudhary]]'''
| party5 = '''[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]'''
| election5 = [[2025 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|15 April 2026]]
| leader6_type = [[List of deputy chief ministers of Bihar|Deputy Leader of the House]] (Deputy Chief Minister)
| leader6 = '''[[ Vijay Kumar Chaudhary]][[Bijendra Prasad Yadav]]'''
| party6 = [[Janata Dal (United)|JD(U)]]
| election6 = [[2025 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|15 April 2026]]
| leader10_type = [[List of leaders of the opposition in the Bihar Legislative Assembly|Leader of the Opposition]]
| leader10 = '''[[Tejashwi Yadav]]'''
| party10 = [[Rashtriya Janata Dal|RJD]]
| election10 = [[2025 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|17 November 2025]]
| leader8_type =
| leader8 =
| election8 = [[2025 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|01 December 2025]]
| party8 =
| leader7_type =
| leader7 =
| party7 =
| election7 = [[2025 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|20 November 2025]]
| members = '''243'''
| structure1 = {{Switcher|[[File:India Bihar Legislative Assembly Election 2025.svg|300px]]|By party|[[File:India Bihar Legislative Assembly Election Alliance Wise 2025.svg|300px]]|By alliance}}
| structure1_res =
| political_groups1 = 

'''[[Government of Bihar|Government]] (201)'''<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 November 2025 |title=Party position (as on 14 November 2025) |url=https://vidhansabha.bihar.gov.in/pdf/Party%20in%20position.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250923093153/https://vidhansabha.bihar.gov.in/pdf/Party%20in%20position.pdf |archive-date=23 September 2025 |website=Bihar Vidhan Sabha}}</ref>
:{{Color box|{{Party color|National Democratic Alliance}}}} [[National Democratic Alliance|NDA]] (201)
:*{{Color box|{{Party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}}} [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]] (88)
:*{{Color box|{{Party color|Janata Dal (United)}}}} [[Janata Dal (United)|JD(U)]] (85)
:*{{Color box|{{Party color|Lok Janshakti Party (Ram Vilas)}}}} [[Lok Janshakti Party (Ram Vilas)|LJP(RV)]] (19)
:*{{Color box|{{Party color|Hindustani Awam Morcha}}}} [[Hindustani Awam Morcha (Secular)|HAM(S)]] (5)
:*{{Color box|{{Party color|Rashtriya Lok Morcha}}}} [[Rashtriya Lok Morcha|RLM]] (4)

'''Opposition (41)'''
:{{Color box|{{Party color|Mahagathbandhan (Bihar)}}}} [[Mahagathbandhan (Bihar)|MGB]] (35)
:*{{Color box|{{Party color|Rashtriya Janata Dal}}}} [[Rashtriya Janata Dal|RJD]] (25)
:*{{Color box|{{Party color|Indian National Congress}}}} [[Indian National Congress|INC]] (6)
:*{{Color box|{{Party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation}}}} [[Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation|CPI(ML)L]] (2)
:*{{Color box|{{Party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}}} [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]] (1)
:*{{Color box|{{Party color|Indian Inclusive Party}}}} [[Indian Inclusive Party|IIP]] (1)
Others (6)
:{{Color box|{{Party color|All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen}}}} [[All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen|AIMIM]] (5)
:{{Color box|{{Party color|Bahujan Samaj Party}}}} [[Bahujan Samaj Party|BSP]] (1)
Vacant (1)
*{{Color box|#FFFFFF}} Vacant (1)
| voting_system1 = [[First-past-the-post]]
| last_election1 = [[2025 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|6–11 November 2025]]
| next_election1 = [[Next Bihar Legislative Assembly election|October–November 2030]]
| session_room = Vidhan-sabha-bihar.jpg
| session_res = 250
| meeting_place = Bihar State Assembly, [[Patna]], [[Bihar]], [[India]]
| website = [https://vidhansabha.bih.nic.in Bihar Legislative Assembly]
}}

The '''Bihar Legislative Assembly''' ([[ISO 15919|ISO]]: ''Bihār Vidhān Sabhā''), is the lower house of the bicameral [[Bihar Legislature]] of the state of [[Bihar]] in [[India]]. The first state elections were held in 1952.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.oneindia.com/feature/bihar-poll-dates-announced-some-facts-need-know-about-bihar-legislative-assembly-1863907.html|title=Bihar poll dates announced: Some facts youn need to know about Bihar Legislative Assembly|newspaper=www.oneindia.com|access-date=19 November 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161120003852/http://www.oneindia.com/feature/bihar-poll-dates-announced-some-facts-need-know-about-bihar-legislative-assembly-1863907.html|archive-date=20 November 2016}}</ref>

Before the partition of Bihar, the total strength of membership in the assembly was 331, including one nominated member. After the partition, the seats were reduced to 243 members. [[Shri Krishna Sinha|Shri Krishna Singh]] became the first leader of the House and the first chief minister, [[Anugrah Narayan Sinha|Anugrah Narayan Singh]] was elected as the first deputy leader of the house and the first deputy chief minister.<ref>{{cite web |title=First Polls, first rift, first rush:Bihar 1952 CM SK Sinha Dy CM Dr AN Sinha |date=11 October 2020 |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/bihar-assembly-elections-1952-first-polls-first-rift-first-rush-19526720113/|access-date=11 October 2020}}</ref>

==History==
{{Further|List of speakers of the Bihar Legislative Assembly}}
After the passing of the [[Government of India Act 1935]], Bihar and [[Odisha|Orissa]] became separate states. A bicameral system of legislature was introduced according to the act. On 22 July 1936, the first Bihar legislative council was set up. It had 30 members and Rajiv Ranjan Prasad was the chairman. The first joint session of the two houses of the Bihar Assembly took place on 22 July 1937. Ram Dayalu Singh was elected as the [[List of speakers of the Bihar Legislative Assembly|speaker of the Bihar Assembly]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Bihar Vidhan Sabha |url=https://vidhansabha.bih.nic.in/pdf/History_of_Bihar_Vidhan_Sabha.pdf |access-date=24 September 2022}}</ref>

==Bihar Legislative Assembly terms==

Following are the dates of constitution and dissolution of the Bihar Legislative Assembly. First sitting date and date of completion of term for each [https://vidhansabha.bihar.gov.in Vidhan Sabha] can be different from the constitution and dissolution dates (respectively).
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Vidhan Sabha
! Constitution
! Dissolution
! Days
!Speaker
!Ministry
|-
|Interim Government
|25 April 1946
|19 May 1952
|2,041
| rowspan="3" |[[Bindeshwari Prasad Verma]]
| scope="row" style="text-align: left;" |[[Shri Krishna Sinha|First Shri Krishna Sinha ministry]]
|-
| 1st
| 20 May 1952
| 31 March 1957
| 1,776
|Second Shri Krishna Sinha ministry
|-
| 2nd
| 20 May 1957
| 15 March 1962
| 1,760
|Third Shri Krishna Sinha ministry (Till 1961) Deep Narayan Singh interim ministry (17 days) First Binodanand Jha ministry (1961–62)
|-
| 3rd
| 16 March 1962
| 16 March 1967
| 1,826
|[[Lakshmi Narayan Sudhanshu|Dr Laxmi Narayan Sudhanshu]]
|
|-
| 4th
| 17 March 1967
| 26 February 1969
| 712
|[[Dhanik Lal Mandal|Dhaniklal Mandal]]
|
|-
| 5th
| 26 February 1969
| 28 March 1972
| 1,126
|[[Ram Narayan Mandal]]
|
|-
| 6th
| 29 March 1972
| 30 April 1977
| 1,858
|Hari Nath Mishr
|
|-
| 7th
| 24 June 1977
| 17 February 1980
| 968
|Tripurari Prasad Singh
|
|-
| 8th
| 8 June 1980
| 12 March 1985
| 1,738
|[[Radhanandan Jha]]
|
|-
| 9th
| 12 March 1985
| 10 March 1990
| 1,824
|Shiva Chandra Jha (till 1989)
[[Md Hidayatullah Khan]]
|
|-
| 10th
| 10 March 1990
| 28 March 1995
| 1,844
|Ghulam Sarwar
|
|-
| 11th
| 4 April 1995
| 2 March 2000
| 1,795
|[[Deo Narayan Yadav|Devnarayan Yadav]]
|
|-
| 12th
| 3 March 2000
| 6 March 2005
| 1,830
|[[Sadanand Singh]]
|
|-
| 13th
| 7 March 2005
| 24 November 2005
| 263
| rowspan="3" |[[Uday Narayan Choudhary|Uday Narayan Chaudhary]]
|
|-
| 14th
| 24 November 2005
| 26 November 2010
| 1,829
|[[Second Nitish Kumar ministry]]
|-
| [[15th Bihar Assembly|15th]]
| 26 November 2010
| 20 November 2015
| 1,821
|[[Third Nitish Kumar ministry]] (2010–14) [[Jitan Ram Manjhi ministry]] (2014–15) [[Fourth Nitish Kumar ministry]] (2015-15)
|-
| [[Sixteenth Legislative Assembly of Bihar|16th]]
| 20 November 2015
| 14 November 2020<ref>{{cite news |last1=Etemaad |title=Bihar Governor Phagu Chauhan Formally Dissolved 16th Legislative Assembly |url=https://www.en.etemaaddaily.com/world/national/bihar-governor-phagu-chauhan-formally-dissolved-16th-legislative-assembly:85612 |date=14 November 2020 |access-date=15 November 2020}}</ref>
|1,821
|[[Vijay Kumar Chaudhary]]
|[[Fifth Nitish Kumar ministry]] (2015–17) [[Sixth Nitish Kumar ministry]] (2017-20)
|-
| [[Seventeenth Legislative Assembly of Bihar|17th]]
|16 November 2020
|17 November 2025
|{{Age in days|16 November 2020|17 November 2025}}
|[[Vijay Kumar Sinha]] (till 9 August 2022)
[[Awadh Bihari Choudhary]] (till 28 January 2024)

[[Nand Kishore Yadav]] (from 15 February 2024)<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2024-02-15 |title=BJP leader Nand Kishore Yadav elected Speaker of Bihar Assembly |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/patna-news/bjp-leader-nand-kishore-yadav-elected-speaker-of-bihar-assembly-101707979648121.html |access-date=2024-02-15 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref>
|[[Seventh Nitish Kumar ministry]] (2020–22) [[Eighth Nitish Kumar ministry]] (2022-2024) [[Ninth Nitish Kumar ministry]] (2024-2025)
|-
| [[18th Bihar Assembly|18th]]
|20 November 2025
|''Incumbent''
|{{Age in days|20 November 2025}}
| [[Prem Kumar (politician)|Dr. Prem Kumar]]
|[[Tenth Nitish Kumar ministry]] (2025–2026) [[Choudhary ministry]] (2026-present)
|}

==Working==
The Bihar Legislative Assembly<ref>{{Cite news |title=Bihar Assembly Elections 2025: Bihar Election Latest News, Photos, Videos, Live News |url=https://www.prabhatkhabar.com/bihar-election |work=Prabhat Khabar}}</ref> is not a permanent body and is subject to dissolution. The tenure of the [[Vidhan Sabha|legislative assembly]] is five years from the date appointed for its first sitting unless dissolved sooner. Members of the legislative assembly are directly elected by the people.

There are three sessions every year: budget session, monsoon session, and winter session.

The sessions of the legislative assembly are presided over by the speaker. The speaker certifies whether a bill is ordinary bill or money bill. Generally, the speaker does not participate in voting, except in the case of a tie. Prem Kumar is the current speaker of the Bihar Legislative Assembly. The legislative assembly also has a Secretariat. The secretary is under the disciplinary control of the speaker. The function of the secretary is to assist the speaker. Bateshwar Nath Pandey is the current secretary of the Bihar Legislative Assembly.

==Composition==
{{transcluded section|source=18th Bihar Assembly}}
{{trim|{{#Section-h:18th Bihar Assembly|Composition}}}}

== Members of Legislative Assembly ==
{{transcluded section|source=18th Bihar Assembly}}
{{trim|{{#Section-h:18th Bihar Assembly|Members of Legislative Assembly}}}}

==See also==
* [[Bihar Economic Survey]]
* {{annotated link|Bihar Legislative Council}}
* {{annotated link|Government of Bihar}}
* [[List of chief ministers of Bihar]]
* [[List of constituencies of the Bihar Legislative Assembly]]
* [[List of deputy chief ministers of Bihar]]
* [[List of speakers of the Bihar Legislative Assembly]]
* [[List of governors of Bihar]]
* [[List of leaders of the opposition in the Bihar Legislative Assembly]]
* {{annotated link|Patna Secretariat}}

==Note==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://gov.bih.nic.in/ Official website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110615165115/http://gov.bih.nic.in/ |date=15 June 2011 }}; Government of Bihar

{{Legislatures of India}}
{{Authority control}}

{{Coord missing|Bihar}}

[[Category:Bihar Legislative Assembly| ]]
[[Category:State lower houses in India]]

Ananda Ranga Pillai

2026-04-30T13:07:45Z

Ankitchadha: created a post - done

{{short description|Indian diarist}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2022}}
{{Infobox person
| honorific_prefix = [[M. R. Ry.]]
| name = Ananda Ranga Pillai
| image = Ananda Ranga Pillai.png
| caption = A portrait of Ananda Ranga Pillai
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1709|03|30}}
| birth_place = [[Madras]], [[Madras Presidency]] (now [[Chennai]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]])
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|1761|01|16|1709|03|30}}
| death_place = [[Puducherry (city)|Pondicherry]], [[French India]]
| death_cause =
| resting_place =
| resting_place_coordinates =
| other_names =
| known_for = His private [[diary|diaries]] which narrate the day-to-day functioning of the French East India Company in Pondicherry
| education =
| employer = [[French Indies Company|French East India Company]]
| occupation = [[merchant]], ''[[dubash]]''
| title = Chief [[Dubash]] of Pondicherry
| term = 1709–61
| predecessor = [[Kanakaraya Mudali]]
| successor =
| spouse = Mangathayi Ammal
| children = Pappal,Ponnachi, Nannachi Annasamy, Ayyasamy
| signature =
| website =
| footnotes =
}}

'''[[M. R. Ry.]] Ananda Ranga Pillai''' ({{langx|ta|ஆனந்தரங்கம் பிள்ளை}}; 30 March 1709 – 16 January 1761) (often pronounced as ''Ānañtarañkam Pillai'') was a ''[[dubash]]'' in the service of the [[French Indies Company|French East India Company]].

He is mainly famous for his set of [[private diaries]] from the years 1736 to 1761 which portray life in 18th century India.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/ananda-ranga-pillais-diaries-in-plain-tamil/article29606958.ece|title=Ananda Ranga Pillai's diaries in plain Tamil|last=Kolappan|first=B.|date=2019-10-06|work=The Hindu|access-date=2019-10-06|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> He is also remembered for developing the Tiruvengadam courtage strategy, a new method of courtage in India{{Citation needed|reason=Ananda Ranga Pillai rarely mentioned his father's strategy, which volume of his diaries?|date=May 2019}} that is popularly described in several Indian economic books.{{Citation needed|reason=Which books?|date=May 2019}} As described in his journals, it consists in developing a strategy of making new fraud coins in a parallel economy.{{Citation needed|reason=In which volume is it mentioned?|date=May 2019}}

Ananda Ranga Pillai was born in [[Chennai|Madras]] in a well-to-do family. At a very early age, Ananda Ranga Pillai emigrated with his father to [[Puducherry (city)|Pondicherry]] where the family pursued their business interests. On his father's death in 1726, Ananda Ranga was made ''dubash'' and served in his capacity until his removal on grounds of ill-health and deteriorating performance. Ananda Ranga died in 1761 at the age of 51. Ananda Ranga was especially known for his proximity to the French Governor [[Joseph François Dupleix]], who favored him in various appointments.

Ananda Ranga Pillai's diaries were translated in the early 20th century and bring to light life in the mid-18th century and the Anglo-French [[Carnatic wars]]. His mansion in Pondicherry has been recognized as a heritage monument. C. S. Srinivasachari, a prominent Indian [[historian]], described Ananda Ranga Pillai as the "[[Samuel Pepys]] of French India".<ref name="samuel_pepys_of_french_india">{{cite news|title=The Samuel Pepys of French India |url=http://newstodaynet.com/2005sud/05jul/ss15.htm |date=21 July 2005 |work=The News Today |last=Sundaram |first=V. |access-date=2008-09-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080924071447/http://newstodaynet.com/2005sud/05jul/ss15.htm |archive-date=24 September 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== Early life ==
Ananda Ranga Pillai was born to a famous Yadava Merchant Tiruvengada Pillai on 30 March 1709 in the village of [[Perambur]] on the outskirts of [[Chennai|Madras]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=Rare Book Society of India|url=https://rarebooksocietyofindia.org/postDetail.php?id=196174216674_119484438063766|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220117124033/https://rarebooksocietyofindia.org/postDetail.php?id=196174216674_119484438063766 |archive-date=17 January 2022 }}</ref> then, the center of Tiruvengada Pillai's business activities. In 1716, at the behest of Nainiya Pillai, brother-in-law of Tiruvengada Pillai, who then functioned as the chief Indian agent of French Pondicherry, [[Guillaume André d'Hébert]], the territory's French Governor invited Tiruvengada Pillai and other important Indian merchants of Madras, to his city.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1intro7">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I]], Introduction, p. vii</ref> Relying on Nainiya Pillai's advice, Tiruvengada moved with his family and businesses to Pondicherry and settled there.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1intro7" /> Soon afterwards, Nainiya Pillai fell out of favor with the Governor and was imprisoned and later died.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1intro7" /> In contrast, Tiruvengada rapidly rose in favor with the French rulers and attained a respectable position in the city.

On the arrest of Nainiya Pillai, Tiruvengada Pillai had fled to [[Madras]] fearing arrest and ill-treatment.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1intro8">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I]], Introduction, p. viii</ref> However, [[Pierre André Prévost de la Prévostière|La Prévostière]] who succeeded d’Hébert induced Tiruvengada to return.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1intro8" /> Meanwhile, Nainiya Pillai's son Guruva Pillai escaped to France via Madras. His charges against d’Hébert before the [[Duke of Orléans]] were responsible for the removal and replacement of Governor d’Hébert.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1intro7" /> Guruva Pillai later adopted [[Christianity]] and settled down in France, where he was admitted to the [[Order of Saint Michael]] as a ''[[knight|chevalier]]''.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1intro8" /> Guruva Pillai died in 1724 followed by Tiruvengada Pillai in June 1726.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1intro8" /> His name is mentioned in the history of 8th class. {{citation needed|date=October 2014}}

== Early career ==
[[File:Pedro Kanagaraya Mudaliar.jpg|thumb|Bust of [[Pedro Kanagaraya Mudaliar|Kanakaraya Mudali]] at the church he built<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1p293"/>]]

[[Pierre Christophe Le Noir]] who succeeded La Prévostière had great regard for Tiruvengada Pillai and his family. Hence on Tiruvengada Pillai's death in 1726, he gave employment to his son Ananda Ranga Pillai in the French East India Company and made him the chief of the Indian employees at the company's factory at [[Parangipettai|Porto Novo]].<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1intro8" /> Soon, Ananda Ranga proved his worth. Large quantities of blue cloth were manufactured at Porto Novo. This was made possible mainly due to the efforts of Ananda Ranga Pillai who also established trading posts at Lalapettai and [[Arcot]] for trading Indian merchandise for European manufactures.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1intro8" />
Ananda's fortune reached greater heights during the tenure of Le Noir's successor [[Pierre Benoît Dumas]] who, too, seemed to have had a favorable opinion of him.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1intro9">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I]], Introduction, p. ix</ref>

Until his death, Guruva Pillai had functioned as the ''chief dubash'' of Pondicherry.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1intro9" /> A ''dubash'' was a merchant in service of the company who roughly performed the task of a translator and intermediary between Indian and European merchants. On Guruva's death, the ''chief dubash'' position passed into the hands of another family as Guruva Pillai's children had been raised as Hindus and the Chief Ecclesiastes of the Colony strongly desired that the holders of the particular office needed to be a Christian.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1intro9" /> When Dupleix became the Governor, the ''chief dubash'' was one [[Pedro Kanagaraya Mudaliar|Kanakaraya Mudali]] with whom Ananda Ranga Pillai had a bitter rivalry.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1intro9" /><ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1intro10">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I]], Introduction, p. x</ref> However, Kanakaraya Mudali died in the year 1746<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1intro10" /> and in 1747, after many consultations and decision-making, Ananda Ranga Pillai was made ''chief dubash''.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1intro10" />

== Rise to power ==

{| class="toccolours" style="float: right;margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 1em; font-size: 85%; background:#c6dbf7; color:black; width:30em; max-width: 40%;" cellspacing="5"
| style="text-align: left;" | "On considering this transaction, it appears to me that our lordly Governor was bereft of sense; and it was in this wise".
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | – Ananda Ranga Pillai on Governor Dupleix, regarding Dupleix's decision over a minor local dispute.|<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1p392">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I]], p. 392</ref>
|}

In November 1738, the bitter rivalry that had existed between Ananda Ranga Pillai and the ''chief dubash'' Kanakaraya Mudali flared up into a conflagration. Observing that Ananda Ranga Pillai had not remitted the interest for the loan he had borrowed to pay coral merchants, Kanakaraya Mudali reported the same to the Governor.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1p66">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I]], p. 66</ref> Initially, the Governor Dumas insisted upon the ''dubash'' paying the interest but later, on learning of the heavy losses that had befallen the ''dubash'' that year, he conceded<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1p69">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I]], p. 69</ref> and even offered to pay off Ananda Ranga Pillai's debts.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1p71">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I]], p. 71</ref> But Ananda Ranga Pillai refused. The matter was raised before the Council where Ananda Ranga had to answer for the charges brought out against him.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1p75">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I]], p. 75</ref> Ananda Ranga pleaded with Mr. Golard a member of the Council explaining that he had never paid interest before.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1p76">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I]], p. 76</ref> At length, the Council decided in favor of Ananda Ranga Pillai and his debt was waived.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1p77">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I]], p. 77</ref>

On 22 October 1739, Kanakaraya Mudali's son, Velvendra Mudali died at the age of 21.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1p102">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I]], p. 102</ref> Velvendra's mother committed suicide on hearing the news.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1p103">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I]], p. 103</ref>

On 19 October 1741, Dumas left Pondicherry leaving charge to the Deputy Governor<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1p182">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I]], p. 182.</ref> who ruled Pondicherry until 14 January 1742 when [[Joseph François Dupleix]] arrived from [[Chandannagar]].<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1p184">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I]], p. 184</ref> During Dupleix's tenure, Ananda Ranga rose to the zenith of power and prominence in French India<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1intro9" /> and exercised firm control over the internal affairs of the territory.

[[Image:AngloFrench.JPG|thumb|left|250px|A map of the [[Carnatic region|Carnatic]] in Ananda Ranga Pillai's time]]

From 1743 onwards, Ananda Ranga won the confidence of the Governor of Pondicherry and rose up the ranks. when the suburban villages of Pondicherry were leased for five years to Kumara Pillai, Vira Nayakkan, Chandramadi Pillai, and Ella Pillai, Ananda Ranga Pillai was able to offer surety for the renters for a period of five years.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1p227">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I]], p. 227</ref> Nevertheless, when Kesava Aiyan died, Ananda Ranga was not able to prevent Kanakaraya Mudali from nominating his brother-in-law Gavinivasa Mudali as ''dubash'' in Kesava Aiyan's place.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1p251">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I]], p. 251</ref><ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1p252">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I]], p. 252</ref> Kanakaraya Mudali secured his objective despite the vehement protests of Ananda Ranga Pillai. On 29 June 1744, the marriage of Ananda Ranga Pillai's daughter Papal was conducted in regal splendor.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1p256">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I]], p. 256</ref> Ananda Ranga further solidified his position by mediating in disputes such as those between Prakasa Mudali and Tiruvengada Pillai,<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1p284">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I]], p. 284</ref> etc. Not to be left behind, on 30 November 1745, Ananda Ranga's great rival Kanakaraya Mudali constructed a [[St. Andrew's Church, Puducherry|church at Ozhukkarai]] and celebrated its consecration by providing a great feast.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1p293">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I]], p. 293</ref> Ananda Ranga Pillai, however, reported heavy criticism from guests for inviting people of non-Christian faiths for the feast celebrating the consecration of a church.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Sources of Indian tradition.|date=1988|publisher=Columbia University Press|others=Ainslie Thomas Embree, Stephen N. Hay, Wm. Theodore De Bary|isbn=0-231-06650-3|edition=2|location=New York|pages=7–8|oclc=16093091}}</ref>

On 12 February 1746, Kanakaraya Mudali died<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1p311">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I]], p. 311</ref> and on his death, there was an inheritance dispute between his heirs.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1p314">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I]], p. 314</ref> A Committee of 20 officials were appointed to arbitrate and Ananda Ranga Pillai led the committee.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1p315">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I]], p. 315</ref> The Committee decided that Chinna Mudali, the brother of the deceased Kanakaraya Mudali was the rightful heir to his estate.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1p320">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I]], p. 320</ref> However, Chinna Mudali was not satisfied<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1p346">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I]], p. 346</ref><ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1p363">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I]], p. 363</ref> and the matter dragged on until April 1746, when Ananda Ranga's diplomacy finally sealed the matter.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1p380">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I]], p. 380</ref>

Apart from pleasing the Governor through his service, Ananda Ranga Pillai also incurred the Governor's wrath on certain occasions. There was at least one occasion during the period when Ananda Ranga was questioned by Dupleix regarding payment of the large sum of money he owed to the company.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1p326">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I]], p. 326</ref> Ananda Ranga Pillai, however, soon cleared off his debts by paying one Suga Singh the money the Company owed him.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1907v2p79">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1907, Volume II|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1907, Volume II]], p. 79</ref> However, still, Dupleix demanded 1,000 pagodas that Ananda Ranga Pillai owed the company.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1907v2p86">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1907, Volume II|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1907, Volume II]], p. 86</ref> It was evident that much more than the service Ananda Ranga Pillai had rendered to the company, it was Ananda Ranga Pillai's position as Dupleix's favorite that had helped him scale the ladder.

Ananda Ranga Pillai was questioned by the Governor regarding the ill-treatment of a prisoner called Mari Chetti.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1p396">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I]], p. 396</ref><ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1p398">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I]], p. 398</ref> Chinna Mudali was deputed to interrogate two eyewitnesses Tandavarayan and Rangan and they swore that Ananda Ranga's conduct towards Mari Chetty was, in no way, objectionable. Based on this evidence, Ananda Ranga was acquitted.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1p399">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I]], p. 399</ref>

Throughout Dupleix's tenure, Ananda Ranga Pillai entertained dignitaries as the ''dubash'' of Fort St David, Indian merchants, and even [[Mahé de Labourdonnais]].<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1907v2p115">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1907, Volume II|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1907, Volume II]], p. 115</ref> He also supervised the regular payment of revenue. Official communications to the Governor, too, was handled by him.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1907v2p23">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1907, Volume II|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1907, Volume II]], p. 72</ref><ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1907v2p139">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1907, Volume II|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1907, Volume II]], p. 139</ref><ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1907v2p140">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1907, Volume II|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1907, Volume II]], p. 140</ref><ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1907v2p144">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1907, Volume II|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1907, Volume II]], p. 144</ref> He performed errands for the Governor and adjudicated on criminal cases.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1907v2p182">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1907, Volume II|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1907, Volume II]], p. 182</ref><ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1907v2p183">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1907, Volume II|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1907, Volume II]], p. 183</ref><ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1907v2p197">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1907, Volume II|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1907, Volume II]], p. 197</ref> In May 1746, he interceded on behalf of one Karaikal Tiruvengadam who had been imprisoned and obtained his release.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1907v2p35">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1907, Volume II|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1907, Volume II]], p. 35</ref>

Soon after Kanakaraya Mudali's death in February 1746, his younger brother Chinna Mudali started making efforts to obtain the post of Chief Dubash which his brother had previously held.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1p406">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I]], p. 406</ref> However, the property dispute he had with Kanakaraya Mudali's wife and his own lack of competence and skill soon saw him out of the race. On 12 June 1746, de Bausset, a longtime companion of Ananda Ranga Pillai urged him to campaign for ''Chief Dubash-ship''.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1907v2p61">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1907, Volume II|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1907, Volume II]], p. 61</ref><ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1907v2p62">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1907, Volume II|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1907, Volume II]], p. 62</ref> However, Ananda Ranga Pillai seems to have been reluctant to accept the post initially when the Governor nominated Ananda Ranga Pillai for the post. However, on the insistence of Mrs. Dupleix he accepted.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1907v2p198">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1907, Volume II|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1907, Volume II]], p. 198</ref><ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1907v2p199">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1907, Volume II|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1907, Volume II]], p. 199</ref><ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1907v2p200">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1907, Volume II|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1907, Volume II]], p. 200</ref> At that time, he came to know that another aspirant Annapurna Aiyan had bribed the Governor and his wife for the post.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1907v2p245">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1907, Volume II|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1907, Volume II]], p. 245</ref> However, this attempt failed as Ananda Ranga Pillai was eventually appointed chief ''dubash''. Mrs. Dupleix allegedly demanded exorbitant bribes in order to support his candidature.

== As chief ''dubash'' ==
[[Image:Joseph Dupleix.jpg|150px|thumb|right|Joseph François Dupleix, who is alleged to have shown an unusual amount of liking and patronization for Ananda Ranga Pillai]]
The official appointment of Ananda Ranga Pillai was delayed by a couple of years due to the stoppage of trade arising out of the outbreak of hostilities between the French and the [[East India Company|British]].<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1917v4piv">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1917, Volume V|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1917, Volume V]], p. iv</ref> The British responded to the French occupation of Madras by launching an invasion of Pondicherry in July 1747.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1917v4pix">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1917, Volume V|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1917, Volume V]], p. ix</ref> This invasion launched by Admiral Boscawen ultimately failed to capture Pondicherry but hostilities soon came to an end by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chappelle.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1917vpxiv">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1917, Volume V|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1917, Volume V]], p. xiv</ref>

In 1748, Ananda Ranga Pillai was officially designated chief ''dubash'' of French India. Soon afterwards, hostilities with the British broke out once again.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1922v8p5">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1922, Volume VIII|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1922, Volume VIII]], p. v</ref> The French waged a proxy war on behalf of [[Chanda Sahib]] supporting his claim in the war of succession to the throne of Carnatic.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1922v8p5" /> The British felt compelled to intervene and support Muhammad Ali in order to check the rise of French influence in the Deccan. In the early stages of the war, the French gained the upper hand and by May 1751, French power in India was at its zenith.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1922v8p5" /> However, the arrival of Robert Clive thwarted the French attempts to win the battle for Chanda Sahib and the French eventually lost.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1922v8pix">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1922, Volume VIII|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1922, Volume VIII]], p. ix</ref><ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1922v8px">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1922, Volume VIII|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1922, Volume VIII]], p. x</ref> During the later stages of the war, Pillai notes, Dupleix's temperament grew highly irritable and officers, including himself, feared to approach him.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1922v8pxiii">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1922, Volume VIII|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1922, Volume VIII]], p. xxiii</ref> The lavishly constructed palace at Pondicherry, the ''Gouvernement'' was completed during this period.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1922v8pxiv">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1922, Volume VIII|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1922, Volume VIII]], p. xxiv</ref>

Pillai also expressed strong disapproval of some of the allegedly corrupt measures of Governor Dupleix's wife Madame Dupleix.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1922v8pxiii" /><ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1917v4piii">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1917, Volume V|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1917, Volume V]], p. iii</ref> The bitterness led to open hostilities between them. Pillai was given the charge of collecting the revenue of a few villages in Karaikal and he performed his duties satisfactorily despite the prevalence of inconsistencies and unreliability of the records kept by his subordinate agents.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1917v4piv" />

Following the unsuccessful bid at territorial expansion, Dupleix's fortunes declined rapidly.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1intro10" /> He fell out of favour and was replaced as Governor-General with [[Charles Godeheu]] in the year 1754.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1intro10" /> With Dupleix's departure for France, Pillai's influence in the colony began to decline.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1intro10" /> To make matters worse, he was frequently troubled by poor health.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1intro10" /> By 1756, his health had deteriorated to such an extent that the Governor-General [[Georges Duval de Leyrit]] was obliged to remove him from service.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1intro10" /><ref name=":0" />

== Death and legacy ==

Pillai's health worsened with the passage of time. However, he notes in his diary, the corruption and intrigues which allegedly plagued the French colony on Dupleix's departure.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1intro10" />

Pillai died on 12 January 1761 at the age of 51, just four days before Pondicherry surrendered to the troops of [[Eyre Coote (1726–1783)|Colonel Coote]].<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1intro10" /> Pillai left behind three daughters. He also had two sons Annasamy and Ayyasamy who predeceased him.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1p11">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I]], p. 11</ref>

Since the discovery and translation of his diaries during the 19th and early 20th centuries, Ananda Ranga Pillai has accumulated a great deal of posthumous fame and recognition for his depiction of 18th century [[South India]], the intrigues and deals in French Pondicherry and his description of the French conquest of Madras and the Carnatic Wars. His set of diaries have emerged as one of our primary sources of reference on the Carnatic Wars. Ananda Ranga Pillai has been referred to by [[V. V. S. Aiyar]] in his journal ''Balabharati'' and had attracted the curiosity of [[Subrahmanya Bharati]], [[Aurobindo Ghosh]] and [[Mandyam Srinivasa Iyengar]].<ref name="samuel_pepys_of_french_india" /> C. S. Srinivasachari, a prominent Indian historian, described Ananda Ranga Pillai as "the [[Samuel Pepys]] of French India".<ref name="samuel_pepys_of_french_india" /> George D. Bearce wrote of Pillai's diaries that "nothing quite like it exists in Indian literature"; although Indian princes like Jai Singh and the Mughal emperors wrote autobiographical works, "they did not transmit the day by day detail and vividness of Ananda Ranga Pillai's diary." Among the topics he covers in his diaries are the daily operation of the French administration, the life of the Tamils of Pondicherry, conflicts over caste, commercial conditions, and the suffering of the Tamil population in wartime.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bearce |first=George D. |date=1965 |title=Intellectual and Cultural Characteristics of India in a Changing Era, 1740–1800 |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=3–17 |doi=10.2307/2051037 |issn=0021-9118}}</ref>

Ananda Ranga Pillai traded in cloth, yarn, indigo and arecanut with Manila, Mocha and Mascareigne.<ref name="tradingworld_mukundp140">{{cite book|title=The Trading World of the Tamil Merchant: Evolution of Merchant Capitalism in the Coromandel|pages=140|author=Kanakalatha Mukund|publisher=Orient Blackswan|year=1999|isbn=81-250-1661-9}}</ref> He had his own ship, ''Anandappuravi'', which sailed on long trading voyages on high seas.<ref name="tradingworld_mukundp140" />

Ananda Ranga Pillai's house in Pondicherry, which is located in a street named after the ''dubash'', was one of the few buildings to survive the [[Siege of Pondicherry (1760)|Siege of Pondicherry]] in 1760.<ref name="anandarangapillai_house">{{cite web|title=18th century Tamil building: Ananda Ranga Pillai mansion |url=http://www.ifpindia.org/ecrire/upload/meetings/oldpondi_panel_9_web.pdf |publisher=French institute of Pondicherry |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080720072209/http://www.ifpindia.org/ecrire/upload/meetings/oldpondi_panel_9_web.pdf |archive-date=20 July 2008 }}</ref> It was recently recognized as a heritage monument by the [[Government of Puducherry]]. The mansion is known for its unique blend of Indian and French architecture: the ground floor being built in Indian fashion, while the columns which supported the terrace followed the French architectural style.<ref name="anandarangapillai_house" />

A diary maintained by Muthu Vijaya Tiruvengadam Pillai, grandson of Ananda Ranga Pillai, related the period from 1794 to 1796 was translated and published on 30 March 2000.<ref name="tiruvengadam_pillai_diary">{{cite news|title=18th century diary to be released today|url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/2000/03/30/stories/0430227n.htm|date=30 March 2000|work=The Hindu|access-date=2008-09-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051203220743/http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/2000/03/30/stories/0430227n.htm|archive-date=3 December 2005|url-status=usurped}}</ref>

== Patronage of arts ==

Ananda Ranga Pillai patronized the Hindu religion, arts and poetry. And in return, poets praised Pillai in their works. Tamil poet Namasivaya Pulavar, who also wrote a verse in praise of Ananda Ranga's father, Tiruvenkadam Pillai, wrote that Ananda Ranga was as learned as the thousand-headed ''[[Adisesha]]'' serpent.<ref name="mukundp159">{{cite book|title=The view from below: indigenous society, temples, and the early colonial state in Tamilnadu, 1700–1835|pages=159|author=Kanakalatha Mukund|publisher=Orient Blackswan|year=2005|isbn=81-250-2800-5}}</ref> Madurakkavirayar wrote that when he saw Ananda Ranga Pillai, he beheld the whole town of [[Pondicherry (city)|Pondicherry]] in him who was generous enough to offer him all the wealth that he wanted.<ref name="mukundp159" /> Kasturi Rangaiyan wrote an ode composed in [[Telugu language|Telugu]].<ref name="mukundp159" />

[[Tyagaraja]] Desikar wrote ''Ananda Rangan Kovai'', a poem of 400 lines in praise of Ananda Ranga Pillai.<ref name="mukundp159" /> This work, it is believed, took 16 years to complete and was presented to the ''dubash'' in the year 1755.<ref name="mukundp159" /> In the poem, Tyagaraja venerated Ananda Ranga as the sovereign whose kingdom extended from [[Gingee]] to Vijayapuram and Delhi and praised him for the "conquest of Vanga, Kalinga and Telinga".<ref name="mukundp159" /> Pillai, in turn, gifted Tyagaraja with costly ornaments, money and land.<ref name="mukundp159" />

== Discovery and translation of the diaries ==
On Ananda Ranga Pillai's death, the diaries came into the possession of his nephew Tiruvengadam Pillai who appears to have maintained a series of records of his own until the beginning of 1770.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1intro13">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I]], Introduction, p. xiii</ref> Subsequent generations of the family had discarded it until the manuscript was recovered in a decrepit state by Gallois-Montbrun, the Mayor of [[Pondicherry (city)|Pondicherry]], a scholar of Oriental languages, in 1846, who immediately set upon translating the manuscript to French. However, when the translated manuscript was being edited a number of gaps were discovered<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1intro14">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I]], Introduction, p. xiv</ref> The gaps were supplemented when volumes one and two of Ananda Ranga Pillai's diary were found. These were subsequently translated into French in 1870 and 1889. In 1894, [[Julien Vinson]], Professor of the Special School of Livino-Oriental Languages at Paris who had published the second translation (which was, obviously, incomplete) published a supposed full translation of Ananda Ranga Pillai's diaries titled ''Les Français dans l'Inde'', In 1892, the existence of the diary was brought to the notice of Lieutenant General H. Macleod, the British Consular Agent in Pondicherry.<ref name="anandarangapillaidiary1904v1intro15">[[#The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I|The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I]], Introduction, p. xv</ref> At the direction of Lord Wenlock, the then Governor of Madras, an English translation of the diary from Gallois-Montbrun's copy was attempted. This was completed in 1896. An Indian edition in 12 volumes was released by Agani Publishers of Puducherry on 5 January 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/ananda-ranga-pillai-takes-us-back-in-time/article30488117.ece |title=Tamil Nadu : Ananda Ranga Pillai takes us back in time |website=[[The Hindu]] |date=2020-01-05 |access-date=2020-04-06}}</ref>

== See also ==

* [[Pachaiyappa Mudaliar]]
* [[Kanakaraya Mudali|Pedro Kanakaraya Mudaliar]]
* [[French India]]

== Notes ==
{{Reflist}}

== References ==
* {{cite book | title=The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai, Volume I| last=Pillai| first=Ananda Ranga| others=Translated by [[John Frederick Price|Sir J. Frederick Price]], K. Rangachari| year=1904| publisher=Government Press| location=Madras|ref=The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1904, Volume I}}
* {{cite book | title=The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai, Volume II| last=Pillai| first=Ananda Ranga| others=Translated by Sir J. Frederick Price, K. Rangachari| year=1907| publisher=Government Press| location=Madras|ref=The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1907, Volume II}}
* {{cite book | title=The Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai, Volume V| last=Pillai| first=Ananda Ranga|others=Translated by H. Dodwell| year=1917| publisher=Government Press| location=Madras|ref=The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai 1917, Volume V}}

{{S-start}}
{{Succession box| before=[[Kanakaraya Mudali]]|title=Chief ''[[dubash]]'' of [[French India]]|after=Tiruvengadam Pillai | years=1748–1756}}
{{S-end}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ananda Ranga Pillai}}
[[Category:1709 births]]
[[Category:1761 deaths]]
[[Category:People from French India]]
[[Category:Writers from Chennai]]
[[Category:18th-century diarists]]
[[Category:People from Pondicherry]]
[[Category:18th century in French India]]

India–Pakistan war of 1971

2026-04-29T07:09:12Z

Ankitchadha: creating initial pg basic info...

{{Short description|Military confrontation between India and Pakistan alongside the Bangladesh Liberation War}}
{{see also|Bangladesh Liberation War}}
{{pp-extended|small=yes}}
{{protection padlock|small=yes}}

{{Use British English|date=December 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2020}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Indo-Pakistani war of 1971
| partof = the [[Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts]], [[Cold War]], and [[Bangladesh Liberation War]]
| campaign =
| image = 1971 Instrument of Surrender.jpg
| image_size = 300px
| caption = {{small|First row: [[Lieutenant-General|Lt-Gen.]] [[Amir Abdullah Khan Niazi|A.A.K. Niazi]], the Cdr. of [[Eastern Military Command of Pakistan|Pakistani Eastern Comnd.]], signing the [[Pakistani Instrument of Surrender|documented Instrument of Surrender]] in [[Dhaka|Dacca]] in the presence of [[Lieutenant General (India)|Lt. Gen.]] [[Jagjit Singh Aurora]] ([[General Officer Commanding-in-Chief|GOC-in-C]] of Indian [[Eastern Command (India)|Eastern Comnd.]]). Surojit Sen of [[All India Radio]] is seen holding a microphone on the right. Second row (left to right): [[Vice Admiral (India)|Vice Adm.]] [[Nilakanta Krishnan|N. Krishnan]] ([[Flag Officer Commanding|FOC-in-C]] [[Eastern Naval Command|Eastern Naval Comnd.]]), [[Air Marshal (India)|Air Mshl.]] [[Hari Chand Dewan|H.C. Dewan]], ([[Air Officer Commanding|AOC-in-C]] [[Eastern Air Command (India)|Eastern Air Comnd.]]), Lt Gen. [[Sagat Singh]] (Cdr. [[IV Corps (India)|IV Corps]]), Maj Gen. [[J. F. R. Jacob|JFR Jacob]] ([[Chief of Staff|COS]] Eastern Comnd.) and [[Flight lieutenant|Flt Lt]] Krishnamurthy (peering over Jacob's shoulder).}}
| date = 3–16 December 1971 ({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=12|day1=3|year1=1971|month2=12|day2=16|year2=1971}})
| place =
* [[India–East Pakistan border]]
* [[Indo-Pakistani border|India–West Pakistan border]]
* [[Line of Control]]
* [[Indian Ocean]]
* [[Arabian Sea]]
* [[Bay of Bengal]]
| result = '''Indian victory'''<ref name=Lyon>{{cite book|last=Lyon|first=Peter|title=Conflict between India and Pakistan: An Encyclopedia|url=https://archive.org/details/conflictbetweeni00lyon|url-access=limited|year=2008|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-712-2|page=[https://archive.org/details/conflictbetweeni00lyon/page/n182 166]|quote=India's decisive victory over Pakistan in the 1971 war and emergence of independent Bangladesh dramatically transformed the power balance of South Asia}}</ref><ref name=Kemp>{{cite book|last=Kemp|first=Geoffrey|title=The East Moves West India, China, and Asia's Growing Presence in the Middle East|url=https://archive.org/details/eastmoveswestind00kemp|url-access=limited|year=2010|publisher=Brookings Institution Press|isbn=978-0-8157-0388-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/eastmoveswestind00kemp/page/n60 52]|quote=However, India's decisive victory over Pakistan in 1971 led the Shah to pursue closer relations with India}}</ref><ref name=Byman>{{cite book|last=Byman|first=Daniel|title=Deadly connections: States that Sponsor Terrorism|url=https://archive.org/details/deadlyconnection00byma_576|url-access=limited|year=2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-83973-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/deadlyconnection00byma_576/page/n170 159]|quote=India's decisive victory in 1971 led to the signing of the Simla Agreement in 1972}}</ref> Eastern front: [[Instrument of Surrender (1971)|Surrender of East Pakistan military command]] Western front: Unilateral ceasefire<ref>Faruki, Kemal A. "THE INDO-PAKISTAN WAR, 1971, AND THE UNITED NATIONS." Pakistan Horizon, vol. 25, no. 1, 1972, pp. 10–20. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41393109. Accessed 21 Jan. 2024.
"On the next day, Dacca surrendered, President Yahya Khan talked of 'war until victory', India made a unilateral declaration of ceasefire in the West and the Security Council chose to adjourn having accumulated in its possession, by that time, six draft resolutions from various member States of the Security Council."</ref><ref>Burke, S. M. "The Postwar Diplomacy of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971." Asian Survey, vol. 13, no. 11, 1973, pp. 1036–49. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2642858. Accessed 21 Jan. 2024.
"In Kashmir they agreed to respect 'the line of control resulting from the ceasefire of December 17, 1971...without prejudice to the recognized position of either side.'"</ref><ref>Siniver A. The India-Pakistan War, December 1971. In: Nixon, Kissinger, and US Foreign Policy Making: The Machinery of Crisis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2008:148-184. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511511660.008
"The fall of Dacca and the unconditional surrender of the outnumbered Pakistani forces in the East were followed the next day by a mutual declaration of cease-fire along the Western border."</ref>
| territory = Eastern Front:
* East Pakistan [[Secession|secedes]] from [[Pakistan]] as [[Bangladesh]]
Western Front:
* Indian forces captured around {{convert|5795|sqmi|km2|order=flip|abbr=on}} of land in the West but returned it in the 1972 [[Simla Agreement]] as a gesture of goodwill.<ref name="Nawaz2008" /><ref name="Chitkara1996" /><ref name="Schofield2003" />
* India retained {{convert|341.1|sqmi|km2|order=flip|abbr=on}} of the gained territory in [[Jammu and Kashmir (state)|Jammu and Kashmir]] while Pakistan retained {{convert|59|sqmi|km2|order=flip|abbr=on}} territory<ref name="p756">{{cite book | title=Pakistan Horizon | publisher=Pakistan Institute of International Affairs. | issue=v. 26 | year=1973 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=635CAAAAYAAJ | language=eo | access-date=2025-11-19 | page=107}}</ref><ref name="Warikoo 2009" />
| combatant1 = {{Plainlist}}
* {{flag|India}}
* {{flag|Provisional Government of Bangladesh}}
{{Endplainlist}}
| combatant2 = {{Plainlist}}
* {{flag|Pakistan}}
{{Endplainlist}}
| commander1 = {{flagicon|IND}} [[Indira Gandhi]] 
{{flagicon|IND}} [[Swaran Singh]] 
{{flagicon image|Flag of Indian Army.svg}} [[Sam Manekshaw]] 
{{flagicon image|Flag of Indian Army.svg}} [[Jagjit Singh Arora|J.S. Arora]] 
{{flagicon image|Flag of Indian Army.svg}} [[G.G Bewoor|G.G. Bewoor]] 
{{flagicon image|Flag of Indian Army.svg}} [[Sagat Singh]] 
{{flagicon image|Flag of Indian Army.svg}} [[J. F. R. Jacob]] 
{{flagicon image|Admiral ensign of Indian Navy.svg}} [[S. M. Nanda]] 
{{flagicon image|Admiral ensign of Indian Navy.svg}} [[Sourendra Nath Kohli|S. N. Kohli]] 
{{flagicon image|Vice Admiral ensign of Indian Navy.svg}} [[Nilakanta Krishnan]] 
{{flagicon image|Flag of Air vice marshal (India).svg}} [[Pratap Chandra Lal|Pratap C. Lal]] 
{{flagicon image|Flag of Air vice marshal (India).svg}} [[Hari Chand Dewan|H. C. Dewan]]
----
{{flagicon|Bangladesh|1971}} [[Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]] 
{{flag icon|Provisional Government of Bangladesh|military}} [[M. A. G. Osmani]]
----
| commander2 = {{flagicon|PAK}} [[Yahya Khan]] 
{{flagicon image|Flag of the Pakistani Army.svg}} [[A. A. K. Niazi|A.A.K. Niazi]]{{Surrendered}} 
{{flagicon image|Flag of the Pakistani Army.svg}} [[Rao Farman Ali|Rao Farman]] 
{{flagicon image|Flag of the Pakistani Army.svg}} [[Tikka Khan]] 
{{flagicon image|Flag of the Pakistani Army.svg}} [[Iftikhar Janjua]] {{KIA}} 
{{flagicon image|Naval Jack of Pakistan.svg}} [[Muzaffar Hassan]] 
{{flagicon image|Naval Jack of Pakistan.svg}} [[Rashid Ahmed]] 
{{flagicon image|Naval Jack of Pakistan.svg}} [[Mohammad Shariff|Md Shariff]] {{Surrendered}} 
{{flagicon image|Naval Jack of Pakistan.svg}} [[Mujeeb Ahmad Khan Lodhi|M.A.K. Lodhi]] 
{{flagicon image|Naval Jack of Pakistan.svg}} [[Leslie Mungavin|Leslie Norman]] 
{{flagicon image|Pakistani Air Force Ensign.svg}} [[Abdul Rahim Khan]] 
{{flagicon image|Pakistani Air Force Ensign.svg}} [[Inamul Haque Khan|Inamul Haq]]{{Surrendered}} 
{{flagicon image|Pakistani Air Force Ensign.svg}} [[Zulfiqar Ali Khan|Z.A. Khan]]{{Surrendered}} 
{{flagicon|PAK}} [[Abdul Motaleb Malik]] {{Surrendered}}
| strength1 = [[Indian Armed Forces]]: 825,000<ref>{{Cite book|last=Palit|first=Maj Gen DK|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PKvmgfHewHcC|title=The Lightning Campaign: The Indo-Pakistan War, 1971|date=1998|publisher=Lancer Publishers|isbn=978-1-897829-37-0|page=44|language=en|access-date=24 December 2016|archive-date=15 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201015115321/https://books.google.com/books?id=PKvmgfHewHcC|url-status=live}}</ref> – 860,000<ref name=":Cloughley">{{Cite book|last=Cloughley|first=Brian|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3SqCDwAAQBAJ&q=indian+army+vs+pakistan+army+strength+comparision+1971+war&pg=PT130|title=A History of the Pakistan Army: Wars and Insurrections|date=2016-01-05|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-1-63144-039-7|language=en|access-date=12 November 2020|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414025759/https://books.google.com/books?id=3SqCDwAAQBAJ&q=indian+army+vs+pakistan+army+strength+comparision+1971+war&pg=PT130|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[Mukti Bahini]]: 180,000<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rashiduzzaman |first=M. |date=March 1972 |title=Leadership, Organization, Strategies and Tactics of the Bangla Desh Movement |journal=Asian Survey |volume=12 |issue=3 |page=191 |doi=10.2307/2642872 |jstor=2642872 |quote=The Pakistan Government, however, claimed [in June 1971] that the combined fighting strength of the 'secessionists' amounted to about 180,000 armed personnel.}}</ref>
| strength2 = [[Pakistan Armed Forces]]: 350,000<ref name="Dixit">{{cite book |first=J.N. |last=Dixit |author-link=Jyotindra Nath Dixit |title=India-Pakistan in War and Peace |year=2002 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=1-134-40757-2 |page=165 |quote=while the size of the Indian armed forces remained static at one million men and Pakistan's at around 350,000.}}</ref> – 365,000<ref name=":Cloughley" />
[[Razakar (Pakistan)|Razakars]]: 35,000<ref name="Leonard2006p806" />
| casualties1 = {{IND}} 2,500<ref name="Leonard2006p806" />–3,843 killed<ref name="injuredsoldiers">{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/inside-politics/this-vijay-diwas-remember-the-sacrifices-and-do-good-by-our-disabled-soldiers/|title=This Vijay Diwas, remember the sacrifices and do good by our disabled soldiers|work=The Times of India|quote=About 3,843 Indian soldiers died in this war that resulted in the unilateral surrender of the Pakistan Army and led to the creation of Bangladesh. Among the soldiers who returned home triumphant were also 9,851 injured; many of them disabled.|date=16 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181217134312/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/inside-politics/this-vijay-diwas-remember-the-sacrifices-and-do-good-by-our-disabled-soldiers/|archive-date=17 December 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DeeGAwAAQBAJ&q=3843+1971+war+india+deaths&pg=PA11|title=Vulnerable India: A Geographical Study of Disasters|first=Anu|last=Kapur|date=11 March 2010|publisher=SAGE Publications India|isbn=9788132105428|via=Google Books|access-date=12 November 2020|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414054907/https://books.google.com/books?id=DeeGAwAAQBAJ&q=3843+1971+war+india+deaths&pg=PA11|url-status=live}}</ref> 9,851<ref name="injuredsoldiers"/>–12,000<ref name="Century Air Warfare 1997, pages 384" /> injured
* 1 [[Breguet Alizé|naval aircraft]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://indiannavy.nic.in/t2t2e/Trans2Trimph/chapters/10_1971%20wnc1.htm |title=Chapter 10: Naval Operations in the Western Naval Command |website=Indian Navy |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120223133540/http://indiannavy.nic.in/t2t2e/Trans2Trimph/chapters/10_1971%20wnc1.htm |archive-date=23 February 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://orbat.com/site/cimh/navy/navy_1971_kills.html |title=Damage Assessment– 1971 Indo Pak Naval War |publisher=Orbat.com |access-date=27 July 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120319212243/http://orbat.com/site/cimh/navy/navy_1971_kills.html |archive-date=19 March 2012 }}</ref>
* 1 [[INS Khukri (F149)|frigate]]
* Okha harbour damaged/fuel tanks destroyed<ref>{{cite book|author=Dr. He Hemant Kumar Pandey & Manish Raj Singh|title=INDIA'S MAJOR MILITARY & RESCUE OPERATIONS|page=117|publisher=Horizon Books ( A Division of Ignited Minds Edutech P Ltd), 2017|date=1 August 2017}}</ref>

Neutral claims<ref name="Leonard2006p806" />
* 45 [[Indian Air Force|IAF aircraft]]
* 80 tanks

Indian claims
* 45 [[Indian Air Force|IAF aircraft]]<ref name="Combat Kills">{{cite web |url=http://orbat.com/site/cimh/iaf/IAF_1971_kills_rev1.pdf |title=IAF Combat Kills – 1971 Indo-Pak Air War |publisher=orbat.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140113013008/http://orbat.com/site/cimh/iaf/IAF_1971_kills_rev1.pdf |archive-date=13 January 2014 |access-date=20 December 2011}}</ref>

Pakistani claims
* 130 [[Indian Air Force|IAF aircraft]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.paf.gov.pk/history.html|title=Pakistan Air Force – Official website|publisher=Paf.gov.pk|access-date=27 July 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111215075643/http://www.paf.gov.pk/history.html|archive-date=15 December 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| casualties2 = {{PAK}} 9,000 killed<ref name="Leonard2006p806" /> 25,000 wounded<ref name="Century Air Warfare 1997, pages 384"/>
 93,000 captured 2 [[destroyer]]s<ref>{{cite web|url=http://indiannavy.nic.in/t2t2e/Trans2Trimph/chapters/10_1971%20wnc1.htm |title=Chapter-10 |publisher=Indiannavy.nic.in |access-date=2012-04-25 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120223133540/http://indiannavy.nic.in/t2t2e/Trans2Trimph/chapters/10_1971%20wnc1.htm |archive-date=23 February 2012 }}</ref>{{efn|A Pakistani destroyer, {{ship|PNS|Shah Jahan|DD-962|2}}, was severely damaged and later scrapped as a result.}} 1 [[Minesweeper (ship)|Minesweeper]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.navsource.org/archives/11/05138.htm |title=AMS-138 |publisher=Navsource.org |access-date=2012-04-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131030220115/http://www.navsource.org/archives/11/05138.htm |archive-date=2013-10-30 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://shipbuildinghistory.com/history/smallships/minesweepers3.htm |title=Minesweepers MSO MSC MSI MHC MCM Post-War |publisher=Shipbuildinghistory.com |date=2011-12-23 |access-date=2012-04-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120228194133/http://shipbuildinghistory.com/history/smallships/minesweepers3.htm |archive-date=2012-02-28 |url-status=dead }}</ref> 1 [[PNS Ghazi|Submarine]]<ref name="BR">{{cite web|url=http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/MONITOR/ISSUE4-2/harry.html |title=The Sinking of the Ghazi |website=Bharat Rakshak Monitor, 4(2) |access-date=20 October 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111128104709/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/MONITOR/ISSUE4-2/harry.html |archive-date=28 November 2011 }}</ref> 3 [[Patrol vessel]]s 7 [[gunboat]]s
* Pakistani main port Karachi facilities damaged/fuel tanks destroyed<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2004/20040111/spectrum/book1.htm|title=How west was won...on the waterfront|newspaper=The Tribune|access-date=24 December 2011|archive-date=30 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630124832/http://www.tribuneindia.com/2004/20040111/spectrum/book1.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Pakistani airfields damaged and cratered<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.acig.org/artman/publish/article_330.shtml|title=India – Pakistan War, 1971; Western Front, Part I|publisher=acig.com|access-date=22 December 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120910064126/http://www.acig.org/artman/publish/article_330.shtml|archive-date=10 September 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Neutral claims<ref name="Leonard2006p806" />
* 75 [[Pakistan Air Force|PAF aircraft]]
* 200 tanks

Indian claims
* 94 [[Pakistan Air Force|PAF aircraft]]<ref name="Combat Kills" />

Pakistani claims
* 42 [[Pakistan Air Force|PAF aircraft]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/1971War/Appendix3.html |title=Aircraft Losses in Pakistan – 1971 War |access-date=24 April 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090501082102/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/1971War/Appendix3.html |archive-date=1 May 2009 }}</ref>
}}

{{Campaignbox Indo-Pakistani War of 1971}}
{{Campaignbox Bangladesh Liberation War}}
{{Campaignbox Indo-Pakistani Wars}}

The '''India–Pakistan war of 1971''', also known as the '''third Indo-Pakistani war''', was a military confrontation between [[India]] and [[Pakistan]] that occurred during the [[Bangladesh Liberation War]] in [[East Pakistan]] from 3 December 1971 until the [[Pakistani Instrument of Surrender|Pakistani capitulation]] in [[Dhaka]] on 16 December 1971. The war began with Pakistan's [[Operation Chengiz Khan]], consisting of preemptive aerial strikes on eight [[List of Indian Air Force stations|Indian air stations]]. The strikes led to India declaring war on Pakistan, marking their entry into the war for East Pakistan's independence, on the side of [[Bangladesh Forces|Bengali nationalist forces]]. India's entry expanded the existing conflict with Indian and Pakistani forces engaging on both the eastern and western fronts.<ref name="time27Dec1971" />

Thirteen days after the war started, India achieved a clear upper hand, and the [[Pakistan Eastern Command|Eastern Command]] of the [[Pakistan Armed Forces|Pakistan military]] signed the [[Instrument of Surrender (1971)|instrument of surrender]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sify.com/news/1971-war-i-will-give-you-30-minutes-news-columns-jmqlV0fcjja.html |title=1971 War: 'I will give you 30 minutes' |website=[[Sify]] |access-date=14 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101206145925/http://sify.com/news/1971-war-i-will-give-you-30-minutes-news-columns-jmqlV0fcjja.html |archive-date=6 December 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref> on 16 December 1971 in Dhaka, marking the [[Independence of Bangladesh|formation of East Pakistan]] as the new nation of [[Bangladesh]]. Approximately 93,000 Pakistani servicemen were [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 Prisoners of War Investigation|taken prisoner]] by the [[Indian Army]], which included 79,676 to 81,000 uniformed personnel of the Pakistan Armed Forces, including some Bengali soldiers who had remained loyal to Pakistan.<ref name="Burke1974p216">{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/mainspringsofind00burk/page/n5/mode/2up|url-access=registration|title=Mainsprings of Indian and Pakistani Foreign Policies – S. M. Burke|year=1974|page=216|publisher=University of Minnesota Press|isbn=9780816607204|access-date=27 July 2012|last1=Burke|first1=S. M}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Bose |first=Sarmila |date=November 2011 |title=The question of genocide and the quest for justice in the 1971 war |url=http://www.politics.ox.ac.uk/materials/profile_materials/jgr%20vol%2013%20no%204%202011.pdf |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |volume=13 |issue=4 |page=398 |doi=10.1080/14623528.2011.625750 |s2cid=38668401 |access-date=27 March 2016 |archive-date=10 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010075759/https://www.politics.ox.ac.uk/materials/profile_materials/jgr%20vol%2013%20no%204%202011.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The remaining 10,324 to 12,500 [[Prisoner of war|prisoners]] were civilians, either family members of the military personnel or collaborators ([[Razakar (Pakistan)|Razakars]]).<ref name="The Daily Star">{{cite news |title=Jamaat claims denied by evidence |url=http://www.thedailystar.net/news-detail-25257 |work=THE DAILY STAR |date=28 February 2008 |access-date=10 March 2016 |archive-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170811144217/http://www.thedailystar.net/news-detail-25257 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Haqqani2005p87" /><ref name="Burke1974p216" />

It is estimated that members of the Pakistani military and supporting pro-Pakistani Islamist militias [[1971 Bangladesh genocide|killed between 300,000 and 3,000,000]] civilians in Bangladesh.<ref name="Women and Climate Change in Bangladesh">{{cite book
|last1=Alston
|first1=Margaret
|title=Women and Climate Change in Bangladesh
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WMSgBgAAQBAJ&q=3%20million%20bangladeshi%20genocide%201971%20war&pg=PA40
|access-date=2016-03-08
|year=2015
|publisher=Routledge
|isbn=9781317684862
|page=40
|archive-date=13 October 2020
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201013134201/https://books.google.com/books?id=WMSgBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA40&q=3%20million%20bangladeshi%20genocide%201971%20war
|url-status=live
}}</ref><ref name="Plight and Fate of Women During and Following Genocide">{{cite book
|last1=Debnath
|first1=Angela
|year=2012
|orig-year=First published 2009
|chapter=The Bangladesh Genocide: The Plight of Women
|editor-last1=Totten
|editor-first1=Samuel
|editor-link=Samuel Totten
|title=Plight and Fate of Women During and Following Genocide
|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=crJ7ai7GJH0C&q=3%20million%20bangladeshi%20genocide%201971%20war&pg=PA55
|access-date=2016-03-08
|publisher=Transaction Publishers
|isbn=978-1-4128-4759-9
|page=55
|archive-date=15 October 2020
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201015061413/https://books.google.com/books?id=crJ7ai7GJH0C&pg=PA55&q=3%20million%20bangladeshi%20genocide%201971%20war
|url-status=live
}}</ref><ref name="usconsulate_cable_march31" /><ref name="kennedy">Kennedy, Senator Edward, "Crisis in South Asia – A report to the Subcommittee investigating the Problem of Refugees and Their Settlement, Submitted to U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee", 1 November 1971, U.S. Govt. Press, page 66. Sen. Kennedy wrote, "Field reports to the U.S. Government, countless eye-witness journalistic accounts, reports of International agencies such as World Bank and additional information available to the subcommittee document the reign of terror which grips East Bengal (East Pakistan). Hardest hit have been members of the Hindu community who have been robbed of their lands and shops, systematically slaughtered, and in some places, painted with yellow patches marked 'H'. All of this has been officially sanctioned, ordered and implemented under martial law from Islamabad."</ref> As a result of the conflict, a further eight to ten million people fled the country to seek refuge in India.<ref name="Rummel-8-2">Rummel, Rudolph J., [http://www.Hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.CHAP8.HTM "Statistics of Democide: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160221160013/http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.CHAP8.HTM |date=21 February 2016 }}, {{ISBN|3-8258-4010-7}}, Chapter 8, [http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.TAB8.2.GIF Table 8.2 Pakistan Genocide in Bangladesh Estimates, Sources, and Calculations] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204060822/http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.TAB8.2.GIF |date=4 February 2012 }}: lowest estimate 2 million claimed by Pakistan (reported by Aziz, Qutubuddin. ''Blood and tears'' Karachi: United Press of Pakistan, 1974. pp. 74, 226), some other sources used by Rummel suggest a figure of between 8 and 10 million with one (Johnson, B. L. C. ''Bangladesh''. New York: Barnes & Noble, 1975. pp. 73, 75) that "could have been" 12 million.</ref>

During the war, members of the Pakistani military and supporting pro-Pakistani Islamist militias called the Razakars [[Rape during the Bangladesh Liberation War|raped between 200,000 and 400,000]] [[Bangladeshis|Bangladeshi]] women and girls in a systematic campaign of [[genocidal rape]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sharlach |first=Lisa |year=2000 |title=Rape as Genocide: Bangladesh, the Former Yugoslavia, and Rwanda |journal=New Political Science |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=92–93 |doi=10.1080/713687893 |s2cid=144966485}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Sharlach |first=Lisa |editor=Kent Worcester |editor-link=Kent Worcester |editor2=Sally A. Bermanzohn |editor3=Mark Ungar |year=2002 |chapter=State Rape: Sexual Violence as Genocide |title=Violence and Politics: Globalization's Paradox |publisher=Routledge |page=111 |isbn=978-0-415-93111-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Sajjad |first=Tazreena |year=2012 |orig-year=First published 2009 |chapter=The Post-Genocidal Period and its Impact on Women |editor1-last=Tottne |editor1-first=Samuel |editor1-link=Samuel Totten |title=Plight and Fate of Women During and Following Genocide |publisher=Transaction Publishers |page=225 |isbn=978-1-4128-4759-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Mookherjee |first=Nayanika |year=2012 |chapter=Mass rape and the inscription of gendered and racial domination during the Bangladesh War of 1971 |editor1=Raphaëlle Branche |editor2=Fabrice Virgili |title=Rape in Wartime |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |page=68 |isbn=978-0-230-36399-1}}</ref>

== Background ==
{{main|Admiral Ahsan Mission|Bangladesh Liberation War|Mukti Bahini|Timeline of Bangladesh Liberation War|1971 Bangladesh genocide}}

The Indo-Pakistani conflict was sparked by the [[Bangladesh Liberation War]], which was a result of the violation of the rights of East Pakistan by the Pakistan Army.{{citation needed|date=February 2023}} The political tensions in East Pakistan had its origin in the [[Independence of Pakistan|creation of Pakistan]] as a result of the [[partition of India]] by the United Kingdom in 1947; the popular [[Bengali language movement|language movement]] in 1950; [[1964 East Pakistan riots|mass riots]] in East Bengal in 1964; and the mass protests in 1969. These led to the resignation of President [[Ayub Khan]], who invited army chief General [[Yahya Khan]] to take over the [[Government of Pakistan|central government]].<ref name="PublicAffairs, Lieven">{{cite book|last1=Lieven|first1=Anatol|year=2012|title=Pakistan: A Hard Country|publisher=PublicAffairs|isbn=978-1610391627|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=exBKSo-Pf6cC&q=Bengali%20Pakistani%20people%5C&pg=PT77|access-date=23 December 2016|language=en|archive-date=11 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201011182217/https://books.google.com/books?id=exBKSo-Pf6cC&pg=PT77&q=Bengali%20Pakistani%20people%5C|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|xxx}} The geographical distance between the eastern and western wings of Pakistan was vast; East Pakistan lay over {{convert|1000|mi|km|order=flip}} away, which greatly hampered any attempt to integrate the [[Culture of Bangladesh|Bengali]] and the [[Culture of Pakistan|Pakistani]] cultures.<ref name="Encyclopaedia Britannica, Abbott">{{cite book|last1=Abbott|first1=David|title=Changing World: Pakistan|date=2015|publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica|location=Minnesota, U.S.|isbn=9781625133212|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KZwLBwAAQBAJ&q=distance%20between%20east%20and%20west%20pakistan%201000%20miles&pg=PA14|access-date=8 January 2017|language=en|archive-date=29 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201029070308/https://books.google.com/books?id=KZwLBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA14&q=distance%20between%20east%20and%20west%20pakistan%201000%20miles|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|13–14}}<ref>{{Cite news|date=2018-12-16|title=1971 war: The story of India's victory, Pak's surrender, Bangladesh freedom|work=Business Standard India|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/current-affairs/vijay-diwas-how-india-ended-pak-s-atrocities-and-ensured-freed-bangladesh-118121600120_1.html|access-date=2020-07-06|archive-date=12 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200712041755/https://www.business-standard.com/article/current-affairs/vijay-diwas-how-india-ended-pak-s-atrocities-and-ensured-freed-bangladesh-118121600120_1.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

To overcome the Bengali domination and prevent formation of the central government in [[Islamabad]], the controversial [[One Unit]] programme established the two wings of East and [[West Pakistan]]. West Pakistanis' opposition to these efforts made it difficult to effectively govern both wings.<ref name="PublicAffairs, Lieven"/>{{rp|xxx}} In 1969, President Yahya Khan announced the first [[Elections in Pakistan|general elections]] and [[Legal Framework Order, 1970|disestablished the status of]] West Pakistan as a single province in 1970, in order to restore it to its original heterogeneous status comprising [[Four Provinces (Pakistan)|four provinces]], as defined at the time of establishment of Pakistan in 1947.<ref name="Nazaria-e-Pakistan Trust, 2003">{{cite web|title=Legal Framework Order 1970|url=http://storyofpakistan.com/legal-framework-order|website=Story of Pakistan|publisher=Nazaria-e-Pakistan Trust, 2003|access-date=23 December 2016|date=1 June 2003|archive-date=3 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161203195522/http://storyofpakistan.com/legal-framework-order|url-status=live}}</ref> In addition, there were religious and racial tensions between Bengalis and the multi-ethnic West Pakistanis, as Bengalis looked different from the dominant West Pakistanis.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Chatterjee |first1=Pranab |year=2010 |title=A Story of Ambivalent Modernization in Bangladesh and West Bengal: The Rise and Fall of Bengali Elitism in South Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lAR1D0Wi2rsC&pg=PA24 |publisher=Peter Lang |page=24 |isbn=978-1-4331-0820-4 |access-date=15 September 2020|quote=Muslims in West Pakistan had developed a culture which bordered on ethnocentrism, since the ideas entertained in West Pakistan were that they, the ethnic "Sindhi," "Punjabi," "Beluchi," "Afghani," and others were "real" Muslims whereas "Bengali" Muslims from East Pakistan were "distant" Muslims.|archive-date=19 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201019173034/https://books.google.com/books?id=lAR1D0Wi2rsC&pg=PA24 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The East Pakistan's [[Awami League]] leader [[Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]] stressed his political position by presenting his [[Six Point program|Six Points]] and endorsing the Bengalis' right to govern themselves.<ref name="PublicAffairs, Lieven"/>{{rp|xxx}} The [[1970 Pakistani general election]], resulted in Awami League gaining 167 out of 169 seats for the [[East Pakistan Legislative Assembly]], and a near-[[Supermajority|absolute majority]] in the 313-seat [[National Assembly of Pakistan|National Assembly]], while the [[vote bank|vote]] in West Pakistan was mostly won by the [[Socialism in Pakistan|socialist]] [[Pakistan Peoples Party]].<ref>{{cite book|first1=Dieter|last1=Nohlen|title=Elections in Asia and the Pacific|date=2004|publisher=Oxford Univ. Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-924958-9|edition=Reprint}}</ref>{{rp|686–687}} The League's election success caused many West Pakistanis to fear that it would allow the Bengalis to draft the constitution based on the Six Points and liberalism.<ref name="Pan Macmillan, Guha">{{cite book|last1=Guha|first1=Ramachandra|year=2011|title=India After Gandhi: The History of the World's Largest Democracy|publisher=Pan Macmillan|isbn=9780330540209|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8FKepYC6wzwC&q=Awami%20league%20pakistani%20constitution%20fear&pg=PR45|access-date=23 December 2016|language=en|archive-date=14 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201014121048/https://books.google.com/books?id=8FKepYC6wzwC&pg=PR45&q=Awami%20league%20pakistani%20constitution%20fear|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|xlv}}

To resolve the crisis, the [[Admiral Ahsan Mission]] was formed to provide recommendations. Its findings were met with favourable reviews from the political leaders of West Pakistan, with the exception of [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto]], the chairman of the Pakistan Peoples Party.<ref name="Algora Publishing, Ehtisham">{{cite book|last1=Ehtisham|first1=S. Akhtar|title=A Medical Doctor Examines Life on Three Continents: A Pakistani View|date=1998|publisher=Algora Publishing|isbn=978-0-87586-634-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IuseZxgbn8oC&q=admiral%20ahsan%20formula&pg=PA109|access-date=9 December 2016|archive-date=14 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201014114527/https://books.google.com/books?id=IuseZxgbn8oC&pg=PA109&q=admiral%20ahsan%20formula|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|109–110}}

However, the military leadership vetoed the mission's proposal.<ref name="Algora Publishing, Ehtisham" />{{rp|110}} Zulfikar Ali Bhutto endorsed the veto,<ref name="Algora Publishing, Ehtisham" />{{rp|110}} and subsequently refused to yield the [[Prime Minister of Pakistan|premiership]] of Pakistan to Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. The Awami League called for general strikes throughout the country. President Yahya Khan postponed the inauguration of the National Assembly, causing disillusionment among the Awami League and their supporters throughout East Pakistan.<ref name="National Book Club, Ghazali">{{cite book |last1=Ghazali |first1=Abdus Sattar |chapter=The Second Martial Law |title=Islamic Pakistan: Illusions and Reality |chapter-url=http://ghazali.net/book1/chapter_5.htm |publisher=National Book Club |access-date=23 December 2016 |archive-date=30 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140530143431/http://ghazali.net/book1/chapter_5.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> In reaction, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman called for general strikes that eventually shut down the government, and dissidents in the east began targeting the ethnic [[Bihari people|Bihari]] community, which largely supported West Pakistan.<ref name="D'Costa 2011 103">{{Cite book |last=D'Costa |first=Bina |author-link=Bina D'Costa |year=2011 |title=Nationbuilding, Gender and War Crimes in South Asia |publisher=Routledge |page=103 |isbn=978-0-415-56566-0}}</ref>

In early March 1971, approximately 300 Biharis were slaughtered in riots by Bengali mobs in [[Chittagong]] alone.<ref name="D'Costa 2011 103" /> The government of Pakistan used the "Bihari massacre" to justify its deployment of the military in East Pakistan on 25 March, when it initiated its [[Operation Searchlight|military crackdown]].<ref name="D'Costa 2011 103" /> President Yahya Khan called on the military—which was overwhelmingly led by West Pakistanis—to suppress dissent in the east, after accepting the resignation of [[Lieutenant general|Lieutenant-General]] [[Sahabzada Yaqub Khan|Yaqub Ali Khan]], the chief of staff of the [[Bangladesh Armed Forces|East Pakistani military]].<ref name="[[Economic and Political Weekly]]">{{cite journal |last=Bose |first=Sarmila |date=8 October 2005 |title=Anatomy of Violence: Analysis of Civil War in East Pakistan in 1971 |url=http://www.epw.org.in/showArticles.php?root=2005&leaf=10&filename=9223&filetype=html |journal=[[Economic and Political Weekly]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070301084941/http://www.epw.org.in/showArticles.php?root=2005&leaf=10&filename=9223&filetype=html |archive-date=1 March 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Salik |first=Siddiq |year=1977 |title=Witness To Surrender |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=63, 228–9 |isbn=978-984-05-1373-4}}</ref>

Mass arrests of dissidents began and, after several days of strikes and [[non-cooperation movement (1971)|non-cooperation]], the Pakistani military, led by Lieutenant-General [[Tikka Khan]], cracked down on Dhaka on the night of 25 March 1971. The government outlawed the Awami League, which forced many of its members and sympathisers to seek refuge in [[Eastern India]]. [[Arrest of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman|Mujib was arrested]] that night at about 1:30 am (as per Radio Pakistan's news on 29 March) and taken to West Pakistan. [[Operation Searchlight]], followed by [[Operation Barisal]], which attempted to kill the intellectual elite of the east.<ref name="Riedel">{{cite book|last=Riedel|first=Bruce O.|title=Deadly Embrace: Pakistan, America, and the Future of the Global Jihad|url=https://archive.org/details/deadlyembracepak00bruc|url-access=limited|year=2011|publisher=Brookings Institution|isbn=978-0-8157-0557-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/deadlyembracepak00bruc/page/n27 10]}}</ref>

On 26 March 1971, Major [[Ziaur Rahman]] of the Pakistan Army declared the independence of Bangladesh on behalf of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aONtAAAAMAAJ&q=announcement|title=Tragedy of Errors: East Pakistan Crisis, 1968–1971|first=Kamal|last=Matinuddin|year=1994|publisher=Wajidalis|isbn=978-969-8031-19-0|access-date=15 November 2015|archive-date=18 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160518125906/https://books.google.com/books?id=aONtAAAAMAAJ&q=announcement|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qh4NAAAAIAAJ&q=march+26|title=Pakistan's Crisis in Leadership|first=Fazal Muqueem|last=Khan|year=1973|publisher=National Book Foundation|isbn=978-0-88386-302-2|access-date=15 November 2015|archive-date=11 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611024009/https://books.google.com/books?id=qh4NAAAAIAAJ&q=march+26|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Qureshi">{{cite book|last=Qureshi|first=Hakeem Arshad|title=Through the 1971 Crisis: An Eyewitness Account by a Soldier|year=2003|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-579778-7|page=33}}</ref>

In April, the exiled Awami League leaders formed a [[Provisional Government of Bangladesh|government-in-exile]] in [[Mujibnagar|Baidyanathtala]] of [[Meherpur]]. The [[East Pakistan Rifles]] and Bengali officers in Pakistan's [[Pakistan Army|army]], [[Pakistan Navy|navy]], and [[Pakistan Marines|marines]] defected to the rebellion after taking refuge in different parts of India. The Bangladesh Force, namely the [[Mukti Bahini]], consisting of a conventional force and a guerilla force, was formed under the retired colonel [[M. A. G. Osmani|Mohammad Ataul Gani Osmani]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Raja |first=Dewan Mohammad Tasawwar |year=2010 |title=O General My General |publisher=Osmany Memorial Trust |pages=68, 70 |isbn=978-984-8866-18-4}}</ref>
There was also a meeting between Prime Minister [[Indira Gandhi]] and President [[Richard Nixon]] in November 1971, in which the former rejected American advice against intervening in the conflict.<ref name="ABC-CLIO, Heo and Jr.">{{cite book |last1=Shafqat |first1=Sahar |title=Civil wars of the world : major conflicts since World War II |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-85109-919-1 |editor1-last=DeRouen |editor1-first=Karl Jr. |volume=II |page=596 |chapter=Pakistan (1971) |access-date=24 December 2016 |editor2-last=Heo |editor2-first=Uk |editor2-link=Uk Heo |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nrN077AEgzMC&q=pakistan%20army%201971%20India&pg=PA596 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819154146/https://books.google.com/books?id=nrN077AEgzMC&pg=PA596&q=pakistan%20army%201971%20India |archive-date=19 August 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== India's involvement in the Bangladesh Liberation War ===
{{Main|Bangladesh genocide|Terrorism in Pakistan|Anti-Pakistan sentiment}}

After the resignations of Admiral [[Syed Mohammad Ahsan|S.M. Ahsan]] and Lieutenant-General Yaqub Ali Khan, the press began airing reports of the Pakistani military's [[1971 East Pakistan genocide|widespread genocide]] against their Bengali citizens,<ref name="uspol">{{cite magazine |title=The U.S.: A Policy in Shambles |url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,878970,00.html |url-access=subscription |magazine=Time |date=20 December 1971 |access-date=20 October 2009 |archive-date=30 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130930140438/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,878970,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref> particularly targeting the minority [[Bengali Hindus]],<ref name="usconsulate_cable_march31">U.S. Consulate (Dacca) Cable, Sitrep: [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB79/BEBB6.pdf Army Terror Campaign Continues in Dacca; Evidence Military Faces Some Difficulties Elsewhere] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111221082405/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB79/BEBB6.pdf |date=21 December 2011 }}, 31 March 1971, Confidential, 3 pp.</ref><ref name="time25Oct71">{{cite magazine |title=East Pakistan: Even the Skies Weep |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,877316,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071104001659/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,877316,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=4 November 2007 |url-access=subscription |magazine=Time |date=25 October 1971 |access-date=20 October 2009}}</ref><ref name="time27Dec1971">{{cite magazine |date=27 December 1971 |title=India: Easy Victory, Uneasy Peace |url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,905593,00.html |url-status=live |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170613153528/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,905593,00.html |archive-date=13 June 2017 |access-date=24 April 2016 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> which led to approximately 10 million people seeking refuge in the neighbouring states of Eastern India.<ref name="usconsulate_cable_march31" /><ref name="uspol" /><ref name="MSN Encarta">{{cite encyclopaedia |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761588350_3/Indo-Pakistani_Wars.html# |title=Indo-Pakistani Wars |encyclopaedia=MSN Encarta |access-date=20 October 2009 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/5kwrHv6ph?url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761588350_3/Indo-Pakistani_Wars.html |archive-date=1 November 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[Government of India]] opened the [[Bangladesh–India border|East Pakistan–India border]] to allow [[East Bengali refugees|Bengali refugees]] to find shelter; the governments of [[Government of West Bengal|West Bengal]], [[Government of Bihar|Bihar]], [[Government of Assam|Assam]], [[Government of Meghalaya|Meghalaya]] and [[Government of Tripura|Tripura]] established [[refugee camp]]s along the border.<ref name="Rotary International, 1971">{{cite book|last1=International|first1=Rotary|title=The Rotarian|date=1971|publisher=Rotary International|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rTUEAAAAMBAJ&q=east%20pakistan%20refugees%20Bengal%20Assam%20Tripura&pg=PA24|access-date=23 December 2016|language=en|archive-date=13 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201013184357/https://books.google.com/books?id=rTUEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA24&q=east%20pakistan%20refugees%20Bengal%20Assam%20Tripura|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|23–24}} The resulting flood of impoverished East Pakistani refugees strained India's already overburdened economy.<ref name="time25Oct71" />

The Indian Government repeatedly appealed to the [[international community]] for assistance, but failed to elicit any response, despite External Affairs Minister [[Swaran Singh]] meeting foreign ministers of other countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kashmirlive.com/latest/The-four-IndoPak-wars/73887.html|title=The four Indo-Pak wars|website=Kashmirlive, 14 September 2006|access-date=20 October 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091017021541/http://www.kashmirlive.com/latest/The-four-IndoPak-wars/73887.html|archive-date=17 October 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref> Prime Minister Indira Gandhi on 27 March 1971 concluded that, instead of taking in millions of refugees, it was better to go to war with Pakistan, and expressed the full support of her government for the independence struggle of the people of East Pakistan.<ref name="MSN Encarta" /> On 28 April 1971, the [[First Indira Gandhi ministry|Union cabinet]] ordered the [[Chief of the Army Staff (India)|Chief of the Army Staff]] General [[Sam Manekshaw]] to "Go into East Pakistan".<ref name="Praval">{{cite book |last=Praval |first=K. C. |year=2009 |orig-year=First published 1987 |title=Indian Army After Independence |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DdxDcxj_wn4C&pg=PP415 |location=India |publisher=Lancer Publishers |page=415 |isbn=978-1-935501-61-9 |access-date=18 July 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Bass |first=Gary J. |year=2013 |title=The Blood Telegram: Nixon, Kissinger, and a Forgotten Genocide |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |page=94 |isbn=978-0-307-70020-9}}</ref><ref name="Raghavan">{{citation |last=Raghavan |first=Srinath |title=Soldiers, Statesmen, and India's Security Policy |journal=India Review |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=116–133 |year=2012 |doi=10.1080/14736489.2012.674829 |s2cid=154213504}}</ref> East Pakistan military officer defectors and elements of the Indian [[Research and Analysis Wing]] (RAW) immediately started using the Indian refugee camps for the recruitment and training of Mukti Bahini [[guerrilla]]s.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://im.rediff.com/news/2006/dec/14jacob.htm|title=I had to find troops for Dhaka|newspaper=Rediff News|date=14 December 2006|access-date=20 October 2009|archive-date=25 August 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090825220726/http://im.rediff.com/news/2006/dec/14jacob.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

By November 1971, the Indian military fired artillery at Pakistani troops and even made several incursions into Pakistani territory.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gill |first=John H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m2q6SgAACAAJ |title=An Atlas of the 1971 India - Pakistan War: The Creation of Bangladesh |date=2003 |publisher=National Defense University, Near East South Asia Center for Strategic Studies |pages=12 |language=en |quote=By November, the Indian Army and paramilitary troops were regularly providing artillery support to the Mukti Bahini and, toward the end of the month, the army had even made small incursions into East Pakistan in several locations. |access-date=21 March 2023 |archive-date=22 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322122749/https://books.google.com/books?id=m2q6SgAACAAJ |url-status=live}}</ref>

The Indian authorities also attempted to carry on [[psychological warfare]] and keep up the morale of comrades in East Pakistan. The [[Swadhin Bangla Betar Kendra]] (Free Bangladesh Radio Centre), which had broadcast Major Rahman's independence declaration, was relocated from [[Kalurghat]] in East Pakistan to India after the transmission building was attacked by Pakistani [[North American F-86 Sabre|Sabre jets]] on 30 March 1971. It resumed broadcasting on 3 April from Tripura, aided by the Indian [[Border Security Force]]. The clandestine station was finally shifted to [[Kolkata]], where it was joined by a large number of Bangladeshi radio programmers, newscasters, poets, singers and journalists. Its jurisdiction was transferred to the provisional Bangladesh government-in-exile, and made its first broadcast on 25 May, the anniversary of the birth of poet [[Kazi Nazrul Islam]] (who would later be named Bangladesh's [[national poet]]). Among the Indian contributors to the radio station's nationalistic programmes was [[Salil Chowdhury]]. [[All India Radio|Akashvani Kolkata]] also actively took part in this effort.<ref>{{Cite news|date=25 May 2021|title=50 years on, B'desh remembers Kolkata radio station that gave them hope during liberation war|work=[[The New Indian Express]]|agency=[[Press Trust of India|PTI]]|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/world/2021/may/25/50-years-on-bdesh-remembers-kolkata-radio-station-that-gave-them-hope-during-liberation-war-2307457.html|access-date=4 December 2021|archive-date=4 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211204175725/https://www.newindianexpress.com/world/2021/may/25/50-years-on-bdesh-remembers-kolkata-radio-station-that-gave-them-hope-during-liberation-war-2307457.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Dasgupta|first=Priyanka|date=29 November 2021|title=How a secret radio station broadcast hope in 1971|work=[[The Times of India]]|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/how-a-secret-radio-station-broadcast-hope-in-1971/articleshow/87964549.cms|access-date=4 December 2021|archive-date=4 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211204182729/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/how-a-secret-radio-station-broadcast-hope-in-1971/articleshow/87964549.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Objective ==
By the end of April 1971, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi had asked the Indian Chief of Army Staff [[Sam Manekshaw|Gen Sam Manekshaw]] if he was ready to go to war with Pakistan.<ref name="The Hindu, Sandeep">{{cite news |last1=Dikshit |first1=Sandeep |date=28 June 2008 |title=How he and his men won those wars |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/How-he-and-his-men-won-those-wars/article15250477.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161224100708/http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/How-he-and-his-men-won-those-wars/article15250477.ece |archive-date=24 December 2016 |access-date=24 December 2016 |work=The Hindu}}</ref><ref name="The Economist, 2008">{{cite magazine |date=3 July 2008 |title=Sam Manekshaw: Sam Manekshaw, soldier, died on 27 June, aged 94 |url=https://www.economist.com/obituary/2008/07/03/sam-manekshaw |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170412013035/http://www.economist.com/node/11661408 |archive-date=12 April 2017 |access-date=7 July 2008 |magazine=The Economist |page=107}}</ref> According to Manekshaw's own personal account, he refused, citing the onset of [[Monsoon in India|monsoon season]] in East Pakistan and also the fact that the army tanks were being refitted.<ref name="The Economist, 2008" /> He offered his resignation, which Gandhi declined.<ref name="The Economist, 2008" /> He then said he could guarantee victory if she would allow him to prepare for the conflict on his terms, and set a date for it; Gandhi accepted his conditions.<ref name="The Economist, 2008" /><ref name="Manekshaw">Manekshaw, SHFJ. (11 November 1998). "Lecture at Defence Services Staff College on Leadership and Discipline" (Appendix V) in Singh (2002)''Field Marshal Sam Manekshaw, M.C. – Soldiering with Dignity''.</ref> In reality, Gandhi was well aware of the difficulties of a hasty military action, but she needed to get the military's views to satisfy her hawkish colleagues and the public opinion, which were critical of India's restraint.<ref name="Raghavan" />

By mid July, India had settled on a plan of attack. The ground in the East would be drier by mid November, which would make a rapid offensive easier. By early to mid December, the [[Himalayas|Himalayan]] passes would be closed by snow, limiting China's ability to intervene.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sisson |first1=Richard |author-link1=John Richard Sisson |title=War and secession: Pakistan, India, and the creation of Bangladesh |last2=Rose |first2=Leo E. |publisher=University of California Press |year=1990 |isbn=0-520-07665-6 |pages=208}}</ref>

The news media's mood in Pakistan had turned increasingly [[jingoism|jingoistic]] and militaristic against East Pakistan and India when the Pakistani news media reported the complexity of the situation in the East, though the reactions from Pakistan's news media pundits were mixed.<ref name="The Express Tribune, Ahmad">{{cite news |last1=Ahmad |first1=Dawood |date=16 December 2011 |title=Rethinking the big lies from 1971 |url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/307145/rethinking-the-big-lies-from-1971/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161224094829/http://tribune.com.pk/story/307145/rethinking-the-big-lies-from-1971/ |archive-date=24 December 2016 |access-date=23 December 2016 |work=The Express Tribune}}</ref><ref name="Indian Express, 1971">{{cite news |last1=Ahmed |first1=Khalid |date=26 December 2013 |title=Pakistan,1971 |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/pakistan-1971-2/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161224100228/http://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/pakistan-1971-2/ |archive-date=24 December 2016 |access-date=23 December 2016 |work=The Indian Express}}</ref> By the end of September 1971, a propaganda campaign, possibly orchestrated by elements within the government of Pakistan, resulted in stickers endorsing "''Crush India''" becoming a standard feature on the rear windows of vehicles in [[Rawalpindi]], [[Islamabad]] and [[Lahore]]; this soon spread to the rest of West Pakistan.<ref name="Dawn newspaper, 2014">{{cite news |date=16 December 2014 |title=1971 'Jihad': Print ads from West Pakistan |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1151200 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161224164127/http://www.dawn.com/news/1151200 |archive-date=24 December 2016 |access-date=23 December 2016 |work=Dawn |type=Editorial}}</ref> By October, other stickers proclaimed ''Hang the Traitor'' in an apparent reference to Sheikh Mujibur Rahman.<ref name="usdos-embassycable">{{cite web |date=26 October 1971 |title=New Twist In 'Crush India' Propaganda Campaign |url=http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/pakistan/farland26oct1971.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102141747/http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/pakistan/farland26oct1971.htm |archive-date=2 November 2011 |access-date=29 September 2011 |publisher=US Department of State Telegram}}</ref>

From mid October to 20 November, the Indian army conducted multiple incursions into East Pakistani territory,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sisson |first1=Richard |author-link1=John Richard Sisson |title=War and secession: Pakistan, India, and the creation of Bangladesh |last2=Rose |first2=Leo E. |publisher=University of California Press |year=1990 |isbn=0-520-07665-6 |pages=212}}</ref> generally withdrawing to India after completing their mission. From 21 November, however, Indian forces with Mukti Bahini support entered East Pakistan and remained there in preparation for a formal war that India expected to launch on 6 December.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sisson |first1=Richard |author-link1=John Richard Sisson |title=War and secession: Pakistan, India, and the creation of Bangladesh |last2=Rose |first2=Leo E. |publisher=University of California Press |year=1990 |isbn=0-520-07665-6 |pages=213}}</ref>

An Indian-Pakistani war seemed inevitable. The [[Soviet Union]] reportedly [[Rodionov message|warned Pakistan against the war]], which they termed as "suicidal course for Pakistan's unity."<ref name="Monitoring Service of the British Broadcasting Corporation" />{{rp|part-3}} Despite this warning, in November 1971, thousands of people led by conservative Pakistani politicians marched in Lahore and across Pakistan, calling for Pakistan to "crush India".<ref name="dos-crushindiamarch">{{cite web |date=9 November 1971 |title=Anti-India Demonstration and Procession |url=http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/pakistan/lahore9nov1971.jpg |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402202644/http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/pakistan/lahore9nov1971.jpg |archive-date=2 April 2012 |access-date=29 September 2011 |publisher=US Department of State Telegram}}</ref><ref name="po-crushindia">{{cite news |date=30 November 1971 |title=Crush India |url=http://www.docstrangelove.com/uploads/1971/po/19711130_po_crush_india.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120511040537/http://www.docstrangelove.com/uploads/1971/po/19711130_po_crush_india.pdf |archive-date=11 May 2012 |access-date=29 September 2011 |work=Pakistan Observer}}</ref> On 23 November, President Yahya Khan declared a national [[state of emergency]] and told the country to prepare for war.<ref name="WarChat">{{cite web |title=Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 |url=http://www.warchat.org/history-asia/indo-pakistani-war-of-1971.html |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090823055450/http://www.warchat.org/history-asia/indo-pakistani-war-of-1971.html |archive-date=23 August 2009 |access-date=20 October 2009}}</ref> By the first week of December, the conservative [[Newspapers in Pakistan|print media]] outlets in the country had published ''[[jihad]]'' related materials to boost the recruitment in the military.<ref name="Dawn newspaper, 2014" />

== Overview ==

=== Initiation ===
On the evening of 3 December, at about 17:35, the [[Pakistan Air Force]] (PAF) launched surprise pre-emptive strikes on eight Indian airfields,<ref name="Bloomsbury Publishing, Davies">{{cite book |last1=Davies |first1=Peter E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NFebCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA83 |title=F-104 Starfighter Units in Combat |publisher=Osprey Publishing |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-78096-314-3 |page=83 |language=en |access-date=4 December 2023}}</ref> including [[Agra]], which was {{convert|300|mi|km|order=flip}} from the border. At the time of the attack, the [[Taj Mahal]] had been camouflaged with lots of twigs and leaves and draped with burlap, because its marble glowed prominently in the moonlight.<ref name="time20Dec71">{{cite magazine |date=20 December 1971 |title=Bangladesh: Out of War, a Nation Is Born |url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,878969,00.html |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928044711/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,878969,00.html |archive-date=28 September 2013 |access-date=20 October 2009 |magazine=Time}}</ref> These pre-emptive strikes, known as [[Operation Chengiz Khan]], were inspired by the success of Israeli [[Operation Focus]] in the Arab–Israeli [[Six-Day War]]. Unlike the Israeli attack on Arab airbases in 1967, which involved a large number of Israeli planes, Pakistan flew too few planes to inflict significant damage.<ref name="Bloomsbury Publishing, Davies" /><ref>"Trying to catch the Indian Air Force napping, Yahya Khan, launched a Pakistani version of Israel's 1967 air blitz in hopes that one rapid attack would cripple India's far superior air power. But India was alert, Pakistani pilots were inept, and Yahya's strategy of scattering his thin air force over a dozen air fields was a bust!", p. 34, ''Newsweek'', 20 December 1971</ref>

In an address to the nation on radio that same evening, Prime Minister Gandhi held that the air strikes were a declaration of war against India<ref name="time13Dec1971">{{cite magazine |date=13 December 1971 |title=India and Pakistan: Over the Edge |url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,910155,00.html |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131008221847/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,910155,00.html |archive-date=8 October 2013 |access-date=20 October 2009 |magazine=Time}}</ref><ref name="bbc">{{cite news |date=3 December 1971 |title=1971: Pakistan intensifies air raids on India |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/3/newsid_2519000/2519133.stm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181030212616/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/3/newsid_2519000/2519133.stm |archive-date=30 October 2018 |access-date=20 October 2009 |work=BBC News}}</ref> and the [[Indian Air Force]] (IAF) responded with initial air strikes the same night. These expanded to massive retaliatory air strikes the next morning.{{citation needed|date=February 2023}}

This air action marked the start of all-out war; Gandhi ordered the mobilisation of troops and launched a full-scale invasion of East Pakistan. This involved Indian forces in [[East Pakistan Air Operations, 1971|coordinated air]], sea and land assaults. The main Indian objective on the eastern front was to capture Dacca, and on the western front to contain Pakistani forces.<ref>{{cite book |last=Makeig |first=Douglas C. |url=https://www.loc.gov/item/89600298/ |title=Bangladesh: A Country Study |publisher=[[Federal Research Division]], Library of Congress |year=1989 |editor1-last=Heitzman |editor1-first=James |series=[[Library of Congress Country Studies]] |location=Washington, D.C. |page=210 |chapter=National Security |oclc=49223313 |access-date=17 April 2023 |editor2-last=Worden |editor2-first=Robert |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404171656/http://www.loc.gov/item/89600298/ |archive-date=4 April 2023 |url-status=live}} {{PD-notice}}</ref>

=== Ground operations ===
The Indian army was better equipped than the Pakistanis and enjoyed significant numerical superiority over them.<ref name="ABC-CLIO, Heo and Jr." />

Pakistan launched a ground offensive on the western front.<ref name="ABC-CLIO, Heo and Jr." /> Major ground attacks were concentrated on the western border by the Pakistan Army but the Indian Army was successful in penetrating into Pakistani soil. It eventually made some quick and initial gains, including the capture of around {{convert|5795|sqmi|km2|order=flip|abbr=on}}<ref name="Nawaz2008">{{cite book |last=Nawaz |first=Shuja |title=Crossed Swords: Pakistan, Its Army, and the Wars Within |year=2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-547697-2 |page=329}}</ref><ref name="Chitkara1996">{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/benazirprofile0000chit1|url-access=registration|title=Benazir, a Profile|access-date=27 July 2012|page=81|isbn=9788170247524|last1=Chitkara|first1=M. G|year=1996|publisher=APH}}</ref> of Pakistani territory;<ref name="Schofield2003">{{cite book |last1=Schofield |first1=Victoria |author-link=Victoria Schofield |title=Kashmir in Conflict: India, Pakistan and the Unending Ward|url=https://archive.org/details/00book584554548 |year=2003 |publisher=I.B. Tauris |isbn=978-1-86064-898-4 |page=117}}</ref> this land gained by India in [[Azad Kashmir]], [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]] and [[Sindh]] sectors was later ceded in the [[Simla Agreement]] of 1972, as a gesture of goodwill.

Casualties inflicted to Pakistan Army's [[I Corps (Pakistan)|I Corps]], [[II Corps (Pakistan)|II Corps]], and Pakistan Marines' [[Pakistan Navy Punjab Command|Punjab detachment]] were very high, and many soldiers and marines perished due to lack of operational planning and lack of coordination within the marine-army formations against Indian Army's [[Southern Command (India)|Southern]] and [[Western Command (India)|Western Commands]].<ref name="Lancer Publishers, Palit">{{cite book |last1=Palit |first1=DK |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PKvmgfHewHcC&pg=PA83 |title=The Lightning Campaign: The Indo-Pakistan War, 1971 |date=2012-10-10 |publisher=Lancer Publishers |isbn=9781897829370 |language=en |access-date=24 December 2016}}</ref>{{rp|82–93}} By the time the war came to end, the army soldiers and marines were highly demoralised– both emotionally and psychologically– on the [[India-Pakistan border|western front]] and had no [[Will (philosophy)|will]] to put up a defensive fight against the approaching Indian Army soldiers.<ref name="ABC-CLIO, Hasn't">{{cite book |last1=Hasnat |first1=Syed Farooq |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yeqwIs_NoTEC&q=pakistan%20army%20demoralized%201971&pg=PA2 |title=Pakistan |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2011 |isbn=9780313346972 |language=en |access-date=24 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201016102601/https://books.google.com/books?id=yeqwIs_NoTEC&pg=PA2&q=pakistan%20army%20demoralized%201971 |archive-date=16 October 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|1–2}}

==== Western Front ====
Pakistans head of the army and the military operations during the war,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Smith|first1=Robert |title=Old Friend of President |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1971/12/09/archives/old-friend-of-president.html |website=[[The New York Times]]|date=9 December 1971 |access-date=10 January 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Kazi |first1=Dr. GN. |title=Pakistan's Smallest Cabinet |url=https://www.flickr.com/photos/pimu/2510812824/ |website=Flickr |date=21 May 2008 |access-date=10 January 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Hughes |first1=Thomas L. |title=Pakistan : Martial Law "Who's Who" |url=http://www.profile-bengal.com/0326_69_intelligence_note.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080923072142/http://www.profile-bengal.com/0326_69_intelligence_note.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2008-09-23 |website=Wayback Machine |publisher=The American Papers - Secret and Confidential India.Pakistan.Bangladesh Documents 1965-1973, March 26, 1969 |access-date=10 January 2025}}</ref> [[Abdul Hamid Khan (general)|General Abdul Hamid Khan]] played a central role in directing Pakistan's Western front campaigns.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ahmad |first1=Riaz |title=The General's General: The Life and Times of General Abdul Hamid Khan |date=1993 |publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref> He oversaw the launch of Operation Chengiz Khan,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Guttman|first1=Jon|title=Lessons Learned from Operation Chenghiz Khan |url=https://www.historynet.com/lessons-learned-from-operation-chenghiz-khan/?r |website=HistoryNet |date=9 October 2021 |publisher=stories |access-date=10 January 2025}}</ref> a preemptive strike on Indian airbases, aimed at crippling Indian airpower and initiating hostilities. Despite extensive planning, the operation inflicted only limited damage. On the Western front, General Hamid Khan commanded key offensives, including the assault towards [[Firozpur|Ferozepur]] and ordered the offensive in [[Battle of Chumb|Chhamb]] under [[Iftikhar Khan Janjua|Major General Iftikhar Janjua]], which resulted in territorial gains. He also directed the attempted advance towards [[Battle of longewala|Longewala]], though this effort was ultimately repelled by Indian forces.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cohen |first1=Stephen P. |title=The Pakistan Army |date=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref> Hamid Khan oversaw the II Corps offensive into the Indian state of Punjab. The plan involved advancing from [[Bahawalnagar]] towards Bhatinda and Ludhiana. Under his directive, major elements of the 1st Armored Division began mobilization on December 15, 1971. Small advancements were made by Pakistani troops. However, due to subsequent orders to halt movements, the offensive was delayed and ultimately did not proceed before the ceasefire on December 17, 1971.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Riza |first1=Maj Gen Shaukat |title=The Pakistan Army 1966-71 |date=1990 |publisher=Services Book Club |location=Rawalpindi}}</ref> His leadership during the conflict, while marked by bold initiatives, has been subject to scrutiny in post-war analyses.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Mohan|first1=Vijay |title=First day of 1971 War|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/anniversary/first-day-of-1971-war |website=Tribuneindia |publisher=The Tribune |access-date=10 January 2025}}</ref>

On 3 December, after the air strike carried out by the PAF, the 106 Infantry Brigade of the Pakistani forces under the command of Brig Mohammad Mumtaz Khan advanced towards the village of [[Hussainiwala]] with 2000 troops and artillery support. The Indian side had deployed one battalion, 15 Punjab, under the command of Lt Col Shastry comprising 900 soldiers with support from the IAF. The 15 Punjab could not hold the village and had to retreat on 4 December towards the fortress called Kaiser-i-Hind outside Hussainiwala. The Indian forces were eventually pushed from the fortress a well.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ahmad |first=Nadeem |date=7 August 2022 |title=The Battle of Hussainiwala |url=https://www.bolnews.com/newspaper/national-nerve/2022/08/the-battle-of-hussainiwala/ |access-date=25 November 2023 |website=Bol News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-12-09 |title=1971 War: The Battle of Hussainiwala |url=http://www.indiandefencereview.com/interviews/1971-war-the-battle-of-hussainiwala/ |access-date=2023-11-25 |website=Indian Defence Review |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Saikia2017">{{Cite journal |last=Saikia |first=Yasmin |date=2017-07-03 |title=The Battle of Hussainiwala and Qaiser-i-Hind: The 1971 War |url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=123687824&site=eds-live&scope=site |journal=Journal of Military History |volume=81 |issue=3 |pages=932–934}}</ref> The Indian side suffered 125 casualties while the Pakistani forces lost 67 men.

Simultaneously, Pakistani forces began an offensive on Chhamb, similar to the offensive carried out during the [[Indo-Pakistani war of 1965]]. The Pakistani 23 Armoured Division under Maj Gen Iftikhar Janjua pushed through the region held by the Indian 10 Division with superior equipment commanded by Maj Gen Jaswant Singh.<ref>{{cite book |author=Lt. Col. Muhammad Usman Hassan |title=Soldiers Speak, Selected Articles from Pakistan Army Journal 1956–1981 |publisher=Army Education Press, GHQ, Rawalpindi |chapter=Battle Lore – On Breakthrough in Chamb |chapter-url=http://pakdef.org/battle-lore-on-breakthrough-in-chamb/ |archive-date=27 December 2015 |access-date=28 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151227133213/http://pakdef.org/battle-lore-on-breakthrough-in-chamb/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Till 9 December, the Pakistani commander Maj Gen Janjua perished but the Pakistani forces were able to force the Indian units to retreat by 11 December. Pakistan retained the territory won in this battle after the Simla Agreement.<ref name="Saikia2017" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Agreement between the Government of India and the Government of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan on Bilateral Relations (Simla Agreement) {{!}} UN Peacemaker |url=https://peacemaker.un.org/indiapakistan-simlaagreement72 |access-date=2023-12-12 |website=peacemaker.un.org}}</ref>

On 4 December, a Pakistani unit from the 18 Infantry Division commanded by Maj Gen B. M. Mustafa headed by Brig. Tariq Mir and Brig Jahanzeb Abab advanced towards the Rajasthan town of [[Longewala]]. The town was held by an outnumbered Infantry Company under [[Kuldip Singh Chandpuri|Major K. S. Chandapuri]] and few border guards but had heavy IAF support.<ref name="TI2">{{cite news |title=The Tribune – Windows – Featured story |url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2000/20001216/windows/main2.htm |access-date=2 August 2016 |work=The Tribune}}</ref> This company held several anti-tank guns, cannons and howitzers. The initial Pakistani armored advance was stalled by the Indian Anti-tank and Anti-Mech defenses from high ground and the Pakistani sappers were also pushed back by Indian small arm and artillery cannon fire.<ref name="p.42, Sharma">p. 42, Sharma</ref> The IAF 122 squadron under the command of Wing Cdr D. M. Conquest equipped with [[Hawker Hunter]] and [[HAL HF-24 Marut]] also bombed the Pakistani units.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Service Record for Group Captain Donald Melvyn Conquest 4692 GD(P) at Bharat Rakshak.com |url=http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/Database/4692 |access-date=2024-05-28 |website=Bharat Rakshak |language=en-gb}}</ref> By 7 December the [[Battle of Longewala]] was decisively won by India.

Pakistani I Corps attempted to cut Indian transport lines between Punjab and Jammu by advancing on the [[Shakargarh|Shakargarh sector]] on 6 December. Lt Gen Irshad Ahmed Khan commanded two infantry and one armored division into battle.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Higgins |first=David R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kKanCwAAQBAJ&q=%2231st+Cavalry%22+Pakistan&pg=PT134 |title=M48 Patton vs Centurion: Indo-Pakistani War 1965 |date=2016-01-20 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=9781472810946 |language=en}}</ref> The region was heavily reinforced by the Indian [[I Corps (India)|I Corps]] commanded by [[Khem Karan Singh|Lt Gen Khem Karan Singh]] holding three infantry divisions, two independent armored brigades and two artillery brigades.<ref>[[National Defense University (Washington, D.C.)|National Defense University]], [http://www.ndu.edu/nesa/docs/Gill%20Atlas%20Final%20Version.pdf#search=%22%22Indian%20I%20Corps%22%22 Indian I Corps] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081029150607/http://www.ndu.edu/nesa/docs/Gill%20Atlas%20Final%20Version.pdf|date=2008-10-29}}</ref> The resultant battle raged till the end of the war on 16 December and recorded heavy losses on both sides. Despite being numerically superior than the Indian side, Pakistan failed at capturing the region and the Indian units pushed back and threatened Sialkot. The [[Battle of Basantar]] was deemed an Indian victory.{{citation needed|date=July 2024}}

Between 8 and 14 December, India captured an 800 km2 stretch of the Karakoram range in the Northern region of [[Ladakh]] in the [[Battle of Turtuk]] under the command of [[Udai Singh (soldier)|Col Udai Singh]].<ref>{{cite news |date=22 December 2011 |title=Rinchen's second victory of the day |url=https://www.rediff.com/news/slide-show/slide-show-1-the-hero-of-nubra/20111222.htm#4 |newspaper=Rediff News}}</ref>

==== Eastern Front ====

===== Pre-war operations =====
[[File:Bangladesh 1971 Liberation.jpg|thumb|250px|An illustration showing military units and troop movements during operations in the Eastern sector of the war.]]Before the official declaration of war between the two countries, Indian army had already been attacking the territory along the border with East Pakistan. This served the purpose of confusing Lt Gen Amir Niazi, the Martial Law Administrator of East Pakistan. These battles fought before the official declaration of war included the [[Battle of Dhalai]], [[Battle of Garibpur|Garibpur]], [[Battle of Boyra|Boyra]] and [[Battle of Hilli|Hilli]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Subramaniam (retd) |first=AVM Arjun |date=2018-11-22 |title=Even before 1971 war started with Pakistan, India had won the battle |url=https://theprint.in/opinion/even-before-1971-war-started-with-pakistan-india-had-won-the-battle/152975/ |access-date=2025-04-18 |website=ThePrint |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Pustak Mahal, Nair">{{cite book |last1=Nair |first1=Sreekumar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9gdHmR_6K0AC&q=1965%20war%20which%20had%20emphasised%20set-piece%20battles&pg=PA156 |title=Interpretation |date=2010-03-01 |publisher=Pustak Mahal |isbn=9788122311112 |language=en |access-date=24 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414055132/https://books.google.com/books?id=9gdHmR_6K0AC&q=1965%20war%20which%20had%20emphasised%20set-piece%20battles&pg=PA156 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|156}}

On 28 October, [[Sagat Singh|Lt Gen Sagat Singh]], commander of the IV Corps ordered the advance of Indian forces into the region of Dhalai near Tripura. Three battalions from the Corps fought against the battalion sized deployment of the [[12th Frontier Force Regiment|12th Frontier Force]] of Pakistan. The six day battle resulted in an Indian victory and provided for a launch pad for IAF reconnaissance mission into East Pakistan.<ref name=":0" />

On 20 November, 14 Tanks and a Battalion from the Punjab Regiment under the command of Lt Col R. K. Singh launched another attack on the border with East Pakistan. The city of Garibpur was targeted. Defended by a larger force of three battalions under the 107 Infantry brigade commanded by Brig Mohammad Hayat, the two day battle resulted in heavy Pakistani casualties and an Indian victory. The following day, 4 [[Canadair Sabre]] of the PAF attempted to attack Indian positions in the region and were confronted by 4 IAF [[Folland Gnat]]s. This aerial battle resulted in 2 PAF Sabre's being shot down, one damaged and 2 pilots captured.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2021-11-23 |title=India marks 50 years of battle of Garibpur before 1971 war with Pakistan |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/india-marks-50-years-of-battle-of-garibpur-before-1971-war-with-pakistan-101637608668870.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250126042501/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/india-marks-50-years-of-battle-of-garibpur-before-1971-war-with-pakistan-101637608668870.html |archive-date=26 January 2025 |access-date=2025-04-18 |work=Hindustan Times |language=en-us |url-status=live }}</ref>

On 22 November, 8 Grenadiers under the command of Lt Col Shamsher Singh advanced on the mountain position of Hilli. For this objective, the town of Morapara was attacked. In the fierce battle, heavy losses were incurred by the Indian side but by 24 November, a huge portion of Morapara was captured.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-03-28 |title=India's November Campaign Part 1: The First Battle of Hilli, 22nd-24th November, 1971 |url=https://easy-history.com/2023/03/28/indias-november-campaign-part-1-the-first-battle-of-hilli-22nd-24th-november-1971/ |access-date=2025-04-18 |website=Easy History |language=en}}</ref>

===== After the declaration of war =====
Contrary to the 1965 war, which had emphasised set-piece battles and slow advances, this time the strategy adopted was a swift, three-pronged assault of nine infantry divisions with attached armoured units and close air support that rapidly converged on Dacca, the capital of East Pakistan.<ref name="Pustak Mahal, Nair" />{{rp|156}} Lieutenant General [[Jagjit Singh Aurora]], the General Officer Commanding-in-Chief of the Indian Army's [[Eastern Command (India)|Eastern Command]], led the full Indian thrust into East Pakistan. As the Indian Eastern Command attacked the [[Pakistan Eastern Command]], IAF rapidly destroyed the small air contingent in East Pakistan and put the Dacca airfield out of commission.<ref name="Pustak Mahal, Nair" />{{rp|156}} In the meantime, the Indian Navy effectively blockaded East Pakistan.<ref name="Pustak Mahal, Nair" />{{rp|156}}

Indian 95 Brigade under the command of H. S. Kler and Mukti Bahini forces had laid siege to a border post in the town of Kamalpur since November defended by a platoon of Pakistani paramilitary commandos, but after the declaration of war, with the support of IAF which bombed the town from 3 to 4 December, Brig Kler was able to extract a surrender and Kamalpur was captured.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-10-10 |title=On The Art Of War And Writing Letters To The Enemy: Gallantry At The Battle Of Jamalpur |url=https://thefridaytimes.com/10-Oct-2021/on-the-art-of-war-and-writing-letters-to-the-enemy-gallantry-at-the-battle-of-jamalpur |access-date=2025-04-20 |website=The Friday Times |language=en}}</ref>

On 4 December, 5 Gorkha rifles of the 59 Mountain brigade was tasked with capturing the Gazipur tea factory bungalow overlooking the important city of Sylhet. In the late night operation carried out by Major Shyam Kelkar, India was able to force Pakistani forces to retreat despite heavy casualties including Maj Kelkar.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Pradhan |first=S. D. |title=Deception during 1971 War: Case of a brigade that was not there |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/ChanakyaCode/deception-during-1971-war-case-of-a-brigade-that-was-not-there/ |access-date=2025-04-20 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

On 7 December, after a major buildup of forces around the city of Sylhet, Lt Gen Sagat Singh ordered the 4/5th battalion of the Gorkha regiment to carry out a [[heliborne]] operation under the command of Lt Col A. B. Harolikar. The first wave of attacks was carried out on the same day with a hundred soldiers landed into the city, followed by more after 12 hours. The Indian forces expected the city to have been abandoned by the Pakistani commanders. Contrary to their beliefs, the city was defended by 2 brigades which responded with heavy firing towards the attacking Indian forces. This also caused an interruption in the heliborne operations and limited the access to the Indian forces. These attacks were followed by IAF [[Hawker Hunter|Hunter]] air strikes on 11 December. The Pakistani forces under Brig S. A. Hassan [[White flag|raised the white flag]] on 15 December.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2007-08-10 |title=Defenceindia : Special Feature : Battle of Sylhet |url=http://www.defenceindia.com/defenceind/battle_sylhet.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070810211600/http://www.defenceindia.com/defenceind/battle_sylhet.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=2007-08-10 |access-date=2025-04-21 }}</ref>

On 9 December, the Indian forces under the 57 Mountain division were tasked with crossing the Meghna river through the Coronation bridge between the town of Ashuganj and Bairab Bazaar. Ashuganj was heavy defended by the Pakistani forces and the following battle resulted in heavy casualties on both sides. The Pakistani 14 Division ordered the destruction of the bridge, allowing for the Pakistani troops to ferry across the Meghna rivier and strengthen the defense of Bhairab Bazaar. The Indian forces were able to cross the Meghna river with the help of local fishing boats and 14 [[Mil Mi-4]] helicopters. By 12 December, the Indian forces had secured the crossing points on the Meghna and had located several battalions across the river. Indian units had also come within artillery range of Dacca.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-01-25 |title=4 GUARDS CROSSES THE MEGHNA {{!}} Salute |url=https://salute.co.in/4-guards-crosses-the-meghna/ |access-date=2025-04-22 |language=en-US}}</ref>

On 11 December, the 2nd Para regiment battalion carried out the [[Tangail Airdrop]] and engaged with the ill-trained [[Razakars (Pakistan)|Razakars]] to enable the 1 Maratha light infantry to secure the Poongli bridge over the Jamuna river. This battle was an Indian victory and helped Indian forces close on Dhaka by 12 December. On 13 December, Indian and Mukti Bahini forces attacked the city of Shiromoni. The Indian forces suffered heavy losses at the Badamtola ambush. The battle continued till after the singing of the Instrument of Surrender by the commander of Pakistani forces in East Pakistan, [[A. A. K. Niazi|Lt Gen A. A. K. Niazi]] on 16 December, since the commander of forces in Shiromoni, Brig Hayat Khan insisted on continuing the battle. Brig Khan surrendered to the Indian forces a day later on 17 December.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-16 |title=The text-book battle that freed Khulna on 17 December |url=https://www.tbsnews.net/supplement/text-book-battle-freed-khulna-17-december-758282 |access-date=2025-04-28 |website=The Business Standard |language=en}}</ref>

The Indian campaign's "''[[blitzkrieg]]''" techniques exploited weaknesses in the Pakistani positions and bypassed opposition; this resulted in a swift victory.<ref name="Oxford University Press, Paret">{{cite book |last=Paret |first=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F0N59g93EBYC |title=Makers of Modern Strategy: From Machiavelli to the Nuclear Age |author2=Gordon A. Craig |author3=Felix Gilbert |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-19-820097-0 |access-date=15 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201017135342/https://books.google.com/books?id=F0N59g93EBYC |archive-date=17 October 2020 |url-status=live}}, pp802</ref>{{rp|802}} Faced with insurmountable losses, the Pakistani military capitulated in less than a fortnight and psychological panic spread in the Eastern Command's military leadership.<ref name="Oxford University Press, Paret" />{{rp|802}} Subsequently, the Indian Army encircled Dacca and issued an ultimatum to surrender in "30-minutes" time window on 16 December 1971.<ref name="Sify, Sengupta">{{cite web |last1=Sengupta |first1=Ramananda |title=1971 War: 'I will give you 30 minutes' |url=http://www.sify.com/news/1971-war-i-will-give-you-30-minutes-news-columns-jmqlV0fcjjasi.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161224234459/http://www.sify.com/news/1971-war-i-will-give-you-30-minutes-news-columns-jmqlV0fcjjasi.html |archive-date=24 December 2016 |access-date=24 December 2016 |website=[[Sify]]}}</ref> Upon hearing the ultimatum, the [[Government of East Pakistan|East-Pakistan government]] collapsed when the Lt-Gen. [[Amir Abdullah Khan Niazi|A.A.K. Niazi]] (Cdr. of [[East Pakistan Military Command|Eastern Command]]) and his deputy, V-Adm. [[Mohammad Shariff|M.S. Khan]], surrendered without offering any resistance.<ref name="Pustak Mahal, Nair" /> On 16 December 1971, Pakistan ultimately called for unilateral ceasefire and surrendered its entire four-tier military to the Indian Army – hence ending the Indo-Pakistani war of 1971.<ref name="Pustak Mahal, Nair" />

According to CIA estimates, more than 3,500 Indian soldiers and about 5,000 Pakistani soldiers lost their lives, with tens of thousands wounded in total.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-05-21 |title=1971 India-Pakistan War {{!}} History, Bangladesh, Details, Outcome, United States, Russia, & Timeline {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/1971-India-Pakistan-War |access-date=2025-05-25 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Another source states that Pakistan suffered around 8,000 killed and 25,000 wounded, while India had 3,000 dead and 12,000 wounded.<ref name="Century Air Warfare 1997, pages 384">''The Encyclopedia of 20th Century Air Warfare'', edited by Chris Bishop (Amber publishing 1997, republished 2004 pages 384–387 {{ISBN|1-904687-26-1}})</ref> The loss of [[Vehicle armour|armoured vehicles]] was similarly imbalanced and this finally represented a defeat for Pakistan.<ref name="Century Air Warfare 1997, pages 384" />

The Indian Army's improved performance following its defeat in the [[Sino-Indian War]] in 1962 boosted its morale and prestige.<ref name="Hindustan Times, 2008">{{cite news |last1=Singh |first1=Dipender |date=27 June 2008 |title=Sam gave dignity to Army in 1971, after 1962 debacle |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/delhi/sam-gave-dignity-to-army-in-1971-after-1962-debacle/story-s3usXYBVqUlgYGYqbFrSIO.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226221029/http://www.hindustantimes.com/delhi/sam-gave-dignity-to-army-in-1971-after-1962-debacle/story-s3usXYBVqUlgYGYqbFrSIO.html |archive-date=26 December 2016 |access-date=26 December 2016 |work=Hindustan Times}}</ref>

=== Naval operations ===
{{main|Indo-Pakistani Naval War of 1971}}

[[File:Ussdiablo.jpg|thumb|250px|Pakistan's {{ship|PNS|Ghazi}} sank off the fairway [[buoy]] of [[Visakhapatnam]] near the eastern coast of India, making it the first submarine casualty in the waters around the [[Indian subcontinent]]. ]]
[[File:1971 Indian Aero-Naval Operations.png|left|thumb|[[Indian Navy|Indian navy]] had [[blockade]]d Pakistan's trade and supply lines in [[Bay of Bengal]] in Eastern theatre; Airforce [[Strategic bombing|bombed]] and raided several towns and some cities in [[East Pakistan]].]]
[[NHQ (Pakistan Navy)|Navy NHQ]] staffers and commanders of the [[Pakistan Navy]] knew very well that unlike the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965|1965 war]], the Navy was ill-prepared for the naval conflict with India.<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors">{{cite book|last=Goldrick|first=James|title=No Easy Answers|year=1997|publisher=Lancer's Publications and Distributors|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-1-897829-02-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6XW7kKHQeQoC&pg=PA45|access-date=15 September 2020|archive-date=18 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201018170459/https://books.google.com/books?id=6XW7kKHQeQoC&pg=PA45|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|65}} The Pakistan Navy was in no condition to fight an offensive war in deep water against the [[Indian Navy]], and neither was it in a condition to mount a serious defence against Indian Navy's seaborne encroachment.<ref name="Sona Printers, India">{{cite book|url=http://www.navy.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/PIAMA02.pdf|title=No Easy Answers|last1=Goldrick|first1=James|date=1997|publisher=Sona Printers, India|isbn=1-897829-02-7|location=New Delhi, India|access-date=24 December 2016|archive-date=24 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161224095145/http://www.navy.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/PIAMA02.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|75–76}}

In the western theatre of the war, the Indian Navy's [[Western Naval Command]], under Vice admiral [[Sourendra Nath Kohli|S.N. Kohli]], successfully launched a surprise attack on the [[port of Karachi]] on the night of 4/5 December 1971 under the codename [[Operation Trident (Indo-Pakistani War)|''Trident'']].{{citation needed|date=February 2023}} The naval attack involving the Soviet-built [[Osa-class missile boat]]s sank the Pakistan Navy's destroyer {{ship|PNS|Khaibar|1956|6}} and minesweeper {{ship|PNS|Muhafiz}} while {{ship|PNS|Shah Jahan|DD-962|6}} was also badly damaged.{{citation needed|date=February 2023}} Pakistani naval sources reported that about 720 Pakistani sailors were killed or wounded, and Pakistan lost reserve fuel and many commercial ships, thus crippling the Pakistan Navy's further involvement in the conflict.<ref name="Sona Printers, India" />{{rp|85–87}} Seeking to retaliate, the Pakistan Navy submarines hunted for the major Indian warships.<ref>{{cite book |last=Till |first=Geoffrey |author-link=Geoffrey Till |title=Seapower: A Guide for the Twenty-first Century |year=2004 |publisher=Frank Cass |page=179 |isbn=0-7146-5542-2}}</ref> On 9 December 1971, {{ship|PNS|Hangor|S131|2}} sank {{INS|Khukri|F149|6}}, inflicting 194 Indian casualties, and this attack was the first submarine kill since World War II.<ref name="Seaforth Publishing, Branfill-Cook">{{cite book|last1=Branfill-Cook|first1=Roger|title=Torpedo: The Complete History of the World's Most Revolutionary Naval Weapon|publisher=Seaforth Publishing|isbn=9781848322158|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9lquBQAAQBAJ&q=ins%20khukri%20world%20war%20II%20This%20was%20the%20first%20submarine%20kill%20since%20%5B%5BWorld%20War%20II%5D%5D&pg=PA229|access-date=24 December 2016|language=en|year=2014|archive-date=22 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201022161948/https://books.google.com/books?id=9lquBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA229&q=ins%20khukri%20world%20war%20II%20This%20was%20the%20first%20submarine%20kill%20since%20%5B%5BWorld%20War%20II%5D%5D|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|229}}<ref name="bharat">{{cite web|url=http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/NAVY/History/1971War/44-Attacks-On-Karachi.html |title=Trident, Grandslam and Python: Attacks on Karachi |website=Bharat Rakshak |access-date=20 October 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090926174134/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/NAVY/History/1971War/44-Attacks-On-Karachi.html |archive-date=26 September 2009 }}</ref>

The [[INS Khukri (F149)#Sinking|sinking of INS ''Khukri'']] was followed by another Indian attack on the port of Karachi on the night of 8/9 December 1971 under the codename [[Operation Python|''Python'']].{{citation needed|date=February 2023}} A [[Squadron (naval)|squadron]] of Indian Navy's Osa missile boats approached the Karachi port and launched a series of Soviet-acquired [[P-15 Termit|Styx missiles]], that resulted in further destruction of reserve fuel tanks and the sinking of three Pakistani merchant ships, as well as foreign ships docked in Karachi.<ref name="Pakistan Defence, Usman">{{cite web|last1=Shabir|first1=Usman|title=The Second Missile Attack " PakDef Military Consortium|url=http://pakdef.org/the-second-missile-attack/|website=pakdef.org|publisher=Pakistan Defence, Usman|access-date=24 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161224095638/http://pakdef.org/the-second-missile-attack/|archive-date=24 December 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> The PAF did not attack the Indian Navy ships, and confusion remained the next day when the civilian pilots of [[Pakistan International Airlines|Pakistan International]], acting as [[reconnaissance]] war pilots, misidentified {{ship|PNS|Zulfiqar|K265|6}} and the air force [[Friendly fire|attacked its own warship]], inflicting major damages and killing several officers on board.<ref name="defencejournal.com">{{cite web|url=http://defencejournal.com/may98/fightergap2.htm |title=Defence Notes |publisher=defencejournal.com |access-date=25 April 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120101020717/http://www.defencejournal.com/may98/fightergap2.htm |archive-date=1 January 2012 }}</ref>

In the eastern theatre of the war, the Indian [[Eastern Naval Command]], under Vice Admiral [[Nilakanta Krishnan]], completely isolated East Pakistan by a [[naval blockade]] in the [[Bay of Bengal]], trapping the Eastern Pakistan Navy and eight foreign merchant ships in their ports.<ref name="Sona Printers, India" />{{rp|82–83}} From 4 December onwards, the aircraft carrier {{INS|Vikrant|1961|6}} was deployed, and its [[Hawker Sea Hawk|Sea Hawk]] fighter-bombers attacked many coastal towns in East Pakistan, including Chittagong and [[Cox's Bazar]].<ref name="Olsen">{{cite book|last=Olsen|first=John Andreas|title=Global Air Power|year=2011|publisher=Potomac Books|isbn=978-1-59797-680-0|page=237}}</ref> India also launched an amphibious assault, ''Operation Beaver'', near Cox's Bazar on 14 December 1971 due to unfounded fears of a Pakistani retreat into Burma, Led by "Romeo Force" with 1/3 Gorkha Rifles, the landing failed–only 12 Indian troops managing to disembark out of a battalion, the area was held by Pakistani regular troops.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gill |first=John H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m2q6SgAACAAJ |title=An Atlas of the 1971 India - Pakistan War: The Creation of Bangladesh |date=2003 |publisher=National Defense University, Near East South Asia Center for Strategic Studies |pages=32 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Niazi |first=Amir Abdullah Khan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6remQgAACAAJ |title=The Betrayal of East Pakistan |date=1998 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-577727-7 |pages=144 |language=en}}</ref> Pakistan countered the threat by sending the submarine {{ship|PNS|Ghazi}}, which [[Sinking of PNS Ghazi|sank]] off the coast of [[Visakhapatnam]], due to an internal explosion, though whether this was triggered by Indian depth charges, diving to avoid them or some other reason has never been established.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.hindu.com/mp/2006/12/02/stories/2006120202090100.htm| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107165657/http://www.hindu.com/mp/2006/12/02/stories/2006120202090100.htm| url-status=dead| archive-date=7 November 2012|location=Chennai, India | work=[[The Hindu]]|title=Remembering our war heroes|date=2 December 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Does the US want war with India? |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2007/jan/22inter.htm |work=Rediff.com |date=31 December 2004 |access-date=14 April 2011 |archive-date=25 October 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101025190541/http://www.rediff.com/news/2007/jan/22inter.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

Due to a high number of defections, the Navy relied on deploying the [[Pakistan Marines]], led by [[Rear Admiral]] [[Leslie Mungavin]], where they had to conduct [[Riverine Warfare|riverine operations]] against the Indian Army, but they too suffered major losses, mainly due to their lack of understanding of [[expeditionary warfare]] and the [[Geography of Bangladesh|wet terrain]] of East Pakistan.{{citation needed|date=February 2023}}

[[File:INS Vikrant (R11) launches an Alize aircraft during Indo-Pakistani War of 1971.jpg|thumbnail|Indian aircraft carrier {{INS|Vikrant|1961|6}} launches an [[Breguet Alizé|Alize aircraft]]]]
The damage inflicted on the Pakistan Navy stood at 7 [[gunboat]]s, 1 minesweeper, 1 submarine, 2 destroyers, 3 patrol crafts belonging to the [[Pakistan Coast Guard]], 18 cargo, supply and communication vessels; and large-scale damage inflicted on the naval base and docks in the coastal town of Karachi. Three merchant navy ships – ''Anwarbaksh'', ''Pasni'' and ''Madhumathi'' –<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irfc-nausena.nic.in/irfc/ezine/Trans2Trimph/chapters/39_transfer%20of%20ships1.htm |title=Utilisation of Pakistan merchant ships seized during the 1971 war |publisher=Irfc-nausena.nic.in |access-date=27 July 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301204938/http://www.irfc-nausena.nic.in/irfc/ezine/Trans2Trimph/chapters/39_transfer%20of%20ships1.htm |archive-date=1 March 2012}}</ref> and ten smaller vessels were captured.<ref name="Orbat">{{cite web|title=Damage {{sic|Asse|sment|nolink=y}} – 1971 Indo-Pak Naval War |website=B. Harry |url=http://www.orbat.com/site/cimh/navy/kills(1971)-2.pdf |access-date=20 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100508210258/http://orbat.com/site/cimh/navy/kills%281971%29-2.pdf |archive-date=8 May 2010}}</ref> Around 1900 personnel were lost, while 1413 servicemen were captured by Indian forces in Dacca.<ref name="losses">{{cite web|title=Military Losses in the 1971 Indo-Pakistani War |website=Venik |url=http://www.aeronautics.ru/archive/vif2_project/indo_pak_war_1971.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020225045411/http://www.aeronautics.ru/archive/vif2_project/indo_pak_war_1971.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=25 February 2002 |access-date=30 May 2005}}</ref> According to one Pakistani scholar, [[Tariq Ali]], Pakistan lost half its navy in the war.<ref name="Ali1983">{{cite book |author=Tariq Ali |author-link=Tariq Ali |year=1983 |title=Can Pakistan Survive? The Death of a State |publisher=Penguin Books |page=95 |isbn=978-0-14-022401-6 |quote=In a two-week war, Pakistan lost half its navy, a quarter of its air force and a third of its army.}}</ref>

=== Air operations ===
{{main|East Pakistan Air Operations, 1971}}

[[File:Mig21 pair during 1971 war.jpg|thumb|Indian Air Force [[MiG-21]]s during the war.]]
After the attempted pre-emptive attack, the PAF adopted a defensive stance in response to the Indian retaliation. As the war progressed, the IAF continued to battle the PAF over conflict zones, but the number of sorties flown by the PAF decreased day–by–day.<ref>Jon Lake, "Air Power Analysis: Indian Airpower", ''World Air Power Journal'', Volume 12</ref><ref>Group Captain M. Kaiser Tufail, "Great Battles of the Pakistan Airforce" and "Pakistan Air Force Combat Heritage" (pafcombat) et al., Feroze sons, {{ISBN|969-0-01892-2}}</ref> The IAF flew 4,000 sorties while the PAF offered little in retaliation, partly because of the paucity of non-Bengali technical personnel.{{citation needed|date=February 2023}}

This lack of retaliation has also been attributed to the deliberate decision of the PAF's [[AHQ (Pakistan Air Force)|AHQ]] to cut its losses, as it had already incurred huge losses in the conflict in the liberation war in the East.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID+in0189%29|title=Indo-Pakistani conflict|work=Library of Congress Country Studies|access-date=20 October 2009|archive-date=19 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151019084136/http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID+in0189%29|url-status=live}}</ref> The PAF avoided making contacts with the Indian Navy after the latter raided the port of Karachi twice, but the PAF did retaliate by bombing [[Okha, India|Okha]] harbour, destroying the fuel tanks used by the boats that had attacked.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.paffalcons.com/gallery/aviation-art/syed-hussaini/trauma-and-reconstruction.php|title=Picture Gallery – Aviation Art by Group Captain Syed Masood Akhtar Hussaini|publisher=PAF Falcons|access-date=27 July 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830105254/http://www.paffalcons.com/gallery/aviation-art/syed-hussaini/trauma-and-reconstruction.php|archive-date=30 August 2011}}</ref>

In the east, [[No. 14 Squadron (Pakistan Air Force)|No. 14 Squadron "Tail Choppers"]] was destroyed and its CO, [[Squadron Leader]] [[Parvaiz Mehdi Qureshi|PQ Mehdi]], was taken [[Prisoner of War|POW]], putting Pakistan's air command in Dhaka out of commission. India thereby achieved total [[air superiority]] on the eastern front.{{citation needed|date=February 2023}}

At the end of the war, PAF pilots made successful escapes from East Pakistan to neighbouring [[Myanmar|Burma]]; many PAF personnel had already left the East for Burma on their own before Dacca was overrun by the Indian military in December 1971.<ref name="Defence Journal, 2001">{{cite web|last1=Khan|first1=Sher|title=Last Flight from East Pakistan|url=http://www.defencejournal.com/2001/feb/last-flight.htm|website=defencejournal.com|access-date=24 December 2016|archive-date=3 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303202521/http://www.defencejournal.com/2001/feb/last-flight.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Indian attacks on Pakistan===
[[File:PAF hangar at Dacca airfield after an air attack by the IAF, Dec 71.jpg|thumb|A destroyed aircraft hangar at Dacca airfield after an Indian air attack.]]
As the Indian Army tightened its grip in East Pakistan, the IAF continued with its attacks against Pakistan as the campaign developed into a series of daylight anti-airfield, anti-radar, and close-support attacks by fighter jets, with night attacks against airfields and strategic targets by [[English Electric Canberra|Canberras]] and [[Antonov An-12|An-12s]], while Pakistan responded with similar night attacks with its [[Martin B-57 Canberra|B-57s]] and [[Lockheed C-130 Hercules|C-130s]].<ref name="Pen and Sword, Bowman">{{cite book|last1=Bowman|first1=Martin|title=Cold War Jet Combat: Air-to-Air Jet Fighter Operations 1950–1972|publisher=Pen and Sword|isbn=9781473874633|url=https://archive.org/details/cold-war-jet-combat-air-to-air-jet-fighter-operations-1950-1972|url-access=registration|access-date=24 December 2016|language=en|year=2016}}</ref>{{rp|107–108}}

The PAF deployed its [[Shenyang J-6|F-6s]] mainly on defensive [[combat air patrol]] missions over their own bases, leaving the PAF unable to conduct effective offensive operations.<ref name="Pen and Sword, Bowman" />{{rp|107}} The IAF's raids damaged one [[United States Air Force|USAF]] and one UN aircraft in Dacca, while a [[Royal Canadian Air Force|RCAF]] [[de Havilland Canada DHC-4 Caribou|DHC-4 Caribou]] was destroyed in Islamabad, along with the USAF's [[Beechcraft L-23 Seminole|Beech U-8]] owned by the [[United States military|US military]]'s liaison chief [[Brigadier-General]] [[Chuck Yeager]].<ref name="Pen and Sword, Bowman" />{{rp|107}}<ref name="Russia & India Report">{{cite web|last1=Simha|first1=Rakesh Krishnan|title=How India brought down the US' supersonic man|url=https://www.rbth.com/articles/2012/01/17/how_india_brought_down_the_us_supersonic_man_14208|website=Russia & India Report|access-date=24 December 2016|date=17 January 2012|archive-date=10 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010083536/https://www.rbth.com/articles/2012/01/17/how_india_brought_down_the_us_supersonic_man_14208|url-status=live}}</ref> Sporadic raids by the IAF continued against PAF forward air bases in Pakistan until the end of the war, and interdiction and close-support operations were maintained.<ref name="Pen and Sword, Bowman" />{{rp|107–108}}

One of the most successful air raids by India into West Pakistan happened on 8 December 1971, when Indian Hunter aircraft from the [[Pathankot Air Force Station|Pathankot]]-based 20 Squadron, attacked the Pakistani base in [[PAF Base Murid|Murid]] and destroyed 5 [[North American F-86 Sabre|F-86]] aircraft on the ground. This was confirmed by Pakistan's military historian, Air Commodore [[Kaiser Tufail|M Kaiser Tufail]], in his book ''In The Ring and on Its Feet: Pakistan Air Force in the 1971 Indo-Pak War''.<ref>{{cite news |author1=Vishnu Som|title=Exclusive Details of How Air Force Raided A Pak Air Base|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/exclusive-details-of-how-air-force-raided-a-pak-air-base-destroyed-jets-1803601|publisher=NDTV|access-date=25 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180125034821/https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/exclusive-details-of-how-air-force-raided-a-pak-air-base-destroyed-jets-1803601|archive-date=25 January 2018}}</ref>

The PAF played a more limited role in the operations. They were reinforced by [[Mirage III|Mirages]] from an unidentified Middle Eastern ally (whose identity remains unknown).<ref name="Pen and Sword, Bowman" />{{rp|107}} According to author Martin Bowman, "Libyan [[Northrop F-5|F-5s]] were reportedly deployed to [[Sargodha Airbase|Sargodha AFB]], perhaps as a potential training unit to prepare Pakistani pilots for an influx of more F-5s from Saudi Arabia."<ref name="Pen and Sword, Bowman" />{{rp|112}} The IAF was able to conduct a wide range of missions – troop support; air combat; deep penetration strikes; para-dropping behind enemy lines; feints to draw enemy fighters away from the actual target; bombing and reconnaissance.<ref name="Pen and Sword, Bowman" />{{rp|107}} The PAF, which was solely focused on air combat, was blown out of the subcontinent's skies within the first week of the war.<ref name="Pen and Sword, Bowman" />{{rp|107}} Those PAF aircraft that survived took refuge at [[Pahlavi Iran|Iranian]] air bases or in concrete bunkers, refusing to offer a fight.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rbth.com/blogs/2015/06/04/why_the_indian_air_force_has_a_high_crash_rate_43501|title=Why the Indian Air Force has a high crash rate|first=Rakesh Krishnan|last=Simha|date=4 June 2015|website=[[Russia Beyond]]|access-date=27 October 2020|archive-date=10 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010083539/https://www.rbth.com/blogs/2015/06/04/why_the_indian_air_force_has_a_high_crash_rate_43501|url-status=live}}</ref>

India flew 1,978 sorties in the East and about 4,000 in Pakistan, while the PAF flew about 30 and 2,840 at the respective fronts.<ref name="Pen and Sword, Bowman" />{{rp|107}} By the end of the war, India had lost 45–65 aircraft while Pakistan lost 75.<ref name="Leonard2006p806">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Boewe |first=Charles |editor-last=Leonard |editor-first=Thomas M. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the Developing World |title=Indian-Pakistani Wars |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gc2NAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA806 |access-date=8 December 2023 |year=2006 |publisher=Routledge |volume=2 |isbn=978-0-415-97663-3 |page=806}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bishop |first=Chris |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kya8AAAACAAJ |title=The Encyclopedia of 20th Century Air Warfare |date=2001 |publisher=Amber Books Limited |isbn=978-1-904687-26-9 |page='p' 387 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Gill2003">{{Cite book |last=Gill |first=John H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m2q6SgAACAAJ |title=An Atlas of the 1971 India - Pakistan War: The Creation of Bangladesh |date=2003 |publisher=National Defense University, Near East South Asia Center for Strategic Studies |page=55 |language=en}}</ref>

[[File:Historical Pakistan.gif|thumb|left|250px|The map shows Pakistan and East Pakistan; between them was {{convert|1000|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} of [[Geography of India|Indian territory]].]] [[File:T-55 tanks in the Bangladesh Liberation War.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Indian Army Armoured Corps|Indian]] [[T-55]] tanks penetrating the [[India-East Pakistan border|Indo-East Pakistan border]] towards [[Dacca]].]]

[[File:WLUS (20).jpg|thumb|105 mm [[Jonga]]-mounted [[Recoilless rifle|RCL gun]] which destroyed most of the tanks during the [[Battle of Longewala]]]]

=== Surrender of Pakistan Eastern Command ===
{{main|Instrument of Surrender (1971)|East Pakistan Military Command}}

The Instrument of Surrender of Pakistan Eastern Command stationed in East Pakistan was signed between Lieutenant General Jagjit Singh Aurora, the GOC-in-C of Indian Eastern Command, and Lieutenant-General A.A.K. Niazi, the Commander of the Pakistan Eastern Command, at the [[Ramna Race Course]] in Dacca at 16:31Hrs [[Indian Standard Time|IST]] on 16 December 1971.{{citation needed|date=February 2020}} There was a problem over who would represent the Bangladesh government, as the three Bangladeshi [[battalion]] commanders - Lt Cols [[K. M. Shafiullah|Shafiullah]], [[Khaled Mosharraf|Khaled Musharraf]] and Ziaur Rahman - were located too far away to be airlifted on time. The responsibility fell on the only armed forces officer available, Gp Capt [[A. K. Khandker|AK Khondkar]], chief of the newly formed [[Bangladesh Air Force|BAF]].<ref name="LM">{{Cite news|date=15 December 1971|title=1971 war: When Indian officers rescued Pakistan general from a lynch mob|work=[[The Times of India]]|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/when-indian-officers-rescued-pakistan-general-from-a-lynch-mob/articleshow/88291018.cms|access-date=22 December 2021|archive-date=22 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211222172914/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/when-indian-officers-rescued-pakistan-general-from-a-lynch-mob/articleshow/88291018.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> As the [[Surrender (military)|surrender]] was accepted silently by Lieutenant-General Aurora, the surrounding crowds on the race course started shouting [[Anti-Pakistan sentiment|anti-Pakistan]] slogans, and there were reports of abuses aimed at the surrendering commanders of Pakistani military.<ref>{{cite news|last=Nayar |first=Kuldip |date=3 February 1998 |title=Of betrayal and bungling |url=http://www.indianexpress.com/res/web/pIe/ie/daily/19980203/03450744.html |newspaper=The Indian Express |access-date=20 October 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090823045047/http://www.indianexpress.com/res/web/pIe/ie/daily/19980203/03450744.html |archive-date=23 August 2009}}</ref> Indian officers and an Indian diplomat, [[Ministry of External Affairs (India)|MEA]] [[Joint secretary to the Government of India|joint secretary]] for Pakistan AK Ray, had to form a [[Human chain (politics)|human chain]] around Lt Gen Niazi to protect him from being [[Lynching|lynched]].<ref name="LM" />

Hostilities officially ended at 14:30 [[Greenwich Mean Time|GMT]] on 17 December, after the surrender on 16 December, and India claimed large gains of territory in Pakistan (although pre-war boundaries were recognised after the war). The war confirmed the independence of [[Bangladesh]].<ref name="Pen and Sword, Bowman" />{{rp|107}}

Following the surrender, the Indian Army took approximately 90,000 Pakistani servicemen and their Bengali supporters as [[prisoners of war|POWs]], making it the largest surrender since [[World War II]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Vijay Diwas: All you need to know about 1971 war with Pakistan |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/vijay-diwas-all-you-need-to-know-about-1971-war-with-pakistan/articleshow/79751734.cms|access-date=2021-11-26|work=The Times of India|language=en|archive-date=26 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211126052521/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/vijay-diwas-all-you-need-to-know-about-1971-war-with-pakistan/articleshow/79751734.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> Initial counts recorded that approximately 79,676 war prisoners were uniformed personnel, and the overwhelming majority of the war prisoners were officers – most of them from the army and navy, while relatively small numbers were from the air force and marines; others in larger number were serving in paramilitary units.<ref name="Skyhorse Publishing, Inc. Cloughley">{{cite book|last1=Cloughley|first1=Brian|title=A History of the Pakistan Army: Wars and Insurrections|date=2016|publisher=Skyhorse Publishing, Inc.|isbn=9781631440397|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JE1kCwAAQBAJ&q=Pakistani%20Prisoners%20of%20War%20%20Indian%20army&pg=PT280|access-date=8 August 2017|language=en|archive-date=28 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201028070901/https://books.google.com/books?id=JE1kCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT280&q=Pakistani%20Prisoners%20of%20War%20%20Indian%20army|url-status=live}}</ref>

The remaining prisoners were civilians who were either family members of the military personnel or volunteers ([[Razakars (Pakistan)|razakars]]). The [[Hamoodur Rahman Commission]] and the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 Prisoners of War Investigation|POW Investigation Commission]] reports instituted by Pakistan lists the Pakistani POWs as given in the table below. Apart from soldiers, it was estimated that 15,000 Bengali civilians were also made prisoners of war.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nuYcwYCcjpIC&q=many%20pakistani%20women%20prisoners%20of%20war%20in%201971&pg=PA216|title=Mainsprings of Indian and Pakistani Foreign Policies|access-date=27 July 2012|isbn=9780816607204|last1=Burke|first1=S. M.|date=1974|publisher=University of Minnesota Press |archive-date=15 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201015010543/https://books.google.com/books?id=nuYcwYCcjpIC&pg=PA216&q=many%20pakistani%20women%20prisoners%20of%20war%20in%201971|url-status=live}}</ref>

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Inter-service branch !! Number of captured Pakistani POWs !! Officer commanding
|-
| {{army|PAK}} || 54,154 || [[Lieutenant-General]] [[Amir Abdullah Khan Niazi]]
|-
| [[File:Naval Jack of Pakistan.svg|20px]] [[Pakistan Navy]]/[[Pakistan Marines]] || 1,381 || [[Rear-Admiral]] [[Mohammad Shariff]]
|-
| {{Air force|PAK}} || 833 || [[Air Commodore]] [[Inamul Haque Khan|Inamul Haq]]
|-
|Paramilitary ([[East Pakistan Rifles]]/[[East Pakistan Police|Police]]) || 22,000 || [[Major-General]] [[Rao Farman Ali]]
|-
|[[Government of East Pakistan|Civil government personnel]] || 12,000 || [[Governor of East Pakistan|Governor]] [[Abdul Motaleb Malik]]
|-
| Total: || 90,368 || ~
|}

== Foreign reaction and involvement ==

=== United States and Soviet Union ===
[[File:Blood telegram.png|The [[Blood Telegram]]|thumb]]
The [[Soviet Union]] sympathised with the [[East Pakistanis]], and supported the Indian Army and [[Mukti Bahini]]'s incursion against Pakistan during the war, in a broader view of recognising that the [[Independence of Bangladesh|secession]] of East Pakistan as [[People's Republic of Bangladesh|Independent Bangladesh]] would weaken the position of its rivals— the United States and China. The Soviet Union gave assurances to India that if a confrontation with the United States or China developed, it would take counter-measures. This assurance was enshrined in the [[Indo-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation]] signed in August 1971.{{citation needed|date=August 2023}}

The Soviet Union accepted the Indian position that any resolution to the crisis in East Pakistan would have to be on terms acceptable to India and the Awami League, but the Indo-Soviet treaty did not mean a total commitment to the Indian stance, according to author [[Robert Jackson (Wantage MP)|Robert Jackson]]. The Soviet Union continued economic aid to Pakistan and made sympathetic gestures to Pakistan until mid-October 1971.<ref name="Jackson1975">{{cite book |last1=Jackson |first1=Robert |author-link=Robert Jackson (Wantage MP) |year=1975 |title=South Asian Crisis: India — Pakistan — Bangla Desh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tb6vCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA72 |publisher=Chatto & Windus |pages=72–73 |isbn=978-1-349-04163-3 |access-date=2 October 2021 |archive-date=1 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211001234759/https://books.google.com/books?id=tb6vCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA72 |url-status=live }}</ref> By November 1971, the [[Ambassador of the Soviet Union to Pakistan|Soviet ambassador]] to Pakistan [[Aleksei A. Rodionov|Alexei Rodionov]] directed a secretive message (''Rodionov message'') that ultimately warned Pakistan that "it will be embarking on a suicidal course if it escalates tensions in the subcontinent".<ref name="Monitoring Service of the British Broadcasting Corporation">{{cite book|title=Summary of World Broadcasts: Far East|date=1971|publisher=Monitoring Service of the British Broadcasting Corporation|location=London, UK|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0ETRAAAAMAAJ&q=rodionov|access-date=22 December 2016|language=en|archive-date=16 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201016211437/https://books.google.com/books?id=0ETRAAAAMAAJ&q=rodionov|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|part-3}}

The United States stood with Pakistan by supporting it morally, politically, economically and materially when U.S. President [[Richard Nixon]] and his Secretary of State [[Henry Kissinger]] refused to use rhetoric in a hopeless attempt to intervene in a large civil war. The U.S. establishment had the impression that the Soviets were in an informal alliance with India, and the US therefore needed Pakistan to help to limit Soviet [[Great Game|influence in South Asia]].<ref name="Lancer Publishers, Cheema"/>{{rp|281}} During the [[Cold War (1953–62)|Cold War]], Pakistan was a close [[CENTO|formal ally]] of the United States and also had [[China–Pakistan relations|close relations]] with the People's Republic of China, with whom Nixon had been negotiating a [[Sino-American relations#Rapprochement|''rapprochement'']] and where he [[Nixon visit to China|intended to visit]] in February 1972.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Saunders |first=Harold H. |author-link=Harold H. Saunders |date=July–August 2014 |title=What Really Happened in Bangladesh |url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/bangladesh/2014-06-16/what-really-happened-bangladesh |magazine=Foreign Affairs}}</ref> Nixon feared that an Indian invasion of Pakistan would mean total Soviet domination of the region, and that it would seriously undermine the global position of the United States and the regional position of America's new tactical ally, China.<ref name="Lancer Publishers, Cheema">{{cite book|last1=Cheema|first1=Amar|title=The Crimson Chinar: The Kashmir Conflict: A Politico Military Perspective|publisher=Lancer Publishers|year=2014|isbn=978-81-7062-301-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qc25BwAAQBAJ&q=Nixon%20encourage%20iran%20%201971%20war%20pakistan&pg=PA282|access-date=27 December 2016|language=en|archive-date=7 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207220942/https://books.google.com/books?id=Qc25BwAAQBAJ&q=Nixon%20encourage%20iran%20%201971%20war%20pakistan&pg=PA282|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|281–282}} Nixon encouraged [[Iran]] to send military supplies to Pakistan.<ref name="Oxford University Press, Alvandi">{{cite book|last1=Alvandi|first1=Roham|year=2016|title=Nixon, Kissinger, and the Shah: The United States and Iran in the Cold War|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=61|isbn=978-0-19-061068-5|url=https://archive.org/details/nixonkissingersh0000alva/page/n5/mode/2up|url-access=registration}}</ref> The Nixon administration also ignored reports it received of the "genocidal" activities of the Pakistani military in East Pakistan, most notably the [[Blood telegram]], and this prompted widespread criticism and condemnation – both by the [[United States Congress]] and in the international press.<ref name="uspol" /><ref>{{cite book|last=Hanhimäki|first=Jussi|title=The flawed architect: Henry Kissinger and American foreign policy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pPjrpGUe7CEC|year=2004|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-517221-8|access-date=15 September 2020|archive-date=15 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201015002403/https://books.google.com/books?id=pPjrpGUe7CEC|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="lewisnyt">{{cite news |last=Lewis |first=John P. |date=9 December 1971 |title=Mr. Nixon and South Asia |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1971/12/09/archives/mr-nixon-and-south-asia.html |newspaper=The New York Times |quote=The Nixon Administration's South Asia policy... is beyond redemption |access-date=23 July 2018 |archive-date=23 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180723064707/https://www.nytimes.com/1971/12/09/archives/mr-nixon-and-south-asia.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Nixon himself stated, "[[Nigerian Civil War|Biafra]] stirred up a few Catholics. But you know, I think Biafra stirred people up more than Pakistan, because Pakistan they're just a bunch of brown goddamn Moslems."<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mishra |first=Pankaj |date=2013-09-16 |title=Unholy Alliances |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2013/09/23/unholy-alliances-3 |access-date=2025-08-07 |work=The New Yorker |language=en-US |issn=0028-792X}}</ref>

Then U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations, [[George H. W. Bush]], introduced a resolution in the [[United Nations Security Council|UN Security Council]] calling for a cease-fire and the withdrawal of armed forces by India and Pakistan.<ref>{{cite web |title=President Richard Nixon and the Presidents|url=https://www.nixontapes.org/presidents.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409154628/https://www.nixontapes.org/presidents.html|archive-date=9 April 2022|access-date=30 March 2020|website=nixontapes.org|quote=WHT 016-048 12/08/1971 11:06 – 11:14 am P, GHWB}}[https://www.nixontapes.org/ghwb/016-048.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409154631/https://www.nixontapes.org/ghwb/016-048.pdf|date=9 April 2022}}</ref> However, it was [[United Nations Security Council veto power|vetoed]] by the Soviet Union, and the following days witnessed the use of great pressure on the Soviets from the Nixon-Kissinger duo to get India to withdraw, but to no avail.<ref>{{cite news |date=26 December 2006 |title=1971 War: How the US tried to corner India |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2006/dec/26claude.htm |work=Rediff.com |access-date=14 April 2011 |archive-date=28 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130828172624/http://www.rediff.com/news/2006/dec/26claude.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

On 10 December, Nixon ordered [[Task Force 74]], led by the aircraft carrier {{USS|Enterprise|CVN-65|6}}, to the [[Bay of Bengal]]. ''Enterprise'' and its escort ships arrived on station on 15 December 1971.<ref name="Routledge, Mishra">{{cite book |last1=Rajagopalan |first1=Rajesh |last2=Mishra |first2=Atul |year=2015 |title=Nuclear South Asia: Keywords and Concepts |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p8BcCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT207 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-32475-1 |page=268 |access-date=18 September 2018 |archive-date=7 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207220943/https://books.google.com/books?id=p8BcCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT207 |url-status=live}}</ref> According to a Russian documentary, the United Kingdom also deployed a carrier battle group led by the aircraft carrier {{HMS|Eagle|R05|6}} to the Bay,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.frontierindia.net/british-aircraft-carrier-hms-eagle-tried-to-intervene-in-1971-india-pakistan-war |title=British aircraft carrier 'HMS Eagle' tried to intervene in 1971 India – Pakistan war |website=Frontier India |date=18 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160110154941/http://frontierindia.net/british-aircraft-carrier-hms-eagle-tried-to-intervene-in-1971-india-pakistan-war/ |archive-date=10 January 2016 |access-date=27 July 2012}}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=citations are to a blog (Frontier India) repeating some guy's translation of a Russian-language video, there must be a scholarly history book or contemporary news report for this|date=April 2016}} on her final deployment.

On 6 and 13 December, the [[Soviet Navy]] dispatched two groups of [[cruiser]]s and [[destroyer]]s from [[Vladivostok]];{{citation needed|date=August 2023}} they trailed US Task Force 74 into the Indian Ocean from 18 December 1971 until 7 January 1972. The Soviets also had a [[Ballistic missile submarine|nuclear submarine]] to help ward off the threat posed by the USS ''Enterprise'' task force in the Indian Ocean.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/NAVY/History/1971War/Games.html |title=Cold war games |website=Bharat Rakshak |access-date=20 October 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110609180906/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/NAVY/History/1971War/Games.html |archive-date=9 June 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=11 December 2009 |title=Birth of a nation |url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/birth-of-a-nation/552795/3 |newspaper=The Indian Express |access-date=14 April 2011 |archive-date=5 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200605140439/http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/birth-of-a-nation/552795/3 |url-status=live}}</ref>

As the war progressed, it became apparent to the United States that India was going to invade and disintegrate Pakistan in a matter of weeks, therefore President Nixon spoke with the USSR General Secretary [[Leonid Brezhnev]] on a [[Moscow–Washington hotline|hotline]] on 10 December, where Nixon reportedly urged Brezhnev to restrain India as he quoted: "in the strongest possible terms to restrain India with which ... you [Brezhnev] have great influence and for whose actions you must share responsibility."<ref name="George Washington University press">{{cite web|title=Nixon/Kissinger Saw India as "Soviet Stooge" in 1971 South Asia Crisis|url=http://nsarchive.gwu.edu/news/20050629/|website=nsarchive.gwu.edu|publisher=George Washington University press|access-date=24 December 2016|archive-date=24 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161224173316/http://nsarchive.gwu.edu/news/20050629/|url-status=live}}</ref>

After the war, the United States accepted the new [[Balance of power (international relations)|balance of power]] and recognised India as a dominant player in South Asia; the US immediately engaged in strengthening [[Indo-US Relations|bilateral relations between the two countries]] in the successive years.<ref name="Springer, Watering">{{cite book |last1=Wetering |first1=Carina |year=2016 |title=Changing US Foreign Policy toward India |publisher=Springer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iYtjDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA69 |page=69 |isbn=9781137548627 |access-date=15 September 2020 |archive-date=9 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201009221550/https://books.google.com/books?id=iYtjDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA69 |url-status=live }}</ref> In June 1972, Soviet Ambassador Rodionov said, "the Soviet Union had always stood and would stand for the unity and territorial integrity of Pakistan". The USSR aided Pakistan economically on several technical and industrial projects.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Soviet aid for Pak projects |date=June 1972 |magazine=News Review on South Asia |pages=15–16}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=May 2024|reason=This is a news summary of a story in The Times of India quoting a Radio Pakistan broadcast - a snapshot at one point in time. By now there must be a scholarly source analyzing post-war Soviet-Pakistan bilateral relations.}}

A 2019 study argues "that Nixon and Kissinger routinely demonstrated psychological biases that led them to overestimate the likelihood of West Pakistani victory" in the war, and that they overestimated "the importance of the crisis to broader U.S. policy. The evidence fails to support Nixon and Kissinger's own framing of the 1971 crisis as a contest between cool-headed [[realpolitik]] and idealistic humanitarianism, and instead shows that Kissinger and Nixon's policy decisions harmed their stated goals because of repeated decision-making errors."<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Tilting at windmills: The flawed U.S. policy toward the 1971 Indo-Pakistani war|journal = Journal of Strategic Studies|volume = 42|issue = 5|pages = 677–700|last=Clary|first=Christopher|year=2019|doi=10.1080/01402390.2019.1570143|s2cid = 159267611}}</ref>

===China===

During the course of the war, China harshly criticised India for its involvement in the East Pakistan crises, and accused India of having [[Indian Century|imperialistic]] designs in South Asia.<ref name="Atlantic Publishers & Dist, Jayapalan">{{cite book|last1=Jayapalan|first1=N.|title=India and Her Neighbours|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist|isbn=9788171569120|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sQVkYiFCrVoC&q=china%201971%20indo%20pak%20war&pg=PA19|access-date=25 December 2016|language=en|year=2000|archive-date=16 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201016063529/https://books.google.com/books?id=sQVkYiFCrVoC&pg=PA19&q=china%201971%20indo%20pak%20war|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|19}} Before the war started, Chinese leaders and officials had long been philosophically advising the Pakistan government to make peaceful political settlements with the East Pakistani leaders, as China feared that India was secretly supporting, infiltrating, and arming the Bengali rebels against the [[Government of East Pakistan|East Pakistani government]].<ref name="Manohar, Singh">{{cite book |editor-last1=Singh |editor-first1=Swaran |year=2007 |title=China-Pakistan strategic cooperation : Indian perspectives |publisher=Manohar |location=New Delhi |page=61 |isbn=978-8173047619}}</ref><ref name="Columbia University Press, Jaffrelot">{{cite book |last1=Jaffrelot |first1=Christophe |year=2016 |title=Pakistan at the Crossroads: Domestic Dynamics and External Pressures |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A791CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA285 |publisher=Columbia University Press |page=285 |isbn=9780231540254 |access-date=15 September 2020 |archive-date=11 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201011104009/https://books.google.com/books?id=A791CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA285 |url-status=live }}</ref> China was also critical of the Government of East Pakistan, led by its [[Governor of East Pakistan|governor]] Lieutenant-General [[Tikka Khan]], which used ruthless measures to deal with the Bengali opposition, and did not endorse the Pakistani position on that issue.<ref name="Columbia University Press, Jaffrelot"/>

When the war started, China reproached India for its direct involvement and infiltration in East Pakistan.<ref name="Columbia University Press, Jaffrelot" /> It disagreed with Pakistani President Yahya Khan's consideration of military options, and criticised [[East Pakistan Awami League]] politicians' ties with India.<ref name="Columbia University Press, Jaffrelot" /> China reacted with great alarm when the prospects of Indian invasion of Pakistan and integration of [[Pakistan-administered Kashmir]] into their [[Indian-controlled Kashmir|side of Kashmir]], became imminent.<ref name="time13Dec1971" /> US President Nixon encouraged China to mobilise its [[People's Liberation Army|armed forces]] along its border with India to discourage the Indian assault, but the Chinese did not respond to this encouragement since the Indian Army's [[Northern Command (India)|Northern Command]] was well prepared to guard the [[Line of Actual Control]], and was already engaging and making advances against the Pakistan Army's [[X Corps (Pakistan)|X Corps]] in the [[Line of Control]].{{citation needed|date=February 2020}}

China did not welcome the break-up of Pakistan's unity by the East Pakistani politicians, and effectively vetoed the membership of [[Bangladesh]] when it applied to the United Nations in 1972.<ref name="oxnard">{{cite news|title=China Recognizes Bangladesh|agency=Associated Press|location=Oxnard, California, USA|date=1 September 1975|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=rnVKAAAAIBAJ&pg=4237,20391|access-date=15 September 2020|archive-date=28 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201028213206/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=rnVKAAAAIBAJ&pg=4237,20391|url-status=live}}</ref> China objected to admitting Bangladesh on the grounds that two UN resolutions concerning Bangladesh, requiring the [[Delhi Agreement|repatriation]] of Pakistani [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 Prisoners of War Investigation|POWs and civilians]], had not yet been implemented.<ref>{{cite news|title=China Veto Downs Bangladesh UN Entry|agency=United Press International|date=26 August 1972|location=Montreal, Quebec, Canada|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=GQsyAAAAIBAJ&pg=4712,6055847|access-date=15 September 2020|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414025755/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=GQsyAAAAIBAJ&pg=4712,6055847|url-status=live}}</ref> Furthermore, China refused to [[Foreign relations of Bangladesh|recognise]] the independence of Bangladesh until 31 August 1975.<ref name="oxnard" /><ref name="ABC-CLIO, Chau">{{cite book |last1=Samaranayake |first1=Nilanthi |editor1-last=Chau |editor1-first=Donovan C. |editor2-last=Kane |editor2-first=Thomas M. |year=2014 |chapter=China's Relations with the Small Countries of South Asia |title=China and International Security: History, Strategy, and 21st-Century Policy |volume=1 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |page=226 |isbn=978-1-4408-0002-3 |language=en}}</ref> To this date, its relations with Bangladesh are determined by the Pakistan factor.<ref name="Vij Books India Pvt Ltd, Raghavan">{{cite book |last1=Raghavan |first1=V. R. |year=2013 |title=Internal Conflicts- A Four State Analysis: India-Nepal-Sri Lanka-Myanmar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mv-pCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA69 |publisher=Vij Books India Pvt Ltd |page=69 |isbn=9789382573418 |access-date=15 September 2020 |archive-date=11 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201011003511/https://books.google.com/books?id=mv-pCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA69 |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Ceylon ===
{{See also|Tamil Eelam}}

Ceylon (modern-day Sri Lanka) saw the partition of Pakistan as an example for themselves and feared India might use its enhanced power against them in the future.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP83S00854R000200130001-0.pdf |title=India and Its Neighbors: Cooperation or Confrontation? |website=CIA |page=7 |access-date=13 April 2021 |archive-date=13 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413100321/https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP83S00854R000200130001-0.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> The left-wing government of [[Sirimavo Bandaranaike]] following a neutral non-aligned foreign policy.<ref>{{cite news |title=The Foreign Policy of Sirimavo Bandaranaike |url=http://www.island.lk/index.php?page_cat=article-details&page=article-details&code_title=13217 |work=The Island |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101213125733/http://www.island.lk/index.php?page_cat=article-details&page=article-details&code_title=13217 |archive-date=13 December 2010 |access-date=8 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Brief Overview of Sri Lanka's Foreign Relations to Post-Independence |url=https://www.mfa.gov.lk/brief-overview-of-sri-lankas-foreign-relations-to-post-independence/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190408011417/https://www.mfa.gov.lk/brief-overview-of-sri-lankas-foreign-relations-to-post-independence/ |archive-date=8 April 2019 |access-date=8 April 2019 |website=Foreign Ministry – Sri Lanka}}</ref> As Pakistani aircraft could not fly over Indian territory, they would have to take a longer route around India and so they stopped at [[Bandaranaike Airport]] in Sri Lanka where they were refuelled before flying to [[East Pakistan]].<ref>{{cite news |date=11 June 2011 |title=Pak thanks Lanka for help in 1971 war |newspaper=Hindustan Times |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/world/pak-thanks-lanka-for-help-in-1971-war/story-UpZWXd0fFX5eDPac0KMIYL.html |url-status=live |access-date=14 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210321063210/https://www.hindustantimes.com/world/pak-thanks-lanka-for-help-in-1971-war/story-UpZWXd0fFX5eDPac0KMIYL.html |archive-date=21 March 2021}}</ref> This decision did not strain relations between Ceylon and India.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_hhREAAAQBAJ&dq=ceylon+neutral+1971&pg=PA47 |title=The Diplomatic Ideas and Practices of Asian States |date=2021-11-22 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-47803-9 |language=en |access-date=17 August 2023 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002142316/https://books.google.com/books?id=_hhREAAAQBAJ&dq=ceylon+neutral+1971&pg=PA47 |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Arab World ===
As many [[Arab countries]] were allied with both the United States and [[Pakistan]], it was easy for [[Kissinger]] to encourage them to participate. He sent letters to both, the [[Hussein of Jordan|King of Jordan]] and the [[Shah Faisal|King of Saudi Arabia]]. President [[Nixon]] gave permission for Jordan to send ten [[F-104]]s and promised to provide replacements.<ref>{{cite news| title=Documents reveal US tilt to Pak in 1971 - India News | work=The Times of India | date=2002-12-20 | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/documents-reveal-us-tilt-to-pak-in-1971/articleshow/31811208.cms | access-date=2022-08-20 | archive-date=20 August 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220820050754/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/documents-reveal-us-tilt-to-pak-in-1971/articleshow/31811208.cms | url-status=live }}</ref> [[F-86]]s from [[Saudi Arabia]] helped camouflage the extent of PAF losses, and some Libyan [[Northrop F-5|F-5s]] were reportedly deployed to [[Sargodha Airbase|Sargodha AFB]], perhaps as a potential training unit to prepare Pakistani pilots for an influx of more F-5s from Saudi Arabia.<ref name="Pen and Sword, Bowman"/>{{rp|112}} In addition to these three countries, an unidentified Middle Eastern ally also supplied Pakistan with [[Mirage III]]s.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}}

=== Israel ===
Despite not having diplomatic relations at the time, Israel supplied India with armaments, ammunition, intelligence and training ahead of its intervention in East Pakistan, which has been described as a "surprising minor success" of India's efforts to garner international support. In July 1971 [[Golda Meir]], Israel's prime minister, got Israeli arms manufacturer [[Shlomo Zabludowicz]] to provide India and the Mukti Bahini with mortars, ammunition and instructors.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bass |first=Gary |author-link=Gary J. Bass |year=2013 |title=The Blood Telegram: Nixon, Kissinger, and a Forgotten Genocide |url=https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/212279/the-blood-telegram-by-gary-j-bass/ |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |isbn=978-0-307-70020-9 |access-date=12 October 2023 |archive-date=27 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230627195707/https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/212279/the-blood-telegram-by-gary-j-bass/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Meir reportedly sought diplomatic ties with India in exchange, which were finally established in 1992 under [[P. V. Narasimha Rao]].<ref name="raghavan">{{Cite book |last=Raghavan |first=Srinath |title=1971: A Global History of the Creation of Bangladesh |year=2013 |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |isbn=9780674731295 |pages=182–183 |language=en |author-link=Srinath Raghavan}}</ref>

== Aftermath ==

=== Territorial changes ===
In the western front (present-day [[India–Pakistan border|India-Pakistan border]]), both countries sparred indecisively.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gill |first=John H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m2q6SgAACAAJ |title=An Atlas of the 1971 India - Pakistan War: The Creation of Bangladesh |date=2003 |publisher=National Defense University, Near East South Asia Center for Strategic Studies |language=en |quote=In the west, the two armies sparred indecisively, each side's small advances being balanced by the other side's gains. The only exception was the dramatic drive by India's 11th Division into the sandy wastes of Pakistan's Sindh Province which netted India approximately 4,500 square kilometers of Pakistani territory, albeit barren desert.18 |access-date=21 March 2023 |archive-date=22 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322122749/https://books.google.com/books?id=m2q6SgAACAAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> By the end of the war, India had captured a larger quantity of territory than Pakistan. The majority of territory India held was mostly barren, sandy [[desert]] in Sindh<ref name="Singh1981">{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Maj Gen Sukhwant |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4688VpqB8r8C |title=India's Wars Since Independence The Liberation Of Bangladesh |date=1981 |publisher=Lancer Publishers LLC |isbn=978-1-935501-60-2 |language=en |quote=The biggest territorial conquest in terms of territory was however in the Naya Chor and Chachro area of the Barmer sector, where two simultaneous thrusts towards Naya Chor and Umarkot had created a salient in the Sind sector of Pakistani territory. Although impressive on maps and in terms of statistics, this was a vast expanse of empty, unproductive sand. Apart from the burden of upkeep of the refugee population of the desert, its continued occupation was embarrassing to the holding troops because of lack of water and an inadequate logistic infrastructure. Much work had to be done in the way of laying a sweetwater pipeline and storage tanks, restoring the railway line to Naya Chor and constructing desert roads with coastly duckboards to maintain the troops deployed there. These facilities, created at considerable expense, had to be abandoned, almost intact, at the time of withdrawal. Militarily, conquest was a prerequisite for an advance into the productive green belt. Since the momentum of the thrust had already fizzled out on reaching its fringes possession of this territory was of no consequence. Economically, it was a drain and certainly no longer cost effective. Its loss had made no dent in Pakistan's economy, nor affected its political standing in Sind. |access-date=10 July 2023 |archive-date=22 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230522034726/https://books.google.com/books?id=4688VpqB8r8C |url-status=live }}</ref> which did not dent Pakistan's economy or harm its political standing in Sindh but greatly effected on the morale of Pakistan.<ref name="Singh1981" /> On the other hand, although smaller in quantity, the Indian territory captured by Pakistan in Punjab had significantly greater economic value.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Maj Gen Sukhwant |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4688VpqB8r8C |title=India's Wars Since Independence The Liberation Of Bangladesh |date=1981 |publisher=Lancer Publishers LLC |isbn=978-1-935501-60-2 |language=en |quote=Immediately after the ceasefire the Indians claimed the occupation of about 3,600 square kilometres of West Pakistan territory against a loss of some 125 square kilometres of their territory. As described earlier, the statistics were impressive indeed, but like all such statistical juggling they were rather deceptive. From a purely economic point of view 125 square kilometres yielded more than 3,600 square kilometres, much of it desert, and the upkeep of the refugees and its attendant problems was proving more irksome politically for Indian democracy than Pakistani autocracy. |access-date=10 July 2023 |archive-date=22 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230522034726/https://books.google.com/books?id=4688VpqB8r8C |url-status=live }}</ref> After the ceasefire on 17 December, both sides attempted to take back lost territory. On 17 December, India's 51 Para brigade launched a successful but costly attack on a sand dune occupied by an intruding Pakistani [[platoon]], which cost the Indian unit 21 killed and 60 wounded.<ref name="Gill2003" /> In May 1972, as the snow melted, Pakistan attacked the Lipa Valley, where the heavily outnumbered Indian forces fell back, with both sides suffering heavy casualties as well as Pakistani forces losing their senior commander.<ref name="IW">{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Sukhwant |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4688VpqB8r8C |title=India's Wars Since Independence The Liberation Of Bangladesh |date=1981 |publisher=Lancer Publishers LLC |isbn=978-1-935501-60-2 |language=en |quote=As the snows melted, Pakistan tried constantly to reclaim its lost territories in Jammu and Kashmir and improve its defensive posture along the ceasefire line in the process. In May 1972, Pakistan made a surprise brigade attack on the Indian forward posts in the Kayan area of the Lipa valley. The Indian posts fell back, suffering heavy casualties. Similarly, the Minimarg Lake area in Gurais was becoming active and large tracts of snow earlier claimed to be in Indian hands were gradually shrinking. The same was the case in the Tartok area of the Partapur sector of Ladakh. These ceasefire violations were prompted by Indian tactical and administrative difficulties in the newly acquired territory. |access-date=10 July 2023 |archive-date=22 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230522034726/https://books.google.com/books?id=4688VpqB8r8C |url-status=live}}</ref> Pakistan would launch similar attacks to attempt to regain lost territory at Minimarg Lake and Turtuk.<ref name="IW" />

Subsequently, in 1972, India and Pakistan signed the [[Simla Agreement]], after which both sides would retain territory they captured in Kashmir and demarcate the [[Line of Control]], while the international border would return to its pre-war limits.

Since the end of the war, India continues to retain control over the regions such as [[Chalunka]], [[Thang, Ladakh|Thang]], [[Turtuk]], [[Takshi]] and Pachtang meanwhile Pakistan retain control on [[Chumb]].<ref name="Warikoo 2009">{{cite book | last=Warikoo | first=K. | title=Himalayan Frontiers of India: Historical, Geo-Political and Strategic Perspectives | publisher=Taylor & Francis | series=Routledge Contemporary South Asia Series | year=2009 | isbn=978-1-134-03294-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w_Z8AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA71 | page=71}}</ref><ref name="International Living">{{cite book |title=International Living |publisher=International Living, Incorporated |issue=v. 22 |year=2002 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XlgsAQAAMAAJ |page=22}}</ref>

=== India ===
The war and subsequent independence of Bangladesh stripped Pakistan of more than half of its population, and with nearly one-third of its army in captivity, clearly established India's military and political dominance of the subcontinent.<ref name="time27Dec1971" /> India successfully led a diplomatic campaign to isolate Pakistan.<ref name="ABC-CLIO, Heo and Jr."/> On state visits to the United Kingdom and France, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi convinced them to break with their ally the United States and block any pro-Pakistan resolution in the United Nations.<ref name="ABC-CLIO, Heo and Jr."/>

The victory also defined India's much broader role in foreign politics, as many countries in the world had come to realise – including the United States – that the balance of power had shifted to India as a major player in the region.<ref name="British Academic Press, Mudiam">{{cite book|last1=Mudiam|first1=Prithvi Ram|year=1994|title=India and the Middle East|publisher=British Academic Press|page=79|isbn=9781850437031|url=https://archive.org/details/indiamiddleeast00prit|url-access=registration}}</ref>{{rp|80}}<ref name="Brookings Institution Press, Kemp">{{cite book|last1=Kemp|first1=Geoffrey|year=2012|title=The East Moves West: India, China, and Asia's Growing Presence in the Middle East|publisher=Brookings Institution Press|isbn=978-0815724070|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z-rV05oQ_4AC&q=iran%20and%20india%201971&pg=PA57|access-date=24 December 2016|language=en|archive-date=14 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201014161315/https://books.google.com/books?id=Z-rV05oQ_4AC&pg=PA57&q=iran%20and%20india%201971|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|57}} In the wake of changing geopolitical realities, India sought to establish closer relations with regional countries such as Iran, which was a traditional ally of Pakistan.<ref name="Brookings Institution Press, Kemp"/>{{rp|57}} The United States itself accepted a new balance of power, and when India conducted a [[Smiling Buddha|surprise nuclear test]] in 1974, the US notified India that it had no "interest in actions designed to achieve new balance of power."<ref name="Springer, Watering"/>

In announcing the Pakistani surrender, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi declared in the Indian Parliament:

{{Blockquote|Dacca is now the free capital of a free country. We hail the people of Bangladesh in their hour of triumph. All nations who value the human spirit will recognise it as a significant milestone in man's quest for liberty.<ref name="time27Dec1971" />|sign=|source=}} Colonel John Gill of [[National Defense University (Washington, D.C.)|National Defense University]], US, remarks that, while India achieved a military victory, it was not able to reap the political fruits it might have hoped for in Bangladesh. After a brief 'honeymoon' phase between India and Bangladesh, [[Bangladesh–India relations|their relationship]] began to sour.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/22107538/An-Atlas-of-the-1971-India-Pakistan-War-The-Creation-Of-Bangladesh |title=An Atlas of the 1971 India – Pakistan War: The Creation of Bangladesh |last=Gill |first=John H. |publisher=National Defense University. Near East South Asia Center for Strategic Studies |year=2003 |location=Washington DC |page=66 |access-date=9 April 2016 |archive-date=18 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160418190410/https://www.scribd.com/doc/22107538/An-Atlas-of-the-1971-India-Pakistan-War-The-Creation-Of-Bangladesh |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{citation |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/login?auth=0&type=summary&url=%2Fjournals%2Fjournal_of_military_history%2Fv069%2F69.2higham.html |title=An Atlas of the 1971 India – Pakistan war : the creation of Bangladesh (review) |last=Higham |first=Robin D. S. |journal=The Journal of Military History |volume=69 |number=2 |date=April 2005 |doi=10.1353/jmh.2005.0101 |s2cid=162129844 |access-date=9 April 2016 |archive-date=19 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151119045105/http://muse.jhu.edu/login?auth=0&type=summary&url=%2Fjournals%2Fjournal_of_military_history%2Fv069%2F69.2higham.html |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> The perceived Indian overstay revived Bangladeshi anxieties of Hindu control.<ref>{{cite book |last=Baxter |first=Craig |author-link=Craig Baxter |title=Government and politics in South Asia|edition=5th|year=2002|publisher=Westview Press|page=269}}</ref> Many were concerned that Mujib was permitting Indian interference in the country's internal matters<ref>{{cite book |last=Lewis |first=David |title=Bangladesh: Politics, Economy and Civil Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5lH40gT7xvYC |year=2011 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-50257-3|page=81|quote=There were high levels of corruption and cronyism within the administration and widespread concerns that he [Mujib] was allowing India to interfere in Bangladesh's domestic affairs existed.|access-date=18 February 2019|archive-date=6 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106064248/https://books.google.com/books?id=5lH40gT7xvYC|url-status=live}}</ref> and many in the Bangladeshi army resented his attachment with India.<ref>{{cite book |last=van Schendel |first=Willem |title=A History of Bangladesh|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Y2bBQAAQBAJ|date=12 February 2009|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-316-26497-3|page=182|quote=Another, far more dangerous group felt deeply affronted: the army ... Their resentment originated in the final days of the war of 1971. According to them, the Indian army had robbed the Bangladeshi fighters of the glory of liberating Bangladesh, walking in when the freedom fighters had already finished the job, and had taken away to India all sophisticated weaponry and vehicles captured from the Pakistanis ... they also felt bitter about Mujib's closeness to India, which, they thought, undermined the sovereignty of Bangladesh. By 1973, many in the army were both anti-Indian and anti-Mujib; in the elections that year the garrisons voted solidly for opposition candidates.|access-date=18 February 2019|archive-date=26 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190526180022/https://books.google.com/books?id=7Y2bBQAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> Whilst India enjoyed excellent relations with Bangladesh during the [[Awami League]] tenures, relations deteriorated when the [[Bangladesh Nationalist Party]] assumed power. A 2014 [[Pew Research Center]] opinion poll found that 27% of Bangladeshis were wary of India. However, 70% of Bangladeshis held a positive view of India: while 50% of Bangladeshis held a positive view of Pakistan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewglobal.org/2014/07/14/chapter-4-how-asians-view-each-other/|title=Chapter 4: How Asians View Each Other|date=14 July 2014|website=Pew Research Center's Global Attitudes Project|access-date=2016-04-09|archive-date=15 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015203043/http://www.pewglobal.org/2014/07/14/chapter-4-how-asians-view-each-other/|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Pakistan ===
For Pakistan, the war was a complete and humiliating defeat,<ref name="time27Dec1971" /> a psychological setback that came from a defeat at the hands of rival India.<ref name="Haqqani2005p87">{{cite book |last=Haqqani |first=Hussain |author-link=Hussain Haqqani |year=2005 |title=Pakistan: Between Mosque and Military |publisher=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace |page=87 |isbn=978-0-87003-214-1}}</ref> Pakistan lost half its population and a significant portion of its economy, and suffered setbacks to its geopolitical role in South Asia.<ref name="time27Dec1971" /><ref name="Haqqani2005p87" /> In the post-war era, Pakistan struggled to absorb the lessons learned from the military interventions in the democratic system and the impact of the Pakistani military's failure was grave and long-lasting.<ref>{{cite news|title=Pakistan's leaders should heed the lesson of Bangladesh|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2010/aug/15/pakistan-flood-warning|work=The Guardian|access-date=26 December 2016|date=15 August 2010|archive-date=26 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226224317/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2010/aug/15/pakistan-flood-warning|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=No lessons learnt in forty years|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/307080/no-lessons-learnt-in-forty-years/|work=The Express Tribune|access-date=26 December 2016|date=15 December 2011|archive-date=24 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161024093415/http://tribune.com.pk/story/307080/no-lessons-learnt-in-forty-years/|url-status=live}}</ref>

From the [[Geopolitics|geopolitical]] [[Point of view (philosophy)|point of view]], the war ended in the [[Breakup of East and West Pakistan|breaking-up of the unity]] of Pakistan from being the largest [[Muslim world|Muslim country]] in the world to its [[Stagflation in Pakistan|politico-economic]] and military collapse that resulted from a direct [[India and state-sponsored terrorism|foreign intervention by India]] in 1971.<ref name="Routledge, Malik">{{cite book|last1=Malik|first1=Anas|title=Political Survival in Pakistan: Beyond Ideology|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136904196|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dLkuCgAAQBAJ&q=world%27s%20largest%20islamic%20state%20west%20pakistan&pg=PA50|access-date=7 November 2016|language=en|date=2010-10-22|archive-date=19 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201019094440/https://books.google.com/books?id=dLkuCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA50&q=world%27s%20largest%20islamic%20state%20west%20pakistan|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|50}}<ref name="Cambridge University Press, Waines">{{cite book|last1=Waines|first1=David|title=An Introduction to Islam|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521539067|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YYxZ0QpKBGsC&q=world%27s%20largest%20islamic%20state%20%20pakistan%201971&pg=PP15|access-date=7 November 2016|language=en|date=2003-11-06|archive-date=13 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201013172430/https://books.google.com/books?id=YYxZ0QpKBGsC&pg=PP15&q=world%27s%20largest%20islamic%20state%20%20pakistan%201971|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|1}}<ref name="Lancer Publishers LLC, Dogra">{{cite book|last1=Dogra|first1=C. Deepak|title=Pakistan: Caught in the Whirlwind|publisher=Lancer Publishers LLC|isbn=9781940988221|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3zooCwAAQBAJ&q=world%27s%20largest%20islamic%20nation%20west%20pakistan&pg=PT223|access-date=7 November 2016|language=en|date=2015-12-09|archive-date=15 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201015014751/https://books.google.com/books?id=3zooCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT223&q=world%27s%20largest%20islamic%20nation%20west%20pakistan|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Further information relates in [[Hamoodur Rahman Commission]].</ref> Pakistani policy-makers further feared that the [[two-nation theory]] had been disproved by the war, that [[Muslim nationalism in South Asia|Muslim nationalism]] had proved insufficient to keep Bengalis a part of Pakistan.<ref name="Haqqani2005p88">{{cite book |last=Haqqani |first=Hussain |author-link=Hussain Haqqani |year=2005 |title=Pakistan: Between Mosque and Military |publisher=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace |page=88 |isbn=978-0-87003-214-1}}</ref>

The Pakistani people were not mentally prepared to accept the magnitude of this kind of defeat, as the state media had been projecting imaginary victories.<ref name="Haqqani2005p88" /> When the ceasefire that came from the surrender of East Pakistan was finally announced, the people could not come to terms with the magnitude of defeat; spontaneous demonstrations and massive protests erupted on the streets of major metropolitan cities in Pakistan. According to Pakistani historians, the trauma was extremely severe, and the cost of the war for Pakistan in monetary terms and in human resources was very high.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Siddique |first1=Abubakar |title=The Pashtun question: the unresolved key to the future of Pakistan and Afghanistan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PkVeBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA39 |year=2014 |publisher=Hurst & Co. |isbn=978-1-84904-292-5 |page=39}}</ref><ref>Langewiesche, William (November 2005). "The Wrath of Khan". The Atlantic. Retrieved 31 July 2016.</ref>{{rp|xxx}} Demoralized and finding itself unable to control the situation, the Yahya administration fell when [[President Yahya Khan]] turned over his presidency to [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto]], who was sworn in on 20 December 1971 as President [[Chief Martial Law Administrator|with the control of the military]].<ref name="National Book Club, Ghazali" />
The loss of East Pakistan shattered the prestige of the Pakistani military.<ref name="Haqqani2005p87" /> Pakistan lost half its navy, a quarter of its air force, and a third of its army.<ref name="Ali1983" /> The war also exposed the shortcomings of Pakistan's declared strategic doctrine that the "defence of East Pakistan lay in West Pakistan".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.defencejournal.com/2000/oct/yaqub.htm |title=Prince, Soldier, Statesman – Sahabzada Yaqub Khan |website=Defence Journal |access-date=20 October 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090312092440/http://www.defencejournal.com/2000/oct/yaqub.htm |archive-date=12 March 2009}}</ref> [[Hussain Haqqani]], in his book ''Pakistan: Between Mosque and Military'' notes,

{{Blockquote|Moreover, the army had failed to fulfill its promises of fighting until the last man. The eastern command had laid down arms after losing only thirteen hundred men in battle. In West Pakistan, too, twelve hundred military deaths had accompanied lackluster military performance.<ref name="Haqqani2005p87" />}}

In his book ''The 1971 Indo-Pak War: A Soldier's Narrative'', Pakistan Army's Major General Hakeem Arshad Qureshi, a veteran of this conflict, noted:
{{Blockquote|We must accept the fact that, as a people, we had also contributed to the bifurcation of our own country. It was not a Niazi, or a Yahya, even a Mujib, or a Bhutto, or their key assistants, who alone were the cause of our break-up, but a corrupted system and a flawed social order that our own apathy had allowed to remain in place for years. At the most critical moment in our history we failed to check the limitless ambitions of individuals with dubious antecedents and to thwart their selfish and irresponsible behaviour. It was our collective 'conduct' that had provided the enemy an opportunity to dismember us.|Qureshi, p. 288<ref>{{cite book |last=Qureshi |first=Hakeem Arshad |year=2002 |title=The 1971 Indo-Pak War: A Soldier's Narrative |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=288 |isbn=978-0-19-579778-7}}</ref>}}

After the war, the Pakistan Army's generals in the East held each other responsible for the atrocities committed, but most of the burden was laid on Lieutenant-General [[Tikka Khan]], who earned notoriety from his actions as governor of the East; he was called the "Butcher of Bengal" because of the widespread atrocities committed within the areas of his responsibility.<ref name="LATimes">{{cite news|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2002-mar-30-me-passings30.1-story.html|title=Gen. Tikka Khan, 87; 'Butcher of Bengal' Led Pakistani Army|date=30 March 2002|work=Los Angeles Times|access-date=11 April 2010|archive-date=19 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210619021031/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2002-mar-30-me-passings30.1-story.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Tikka was a "soldier known for his eager use of force".<ref name="Nation Books, Bhutto">{{cite book |last1=Bhutto |first1=Fatima |author-link=Fatima Bhutto |title=Songs of Blood and Sword: A Daughter's Memoir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mjo3xkGSV6cC&pg=PA100 |year=2010 |publisher=Nation Books |page=100 |isbn=978-1-56858-632-8 |access-date=1 December 2023}}</ref>

Lieutenant-General [[A. A. K. Niazi]] commented on Tikka's actions: "On the night between 25/26 March 1971, General Tikka struck. Peaceful night was turned into a time of wailing, crying and burning. General Tikka let loose everything at his disposal as if raiding an enemy, not dealing with his own misguided and misled people. The military action was a display of stark cruelty more merciless than the massacres at [[Siege of Bukhara|Bukhara]] and [[Siege of Baghdad (1258)|Baghdad]] by [[Chengiz Khan]] and [[Hulagu Khan|Halaku Khan]] ... General Tikka ... resorted to the killing of civilians and a [[scorched earth]] policy. His orders to his troops were: 'I want the land and not the people'".<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nYppZ_dEjdIC |title=Pakistan: Between Mosque and Military |last=Haqqani |first=Hussain |author-link=Husain Haqqani |publisher=Carnegie Endowment |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-87003-214-1 |page=74 |access-date=11 April 2010 |archive-date=12 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160112183547/https://books.google.com/books?id=nYppZ_dEjdIC |url-status=live }}</ref> Major-General [[Rao Farman Ali|Rao Farman]] wrote in his table diary: "Green land of East Pakistan will be painted red," which has been interpreted to mean that he planned to massacre Bengalis.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Khan |first1=M. H. |year=2016 |title=Memoir of M H Khan: Turbulence in the Indian Subcontinent |publisher=Mereo Books |page=144 |isbn=978-1-86151-569-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dp-QDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA144 |access-date=1 May 2022 |archive-date=1 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220501060250/https://books.google.com/books?id=Dp-QDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA144 |url-status=live }}</ref> Farman said the entry was not expressing a thirst for blood, but concern that East Pakistan's future could be the red flag of Communism.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mamoon |first=Muntassir |translator-last=Ibrahim |translator-first=Kushal |year=2000 |title=The Vanquished Generals and the Liberation War of Bangladesh |publisher=Somoy Prokashan |pages=88, 148–149 |isbn=984-458-210-5}}</ref>

Major reforms were carried out by successive governments in Pakistan after the war. To address the economic disparity, the [[National Finance Commission Award|National Finance Commission system]] was established to equally distribute the taxation revenue among the [[Four Provinces (Pakistan)|four provinces]], the large-scale [[Nationalisation in Pakistan|nationalisation]] of industries and nationwide [[Census in Pakistan|census]] were carried out in 1972.<ref name="Bureau of Statistics">{{cite web |title=Population of Pakistan in 1972|url=http://www.pbs.gov.pk/sites/default/files/other/pocket_book2006/2.pdf|publisher=Bureau of Statistics|access-date=24 December 2016|archive-date=20 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920213536/http://www.pbs.gov.pk/sites/default/files/other/pocket_book2006/2.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Constitution of Pakistan|Constitution]] was promulgated in 1973 that reflected this equal balance and a compromise between [[Islamism]] and [[Humanism]], and provided guaranteed equal human rights to all.<ref name="Nazaria-e-Pakistan, Part IV">{{cite web |title=Constitution of Pakistan |url=http://storyofpakistan.com/the-constitution-of-1973/ |date=June 2003 |website=Story of Pakistan |publisher=Nazaria-e-Pakistan, Part IV |access-date=2 June 2014 |archive-date=2 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002225754/http://storyofpakistan.com/the-constitution-of-1973/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Pakistani military|military]] was heavily reconstructed and heavily reorganised, with President Bhutto appointing chiefs of staff in each inter-service, contrary to [[Commander-in-chief|C-in-Cs]], and making instruction on human rights compulsory in the military syllabus in each branch of inter-services.<ref name="Lancer Publishers, Singh">{{cite book|last1=Singh|first1=Ravi Shekhar Narain Singh|title=The Military Factor in Pakistan|publisher=Lancer Publishers|isbn=9780981537894|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wCm2DFZblOYC&q=Bhutto%20appoints%20chiefs%20of%20staff%20of%20air%20army&pg=PA62|access-date=24 December 2016|language=en|year=2008|archive-date=9 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201009141523/https://books.google.com/books?id=wCm2DFZblOYC&pg=PA62&q=Bhutto%20appoints%20chiefs%20of%20staff%20of%20air%20army|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|62–100}} Major investments were directed towards modernising the navy.<ref name="Sona Printers, India" />{{rp|100}} The military's [[chain of command]] was centralized in [[Joint Staff Headquarters (Pakistan)|Joint Staff Headquarters]] (JS HQ) led by an appointed [[Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee|Chairman Joint Chiefs Committee]] to coordinate military efforts to safeguard the nation's defence and unity.<ref name="Lancer Publishers, Singh"/>{{rp|62–63}} In addition, Pakistan sought to have a diversified foreign policy, as Pakistani geostrategists had been shocked that both China and the United States provided limited support to Pakistan during the course of the war, with the US displaying an inability to supply weapons that Pakistan needed the most.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kapur|first1=Ashok|title=India and the South Asian Strategic Triangle|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136902611|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iALGBQAAQBAJ&q=Pakistani%20generals%20surprised%20by%20Chinese%201971&pg=PT257|access-date=26 December 2016|language=en|date=2010-12-14|archive-date=13 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201013064558/https://books.google.com/books?id=iALGBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT257&q=Pakistani%20generals%20surprised%20by%20Chinese%201971|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|xxxiii}}

In January 1972, Pakistan under Bhutto launched the [[Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction|clandestine development of nuclear weapons]]<ref name="McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP">{{cite book |last1=Paul |first1=T. V. |author-link=T. V. Paul |year=2000 |title=Power Versus Prudence: Why Nations Forgo Nuclear Weapons |publisher=McGill-Queen's Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XCm0JSs27eAC&q=Pakistan%201971%20war%20nuclear&pg=PA133 |page=133 |isbn=978-0-7735-2087-5 |language=en |access-date=24 December 2016 |archive-date=10 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201010232233/https://books.google.com/books?id=XCm0JSs27eAC&pg=PA133&q=Pakistan%201971%20war%20nuclear |url-status=live}}</ref> with a view to "never to allow[ing] another foreign invasion of Pakistan."{{Quote without source|date=April 2023}}

=== Bangladesh ===
{{main|1971 East Pakistan genocide}}

As a result of the war, East Pakistan became an independent country, [[Bangladesh]], as the world's fourth most populous Muslim state on 16 December 1971.{{citation needed|date=February 2020}} West Pakistan, now just Pakistan, secured the release of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman from the [[Headquarter Jail|Headquarter Prison]] and allowed him to return to Dacca. On 19 January 1972, Mujib was inaugurated as the first [[President of Bangladesh]], later becoming the [[Prime Minister of Bangladesh]] in 1974.{{citation needed|date=February 2020}}

On the brink of defeat in around 14 December 1971, the media reports indicated that the Pakistan Army soldiers, the local [[East Pakistan Police]] they controlled, [[Razakar (East Pakistan)|''razakars'']] and the [[East Pakistan Central Peace Committee|''Shanti Committee'']] carried out [[1971 East Pakistan Intellectuals massacre|systematic killings]] of professionals such as physicians, teachers, and other intellectuals,<ref name="nyt12-19-1971">{{cite news|title=125 Slain in Dacca Area, Believed Elite of Bengal|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1971/12/19/archives/125-slain-in-dacca-area-believed-elite-of-bengal-125-found-slain.html|work=The New York Times|location=New York|page=1|date=19 December 1971|access-date=4 January 2008|quote=At least 125 persons, believed to be physicians, professors, writers and teachers, were found murdered today in a field outside Dacca. All the victims' hands were tied behind their backs and they had been bayoneted, garroted or shot. These victims were among an estimated 300 Bengali intellectuals who had been seized by West Pakistani soldiers and locally recruited supporters.|archive-date=28 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328143516/http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F50C13F83C5E127A93CBA81789D95F458785F9|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="massacre-intel">{{cite journal|last=Murshid|first=Tazeen M.|year=1997 |title=State, Nation, Identity: The Quest for Legitimacy in Bangladesh|journal=South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies|volume=20|issue=2|pages=1–34|issn=1479-0270|doi=10.1080/00856409708723294}}</ref> as part of a [[pogrom]] against the [[Bengali Hindus|Bengali Hindu]] minorities who constituted the majority of urban educated intellectuals.<ref>{{cite book |last=Khan |first=Muazzam Hussain |year=2012 |chapter=Killing of Intellectuals |chapter-url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Killing_of_Intellectuals |editor1-last=Islam |editor1-first=Sirajul |editor1-link=Sirajul Islam |editor2-last=Jamal |editor2-first=Ahmed A. |title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh |edition=Second |publisher=[[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]] |access-date=4 July 2015 |archive-date=26 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190526180022/http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Killing_of_Intellectuals |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Shaiduzzaman |title=Martyred intellectuals: martyred history |url=http://www.newagebd.com/2005/dec/15/murdered/murdered.html |newspaper=The New Age|location=South Africa|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101201162513/http://www.newagebd.com/2005/dec/15/murdered/murdered.html |archive-date=1 December 2010 |access-date=20 October 2009}}</ref> This massacre of Hindus was confirmed by the Pakistani military brass in a postwar judicial inquiry.<ref>{{Cite web |title=1971 Bengali Hindu Genocide |url=https://www.hinduamerican.org/1971-bangladesh-genocide/ |access-date=2023-11-26 |website=Hindu American Foundation |language=en-US}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=November 2023}}

Young men, especially students, who were seen as possible rebels and recruiters were also targeted by the stationed military, but the extent of casualties in East Pakistan is not known, and the issue is itself controversial and contradictory among the authors who wrote books on the pogrom;<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bose |first1=Sarmila |author-link=Sarmila Bose |date=2010 |title=Dead reckoning : memories of the 1971 Bangladesh war |location=London |publisher=C. Hurst |pages=164–165, 176–181 |isbn=978-1-84904-049-5}}</ref><ref name="ABC-CLIO, Mikaberidze">{{cite book |last1=Mikaberidze |first1=Alexander |year=2013 |title=Atrocities, Massacres, and War Crimes: An Encyclopedia [2 Volumes]: An Encyclopedia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jVqqAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA511 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |pages=511–512 |isbn=978-1-59884-926-4 |access-date=7 February 2019 |archive-date=20 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200420054037/https://books.google.com/books?id=jVqqAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA511 |url-status=live }}</ref> the Pakistani government denied the charges of involvement in 2015.<ref name="The Daily Star, 2015">{{cite news |title=Pakistan denies committing war crimes in 1971|url=http://www.thedailystar.net/frontpage/pak-statement-creates-outrage-180628|access-date=26 December 2016|work=The Daily Star|date=1 December 2015|archive-date=5 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151205151039/http://www.thedailystar.net/frontpage/pak-statement-creates-outrage-180628|url-status=live}}</ref> [[R.J. Rummel]] cites estimates ranging from one to three million people killed.<ref name="Rummel-8-2" /> Other estimates place the death toll lower, at 300,000. Bangladesh government figures state that Pakistani forces aided by collaborators killed three million people, raped 200,000 women and displaced millions of others.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/research/birth-of-bangladesh-when-raped-women-and-war-babies-paid-the-price-of-a-new-nation-victory-day-4430420/|title=Birth of Bangladesh: When raped women and war babies paid the price of a new nation|work=The Indian Express|date=19 December 2016|access-date=17 December 2016|archive-date=6 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190406193430/https://indianexpress.com/article/research/birth-of-bangladesh-when-raped-women-and-war-babies-paid-the-price-of-a-new-nation-victory-day-4430420/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=26 March 2010 |title=Bangladesh sets up war crimes court |url=http://english.aljazeera.net/news/asia/2010/03/2010325151839747356.html |publisher=[[Al Jazeera Arabic|Al Jazeera]] |access-date=27 March 2010 |archive-date=5 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605014512/http://english.aljazeera.net/news/asia/2010/03/2010325151839747356.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

According to authors Kenton Worcester, Sally Bermanzohn and Mark Ungar, Bengalis themselves killed about 150,000 non-Bengalis living in the East.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Worcester |first1=Kenton |last2=Bermanzohn |first2=Sally Avery |last3=Ungar |first3=Mark |year=2013 |title=Violence and Politics: Globalization's Paradox |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CTlFAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA111 |publisher=Routledge |page=111 |isbn=978-1-136-70125-2 |access-date=18 September 2018 |archive-date=20 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200420054512/https://books.google.com/books?id=CTlFAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA111 |url-status=live }}</ref> There had been reports of Bengali insurgents indiscriminately killing non-Bengalis throughout the East; however, neither side provided substantial proofs for their claims and both Bangladeshi and Pakistani figures contradict each other over this issue.<ref name="Yale University Press, Tripathi">{{cite book |last1=Tripathi |first1=Salil |year=2016 |title=The Colonel Who Would Not Repent: The Bangladesh War and Its Unquiet Legacy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bcffCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA108 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-21818-3 |access-date=18 September 2018 |archive-date=20 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200420044556/https://books.google.com/books?id=bcffCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA108 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hossain |first1=Mokerrom |year=2010 |title=From Protest to Freedom: A Book for the New Generation: the Birth of Bangladesh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Vt3KxEBYk0C&pg=PA133 |publisher=Mokerrom |page=133 |isbn=978-0-615-48695-6 |access-date=18 September 2018 |archive-date=20 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200420050529/https://books.google.com/books?id=2Vt3KxEBYk0C&pg=PA133 |url-status=live }}</ref> Bihari representatives in June 1971 claimed a higher figure of 500,000 killed by Bengalis.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gerlach |first=Christian |date=2010 |title=Extremely Violent Societies: Mass Violence in the Twentieth-Century World |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=48N-XbOltMEC&pg=PA148 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=148 |isbn=978-1-139-49351-2 |access-date=18 September 2018 |archive-date=26 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190526180020/https://books.google.com/books?id=48N-XbOltMEC&pg=PA148 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2010, the [[Awami League]]'s government decided to set up a [[International Crimes Tribunal (Bangladesh)|tribunal]] to prosecute the people involved in alleged [[war crime]]s and those who collaborated with Pakistan.<ref>{{cite news |date=25 March 2010 |title=Bangladesh sets up 1971 war crimes tribunal |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8587511.stm |work=BBC News |access-date=26 March 2010 |archive-date=28 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100328045749/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8587511.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> According to the government, the defendants would be charged with [[crimes against humanity]], [[genocide]], murder, rape and arson.<ref>{{cite news |date=26 March 2010 |title=Bangladesh to Hold Trials for 1971 War Crimes |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/bangladesh-to-hold-trials-for-1971-war-crimes-89258207/114704.html |publisher=[[Voice of America]] |access-date=27 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100329134544/http://www1.voanews.com/english/news/asia/Bangladesh-to-Hold-Trials-for-1971-War-Crimes-89258207.html |archive-date=29 March 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref>

According to John H. Gill, there was widespread polarisation between pro-Pakistan Bengalis and pro-liberation Bengalis during the war, and those internal battles are still playing out in the domestic politics of modern-day Bangladesh.<ref>{{Cite book|title=An Atlas of 1971 Indian-Pakistan war-the Creation of Bangladesh|last=Gill|first=John H|publisher=NESA|year=1994|page=66}}</ref> To this day, the issue of committed atrocities and pogroms is an influential factor in the [[Bangladesh–Pakistan relations]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Dhaka demonstrators protest Pakistan's reaction to Molla's execution|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/647281/dhaka-demonstrators-protest-pakistans-reaction-to-mollas-execution/|newspaper=The Express Tribune|date=18 December 2013|access-date=2013-12-18|archive-date=26 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226215216/http://tribune.com.pk/story/647281/dhaka-demonstrators-protest-pakistans-reaction-to-mollas-execution/|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Impact==
===Pakistan: War Enquiry Commission and War prisoners===
{{Main|Hamoodur Rahman Commission|l1 = War Enquiry Commission|Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 Prisoners of War Investigation}}

In the aftermath of the war, the Pakistani Government constituted the War Enquiry Commission, to be headed by Chief Justice [[Hamoodur Rahman]], who was an ethnic [[Bengali people|Bengali]],<ref name="LV" /> and composed of the [[List of Justices of the Supreme Court of Pakistan|senior justices]] of the [[Supreme Court of Pakistan]].<ref name="LV">{{Cite journal|last=Bose|first=Sarmila|date=22 September 2007|title=Losing the Victims: Problems of Using Women as Weapons in Recounting the Bangladesh War|url=http://www.politics.ox.ac.uk/materials/profile_materials/sbose-losing_the_victims-epw_v_42_no_38_2007.pdf|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|page=3865|access-date=30 March 2016|archive-date=9 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161009214557/http://www.politics.ox.ac.uk/materials/profile_materials/sbose-losing_the_victims-epw_v_42_no_38_2007.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> The War Enquiry Commission was mandated with carrying out thorough investigations into the intelligence, strategic, political and military failures that causes the defeat in the war.{{citation needed|date=February 2020}}

The War Commission also looked into Pakistan's political and military involvement in the [[history of East Pakistan]] that encompasses 1947–71.{{citation needed|date=February 2020}} Written in moral and philosophical perspective, the [[Hamoodur Rahman Commission Report|First Report]] was lengthy and provided accounts that were unpalatable to be released to the public. Initially, there were 12 copies that were all destroyed, except for the one that was kept and marked as "[[Top Secret]]" to prevent the [[Backlash (sociology)|backlash]] effects on the demoralised military.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Shah |first1=Aqil |year=2014 |title=The Army and Democracy |publisher=Harvard University Press |page=127 |isbn=9780674419773 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ShihAwAAQBAJ&q=hamoodur%20&pg=PA334 |access-date=26 December 2016 |language=en |archive-date=11 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201011224826/https://books.google.com/books?id=ShihAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA334&q=hamoodur%20 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1976, the [[Hamoodur Rahman Commission Report|Supplementary Report]] was submitted, which was the comprehensive report compiled together with the First Report; this report was also marked as [[Classified information|classified]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The Hamood-ur-Rahman Commission Report {{!}} Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Pakistan |url=http://storyofpakistan.com/the-hamood-ur-rahman-commission-report |date=1 June 2003 |website=Story of Pakistan |access-date=26 December 2016 |archive-date=28 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201228012634/http://storyofpakistan.com/the-hamood-ur-rahman-commission-report/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2000, the excerpts of the Supplementary Report were leaked to a political correspondent of Pakistan's [[Dawn (newspaper)|''Dawn'']], which the ''Dawn'' published together with ''[[India Today]]''.<ref name="IndiaToday2000">{{cite magazine |last=Halarnkar |first=Sameer |date=21 August 2000 |title=The Untold Story of 1971 – Behind Pakistan's Defeat |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/cover-story/story/20000821-secret-inquiry-into-pakistans-debacle-in-1971-war-held-army-atrocities-widespread-corruption-as-prime-reasons-for-defeat-in-east-pakistan-779681-2000-08-20 |journal=India Today |access-date=17 December 2011 |archive-date=13 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113144826/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/secret-inquiry-into-pakistans-debacle-in-1971-war-held-army-atrocities-widespread-corruption-as-prime-reasons-for-defeat-in-east-pakistan/1/246922.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="BBC20000830">{{cite news |title=Bangladesh requests war report |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/903149.stm |work=BBC News |date=30 August 2000 |access-date=24 April 2011 |archive-date=28 October 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028101923/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/903149.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> The First Report is still marked as classified, while the Supplementary Report's excerpts were suppressed by the news correspondents.<ref name="Lancer Publishers, Bhatt">{{cite book |last1=Bhatt |first1=Arunkumar |year=2015 |title=Psychological Warfare and India |publisher=Lancer Publishers |pages=288–289 |isbn=9788170621331 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1whOBwAAQBAJ&q=hamoodur%20Rahman%20commission&pg=PA288 |access-date=22 August 2016 |language=en |archive-date=23 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201023171622/https://books.google.com/books?id=1whOBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA288&q=hamoodur%20Rahman%20commission |url-status=live }}</ref> The War Report's supplementary section was published by the Pakistan Government, but it did not officially hand over the report to Bangladesh despite its requests.<ref name="BBC20000830" />

The War Report exposed many military failures, from the strategic to the tactical–intelligence levels, while it confirmed the looting, rapes and the unnecessary killings by the Pakistan military and their local agents.<ref name="Genocide">{{cite magazine |last=Halarnkar |first=Sameer |date=21 August 2000 |title=The Genesis of Defeat – How many Hindus have you killed? |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/cover-story/story/20000821-1971-war-how-many-hindus-have-you-killed-779684-2000-08-20 |magazine=India Today |access-date=17 December 2011 |archive-date=25 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131025055051/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/1971-war-how-many-hindus-have-you-killed/1/246925.html |url-status=live }}</ref> It laid the blame squarely on Pakistan Army generals, accusing them of debauchery, smuggling, war crimes and neglect of duty.<ref name="Immorality">{{cite magazine |last=Halarnkar |first=Sameer |date=21 August 2000 |title=The Loss of Character – "Lust for wine, greed for houses" |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/cover-story/story/20000821-1971-war-lust-for-wine-greed-for-houses-779690-2000-08-20 |magazine=India Today |access-date=17 December 2011 |archive-date=2 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160602062452/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/1971-war-lust-for-wine-greed-for-houses/1/246931.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The War Commission had recommended [[public trial]] of Pakistan Army generals on the charges that they had been responsible for the situation in the first place and that they had succumbed without a fight,<ref name="Cowardice">{{cite magazine |last=Halarnkar |first=Sameer |date=21 August 2000 |title=Bravado And Capitulation – "Further resistance is not humanly possible" |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/cover-story/story/20000821-1971-war-further-resistance-is-not-humanly-possible-779693-2000-08-20 |magazine=India Today |access-date=17 December 2011 |archive-date=2 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160602062107/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/1971-war-further-resistance-is-not-humanly-possible/1/246934.html |url-status=live }}</ref> but no actions were ever taken against those responsible, except the dismissal of chiefs of [[Gul Hassan Khan|the Pakistan Army]], [[Abdul Rahim Khan|Pakistan Air Force]], [[Muzaffar Hassan|Pakistan Navy]], and decommissioning of the Pakistan Marines.<ref name="IndiaToday2000" /><ref name="Cowardice"/>

The War Commission, however, rejected the charge that 200,000 Bengali girls were raped by the Pakistan Army, remarking, "It is clear that the figures mentioned by the Dacca authorities are altogether fantastic and fanciful," and cited the evidence of a British abortion team that had carried out the termination of "only a hundred or more pregnancies".<ref name="LV" /><ref name="D'Costa2011">{{cite book |last=D'Costa |first=Bina |year=2011 |title=Nationbuilding, Gender and War Crimes in South Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ivzKjY5LncIC&pg=PA76 |publisher=Routledge |page=76 |isbn=978-0-415-56566-0 |access-date=18 October 2016 |archive-date=20 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200420054344/https://books.google.com/books?id=ivzKjY5LncIC&pg=PA76 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Hamoodur Rehman Commission (HRC) Report of Inquiry into the 1971 War (Vanguard Books Lahore, 513)</ref> The commission also claimed that "approximately 26,000 persons (were) killed during the action by the Pakistan military"<ref name="D'Costa2011" /><ref name="deathcount-pakistani">[http://www.bangla2000.com/Bangladesh/Independence-War/Report-Hamoodur-Rahman/default.shtm Hamoodur Rahman Commission Report] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160816211333/http://www.bangla2000.com/bangladesh/Independence-War/Report-Hamoodur-Rahman/default.shtm |date=16 August 2016}}, [http://www.bangla2000.com/Bangladesh/Independence-War/Report-Hamoodur-Rahman/chapter2.shtm chapter 2] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141012130637/http://www.bangla2000.com/Bangladesh/Independence-War/Report-Hamoodur-Rahman/chapter2.shtm |date=12 October 2014}}, paragraph 33</ref>
[[Bina D'Costa]] states that the War Commission was aware of the military's brutality in East Pakistan, but "chose to downplay the scale of the atrocities committed."<ref>{{cite book |last=D'Costa |first=Bina |year=2011 |title=Nationbuilding, Gender and War Crimes in South Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ivzKjY5LncIC&pg=PA76 |publisher=Routledge |page=78 |isbn=978-0-415-56566-0 |access-date=18 October 2016 |archive-date=20 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200420054344/https://books.google.com/books?id=ivzKjY5LncIC&pg=PA76 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The second commission was known as [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 Prisoners of War Investigation]], conducted solely by the Pakistani government, that was to determine the numbers of Pakistani military personnel who surrendered, including the number of civilian POWs.<ref name="BBC News, India Pakistan">{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/south_asia/2002/india_pakistan/timeline/1971.stm |title=India Pakistan | Timeline |work=BBC News |access-date=27 November 2015 |archive-date=11 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011102832/http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/south_asia/2002/india_pakistan/timeline/1971.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> The official number of the surrendered military personnel was soon released by the government of Pakistan after the war was over.<ref name="BBC News, India Pakistan"/>

===India: Indo-Pakistani summits===
{{Main|Simla Agreement|l1 = Agreement Between the Government of India and the Government of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan on Bilateral Relations|Delhi Agreement|l2 = Transfer of Population Under the Terms of the Delhi Agreement}}

On 2 July 1972, the [[Indo-Pakistani relation|Indo-Pakistani summit]] was held in [[Simla]], Himachal Pradesh, India where the [[Simla Agreement]] was reached and signed between President [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto]] and Prime Minister [[Indira Gandhi]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Simla Agreement|url=http://www.mea.gov.in/bilateral-documents.htm?dtl%2F5541%2FSimla+Agreement|website=Bilateral/Multilateral Documents|publisher=Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India|access-date=27 September 2013|archive-date=28 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210928163212/http://www.mea.gov.in/bilateral-documents.htm?dtl%2F5541%2FSimla+Agreement|url-status=live}}</ref> The treaty provided insurance to Bangladesh that Pakistan recognised Bangladesh's sovereignty, in exchange for the return of the Pakistani POWs.<ref name="time20Dec71" /> Over the next five months, India released more than 90,000 war prisoners, with Lieutenant-General A.A.K. Niazi being the last war prisoner to be handed over to Pakistan.<ref name="time20Dec71" />

The treaty also gave back more than 13,000 km2 of land that the Indian Army had seized in Pakistan during the war, though India retained a few strategic areas, including [[Turtuk]], [[Dhothang]], [[Takshi|Tyakshi]] (earlier called Tiaqsi) and [[Chalunka]] of [[Chorbat Valley]],<ref>{{cite news |url=https://thewire.in/politics/turtuk-story-of-a-promise-land|title=Turtuk, a Promised Land Between Two Hostile Neighbours|work=The Wire|access-date=27 October 2020|archive-date=30 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030083934/https://thewire.in/politics/turtuk-story-of-a-promise-land|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://scroll.in/article/815863/an-encounter-with-the-king-of-turtuk-a-border-village-near-gilgit-baltistan|title=An encounter with the 'king' of Turtuk, a border village near Gilgit-Baltistan|first=qz com|last=Rajrishi Singhal|work=Scroll.in|access-date=27 October 2020|archive-date=24 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201024100411/https://scroll.in/article/815863/an-encounter-with-the-king-of-turtuk-a-border-village-near-gilgit-baltistan|url-status=live}}</ref> which was more than 883 km2.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.livemint.com/Leisure/nkoE1dc52oYwoWRNmhEeYK/A-portrait-of-a-village-on-the-border.html|title=A portrait of a village on the border|date=10 August 2017|access-date=26 August 2017|archive-date=26 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170826113604/http://www.livemint.com/Leisure/nkoE1dc52oYwoWRNmhEeYK/A-portrait-of-a-village-on-the-border.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=22 December 2011 |title=Have you heard about this Indian Hero? |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/slide-show/slide-show-1-the-hero-of-nubra/20111222.htm#5 |work=Rediff.com |access-date=28 May 2015 |archive-date=14 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170614095202/http://www.rediff.com/news/slide-show/slide-show-1-the-hero-of-nubra/20111222.htm#5 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.storyofpakistan.com/articletext.asp?artid=A109&Pg=6 |title=The Simla Agreement 1972 |website=Story of Pakistan |access-date=20 October 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614014904/http://www.storyofpakistan.com/articletext.asp?artid=A109&Pg=6 |archive-date=14 June 2011}}</ref> The Indian hardliners, however, felt that the treaty had been too lenient to President Bhutto, who had pleaded for leniency, arguing that the fragile stability in Pakistan would crumble if the accord was perceived as being overly harsh by Pakistanis and that he would be accused of losing Kashmir in addition to the loss of East Pakistan.<ref>{{cite book |last=Haqqani |first=Hussain |author-link=Hussain Haqqani |year=2005 |title=Pakistan: Between Mosque and Military |publisher=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace |page=99 |isbn=978-0-87003-214-1}}</ref> As a result, Prime Minister Gandhi was criticised by a section in India for believing Bhutto's "sweet talk and false vows", while the other section claimed the agreement to be successful, for not letting it to fall into "[[Treaty of Versailles|Versailles Syndrome]]" trap.<ref>{{cite news |date=9 June 2014 |title=The collapse of the Shimla Accord |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/the-collapse-of-the-shimla-accord/ |access-date=9 April 2016 |archive-date=23 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160423001529/http://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/the-collapse-of-the-shimla-accord/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 1973, India and Pakistan reached another compromise when both countries signed a trilateral agreement with Bangladesh that actually brought the war prisoners, non-Bengali and Pakistan-loyal Bengali bureaucrats and civilian servants to Pakistan.<ref name="UNCHR">{{cite web |title=Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees|url=http://www.unhcr.org/print/3ae68c6f0.html|website=UNCHR|access-date=16 February 2013|archive-date=14 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514075016/http://www.unhcr.org/print/3ae68c6f0.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Delhi Agreement]] witnessed the largest mass [[population transfer]] since the [[Partition of India]] in 1947.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wolpert |first=Stanley |title=Zulfi Bhutto of Pakistan:his life and times |year=1993 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780195076615 |url=https://archive.org/details/zulfibhuttoofpak00wolp}}</ref>

===Bangladesh: International Crimes Tribunal===

In 2009, the issue of establishing the [[International Crimes Tribunal (Bangladesh)|International Crimes Tribunal]] began to take public support. The tribunal was formally established in 2010 to investigate and prosecute suspects for the genocide committed in 1971 by the Pakistan Army and their local collaborators, ''Razakars'', ''Al-Badr'' and ''Al-Shams'' during the Bangladesh Liberation War.<ref>Wierda, Marieke; Anthony Triolo (31 May 2012). [[Luc Reydams]]; Jan Wouters; Cedric Ryngaert, eds. International Prosecutors. Oxford University Press. p. 169. {{ISBN|978-0199554294}}.</ref>{{rp|169}}

== Long-term consequences ==
* [[Steve Coll]], in his book ''[[Ghost Wars]]'', argues that the Pakistan military's experience with India, including [[Pervez Musharraf]]'s experience in 1971, influenced the Pakistani government to support [[jihadist]] groups in [[Afghanistan]] even after [[Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan|the Soviets left]], because the jihadists were a tool to use against India, including bogging down the Indian Army in [[Kashmir]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Coll|first=Steve|title=Ghost Wars|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ToYxFL5wmBIC|year=2005|publisher=The Penguin Press|isbn=978-1-59420-007-6|access-date=15 September 2020|archive-date=8 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160108000045/https://books.google.com/books?id=ToYxFL5wmBIC|url-status=live}} pg 221, 475.</ref><ref>[http://globetrotter.berkeley.edu/people5/Coll/coll-con0.html Kreisler interview with Coll "Conversations with history", 25 March 2005] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090118052754/http://globetrotter.berkeley.edu/people5/Coll/coll-con0.html |date=18 January 2009 }}, UC Berkeley Institute of International Studies</ref>
* Writing about the war in ''[[Foreign Affairs]]'' magazine, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto stated "There is no parallel in contemporary history to the cataclysm which engulfed Pakistan in 1971. A tragic civil war, which rent asunder the people of the two parts of Pakistan, was seized by India as an opportunity for armed intervention. The country was dismembered, its economy shattered and the nation's self-confidence totally undermined."<ref name="FA197304">{{cite magazine |last=Bhutto |first=Zulfikar Ali |date=April 1973 |title=Pakistan Builds Anew |url=http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/24423/zulfikar-ali-bhutto/pakistan-builds-anew |magazine=[[Foreign Affairs]] |access-date=8 July 2011 |archive-date=16 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110116091710/http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/24423/zulfikar-ali-bhutto/pakistan-builds-anew |url-status=live }}</ref> This statement of Bhutto has given rise to the myth of betrayal prevalent in modern Pakistan. This view was contradicted by the post-War Hamoodur Rahman Commission, ordered by Bhutto himself, which in its 1974 report indicted generals of the Pakistan Army for creating conditions which led to the eventual loss of East Pakistan and for inept handling of military operations in the East.<ref name="IndiaToday2000" />

== Military awards ==

=== Battle honours ===
After the war, 41 [[battle honour]]s and 4 [[theatre honour]]s were awarded to units of the Indian Army; notable among them are:<ref name="Sarbans">{{cite book|title=Battle Honours of the Indian Army 1757 – 1971|last=Singh|first=Sarbans|year=1993|publisher=Vision Books|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-81-7094-115-6|pages=257–278|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5ATfAAAAMAAJ|access-date=3 November 2011|archive-date=25 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225201447/http://books.google.com/books?id=5ATfAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> 
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* East Pakistan 1971 (theatre honour)
* Sindh 1971 (theatre honour)
* Jammu and Kashmir 1971 (theatre honour)
* Punjab 1971 (theatre honour)
* Basantar River
* Bogra
* Chachro
* Chhamb
* Defence of Punch
* Dera Baba Nanak
* Gadra City
* Harar Kalan
* Hilli
* Longewala
* Parbat Ali
* Poongli Bridge
* Shehjra
* Shingo River Valley
* Sylhet
{{div col end}}

=== Gallantry awards ===
For bravery, a number of soldiers and officers on both sides were awarded the highest gallantry award of their respective countries. Following is a list of the recipients of the Indian award [[Param Vir Chakra]], Bangladeshi award [[Bir Sreshtho]] and the Pakistani award [[Nishan-E-Haider]]:

====India====
Recipients of the Param Vir Chakra:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nda.nic.in/html/nda-martyrs.html |title=Martyrs |publisher=National Defense Academy, Pune |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110929182428/http://nda.nic.in/html/nda-martyrs.html |archive-date=29 September 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://india.gov.in/myindia/paramvirchakra_awards_list1.php|title=Param Vir Chakra|publisher=Government of India|access-date=14 November 2011|archive-date=22 December 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111222230606/http://india.gov.in/myindia/paramvirchakra_awards_list1.php|url-status=live}}</ref>
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center"
! scope="col" style="width: 150px;" | Rank
! scope="col" style="width: 300px;" | Name
! scope="col" style="width: 200px;" | Unit
! scope="col" style="width: 10px;" | References
|-
|[[Lance Naik]]
|[[Albert Ekka]] (Posthumously)
|[[Brigade of the Guards|14 Guards]]
|<ref>{{cite web |title=Gallantry Awards {{!}} Ministry of Defence, Government of India |url=https://www.gallantryawards.gov.in/awardee/1062 |website=www.gallantryawards.gov.in |access-date=13 December 2023}}</ref>
|-
|[[Flying Officer]]
|[[Nirmal Jit Singh Sekhon]] (Posthumously)
|[[No. 18 Squadron IAF]]
|<ref>{{cite web |title=Gallantry Awards {{!}} Ministry of Defence, Government of India |url=https://www.gallantryawards.gov.in/awardee/3432 |website=www.gallantryawards.gov.in |access-date=13 December 2023}}</ref>
|-
|[[Major (rank)|Major]]
|[[Hoshiar Singh]]
|[[The Grenadiers|3 Grenadiers]]
|<ref>{{cite web |title=Gallantry Awards {{!}} Ministry of Defence, Government of India |url=https://www.gallantryawards.gov.in/awardee/1061 |website=www.gallantryawards.gov.in |access-date=13 December 2023}}</ref>
|-
|[[Second Lieutenant]]
|[[Arun Khetarpal]] (Posthumously)
|[[17th Horse (Poona Horse)]]
|<ref>{{cite web |title=Gallantry Awards {{!}} Ministry of Defence, Government of India |url=https://www.gallantryawards.gov.in/awardee/1060 |website=www.gallantryawards.gov.in |access-date=13 December 2023}}</ref>
|-
|}

====Bangladesh====
Recipients of the Bir Sreshtho:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=National_Awards|title=National Awards|last=Khan|first=Sanjida|website=Banglapedia|access-date=2018-07-08|quote=Through a gazette notification of the government issued on 15 December 1973, the insignia of Bir Srestha was conferred upon seven martyr freedom fighters (posthumously)|archive-date=24 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211224091531/https://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=National_Awards|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Rahman |first=Rifaat |date=4 December 2015 |title=Swadhinata Chattar built as memorial to seven Liberation War heroes ruined by encroachers |url=https://bdnews24.com/bangladesh/2015/12/04/swadhinata-chattar-built-as-memorial-to-seven-liberation-war-heroes-ruined-by-encroachers |work=bdnews24.com |access-date=2018-07-08 |quote=Inside, there are separate plaques for Bir Shrestha Captain Mohiuddin Jahangir, Bir Shrestha Flight Lt Motiur Rahman, Bir Shrestha Sepoy Mostofa Kamal, Bir Shrestha Sepoy Hamidur Rahman, Bir Shrestha Lance Naik Munshi Abdur Rouf, Bir Shrestha Ruhul Amin, and Bir Shrestha Lance Naik Nur Mohammad Sheikh. |archive-date=9 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180709010444/https://bdnews24.com/bangladesh/2015/12/04/swadhinata-chattar-built-as-memorial-to-seven-liberation-war-heroes-ruined-by-encroachers |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Captain (armed forces)|Captain]] [[Mohiuddin Jahangir]] (Posthumously)
* [[Lance Naik]] [[Munshi Abdur Rouf]] (Posthumously)
* [[Sepoy]] [[Hamidur Rahman]] (Posthumously)
* [[Sepoy]] [[Mostafa Kamal (Bir Sreshtho)|Mostafa Kamal]] (Posthumously)
* ERA [[Mohammad Ruhul Amin]] (Posthumously)
* [[Flight Lieutenant]] [[Matiur Rahman (military pilot)|Matiur Rahman]] (Posthumously)
* [[Lance Naik]] [[Nur Mohammad Sheikh]] (Posthumously)

====Pakistan====

Recipients of the Nishan-E-Haider:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pakistanpaedia.com/celeb/nh/celeb_1.htm|title=Nishan-e-Haider holders of Pakistan Army|access-date=19 February 2013|archive-date=24 April 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130424162206/http://pakistanpaedia.com/celeb/nh/celeb_1.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.shaheedfoundation.org/nishanehaider.asp |title=Nishan-e-Haider |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140812211253/http://www.shaheedfoundation.org/nishanehaider.asp |archive-date=12 August 2014}}</ref>
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center"
! scope="col" style="width: 150px;" | Rank
! scope="col" style="width: 300px;" | Name
! scope="col" style="width: 200px;" | Unit
! scope="col" style="width: 10px;" | References
|-
|[[Major (rank)|Major]]
|[[Muhammad Akram]] (Posthumously)
|[[Frontier Force Regiment|4 Frontier Force Regiment]]
|<ref>{{cite web |title=Major Muhammad Akram |url=http://www.pakistanarmy.gov.pk/AWPReview/TextContent.aspx?pId=182 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100824194224/http://www.pakistanarmy.gov.pk/AWPReview/TextContent.aspx?pId=182 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2010-08-24 |access-date=13 December 2023 |date=24 August 2010}}</ref>
|-
|[[Pilot Officer]]
|[[Rashid Minhas]] (Posthumously)
|[[No. 2 Squadron PAF]]
|<ref>{{cite web |title=PAKISTAN AIR FORCE - Official website |url=https://paf.gov.pk/paf_shaheeds.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100314063453/https://paf.gov.pk/paf_shaheeds.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=2010-03-14 |access-date=13 December 2023 |date=14 March 2010}}</ref>
|-
|[[Major (rank)|Major]]
|[[Shabbir Sharif]] (Posthumously)
|[[54th Sikhs (Frontier Force)|6 Frontier Force Regiment]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Major Shabbir Sharif's 51st martyrdom anniversary observed |url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2389761/major-shabbir-sharifs-51st-martyrdom-anniversary-observed |work=The Express Tribune |access-date=13 December 2023 |language=en |date=6 December 2022}}</ref>
|-
|[[Sowar]]
|[[Muhammad Hussain (soldier)|Muhammad Hussain]] (Posthumously)
|[[20th Lancers (Pakistan)|20th Lancers]]
|<ref>{{cite web |title=Inter Services Public Relations Pakistan |url=https://www.ispr.gov.pk/sowar-hussain-shaheed.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190809100331/https://www.ispr.gov.pk/sowar-hussain-shaheed.php |url-status=dead |archive-date=2019-08-09 |access-date=13 December 2023 |date=9 August 2019}}</ref>
|-
|[[Lance Naik]]
|[[Muhammad Mahfuz]] (Posthumously)
|[[Punjab Regiment (Pakistan)|15 Punjab]]
|<ref>{{cite web |title=Lance Naik Muhammad Mahfuz |url=https://www.pakistanarmy.gov.pk/AWPReview/TextContent.aspx?pId=179 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180130205831/https://www.pakistanarmy.gov.pk/AWPReview/TextContent.aspx?pId=179 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2018-01-30 |access-date=13 December 2023 |date=30 January 2018}}</ref>
|-
|}

==Civilian awards==
On 25 July 2011, Bangladesh Swadhinata Sammanona, the Bangladesh Freedom Honour, was posthumously conferred on former Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi.<ref>{{cite news |last=Habib |first=Haroon |author-link=Haroon Habib |date=25 July 2011 |title=Bangladesh honours Indira Gandhi with highest award |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/bangladesh-honours-indira-gandhi-with-highest-award/article2293016.ece |newspaper=The Hindu |access-date=18 May 2013 |archive-date=10 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010075735/http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/bangladesh-honours-indira-gandhi-with-highest-award/article2293016.ece |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[R. M. Muzumdar]] - [[IOFS]] officer. Second Indian Director General of the Indian Ordnance Factories. He was awarded the Padma Bhushan by the Government of India, in 1973, in the Civil service category, for his contributions during the Indo-Pakistani war of 1971.

[[O. P. Bahl]], an [[IOFS]] officer. Former Additional Director General Ordnance Factories and Member of the [[Ordnance Factory Board]]. Received [[Padma Shri]], in 1972 in the civil-service category for his efforts during the war.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/nagpur/govt-offers-to-form-committee-of-unions-to-think-over/articleshow/70811672.cms|title=Govt offers to form committee, OF unions to think over | Nagpur News |work=The Times of India|access-date=24 December 2021|archive-date=24 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211224164534/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/nagpur/govt-offers-to-form-committee-of-unions-to-think-over/articleshow/70811672.cms|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://archive.india.gov.in/myindia/padmashri_awards_list1.php?start=1810|title=Padma Shri Awardees|website=Government of India|access-date=17 October 2019|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304033024/http://archive.india.gov.in/myindia/padmashri_awards_list1.php?start=1810|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/at-200-yr-old-ordnance-factories-anxiety-anticipation-and-some-sulk/articleshow/71613086.cms|title=At India's 200-year-old ordnance factories, anxiety and anticipation | India News |work=The Times of India|access-date=24 December 2021|archive-date=24 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211224164032/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/at-200-yr-old-ordnance-factories-anxiety-anticipation-and-some-sulk/articleshow/71613086.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 28 March 2012, President of Bangladesh [[Zillur Rahman]] and the Prime Minister [[Sheikh Hasina]] conferred Bangladesh Liberation War Honour and Friends of Liberation War Honour to 75 people, six organisations, [[Mitra Bahini]] and the people of India at a special ceremony at the [[Bangabandhu International Conference Center|Bangabandhu International Conference Centre]], Dhaka. This included eight heads of states: former Nepalese President [[Ram Baran Yadav]], the third [[King of Bhutan]] [[Jigme Dorji Wangchuck]], former Soviet general secretary [[Leonid Brezhnev|Leonid IIyich Brezhnev]], former Soviet head of state [[Nikolai Podgorny|Nikolai Viktorovich Podgorny]], former Soviet Prime Minister [[Alexei Kosygin|Alexei Nikolaevich Kosygin]], former Yugoslav President [[Marshal Josip Broz Tito]], former UK Prime Minister [[Edward Heath|Sir Edward Richard George Heath]] and former Nepalese Prime Minister [[Bishweshwar Prasad Koirala]]. The organisations include the [[BBC]], [[All India Radio|Akashbani (All India Radio)]], [[International Committee of the Red Cross]], [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees]], [[Oxfam]] and [[University of Calcutta|Kolkata University]] Shahayak Samiti.

The list of foreign friends of Bangladesh has since been extended to 568 people. It includes 257 Indians, 88 Americans, 41 Pakistanis, 39 Britons, 9 Russians, 18 Nepalese, 16 French and 18 Japanese.<ref>{{cite news |date=28 March 2012 |title=Friends of freedom honoured |url=http://www.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details.php?nid=228046 |newspaper=The Daily Star |access-date=28 March 2012 |archive-date=29 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120329093524/http://www.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details.php?nid=228046 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=28 March 2012 |title=B'desh honours foreign friends |url=http://www.thefinancialexpress-bd.com/more.php?news_id=124849&date=2012-03-28 |location=Dhaka |newspaper=The Financial Express |access-date=28 March 2012 |archive-date=24 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150224194105/http://www.thefinancialexpress-bd.com/more.php?news_id=124849&date=2012-03-28 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==In media==
===Films===
* ''[[Ora Egaro Jon]]'' (''The Magnificent Eleven''), a 1972 [[Cinema of Bangladesh|Dhallywood]] war film directed by [[Chashi Nazrul Islam]], featuring real [[Indian Army]] and [[Pakistani Army]] personnel. This was the first ever feature film about [[Bangladesh Liberation War]].<ref name="Haq2022p429">{{cite journal |last1=Haq |first1=Fahmidul |title=Cinema of Bangladesh: Absence of 1947 and abundance of 1971 |journal=India Review |year=2022 |volume=21 |issue=3 |page=429 |doi=10.1080/14736489.2022.2086409}}</ref>
* ''[[Hindustan Ki Kasam (1973 film)|Hindustan Ki Kasam]]'', a 1973 [[Bollywood]] war film directed by [[Chetan Anand (director)|Chetan Anand]] about [[Operation Cactus Lilly]].<ref name="TOI_top10_films"/>
* ''[[Aakraman]]'', a 1975 Bollywood film set during this war featuring a romantic [[love triangle]].
* ''[[Border (1997 film)|Border]]'', a 1997 Bollywood war film directed by [[J.P.Dutta]]. This movie is an adaptation from real life events that happened at the [[Battle of Longewala]] fought in [[Rajasthan]] (Western Theatre).<ref name="TOI_top10_films">{{cite news|title=Top 10 films on Indo-Pak conflict|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/top-lists/top-10-films-on-indo-pak-conflict/videols/7824538.cms|access-date=28 July 2012|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|date=30 March 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120511042921/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/top-lists/top-10-films-on-indo-pak-conflict/videols/7824538.cms|archive-date=11 May 2012|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/border-director-jp-dutta-pays-tributes-paid-to-brig-chandpuri/articleshow/71557191.cms|title='Border' director JP Dutta pays tribute to Brig Chandpuri | Chandigarh News|work=The Times of India|access-date=16 October 2020|archive-date=15 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201215172208/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/border-director-jp-dutta-pays-tributes-paid-to-brig-chandpuri/articleshow/71557191.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>
* ''[[16 December (film)|16 December]]'', a 2002 film directed by [[Mani Shankar]].
* ''[[1971 (2007 film)|1971 – Prisoners of War]]'', a 2007 Bollywood war film directed by [[Amrit Sagar]]. Set against the backdrop of a [[prisoner-of-war camp]] in Pakistan, it follows six Indian prisoners awaiting release after their capture during the war.<ref name="TOI_top10_films"/>
* ''[[Midnight's Children (film)|Midnight's Children]],'' a 2012 film was adapted from Salman Rushdie's novel, is fictional story of two twins born on the midnight of 15 August 1947. It also has references to 1971 war.
* ''[[Children of War (2014 film)|Children of War]]'', a 2014 Hindi drama film, revolves around the events of 1971 Bangladesh genocide and the liberation war.
* ''[[The Ghazi Attack]]'', a 2017 war film directed by [[Sankalp Reddy]]. It is based on the sinking of [[PNS Ghazi]] during the war.
* ''[[1971: Beyond Borders]]'', a 2017 Indian war drama film written and directed by [[Major Ravi]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movie-reviews/1971-beyond-borders/movie-review/58063353.cms|title=1971: Beyond Borders Review {3.5/5}: The film puts across the message that fighting wars for "borders and orders" robs away so many lives needlessly|work=The Times of India|access-date=2017-06-20}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/the-thrill-lies-in-being-the-first-person-to-do-something-that-has-not-been-done-before-mohanlal/articleshow/57839218.cms|title=The thrill lies in being the first person to do something that has not been done before: Mohanlal|work=The Times of India|access-date=16 October 2020|archive-date=24 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201124133504/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/the-thrill-lies-in-being-the-first-person-to-do-something-that-has-not-been-done-before-mohanlal/articleshow/57839218.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>
* ''[[Raazi]]'', a 2017 fictional spy film, based on the novel "Calling Sehmat", was set before the events of war about the detection of plans to deploy PNS Ghazi<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-metroplus/That-spy-princess/article15446864.ece|title=That spy princess!|date=2008-05-03|work=The Hindu|access-date=2018-05-10|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X|archive-date=9 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109023931/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-metroplus/That-spy-princess/article15446864.ece|url-status=live}}</ref>
* ''[[Romeo Akbar Walter]]'', a 2019 spy thriller film was set against the backdrop of the 1971 Indo-Pakistani war, which tells the story of Rehmatullah Ali, a young Indian bank clerk, who is recruited by the Research and Analysis Wing (RAW), for a covert operation in Pakistan.
* ''[[Bhuj: The Pride of India]]'', 2021 action film set during the war tells the story of rebuilding the Bhuj airbase in India, which was damaged by the Pakistan air attacks.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/sanjay-dutt-rana-daggubati-sonakshi-sinha-bhuj-the-pride-of-india-cast-5635383/|date=20 March 2019|language=en|work=The Indian Express|title=Bhuj The Pride of India: Sanjay Dutt, Sharad Kelkar and Sonakshi Sinha join Ajay Devgn's film|access-date=25 June 2019|archive-date=21 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190321145811/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/sanjay-dutt-rana-daggubati-sonakshi-sinha-bhuj-the-pride-of-india-cast-5635383/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* ''[[Pippa (film)|Pippa]]'', a 2023 action film based on the life of Brigadier Balram Singh Mehta who fought in the [[Battle of Garibpur]] on the eastern front in November 1971.
* ''[[Sam Bahadur (film)|Sam Bahadur]]'', a 2023 film, is based on the life of India's first Field Marshal [[Sam Manekshaw]] and his contribution to the 1971 Indo-Pak war.
* ''[[Border 2]]'', an upcoming 2026 film, is based on multiple battles fought during the India-Pakistan war of 1971.

===Short films===
* ''Mukti: Birth of a Nation'', a 2017 short film directed by Manu Chobe depictsalso focuses on hs contribution to 1971 war. the negotiations between Major General [[J. F. R. Jacob]] and Lieutenant General [[A. A. K. Niazi]] over the [[Pakistani Instrument of Surrender]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.news18.com/news/movies/mukti-birth-of-a-nation-showcases-history-of-indian-military-during-1971-1494717.html|title=Mukti – Birth of a Nation Showcases History of Indian Military During 1971|date=18 August 2017|work=News18|access-date=27 October 2020|archive-date=30 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030180227/https://www.news18.com/news/movies/mukti-birth-of-a-nation-showcases-history-of-indian-military-during-1971-1494717.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Miniseries/Dramas===
* ''[[PNS Ghazi (Shaheed)|PNS Ghazi]]'', an [[Urdu]] (Pakistani) drama based on sinking of {{ship|PNS|Ghazi||6}}, [[Inter-Services Public Relations|ISPR]]

== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Bangladesh Liberation War]]
* [[Post–World War II air-to-air combat losses]]
* [[List of aerial victories during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971]]
* [[Indo-Pakistani war of 1947–1948]]
* [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965]]
* [[Indo-Pakistani air war of 1965]]
* [[Separatism in Pakistan|Separatist nationalism in Pakistan]]
** [[Muslim nationalism in South Asia]]
*** [[Pakistani nationalism]]
*** [[Conservatism in Pakistan]]
*** [[Socialism in Pakistan]]
* [[Bangladesh Forces]]
* [[Timeline of the Bangladesh War]]
* [[Radcliffe Line]]
* [[Pakistan and state-sponsored terrorism]]
* [[India and state-sponsored terrorism]]
* [[United States Pakistan relations|United States–Pakistan relations before 1990]]
* [[Soviet Union-Pakistan relations|Soviet Union-Pakistan relations before 1990]]
* [[Tridev Roy]]
* [[Operation Searchlight]]\[[Operation Barisal|Barisal]]
* [[Riverine Warfare]]
* [[1969 uprising in East Pakistan|Protest of 1969 in Pakistan]]
* [[History of the Pakistan Air Force|Pakistan Air Force in East Pakistan]]
* [[International Crimes Tribunal (Bangladesh)]]
* [[Indian Army#Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971|Indian Army in East Pakistan]]
* [[Pakistan-Afghanistan relations]]
* [[Indo-Pakistani War (1971) prisoners of war|1971 Winter POWs/MIA Investigations, Pakistan]]
* [[Pakistan Armed Forces deployments|Pakistan military deployments in other countries]]
* [[Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction]]
{{div col end}}

===General===
* [[History of Bangladesh]]
* [[History of Myanmar]]
* [[List of conflicts in Asia]]
{{clear}}

== References ==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book |last1=Bass |first1=Gary J. |author-link=Gary J. Bass |title=The Blood Telegram: Nixon, Kissinger, and a Forgotten Genocide |date=2013 |publisher=Vintage |location=New York |isbn=978-8184003703}}
* {{cite book |title=Pakistaniaat: Special issue on 1971 War |year=2010 |editor=Cilano, Cara|title-link=Pakistaniaat: A Journal of Pakistan Studies }}
* {{cite book |last=Hanhimäki|first=Jussi M.|title=The Flawed Architect: Henry Kissinger and American Foreign Policy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3wolOABSg_YC&pg=PP1|year=2004|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-517221-8}}
* Hayes, Jarrod. "Securitization, social identity, and democratic security: Nixon, India, and the ties that bind." ''International Organization'' 66.1 (2012): 63–93.[https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jarrod_Hayes/publication/241754960_Securitization_Social_Identity_and_Democratic_Security_Nixon_India_and_the_Ties_That_Bind/links/55a50fd008ae00cf99c94313.pdf online]
* {{cite book |last=Niazi|first=General A. A. K.|title=Betrayal of East Pakistan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nYppZ_dEjdIC&pg=PP1|year=1999|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn= 978-0-19-579275-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Palit|first=D K|title=The Lightning Campaign: The Indo-Pakistan War 1971|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rPmTAAAACAAJ|year=1972|publisher=Compton Press Ltd|isbn=978-0-900193-10-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Raghavan |first=Srinath |author-link=Srinath Raghavan |date=2013 |title=1971: A Global History of the Creation of Bangladesh |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-72864-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Raja |first=Dewan Mohammad Tasawwar |title=O General My General (Life and Works of General M A G Osmany)|year=2010|publisher=The Osmany Memorial Trust, Dhaka, Bangladesh|isbn=978-984-8866-18-4 }}
* {{cite book |last=Saigal|first=J R|title=Pakistan Splits: The Birth of Bangladesh|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gUfaAAAACAAJ|year=2000|publisher=Manas Publications|isbn=9788170491248}}
* Warner, Geoffrey. "Nixon, Kissinger and the breakup of Pakistan, 1971." ''International Affairs'' 81.5 (2005): 1097–1118.

==External links==
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q8MO52QQ6_o Video of General Niazi Surrendering]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050802085547/http://www.freeindia.org/1971war/ A complete coverage of the war from the Indian perspective]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081029150607/http://www.ndu.edu/nesa/docs/Gill%20Atlas%20Final%20Version.pdf An Atlas of the 1971 India – Pakistan War: The Creation of Bangladesh by John H. Gill]
* [http://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/frus/nixon/xi/ Actual conversation from the then US President Nixon and Henry Kissinger during the 1971 War] – [[US Department of State]]'s Official archive.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050213035604/http://indianarmy.nic.in/armajop.htm Indian Army: Major Operations]
* [http://www.icdc.com/%7Epaulwolf/pakistan/pakistan.htm Pakistan: Partition and Military Succession USA Archives]
* [https://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/3/newsid_2519000/2519133.stm Pakistan intensifies air raid on India BBC]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050906140622/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/1971/ A day by day account of the war as seen in a virtual newspaper.]
* [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB79/ The Tilt: The U.S. and the South Asian Crisis of 1971.]
* [https://www.dawn.com/news/1073092/dec-16-1971-any-lessons-learned ''16 December 1971: any lessons learned?'' By Ayaz Amir] – Pakistan's [[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]]
* [https://archive.today/20061015201345/http://www.vidyasoft.com/interest/war/war71.html India-Pakistan 1971 War as covered by TIME]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061020233036/http://orbat.com/site/cimh/iaf/IAF_1971_kills_rev1.pdf Indian Air Force Combat Kills in the 1971 war (unofficial), Centre for Indian Military History]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070926234047/http://frontierindia.net/op-cactus-lilly-19-infantry-division-in-1971/ Op Cactus Lilly: 19 Infantry Division in 1971, a personal recall by Lt Col Balwant Singh Sahore]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070926233932/http://frontierindia.net/all-for-a-bottle-of-scotch/ All for a bottle of Scotch, a personal recall of Major (later Major General) C K Karumbaya, SM, the battle for Magura]
* {{cite news|title=The Rediff Interview/Lt Gen A A Khan Niazi|date=2 February 2004|work=Rediff|url=http://www.rediff.com/../news/2004/feb/02inter1.htm}}

{{1971 Indo-Pak War}}
{{1971 Bangladesh genocide}}
{{Kashmir conflict}}
{{Bangladesh Liberation War}}
{{Military of India}}
{{Military history of Pakistan}}
{{Secession in Countries}}
{{Bangladesh–Pakistan relations}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Portal bar|India|Pakistan}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:India-Pakistan war of 1971}}
[[Category:India–Pakistan war of 1971| ]]
[[Category:1971 in India]]
[[Category:Airstrikes conducted by India]]
[[Category:Anti-Pakistan sentiment]]
[[Category:Attacks in Bangladesh]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1971]]
[[Category:December 1971 in Asia]]
[[Category:History of East Pakistan]]
[[Category:History of the Indian Army]]
[[Category:India–Pakistan wars and conflicts|1971]]
[[Category:Military intervention]]
[[Category:Military operations of the Bangladesh Liberation War]]
[[Category:Post-independence history of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Research & Analysis Wing]]
[[Category:Wars involving Bangladesh]]
[[Category:Wars involving India]]
[[Category:Wars involving Pakistan]]

Arishadvarga

2026-04-25T01:53:56Z

Ankitchadha:

{{short description|Film}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2020}}

{{Infobox film
| name = Arishadvarga
| image = Arishadvarga poster.jpg
| director = Arvind Kamath
| producer = Kanasu Talkies
| writer = Arvind Kamath
| starring = {{Plainlist |
* [[Avinash Yelandur|Avinash]]
* [[Samyukta Hornad]]
* Nanda Gopal
* Mahesh Bung
* Anju Alva Naik
* Arvind Kuplikar
* [[Gopalkrishna Deshpande]]
* Sreepathi Manjanbailu
}}
| music = Udit Haritas
| cinematography = Balaji Manohar
| editing = Arvind Kamath, [[Beena Paul]], Divya Raghuram, Bharath MC.
| released = {{film date|df=yes|2019|06|23|LIFF|2020|11|27}}
| country = India
| language = Kannada
}}
'''''Arishadvarga''''' is a 2019 Indian [[Kannada]] language [[neo noir]] [[Mystery film|mystery]] [[thriller film]] written, directed and produced by Arvind Kamath, under the banner Kanasu Talkies.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Bhat|first1=Padmanabh|title="ಮರ್ಡರ್‌ ಮಿಸ್ಟರಿ; ಅರಿಷಡ್ವರ್ಗ ಗೆಲ್ಲುವ ಆಟ..."|url=https://www.prajavani.net/entertainment/cinema/arishadvarga-news-624072.html|website=prajavani.net|access-date=27 March 2019|archive-date=22 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222190041/https://www.prajavani.net/entertainment/cinema/arishadvarga-news-624072.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Filmmaker Arvind Kamath shares a pragmatic take on #MeToo |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movies/news/filmmaker-arvind-kamath-shares-a-pragmatic-take-on-metoo/articleshow/66347563.cms |website=timesofindia.indiatimes.com |access-date=24 October 2018 |archive-date=21 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200321072904/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movies/news/filmmaker-arvind-kamath-shares-a-pragmatic-take-on-metoo/articleshow/66347563.cms |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Suresh|first1=Sunayna|title=Manvitha Harish signs her next Sandalwood film|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movies/news/Manvitha-Harish-signs-her-next-Sandalwood-film/articleshow/54427275.cms|website=timesofindia.indiatimes.com|access-date=24 Jan 2017|archive-date=5 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005043842/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movies/news/Manvitha-Harish-signs-her-next-Sandalwood-film/articleshow/54427275.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> The film is a tale of lust, anger, love, greed, power, jealousy, mistaken identity and individual deficiencies. It’s a fatalistic noir tale of one man’s vain struggle to escape his own limitations, unfortunately, an impossibility in the world of noir. The film stars [[Avinash Yelandur|Avinash]], [[Samyukta Hornad]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Samyukta Hornad completes shoot for Arishadvarga |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movies/news/samyukta-hornad-completes-shoot-for-arishadvarga/articleshow/64718864.cms |website=timesofindia.indiatimes.com|access-date=24 June 2018}}</ref> Nanda Gopal, Mahesh Bung, Anju Alva Naik, [[Gopalkrishna Deshpande]], Aravind Kuplikar, [[Sudha Belawadi]], M. G. Sathya, and Sripathi Manjanabayalu in prominent roles. The film had its [[world premiere]] at [[London Indian Film Festival]] during June 2019,<ref>{{cite web|author=Web Desk|title=ಲಂಡನ್ ಫಿಲ್ಮ್ ಫೆಸ್ಟಿವಲ್‌ನಲ್ಲಿ 'ಅರಿಷಡ್ವರ್ಗ' ಪ್ರದರ್ಶನ!...|url=https://kannada.asianetnews.com/entertainment/london-film-festival-features-kannada-movie-arishadvarga-prn06a|website=asianetnews.com|access-date=17 May 2019|archive-date=2 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190602084921/https://kannada.asianetnews.com/entertainment/london-film-festival-features-kannada-movie-arishadvarga-prn06a|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=George |first1=Nina |title=Thriller Set in Bengaluru to premiere in London |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/metrolife/metrolife-cityscape/thriller-set-in-bengaluru-to-premiere-in-london-738494.html |website=Deccan Herald.com |access-date=6 June 2019 |archive-date=16 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191216173807/https://www.deccanherald.com/metrolife/metrolife-cityscape/thriller-set-in-bengaluru-to-premiere-in-london-738494.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Arvind Kamath's Arishadvarga to premiere in London |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movies/news/arvind-kamaths-arishadvarga-to-premiere-in-london/articleshow/69278911.cms |website=timesofindia.indiatimes.com |access-date=11 May 2019 |archive-date=15 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210115174917/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movies/news/arvind-kamaths-arishadvarga-to-premiere-in-london/articleshow/69278911.cms |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=HP |first1=Aakarsh |title=Arishadvarga Becomes The Second Kannada Film To premiere At London Film Festival Only After Lucia |url=https://metrosaga.com/arishadvarga-london-film-festival/ |website=metrosaga.com |date=12 June 2019 |access-date=12 June 2019 |archive-date=16 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191216231108/https://metrosaga.com/arishadvarga-london-film-festival/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Karki|first1=Manisha|title=Arvind Kamath's Arishadvarga to premiere at London Indian Film Festival|url=https://boxofficeindia.co.in/arvind-kamath%E2%80%99s-arishadvarga-premiere-london-indian-film-festival/|website=boxofficeindia.co.in|access-date=12 June 2019|archive-date=19 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210119094054/https://boxofficeindia.co.in/arvind-kamath%E2%80%99s-arishadvarga-premiere-london-indian-film-festival/|url-status=dead}}</ref> where it received positive reviews, followed by the Asian Premiere at Singapore South Asian International film festival during September 2019 and North American Premiere at the Vancouver International South Asian Film Festival during November 2019.<ref>{{cite web|title=Arishadvarga Singapore South Asian International Film festival|url=https://www.sgsaiff.com/product/arishadvarga|access-date=16 December 2019|archive-date=6 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211206191534/https://www.sgsaiff.com/product/arishadvarga/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=FEATURE MOVIE: ARISHADVARGA|url=https://tickets.surrey.ca/TheatreManager/1/tmEvent/tmEvent2236.html|access-date=20 December 2019|archive-date=20 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191220202555/https://tickets.surrey.ca/TheatreManager/1/tmEvent/tmEvent2236.html|url-status=live}}</ref> It was reported to be partially based on Shankar Vijaykumar's short story ''Someone''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.filmcompanion.in/reviews/kannada-review/arishadvarga-movie-review-kannada-movies-arvind-kamath-existential-whodunit-paints-a-woman-centric-drama-in-noir-shades-baradwaj-rangan|title=Arishadvarga Movie Review: Arvind Kamath's Existential Whodunit Paints a Woman-Centric Drama in Noir Shades|date=27 November 2020|access-date=31 January 2025|archive-date=16 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220816071144/https://www.filmcompanion.in/reviews/kannada-review/arishadvarga-movie-review-kannada-movies-arvind-kamath-existential-whodunit-paints-a-woman-centric-drama-in-noir-shades-baradwaj-rangan/|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Plot ==
Set in present-day Bangalore, an aspiring actor doubling up as an amateur gigolo gets caught up in a sticky situation after accepting a surprise gift from an anonymous client. Anish is desperately trying to make it as an actor but his dire financial situation pushes him to look for an escape, which he finds with an anonymous wealthy client by name Manasaa. Called to her place one day for a rendezvous, he turns up only to be met with a surprise gift, ‘a murder’.

The person who was murdered was a film producer and quarry owner, Manjunath Bhat. Based on his invite, aspiring girl Shruthi comes to his home for audition and she also ends up caught in sticky situation along with Anish. And both were ordered by a woman via VOIP call to dispose the body as soon as possible and a good-hearted petty thief cum auto-driver joins this club in the night when he comes to the murder house for pilferage who leads police to this murder house.

Investigation is done by Ashok who is leading a boring life of being a single. He is supported by Rajanna on investigation. On investigation, he comes across Kruthi Bhat who is the second wife of deceased Manjunath and who has been living with him. She reveals the story of how they both ended up in love and marriage in spite of their age difference and how Manjunath's age factor impacts her sexual life. She explains how Anish became common friend to both of them who was requested by Manjunath to help her wife getting pregnant in exchange of Anish getting hero role in Manjunath's production. Though kruthi was not ready for this, she got convinced after Manjunath's explanation. But, eventually, they both decide to ignore Anish as they could not fulfill Anish promise due to Manjunath's business loss and that has led Anish to murder Manjunath.

Ashok was almost convinced with this narrative from Kruthi till he comes across a character named Karthik who works for Manjunath. Karthik was introduced to Kruthi by Manjunath, and she started liking him. Manjunath's sexual problem led her to get her needs satisfied by Karthik, and she becomes pregnant. In the meantime, Manjunath and Kartik's relationship fell off and on knowing that Kruthi is pregnant, he wants to make money out of her by threatening her with her intimate video. Manjunath learns of this and in the ensuing quarrel between him and Kruthi, she ends up in killing him. Then she hatches up a plan to make Anish as murderer by inviting him over call, whose number was given by a high-end pimp, to come to her house for his service.

Ashok who got to know that Karthik and Kruthi had illicit relationship plans to make use of this situation for his advantage. He murders Karthik in a quarry and settles in Kruthi's home and enjoys his new life. Movie ends with Ashok getting a call from Maanasa, who seems to be the first wife of Manjunath and settled in foreign, leaving it open ended for a sequel.

== Cast ==

* [[Avinash Yelandur|Avinash]] as Manjunath Bhat, a film producer
* [[Samyukta Hornad]] as Saakshi Rao, an aspiring actress
* Nanda Gopal as Ashok Kalburgi, Police Inspector
* Mahesh Bung as Anish Urs, an aspiring actor
* Anju Alva Naik as Kruthi Bhat, a film editor
* Aravind Kuplikar as Karthik, an aspiring film director
* [[Gopalkrishna Deshpande]] as Bheemsen Joshi, an auto-rickshaw driver
* Sripathi Manjanabailu as Raajanna, Head Constable

== Soundtrack ==
{{Infobox album
| name = Arishadvarga
| type = soundtrack
| artist = Udit Haritas
| cover =
| alt =
| released = 2020
| recorded = 2019
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = Soundtrack
| length =
| label = Zee Music Co.
| producer = Kanasu Talkies
| prev_title =
| prev_year =
| next_title =
| next_year =
}}

The music is composed by Udit Haritas ("Agnata") and this is his first feature film.

=== Songs ===
{{Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| length9 =
| title6 = Anvartha
| length6 = 3:44
| title7 = Yaava Bimba
| length7 = 4:15
| title8 = Nungu Gulige
| length8 = 3:54
| title9 =
| title10 =
| lyrics5 = Pavan Kumar
| length10 =
| total_length =
| extra6 = [[Aditi Sagar]], Venkat Raman
| extra7 = Siri Ravikumar, Udit Haritas
| extra8 = Aditi Sagar, Udit Haritas
| lyrics6 = Pavan Kumar
| lyrics8 = Udit Haritas
| all_writing =
| length5 = 6:24
| title1 = Bhangi Sedho Bhangi - The weed song
| title3 = Gadiyaarake [Hard Rock]
| extra1 = [[Sanjith Hegde]], Pancham, Udit Haritas
| length1 = 5:07
| lyrics1 = Pavan Kumar
| title2 = Doora Dari
| extra2 = Ananya Bhagat, Udit Haritas, Eesha Suchi, [[Siri Ravikumar]]
| length2 = 5:45
| lyrics2 = Pavan Kumar
| extra3 = Udit Haritas
| extra5 = [[Sanjith Hegde]], [[Ananya Bhat]]
| length3 = 4:13
| lyrics3 = Pavan Kumar
| title4 = Gadiyaarake
| extra4 = [[Raghu Dixit]]
| length4 = 3:56
| lyrics4 = Pavan Kumar
| title5 = Naane Bhoomi
| lyrics7 = Pavan Kumar
}}

== Reception ==
The film opened up to positive reviews at the London Indian Film Festival.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ramnath |first1=Nandini |title=In Kannada thriller 'Arishadvarga', the eyes and ears cannot be trusted |url=https://scroll.in/reel/926641/in-kannada-thriller-arishadvarga-the-eyes-and-ears-cannot-be-trusted |website=scroll.in |access-date=12 June 2019 |archive-date=12 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190612101125/https://scroll.in/reel/926641/in-kannada-thriller-arishadvarga-the-eyes-and-ears-cannot-be-trusted |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=KOTZATHANASIS |first1=PANOS |title=Film Review: Arishadvarga (2019) by Arvind Kamath |url=https://asianmoviepulse.com/2019/06/film-review-arishadvarga-2019-by-arvind-kamath |website=asianmoviepulse.com |date=10 June 2019 |access-date=10 June 2019 |archive-date=11 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190611145824/https://asianmoviepulse.com/2019/06/film-review-arishadvarga-2019-by-arvind-kamath/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Neskanen |first=Eija |title=Arishadvarga (India, 2019) [LIFF 2019] |url=http://www.vcinemashow.com/arishadvarga-india-2019-liff-2019/ |website=vcinemashow.com |date=12 June 2019 |access-date=12 June 2019 |archive-date=14 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190614160802/http://www.vcinemashow.com/arishadvarga-india-2019-liff-2019/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Mathews|first1=Katherine|title=LIFF 2019 Special Review – Arishadvarga.|url=https://bollyspice.com/liff-2019-special-review-arishadvarga/|website=bollyspice.com|date=3 July 2019|access-date=3 July 2019|archive-date=3 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190703225352/https://bollyspice.com/liff-2019-special-review-arishadvarga/|url-status=live}}</ref> {{Rotten Tomatoes prose|score=83|count=6|average=6|ref=yes}}

Josh Hurtado of [[ScreenAnarchy]] stated, "Arishadvarga is a Labyrinthine Thriller Full of Surprises".<ref>{{cite web |last=Hurtado |first=Josh |title=London Indian 2019 Review: ARISHADVARGA Is A Labyrinthine Thriller Full Of Surprises |url=https://screenanarchy.com/2019/06/london-indian-2019-review.html |website=screenanarchy.com |date=17 June 2019 |access-date=17 June 2019 |archive-date=18 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190618055308/https://screenanarchy.com/2019/06/london-indian-2019-review.html |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Baradwaj Rangan]] of ''[[Film Companion South]]'' wrote, "With Nathicharami and now this, Kannada cinema seems to have leapfrogged over other industries in terms of bridging the gap between (relatively) older women and lust."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rangan |first=Baradwaj |author-link=Baradwaj Rangan |date=27 November 2020 |title=Arishadvarga Review |url=https://www.filmcompanion.in/reviews/kannada-review/arishadvarga-movie-review-kannada-movies-arvind-kamath-existential-whodunit-paints-a-woman-centric-drama-in-noir-shades-baradwaj-rangan/ |access-date=27 November 2020 |website=[[Film Companion]] |archive-date=27 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201127034015/https://www.filmcompanion.in/reviews/kannada-review/arishadvarga-movie-review-kannada-movies-arvind-kamath-existential-whodunit-paints-a-woman-centric-drama-in-noir-shades-baradwaj-rangan/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{Official website|https://arishadvargakannadamovie.com/}}
* {{IMDb title|5293618|title=Arishadvarga}}
* {{Facebook|ArishadvargaTheFilm}}

[[Category:2019 Indian films]]
[[Category:Indian mystery thriller films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Raghu Dixit]]
[[Category:2019 Kannada-language films]]
[[Category:2019 thriller films]]
[[Category:2010s mystery thriller films]]
[[Category:Indian neo-noir films]]

Dagumati Venkata Krishna Reddy

2026-04-24T23:41:21Z

Ankitchadha: new - done

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Dagumati Venkata Krishna Reddy
| office = [[Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly|Member of Legislative Assembly Andhra Pradesh]]
| term_start = 2024
| predecessor = [[Ramireddy Pratap Kumar Reddy]]
| constituency = [[Kavali Assembly constituency|Kavali]]
| party = [[Telugu Desam Party]]
| birth_date = 1966
| image = AR212413.jpg
}}
'''Dagumati Venkata Krishna Reddy''' (born 1966, Brahmanakraka Agraharam), also known as Kavya Krishna Reddy, is an Indian politician from [[Andhra Pradesh]]. He is an MLA from [[Kavali Assembly constituency]] in Nellore district.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dagumati Venkata Krishna Reddy, TDP candidate bio : Assets, Total Income, Liabilities, Criminal Cases and other details. |url=https://www.thehindu.com/elections/candidates/AndhraPradesh2024/dagumati-venkata-krishna-reddy-327/ |access-date=2024-06-22 |website=The Hindu |language=en}}</ref> He represents [[Telugu Desam Party]]. He won the [[2024 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]] where TDP had an alliance with [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]] and [[Jana Sena Party]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dagumati Venkata Krishna Reddy, TDP Candidate from Kavali Assembly Election 2024 Seat: Electoral History & Political Journey, Winning or Losing - News18 Assembly Election 2024 Result News |url=https://www.news18.com/elections/andhra-pradesh/dagumati-venkata-krishna-reddy-assembly-candidate-s01aed2008a114e2024c002/ |access-date=2024-06-22 |website=www.news18.com |language=en}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
Reddy is from Kavali. His father Dagumati Lakshmi Reddy was a farmer. He completed his post graduation in commerce in 1990 at [[Sri Venkateswara University|SV University]], Tirupati.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dagumati Venkata Krishna Reddy(TDP):Constituency- KAVALI(NELLORE) - Affidavit Information of Candidate |url=https://www.myneta.info/AndhraPradesh2024/candidate.php?candidate_id=327 |access-date=2024-06-22 |website=www.myneta.info}}</ref>

== Political career ==
Kavya Krishna Reddy won the [[2024 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]] from [[Kavali Assembly constituency]] representing [[Telugu Desam Party]]. He polled 1,06,536 votes and defeated [[Ramireddy Pratap Kumar Reddy]] of YSR Congress Party by a margin of 30,948 votes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kavali Assembly Election Results 2024: Kavali Election Candidates List, Election Date, Vote Share - IndiaToday |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/elections/assembly/andhra-pradesh/kavali-constituency-result-1114 |access-date=2024-06-22 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Reddy, Anam Ramanarayana}}
[[Category:1966 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Telugu Desam Party politicians]]
[[Category:Andhra Pradesh MLAs 2024–2029]]

Mukand Pur

2026-04-23T23:19:29Z

Ankitchadha: started

{{Orphan|date=January 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2019}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Mukund
Pur
| native_name =
| native_name_lang = Hindi, Bhojpuri
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = census town
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Delhi
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in India
| coordinates =
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|Union Territory]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Delhi]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[North Delhi]]
| established_title =
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body = BJP
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 57135
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes = <ref name=census2011>{{cite web|url=http://www.census2011.co.in/data/town/63955-mukand-pur-delhi.html|title=Census 2011, Mukund Pur town Data}}</ref>
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Hindi]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = Pin Code
| postal_code = 110042
| registration_plate =
| website =
| footnotes =
}}

'''Mukund Pur''' is a [[census town]] in [[North Delhi district]] in the [[India]]n [[States and union territories of India|territory]] of [[Delhi]].<ref name=censusindia>{{cite web | url=http://www.censusindia.co.in/towns/mukand-pur-population-north-delhi-63955 | title=Mukund Pur town | publisher=censusindia.co.in | accessdate=4 November 2017}}</ref> Mukund Pur is situated in North Delhi, in the Burari constituency. The small town has one of the highest population densities among areas of Delhi. Mukundpur falls under the Burari Vidhan Sabha constituency. Its PIN code is 110042, and a majority of residents speak Bhojpuri.

'''Infrastructure'''
Bhalswa Mukundpur Lake is a water body located in North Delhi near Mukundpur area. It is surrounded by developing infrastructure and forest land, playing an important role in local ecology and urban development.

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{coord missing|Delhi}}

[[Category:Cities and towns in North Delhi district]]

{{Delhi-geo-stub}}

Kundabarandadi

2026-04-21T12:43:42Z

Ankitchadha: creating first post needs work...

{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2022}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Kundabarandadi
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = Village
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = 
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Karnataka, India
| coordinates =
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flagu|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Karnataka]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Udupi]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| parts_type = [[Taluk]]
| parts = [[Kundapura]]
| government_type =
| governing_body = [[Village Panchayat]]
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 1570
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Kannada]], [[Konkani language|Konkani]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| registration_plate =KA
| website =
}}

'''Kundabarandadi''' is a village in the [[Kundapur]] taluk of [[Udupi|Udupi district]].<ref name=":0" />

== Demographics ==
As of 2011, Kundabarandadi has a total population of 1570 people consisting of 903 male and 141 female residents. The village occupies a total area of 486.70 hecatres with a population density of 3.226 people per hectare. As of 2011, the total literacy rate was 70.89% which was higher than the national average of 59.5%.<ref name="udupi-census">{{Cite web |title=Census {{!}} Udupi District {{!}} India |url=https://udupi.nic.in/en/document-category/census/ |access-date=2023-05-20 |language=en-US}}</ref>

As of 2011, Kundabarandadi has an employment rate of over 51.85%, 82.92% of whom are employed over 183 days in a year.<ref name="udupi-census" />

== History ==
In 2019, an ancient inscription containing 34 lines of Sanskrit was found in the village.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Centuries old ancient Sanskrit inscription found in Byndoor |url=https://www.daijiworld.com/news/newsDisplay.aspx?newsID=646726 |access-date=2023-05-20 |website=www.daijiworld.com |language=en}}</ref>

In 1972, an vented dam and anicut was constructed across the Noojadihole stream in the village to aid in irrigation of the area's farm lands.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=K. Abhishankar |url=http://archive.org/details/dli.csl.3277 |title=Karnataka state Gazetteer: South Kanara District |date=1973 |publisher=Bangalore, Director of Printing Stationery and Publications}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Udupi]]
* [[Kundapura]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{coord missing|Karnataka}}

{{Settlements in Udupi district}}

[[Category:Villages in Udupi district]]

{{Udupi-geo-stub}}

Mirza Riyaz Ul Hassan Effendi

2026-04-20T04:35:02Z

Ankitchadha: new

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{BLP sources|date=November 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2018}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Mirza Riyaz Ul Hassan Effendi
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1977|07|26|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh|Hyderabad]]
| office = [[Telangana Legislative Council|Member of the Telangana Legislative Council]]
| term =
| party = [[All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen]]
| parents = Mirza Sayeedul Hasan Parvez Effendi (father)
| education = B.Com
| spouse = Shabana Ali
| term_start1 =
| term_end1 =
}}

'''Mirza Riyaz Ul Hassan Effendi''' is an Indian politician currently serving as a Member of the [[Telangana Legislative Council]] since 2019.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Telangana State Portal Members of Legislative Council |url=https://www.telangana.gov.in/legislative-council |access-date=2023-03-08 |website=www.telangana.gov.in}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Mirza Riyaz ul Hasan Effendi to be AIMIM MLC candidate |url=https://www.aninews.in/news/national/politics/mirza-riyaz-ul-hasan-effendi-to-be-aimim-mlc-candidate20190225222719/ |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=ANI News |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Janyala |first=Sreenivas |date=15 April 2009 |title=After 40 yrs, MIM on shaky ground |url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/after-40-yrs-mim-on-shaky-ground/447024/0 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090521093347/http://www.indianexpress.com/news/after-40-yrs-mim-on-shaky-ground/447024/0 |archivedate=21 May 2009 |work=[[The Indian Express]]}}</ref> He is a member of the [[All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen]]. He was corporator from [[Dabirpura|Dabeerpura]] (Ward No: 30) of [[Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation|GHMC]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2020-12-04 |title=Dabeerpura Election Result 2020 Live Updates: AIMIM Wins Dabeerpura Ward |url=https://www.news18.com/news/politics/dabeerpura-election-result-2020-live-updates-dabeerpura-ward-winner-contestants-corporator-3138548.html |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/Baldia-beginning-to-these-MLA-MP-netas/articleshow/4371997.cms|title=Baldia beginning to these MLC, MP netas|last=Mahesh|first=Koride|date=8 April 2009|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120531074543/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-04-08/hyderabad/28028294_1_corporator-muslimeen-mim-candidate|work=[[The Times of India]]|archive-date=31 May 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.aimim.in/mumtaz-ahmed-khan/ |title=Mumtaz Ahmed Khan - All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen |access-date=1 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170223183718/http://www.aimim.in/mumtaz-ahmed-khan/ |archive-date=23 February 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Mirza Riyaz ul Hasan Effendi files nomination as AIMIM party candidate for MLC polls">{{cite news |last1= |first1= |title=Mirza Riyaz ul Hasan Effendi files nomination as AIMIM party candidate for MLC polls |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/mirza-riyaz-ul-hasan-effendi-files-nomination-as-aimim-party-candidate-for-mlc-polls/article69413571.ece |access-date=25 April 2025 |publisher=The Hindu |date=4 April 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250425041849/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/mirza-riyaz-ul-hasan-effendi-files-nomination-as-aimim-party-candidate-for-mlc-polls/article69413571.ece |archive-date=25 April 2025 |language=en-IN}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
Ul Effendi was born to Mirza Sayeedul Hasan Parvez Effendi and Khadija Begum Effendi on 26 July 1977. He completed his bachelor's degree in commerce.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|title= Mirza Riyazul Hassan Effendi: Ceo-Telangana
|url=https://ceotelangana.nic.in/Legislative%20Council%20Electoral%20Rolls/AFFIDAVITS%20OF%20CANDIDATES%20OF%20BIENNIAL%20ELECTIONS%20TO%20COUNCIL%20BY%20MLAs/5.MIRZA%20RIYAZUL%20HASSAN%20EFFENDI.pdf |access-date=26 March 2024|journal=Mirza Riyazul Hassan Effendi: Ceo-Telangana}}</ref>

== Political career ==
In 2009, Effendi got elected as a corporator of [[Noorkhan Bazar|Noor Khan Bazaar]] Division in GHMC and in 2016, he got elected as a corporator from [[Dabirpura|Dabeerpura]] (Ward No: 30) of [[Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation|GHMC]]. Later in 2019, he got elected as the [[Telangana Legislative Council|Member of Telangana Legislative Council]] (MLC) under the MLAs quota by getting 19 votes.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=2021-08-04 |title=TRS, MIM candidates win MLC polls as expected - The Hindu |website=[[The Hindu]] |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/trs-mim-candidates-win-mlc-polls-as-expected/article26515170.ece |access-date=2023-03-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210804115400/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/trs-mim-candidates-win-mlc-polls-as-expected/article26515170.ece |archive-date=4 August 2021 }}</ref>

== Positions held ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+
!#
!From
!To
!Position
|-
|1
|2009
|
|[[GHMC]] Corporator from [[Noorkhan Bazar|Noor Khan Bazaar]] Division.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mirza Riyaz Ul Hassan Effendi Archives |url=https://theleaderspage.com/tag/mirza-riyaz-ul-hassan-effendi/ |access-date=2023-03-08 |website=the Leaders Page |language=en-US}}</ref>
|-
|2
|2016
|2019
|[[GHMC]] Corporator from [[Dabirpura|Dabeerpura]] (Ward No: 30).<ref name=":1" />
|-
|3
|2019
|2025
|MLC in [[Telangana Legislative Council]].<ref name=":2" /><ref name="Seven members of Legislative Council take oath">{{cite news |last1= |first1= |title=Seven members of Legislative Council take oath |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/seven-members-of-legislative-council-take-oath/article26848215.ece |access-date=26 April 2025 |publisher=The Hindu |date=15 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250426044428/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/seven-members-of-legislative-council-take-oath/article26848215.ece |archive-date=26 April 2025 |language=en-IN}}</ref>
|-
|4
|25 April 2025
|Incumbent
|MLC in [[Telangana Legislative Council]].<ref name="MIM wins Hyderabad LAC MLC poll">{{cite news |last1= |first1= |title=MIM wins Hyderabad LAC MLC poll |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Hyderabad/mim-wins-hyderabad-lac-mlc-poll/article69489937.ece |access-date=26 April 2025 |publisher=The Hindu |date=25 April 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250426044138/https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Hyderabad/mim-wins-hyderabad-lac-mlc-poll/article69489937.ece |archive-date=26 April 2025 |language=en-IN}}</ref><ref name="AIMIM wins Hyderabad Local Authorities MLC elections">{{cite news |last1= |first1= |title=AIMIM wins Hyderabad Local Authorities MLC elections |url=https://telanganatoday.com/aimim-wins-hyderabad-local-authorities-mlc-elections |access-date=26 April 2025 |publisher=Telangana Today |date=25 April 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250426044400/https://telanganatoday.com/aimim-wins-hyderabad-local-authorities-mlc-elections |archive-date=26 April 2025 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="AIMIM wins Hyderabad local body MLC elections">{{cite news |title=AIMIM wins Hyderabad local body MLC elections |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/hyderabad/aimim-wins-hyderabad-local-body-mlc-elections-9964791/ |access-date=26 April 2025 |publisher=The Indian Express |date=25 April 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250426044354/https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/hyderabad/aimim-wins-hyderabad-local-body-mlc-elections-9964791/ |archive-date=26 April 2025 |language=en}}</ref>
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Effendi, Mirza Riyaz Ul Hassan}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Members of the Telangana Legislative Council]]
[[Category:All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen politicians]]
[[Category:1977 births]]

{{Telangana-politician-stub}}

Modasa Assembly constituency

2026-04-19T19:22:00Z

Ankitchadha: stub

{{short description|Legislative Assembly constituency in Gujarat State, India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2017}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Modasa
| mla = [[Bhikhusinh Parmar |Bhikhusinhji Chatursinhji Parmar]]
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| latest_election_year = [[2022 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election|2022]]
| state = Gujarat
| district = [[Aravalli district|Aravalli]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Sabarkantha Lok Sabha constituency|Sabarkantha]]
| established = 2007
| reservation = None
| electors = {{formatnum:270447}}<ref name=election2022>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/14750-gujarat-general-legislative-election-2022/ |title=Gujarat General Legislative Election 2022 |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date= 18 April 2023}}</ref>{{update after|2028|2}}
| type= SLA
| constituency_no = 31
}}

'''Modasa''' is one of the 182 [[Gujarat Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]] constituencies of [[Gujarat]] state in [[India]].<ref name=gjceo>{{cite web |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140125011107/http://ceo.gujarat.gov.in/download/PCAC.pdf |url=http://ceo.gujarat.gov.in/download/PCAC.pdf |archive-date=25 January 2014 |title=Parliament / Assembly constituency wise PS & Electors Detail - Draft Roll - 2014 |access-date= 1 June 2021|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/delim/Final_Publications/Gujarat/gujarat.pdf |title=Gujarat: Order No. 33: Table-A: Assembly constituency and Their Extent |date=12 December 2006 |website=Election Commission of India |publisher=Delimitation Commission of India |pages=2–31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305015941/http://eci.nic.in/delim/Final_Publications/Gujarat/gujarat.pdf |archive-date=5 March 2016 |url-status=dead |access-date=12 February 2017 }}</ref> It is part of [[Aravalli district|Aravalli]] district.

==List of segments==
This assembly seat represents the following segments,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/delim/Final_Publications/Gujarat/gujarat.pdf|title=Gujarat: Order No. 33: Table-A: Assembly constituency and Their Extent|date=12 December 2006|website=Election Commission of India|publisher=Delimitation Commission of India|pages=2–31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305015941/http://eci.nic.in/delim/Final_Publications/Gujarat/gujarat.pdf|archive-date=5 March 2016|url-status=|access-date=12 February 2017}}</ref>

# Modasa Taluka
# Dhansura Taluka

==Members of Legislative Assembly==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Year
!Member
!Picture
!colspan="2"|Party
|-

|[[2007 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election|2007]]
| Dilipsihji Parmar ||
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
|[[2012 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election|2012]]
| rowspan="2"|Rajendrasinh Shivsinh Thakor<ref name=election2012/> ||
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[2017 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election|2017]]
|-
|[[2022 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election|2022]]
| [[ Bhikhusinh Parmar|Bhikhusinhji Chatursinhji Parmar]] ||
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|}

==Election results==
=== 2022 ===
<section begin="Assembly Election 2022"/>
{{Election box begin|
|title=[[2022 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election|Gujarat Assembly election, 2022]]: Modasa Assembly constituency }}

{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=[[Bhikhusinh Parmar |Bhikhusinhji Chatursinhji Parmar]]|party=Bharatiya Janata Party|votes=98,475|percentage=53.02|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Rajendrasinh Shivsinh Thakor|party=Indian National Congress|votes=63,687|percentage=34.29|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Prof. Rajendrasinh Himmatsinh Parmar|party=Aam Aadmi Party|votes=14,771|percentage=7.95|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=[[None of the above]]|party=None of the above|votes=2,585|percentage=1.39|change=}}
{{Election box majority||votes=|percentage=18.73|change=}}
{{Election box turnout||votes=|percentage=|change=}}
{{Election box registered electors
|reg. electors = {{formatnum:269,648}}
|ref=<ref name="Gujarat Elections ECI">{{cite web |title=Gujarat Legislative Elections |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/category/72-gujarat/ |website=Election Commission of India |access-date=18 May 2022}}</ref>
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|loser = Indian National Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}<section end="Assembly Election 2022" />

=== 2017 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2017 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election|Gujarat Legislative Assembly Election, 2017]]: Modasa<ref name=election2017>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3841-gujarat-general-legislative-election-2017/ |title=Gujarat General Legislative Election 2017 |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date= 11 July 2021}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|candidate = Rajendrasinh Thakor
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = {{formatnum:83411}}
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate= [[Bhikhusinh Parmar |Bhikhusinhji Chatursinhji Parmar]] |party=Bharatiya Janata Party|votes={{formatnum:81771}}|percentage=|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=[[None of the Above]]|party=None of the above|votes=|percentage=|change=}}
{{Election box majority||votes=1,640|percentage=|change=}}
{{Election box turnout||votes=|percentage=|change=}}
{{Election box end}}

===2012===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2012 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election|Gujarat Assembly Election, 2012]]}}<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://ceo.gujarat.gov.in/download/Detail_Report_AC2012.pdf |title=Statistical Report on General Election, 2012 to the Legislative Assembly of Gujarat |access-date=9 June 2014 |archive-date=26 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131126215052/http://ceo.gujarat.gov.in/download/Detail_Report_AC2012.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Rajendrasinh Thakor|party=Indian National Congress|votes=88,879|percentage=53.86|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Dilipsinhji Parmar|party=Bharatiya Janata Party|votes=66,021|percentage=40.01|change=}}
{{Election box majority||votes=22,858|percentage=13.85|change=}}
{{Election box turnout||votes=165,029|percentage=76.35|change=}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Indian National Congress
|loser = Bharatiya Janata Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
* [[List of constituencies of the Gujarat Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Aravalli district]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cite web |title=Results of Gujarat Assembly Elections |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/category/72-gujarat/ |website=eci.gov.in |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=15 March 2022}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Gujarat|state=expanded}}
{{Gujarat elections|state=collapsed}}

{{coord|23.46|73.3|display=title}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Gujarat]]
[[Category:Aravalli district]]
[[Category:Politics of Gujarat]]
[[Category:2007 establishments in Gujarat]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 2007]]

Yamkeshwar Assembly constituency

2026-04-19T19:20:16Z

Ankitchadha: Adding First Post More To Come

{{short description|Legislative Assembly constituency in Uttarakhand State, India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2021}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Yamkeshwar
| latest_election_year = 2022
| mla = [[Renu Bisht]]
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| state = Uttarakhand
| district = [[Pauri Garhwal district|Pauri Garhwal]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Garhwal (Lok Sabha constituency)|Garhwal]]
| reservation = None
| electors = 88,734<ref name="news18.com">"Yamkeshwar Election 2022: Assembly Elections News, Yamkeshwar Constituency, Vidhan Sabha Seat | News18" https://www.news18.com/assembly-elections-2022/uttarakhand/yamkeshwar-election-result-s28a036/</ref>
| type= SLA
| constituency_no = 36
| map_image = Yamkeshwar Assembly constituency map.svg
}}
'''Yamkeshwar''' is one of the 70 constituencies in the [[Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly]] of [[Uttarakhand]] state of [[India]]. [[Yamkeshwar]] is also part of [[Garhwal (Lok Sabha constituency)|Garhwal Lok Sabha constituency]].<ref name="elections">{{cite web|url=http://www.elections.in/uttarakhand/assembly-constituencies/yamkeshwar.html|website=elections.in|title=Yamkeshwar Election and Results 2018, Candidate list, Winner, Runner-up, Current MLA and Previous MLAs|access-date=2020-08-27}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=27 August 2020 |archive-date=5 October 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101005180821/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Election
! Member
! colspan=2|Party
|-
|-
|-
| [[2002 Uttaranchal Legislative Assembly election|2002]] || rowspan=3 | [[Vijaya Barthwal]] || {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=5}}
|-
| [[2007 Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly election|2007]]
|-
| [[2012 Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly election|2012]]
|-
| [[2017 Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly election|2017]] || [[Ritu Khanduri Bhushan]]
|-
| [[2022 Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly election|2022]] || [[Renu Bisht]]
|}

== Election results ==
===Assembly Election 2022 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2022 Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly election]]: [[Yamkeshwar Assembly constituency|Yamkeshwar]]<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Chief Electoral Officer, Uttarakhand|title=Uttarakhand State General Assembly Elections 2022 - AC-Wise Detailed Result (Form-20) |url=https://election.uk.gov.in/CEO-Website/VidhanSabha2022/Form20/form20_2022.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220615102703/https://election.uk.gov.in/CEO-Website/VidhanSabha2022/Form20/form20_2022.htm|archive-date=15 June 2022}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Renu Bisht]] |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=28,390 |percentage=58.98% |change={{increase}}16.36 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Shailendra Singh Rawat]] |party=Indian National Congress |votes=17,980 |percentage=37.35% |change={{increase}}15.07 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Shanti Prasad Bhatt |party=Uttarakhand Kranti Dal |votes=613 |percentage=1.27% |change={{increase}}0.10 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=None of the above |party=None of the above |votes=526 |percentage=1.09% |change={{decrease}}1.05 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Aviral |party=Aam Aadmi Party |votes=454 |percentage=0.94% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=10,410 |percentage=21.63% |change= {{increase}}2.16 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=48,138 |percentage=52.99% |change= {{decrease}}0.20 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 90,838 |ref = |change= {{increase}}4.68 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Bharatiya Janata Party |loser=Bharatiya Janata Party |swing= {{increase}}16.36 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 2017 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2017 Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly election]]: [[Yamkeshwar Assembly constituency|Yamkeshwar]]<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Chief Electoral Officer, Uttarakhand|title=Uttarakhand State General Assembly Elections 2017 - AC-Wise Detailed Result (Form-20) |url=https://election.uk.gov.in/CEO-Website/VidhanSabha2017/Form_20/form20_2017.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220630093109/https://election.uk.gov.in/CEO-Website/VidhanSabha2017/Form_20/form20_2017.htm|archive-date=30 June 2022}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Ritu Khanduri Bhushan]] |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=19,671 |percentage=42.62% |change={{increase}}10.67 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Renu Bisht]] |party=Independent politician |votes=10,689 |percentage=23.16% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Shailendra Singh Rawat]] |party=Indian National Congress |votes=10,283 |percentage=22.28% |change={{decrease}}1.50 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Prashant Badoni |party=Independent politician |votes=2,698 |percentage=5.85% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=None of the above |party=None of the above |votes=988 |percentage=2.14% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Shanti Prasad Bhatt |party=Uttarakhand Kranti Dal |votes=542 |percentage=1.17% |change={{decrease}}6.99 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Jagpal Singh Negi |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=375 |percentage=0.81% |change={{decrease}}0.45 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Kirshan Chandra |party=Independent politician |votes=250 |percentage=0.54% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=(Brig) Govind Prasad Barthwal |party=Independent politician |votes=235 |percentage=0.51% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=8,982 |percentage=19.46% |change= {{increase}}11.29 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=46,155 |percentage=53.19% |change= {{decrease}}2.25 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 86,774 |ref = |change= {{increase}}11.04 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Bharatiya Janata Party |loser=Bharatiya Janata Party |swing= {{increase}}10.67 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 2012 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2012 Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly election]]: [[Yamkeshwar Assembly constituency|Yamkeshwar]]<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Chief Electoral Officer, Uttarakhand|title=Uttarakhand State General Assembly Elections 2012 - AC-Wise Detailed Result (Form-20) |url=https://election.uk.gov.in/Vidhan_sabha2012/form20_2012_PDF/form20_2012.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929115647/https://election.uk.gov.in/Vidhan_sabha2012/form20_2012_PDF/form20_2012.htm|archive-date=29 September 2022}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Vijaya Barthwal]] |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=13,842 |percentage=31.95% |change={{decrease}}5.36 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Sarojani Devi |party=Indian National Congress |votes=10,301 |percentage=23.78% |change={{decrease}}4.04 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Renu Bisht]] |party=Uttarakhand Raksha Morcha |votes=8,541 |percentage=19.71% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Dr. Shakti Shail Kaparawan |party=Uttarakhand Kranti Dal |votes=3,539 |percentage=8.17% |change={{decrease}}1.27 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Manoj Kulashri |party=Independent politician |votes=2,149 |percentage=4.96% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Shurbir Singh Bisht |party=Sainik Samaj Party |votes=1,212 |percentage=2.80% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Chandra Prakash |party=Independent politician |votes=859 |percentage=1.98% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Col. Harpal Singh Bist (Ret) |party=Independent politician |votes=853 |percentage=1.97% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Kuldeep Singh Rawat |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=545 |percentage=1.26% |change={{decrease}}0.66 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Shatrughan Prasad |party=Independent politician |votes=542 |percentage=1.25% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ashok Singh |party=Independent politician |votes=378 |percentage=0.87% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=3,541 |percentage=8.17% |change= {{decrease}}1.31 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=43,326 |percentage=55.44% |change= {{increase}}1.88 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 78,147 |ref = |change= }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Bharatiya Janata Party |loser=Bharatiya Janata Party |swing= {{decrease}}5.36 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 2007 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2007 Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly election]]: [[Yamkeshwar Assembly constituency|Yamkeshwar]]<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 2007 to the Legislative Assembly of Uttarakhand |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2007/Stat_rept_2007_UT.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114082304/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2007/Stat_rept_2007_UT.pdf|archive-date=14 January 2012}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Vijaya Barthwal]] |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=11,172 |percentage=37.31% |change={{increase}}10.86 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Renu Bisht]] |party=Indian National Congress |votes=8,331 |percentage=27.82% |change={{increase}}6.54 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Digamber Kukreti |party=Independent politician |votes=4,902 |percentage=16.37% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Dr. Shakti Shail Kaparawan |party=Uttarakhand Kranti Dal |votes=2,827 |percentage=9.44% |change={{increase}}6.83 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Rajesh Kukreti |party=Independent politician |votes=636 |percentage=2.12% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Usha Devi |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=575 |percentage=1.92% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Manohar Lal Barthwal |party=Independent politician |votes=427 |percentage=1.43% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Navneet |party=Independent politician |votes=415 |percentage=1.39% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Madan Singh Butola Rawat |party=Independent politician |votes=389 |percentage=1.30% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Arun Tiwari |party=Samajwadi Party |votes=273 |percentage=0.91% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=2,841 |percentage=9.49% |change= {{increase}}4.32 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=29,947 |percentage=53.90% |change= {{increase}}7.37 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 55,907 |ref = |change= }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Bharatiya Janata Party |loser=Bharatiya Janata Party |swing= {{increase}}10.86 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 2002 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2002 Uttaranchal Legislative Assembly election]]: [[Yamkeshwar Assembly constituency|Yamkeshwar]]<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 2002 to the Legislative Assembly of Uttarakhand |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2002/Stat_rep_2002_UT.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114065248/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2002/Stat_rep_2002_UT.pdf|archive-date=14 January 2012}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Vijaya Barthwal]] |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=7,404 |percentage=26.44% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Sarojani Kaintura |party=Indian National Congress |votes=5,957 |percentage=21.27% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Digamber Kukreti |party=Independent politician |votes=4,684 |percentage=16.73% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Hari Singh |party=Independent politician |votes=2,322 |percentage=8.29% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Satya Prakash |party=Independent politician |votes=1,664 |percentage=5.94% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Lakhan Singh |party=Independent politician |votes=1,402 |percentage=5.01% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Bhagawati Prasad |party=Uttarakhand Janwadi Party |votes=1,313 |percentage=4.69% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ram Lal |party=Uttarakhand Kranti Dal |votes=730 |percentage=2.61% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Kunwar Singh |party=Lok Jan Shakti Party |votes=540 |percentage=1.93% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Shridhar Chamoli |party=Independent politician |votes=533 |percentage=1.90% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Bhagat Singh |party=Independent politician |votes=376 |percentage=1.34% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=1,447 |percentage=5.17% |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=28,001 |percentage=46.23% |change= }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 60,616 |ref = |change= }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner=Bharatiya Janata Party |loser= |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
* [[Pauri Garhwal district]]
* [[List of constituencies of Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cite web |title=Record of all Uttarakhand Assembly Elections |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/category/93-uttarakhand/ |website=eci.gov.in |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=17 January 2024}}
{{Assembly constituencies of Uttarakhand}}

{{coord|29.98|78.42|display=title}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Uttarakhand]]
[[Category:Pauri Garhwal district]]
[[Category:Politics of Uttarakhand]]
[[Category:2002 establishments in Uttarakhand]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 2002]]

Manal Matha Shrine

2026-04-18T22:48:23Z

Ankitchadha: new

{{Multiple issues|
{{morefootnotes|date=July 2020}}
{{citation style|date=April 2026}}
{{Orphan|date=April 2016}}
}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2020}}

{{Infobox church
| name = Manal Matha Shrine
| fullname = Athisaya Manal Matha Shrine
| image =
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| coordinates = {{coord|8.336972|77.953286|type:landmark|display=inline,title}}
| country = India
| denomination = [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
| membership =
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| founded date = First century AD
| founder = [[Thomas the Apostle]]
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| diocese = [[Diocese of Tuticorin|Tuticorin]]
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'''Athisaya Manal Matha Shrine''' ({{langx|tam|அதிசய மணல் மாதா |translation= Our Lady of Red Sands}} ) is a shrine in southern [[Thoothukudi district]] of [[Tamil Nadu]]. The shrine belongs to the Sokkan Kudierappu Parish of the [[Diocese of Tuticorin]]. The shrine is surrounded by red sands and palm trees. A small lake (known as Tharuvai in by the local people) is located near the shrine. It was once known as Kanakkan Kudieruppu, where a number of families lived in the [[Pandya dynasty|Pandya kingdom]]. It's said that, as a result of the unjust in the kingdom, through a poor widow who was killed by the king, the whole village was covered by red sand by sand storm. It is considered as a punishment given to the people and the king by God. Later in 1798, the church was discovered by a shepherd boy with the help of the people of Sokkan Kudieruppu.

Today, the Shrine is one of the sixteen [[shrine]]s in of the Diocese of Tuticorin. It is administrated by the Sokkan Kudierappu parish. Saturday devotion is famous in the shrine, receiving visitors from southern Tamil Nadu and from some parts of Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka visit the shrine. Blessed Holy Meal is served to all the people, irrespective of caste and religion on every first Saturday of the month. Ten days of feast is celebrated every year in the month of September. It starts with the flag-hoisting on the Friday followed by [[Feast of the Cross|The Feast of the Cross]] and ends with a grand [[Mass in the Catholic Church|Holy mass]] on the tenth day of the feast.<ref>[http://connectgalaxy.com/pages/view/183552/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%AF-%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%A3%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D-%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BE-%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D Connect Galaxy.com]</ref>

==Church history==
In the first century AD [[Thomas the Apostle|Saint Thomas]] spread [[Christianity]] in the state of [[Kerala]], on the west coast of India. By preaching about Lord [[Jesus]], he started to draw the Indian people towards Christianity. During that period Saint Thomas started healing many people from deadly diseases. By performing miracles, his fame spread across Kerala and neighbouring Tamil Nadu.

During the first century AD, the southern tip of India was under the regime of the [[Pandya Kingdom|Pandya]] ruler Kandappa Rasa. The king and his family suffered from various diseases. During this period, he learned of Saint Thomas' miracles through the traders who visited [[Kerala]] to sell spices. On hearing about Saint Thomas, the king went to Kerala, described his sufferings, and brought Saint Thomas to Tamil Nadu.

With the blessing of Lord Jesus, Saint Thomas healed the king and his family, to the king's amazement.

Saint Thomas preached Christianity to the king and his followers and they soon started following Christianity. Saint Thomas renamed the King as "Sabor".

As a mark of respect, the king donated 3 cents of land to Saint Thomas to build a church for [[Virgin Mary|Mother Mary]]. As per tradition in those days, Saint Thomas built the church with palm leaves. This piece of land was the first in India to be donated to Christianity.

In the church, Saint Thomas set up a holy cross made of wood and instructed the people to pray at the cross. Saint Thomas marked the letters [[INRI]] on the top portion of the cross. The church built on 3 cents of land donated to Saint Thomas is the "Athisaya Manalmatha Church".<ref name=connectgalaxy/>

===St. Xavier's visit===
In the 16th century, [[Francis Xavier|Saint Francis Xavier]] started preaching Christianity in southern part of Tamil Nadu. During that time he was preaching in Manapadu Malai, and learned of the church of Manalmatha in Kanakkan Kudieruppu and that the Christians in Kanakkan Kudieruppu were all followers of Saint Thomas and he was eager to visit the Athisaya Manalmatha church.<ref name=connectgalaxy>{{Cite web|url=http://connectgalaxy.com/pages/view/183553/athisaya-manal-matha-shrine|title = Athisaya Manal Matha Shrine : Connectgalaxy}}</ref>

==Athisaya Manal Matha Songs - Audio Jukebox==
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HdyJnKl9iYU Audio Jukebox - Part I]
**{{lang|ta|அதிசய மணல் மாதாவே}}
**{{lang|ta| அம்மா உம்மை புகழுகின்றோம்}}
**{{lang|ta| ஜெபமாலை பலம் உனக்கு}}
**{{lang|ta| அதிசய மணல் மாதாவே சரணம்}}
**{{lang|ta| திருச் செந்த்தேரியில் வீற்றிருந்தாய்}}
**{{lang|ta| செம்மலை ஆளும் ராணி}}
**{{lang|ta| எந்தன் குறை தீரும் அம்மா}}
**{{lang|ta| செம்மணல் தேரிக்கு வாருங்கள்}}
**{{lang|ta| செம்மணல் குன்றினுள் கோவில்}}
**{{lang|ta| தேரி மண்ணில் வந்து}}
**{{lang|ta| மாதாவே உம் பாதம் வந்தோம்}}
**{{lang|ta| செந்தமிழ் பாமாலை நின்}}

*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HdyJnKl9iYU Audio Jukebox - Part II]
** {{lang|ta| அதிசய மணல் மாதாவே}}
** {{lang|ta| மணல் மாதா எங்கள் மணல் மாதா}}
** {{lang|ta| அலங்கார மாமரியே வாழ்க }}
** {{lang|ta| பாலகனாம் இயேசுவை உலகிற்கு தந்த}}
** {{lang|ta| மணல் மலை மாளிகை}}
** {{lang|ta| செக்க சிவந்தது செக்க சிவந்தது தேரி}}
** {{lang|ta| மணலுக்குள் இருக்கும் திருக்கோவில்}}
** {{lang|ta| சொக்கன் குடியிருப்பு மணல் மாதாவே}}
** {{lang|ta| உன் திரு பாத மலரில் }}
** {{lang|ta| செம்மணல் தேரிக்கு வாருங்கள்}}

==References==

{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.getjar.com/categories/religion-apps/Manal-Matha-870685 Getjar.com: Manal Matha]
* [http://www.getjar.com/categories/religion-apps/Manal-Matha-Songs-890665 Getjar.com: Manal Matha songs]
* [http://tuticorindiocese.org/parish-sokkankudiruppu-st-james.htm Parish website]
* [https://www.athisayamanalmathashrine.org/ Shrine website]
* [https://facebook.com/manalmatha Facebook]

{{morecat|date=April 2026}}
[[Category:Roman Catholic church buildings in Tamil Nadu]]

Bengali Buddhists

2026-04-09T20:05:51Z

Ankitchadha:

{{Short description|Religious subgroup of the Bengalis}}
{{EngvarB|date=March 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2025}}
{{Infobox religious group
| name = Bengali Buddhists বাঙালি বৌদ্ধ ''Bangali Bouddho''
| image = Buddha Dhatu Zadi01.jpg
| image_caption = [[Buddha Dhatu Zadi]], a Buddhist temple in [[Bangladesh]]
| population = 1,290,366
| region1 = {{flag|Bangladesh}}
| pop1 = 1,007,468 ([[2022 Bangladeshi census|Bangladesh Census 2022]])
| region2 = {{flag|India}} ([[West Bengal]])
| pop2 = 282,898<ref name=Census2011R>{{cite web|title=C-01: Population by religious community, India - 2011 |publisher=Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/11361/download/14474/DDW00C-01%20MDDS.XLS |format=XLS |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220826023408/https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/11361/download/14474/DDW00C-01%20MDDS.XLS |archive-date=26 August 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref>
| region3 = {{flag|India}} ([[Tripura]])
| pop3 = 125,182<ref name=Census2011R>{{cite web|title=C-01: Population by religious community, India - 2011 |publisher=Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/11361/download/14474/DDW00C-01%20MDDS.XLS |format=XLS |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220826023408/https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/11361/download/14474/DDW00C-01%20MDDS.XLS |archive-date=26 August 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref>
| languages = [[Bengali language|Bengali]]
| religions = [[Buddhism]] ([[Theravada Buddhism]])
}}
{{Buddhism}}
{{Bengalis}}
'''Bengali Buddhists''' ({{langx|bn|বাঙালি বৌদ্ধ}}) are a religious sub-group of the [[Bengalis]] who adhere to or practice the religion of [[Buddhism]]. Bengali Buddhist people mainly live in [[Bangladesh]] and Indian states of [[West Bengal]] and [[Tripura]].

[[Buddhism]] has a rich ancient heritage in Bengal. The region was a bastion of the ancient Buddhist [[Mauryan]] and [[Pala Empire|Pala]] empires when the [[Mahayana]] and [[Vajrayana]] schools flourished. South-eastern Bengal was ruled by the medieval [[Buddhist]] [[Kingdom of Mrauk U]] during the 16th and 17th centuries. The [[British Raj]] influenced the emergence of the modern community.

Today, Bengali Buddhists are followers of [[Theravāda Buddhism]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bechert |first=Heinz |author-link=Heinz Bechert |year=1970 |title=Theravada Buddhist Sangha: Some General Observations on Historical and Political Factors in its Development |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=29 |issue=4 |pages=761–778 |doi=10.2307/2943086 |jstor=2943086|s2cid=154554678 }}</ref>

==History==

[[File:Somapura Mahavihara, Bangladesh.jpg|thumb|left|[[Somapura Mahavihara]] from the [[Pala Empire|Pala dynasty]], a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]]]]
Ancient Bengal was a center of Buddhist learning and art. Buddhist artefacts have been excavated throughout the region, particularly in [[Wari-Bateshwar]], [[Chandraketugarh]], [[Somapura Mahavihara|Paharpur]], [[Mahasthangarh]] and [[Mainamati]]. The [[Mauryan Empire]] led by [[Ashoka]] extended its [[suzerainty]] to the region in the 2nd century BCE. Ashoka played an important role in propagating Buddhism in his own empire and the wider ancient world.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bentley |first1=Jerry H. |year=1993 |title=Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=46 |isbn=978-0-19-507640-0}}</ref> Mauryan rule was succeeded by the Buddhist [[Samatata]] maritime kingdom in Bengal.

Successive Buddhist powers tussled for dominance with [[Hindu]] and [[Jain]] kings in the [[Indian subcontinent]]. Buddhism in Bengal experienced a revival under the Pala-Candra rulers. These rulers, who were Mahayana Buddhists, supported Buddhism vigorously and established renowned centers of Buddhist learning in eastern India.<ref name=":0" /> The Bengali Buddhist [[Pala Empire]] arose during the 8th century. Founded by the election of a Buddhist chieftain [[Gopala]] circa 750 CE, the empire grew into one of the largest imperial powers in classical Asia. The Palas promoted [[Mahayana]] and [[Tantric Buddhism]]. They patronised the creation of many outstanding temples, monasteries, and works of art. The Palas enjoyed strong relations with the [[Abbasid Caliphate]], the [[Tibetan Empire]] and the [[Srivijaya Empire]]. The empire reached its peak under [[Dharmapala (emperor)|Dharmapala]] and [[Devapala (Pala dynasty)|Devapala]]. They reigned for four centuries until being replaced by the resurgent Hindu [[Sena dynasty]]. According to Kunal Chakrabarty, Buddhism in Bengal declined due to loss of distinctiveness and lack of royal patronage, as the Senas imposed a new socio-religious order, leading to the decline.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Chakrabarti |first=Kunal |date=2016 |title=A History of Intolerance: The Representation of Buddhists in the Bengal Purāṇas |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24890282 |journal=Social Scientist |volume=44 |issue=5/6 |pages=11–27 |jstor=24890282 |issn=0970-0293}}</ref> According to Muhammad Ghulam Rasul, [[Brahmin]] persecution played a key role in the [[decline of Buddhism in India]]; followed by later Muslim conquest.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bmri.org.uk/articles/pre-islam_bengal_society.pdf |title=Bengal Society before the Advent of Islam |author=Muhammad Ghulam Rasul |website=Bengali Muslim Research Institute}}</ref> During Sena rule in Bengal many Buddhists migrated from Bengal proper to eastern Bengal crossing [[Meghna River]] due to persecution by the Hindus.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Roy |first=Atul Chandra |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/History_of_Bengal.html?id=AacsAAAAMAAJ |title=History of Bengal: Mughal Period, 1526-1765 A.D. |date=1968 |publisher=Nababharat Publishers |pages=222 |language=en |quote=Long before the advent of the Mughals in Bengal, the latter had at one time close relation with Arrakan. During the hegemony of the Sena rulers of Bengal, Buddhists, due to persecutions by the Hindus, Eastern Bengal specially east of the Meghna river.}}</ref>
[[File:Shalban Bihar Temple Ruins 003.jpg|thumb|The [[Mainamati]] Buddhist ruins in southeastern Bangladesh]]
Remnants of Buddhist communities continued to flourish in south-eastern Bengal. The Buddhist [[Kingdom of Mrauk U]] ruled the region during the 16th and 17th centuries.

By the late 18th century, the region was ceded to the [[British Empire]]. During this period, a revival movement developed <ref name="buddhistdoor.net">{{cite web |url=http://www.buddhistdoor.net/features/jewel-in-the-crown-bengals-buddhist-revival-in-the-19th-and-20th-centuries |title=Jewel in the Crown: Bengal's Buddhist Revival in the 19th and 20th Centuries}}</ref> that led to the development of two orders of Theravada monks, the [[Sangharaj Nikaya]] and the [[Mahasthabir Nikaya]].

==Demographics==
[[File:Buddhist Temple at Maheshkhali Island.jpg|thumb|A Buddhist temple on [[Maheshkhali Island]], Chittagong]]

Bangladesh is home to the predominant section of the Bengali Buddhist community. Many members of the community reside in [[Chittagong]], [[Dhaka]], [[Cox's Bazar]], and [[Comilla]]. The eastern Indian state capitals of [[Agartala]] and [[Kolkata]] also have significant Bengali Buddhist communities.

Bengali Buddhists constitute 0.59% of the population in [[Bangladesh]]. According to the 2011 India census, Bengali Buddhists constitute 0.3% or 282,898 of the population in [[West Bengal]]. Buddhists constitute 3.41% or 125,182 of the population in [[Tripura]]. They mainly belong to the [[Barua people|Barua]] and [[Chakma people|Chakma]] communities.

==Culture==

===Art===
Buddhist art flourished under the Pala rulers. The art for their period is termed Pala art.<ref>[https://huntingtonarchive.org/resources/downloads/jchArticles/5_30%20Leaves%20in%20Orientations.pdf Leaves from the Bodhi Tree, Susan and John C. Huntington, Orientations, Oct 89. pp. 26–46]</ref> It influenced art outside of India as well. The artistic tradition continued under the Sena rulers, and thus the term "Pala-Sena" is sometimes used.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Huntington |first1=Susan L. |last2=Huntington |first2=John C. |year=2014 |title=The Art of Ancient India: Buddhist, Hindu, Jain |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9g_uDwAAQBAJ&q=sena&pg=PA407 |location=Delhi |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |page= |isbn=978-81-208-3617-4}}</ref>

===Festivals===
[[Buddha's Birthday]] is a [[public holiday]] in Bangladesh & state government holiday in West Bengal.

Bengali Buddhists also celebrate the festival of [[Madhu Purnima]]. Kathin civar dana (Holy robe offering ceremony) is celebrated month-long in October–November by Bengali Buddhists.

==Notable Bengali Buddhists==
[[File:Dipankara Srijan-Thera PresBuddhAss-EastPakistan 1954.jpg|210px|thumb|Dipankara Srijan, president of the Chittagong Buddhist Association, as leader of a delegation at the 6th Buddhist council in Rangoon.]]

===Ancient period===
* [[Tilopa]] - 10th century Buddhist Yogi, [[Mahasiddha]], teacher of [[Mahamudra]] and main guru of [[Kagyu]] school of [[Vajrayana]] Buddhism.
* [[Naropa]] - 10th century Buddhist Yogi, [[Mahasiddha]], teacher of [[Six_Dharmas_of_Naropa]] and 2nd guru of mainstream [[Kagyu]] school of [[Vajrayana]] Buddhism.
* [[Atisa]] - 10th century Buddhist monk, main guru of [[Kadam (Tibetan Buddhism)|Kadam]] school, prominent role in the spread of Buddhism to [[Tibet]]. Also an abbot at [[Vikramashila]] monastery.
* [[Chandragomin]] - 7th century Buddhist lay practitioner and poet from the [[Varendra]] region
* [[Traillokyachandra]] - 10th century King of the [[Chandra dynasty]] who converted to [[Vajrayana]] Buddhism

===Modern period===
* [[Shraddha Das]]
* [[Ratan Talukder]], Actor and martial artist

==See also==
*[[Theravāda]]
*[[Pāli Canon]]
*[[Buddhism in India]]
*[[Buddhism in Bangladesh]]
*[[Marathi Buddhists]]
*[[Kripasaran|Kripasaran Mahathera]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

{{Asia in topic|Buddhism in}}

[[Category:Bengali people|*]]
[[Category:Demographics of Bangladesh]]
[[Category:Demographics of India]]
[[Category:Buddhist communities of Bangladesh]]
[[Category:Buddhist communities of India]]

Ulagam

2026-04-07T00:40:01Z

Ankitchadha: Adding Initial Entry W/ Sources

{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2017}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Ulagam
| image = Ulagam poster.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = L. S. Ramachandran M. H. M. Moonas (Supervision)
| producer = M. H. M. Moonas
| screenplay = M. H. M. Moonas
| story = Mrs. C. P. Moonas
| starring = [[V. Nagayya]] [[M. V. Rajamma]] [[P. S. Veerappa]] M. S. Draupathi
| narrator =
| music = M. S. Gnanamani
| cinematography = R. R. Chandran Operative Cameraman: K. M. Govindan Art: V. M. Vardhookar
| editing = L. S. Ramachandran
| studio = Society Pictures
| released = {{film date|df=yes|1953|7|10}}
| runtime = 3 hrs. 9 mins. (17013 ft.)
| country = India
| language = Tamil
}}
'''''Ulagam''''' ({{translation|''The World''}}) is a 1953 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language film directed by L. S. Ramachandran. The film stars [[V. Nagayya]] and [[M. V. Rajamma]].<ref name="hindu">{{Cite web |last=Guy |first=Randor |author-link=Randor Guy |date=14 July 2012 |title=Ulagam 1953 |url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/ulagam-1953/article3639451.ece |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20170421013321/http://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/ulagam-1953/article3639451.ece |archive-date=21 April 2017 |access-date=21 April 2017 |website=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref>

== Plot ==
The story spans three generations. Sabapathy is an average person and he married beautiful Meena. Sabapathy gains wealth and status by luck. The couple have two sons – Shankar and Mohan. Shankar marries Padma as per his parents' wishes. Mohan is studying in a college. A girl student, Lalitha loves him, but he does not accept her. Lalitha goes abroad for Barrister studies. Leela is Mohan's cousin. She has returned from South Africa and is studying medicine. Mohan loves her. Leela is apprehensive at the beginning, but later on accepts his love. She becomes pregnant before marriage. Lalitha returns as a Barrister. She becomes aware of the love between Mohan and Leela. She tries several ways to separate them and get Mohan for herself. However, she fails in all her attempts and finally dies in a car accident. Leela's pregnancy is aborted due to shock. Mohan and Leela get married. Mohan goes to America for higher studies. In the meantime, Shankar and Padma beget two children – Chandar and Swarna. Padma dies when Chandar is 20 and Swarna is 16. Shankar wants to marry a poor girl Prema as his second wife. But Chandar opposes his father marrying a second time. Prema tries to kill herself by jumping into the ocean. Chandar, without knowing that she is the girl his father intends to marry, rescues her and brings her for treatment to Leela, who has become a doctor now. Chandar's blood is transfused to Prema. Chandar falls in love with Prema. A police inspector Govindasamy comes for an inquiry and gets attracted by Prema's beauty. But Prema refuses him. He files a case against Prema for attempted suicide. Chandar does not want to live with his father. He stays with Leela. When Mohan returns from America, Govindasamy tries to poison his mind creating false stories about Chandar and Leela. Chandar is now forced to leave Leela's home also. He goes to Prema's house and learns that she is the one his father was to marry. So, he gets upset. The police inspector Govindasamy charges Chandar as the person who urged Prema to commit suicide. Govindasamy arrests Chandar and imprisons him.<ref name="songbook">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/download/sok.Ulagam_L.S.Ramachandran_1953/150.%20Ulagam_L.S.Ramachandran_1953.pdf |title=உலகம் |publisher=Society Pictures |year=1953 |language=ta |type=[[song book]] |access-date=30 November 2022 |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref>

== Cast ==
The following lists are compiled from [[The Hindu]] article,<ref name="hindu" /> and from the song book.<ref name="songbook" />
{{Col-begin|width=60%}}
{{col-break|width=20%}}
;Male Cast
* [[V. Nagayya]] as Sabapathy
* T. E. Varadan as Shankar
* [[P. S. Veerappa]] as Mohan
* [[T. K. Bhagavathi]] as Chandar
* S. M. Kumaresan as Kumar
* Pulimoottai Ramasami as Ramasami
* M. R. Saminathan as Saminathan
* E. R. Sahadevan as Devindran
* K. Duraisami as Duraisami
* [[M. V. Mani]] as Govindasamy
* K. Sayeeram as Ram
* T. K. Sampangi as Minister
;Folk Dance
*[[Kumari Kamala]]
;Bharatanatyam
*[[Lalitha (actress)|Lalitha]]-[[Padmini (actress)|Padmini]]
{{col-break|width=20%}}
;Male Cast (continued)
* T. P. Ponnusami Pillai as Worker
* G. V. Sharma as Shop Owner
* Nandaram as Beggar
* M. S. Karuppaiah as Inspector
* Jayaram as Jayaram
* Kunchithapadam Pillai as Manohar
* T. V. Sethuraman as Sethu
* V. T. Kalyanam as Kalyanam
* Raju as Young Chandar
* S. V. Shanmugam as Venkat
* Pottai Krishnamoorthi as Krishna
* S. Peer Mohamed as Mohamed
;Wrestling
*[[Dara Singh]]-Ali Riza Bey
*Wong Buck Lee (referee)
{{col-break|width=20%}}
;Female Cast
* [[M. V. Rajamma]] as Meena
* P. K. Saraswathi as Padma
* M. S. Draupathi as Lalitha
* T. R. Rajani as Leela
* M. Lakshmiprabha as Swarna
* N. R. Sakunthala as Prema
* [[C. K. Saraswathi]] as Saraswathi
* K. S. Angamuthu as Lakshmi
* K. Aranganayaki as Ranganayaki
* B. Saradambal as Sarada
* N. Thilakam as Thulasi
* S. Jayalakshmi Ammal as Kamala Ammal
* G. Saroja as Seetha
* Baby Lakshmi as Young Swarna
{{col-end}}
;Group dance
* [[Santha Kumari|P. Santha Kumari]], D. Saroja, N. D. Rani, G. Sundari, Prathibha, V. Saroja, T. S. Kamala, T. S. Jayanthi, M. M. Leela, N. Krishnaveni, K. Rajeswari, V. Saraswathi, Meera, K. Saroja, Sakku Bai, and Bhavani.

== Production ==
The film was produced by M. H. M. Moonas, a Sri Lankan who was resident in India. The film was also made in Telugu with the title ''[[Prapanjam]]''. The film had a wrestling match included in it. The producer conducted a competition for which a total of ₹100,000 was offered as prize money. Six questions were asked for which, it was announced, the answers were kept in a sealed cover and deposited in the "Eastern Bank of India". The first all correct entry would get a prize of ₹10,000 – quite a big amount those days. Altogether 309 prizes were offered. Though the competition was free for all to participate, it was asked to attach the counterfoil of the ticket with each entry.<ref name="hindu" /> However, there is no record about the results of the competition.<ref name="neelamegam" /> 100 copies of the film were made simultaneously.<ref name="lakshmansruthi" /> Choreography was handled by K. K. Sinha, K. Madhavan and Jayashankar.

== Soundtrack ==
Music was composed by M. S. Gnanamani while the lyrics were penned by M. H. M. Moonas, Kavi Kunjaram, K. P. Kamakshisundaram, P. Hanumandha Rao, Kuyilan (debut) and Tamizh Oli.<ref name="neelamegam">{{Cite book |last=Neelamegam |first=G. |title=Thiraikalanjiyam — Part 1 |publisher=Manivasagar Publishers |year=2014 |edition=1st |location=Chennai |pages=49 |language=Tamil}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%;"
! Song !! Singer/s !! Lyricist !! Duration (m:ss)
|-
| "Manam Pole Ullasamayi" || || ||
|-
| "Azhagaana Bhoomi Thanile" || V. Nagayya || ||
|-
| "Kaadhalinaal Ulagame Inbamadhe" || N. L. Ganasaraswathi & Thiruchi Loganathan || rowspan=2|Kuyilan ||
|-
| "En Jeevanile" || M. L. Vasanthakumari || 02:09
|-
| "Puvi Vaazhvu Idho" || || ||
|-
| "Anne Anne Enum" || || ||
|-
| "Isai Paadi Naanume" || A. M. Rajah & P. Leela || || 03:25
|-
| "Indha Thallaadum Kizhathaadi" || || ||
|-
| "Thetkathi Kallanadaa" || P. A. Periyanayaki || ||
|-
| "Namma Velaikku Pazhudhille" || || ||
|-
| "Kalaiye Uyir Thunaiye" || N. L. Ganasaraswathi || Kavi Kunjaram || 06:05
|-
| "Nalla Penn Pillai Kitte" || || ||
|-
| "Thuyarutraeh Ennai Nee Enraaye" || N. Sathiyam || ||
|-
| "Un Kaadhalaal En Anbellaam" || A. M. Rajah & M. L. Vasanthakumari || || 03:10
|-
| "En Premai Rani Kaadhalinale" || A. M. Rajah & M. S. Rajeswari || || 02:23
|}

== Release and reception ==
''Ulagam'' was released on 10 July 1953.<ref name="lakshmansruthi">{{Cite web |title=1953 – உலகம் – சொசைட்டி பிக்சர்ஸ் – பிரபஞ்சம் (தெ) |url=http://www.lakshmansruthi.com/cineprofiles/1953-cinedetails6.asp |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://archive.today/20170421004703/http://www.lakshmansruthi.com/cineprofiles/1953-cinedetails6.asp |archive-date=21 April 2017 |access-date=21 April 2017 |website=[[Lakshman Sruthi]] |language=Tamil}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=10 July 1953 |title=The World |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=P9oYG7HA76QC&dat=19530710&printsec=frontpage&hl=en |access-date=1 February 2020 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |pages=3 |via=[[Google News Archive]]}}{{cbignore}}</ref> The film did not fare well at the box office. However, historian [[Randor Guy]] said the film is remembered for "the stunning star cast, prize schemes and the avalanche of publicity released by Moonas which old-timers will never forget!"<ref name="hindu" />

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb title}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ulagam}}
[[Category:1953 films]]
[[Category:1953 drama films]]
[[Category:1953 Indian films]]
[[Category:1953 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:1950s lost films]]
[[Category:Films scored by M. S. Gnanamani]]
[[Category:Indian multilingual films]]
[[Category:Lost Indian drama films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language drama films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]

Vanamali

2026-04-05T19:20:05Z

Ankitchadha: Adding Initial Bio Added Tags...

{{BLP sources|date=August 2018}}

{{Short description|Telugu lyricist}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2018}}
{{for|a flower garland of the Hindu god Vishnu|Vaijayanti}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Vanamali
| image =
| imagesize =
| caption =
| birth_name = Manigopal
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1968|5|19}}
| birth_place = Chittoor, [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[India]]{{Citation needed|date=November 2019}}
| death_place =
| death_cause =
| other_names =
| occupation = [[Poet]], [[Lyricist]], [[Songwriter]], [[Reporter]]
| known =
| title =
| spouse = Vishnupriya
| children =2
| website =
}}

'''Manigopal''', popularly known by his pen name, '''Vanaaali''', is an Indian lyricist and poet who works in [[Telugu cinema]]. He is the recipient of the [[Filmfare Award for Best Lyricist – Telugu]]. He holds a [[PhD]] in Telugu literature from [[Madras University]].

==Background==
Dr. Manigopal was born in [[Chittoor]] in [[Andhra Pradesh]]. His mother tongue is Tamil.{{Citation needed|date=November 2019}} He is always interested in many arts, particularly singing. He took up writing seriously while he was in his degree final year. He never had any ambitions of taking up any form of art seriously and it was the emphasis of his parents on education right from the childhood that made him a voracious reader and motivated him to go ahead with education. Vanamaali has earned his Ph.D. with High Honours in Telugu literature. He wrote his first composition which was sung by Vijayalaksmi Sarma in a program in Doordarshan. After that he joined as a reporter in Sitara, a [[Cinema of Andhra Pradesh|Telugu]] film weekly & Eenadu daily and worked there for almost 13 years. During this time he developed his interest in [[Telugu cinema|Telugu]] movies and is one of the leading lyricists and songwriters in [[Cinema of Andhra Pradesh|Tollywood]]. He has worked with musical maestros such as [[Harris Jayaraj]], [[A. R. Rahman]] and [[Ilaiyaraaja]].

==Filmography==

=== As lyricist ===
{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!Film
!Songs
!Notes
|-
|1999
|''[[Time (1999 film)|Time]]'' (D)
|"Naa Siggu Tamboolala", Uyyala Pandagochindi, Premenantara, Kanulake Teliyani, Manchu Mutyame
|
|-
|2004
|[[Pithamagan|''Sivaputrudu'']]
|All songs
|Telugu-dubbed version of ''[[Pithamagan]]''
|-
|2007
|[[Happy Days (2007 film)|''Happy Days'']]
|All songs
|
|-
|2008
|''[[Avakai Biryani]]''
|All songs
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |2009
|''[[Oy!]]''
|"Waiting For You", "Anukoledenadu", "Povadhe Prema"
|
|-
|''[[Arya 2]]''
|"Karige Loga", "Karige Loga (D-Plugged)"
|
|-
| rowspan="5" |2010
|''[[Robo (2010 film)|Robo]]'' (D)
|"Neelo Valapu", "Harima Harima"
|
|-
|[[Maro Charitra (2010 film)|''Maro Charitra'']]
|"Premaney Peray", "Ninnu Nannu"
|
|-
|''[[Prasthanam]]''
|"Nee Rendallo", "Innalluga", "Naayudochaadoe", "Murali Lola"
|
|-
|''[[Gaayam 2]]''
|"Kalagane Kannullo"
|
|-
|[[Orange (2010 Telugu film)|''Orange'']]
|"Chilipiga", "Nenu Nuvvantu", "O'Range", "Rooba Rooba" & "Ye Vaipuga"
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |2011
|[[Ko (film)|''Ko'']]
|"Aga Naga"
|Tamil film; wrote Telugu portions of song
|-
|[[Ko (film)|''Rangam'']]
|All songs (Telugu version)
|Dubbed version of ''Ko''
|-
|[[180 (2011 Tamil film)|''180'']]
|All songs
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |2012
|''[[Roudram]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Life Is Beautiful (2012 film)|Life Is Beautiful]]''
|"Beautiful Girl", "Amma Ani Kothaga"
|
|-
|''[[Ninnu Choosthe Love Vasthundi]]''
|All songs except "Bathing at Cannes"
|Telugu-dub version of ''Engeyum Kadhal''
|-
| rowspan="3" |2013
|[[Kadal (2013 film)|''Kadali'']]
|All songs
|Telugu dubbed version of ''Kadal''
|-
|[[NH4 (film)|''NH4'']]
|
|Telugu dubbed version of ''NH4''
|-
| ''[[Kaalicharan]]'' || ||
|-
| rowspan="3" |2014
|''[[DK Bose]]''
|"Padipoya"
|
|-
|[[Manam (film)|''Manam'']]
|"Kanulanu Thaake"
|
|-
|[[Karthikeya (film)|''Karthikeya'']]
|"Saripovu"
|
|-
|2015
|''Nene''
|
|-
|2016
|[[Kaaviya Thalaivan (2014 film)|Premalayam]] (Telugu Dubbed)
| "Randi Babu Randi", "Aye Kanya Guram", "Arjunuda", "Chaulunya" & "Vandhanam"
|
|-
|rowspan="2"|2017
|''[[Kaadhali (2017 film)|Kaadhali]]''
|All songs
|
|-
|''[[Fidaa]]''
|"Hey Pillagaada", "Hey Mister"
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |2019
|''[[Majili]]''
|"Ye Manishike Majili o"
|
|-
|''[[Kaappaan|Bandobast]]''
|"Hey Amigo"
|Telugu Dubbed Version of ''Kaappaan''
|-
| ''[[Oorantha Anukuntunnaru]]''
| "Kanna", "Kanna (Reprise)" ||
|-
| rowspan="4" |2021
|''[[Kapatadhaari]]''
|"Kalalo Kanupaape", <nowiki>''Hayaki Baby''</nowiki>
|
|-
|''[[Kaadan]]''
|All songs
| Tamil film
|-
|''Aranya''
|All songs
|
|-
|''Devarakondalo Vijay Premakatha''
|"Idhem Nyayame"
|
|-
|2022
|''[[Etharkkum Thunindhavan|ET]]''
|All songs
|Telugu Dubbed version of ''[[Etharkkum Thunindhavan]]''
|-
| rowspan="4" |2024
|[[Rakshana (2024 film)|''Rakshana'']]
|"Rakshana Title Track"
|
|-
|''[[Mr. Bachchan]]''
|"Jikki"
|
|-
|''[[Thangalaan]]''
|"Thandora Moothalatho"
|
|-
|''[[Lucky Baskhar]]'' (D)
|"Lucky Baskhar Title Track"
| Tamil dubbed version; co-written with Balaji Venugopal
|-
|rowspan="2"|2025
|''[[8 Vasantalu]]''
|All songs
|
|-
|''[[Champion (2025 film)|Champion]]''
| "Kalaga Kadhaga"
|}

=== As dialogue writer ===
* ''[[Aranya (2020 film)|Aranya]]'' (2020)
* ''[[Clap (2022 film)|Clap]]'' (2022)
* [[Star (2024 film)|''Star'']] (D) (2024)

==Awards==
{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!Award
!Category
!Film
!Song
!Result
|-
| rowspan="2" |2007
|[[Nandi Award for Best Lyricist|Nandi Awards]]
|[[Nandi Award for Best Lyricist|Best Lyricist]]
| rowspan="2" |''[[Happy Days]]''
|"Oh My Friend"
| rowspan="2" {{Won}}
|-
|[[Filmfare Awards South]]
|[[Filmfare Award for Best Lyricist – Telugu|Best Lyricist – Telugu]]
|"Arerey"
|-
|2010
|[[Filmfare Awards South]]
|[[Filmfare Award for Best Lyricist – Telugu|Best Lyricist – Telugu]]
|''[[Arya 2]]''
|"Karigeloga Eekshanam"
| rowspan="6" {{Nominated}}
|-
|2011
|[[Filmfare Awards South]]
|[[Filmfare Award for Best Lyricist – Telugu|Best Lyricist – Telugu]]
|[[Orange (2010 film)|''Orange'']]
|"Nenu Nuvantu"
|-
|2012
|[[South Indian International Movie Awards]]
|[[SIIMA Award for Best Lyricist (Telugu)|Best Lyricist (Telugu)]]
| rowspan="2" |''[[Life Is Beautiful]]''
| rowspan="2" |"Amma Ani Kothaga"
|-
|2013
|[[Filmfare Award for Best Lyricist – Telugu|Filmfare Awards]]
|[[Filmfare Award for Best Lyricist – Telugu|Best Lyricist – Telugu]]
|-
|2014
|[[Filmfare Awards South]]
|[[Filmfare Award for Best Lyricist – Telugu|Best Lyricist – Telugu]]
|''[[Manam (film)|Manam]]''
|"Kanulanu Thake"
|-
|2014
|[[Filmfare Awards South]]
|[[Filmfare Award for Best Lyricist – Telugu|Best Lyricist – Telugu]]
|''[[Karthikeya]]''
|"Saripovu Koti"
|}

== References ==
*[https://www.eenadu.net/telugu-news/movies/lyricist-vanamali-special-interview/0206/121061431/ Eenadu interview with Lyricist Vanamaali]
{{Filmfare Award for Best Lyricist – Telugu}}{{Authority control}}

[[Category:1974 births]]
[[Category:Telugu-language lyricists]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Filmfare Awards South winners]]
[[Category:University of Madras alumni]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian songwriters]]
[[Category:Indian lyricists]]

Wali Rahmani (influencer)

2026-04-02T04:39:02Z

Ankitchadha: Adding First Bio Added Tags

{{Short description|Indian Beloved influencer (born 1998)}}
{{About|an influencer and activist|the Indian Islamic scholar|Wali Rahmani}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2025}}
{{Infobox social media personality
| name = Wali Rahmani
| birth_date = {{Birth year and age|1998}}
| birth_place = [[Kolkata]], West Bengal, India
| occupation = {{Hlist|Political analyst|influencer|activist|lawyer}}
| education = [[Bachelor of Laws|LL.B]]
| organization = Al Hadi Educational Trust
| alma_mater = [[Jamia Hamdard]]
| youtube_display_name = Wali Rahmani
| youtube_handle = WaliRahmani
| youtube_years_active = 2017–present
| youtube_subscribers = 798 thousand 
| youtube_views = 43.5 million 
| stats_update = 21 October 2025
}}
'''Wali Rahmani''' (born 1998) is an Indian Muslim [[influencer]], [[political analyst]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-04-14 |title='Aaj Ki Taza Khabar': New breed of YouTube vloggers come in all political colours |url=https://indianexpress.com/elections/wali-rahmani-atishi-marlena-jourmalism-now-trending-aaj-ki-taza-khabar-5674366/ |access-date=2024-08-05 |website=[[The Indian Express]] |language=en}}</ref> lawyer, and [[Activism|activist]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-07-06 |title=An Inspiring Young 20-Year-Old Activist: Wali Rahmani |url=https://www.thetalentedindian.com/an-inspiring-young-20-year-old-activist-wali-rahmani/ |access-date=2024-08-05 |website=The Talented Indian |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Moin |first=Kaniza Garari and Ather |date=2019-12-04 |title=Hyderabad: Muslim groups sore as cops refuse them meeting permit |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/current-affairs/041219/hyderabad-muslim-groups-sore-as-cops-refuse-them-meeting-permit.html |access-date=2024-08-05 |website=[[Deccan Chronicle]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Archana |first=KC |date=2019-06-18 |title=5 People Who're Changing The Lives Of Underprivileged Kids, One Small Step At A Time |url=https://www.indiatimes.com/trending/human-interest/5-people-who-re-changing-the-lives-of-underprivileged-kids-one-small-step-at-a-time-369448.html |access-date=2024-08-05 |website=IndiaTimes |language=en-IN}}</ref>

==Early life and education==
Wali Rahmani was born in 1998 in [[Kolkata]]. His father, Shafiuddin is a businessman who comes from [[Bihar]].<ref name="His journey">{{Cite web |date=25 November 2023 |title=Wali Rahmani fathers 300 children and seeks to free them of the cycle of poverty |url=https://www.awazthevoice.in/youth-news/wali-rahmani-fathers-children-and-seeks-to-free-them-of-the-cycle-of-poverty-25350.html |access-date=2024-08-05 |website=Awaz – The Voice |language=en}}</ref>

He received his primary education at [[St. James' School (Kolkata)|St. James' School, Kolkata]]. He completed the intermediate at the Genesis Global School, [[Noida]], in 2018. He completed his [[LLB|law degree]] from [[Jamia Hamdard]], Delhi.<ref name="His journey"/>

==Career==
Rahmani founded ''Al Hadi Educational Trust''. Then, he established ''Umeed Academy'' under the trust<ref name="Inquilab">{{Cite web |last=Shahid |first=Qutubuddin |date=2023-10-01 |title=ولی رحمانی: قوم کے بچوں کے لیے خواب دیکھنے اور اپنی نیند قربان کرنے والا حوصلہ مند نوجوان |trans-title=Wali Rahmani: A courageous young man who dreams and sacrifices his sleep for the children of the nation |url=https://www.inquilab.com/features/articles/wali-rahmani-a-courageous-young-man-who-dreams-and-sacrifices-his-sleep-for-the-children-of-the-nation-49826 |access-date=2024-08-05 |website=[[The Inquilab]] |language=ur}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Vikas |date=2023-09-19 |title=Wali Rahmani Wikipedia, Age, Biography, Career, Wife, Net Worth, Height, Ethnicity, Father |url=https://www.rightrasta.com/wali-rahmani-wikipedia/ |access-date=2024-08-05 |website=Right Rasta |language=en-US}}</ref> on 1 April 2018, for disadvantaged children who have been trapped in the cycle of poverty for seven, ten, or fifteen generations.<ref name="His journey"/><ref name="Inquilab"/><ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-06-11 |title=Stories Of Fatherhood: Meet Wali Rahmani, The 20YO Who Became 'Abba Ji' To 23 Orphaned Children |url=https://www.indiatimes.com/trending/human-interest/stories-of-fatherhood-meet-wali-rahmani-the-20yo-who-became-abba-ji-to-23-orphaned-children-368963.html |access-date=2024-08-05 |website=IndiaTimes |language=en-IN}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Hashmi |first=Rasia |date=2023-09-19 |title=Wali Rahmani Launches Video Campaign To Bridge Educational Gaps for Underprivileged Muslim Children |url=https://munsifdaily.com/wali-rahmani-launches-video-campaign-to-bridge-educational-gaps-for-underprivileged-muslim-children/ |access-date=2024-08-05 |website=[[The Munsif Daily]] |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":2circles">{{Cite web |last=Fatima |first=Nikhat |date=20 November 2021 |title=Meet Wali Rahmani, whose Umeed Academy is source of inspiration for Kolkata's underprivileged children |url=https://twocircles.net/2021nov20/444170.html |access-date=2024-08-05 |website=[[Two Circles]] |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Akhtar |first=Shahnawaz |date=2022-08-17 |title=Umeed Academy provides education par excellence to create future leaders from the lower strata of society |url=https://enewsroom.in/umeed-academy-wali-rahmani-education-underprivileged/ |access-date=2024-08-05 |website=eNewsroom India |language=en-US}}</ref>

He appealed to 2 million of India's 200 million Muslims by making a video to build a formal school building on 2 acres of land purchased for ''Umeed Global School'' in [[South 24 Parganas]], West Bengal. He asked for donations of Rs 100 per to raise Rs 10 crore.<ref name="Inquilab"/><ref>{{Cite web |last=Jamaluddin |first=Javed |date=2023-09-24 |title=نوجوان ولی رحمانی کی پہل ملت کے لیے سبق |trans-title=The initiative of young Wali Rahmani is a lesson for the nation |url=https://www.baseeratonline.com/archives/203709 |access-date=2024-08-05 |website=Baseerat Online |language=ur}}</ref><ref name=":HGazette">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2024-10-06 |title=From ₹100 Donations to a Dream School: The Inspiring Journey of Wali Rahmani |url=https://thehindustangazette.com/education/from-%E2%82%B9100-donations-to-a-dream-school-the-inspiring-journey-of-wali-rahmani-30706 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241008023249/https://thehindustangazette.com/education/from-%E2%82%B9100-donations-to-a-dream-school-the-inspiring-journey-of-wali-rahmani-30706 |archive-date=8 October 2024 |access-date=2024-12-09 |website=The Hindustan Gazette |language=en-US}}</ref> From 15 to 20 September 2023, six crore rupees were deposited<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-09-22 |title=Academy That Raised Rs 5.5 Crore in 5 Days, All About Umeed Academy Wali Rahmani |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/education/academy-that-raised-rs-5-5-crore-in-5-days-all-about-umeed-academy-wali-rahmani-article-103859652 |access-date=2024-08-05 |website=[[Times Now]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Sahni |first=Malika |title=25-Year-Old Raises Rs 6 Crore In 6 Days for Underprivileged Kids |url=https://news24online.com/trending/remarkable-journey-25-year-old-raises-rs-6-crore-in-6-days-for-underprivileged-children/173609/ |date=23 September 2023|access-date=2024-08-05 |website=[[News 24 (Indian TV channel)|News24]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Wajihuddin|first=Mohammed|date=2023-09-22 |title=Bengal man crowdfunds 'school of rich for poor', raises Rs 6 crore in 6 days |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/bengal-man-crowdfunds-school-of-rich-for-poor-raises-6cr-in-6-days/articleshow/103850913.cms |access-date=2024-08-05 |work=[[The Times of India]] |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2023-09-22 |title=मुफलिसी में बीता बचपन तो स्कूल बनाने की ठानी, बंगाल के युवक ने 6 दिन में जुटाए 6 करोड़ रुपये|trans-title =After spending his childhood in poverty, he decided to build a school, a youth from Bengal raised 6 crore rupees in 6 days|url=https://www.abplive.com/news/india/umeed-academy-25-year-old-wali-rahmani-set-example-collected-6-crores-in-6-days-for-school-2499498 |access-date=2024-08-05 |website=[[ABP Live]] |language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Choudhary |first=Rakesh |title=Wali Rahmani Collected 6 Crore For Child Education In Bengal: मुफलिसी में कटा बचपन, अब बच्चों के लिए 6 दिन में जुटाए 6 करोड़ रुपए, जानिए कैसे? |url=https://hindi.news24online.com/india/wali-rahmani-collected-6-crore-for-child-education-in-bengal/352895/ |access-date=2024-08-05 |website=News24 Hindi |language=hi}}</ref> and seven crore rupees were collected.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Choudhury|first=Pritha Roy|date=2024-02-20 |title=Kolkata school raises Rs 7 crore in 1 week for new building, campus |url=https://news.careers360.com/kolkata-school-7-crore-days-umeed-academy-tiljala-cbse-board-exam-curriculum-crowdfund-slum-children-orphans-minority |access-date=2024-08-05 |website=Careers360 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Faridi">{{Cite web |last=Faridi |first=Mansuruddin |date=15 March 2024 |title=ولی رحمانی کا خواب بنا حقیقت: صرف چھ مہینے میں بن کے تیار ہوا اسکول |trans-title=Wali Rahmani's dream came true: School completed in just six months |url=https://www.urdu.awazthevoice.in/youth-news/wali-rahmani-s-dream-came-true-a-school-were-built-in-just-six-months-35011.html |access-date=2024-08-05 |website=Awaz – The Voice |language=ur}}</ref> By 15 March 2024, he had made a video inspecting the newly completed building of ''Umeeed Global School''.<ref name="His journey"/><ref name="Faridi"/><ref>{{Cite web |last=Heena |first=Fatima |date=2024-03-18 |title=Educating people: Kolkata youth icon Wali Rahmani appeals for funds, this time to build a hostel |url=https://www.siasat.com/educating-people-kolkata-youth-icon-wali-rahmani-appeals-for-funds-this-time-to-build-a-hostel-2994618/ |access-date=2024-08-05 |website=[[The Siasat Daily]] |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":HGazette"/>

== Activism ==
Rahmani participated in protests against the [[Citizenship Amendment Act protests|Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA)]], citing concerns about its implications for constitutional values and communal harmony.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Roy |first1=Subhajoy |last2=Chowdhury |first2=Subhankar |date=1 March 2020 |title=Constitution and roses for Amit Shah from CAA protesters at Ramlila Maidan |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/constitution-and-roses-for-amit-shah-from-caa-protesters-at-ramlila-maidan/cid/1750133 |access-date=5 August 2024 |website=[[The Telegraph (India)]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2020-02-16 |title=Hindu-Muslim don't celebrate festivals together since Modi came to power: Activist Wali Rahman |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/videos/videos-nation/2020/Feb/16/hindu-muslim-dont-celebrate-festivals-together-since-modi-came-to-power-activist-wali-rahman-108085.html |access-date=2024-08-05 |website=[[The New Indian Express]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bhattacharya |first=Snigdhendu |date=1 March 2020 |title=Kolkata braces for stir ahead of Amit Shah's CAA rally |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/kolkata-braces-for-stir-ahead-of-shah-nadda-caa-rallies/story-obkOTIZJ1QZlhTFAiC0WWM_amp.html |access-date=5 August 2024 |website=[[Hindustan Times]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2020-01-24 |title='Our fight is against RSS ideology': YouTuber Wali Rahmani on CAA-NPR-NRC protests |url=https://scroll.in/video/950869/our-fight-is-against-rss-ideology-youtuber-wali-rahmani-on-caa-npr-nrc-protests |access-date=2025-02-10 |website=[[Scroll.in]] |language=en}}</ref>

During the [[COVID-19 lockdown]]s, he and his NGO distributed food to 10,000 families.<ref>{{Cite web|title=৪০ দিন ধরে নিঃশব্দে দুস্থদের মুখে খাবার তুলে দিচ্ছেন মুসলিম তরুণ, গর্বিত তপসিয়াবাসী|url=https://www.sangbadpratidin.in/kolkata/kolkata-youth-his-ngo-turn-saviour-for-distressed-people-amid-lockdown/|access-date=2021-12-15|website=sangbadpratidin|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=5 August 2024|title=Kolkata boy extends a helping hand to joyride horses of Victoria Memorial|url=https://enewsroom.in/wali-rahmani-horse-lockdown-kolkata/|access-date=2021-12-15|website=eNewsroom India|language=en-US}}</ref> While engaged in relief efforts, he contracted [[COVID-19 pandemic in India|COVID-19]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-06-26|title=Young social activist Wali Rahmani tests COVID positive|url=https://www.siasat.com/young-social-activist-wali-rahmani-tests-covid-positive-1914691/|access-date=2021-12-15|website=The Siasat Daily|language=en-US}}</ref>

== Awards and honours ==
Rahmani has received several awards for his social work, including the Young Social Hero Award at the South India NGO Conference in 2019, recognition as one of India's top 20 achievers under 20 by Mumbai Coworking, and the Shan-e-Hindustan Award from Youth Ekta Front, Delhi.<ref name=":2circles"/>

In 2024, Rahmani was listed among the 100 Most Influential Indian Muslims by [[Muslim Mirror]] and the Minorities Media Foundation for his contributions to education, social activism, and community development.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |title=Wali Rahmani - One of the most influential Indian Muslims 2024 |url=https://www.the100indianmuslims.com/a/Wali-Rahmani |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250120112302/https://www.the100indianmuslims.com/a/Wali-Rahmani |archive-date=2025-01-20 |access-date=2025-02-10 |website=The 100 Indian Muslims |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==

* {{X profile | id= thewalirahmani | name= Wali Rahmani}}
;Viral videos
* {{YouTube|id=Zycs7YMb3g4?si=KRADjpE0zuHLZfaJ|title=Help Wali Rahmani Build a School for Underprivileged Kids!}}
* {{YouTube|id=AjDPGphVyVA?si=VCwvUiGmYmGOU-Bc|title=Promise Has Been Fulfilled}}
* {{YouTube|id=0x6BHIsavrU?si=B0_ObWRttchQ8_lj|title=What Can Be Done in 365 Days?}}
;Interview
* [https://kashmirobserver.net/2025/02/26/video-founder-of-umeed-global-school-in-conversation-with-wali-rahmani/ Founder of Umeed Global School in Conversation with Wali Rahmani]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rahmani, Wali}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1998 births]]
[[Category:Mass media people from Kolkata]]
[[Category:Indian YouTubers]]

KTV Bangla

2026-03-27T18:50:03Z

Ankitchadha: creating first stub w/ infobox

{{Short description|Indian 23 schedule language TV channel}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2023}}
{{Infobox television channel
| name = KTV বাংলা earlier known as Tribe TV
| logo = KTV DP.jpg
| image =
| type = [[Broadcast]] [[television network]]
| country = [[India]]
| area = PAN India
| headquarters = Raiganj, [[West Bengal]]
| language = [[Bengali language|Bengali ]]
| picture_format = [[4:3]] ([[576i]], [[SDTV]])
| owner = Kalyani Solvex Private Limited
| founder = [[Krishna Kalyani]]
| launch_date = {{Launch date and age|df=y|2021|08|09}}
| website = http://ktvbangla.com
| online_chan_1 = https://server.livelegitpro.in/tribetv/tribetv/embed.html
}}

'''KTV Bangla''' (KTV বাংলা) (formerly Tribe TV) is an [[Indian television]] channel broadcast in the [[Bengali language]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tribe TV Satellite Channel of Tribal will be Telecast in Jharkhand Bengal Odisha Chhattisgarh Bihar |url=https://www.jagran.com/jharkhand/ranchi-tribe-tv-satellite-channel-of-tribal-will-be-telecast-in-jharkhand-bengal-odisha-chhattisgarh-bihar-21911702.html |access-date=2026-03-27 |website=Dainik Jagran |language=hi}}</ref> The channel is the first satellite channel owned by ''Kalyani Solvex Private Limited'' and the channel's co-founder is [[Raiganj (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Raiganj Vidhan Sabha constituency]]'s MLA [[Krishna Kalyani]].

== History ==
In 2020, Kalyani Solvex Private Limited established the channel at [[Raiganj]], West Bengal. The channel broadcasts daily news bulletins, including world news, live from [[Delhi]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Indian Satellite TV Channels|url=https://mib.gov.in/satellite-tv-channels|website=[[Ministry of Information and Broadcasting (India)]]}}</ref>

The channel was launched on 9 August 2021 through various [[Satellite television|satellite]] and [[Cable television|cable]] platforms.<ref>{{Cite news |title=अब आदिवासियों का होगा अपना सैटेलाइट चैनल, इन राज्‍यों में होगा प्रसारित |url=https://www.samachar4media.com/tv-media-news/tribe-tv-satellite-channel-of-tribal-will-be-telecast-in-5-states-56040.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211015203749/https://www.samachar4media.com/tv-media-news/tribe-tv-satellite-channel-of-tribal-will-be-telecast-in-5-states-56040.html |archive-date=2021-10-15 |access-date=2026-03-27 |work=samachar4media |language=en-IN}}</ref> The channel has a wide range of diverse programming, which includes drama and news.

== Shows ==

* Good Morning Bengal [[ গুডমর্নিং বেঙ্গল ]]
* Khabar Saradin [[ খবর সারাদিন ]]
* Jelar khabor [[ জেলার খবর ]]
* Bengal Today [[ বেঙ্গল টুডে ]]
* Bengal X-press [[ বেঙ্গল এক্সপ্রেস ]]
* News at 9 (Santali)
* Uttorer Udan _ Dakshner Darpan [[উত্তরের উড়ান _ দক্ষিণের দর্পন]]
* Weekly Special Show [[ সাপ্তহিক বিশেষ ]]
* Sobdo Katakati [[ শব্দ কাটাকাটি ]]
* Ingit [[ ইঙ্গিত ]]
* Pothe Panchali [[ পথে পাঁচালী ]]
* Rasona Asan [[ রসনা আসান ]]
* Cinema Safor [[ সিনেমা সফর ]]
* Dutor Dunia [[ দুটোর দুনিয়া ]]
* Deshe Bideshe [[ দেশে বিদেশে ]]
* Metro Junction [[ মেট্রো জংশন ]]

== Satellite ==
Tribe TV channel started on [[GSAT-17]]/ [[GSAT-17]] at 93.5 [[East]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=“Tribe TV” channel started on GSAT10/Gsat30 at 83 East – dthhelp for dth news and dth updates |url=https://www.dthhelp.net/tribe-tv-channel-started-on-gsat10-gsat30-at-83-east |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211016141624/https://www.dthhelp.net/tribe-tv-channel-started-on-gsat10-gsat30-at-83-east |archive-date=2021-10-16 |access-date=2026-03-27 |website=Dth News |language=en-US}}</ref>

* Channel name: TRIBE TV
* Frequency: 4175.5
* Popularization: H
* Symbol Rate: 13.6
* Video Pid: 8025
* Audio Pid: Default MPEG PID 8026 Hin
* Service Id: 16
* Satellite Position: [[GSAT]] 17 – Gsat 17

== MSO PARTNERS (Tribe TV is available to watch) ==
* [[SITI CABLE # 84 ]]
* [[KCBPL GTPL # 69 ]]
* [[MEGHBELA # 277 ]]
* [[DIGICABLE # 41 ]]
* [[MRMPL # 53 ]]
* [[BHORER ALO # 53 ]]
* [[CCN Digital|CCN # 53 ]]
* [[DIGICAST NETWORK # 871]]
* [[BRT DIGITAL # 916 ]]

== See also ==

* [[Lists of television channels in India]]
* [[India TV]]
* [[Zee News]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{Official website|https://tribetv.in/}}
* {{Facebook|tribetv.media}}

{{Television news in India}}

[[Category:2021 establishments in India]]
[[Category:24-hour television news channels in India]]
[[Category:Television channels and stations established in 2021]]

{{India-tv-station-stub}}

Rajendra Nath

2026-03-26T22:44:18Z

Ankitchadha: add formatting and cleaned formatting

{{short description|Indian actor (1931–2008)}}
{{more footnotes needed|date=October 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2016}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Rajendra Nath
| image =
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1931|06|08|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Tikamgarh]], [[Orchha State]], [[British Raj|British India]] (present-day [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[India]])
| death_date = {{Death date and age|2008|02|13|1931|06|08|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Mumbai]], [[Maharashtra]], India
| other_names =
| occupation = [[Actor]]
| years_active = 1938–1998
| known_for = Comedy
| relatives = [[Prem Nath]] (brother) [[Narendra Nath]] (brother) [[Raj Kapoor]] (brother-in-law) [[Prem Chopra]] (brother-in-law)
}}

'''Rajendra Nath Malhotra''' (8 June 1931 − 13 February 2008) was an Indian actor and comedian in [[Hindi]] and [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] films.

==Early life and family==
Rajendra Nath was born on 8 June 1931 in [[Tikamgarh]], which is now in [[Madhya Pradesh]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Rajendranath – Memories|url=https://cineplot.com/rajendranath-memories/|access-date=2021-07-11|website=Cineplot.com|language=en-US|quote=I was born on June 8, 1931, in Tikamgarh state, which is now in Madhya Pradesh. My father, Kartarnath, was the I.G. of Police in Riva state.}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title="Meri Lottery Lag Jaane Waali Hai" : Rajendra Nath|url=https://www.cinemaazi.com/feature/meri-lottery-lag-jaane-waali-hai-rajendra-nath|access-date=2021-07-11|website=Cinemaazi|language=en|quote=Rajendra Nath Malhotra’s family was originally from Peshawar. His father was a higher cadre police officer during British Raj who spent most of his service time in different Indian states. Rajendra Nath Malhotra was born on 8th June 1931 in the town of Tikamgarh in Madhya Prant (now Madhya Pradesh). He completed his schooling in Rewa. Congress leader Arjun Singh was Rajendra Nath’s classmate and close friend.}}</ref> His family was from the Karimpura locality of [[Peshawar]] but settled in [[Jabalpur]] in Madhya Pradesh. He studied at Darbar College, [[Rewa, India|Rewa]], where [[Arjun Singh (politician, born 1930)|Arjun Singh]] (a Congress politician) and R.P. Agarwal were his classmates.<ref name=":0" />

Rajendra's elder brother [[Prem Nath]] went to Mumbai to became an actor and Rajendra joined him in 1949. They were good friends of [[Raj Kapoor]] and [[Shashi Kapoor]]. Rajendra and Prem's sister Krishna married actor-director [[Raj Kapoor]].<ref>[http://passionforcinema.com/farewell-rajendra-nath-laughter-has-left-the-building/ Farewell Rajendra Nath : Laughter has left the building] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080708205019/http://passionforcinema.com/farewell-rajendra-nath-laughter-has-left-the-building/|date=8 July 2008}} ''passionforcinema'', 13 February 2008.</ref> He had also another brother [[Narendra Nath]] who also became an actor who usually played some villain's role in the movies.

Rajendra, who wasn't very interested in studies, quit college and landed in Bombay to work in films like his brother. He did some plays at [[Prithvi Theatre|Prithvi theatre]] like Pathan and Shakuntala. It was here that he became close to Shammi Kapoor.

==Career==
Initially Rajendra struggled to get roles till [[Sashadhar Mukherjee]] offered him a comedian's role in ''[[Dil Deke Dekho]]'', a film directed by [[Nasir Hussain]], starring [[Shammi Kapoor]] and [[Asha Parekh]]. Rajendra Nath along with Asha Parekh were a regular feature in many Nasir Hussain films like ''[[Phir Wohi Dil Laya Hoon]]'', ''[[Jab Pyar Kisi Se Hota Hai]]'', ''[[Baharon Ke Sapne]]'' and ''[[Pyar Ka Mausam]]''. He also played a villain's role in ''Hamrahi'' opposite Shashikala whose character he kills. He has done 187 movies. He was one of the most famous comedians. His best role as comedian was in ''[[Mere Sanam]]'' and ''[[Phir Wohi Dil Laya Hoon]]''. He also played the role of Hero/Second Lead in "Vachan" and "''[[Teen Bahuraniyan]]''". He played supporting roles in films like ''Dharkan'' by Devendra Goel and ''[[Jeevan Mrityu]]'' by Rajshri Productions. He played a buffoon called Popatlal in ''[[Jab Pyar Kisi Se Hota Hai]]'', and since then the name became synonymous with Rajendra Nath. He used this name in the famous TV series ''[[Hum Paanch (sitcom)|Hum Paanch]]''.

He then did many films, mostly in comic roles, such as in ''[[An Evening in Paris]]'' and ''[[Phir Wohi Dil Laya Hoon]]''. One of his most lauded performances was in [[Manoj Kumar]]'s ''[[Purab Aur Paschim]]'' though it was not a full-fledged comedy role.
He also contributed to Nepal's first movie [[Maitighar]] which was shot in [[Kathmandu]], [[Nepal]].

He starred in a number of Punjabi films such as ''Jatt Punjabi'' and "Do Posti".

He died on 13 February 2008 from cardiac arrest.

==Filmography==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Year
!Title
!Role
!Notes
|-
|1959
| ''[[Dil Deke Dekho]]'' || Kailash ||
|-
|1961
| ''[[Jab Pyar Kisi Se Hota Hai]]'' || Popat Lal / Charlie ||
|-
|Rowspan="3"|1963
|''[[Tere Ghar Ke Samne]]''
|Ranjit (Ronnie)
|-
|''[[Mujhe Jeene Do]]''
|Dhara Khan
|-
| ''[[Phir Wohi Dil Laya Hoon]]'' || Difu ||
|-
|Rowspan="2"|1964
| ''[[Beti Bete]]'' || Shankar
|-
| ''[[Rajkumar (1964 film)|Rajkumar]]'' || Kapil
|-
|1965
| ''[[Mere Sanam]]'' || Pyare ||
|-
|1965
| ''[[Janwar (1965 film)|Janwar]]'' || Chintu ||
|-
|1966
| ''[[Maitighar]]''|| Nepali film special appearance ||
|-
|Rowspan="5"|1967
| ''[[Aamne Samne (1967 film)|Aamne Samne]]'' ||
Shubodh Mukherjee
|-
| ''[[Baharon Ke Sapne]]'' || Pandu ||
|-
| ''[[Parivar (1967 film)|Parivar]]'' || Sitaram ||
|-
| ''[[An Evening in Paris]]'' || Makhan Singh ||
|-
|''[[Chhoti Si Mulaqat]]''
|Sam Kapoor
|-
|Rowspan="2"|1968
| ''[[Teen Bahuraniyan]]'' || Kanhaiya ||
|-
| ''[[Jhuk Gaya Aasman]]'' || Hanuman Singh ||
|-

|Rowspan="4"|1969
| ''[[Pyar Ka Mausam]]'' || Jhatpat Singh ||
|-
| ''[[Beti (1969 film)|Beti]]'' || Deepak ||
|-
| ''[[Raja Saab]]'' || Pratap Singh ||
|-
| ''[[Prince (1969 film)|Prince]]'' || Valiyatiram ||
|-
|Rowspan="6"|1970
| ''[[Maharaja (1970 film)|Maharaja]]''|| Kishen ||
|-
| ''[[Jeevan Mrityu]]'' || Prem Prakash ||
|-
| ''[[Purab Aur Paschim]]'' || Shankar ||
|-
| ''[[Aan Milo Sajna]]'' || Manmauji ||
|-
| ''[[The Train (1970 film)|The Train]]'' || Pyarelal ||
|-
| ''[[Tum Haseen Main Jawaan]]'' || Romeo ||
|-
| rowspan="3" |1971
| ''[[Hare Rama Hare Krishna (1971 film)|Hare Rama Hare Krishna]]'' || Toofan ||
|-
|[[Maryada (1971 film)|Maryada]]
|
|
|-
|''[[Main Sunder Hoon]]'' || Director ||
|-
|1972
| ''[[Dharkan]]'' || Inspector Darshan K. Lal ||
|-
|1973
| ''[[Kahani Kismat Ki]]'' || Gopuchand ||
|-
|Rowspan="2"|1974
|''[[Hamrahi (1974 film)|Hamrahi]]'' || Hanuman Sharma ||
|-
|''[[Patthar Aur Payal]]'' || Shankar Dayak||
|-
|1975
|''[[Julie (1975 film)|Julie]]'' || Rahim, Store Owner ||
|-
|Rowspan="2"|1976
|''[[Chhoti Si Baat]]''||Mauni Baba||
|-
| ''[[Chadi Jawani Budhe Nu]]'' || Police man|| Punjabi film
|-
|1978
|''Giddha'' (Punjabi movie) || ||
|-
|Rowspan="2"|1979
|''[[Badmashon Ka Badmaash]]''|| ||
|-
|''[[Dada (1979 film)|Dada]]'' || Alibhai Motorwala ||
|-
|1980
|''[[The Burning Train]]'' || Shambhunath- The Pandit in Train ||
|-
|1980
|''[[Guest House (1980 film)|Guest House]]''|| Bawara||
|-
| Rowspan="3"|1981
|''[[Hotel (1981 film)|Hotel]]''|| popat lal ||
|-
| ''[[Mangalsutra]]'' || Munim ||
|-
| ''[[Biwi-O-Biwi]]'' || Veer Singh ||
|-
|Rowspan="2"|1982
| ''[[Taaqat (1982 film)|Taaqat]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Prem Rog]]'' || Radha's Husband ||
|-
|1983
|''[[Main Awara Hoon]]'' || Sardar Trilochan ||
|-
|Rowspan="4"|1984
| ''[[Ghar Ek Mandir (film)|Ghar Ek Mandi]]'' || Announcer during Bidding ||
|-
| ''[[Mera Faisla]]'' || Jaleel Miya, Hostel Cook ||
|-
| ''[[Yaadgaar (1984 film)|Yaadgar]]'' || Chotelal||
|-
| ''[[Phulwari (1984 film)|Phulwari]]'' || Dr. Gupta ||
|-
| rowspan="2" |1985
|''[[Baadal (1985 film)|Baadal]]''|| Sharbati||
|-
|''[[Haveli (1985 film)|Haveli]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hungama |first=Bollywood |date=1985-01-01 |title=Haveli Cast List {{!}} Haveli Movie Star Cast {{!}} Release Date {{!}} Movie Trailer {{!}} Review- Bollywood Hungama |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/haveli/cast/ |access-date=2025-09-26 |language=en}}</ref>
|Havaldar Hingorani
|
|-
|Rowspan="2"|1986 || ''[[Sasti Dulhan Mahenga Dulha]]'' || Fauja Singh, Taxi Driver ||
|-
|''[[Ghar Sansar]]''|| Police Inspector Sharma||
|-
|Rowspan="2"|1987||''[[Dak Bangla]]'' || Gareebdas Daulat Ram ||
|-
|''[[Hukumat]]''|| Charlie ||
|-
|Rowspan="2"|1988||''[[Pyaar Ka Mandir]]''||Astrologer Parmeshwar Shivaramakrishna||
|-
| ''[[Veerana]]'' || Manager (Thakela Guest House) ||
|-
|Rowspan="4"|1989||''[[Main Tera Dushman]]'' || Police Constable Dukhiram||
|-
|''[[Elaan-E-Jung]]''|| Manager of Massage Parlour||
|-
| ''[[Sindoor Aur Bandook]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Doosra Keval]]'' || Chowkidar || TV Series
|-
|Rowspan="2"| 1990 ||''[[Naag Nagin]]'' ||Sarpat ||
|-
|''[[Pyar Ka Karz]]''|| Doctor ||
|-
|Rowspan="2"|1991
| ''[[Farishtay]]'' || Mohanlal ||
|-
|''[[Ajooba]]''|| Spectator in Public (Special Appearance)||
|-
|Rowspan="2"|1992
|''[[Tahalka]]''||Lifeguard At Swimming Pool||
|-
| ''[[Bol Radha Bol]]'' || Blind Man ||
|-
|Rowspan="2"| 1994
|''[[Ekka Raja Rani]]'' || John ||
|-
|''[[Eena Meena Deeka]]''|| Cashier in Bank || Guest Role
|-
|1995
|''[[Taaqat (1995 film)|Taaqat]]''|| Rajendranath, host in Cookery program seen on Television
|-
|1995
|''[[Sauda (film)|Sauda]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sauda - Movie - - Box Office India |url=https://boxofficeindia.com/cast_crew.php?movieid=3018 |access-date=2025-01-11 |website=boxofficeindia.com}}</ref>
|Real estate agent Deendayal aka Deenu
|
|-
|1995-2006
| ''[[Hum Paanch (TV series)|Hum Paanch]]'' || Jeetendra Bharadwaj as Popatlal, Aanand's boss || TV series
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb name|0707398}}
* [http://www.rediff.com/entertai/nov/22raj.htm Rajendra Nath Profile on Rediff]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110708082827/http://www.bollango.com/cgi-bin/akf_search.tcl?key=movie&actor=rajendra+nath Rajendra Nath Filmography]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Nath, Rajendra}}
[[Category:Indian male comedians]]
[[Category:Indian male film actors]]
[[Category:Male actors from Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:2008 deaths]]
[[Category:1932 births]]
[[Category:Male actors in Hindi cinema]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:People from Jabalpur]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian comedians]]
[[Category:People from Tikamgarh]]

Shitaladevi Mandir metro station

2026-03-25T07:57:53Z

Ankitchadha: Adding The Bio W/ Refs...

{{Short description|Mumbai Metro's Aqua Line metro station}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2024}}
{{Infobox station
| name = {{white|Shitala Devi Mandir}}
| native_name = {{white|{{nobold|शितलादेवी मंदिर}}}}
| style = Mumbai Metro
| style2 = Aqua
| image = Shitala Devi Mandir metro station entrance A2.jpg
| image_upright = 1.3
| image_caption = Entrance/exit A2 of the station
| address = Lady Jamshedji Rd, Wanjawadi, Mahim West, [[Mahim]], Mumbai, Maharashtra 400016
| coordinates = {{coord|19.03830|72.84210|format=dms|region:IN|display=inline,title}}
| line = {{rcb|Mumbai Metro|Line 3|croute}}
| structure = Underground
| platform = 1 [[island platform]]
| owned = [[File:Logo of Mumbai Metro Line 3.png|12px|link=Line 3 (Mumbai Metro)]] Mumbai Metro Rail Corporation Ltd.
| operator = {{rint|delhi|m}} [[Delhi Metro Rail Corporation]]<ref>{{cite news |title=DMRC wins contract to operate Mumbai Metro's Line 3: Officials |url=https://infra.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/urban-transportation/dmrc-wins-contract-to-operate-mumbai-metros-line-3-officials/99462230 |work=[[The Economic Times]] |date=12 April 2023 |access-date=12 May 2025}}</ref>
| depth =
| parking =
| bicycle =
| baggage_check =
| opened = {{start date and age|2025|5|10|df=yes}}
| opening =
| closed =
| rebuilt =
| accessible =
| status = Staffed, Operational
| code = SDIT
| architect =
| architectural_style =
| wifi =
| zone =
| smartcardname =
| smartcardstatus =
| former =
| passengers =
| pass_year =
| pass_rank =
| pass_percent =
| pass_system =
| mpassengers =
| services = {{Adjacent stations|system=Mumbai Metro|line=3|left=Dadar|right=Dharavi}}
| route_map = {{Routemap
|inline=1
|legend=track
|map=
utSTR!~MFADEg\d\utSTR!~MFADEg~~ ~~ ~~ to {{stl|Mumbai Metro|Dharavi}}
utSTRg\d\utSTRf~~ ~~ ~~
utPSTR(L)\d\utPSTR(R)
utPSTR(L)!~*2__align=r\dPLT\utPSTR(R)!~*1__align=l
utPSTR(L)\d\utPSTR(R)
utSTRg\d\utSTRf~~ ~~ ~~
utSTR!~MFADEf\d\utSTR!~MFADEf~~ ~~ ~~ to {{stl|Mumbai Metro|Dadar}}
}}
| map_state = expanded
| mapframe = yes
| mapframe-marker = rail
| mapframe-marker-color = #{{rail color|Mumbai Metro|Aqua Line}}
| mapframe-zoom = 14
}}

'''Shitaladevi Mandir''' is an underground metro station serving area Wanjawadi area of [[Mahim]] in [[Mumbai]] on the north–south corridor of the [[Aqua Line (Mumbai Metro)|Aqua Line 3]] of [[Mumbai Metro]] in [[Mumbai]], India. It was opened to public on 10 May 2025.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-05-10 |title=Mumbai Metro 3 services from BKC to Worli begin |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/mumbai/mumbai-metro-3-services-from-bkc-to-worli-begin/article69560376.ece |access-date=2025-05-24 |work=The Hindu |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Mumbai Metro-3 BKC-Worli: Aarey-Dadar In 32 Mins For Rs 50, Free WiFi, Borivli Link, Details Here |url=https://www.news18.com/india/mumbai-metro-line-3-from-bkc-to-worli-check-ticket-fare-travel-time-and-route-ws-l-9344895.html |access-date=2025-05-24 |website=News18}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=20 May 2025 |title=BKC to Worli in 15 minutes: Mumbai Metro-3's phase two now operational |url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/india/bkc-to-worli-in-15-minutes-mumbai-metro-3-s-phase-two-now-operational-13035800.html |access-date=24 May 2025 |website=Money Control}}</ref>

==Station Layout==
{|table border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=3
|style="border-top:solid 1px gray;border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width=50 valign=top|'''G'''
|style="border-top:solid 1px gray;border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width=85 valign=top|Ground level
|style="border-top:solid 1px gray;border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width=400 valign=top|Exit/Entrance
|-
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;"|'''L1'''
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;"|Concourse
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;"|Customer Service, Shops, Vending machine, ATMs
|-
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width=50 rowspan=5 valign=top|'''L2 Platforms'''
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px white;" width=85 height=45|'''Platform 2'''
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px white;" width=400| {{0|←}} Towards {{ltl|Mumbai Metro|3|r}} ({{stl|Mumbai Metro|Dharavi}}) →
|-
|style="border-top:solid 2px black;border-right:solid 2px black;border-left:solid 2px black;border-bottom:dashed 1px gray;text-align:center;" colspan=2|[[Island platform]] {{access icon}}
|-
|style="border-right:solid 2px black;border-left:solid 2px black;text-align:center;" colspan=2|Entrance/exit vestibule
|-
|style="border-top:dashed 1px gray;border-right:solid 2px black;border-left:solid 2px black;border-bottom:solid 2px black;text-align:center;" colspan=2|[[Island platform]] {{access icon}}
|-
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width=50 height=45|'''Platform 1'''
| style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width="400" | ← Towards {{ltl|Mumbai Metro|3|l}} ({{stl|Mumbai Metro|Dadar}})
|-
|}

==Entry/Exit==
*'''A1''' - P.D. Hinduja Hospital, [[Shitala|Shree Shitaladevi Temple]]<ref name=map/>
*'''A2''' - Paradise E.Square, [[Mahim Junction railway station|Mahim Railway Station]]<ref name=map/>
*'''B1''' - Hazrat Fakhruddin Shah Baba Dargah, Wanjewadi<ref name=map/>
*'''B2''' - Hazrat Makhdoom Shah Baba Dargah, [[Mahim Fort]]<ref name=map/>
*'''B3''' - [[Mahim Junction railway station]], [[St. Michael's Church, Mumbai|St. Michael's Church]]<ref name=map>{{Cite web |title=Shitala Devi Mandir Station Details |url=https://mmrcl.com/station/SDIT |access-date=2025-05-24 |website=MMRC}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Mumbai]]
*[[Transport in Mumbai]]
*[[List of Mumbai Metro stations]]
*[[Urban rail transit in India|List of rapid transit systems in India]]
*[[List of metro systems]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://mmrcl.com/en/ The official site of Mumbai Metro]
* [http://www.urbanrail.net ''UrbanRail.Net''] – descriptions of all metro systems in the world, each with a schematic map showing all stations.
{{Portal bar|Trains|Transport|Engineering}}
{{Mumbai Metro navbox|line 3=yes}}

[[Category:Mumbai Metro stations]]
[[Category:Railway stations in India opened in 2025]]
[[Category:2025 establishments in Maharashtra]]

Durlabh Prasad Ki Dusri Shadi

2026-03-22T20:02:03Z

Ankitchadha: made - done

{{Short description|Indian romantic comedy film}}
{{Use dmy dates|date= October 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2025}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Durlabh Prasad Ki Dusri Shadi
| image = Durlabh Prasad Ki Dusri Shadi.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = Siddhant Raj Singh
| screenplay = Prashant Singh
{{Infobox | decat = yes | child = yes
| label1 = Dialogues by
| data1 = Adesh K Arjun
}}
| story = Prashant Singh
| producer = Ekansh Bachchan Harsha Bachchan Co-Producer Ramit Thakur<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-11-28 |title='Durlabh Prasad Ki Dusri Shadi' Teaser Out: Sanjay Mishra-Mahima Chaudhry in fun couple mode - CNBC TV18 |url=https://www.cnbctv18.com/entertainment/durlabh-prasad-ki-dusri-shadi-teaser-out-sanjay-mishra-mahima-chaudhry-in-fun-couple-mode-19775829.htm |access-date=2026-01-19 |website=CNBCTV18 |language=en}}</ref>
| starring = {{ubl|[[Sanjay Mishra (actor)|Sanjay Mishra]]|[[Mahima Chaudhary]]}}
| music = [[Anurag Saikia]]
| cinematography = Anil Singh
| editing = Sanjay Sankla
| studio = Eksha Entertainment
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|2025|12|19|df=y}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| budget =
| gross =
}}

'''''Durlabh Prasad Ki Dusri Shadi''''' is a 2025 Indian Hindi-language [[romantic comedy]] film directed by Siddhant Raj Singh. It stars [[Sanjay Mishra (actor)|Sanjay Mishra]] and [[Mahima Chaudhary]] in the lead.<ref>{{cite web|title=Mahima Chaudhry and Sanjay Mishra break the internet, as they get spotted as bride and groom! Here's the TRUTH behind VIRAL PICS |work=The Times of India| url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/mahima-chaudhry-and-sanjay-mishra-break-the-internet-as-they-get-spotted-as-bride-and-groom-heres-the-truth-behind-viral-pics/articleshow/124936358.cms}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=संजय मिश्रा और महिमा चौधरी की फिल्म "दुर्लभ प्रसाद की दूसरी शादी" का फर्स्ट लुक आउट|date=16 October 2025|url=https://www.timesnowhindi.com/entertainment/bollywood/sanjay-mishra-mahima-chaudhary-movie-durlabh-prsad-ki-dusri-shadi-first-look-out-article-153010642}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Sanjay Mishra Turns Unusual Dulha, Mahima Chaudhary as Dulhaniya in 'Durlabh Prasad Ki Dusri Shaadi' First Look|url=https://firstindia.co.in/news/entertainment/Sanjay-mishra-turns-unusual-dulha-mahima-chaudhary-as-dulhaniya-in-durlabh-prasad-ki-dusri-shaadi-first-look}}</ref> This film is produced by Ekansh Bachchan and Harsha Bachchan, with Ramit Thakur as co-producer.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-11-28 |title='Durlabh Prasad Ki Dusri Shadi' Teaser Out: Sanjay Mishra-Mahima Chaudhry in fun couple mode - CNBC TV18 |url=https://www.cnbctv18.com/entertainment/durlabh-prasad-ki-dusri-shadi-teaser-out-sanjay-mishra-mahima-chaudhry-in-fun-couple-mode-19775829.htm |access-date=2026-01-19 |website=CNBCTV18 |language=en}}</ref>

== Plot ==
The story follows Murli, a young man madly in love with Mehak. But there’s one strange reason his marriage can’t happen, there’s no woman in his house. Her family refuses to send their daughter into a home without a female presence.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sanjay Mishra shares why his role as Dulha in 'Durlabh Prasad Ki Dusri Shaadi' is special to him|date=16 October 2025|url=https://ianslive.in/sanjay-mishra-shares-why-his-role-as-dulha-in-durlabh-prasad-ki-dusri-shaadi-is-special-to-him--20251016143004}}</ref> Desperate to marry the love of his life, Murli comes up with an unexpected solution, he decides to get his widowed father, Durlabh Prasad, married again.<ref>{{cite web|title=दुल्हनिया ढूंढ रहे संजय मिश्रा! 62 की उम्र में दूल्हा बनने को तैयार! बोले-दहेज मैं दूंगा...छप गए कार्ड|url=https://www.india.com/hindi-news/entertainment-hindi/sanjay-mishra-ready-to-do-second-marriage-at-the-age-of-62-share-the-wedding-card-of-durlabh-prasad-ki-doosri-shaadi-8134923/}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=62 की उम्र में दुल्हन खोजने निकले संजय मिश्रा, शेयर किया अनाेखा पोस्ट; फैंस से की यह खास अपील|url=https://www.amarujala.com/entertainment/bollywood/actor-sanjay-mishra-shares-durlabh-prasad-ki-dusri-shadi-movie-poster-know-netizens-reaction-2025-10-15}}</ref><ref>https://ndtv.in/bollywood/sanjay-mishra-wants-to-marry-again-at-the-age-of-62-gave-advertisement-for-the-bride-ready-to-give-dowry-himself-9461734</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Durlabh Prasad Ki Doosri Shaadi|url=https://m.punjabkesari.in/tags/durlabh-prasad-ki-doosri-shaadi}}</ref>

== Cast ==
* [[Sanjay Mishra (actor)|Sanjay Mishra]] as Durlabh Prasad
* [[Mahima Chaudhry]] as Babita
* Vyom as Murli
* [[Pallak Lalwani]] as Mehak
* Pravin Singh Sisodia as Brajnarayan Bharti
* Shrikant Verma as Ram Manch Prasad
* Abhay Anand Singh as Young Durlabh Prasad

==Reception==
The film had a lukewarm reception in the press with multiple reviewers rating it 3 out of 5 stars, including Smita Srivastava of ''[[Dainik Jagran]]'';<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jagran.com/entertainment/reviews-durlabh-prasad-ki-dusri-shadi-review-sanjay-mishra-mahima-chaudhary-movie-is-family-entertainer-filled-with-emotions-40077735.html|title=Durlabh Prasad Ki Dusri Shadi Review: जिंदगी को दूसरा मौका देने की बात करती है फिल्म, साफ सुथरी और बेहतरीन कहानी|date=19 December 2025|website=Dainik Jagran|language=hi}}</ref> Simran Singh of [[Daily News and Analysis|DNA]];<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dnaindia.com/bollywood/report-durlabh-prasad-ki-dusri-shadi-movie-review-sanjay-mishra-mahima-chaudhry-rom-com-is-chota-packet-mein-bada-dhamaka-sadly-affected-due-to-3194146|title=Durlabh Prasad Ki Dusri Shadi movie review: Sanjay Mishra, Mahima Chaudhry's rom-com is chota packet mein bada dhamaka, affected due to...|website=DNA|date=19 December 2025}}</ref> Vinamra Mathur of ''[[Firstpost]]'',<ref>{{cite web|first=Vinamra|last=Mathur|url=https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/durlabh-prasad-ki-dusri-shadi-movie-review-sanjay-mishra-and-mahima-chaudhrys-film-is-a-warm-tale-of-love-comedy-and-chaos-13960884.html|title='Durlabh Prasad Ki Dusri Shadi' Movie Review: Sanjay Mishra and Mahima Chaudhry's film is a warm tale of love, comedy, and chaos|website=Firstpost|date=19 December 2025}}</ref> Jaya Dwivedi of ''[[India TV]]'',<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiatvnews.com/entertainment/movie-review/durlabh-prasad-ki-dusri-shadi-movie-review-sanjay-mishra-mahima-chaudhry-1154|title=Durlabh Prasad Ki Dusri Shadi Movie Review: Sanjay Mishra and Mahima Chaudhry's film elevates a simple story with deep emotions|website=India TV|date=19 December 2025}}</ref> and a reviewer for ''[[Deccan Chronicle]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/movie-review/durlabh-prasad-ki-dusri-shadi-review-a-gentle-heartfelt-story-of-new-beginnings-1924947|title=Durlabh Prasad Ki Dusri Shadi Review: A Gentle, Heartfelt Story of New Beginnings|website=Deccan Chronicle|date=19 December 2025}}</ref>

Dhawal Roy of ''[[The Times of India]]'' gave the film 2.5 stars out of 5,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/movie-reviews/durlabh-prasad-ki-dusri-shadi/movie-review/126069113.cms|title=Durlabh Prasad Ki Dusri Shadi Movie Review: A Quirky Premise Undone by a Meandering Narrative|date=19 December 2025|website=The Times of India}}</ref> while Rishabh Suri of ''[[Hindustan Times]]'' gave it 2 stars and said that "''Durlabh Prasad Ki Dusri Shaadi'' is driven by good intentions, but intentions alone do not make for engaging cinema. What could have been a warm exploration of companionship ends up as a film that remains underwhelming in execution."<ref>{{cite web|first=Rishabh|last=Suri|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/durlabh-prasad-ki-doosri-shaadi-review-this-sanjay-mishra-film-has-gentle-concept-weighed-down-by-predictable-writing-101766225778002.html|title=Durlabh Prasad Ki Dusri Shaadi review: This Sanjay Mishra film has gentle concept, weighed down by predictable writing|website=Hindustan Times|date=19 December 2025}}</ref>

Amit Bhatia of ''[[ABP News]]'' called it a "pleasant, entertaining watch that balances humour with meaningful commentary."<ref>{{cite web|first=Amit|last=Bhatia|url=https://news.abplive.com/movie-review/entertainment/movie-review-durlabh-prasad-ki-dusri-shadi-review-mahima-chaudhry-sanjay-mishra-make-this-social-comedy-click-1817650/amp|title=Durlabh Prasad Ki Dusri Shadi Review: Mahima Chaudhry, Sanjay Mishra Make This Social Comedy Click|website=ABP News|date=19 December 2025}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{IMDb title|tt31146564}}
*{{BH movie|durlabh-prasad-ki-dusri-shaadi}}

[[Category:2025 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:2025 films]]
[[Category:2025 Indian films]]

Energy in India

2026-03-22T13:17:39Z

Ankitchadha: basic improve formatting based on references per standard format

{{Short description|none}} 
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2016}}
[[File:Energy consumption India.svg|thumb|Energy consumption by source, India]]
[[File:CO2 emissions India.svg|thumb|Development of carbon dioxide emissions]]
Since 2013, the total [[primary energy]] consumption in [[India]] has been the third greatest in the world (see [[world energy consumption]]) after [[Energy policy of China|China]] and the [[Energy in the United States|United States]].<ref name=eia>{{cite web|url=http://www.eia.gov/beta/international/analysis.cfm?iso=IND&src=home-b6 |title=India was the third-largest energy consumer in 2013|access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usdebtclock.org/energy.html |title=World energy consumption clock |publisher=US debt clock org |access-date=6 August 2014}}</ref> Having the [[List of countries and dependencies by population|largest national population]] of over 1.4 billion people, its [[List of countries by energy consumption per capita|per capita energy consumption]] is still below the median for all nations despite its large total energy consumptionn. India was a net energy importer, importing nearly 47% of its total primary energy in 2019.<ref>{{cite web|title=India - Energy Balance 2019, NITI Aayog| url=https://niti.gov.in/edm/#balance| access-date=31 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Indian energy Statistics 2016| url=http://mospi.nic.in/sites/default/files/publication_reports/Energy_statistics_2016.pdf| access-date=18 November 2016}}</ref>

While much of its energy comes from fossil fuels, as of 2024, India is in the midst of a very rapid growth of solar and other renewable energy. However, this page currently only discusses the country's fossil fuel–based energy. For information about its renewable energy sources, see the page [[Renewable energy in India]].

== Overview ==
In 2022-23, Total Primary Energy Supply (TPES) per capita is 25,745 mega joule whereas Total Final Consumption per capita is 16,699 mega joule. Electricity
consumption per capita is 1015 kWh in 2022-23. The [[energy intensity]] of agriculture is seven times less than industries in 2022-23 (see Table 8.9<ref name=mspi/>)
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:right"
|+ Yearwise consumption of energy sources<ref name=mspi>{{cite web | url=https://www.mospi.gov.in/sites/default/files/publication_reports/EnergyStatistics_India_publication_2024N.pdf?download=1 | title= Energy Statistics_India 2024|publisher= Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, India |access-date=16 March 2024}}</ref>
|-
! Fiscal year
! Mid Year Population (million)
! Coal (million tonnes)
! Lignite (million tonnes)
! Crude oil (million tonnes)
! Natural gas (billion cubic meters)
! Electricity@ (billion kWh)
! Eq CO2-emissions (million tonnes)<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.energyinst.org/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/1055542/EI_Stat_Review_PDF_single_3.pdf1 | title=Statistical Review of World Energy 2023 | publisher=The Energy Institute | access-date=16 March 2024 }}{{Dead link|date=January 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref>
|-
| align="left" | 2013-14 || 1,252 || 739 || 44 || 222 ||52 ||874 ||2,087.5
|-
| align="left" | 2014-15 || 1,268|| 822 || 47 || 223 || 51 || 948||2,248.1
|-
| align="left" | 2015-16 || 1,284 || 837 || 42 || 233 || 53 || 1,001||2,321.4
|-
| align="left" | 2016-17 || 1,299 || 837 || 43 || 245 || 56 || 1,061||2,425.2
|-
| align="left" | 2017-18 || 1,313 || 898|| 46|| 252 || 59|| 1,123||2,493.6
|-
| align="left" | 2018-19 || 1,328 || 968 || 46 || 257 || 61 || 1,209||2,613.2
|-
| align="left" | 2019-20 || 1,342 || 956 || 42 || 254 || 64 || 1,248||2,645.4
|-
| align="left" | 2020-21 || 1,357 || 906 || 38 || 222 ||61 || 1,230||2,450.3
|-
| align="left" | 2021-22 || 1,370 || 1,028 || 49 || 242 || 64 || 1,316||2,700.5
|-
| align="left" | 2022-23 || 1,383 || 1,115 || 47 || 255 || 60 || 1,403||2,865.2
|}
@ Includes electricity generated from fossil fuels.

{{Pie chart
|thumb = right
|caption = '''India: Total primary energy use of 753.7 [[Tonne of oil equivalent|Mtoe]] (excluding traditional biomass use) in the calendar year 2017'''<ref name=srwe>{{cite web | url=https://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/en/corporate/pdf/energy-economics/statistical-review/bp-stats-review-2018-full-report.pdf | title= BP Statistical Review of world energy 2018| access-date=17 June 2018}}</ref>
|label1 = 424.0 Mtoe Coal |color1 = Black
|value1 = 56.26
|label2 = 222.1 Mtoe Petroleum & other liquids|color4 = gold
|value2 = 29.47
|label3 = 46.6 Mtoe Natural gas|color3 = #FF6600
|value3 = 6.18
|label4 = 8.5 Mtoe Nuclear|color5 = Red
|value4 = 1.13
|label5 = 30.7 Mtoe Hydroelectricity|color6 = DodgerBlue
|value5 = 4.07
|label6 = 21.8 Mtoe Other renewables |color7 = Green
|value6 = 2.89
}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:right"
|+ Energy in India<ref name=IEA2015>IEA Key World Energy Statistics Statistics [http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/KeyWorld_Statistics_2015.pdf 2015] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304040322/http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/KeyWorld_Statistics_2015.pdf |date=4 March 2016 }}, [http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/keyworld2014.pdf 2014 (2012R as in November 2015] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150405035039/http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/keyworld2014.pdf |date=5 April 2015 }} + 2012 as in March 2014 is comparable to previous years statistical calculation criteria, [http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/KeyWorld2013.pdf 2013] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140902105825/http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/KeyWorld2013.pdf |date=2 September 2014 }}, [http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/kwes.pdf 2012] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130309143010/http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/kwes.pdf |date=9 March 2013 }}, [http://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2011/key_world_energy_stats.pdf 2011] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111027013037/http://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2011/key_world_energy_stats.pdf |date=27 October 2011 }}, [http://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2010/key_stats_2010.pdf 2010] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101011091637/http://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2010/key_stats_2010.pdf |date=11 October 2010 }}, [http://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2009/key2009.pdf 2009] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131007042901/http://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2009/key2009.pdf |date=7 October 2013 }}, [http://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2006/key2006.pdf 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091012043312/http://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2006/key2006.pdf |date=12 October 2009 }} [[International Energy Agency|IEA]] October, crude oil p.11, coal p. 13 gas p. 15</ref>
|-
!
! Population million
! Prim. energy TWh
! Production TWh
! Import TWh
! Electricity TWh
! CO2-emission Mt
|-
| align="left" | 2004 || 1,080 || 6,662 || 5,430 || 1,230 || 494 || 1,103
|-
| align="left" | 2007 || 1,123|| 6,919 || 5,244 || 1,745 || 610 || 1,324
|-
| align="left" | 2008 || 1,140 || 7, 222 || 5,446 || 1,836 || 645 || 1,428
|-
| align="left" | 2009 || 1,155 || 7,860 || 5,844 || 2,116 || 690 || 1,586
|-
| align="left" | 2010 || 1,171 || 8,056|| 6,032|| 2,110 || 755|| 1,626
|-
| align="left" | 2012 || 1,241 || 8,716 || 6,291 || 2,483 || 835 || 1,745
|-
| align="left" | 2012R || 1,237 || 9,166 || 6,333 || 2,829 || 940 || 1,954
|-
| align="left" | 2013 || 1,250 || 9,018 || 6,086 || 2,962 || 979 || 1,869
|-
| align="left" | Change 2004–10 || 8.4% || 20.9% || 11.1% || 72% || 53% || 47.4%
|-
| align="left" colspan=7 | Mtoe = 11.63 TWh, Prim. energy includes energy losses that are 2/3 for nuclear power<ref name=Sverigetab49>[http://webbshop.cm.se/System/TemplateView.aspx?p=Energimyndigheten&view=default&cat=/Broschyrer&id=e0a2619a83294099a16519a0b5edd26f Energy in Sweden 2010] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131016045634/http://webbshop.cm.se/System/TemplateView.aspx?p=Energimyndigheten&view=default&cat=%2FBroschyrer&id=e0a2619a83294099a16519a0b5edd26f |date=16 October 2013 }}, Facts and figures, The Swedish Energy Agency, Table 8 Losses in nuclear power stations Table 9 Nuclear power brutto</ref>
2012R = CO2 calculation criteria changed, numbers updated 
|}

==Coal==
{{See also|List of countries by coal reserves|Coal in India}}
[[File:Coal production of India.svg|thumb|Coal production of India]]

In 2023, India was both the [[List of countries by coal production|second largest producer of coal]] and second largest consumer of coal, although for both statistics having less than a fourth of that of leading China.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ritchie |first=Hannah |last2=Rosado |first2=Pablo |last3=Roser |first3=Max |title=Coal consumption |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/coal-consumption-by-country-terawatt-hours-twh?tab=chart&country=IND~USA~CHN |access-date=December 2, 2024 |website=Our World in Data}}</ref> India is planning to use 100 million tonnes of coal for gasification by 2030.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newslaundry.com/2024/03/30/carbon-omissions-indias-coal-gasification-plans-are-ambitious-but-face-an-uphill-task|title=Carbon omissions: India’s coal gasification plans are ambitious but face an uphill task|access-date=1 April 2024}}</ref> The abundantly available coal in India is low [[coal rank| rank]] coal which is not suitable for coal gasification without blending with [[pet coke]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://coal.gov.in/sites/default/files/ncgm/ncgm21-09-21.pdf |title= National Coal Gasification Mission, Ministry of Coal|access-date= 28 May 2025}}</ref> However, low rank coal/lignite can be converted to natural gas by using hydrogen.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sasidhar |first=Nallapaneni |date=May 2025 |title=In-situ and Ex-situ Conversion of Coal to Methane using Hydrogen |url=https://www.ijeer.latticescipub.com/wp-content/uploads/papers/v4i3/C104404030525.pdf |access-date=2025-05-28 |journal=Indian Journal of Energy and Energy Resources |issn=2583-1186|volume=4 |issue=3|pages=1–5 |doi=10.54105/ijeer.C1044.04030525 |s2cid=258753397}}</ref>

Coal and lignite production was 73.1 crore (731 million) tons in the financial year 2019-2020.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://coaldashboard.cmpdi.co.in/dashboard.php|title=Koyala Darpan / Coal Dashboard|access-date=17 February 2022|archive-date=16 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220216204644/https://coaldashboard.cmpdi.co.in/dashboard.php|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/file/ProvisionalCoalStatistics2019-20.pdf|title=Provisional Coal Statistics 2019-20|access-date=27 January 2021|archive-date=2 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210202013728/http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/file/ProvisionalCoalStatistics2019-20.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> India was the fourth top [[Coal mining|coal]] producer in 2017 with 294.2 Mtons (7.8% global share).<ref name=srwe/> Nearly 80% of total electricity generated (utility and captive) in India is from coal and it is the main source of [[Greenhouse gas emissions by India|the nation's greenhouse gas emissions]].

According to [[Greenpeace]] the largest coal belt in India is at [[Jharia]]. Before coal mining Jharia had forests inhabited by tribes. In 1971 the [[coal mine]]s were nationalised. [[Bharat Coking Coal Limited]] (BCCL) took over Jharia coal mines.<ref name=truecost>[http://www.greenpeace.org/raw/content/international/press/reports/true-cost-coal.pdf "The True Cost of Coal"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081130101613/http://www.greenpeace.org/raw/content/international/press/reports/true-cost-coal.pdf |date=30 November 2008 }} Greenpeace 27 November 2008 pp. 24–29</ref>

India accounts for the world’s greatest concentration of [[coal seam fire]]s. Mine area suffers from pollution of air, water and land.<ref name="truecost"/>

As of 2019, coal production was integrated into the Central Government;<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.brookings.edu/research/coal-in-india/|title=Coal in India|last=Gross|first=Rahul Tongia and Samantha|date=2019-03-08|website=Brookings|language=en-US|access-date=2019-10-26}}</ref> for example, the [[Government of India|Government]] owned about 75% of [[Coal India|Coal India Limited]], which supplied about 84% of India's thermal coal.<ref name=":0" />

India imports coking coal as good quality [[coking coal]] deposits suitable for iron and steel production are not available. In the financial year 2021 -22, India imported nearly 57.16 million tons (90%) against the consumption of 63.74 MT.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/file/import%20of%20coal.pdf|title=Import of coal - Trends and issue of self reliance|access-date=26 December 2022|archive-date=25 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221225102903/http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/file/import%20of%20coal.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Sponge iron]] route using noncoking coal is also followed to produce iron and steel which does not depend on coke or natural gas.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.livemint.com/companies/news/jspl-resumes-operations-in-coal-gasification-plant-in-odisha-s-angul-district-11578977735242.html|title=JSPL's 1.8 MTPA coal gasification based DRI plant resumes operations in Angul|access-date=14 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ispatguru.com/coal-gasification-based-production-of-direct-reduced-iron/|title=Coal Gasification based Production of Direct Reduced Iron|access-date=25 January 2020}}</ref>

== Oil and natural gas==
{{Main|Energy policy of India|Oil and gas industry in India}}

As of 2022, India was the [[List of countries by oil consumption|fourth top oil consumer globally]], at 5.2 million barrels per day (5% of global consumption). However, on a per capita basis, its standing is much lower. India was the second-top net [[crude oil]] (including crude oil products) importer of 205.3 Mt in 2019.<ref name=bp20>{{cite web | url=https://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/business-sites/en/global/corporate/pdfs/energy-economics/statistical-review/bp-stats-review-2020-full-report.pdf | title= Statistical Review of World Energy 2020 (page 31)| access-date=6 January 2021}}</ref> India has 49.72 [[lakh]] (4.972 million) barrels per day (5.1% of the world) crude oil refining capacity which is ranked 4th globally in 2017.<ref name=srwe/>

==Liquefied petroleum gas==
[[File:Liquefied petroleum gas cylinders.jpg|thumb|Cylinders with LPG in [[India]] ]]

Nearly 1 crore (10.937 million) tons [[Liquefied Petroleum Gas]] (LPG) was consumed during April to September 2019 (six months) in the domestic sector mainly for cooking.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ppac.gov.in/WriteReadData/Reports/201911220459272617502WebVersionLPGProfile1.10.2019.pdf |title=LPG Profile 2019 |access-date=3 December 2019}}</ref> The number of domestic connections are 274 million (one connection for five people) with a circulation of more than 40 crore (400 million) LPG cylinders whose net aggregate length would form a 2,00,000 km long pipe line which is more than the length of total [[Indian Railways|railway track laid in India]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://energy.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/oil-and-gas/lpg-cylinder-now-used-by-89-households/66930301 |title=LPG cylinder now used by 89% households|access-date=5 December 2018}}</ref> India is second largest consumer of LPG globally.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://energy.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/oil-and-gas/india-becomes-worlds-2nd-largest-lpg-consumer-after-govts-ujjawla-push/67848639|title= India becomes world's second-largest LPG consumer|access-date=5 February 2019}}</ref> Most of the LPG requirement is imported.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://energy.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/oil-and-gas/india-challenges-china-as-worlds-biggest-lpg-importer/62263809|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171227180358/https://energy.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/oil-and-gas/india-challenges-china-as-worlds-biggest-lpg-importer/62263809|url-status=dead|archive-date=27 December 2017|title=India challenges China as world's biggest LPG importer|access-date=27 December 2017}}</ref> Piped city gas supply in India is not yet developed on major scale.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://energy.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/oil-and-gas/pm-modi-says-70-of-indias-population-will-have-city-gas-facility-in-2-3-years/66752204|title= PM Modi says 70% of India's population will have city gas facility in 2-3 years|access-date=22 November 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://gailebank.gail.co.in/goga/NewApplication/index.html#existing-customer|title= Map of GAIL's Natural Gas Pipelines|access-date=22 November 2018}}</ref>

== Biomass and charcoal==
{{See also | Electricity sector in India#Biomass power | l1= Biomass power in India }}

[[Biomass]] is a renewable energy source and its use as feedstock to produce [[biofuels]] or organic chemicals is mostly [[carbon-neutral fuel]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Carbon Neutral Fuels and Chemicals from Standalone Biomass Refineries |url=https://www.ijee.latticescipub.com/wp-content/uploads/papers/v3i2/B1845113223.pdf|access-date=3 December 2023}}</ref> Carbon dioxide is first taken up by plants during photosynthesis, and later released when biomass is burned. Presently, only 20% of households in India use biomass and charcoal for cooking purposes as LPG use for cooking purposes is rising rapidly.<ref>{{cite web| url=https://energy.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/oil-and-gas/nearly-80-of-indian-households-now-have-access-to-lpg-gas/63226987 |title= Nearly 80% of Indian households now have access to LPG gas |access-date=9 March 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://energy.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/power/niti-aayog-pitches-for-round-the-clock-power-for-all-electric-vehicles/60217855|title=NITI Aayog pitches for round-the-clock power for all-electric vehicles |access-date=25 August 2017}}</ref> In addition biomass is also used marginally in commercial cooking, electricity generation, process industries, etc. The total biomass use in India is nearly 177 Mtoe in the year 2013.<ref name=eia/> Substantial surplus crop residue is also burnt in agriculture fields to clear the land for the next crop. Nearly 75 crores (750 million) tons of nonedible (by cattle) biomass is available annually in India which can be put to use for higher value addition without [[global warming|CO2 emissions]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2021/Jan/IRENA_Innovation_Renewable_Methanol_2021.pdf|title=Renewable Methanol|access-date=19 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/maharashtra-punjab-top-producers-of-green-energy-from-farm-waste/article1-1385893.aspx|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150831190140/http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/maharashtra-punjab-top-producers-of-green-energy-from-farm-waste/article1-1385893.aspx|url-status=dead|archive-date=31 August 2015|title=Maharashtra, Punjab top producers of green energy from farm waste |access-date=31 August 2015}}</ref>

Huge quantity of imported coal is being used in pulverised [[coal-fired power station]]s. Raw biomass is not suitable for use in the pulverised coal mills as they are difficult to [[Hardgrove Grindability Index|grind]] into fine powder due to [[Caking (chemical engineering)|caking]] problem. However 100% biomass can be fired after [[torrefaction]] in the pulverised coal mills for replacing imported coal.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sari-energy.org/PageFiles/What_We_Do/activities/worldbiofuelsmarkets/Presentations/BiofuelsShippingStorageLogistics/Michael_Wild.pdf|title=The upgrading of solid biomasss by means of Torrefaction|access-date=2014-09-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303230838/http://www.sari-energy.org/PageFiles/What_We_Do/activities/worldbiofuelsmarkets/Presentations/BiofuelsShippingStorageLogistics/Michael_Wild.pdf|archive-date=3 March 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> Torrefied biomass plants can be integrated with existing pulverised coal-fired power stations using the available hot flue gas as heat source. [[Cofiring]] dry biomass up to 20% heat input with coal is also possible directly in pulverised coal-fired power stations without facing caking problem.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iea-coal.org.uk/documents/83524/9188/Henderson---Cofiring-of-biomass-in-coal-fired-power-plants-%E2%80%93-European-experience|title=Cofiring of biomass in coal-fired power plants – European experience|access-date=2014-09-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161012153412/http://www.iea-coal.org.uk/documents/83524/9188/Henderson---Cofiring-of-biomass-in-coal-fired-power-plants-%E2%80%93-European-experience|archive-date=12 October 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> North west and southern regions can replace imported coal use with biomass where surplus agriculture/crop residue biomass is burnt in the fields causing pollution problems.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/government-press-release/cea-has-written-to-all-states-to-use-5-10-of-118020801216_1.html| title=CEA has written to all States to use 5-10% of biomass pellets with coal for power generation in thermal power plants|access-date=22 February 2018}}</ref> As traditional use of biomass is being replaced by [[Liquefied petroleum gas|LPG]] at a faster pace, biomass burning in agriculture fields would become major source for causing higher level air pollution.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/delhi-news/pollution-delhi-gets-whiff-of-hope-as-ntpc-steps-in-to-buy-crop-residue-from-farmers/story-nmfwHl5bDCgdi5ImQPtNQM.html| title=Air Pollution: Delhi sees hope as NTPC steps in to buy crop residue from farmers|access-date=25 September 2017}}</ref>

When an existing blast furnace is modified to use biomass products as its fuel, production of green steel, green hydrogen/ammonia/urea and green slag cement are feasible.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=November 2025|title=Retrofitting Blast Furnaces for Producing Green Steel and Green Urea|url=https://www.ijee.latticescipub.com/wp-content/uploads/papers/v5i2/B187105021125.pdf
|journal=Indian Journal of Environment Engineering|language=en|volume=5|pages=19–25|doi=10.54105/ijee.B1871.05021125|issn= 2582-9289|last1=Nallapaneni|first1=Sasidhar|access-date=25 November 2025}}</ref>

[[Biogas]] which is mainly methane/natural gas can also be used to produce protein-rich feed for cattle, poultry and fish culture in villages economically by cultivating [[Methylococcus capsulatus]] bacteria culture with tiny land and water foot print.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.ntva.no/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/04-huslid.pdf |title=BioProtein Production |access-date=31 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510151825/http://www.ntva.no/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/04-huslid.pdf |archive-date=10 May 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2112298-food-made-from-natural-gas-will-soon-feed-farm-animals-and-us/ |title=Food made from natural gas will soon feed farm animals – and us |access-date=31 January 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cargill.com/2016/new-venture-selects-cargill-tennessee-to-produce-feedkind |title=New venture selects Cargill's Tennessee site to produce Calysta FeedKind® Protein |access-date=31 January 2018}}</ref> The carbon dioxide gas produced as by product from these plants can be put to use in cheaper production of [[algae oil]] from [[algae]] particularly in tropical countries like India which can displace the prime position of crude oil in near future.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.greencarcongress.com/2015/01/20150121-algenol.html#more |title=Algenol and Reliance launch algae fuels demonstration project in India |access-date=29 May 2017 |archive-date=1 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701001900/http://www.greencarcongress.com/2015/01/20150121-algenol.html#more |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://oilprice.com/Latest-Energy-News/World-News/ExxonMobil-Announces-Breakthrough-In-Renewable-Energy.html |title=ExxonMobil Announces Breakthrough In Renewable Energy |access-date=20 June 2017}}</ref> Union government is implementing many schemes to utilise productively the agro waste or biomass in rural areas to uplift [[rural economics|rural economy]] and job potential.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://energy.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/oil-and-gas/indrapratha-gas-mahindra-mahindra-join-hands-to-stop-stubble-burning/62986917|title=Indrapratha Gas, Mahindra & Mahindra join hands to stop stubble burning|access-date=20 February 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://energy.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/oil-and-gas/modi-govt-plans-gobar-dhan-scheme-to-convert-cattle-dung-into-energy/63028408|title=Modi govt plans Gobar-Dhan scheme to convert cattle dung into energy|access-date=22 February 2018}}</ref>

== Biofuel ==
{{see also | Biofuel in India | Energy policy of India#Bio-fuels | l2= Bio-fuels energy policy of India }}

In 2021, India imported 85% of petroleum products worth $55 billion. The country set a target of blending 20% [[ethanol]] in petrol by 2025 resulting in import substitution and India provides financial assistance for manufacturing ethanol from rice, wheat, barley, corn, sorghum, sugarcane, sugar beet, etc.<ref name=bioeth1>[https://theprint.in/opinion/india-wants-to-use-foodgrain-for-ethanol-thats-a-problem-in-a-hungry-country/686707/ India wants to use food grain stock for ethanol. That’s a problem in a hungry country], The Print, 1 July 2021.</ref> This target was achieved in 2025.<ref name=ar1>[https://infra.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/roads-highways/govt-constructing-10000-km-greenfield-expressway-projects-at-6-lakh-cr-investment-gadkari/124423868 Govt constructing 10000 km greenfield expressway projects at 6 lakh cr investment- Gadkari], Economic Times, 9 Oct 2025.</ref>

==Electricity==
[[File:India electricity production.svg|thumb|India electricity production|200px]]
{{Main|Electricity sector in India | Renewable energy in India }}

In India, 99.99% of the population have access to power supply.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://saubhagya.gov.in/|title=Households electrification in India| access-date=21 August 2018}}</ref> By 2013, India became the world's third largest producer of electricity with 4.8% global share, surpassing Japan and Russia.<ref>[http://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2010/key_stats_2010.pdf IEA Key energy statistics 2010] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101011091637/http://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2010/key_stats_2010.pdf |date=11 October 2010 }} p. 27</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.adelphi.de/en/publications/dok/43509.php?pid=1971 |title=Energy-efficient buildings – a business case for India? An analysis of incremental costs for four building projects of the Energy-Efficient Homes Programme, 2015 |access-date=14 March 2015 |archive-date=2 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402100407/http://www.adelphi.de/en/publications/dok/43509.php?pid=1971 |url-status=dead }}</ref> India ranks 6th globally in hydropower generation during the year 2019.<ref name=bp20/>

India had set a target of 175 gigawatts (GW) of renewable energy (excluding large hydro) capacity by 2022.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=180728|title=A target of installing 175 GW of renewable energy capacity by the year 2022 has been set|date=July 19, 2018|website=Public Information Bureau|access-date=2019-05-06}}</ref> It included 100 GW capacity from [[solar energy]] sources, 60 GW from [[wind power]], 10 GW from [[biopower]], and 5 GW from [[small hydro]]power.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://energy.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/renewable/india-to-install-54-7-gw-wind-energy-capacity-by-2022-fitch-solutions/69081148|title=India to install 54.7 GW wind energy capacity by 2022: Fitch Solutions - ET EnergyWorld|date=April 28, 2019|website=ETEnergyworld|language=en|access-date=2019-05-06}}</ref>

As of 31 March 2024, India has 190.573 GW (43% of total) installed capacity of [[Renewable energy in India|renewable energy]]. It is one of the world leaders in renewable energy investments and installations.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://qz.com/india/1475736/india-is-now-a-world-leader-in-renewable-energy/|title=India is now a world leader in renewable energy|last=Thomas|first=Maria|date=November 27, 2018|website=Quartz India|language=en|access-date=2019-05-06}}</ref>

== Energy reserves ==
India has abundant solar, wind, hydro (including pumped storage) and biomass power potential. In addition, as of January 2011 India had approximately 38 trillion cubic feet (Tcf) of proven natural gas reserves, the world's 26th largest reserve.<ref>{{cite web |date=9 March 2013 |title=CIA – The World Factbook |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2179rank.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130309174844/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2179rank.html |archive-date=9 March 2013 |access-date=30 September 2019}}</ref> The United States [[Energy Information Administration]] estimates that India produced approximately 1.8 Tcf of natural gas in 2010 while consuming roughly 2.3 Tcf of natural gas. India already produces [[coalbed methane]].

==See also==
{{Portal|Energy|India}}
{{div col}}
*[[Climate change in India]]
*[[Electricity sector in India]]
*[[Energy policy of India]]
*[[Hydroelectric power in India]]
*[[Renewable energy in India]]
*[[Wind power in India]]
*[[Solar power in India]]
*[[Nuclear power in India]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Energy in India}}
{{Energy companies and organisations in India}}
{{Asia_topic|Energy in}}
{{Asia topic|Energy policy of}}

[[Category:Energy in India| ]]

Hanuman

2026-03-20T19:09:29Z

Ankitchadha: reworked lead and improved wording after review

{{short description|Hindu god, companion of the mahavatar Rama, mahavatar of Lord Shiva}}
{{Other uses}}
{{protection padlock|small=yes}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2019}}
{{Infobox deity 
| type = Hindu
| name = Hanuman
| image = Hanuman statue at Chhatarpur Temple, New Delhi, India.jpg
| caption = Prominent Hanuman statue at [[Chhatarpur Temple]], New Delhi, India
| day = {{hlist|[[Saturday]]|[[Tuesday]]}}
| god_of = God of Wisdom, Strength, Courage, Devotion and Self-Discipline<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thestatesman.com/supplements/8thday/hanuman-a-symbol-of-unity-1502720672.html |title=Hanuman: A Symbol of Unity |website=[[The Statesman (India)|The Statesman]] |date=21 Jan 2021 |access-date=21 January 2021 |archive-date=31 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210131003759/https://www.thestatesman.com/supplements/8thday/hanuman-a-symbol-of-unity-1502720672.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
| affiliation = [[Rama]] devotee, [[Deva (Hinduism)|Deva]], [[Chiranjivi]], [[Vanara]], avatar of [[Shiva]] ([[Shaivism]]),<ref name="Brown 2011 p. 44">{{cite book | last=Brown | first=N. R. | title=The Mythology of Supernatural: The Signs and Symbols Behind the Popular TV Show | publisher=Penguin Publishing Group | year=2011 | isbn=978-1-101-51752-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1lR_UXIkBfgC&pg=PT44 | access-date=2024-01-04 | page=44}}</ref> son and avatar of [[Vayu]] ([[Vaishnavism]]).<ref name="Williams 2008148">{{cite book | last=Williams | first=G.M. | title=Handbook of Hindu Mythology | publisher=OUP USA | series=Handbooks of world mythology | year=2008 | isbn=978-0-19-533261-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N7LOZfwCDpEC&pg=PA148 | access-date=2024-01-04 | page=148}}</ref>
| abode = [[Kishkindha]]
| festivals = [[Hanuman Jayanti]] [[Dipavali]]
| mantra = ॐ श्री हनुमते नमः {{IAST|Oṁ Śrī Hanumate Namaḥ}}
| parents = [[Vayu]] (spiritual father) [[Kesari (Ramayana)|Kesari]] (father)
 [[Añjanā]] (mother)
| weapon = [[Gada (mace)]]
| texts = [[Ramayana]] and [[Versions of Ramayana|its other versions]] [[Hanuman Chalisa]]<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=19aoCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT193|title=Hinduism in the Modern World|author=Brian A. Hatcher|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2015|isbn=978-1-135-04630-9}}</ref>
| siblings = Matiman, Shrutiman, Ketuman, Gatiman and Dhritiman (brothers)
| region =
| member_of = [[Chiranjivi]]
}}
{{Hinduism|Deity=Hanuman}}
'''Hanuman''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|ʌ|n|ʊ|ˌ|m|ɑː|n|}}; {{langx|sa|हनुमान्}}, {{IAST3|Hanumān}}),<ref>[https://www.dictionary.com/browse/hanuman "Hanuman"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200926141450/https://www.dictionary.com/browse/hanuman |date=26 September 2020 }}, ''[[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary]]''.</ref> also known as '''Maruti''', '''Bajrangabali''', and '''Anjaneya''',<ref>{{Cite web |last=wisdomlib.org |date=2019-01-16 |title=Anjaneya, Āñjaneya, Amjaneya: 9 definitions |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/anjaneya |access-date=2022-11-13 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en |archive-date=13 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221113140542/https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/anjaneya |url-status=live }}</ref> is a deity in [[Hinduism]], revered as a divine ''[[vanara]]'', and a devoted companion of the deity [[Rama]]. Central to the ''[[Ramayana]]'', Hanuman is celebrated for his unwavering devotion to Rama and is considered a ''[[chiranjivi]]''. He is traditionally believed to be the spiritual offspring of the wind deity [[Vayu]], who is said to have played a significant role in his birth.<ref name="debroy184">{{cite book|author=Bibek Debroy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=af1qFbouaVMC&pg=PA184|title=The Mahabharata: Volume 3|publisher=Penguin Books|year=2012|isbn=978-0-14-310015-7|pages=184 with footnote 686}}</ref><ref name="Melton2010p1310">{{cite book|author1=J. Gordon Melton|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v2yiyLLOj88C|title=Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices, 2nd Edition|author2=Martin Baumann|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2010|isbn=978-1-59884-204-3|pages=1310–1311}}</ref> In [[Shaivism|Shaiva]] tradition, he is regarded as an incarnation of [[Shiva]], while in most of the [[Vaishnava]] traditions he is the son and incarnation of [[Vayu]]. His tales are recounted not only in the ''[[Ramayana]]'' but also in the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' and various ''[[Puranas]]''. Devotional practices centered on Hanuman were not prominent in these texts or in early archaeological evidence. His theological significance and the cultivation of a devoted following emerged roughly a millennium after the ''[[Ramayana]]'' was composed, during the second millennium CE.<ref name="Paula Richman 2010">Paula Richman (2010), "Review: Lutgendorf, Philip's Hanuman's Tale: The Messages of a Divine Monkey", ''The Journal of Asian Studies''; Vol. 69, Issue 4 (Nov 2010), p. 32</ref>
[[File:Hanuman Mandir Darbar.jpg|thumb|''Darbar of Lord Hanuman'' at the temple in ''Koparigaon'' [[Vashi]] in [[Navi Mumbai]] ]]

In the medieval Hinduism [[Bhakti movement]], figures such as [[Samarth Ramdas]], have portrayed Hanuman as an emblem of nationalism and defiance against oppression.<ref name=lele114/> According to [[Vaishnava]] tradition, the sage [[Madhvacharya]] posited that Vayu aids [[Vishnu]] in his earthly incarnations, a role akin to Hanuman's assistance to Rama.{{Sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|p=67}} In recent times, the veneration of Hanuman through iconography and temple worship has significantly increased.<ref name="JonesRyan2006p177">{{cite book|author1=Constance Jones|author2=James D. Ryan|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC|year=2006|publisher=Infobase|isbn=978-0-8160-7564-5|pages=177–178|access-date=26 May 2017|archive-date=20 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221020070415/https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC|url-status=live}}</ref> He epitomizes the fusion of "strength, heroic initiative, and assertive excellence" with "loving, emotional devotion" to his lord Rama, embodying both [[Shakti]] and [[Bhakti]].{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pages=26–32, 116, 257–259, 388–391}} Subsequent literature has occasionally depicted him as the patron deity of martial arts, meditation, and scholarly pursuits.<ref name="Williams2008p146">{{cite book|author=George M. Williams|title=Handbook of Hindu Mythology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N7LOZfwCDpEC&pg=PA146 |year=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-533261-2|pages=146–148}}</ref> He is revered as an exemplar of [[Temperance (virtue)|self-control]], faith, and commitment to a cause and his physical attributes as a Vanara for which he is worshipped.<ref name="JonesRyan2006p177"/><ref name="Lutgendorf 1997 311–332">{{cite journal | last=Lutgendorf | first=Philip | title=Monkey in the Middle: The Status of Hanuman in Popular Hinduism | journal=Religion | volume=27 | issue=4 | year=1997| doi=10.1006/reli.1997.0095 | pages=311–332}}</ref><ref name=ludvik2>{{cite book|author=Catherine Ludvik|title=Hanumān in the Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki and the Rāmacaritamānasa of Tulasī Dāsa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KCXQN0qoAe0C |year=1994|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1122-5|pages=2–9}}</ref> Traditionally, Hanuman is celebrated as a lifelong [[Brahmacarya|celibate]], embodying the virtues of chastity.<ref name="JonesRyan2006p177"/>{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pages=223, 309, 320}} Hanuman's abilities are partly attributed to his lineage from [[Vayu]], symbolizing a connection with both the physical and the cosmic elements.{{Sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|p=44}}

==Names and etymology==
[[File:A Hanuman sculpture in Singapore.jpg|left|upright=0.8|thumb|Hanuman with a [[Namaste]] (Anjali Mudra) posture]]
The meaning or origin of the word "Hanuman" is unclear. In the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] [[pantheon (religion)|pantheon]], deities typically have many synonymous names, each based on some noble characteristic, attribute, or reminder of a deed achieved by that deity.{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=31–32}} One interpretation of "Hanuman" is "one having a disfigured jaw". This version is supported by a Puranic account wherein infant Hanuman mistakes the [[Sun]] for a fruit, heroically attempts to reach it, and is wounded in the jaw for his attempt by [[Indra]] the King of Gods.{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=31–32}}

Hanuman combines two of the most cherished traits in the Hindu [[bhakti]]-[[shakti]] worship traditions: "heroic, strong, assertive excellence" and "loving, emotional devotion to personal God".{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=31–32}}

Linguistic variations of "Hanuman" include ''Hanumat'', ''Anuman'' ([[Tamil language|Tamil]]), ''Hanumantha'' ([[Kannada]]), ''Hanumanthudu'' ([[Telugu language|Telugu]]). Other names include:
* ''Anjaneya'',<ref>{{cite book|title=India through the ages|url=https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada|last=Gopal|first=Madan|year= 1990| page= [https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada/page/68 68]|editor=K.S. Gautam|publisher=Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India}}</ref> ''Anjaniputra'' (Kannada), ''Anjaneyar'' (Tamil), ''Anjaneyudu'' (Telugu), ''Anjanisuta'' all meaning "the son of [[Añjanā|Anjana]]"
* ''Kesari Nandana or Kesarisuta'', based on his father, which means "son of [[Kesari (Ramayana)|Kesari]]"
* ''Vayuputra/ Pavanputra'' : the son of the [[Vayu]] deva- Wind god<ref name="Claus2003p280"/>
* ''Vajrang Bali/Bajrang Bali'', "the strong one (''bali''), who had limbs (''anga'') as hard or as tough as [[vajra]] (''diamond'')"; this name is widely used in rural North India{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=31–32}}
* ''Sankata Mochana'', "the remover of dangers, hardships, or hurdles" (''sankata''){{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=31–32}}
* ''Māruti'', "son of Maruta" (another name of [[Vayu]] deva){{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=50–53}}
* ''Kapeeshwara'', "lord of monkeys."
* ''Rama Doota'', "the messenger (''doota'') of [[Rama]]"
* ''Mahakaya'', "gigantic"
* ''Vira'', ''Mahavira'', "most valiant"
* ''Mahabala/Mahabali'', "the strongest one"
* ''Vanarkulathin Thondaiman'', "descendant of the [[Vanara|Vanar]] clan" (Tamil)
* ''Panchavaktra'', "five-faced"
* ''Mukhya Prana Devaru'', "Primordial Life Giver" (more prominent amongst followers of [[Dvaita Vedanta]], such as [[Madhva Brahmin]])

== Historical development ==
[[File:StandingHanumanCholaDynasty11thCentury.jpg|thumbnail|right|upright=0.8|Standing Hanuman, [[Chola]] dynasty, 11th century, [[Tamil Nadu]], India]]

===Vedic roots===
The earliest mention of a divine monkey is in hymn 10.86 of the ''[[Rigveda]]'', dated to between 1500 and 1200 BCE. The twenty-three verses of the hymn are a metaphorical and riddle-filled narrative. It is presented as a dialogue between multiple figures: the god [[Indra]], his wife [[Indrani]] and an energetic monkey it refers to as ''Vrisakapi'' and his wife ''Kapi''.<ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/s/9c ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१०.८६], Rigveda, Wikisource</ref><ref name=lutgendorf23>Philip Lutgendorf (1999), [http://www.manushi.in/docs/106.%20Like%20Mother,%20Like%20Son.pdf Like Mother, Like Son, Sita and Hanuman] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170929092531/http://www.manushi.in/docs/106.%20Like%20Mother,%20Like%20Son.pdf |date=29 September 2017 }}, Manushi, No. 114, pages 23–25</ref>{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=39–40}}

===Epics and Puranas===

{{Quote box
|quote = '''Sita's scepticism'''
<poem>
''Vanaranam naranam ca''
''kathamasit samagamah''

Translation:
How can there be a
relationship between men and monkeys?
</poem>
|source = —''Valmiki's Ramayana''' Sita's first meeting with Hanuman (Translator: Philip Lutgendorf)<ref>Philip Lutgendorf (1999), [http://www.manushi.in/docs/106.%20Like%20Mother,%20Like%20Son.pdf Like Mother, Like Son, Sita and Hanuman] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170929092531/http://www.manushi.in/docs/106.%20Like%20Mother,%20Like%20Son.pdf |date=29 September 2017 }}, Manushi, No. 114, pp. 22–23</ref>
|bgcolor=#FFE0BB
|align = right
}}
Hanuman is mentioned in both the [[Hindu epic]]s, ''[[Ramayana]]'' and ''[[Mahabharata]]''.<ref>{{cite book |author=Nanditha Krishna |title=Sacred Animals of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J3NU35nngxEC&pg=PA178 |year= 2010 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-14-306619-4 |pages=178–}}</ref>

Hanuman is mentioned in the [[Puranas]].<ref name="Parmeshwaranand">{{cite book | author=Swami Parmeshwaranand | title=Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Puranas, Vol. 1 | year=2001 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nmmkM0fVS-cC&pg=PA411 | access-date=14 July 2012 | publisher=Sarup & Sons | isbn=978-81-7625-226-3 | pages=411–}}</ref><ref name="CamillePrasada2010">{{cite book |author1=Camille Bulcke |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cvE4wF-cfX0C&pg=PA117 |title=Rāmakathā and Other Essays |author2=Dineśvara Prasāda |publisher=Vani Prakashan |year=2010 |isbn=978-93-5000-107-3 |pages=117–126 |access-date=14 July 2012}}</ref> The [[Shiva Purana]] mentions Hanuman as an avatar of [[Shiva]]; all other Puranas and scriptures mention him as the spiritual son of [[Vayu]], an incarnation of Vayu, or sometimes an avatar of [[Rudra]] (another name of Vayu).<ref name="CamillePrasada2010"/><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W3PXAAAAMAAJ|title=The Rigveda, with Dayananda Saraswati's Commentary, Volume 1|publisher=Sarvadeshik Arya Pratinidhi Sabha|year=1974|page=717|quote=The third meaning of Rudra is Vayu or air that causes pain to the wicked on the account of their evil actions...... Vayu or air is called Rudra as it makes a person weep causing pain as a result of bad deeds .}}</ref> Commonly, Hanuman is not related to Shiva in Vaishnava traditions but is known as Shiva's avatar or son in Shaiva traditions.<ref>{{cite book|title=Gender Fluidity in Hindu Mythology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bk1tDwAAQBAJ|author=Devdutt Pattanaik|publisher=Penguin Random House|date=10 September 2018|page=11|isbn = 9789353052720|quote=In Vaishnava traditions, Hanuman is not related to Shiva. In Shaiva traditions, Hanuman is either Shiva's avatar or son.}}</ref>

Other texts, such as those found in South India, present Hanuman as a being who is the union of Shiva and Vishnu, or associated with the origin of [[Ayyappa]].<ref name="Williams2008p146"/> The 17th century [[Odia language|Odia]] work ''Rasavinoda'' by [[Dinakrushna Das|Dinakrishnadasa]] goes on to mention that the [[trimurti|three gods]] – Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva – combined to take to the form of Hanuman.<ref name="Nagar1999">{{cite book | author=Shanti Lal Nagar | title=Genesis and evolution of the Rāma kathā in Indian art, thought, literature, and culture: from the earliest period to the modern times | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gPLqAAAAMAAJ | access-date=14 July 2012 | year=1999 | publisher=B.R. Pub. Co. | isbn=978-81-7646-082-8}}</ref>

===Late medieval and modern era===
[[File:Vittala Temple, Vijayanagara, Karnataka, India ei1180.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.85|Numerous 14th-century and later Hanuman images are found in the ruins of the Hindu [[Vijayanagara Empire]].{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=64–71}}]]
In Valmiki's ''Ramayana'', estimated to have been composed before or in about the 3rd century BCE,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kane |first=P. V. |date=1966 |title=The Two Epics |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41694199 |journal=Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute |volume=47 |issue=1/4 |pages=48 |jstor=41694199 |issn=0378-1143}}</ref> Hanuman is an important, creative figure as a simian helper and messenger for Rama. It is, however, in the late medieval era that his profile evolves into a more central role and dominance as the exemplary spiritual devotee, particularly with the popular vernacular text ''[[Ramcharitmanas]]'' by [[Tulsidas]] (~ 1575 CE).<ref name="Claus2003p280"/><ref>{{cite book|author=Catherine Ludvik|editor=F.S. Growse|title=The Rāmāyaṇa of Tulasīdāsa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5WViTwAKqzoC&pg=PA723|year=1987|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0205-6|pages=723–725}}</ref> The ''Ramcharitmanas'' presented [[Rama]] as a Vishnu avatar, supreme being and a personal god worthy of devotion, with Hanuman as the ideal loving devotee with legendary courage, strength and powers.<ref name=lele114/><ref name=peebles100>{{cite book|author=Patrick Peebles|title=Voices of South Asia: Essential Readings from Antiquity to the Present|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l2JsBgAAQBAJ |year=2015|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-45248-5|pages=99–100}}</ref>

During this era, Hanuman evolved and emerged as the ideal combination of [[shakti]] and [[bhakti]].{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pages=26–32, 116, 257–259, 388–391}} Stories and folk traditions in and after the 17th century, began to reformulate and present Hanuman as a divine being, as a descendant of deities, and as an avatar of [[Shiva]].<ref name=peebles100/> He emerged as a champion of those religiously persecuted, expressing resistance, a yogi,{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|p=85}} an inspiration for martial artists and warriors,{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=57–64}} a character with less fur and increasingly human, symbolizing cherished virtues and internal values, and worthy of devotion in his own right.<ref name=lele114/><ref>{{cite book|author=Thomas A. Green|title=Martial Arts of the World: En Encyclopedia|year=2001|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v32oHSE5t6cC |publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-150-2|pages=467–468}}</ref> This evolution of Hanuman's religious status, and his cultural role as well as his iconography, continued through the colonial era and into post-colonial times.<ref>Philip Lutgendorf (2002), Evolving a monkey: Hanuman, poster art and postcolonial anxiety, Contributions to Indian Sociology, Vol. 36, Iss. 1–2, pp. 71–112</ref>

==Hagiography==
===Birth===

According to Hindu narratives, Hanuman was born to mother [[Añjanā|Anjana]] and father [[Kesari (Ramayana)|Kesari]].<ref name="Williams2008p146"/><ref name=Puranas>[https://books.google.com/books?id=nmmkM0fVS-cC Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Puranas Vol 2. (D-H)] pp=628–631, Swami Parmeshwaranand, Sarup & Sons, 2001, {{ISBN|978-81-7625-226-3}}</ref> Hanuman is also called the son of the deity [[Vayu]] (Wind god) because of narratives associated with Vayu's role in Hanuman's birth. He is also said to be the incarnation of [[Shiva]] (Destroyer god). One story mentioned in [[Eknath]]'s ''Bhavartha Ramayana'' (16th century CE) states that when Anjana was worshiping Vayu, the King [[Dasharatha]] of [[Ayodhya (Ramayana)|Ayodhya]] was also performing the ritual of [[Putrakameshti]] [[yagna]] in order to have children. As a result, he received some sacred pudding ([[payasam]]) to be shared by his three wives, leading to the births of [[Rama]], [[Lakshmana]], [[Bharata (Ramayana)|Bharata]] and [[Shatrughna]]. By divine ordinance, a [[Kite (bird)|kite]] snatched a fragment of that pudding and dropped it while flying over the forest where Anjana was engaged in worship. Vayu delivered the falling pudding to the outstretched hands of Anjana, who consumed it, leading to the birth of Hanuman.<ref name=Puranas/>{{verify source|date=May 2017}}

Maharshi Veda Vyasa proposed Anjanadri Hill at Tirumala is the birthplace of Hanuman. [[Anjaneri]] in [[Nashik district|Nasik]], [[Maharashtra]]{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|p=249}}<ref>{{Cite web|last=Deshpande|first=Chaitanya|date=2016-04-22|title=Hanuman devotees to visit Anjaneri today|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/nashik/hanuman-devotees-to-visit-anjaneri-today/articleshow/51935825.cms|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913144004/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/nashik/Hanuman-devotees-to-visit-Anjaneri-today/articleshow/51935825.cms|archive-date=2016-09-13|access-date=2021-04-16|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Bose|first=Mrityunjay|date=2020-11-07|title=Maharashtra govt to develop Hanuman's birthplace Anjaneri|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/national/west/maharashtra-govt-to-develop-hanuman-s-birthplace-anjaneri-912617.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201107164524/https://www.deccanherald.com/national/west/maharashtra-govt-to-develop-hanuman-s-birthplace-anjaneri-912617.html|archive-date=2020-11-07|access-date=2021-04-16|website=Deccan Herald|language=en}}</ref> along with Anjeneri Anjanadri (Near Hampi) in Gangavathi Taluk Koppal District, [[Karnataka]] is one of a number of places that claim to be the location of Kishkinda.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Malagi|first=Shivakumar G.|date=2018-12-20|title=At Hampi, fervour peaks at Hanuman's birthplace|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/current-affairs/201218/at-hampi-fervour-peaks-at-hanumans-birthplace.html|access-date=2020-12-04|website=Deccan Chronicle|language=en|archive-date=31 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190531132533/https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/current-affairs/201218/at-hampi-fervour-peaks-at-hanumans-birthplace.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Anjaneya Hill|url=http://hampi.in/anjaneya-hill|access-date=2020-12-04|language=en|archive-date=31 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190531132535/http://hampi.in/anjaneya-hill|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2014-10-22|title=Anjeyanadri Hill {{!}} Sightseeing Hampi |url=https://www.karnataka.com/hampi/anjeyanadri-hill/|access-date=2020-12-04|website=Karnataka.com|language=en-US|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326030203/https://www.karnataka.com/hampi/anjeyanadri-hill/|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Childhood===
[[File:Hanuman Mistakes the Sun for a Fruit.jpg|thumb|upright=0.85|left|''Child Hanuman reaches for the Sun thinking it is a fruit'' by [[Bhawanrao Shriniwasrao Pant Pratinidhi|BSP Pratinidhi]]]]
[[File:Indra maintains the celestial order by striking down the precocious Hanuman.jpg|thumb|Indra maintains the celestial order by striking down the precocious Hanuman.]]
According to Valmiki's Ramayana, one morning in his childhood, Hanuman was hungry and saw the sun. Mistaking it for a ripe fruit, he leaped up to eat it. In one version of the Hindu narrative, the king of gods [[Indra]] intervened and struck Hanuman with his thunderbolt. It hit Hanuman on his jaw, and he fell to the earth dead with a broken jaw. Hanuman's father, Vayu, became upset and withdrew all the air from Earth. The lack of air created immense suffering to all living beings. This led [[Shiva]] to intervene and resuscitate Hanuman, which in turn prompted Vayu to return air to living beings. As Indra is the one who had injured Hanuman, he grants Hanuman a wish that his body would be as strong as Indra's [[Vajra]], and that his Vajra can also not harm him. Along with Indra other gods have also granted him wishes: the God [[Agni]] granted Hanuman a wish that fire won't harm him; God [[Varuna]] granted a wish for Hanuman that water won't harm him; God [[Vayu]] granted a wish for Hanuman that he will be as fast as wind and that the wind won't harm him. [[Brahma]] also granted Hanuman a wish that he can travel anywhere. Hence these wishes make Hanuman an [[Immortality|immortal]], who has unique powers and strength.<ref>{{cite book|author=Catherine Ludvik|title=Hanumān in the Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki and the Rāmacaritamānasa of Tulasī Dāsa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KCXQN0qoAe0C |year=1994|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1122-5|pages=61–62}}</ref>

In another Hindu version of his childhood account, which is likely older and also found in [[Jainism|Jain]] texts such as the 8th-century ''Dhurtakhyana'', Hanuman's leap to the sun proves to be fatal and he is burned to ashes from the sun's heat. His ashes fall onto the earth and oceans.{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=188–189}} Gods then gather the ashes and his bones from land and, with the help of fishes, re-assemble him. They find everything except one fragment of his jawbone. His great-grandfather on his mother's side then asks [[Surya]] to restore the child to life. Surya returns him to life, but Hanuman is left with a disfigured jaw.{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=188–189}} Hanuman is said to have spent his childhood in [[Kishkindha]].

Some time after this event, Hanuman begins using his supernatural powers on innocent bystanders as simple pranks, until one day he pranks a meditating sage. In fury, the sage curses Hanuman to forget the vast majority of his powers. The curse remains in effect until he is reminded of his powers in his adulthood.

=== Adulthood ===
====Ramayana====
After [[Rama]] and his brother [[Lakshmana]] search for Rama's kidnapped wife, [[Sita]], they arrive in Kishkindha. Rama's newfound ally, the monkey king [[Sugriva]], agrees to send scouts in all four directions to search for Rama's missing wife. To the south, Sugriva sends Hanuman and some others, including the great bear [[Jambavan]]. This group travels all the way to the southernmost tip of India, where they encounter the ocean with the island of [[Lanka]] (said to be modern-day [[Sri Lanka]]) visible on the horizon. The group wishes to investigate the island, but none can swim or jump so far (it was common for such supernatural powers to exist among figures in these epics). However, Jambavan knows from prior events that Hanuman used to be able to do such a feat with ease, and lifts his curse.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Valmiki's Ramayana|last=Pai|first=Anant|publisher=Amar Chitra Katha|year=1978|location=India|pages=1–96}}</ref>

[[File:Hanuman then allows himself to be captured by Ravana, who sets his tail on fire; bazaar art, c.1910's.jpg|thumb|left|Ravana burns Hanuman's tail.]]
The curse lifted; Hanuman now remembers all of his dynamic divine powers. He is said to have transformed into the size of mountain and flew across the narrow channel to Lanka. Upon landing, he discovers a city populated by the Lanka king [[Ravana]] and his demon followers, so he shrinks down to the size of an ant and sneaks into the city. After searching the city, he discovers Sita in a grove, guarded by demon warriors. When they all fall asleep, he meets with Sita and discusses how he came to find her. She reveals that Ravana kidnapped her and is forcing her to marry him soon. He offers to rescue her but Sita refuses, stating that her husband must do it.<ref name=":0"/><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Hanuman|last=Pai|first=Anant|publisher=Amar Chitra Katha|year=1971|location=India|pages=1–32}}</ref>

What happens next differs by account, but a common tale is that after visiting Sita, he starts destroying the grove, prompting his capture. Regardless of the tale, he ends up captured in the court of Ravana himself, who laughs when Hanuman tells him that Rama is coming to take back Sita. Ravana orders his servants to light Hanuman's tail on fire as torture for threatening his safety. However, every time they put on an oil-soaked cloth to burn, he grows his tail longer so that more cloths need to be added. This continues until Ravana has had enough and orders the lighting to begin. However, when his tail is lit, he shrinks his tail back and breaks free of his bonds with his superhuman strength. He jumps out a window and jumps from rooftop to rooftop, burning down building after building, until much of the city is ablaze. Seeing this triumph, Hanuman leaves for India.<ref name=":0"/><ref name=":1"/>

When he returns, he tells his scouting party what had occurred, and they rush back to Kishkindha, where Rama had been waiting all along for news. Hearing that Sita was safe and was awaiting him, Rama gathered the support of Sugriva's army and marched for Lanka. Thus begins the legendary Battle of Lanka.<ref name=":0"/>

Throughout the long battle, Hanuman played a role as a general in the army. During one intense fight, Lakshmana, Rama's brother, was fatally wounded; it was thought that he would die without the aid of a [[Sanjeevani (plant)|herb]] from a Himalayan mountain. Hanuman was the only one who could make the journey so quickly, and was thus sent to the mountain.
[[File:Image Hanuman and the healing herbs.jpg|thumb|Hanuman and the healing herb]]

Upon arriving, he discovered that there were many herbs along the mountainside, and did not want to take the wrong herb back. So instead, he grew to the size of a mountain, ripped the mountain from the Earth, and flew it back to the battle. A chunk of this mountain was said to have fallen down and the present day "Forts Purandar and Vajragad" are believed to be the fallen pieces.

In the end, Rama revealed his divine powers as the incarnation of the God Vishnu, and slew Ravana and the rest of the demon army. Finally, Rama returned to his home of Ayodhya to return to his place as king. After blessing all those who aided him in the battle with gifts, Rama gave Hanuman his gift, which Hanuman threw away. Many court officials, perplexed, were angered by this act. Hanuman replied that rather than needing a gift to remember Rama, he would always be in his heart. Some court officials, still upset, asked him for proof, and Hanuman tore open his chest, which had an image of Rama and Sita on his heart.
Now proven as a true devotee, Rama cured him and blessed him with immortality, but Hanuman refused this and asked only for a place at Rama's feet to worship him. Touched, Rama blessed him with immortality anyway. Like Shesha Nag, Hanuman would live on after the [[Kalpa (aeon)|''kalpa'']] (destruction of the universe).<ref name=":0"/><ref name=":1"/>

====Mahabharata====
[[File:Bhimanjaneyula kalayika.jpg|thumb|Bhima tries to lift Hanuman's tail.]]
Centuries after the events of the Ramayana, and during the events of the Mahabharata, Hanuman becomes a nearly forgotten demigod living his life in a forest. After some time, his spiritual brother through the god [[Vayu]], [[Bhima]], passes through looking for flowers for his [[Draupadi|wife]]. Hanuman senses this and decides to teach him a lesson, as Bhima had been known to be boastful of his superhuman strength (at this point in time supernatural powers were much rarer than in the Ramayana but still seen in the Hindu epics). Bhima encountered Hanuman lying on the ground in the shape of a feeble old monkey. He asked Hanuman to move, but he would not. As stepping over an individual was considered extremely disrespectful in this time, Hanuman suggested lifting his tail up to create a passage. Bhima heartily accepted, but could not lift the tail to no avail.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=Bheema and Hanuman|last=Chandrakant|first=Kamala|publisher=Amar Chitra Katha|year=1980|location=India|pages=1–32}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Archive |first=Internet Sacred Text |title=The Mahabharata, Book 3: Vana Parva: Tirtha-yatra Parva: ... {{!}} Sacred Texts Archive |url=https://sacred-texts.com/hin/m03/m03146.htm |access-date=2025-09-18 |website=Internet Sacred Text Archive |language=English}}</ref>

Bhima, humbled, realized that the frail monkey was some sort of deity, and asked him to reveal himself. Hanuman revealed himself, much to Bhima's surprise, and the brothers embraced. Hanuman prophesied that Bhima would soon be a part of [[Kurukshetra War|a terrible war]], and promised Bhima that he would sit on the flag of his brother Arjuna's chariot and shout a battle cry for Bhima that would weaken the hearts of his enemies. Content, Hanuman left his brother to his search.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Archive |first=Internet Sacred Text |title=The Mahabharata, Book 3: Vana Parva: Tirtha-yatra Parva: ... {{!}} Sacred Texts Archive |url=https://sacred-texts.com/hin/m03/m03149.htm |access-date=2025-09-18 |website=Internet Sacred Text Archive |language=English}}</ref>

==Attributes==
[[File:Hanuman fetches the herb-bearing mountain, in a print from the Ravi Varma Press, 1910's.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.85|Hanuman fetches the [[Sanjeevani (plant)|herb-bearing]] mountain, in a print from the Ravi Varma Press, 1910s]]

Hanuman has many attributes, including:
* ''[[Chiranjivi]]'' (immortal): various versions of ''Ramayana'' and ''Rama Katha'' state towards their end, just before Rama and Lakshmana die, that Hanuman is blessed to be immortal. He will be a part of humanity forever, while the story of Rama lives on and the story will go on as the gods recite the story always. Thus, he will live forever.<ref>{{cite book|author=Joginder Narula|title=Hanuman, God and Epic Hero: The Origin and Growth of Hanuman in Indian Literary and Folk Tradition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k-5jAAAAMAAJ|year=1991|publisher=Manohar Publications|isbn=978-81-85054-84-1|pages=19–21}}</ref>
* ''[[Brahmacharya|Brahmachari]]'' (self-controlled): one who control their lust from all materialistic things of material world.<ref name=":3" />
* ''Kurūp'' and ''Sundar'': he is described in Hindu texts as ''kurūp'' (ugly) on the outside, but divinely ''sundar'' (beautiful inside).{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=188–189}} The [[Hanuman Chalisa]] describes him as handsome with a complexion of molten gold (''kanchana barana birāja subesā'').<ref>{{cite book|title=Mahaviri: Hanuman Chalisa Demystified|author=Nityananda Misra|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing, 2018}}</ref>
* ''Kama-rupin'': He can shapeshift, become smaller than the smallest, larger than the largest adversary at will.{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=45–47, 287}} He uses this attribute to shrink and enter Lanka, as he searches for the kidnapped Sita imprisoned in Lanka. Later on, he takes on the size of a mountain, blazing with radiance, to show his true power to Sita.<ref>Goldman, Robert P. (Introduction, translation and annotation) (1996). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=sFmsrEszbxgC The Ramayana of Valmiki: An Epic of Ancient India, Volume V: Sundarakanda]''. Princeton University Press, New Jersey. 0691066620. pp. 45–47.</ref>
* ''Strength'': Hanuman is extraordinarily strong, one capable of lifting and carrying any burden for a cause. He is called ''Vira'', ''Mahavira'', ''Mahabala'' and other names signifying this attribute of his. During the epic war between Rama and Ravana, Rama's brother Lakshmana is wounded. He can only be healed and his death prevented by a herb found in a particular Himalayan mountain. Hanuman leaps and finds the mountain. There, states ''Ramayana'', Hanuman finds the mountain is full of many herbs. He doesn't know which one to take. So, he lifts the entire Himalayan mountain and carries it across India to Lanka for Lakshmana. His immense strength thus helps Lakshmana recover from his wound.{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=6, 44–45, 205–210}} This account is the popular basis for the iconography where he is shown flying and carrying a mountain on his palm.{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|p=61}}
* ''Innovative'': Hanuman is described as someone who constantly faces very difficult odds, where the adversary or circumstances threaten his mission with certain defeat and his very existence. Yet he finds an innovative way to turn the odds. For example, after he finds Sita, delivers Rama's message, and persuades her that he is indeed Rama's true messenger, he is discovered by the prison guards. They arrest Hanuman, and under Ravana's orders take him to a public execution. There, Ravana's guards begin his torture by tying his tail with oiled cloth and setting it on fire. Hanuman then leaps from one palace rooftop to another, burning everything down in the process.{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=140–141, 201}}
* ''Bhakti'': Hanuman is presented as the exemplary devotee (''bhakta'') of Rama and Sita. The Hindu texts such as the ''Bhagavata Purana'', the ''Bhakta Mala'', the ''Ananda Ramayana'' and the ''Ramacharitmanas'' present him as someone who is talented, strong, brave and spiritually devoted to [[Rama]].<ref name="ludvik12">{{cite book|author=Catherine Ludvik|title=Hanumān in the Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki and the Rāmacaritamānasa of Tulasī Dāsa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KCXQN0qoAe0C |year=1994|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1122-5|pages=12–14}}</ref> The Rama stories such as the ''Ramayana'' and the ''Ramacharitmanas'', in turn themselves, present the Hindu [[dharma|dharmic]] concept of the ideal, virtuous and compassionate man (Rama) and woman (Sita) thereby providing the context for attributes assigned therein for Hanuman.<ref>{{cite book|author=A Kapoor|editor=Gilbert Pollet|title=Indian Epic Values: Rāmāyaṇa and Its Impact|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EVnK3q48dL0C&pg=PA181 |year=1995|publisher=Peeters Publishers|isbn=978-90-6831-701-5|pages=181–186}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Roderick Hindery|title=Comparative Ethics in Hindu and Buddhist Traditions |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=-FswBLvTkvQC&pg=PA100|year =1978|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn= 978-81-208-0866-9|pages=100–107}}</ref>
* ''Learned Yogi'': In the late medieval texts and thereafter, such as those by [[Tulasidas]], attributes of Hanuman include learned in [[Vedanta]] philosophy of Hinduism, the [[Vedas]], a poet, a polymath, a grammarian, a singer and musician par excellence.<ref name="ludvik12" /><ref name="Williams2008p146" />
* ''Remover of obstacles'': in devotional literature, Hanuman is the remover of difficulties.<ref name="ludvik12" />
* ''Healer of diseases, pains and sorrows:'' Heals all kinds of diseases, pains and sorrows of devotees.
* ''Slayer of demons, evil and negative energies:'' Hanuman is offered worship to rid of negative influences, such as ghosts, evil spirits and ill-intentioned humans.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wolcott |first=Leonard T. |date=1978 |title=Hanumān: The Power-Dispensing Monkey in North Indian Folk Religion |url=https://doi.org/10.2307/2054368 |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=653–661 |doi=10.2307/2054368 |jstor=2054368 |s2cid=162908060 |issn=0021-9118 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> The following names of Hanuman describe some of these qualities, ''Rakshovidhwansakaraka, Akshahantre, Dashagreevakulantaka, Lankineebhanjana, Simhikaprana Bhanjana, Maharavanamardana, Kalanemi Pramathana.''
* ''Protector and saviour of devotees of Shri Ram and himself:'' The doorkeeper and protector of the door to Rama's court, and protector and saviour of devotees.
* ''[[Panchamukha|Five-faced or Panchamukha]] when he assumes his fierce form:'' East facing Hanuman face (Anjaneya) that grants purity of mind and success. South facing man-lion face [[Narasimha]] that West facing [[Garuda]] face, north facing Boar face [[Varaha]] and horse face ([[Hayagriva]]) facing towards the sky (upwards).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lutgendorf |first=Philip |date=2001 |title=Five Heads and No Tale: Hanumān and the Popularization of Tantra |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20106778 |journal=International Journal of Hindu Studies |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=269–296 |doi=10.1007/s11407-001-0003-3 |jstor=20106778 |issn=1022-4556|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

== Texts ==
===Hinduism===

==== Ramayana ====
[[File:Hanuman finds Sita in the ashoka grove, and shows her Rama's ring.jpg|upright=0.85|thumb|Hanuman finds Sita in the [[Ashoka Vatika|Ashoka grove]], and delivers her Rama's ring.]]

The [[Sundara Kanda]], the fifth book in the Ramayana, focuses on Hanuman. Hanuman meets [[Rama]] in the last year of the latter's 14-year exile, after the demon king Ravana had kidnapped Sita. With his brother [[Lakshmana]], Rama is searching for his wife [[Sita]]. This, and related Rama narratives are the most extensive stories about Hanuman.<ref>{{cite book|author=Catherine Ludvik|editor=F.S. Growse|title=The Rāmāyaṇa of Tulasīdāsa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5WViTwAKqzoC&pg=PA723|year=1987|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0205-6|pages=723–728}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Catherine Ludvik|title=Hanumān in the Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki and the Rāmacaritamānasa of Tulasī Dāsa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KCXQN0qoAe0C |year=1994|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1122-5|pages=1–16}}</ref>

Numerous versions of the ''Ramayana'' exist within India. These present variant narratives of Hanuman, Rama, Sita, Lakshamana and Ravana. The figures and their descriptions vary, in some cases quite significantly.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Peter J. Claus|author2=Sarah Diamond|author3=Margaret Ann Mills|title=South Asian Folklore: An Encyclopedia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=au_Vk2VYyrkC |year=2003|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-415-93919-5|pages=509–511}}</ref>

====Mahabharata====
[[File:Hanuman statue and shrine. South of Chennai.jpg|upright=0.85|thumb|Roadside Hanuman shrine south of [[Chennai]], [[Tamil Nadu]].]]
The ''Mahabharata'' is another major epic which has a short mention of Hanuman. In Book 3, the Vana Parva of the ''Mahabharata'', he is presented as a half-brother of [[Bhima]], who meets him accidentally on his way to Mount Kailasha. A man of extraordinary strength, Bhima is unable to move Hanuman's tail, making him realize and acknowledge the strength of Hanuman. This story attests to the ancient chronology of Hanuman. It is also a part of artwork and reliefs such as those at the Vijayanagara ruins.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Dallapiccola | first1=A.L. | last2=Verghese | first2=Anila | title=Narrative Reliefs of Bhima and Purushamriga at Vijayanagara | journal=South Asian Studies | volume=18 | issue=1 | year=2002 | doi=10.1080/02666030.2002.9628609 | pages=73–76| s2cid=191646631 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=J. A. B. van Buitenen|title=The Mahabharata, Vol. 2: Book 2: The Book of Assembly; Book 3: The Book of the Forest|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2QG_ZgsM13IC&pg=PA371|year=1973|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-84664-4|pages=180, 371, 501–505}}</ref>

=== Other literature ===
Apart from Ramayana and Mahabharata, Hanuman is mentioned in several other texts. Some of these stories add to his adventures mentioned in the earlier epics, while others tell alternative stories of his life. The ''[[Skanda Purana]]'' mentions Hanuman in [[Rameswaram]].<ref name="Eck1991">{{cite book | author=Diana L. Eck | title=Devotion divine: Bhakti traditions from the regions of India : studies in honour of Charlotte Vaudeville | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Uz0qAAAAYAAJ | access-date=14 July 2012 | year=1991 | publisher=Egbert Forsten | isbn=978-90-6980-045-5 | page = 63}}</ref>

In a South Indian version of ''[[Shiva Purana]]'', Hanuman is described as the son of Shiva and [[Mohini]] (the female avatar of Vishnu), or alternatively he has been linked to or merged with the origin of Swami [[Ayyappa]] who is popular in parts of South India.<ref name="Williams2008p146"/>

In the ''[[Muktikā|Muktikā Upanishad]]'' Hanuman is in dialogue with [[Rama]] about the subject of [[moksha]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Deussen |first=Paul |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XYepeIGUY0gC&q=telugu&pg=PA725 |title=Sixty Upanishads of the Veda |year= 1997 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |isbn=978-81-208-1467-7 |language=en}}</ref>

==== Hanuman Chalisa ====
The 16th-century Indian poet [[Tulsidas]] wrote ''[[Hanuman Chalisa]]'', a devotional song dedicated to Hanuman. He claimed to have visions where he met face to face with Hanuman. Based on these meetings, he wrote ''[[Ramcharitmanas]]'', an [[Awadhi language]] version of Ramayana.<ref name="Ludvík1994">{{cite book | author=Catherine Ludvík | title=Hanumān in the Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki and the Rāmacaritamānasa of Tulasī Dāsa | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KCXQN0qoAe0C&pg=PA164 | access-date=14 July 2012 | year=1994 | publisher=Motilal Banarasidas publ. | isbn=978-81-208-1122-5 | pages=164–}}</ref>

====Relation with Devi or Shakti====
The relation between Hanuman and the goddess [[Kali]] finds mention in the ''[[Krittivasi Ramayan]]a''. Their meeting takes place in the [[Yuddha Kanda]] of this ''Ramayana'', in the narrative of [[Mahiravana]]. Mahiravana is stated to be the king of the [[Patala]] (netherworld) and a trusted friend/brother of Ravana. After his son, [[Indrajit]]a, was killed, Ravana sought Mahiravana's help to kill [[Rama]] and [[Lakshmana]]. One night, Mahiravana, using his ''maya'', took Vibhishana's form and entered Rama's camp. He cast the ''nidra mantra'' (sleeping spell) on the vanara army, kidnapped Rama and Lakshmana, and took them to Patala to sacrifice them to Devi, as per Ravana's suggestion. Hanuman learnt the way to Patala from [[Vibhishana]] and made haste to rescue his lords. On his journey, he met [[Makaradhwaja|Makardhwaja]], who claimed of being Hanuman's son. Hanuman defeated and tied him, and went inside the palace. He met Chandrasena, who told about the sacrifice and the way to kill Mahiravana. Hanuman shrunk his size to that of a bee and came across a huge [[Murti|idol]] of Kali. After being prayed to, the goddess agreed to help Hanuman rescue the brothers, allowing him to take her place while she slipped below. When Mahiravana asked the brothers to bow, they refused, claiming not to know how to perform the act. As Mahiravana decided to demonstrate, Hanuman assumed his ''[[panchamukha]]'' (five-faced) form (manifesting the additional heads of [[Garuda]], [[Narasimha]], [[Varaha]], and [[Hayagriva]]), blowing the five oil lamps present in the chamber in the five cardinal directions. He severed the head of Mahiravana, thus killing him. He carried Rama and Lakshmana upon his shoulders to return them to their camp, before which he released and crowned Makaradhvaja the king of Patala. The story of Ahiravan finds its place in the Ramayanas of the east. It can be found in the Bengali version of the Ramayana, written by Krittibash, in the passage known as ''Mahirabonerpala''. It is believed that Kali, pleased with Hanuman, blessed him to be her ''[[dvarapala]]'' (gatekeeper).<ref>Mystery of Hanuman Inspiring Tales from Art and Mythology –The Story of Ahiravan Vadh – Hanuman Saves Lord</ref>

'''Hanuman and Vaishno Devi'''

The story of the incarnation of Mata [[Vaishno Devi]] (Trikuta), Lord [[Rama|Ram]] assigns Hanuman the specific duty of protecting her during her long penance.
When the divine Kanya Trikuta (who would later be known as Vaishno Devi) met [[Lord Ram]] during the [[Treta Yuga]], she expressed her wish to marry him. Lord Ram promised her that she would become his consort in the [[Kaliyuga]] (the current age) and instructed her to go to the beautiful cave on [[Trikuta]] Parvat to continue her penance until that time. To ensure her safety and facilitate her penance, Lord Ram declared that certain brave monkeys (langur veer) would act as her protectors or guards (prahari) specifically, those appointed as her protectors included Nal, Neel, Hanuman, and Jamvant. When the divine girl (Vaishnavi) reached the beautiful cave on Trikut mountain, she stationed a brave Hanuman Ji at the door of the cave to act as a guard and prevent [[Bhairava|Bhairavnath]] from following her inside. Bhairav attempted to enter the cave and began fighting with the brave Hanuman Ji. Although the brave Hanuman fought he was overcome or defeated.<ref>{{cite book
| title = Shri Vaishno Devi Ki Puri Kahani
| publisher = Bhavani Pustak Mahal
| location = Katra
| url = https://archive.org/details/shrivaishnodevikipurikahanibhavanipustakmahal
| access-date = 25 June 2025
}}</ref>

=== Buddhism ===
Hanuman appears in [[Tibetan Buddhism]] (southwest China) and [[Kingdom of Khotan|Khotanese]] (west China, central Asia and northern Iran) versions of Ramayana. The Khotanese versions have a [[Jātaka]] tales-like theme but are generally similar to the Hindu texts in the storyline of Hanuman. The Tibetan version is more embellished, and without attempts to reference the Jātakas. Also, in the Tibetan version, novel elements appear such as Hanuman carrying love letters between Rama and Sita, in addition to the Hindu version wherein Rama sends the wedding ring with him as a message to Sita. Further, in the Tibetan version, Rama chides Hanuman for not corresponding with him through letters more often, implying that the monkey-messenger and warrior is a learned being who can read and write.<ref name=whitfield212>{{cite book|author1=Susan Whitfield|author-link=Susan Whitfield|author2=Ursula Sims-Williams|title=The Silk Road: Trade, Travel, War and Faith|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ArWLD4Qop38C&pg=PA212 |year=2004|publisher=Serindia Publications |isbn=978-1-932476-13-2|page=212}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=J. L. Brockington|title=Righteous Rāma: The Evolution of an Epic|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-QFkAAAAMAAJ|year=1985|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-815463-1|pages=264–267, 283–284, 300–303, 312 with footnotes}}</ref>

[[File:Hie Shrine Saru-gami.jpg|thumb|upright=0.85|In Japan, icons of the divine monkey (Saruta Biko), guarding temples such as Saru-gami at [[Hie Shrine]].{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=353–354}}<ref name=ohnuki42>{{cite book|author=Emiko Ohnuki-Tierney|title=The Monkey as Mirror: Symbolic Transformations in Japanese History and Ritual|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gBKI6BKx0sYC&pg=PA42 |year=1989|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-02846-0|pages=42–54}}</ref>]]
In the Sri Lankan versions of Ramayana, which are titled after Ravana, the story is less melodramatic than the Indian stories. Many of the texts recounting Hanuman's bravery and innovative ability are found in the Sinhala versions. The stories in which the figures are involved have Buddhist themes, and lack the embedded ethics and values structure according to Hindu dharma.<ref name="Holt2005">{{cite book|author=John C. Holt|title=The Buddhist Visnu: Religious Transformation, Politics, and Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HYUqsYbLP6QC |year=2005|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-50814-8|pages=138–140}}</ref> According to Hera Walker, some Sinhalese communities seek the aid of Hanuman through prayers to his mother.<ref>{{cite book|author=Hera S. Walker|title=Indigenous Or Foreign?: A Look at the Origins of the Monkey Hero Sun Wukong, Sino-Platonic Papers, Issues 81–87|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ulxkAAAAMAAJ|year= 1998|publisher= University of Pennsylvania|page= 45}}</ref> In Chinese Buddhist texts, states Arthur Cotterall, myths mention the meeting of the Buddha with Hanuman, as well as Hanuman's great triumphs.<ref>{{cite book|author=Arthur Cotterall|title=The Pimlico Dictionary of Classical Mythologies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0TvCkXvnV6EC&pg=PT45|year=2012|publisher=Random House|isbn=978-1-4481-2996-6|page=45}}</ref> According to Rosalind Lefeber, the arrival of Hanuman in East Asian Buddhist texts may trace its roots to the translation of the Ramayana into Chinese and Tibetan in the 6th-century CE.<ref>{{cite book|author=Rosalind Lefeber|title=The Ramayana of Valmiki: An Epic of Ancient India-Kiskindhakanda|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BJMWT0ZJYHAC&pg=PA30 |year=1994|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-06661-5|pages=29–31}}</ref>

In both China and Japan, much like in India, there is a lack of a radical divide between humans and animals, with all living beings and nature assumed to be related to humans. There is no exaltation of humans over animals or nature, unlike the Western traditions. A divine monkey has been a part of the historic literature and culture of China and Japan, possibly influenced by the close cultural contact through Buddhist monks and pilgrimage to India over two millennia.{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=353–354}} For example, the Japanese text ''Keiranshuyoshu'', while presenting its mythology about a divine monkey, that is the theriomorphic [[Shinto]] emblem of [[Hie Shrine|Hie]] shrines, describes a flying white monkey that carries a mountain from India to China, then from China to Japan.<ref>{{cite book|author=Richard Karl Payne|title=Re-Visioning "Kamakura" Buddhism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w5nJT5NYvn4C&pg=PA65| year= 1998|publisher= University of Hawaii Press|isbn= 978-0-8248-2078-7|pages=65–66}}</ref> This story is based on a passage in the Ramayana where the wounded hero asks Hanuman to bring a certain herbal medicine from the Himalayas. As Hanuman does not know the herb he brings the entire mountain for the hero to choose from. By that time a learned medicine man from Lanka discovered the cure and Hanuman brings the mountain back to where he got it from.
Many Japanese [[Shinto]] shrines and village boundaries, dated from the 8th to the 14th centuries, feature a monkey deity as guardian or intermediary between humans and gods (kami).{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=353–354}}<ref name=ohnuki42/>

The Jātaka tales contain Hanuman-like stories.{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=38–41}} For example, the Buddha is described as a monkey-king in one of his earlier births in the ''Mahakapi Jātaka'', wherein he as a compassionate monkey suffers and is abused, but who nevertheless continues to follow [[dharma]] in helping a human being who is lost and in danger.<ref>{{cite book|author=Peter D. Hershock|title=Buddhism in the Public Sphere: Reorienting Global Interdependence|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N_2SAgAAQBAJ |year=2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-98674-2|page=18}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Reiko Ohnuma|title=Unfortunate Destiny: Animals in the Indian Buddhist Imagination|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ci7ADgAAQBAJ |year=2017|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-063755-2|pages=80–81}}</ref>

Various scholars have suggested that Hanuman may have influenced the conception of [[Sun WuKong|Sun Wukong]], the central figure in the Chinese epic ''[[Journey to the West]]''.<ref name="hanuman">Wendy Doniger, [https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hanuman Hanuman: Hindu mythology] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220415082224/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hanuman|date=15 April 2022}}, Encyclopaedia Britannica; For a summary of the Chinese text, see [https://www.britannica.com/topic/Xiyouji Xiyouji: Novel by Wu Cheng'En]</ref><ref>H. S. Walker (1998), [https://telugustotram.com/wp-content/uploads/files/indegenous_foreign_monkey_sun_wukong_.pdf Indigenous or Foreign? A Look at the Origins of the Monkey Hero Sun Wukong], Sino-Platonic Papers, No. 81. September 1998, Editor: [[Victor H. Mair]], University of Pennsylvania</ref>

=== Jainism ===
{{main|Rama in Jainism|Salakapurusa}}

''Paumacariya'' (also known as ''Pauma Chariu'' or ''Padmacharit''), the [[Jainism|Jain]] version of Ramayana written by Vimalasuri, mentions Hanuman not as a divine monkey, but as a [[Vidyadhara]] (a supernatural being, demigod in Jain cosmology). He is the son of Pavangati (wind deity) and [[Añjanā|Anjana]] Sundari. Anjana gives birth to Hanuman in a forest cave, after being banished by her in-laws. Her maternal uncle rescues her from the forest; while boarding his [[vimana]], Anjana accidentally drops her baby on a rock. However, the baby remains uninjured while the rock is shattered. The baby is raised in Hanuruha, thus receiving the name "Hanuman."

There are major differences from the Hindu text: Hanuman is a supernatural being in Jain texts, Rama is a pious Jaina who never kills anyone, and it is Lakshamana who kills Ravana. Hanuman becomes a supporter of Rama after meeting him and learning about [[Sita]]'s kidnapping by Ravana. He goes to [[Lanka]] on Rama's behalf but is unable to convince Ravana to give up Sita. Ultimately, he joins Rama in the war against Ravana and performs several heroic deeds.

Later Jain texts, such as ''[[Uttarapurana]]'' (9th century CE) by Gunabhadra and ''Anjana-Pavananjaya'' (12th century CE), tell the same story.

In several versions of the Jain ''Ramayana'' story, there are passages that explain the connection of Hanuman and Rama (called Pauma in Jainism). Hanuman, in these versions, ultimately renounces all social life to become a Jain ascetic.{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=50–53}}

=== Sikhism ===
In [[Sikhism]], the Hindu god Rama has been referred to as Sri Ram Chandar, and the story of Hanuman as a ''[[siddha]]'' has been influential. After the birth of the martial Sikh [[Khalsa]] movement in 1699. The Sikh texts such as ''Hanuman Natak'' composed by Hirda Ram Bhalla, and ''Das Gur Katha'' by Kavi Kankan describe the heroic deeds of Hanuman.<ref>{{cite book|author=Louis E. Fenech|title=The Sikh Zafar-namah of Guru Gobind Singh: A Discursive Blade in the Heart of the Mughal Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aUUfAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA149| year=2013|publisher= Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-993145-3|pages=149–150 with note 28}}</ref>

During the colonial era, in Sikh [[Seminary|seminaries]] in what is now [[Pakistan]], Sikh teachers were called ''bhai'', and they were required to study the ''Hanuman Natak'', the Hanuman story containing ''Ramcharitmanas'' and other texts, all of which were available in Gurmukhi script.<ref>{{cite book|author1=John Stratton Hawley|author2=Gurinder Singh Mann|title=Studying the Sikhs: Issues for North America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fWJGAECpClsC&pg=PA98 |year=1993|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-1426-2|pages=98–99}}</ref>

[[Bhagat Kabir]], a prominent writer of the scripture explicitly states that Hanuman does not know the full glory of the divine. This statement is in the context of the Divine as being unlimited and ever expanding. Ananta is therefore a name of the divine. In [[Sanskrit]], ''anta'' means "end". The prefix ''-an'' is added to create the word ''Ananta'' (meaning "without end" or "unlimited").

{{blockquote
|1=
ਹਨੂਮਾਨ ਸਰਿ ਗਰੁੜ ਸਮਾਨਾਂ
Hanūmān sar garuṛ samānāŉ.

Beings like Hanumaan, Garura,

ਸੁਰਪਤਿ ਨਰਪਤਿ ਨਹੀ ਗੁਨ ਜਾਨਾਂ
Surpaṯ narpaṯ nahī gun jānāŉ.

Indra the King of the gods and the rulers of humans – none of them know Your Glories, Lord.
|2=Sri Guru Granth Sahib page 691}}

=== Southeast Asian texts ===
[[File:Statue of Hanuman with a yoni (14th century), Singapore Pinacothèque De Paris - 20160410.jpg|upright=0.85|thumb|A [[Majapahit]] statue of Hanuman with a yoni (andesite; 14th century) from [[East Java]], [[Indonesia]]]]
There exist non-Indian versions of the ''Ramayana'', such as the Thai ''[[Ramakien]].'' According to these [[Versions of Ramayana|versions of the ''Ramayana'']], [[Macchanu]] is the son of Hanuman borne by Suvannamaccha, daughter of [[Ravana]].

Another text says that a demigod named Matsyaraja (also known as [[Makardhwaja]] or Matsyagarbha) claimed to be his son. Matsyaraja's birth is explained as follows: a fish (''matsya'') was impregnated by the drops of Hanuman's sweat, while he was bathing in the ocean.<ref name="CamillePrasada2010"/>

Hanuman in southeast Asian texts differs from the north Indian Hindu version in various ways in the Burmese Ramayana, such as ''Rama Yagan'', ''Alaung Rama Thagyin'' (in the Arakanese dialect), ''Rama Vatthu'' and ''Rama Thagyin'', the Malay Ramayana, such as ''Hikayat Sri Rama'' and ''Hikayat Maharaja Ravana'', and the Thai Ramayana, such as ''Ramakien''. However, in some cases, the aspects of the story are similar to Hindu versions and Buddhist versions of Ramayana found elsewhere on the Indian subcontinent.

==Significance and influence==
[[Image:Hanuman HYC 20181014.jpg|upright=0.85|thumb|Hanuman [[murti]] seated in meditation in [[Lotus position|lotus asana]]]]
Hanuman became more important in the medieval period and came to be portrayed as the ideal devotee ([[bhakti|bhakta]]) of Rama.<ref name="CamillePrasada2010"/> Hanuman's life, devotion, and strength inspired wrestlers in India.<ref name="Pattanaik2000">{{cite book | author=Devdutt Pattanaik | title=The Goddess in India: The Five Faces of the Eternal Feminine | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rjL3ogbdJNkC&pg=PA71 | access-date=18 July 2012 | date=1 September 2000 | publisher=Inner Traditions * Bear & Company | isbn=978-0-89281-807-5 | page=71}}</ref>

Devotionalism to Hanuman and his theological significance emerged long after the composition of the ''Ramayana'', in the 2nd millennium CE. His prominence grew after the arrival of Islamic rule in the [[Indian subcontinent]].<ref name="Paula Richman 2010"/> He is viewed as the ideal combination of shakti ("strength, heroic initiative and assertive excellence") and bhakti ("loving, emotional devotion to his personal god Rama").{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pages=26–32, 116, 257–259, 388–391}} Beyond wrestlers, he has been the patron god of other martial arts. He is stated to be a gifted grammarian, meditating yogi and diligent scholar. He exemplifies the human excellences of temperance, faith and service to a cause.<ref name="JonesRyan2006p177"/><ref name="Lutgendorf 1997 311–332"/><ref name=ludvik2/>

{{Quote box
| quote = '''"Greater than Ram is Ram's servant."'''
<poem>
</poem>
| source = – [[Tulsidas]], ''Ramcharitmanas 7.120.14''<ref>{{cite journal | last=Lutgendorf | first=Philip | title=Monkey in the Middle: The Status of Hanuman in Popular Hinduism | journal=Religion | volume=27 | issue=4 | year=1997 | doi=10.1006/reli.1997.0095 | page=311}}</ref>
| bgcolor = #FFE0BB
| align = left
}}
In 17th-century north and western regions of India, Hanuman emerged as an expression of resistance and dedication against Islamic persecution. For example, the bhakti poet-saint [[Samarth Ramdas|Ramdas]] presented Hanuman as a symbol of Marathi nationalism and resistance to Mughal Empire.<ref name=lele114>{{cite book|author=Jayant Lele|title=Tradition and Modernity in Bhakti Movements|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kLs3AAAAIAAJ |year=1981|publisher=Brill Academic|isbn=978-90-04-06370-9|pages=114–116}}</ref>

Hanuman in the colonial and post-colonial era has been a cultural icon, as a symbolic ideal combination of [[shakti]] and [[bhakti]], as a right of Hindu people to express and pursue their forms of spirituality and religious beliefs ([[dharma]]).{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pages=26–32, 116, 257–259, 388–391}}<ref>Philip Lutgendorf (2002), Evolving a monkey: Hanuman, poster art and postcolonial anxiety, Contributions to Indian Sociology, Vol 36, Issue 1–2, pages 71–110</ref> Political and religious organizations have named themselves after him or his synonyms such as ''Bajrang''.<ref>{{cite book|author=Christophe Jaffrelot|title=Religion, Caste, and Politics in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XAO3i_gS61wC|year=2010|publisher=Primus Books|isbn=978-93-80607-04-7|page=183 note 4|access-date=28 May 2017|archive-date=7 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207082453/https://books.google.com/books?id=XAO3i_gS61wC|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Pinch1996">{{cite book |author=William R. Pinch |url=https://archive.org/details/peasantsmonksinb0000pinc |title=Peasants and Monks in British India |publisher=University of California Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-520-91630-2 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/peasantsmonksinb0000pinc/page/27 27]–28, 64, 158–159 |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="Sarvepalli Gopal 1993 41–46, 135–137">{{cite book |author=Sarvepalli Gopal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=47AARF595dUC |title=Anatomy of a Confrontation: Ayodhya and the Rise of Communal Politics in India |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=1993 |isbn=978-1-85649-050-4 |pages=41–46, 135–137}}</ref> Political parades or religious processions have featured men dressed up as Hanuman, along with women dressed up as ''[[gopi]]s'' (milkmaids) of god Krishna, as an expression of their pride and right to their heritage, culture and religious beliefs.<ref>{{cite book|author=Christophe Jaffrelot|title=Religion, Caste, and Politics in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XAO3i_gS61wC|year=2010|publisher=Primus Books|isbn=978-93-80607-04-7|pages=332, 389–391|access-date=28 May 2017|archive-date=7 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207082453/https://books.google.com/books?id=XAO3i_gS61wC|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Daromir Rudnyckyj|author2=Filippo Osella|title=Religion and the Morality of the Market|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MV5EDgAAQBAJ |year=2017|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-18605-7|pages=75–82}}</ref> According to some scholars, the Hanuman-linked youth organizations have tended to have a paramilitary wing and have opposed other religions, with a mission of resisting the "evil eyes of Islam, Christianity and Communism", or as a symbol of Hindu nationalism.<ref>{{cite book|author=Pathik Pathak|title=Future of Multicultural Britain: Confronting the Progressive Dilemma: Confronting the Progressive Dilemma|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6QarBgAAQBAJ |year=2008|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=978-0-7486-3546-7|page=18}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Chetan Bhatt|title=Hindu nationalism: origins, ideologies and modern myths|url=https://archive.org/details/hindunationalism00chet|url-access=registration|year=2001|publisher=Berg|isbn=978-1-85973-343-1|pages=[https://archive.org/details/hindunationalism00chet/page/180 180]–192}}</ref>

==Iconography==

Hanuman's iconography is most commonly identified by his distinctive simian face and tail. In modern iconography he is most commonly depicted as muscular, sometimes in a heroic pose, displaying his shakti, and at other times in a servile posture, illustrating his bhakti. Hanuman is depicted with specific objects such as a mace (his weapon of choice) and the Sanjeevani mountain, which allude to specific incidents in the ''Ramayana.'' In India, temple images of Hanuman are commonly coated in a red or orange sindhur mixed with oil.{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|p=}}{{pn|date=September 2025}}<gallery mode="slideshow" showfilename="yes" caption="The variation in iconography depicting Hanuman carrying the Sanjeevani mountain">
File:Hanuman Brings the Gandhamardhana Mountain odisha tala patra.jpg
File:Hanuman returns with sanjeevani mountain for laxmana's life.jpg
File:Hanuman fetches the herb-bearing mountain, in a print from the Ravi Varma Press, 1910's.jpg
File:Hanuman Carrying the Mountain of Medicinal Herbs (left); Rama Battles Ravana (right), Architectural Panel with Ramayana (Adventures of Rama) Scenes LACMA M.89.159.1 (6 of 6).jpg
File:Hanuman Herb Mountain.jpg
File:Hanuman bringing the mountain to the injured Lakshmana Wellcome L0022499.jpg
</gallery>
{{CSS image crop|Image=11TH Rudra Shiva Hanuman.jpg|bSize=250|cWidth=184|cHeight=190|oTop=30|oLeft=30|Description=[[Panchamukha|Five-faced or Panchamukhi]] Hanuman: Hanuman face, man-lion face, Garuda face, Boar face, Horse face. It is found in esoteric tantric traditions that weave Vaishvana and Shaiva ideas, and is relatively uncommon.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Lutgendorf | first=Philip | title=Five heads and no tale: Hanumān and the popularization of Tantra | journal=International Journal of Hindu Studies | volume=5 | issue=3 | year=2001 | doi=10.1007/s11407-001-0003-3 | pages=269–296| s2cid=144825928 }}</ref>{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=319, 380–388}}}}

The earliest known sculptures of Hanuman date from the Gupta Empire ca. 500 CE. In these very early representations, Hanuman is not yet shown as a sole figure. Free standing ''murtis'' or statues of Hanuman appeared from ca. 700 CE. onwards. These murtis portrayed Hanuman with one hand raised, one foot suppressing a demon, and an erect tail.{{Sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=59-61}} In later centuries his raised hand was sometimes shown supporting a mountain of healing herbs.<ref>[https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/37960 Hanuman Bearing the Mountaintop with Medicinal Herbs] New York Metropolitan Museum. Ca. 1800. Retrieved April 6, 2024.</ref>

Hanuman's iconography is most commonly derived from Valmiki's ''Ramayana.'' He is usually portrayed with other central figures of the Ramayana – Rama, Sita and Lakshmana. He carries weapons such as a [[gada (mace)]] and thunderbolt (''vajra'').<ref name="Williams2008p146" /><ref>{{cite book|author=T. A. Gopinatha Rao|title=Elements of Hindu iconography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MJD-KresBwIC |year=1993|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0878-2|pages=58, 190–194}}</ref> In the Hanuman Chalisa, a 16th century song written by Tulsidas, he is described as golden in color, wearing beautiful clothes and earrings, and having thick, curly hair. Tulsidas through the Hanuman Chalisa also describes him as having a mace and flag in his hands.<ref name="Ludvík1994" />

His iconography and temples are common today. He is typically shown with Rama, Sita and Lakshmana, near or in Vaishnavism temples, as well as by himself usually opening his chest to symbolically show images of Rama and Sita near his heart. He is also popular among the followers of [[Shaivism]].<ref name="JonesRyan2006p177"/>

In north India, an iconic representation of Hanuman such as a round stone has been in use by [[yogi]]s, as a means to help focus on the abstract aspects of him.<ref>{{cite book|author=David N. Lorenzen|title=Bhakti Religion in North India: Community Identity and Political Action|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rpSxJg_ehnIC |year=1995|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-2025-6|page=271}}</ref>

==Temples and shrines==

[[File:Hanuman-vijayawada-paritala.jpg|thumb|200px|41 meters (135 ft) high Hanuman monument at Paritala, [[Andhra Pradesh]]]]
[[File:Punchamukhi Hanuman Temple 1.jpg|thumb|[[Panchmukhi Hanuman Temple]] in [[Karachi]], Pakistan is the only temple in the world which has a natural statue of Hanuman]]
[[File:The green Hanuman statue in Batu Caves (1).jpg|thumb|The green Hanuman statue in Batu Caves, Malaysia]]
Hanuman is often worshipped along with Rama and Sita of [[Vaishnavism]], and sometimes independently of them.<ref name="Claus2003p280">{{cite book|author1=Peter J. Claus|author2=Sarah Diamond|author3=Margaret Ann Mills|title=South Asian Folklore: An Encyclopedia : Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=au_Vk2VYyrkC&pg=PA280 |year=2003|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-415-93919-5|pages=280–281}}</ref> There are numerous statues to celebrate and temples to worship Hanuman all over India. Vaishnavites, adherents of Vishnu, hold that the wind god Vayu manifested in three distinct incarnations to aid Vishnu. In his incarnation as Hanuman, he supported [[Rama]]; as [[Bhima]], he assisted [[Krishna]]; and as [[Madhvacharya]] (1238–1317), he established the [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnava]] sect known as [[Dvaita Vedanta|Dvaita]].{{Sfn|Vanamali|2010|p=14}} [[Shaivism|Shaivites]] claim him as an avatar of [[Shiva]].<ref name="Claus2003p280"/> Hanuman's identification as one of the eleven Rudras may reflect a Shaiva sectarian claim on an increasingly popular god, suggesting his kinship with, and hence potential control over, a class of awesome and ambivalent deities. Hanuman's other abilities are rooted in his divine heritage as the son of Vayu, the Wind God.{{Sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|p=67}} Some scholars state that the earliest Hanuman [[murti]]s appeared in the 8th century, but verifiable evidence of Hanuman images and inscriptions first appear in the 10th century in Indian monasteries in central and north India.{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|p=60}}
[[File:Wall Carvings at Undavalli Caves.jpg|thumb|Wall carvings depicting the worship of Hanuman at [[Undavalli Caves]] in [[Guntur district]].]]
Tuesday and Saturday of every week are particularly popular days at Hanuman temples. Some Hindus keep a partial or full fast on either of those two days and remember Hanuman and the theology he represents to them.{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=11–12, 101}}

Major temples and shrines of Hanuman include:
* The oldest known independent Hanuman temple and statue is at [[Khajuraho]], dated to about 922 CE from the [[Khajuraho Hanuman inscription]].<ref>Reports of a Tour in Bundelkhand and Rewa in 1883–84, and of a Tour in Rewa, Bundelkhand, Malwa, and Gwalior, in 1884–85, Alexander Cunningham, 1885</ref>{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=59–60}}
* [[Hanumangarhi, Ayodhya]], is a 10th-century temple dedicated to Hanuman.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Hanuman Garhi|url=http://www.uptourism.gov.in/post/hanuman-garhi|access-date=2020-07-28|website=www.uptourism.gov.in|archive-date=28 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728155251/http://www.uptourism.gov.in/post/hanuman-garhi|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* [[Panchmukhi Hanuman Temple]] is a 1,500-year-old temple in Pakistan. It is located in Soldier Bazaar in [[Karachi]], [[Pakistan]]. The temple is highly venerated by Pakistani Hindus as it is the only temple in the world which has a natural statue of Hanuman that is not man-made ([[Swayambhu]]).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Five historical Hindu temples of Pakistan|url=https://www.wionews.com/south-asia/five-historical-hindu-temples-of-pakistan-33163|access-date=2020-12-04|website=WION|date=17 February 2018 |language=en|archive-date=23 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191123101658/https://www.wionews.com/south-asia/five-historical-hindu-temples-of-pakistan-33163|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Academy|first=Himalayan|title=Hinduism Today Magazine|url=https://www.hinduismtoday.com/|access-date=2020-12-04|website=www.hinduismtoday.com|language=en|archive-date=6 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190506123703/https://www.hinduismtoday.com/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Jakhu temple]] in [[Shimla]], Himachal Pradesh contains a monumental 108-foot (33-metre) statue of Hanuman and is the highest point in Shimla.<ref>''The Indian Express'', [[Chandigarh]], Tuesday, 2 November 2010, p. 5.</ref>
* The tallest Hanuman statue is the [[Paritala Anjaneya Temple|Veera Abhaya Anjaneya Swami]], standing 135 feet tall at Paritala, 32 km from [[Vijayawada]] in [[Andhra Pradesh]], installed in 2003.{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007}}
* [[Chitrakoot, Madhya Pradesh|Chitrakoot]] in Madhya Pradesh features the Hanuman Dhara temple, which features a panchmukhi statue of Hanuman. It is located inside a forest, and it along with Ramghat that is a few kilometers away, are significant Hindu pilgrimage sites.<ref>{{cite book|author=Swati Mitra|title=Temples of Madhya Pradesh|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=THW_OkoTuE4C&pg=PA41|year=2012|publisher=Eicher Goodearth and Government of Madhya Pradesh|isbn=978-93-80262-49-9|page=41}}</ref>
* The Peshwa era rulers in 18th century city of [[Pune]] provided endowments to more Hanuman temples than to temples of other deities such as Shiva, [[Ganesh]] or [[Vitthal]]. Even in present time there are more Hanuman temples in the city and the district than of other deities.{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=239, 24}}
* One of the major temples of Hanuman is [[Hanuman temple, Salangpur|Hanuman Temple Salangpur]] in based in [[Salangpur, Gujarat|Salangpur]], [[Gujarat]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Raymond Brady Williams |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontosw0000will |title=An introduction to Swaminarayan Hinduism |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-521-65422-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontosw0000will/page/128 128] |quote=hanuman sarangpur. |access-date=14 May 2009 |url-access=registration}} Page 128</ref> There is also a statue of Hanuman which is 54 ft tall.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Amit Shah Unveils 54-Feet-Tall Statue Of Lord Hanuman At Gujarat Temple |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/amit-shah-unveils-54-feet-tall-statue-of-lord-hanuman-at-gujarat-temple-3926616 |access-date=2023-08-10 |website=NDTV.com}}</ref>
[[File:Ramlila artists.jpg|thumb|left|In India, the annual autumn season Ramlila play features Hanuman, enacted during Navratri by rural artists (above).]]
* A major Hanuman statue has been built by Tamil Hindus near the Batu caves in Malaysia.
* An {{convert|85|ft|m|0|adj=on}} Karya Siddhi Hanuman statue by colonial era Hindu indentured workers' descendants at [[Carapichaima]] in [[Trinidad and Tobago]].
* Another Karya Siddhi Hanuman Temple has been built in [[Frisco, Texas]] in the United States.<ref>[https://www.dallasnews.com/news/frisco/2015/08/06/new-hindu-temple-serves-friscos-growing-asian-indian-population New Hindu temple serves Frisco's growing Asian Indian population] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028043624/https://www.dallasnews.com/news/frisco/2015/08/06/new-hindu-temple-serves-friscos-growing-asian-indian-population |date=28 October 2017 }}, Dallas Morning News, 6 August 2015</ref>
* In 2024, another Hanuman statue was inaugurated in Texas with the name [[Statue of Union]], which is now the fourth-tallest statue in the US.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-08-21 |title=90-ft Hanuman Statue of Union unveiled in Texas, 3rd tallest in US |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/us/90-ft-hanuman-statue-of-union-unveiled-in-texas-3rd-tallest-in-us/articleshow/112663661.cms |access-date=2024-09-04 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

===Festivals and celebrations===
Hanuman is a central figure in the annual [[Ramlila]] celebrations in India, and seasonal dramatic arts in southeast Asia, particularly in Thailand; and Bali and Java, Indonesia. Ramlila is a dramatic folk re-enactment of the life of Rama according to the ancient Hindu epic ''[[Ramayana]]'' or secondary literature based on it such as the ''[[Ramcharitmanas]]''.<ref name=":3">{{cite book |author=James G. Lochtefeld |url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch |title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: N-Z |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8239-2287-1 |pages=271–272 |url-access=registration}}</ref> It particularly refers to the thousands<ref name="SchechnerHess51">{{cite journal | last1=Schechner | first1=Richard | last2=Hess | first2=Linda | title=The Ramlila of Ramnagar [India] | journal=The Drama Review | volume=21 | issue=3 | year=1977 | pages=51–82 | doi=10.2307/1145152 | jstor=1145152 }}</ref> of dramatic plays and dance events that are staged during the annual autumn festival of [[Navratri]] in India.<ref>{{cite web | title=Navratri – Hindu festival | author=Encyclopedia Britannica | url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Navratri | year=2015 | access-date=28 May 2017 | archive-date=22 February 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222124136/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Navratri | url-status=live }}</ref> Hanuman is featured in many parts of the folk-enacted play of the legendary war between Good and Evil, with the celebrations climaxing in [[Vijayadashami]].<ref name=unescodussehra>[http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/en/RL/ramlila-the-traditional-performance-of-the-ramayana-00110 Ramlila, the traditional performance of the Ramayana] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170131032510/http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/en/RL/ramlila-the-traditional-performance-of-the-ramayana-00110 |date=31 January 2017 }}, UNESCO</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Sv7Uk0UcdM8C Ramlila] ''Pop Culture India!: Media, Arts, and Lifestyle'', by Asha Kasbekar. Published by ABC-CLIO, 2006. {{ISBN|1-85109-636-1}}. ''Page 42''.</ref>

The Ramlila festivities were declared by UNESCO as one of the "Intangible Cultural Heritages of Humanity" in 2008. Ramlila is particularly notable in the historically important Hindu cities of [[Ayodhya]], [[Varanasi]], [[Vrindavan]], [[Almora]], [[Satna]] and [[Madhubani district|Madhubani]] – cities in Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh.<ref name=unescodussehra/>

Hanuman's birthday is observed by some Hindus as [[Hanuman Jayanti]]. It falls in much of India in the traditional month of Chaitra in the [[lunisolar]] [[Hindu calendar]], which overlaps with March and April. However, in parts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu, Hanuman Jayanti is observed in the regional Hindu month of Mārgaḻi, which overlaps with December and January. The festive day is observed with devotees gathering at Hanuman temples before sunrise, and day long spiritual recitations and story reading about the victory of good over evil.<ref name="Melton2010p1310"/>

== Hanuman in Southeast Asia ==
=== Cambodia ===
[[File:L'exposition "Angkor - la naissance d'un mythe" (musée Guimet) (11804234493).jpg|thumb|right|Cambodian depiction of Hanuman at Angkor Wat. Rama is standing on top of Hanuman in the middle of the mural.]]
Hanuman is a revered heroic figure in Khmer history in southeast Asia. He features predominantly in the [[Reamker]], a Cambodian epic poem, based on the [[Sanskrit]] [[Itihasa]] Ramayana epic.<ref>Toni Shapiro-Phim, [http://asiasociety.org/education/reamker Reamker] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129212016/http://asiasociety.org/education/reamker |date=29 November 2016 }}, The Cambodian Version of Ramayana, Asia Society</ref> Intricate carvings on the walls of Angkor Wat depict scenes from the Ramayana including those of Hanuman.<ref>{{Cite journal|jstor = 25212421|title = Reamker (Rāmakerti), the Cambodian Version of the Rāmāyaṇa. A Review Article|journal = Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland|issue = 1|pages = 122–129|last1 = Marrison|first1 = G. E|year = 1989|volume = 121|doi = 10.1017/S0035869X00167917| s2cid=161831703 }}</ref>

In Cambodia and many other parts of southeast Asia, mask dance and shadow theatre arts celebrate Hanuman with Ream (same as Rama of India). Hanuman is represented by a white mask.<ref>{{cite book|author=Jukka O. Miettinen|title=Classical Dance and Theatre in South-East Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GD3YAAAAMAAJ |year=1992|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-588595-8|pages=120–122}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Leakthina Chau-Pech Ollier|author2=Tim Winter|title=Expressions of Cambodia: The Politics of Tradition, Identity and Change|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vs98AgAAQBAJ |year=2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-17196-5|pages=140–141}}</ref> Particularly popular in southeast Asian theatre are Hanuman's accomplishments as a martial artist ''Ramayana''.<ref>{{cite book|author1=James R. Brandon|author2=Martin Banham|title=The Cambridge Guide to Asian Theatre|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ttnH5W9qoBAC |year=1997|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-58822-5|pages=236–237}}</ref>

=== Indonesia ===
[[File:Statue-IMG 4662.JPG|thumb|Hanuman statue at [[Bali]], [[Indonesia]]]]
Hanuman ([[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]: ''Hanoman'' or ''Anoman'' ) is the central figure in many of the historic dance and drama art works such as [[Wayang Wong]] found in [[Javanese people|Javanese culture]], [[Indonesia]]. These performance arts can be traced to at least the 10th century.<ref>{{cite book|author=Margarete Merkle|title=Bali: Magical Dances|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QgQcmPUrO_wC&pg=PA43|year=2012|publisher=epubli|isbn=978-3-8442-3298-1|pages=42–43}}{{Dead link|date=May 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> He has been popular, along with the local versions of ''Ramayana'' in other islands of Indonesia such as Java.<ref>J. Kats (1927), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/606956 The Rāmāyana in Indonesia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126000638/https://www.jstor.org/stable/606956 |date=26 January 2021 }}, Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, Cambridge University Press, Vol. 4, No. 3 (1927), pp. 579–585</ref><ref>Malini Saran (2005), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/23005981 The Ramayana in Indonesia: alternate tellings] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215225013/https://www.jstor.org/stable/23005981 |date=15 December 2018 }}, India International Centre Quarterly, Vol. 31, No. 4 (SPRING 2005), pp. 66–82</ref>

[[File:Relief on Prambanan - Hanuman meeting Sita, Pentas Ramajana, p33.jpg|thumb|Hanuman relief in [[Prambanan]] temple, Indonesia]]
In major medieval era Hindu temples, archeological sites and manuscripts discovered in Indonesian and Malay islands, Hanuman features prominently along with Rama, Sita, Lakshmana, Vishvamitra and Sugriva.<ref>{{cite book|author=Willem Frederik Stutterheim|title=Rāma-legends and Rāma-reliefs in Indonesia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OoitUqGk8PAC |year=1989|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-251-2|pages=xvii, 5–16 (Indonesia), 17–21 (Malaysia), 34–37}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Marijke Klokke|title=Archaeology: Indonesian Perspective : R.P. Soejono's Festschrift|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dSFfD0dpdS4C |year=2006|publisher=Yayasan Obor Indonesia|isbn=978-979-26-2499-1|pages=391–399}}</ref> The most studied and detailed [[relief]] artworks are found in the [[Candi of Indonesia|Candi]]s [[Panataran]] and [[Prambanan]].<ref>{{cite book|author1=Andrea Acri|author2=H.M. Creese|author3=A. Griffiths|title=From Lanka Eastwards: The Ramayana in the Literature and Visual Arts of Indonesia |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=LXdhAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA209 |year=2010|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=978-90-04-25376-6|pages=197–203, 209–213}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Moertjipto|title=The Ramayana Reliefs of Prambanan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hd3VAAAAMAAJ|year=1991|publisher=Penerbit Kanisius|isbn=978-979-413-720-8|pages=40–42}}</ref>

Hanuman, along with other figures of the ''[[Ramayana]]'', are an important source of plays and dance theatre repertoire at [[Odalan]] celebrations and other festivals in Bali.<ref>{{cite book|author=Hildred Geertz|title=The Life of a Balinese Temple: Artistry, Imagination, and History in a Peasant Village|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JbrPXcurKxAC |year=2004|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-2533-1|pages=154–165}}</ref>

====Wayang story====
[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Wajangfiguur voorstellende de apenkoning Hanuman TMnr 15-954-41.jpg|thumb|Hanuman [[wayang]] (puppetry) in [[Indonesian culture]]]]
Hanoman in [[Javanese people|Javanese]] [[wayang]] is the son of [[Batara Guru]] who became the disciple and adopted son of [[Vayu|Batara Bayu]]. Hanoman himself is a cross-generational figure from the time of [[Rama]] to the time of [[Jayabaya]]. [[Añjanā|Anjani]] is the eldest daughter of Rishi Gotama who is cursed so that she has the face of an [[ape]]. On the orders of his father, he was imprisoned naked in the lake Madirda. Once upon a time, Batara Guru and [[Narada|Batara Narada]] flew across the sky. When he saw Anjani, Batara Guru was so amazed that he released semen. The king of the puppet gods rubbed it with tamarind leaves and threw it into the lake. The sinom leaf fell on Anjani's lap. She also picked it up and ate it until she became pregnant. When it was time to give birth, Anjani was assisted by the angels sent by Batara Guru. She gave birth to a baby monkey with white hair, while herself again had a beautiful face and was taken to heaven as an angel.

The baby, in the form of a white monkey, which is Anjani's son, was taken by Batara Bayu and adopted as a child. After completing his education, Hanoman returned to the world and served his uncle, Sugriwa, the monkey king of Kiskenda Cave. At that time, Sugriwa had just been defeated by his brother, Subali, another uncle of Hanoman. Hanoman managed to meet Rama and Laksmana, a pair of princes from Ayodhya who were undergoing exile. The two then work together with Sugriwa to defeat Subali, and together attack the land of [[Lanka|Alengka]] to free Sita, Rama's wife who was kidnapped by Rahwana, Subali's disciple.

Hanoman infiltrates the Alengka palace to investigate Ravana's power and witness Sita's plight. There he made such a mess that he was caught and burned. Instead, Hanoman actually managed to burn parts of the capital city of Alengka. This event is known as Hanuman Obong. After Hanoman returned to Rama's place, the monkey army set out to attack Alengka. Hanoman appears as a hero who kills many Alengka troops, for example Surpanaka (Sarpakenaka) [[Ravana]]'s younger brother. In the final battle between Rama and Ravana, he was overwhelmed with his Aji Pancasu, the ability to live eternally. Every time Rama's weapon killed Ravana, immediately Ravana rose again. Wibisana, Ravana's sister who sided with Rama immediately asked Hanoman to help. Hanoman also lifted Mount Ungaran to fall on top of Ravana's corpse when Ravana had just died at the hands of Rama for the umpteenth time. Seeing Hanuman's impudence, Rama also punished him to guard Ravana's grave. Rama believes that Ravana is still alive under the crush of the mountain, and at any time can release his spirit to wreak havoc in the world.

Several years later after Rama died, Ravana's spirit escaped from Mount Pati and went to [[Sumatra Island]] to seek the reincarnation of Sita, namely [[Subhadra]], Krishna's sister. [[Krishna]] himself is the reincarnation of Rama. Hanoman chases and meets Bima, his younger brother and Bayu's adopted son. Hanuman then served Krishna. He also managed to capture the spirit of Ravana and imprisoned him in Mount Kendalisada. On the mountain Hanoman acts as a hermit.

Unlike the original version, Hanoman in the wayang has two children. The first is named Trigangga who is in the form of a white ape like himself. It is said that when he came home from burning Alengka, Hanoman had the image of Trijata's face, Wibisana's daughter, who took care of Sita. Over the ocean, Hanuman's semen fell and caused the seawater to boil. Unbeknownst to him, Baruna created the foam into Trigangga. Trigangga immediately grew up and met Bukbis, the son of Ravana. The two are friends and sided with Alengka against Rama. In the war Trigangga managed to kidnap Rama and Laksmana but was chased by Hanoman. Narada came down to intervene and explained the blood relationship between the two white monkeys. Finally, Trigangga turned against Ravana.

Hanuman's second son was named Purwaganti, who had only appeared in the Pandavas era. He was credited with finding Yudhisthira's lost heirloom named Kalimasada. Purwaganti was born to a priest's daughter whom Hanoman married, named Purwati. Hanuman lived so long that he was tired of living. [[Narada]] descends to grant his wish, which is to die, as long as he can complete the final task, which is to reconcile the six descendants of Arjuna who are involved in a civil war. Hanoman disguised himself as Resi Mayangkara and succeeded in marrying Astradarma, son of Sariwahana, to Pramesti, daughter of Jayabaya. The Sariwahana family and Jayabaya were involved in a dispute even though they were both descendants of Arjuna. Hanoman then appeared to face Jayabaya's enemy named Yaksadewa, the king of Selahuma. In that war, Hanuman died, moksha with his body, while Yaksadewa returned to his original form, namely [[Batara Kala]], the god of death.<ref>{{citation| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=26z0DwAAQBAJ&q=hanoman+wayang| author= Pitoyo Amrih| title= Hanoman, Akhir bisu sebuah perang besar| year= 2014| publisher= Pitoyo Ebook| access-date= 19 March 2023| archive-date= 11 April 2023| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230411052751/https://books.google.com/books?id=26z0DwAAQBAJ&q=hanoman+wayang| url-status= live}}</ref>

=== Thailand ===
[[File:Gran Palacio, Bangkok, Tailandia, 2013-08-22, DD 42.jpg|thumb|Thai iconography of Hanuman. He is one of the most popular figures in the ''[[Ramakien]]''.<ref>{{cite book|author=Paula Richman|title=Many Rāmāyaṇas: The Diversity of a Narrative Tradition in South Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XkifYfljHP4C |year=1991|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-07589-4|pages=38–39}}</ref>]]
Hanuman plays a significantly more prominent role in the ''Ramakien''.<ref>Amolwan Kiriwat (1997), [https://library.umaine.edu/theses/pdf/KiriwatAX2001.pdf KHON: MASKED DANCE DRAMA OF THE THAI EPIC RAMAKIEN] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304052338/http://www.library.umaine.edu/theses/pdf/kiriwatax2001.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110428042259/http://www.library.umaine.edu/theses/pdf/KiriwatAX2001.pdf |archive-date=2011-04-28 |url-status=live |date=4 March 2016 }}, University of Maine, Advisor: Sandra Hardy, pages 3–4, 7</ref> In contrast to the strict devoted lifestyle to Rama of his Indian counterpart, Hanuman is known in Thailand as a promiscuous and flirtatious figure.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Planet |first1=Lonely |last2=Isalska |first2=Anita |last3=Bewer |first3=Tim |last4=Brash |first4=Celeste |last5=Bush |first5=Austin |last6=Eimer |first6=David |last7=Harper |first7=Damian |last8=Symington |first8=Andy |title=Lonely Planet Thailand |date=2018 |publisher=Lonely Planet |isbn=978-1-78701-926-3 |page=112 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cEljDwAAQBAJ |access-date=1 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref> One famous episode of the ''Ramakien'' has him fall in love with the mermaid [[Suvannamaccha]] and fathering [[Macchanu]] with her. In another, Hanuman takes on the form of Ravana and sleeps with [[Mandodari]], Ravana's consort, thus destroying her chastity, which was the last protection for Ravana's life.{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|p=211}}

As in the Indian tradition, Hanuman is the patron of martial arts and an example of courage, fortitude and excellence in Thailand.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Tony Moore|author2=Tim Mousel|title=Muay Thai|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9IDf4dW99QYC&pg=PA67|year=2008|publisher=New Holland|isbn=978-1-84773-151-7|pages=66–67}}{{Dead link|date=May 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> He is depicted as wearing a crown on his head and [[armor]]. He is depicted as an albino with a strong character, open mouth, and sometimes is shown carrying a trident.

Hanuman is the mascot of [[2009 Asian Martial Arts Games|the 1st Asian Martial Arts Games]] in [[Bangkok]], Thailand.

==Lineage==
Though Hanuman is described to be celibate in the [[Ramayana]] and most of the Puranas, according to some regional sources, Hanuman married Suvarchala, the daughter of [[Surya]] (Sun-God).<ref>{{Cite web| url=https://www.speakingtree.in/allslides/hanuman-was-married-to-whom/45648| title=Wives Of Hanuman| access-date=3 January 2020| archive-date=3 January 2020| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103061233/https://www.speakingtree.in/allslides/hanuman-was-married-to-whom/45648| url-status=live}}</ref>

However, once Hanuman was flying above the seas to go to [[Lanka]], a drop of his sweat fell in the mouth of a crocodile, which eventually turned into a baby. The monkey baby was delivered by the crocodile, who was soon retrieved by [[Ahiravana]], and raised by him, named [[Makardhwaja]], and made the guard of the gates of Patala, the former's kingdom. One day, Hanuman, when going to save [[Rama]] and [[Lakshmana]] from Ahiravana, faced Makardhwaja and defeated him in combat. Later, after knowing the reality and after saving him, he made his son the king of Patala.

The [[Jethwa]] clan claims to be a descendant of Makardhwaja, and, according to them, he had a son named Modh-dhwaja, who in turn had a son named Jeth-dhwaja, hence the name of the clan.

==In popular culture==
While Hanuman is a quintessential character of any movie on [[Ramayana]], Hanuman-centric movies have also been produced with Hanuman as the central character. In 1976 the [[Bajrangbali (film)|first biopic movie]] on Hanuman in Hindi was released with wrestler [[Dara Singh]] playing the role of Hanuman. He again reprised the character in [[Ramanand Sagar]]'s television series ''[[Ramayan (1987 TV series)|Ramayan]]'' and [[B. R. Chopra]]'s ''[[Mahabharat (1988 TV series)|Mahabharat]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-05-30|title=Did you know how Dara Singh was chosen for the role of Hanuman in Ramayan?|url=https://www.mid-day.com/articles/did-you-know-how-dara-singh-was-chosen-for-the-role-of-hanuman-in-ramayan/22814246|access-date=2020-06-14|website=mid-day|language=en|archive-date=14 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200614112421/https://www.mid-day.com/articles/did-you-know-how-dara-singh-was-chosen-for-the-role-of-hanuman-in-ramayan/22814246|url-status=live}}</ref> The TV series ''[[Jai Hanuman (1997 TV series)|Jai Hanuman]]'' was released in 1997 on Doordarshan.

In 2005 an animated movie [[Hanuman (2005 film)|of the same name]] was released and was extremely popular among children. Actor [[Mukesh Khanna]] voiced the character of Hanuman in the film.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2005-10-21|title=Hanuman: the journey of a mythical superhero|url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/hanuman-the-journey-of-a-mythical-superhero-228121.html|access-date=2020-06-14|website=News18|archive-date=14 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200614090548/https://www.news18.com/news/india/hanuman-the-journey-of-a-mythical-superhero-228121.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Following this several series of movies featuring the god were produced, though all of them were animated, prominent ones being the Bal Hanuman series 2006–2012. Another movie, Maruti Mera dost, (2009) was a contemporary adaptation of Hanuman in modern times.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://in.bookmyshow.com/entertainment/movies/5-bollywood-movies-hanuman|title=5 Bollywood Movies About Hanuman|date=2017-06-02|website=BookMyShow|language=en-US|access-date=2019-03-29|archive-date=29 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329140101/https://in.bookmyshow.com/entertainment/movies/5-bollywood-movies-hanuman|url-status=live}}</ref>

The 2015 Bollywood movie ''[[Bajrangi Bhaijaan]]'' had [[Salman Khan]] playing the role of Pawan Kumar Chaturvedi, who is an ardent Hanuman devotee and regularly invokes him for his protection, courage, and strength.<ref>{{Citation|title=Bajrangi Bhaijaan (2015)|url=https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/bajrangi_bhaijaan|language=en|access-date=2019-03-19|archive-date=1 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201092610/https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/bajrangi_bhaijaan/|url-status=live}}</ref>

US president [[Barack Obama]] had a habit of carrying with him a few small items given to him by people he had met. The items included a small figurine of Hanuman.<ref>{{cite news |title=Revealed: Obama always carries Hanuman statuette in pocket |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/Revealed-Obama-always-carries-Hanuman-statuette-in-pocket/article14001552.ece |access-date=8 April 2021 |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=16 January 2016 |language=en-IN |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414074305/https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/Revealed-Obama-always-carries-Hanuman-statuette-in-pocket/article14001552.ece |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/ox6LidnmbPM Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20160116012625/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ox6LidnmbPM Wayback Machine]{{cbignore}}: {{cite web |title=Obama Reveals Lucky Charms During Interview |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ox6LidnmbPM |publisher=[[Associated Press]] |access-date=8 April 2021 |language=en |date=16 January 2016}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

Hanuman was referenced in the 2018 [[Marvel Cinematic Universe]] film, ''[[Black Panther (film)|Black Panther]]'' and its 2022 sequel ''[[Black Panther: Wakanda Forever]]'', which are set in the fictional African nation of [[Wakanda]]; the Jabari tribe often is seen saying ''Glory to "Hanuman" '' as the tribe worships its ancestral gorilla deity. The reference was removed from the film in theatre screenings in India. But the uncensored part came out later on digital streaming platforms in the country.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/global-opinions/wp/2018/03/12/what-india-can-learn-from-black-panther |title=What India can learn from 'Black Panther' |author=Amish Tripathi |date=12 March 2018 |website=washingtonpost.com |access-date=17 May 2018 |archive-date=19 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180519032349/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/global-opinions/wp/2018/03/12/what-india-can-learn-from-black-panther/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://comicbook.com/marvel/2018/02/21/black-panther-censored-in-india |title='Black Panther' Movie Had a Word Censored in India |author=Nicole Drum |date=20 February 2018 |website=comicbook.com |access-date=17 May 2018 |archive-date=18 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180518054935/http://comicbook.com/marvel/2018/02/21/black-panther-censored-in-india |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Mexican acoustic-metal duo, [[Rodrigo Y Gabriela]] released a hit single named "Hanuman" from their album [[11:11 (Rodrigo y Gabriela album)|''11:11'']]. Each song on the album was made to pay tribute to a different musician that inspired the band, and the song Hanuman is dedicated to [[Carlos Santana]]. Why the band used the name Hanuman is unclear, but the artists have stated that Santana "was a role model for musicians back in Mexico that it was possible to do great music and be an international musician."<ref>{{Cite news|title=Rodrigo y Gabriela: Fusing Flamenco And Metal|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=113658095|access-date=2020-09-21|website=NPR.org|language=en|archive-date=28 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200828005110/https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=113658095|url-status=live}}</ref>

Hanuman is the protagonist in the 2022 film ''Hanuman White Monkey'', a fantasy film that combines special effects with a ''[[Khon]]'' (Thai masked pantomime) performance style.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thainews.prd.go.th/en/news/detail/TCATG221108015929988|title=White Monkey' Khon performance film to hit cinemas on December 5|date=2022-11-08|access-date=2022-12-05|work=NNT|archive-date=5 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221205121851/https://thainews.prd.go.th/en/news/detail/TCATG221108015929988|url-status=live}}</ref> In the 2022 action-adventure ''[[Ram Setu (film)|Ram Setu]]'', it is implied that the character "AP" is actually Hanuman.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Samrat |first1=Ujjwal |title=Who is AP in Ram Setu? |url=https://www.truescoopnews.com/newsdetail/who-is-ap-in-ram-setu-human-avatar-of-lord-hanuman-in-akshay-kumars-adventuredrama |website=True Scoop News |access-date=16 January 2023 |language=en |date=24 December 2022 |archive-date=16 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116110040/https://www.truescoopnews.com/newsdetail/who-is-ap-in-ram-setu-human-avatar-of-lord-hanuman-in-akshay-kumars-adventuredrama |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2024, Telugu film director Prasanth Varma directed the film ''[[Hanu-Man]]'', a superhero film based on Hanuman's power. The film's sequel, ''[[Hanu-Man#Future|Jai Hanuman]]'', was initially scheduled for release during the [[Sankranti]] festival of 2025, but the release has since been postponed due to [[Rishab Shetty]]’s commitments to ''[[Kantara: Chapter 1]]'', and the film is now expected to release in 2026.

In April 2024, Dev Patel of ''Lion'' fame wrote and directed his first film, ''Monkey Man,'' which alludes to Hanuman's journey of discovering his own strength. The film focuses on the modern day corruption of India and "underdogs challenging the untouchable status quo." The films characters and story arch were inspired by stories of Hanuman that Patel heard from his grandfather, as well as Korean and Indian cinema.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-04-05 |title=Monkey Man: Dev Patel tackles Indian corruption in violent action-thriller |url=https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20240405-monkey-man-dev-patel-jordan-peele-interview |access-date=2025-10-30 |website=www.bbc.com |language=en-GB}}</ref>

== Literature ==
The Sapta Chiranjivi Stotram is a mantra that is featured in [[Hindu texts|Hindu literature]]:

{{Blockquote|text=अश्वत्थामा बलिर्व्यासो हनुमांश्च विभीषण:। कृप: परशुरामश्च सप्तैतै चिरञ्जीविन:॥ सप्तैतान् संस्मरेन्नित्यं मार्कण्डेयमथाष्टमम्। जीवेद्वर्षशतं सोपि सर्वव्याधिविवर्जितः॥

aśvatthāmā balirvyāsō hanumāṁśca vibhīṣaṇaḥ। kṛpaḥ paraśurāmaśca saptaitai cirañjīvinaḥ॥ saptaitān saṁsmarēnnityaṁ mārkaṇḍēyamathāṣṭamam। jīvēdvarṣaśataṁ sopi sarvavyādhivivarjitaḥ॥|title=Sapta Chiranjivi Stotram}}

The mantra states that the remembrance of the eight immortals ([[Ashwatthama]], [[Mahabali]], [[Vyasa]], Hanuman, [[Vibhishana]], [[Kripa]], [[Parashurama]], and [[Markandeya]]) offers one freedom from ailments and longevity.

==See also==
* [[:Category:Hanuman temples|Hanuman temples]]
* [[Vayu Stuti]]
* [[Hanuman Chalisa]]
* [[Hanuman Jayanti]]
* [[Hanumanasana]], an [[asana]] named after Hanuman
* ''[[The 6 Ultra Brothers vs. the Monster Army]]''
* ''[[Hanuman and the Five Riders]]''
* [[Gray langur]], also known as the Hanuman langur
* [[Sun Wukong]], a Chinese literary character in [[Wu Cheng'en]]'s masterpiece ''[[Journey to the West]]''

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Bibliography===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book|last=Claus|first=Peter J.|author2=Sarah Diamond |author3=Margaret Ann Mills |title=South Asian folklore|publisher=Taylor & Francis|year=2003|pages=280–281|chapter=Hanuman|isbn=978-0-415-93919-5|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=au_Vk2VYyrkC&pg=PA280}}
* {{cite book | first=Philip |last=Lutgendorf | title=Hanuman's Tale: The Messages of a Divine Monkey | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fVFC2Nx-LP8C&pg=PA31 | access-date=14 July 2012 | year= 2007 | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=978-0-19-530921-8 }}
* {{cite book|title=Hanuman: The Devotion and Power of the Monkey God|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t10oDwAAQBAJ|last=Vanamali|first=V|publisher=Simon and Schuster|year=2010|isbn=978-1-59477-914-5}}
* Sri Ramakrishna Math (1985): ''Hanuman Chalisa''. Chennai (India): Sri Ramakrishna Math. {{ISBN|81-7120-086-9}}.
* ''Mahabharata'' (1992). Gorakhpur (India): Gitapress.
* ''Anand Ramayan'' (1999). Bareily (India): Rashtriya Sanskriti Sansthan.
* Swami Satyananda Sarawati: ''Hanuman Puja''. India: Devi Mandir. {{ISBN|1-887472-91-6}}.
* ''The Ramayana'' Smt. Kamala Subramaniam. Published by Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan (1995). {{ISBN|81-7276-406-5}}
* ''Hanuman – In Art, Culture, Thought and Literature'' by Shanti Lal Nagar (1995). {{ISBN|81-7076-075-5}}

{{refend}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book|author= Catherine Ludvik|title= Hanumān in the Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki and the Rāmacaritamānasa of Tulasī Dāsa|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=KCXQN0qoAe0C |year= 1994|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1122-5}}
* {{cite book|author=Helen M. Johnson |title= Hanumat's birth and Varuṇa's subjection (Chapter III of the Jain Ramayana by Hemachandra)|url= https://www.wisdomlib.org/jainism/book/trishashti-shalaka-purusha-caritra/d/doc214005.html |year= 1931|publisher=Baroda Oriental Institute}}
* {{cite book | first=Philip |last=Lutgendorf | title=Hanuman's Tale: The Messages of a Divine Monkey | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fVFC2Nx-LP8C | year= 2007 | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=978-0-19-530921-8 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book|author1=Robert Goldman|author2=Sally Goldman|title=The Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki: An Epic of Ancient India. Volume V: Sundarakāṇḍa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mGseItRDAc8C |year=2006|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-3166-7}}
* Vanamali, Mataji Devi (2010). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=j5qFlxXSS48C Hanuman: The Devotion and Power of the Monkey God]'' Inner Traditions, USA. {{ISBN|1-59477-337-8}}.

==External links==
{{Wikisource|Hanuman|Hanuman}}{{Wikiquote}}
{{Commons category|Hanuman}}
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hanuman Hanuman] at ''Encyclopædia Britannica''



{{Ramayana}}
{{Mahabharata}}
{{Hindu Culture and Epics}}
{{Hindudharma}}
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[[Category:Hanuman| ]]
[[Category:Chiranjivins]]
[[Category:Animals in Hinduism]]
[[Category:Vanara in the Ramayana]]
[[Category:Animal gods]]
[[Category:Wisdom gods]]
[[Category:Anthropomorphic mammals]]
[[Category:Characters in the Mahabharata]]
[[Category:Mythological monkeys]]
[[Category:Characters in the Ramayana]]
[[Category:Mammal deities]]
[[Category:Mythological human–animal hybrids]]
[[Category:Heroes in Hindu mythology]]
[[Category:Buddhist gods]]

Meena Kandasamy

2026-03-15T09:35:32Z

Ankitchadha: started

{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2025}}
{{Indian name|Meena|Kandasamy}}

{{Short description|Indian writer, translator and activist (born 1984)}}
{{Infobox writer
| embed =
| honorific_prefix =
| name = Meena Kandasamy
| honorific_suffix =
| image = MeenaKandasamy.jpg
| image_size =
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| caption = Meena in 2016
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| pseudonym = Meena
| birth_name = Ilavenil Kandasamy
| birth_date = {{Birth year and age|1984}}
| birth_place = [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]]
| death_date = 
| death_place =
| resting_place =
| occupation = Writer, activist, translator
| nationality = {{flag|India}}
| citizenship = 
| education = *[[Bachelor of Arts|B.A.]] ([[Madras University|Madras]]) {{small|(2004)}},
*[[Master of Arts|M.A.]] (Madras) {{small|(2006)}},
*[[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] (Anna) {{small|(2010)}}
| alma_mater = [[Madras University]] and [[Anna University]], [[Chennai]] ([[Tamil Nadu]])
| period = Twenty-first century
| genre = [[Indian writing in English]]
| subjects = Social justice and human rights
| movement = [[Dalit literature]]
| notableworks = ''[[The Orders Were to Rape You]]'' (2021)
| spouse = 
| partner = 
| children =
| parents = Drs. [[W. B. Vasantha Kandaswamy]] (mother) and K. Kandaswamy (father)
| relatives =
| awards = 2022 [[Hermann Kesten Prize]]
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'''Ilavenil Meena Kandasamy''' (born October 12, 1984) is an Indian [[poet]], fiction writer, [[translator]] and [[activist]] from [[Chennai]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]].<ref name=csw>{{cite web |title=INDIA Being Untouchable (press release) |url=http://www.cswusa.org/files/Documents/News/India/20100927%20INDIA%20%20%20CSW%20announces%20speakers%20for%20photography%20exhibition%20private%20viewings.pdf |publisher=[[Christian Solidarity Worldwide]] |access-date=2 March 2013 |date=27 September 2010 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018092508/http://www.cswusa.org/files/Documents/News/India/20100927%20INDIA%20%20%20CSW%20announces%20speakers%20for%20photography%20exhibition%20private%20viewings.pdf |archivedate=18 October 2014}}</ref>

Meena published two collections of poetry, ''Touch'' (2006) and ''Ms. Militancy'' (2010). From 2001 to 2002, she edited ''The Dalit'', a bi-monthly alternative English magazine of the Dalit Media Network.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.poetryinternationalweb.net/pi/site/poet/item/9972/Meena-Kandasamy |title=Poetry International Rotterdam |website= |access-date= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190325042631/https://www.poetryinternationalweb.net/pi/site/poet/item/9972/Meena-Kandasamy |archive-date=25 March 2019 |url-status=usurped}}</ref>

She represented India at the [[University of Iowa]]'s [[International Writing Program]] and was a Charles Wallace India Trust Fellow at the [[University of Kent]], [[Canterbury]], United Kingdom. She writes columns for platforms including [[Outlook India]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.outlookindia.com/people/meena-kandasamy/13868 |title=Outlook India |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161009175150/http://www.outlookindia.com/people/meena-kandasamy/13868 |archivedate=9 October 2016}}</ref> and ''[[The Hindu]]''.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/rohith-vemula-left-us-with-only-his-words-writes-meena-kandasamy/article8120922.ece |title=The Hindu |website=[[The Hindu]] |date=18 January 2016 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160118223637/http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/rohith-vemula-left-us-with-only-his-words-writes-meena-kandasamy/article8120922.ece |archivedate=18 January 2016 |last1=Kandasamy |first1=Meena}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.porterfolio.net/meenakandasamy |title=Porterfolio |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161010000048/http://www.porterfolio.net/meenakandasamy |archivedate=10 October 2016 |access-date=8 October 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.in/entry/beef-festival-osmania-university_n_1432303 |title=Osmania University Beef Festival Leads To Violence|first=Jahnabi |last=Barooah |work=HuffPost |date=17 April 2012 |access-date=}}</ref>

==Early life and education==
Born in 1984 to [[Tamil people|Tamil]] parents, both university professors,<ref name=csw/><ref name=rediff>{{cite web |last=Warrier |first=Shobha |title=They don't like women who are flamboyant about sexuality |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/report/they-dont-like-women-who-are-flamboyant-about-sexuality/20120521.htm |work=[[Rediff.com]] |access-date=9 March 2013 |date=21 May 2012}}</ref><ref name="Hindu darkly">{{cite news |last=Jeyan |first=Subash |title=In a language darkly... |url=http://www.hindu.com/lr/2011/03/06/stories/2011030650050200.htm |access-date=2 March 2013 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |date=6 March 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121106040052/http://www.hindu.com/lr/2011/03/06/stories/2011030650050200.htm |archivedate=6 November 2012}}</ref> she developed an early interest in poetry, and later adopted the name Meena.<ref name=mint1>{{cite news |last=Singh |first=Pallavi |title=Dalits look upon English as the language of emancipation |url=http://www.livemint.com/Politics/ItCo2HSpKjf98VvW8X4yAO/Dalits-look-upon-English-as-the-language-of-emancipation.html |access-date=8 March 2013 |newspaper=[[Mint (newspaper)|Mint]] |publisher=[[HT Media Ltd]] |date=8 March 2010 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150803000743/http://www.livemint.com/Politics/ItCo2HSpKjf98VvW8X4yAO/Dalits-look-upon-English-as-the-language-of-emancipation.html |archivedate=3 August 2015}}</ref> She completed a [[Doctorate of Philosophy]] in [[Socio-linguistics]] from [[Anna University]], [[Chennai]].<ref name=csw/> She began writing poetry at the age of 17<ref name=Baradwaj>{{cite news |last=Rangan |first=Baradwaj |title=The Politics of Poetry |url=http://www.hindu.com/mp/2011/04/29/stories/2011042950920800.htm |access-date=2 March 2013 |date=29 April 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131016085222/http://www.hindu.com/mp/2011/04/29/stories/2011042950920800.htm |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |archivedate=16 October 2013}}</ref> and began translating books by [[Dalit]] writers and leaders into English.<ref name="Independent.co.uk">{{cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/features/meena-kandasamy-interview-i-don-t-know-if-i-m-idiotic-or-courageous-9238644.html |title=Meena Kandasamy interview: 'I don't know if I'm idiotic – or courageous' |work=The Independent |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161009193254/http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/features/meena-kandasamy-interview-i-don-t-know-if-i-m-idiotic-or-courageous-9238644.html |first=James |last=Kidd |archive-date=9 October 2016}}</ref>

==Professional career==
[[File:Meena Kandasamy.jpg|thumb|upright|Meena in 2012]]
As a writer, Meena's focus was mainly on [[caste]] annihilation, [[feminism]] and linguistic identity.<ref name=Mk>{{cite news |title=Meena Kandasamy |url=http://www.thehindu.com/books/meena-kandasamy/article4344176.ece |access-date=8 March 2013 |newspaper=The Hindu |date=28 January 2013}}</ref> She says, "Poetry is not caught up within larger structures that pressure you to adopt a certain set of practices while you present your ideas in the way that academic language is," and thus, prefers to use it for her activism.<ref name="Sampsonia Way">{{cite web |url=http://www.sampsoniaway.org/literary-voices/2010/09/22/meena-kandasamy-angry-young-women-are-labelled-hysterics/ |title=Sampsonia Way |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161009185312/http://www.sampsoniaway.org/literary-voices/2010/09/22/meena-kandasamy-angry-young-women-are-labelled-hysterics/ |archivedate=9 October 2016 |access-date=8 October 2016}}</ref> One of her first collections, ''Touch'', was published in August 2006, with a foreword by [[Kamala Das]].<ref name=csw/> ''Ms. Militancy'' was published the following year.<ref name=csw/> In this book, the author adopts an anti-caste and feminist lens to retell Hindu and Tamil myths.<ref name="Sampsonia Way"/> The title poem of this volume is based on [[Kannaki]], the heroine of the [[Tamil classics | Tamil Classic]] [[Silapathikaram]]. Other works, such as "Mascara" and "My Lover Speaks of Rape", won her prizes in India poetry competitions.<ref>{{cite news |title=Poetry collection |url=http://www.hindu.com/mp/2007/02/19/stories/2007021901330300.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130125064658/http://www.hindu.com/mp/2007/02/19/stories/2007021901330300.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=25 January 2013 |date=19 February 2007 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=3 March 2013}}</ref>

''Touch'' was criticised for its English language errors, though its challenging themes were described as "interesting".<ref name="NIE 2011">{{cite news |last=Tellis |first=Ashley |title=Poems of an outdated, designer feminism |url=http://newindianexpress.com/lifestyle/books/article412416.ece |access-date=8 March 2013 |newspaper=[[The New Indian Express]] |date=30 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023133808/http://newindianexpress.com/lifestyle/books/article412416.ece |archivedate=23 October 2013}}</ref> ''Ms. Militancy'' was described as an improvement in her use of the English language but "disastrous, if not worse" in terms of themes and content.<ref name="NIE 2011" /> A review in ''The Hindu'' put the negative criticism into context, describing Meena's work as difficult for anyone whose politics were "mainstream".<ref name="Hindu darkly" /> Her poetry is "about the female self and body in ways not 'allowed' by this discourse".<ref name="Hindu darkly" /> An analysis of ''Touch'' and ''Ms Militancy'' in the ''Journal of Postcolonial Cultures and Societies'' concludes that Meena "authors a poetic discourse that not only castigates the prevalent modes of subjugation but also resolutely strives towards futures that are yet to be born."<ref name="JPCS 2012">{{cite journal |last1=Chakraborty |first1=Abin |title=Venomous Touch: Meena Kandasamy and the Poetics of Dalit Resistance |journal=Journal of Postcolonial Cultures and Societies |year=2012 |volume=3 |last2=Jana |first2=Ujjwal |url=http://www.jpcs.in/upload/1766251931Meena%20Kandasamy.pdf |access-date=2 March 2013}}</ref> In an interview with ''Sampsonia Way Magazine'', Meena said: "My poetry is naked, my poetry is in tears, my poetry screams in anger, my poetry writhes in pain. My poetry smells of blood, my poetry salutes sacrifice. My poetry speaks like my people, my poetry speaks for my people."<ref name="Sampsonia Way"/>

Her work has been published in anthologies and journals that include ''Anthology of Contemporary Indian Poetry'',<ref>{{cite web |title=Anthology of Contemporary Indian Poetry |url=http://bigbridge.org/BB17/poetry/indianpoetryanthology/Meena_Kandasamy.html |publisher=BigBridge.Org |access-date=9 June 2016 |archive-date=19 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019054257/http://bigbridge.org/BB17/poetry/indianpoetryanthology/Meena_Kandasamy.html |url-status=dead}}</ref> ''The Little Magazine'', ''[[Kavya Bharati]]'', ''Indian Literature'', ''[[Poetry International Web]]'', ''[[Muse India]]'', ''Quarterly Literary Review'', ''[[Outlook (Indian magazine)|Outlook]]'', ''[[Tehelka]]'' and ''[[The New Indian Express]]''.<ref name=Meena>{{cite web |author=International Writing Program (IWP) |title=Meena Kandasamy – 2009 Resident |url=http://iwp.uiowa.edu/writers/meena-kandasamy |publisher=[[University of Iowa]] |access-date=3 March 2013 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130106161758/http://iwp.uiowa.edu/writers/meena-kandasamy |archivedate=6 January 2013}}</ref> She was also invited to participate in the [[International Writing Program]] at the [[University of Iowa]] in 2009<ref name=Mk/><ref name=csw/> Two years later, Meena was made the Charles Wallace India Trust Fellow at the [[University of Kent]].<ref name=Mk/> She was a featured poet at the City of Asylum Jazz Poetry Concert held in [[Pittsburgh]], the 14th Poetry Africa International Festival (2010), [[Durban]], and the DSC [[Jaipur Literature Festival]] (2011).<ref name=ace>{{cite web |title=Poetry Connections feat. K. Satchidanandan |url=http://sustainedtheatre.org.uk/domains/sustainedtheatre.org.uk/local/media/images/medium/poetry_connections_feat_ks___profiles.pdf |publisher=[[Arts Council England]] |access-date=8 March 2013 |date=1 July 2011}}{{dead link|date=June 2017 |bot=Vensatry |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

She co-authored ''AYYANKALI: A Dalit leader of Organic Protest'', a biography of [[Ayyankali]], a [[dalit]] leader in [[Kerala]]. The foreword was written by [[Kancha Ilaiah]]). Meena was shortlisted among 21 [[short fiction]] women writers aged less than 40 from South Asia for an anthology published by [[Zubaan Books]], New Delhi.<ref>{{cite web |title=21 under 40: New Stories for a New Generation |url=http://www.zubaanbooks.com/zubaan_books_details.asp?BookID=108 |publisher=[[Zubaan]] |access-date=9 March 2013 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130328091820/http://www.zubaanbooks.com/zubaan_books_details.asp?BookID=108 |archivedate=28 March 2013}}</ref> In 2014, she published a novel about the [[Kilvenmani massacre]] titled ''The Gypsy Goddess'', influenced by the figure of Kurathi Amman, her "ancestral goddess".<ref name=Baradwaj/><ref name=Tuppence>{{cite web |last=Maranovna |first=Tuppence |title=The Gypsy Goddess by Meena Kandasamy |url=http://tuppencemagazine.co.uk/entertainment-news/the-gypsy-goddess-meena-kandasamy/ |publisher=tuppencemagazine.co.uk |access-date=9 May 2014 |date=9 May 2014}}</ref> From January 2013, she began working on a book titled ''Caste and the City of Nine Gates'', her first non-fiction work.<ref name=Mk/> ''When I Hit You'', her 2017 novel, was shortlisted for the [[Women's Prize for Fiction|Women's Prize]] in 2018.<ref name=Sonia>{{cite web |last=Faleiro |first=Sonia |title=When I Hit You by Meena Kandasamy — murder on the mind |url=https://www.ft.com/content/d34732ee-3654-11e7-99bd-13beb0903fa3 |work=Financial Times |access-date=19 May 2017 |date=19 May 2017 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170521063033/https://www.ft.com/content/d34732ee-3654-11e7-99bd-13beb0903fa3 |archivedate=21 May 2017}}</ref>

She was elected a [[Royal Society of Literature|Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature]] in 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-09-01 |title=Kandasamy, Meena |url=https://rsliterature.org/fellows/meena-kandasamy/,%20https://rsliterature.org/fellows/meena-kandasamy/ |access-date=2025-07-03 |website=Royal Society of Literature |language=en-GB}}</ref>

=== As activist ===
Meena works closely with issues of caste and gender and how society puts people into stereotypical roles on the basis of these categories.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://blogs.wsj.com/indiarealtime/2011/01/23/a-female-dalit-poet-fights-back-in-verse/ |title=A Female Dalit Poet Fights Back in Verse |work=The Wall Street Journal |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161002184615/https://blogs.wsj.com/indiarealtime/2011/01/23/a-female-dalit-poet-fights-back-in-verse/ |archivedate=2 October 2016}}</ref> She has faced threats for her fearless criticism of the Hindu society, to which she says: "This threat of violence shouldn't dictate what you are going to write or hinder you in any manner."<ref name="Independent.co.uk" />

In 2012, a group of Dalit students of [[Osmania University]], [[Hyderabad]], organised a beef eating festival to protest against the "food fascism" in hostels. The right-wing student group Akhil Bharatiya Vidyarthi Parishad (ABVP) staged protests against the event and organisers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ndtv.com/south/osmania-university-tense-after-beef-festival-clashes-476849 |title=NDTV |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161009184415/http://www.ndtv.com/south/osmania-university-tense-after-beef-festival-clashes-476849 |archivedate=9 October 2016}}</ref> Meena attended the festival and spoke in support of it. She faced incessant abuse online as a result.<ref name="Independent.co.uk"/><ref>{{cite web |url=https://storyful.com/stories/26719-indian-poet-s-abuse-condemned-after-beef-controversy |title=Storyful |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161009235708/https://storyful.com/stories/26719-indian-poet-s-abuse-condemned-after-beef-controversy |archive-date=9 October 2016}}</ref> The Network of Women in Media India (NWMI) released a press statement condemning the attack on her.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://feministsindia.com/right-wing-men-bash-woman-writer-on-twitter/ |title=Feminists India |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170612111632/http://feministsindia.com/right-wing-men-bash-woman-writer-on-twitter/ |archive-date=12 June 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.outlookindia.com/magazine/story/a-cowed-down-nation/280608 |title=Outlook |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161009174553/http://www.outlookindia.com/magazine/story/a-cowed-down-nation/280608 |archivedate=9 October 2016}}</ref>

===As translator===
Meena has translated prose and poetry from Tamil.<ref name="mint2">{{cite news |last=Nair |first=Supriya |title=In verse proportion |url=http://www.livemint.com/Leisure/TIaTuVIgjWGkEcimBbfumM/In-verse-proportion.html?facet=print |newspaper=[[Mint (newspaper)|Mint]] |publisher=[[HT Media Ltd]] |access-date=8 March 2013 |date=9 August 2012 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304075239/http://www.livemint.com/Leisure/TIaTuVIgjWGkEcimBbfumM/In-verse-proportion.html?facet=print |archivedate=4 March 2016}}</ref> She has translated the work of [[Periyar E. V. Ramasamy]], [[Thol. Thirumavalavan]] and [[Tamil Eelam]] writers such as Kasi Anandan, Cheran and VIS Jayapalan into English.<ref name="ace" /> Speaking about her role as translator, she says: "I know that there is no limit, no boundary, no specific style guide to poetry—that you are free to experiment, that you are free to find your own voice, that you are free to flounder and also free to fail once in a while because all this happens all the time when you translate."<ref name="mint1" /> In 2023, she released ''Thirukkural: The Book of Desire'', a feminist translation of [[Inbam (Kural book)|Book III]] of the [[Tirukkural]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Narang |first=Gaurvi |title='Only thing you read to your lover in bed'—Meena Kandasamy's modern book on ancient Tamil text |newspaper=The Print |location=New Delhi |date=15 February 2023 |url=https://theprint.in/features/only-thing-you-read-to-your-lover-in-bed-meena-kandasamys-modern-book-on-ancient-tamil-text/1372536/ |access-date=21 February 2023}}</ref>

===As actor===
Meena made her acting debut in the 2014 Malayalam film ''[[Oraalppokkam]]''.<ref>{{cite news |title=Moving the Masses |url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/malayalam/Moving-the-Masses/2013/11/14/article1885376.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140108045402/http://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/malayalam/Moving-the-Masses/2013/11/14/article1885376.ece |url-status=dead |archive-date=8 January 2014 |access-date=15 April 2014 |newspaper=The New Indian Express |date=14 November 2013}}</ref> It was the first [[Crowdfunding|online crowdfunded]] independent Malayalam feature film.<ref>{{cite news |title=Crowd-funded movie in the making |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Kochi/crowdfunded-movie-in-the-making/article5340148.ece |access-date=15 April 2014 |newspaper=The Hindu |date=12 November 2013 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140107201403/http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Kochi/crowdfunded-movie-in-the-making/article5340148.ece |archivedate=7 January 2014}}</ref>

==Awards==
* [[Hermann Kesten Prize]] (2022) by [[PEN Centre Germany]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Meena Kandasamy wins Hermann Kesten prize |url=https://www.dw.com/en/indian-author-meena-kandasamy-to-receive-pen-germany-prize/a-63171611 |first=Manasi |last=Gopalakrishnan |access-date=19 September 2022 |publisher=Deutsche Welle |date=19 September 2022}}</ref>

==Published works==
===Poetry===
* {{cite book | last1 = Kandasamy | first1 = Meena | title = The Eighth Day of Creation | publisher = Slow Trains | year = 2005}}
* {{cite book | last1 = Kandasamy | first1 = Meena | title = TOUCH | publisher = Peacock Books | location = Mumbai | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-8188811878}}
* {{cite book | last1 = Kandasamy | first1 = Meena | title = #ThisPoemWillProvokeYou & Other Poems | publisher = [[HarperCollins]] | location = India | year = 2015}}
* {{cite book | last1 = Kandasamy | first1 = Meena | title = We Are Not The Citizens | publisher = Tangerine Press | location = London | year = 2018}}
* {{cite book | last1 = Kandasamy | first1 = Meena | title = Ms. Militancy | publisher = [[Navayana (publishing house)|Navayana]] | location = New Delhi | year = 2019 | isbn = 978-8189059903}}
* {{cite book | last1 = Kandasamy | first1 = Meena | title = Tomorrow Someone Will Arrest You | publisher = [[Atlantic Books]] | location = London | year = 2023 | isbn = 978-1838959029}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gupta |first=Saachi |date=2024-02-17 |title=Meena Kandasamy wrote 'Tomorrow Someone Will Arrest You' over the course of 14 years |url=https://www.vogue.in/content/meena-kandasamy-wrote-tomorrow-someone-will-arrest-you-over-the-course-of-14-years |access-date=2024-10-18 |website=Vogue India |language=en-IN}}</ref>

===Novels===
* {{cite book | last1 = Kandasamy | first1 = Meena | title = The Gypsy Goddess | publisher = [[Atlantic Books]] | location = London | year = 2014 | isbn = 978-1782391784}}
* {{cite book |last1=Kandasamy |first1=Meena |title=[[When I Hit You: Or, A Portrait of the Writer as a Young Wife]] |publisher=[[Atlantic Books]] |location=London |year=2017 |isbn=978-9386228840}}
* {{cite book | last1 = Kandasamy | first1 = Meena | title = Exquisite Cadavers | publisher = [[Atlantic Books]] | location = London | year = 2019 | isbn = 978-1786499653}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kandasamy |first=Meena |title=Fieldwork as a Sex Object |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |year=2026 |isbn=9781846016592 |location=India |language=English}}

===Non-Fiction===
* {{cite book | last1 = Kandasamy | first1 = Meena | last2 = Nisar | first2 = M.| title = ''[[Ayyankali]]: A Dalit leader of Organic Protest'' | publisher = Sahithi Books | location = [[Calicut]] | year = 2007 | isbn = 978-81-90388764}}
* {{cite book | last1 = Kandasamy | first1 = Meena | title = [[The Orders Were to Rape You | The Orders Were To Rape You : Tigresses in the Tamil Eelam Struggle]] | publisher = [[Navayana (publishing house)|Navayana]] | location = New Delhi | year = 2021 | isbn = 978-8194865445}}
* {{cite book | last1 = Kandasamy | first1 = Meena | title = A Wise One, a Warrior | series = Objects Talk Back | publisher = [[University of Chicago Press]] | location = Chicago | year = 2025 | isbn = 978-3035807547}}

===Translations===
* {{cite book | last1 = Thirumavalavan | first1 = Tholkappiyan | translator1-last = Kandasamy | translator1-first = Meena | title = Talisman: Extreme Emotions of Dalit Liberation | publisher = Samya Books | location = Kolkata | year = 2003 | isbn = 978-8185604688}}
* {{cite book | last1 = Thirumavalavan | first1 = Tholkappiyan | translator1-last = Kandasamy | translator1-first = Meena |title = Uproot Hindutva: The Fiery Voice of the [[Viduthalai Chiruthaigal Katchi|Liberation Panthers]] | publisher = Samya Books | location = Kolkata | year = 2004 | isbn = 978-8185604794}}
* {{cite book | last1 = Ramasamy | first1 = Periyar E.V. | translator1-last = Kandasamy | translator1-first = Meena | title = Why Were Women Enslaved? | publisher = The Periyar Self-Respect Propaganda Institution | location = Chennai | year = 2007 | isbn = 978-9395268325}}
* {{cite book | last1 = Ravikumar | first1 = D. | translator1-last = Kandasamy | translator1-first = Meena | translator2 = Ravishannker | title = Waking is Another Dream: Poems on the Genocide in Tamil Eelam | publisher = [[Navayana (publishing house)|Navayana]] | location = New Delhi | year = 2010 | isbn = 978-8189059378}}
* {{cite book | last1 = Maithri | first1 = Malathi | last2 = Salma | first2 = Rajathi | last3 = Revathi | first3 = Kutti | author4 = Sukirtharani | translator1-last = Kandasamy | translator1-first = Meena | title = Desires Become Demons: Poems of Four Tamil Women Poets | publisher = [[Tilted Axis Press]] | location = Sheffield | year = 2018 | isbn = 978-1911284260}}
* {{cite book | author = Thiruvalluvar | translator1-last = Kandasamy | translator1-first = Meena | title = Thirukkural: The Book of Desire | publisher = [[Penguin Random House]] | location = New Delhi | year = 2023 | isbn = 978-0670097081}}

==See also==
* [[Dalit literature]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons category}}
*[https://www.kandasamy.co.uk/ Official website]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kandasamy, Meena}}
[[Category:1984 births]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian poets]]
[[Category:Actresses in Malayalam cinema]]
[[Category:English-language Indian poets]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society of Literature]]
[[Category:Indian feminist writers]]
[[Category:International Writing Program alumni]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Poets from Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Women writers from Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Writers from Chennai]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian women poets]]

Nishi Padma

2026-03-07T06:33:27Z

Ankitchadha: New Page

{{Short description|1970 Bengali drama film directed by Arabinda Mukhopadhyay}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Nishi Padma
| image = Nishi Padma (1970) film poster.jpeg
| alt =
| caption = Theatrical poster
| native_name =
| director = [[Arabinda Mukhopadhyay]]
{{Infobox | decat = yes | child = yes
| label1= Based on
| data1 = ''Hinger Kochuri'' by [[Bibhutibhushan Bandyopadhyay]]
}}
| producer = Shantimoy Banerjee
| writer =
| screenplay = Arabinda Mukhopadhyay
{{Infobox | decat = yes | child = yes
| label1= Dialogues by
| data1 = Arabinda Mukhopadhyay
}}
| story = Bibhutibhushan Bandopadhyay
| narrator =
| starring = [[Uttam Kumar]] [[Sabitri Chatterjee]] [[Anup Kumar (actor)|Anup Kumar]]
| music = [[Nachiketa Ghosh]]
| cinematography = Sailaja Chatterjee
| editing = Amiyo Mukherjee
| studio = Chirantan Chitra
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|1970|10|23}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Bengali
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''Nishi Padma''''' ({{IPA|bn|ˈniʃi ˈpəd̪ma}} {{Translation|'''''The Night-Lotus'''''}}) is a 1970 Indian [[Bengali language|Bengali]]-language [[Drama (film and television)|drama film]] co-written and directed by [[Arabinda Mukhopadhyay]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Nishi Padma |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movie-details/nishi-padma/movieshow/67346807.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250630114807/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movie-details/nishi-padma/movieshow/67346807.cms |archive-date=2025-06-30 |access-date=2024-06-28 |work=[[The Times of India]] |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> Produced by Shantimoy Banerjee under the banner of Chirantan Chitra, the film is based on [[Bibhutibhushan Bandopadhyay]]'s short story ''Hinger Kochuri.''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Goswami |first=Jaideva C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xHHXEAAAQBAJ&dq=nishi+padma+Hinger+Kochuri&pg=PT389 |title=Glimpses of India |date=1970 |publisher=Notion Press |isbn=979-8-89067-973-4 |language=en}}</ref> The film portrays the decline of human values and relationships and contrasts it by presenting an illustrious example of a boy's innocent love for a neighbourhood [[tawaif]] (courtesan).

The film stars [[Sabitri Chatterjee]] playing a [[hooker with a heart of gold]], with [[Uttam Kumar]] in the role of a lonely businessman and [[Anup Kumar (actor)|Anup Kumar]] as adult Nanda, the young child, who they both come to care for. It also stars [[Jahor Roy|Jahar Roy]], [[Gangapada Basu]], [[Gita Dey]] and [[Nripati Chattopadhyay|Nripati Chatterjee]] in other supporting roles. Music of the film is composed by [[Nachiketa Ghosh]], with lyrics penned by [[Gauriprasanna Mazumder]] and Mukhopadhyay himself. The cinematography of the film is handled by Sailaja Chatterjee, while Amiyo Mukherjee edited the film. The film marks the first collaboration between Mukhopadhyay and Kumar and the 30th film of the lead pair.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gole |first=Aditya |date=2024-03-26 |title=Timeless social phenomenon |url=https://www.millenniumpost.in/features/timeless-social-phenomenon-557384 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250703155452/https://www.millenniumpost.in/pageview_candidate.html?id=617199 |archive-date=2025-07-03 |access-date=2025-07-03 |website=Millennium Post |language=en}}</ref>

''Nishi Padma'' theatrically released on 23 October 1970, opening to a critical and commercial success, running for over 250 days in theatres. It emerged as the [[List of Indian Bengali films of 1970|highest-grossing Bengali film of the year]] and gained a cult status among the audiences. At the [[18th National Film Awards]], the film won two awards – [[National Film Award for Best Male Playback Singer|Best Male Playback Singer]] ([[Manna Dey]]) for "Ja Khushi Ora Bole Boluk" and [[National Film Award for Best Female Playback Singer|Best Female Playback Singer]] ([[Sandhya Mukherjee]]) for "Ore Sakol Sona Molin Holo".

''Nishi Padma'' was remade into [[Hindi]] in 1972 as ''[[Amar Prem]]'' by [[Shakti Samanta]],<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ray Chaudhuri |first=Shantanu |date=2023-07-23 |title=6 best remakes of Uttam Kumar's Bengali hits with Hindi filmstars filling in for him |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/entertainment/6-best-remakes-of-uttam-kumars-bengali-hits-with-hindi-filmstars-filling-in-for-him/cid/1954194 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250703154849/https://www.telegraphindia.com/entertainment/6-best-remakes-of-uttam-kumars-bengali-hits-with-hindi-filmstars-filling-in-for-him/cid/1954194 |archive-date=2025-07-03 |access-date=2025-07-03 |work=[[The Telegraph (India)|The Telegraph]]}}</ref> starring [[Rajesh Khanna]], [[Sharmila Tagore]] and [[Vinod Mehra]], where Mukhopadhyay served as its screenwriter, in his debut in [[Hindi cinema]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-06-06 |title=When Shakti Samanta asked 'Amar Prem' actor Rajesh Khanna to copy Uttam Kumar from the original Bengali film |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/when-shakti-samanta-asked-amar-prem-actor-rajesh-khanna-to-copy-uttam-kumar-from-the-original-bengali-film/articleshow/100790428.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250630130559/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/when-shakti-samanta-asked-amar-prem-actor-rajesh-khanna-to-copy-uttam-kumar-from-the-original-bengali-film/articleshow/100790428.cms |archive-date=2025-06-30 |access-date=2025-06-30 |work=[[The Times of India]] |issn=0971-8257 |quote=Rajesh Khanna did exactly what he was advised! Such was the popularity Uttam Kumar had in Bollywood in those days when filmmakers were literally in a race to cast the Mahanayak of Bengal in his Bollywood debut.}}</ref> It is included in India Today's "100 greatest Indian films of all time".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-07-24 |title=Remembering Uttam Kumar with 7 cult films |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/visualstories/entertainment/remembering-uttam-kumar-with-7-cult-films-157152-24-07-2024 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250630124513/https://www.indiatoday.in/visualstories/entertainment/remembering-uttam-kumar-with-7-cult-films-157152-24-07-2024 |archive-date=2025-06-30 |access-date=2025-06-30 |website=[[India Today]] |language=en}}</ref>

==Plot==
Pushpo is expelled from her house by her husband and his new wife. When she refuses to leave, her husband beats her and throws her out. She goes to her mother for help, but her mother too disowns her. When she tries to commit suicide, she is sold to a brothel in [[Kolkata|Calcutta]] by her village-uncle, Nepal Babu. On her audition there, Ananga Dutta, a businessman seeking love, is attracted by her singing. Ananga is unhappily married and lonely and becomes her regular and exclusive visitor as love blossoms.

Later, a widowed man with his family, from the same village as her, moves in close to Pushpo's place. The new neighbour's son, Nanda, does not get any love at home, as his father works all the time and his stepmother does not care about him. Nanda's father learns about Pushpo's new life and forbids her from interacting with him and his family as he fears what people would say. However, Pushpo starts treating Nanda as her own son when she realises that he is mistreated at home, and often goes hungry. Nanda also comes to love Pushpo and starts to regard her as his mother. He visits her every day and comes upon Ananga, who also becomes fond of him becoming a father figure, calling him Pushpo's son, seeing the way Pushpo loves the child.

One day, Ananga's brother-in-law comes to see Pushpo and demands that she tell Ananga to stop visiting her. With great reluctance, Pushpo agrees and she turns Ananga away when he comes to see her. It is then that the businessman realises that he is in love with Pushpo. When Nanda suffers from fever and his treatment is too expensive, Pushpo asks Ananga for help and he secretly finances the treatment and does not let anybody know. When the doctor asks him why is he so keen on helping Nanda, he replies some relationships have no names. However, when Nanda's father asks the doctor who paid for the treatment, the doctor says that his mother did. Then Nanda's father discovers that it was Pushpo who saved her son's life and he thanks her and gives her the sari that he had bought for his wife, telling her that it was a gift from a brother to a sister. A touched Pushpo accepts.

Nanda's family has to move to the village and Nanda plants a sapling of [[Nyctanthes arbor-tristis|night-flowering jasmine]] (''Jnuyee'' or ''Parijat'') at Pushpo's home, making her promise to always take care of it. Pushpo cries and agrees.

Several years later, Nanda grows up to become a government engineer posted in the same town. Ananga meets Pushpo, now working as a maidservant who is ill-treated and they both reconcile. Nanda unsuccessfully searches for her and gives up after inquiring in the neighbourhood. Nanda's son gets sick and they go to the same doctor. Meanwhile, having met Pushpo, Ananga decides to catch up with all his old friends and meets the doctor. During the conversation, he reveals that he has stopped drinking and visiting brothels once he left Pushpo. He also tells him that he is now divorced/separated due to his wife's partying ways, but is finally at peace and is happy with Pushpo's love and affection in his heart. They talk about Nanda and the Doctor informs him that Nanda is in town. Nanda meets Ananga when he comes to meet the doctor to ask regarding the medicine, who takes him to meet Pushpo. Both of them, unable to see Pushpo ill-treated, stand up for her and in the end Nanda takes Pushpo home with him, like a son who is reunited with his long lost mother with Ananga looking on, crying happily.

==Cast==
{{cast listing|
* [[Uttam Kumar]] as Ananga Dutta
* [[Sabitri Chatterjee]] as Pushpo
* [[Anup Kumar (actor)|Anup Kumar]] as Nanda
** Master Malay as child Nanda
* [[Nripati Chattopadhyay]]
* [[Jahor Roy]] as Natabar
* [[Gita Dey]]
* [[Gangapada Basu]]
* Asha Devi
* Rajlakshmi Devi
* Premangshu Bose
}}

==Soundtrack==
{{Infobox album
| name = Nishi Padma
| type = Soundtrack
| artist = [[Nachiketa Ghosh]]
| cover =
| alt =
| released = 1970
| recorded = 1970
| venue =
| studio = Chirantan Chitra
| genre = [[Feature film soundtrack]]
| length = 13:00
| label = Sa Re Ga Ma Pa
| producer = [[Nachiketa Ghosh]]
| prev_title = Chirodiner
| prev_year = 1969
| next_title = [[Bilambita Loy]]
| next_year = 1970
| chronology = [[Nachiketa Ghosh]]
}}

The songs and score of the film is composed by [[Nachiketa Ghosh]]; it marks his second collaboration with Mukhopadhyay after ''Kichhukkhon'' (1959), and ninth collaboration with Kumar after ''[[Trijama]]'' (1956), ''Nabajanma'' (1956), ''Prithibi Amare Chay'' (1957), ''[[Indrani (film)|Indrani]]'' (1958), ''Bondhu'' (1958), ''Haat Baralei Bondhu'' (1960) and ''Chirodiner'' (1969).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Deb Chowdhury |first=Sayan |date=2021-07-24 |title=Why Bengali cinema's colossus Uttam Kumar had a rough time in the Hindi film industry |url=https://scroll.in/reel/1000964/why-bengali-cinemas-colossus-uttam-kumar-had-a-rough-time-in-the-hindi-film-industry |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250703163739/https://www.youtube.com/embed/JbCwz-1OHWE?modestbranding=1&rel=0&controls=2&showinfo=0&autoplay=0&enablejsapi=1&origin=https%3A%2F%2Fscroll.in&widgetid=5&forigin=https%3A%2F%2Fscroll.in%2Freel%2F1000964%2Fwhy-bengali-cinemas-colossus-uttam-kumar-had-a-rough-time-in-the-hindi-film-industry&aoriginsup=1&vf=1 |archive-date=2025-07-03 |access-date=2025-07-03 |website=Scroll.in |language=en}}</ref> The lyrics are provided by [[Gauriprasanna Mazumder]], Chandidas Basu and Mukhopadhyay himself.

{{Track listing
| headline = Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Rajar Pankhi Uyira Gele
| extra1 = [[Shyamal Mitra]]
| length1 = 3:15
| lyrics1 = [[Arabinda Mukhopadhyay]]
| title2 = Ja Khushi Ora Bole Boluk
| extra2 = [[Manna Dey]]
| length2 = 3:10
| lyrics2 = [[Gauriprasanna Mazumder]]
| title3 = Naa Naa Naa Aaj Rate Aar
| extra3 = Manna Dey
| length3 = 3:29
| lyrics3 = Gauriprasanna Mazumder
| title4 = Ore Sokol Sona Molin Holo
| extra4 = [[Sandhya Mukherjee]]
| length4 = 3:06
| lyrics4 = Chandidas Basu
| total_length = 13:00
}}

==Awards==
* [[18th National Film Awards|1970 National Film Awards]]<ref name="18thaward">{{cite web|url=http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm17thNFAAward.aspx|title=18th National Film Awards|publisher=[[International Film Festival of India]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020065742/http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm17thNFAAward.aspx|archive-date=20 October 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="18thawardPDF">{{cite web|url=http://dff.nic.in/2011/17th_NFF_1971.pdf|title=18th National Film Awards (PDF)|publisher=[[Directorate of Film Festivals]]}}</ref>
**[[National Film Award for Best Male Playback Singer|Best Male Playback Singer]]: [[Manna Dey]] - "Ja Khushi Ora Bole"
** [[National Film Award for Best Female Playback Singer|Best Female Playback Singer]]: [[Sandhya Mukherjee]] - "Ore Sakol Sona Molin Holo".

==Reception==
The film become all-time blockbuster and ran for 250 days in theaters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Uttam Kumar Death Anniversary: 5 Movies That Have Kept the Mahanayak's Charm Alive |url=https://www.news18.com/news/movies/uttam-kumar-death-anniversary-5-movies-that-have-kept-the-mahanayaks-charm-alive-2244345.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250703163054/https://www.news18.com/news/movies/uttam-kumar-death-anniversary-5-movies-that-have-kept-the-mahanayaks-charm-alive-2244345.html |archive-date=2025-07-03 |access-date=2025-07-03 |website=[[News18 India|News18]] |language=en}}</ref> Both Kumar and Chatterjee gave another fabulous performance.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Das Gupta |first=Ranjan |date=2017-04-20 |title='I always shied away from gimmicks' |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/i-always-shied-away-from-gimmicks/article18163103.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250703154450/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/i-always-shied-away-from-gimmicks/article18163103.ece |archive-date=2025-07-03 |access-date=2025-07-03 |work=[[The Hindu]] |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X |quote=Uttam Kumar confessed it was very difficult to react to Sabitri Chatterjee’s expressive eyes while Soumitra Chatterjee considers her to be an actress of substance and high calibre.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-07-03 |title=Uttam Kumar death anniversary: Nayak to Anthony Firingee, 5 iconic films of Bengal's Mahanayak |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/photos/news/uttam-kumar-death-anniversary-5-iconic-films-of-bengal-s-mahanayak-101627118263459.html |access-date=2025-07-03 |work=[[Hindustan Times]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ray Chaudhuri |first=Shantanu |date=2018-07-24 |title=10 Best Performances Of 'Mahanayak' Uttam Kumar |url=https://www.filmcompanion.in/features/10-best-performances-of-mahanayak-uttam-kumar |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250703143753/https://www.filmcompanion.in/features/10-best-performances-of-mahanayak-uttam-kumar |archive-date=2025-07-03 |access-date=2025-07-03 |website=[[Film Companion]] |language=en}}</ref> This was the [[List of highest-grossing Indian Bengali films|highest grossing Bengali film in 1970]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Roy |first=Piya |date=2025-02-21 |title=t2ONLINE celebrates Sabitri Chatterjee's birthday by looking back on some of her best screen performances |url=https://t2online.in/screen/bengali/t2online-celebrates-sabitri-chatterjee-s-birthday-by-looking-back-on-some-of-her-best-screen-performances/1346712 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250703144341/https://t2online.in/screen/bengali/t2online-celebrates-sabitri-chatterjee-s-birthday-by-looking-back-on-some-of-her-best-screen-performances/1346712 |archive-date=2025-07-03 |access-date=2025-07-03 |website=[[The Telegraph (India)|t2online.in]] |language=en |quote=''Nishi Padma'' presented to the audience the depth of Sabitri Chatterjee's acting prowess. Her portrayal of Pushpa, a sex worker desperately looking for a life of dignity for the sake of her son, received enormous praise.}}</ref>

==Remake==
''Nishi Padma'' drew the attention of [[Shakti Samanta]] saw the film, who decided to remake it in [[Hindi]], being impressed by Kumar's performance in the film.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Remakes of Bengali films: What's new in this trend?|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/remakes-of-bengali-films-whats-new-in-this-trend/articleshow/72241437.cms|access-date=2021-10-05|website=The Times of India|date=27 November 2019 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Jha |first=Subhash K. |date=2022-09-03 |title=Uttam Kumar's tryst with Hindi Cinema |url=https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/uttam-kumars-tryst-with-hindi-cinema-11172091.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250703153339/https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/uttam-kumars-tryst-with-hindi-cinema-11172091.html |archive-date=2025-07-03 |access-date=2025-07-03 |website=Firstpost |language=en-us |quote=In Shakti Samanta’s ''Amar Prem'', the brief to Rajesh Khanna was, “Just copy Uttam Kumar from the original film (Nishi Padma)”, and he did it successfully.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |date=2021-04-28 |title=Regional Star, Hindi Also-Ran: Ten Actors, Ten Songs |url=https://madhulikaliddle.com/2021/04/28/regional-star-hindi-also-ran-ten-actors-ten-songs/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250703163301/https://madhulikaliddle.com/2021/04/28/regional-star-hindi-also-ran-ten-actors-ten-songs/ |archive-date=2025-07-03 |access-date=2025-07-03 |website=Dustedoff |language=en}}</ref> On his request, Mukhopadhyay wrote the screenplay of the remake and did some changes to the script.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sharma |first=Peeyush |date=2019-07-23 |title=Uttam Kumar: Leaving a Mark in his Few Hindi Films |url=https://learningandcreativity.com/silhouette/uttam-kumar-hindi-films/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250703155818/https://learningandcreativity.com/silhouette/uttam-kumar-hindi-films/ |archive-date=2025-07-03 |access-date=2025-07-03 |website=Silhouette Magazine |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-06-24 |title=It's All About Love |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/pune/its-all-about-love/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250703150208/https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/pune/its-all-about-love/ |archive-date=2025-07-03 |access-date=2025-07-03 |website=[[The Indian Express]] |language=en}}</ref> It was titled as ''[[Amar Prem]]'' (1972), and starred [[Sharmila Tagore]] and [[Rajesh Khanna]] in lead roles.<ref name="exp12">{{cite news |title=It's All About Love|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/it-s-all-about-love/953992/0|publisher=Indian Express |date= 26 May 2012 |access-date=4 May 2013}}</ref> To prepare his role, Khanna was adviced by Samanta to internalize Kumar's performance from the original.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-01-28 |title=Rajesh Khanna Watched Nishi Padma 24 Times To Play His Role in Amar Prem |url=https://www.news18.com/news/movies/rajesh-khanna-watched-nishi-padma-24-times-to-play-his-role-in-amar-prem-4708049.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250703151847/https://www.news18.com/news/movies/rajesh-khanna-watched-nishi-padma-24-times-to-play-his-role-in-amar-prem-4708049.html |archive-date=2025-07-03 |access-date=2022-06-18 |website=[[News18 India|News18]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Mehzabeen |first=Mallika |date=2025-05-23 |title=Rajesh Khanna watched this Bengali film for 6 months, director asked him to copy Mahanayak Uttam Kumar. |url=https://www.india.com/entertainment/rajesh-khanna-watched-this-bengali-film-for-6-months-director-asked-him-to-copyuttam-kumar-movie-was-amar-prem-lead-actress-is-sharmila-tagore-7838572/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250703153744/https://www.india.com/entertainment/rajesh-khanna-watched-this-bengali-film-for-6-months-director-asked-him-to-copyuttam-kumar-movie-was-amar-prem-lead-actress-is-sharmila-tagore-7838572/ |archive-date=2025-07-03 |access-date=2025-07-03 |website=[[India TV]] |language=en}}</ref> After the release of the film in 1972, during a premiere of the film in [[Kolkata]], Khanna confessed that he watched the film 24 times to copy him and cited "I consider myself lucky if I can do at least 50% of what Uttam Da (Kumar) had done in ''Nishi Padma''."<ref name=":1">{{Cite news |date=2017-01-11 |title=Rajesh Khanna admired Uttam Kumar's acting |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/rajesh-khanna-admired-uttam-kumars-acting/articleshow/15041403.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250703152542/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/rajesh-khanna-admired-uttam-kumars-acting/articleshow/15041403.cms |archive-date=2025-07-03 |access-date=2022-06-18 |website=[[The Times of India]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |date=2025-07-03 |title=The actor used to dream of acting 50% like Uttam Kumar |url=https://bollyy.com/entertainment/the-actor-used-to-dream-of-acting-50-like-birthday-uttam-kumar-6945708 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250703160744/https://bollyy.com/entertainment/the-actor-used-to-dream-of-acting-50-like-birthday-uttam-kumar-6945708 |archive-date=2025-07-03 |access-date=2025-07-03 |website=bollyy.com |language=en}}</ref> The climax of the film was filmed in Kolkata under the supervision of Mukhopadhyay due to Samanta's absence, who later wrote that Khanna had added a unique touch to the character in spite of copying Kumar.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />

== References ==
<references />

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|0378450}}

{{Bibhutibhushan Bandyopadhyay}}
[[Category:1970 films]]
[[Category:1970 Bengali-language films]]
[[Category:1970 Indian films]]
[[Category:1970s masala films]]
[[Category:1970 romantic drama films]]
[[Category:1970 drama films]]
[[Category:1970 black comedy films]]
[[Category:Films based on short fiction]]
[[Category:Films based on Indian novels]]
[[Category:Films scored by Nachiketa Ghosh]]
[[Category:Films directed by Arabinda Mukhopadhyay]]
[[Category:Bengali films remade in other languages]]
[[Category:Films based on works by Bibhutibhushan Bandyopadhyay]]
[[Category:Films about courtesans in India]]
[[Category:Films set in Kolkata]]
[[Category:Films shot in Kolkata]]
[[Category:Films about interclass romance]]
[[Category:Slice of life films]]
[[Category:Films about widowhood in India]]
[[Category:Films about prostitution in India]]
[[Category:Bengali-language Indian films]]
[[Category:Bengali-language drama films]]
[[Category:Bengali-language romantic drama films]]
[[Category:Bengali-language black comedy films]]
[[Category:Indian drama films]]
[[Category:Indian romantic drama films]]
[[Category:Indian black comedy films]]
[[Category:Indian black-and-white films]]

Idhayam (2023 TV series)

2026-03-06T06:33:37Z

Ankitchadha: General improvements to article content

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2023}}
{{Infobox television
| image = Idhayam.png
| image_size =
| caption = First Season Montage
| native_name =
| director = S.N.Rajkumar B. Vinoth Kumar
| writer = Saravanan
| based_on =
| genre = [[Melodrama]] [[Romance film|Romance]]
| editor = Udhayachanthiran
| cinematography = Arjunan Karthik
| screenplay = Saravanan
| starring = {{ubl|
* [[Janani Ashok Kumar]]
* [[Richard N. J.|Richard Jose]]
* [[Pallavi Gowda]]
}}
| producer = Anil Sundar Guhan Manohar
| num_seasons = 2
| num_episodes = 650+
| language = Tamil
| country = India
| opentheme = ஏ ராசக்குருவி, அடி வெள்ளியருவி...
| music = Karaneeswaran
| company = Rajammal Creations
| runtime = 20–22 minutes per episode
| camera = [[Multi-camera]]
| channel = [[Zee Tamil]]
| first_aired = {{start date|df=yes|2023|8|28}}
| last_aired = present
}}

'''''Idhayam - Maranathai Vendra Kaadhal Kadhai''''' ({{Translation}} Heart - The Love Story That Conquered Death) is an Indian-[[Tamil language]] [[Tamil television drama|television series]] started airing on [[Zee Tamil]] and streams on [[ZEE5]] from 28 August 2023.

The first season of the series starred [[Janani Ashok Kumar]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tamil.samayam.com/tv/janani-ashok-kumar-as-heroine-in-zee-tamil-new-serial-idhayam/articleshow/102849722.cms|title=ஜீ தமிழில் வருகிறது அடுத்த பீல் குட் சீரியல் : கம்பேக் குடுக்கும் செம்பருத்தி நடிகை|language=ta|website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> [[Richard N. J.|Richard Jose]] and Annie Aaliya in the lead roles with [[Riya Vishwanathan]] and R.Shyam in the parallel lead roles with [[Puvi (actor)|Puvi Arasu]] made a special appearance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=New Zee Tamil TV serial 'Idhayam' from 28 August 2023|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/new-tv-serial-idhayam-to-launch-soon-deets-inside/articleshow/102828311.cms|access-date=18 August 2023 |website=[[The Times of India]]|date=18 August 2023 |language=en}}</ref> It revolves around a famous businessman Aadhi who falls in love with a small-town widow, Bharathi. It is one of the most popular feel-good series of [[Zee Tamil]], and it's lauded by the audience for its unique and captivating storyline along with the soulful performances by the actors. The magical chemistry between Janani and Richard was widely admired by general audiences and they were the first Matinee Serial Pair on Zee Tamil to receive the 'Popular Pair' Award due to their immense popularity as Aadhi Bharathi. The first season premiered on 28 August 2023, and ended on 22 March 2025 with 640 episodes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=New Zee Tamil TV serial 'Idhayam' from 28 August 2023|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/janani-ashok-kumar-and-richard-jose-starrer-idhayam-to-go-off-air-soon/articleshow/118604954.cms|access-date=27 February 2025 |website=[[The Times of India]]|date=27 February 2025 |language=en}}</ref>

The second season of the series, '''''Idhayam - Ninaivugalaal Azhiyadha Kaadhal''''' ({{Translation}} Heart - A love that immortalized by memories) premiered on 24 March 2025 as the continuation from the previous season with a 5-year leap. It starts with [[Pallavi Gowda]] (who replaced Janani from the previous season) with Richard J in the lead. This season failed to garner the attention and popularity created by the original series.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Richard Jose starrer 'Idhayam 2' to launch soon|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/janani-ashok-kumar-and-richard-jose-starrer-idhayam-2-to-launch-soon-deets-inside/articleshow/118816746.cms|access-date=9 March 2025 |website=[[The Times of India]]|date=9 March 2025 |language=en}}</ref>

==Series overview==
{{series overview
| color1 = #FEA530 
| link1 = #Season 1
| episodes1 = 640
| start1 = {{start date|df=yes|2023|8|28}}
| end1 = {{end date|df=yes|2025|03|22}}
| color2 = #30B39F 
| link2 = #Season 2
| episodes2 = TBA
| start2 = {{start date|df=yes|2025|3|24}}
| end2 = Present
}}

==Synopsis==
===Season 1===
Aadhi is the sole heir of Saradha. He has been suffering from a heart ailment since young and requires a heart transplantation surgery to live. On his wedding day, he suffers a heart attack and is rushed to the hospital.<ref>{{Cite web |title=வாசுவை அடித்து தூக்கிய கார், திருமண மேடையில் ஆதிக்கு அட்டாக் - ஆரம்பமே விறுவிறுப்பு|url=https://zeenews.india.com/tamil/movies/idhayam-new-serial-of-zee-tamil-started-with-gripping-promo-and-storyline-see-august-30-episode-update-here-461260|access-date=30 August 2023 |website=zeenews.india.com|date=30 August 2023 |language=ta}}</ref> He miraculously survives after undergoing a heart transplantation surgery in which he received the heart from Vasu, a young man from a middle class family and Bharathi's husband, who was brain dead because of a bike accident. After receiving a new life thanks to the new heart, he undergoes a profound change in his personality. His heart becomes tender and his eyes swell with tears whenever he sees Bharathi and her daughter Tamizh. His heart begins to palpitate at every instance with their presence.<ref>{{Cite web |title=பாரதிக்கு அதிர்ச்சி கொடுக்கும் ரத்னம்.. இதயம் சீரியலில் இன்றைய எபிசோடில் நடப்பது என்ன?|url=https://tamil.abplive.com/entertainment/television/zee-tamil-idhayam-serial-today-episode-september-5th-highlights-138913|access-date=5 September 2023 |website=tamil.abplive.com|date=5 September 2023 |language=ta}}</ref> He falls in love with her without realizing it. The story is about what happens next in their lives.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Tamil |first1=Hindu |title=ஜீ தமிழில் 'இதயம்' ஆக.28 முதல் ஒளிபரப்பாகிறது|url=https://www.hindutamil.in/news/cinema/others/1105260-idhayam-streaming-in-zee-tamil.html|access-date=23 August 2023 |website=www.hindutamil.in|date=23 August 2023 |language=ta}}</ref>

===Season 2===
;5 Years later
5 years later Bharathi is now working in a company in which the company owner's sister happen to be Aadhi's present love and fiancee.
With the turn in twist of events Bharathi gets to meet Aadhi which was never expected to happen again.
Will this sudden meet join them to restart a new lease of live together or will Bharathi never forgive Aadhi for leaving them will be answered in the upcoming episodes

==Cast==
===Season 1===
;Main
* Janani Ashok Kumar as Bharathi
** Vasu's wife turned widow, Tamizh's mother and Aadhi's wife
* [[Richard N. J.|Richard Jose]] as Aadhi
** A famous businessman, who underwent a heart transplant using Vasu's heart, Shwetha's ex fiance, Bharathi's second husband
* Annie Aaliya as Tamizharasi aka Tamizh
** Vasu and Bharathi's daughter, Aadhi's step-daughter
* [[Puvi (actor)|Puvi Arasu]] as Vasu (Dead)
** Bharathi's first husband, who died due to brain death from the bike accident plotted by Arivu and his heart was transplanted to Aadhi.
* [[Riya Vishwanathan]] as Aandal
** Bharathi's best friend and Azhagar's wife
* Shyaam as Azhagar
** Aadhi's best friend and Aandal's husband
;Aadhi's family
* Sujatha Panju as Saradha (Dead)
** Aadhi's mother, Arivu & Bhavani's elder sister, Bharathi's mother in law
* Sankavi Rajendran as Shwetha (Antagonist)
** Aadhi's ex fiancee, Arivu & Parvathy's daughter, Dhurai's wife
* Sasilaya as Bhavani (Main Antagonist)
** Egamparam's wife, Anandh's mother, Aadhi's father's murderer.
* Isaac Varghese as Egamparam (Antagonist)
** Aadhi's uncle, Bhavani's husband
* Vasanth Gopinath as Arivu (Main Antagonist)
** Aadhi's uncle, Shwetha's father, Vasu's murderer, Dhurai's father in law
* Priyanka as Parvathy
** Arivu's wife, Shwetha's mother, Dhurai's mother in law
* Surjith Ansary as Anandh
** Egamparam & Bhavani's son, Aadhi & Shwetha's cousin

;Bharathi and Vasu's family
* Ravi Chandran as Rathnam
** Dhanam, Vasu and Dhurai's father, Maragatham's husband, Bharathi, Mani & Shwetha's father in law
* Agalya Saro as Maragatham (Protagonist turned Antagonist turned Protagonist)
** Dhanam, Vasu and Dhurai's mother, Rathnam's wife, Bharathi, Mani & Shwetha's mother in law
* Vetrivel as Mani (Antagonist)
** Rathnam & Maragatham's son-in-law, Dhanam's Husband, Vasu and Dhurai's Brother-in-law
* Sahana Chandirabal (2023) / Dheshika Jagannathan (2023-present) as Dhanam (Main Antagonist)
** Rathnam & Maragatham's daughter, Mani's wife, Vasu and Dhurai's elder sister, Bharathi and Shwetha's sister in law
* Rajesh<ref>{{Cite web |title=Television actor Rajesh joins the cast of Idhayam|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/television-actor-rajesh-joins-the-cast-of-idhayam/articleshow/102415739.cms|access-date=4 August 2023 |website=[[The Times of India]]|date=4 August 2023 |language=en}}</ref> as Dhurai (Antagonist)
** Dhanam and Vasu's younger brother, Sumathi's love interest, Shwetha's husband
* Akshara as Sumathi
** Dhurai's love interest
* Geetha as Saraswathi
** Bharathi's mother, Tamizh's grandmother, Aadhi's mother in law
* Santhosh as Chithambaram
** Bharathi's father, Tamizh's grandfather, Aadhi's father in law

;Aandal's family
* Parthiban as Dharmalingam (Main Antagonist)
**Aandal's father
* Rajeshwari as Kalaivani
** Aandal 's mother
* A. Revathi as Aandal's grandmother
* Vidhya as Vidya
** Aandal's sister

;Azhagar's family
* Pushpa as Lakshmi
** Azhagar's mother
* Rohit Ved as Azhagar's father
* Nisha as Azhagar's cousin sister

;Others
* [[Ayesha Zeenath]] as [[Sathya (Tamil TV series)|Sathya]] / Soumya
** Aadhi's friend, who poses as Aadhi's lover in front of Bharathi (Cameo)
* Karuna Vilasini as Raani
** Tamizh's caretaker appointed by Aadhi
* Vishwanathan as Sekar
** Vasu's friend
* Dhachayani as Latha
** Bharathi's best friend and colleague, Keshav's wife
* Arun Padmanabhan as Saravanan
** Aadhi's friend
* Abhinash Ganapathi as Pandi
* Santhosh as Keshav
** Aadhi's best friend and personal secretary, Latha's husband.
* Sana as Nisha
** Mithra's best friend; Aadhi's colleague and friend
* [[Farina Azad]] as Mithra
** Nisha's best friend; Aadhi's colleague and obsessive one-sided girlfriend (Cameo)

===Season 2===
;Main
* [[Pallavi Gowda]] as Bharathi
** Vasu's wife turned widow, Tamizh and Jr.Aadhi's mother and Aadhi's wife
*** Janani Ashok Kumar as Bharathi (Cameo)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dinamani.com/cinema/cinema-news/2025/Mar/17/janani-ashok-kumar-quits-tamil-daily-soap-idhayam|title=இதயம் தொடரிலிருந்து விலகும் ஜனனி! காரணம் பகிர்ந்து உருக்கம்! |date=17 March 2025 }}</ref>
* [[Richard N. J.|Richard Jose]] as Aadhi
** A famous businessman, who underwent a heart transplant using Vasu's heart, Shwetha's ex fiance, Bharathi's second husband; Tamizh's stepfather; Jr.Aadhi's father
* Annie Aaliya as Tamizharasi aka Tamizh
** Vasu and Bharathi's daughter, Aadhi's step-daughter, Jr.Aadhi's half-sister
* Master Sarvesh as Aaditya alias Jr.Aadhi
** Bharathi and Aadhi's son; Tamizh's half-brother

;Supporting
* [[Farina Azad]] / Subbalakshmi Rangan as Mithra (Main Antagonist)
** Aadhi's colleague and obsessive one-sided girlfriend
* Rajeshwari as Kalaivani, Aandal 's mother
* A. Revathi as Aandal's grandmother
* Sree Priya as Abi
* [[P. R. Varalakshmi]] as Rajeswari
** Mithra's grandmother
* Sasilaya as Bhavani
** Egamparam's wife, Anandh's mother, Aadhi's father's murderer.
*Arun Padmanabhan as Saravanan
** Aadhi's friend

;Special Appearances
* Arun Muthuswamy as Arun
* Sana as Nisha
** Mithra's best friend; Aadhi's colleague (Cameo)
* Vaishnavi Arulmozhi as Veera
* [[Malavika Avinash]] as Muthulakshmi
* [[Vanitha Vijayakumar]] as Saroja
* [[Mirchi Senthil]] as Shanmugam
* [[Nithya Ram]] as Bharani Shanmugam

==Production==
===Casting===
===Season 1===
Janani Ashok Kumar, a popular known face<ref>{{Cite web |title=Popular actress Janani Ashok Kumar to play the titular role in upcoming show 'Idhayam'|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/popular-actress-janani-ashok-kumar-to-play-the-titular-role-in-upcoming-show-idhayam/articleshow/102980044.cms|access-date=23 August 2023 |website=[[The Times of India]]|date=23 August 2023 |language=en}}</ref> made her first female lead role in television. She also marks her return after ''[[Sembaruthi]]'' in Zee Tamil.<ref>{{Cite web |title=மௌனராகம் தொடரின் நடிகையின் புதிய தொடர் |url=https://www.dinamani.com/cinema/cinema-news/2023/jul/12/tamil-serial-news-vijay-tv-mouna-ragam-actress-janani-ashok-kumar-acts-lead-in-new-serial-idhayam-4036607.html|access-date=12 July 2023 |website=www.dinamani.com|date=12 July 2023 |language=ta}}</ref> Malayalam actor [[Richard N. J.|Richard Jose]] was cast as the male lead, making this his Tamil debut. Sujatha Panju was roped for an important role as Aadhi's mother and [[Puvi (actor)|Puvi]] was cast as Vasu in a cameo role.<ref>{{Cite web |title=New TV serial 'Idhayam' to launch soon|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/new-tv-serial-idhayam-to-launch-soon-deets-inside/articleshow/101717921.cms|access-date=13 July 2023 |website=[[The Times of India]]|date=13 July 2023 |language=en}}</ref>

===Season 2===
In the end of March 2025, a five-year leap was introduced, bringing several new characters into the show who became pivotal. Actress [[Pallavi Gowda]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Actress Pallavi Gowda joins the cast of Idhayam 2|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/actress-pallavi-gowda-joins-the-cast-of-idhayam-2/articleshow/119584631.cms|access-date=27 March 2025 |website=[[The Times of India]]|date=27 March 2025 |language=en}}</ref> was introduced as new Female lead replaced Janani,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Janani Ashok Kumar quits Tamil daily soap 'Idhayam'|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/janani-ashok-kumar-quits-tamil-daily-soap-idhayam/articleshow/119109272.cms|access-date=17 March 2025 |website=[[The Times of India]]|date=17 March 2025 |language=en}}</ref> in the five-year leap, playing Bharathi. Actress [[Farina Azad]] was cast as Aadhi's colleague and obsessive one-sided girlfriend,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Zee Tamil announces Idhayam Serial with new Cast! Read More for Details |url=https://www.southmoviez.com/tamil/tamil-tv/zee-tamil-idhayam-serial-new-cast/|access-date=19 March 2025 |website=www.southmoviez.com|date=19 March 2025 |language=en}}</ref> but in end of June she quit the series,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Actress Farina Azad quits Tamil daily soap 'Idhayam'|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/actress-farina-azad-quits-tamil-daily-soap-idhayam/articleshow/122139679.cms|access-date=29 June 2025 |website=[[The Times of India]]|date=29 June 2025 |language=en}}</ref> and it was replaced by actress Subbalakshmi Rangan.<ref>{{Cite web |title='Thirumathi Hitler' fame Subalakshmi Rangan joins the cast of 'Idhayam'|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/thirumathi-hitler-fame-subalakshmi-rangan-joins-the-cast-of-idhayam/articleshow/122141885.cms|access-date=29 June 2025 |website=[[The Times of India]]|date=29 June 2025 |language=en}}</ref>

Actor Arun Muthuswamy was cast as Arun in special Appearances.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Veera actor Arun Muthuswamy joins the cast of upcoming Tamil serial Idhayam 2|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/veera-actor-arun-muthuswamy-joins-the-cast-of-upcoming-tamil-serial-idhayam-2/articleshow/119479567.cms|access-date=25 March 2025 |website=[[The Times of India]]|date=25 March 2025 |language=en}}</ref> In end of July 2025, actress [[Malavika Avinash]] was cast as special Appearance.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Actress Malavika Avinash makes a special appearance in 'Idhayam 2'|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/actress-malavika-avinash-makes-a-special-appearance-in-idhayam-2/articleshow/122994650.cms|access-date=30 July 2025 |website=[[The Times of India]]|date=30 July 2025 |language=en}}</ref>

===Release===
The first promo was released on 6 August 2023 featuring Janani Ashok Kumar, [[Richard N. J.|Richard Jose]] and [[Puvi (actor)|Puvi Arasu]], depicting the story with a song and revealing the leads.<ref>{{cite AV media|people=Idhayam serial|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-zWUnCmJW24|title=Idhayam Serial Promo {{!}} Zee Tamil}}</ref> The second promo was unveiled on 17 August 2023, featuring protagonists [[Richard N. J.|Richard Jose]] and Janani Ashok Kumar, also revealing the release date and time.<ref>{{cite AV media|people=Idhayam serial|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-zWUnCmJW24|title=Idhayam Serial Promo 2 {{!}} Zee Tamil}}</ref>

It began airing on [[Zee Tamil]] on afternoon slot at 02:00PM.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ஆகஸ்ட் 28 முதல் ஜீ தமிழில் வெளியாகும் புதிய சீரியல் 'இதயம்'!|url=https://tamil.news18.com/entertainment/television-idhayam-serial-launching-on-28-august-on-zee-tamil-channel-1127325.html#gsc.tab=0|access-date=26 August 2023 |website=tamil.news18.com| date=26 August 2023 |language=ta}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=ஆகஸ்ட் 28 முதல் 'இதயம்' சீரியல்.. ஜீ தமிழ் வெளியிட்ட அறிவிப்பு|url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/idhayam-new-serial-in-zee-tamil-from-august-28-tamilfont-news-341832|access-date=22 August 2023 |website=www.indiaglitz.com|language=ta}}</ref> In Singapore & Malaysia, Idhayam airs at 9.30pm SGT and 10.00pm MYT respectively.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|tt31613109}}
* [https://www.zee5.com/tv-shows/details/idhayam/0-6-4z5419404 ''Idhayam''] at [[ZEE5]]
{{Zee Tamil shows}}

[[Category:Zee Tamil original programming]]
[[Category:Tamil-language romance television series]]
[[Category:Tamil-language melodrama television series]]
[[Category:2023 Tamil-language television series debuts]]
[[Category:Television shows set in Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Tamil-language television shows]]
[[Category:2023 Indian television series debuts]]

Hamvira Deva

2026-03-05T22:43:07Z

Ankitchadha: creating some pg nd citations...

{{Short description|Gajapati emperor from 1472 to 1476}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2024}}
{{Infobox royalty
| type = Prince
| name = Hamvira Deva
| native_name =
| native_lang_name =
| title = Patrudu
| image =
| caption =
| succession = [[Gajapati Empire|Gajapati emperor]]
| reign = October 1472 – 1476
| coronation =
| predecessor = [[Purushottama Deva]]
| successor = [[Purushottama Deva]]
| full name =
| house = [[Suryavansha]]
| spouse =
| father = [[Kapilendra Deva]]
| mother = Parvati Devi
| issue = {{unbulleted list|Kumara Kapileshwara Mahapatra<ref name="b"/><ref name="j">{{cite book |title=The Journal of Orissan History |date=1991 |publisher=Orissa History Congress |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GgFIAAAAMAAJ&q=Hamvira+Deva |language=en}}</ref><ref name="military"/><ref name="gajapati"/>|Narhari Patra<ref name="kc"/>}}
| birth_date =
| birth_place =
| death_date =
| death_place =
| place of burial =
| religion = [[Hinduism]]
| module = {{Infobox military person
| embed = yes
| allegiance =
| branch =
| rank =
| battles = [[Battle of Devarakonda]]}}
}}
'''Hamvira Deva''' was an [[Odia people|Odia]] prince of the [[Gajapati Empire]] in [[Medieval India|India]] and a Gajapati ruler for a brief period. He was the eldest son of [[Kapilendra Deva]], the founder of the Gajapati Empire. He played a vital role in the empire's military expansion, but was bypassed in the succession in favour of his younger half-brother, [[Purushottama Deva]].

==Life==
Hamvira Deva was the eldest son of emperor [[Kapilendra Deva]], founder of the [[Gajapati Empire]] and the supposed heir apparent.<ref name="military"/><ref name="muslim">{{cite book |last1=Haque |first1=Mohammed Anwarul |title=Muslim Administration in Orissa, 1568-1751 A.D. |date=1980 |publisher=Punthi Pustak |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Co8eAAAAMAAJ&q=Hamvira+Deva |language=en}}</ref> Hamvira Deva often carried out military campaigns against enemy kingdoms and expanded the empire greatly. He was governor of the southern provinces of the Gajapati Empire before 1464.<ref name= "b"/> He had a son named Kumara Kapileshwara who helped him on military campaigns and later became governor of the southern provinces of the empire.<ref name="b"/><ref name="gajapati"/><ref name="military"/> He also had a son named Narhari Patra who survived him and was captured by the [[Vijayanagara Empire|Vijayanagara]] army of [[Krishnadevaraya]] when they conquered the [[Kondaveedu Fort|Kodavidu]] fort in 1516 from the Gajapati emperor [[Prataprudra Deva]].<ref name="kc"/>

==Military career==
Hamvira carried out several successful military campaigns when he was governor of the southern provinces until 1464.

===Bahmanis===
In 1449, the [[Malwa Sultanate]] under [[Mahmud Khalji]] invaded the [[Bahmani Sultanate]] under Humayun Shah. He raided [[Bidar]] twice in the 1460s with the assistance of the [[Recherla Nayakas]] of [[Telangana]].<ref name= "r"/>

In 1481, [[Muhammad Shah III Lashkari|Muhammad III]] invaded and besieged the [[Kondaveedu Fort|Kondavidu fort]] which was commanded under Hamvira. This invasion took place after his [[Bahmani invasion of Orissa|invasion on Orissa]]. The Bahmanis defeated Hamvira and he was forced to surrender. Hamvira'a career ended in tragedy as this was the last military engagement of Hamvira.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Haque |first=Mohammed Anwarul |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Co8eAAAAMAAJ |title=Muslim Administration in Orissa, 1568-1751 A.D. |date=1980 |publisher=Punthi Pustak |pages=39 |language=en}}</ref>

===Reddi Kingdom===
The [[Kondaveedu Fort|Kondavidu fort]], one of the strongest forts in [[South India]], was under the control of the [[Reddi Kingdom|Reddis]], who were vassals under the suzerainty of [[Deva Raya II]] of [[Vijayanagara Empire|Vijayanagar]].

[[Deva Raya II]] was a capable ruler who defeated the first Gajapati invasion. [[Kapilendra Deva]] appointed prince Hamvira Deva to annex the southern kingdoms to his empire. [[Deva Raya II]]'s successor [[Mallikarjuna Raya]] was a weak monarch. Hamvira Deva took advantage of this and attacked [[Rajahmundry]] under Veerabhadra Reddi and conquered it in 1448. He appointed his cousin Raghudeva Narendra Mohapatra as its governor.<ref name="military">{{cite book |last1=Das |first1=H. C. |title=Military History of Kalinga |date=1986 |publisher=Punthi Pustak |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HPMeAAAAMAAJ&q=Hamvira+Deva |language=en}}</ref>

===Vijayanagara===
Hamvira attacked [[Kondaveedu Fort|Kondavidu fort]] in 1454 and successfully captured it, despite the [[Reddi Kingdom|Reddis]] being assisted in the battle by [[Vijayanagara Empire|Vijayanagar]]. He then appointed Ganadeva Routray as the fort's governor.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sahu |first1=N. K. |title=A History of Orissa |date=1980 |publisher=Bharatiya Publishing House |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BxpDAAAAYAAJ&q=Hamvira+Deva |language=en}}</ref>

According to the Anantavaram grant, the forts of [[Chandragiri]], Padavidu, Valudularnpatti, Usavadi, [[Thiruvarur|Tiruvarur]] and Tiruchilapalli and the city of [[Kanchipuram|Kanchi]] fell to Hamvira. The conquered region was placed under the charge of Hamvira's son Kumara Kapileshwara Mahapatra.<ref name= "gajapati">{{Cite web|url=http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/127087/8/08_chapter%203.pdf|title=RELATIONS WITH THE GAJAPATHIS|website=shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in|access-date=6 September 2017}}</ref>

When [[Mallikarjuna Raya]] succeeded to the [[Vijayanagara Empire|Vijayanagara]] throne, [[Kapilendra Deva]] sought to take advantage of the weak ruler and sent Hamvira Deva along with support of the [[Bahmani Sultanate]] to the [[Vijayanagara Empire|Vijayanagara]] capital of [[Hampi]]. Sources differ on the outcome of this conflict, with the Anantavaram copper plates of the Gajapatis stating that Hamvira conquered [[Hampi]] and forced [[Mallikarjuna Raya]] to pay tribute. However, the ''Gangadasa-Vilasa Charitam'' authored by the Vijaynagara poet Gangadhar states that his patron [[Mallikarjuna Raya]] sallied from the capital during the siege and routed the combined forces of the [[Gajapati Empire|Gajapatis]] and [[Bahmani Sultanate|Bahmanis]].<ref name= "kc"/> Historian R. Subramanyam hence concludes that Hamvira defeated the Vijayanagara forces in a pitched battle but failed to break the stout defences of [[Hampi]] and retreated.<ref name= "r"/>

In 1460, [[Kapilendra Deva]]'s lieutenant Tumma Bhupala conquered the [[Udayagiri, Andhra Pradesh|Udaigiri fort]] from the [[Vijayanagara Empire]]. With [[Udayagiri, Andhra Pradesh|Udaigiri]] as a base, Hamvira helped his father to conquer the coastal districts of the [[Vijayanagara Empire]] up to [[Thanjavur|Tanjore]] and [[South Arcot]].<ref name= "kc"/>

===Telangana===
{{Main|Battle of Devarakonda}}
[[File:The Lion Gate of Devarakonda Fort.jpg|thumb|Present day ruins of Devarakonda Fort.]]
The [[Recherla Nayakas|Velama]] chief of [[Devarakonda]] (in the present-day [[Telangana]] region), Gajaravo Tippa, requested [[Kapilendra Deva]] for help against the [[Bahmani Sultanate]]. The [[Recherla Nayakas|Velama]] chiefs of [[Telangana]] had angered the [[Bahmani Sultanate|Bahmanis]] by supporting [[Vijayanagar Empire|Vijayanagar]], their archenemy, in a war against them and the Bahmanis severely devastated the Velama territory.<ref name= "gajapati"/>

In 1458, a battle ensued at Devarakonda in which Hamvira Deva defeated the [[Bahmani Sultanate|Bahmani]] forces under Sanjar Khan, the general of [[Sultan]] Humayun Shah. Subsequently, he took control of the [[Khammam Fort]] and placed the governor of [[Rajahmundry]] and his cousin, Raghudeva Narendra Mohapatra in its charge.

He attacked [[Warangal Fort]] under the command of [[Mahmud Gawan]], the Bahmani prime minister and conquered it after a siege lasting until February 1460.<ref name="kc"/><ref name= "r">{{cite book |title=The Sūryavaṁśi Gajapatis of Orissa {{!}} WorldCat.org |oclc=1945979 |language=en}}</ref>

==Struggle for the throne==
Being the most able<ref name="b"/> among [[Kapilendra Deva]]'s numerous children, he was supported by the ministers, courtiers and some Gajapati vassals, as known from the "Abhinava-Gita-Govinda".<ref name="cult">{{cite book |last1=Mishra |first1=Baba |title=Medieval Orissa and Cult of Jagannatha |date=1995 |publisher=Navrang |isbn=978-81-7013-128-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0ipuAAAAMAAJ&q=Hamvira+Deva |language=en}}</ref>

However, he was bypassed in the succession order in favour of his younger half-brother [[Purushottama Deva]].<ref name="j"/><ref name="muslim"/> This reason for this decision of making a younger and unproven prince the successor made by his father [[Kapilendra Deva]] is debated.<ref name="j"/> Scholars theorize that Hamvira rebelled against his father, hence [[Purushottama Deva|Purushotamma]] became his favourite son and was appointed as successor by his father [[Kapilendra Deva]] on the banks of the [[Krishna River]].<ref name="b">{{cite book |last1=Tripathy |first1=Shyam Sunder |title=Buddhism and Other Religious Cults of South-east India |date=1988 |publisher=Sundeep Prakashan |isbn=978-81-85067-15-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OXbYAAAAMAAJ&q=Hamvira+Deva |language=en}}</ref><ref name="j"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Das |first1=H. C. |title=Cultural Development in Orissa |date=1985 |publisher=Punthi Pustak |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w80dAAAAMAAJ&q=Hamvira+Deva |language=en}}</ref> R. Subramanyam theorizes that during the last years of Kapilendra's reign a revolt led by his son Hamvira occurred in the [[Krishna River]] region. [[Kapilendra Deva|Kapilendra]] came to the banks of the [[Krishna River]] to quell the rebellion but his failing health prevented him from doing so. Before dying, he appointed [[Purushottama Deva|Purushotamma]] as his successor.<ref name= "r"/><ref name= "gajapati"/>

There is a legend that when, under divine guidance, [[Kapilendra Deva]] announced that he was naming [[Purushottama Deva|Purushottama]] as heir apparent, the eighteen older sons, including Hamvira Deva, threw spears at Purushottama in their fury, all of which missed.

Dissatisfied with [[Purushottama Deva|Purushottama]] becoming emperor, he declared himself king, ruling from the [[Udayagiri, Andhra Pradesh|Udaigiri Fort]]. [[Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya]], emperor of the [[Vijayanagara Empire]], took advantage of the Gajapati civil war and invaded [[Udayagiri, Andhra Pradesh|Udaigiri]] around 1469. Hamvira was forced to sue for peace and was captured.<ref name= "gajapati"/>

==Reign==
Due to his weak position after his defeat by [[Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya]], he sought and acquired the support of the [[Bahmani Sultanate]] in 1470.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ghosh |first1=G. K. |title=Orissa: The Dazzle from Within (art, Craft and Culture of Orissa) |date=1993 |publisher=Ashish |isbn=978-81-7024-593-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UjpuAAAAMAAJ&q=Hamvira+Deva |language=en}}</ref> [[Muhammad Shah III Lashkari|Muhammad Shah III]]'s general Malik Hussain Bheiry (also known as Nizam-ul-Mulk) helped Hamvira in capturing [[Kondapalli]] and [[Rajahmundry]]. Then their combined forces marched to the [[Gajapati Empire|Gajapati]] capital, [[Cuttack]], defeated [[Purushottama Deva|Purushottama]] in 1472 and Hamvira was crowned as the new king.<ref name= "muslim"/><ref name="andhra">{{cite book |title=Journal of the Andhra Historical Research Society |date=1960 |publisher=Andhra Historical Research Society |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V-4VAQAAMAAJ&q=Hamvira+Deva |language=en}}</ref> In return for his aid, Hamvira ceded [[Rajahmundry]] and [[Kondaveedu Fort|Kondavidu]] to [[Muhammad Shah III Lashkari|Muhammad Shah III]].<ref name= "muslim"/> [[Purushottama Deva]] re-captured the throne from Hamvira in 1476 due to the [[Bahmani Sultanate|Bahmanis]] being unable to provide support.<ref name= "gajapati"/>

Many scholars such as [[R. D. Banerji|R.D. Banerjee]] do not agree with this theory of Hamvira achieving kingship proposed by R Subrahmanyam. Historian [[Krishna Chandra Panigrahi|K.C. Panigrahi]] among others argues that if Hamvira had occupied the throne for even a short period, some evidence in the form of inscriptions or traditions would have been available.<ref name="kc">{{cite book |last1=PANIGRAHI |first1=KRISHNA CHANDRA |title=History of Orissa: (HINDU PERIOD) |date=5 January 2023 |publisher=Notion Press |isbn=978-1-68586-798-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p0mkEAAAQBAJ&q=Hamvira |language=en}}</ref><ref name= "gajapati"/><ref name="r"/>

==Later life==
Not much is known about his later life.<ref name= "cult"/> [[Krishna Chandra Panigrahi|K.C. Panigrahi]] contemplates that he was likely to have been executed by the [[Bahmani Sultanate|Bahmani Sultan]] when his secret correspondence with his brother [[Purushottama Deva]] was discovered. He states that Hamvira's able son, Kumara Kapileshwara Mahapatra, might have died during a battle.<ref name="kc"/>

R. Subrahmanyam is of the opinion that [[Purushottama Deva]] and Hamvira reached a compromise. When Hamvira was defeated in 1476, he was allowed to go to [[Parlakhemundi|Khimidi]] where he ruled as a vassal of [[Purushottama Deva]] and established a line of vassal rulers.<ref name="r"/>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Gajapati Empire]]
[[Category:15th-century Indian monarchs]]

Bishunpur Assembly constituency

2026-03-04T04:05:41Z

Ankitchadha:

{{Short description|Constituency of the Jharkhand legislative assembly in India}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| type = SLA
| reservation = ST
| incumbent_image = Chamra Linda.jpg
| name = Bishunpur
| map_image = Bishunpur constituency map.svg
| state = [[Jharkhand]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Lohardaga Lok Sabha constituency|Lohardaga]]
| established = 2000
| district = [[Gumla district|Gumla]]
| latest_election_year = [[2024 Jharkhand Legislative Assembly election|2024]]
| mla = [[Chamra Linda]]
| party = {{Party index link|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}
| alliance = {{Party index link|Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)}}
| electors = {{formatnum:235502}}
| constituency_no = 69
}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
''' Bishunpur Assembly constituency''' is an [[Vidhan Sabha|assembly]] constituency in the [[India]]n [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[Jharkhand]].<ref name=jhceo>{{cite web |url=http://164.100.150.3/ceoweb_bk/ACPCList.htm |title=AC & PC List- Jharkhand |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191218152343/http://164.100.150.3/ceoweb_bk/ACPCList.htm |archive-date=18 December 2019}}</ref><ref name=delimitation2008>{{cite web |title=Schedule – XIII of Constituencies Order, 2008 of Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly constituencies |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101005180821/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf |archive-date=5 October 2010 |access-date=13 October 2021 }}</ref>

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Election
! Name
! colspan=2|Party
|-
! colspan=4|[[Bihar Legislative Assembly]]
|-
| colspan="4" |{{center|''Before 1977: Constituency did not exist''}}
|-
|[[1977 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1977]]
|Kartik Oraon
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=3}}
|-
|[[1980 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1980]]
|rowspan=2|Bhukhla Bhagat
|-
|[[1985 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1985]]
|-
|[[1990 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1990]]
|Ramesh Oraon
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
|[[1995 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1995]]
|Bhukhla Bhagat
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[2000 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2000]]
|Chandresh Oraon
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
! colspan=4|[[Jharkhand Legislative Assembly]]
|-
|[[2005 Jharkhand Legislative Assembly election|2005]]
|Chandresh Oraon
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
|[[2009 Jharkhand Legislative Assembly election|2009]]
|rowspan=4|[[Chamra Linda]]
|{{Full party name with color|Rashtriya Kalyan Paksha}}
|-
|[[2014 Jharkhand Legislative Assembly election|2014]]
|{{Full party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha|rowspan=3}}
|-
|[[2019 Jharkhand Legislative Assembly election|2019]]
|-
|[[2024 Jharkhand Legislative Assembly election|2024]]
|}

== Election results ==
===Assembly election 2024===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2024 Jharkhand Legislative Assembly election]]: Bishunpur<ref>{{cite news |last1=Election Commission of India |title=Jharkhand Assembly Election Results 2024 - Seats won by JMM |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenNov2024/partywisewinresult-852S27.htm |access-date=24 November 2024 |date=24 November 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241124045445/https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenNov2024/partywisewinresult-852S27.htm |archive-date=24 November 2024}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Chamra Linda]] |party=Jharkhand Mukti Morcha |votes=1,00,336 |percentage=49.64% |change={{increase}}0.45 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Sameer Oraon]] |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=67,580 |percentage=33.43% |change={{decrease}}5.18 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Jagarnath Oraon |party=Independent politician |votes=10,899 |percentage=5.39% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Shiv Kumar Bhagat |party=Independent politician |votes=5,473 |percentage=2.71% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Yashoda Devi |party=Jharkhand Loktantrik Krantikari Morcha |votes=2,449 |percentage=1.21% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Mahendra Oraon |party=Communist Party of India |votes=1,741 |percentage=0.86% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Mahatma Oraon |party=Independent politician |votes=1,619 |percentage=0.80% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=None of the Above |party=None of the above |votes=6,187 |percentage=3.06% |change={{increase}}0.26 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=32,756 |percentage=16.20% |change= {{increase}}5.63 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=2,02,140 |percentage=71.63% |change= {{increase}}1.83 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 2,82,183 |ref = |change= {{increase}}19.82 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Jharkhand Mukti Morcha |loser=Jharkhand Mukti Morcha |swing= {{increase}}0.45 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly election 2019===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2019 Jharkhand Legislative Assembly election]]: Bishunpur<ref>{{cite web |url=https://eci.gov.in/files/file/11813-jharkhand-legislative-assembly-election-2019/ |title=Jharkhand Legislative Assembly Election, 2019 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date=9 February 2022 |date=6 February 2020}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Chamra Linda]] |party=Jharkhand Mukti Morcha |votes=80,864 |percentage=49.19% |change={{increase}}11.24 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ashok Oraon |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=63,482 |percentage=38.61% |change={{increase}}8.03 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Mahatma Oraon |party=Jharkhand Vikas Morcha (Prajatantrik) |votes=5,005 |percentage=3.04% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Mohan Bhagat |party=Independent politician |votes=2,450 |percentage=1.49% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Fulmani Bara |party=Independent politician |votes=2,214 |percentage=1.35% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Pushpa Panna |party=Independent politician |votes=1,101 |percentage=0.67% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Bhineshwar Bhagat |party=Bhartiya Tribal Party |votes=942 |percentage=0.57% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=None of the Above |party=None of the above |votes=4,599 |percentage=2.80% |change={{decrease}}0.33 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=17,382 |percentage=10.57% |change= {{increase}}3.21 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=1,64,401 |percentage=69.81% |change= {{increase}}2.89 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 2,35,502 |ref = |change= {{increase}}7.08 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Jharkhand Mukti Morcha |loser=Jharkhand Mukti Morcha |swing= {{increase}}11.24 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly election 2014===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2014 Jharkhand Legislative Assembly election]]: Bishunpur<ref>{{cite web |url=https://eci.gov.in/files/file/3787-jharkhand-2014/ |title=Jharkhand General Legislative Election 2014 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date=13 October 2021}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Chamra Linda]] |party=Jharkhand Mukti Morcha |votes=55,851 |percentage=37.95% |change={{increase}}32.95 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Samir Oraon |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=45,008 |percentage=30.58% |change={{increase}}11.06 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ashok Oraon |party=Independent politician |votes=11,994 |percentage=8.15% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Boby Bhagat |party=Indian National Congress |votes=11,781 |percentage=8.00% |change={{decrease}}15.08 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Sukhair Bhagat |party=Independent politician |votes=3,733 |percentage=2.54% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Vishwanath Oraon |party=Communist Party of India |votes=3,190 |percentage=2.17% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Amon Lakra |party=Communist Party of India (Marxist Leninist) Liberation |votes=2,867 |percentage=1.95% |change={{increase}}0.12 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=None of the Above |party=None of the above |votes=4,605 |percentage=3.13% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=10,843 |percentage=7.37% |change= {{decrease}}6.53 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=1,47,180 |percentage=66.92% |change= {{increase}}2.39 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 2,19,936 |ref = |change= {{increase}}18.05 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Jharkhand Mukti Morcha |loser=Rashtriya Kalyan Paksha |swing= {{increase}}0.96 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly election 2009===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2009 Jharkhand Legislative Assembly election]]: Bishunpur<ref>{{cite web |url=https://eci.gov.in/files/file/3786-jharkhand-2009/ |title=Jharkhand 2009 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |date=20 August 2018 |access-date= 23 May 2022}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Chamra Linda]] |party=Rashtriya Kalyan Paksha |votes=44,461 |percentage=36.98% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Shiv Kumar Bhagat |party=Indian National Congress |votes=27,751 |percentage=23.08% |change={{increase}}8.48 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Bhikhari Bhagat |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=23,470 |percentage=19.52% |change={{increase}}3.42 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Uday Bhagat |party=Jharkhand Mukti Morcha |votes=6,007 |percentage=5.00% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Sukhnath Bhagat |party=Independent politician |votes=4,818 |percentage=4.01% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Suresh Bhagat |party=Communist Party of India (Marxist Leninist) Liberation |votes=2,196 |percentage=1.83% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Rameshwari Devi |party=All Jharkhand Students Union |votes=2,190 |percentage=1.82% |change={{increase}}0.13 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=16,710 |percentage=13.90% |change= {{increase}}13.52 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=1,20,215 |percentage=64.53% |change= {{increase}}1.48 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 1,86,306 |ref = |change= {{decrease}}21.49 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Rashtriya Kalyan Paksha |loser=Bharatiya Janata Party |swing= {{increase}}20.88 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly election 2005===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2005 Jharkhand Legislative Assembly election]]: Bishunpur<ref>{{cite web |url=https://eci.gov.in/files/file/3785-jharkhand-2005/ |title=Jharkhand General Legislative Election 2005 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date=13 October 2021}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Chandresh Oraon |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=24,099 |percentage=16.11% |change={{decrease}}24.88 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Chamra Linda]] |party=Independent politician |votes=23,530 |percentage=15.73% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Shiv Kumar Bhagat |party=Indian National Congress |votes=21,846 |percentage=14.60% |change={{decrease}}19.33 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Sukhnath Bhagat |party=Independent politician |votes=6,777 |percentage=4.53% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ajit Tigga |party=Rashtriya Janata Dal |votes=4,897 |percentage=3.27% |change={{decrease}}6.38 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Anil Kumar Asur |party=Communist Party of India |votes=2,860 |percentage=1.91% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ramesh Oraon |party=All Jharkhand Students Union |votes=2,537 |percentage=1.70% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=569 |percentage=0.38% |change= {{decrease}}6.67 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=1,49,610 |percentage=63.05% |change= {{increase}}29.23 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 2,37,299 |ref = |change= {{increase}}47.03 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Bharatiya Janata Party |loser=Bharatiya Janata Party |swing= {{decrease}}24.88 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly election 2000===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2000 Bihar Legislative Assembly election]]: Bishunpur<ref>{{cite web|url = https://ceobihar.nic.in/BiharElection/Statistical%20Report/2000.pdf |title = Statistical Report on General Election, 2000 to the Legislative Assembly of Bihar |access-date = 16 January 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005142035/https://ceobihar.nic.in/BiharElection/Statistical%20Report/2000.pdf |archive-date= 5 October 2023 |website=ceobihar.nic.in |publisher=Chief Electoral Officer, Bihar}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Chandresh Oraon |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=22,369 |percentage=40.99% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Bhukhla Bhagat |party=Indian National Congress |votes=18,519 |percentage=33.93% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Sukhair Bhagat |party=Rashtriya Janata Dal |votes=5,270 |percentage=9.66% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Pravin Kumar Oraon |party=Jharkhand Mukti Morcha |votes=4,082 |percentage=7.48% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ajit Tigga |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=971 |percentage=1.78% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Bishwanath Oraon |party=Communist Party of India (Marxist Leninist) Liberation |votes=914 |percentage=1.67% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Jai Prakash Bhagat |party=Nationalist Congress Party |votes=766 |percentage=1.40% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=3,850 |percentage=7.05% |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=54,575 |percentage=35.35% |change= }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 1,61,396 |ref = |change= }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner=Bharatiya Janata Party |loser= |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
*[[List of constituencies of the Jharkhand Legislative Assembly]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Jharkhand}}
{{Jharkhand elections|state=expanded}}

{{coord|23.375|84.380|display=title}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Jharkhand]]
[[Category:Politics of Jharkhand]]
[[Category:Gumla district]]
[[Category:Constituencies established in 2000]]
[[Category:2000 establishments in Jharkhand]]

Kudumbam (1984 film)

2026-03-03T05:15:19Z

Ankitchadha: improve information and added references

{{short description|1984 film by S. A. Chandrasekhar}}
{{More citations needed|date=April 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2022}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Kudumbam
| image = Kudumbam (1984 film).jpg
| caption = Poster
| director = [[S. A. Chandrasekhar]]
| screenplay = S. A. Chandrasekhar
| story = [[Shoba Chandrasekhar]]
| producer = S. S. Neelakantan
| starring = [[Vijayakanth]] Devisri [[Jaishankar (actor)|Jaishankar]] [[Sujatha (actress)|Sujatha]]
| cinematography = M. Kesavan
| editing = P. R. Goutham Raj
| music = [[Gangai Amaran]]
| studio = Lalithaanjali
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|1984|11|22|ref1=}}
| runtime = 135 minutes
| country = India
| language = Tamil
}}

'''''Kudumbam''''' ({{translation|Family}}) is a 1984 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language [[Drama (film and television)|drama film]], directed by [[S. A. Chandrasekhar]]. The film stars [[Vijayakanth]], Devisri, [[Jaishankar (actor)|Jaishankar]] and [[Sujatha (actress)|Sujatha]]. It was released on 22 November 1984.<ref>{{Cite news |date=1 December 2002 |title=நட்சத்திர படப் பட்டியல் |url=https://ibb.co/cTSgjhM |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240202064212/https://ibb.co/cTSgjhM |archive-date=2 February 2024 |access-date=2 February 2024 |work=[[Cinema Express]] |pages=41–43 |language=Ta}}</ref>

== Plot ==
{{more plot|date=May 2023}}
Vijay falls in love with Devi. With the empowerment of Shankar and her sister Vijaya, the marriage is granted. While Vijay cannot find time with Devi for entertainment. She gives birth to a baby but Devi suddenly dies. An argument takes place in the family and he decides to divide his entourage by sharing the house. Vijay gets his daughter, raised by his sister but runs away with Raja, son of Vijaya. Both children are in the street but are and recovered, protected by Latha. Gangs are trying to capture his children, but Vijay and Latha are helping them. The film ends when the family also gets closer to them.

== Cast ==
{{cast listing|
*[[Vijayakanth]] as Vijay
*Devisri as Devi
*[[Jaishankar (actor)|Jaishankar]] as Shankar
*[[Sujatha (actress)|Sujatha]] as Vijaya
*[[Sripriya]] as Latha
*[[Sangili Murugan]] as Kanthasamy
*[[Vennira Aadai Moorthy]] as Palamozhi Mama
*[[S. A. Chandrasekhar]] as Sekhar
*[[M. R. Krishnamurthy]] as Aadiyapatham
*[[Kallapetti Singaram]] as Singaram
*[[Pasi Sathya]] as Vasantha
*Master Suresh as Raja
*[[Vijay (actor)|Vijay]] as Narada
*[[Jayamalini]] in Guest Appearance
*[[Manorama (Tamil actress)|Manorama]] in Guest Appearance
*[[Y. G. Mahendran]] in Guest Appearance
}}

== Soundtrack ==
Soundtrack was composed by [[Gangai Amaran]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kudumbam Tamil Film LP Vinyl Record by Gangai Ameran |url=https://mossymart.com/product/kudumbam-tamil-film-lp-vinyl-record-by-gangai-ameran/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220422120147/https://mossymart.com/product/kudumbam-tamil-film-lp-vinyl-record-by-gangai-ameran/ |archive-date=22 April 2022 |access-date=13 October 2021 |website=Mossymart}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%;"
! Title !! Singer !! Length
|-
| "Chinna Ponnu Naniruken" || [[Vani Jairam]] || 04:58
|-
| "Nelagiri Poove" || [[S. N. Surendar]], [[S. Janaki]] ||04:28
|-
| "Thedamal Dheivam" || [[P. Susheela]] || 03:52
|-
| "Nalla Kudumbam" || [[Gangai Amaran]], [[Ilaiyaraaja]] || 02:50
|}

== Reception ==
[[Subha (writers)|Jayamanmadhan]] of ''[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]]'' panned the acting and the characterisation of actors.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=ஜெயமன்மதன் |author-link=Subha (writers) |date=23 December 1984 |title=குடும்பம் |url=https://archive.org/details/kalki1984-12-23/page/n49/mode/2up |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230502072721/https://archive.org/details/kalki1984-12-23/page/n49/mode/2up |archive-date=2 May 2023 |access-date=2 May 2023 |magazine=[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]] |page=49 |language=ta |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|0364465}}

{{S. A. Chandrasekhar}}

[[Category:1984 Indian films]]
[[Category:1984 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:1984 drama films]]
[[Category:1984 films]]
[[Category:Films about families]]
[[Category:Films directed by S. A. Chandrasekhar]]
[[Category:Films scored by Gangai Amaran]]
[[Category:Films with screenplays by S. A. Chandrasekhar]]
[[Category:Indian drama films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]

List of Ahmedabad Metro stations

2026-02-14T06:23:32Z

Ankitchadha: Article updated with improved flow

{{short description|MEGA(Metro link Express form Gandhinagar to Ahmedabad)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date = September 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date = September 2017}}
{{GeoGroup|article=Category:Ahmedabad Metro stations}}
{{update|date=December 2024}}
This is a list of all stations of the '''[[Ahmedabad Metro]]''', a [[rapid transit]] system serving [[Ahmedabad]], India.

Ahmedabad Metro is the [[List of metro systems|12th]] metro system in India.

It was built and is operated by the [[Gujarat Metro Rail Corporation Limited]]. Its first section was inaugurated on 4 March 2019<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.livemint.com/industry/infrastructure/pm-narendra-modi-inaugurates-ahmedabad-metro-first-phase-takes-a-ride-1551707985388.html|title=PM Narendra Modi inaugurates Ahmedabad Metro first phase, takes a ride|date=2019-03-04|website=livemint.com|language=en|access-date=2019-03-08}}</ref> and opened to the public on 6 March 2019, with the East-West Corridor.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/ahmedabad-metro-to-open-for-public-on-wednesday/articleshow/68263112.cms|title=Ahmedabad Metro to open for public on Wednesday|publisher=[[Times of India]]|date=5 March 2019|accessdate=6 March 2019}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{cite news |title=Ahmedabad Metro to open for public on Wednesday - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/ahmedabad-metro-to-open-for-public-on-wednesday/articleshow/68263112.cms |access-date=10 March 2019 |website=The Times of India|date=5 March 2019 }}</ref> The 1.4 km-long Thaltej-Thaltej Gam section and three metro stations (Kankaria East, Thaltej Gam and Sabarmati) were expected to be completed by December 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-04-28 |title=3 new metro stations in Ahmedabad likely to open later this year |url=https://www.deshgujarat.com/2023/04/28/3-new-metro-stations-in-ahmedabad-likely-later-this-year/ |access-date=2023-05-28 |website=DeshGujarat |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-05-15 |title=Ten firms bid for last section of Phase-2 of Ahmedabad Metro |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/ahmedabad/firms-bid-last-section-phase-2-ahmedabad-metro-7917759/ |access-date=2022-06-11 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite web |date=2022-07-11 |title=Chugging in, clearing hurdles: Prime Minister to inaugurate Phase I of Ahmedabad Metro in August this year |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/ahmedabad/prime-minister-to-inaugurate-phase-i-of-ahmedabad-metro-in-august-this-year-8021341/ |access-date=2022-07-13 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-09-17 |title=Ahmedabad Metro receives CMRS clearance |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/ahmedabad/ahmedabad-metro-receives-cmrs-clearance-8156117/ |access-date=2022-09-30 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> The rest of Phase-1 was inaugurated on 30 September 2022.<ref name="ix12">{{cite web |date=28 September 2022 |title=PM Modi to launch Ahmedabad Metro Phase 1, flag off Vande Bharat Express during two-day Gujarat visit |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/ahmedabad/pm-modi-to-launch-ahmedabad-metro-phase-1-flag-off-vande-bharat-express-8177573/lite/}}</ref> The East-West corridor and the North-South corridor were opened to the public on 2 October 2022 and 6 October 2022 respectively.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-09-30 |title=મેટ્રો ટ્રેનની સવારી: અમદાવાદમાં થલતેજ-વસ્ત્રાલ મેટ્રો ગાંધી જયંતીથી, એપીએમસી-મોટેરા 6 ઓક્ટોબરથી શરૂ થશે |url=https://www.divyabhaskar.co.in/local/gujarat/ahmedabad/news/thaltej-vastral-metro-in-ahmedabad-from-gandhi-jayanti-apmc-motera-from-october-6-130381356.html |access-date=2022-09-30 |website=Divya Bhaskar |language=gu}}</ref>

The trial run of Phase-2 started in February 2024 between GNLU and Dholakuva Circle stations.<ref>{{cite web |date=April 20, 2023|title=Ahmedabad Metro Phase II trial run likely in June|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/|publisher=Times of India}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=A'bad-G'nagar Metro phase-2 trial run starts |url=https://www.ahmedabadmirror.com/abad-gnagar-metro-phase-2-trial-run-starts/81862745.html |access-date=2024-02-24 |website=Ahmedabad Mirror |language=en}}</ref> The Yellow Line connecting Sector 1 station of Gandhinagar with the Red Line's [[Motera Stadium metro station|Motera Stadium]] along with six new stations on Yellow Line were inaugurated on 16 September 2024 by Prime Minister [[Narendra Modi]] and was open to the public on 17 September 2024.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2024-09-17 |title=PM Modi Inaugurated Ahmedabad Metro Phase 2 And Vande Metro - Metro Rail News |url=https://metrorailnews.in/ahmendabad-metro-phase-2-and-vande-metro/ |access-date=2024-09-18 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="indianexpress.com2">{{Cite web |date=19 September 2021 |title=Ahmedabad Metro connectivity to GIFT City by early 2024, says GMRC |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/ahmedabad/ahmedabad-metro-connectivity-to-gift-city-by-early-2024-says-gmrc-7518317/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-09-16 |title=PM Modi Flags Off Ahmedabad-Gandhinagar Metro Phase-II, Takes Rail Ride |url=https://www.news18.com/india/pm-modi-flags-off-ahmedabad-gandhinagar-metro-phase-ii-takes-rail-ride-9052835.html |access-date=2024-09-17 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-09-16 |title=PM Modi inaugurates 2nd phase of Ahmedabad Metro Rail Project |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/prime-minister-narendra-modi-phase-ii-ahmedabad-metro-rail-project-inaugurate-gujarat-visit-2600623-2024-09-16 |access-date=2024-09-17 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref> Seven new stations on Yellow Line were opened to public on 27 April 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ahmedabad Metro route extended to Secretariat in Gandhinagar from Sunday: 7 new stations added |url=https://english.gujaratsamachar.com/news/gujarat/ahmedabad-metro-route-extended-to-secretariat-in-gandhinagar-from-sunday-7-new-stations-added |access-date=2025-04-26 |website=english.gujaratsamachar.com |language=en}}</ref> Juna Koba and Koba Gaam stations were opened on 28 September 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |last=DeshGujarat |date=2025-09-26 |title=Two more stations to become operational on Ahmedabad-Gandhinagar Metro Rail corridor |url=https://deshgujarat.com/2025/09/26/two-more-stations-to-become-operational-on-ahmedabad-gandhinagar-metro-rail-corridor/ |access-date=2025-09-26 |website=DeshGujarat |language=en-US}}</ref> The final 5.36-kilometre corridor of the Yellow Line, from Sachivalaya (Secretariat) to [[Mahatma Mandir]], was inaugurated on 11 January 2026 by Prime Minister Modi.<ref name="dgxa">{{Cite web |last=DeshGujarat |date=2026-01-11 |title=PM Modi inaugurates Sachivalaya-Mahatma Mandir route of Ahmedabad-Gandhinagar Metro |url=https://deshgujarat.com/2026/01/11/pm-modi-inaugurates-sachivalaya-mahatma-mandir-route-of-ahmedabad-gandhinagar-metro/ |access-date=2026-01-25 |website=DeshGujarat |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Metro stations ==
{| class="wikitable" width="30%" style="text-align: left;" style=font-size:95%; width="30%"
|style="background-color:#AFEEEE"|†
|Terminal station
|-
|style="background-color:#FFFF99"|*
|Transfer station
|-
|style="background-color:#F5DEB3"|††
|Transfer station to [[Indian Railways]] / [[Inter State Bus Terminals|ISBT]]
|}
The list gives only operational stations, alphabetically-
{| class="wikitable sortable" width="100%" style="text-align: left;" style=font-size:95%; width="100%"
! rowspan="2" width="5%" |Sr no.
! colspan="2" width="28%" |Station name
! rowspan="2" width="12%" |Line
! rowspan="2" width="10%" |Opened
! rowspan="2" width="5%" |Layout
! rowspan="2" width="5%" |Platform layout
! rowspan="2" width="18%" |Notes
! rowspan="2" width="5%" |Refs
|-
![[English language|English]]
![[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]
|-
!1
| align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|AEC}}
| align="center" |એ ઇ સી
| align="center" |{{rcb|Ahmedabad Metro|red|broute}}
| align="center" |September 30, 2022
| align="center" |Elevated
| align="center" |Side
| align="center" |–
|
|-
!2
| align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|Amraiwadi}}
| align="center" |અમરાઈવાડી
| align="center" |{{rcb|Ahmedabad Metro|blue|broute}}
| align="center" |March 4, 2019
| align="center" |Elevated
| align="center" |Side
| align="center" |–
|<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dnaindia.com/ahmedabad/report-no-parking-at-60-metro-stations-in-ahmedabad-2704092|title=No parking at 60% metro stations in Ahmedabad|publisher=[[DNA News|DNA]]|date=4 January 2019|accessdate=5 January 2019}}</ref>
|-
!3
| style="background-color:#AFEEEE" align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|APMC}} †
| align="center" |એ પી એમ સી
| align="center" |{{rcb|Ahmedabad Metro|red|broute}}
| align="center" |September 30, 2022
| align="center" |Elevated
| align="center" |Side
| align="center" |–
|
|-
!4
| style="background-color:#AFEEEE" align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|Apparel Park}} †
| align="center" |એપેરલ પાર્ક
| align="center" |{{rcb|Ahmedabad Metro|blue|broute}}
| align="center" |March 4, 2019
| align="center" |Elevated
| align="center" |Side
| align="center" |–
|<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/metro-tunnel-from-apparel-park-to-kalupur-ready/articleshow/68160335.cms|title=Metro Tunnel from apparel park to kalupur ready|publisher=[[Times of India]]|date=26 February 2019|accessdate=27 February 2019}}</ref>
|-
!5
| align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|Commerce Six Road}}
| align="center" |કોમર્સ છ રસ્તા
| align="center" |{{rcb|Ahmedabad Metro|blue|broute}}
| align="center" |September 30, 2022
| align="center" |Elevated
| align="center" |Side
| align="center" |–
|
|-
!6
| align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|Doordarshan Kendra}}
| align="center" |દૂરદર્શન કેન્દ્ર
| align="center" |{{rcb|Ahmedabad Metro|blue|broute}}
| align="center" |September 30, 2022
| align="center" |Elevated
| align="center" |Side
| align="center" |–
|
|-
!7
| align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|Gandhigram}}
| align="center" |ગાંધીગ્રામ
| align="center" |{{rcb|Ahmedabad Metro|red|broute}}
| align="center" |September 30, 2022
| align="center" |Elevated
| align="center" |Side
| align="center" |–
|
|-
!8
| align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|Gheekanta}}
| align="center" |ઘીકાંટા
| align="center" |{{rcb|Ahmedabad Metro|blue|broute}}
| align="center" |September 30, 2022
| align="center" |Underground
| align="center" |Island
| align="center" |–
|
|-
!9
| align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|Gujarat University}}
| align="center" |ગુજરાત યુનિવર્સિટી
| align="center" |{{rcb|Ahmedabad Metro|blue|broute}}
| align="center" |September 30, 2022
| align="center" |Elevated
| align="center" |Side
| align="center" |–
|
|-
!10
| align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|Gurukul Road}}
| align="center" |ગુરુકુળ રોડ
| align="center" |{{rcb|Ahmedabad Metro|blue|broute}}
| align="center" |September 30, 2022
| align="center" |Elevated
| align="center" |Side
| align="center" |–
|
|-
!11
| align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|Jivraj Park}}
| align="center" |જીવરાજ પાર્ક
| align="center" |{{rcb|Ahmedabad Metro|red|broute}}
| align="center" |September 30, 2022
| align="center" |Elevated
| align="center" |Side
| align="center" |–
|
|-
!12
| style="background-color:#F5DEB3" align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|Kalupur Railway Station}}
| align="center" |કાલુપુર રેલ્વે સ્ટેશન
| align="center" |{{rcb|Ahmedabad Metro|blue|broute}}
| align="center" |September 30, 2022
| align="center" |Underground
| align="center" |Island
| align="center" |–
|
|-
!13
| align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|Kankaria East}}
| align="center" |કાંકરિયા પૂર્વ
| align="center" |{{rcb|Ahmedabad Metro|blue|broute}}
| align="center" |September 30, 2022
| align="center" |Underground
| align="center" |Island
| align="center" |–
|
|-
!14
| style="background-color:#AFEEEE" align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|Motera Stadium}} †
| align="center" |મોટેરા સ્ટેડિયમ
| align="center" |{{rcb|Ahmedabad Metro|red|broute}} {{rcb|Ahmedabad Metro|yellow|broute}}
| align="center" |September 30, 2022
| align="center" |Elevated
| align="center" |Side
| align="center" |–
|
|-
!15
| align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|Nirant Cross Road}}
| align="center" |નિરાંત ક્રોસ રોડ
| align="center" |{{rcb|Ahmedabad Metro|blue|broute}}
| align="center" |March 4, 2019
| align="center" |Elevated
| align="center" |Side
| align="center" |–
|<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dnaindia.com/ahmedabad/report-ahmedabad-metro-gains-traction-with-over-1k-passengers-daily-2746415|title=Ahmedabad Metro gains traction with over 1k passengers daily|publisher=[[DNA News|DNA]]|date=6 May 2019|accessdate=7 May 2019}}</ref>
|-
!16
| style="background-color:#FFFF99" align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|Old High Court}}
| align="center" |જૂની હાઇ કોર્ટ
| align="center" |{{rcb|Ahmedabad Metro|blue|broute}} {{rcb|Ahmedabad Metro|red|broute}}
| align="center" |September 30, 2022
| align="center" |Elevated
| align="center" |Side & island
| align="center" |–
|
|-
!17
| align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|Paldi}}
| align="center" |પાલડી
| align="center" |{{color box|#{{rail color|Ahmedabad Metro|Red}}; font-size:100%|[[Red Line (Ahmedabad Metro)|'''Red Line''']]|}}
| align="center" |September 30, 2022
| align="center" |Elevated
| align="center" |
| align="center" |–
|
|-
!18
| align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|Rabari Colony}}
| align="center" |રબારી કોલોની
| align="center" |{{color box|#{{rail color|Ahmedabad Metro|Blue}}; font-size:100%|[[Blue Line (Ahmedabad Metro)|'''Blue Line''']]|}}
| align="center" |March 4, 2019
| align="center" |Elevated
| align="center" |Side
| align="center" |–
|<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ahmedabadmirror.indiatimes.com/ahmedabad/civic/wait-for-metro-just-got-longer-by-2-yrs/articleshow/71945826.cms|title=Wait for Metro just got longer by 2 Years|publisher=[[Ahmedabad Mirror]]|date=7 November 2019|accessdate=8 November 2019}}</ref>
|-
!19
| align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|Rajiv Nagar}}
| align="center" |રાજીવ નગર
| align="center" |{{color box|#{{rail color|Ahmedabad Metro|Red}}; font-size:100%|[[Red Line (Ahmedabad Metro)|'''Red Line''']]|}}
| align="center" |September 30, 2022
| align="center" |Elevated
| align="center" |
| align="center" |–
|
|-
!20
| align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|Ranip}}
| align="center" |રાણીપ
| align="center" |{{color box|#{{rail color|Ahmedabad Metro|Red}}; font-size:100%|[[Red Line (Ahmedabad Metro)|'''Red Line''']]|}}
| align="center" |September 30, 2022
| align="center" |Elevated
| align="center" |
| align="center" |–
|
|-
!21
| align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|Sabarmati}}
| align="center" |સાબરમતી
| align="center" |{{color box|#{{rail color|Ahmedabad Metro|Red}}; font-size:100%|[[Red Line (Ahmedabad Metro)|'''Red Line''']]|}}
| align="center" |September 30, 2022
| align="center" |Elevated
| align="center" |
| align="center" |–
|
|-
!22
| align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|Sabarmati Railway Station}}
| align="center" |સાબરમતી રેલવે સ્ટેશન
| align="center" |{{color box|#{{rail color|Ahmedabad Metro|Red}}; font-size:100%|[[Red Line (Ahmedabad Metro)|'''Red Line''']]|}}
| align="center" |Under construction
| align="center" |Elevated
| align="center" |
| align="center" |–
|
|-
!23
| align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|Shahpur}}
| align="center" |શાહપુર
| align="center" |{{color box|#{{rail color|Ahmedabad Metro|Blue}}; font-size:100%|[[Blue Line (Ahmedabad Metro)|'''Blue Line''']]|}}
| align="center" |September 30, 2022
| align="center" |Underground
| align="center" |
| align="center" |–
|
|-
!24
| align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|Shreyas}}
| align="center" |શ્રેયસ
| align="center" |{{color box|#{{rail color|Ahmedabad Metro|Red}}; font-size:100%|[[Red Line (Ahmedabad Metro)|'''Red Line''']]|}}
| align="center" |September 30, 2022
| align="center" |Elevated
| align="center" |
| align="center" |–
|
|-
!25
| align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|SP Stadium}}
| align="center" |એસ પી સ્ટેડિયમ
| align="center" |{{color box|#{{rail color|Ahmedabad Metro|Blue}}; font-size:100%|[[Blue Line (Ahmedabad Metro)|'''Blue Line''']]|}}
| align="center" |September 30, 2022
| align="center" |Elevated
| align="center" |
| align="center" |–
|
|-
!26
| align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|Thaltej}}
| align="center" |થલતેજ
| align="center" |{{color box|#{{rail color|Ahmedabad Metro|Blue}}; font-size:100%|[[Blue Line (Ahmedabad Metro)|'''Blue Line''']]|}}
| align="center" |September 30, 2022
| align="center" |Elevated
| align="center" |
| align="center" |–
|
|-
!27
| align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|Usmanpura}}
| align="center" |ઉસ્માનપુરા
| align="center" |{{color box|#{{rail color|Ahmedabad Metro|Red}}; font-size:100%|[[Red Line (Ahmedabad Metro)|'''Red Line''']]|}}
| align="center" |September 30, 2022
| align="center" |Elevated
| align="center" |
| align="center" |–
|
|-
!28
| align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|Vadaj}}
| align="center" |વાડજ
| align="center" |{{color box|#{{rail color|Ahmedabad Metro|Red}}; font-size:100%|[[Red Line (Ahmedabad Metro)|'''Red Line''']]|}}
| align="center" |September 30, 2022
| align="center" |Elevated
| align="center" |
| align="center" |–
|
|-
!29
| align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|Vastral}}
| align="center" |વસ્ત્રાલ
| align="center" |{{color box|#{{rail color|Ahmedabad Metro|Blue}}; font-size:100%|[[Blue Line (Ahmedabad Metro)|'''Blue Line''']]|}}
| align="center" |March 4, 2019
| align="center" |Elevated
| align="center" |Side
| align="center" |–
|<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.uniindia.com/ahmedabad-metro-train-faces-technical-glitch-again-operation-hampered-for-around-half-an-hour/west/news/1527508.html|title=Ahmedabad Metro train faces technical glitch again operation hampered for around half an hour|publisher=[[United News of India|UNI]]|date=13 March 2019|accessdate=14 March 2019}}</ref>
|-
!30
|style="background-color:#AFEEEE" align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|Vastral Gam}} †
| align="center" |વસ્ત્રાલ ગામ
| align="center" |{{color box|#{{rail color|Ahmedabad Metro|Blue}}; font-size:100%|[[Blue Line (Ahmedabad Metro)|'''Blue Line''']]|}}
| align="center" |March 4, 2019
| align="center" |Elevated
| align="center" |Side
| align="center" |–
|<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/trial-run-of-ahmedabad-metro-on-vastral-gam-apparel-park-stretch-to-start-in-january-2019/articleshow/65506342.cms|title=Trial run of Ahmedabad Metro on Vastral Gam-Apparel Park stretch to start in January 2019|publisher=[[Times of India]]|date=22 August 2018|accessdate=23 August 2018}}</ref>
|-
!31
| align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|Vijay Nagar}}
| align="center" |વિજય નગર
| align="center" |{{color box|#{{rail color|Ahmedabad Metro|Red}}; font-size:100%|[[Red Line (Ahmedabad Metro)|'''Red Line''']]|}}
| align="center" |September 30, 2022
| align="center" |Elevated
| align="center" |
| align="center" |–
|
|-
!32
| align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|Sector-1 (Gandhinagar)}}
| align="center" | સેક્ટર-1
| align="center" |{{color box|#{{rail color|Ahmedabad Metro|yellow}}; font-size:100%|[[Yellow Line (Ahmedabad Metro)|'''Yellow Line''']]|}}
| align="center" |September 17, 2024
| align="center" |Elevated
| align="center" |
| align="center" |–
|
|-
!33
| align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|Infocity}}
| align="center" | ઇન્ફોસિટી
| align="center" |{{color box|#{{rail color|Ahmedabad Metro|yellow}}; font-size:100%|[[Yellow Line (Ahmedabad Metro)|'''Yellow Line''']]|}}
| align="center" |September 17, 2024
| align="center" |Elevated
| align="center" |
| align="center" |–
|
|-
!34
| align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|Dholakuva Circle}}
| align="center" | ધોળાકુવા સર્કલ
| align="center" |{{color box|#{{rail color|Ahmedabad Metro|yellow}}; font-size:100%|[[Yellow Line (Ahmedabad Metro)|'''Yellow Line''']]|}}
| align="center" |September 17, 2024
| align="center" |Elevated
| align="center" |
| align="center" |–
|
|-
!35
| align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|Randesan}}
| align="center" | રાંદેસણ
| align="center" |{{color box|#{{rail color|Ahmedabad Metro|yellow}}; font-size:100%|[[Yellow Line (Ahmedabad Metro)|'''Yellow Line''']]|}}
| align="center" |September 17, 2024
| align="center" |Elevated
| align="center" |
| align="center" |–
|
|-
!36
| style="background-color:#FFFF99" align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|GNLU}}
| align="center" | જી એન એલ યુ
| align="center" |{{color box|#{{rail color|Ahmedabad Metro|yellow}}; font-size:100%|[[Yellow Line (Ahmedabad Metro)|'''Yellow Line''']]|}}{{color box|#{{rail color|Ahmedabad Metro|violet}}; font-size:100%|[[Violet Line (Ahmedabad Metro)|'''Violet Line''']]|}}
| align="center" |September 17, 2024
| align="center" |Elevated
| align="center" |
| align="center" |–
|
|-
!37
| align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|Raysan}}
| align="center" | રાયસણ
| align="center" |{{color box|#{{rail color|Ahmedabad Metro|yellow}}; font-size:100%|[[Yellow Line (Ahmedabad Metro)|'''Yellow Line''']]|}}
| align="center" |September 17, 2024
| align="center" |Elevated
| align="center" |
| align="center" |–
|
|-
!38
| align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|Koba Circle}}
| align="center" |કોબા સર્કલ
| align="center" |{{color box|#{{rail color|Ahmedabad Metro|yellow}}; font-size:100%|[[Yellow Line (Ahmedabad Metro)|'''Yellow Line''']]|}}
| align="center" |April 27, 2025
| align="center" |Elevated
| align="center" |
| align="center" |–
|
|-
!39
| align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|Narmada Canal}}
| align="center" |નર્મદા કેનાલ
| align="center" |{{color box|#{{rail color|Ahmedabad Metro|yellow}}; font-size:100%|[[Yellow Line (Ahmedabad Metro)|'''Yellow Line''']]|}}
| align="center" |April 27, 2025
| align="center" |Elevated
| align="center" |
| align="center" |–
|
|-
!40
| align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|Tapovan Circle}}
| align="center" |તપોવન સર્કલ
| align="center" |{{color box|#{{rail color|Ahmedabad Metro|yellow}}; font-size:100%|[[Yellow Line (Ahmedabad Metro)|'''Yellow Line''']]|}}
| align="center" |April 27, 2025
| align="center" |Elevated
| align="center" |
| align="center" |–
|
|-
!41
| align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|Vishwakarma College}}
| align="center" |વિશ્વકર્મા કોલેજ
| align="center" |{{color box|#{{rail color|Ahmedabad Metro|yellow}}; font-size:100%|[[Yellow Line (Ahmedabad Metro)|'''Yellow Line''']]|}}
| align="center" |April 27, 2025
| align="center" |Elevated
| align="center" |
| align="center" |–
|
|-
!42
| align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|Koteshwar Road}}
| align="center" |કોટેશ્વર રોડ
| align="center" |{{color box|#{{rail color|Ahmedabad Metro|yellow}}; font-size:100%|[[Yellow Line (Ahmedabad Metro)|'''Yellow Line''']]|}}
| align="center" |April 27, 2025
| align="center" |Elevated
| align="center" |
| align="center" |–
|
|-
!43
|align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|Sector-10A (Gandhinagar)}}
|align="center" |સેક્ટર-10એ
|align="center" |{{color box|#{{rail color|Ahmedabad Metro|yellow}}; font-size:100%|[[Yellow Line (Ahmedabad Metro)|'''Yellow Line''']]|}}
|align="center" |April 27, 2025
|align="center" |Elevated
|align="center" |
|align="center" |–
|
|-
!44
|align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|Sachivalaya}}
|align="center" |સચિવાલય
|align="center" |{{color box|#{{rail color|Ahmedabad Metro|yellow}}; font-size:100%|[[Yellow Line (Ahmedabad Metro)|'''Yellow Line''']]|}}
|align="center" |April 27, 2025
|align="center" |Elevated
|align="center" |
|align="center" |–
|
|-
!45
| align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|PDEU}}
| align="center" |પી ડી ઈ યુ
| align="center" |{{color box|#{{rail color|Ahmedabad Metro|violet}}; font-size:100%|[[Violet Line (Ahmedabad Metro)|'''Violet Line''']]|}}
| align="center" |September 17, 2024
| align="center" |Elevated
| align="center" |
| align="center" |–
|
|-
!46
| style="background-color:#AFEEEE" align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|GIFT City}}
| align="center" |ગિફ્ટ સિટી
| align="center" |{{color box|#{{rail color|Ahmedabad Metro|violet}}; font-size:100%|[[Violet Line (Ahmedabad Metro)|'''Violet Line''']]|}}
| align="center" |September 17, 2024
| align="center" |Elevated
| align="center" |
| align="center" |–
|
|-
!47
| style="background-color:#AFEEEE" align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|Thaltej Gam}}
| align="center" |થલતેજ ગામ
| align="center" |{{color box|#{{rail color|Ahmedabad Metro|Blue}}; font-size:100%|[[Blue Line (Ahmedabad Metro)|'''Blue Line''']]|}}
| align="center" |December 8, 2024
| align="center" |Elevated
|
| align="center" |–
|
|-
!48
| align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|Juna Koba}}
| align="center" |જૂના કોબા
| align="center" |{{color box|#{{rail color|Ahmedabad Metro|yellow}}; font-size:100%|[[Yellow Line (Ahmedabad Metro)|'''Yellow Line''']]|}}
| align="center" |28 September 2025
| align="center" |Elevated
| align="center" |
| align="center" |–
|
|-
!49
| align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|Koba Gam}}
| align="center" |કોબા ગામ
| align="center" |{{color box|#{{rail color|Ahmedabad Metro|yellow}}; font-size:100%|[[Yellow Line (Ahmedabad Metro)|'''Yellow Line''']]|}}
| align="center" |28 September 2025
| align="center" |Elevated
| align="center" |
| align="center" |–
|
|-
!50
| align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|Akshardham}}
| align="center" | અક્ષરધામ
| align="center" |{{color box|#{{rail color|Ahmedabad Metro|yellow}}; font-size:100%|[[Yellow Line (Ahmedabad Metro)|'''Yellow Line''']]|}}
| align="center" |11 January 2026
| align="center" |Elevated
| align="center" |
| align="center" |–
|
|-
!51
| align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|Juna Sachivalaya}}
| align="center" | જૂના સચિવાલય
| align="center" |{{color box|#{{rail color|Ahmedabad Metro|yellow}}; font-size:100%|[[Yellow Line (Ahmedabad Metro)|'''Yellow Line''']]|}}
| align="center" |11 January 2026
| align="center" |Elevated
| align="center" |
| align="center" |–
|
|-
!52
| align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|Sector-16 (Gandhinagar)}}
| align="center" | સેક્ટર-16
| align="center" |{{color box|#{{rail color|Ahmedabad Metro|yellow}}; font-size:100%|[[Yellow Line (Ahmedabad Metro)|'''Yellow Line''']]|}}
| align="center" |11 January 2026
| align="center" |Elevated
| align="center" |
| align="center" |–
|
|-
!53
| align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|Sector-24 (Gandhinagar)}}
| align="center" | સેક્ટર-24
| align="center" |{{color box|#{{rail color|Ahmedabad Metro|yellow}}; font-size:100%|[[Yellow Line (Ahmedabad Metro)|'''Yellow Line''']]|}}
| align="center" |11 January 2026
| align="center" |Elevated
| align="center" |
| align="center" |–
|
|-
!54
| align="center" |{{stl|Ahmedabad Metro|Mahatma Mandir}}
| align="center" | મહાત્મા મંદિર
| align="center" |{{color box|#{{rail color|Ahmedabad Metro|yellow}}; font-size:100%|[[Yellow Line (Ahmedabad Metro)|'''Yellow Line''']]|}}
| align="center" |11 January 2026
| align="center" |Elevated
| align="center" |
| align="center" |–
|
|-

|}

== Statistics ==
{| class="₠wikitable" width="20%"
|Total number of metro stations
| width="5%" align="center" |'''54'''
|-
| width="20%" |Number of interchange stations
| width="5%" align="center" |'''3'''
|-
| width="20%" |Number of elevated stations
| width="5%" align="center" |'''50'''
|-
| width="20%" |Number of underground stations
| width="5%" align="center" |'''4'''
|-
| width="20%" |Number of stations at-grade
| width="5%" align="center" |'''0'''
|}

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
*[[List of Chennai Metro stations]]
*[[List of Coimbatore Metro stations]]
*[[List of Delhi Metro stations]]
*[[List of Hyderabad Metro stations]]
*[[List of Jaipur Metro stations]]
*[[List of Kochi Metro stations]]
*[[List of Kolkata Metro stations]]
*[[List of Lucknow Metro stations]]
*[[List of Madurai Metro stations]]
*[[List of Mumbai Metro stations]]
*[[List of Noida Metro stations]]
*[[List of Nagpur Metro stations]]
*[[List of Namma Metro stations]]
*[[List of Navi Mumbai Metro Stations]]
*[[List of Pune Metro stations]]
*[[List of Surat Metro stations]]
{{div col end}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Ahmedabad topics}}
{{Ahmedabad Metro navbox}}

[[Category:Lists of metro stations in India|Ahmedabad]]
[[Category:Ahmedabad-related lists|Metro stations]]
[[Category:Ahmedabad Metro stations|*]]

Mythily Ramaswamy

2026-02-08T17:57:26Z

Ankitchadha: started

{{short description|Indian mathematician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2022}}
{{Infobox scientist
| name = Mythily Ramaswamy
| image = Mythily Ramaswamy Mission pour la Place des Femmes CNRS.jpg
| caption = Ramaswamy speaks at [[CNRS]] in 2020
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1954|6|6|df=y}}
| birth_place =
| death_date =
| fields = Mathematics
| workplaces = [[TIFR Centre for Applicable Mathematics]]
| alma_mater = [[Pierre and Marie Curie University]]
| doctoral_advisor = [[Henri Berestycki]]<ref name=mgp>{{mathgenealogy|id=96200}}</ref>
| known_for =
}}

'''Mythily Ramaswamy''' (born 6 June 1954)<ref name=ias/> is an Indian [[mathematician]] and professor in the Department of Mathematics at the [[TIFR Centre for Applicable Mathematics]] of the [[Tata Institute of Fundamental Research]] in [[Bangalore]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.math.tifrbng.res.in/people/mythily|title=People: Mythily Ramaswamy|publisher=[[TIFR Centre for Applicable Mathematics]]|accessdate=2018-10-20}}</ref> Her research involves [[functional analysis]] and the [[controllability]] of [[partial differential equation]]s.<ref name=ias/>

==Education==
Ramaswamy was born near [[Mumbai]] to a banking family but moved often to other parts of India as a child.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sites.google.com/site/awmmath/programs/essay-contest/contest-rules/essay-contest-past-results/essays/drmythilyramaswamymakingadifferenceoneequationatatime|title=Dr. Mythily Ramaswamy: Making a Difference, One Equation at a Time|year=2012|first=Gitanjali|last=Lakshminarayanan|publisher=[[Association for Women in Mathematics]]|accessdate=2018-10-20|archive-date=5 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170105055352/https://sites.google.com/site/awmmath/programs/essay-contest/contest-rules/essay-contest-past-results/essays/drmythilyramaswamymakingadifferenceoneequationatatime|url-status=dead}}</ref>
She obtained her doctorate in 1990 from [[Pierre and Marie Curie University]] in [[Paris]]. Her dissertation, ''Sur des questions de symetrie dans des problemes elliptiques'' [''On questions of symmetry in elliptic problems''], was supervised by [[Henri Berestycki]].<ref name=mgp/><ref>{{citation|url=http://www.theses.fr/1990PA066285|title=Sur des questions de symetrie dans des problemes elliptiques|first=Mythily|last=Ramaswamy|work=theses.fr|date=January 1990 |accessdate=2018-09-10|type=These de doctorat }}</ref>

==Recognition==
Ramaswamy was the 2004 winner of the Kalpana Chawla Award of the [[Karnataka]] State Council for Science and Technology, "given to a young woman scientist for achievements in the field of science and technology".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-karnataka/22-scientists-engineers-chosen-for-annual-awards/article18457571.ece|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|title=22 scientists, engineers chosen for annual awards|date=4 August 2006}}</ref>
She was elected to the [[Indian Academy of Sciences]] in 2007.<ref name=ias>{{cite web|url=https://www.ias.ac.in/describe/fellow/Ramaswamy,_Prof._Mythily|title=Fellow Profile: Ramaswamy, Prof. Mythily|publisher=Indian Academy of Sciences|accessdate=2018-09-10}}</ref> She became a [[Fulbright Program|Fulbright Scholar]] in 2016–2017, which funded her to visit Michael Renardy at [[Virginia Tech]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cies.org/grantee/mythily-ramaswamy|title=Mythily Ramaswamy|publisher=Fulbright Scholar Program|accessdate=2018-10-20}}</ref>

== References ==

{{reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ramaswamy, Mythily}}
[[Category:1954 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian mathematicians]]
[[Category:Indian women mathematicians]]
[[Category:Control theorists]]
[[Category:Mathematical analysts]]
[[Category:Pierre and Marie Curie University alumni]]
[[Category:Academic staff of Tata Institute of Fundamental Research]]

Housewife

2026-02-05T14:58:23Z

Ankitchadha: typo fix

{{short description|Married woman whose occupation is managing the family's home}}
{{other uses}}
{{Multiple issues|{{Unfocused|reason=the article covers both housewives and working wives, and should be split|date=April 2019|talk=Is this article about housewives or about working wives?}}
{{More citations needed|date=August 2023}}}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2023}}
[[File:Tyranov - Young Housewife.jpg|thumb|''Young Housewife'', oil painting on canvas by [[Alexey Tyranov]], currently housed at the [[Russian Museum]] in [[Saint Petersburg|St Petersburg]], Russia (1840s)]]
A '''housewife''' (also known as a '''[[homemaker]]''' or a '''stay-at-home mother'''/'''mom'''/'''mum''') is a [[woman]] whose role is running or managing her family's [[home]]—[[housekeeping]], which may include [[Parenting|caring for her children]]; cleaning and maintaining the home; [[Sewing|making]], buying and/or mending clothes for the family; [[Grocery shopping|buying]], [[cooking]], and [[Food preservation|storing]] food for the family; buying [[Good (economics)|goods]] that the family needs for everyday life; partially or solely managing the family [[budget]]—and who is not employed [[career woman|outside the home]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.macmillandictionary.com/dictionary/american/housewife|website=Macmillan Dictionary|title=Housewife|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110114131943/http://www.macmillandictionary.com/dictionary/american/housewife|archive-date=14 January 2011|access-date=24 January 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> The male equivalent is the [[househusband]].

''The Merriam-Webster Dictionary'' defines a housewife as a [[Marriage|married]] woman who is in charge of her [[household]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-02-14 |title=Definition of HOUSEWIFE |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/housewife |access-date=2024-02-21 |website=www.merriam-webster.com |language=en}}</ref> The British ''Chambers's Twentieth Century Dictionary'' (1901) defines a housewife as "the mistress of a household; a female domestic manager [...]".<ref>{{cite book|editor=Davidson, Thomas|title=Chambers's Twentieth Century Dictionary of the English Language|year=1903|url=https://archive.org/details/chambersstwentie00daviiala|location=London|publisher= W. & R. Chambers|page=[https://archive.org/details/chambersstwentie00daviiala/page/443 443]}}</ref>

In the [[Western world]], stereotypical gender roles, particularly for women, were challenged by the [[feminist movement]] in the latter 20th century to allow some women to choose whether to be housewives or to have a career. However, financial barriers such as expensive childcare or disability can impede either. Changing economics also increased the prevalence of two-income households.

==Sociology and economics==
Some [[feminists]]<ref name="Luxton1">{{Citation | last1 = Luxton | first1 = Meg | last2 = Rosenberg | first2 = Harriet | title = Through the Kitchen Window: The Politics of Home and Family | publisher = Garamond Press | year = 1986 | isbn = 978-0-920059-30-2 }}</ref><ref name="Luxton2">{{Citation | last1 = Luxton | first1 = Meg | title = More Than a Labour of Love: Three Generations of Women's Work in the Home | publisher = Women's Press | year = 1980 | isbn = 978-0-88961-062-0 | url = https://archive.org/details/morethanlabourof0000luxt }}</ref> and non-feminist [[economist]]s (particularly proponents of [[historical materialism]], the methodological approach of [[Marxist historiography]]) note that the value of housewives' work is ignored in standard formulations of [[economic output]], such as [[GDP]] or [[employment]] figures. A housewife typically works many unpaid hours a week and often depends on income from her spouse’s work for financial support. The importance of housewives' work is sometimes disregarded in standard economic figures such as GDP<ref>{{Citation |title=Gross domestic product |date=2024-02-06 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gross_domestic_product&oldid=1203992720 |access-date=2024-02-09 |language=en}}</ref>{{Circular reference|date=May 2025}} or employment data because of how these metrics are measured. Housewives' work is excluded from GDP statistics since it is not exchanged in the market.

Some economists{{Who|date=March 2024}} state that housewives frequently work long hours doing a variety of tasks such as cooking, cleaning, childcare, eldercare, and managing family finances. These chores are critical for maintaining families and supporting other family members' productive activities, such as paid jobs.

===Traditional societies===
[[Image:Southern Paiutes.jpg|thumb|[[Southern Paiute people|Southern Paiutes]] at [[Moapa River Indian Reservation|Moapa]], Nevada, wearing traditional Paiute basket hats, while the baby is swaddled in traditional rabbit robes in a Paiute [[cradleboard]].]]
[[File:The National Archives UK - CO 1069-46-45.jpg|thumb|A housewife in [[Yendi]], [[Kumasi]], [[Ghana]], pours water into a meal as her children play, 1957]]
Contrary to a common belief that in [[hunter-gatherer]] societies men typically hunted animals for meat while women gathered other foods such as [[grain]], [[fruit]], and [[vegetable]]s (as asserted, for example, in Richard B. Lee and [[Irven DeVore]]'s 1968 book ''[[Man the Hunter]]''), ethnographic studies of recent and current hunter-gatherer societies show women actively participating in hunting, as among the [[Aeta people|Agta people]] of the Philippines, where women hunt even while [[Menstrual cycle|menstruating]], [[Pregnancy|pregnant]], and [[breastfeeding]].<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |last1=Ocobock |first1=Cara |last2=Lacy |first2=Sarah |date=2023-11-01 |title=The Theory That Men Evolved to Hunt and Women Evolved to Gather Is Wrong |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-theory-that-men-evolved-to-hunt-and-women-evolved-to-gather-is-wrong1/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240906202133/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-theory-that-men-evolved-to-hunt-and-women-evolved-to-gather-is-wrong1/ |archive-date=2024-09-06 |access-date=2024-09-08 |website=[[Scientific American]] |language=en}}</ref> [[Fossil]] and [[Archaeology|archaeological]] evidence also indicate that women have a long history of hunting.<ref name=":8" /> In addition, evidence from [[Exercise physiology|exercise science]] shows that women are better suited to endurance activities, which might have been conducive to pursuing prey over long distances.<ref name=":8" /> However, an attempted verification of this study found "that multiple methodological failures all bias their results in the same direction...their analysis does not contradict the wide body of empirical evidence for gendered divisions of labor in foraging societies".<ref>{{cite journal|title=Female foragers sometimes hunt, yet gendered divisions of labor are real: a comment on Anderson et al. (2023) The Myth of Man the Hunter|vauthors=Venkataraman et al|date=May 7, 2024|journal=Evolution and Human Behavior|volume=45 |issue=4 |article-number=106586 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1090513824000497|doi=10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2024.04.014|bibcode=2024EHumB..4506586V |url-access=subscription}}</ref>

In [[rural]] societies where the main source of work is [[farming]], women have also taken care of [[gardens]] and [[Livestock|animals]] around the house, generally helping men with heavy work when a job needed to be done quickly, usually because of the season.{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}}

Examples of the heavy work involving farming that a traditional housewife in a rural society would do are:
* Picking fruit when it is ripe for market
* Planting rice in a [[paddy field]]
* Harvesting and stacking grain
* Cutting [[hay]] for animals

In rural studies, the word ''housewife'' is occasionally used as a term for "a woman who does the majority of the chores within a farm's [[Compound (enclosure)|compound]]," as opposed to field and livestock work.{{Citation needed|date=January 2012}}.

Whether the productive contributions of women were considered "work" varied by time and culture. Throughout much of the 20th century, the women working on a [[family farm]], no matter how much work they did, would be counted in the US census as being [[Unemployment|unemployed]], whereas the men doing the same or (even less) work were counted as being employed as [[farmer]]s.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Wilkerson|first=Jessica|date=14 August 2019|title=A Lifetime Of Labor: Maybelle Carter At Work|url=https://www.npr.org/2019/08/14/748412350/a-lifetime-of-labor-maybelle-carter-at-work|quote=Unless a woman earned wages on somebody else's farm or in another woman's home, her employment would be listed by the census taker as "none." It didn't matter how much her labor propped up the family farm or that it sustained a family. Women were listed as dependents of men, and men were identified by their type of employment.}}</ref>

===Modern society===
A research based on 7733 respondents who were aged 18–65 and legally married women in 20 European countries showed men and women share less housework in countries that publicly support gender equality. On the contrary, women did more housework than men.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Treas|first1=Judith|last2=Tai|first2=Tsuio|date=May 2016|title=Gender Inequality in Housework Across 20 European Nations: Lessons from Gender Stratification Theories|journal=Sex Roles|volume=74|issue=11–12|pages=495–511|doi=10.1007/s11199-015-0575-9|s2cid=146253376|issn=0360-0025}}</ref>

[[Full-time job|Full-time]] homemakers in modern times usually share income produced by members of the household who are employed; wage-earners working full-time benefit from the unpaid work provided by the homemaker; otherwise, the performance of such work (childcare, cooking, housecleaning, teaching, transporting, etc.) could be a household expense.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chicagoreader.com/chicago/whats-a-wife-worth/Content?oid=871934|title=What's a Wife Worth?|work=Chicago Reader |date=17 March 1988|access-date=17 October 2015 |last1=Beck |first1=Marianna }}</ref> US states with [[community property]] recognize [[Housing equity partnership|joint ownership]] of marital property and income, and, unless a [[Prenuptial agreement|prenuptial]] or [[postnuptial agreement]] is followed, most marital households in the US operate as a joint financial team and file [[taxes]] jointly.

In ''The Second Sex'' by Simone de Beauvoir, she talks about how society pressures women to find meaning and purpose in their relationships with men. In the chapter "The Women in Love", De Beauvoir explains that women, especially housewives, are taught to focus on caring for their husbands and children. This may lead to these women ignoring their own self identity and self needs. De Beauvoir argues that women in love, particularly those in roles like housewives, tend to define themselves through their relationships. This can make them dependent on their husbands for a feeling of fulfillment. For many women, their worth is tied to how well they care for the home and family, rather than pursuing their own dreams or desires. She also criticizes how this leads to an unequal relationship, where the woman is expected to sacrifice her own self while the man is seen as the strong and independent one. De Beauvoir believes this keeps women from being truly free and stops them from growing as individuals. It forces them to always depend on their significant other. Simone de Beauvoir wants to uphold a new way of thinking about love and relationships. She wants to put upon others that both partners are seen as equal, so this will eventually allow women to be more independent and self-fulfilling.<ref>{{Cite web |last=De Beauvoir |first=Simone |title=The Second Sex |url=https://newuniversityinexileconsortium.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/Simone-de-Beauvoir-The-Second-Sex-Jonathan-Cape-1956.pdf.}}</ref>

===Education===
The method, necessity, and extent of educating housewives has been debated since at least the 20th century.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Dement|first1=Alice L.|title=Higher Education of the Housewife: Wanted or Wasted?|journal=The Journal of Higher Education|date=1960|volume=31|issue=1 (January)|pages=28–32|doi=10.2307/1977571|jstor=1977571|publisher=Ohio State University Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Mummy, I want to be a housewife|url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news/mummy-i-want-to-be-a-housewife/93431.article|access-date=8 May 2016|work=Times Higher Education|date=26 April 1996}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://isites.harvard.edu/fs/docs/icb.topic1114896.files/Najmabadi%201998.pdf|title=Crafting an Educated Housewife in Iran |website=isites.harvard.edu }}{{dead link|date=September 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/opinion/columnists/article3485879.ece|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160428101247/http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/opinion/columnists/article3485879.ece|url-status=dead|archive-date=28 April 2016|title=Highly educated housewives: what an economic waste|date=25 July 2012|work=[[The Times]]|access-date=8 May 2016}}</ref>

== By country ==
[[File:Women in workforce.png|thumb|Female labor force participation rate, ages 15-64 (World Bank/ILO, 2019)]]

===In China===
In [[Imperial era of Chinese history|imperial China]] (excluding periods of the [[Tang dynasty]]), women were bound to homemaking by the doctrines of [[Confucianism]] and cultural norms. Generally, girls did not attend school and, therefore, spent the day doing household chores (for example, [[cooking]] and [[Housekeeping|cleaning]]) with their mothers and female relatives. In most cases, the husband was alive and able to work, so the wife was almost always forbidden to take a job and mainly spent her days at home or doing other domestic tasks. As Confucianism spread across [[East Asia]], this social norm was also observed in [[Korea]], [[Japan]] and [[Vietnam]]. As [[foot binding]] became common after the [[Song dynasty]], many women lost the ability to work outside.{{citation needed|date=July 2021}}

After the founding of the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]] in 1911, these norms were gradually loosened and many women were able to enter the workforce. Shortly thereafter, a growing number of females began to be permitted to attend schools. Starting with the rule of the [[People's Republic of China]] in 1949, all women were freed from compulsory family roles. During the [[Great Leap Forward]] and [[Cultural Revolution]], some women even worked in fields that were traditionally reserved for males.

In modern China, housewives are no longer as common, especially in the largest cities and other urban areas. Many modern women work simply because one person's income is insufficient to support the family, a decision made easier by the fact that it is common for Chinese grandparents to watch after their grandchildren until they are old enough to go to school. Nonetheless, the number of Chinese housewives has been steadily rising in recent years as China's economy expands.{{dubious|date=February 2017}}

===In India===

In a traditional [[Hindu]] family, the head of the family is the ''Griha Swami'' (Lord of the House) and his wife is the ''Griha Swamini'' (Lady of the House). The [[Sanskrit]] words ''Grihast'' and ''Grihasta'' perhaps come closest to describing the entire gamut of activities and roles undertaken by the homemaker. ''Grih'' is the Sanskrit root for house or home; Grihasta and Grihast are derivatives of this root, as is [[Grihastya]]. The couple lives in the state called ''Grihastashram'' or family system and together they nurture the family and help its members (both young and old) through the travails of life. The woman who increments the family tree (bears children) and protects those children is described as the ''Grihalakshmi'' (the wealth of the house) and ''Grihashoba'' (the glory of the house). The elders of the family are known as ''Grihshreshta''. The husband or wife may engage in countless other activities which may be social, religious, political or economic in nature for the ultimate welfare of the family and society. However, their unified status as joint householders is the nucleus from within which they operate in society. The traditional status of a woman as a homemaker anchors them in society and provides meaning to their activities within the social, religious, political and economic framework of their world. However, as India undergoes modernisation, many women are in employment, particularly in the larger cities such as [[Mumbai]], [[Delhi]], [[Kolkata]], [[Chennai]], [[Hyderabad]] and [[Bangalore]], where most women will work. The role of the male homemaker is not traditional in [[India]], but it is socially accepted in [[urban area|urban]] areas. According to one sociologist's study in 2006, twelve percent of unmarried Indian men would consider being a homemaker according to a survey conducted by ''[[Business Today (business magazine)|Business Today]]''.<ref name="life&times">{{cite web|url=http://specials.indiatoday.com/indianmensurvey/Unmarried_Man_partner.php|title=Life & Times of Indian Men|date=29 July 2009|publisher=Business Today|access-date=30 July 2009}}</ref> One sociologist, Sushma Tulzhapurkar, called this a shift in Indian society, saying that a decade ago, "it was an unheard concept and not to mention socially unacceptable for men to give up their jobs and remain at home."<ref name="dias">{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/NEWS/City/Bombay-Times/Now-papas-do-what-mamas-did-best-/articleshow/1682154.cms|title=Now papas do what mamas did best!|last=Dias|first=Raul|date=26 June 2006|newspaper=Times of India|access-date=30 July 2009}}</ref> However, only 22.7 percent of Indian women are part of the [[labor force]], compared to 51.6 percent of men; thus, women are more likely to be caregivers because most do not work outside the home.<ref name="fao">{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/sd/wpdirect/WPre0108.htm|title=Asia's women in agriculture, environment and rural production|access-date=30 July 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140630002611/http://www.fao.org/sd/wpdirect/WPre0108.htm|archive-date=30 June 2014}}</ref>

[[Mahila Shakti Samajik Samiti]] is a women's society composed mainly of housewives.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.mahilashaktisangathan.org/ |title=Official Website |access-date=24 August 2021 |archive-date=25 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925200928/http://www.mahilashaktisangathan.org/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
Sadhna Sinha is current president of the samiti.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.parichowk.com/mahilashakti.aspx |title=MAHILA SHAKTI SAMAJEEK SAMMITTEE (REGD) |access-date=30 October 2014 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20141030065435/http://www.parichowk.com/mahilashakti.aspx |archive-date=30 October 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===In North Korea===
Until around 1990, the [[North Korea]]n government required every able-bodied male to be employed by some [[state enterprise]]. However, some 30% of married women of working age were allowed to stay at home as full-time housewives (fewer than in some countries in the same region like [[South Korea]], [[Japan]] and [[Taiwan]]; more than in the former [[Soviet Union]], [[Mainland China]] and Nordic countries like Sweden, and about the same as in the United States<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://article.yeeyan.org/view/91830/133129 |title=a Chinese-English translation web (译言网):Will Chinese women rule the world? |access-date=30 May 2014 |archive-date=4 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140704185555/http://article.yeeyan.org/view/91830/133129 |url-status=dead }}</ref>). In the early 1990s, after an estimated 900,000-3,500,000 people perished in the [[North Korean famine]], the old system began to fall apart. In some cases women began by selling homemade food or household items they could do without. Today at least three-quarters of North Korean market vendors are women. A joke making the rounds in [[Pyongyang]] goes: 'What do a [[husband]] and a pet dog have in common?' Answer: 'Neither works nor earns money, but both are cute, stay at home and can scare away burglars.'<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.cuyoo.com/html/guoji/2010/0422/14322.html|author= Andrei Lankov (a professor in South Korea National University)|work= cuyoo.com (Chinese-English Translate Web|title= Pyongyang's Women Wear the Pants|access-date= 30 May 2014|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140423055920/http://www.cuyoo.com/html/guoji/2010/0422/14322.html|archive-date= 23 April 2014|url-status= dead}}</ref>

=== In Sweden ===
The term {{Lang|sv|hemmafru}} ('housewife') emerged in the 1920s, when it was used in contrast to {{Lang|sv|yrkeskvinna}}, 'professional woman'.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Clayhills|first=Harriet|title=Kvinnohistorisk uppslagsbok|date=1991|publisher=[[Raben & Sjögren]]|isbn=91-29-61587-9|location=Stockholm|pages=177|language=sv|oclc=28699935}}</ref> Between 1930 and 1960, the number of housewives in Sweden increased from 930,000 to 1,148,000.<ref>{{Cite web|title=hemmafru - Uppslagsverk - NE.se|url=http://www.ne.se/lang/hemmafru|access-date=28 January 2022|website=www.ne.se|language=sv}}</ref> This development was linked to the transition from an agrarian to an industrial society. From the 1930s onwards, the number of people employed in agriculture declined, and more and more people moved from rural areas to the cities. At the same time, the number of married couples increased.<ref name=":5"/> More and more people, mainly men, were earning a living outside the household, primarily through wage employment in industry. Women became housewives, with special responsibility for children.

A {{Lang|sv|lyxhustru}} ('luxury or pampered wife') was a housewife, that didn't do any work at home, but rather let hired people cook, clean, take care of the children, and so on. Common in the upper class, rarely seen today.

[[File:Wascator.jpg|thumb|A housewife by a Wascator laundry machine]]
A common attitude was to accept the gender roles of the time as self-evident, but to advocate different kinds of improvements for women working at home. More radical people argued that the housewife was trapped in her economic dependence on her husband, that it was unfair that she was not paid for her work and that she was deprived of opportunities to stimulate and develop her abilities. They argued that the housewife, the woman, was seen as a person without her own understanding and capacity and was prevented from participating in society at large.

In the early 1960s, there were lively discussions about the role of women in society, their right to education and work, and their importance in raising children and the family. In an influential 1961 article entitled {{Lang|sv|Kvinnans villkorliga frigivning}} ('The Probation of Women'), [[Eva Moberg (writer)|Eva Moberg]], one of the most influential commentators, described the idea of the stay-at-home wife as an outmoded remnant of peasant society.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Eva|first=Moberg|url=|title=Prima materia: texter i urval|year=2003|pages=11–26|language=sv|chapter=Kvinnans villkorliga frigivning}}</ref>

Moberg pushed for political reforms to improve women's conditions in order to liberate women. By working professionally, women's identity would change. She would become economically independent, which would also liberate men from the traditional male role.<ref name=":5"/>

Another debater, {{Interlanguage link|Monica Boëthius|sv}}, described the fact that many women did not work as economically indefensible. In a book of debates, Boëthius posed the question "Can we afford wives?"<ref>{{Cite book|last=Boëthius|first=Monica|title=Har vi råd med fruar?: en ofullständig handbok i misshushållningens alla grenar|date=1967|publisher=[[Proprius förlag]]|language=sv|oclc=478026871}}</ref> Women, Boëthius argued, represented an underutilized reserve of labor that, if tapped, could significantly increase the purchasing power and standard of living of households.<ref name=":5">{{Cite magazine|last=Qvarsebo|first=Jonas|date=2006|title=Hemmafruns sista suck|url=http://www.popularhistoria.se/artiklar/hemmafruns-sista-suck/|magazine=Popular historia|language=sv|issue=3|pages=34–39|issn=1102-0822}}</ref> Boëthius built on the ideas of the economist Per Holmberg,<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Qvarsebo|first=Jonas|date=2002|title=En ny människa för en ny familj: med 1970-talets nya syn på familjen blev hemmafrun den samlande symbolen för en omodern, reaktionär och patriarkalisk människosyn|journal=[[Tvärsnitt]]|language=sv|volume=24|issue=3|pages=26–41|issn=0348-7997}}</ref> as expressed in the book {{Lang|sv|Kynne eller kön?}} in 1966.<ref>{{Cite book|last=|title=Kynne eller kön? Om könsrollerna i det moderna samhället. En debattskrift under medverkan av bl. a. Per Holmberg, etc.|date=1966|publisher=[[Rabén & Sjögren]]|location=Stockholm|language=sv|oclc=561154242}}</ref>

From the late 1960s onwards, the number of housewives steadily declined. Many took paid work in schools, health, and social care as the public sector expanded. More than 500,000 housewives entered the workforce between the late 1960s and early 1980s. Between 1968 and 1970 alone, the number of newly employed women in Sweden increased by 100,000 each year.<ref name=":5"/>

A combination of labour demand and [[gender equality]] concerns led to several policy reforms that made it easier for women to work and for families to care for their children together.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Axelsson|first=Christina|title=Hemmafrun som försvann: Övergången till lönearbete bland gifta kvinnor i Sverige 1968-1981|date=1992|publisher=[[Stockholms Universitet]]|isbn=91-7604-047-X|location=Stockholm|language=sv|oclc=1132580597}}</ref> In the 1930s and 1940s, nine out of ten Swedish children had a mother who worked at home while they were growing up; by the 1980s, fewer than one in ten children had a mother who was a housewife until they turned 16.<ref name=":4" /> However, women with children up to pre-school age generally continued to work at home until subsidized daycare was introduced on a larger scale from around the mid-1970s.

Developments from 1960 onwards were very much a result of government action. Women's entry into the labour market was encouraged by the abolition of joint taxation and the expansion of childcare facilities. Joint taxation of spouses was abolished in 1971. The report of the so-called "childcare inquiry" (''{{Interlanguage link|Barnstugeutredningen|lt=barnstugeutredningen|sv}}'') on pre-school education in 1972 was the starting point for the expansion of public childcare in the early years. By the end of the 1970s, 350,000 children had been enrolled in daycare centers. The fact that women were gainfully employed was described by leading commentators as a win-win situation for children too. The idea was that children had more difficulty developing independence if they spent their days in an overprotected home environment than if they were in a daycare center with qualified staff.<ref name=":5"/>

The reformers were opposed by more conservative groups, who believed that women's role was to look after the home, bring up children and support the working man. One organization that sought to raise public opinion against the reforms was {{Lang|sv|Rädda familjen}}, 'Save the Family'. It began its work in January 1970, protesting what it saw as an attempt to dismantle the structure of the family through Marxist reforms.<ref name=":6"/> In the 1970 petition campaign, {{Lang|sv|Rädda familjen}} collected 63,000 signatures to which it attached its letter of protest against the family policy reform proposals. The organization published books of debate in polemics with reform advocates during the early 1970s.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Nordström|first=Brita|title=Skall familjen krossas?: vad blir följden om förslagen i Familjelagssakkunniga, Familjepolitiska kommitténs och Barnstugeutredningens betänkande blir lag?|date=1973|publisher=[[Pro veritate]]|location=Uppsala|language=sv|oclc=185785651}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Wieselgren|first=Jon Peter|title=Rädda familjen|date=1972|publisher=[[Pro Veritate]]|location=Uppsala|language=sv|oclc=1153940242}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite book|title=Rätt till familjeliv|publisher=[[Pro Veritate]]|year=1975|editor-last=Lindbom|editor-first=Tage|location=Uppsala|language=sv}}</ref>

One of the group's leading figures was [[Brita Nordström]]. Nordström rejected the idea that gender roles are learned behaviours and argued that women's role as housewives was natural. While the woman was the emotional leader of the family, the one who instilled harmony and stability, the man's job was to provide and defend and to establish the family's position in society. Psychologist [[Kristina Humble]] was another leading figure in the movement. In a chapter of the debate book {{Lang|sv|Rätt till familjeliv}} 'The Right to Family Life',<ref name=":7"/> Humble argued that the housewife's desire for paid employment was based on naive demands for the satisfaction of desire. She argued that differences in gender roles were caused by genetic differences, through which men were more predisposed to struggle and self-assertion. Humble paid particular attention to the plight of children as more women entered the workforce, and argued against the expansion of public childcare, believing that staying in daycare would cause an increase in [[juvenile delinquency]] and mental illness among children.<ref name=":6"/>

In today's Sweden, where most women are educated and gainfully employed, there is seldom talk about being a housewife without being on [[parental leave]] (or maternity leave, and for men, paternity leave). During this period, parents receive financial compensation through the {{Interlanguage link|Parental insurance in Sweden|lt=parental insurance program|sv|Föräldraförsäkringen i Sverige}}. Traditional housewives are now quite rare in Sweden.

=== In the United Kingdom ===
====15th-17th centuries====
An example of a person described as a "house wife" (spelt as "huswyfe") can be seen in a record of 1452, where Elizabeth Banham of Dunstable, Beds, is thus described.<ref>Plea Rolls of the Court of Common Pleas, held at the National Archives;, year: 1452, reign of King Henry VI; image: http://aalt.law.uh.edu/AALT3/H6/CP40no764/bCP40no764dorses/IMG_1577.htm, 4th entry, as a defendant in a plea of debt</ref>

In [[Great Britain]], the lives of housewives of the 17th century consisted of separate, distinct roles for males and females within the home. Typically, men's work consisted of one specific task, such as [[plough]]ing. While men had a sole duty, women were responsible for various, timely tasks, such as milking cows, clothing production, cooking, baking, housekeeping, childcare, and so on. Women faced the responsibility not only of domestic duties and childcare, but [[agricultural production]]. Due to their long list of responsibilities, females faced long work days with little to no sleep at busy times of year. Their work is described as, "the housewife's tasks 'have never an end', combining a daily cycle with seasonal work".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Whittle|first=Jane|date=December 2005|title=HOUSEWIVES AND SERVANTS IN RURAL ENGLAND, 1440–1650: EVIDENCE OF WOMEN's WORK FROM PROBATE DOCUMENTS|journal=Transactions of the Royal Historical Society|volume=15|pages=51–74|doi=10.1017/S0080440105000332|issn=0080-4401|hdl=10871/8424|s2cid=155056103 |hdl-access=free}}</ref>

====19th-20th centuries====
{{see also|British Housewives' League}}
In 1911, 90% of wives were not employed in the [[Workforce|work force]]. [[Ann Oakley]], author of ''Woman's Work: The Housewife, Past, and Present'', describes the role of a 19th-century housewife as "a demeaning one, consisting of monotonous, fragmented work which brought no financial remuneration, let alone any recognition."<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Bourke|first=Joanna|date=1994|title=Housewifery in Working-Class England 1860-1914|journal=Past & Present|issue=143|pages=167–197|doi=10.1093/past/143.1.167|issn=0031-2746|jstor=651165}}</ref> As a middle class housewife, typical duties consisted of organizing and maintaining a home that emphasized the male [[Breadwinner model|breadwinner]]'s financial success. Throughout this time period, the role of the housewife was not only accepted in society, but a sought-after desire.<ref name=":02" /> Eventually, women, due to the difficulty and consuming nature of these tasks, began to focus solely on one profession. By focusing on a particular niche, women spent more time outside of the home, where they could flourish independently.

As a housewife in the [[United Kingdom]], females were encouraged to be precise and systematic when following duties. In 1869, R. K. Phillip published a household manual, titled, ''The Reason Why: The Domestic Science.'' The manual taught women how to perform certain duties, as well as the necessity behind their household chores.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Lieffers|first=C.|date=1 June 2012|title="The Present Time is Eminently Scientific": The Science of Cookery in Nineteenth-Century Britain|journal=Journal of Social History|volume=45|issue=4|pages=936–959|doi=10.1093/jsh/shr106|s2cid=145735940|issn=0022-4529}}</ref> [[Cookbook]]s and manuals provided exact measurements and instructions for baking and cooking, written in an eloquent manner. Complicated recipes required a knowledge of math – [[arithmetic]], [[Fraction (mathematics)|fractions]], and [[ratio]]s. Cookbooks and household manuals were written for women, therefore, eliminating the idea of men participating in domestic duties.<ref name=":3" />

In most cases, women chose to work in the home. Work outside of the home was deemed unattractive, difficult, and daunting. Since the female was heavily involved with her children and domestic duties, certain risks were associated with a woman's absence. For example, a life in the [[Workforce|labor force]] doubled a women's average workload. Not only was she expected to financially provide, but she was fully responsible for caring and raising her children. If the mother chose to work, child care costs began to add up, therefore, decreasing the incentives for the woman to hold a demanding job. If a working mother could not afford to pay for child care, this often resulted in her appointing her older children to act as the younger children's caretakers. While this was financially efficient, it was looked down upon by society and other housewives. In this time period, many believed that younger children were at risk for injuries or other physical harm if cared for by older siblings.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Bourke|first=Joanna|title=Housewifery in Working-Class England 1860–1914|date=1994|journal=Past and Present|issue=143|pages=167–197|doi=10.1093/past/143.1.167|issn=0031-2746}}</ref>

Within this time period, women became involved with consumer politics, through organizations such as the [[Co-operative Union]]. Organizations allowed women to get involved, as well as develop an understanding of [[feminism]]. In 1833, the Women's Co-operative Union was established. [[Margaret Llewelyn Davies]], one of the organization's key female leaders, spoke out on topics regarding [[divorce]], [[Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act, 2017|maternity benefits]], and [[birth control]]. Similarly, [[Clementina Black]] helped establish a consumer's league, which attempted to [[boycott]] organizations that did not pay women [[Living wage|fair wages]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hilton|first=Matthew|title=The Female Consumer and the Politics of Consumption in Twentieth-Century Britain|date=March 2002|journal=The Historical Journal|volume=45|issue=1|pages=103–128|doi=10.1017/S0018246X01002266|s2cid=154379558 |issn=1469-5103}}</ref> Compared to earlier centuries, women found a voice in politics and began understanding the concept of feminism. Instead of focusing purely on household and childcare duties, women slowly merged into the [[public sector]] of society.

[[File:A Day in the Life of a Wartime Housewife- Everyday Life in London, England, 1941 D2366.jpg|thumb|Part of the housework of a London housewife, 1941]]

In recent years, accompanied by the respect of housewives, the UK is paying more attention to the value created by housewife. According to the Office for National Statistics (ONS), childcare accounts for 61.5% of unpaid work's value at home, the rest includes 16.1% in transport, 9.7% in providing and maintaining a home, others in giving care to adults, the preparation of meals as well as clothing and laundry. The total unpaid work at home was valued at £38,162 per UK household in 2014, according to ONS.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-35987758|title=The value of unpaid chores at home|last=Peachey|first=Kevin|date=7 April 2016|access-date=5 March 2019}}</ref>

Two British magazines for housewives have been published: ''The Housewife'' (London: Offices of "The Million", 1886[1900]) and ''Housewife'' (London: Hultons, 1939–68).<ref>Held by various libraries in the UK; [http://copac.ac.uk Copac]</ref> "On a Tired Housewife" is an anonymous poem about the housewife's lot:
<poem>
Here lies a poor woman who was always tired,
She lived in a house where help wasn't hired:
Her last words on earth were: "Dear friends, I am going
To where there's no cooking, or washing, or sewing,
For everything there is exact to my wishes,
For where they don't eat there's no washing of dishes.
I'll be where loud anthems will always be ringing,
But having no voice I'll be quit of the singing.
Don't mourn for me now, don't mourn for me never,
I am going to do nothing for ever and ever."<ref>''The Penguin Book of Comic and Curious Verse'', ed. J. M. Cohen. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1952; p. 31</ref>
</poem>

===In the United States===
[[File:Good housekeeping 1908 08 a.jpg|thumb|''Good Housekeeping'' (American magazine), 1908|alt=|left]]
[[File:Tetra Pak housewife with shopping net, 1950s.jpg|thumb|[[Tetrapak]] advertisement depicting a housewife as a selector and consumer of products, circa 1950]]
In 1978, 50% of married women in the United States continued to work after having children. By 1997, this figure had risen to 61%. The number of stay-at-home mothers increased in the 2000s. As average incomes declined during the [[Great Recession]], the need for two additional incomes increased, and the proportion of married American women who continued to work after having children increased to 69% by 2009.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.bls.gov/news.release/famee.nr0.htm | title=Employment Characteristics of Families Summary | publisher=[[U.S. Department of Labor]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://article.yeeyan.org/view/91830/133129 |title=a Chinese-English translation web (译言网: Will Chinese women rule the world? |access-date=30 May 2014 |archive-date=4 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140704185555/http://article.yeeyan.org/view/91830/133129 |url-status=dead }}</ref> According to the [[Pew Research Center]], that number had increased to 71% by 2014.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2014/04/08/after-decades-of-decline-a-rise-in-stay-at-home-mothers/|title=After Decades of Decline, A Rise in Stay-at-Home Mothers|date=8 April 2014|website=Pew Research Center|access-date=27 January 2026}}</ref>

Housewives in America were typical in the middle of the 20th century among middle-class and upper-class white families.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url=https://longreads.com/2018/03/21/seeking-a-roadmap-for-the-new-american-middle-class/|title=Seeking a Roadmap for the New American Middle Class|last=Gershon|first=Livia|date=21 March 2018|work=Longreads|access-date=25 April 2018}}</ref> Black families, recent immigrants, and other minority groups tended not to benefit from the union wages, government policies, and other factors that led to white wives being able to stay at home during these decades.<ref name=":1" />
[[File:HOUSEWIFE IN THE KITCHEN OF HER MOBILE HOME IN ONE OF THE TRAILER PARKS. THE TWO PARKS WERE CREATED IN RESPONSE TO... - NARA - 558298.jpg|thumb|A Minnesotan housewife in the kitchen of her [[mobile home]], 1974]]
In 2005 study estimated that 31% of working mothers leave the workplace for an average of 2.2 years, most often precipitated by the birth of the second child.<ref>Hewlett, S. A., Luce, C. B., Shiller, P. & Southwell, S. (March 2005). The hidden brain drain: Off-ramps and on-ramps in women's careers. Center for WorkLife. Policy/Harvard Business Review Research. Report, Product no. 9491. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School Publishing Corporation.</ref> This gives her time to concentrate full-time on child-rearing and to avoid the high cost of childcare, particularly through the early years (before school begins at age five). There is considerable variability within the stay-at-home mother population with regard to their intent to return to the paid workforce. Some plan to work from their homes, some will do part-time work, some intend to return to part- or full-time work when their children have reached school age, some may increase their skill sets by returning to higher education, and others may find it financially feasible to refrain from entering (or re-entering) the paid workforce. Research has linked feelings of "maternal guilt and separation anxiety" to returning to the workforce.<ref>Rubin, Stacey E., and H. Ray Wooten. "Highly educated stay-at-home mothers: A study of commitment and conflict." ''The Family Journal'' 15.4 (2007): 336-345.</ref>

Similarly, there is considerable variation in the stay-at-home mother's attitude towards domestic work not related to caring for children. Some may embrace a traditional role of housewife by cooking and cleaning in addition to caring for children. Others see their primary role as that of childcare providers, supporting their children's physical, intellectual, emotional, and spiritual development while sharing or outsourcing other aspects of caring for the home.

==History==
Although men have generally been thought of as the primary or sole [[breadwinner]]s for families in recent history, the division of labor between men and women in traditional societies required both genders to take an active role in obtaining resources outside the domestic sphere. Prior to agriculture and [[animal husbandry]], reliable food sources were a scarce commodity. To achieve optimal nutrition during this time, it was imperative that both men and women focus their energies on hunting and gathering as many edible foods as possible to sustain themselves on a daily basis. Lacking the technologies necessary to store and preserve food, it was critical for men and women to seek out and obtain fresh food sources almost continuously. These nomadic tribes used gender differences to their advantage, allowing men and women to use their complementary adaptations and survival strategies to find the most diverse and nutritionally complete foods available. For example, in the context of daily foraging, childcare itself was not a hindrance to women's productivity; rather, performing this task with her children both increased the overall efficiency of the activity (more people participating equals a greater yield of edible roots, berries, nuts, and plants), and functioned as an important hands-on lesson in survival skills for each child. By sharing the burden of daily sustenance – and developing specialized gender niches – humans not only ensured their continued survival, but also paved the way for later technologies to evolve and grow through experience.

[[File:Pierre-Édouard Frère - Child Praying at Mother's Knee - Walters 371330.jpg|thumb|''Child Praying at Mother's Knee'', a drawing by [[Pierre Edouard Frère|Pierre-Édouard Frère]], 1864]]In the 19th century, more and more women in industrialising countries stopped being homemakers and farm wives and began to undertake paid work in various industries outside the home and away from the [[family farm]], in addition to the work they did at home. At this time many big [[factory|factories]] were set up, first in England, then in other European countries and the United States. Many thousands of young women went to work in factories; most factories employed women in roles different from those occupied by men. There were also women who worked at home for low wages while caring for their children at the same time.

Being a housewife was only realistic among middle-class and upper-class families. In working-class families, it was typical for women to work. In the 19th century, a third to half of married women in England were recorded in the census as working for outside pay, and some historians believe this to be an undercount.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/apr/13/working-women-stay-at-home-wives-myths|title=So wives didn't work in the 'good old days'? Wrong|last=Wilkinson|first=Amanda|date=13 April 2014|website=The Guardian|access-date=23 April 2018}}</ref> Among married couples that could afford it, the wife often managed the [[Homemaking|housework]], gardening, cooking, and children without working outside the home. Women were often very proud to be a good homemaker and have their house and children respectably taken care of. Other women, like [[Florence Nightingale]], pursued non-factory professions even though they were wealthy enough not to need the income. Some occupations open to women were restricted to unmarried women, such as teaching.

In the early 20th century, both world wars ([[World War I]], 1914–18; and [[World War II]], 1939–45) were fought by the men of many countries. (There were also special roles in the armed forces carried out by women, e.g. nursing, transport, etc. and in some countries women soldiers also.) While the men were at war, many of their womenfolk went to work outside the home to keep the countries running. Women, who were also homemakers, worked in factories, businesses and farms. At the end of both wars, many men had died, and others returned injured. Some men were able to return to their previous positions, but some women stayed in the workforce as well. In addition to this surge in women entering the workforce, [[convenience food]] and domestic technology were also rising in popularity, both of which saved women time that they may have spent performing domestic tasks and enabled them to instead pursue other interests.<ref>{{citation | last = Maurer | first = Elizabeth | title = How Highly Processed Foods Liberated 1950s Housewives | publisher = National Women's History Museum | year = 2017 | url = https://www.womenshistory.org/articles/how-highly-processed-foods-liberated-1950s-housewives}}</ref>

[[File:Kök 1950.jpg|thumb|A woman cooks, supervised by a teacher, in a ''domestic economy institute'' in [[Stockholm]], Sweden. (1950)|alt=En kvinna arbetar i köket, en annan kvinna antecknar och klockar tiden (Rålambsvägen 8 och 10 i Stockholm)]]
The governments of [[communist]] countries in the early and middle 20th century, such as the Soviet Union, Cuba and China, encouraged married women to keep working after giving birth. There were very few housewives in communist countries until [[Post-communism|free market economic reform]] in the 1990s, which led to a resurgence in the number of housewives. Conversely, in the [[Western World]] of the 1950s, many women quit their jobs to be housewives after giving birth. Only 22% of married women in the US kept working after giving birth.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/call-the-midwife/blog/tracking-womens-rights-and-opportunities|title=Tracking Women’s Rights and Opportunities|date=5 April 2022|website=PBS|access-date=25 January 2026}}</ref>

In the 1960s in western countries, it was becoming more accepted for a woman to work until she got married, when it was a widely held belief that she should stop work and become a housewife. Many women believed that this was not treating men and women [[gender equality|equally]] and that women should do whatever jobs they were able to do, whether they were married or not.

''[[The Feminine Mystique]]'', a 1963 book by [[Betty Friedan]] which is widely credited with sparking the beginning of [[second-wave feminism]] in the US, discussed, among other things, the lives of housewives from around the US who were unhappy despite living in material comfort and being married with children. In the 1950s, American society strongly encouraged women to become housewives, suggesting that true happiness came from taking care of the home and family. Most women were expected to marry young—around age 20—and spend their lives supporting their husbands and raising children. Their main responsibilities included shopping, cleaning, and caring for kids, while also helping their husbands succeed in school or work. Being a housewife was seen as part of the "American Dream," and many women aimed to create the perfect family life. However, not all women felt happy in this role. Writer Betty Friedan talked to many housewives across the country and found that many of them felt empty or unfulfilled. In her book ''The Feminine Mystique'', she explained how some women tried to ignore these feelings by staying busy with more chores or having more children. Some people believe this unhappiness came from a lack of opportunities for education and careers. The idea that housewives had an easy life was also challenged. In reality, many women felt stressed and tired from the demands of housework, a condition sometimes called "housewife’s fatigue".<ref name=":12">{{Cite book |last=Friedan |first=Betty |title=The Feminine Mystique |isbn=0-393-32257-2}}</ref><ref name="nytimes2006">[https://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/05/national/05friedan.html Betty Friedan, Who Ignited Cause in 'Feminine Mystique,' Dies at 85] - ''The New York Times,'' 5 February 2006.</ref> At this time, many women were becoming more educated. As a result of this increased education, some women were able to earn more than their husbands. In very rare cases, the husband would remain at home to raise their young children while the wife worked. In 1964, a US stamp was issued honoring homemakers for the 50th anniversary of the [[Smith-Lever Act]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nwhm.org/online-exhibits/stamps/homemakers.html |title=Leaving Their Stamp on History |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906064904/https://www.nwhm.org/online-exhibits/stamps/homemakers.html|archive-date=6 September 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://arago.si.edu/category_2034154.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160203081536/http://arago.si.edu/category_2034154.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 February 2016|title=Arago: Homemakers Issue|website=postalmuseum.si.edu}}</ref>

In the late 20th century, in many countries, it became harder for a family to live on a single wage. Subsequently, many women were required to return to work following the birth of their children. However, the number of male homemakers began gradually increasing in the late 20th century, especially in developed Western nations. In 2010, the number of male homemakers in the US had reached its highest point: 2.2 million.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2014/06/05/growing-number-of-dads-home-with-the-kids/|title=Growing Number of Dads Home with the Kids|last=Livingston|first=Gretchen|website=Pew Research Center's Social & Demographic Trends Project|date=5 June 2014 |access-date=22 March 2016}}</ref> Though the male role is subject to many [[stereotype]]s, and men may have difficulties accessing parenting benefits, communities, and services targeted at mothers, it became more socially acceptable by the 2000s.<ref>[[Andrea Doucet]], 2006. [https://books.google.com/books?id=G1p3v2soHToC&dq=andrea%20doucet%20do%20men%20mother%3F&pg=PP1 Do Men Mother?] Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press.</ref> The male homemaker was more regularly portrayed in the media by the 2000s, especially in the US. However, in some regions of the world, the male homemaker remains a culturally unacceptable role.

==Self employed==
{{expand section|date=July 2016}}
Examples of notable housewives include:
* England
** [[Irene Lovelock]] (1896–1974), the founder of the [[British Housewives' League]]
** [[Elizabeth Rebecca Ward]] (1880–1978), wrote under the pen-name of Fay Inchfawn
* Germany
** [[Johanne Walhorn]] (1911–1995), a lawyer who re-established the {{ill|German Housewives Association|de|Deutscher Hausfrauenbund}} in Münster
* India
** [[Sudha Murty]] (b. 1950), engineering teacher, writer and social worker
* Indonesia
** [[Sherly Tjoanda]] (b. 1982), Indonesian politician, Governor of [[North Maluku]] (2025-present)<ref>{{cite web |last1=Rastika |first1=Icha |title=Sherly Tjoanda: Saya Hanyalah Ibu Rumah Tangga yang Tak Paham Birokrasi, ke Depan Akan Pontang-panting |url=https://regional.kompas.com/read/2025/02/21/095614478/sherly-tjoanda-saya-hanyalah-ibu-rumah-tangga-yang-tak-paham-birokrasi-ke |website=regional.kompas.com |publisher=Kompas |access-date=15 September 2025}}</ref>
* The Netherlands
** [[Fanny Blankers-Koen]] (1918–2004), a Dutch athlete known as "The Flying Housewife"
* Norway
** [[Alette Engelhart]] (1896–1984), a Norwegian housewives' leader
* United States
** [[Martha B. Alexander]] (b. 1939), a former Democratic member of the North Carolina General Assembly
** [[Margaret Dayton]] (b. 1949), a politician from Utah
** [[Geanie Morrison]] (b. 1950), American politician{{citation needed|date=August 2020}}
** [[Terry Rakolta]] (b. 1944), American activist
** [[Ann Romney]] (b. 1949), American equestrian, author, and philanthropist
** [[Margot Seitelman]] (1928 – 1989), the first executive director of American Mensa
** [[Barbara Stafford]] (b. 1953), American politician

==Songs about the housewife's lot==
The housewife's work has often been the subject of [[Folk music|folk songs]]. Examples include: "The Housewife's Lament" (from the diary of Sarah Price, [[Ottawa, Illinois]], mid 19th century);<ref>Recorded on: ''The Female Frolic'', Argo ZDA 82 & [[Peggy Seeger|Seeger, P.]] ''Penelope isn't Waiting any More'' Blackthorne BR 1050</ref> "Nine Hours a Day" (1871 English song, anonymous); "A Woman's Work is Never Done", or "A Woman Never Knows When her Day's Work is Done";<ref>Recorded on [[Sam Richards (writer)|Staverton Bridge]] SADISC SDL 266</ref> "The Labouring Woman"; "How Five and Twenty Shillings were Expended in a Week" (English [[popular songs]]); and "A Woman's Work" (London [[music hall]] song by Sue Pay, 1934).<ref>Kathy Henderson et al., comp. (1979) ''My Song is My Own: 100 women's songs''. London: Pluto; pp. 126-28, 142-43</ref> "The Housewife's Alphabet" by [[Peggy Seeger]] was issued as a [[Blackthorne Records]] single in 1977 with "My Son".<ref>''New City Songster''; vol. 13, Oct. 1977</ref>

==See also==
* [[Feminist economics]]
* [[Soccer mom]]
* [[Stay-at-home dad]] (i.e. househusband)
* [[Tradwife]]
* ''[[The Compleat Housewife|The Compleat Housewife or Accomplish'd Gentlewoman's Companion]]'', a 1727 English cookery book, how-to manual, and the first published cookbook in the US
* ''[[The Virginia House-Wife]]'', an 1824 cookery book and housekeeping manual
* ''[[Kitchen Stories]]'', a 2003 film inspired by post-War Scandinavian studies of the housewife in the kitchen
* ''[[The Two-Income Trap]]'', a 2004 book
* ''[[Housewives of Japan]]''
*''[[The Real Housewives]]'' franchise

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

'''General'''
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Allen|editor1-first=Robert|title=The Penguin English Dictionary|year=2003|publisher=Penguin Books|location=London, England|isbn=978-0-14-051533-6|page=1642}}

==Further reading==
* Swain, Sally (1988) ''Great Housewives of Art''. London: Grafton (reissued by Harper Collins, London, 1995) (pastiches of famous artists showing housewives' tasks, e.g. Mrs Kandinsky Puts Away the Kids' Toys)
;United States
* Campbell, D'Ann (1984). ''Women at War with America: Private Lives in a Patriotic Era'', on World War II; [https://archive.org/details/womenatwarwitham0000camp/mode/1up online]
* Ogden, Annegret S. (1987) ''The Great American Housewife: From Helpmate to Wage Earner, 1776-1986''
* Palmer, Phyllis (1990). ''Housewives and [[Domestic worker|Domestic Servants]] in the United States, 1920-1945.''
* Ramey, Valerie A. (2009), "Time Spent in Home Production in the Twentieth-Century United States: New Estimates from Old Data," ''Journal of Economic History,'' 69 (March 2009), 1–47.
* Tillotson, Kristin (2004) ''Retro Housewife: a salute to the urban superwoman''. Portland, Ore.: Collectors Press {{ISBN|1-888054-92-1}}
* Ulrich, Laurel Thatcher (1982). ''Good Wives: Image and Reality in the Lives of Women in Northern New England, 1650-1750''

;Europe
* Draznin, Yaffa Claire (2001). ''Victorian London's Middle-Class Housewife: What She Did All Day'' 227pp
* Hardy, Sheila (2012) ''A 1950s Housewife: Marriage and Homemaking in the 1950s''. Stroud: the History Press {{ISBN|978-0-7524-69-89-8}}
* McCarthy, Helen. (2020) "The Rise of the Working Wife." History Today (May 2020) 70#5 pp 18–20, covers 1950 to 1960; online
* McMillan, James F. (1981) ''Housewife or Harlot: The Place of Women in French Society, 1870-1940'' 229pp
* Myrdal, Alva & Klein, Viola (1956) ''Women's Two Roles: Home and Work''. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul
* Robertson, Una A. (1997) ''Illustrated History of the Housewife, 1650-1950'' 218pp (on Britain)
* [[Alison Sim|Sim, Alison]] (1996). ''Tudor Housewife,'' (on 1480 to 1609 in England)

==External links==
{{wiktionary|Housewife}}
{{commons category|Housewives}}
* {{Wiktionary-inline|homemaker}}
* [https://hearth.library.cornell.edu/ Home Economics Archive: Tradition, Research, History (HEARTH)]; An e-book collection of over 1,000 classic books on home economics spanning 1850 to 1950, created by [[Cornell University]]'s Mann Library.
* Northern Illinois University: [http://www.lib.niu.edu/1999/iht719902.html Roles: The Changing Roles of Farm Women by Jane Adams for Historical Research and Narrative at Illinois Periodicals Online]; Information and educational materials about 19th century farm wives
{{Reproductive labor}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Home economics]]
[[Category:Housewives| ]]
[[Category:Terms for women]]
[[Category:Sociology of work]]

Rajesh Saraiya

2026-02-04T21:22:46Z

Ankitchadha: New Info

{{Short description|Indian businessman}}
{{BLP sources|date=July 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2017}}

'''Rajesh Saraiya''' (born 1969) is an Indian [[industrialist]] and member of the [[Dalit Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industry]] (DICCI).<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 May 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121013193952/http://news.oneindia.in/2011/05/29/rajesh-saraiya-is-indias-first-dalit-billioniare-aid0155.html |url=https://www.oneindia.com/2011/05/29/rajesh-saraiya-is-indias-first-dalit-billioniare-aid0155.html |title=Rajesh Saraiya, India's first Dalit billioniare [sic?] |archive-date=13 October 2012}} </ref> He is considered as the first [[Dalit]] billionaire of India.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Meet India's first Dalit billionaire|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/meet-indias-first-dalit-billionaire-457034|website=NDTV.com|access-date=2020-05-24}}</ref>

==Biography==

Rajesh Saraiya was born in Saraiya Sani Village in [[Sitapur district|Sitapur]], Uttar Pradesh. He grew up in [[Dehradun]] and studied [[Aeronautical science]] from the Kyiv Institute of Civil Aviation in Ukraine.

Saraiya was awarded the Pravasi Bharatiya Award in 2012 and the [[Padma Shri]] in 2014.

Saraiya is the CEO of Steel Mont Trading Ltd., headquartered in [[Düsseldorf]], Germany. It deals with steel trading, production, commodities and shipping. The company has offices in [[London]], [[Kyiv]], [[Istanbul]], [[Dubai]], [[Mumbai]] and [[Tianjin]].

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{Padma Shri Award Recipients in Trade & Industry}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Saraiya, Rajesh}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1969 births]]
[[Category:Indian billionaires]]
[[Category:Businesspeople from Dehradun]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Shri in trade and industry]]

{{India-stub}}

Dimple Yadav

2026-02-04T08:07:05Z

Ankitchadha:

{{short description|Indian politician (born 1978)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Dimple Yadav
| image = Dimple Yadav.img.jpg
| image_size =
| caption = Yadav in 2024
| birth_name = Dimple Rawat
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1978|01|15|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Pune]], [[Maharashtra]], India<ref name="MemProfile"/>
| residence = {{ubl|C-1/36, Pandara Park, [[New Delhi]]}}<ref name="MemProfile"/>
| office = [[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha|Member of Parliament]], [[Lok Sabha]]
| term_start = 5 December 2022
| constituency = [[Mainpuri Lok Sabha constituency|Mainpuri, Uttar Pradesh]]
| term_end =
| predecessor = [[Mulayam Singh Yadav]]
| successor =
| term_start1 = 8 August 2012
| constituency1 = [[Kannauj Lok Sabha constituency|Kannauj, Uttar Pradesh]]
| term_end1 = 23 May 2019
| predecessor1 = [[Akhilesh Yadav]]
| successor1 = [[Subrat Pathak]]
| office2 =
| constituency2 =
| term_start2 =
| term_end2 =
| term_start3 =
| term_end3 =
| term_start4 =
| term_end4 =
| party = [[Samajwadi Party]]
| spouse = {{marriage|[[Akhilesh Yadav]]|24 November 1999}}
| alma_mater = [[Lucknow University]]
| father = 
| mother = 
| relations = [[Political_families_of_Uttar_Pradesh#The_Yadav_Family|Mulayam Yadav family]]
| children = 3
| profession = Politician
| footnotes =
| date =
| year =
| website =
}}

'''Dimple Yadav''' (née '''Rawat'''; born 15 January 1978; {{IPA|hi|ɖɪmpəl jaːd̪əʋ}}) is an Indian politician and the incumbent [[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha|Member of Parliament]] from [[Mainpuri Lok Sabha constituency|Mainpuri]] of [[Uttar Pradesh]]. She has earlier been a member of the [[Lok Sabha]] for two terms from [[Kannauj Lok Sabha constituency|Kannauj]] and currently serving a second term from [[Mainpuri Lok Sabha constituency]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/lok-sabha-election-2024-results-live-dimple-yadav-wins-from-mainpuri-lok-sabha-seat-5816202 | title=Lok Sabha Election 2024 Results LIVE: Dimple Yadav Wins From Mainpuri Lok Sabha Seat | publisher=[[NDTV]] | date=4 June 2024 | access-date=11 June 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cnbctv18.com/india/politics/mainpuri-lok-sabha-election-2024-result-live-updates-dimple-yadav-jayveer-singh-19422879.htm | title=Mainpuri Election Result 2024: Dimple Yadav retains SP bastion with nearly 2.2 lakh votes margin| publisher=[[CNBC TV18]] | date=4 June 2024 | access-date=11 June 2024}}</ref>

Yadav is married to [[Samajwadi Party]] president and former [[List of chief ministers of Uttar Pradesh|Uttar Pradesh Chief Minister]], [[Akhilesh Yadav]],<ref>{{cite web | url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/politically-famous-better-halves-poonam-sinha-dimple-yadav-harsimrat-kaur/lady-power/slideshow/69058111.cms | title=Politically Famous Better Halves: Sonia Gandhi, Poonam Sinha & Dimple Yadav | publisher=[[The Economic Times]] | date=14 May 2019 | access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref> and is as such the daughter-in-law of [[Mulayam Singh Yadav]], former [[Minister of Defence (India)|Defence Minister of India]], former Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh and founder-patron of the Samajwadi Party.

==Early life and education==
Dimple Yadav was born on 15 January 1978 in [[Pune]], [[Maharashtra]].<ref name="MemProfile" >{{cite web |title=Members Bioprofile - Yadav, Smt. Dimple |url=http://164.100.47.194/Loksabha/Members/MemberBioprofile.aspx?mpsno=4580&lastls=16 |website=Lok Sabha |access-date=20 February 2022}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://www.freepressjournal.in/cmcm/the-love-story-of-akhilesh-and-dimple-yadav-a-drama-made-for-the-movies|title=The love-story of Akhilesh and Dimple Yadav: A drama made for the movies|website=Latest Indian news, Top Breaking headlines, Today Headlines, Top Stories at Free Press Journal|access-date=20 December 2019}}</ref> She is the second of three daughters of retired [[Indian Army]] Col. Ram Chandra Singh Rawat and Champa Rawat.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://daily.bhaskar.com/news/UP-know-about-up-cm-akhilesh-yadavs-wife-dimple-yadav-4345885-PHO.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140812084652/http://daily.bhaskar.com/news/UP-know-about-up-cm-akhilesh-yadavs-wife-dimple-yadav-4345885-PHO.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=12 August 2014|title=Facts you didn't know about UP CM Akhilesh Yadav's wife Dimple Yadav|date=12 August 2013|website=dailybhaskar|access-date=20 December 2019}}</ref> Her family is originally from [[Uttarakhand]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Chopra |first1=Nora |title=Mulayam crosses caste barriers |url=http://www.sunday-guardian.com/buzzword/mulayam-crosses-caste-barriers |access-date=20 December 2019 |work=Sunday Guardian |archive-date=11 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171211161257/http://www.sunday-guardian.com/buzzword/mulayam-crosses-caste-barriers |url-status=dead }}</ref> She was educated in Pune, [[Bathinda]] and [[Andaman and Nicobar]] Islands. Her formal education took place in [[Indian Army Public Schools|Army Public School]], Nehru Road, [[Lucknow]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Facts you didn't know about UP CM Akhilesh Yadav's wife Dimple Yadav|url=http://daily.bhaskar.com/article/UP-know-about-up-cm-akhilesh-yadavs-wife-dimple-yadav-4345885-PHO.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130818085243/http://daily.bhaskar.com/article/UP-know-about-up-cm-akhilesh-yadavs-wife-dimple-yadav-4345885-PHO.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=18 August 2013|work=Daily Bhaskar|access-date=31 May 2014|date=12 August 2013}}</ref> She graduated in commerce from [[Lucknow University]].<ref name=gallops>{{cite web|title=Lok Sabha 2014 Elections: Dimple Yadav, a horse-rider gallops into politics|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-lok-sabha-2014-elections-dimple-yadav-a-horse-rider-gallops-into-politics-1973149|publisher=DNA News|access-date=31 May 2014|date=29 March 2014}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Dimple Rawat met [[Akhilesh Yadav]] when she was a student. Originally, Yadav's family was opposed to their marriage, but they agreed after his grandmother, Murti Devi approved. The couple got married on 24 November 1999 when she was 21.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bhaskar.com/news/UP-LUCK-akhilesh-and-dimple-yadav-love-story-details-news-hindi-5362192-PHO.html|title=4 साल तक चली थी अखिलेश-डिंपल की डेटिंग, ऐसी फिल्मी है CM की लव स्टोरी|date=1 July 2016|website=Dainik Bhaskar|access-date=20 December 2019}}</ref><ref name="auto" /><ref name="MemProfile" /> Guests at their wedding included movie stars like [[Amitabh Bachchan]] and [[Rajesh Khanna]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Bhat|first=Vasudha|title=Jab they met: Akhilesh and Dimple Yadav|url=http://www.indiatvnews.com/politics/national/jab-they-met-akhilesh-and-dimple-yadav-10763.html?page=8|work=India TV News|access-date=31 May 2014|date=20 April 2014}}</ref>
The couple have two daughters - Aditi Yadav and Tina Yadav and a son Arjun Yadav.<ref>{{cite web|last=Bhat|first=Vasudha|title=Jab they met: Akhilesh and Dimple Yadav|url=http://www.indiatvnews.com/politics/national/jab-they-met-akhilesh-and-dimple-yadav-10763.html?page=11|work=India TV News|access-date=31 May 2014|date=20 April 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Samajwadi GenNext: Akhilesh-Dimple Yadav's children get active on social media|url=https://daijiworld.com/news/newsDisplay?newsID=951220|work=Daiji World}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Singh|first=Digvijay|title=अखिलेश-डिंपल का परिवार, बड़ी बेटी के 12वीं में 98% अंक, दो जुड़वां बच्चे Akhilesh Yadav Kids|url=https://www.jansatta.com/videos/news-video/meet-akhilesh-yadav-dimple-yadav-children-elder-daughter-aditi-and-twin-kids/1793733/|work=[[Jansatta]]}}</ref>

==Political career==
Yadav unsuccessfully contested the by-election for the [[Lok Sabha]] constituency of [[Firozabad Lok Sabha constituency|Firozabad]] in 2009 against actor-turned-politician [[Raj Babbar]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/I-am-not-fighting-for-family-but-for-partys-honour-Mulayams-bahu-Dimple-Yadav/articleshow/5202073.cms|title=I am not fighting for family but for party's honour: Mulayam's bahu Dimple Yadav|last=Roy|first=Rustam|date=6 November 2009|work=[[Times of India]]|access-date=7 March 2010}}</ref> The by-election was triggered by her husband, who had won two seats in the [[2009 Indian general election|May 2009 General Elections]], in both [[Firozabad Lok Sabha constituency|Firozabad]] and [[Kannauj Lok Sabha constituency|Kannauj]], opting to retain the Kannauj seat.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/lucknow/Dhritrashtra-Syndrome-dominates-phase-III-in-UP/articleshow/33974831.cms | title='Dhritrashtra Syndrome' dominates phase III in UP | publisher=[[The Times of India]] | work=Ashish Tripathi | date=20 April 2014 | access-date=25 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.rediff.com/report/2009/nov/10/why-did-mulayam-bahu-lost-in-up-bypoll.htm|title=Analysis: Why Dimple Yadav came a cropper in UP bypoll|last=Pradhan |first=Sharat |date=12 November 2009|work=[[Rediff]]|access-date=7 March 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Sarin |first1=Ritu |last2=Ranjan |first2=Amitav |title=Law Minister at the wheel in CBI's U-turn on Mulayam case |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/news-archive/law-minister-at-the-wheel-in-cbis-u-turn-on-mulayam-case/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127172843/https://indianexpress.com/article/news-archive/law-minister-at-the-wheel-in-cbis-u-turn-on-mulayam-case/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=27 January 2021 |access-date=19 April 2021 |work=The Indian Express |date=14 December 2008 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/probe-up-cms-money-sc-to-cbi/34867-37-p1.html|title=Probe UP CM's money: SC to CBI|date=1 March 2007|work=[[CNN-IBN]]|access-date=7 March 2010|archive-date=19 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120319064024/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/probe-up-cms-money-sc-to-cbi/34867-37-p1.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> She was elected unopposed from the Kannauj constituency to the Lok Sabha in 2012, after her husband caused another by-election by vacating the seat to enter the [[Uttar Pradesh legislative council|Uttar Pradesh Legislative Council]].

Yadav became the 44th person in the country and only the fourth in [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly|Uttar Pradesh]] since the [[Independence of India]] to be elected unopposed.<ref name=gallops/> This situation arose when two candidates, Dashrath Singh Shankwar (Samyukt Samajwadi Dal) and Sanju Katiyar (Independent), withdrew their nominations. [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] and [[Indian National Congress]] had not nominated any candidates for the by-election; though the BJP clarified later that their candidate missed his train so he failed to reach in time to file his nomination.

This made her the first woman from Uttar Pradesh to get elected unopposed in a Lok Sabha by-election, and second person after [[Purshottam Das Tandon]]'s election from [[Allahabad]] West in 1952. She became the only woman MP whose husband was Chief Minister, and also one whose father-in-law was also a member of the same House.<ref name=gallops/>

Yadav retained [[Kannauj]] Lok Sabha seat in [[2014 Indian general election|2014 Indian General Election]] by defeating the nearest rival by 19,907 votes.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sinha |first1=Anubhav |title=SP's Dimple Yadav retains Kannauj seat by registering a win over BJP's Subrat Pathak by a margin of 19907 votes. |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sps-dimple-yadav-retains-kannauj-seat-by-registering-a-win-over-bjps-subrat-pathak-by-a-margin-of-19907-votes-/articleshow/35215768.cms |access-date=25 July 2023 |work=The Times of India |date=16 May 2014}}</ref> In [[2019 Indian general election|2019 Indian General Election]], she contested as a joint candidate of the [[Samajwadi Party]] and [[Bahujan Samaj Party]], but lost to [[BJP]]'s [[Subrat Pathak]] with a margin of more than 10,000 votes.<ref>{{cite news |title=Elections 2019: Dimple Yadav loses Samajwadi Party bastion Kannauj to BJP's Subrat Pathak |url=https://scroll.in/latest/924621/elections-2019-dimple-yadav-loses-samajwadi-party-bastion-kannauj-to-bjps-subrat-pathak |access-date=27 May 2019 |agency=Scroll |publisher=Scroll.in |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190527035252/https://scroll.in/latest/924621/elections-2019-dimple-yadav-loses-samajwadi-party-bastion-kannauj-to-bjps-subrat-pathak |archive-date=27 May 2019}}</ref>

After the death of her father-in-law [[Mulayam Singh Yadav]], Dimple Yadav was fielded from the vacant [[Mainpuri Lok Sabha constituency]] seat, which she won by defeating BJP's candidate with over 2.8 [[lakh]] votes.<ref>{{cite news |title=Mainpuri Bypoll Result: Dimple Yadav records thumping victory with over 2.8 lakh votes |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/lucknow/mainpuri-bypoll-result-updates-dimple-yadav-vs-raghuraj-singh-mainpuri-lok-sabha-seat-bjp-sp/articleshow/96074108.cms |access-date=25 July 2023 |work=The Times of India |date=8 December 2022}}</ref>

In 2024, Dimple Yadav retained Mainpuri Lok Sabha seat which she won with a margin victory of 2,21,639 votes,<ref>{{cite news |title=Bullish Wins & Bearish Losses: Here are the key contests and results of 2024 Lok Sabha polls |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/elections/lok-sabha/india/bullish-wins-bearish-losses-here-are-the-key-contests-of-2024-lok-sabha-results/articleshow/110713130.cms |work=Economic Times |date=6 June 2024 |access-date=27 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240727153249/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/elections/lok-sabha/india/bullish-wins-bearish-losses-here-are-the-key-contests-of-2024-lok-sabha-results/articleshow/110713130.cms |archive-date=27 July 2024}}</ref> defeating the [[BJP]]'s Jayveer Singh. Dimple won by securing 5,98,526 votes, while Jayveer Singh, managed 3,76,887 votes. The seat has been with the [[Samajwadi Party]] since 1996 and its journey of victories is marked by a series of electoral wins.<ref>{{cite web|title= Dimple Yadav continues Yadav family’s legacy, wins Mainpuri Lok Sabha elections 2024|url=https://indianexpress.com/elections/dimple-yadav-vs-jaiveer-singh-mainpuri-elections-result-live-updates-9370076/|date=5 June 2024|work=[[Indian Express]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.business-standard.com/elections/lok-sabha-election/ls-polls-dimple-yadav-wins-from-mainpuri-seat-by-margin-of-221-639-votes-124060401258_1.html|title=LS polls: Dimple Yadav wins from Mainpuri seat by margin of 221,639 votes|date=6 June 2024|work=[[Business Standard]]}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
! # !! From !! To !! Positions !! Party
|-
| 1. || 2012 || 2014 || [[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha|MP]] (1st term) in [[15th Lok Sabha]] from [[Kannauj Lok Sabha constituency|Kannauj]] (by-poll) || [[Samajwadi Party|SP]]
|-
| 2. || 2014 || 2019 || [[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha|MP]] (2nd term) in [[16th Lok Sabha]] from [[Kannauj Lok Sabha constituency|Kannauj]] || [[Samajwadi Party|SP]]
|-

| 3. || 2022 || 2024 || [[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha|MP]] (3rd term) in [[17th Lok Sabha]] from [[Mainpuri Lok Sabha constituency|Mainpuri]] (by-poll) || [[Samajwadi Party|SP]]
|-

| 4. || 2024 || Present || [[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha|MP]] (4th term) in [[18th Lok Sabha]] from [[Mainpuri Lok Sabha constituency|Mainpuri]] || [[Samajwadi Party|SP]]
|-

|}

==References==
{{Reflist|3}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* [http://164.100.47.194/Loksabha/Members/MemberBioprofile.aspx?mpsno=4580&lastls=16 Official biographical sketch in Parliament of India website]
* {{Facebook|dimpleyadav}}

{{S-start}}
{{s-par|in-lwr}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Akhilesh Yadav]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha|Member of Parliament]] for [[Kannauj Lok Sabha constituency|Kannauj]]|years=2012–2019}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Subrat Pathak]]}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Mulayam Singh Yadav]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha|Member of Parliament]] for [[Kannauj Lok Sabha constituency|Kannauj]]|years=2022–present}}
{{s-inc}}
{{s-end}}

{{Samajwadi Party}}
{{18th Lok Sabha members from Uttar Pradesh|state=expanded}}
{{17th Lok Sabha members from Uttar Pradesh}}
{{16th LS members from Uttar Pradesh}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Yadav, Dimple}}
[[Category:1978 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Yadav family (Uttar Pradesh)|Dimple]]
[[Category:People from Kannauj district]]
[[Category:Samajwadi Party politicians from Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Women in Uttar Pradesh politics]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian women politicians]]
[[Category:Politicians from Pune]]
[[Category:University of Lucknow alumni]]
[[Category:Lok Sabha members from Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:India MPs 2009–2014]]
[[Category:India MPs 2014–2019]]
[[Category:India MPs 2019–2024]]
[[Category:Indian National Developmental Inclusive Alliance candidates in 2024 Indian general election]]
[[Category:India MPs 2024–2029]]

Greater India

2026-01-31T13:23:36Z

Ankitchadha:

{{Short description|Cultural sphere of India beyond the Indian subcontinent}}
{{About|the Indian cultural sphere|the irredentist concept|Akhand Bharat}}
{{pp-extended|small=yes}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
{{Infobox
| name = Greater India or Indian Culture Sphere and Indic world .
| bodystyle =
| titlestyle = background:#bee5fe;
| abovestyle = background:#fcfebe;
| headerstyle = background:#ddf;
| title = Indian Cultural Sphere
| above = Greater India
| imagestyle =
| captionstyle =
| image =
| caption =
| header1 = [[Southeast Asia]]
| label1 =
| data1 =
| header2 =
| label2 = Indianized Kingdoms
| data2 = [[Khmer Empire|Angkor]], [[Arakan]], [[Butuan (historical polity)|Butuan]], [[Cebu (historical state)|Cebu]], [[Champa]], [[Chenla]], [[Dvaravati]], [[Kingdom of Funan|Funan]], [[Gangga Negara]], [[Kalingga]], [[Kutai]], [[Langkasuka]], [[Majapahit]], [[Pagan Kingdom|Pagan]], [[Pan Pan (kingdom)|Pan Pan]], [[Singhasari]], [[Srivijaya]], [[Tarumanagara]], [[Tondo (historical polity)|Tondo]]
| header3 =
| label3 = [[Theravada Buddhism]]
| data3 = [[Buddhism in Southeast Asia]] (Theravada is popular mainly in [[Buddhism in Cambodia|Cambodia]], [[Buddhism in Laos|Laos]], [[Buddhism in Myanmar|Myanmar]], [[Buddhism in Thailand|Thailand]])
| header4 =
| label4 = [[Hinduism]]
| data4 = [[Hinduism in Bali]], [[Hinduism in Southeast Asia]]
| header5 = [[South Asia]]
| label5 =
| data5 =
| header6 =
| label6 = Indianized Kingdoms
| data6 = [[Kingdom of Anuradhapura|Anuradhapura]], [[Kingdom of Kandy|Kandy]], [[Kingdom of Nepal|Nepal]], [[Kingdom of Polonnaruwa|Polonnaruwa]]
| header7 =
| label7 = Theravada Buddhism
| data7 = [[Buddhism in Sri Lanka|Sri Lanka]]
| label8 = [[Vajrayana Buddhism]]
| data8 = [[Buddhism in Bhutan|Bhutan]], [[Buddhism in Nepal|Nepal]], [[Tibetan Buddhism|Tibet]]
| header9 =
| label9 = Hinduism
| data9 = [[Hinduism in Bhutan|Bhutan]], [[Hinduism in India|India]], [[Hinduism in Nepal|Nepal]]
| header10 = [[Central Asia]]
| label10 =
| data10 =
| header11 =
| label12 = [[Buddhist monasticism]]
| data12 = [[Buddhism in Central Asia]], [[Kushan Empire]]
| image2 = [[File:Indian cultural zone.svg|250px]]
| caption2 = '''Indian cultural extent''' 
'''Dark orange''': The [[Indian subcontinent]]<ref>{{cite journal|last1= Patel|first1= Sneha|title= India's South Asian Policy|journal= The Indian Journal of Political Science|date= 2015|volume= 76|issue= 3|pages= 677–680|url= https://www.jstor.org/stable/26534911|jstor= 26534911|quote = It is important to note that Nepal was not a British colony like India. Geographically, culturally, socially and historically India and Nepal are linked most intimately and lived together from time immemorial. The most significant factor which has nurtured Indo-Nepalese relations through ages is geographical setting of the two countries which is a good example to understand that how geography connects the two countries.}}</ref> '''Light orange''': Southeast Asia culturally linked to [[India]] (except [[Northern Vietnam]], and [[New Guinea]]) 
'''Yellow''': Regions with significant Indian cultural influence, notably the [[Philippines]], [[Tibet]], [[Yunnan]], and historically [[Afghanistan]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mehta |first1=Jaswant Lal |title=Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.12598 |volume=I |edition=1st |year=1979 |publisher=Sterling Publishers |oclc=557595150 |page=[https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.12598/page/n55 31] |language=en |quote=Modern Afghanistan was part of ancient India; the Afghans belonged to the pale of Indo-Aryan civilisation. In the eighty century, the country was known by two regional names—Kabul land Zabul. The northern part, called Kabul (or Kabulistan) was governed by a Buddhist dynasty. Its capital and the river on the banks of which it was situated, also bore the same name. Lalliya, a Brahmin minister of the last Buddhist ruler Lagaturman, deposed his master and laid the foundation of the Hindushahi dynasty in c. 865.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Chandra |first1=Satish |title=Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals |date=2006 |publisher=Har-Anand Publications |isbn=9788124110669 |page=41 |quote=Although Afghanistan was considered an integral part of India in antiquity, and was often called "Little India" even in medieval times, politically it had not been a part of India after the downfall of the Kushan empire, followed by the defeat of the Hindu Shahis by Mahmud Ghazni.}}</ref>
| belowstyle = background:#fcfebe;
| below = [[Indosphere]] {{·}} [[Hindu texts]] {{·}} [[Buddhist texts]] {{·}} [[Folklore of India]] {{·}} [[Ramayana]] ([[Versions of Ramayana]])
}}
{{Hinduism}}

'''Greater India''', also known as the '''Indian cultural sphere''', or the '''Indic world''', is an area composed of several countries and regions in [[South Asia]], [[East Asia]] and [[Southeast Asia]] that were historically influenced by [[Culture of India|Indian culture]], which itself formed from the various distinct indigenous cultures of the [[Indian subcontinent]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Lévi|first1=Sylvain|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dx5dzJGGBg0C&q=austroasiatic+influence+on+india&pg=PR15|title=Pre-Aryan and Pre-Dravidian in India|last2=Przyluski|first2=Jean|last3=Bloch|first3=Jules|date=1993|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-0772-9|access-date=26 March 2023|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195030/https://books.google.com/books?id=dx5dzJGGBg0C&q=austroasiatic+influence+on+india&pg=PR15|url-status=live}}</ref> It is an umbrella term encompassing the Indian subcontinent and surrounding countries, which are culturally linked through a diverse cultural cline. These countries have been transformed to varying degrees by the adoption and incorporation of [[Culture|cultural]] and institutional elements from each other.

From around 500 BCE, Asia's expanding land and [[Indian Ocean trade|maritime trade]] had resulted in prolonged [[Socioeconomics|socio-economic]] and cultural stimulation and diffusion of [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] and [[Hindus|Hindu]] beliefs into the region's cosmology, in particular in Southeast Asia and the Far-East.<ref>{{cite book|author=Kenneth R. Hal|title=Maritime Trade and State Development in Early Southeast Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ncqGAAAAIAAJ&q=funan+mountain+kings|year=1985|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-0843-3|page=63|access-date=26 March 2023|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195010/https://books.google.com/books?id=ncqGAAAAIAAJ&q=funan+mountain+kings|url-status=live}}</ref>

In Central Asia, the transmission of ideas was predominantly of a religious nature and short-lived, often co-existing with native philosophies such as Zoroastrianism and being quickly supplanted by the rise of Islam. In contrast, the spread of native Indian culture to East Asia was more multifaced and involved wide-ranging cultural exchange beyond religion.

By the early centuries of the [[Common Era|common era]], most of the principalities of Southeast Asia had effectively absorbed defining aspects of Indian culture, religion, and administration. The notion of divine god-kingship was introduced by the concept of [[Harihara]], and Sanskrit and other Indian [[Epigraphy|epigraphic]] systems were declared [[official script|official]], like those of the south Indian [[Pallava dynasty]] and [[Chalukya dynasty]].<ref name="Lavy-2003">{{citation |last=Lavy |first=Paul |title=As in Heaven, So on Earth: The Politics of Visnu Siva and Harihara Images in Preangkorian Khmer Civilisation |journal=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies |volume=34 |pages=21–39 |number=1 |year=2003 |url=https://www.academia.edu/2635407 |access-date=23 December 2015 |doi=10.1017/S002246340300002X |s2cid=154819912 |archive-date=12 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210812222402/https://www.academia.edu/2635407 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Stark-1999"/> These [[Indianization of Southeast Asia|Indianized]] kingdoms, a term coined by [[George Cœdès]] in his work ''Histoire ancienne des états hindouisés d'Extrême-Orient'',{{sfnp|Coedès|1968|pp=14–}} were characterized by resilience, political integrity, and administrative stability.<ref>{{citation |first=Pierre-Yves |last=Manguin |chapter=From Funan to Sriwijaya: Cultural continuities and discontinuities in the Early Historical maritime states of Southeast Asia |title=25 tahun kerjasama Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi dan Ecole française d'Extrême-Orient |location=Jakarta |publisher=Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi / EFEO |year=2002 |pages=59–82 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NJBwAAAAMAAJ |access-date=26 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195002/https://books.google.com/books?id=NJBwAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>

To the north, Indian religious ideas were assimilated into the cosmology of Himalayan peoples, most profoundly in Tibet and Bhutan, and merged with indigenous traditions. [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] [[monasticism]] extended into [[Afghanistan]], [[Uzbekistan]], and other parts of [[Central Asia]], and Buddhist texts and ideas were accepted in China and Japan in the east.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/ARTH406-Historical-Overview-of-Chinese-Buddhism-FINAL.pdf |title=Buddhism in China: A Historical Overview |publisher=The Saylor Foundation 1 |access-date=12 February 2017 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303221358/http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/ARTH406-Historical-Overview-of-Chinese-Buddhism-FINAL.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> To the west, Indian culture converged with [[Greater Persia]] via the [[Hindu Kush]] and the [[Pamir Mountains]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Zhu |first=Qingzhi |title=Some Linguistic Evidence for Early Cultural Exchange between China and India |journal=Sino-Platonic Papers |volume=66 |date=March 1995 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania |url=http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp066_india_china.pdf |quote=everyone knows well the so-called "Buddhist conquest of China" or "Indianized China" |access-date=26 March 2023 |archive-date=4 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190804122822/http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp066_india_china.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Evolution of the concept==

===Geographical designation===
{{Further|Indies|Geography (Ptolemy)}}
[[File:1864 Mitchell Map of India, Tibet, China and Southeast Asia - Geographicus - India-mitchell-1864.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Hindoostan]] and [[Farther India]] in a 1864 map by [[Samuel Augustus Mitchell]]]]
The concept of the ''Three Indias'' was in common circulation in pre-industrial Europe. ''Greater India'' was the [[Southern South Asia|southern part of South Asia]], ''Lesser India'' was the [[Northern South Asia|northern part of South Asia]], and ''Middle India'' was the [[Northwestern South Asia|region near the Middle East]].<ref name="Phillips-1998">{{cite book |last=Phillips |first=J. R. S. |date=1998 |title=The Medieval Expansion of Europe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T1pcTl11iawC&pg=PA192 |publisher=Clarendon Press |page=192 |isbn=978-0-19-820740-5}}</ref> The Portuguese form ({{langx|pt|India Maior}}<ref name="Phillips-1998" /><ref name=azurara /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Lewis |first1=Martin W. |last2=Wigen |first2=Kären |date=1997 |title=The Myth of Continents: A Critique of Metageography |url=https://archive.org/details/mythcontinentscr00lewi |url-access=limited |publisher=University of California Press |page=[https://archive.org/details/mythcontinentscr00lewi/page/n143 269] |isbn=978-0-520-20742-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Pedro Machado |first=José |date=1992 |title=Terras de Além: no Relato da Viagem de Vasco da Gama |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oeGyyRefPd0C&pg=PA333 |journal=Journal of the University of Coimbra |volume=37 |pages=333–}}</ref>) was used at least since the mid-15th century.<ref name=azurara>{{Harv|Azurara|1446}}</ref> The term, which seems to have been used with variable precision,<ref>{{Harv|Beazley|1910|p=708}} Quote: "Azurara's hyperbole, indeed, which celebrates the Navigator Prince as joining Orient and Occident by continual voyaging, as transporting to the extremities of the East the creations of Western industry, does not scruple to picture the people of the ''Greater and the Lesser India''"</ref> sometimes meant only the Indian subcontinent;<ref>{{Harv|Beazley|1910|p=708}} Quote: "Among all the confusion of the various Indies in Mediaeval nomenclature, "Greater India" can usually be recognized as restricted to the "India proper" of the modern [c. 1910] world."</ref> Europeans used a variety of terms related to South Asia to designate the South Asian peninsula, including ''High India'', ''Greater India'', ''Exterior India'' and ''India aquosa''.<ref name="Lewis-1997">{{cite book |last1=Lewis |first1=Martin W. |last2=Wigen |first2=Kären |date=1997 |title=The Myth of Continents: A Critique of Metageography |url=https://archive.org/details/mythcontinentscr00lewi |url-access=limited |publisher=University of California Press |page=[https://archive.org/details/mythcontinentscr00lewi/page/n145 274] |isbn=978-0-520-20742-4}}</ref>

However, in some accounts of European nautical voyages, Greater India (or ''India Major'') extended from the [[Malabar Coast]] (present-day [[Kerala]]) to ''India extra Gangem''<ref>{{Harv|Wheatley|1982|p=13}} Quote: "Subsequently the whole area came to be identified with one of the "Three Indies," though whether ''India Major'' or ''Minor, Greater'' or ''Lesser, Superior'' or ''Inferior'', seems often to have been a personal preference of the author concerned. When Europeans began to penetrate into Southeast Asia in earnest, they continued this tradition, attaching to various of the constituent territories such labels as Further India or Hinterindien, the East Indies, the Indian Archipelago, Insulinde, and, in acknowledgment of the presence of a competing culture, Indochina."</ref> (lit. "India, beyond the Ganges," but usually the [[East Indies]], i.e. present-day [[Malay Archipelago]]) and ''India Minor'', from Malabar to [[Sindh|Sind]].<ref>{{Harv|Caverhill|1767}}</ref> ''[[Farther India]]'' was sometimes used to cover all of modern Southeast Asia.<ref name="Lewis-1997"/> Until the fourteenth century, India could also mean areas along the Red Sea, including [[Somalia]], [[South Arabia]], and [[Ethiopia]] (e.g., Diodorus of Sicily of the first century BC says that "the Nile rises in India" and Marco Polo of the fourteenth century says that "Lesser India ... contains ... Abash [Abyssinia]").<ref>{{cite book |last=Uhlig |first=Siegbert |date=2003 |title=Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: He-N |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l4WUdKWGcYsC |publisher=Isd |page=145 |isbn=978-3-447-05607-6}}</ref>

In late 19th-century geography, ''Greater India'' referred to a region that included: "(a) [[Himalayas|Himalaya]], (b) [[Punjab]], (c) [[Hindustan]], (d) [[Myanmar|Burma]], (e) [[Mainland Southeast Asia|Indo-China]], (f) [[Sunda Islands]], (g) [[Borneo]], (h) [[Sulawesi|Celebes]], and (i) [[Philippines]]."<ref>"Review: New Maps," (1912) ''Bulletin of the American Geographical Society'' 44(3): 235–240.</ref> German atlases distinguished ''Vorder-Indien'' (Anterior India) as the South Asian peninsula and ''Hinter-Indien'' as Southeast Asia.<ref name="Lewis-1997"/>

===Geological connotation===
''Greater India'', or ''Greater India Basin'' also signifies "the [[Indian Plate]] plus a postulated northern extension", the product of the ''Indian–Asia collision''.<ref>{{Harv|Ali|Aitchison|2005|p=170}}</ref> Although its usage in geology pre-dates [[Plate tectonic]] theory,<ref>Argand, E., 1924. La tectonique de l' Asie. Proc. 13th Int. Geol. Cong. 7 (1924), 171–372.</ref> the term has seen increased usage since the 1970s. It is unknown when and where the India–Asia (Indian and [[Eurasian Plate]]) convergence occurred, at or before 52 million years ago. The plates have converged up to {{convert|3600|km|mi|abbr=on}} ± {{convert|35|km|mi|abbr=on}}. The upper crustal shortening is documented from geological record of Asia and the Himalaya as up to approximately {{convert|2350|km|mi|abbr=on}} less.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.earthdynamics.org/papers-ED/2012/2012-vanHinsbergen-etal-PNAS.pdf |title=The Greater India Basin hypothesis |publisher=University of Oslo |access-date=20 December 2016 |archive-date=9 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809062646/http://earthdynamics.org/papers-ED/2012/2012-vanHinsbergen-etal-PNAS.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Cultural sphere===
[[File:006 Bujang Valley Candi.jpg|thumb|Candi Bukit Batu Pahat of [[Bujang Valley]]. A [[Hindu]]-[[Buddhist]] kingdom ruled ancient [[Kedah]] possibly as early as 110 CE, the earliest evidence of strong Indian influence which was once prevalent among the [[Kedahan Malay]]s.]]

The use of ''Greater India'' to refer to an Indian cultural sphere was popularised by a network of Bengali scholars in the 1920s who were all members of the Calcutta-based Greater India Society. The movement's early leaders included the historian [[R. C. Majumdar]] (1888–1980); the philologists [[Suniti Kumar Chatterji]] (1890–1977) and [[Prabodh Chandra Bagchi|P. C. Bagchi]] (1898–1956), and the historians [[Phanindranath Bose]] and [[Kalidas Nag]] (1891–1966).<ref>{{harvtxt|Bayley|2004|p=710}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Gopal |first1=Ram |last2=Paliwal |first2=KV |date=2005 |title=Hindu Renaissance: Ways and Means|location=New Delhi, India |publisher=Hindu Writers Forum |page=83| quote=We may conclude with a broad survey of the Indian colonies in the Far East. For nearly fifteen hundred years, and down to a period when the Hindus had lost their independence in their own home, Hindu kings were ruling over Indo-China and the numerous islands of the Indian Archipelago, from Sumatra to New Guinea. Indian religion, Indian culture, Indian laws, and Indian government moulded the lives of the primitive races all over this wide region, and they imbibed a more elevated moral spirit and a higher intellectual taste through the religion, art, and literature of India. In short, the people were lifted to a higher plane of civilisation.}}</ref> Some of their formulations were inspired by concurrent excavations in [[Angkor]] by French archaeologists and by the writings of French [[Indology|Indologist]] [[Sylvain Lévi]]. The scholars of the society postulated a benevolent ancient Indian cultural colonisation of Southeast Asia, in stark contrast – in their view – to the Western colonialism of the early 20th century.<ref>{{harvtxt|Bayley|2004|p=712}}</ref><ref>Review by 'SKV' of ''The Hindu Colony of Cambodia'' by Phanindranath Bose [Adyar, Madras: Theosophical Publishing House 1927] in The Vedic Magazine and Gurukula Samachar 26: 1927, pp. 620–1.</ref><ref>Lyne Bansat-Boudon, Roland Lardinois, and Isabelle Ratié, ''Sylvain Lévi (1863–1935)'', page 196, Brepols, 2007, {{ISBN|9782503524474}} Quote: "The ancient Hindus of yore were not simply a spiritual people, always busy with mystical problems and never trouble themselves with the questions of 'this world'... India also has its Napoleons and Charlemagnes, its Bismarcks and Machiavellis. But the real charm of Indian history does not consist in these aspirants after universal power, but in its peaceful and benevolent Imperialism – a unique thing in the history of mankind. The colonisers of India did not go with sword and fire in their hands; they used... the weapons of their superior culture and religion... The Buddhist age has attracted special attention, and the French savants have taken much pains to investigate the splendid monuments of the Indian cultural empire in the Far East."</ref>

By some accounts Greater India consists of "lands including Burma, [[Java]], Cambodia, [[Bali]], and the former [[Champa]] and [[Kingdom of Funan|Funan]] polities of present-day [[Vietnam]],"<ref name=bayley2004-p713>{{Harv|Bayley|2004|p=713}}</ref> in which Indian and Hindu culture left an "imprint in the form of monuments, inscriptions and other traces of the historic "[[Sanskritization|Indianizing]]" process."<ref name="bayley2004-p713"/> By some other accounts, many Pacific societies and "most of the Buddhist world including [[Ceylon]], Tibet, Central Asia, and even Japan were held to fall within this web of Indianizing ''culture colonies''"<ref name="bayley2004-p713"/> This particular usage – implying cultural "sphere of influence" of India – was promoted by the [[Greater India Society]], formed by a group of [[Bengali people|Bengali]] [[Man of letters|men of letters]],<ref>{{harvtxt|Handy|1930|p=364}} Quote: "An equally significant movement is one that brought about among the Indian intelligentsia of Calcutta a few years ago the formation of what is known as the "Greater India Society," whose membership is open "to all serious students of the Indian cultural expansion and to all sympathizers of such studies and activities." Though still in its infancy, this organisation has already a large membership, due perhaps as much as anything else to the enthusiasm of its Secretary and Convener, Dr. Kalidas Nag, whose scholarly affiliations with the Orientalists in the University of Paris and studies in Indochina, Insulindia and beyond, have equipped him in an unusual way for the work he has chosen, namely stimulating interest in and spreading knowledge of Greater Indian culture of the past, present and future. The Society's President is Professor [[Jadunath Sarkar]], Vice-Chancellor of Calcutta University, and its Council is made up largely of professors on the faculty of the University and members of the staff of the Calcutta Museum, as well as of Indian authors and journalists. Its activities have included illustrated lecture series at the various universities throughout India by Dr. Nag, the assembling of a research library, and the publication of monographs of which four very excellent examples have already been printed: 1) ''Greater India'', by Kalidas Nag, M.A., D.Litt. (Paris), 2) ''India and China'', by Prabodh Chandra Bagchi, M.A., D.Litt., 3) ''Indian Culture in Java and Sumatra'', by Bijan Raj Chatterjee, D.Litt. (Punjab), PhD (London), and 4) ''India and Central Asia'', by Niranjan Prasad Chakravarti, M.A., PhD(Cantab.)."</ref> and is not found before the 1920s. The term ''Greater India'' was used in historical writing in India into the 1970s.<ref>{{harvtxt|Majumdar|1960|pp=222–223}}</ref>

===Indianization===
{{main|Hindu kingship}}
The concept of "Indianized kingdoms" and "Indianization", coined by [[George Coedès]], originally describes Southeast Asian [[principality|principalities]] that flourished from the early common era as a result of centuries of socio-economic interaction having incorporated central aspects of Indian institutions, religion, statecraft, administration, culture, epigraphy, literature and architecture.<ref>National Library of Australia. [http://www.nla.gov.au/asian/form/coedes2.html Asia's French Connection : George Coedes and the Coedes Collection] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111021052224/http://www.nla.gov.au/asian/form/coedes2.html|date=21 October 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Urban Morphology of Commercial Port Cities and Shophouses in Southeast Asia |journal=Procedia Engineering |volume=142 |pages=190–197 |doi=10.1016/j.proeng.2016.02.031 |year=2016 |last1=Han |first1=Wang |last2=Beisi |first2=Jia |doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Expansionist and political concept===
{{See also|Akhand Bharat}}
The term ''Greater India'' and the notion of an explicit Hindu expansion of ancient Southeast Asia have been linked to both [[Indian nationalism]]<ref>{{harvtxt|Keenleyside|1982|pp=213–214}} Quote: "Starting in the 1920s under the leadership of Kalidas Nag – and continuing even after independence – a number of Indian scholars wrote extensively and rapturously about the ancient Hindu cultural expansion into and colonisation of South and Southeast Asia. They called this vast region "Greater India" – a dubious appellation for a region which to a limited degree, but with little permanence, had been influenced by Indian religion, art, architecture, literature and administrative customs. As a consequence of this renewed and extensive interest in Greater India, many Indians came to believe that the entire South and Southeast Asian region formed the cultural progeny of India; now that the sub-continent was reawakening, they felt, India would once again assert its non-political ascendancy over the area... While the idea of reviving the ancient Greater India was never officially endorsed by the Indian National Congress, it enjoyed considerable popularity in nationalist Indian circles. Indeed, Congress leaders made occasional references to Greater India while the organisation's abiding interest in the problems of overseas Indians lent indirect support to the Indian hope of restoring the alleged cultural and spiritual unity of South and Southeast Asia."</ref> and [[Hindu nationalism]].<ref>{{harvtxt|Thapar|1968|pp=326–330}} Quote: "At another level, it was believed that the dynamics of many Asian cultures, particularly those of Southeast Asia, arose from Hindu culture, and the theory of Greater India derived sustenance from Pan-Hinduism. A curious pride was taken in the supposed imperialist past of India, as expressed in sentiments such as these: "The art of Java and Kambuja was no doubt derived from India and fostered by the Indian rulers of these colonies." (Majumdar, R. C. et al. (1950), ''An Advanced History of India'', London: Macmillan, p. 221) This form of historical interpretation, which can perhaps best be described as being inspired by Hindu nationalism, remains an influential school of thinking in present historical writings."</ref> The English term was popularised in the late 19th and the 20th century as a view of an expansionist India within the context of East Asia.<ref name="Zabarskaitė-2022"/> However, many Indian nationalists, like [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] and [[Rabindranath Tagore]], although receptive to "an idealisation of India as a benign and uncoercive world civiliser and font of global enlightenment,"<ref>{{harvtxt|Bayley|2004|pp=735–736}} Quote:"The Greater India visions which Calcutta thinkers derived from French and other sources are still known to educated anglophone Indians, especially but not exclusively Bengalis from the generation brought up in the traditions of post-Independence Nehruvian secular nationalism. One key source of this knowledge is a warm tribute paid to [[Sylvain Lévi]] and his ideas of an expansive, civilising India by Jawaharlal Nehru himself, in his celebrated book, ''The Discovery of India'', which was written during one of Nehru's periods of imprisonment by the British authorities, first published in 1946, and reprinted many times since.... The ideas of both Lévi and the Greater India scholars were known to Nehru through his close intellectual links with Tagore. Thus Lévi's notion of ancient Indian voyagers leaving their invisible 'imprints' throughout east and southeast Asia was for Nehru a recapitulation of Tagore's vision of nationhood, that is an idealisation of India as a benign and uncoercive world civiliser and font of global enlightenment. This was clearly a perspective which defined the Greater India phenomenon as a process of religious and spiritual tutelage, but it was not a Hindu supremacist idea of India's mission to the lands of the Trans-Gangetic ''Sarvabhumi'' or ''Bharat Varsha''."</ref> stayed away from explicit "Greater India" formulations.<ref>{{harvtxt|Narasimhaiah|1986}} Quote: "To him (Nehru), the so-called practical approach meant, in practice, shameless expediency, and so he would say, "the sooner we are not practical, the better". He rebuked a Member of Indian Parliament who sought to revive the concept of ''Greater India'' by saying that 'the honorable Member lived in the days of Bismarck; Bismarck is dead, and his politics more dead!' He would consistently plead for an idealistic approach and such power as the language wields is the creation of idealism—politics' arch enemy—which, however, liberates the leader of a national movement from narrow nationalism, thus igniting in the process a dead fact of history, in the sneer, "For him the Bastille has not fallen!" Though Nehru was not to the language born, his utterances show a remarkable capacity for introspection and sense of moral responsibility in commenting on political processes."</ref> In addition, some scholars have seen the Hindu/Buddhist acculturation in ancient Southeast Asia as "a single cultural process in which Southeast Asia was the matrix and South Asia the mediatrix."<ref>{{harvtxt|Wheatley|1982|pp=27–28}} Quote: "The tide of revisionism that is currently sweeping through Southeast Asian historiography has in effect taken us back almost to the point where we have to consider reevaluating almost every text bearing on the protohistoric period and many from later times. Although this may seem a daunting proposition, it is nonetheless supremely worth attempting, for the process by which the peoples of western Southeast Asia came to think of themselves as part of ''Bharatavarsa'' (even though they had no conception of "India" as we know it) represents one of the most impressive instances of large-scale acculturation in the history of the world. [[Sylvain Levi]] was perhaps overenthusiastic when he claimed that India produced her definitive masterpieces – he was thinking of Angkor and the Borobudur – through the efforts of foreigners or on foreign soil. Those masterpieces were not strictly Indian achievements: rather were they the outcome of a Eutychian fusion of natures so melded together as to constitute a single cultural process in which Southeast Asia was the matrix and South Asia the mediatrix."</ref> In the field of art history, especially in American writings, the term survived due to the influence of art theorist [[Ananda Coomaraswamy]]. Coomaraswamy's view of pan-Indian art history was influenced by the "Calcutta cultural nationalists."<ref>{{harvtxt|Guha-Thakurta|1992|pp=159–167}}</ref>

Its modern meanings often invoke images of soft power.<ref name="Zabarskaitė-2022">{{Citation |last=Zabarskaitė |first=Jolita |title='Greater India' and the Indian Expansionist Imagination, c. 1885–1965: The Rise and Decline of the Idea of a Lost Hindu Empire |date=2022-11-07 |work=‘Greater India’ and the Indian Expansionist Imagination, c. 1885–1965 |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110986068/html?lang=en |access-date=2024-05-14 |publisher=De Gruyter Oldenbourg |language=en |doi=10.1515/9783110986068 |isbn=978-3-11-098606-8|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The region is considered in Indian political circles as part of India's extended neighbourhood, and modern integration was propelled through a multifaceted acceleration of economic and strategic interaction under the "[[Look East policy (India)|Look East]]" policy, and more recently has involved deepening military ties as well.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dhand |first=Aamiya |date=2022-12-06 |title=India's Extended Neighborhood and Implications for India's Act East Policy |url=https://moderndiplomacy.eu/2022/12/06/indias-extended-neighborhood-and-implications-for-indias-act-east-policy/ |access-date=2024-05-14 |website=Modern Diplomacy |language=en-US}}</ref>

Sri Lanka also continues to have strong political links with Southeast Asia, asked by [[ASEAN]] to be a founding member, and has recently been increasing integration with Southeast Asia through its own "Look East" policy; politicians view the relationship between Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia as second only to South Asia.<ref>{{Citation |last=Attanayake |first=Chulanee |title=BIMSTEC and India's "Act East" Policy: Implications for Sri Lanka |date=2023 |work=India’s Relations with Neighboring South and South East Asian Countries: Perspectives on Look East to Act East Policy |series=Dynamics of Asian Development |pages=65–73 |editor-last=Ghosh |editor-first=Lipi |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-4610-5_6 |access-date=2024-05-14 |place=Singapore |publisher=Springer Nature |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-981-99-4610-5_6 |isbn=978-981-99-4610-5 |editor2-last=Basu Ray Chaudhury |editor2-first=Anasua|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Sri Lanka Aims for RCEP Membership and Free Trade Agreements with ASEAN |url=https://www.presidentsoffice.gov.lk/index.php/2023/08/10/sri-lanka-aims-for-rcep-membership-and-free-trade-agreements-with-asean/ |website=Presidential Office}}</ref><ref>27-01-27, Selle Glastra, Student number: 1014420, Master Thesis Asian Studies, Leiden University, Humanities faculty, Thesis supervisor: David Henley</ref>

==Indian cultural influence==

===Cultural expansion===
[[File:Atashgah Fire Temple.jpg|thumb|[[Atashgah of Baku]], a [[fire temple]] in Azerbaijan used by both Hindus<ref>{{Citation | title=From Constantinople to the home of Omar Khayyam: travels in Transcaucasia and northern Persia for historic and literary research | author=Abraham Valentine Williams Jackson | year=1911 | publisher=The Macmillan company | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z4aBAAAAIAAJ | quote="... they are now wholly substantiated by the other inscriptions.... They are all Indian, with the exception of one written in Persian... dated in the same year as the Hindu tablet over it... if actual Gabrs (i.e. Zoroastrians, or Parsis) were among the number of worshipers at the shrine, they must have kept in the background, crowded out by Hindus, because the typical features Hanway mentions are distinctly Indian, not Zoroastrian... met two Hindu Fakirs who announced themselves as 'on a pilgrimage to this Baku Jawala Ji'...." | access-date=15 December 2015 | archive-date=26 March 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326205033/https://books.google.com/books?id=Z4aBAAAAIAAJ | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Citation | title=Hindi & Urdu phrasebook | author=Richard Delacy, Parvez Dewan | year=1998 | publisher=Lonely Planet | isbn=978-0-86442-425-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QkJH90HBlekC | quote=... The Hindu calendar (Vikramaditya) is 57 years ahead of the Christian calendar. Dates in the Hindu calendar are prefixed by the word: samvat संवत ...}}</ref> and Persian Zoroastrians]]
[[File:Sculpture and mural from cave 254. Pillar and north wall. Northern Wei. Mogao.jpg|thumb|Hindu-Buddhist icongraphy from [[Mogao Caves]] in the [[Gobi Desert]]]]

Culture spread via the trade routes that linked India with southern [[Burma]], central and southern [[Siam]], the [[Malay Peninsula]] and [[Sumatra]] to [[Java]], lower [[Cambodia]] and [[Champa]]. The [[Pāli|Pali]] and Sanskrit languages and the Indian script, together with [[Theravada]] and [[Mahayana]] [[Buddhism]], [[Vedic Brahmanism|Brahmanism]] and [[Hinduism]], were transmitted from direct contact as well as through sacred texts and Indian literature. Southeast Asia had developed some prosperous and very powerful colonial empires that contributed to Hindu-Buddhist artistic creations and architectural developments. Art and architectural creations that rivaled those built in India, especially in its sheer size, design and aesthetic achievements. The notable examples are Borobudur in Java and Angkor monuments in Cambodia. The Srivijaya Empire to the south and the [[Khmer Empire]] to the north competed for influence in the region.

A defining characteristic of the cultural link between Southeast Asia and the Indian subcontinent was the adoption of ancient Indian [[Vedic period|Vedic]]/Hindu and Buddhist culture and philosophy into [[Myanmar]], [[Tibet]], [[Thailand]], [[Indonesia]], [[Malay Peninsula|Malaya]], [[Laos]] and Cambodia. Indian scripts are found in Southeast Asian islands ranging from Sumatra, Java, Bali, South Sulawesi and the [[Baybayin|Philippines]].<ref>Martin Haspelmath, [https://books.google.com/books?id=sCRcARRN9nsC&pg=PA569 The World Atlas of Language Structures] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160529081333/https://books.google.com/books?id=sCRcARRN9nsC&pg=PA569 |date=29 May 2016 }}, page 569, Oxford University Press, 2005, {{ISBN|0-19-925591-1}}</ref> The [[Ramayana]] and the [[Mahabharata]] have had a large impact on South Asia and Southeast Asia. One of the most tangible evidence of dharmic Hindu traditions is the widespread use of the ''[[Añjali Mudrā]]'' gesture of greeting and respect. It is seen in the [[Culture of India|Indian]] ''[[namasté]]'' and similar gestures known throughout Southeast Asia; its cognates include the [[Culture of Cambodia|Cambodian]] ''[[sampeah]]'', the [[Indonesian culture|Indonesian]] ''[[sembah]]'', the [[Culture of Japan|Japanese]] ''[[Buddhist terms and concepts#G|gassho]]'' and [[Culture of Thailand|Thai]] [[Thai greeting|''wai'']].

Beyond the [[Himalaya]] and [[Hindukush]] mountains in the north, along the Silk Route, Indian influence was linked with Buddhism. [[Tibet]] and [[Khotan]] were direct heirs of Gangetic Buddhism, despite the difference in languages. Many Tibetan monks even used to know Sanskrit very well.<ref name="Fussman-2009">{{cite journal |last=Fussman |first=Gérard |title=History of India and Greater India |journal=La Lettre du Collège de France |issue=4 |pages=24–25 |year=2008–2009 |url=https://journals.openedition.org/lettre-cdf/756 |access-date=20 December 2016 |doi=10.4000/lettre-cdf.756 |doi-access=free |archive-date=16 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171116222243/http://lettre-cdf.revues.org/756 |url-status=live }}</ref> In Khotan the Ramayana was well cicrulated in Khotanese language, though the narrative is slightly different from the Gangetic version.<ref name="Puri">{{cite book |author=Baij Nath Puri |year=1987 |title=Buddhism in Central Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sluKZfTrr3oC&pg=PA135 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |pages=134–137 |isbn=978-81-208-0372-5 |access-date=26 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195014/https://books.google.com/books?id=sluKZfTrr3oC&pg=PA135 |url-status=live }}</ref> In [[Afghanistan]], [[Uzbekistan]] and [[Tajikistan]] many Buddhist monasteries were established. These countries were used as a kind of springboard for the monks who brought Indian Buddhist texts and images to China.<ref name="Fussman-2009"/> Further north, in the [[Gobi Desert]], statues of [[Ganesha]] and [[Kartikeya]] were found alongside Buddhist imagery in the [[Mogao Caves]].<ref name=Puri/>

===Cultural commonalities===

====Religion, mythology and folklore====
[[File:Rama, Sita, and Laksmana - Museu do Oriente - Lisbon, Portugal - DSC06731.JPG|thumb|[[Rama]], [[Sita]] and [[Lakshmana]] in [[Nang Talung|Thai shadow play]]]]

* [[Hinduism in Indonesia|Hinduism]] is practised by the majority of Bali's population.<ref>[http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/indon/balin.html Balinese Religion] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100310103951/http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/indon/balin.html |date=10 March 2010 }}</ref> The [[Cham people]] of Vietnam still practice Hinduism as well. Though officially Buddhist, many Thai, Khmer, and Burmese people also worship Hindu gods in a form of syncretism.
* [[Brahmin]]s have had a large role in spreading Hinduism in Southeast Asia. Even today many monarchies such as the royal court of Thailand still have Hindu rituals performed for the King by Hindu Brahmins.<ref>{{cite book |last1=McGovern|first1=Nathan |editor1-last=Jacobsen |editor1-first=Knut A. |title=Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism |year=2010 |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden, The Netherlands|pages=371–378 |edition=Volume 2 |chapter=Sacred Texts, Ritual Traditions, Arts, Concepts: "Thailand" }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195393521/obo-9780195393521-0128.xml#obo-9780195393521-0128-bibItem-0004 |title=Intersections Between Buddhism and Hinduism in Thailand |last=McGovern |first=Nathan |date=31 August 2015 |website=Oxford Bibliographies Online |doi=10.1093/obo/9780195393521-0128 |access-date=25 July 2017 |archive-date=31 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170731154858/http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195393521/obo-9780195393521-0128.xml#obo-9780195393521-0128-bibItem-0004 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Garuda]], a Hindu mythological figure, is present in the [[National Emblem of Indonesia|coats of arms of Indonesia]], [[Coat of arms of Thailand|Thailand]] and [[Ulaanbaatar]].
* [[Muay Thai]], a fighting art that is the Thai version of the Hindu [[Musti-yuddha]] style of martial art.
* [[Kaharingan]], an indigenous religion followed by the [[Dayak people]] of [[Borneo]], is categorised as a form of Hinduism in Indonesia.
* [[Philippine mythology]] includes the supreme god [[Bathala]] and the concept of ''[[Anito|Diwata]]'' and the still-current belief in ''[[Karma]]''—all derived from Hindu-Buddhist concepts.
* [[Malay folklore]] contains a rich number of Indian-influenced mythological characters, such as [[Bidadari]], [[Jatayu|Jentayu]], [[Garuda]] and [[Nāga|Naga]].
* [[Wayang]] shadow puppets and classical dance-dramas of [[Dance in Indonesia#The Hindu-Buddhist Era|Indonesia]], [[Dance in Cambodia|Cambodia]], [[Dance in Malaysia|Malaysia]] and [[Dance in Thailand|Thailand]] took stories from episodes of ''[[Ramayana]]'' and ''[[Mahabharata]]''.

====Caste system====
Indians spread their religion to Southeast Asia, beginning the Hindu and Buddhist cultures there. They introduced the [[caste system of India|caste system]] to the region, especially to [[Java]], Bali, [[Madura Island|Madura]], and Sumatra. The adopted caste system was not as strict as in India, tempered to the local context.<ref name="Coedes">{{harvtxt|Coedes|1967}}</ref> There are multiple similarities between the two caste systems such that both state that no one is equal within society and that everyone has his own place. It also promoted the upbringing of highly organized central states. Indians were still able to implement their religion, political ideas, literature, mythology, and art.<ref name="Coedes" />

====Architecture and monuments====
[[File:Prambanan Complex 1.jpg|thumb|The 9th-century Shivaistic temple of [[Prambanan]] in [[Central Java]] near [[Yogyakarta]], the largest Hindu temple in [[Indonesia]]]]
* The same style of [[Hindu temple architecture]] was used in several ancient temples in Southeast Asia including [[Angkor Wat]], which was dedicated to Hindu god [[Vishnu]] and is shown on the [[flag of Cambodia]], also [[Prambanan]] in Central Java, the largest Hindu temple in Indonesia, is dedicated to [[Trimurti]] — [[Shiva]], [[Vishnu]] and [[Brahma]].
* [[Borobudur]] in Central Java, Indonesia, is the world's largest Buddhist monument. It took shape of a giant stone [[mandala]] crowned with [[stupa]]s and believed to be the combination of Indian-origin Buddhist ideas with the previous [[megalithic]] tradition of native [[Austronesian people|Austronesian]] [[step pyramid]].
* The minarets of 15th- to 16th-century mosques in Indonesia, such as the [[Masjid Agung Demak|Great Mosque of Demak]] and [[Menara Kudus Mosque|Kudus mosque]] resemble those of [[Majapahit]] Hindu temples.
* The [[Batu Caves]] in Malaysia are one of the most popular Hindu shrines outside India. It is the focal point of the annual [[Thaipusam]] festival in Malaysia and attracts over 1.5 million pilgrims, making it one of the largest religious gatherings in history.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lonelyplanet.tv/Clip.aspx?key=993E148C861864E9 |title=Batu Caves Inside and Out, Malaysia |website=lonelyplanet.tv |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081207115645/http://www.lonelyplanet.tv/Clip.aspx?key=993E148C861864E9 |archive-date=7 December 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* [[Erawan Shrine]], dedicated to [[Brahma (Buddhism)|Brahma]], is one of the most popular religious shrines in Thailand.<ref>[http://buddhistchannel.tv/index.php?id=52,2733,0,0,1,0 Buddhist Channel {{!}} Buddhism News, Headlines {{!}} Thailand {{!}} Phra Prom returns to Erawan Shrine] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304030709/http://buddhistchannel.tv/index.php?id=52%2C2733%2C0%2C0%2C1%2C0 |date=4 March 2016 }}</ref>

==== Sport ====
{{Multiple image
| image1 = 1-BISHNUPUR.jpg
| image2 = Permainan Hadang.jpg
| total_width = 270
| caption1 = [[Atya patya]], a game of crossing a narrow field without being tagged.
| caption2 = Malaysian variant [[galah panjang]].
}}
It is conjectured that certain [[Traditional games of India|traditional Indian games]] spread throughout Southeast Asia, as variations of Indian games such as [[atya-patya]] and [[gilli danda]] can be found throughout the region.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Arasu |first=S. T. |date=2020-07-04 |title=Galah Panjang and its Indian roots |url=https://www.gosports.com.my/news/galah-panjang-and-its-indian-roots/ |access-date=2023-08-26 |website=On the sport. Be part of it |language=en}}</ref> Also, the Indonesian [[Traditional games in Indonesia#Hom pim pa|hom pim pa]] (a method of selecting players before a game) may involve the use of a Sanskrit phrase.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Twenties: Reminiscing the dying art of Indonesian traditional children's games |url=https://www.thejakartapost.com/culture/2022/08/28/twenties-reminiscing-the-dying-art-of-indonesian-traditional-childrens-games.html |access-date=2023-08-26 |website=The Jakarta Post |language=en}}</ref>

==Linguistic influence==
{{see also|Indosphere}}
[[File:Character-sphere.png|thumb|A map of East, South and Southeast Asia. '''Red''' signifies current and historical (northern Vietnam) distribution of [[Chinese characters]]. '''Green''' signifies current and historical (Malaysia, Pakistan, the Maldives, Indonesia, the Philippines, and what is now the southern portion of Vietnam) distribution of [[Brahmic scripts|Indic scripts]]. '''Blue''' signifies current and historical ([[northeastern China]]) use of non-Sinitic and non-Indic scripts.]]
Scholars like Sheldon Pollock have used the term ''Sanskrit Cosmopolis'' to describe the region and argued for millennium-long cultural exchanges without necessarily involving migration of peoples or colonisation. Pollock's 2006 book ''The Language of the Gods in the World of Men'' makes a case for studying the region as comparable with Latin Europe and argues that the Sanskrit language was its unifying element.

Scripts in [[Sanskrit]] discovered during the early centuries of the Common Era are the earliest known forms of writing to have extended all the way to Southeast Asia. Its gradual impact ultimately resulted in its widespread domain as a means of dialect which evident in regions, from Bangladesh to Cambodia, Malaysia and Thailand and additionally a few of the larger Indonesian islands. In addition, alphabets from languages spoken in Burmese, Thai, Laos, and Cambodia are variations formed off of Indian ideals that have localized the language.

Sanskrit and related languages have also influenced their [[Tibeto-Burman languages|Tibeto-Burman]]-speaking neighbors to the north through the spread of Buddhist texts in translation.<ref>{{cite book |last=van Gulik |first=Robert |author-link=Robert van Gulik |year=1956 |title=Siddham: An Essay on the History of Sanskrit Studies in China and Japan |publisher=International Academy of Indian Cultur |page= |oclc=654509499}}</ref> The spread of Buddhism to Tibet allowed many Sanskrit texts to survive only in Tibetan translation (in the [[Tanjur]]). Buddhism was similarly introduced to China by [[Mahayana|Mahayanist]] missionaries mostly through translations of [[Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit]] and Classical Sanskrit texts, and many terms were [[transliterated]]<ref name="sunnytantikumar736"/> directly and added to the Chinese vocabulary.

In Southeast Asia, languages such as [[Thai language|Thai]] and [[Lao language|Lao]] contain many [[loan word]]s from Sanskrit, as does [[Khmer language|Khmer]] to a lesser extent. For example, in Thai, [[Ravana|Rāvaṇa]], the legendary emperor of [[Sri Lanka]], is called 'Thosakanth' which is derived from his Sanskrit name 'Daśakaṇṭha' ("having ten necks").

Many Sanskrit loanwords are also found in [[Austronesian languages]], such as [[Javanese language|Javanese]] particularly the [[Old Javanese|old form]] from which nearly half the vocabulary is derived from the language.<ref>See [[:id: Daftar kata serapan dari bahasa Sansekerta dalam bahasa Indonesia|this page]] from the [[Indonesian Wikipedia]] for a list</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Zoetmulder|1982|p=ix}}</ref> Other Austronesian languages, such as [[Malay language|traditional Malay]], [[Indonesian language|modern Indonesian]], also derive [[List of loan words in Indonesian#From Sanskrit|much of their vocabulary]] from Sanskrit, albeit to a lesser extent, with a large proportion of words being derived from [[Arabic language|Arabic]]. Similarly, [[Philippine languages]] such as [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] have [[List of loanwords in Tagalog#Sanskrit|many Sanskrit loanwords]].

A Sanskrit loanword encountered in many Southeast Asian languages is the word ''[[Indonesian language|bhāṣā]]'', or spoken language, which is used to mean language in general, for example ''bahasa'' in Malay, Indonesian and [[Tausug language|Tausug]], ''basa'' in Javanese, [[Sundanese language|Sundanese]], and [[Balinese language|Balinese]], ''phasa'' in Thai and Lao, ''bhasa'' in [[Burmese language|Burmese]], and ''phiesa'' in [[Khmer language|Khmer]].

===Literature===
{{see also | Literature about Southeast Asia | South Asian literature }}
[[File:Kakawin ramayana Or 14022 f2-4.jpg|thumb|300px|Pages of [[Kakawin Ramayana]], the version of ''[[Ramayana]]'' from Java and Bali]]
Scripts in [[Sanskrit]] discovered during the early centuries of the Common Era are the earliest known forms of writing to have extended all the way to Southeast Asia. Its gradual impact ultimately resulted in its widespread domain as a means of dialect which evident in regions, from Bangladesh to Cambodia, Malaysia and Thailand and additionally a few of the larger Indonesian islands. In addition, alphabets from languages spoken in Burmese, Thai, Laos, and Cambodia are variations formed off of Indian ideals that have localized the language.<ref name="Smith-1999">{{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Monica L.|author-link1=Monica L. Smith |date=1999 |title="Indianization" from the Indian Point of View: Trade and Cultural Contacts with Southeast Asia in the Early First Millennium C.E. |journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient |volume=42 |issue=11–17|pages=1–26 |jstor=3632296|doi=10.1163/1568520991445588 }}</ref>

The utilization of [[Sanskrit]] has been prevalent in all aspects of life including legal purposes. Sanskrit terminology and vernacular appears in ancient courts to establish procedures that have been structured by Indian models such as a system composed of a code of laws. The concept of legislation demonstrated through codes of law and organizations particularly the idea of "God King" was embraced by numerous rulers of Southeast Asia.{{sfnp|Coedes|1967|p=98}} The rulers amid this time, for example, the Lin-I Dynasty of [[Vietnam]] once embraced the Sanskrit dialect and devoted sanctuaries to the Indian divinity Shiva. Many rulers following even viewed themselves as "reincarnations or descendants" of the Hindu gods. However once Buddhism began entering the nations, this practiced view was eventually altered.

===Linguistic commonalities===
* In the [[Malay Archipelago]]: [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]], [[Javanese language|Javanese]] and [[Malay language|Malay]] have absorbed a large number of [[Sanskrit]] loanwords into their respective lexicons (see: [[List of loan words in Indonesian#From Sanskrit|Sanskrit loan words in Indonesian]]). Many languages of native lowland [[Filipinos]] such as [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]], [[Ilocano language|Ilocano]]<ref>{{cite news
|last=Khatnani
|first=Sunita
|date=11 October 2009
|title=The Indian in the Filipino
|url=http://showbizandstyle.inquirer.net/lifestyle/lifestyle/view/20091011-229561/The-Indian-in-the-Filipino
|newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150424164434/http://showbizandstyle.inquirer.net/lifestyle/lifestyle/view/20091011-229561/The-Indian-in-the-Filipino
|archive-date=24 April 2015
|url-status=dead
}}</ref> and [[Visayan languages|Visayan]]<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Kuizon |first=Jose G. |year=1962 |title=The Sanskrit loan-words in Cebuano-Bisayan language and the Indian elements to Cebuano-Bisayan culture |publisher=University of San Carlos, Cebu |oclc=3061923}}</ref> contain numerous [[List of loanwords in Tagalog#Sanskrit|Sanskrit loanwords]].
* In [[Mainland Southeast Asia]]: [[Thai language|Thai]], [[Lao language|Lao]], [[Burmese language|Burmese]], and [[Khmer language|Khmer]] language have absorbed a significant amount of Sanskrit as well as [[Pali]] words.
* Many [[Indonesian names#Sanskrit-derived names|Indonesian names]] have Sanskrit origin (e.g. [[Dewi Sartika]], [[Megawati Sukarnoputri]], [[Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono]], Teuku Wisnu).
* Southeast Asian languages are traditionally written with Indic alphabets and therefore have extra letters not pronounced in the local language, so that original Sanskrit spelling can be preserved. An example is how the name of the late King of Thailand, [[Bhumibol Adulyadej]], is spelled in Sanskrit as "Bhumibol"ภูมิพล, yet is pronounced in Thai as "Phumipon" พูมิพน using Thai-Sanskrit pronunciation rules since the original Sanskrit sounds do not exist in Thai. <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nepalitimes.com/issue/2003/08/15/Culture/3595 |title=King Bhumibol and King Janak |last1=Sharma |first1=Sudhindra |work=nepalitimes.com |publisher=Himalmedia Private Limited |access-date=13 July 2011 |archive-date=1 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120801193924/http://www.nepalitimes.com/issue/2003/08/15/Culture/3595 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Toponyms===
[[File:Ayutthaya 2.jpg|thumb|Ruins of [[Ayutthaya Kingdom|Ayutthaya]] in Thailand; Ayutthaya derives its name from the ancient Indian city of [[Ayodhya (Ramayana)|Ayodhya]], which has had wide cultural significance]]
* [[Suvarnabhumi]] is a toponym that has been historically associated with Southeast Asia. In Sanskrit, it means "The Land of Gold". Thailand's [[Suvarnabhumi Airport]] is named after this toponym.
* Several of Indonesian [[toponym]]s have Indian parallel or origin, such as [[Madura]] with [[Mathura]], [[Serayu]] and [[Sarayu River (Ayodhya)|Sarayu river]], [[Semeru]] with [[Sumeru]] mountain, [[Kalingga]] from [[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga Kingdom]], and [[Yogyakarta|Ngayogyakarta]] from [[Ayodhya (Ramayana)|Ayodhya]].
* Siamese ancient city of [[Ayutthaya (city)|Ayutthaya]] also derived from Ramayana's Ayodhya.
* Names of places could simply render their Sanskrit origin, such as [[Singapore]], from Singapura (''Singha-pura'' the "lion city"), [[Jakarta]] from ''Jaya'' and ''kreta'' ("complete victory").
* Some of the Indonesian regencies such as [[Indragiri Hulu Regency|Indragiri Hulu]] and [[Indragiri Hilir Regency|Indragiri Hilir]] derived from Indragiri River, Indragiri itself means "mountain of [[Indra]]".
* Some Thai toponyms also often have Indian parallels or Sanskrit origin, although the spellings are adapted to the Siamese tongue, such as [[Ratchaburi]] from ''Raja-puri'' ("king's city"), and [[Nakhon Si Thammarat]] from ''Nagara Sri Dharmaraja''.
* The tendency to use Sanskrit for modern [[neologism]] also continued to modern day. In 1962 Indonesia changed the colonial name of [[New Guinea]]n city of Hollandia to [[Jayapura]] ("glorious city"), Orange mountain range to [[Jayawijaya Mountains]].
* Malaysia named their new government seat as [[Putrajaya]] ("prince of glory") in 1999.

==Indianization of Southeast Asia==
{{Further|Austronesian maritime trade network|Maritime silk road|Indian maritime history|Indian Ocean trade|Hinduism in Southeast Asia | Buddhism in Southeast Asia|Balinese Hinduism|History of Indian influence on Southeast Asia}}
[[File:Austronesian maritime trade network in the Indian Ocean.png|300px|thumb|[[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian]] [[Spice trade|proto-historic]] and [[Maritime Silk Road|historic]] maritime trade network in the Indian Ocean<ref name="Manguin-2016">{{cite book|first1 =Pierre-Yves|last1 =Manguin|editor1-first =Gwyn|editor1-last =Campbell|title =Early Exchange between Africa and the Wider Indian Ocean World|chapter =Austronesian Shipping in the Indian Ocean: From Outrigger Boats to Trading Ships|publisher =Palgrave Macmillan|year =2016|pages =51–76|isbn =9783319338224|chapter-url =https://books.google.com/books?id=XsvDDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA50|access-date =26 March 2023|archive-date =26 March 2023|archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195021/https://books.google.com/books?id=XsvDDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA50|url-status =live}}</ref>]]
[[File:Hinduism_Expansion_in_Asia_2023.svg|thumb|Hinduism expansion in Asia, from its heartland in Indian Subcontinent, to the rest of Asia, especially Southeast Asia, started circa 1st century marked with the establishment of early Hindu settlements and polities in Southeast Asia.]]

Indianization is different from direct colonialism in that these Indianized lands were not inhabited by organizations or state elements from the Indian subcontinent, with exceptions such as the [[South-East Asia campaign of Rajendra Chola I|Chola invasions]] of medieval times. Instead, Indian cultural influence from trade routes and language use slowly permeated through Southeast Asia, making the traditions a part of the region. The interactions between [[India]] and Southeast Asia were marked by waves of influence and dominance. At some points, the Indian culture solely found its way into the region, and at other points, the influence was used to take over.

Southeast Asia was now situated in the central area of convergence of the Indian and the East Asian maritime trade routes, the basis for economic and cultural growth. The earliest [[Hindu king]]doms emerged in Sumatra and Java, followed by mainland polities such as Funan and Champa. Adoption of Indian civilization elements and individual adaptation stimulated the emergence of centralized states and the development of highly organized societies. Ambitious local leaders realized the benefits of Hinduism and Indian methods of administration, culture, literature, etc. Rule in accord with universal moral principles, represented in the concept of the ''[[devaraja]]'', was more appealing than the Chinese concept of intermediaries.<ref>{{cite book| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lTEeCgAAQBAJ&q=Indianized+kingdoms&pg=PA299 | title= Societies, Networks, and Transitions, Volume I: To 1500: A Global History |date= 19 June 2014| access-date=20 December 2016 | isbn= 9781285783086 | last1= Lockard | first1= Craig A. | publisher= Cengage Learning }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |title=The Mon-Dvaravati Tradition of Early North-Central Thailand |date=August 2007 |url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/mond/hd_mond.htm|access-date=15 December 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |publisher=Amitav Acharya |title=Southeast Asia: Imagining the region |url=http://www.amitavacharya.com/sites/default/files/Southeast%20Asia%20Imagining%20the%20Region.pdf |access-date=13 January 2018 |archive-date=9 October 2022 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.amitavacharya.com/sites/default/files/Southeast%20Asia%20Imagining%20the%20Region.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The earliest Hindu kingdoms emerged in Sumatra and Java, followed by mainland polities such as Funan and Champa. Adoption of Indian civilization elements and individual adaptation stimulated the emergence of centralized states and localized caste systems in Southeast Asia.<ref>{{cite book | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=lTEeCgAAQBAJ&q=Indianized+kingdoms&pg=PA299 | title= Societies, Networks, and Transitions, Volume I: To 1500: A Global History | date= 19 June 2014 | access-date= 20 December 2016 | isbn= 9781285783086 | last1= Lockard | first1= Craig A. | publisher= Cengage Learning | archive-date= 26 March 2023 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230326205006/https://books.google.com/books?id=lTEeCgAAQBAJ&q=Indianized+kingdoms&pg=PA299 | url-status= live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |title=The Mon-Dvaravati Tradition of Early North-Central Thailand |date=August 2007 |url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/mond/hd_mond.htm |access-date=15 December 2009 |archive-date=1 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191101012349/https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/mond/hd_mond.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |publisher=Amitav Acharya |title=Southeast Asia: Imagining the region |url=http://www.amitavacharya.com/sites/default/files/Southeast%20Asia%20Imagining%20the%20Region.pdf |access-date=13 January 2018 |archive-date=22 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160222145059/http://www.amitavacharya.com/sites/default/files/Southeast%20Asia%20Imagining%20the%20Region.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Theories of Indianization of Southeast Asia===
{{Further|Indianization of Southeast Asia|History of Indian influence on Southeast Asia}}
[[File:Borobudur ship.JPG|thumb|upright|A [[Borobudur ship]] from the 8th century, a large native outrigger trading vessels, possibly of the [[Sailendra]] and [[Srivijaya]] [[thalassocracies]]]]

As conclusive evidence is missing, numerous Indianization theories of Southeast Asia have emerged since the early 20th century. The central question usually revolves around the main propagator of Indian institutional and cultural ideas in Southeast Asia.

Iron Age trade expansion caused regional [[Geostrategy|geostrategic]] remodeling. [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian]] sailors from [[Island Southeast Asia]] first established contact and trade with [[Southern India]] and [[Sri Lanka]] as early as 500 BCE. This resulted in the introduction of Southeast Asian material culture (including [[catamaran]]s, [[outrigger boat]]s, sewn-plank boats, and [[paan]]) and [[cultigen]]s (like [[coconut]]s, [[sandalwood]], [[banana]]s, and [[sugarcane]]) to South Asia; as well as connecting the material cultures of India and [[China]]. These early Austronesian trade routes linking Island Southeast Asia with India also became the maritime aspect of the wider [[spice trade]] network, which were later also used by [[Tamil people|Tamil]] and [[Arab]] maritime trade. The sustained contact between Southeast Asia and South Asia resulted in cultural exchange, in addition to the exchange of commodities.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Bérénice|last1= Bellina |editor1-first=John|editor1-last=Guy|title =Lost Kingdoms of Early Southeast Asia: Hindu-Buddhist Sculpture 5th to 8th century|chapter =Southeast Asia and the Early Maritime Silk Road|publisher =Yale University Press|year =2014|pages=22–25|isbn =9781588395245|url =https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263007720}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first1= Waruno|last1=Mahdi|editor1-last =Blench|editor1-first= Roger |editor2-last=Spriggs|editor2-first=Matthew|title =Archaeology and Language III: Artefacts languages, and texts|chapter =The Dispersal of Austronesian boat forms in the Indian Ocean|volume = 34|publisher =Routledge|series =One World Archaeology |year =1999|pages=144–179|isbn =978-0415100540}}</ref><ref name="Manguin-2016"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Blench |first1=Roger |title=Fruits and arboriculture in the Indo-Pacific region |journal=Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association |date=2004 |volume=24 |issue=The Taipei Papers (Volume 2) |pages=31–50 |url=https://journals.lib.washington.edu/index.php/BIPPA/article/viewFile/11869/10496 |access-date=26 March 2023 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308161216/https://journals.lib.washington.edu/index.php/BIPPA/article/viewFile/11869/10496 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Another theory of the spread of Indianization that focuses on the caste of [[Vaishya]] [[Sadhaba|traders]] and their role for spreading Indian culture and language into Southeast Asia through trade. There were many trade incentives that brought Vaishya traders to Southeast Asia, the most important of which was gold. During the 4th century C.E., when the first evidence of Indian trader in Southeast Asia, the Indian sub-continent was at a deficiency for gold due to extensive control of overland trade routes by the [[Roman Empire]]. This made many Vaishya traders look to the seas to acquire new gold, of which Southeast Asia was abundant. However, the conclusion that Indianization was just spread through trade is insufficient, as Indianization permeated through all classes of Southeast Asian society, not just the merchant classes.<ref name="Lukas-2001"/>

Another theory states that Indianization spread through the warrior class of [[Kshatriya]]. This hypothesis effectively explains state formation in Southeast Asia, as these warriors came with the intention of conquering the local peoples and establishing their own political power in the region. However, this theory hasn't attracted much interest from historians as there is very little literary evidence to support it.<ref name="Lukas-2001">{{cite journal|last1=Lukas|first1=Helmut|title=1 THEORIES OF INDIANIZATIONExemplified by Selected Case Studies from Indonesia (Insular Southeast Asia)|journal=International SanskritConference|date=21 May 2001|url=https://www.academia.edu/4803585}}</ref>

The most widely accepted theory for the spread of Indianization into Southeast Asia is through the class of [[Brahman]] scholars. These Brahmans brought with them many of the Hindu religious and philosophical traditions and spread them to the elite classes of Southeast Asian polities. Once these traditions were adopted into the elite classes, it disseminated throughout all the lower classes, thus explaining the Indianization present in all classes of Southeast Asian society. Brahmans were also experts in art and architecture, and political affairs, thus explaining the adoption of many Indian style law codes and architecture into Southeast Asian society<ref name="Lukas-2001"/>

=== Adaption and adoption ===
[[File:Angkor Wat Aerial View Siem Reap Cambodia 2011.jpg|thumb|left|[[Angkor Wat]] in Cambodia is the largest Hindu temple in the world]]

It is unknown how immigration, interaction, and settlement took place, whether by key figures from India or through Southeast Asians visiting India who took elements of Indian culture back home. It is likely that Hindu and Buddhist traders, priests, and princes traveled to Southeast Asia from India in the first few centuries of the Common Era and eventually settled there. Strong impulse most certainly came from the region's ruling classes who invited Brahmans to serve at their courts as priests, astrologers and advisers.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hinduism/The-spread-of-Hinduism-in-Southeast-Asia-and-the-Pacific | title=The spread of Hinduism in Southeast Asia and the Pacific | publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica | access-date=20 December 2016 | archive-date=16 January 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200116205245/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hinduism/The-spread-of-Hinduism-in-Southeast-Asia-and-the-Pacific | url-status=live }}</ref> Divinity and royalty were closely connected in these polities as Hindu rituals validated the powers of the monarch. Brahmans and priests from India proper played a key role in supporting ruling dynasties through exact rituals. Dynastic consolidation was the basis for more centralized kingdoms that emerged in Java, Sumatra, Cambodia, Burma, and along the central and south coasts of Vietnam from the 4th to 8th centuries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/cambodia/history-chenla.htm|title=Chenla – 550–800|publisher=Global Security|access-date=13 July 2015|archive-date=14 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150714074235/http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/cambodia/history-chenla.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Shiva Temple of Prambanan in Java Indonesia.jpg|thumb|right|The 9th century Shiva temple in [[Prambanan]] compound, adorned with bas-reliefs of Ramayana, located near Yogyakarta, Indonesia]]
Art, architecture, rituals, and cultural elements such as the [[Rāmāyaṇa]] and the [[Mahābhārata]] had been adopted and customized increasingly with a regional character. The caste system, although adopted, was never applied universally and reduced to serve for a selected group of nobles only.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/hinduism-southeast-asia | title=Hinduism in Southeast Asia | publisher=Encyclopedia | access-date=20 December 2016 | archive-date=22 December 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161222083437/http://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/hinduism-southeast-asia | url-status=live }}</ref> Many struggle to date and determine when Indianizaton in Southeast Asia occurred because of the structures and ruins found that were similar to those in India.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Coedes|first1=George|title=Some Problems in Ancient History of the Hinduized States of South-East Asia|date=1964|publisher=Journal of Southeast Asian History}}</ref>

States such as [[Srivijaya]], [[Mataram Kingdom|Mataram]], [[Majapahit]] and the [[Khmer empire]] had territorial continuity, resilient population and surplus economies that rivaled those in India itself. [[Borobudur]] and [[Prambanan]] in Java and [[Angkor]] in Cambodia are, apart from their grandeur, examples of a distinctly developed regional culture, style, and expression.<ref>[http://www.oeaw.ac.at/sozant/files/working_papers/suedostasien/soa001.pdf Theories of Indianisation] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151224064227/http://www.oeaw.ac.at/sozant/files/working_papers/suedostasien/soa001.pdf |date=24 December 2015 }} Exemplified by Selected Case Studies from Indonesia (Insular Southeast Asia), by Dr. Helmut Lukas</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oeaw.ac.at/isa/files/working_papers/suedostasien/soa001.pdf |title=THEORIES OF INDIANIZATION Exemplified by Selected Case Studies from Indonesia (Insular Southeast Asia) |publisher=Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften |author=Helmut Lukas |access-date=14 January 2018 |archive-date=15 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171215113853/http://www.oeaw.ac.at/isa/files/working_papers/suedostasien/soa001.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

Southeast Asia is called [[Suvarnabhumi]] or Sovannah Phoum – the golden land and Suvarnadvipa – the golden Islands in Sanskrit.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=9ic4BjWFmNIC&pg=PA465 |title= History of Ancient India Kapur, Kamlesh |access-date= 13 July 2015 |isbn= 9788120749108 |author1= Kapur |author2= Kamlesh |year= 2010 |publisher= Sterling Publishers Pvt. |archive-date= 26 March 2023 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195009/https://books.google.com/books?id=9ic4BjWFmNIC&pg=PA465 |url-status= live }}</ref> It was frequented by [[Sadhaba|traders]] from eastern India, particularly [[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]]. Cultural and trading relations between the powerful [[Chola dynasty]] of [[South India]] and the Southeast Asian Hindu kingdoms led the [[Bay of Bengal]] to be called "The Chola Lake", and the Chola attacks on Srivijaya in the 10th century CE are the sole example of military attacks by Indian rulers against Southeast Asia. The [[Pala Empire|Pala dynasty]] of [[Bengal]], which controlled the heartland of Buddhist India, maintained close economic, cultural and religious ties, particularly with Srivijaya.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www7.plala.or.jp/seareview/newpage6Sri2011Chaiya.html |title=Śrīvijaya―towards ChaiyaーThe History of Srivijaya |author=Takashi Suzuki |date=25 December 2012 |access-date=6 March 2013 |archive-date=16 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120616052352/http://www7.plala.or.jp/seareview/newpage6Sri2011Chaiya.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Religion, authority and legitimacy ===
[[File:Ramayana Bali Ubud 1.jpg|thumb|300px|Balinese Ramayana dance drama, performed in Sarasvati Garden in [[Ubud]].]]
The pre-Indic political and social systems in Southeast Asia were marked by a relative indifference towards lineage descent. Hindu God kingship enabled rulers to supersede loyalties, forge cosmopolitan polities and the worship of Shiva and Vishnu was combined with ancestor worship, so that Khmer, Javanese, and Cham rulers claimed semi-divine status as descendants of a God. Hindu traditions, especially the relationship to the sacrality of the land and social structures, are inherent in Hinduism's transnational features. The epic traditions of the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa further legitimized a ruler identified with a God who battled and defeated the wrong doers that threaten the ethical order of the world.<ref>{{cite web | url= http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195399318/obo-9780195399318-0112.xml | title= Hinduism in Southeast Asia | publisher= Oxford Press | date= 28 May 2013 | access-date= 20 December 2016 | archive-date= 21 December 2016 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20161221234559/http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195399318/obo-9780195399318-0112.xml | url-status= live }}</ref>

Hinduism does not have a single historical founder, a centralized imperial authority in India proper nor a bureaucratic structure, thus ensuring relative religious independence for the individual ruler. It also allows for multiple forms of divinity, centered upon the [[Trimurti]] the triad of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva, the deities responsible for the creation, preservation, and destruction of the universe.<ref>{{cite book|author=Carlos Ramirez-Faria|title=Concise Encyclopedia of World History The "King of the mountain"|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gGKsS-9h4BYC&q=funan+mountain+kings&pg=PA106|date=1 January 2007|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist|isbn=978-81-269-0775-5|pages=106–|access-date=26 March 2023|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195009/https://books.google.com/books?id=gGKsS-9h4BYC&q=funan+mountain+kings&pg=PA106|url-status=live}}</ref>

The effects of Hinduism and Buddhism applied a tremendous impact on the many civilizations inhabiting Southeast Asia which significantly provided some structure to the composition of written traditions. An essential factor for the spread and adaptation of these religions originated from trading systems of the third and fourth century.<ref name="Smith-1999" /> In order to spread the message of these religions Buddhist monks and Hindu priests joined mercantile classes in the quest to share their religious and cultural values and beliefs. Along the Mekong delta, evidence of Indianized religious models can be observed in communities labeled Funan. There can be found the earliest records engraved on a rock in Vocanh.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Kleinmeyer|first1=Cindy|title=Religions of Southeast Asia|url=https://www.niu.edu/cseas/_pdf/lesson-plans/k-12/origins-religion.pdf|website=niu.edu|publisher=Northern Illinois University|access-date=1 June 2014|archive-date=19 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180219023623/http://www.niu.edu/cseas/_pdf/lesson-plans/k-12/origins-religion.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> The engravings consist of Buddhist archives and a south Indian scripts are written in Sanskrit that have been dated to belong to the early half of the third century. Indian religion was profoundly absorbed by local cultures that formed their own distinctive variations of these structures in order to reflect their own ideals.

[[Champa]], [[Dvaravati]], [[Kingdom of Funan|Funan]], [[Gangga Negara]], [[Early history of Kedah|Kadaram]], [[Kalingga]], [[Kutai]], [[Langkasuka]], [[Pagan Kingdom|Pagan]], [[Pan Pan (kingdom)|Pan Pan]], [[History of Brunei|Po-ni]], and [[Tarumanagara]] had by the 1st to 4th centuries CE adopted Hinduism's cosmology and rituals, the ''[[devaraja]]'' concept of kingship, and Sanskrit as official writing. Despite the fundamental cultural integration, these kingdoms were autonomous in their own right and functioned independently.<ref>{{cite web|title=Vietnam's Champa Kingdom Marches on|first=Vrndavan Brannon|last=Parker|work=Hinduism Today|url=http://www.hinduismtoday.com/modules/smartsection/item.php?itemid=5491|access-date=21 November 2015|archive-date=7 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191007064500/https://www.hinduismtoday.com/modules/smartsection/item.php?itemid=5491|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Waning of Indianization===
[[File:Map-of-southeast-asia 900 CE.png|thumb|Map of South-east Asia c. 900 AD, showing the [[Khmer Empire]] in red, [[Srivijaya]] in green, and [[Champa]] in yellow.]]

====Khmer Kingdom====
Not only did Indianization change many cultural and political aspects, but it also changed the spiritual realm as well, creating a type of Northern Culture which began in the early 14th century, prevalent for its rapid decline in the Indian kingdoms. The decline of Hindu kingdoms and spark of Buddhist kingdoms led to the formation of orthodox Sinhalese Buddhism and is a key factor leading to the decline of Indianization. Sukhothai and Ceylon are the prominent characters who formulated the center of Buddhism and thus became more popularized over Hinduism.<ref name="Coedes" />

====Rise of Islam====
Not only was the spark of Buddhism the driving force for Indianization coming to an end, but Islamic influence took over as well in the midst of the thirteenth century to trump the Hindu kingdoms. In the process of Islam coming to the traditional Hindu kingdoms, trade was heavily practiced and the now Islamized Indians started becoming merchants all over Southeast Asia.<ref name="Coedes" /> Moreover, as trade became more saturated in the Southeast Asian regions wherein Indianization once persisted, the regions had become more Muslim populated. This so-called Islamic control has spanned to many of the trading centers across the regions of Southeast Asia, including one of the most dominant centers, Malacca, and has therefore stressed a widespread rise of Islamization.<ref name="Coedes" />

==Indianized kingdoms of Southeast Asia==
{{Further|List of Hindu empires and dynasties}}

===Mainland kingdoms===
[[File:Dancing Shiva 10th c.jpg|thumb|The 10th-century [[tympanum (architecture)|tympanum]] of the dancing [[Shiva]] in [[Champa]], Vietnam]]
* '''[[Funan]]''': Funan was a polity that encompassed the southernmost part of the [[Indochina|Indochinese peninsula]] during the 1st to 6th centuries. The name ''Funan'' is not found in any texts of local origin from the period, and so is considered an [[exonym]] based on the accounts of two Chinese diplomats, [[Kang Tai]] and Zhu Ying who sojourned there in the mid-3rd century CE.<ref>Higham, C., 2001, The Civilization of Angkor, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, {{ISBN|9781842125847}}</ref>{{rp|24}} It is not known what name the people of Funan gave to their polity. Some scholars believe ancient Chinese scholars transcribed the word Funan from a word related to the Khmer word bnaṃ or vnaṃ (modern: phnoṃ, meaning "mountain"); while others thought that Funan may not be a transcription at all, rather it meant what it says in Chinese, meaning something like "Pacified South". Centered at the lower [[Mekong]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stark |first=Miriam T. |date=2006 |title=Pre-Angkorian Settlement Trends in Cambodia's Mekong Delta and the Lower Mekong Archaeological Project |url=http://www.anthropology.hawaii.edu/people/faculty/stark/pdfs/Stark_06_IPPA.pdf |journal=Indo-Pacific Pre-History Association Bulletin |publisher=University of Hawai'i-Manoa |volume=26 |access-date=5 July 2015 |quote=The Mekong delta played a central role in the development of Cambodia's earliest complex polities from approximately 500 BC to AD 600. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923172512/http://www.anthropology.hawaii.edu/people/faculty/stark/pdfs/Stark_06_IPPA.pdf |archive-date=23 September 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Funan is noted as the oldest [[Hinduism|Hindu]] culture in this region, which suggests prolonged socio-economic interaction with India and maritime trading partners of the [[Indosphere]].<ref name="Stark-1999">{{cite journal |last1=Stark |first1=Miriam T. |last2=Griffin |first2=Bion |last3=Phoeurn |first3=Chuch |last4=Ledgerwood |first4=Judy |last5=Dega |first5=Michael |last6=Mortland |first6=Carol |last7=Dowling |first7=Nancy |last8=Bayman |first8=James M. |last9=Sovath |first9=Bong |last10=Van |first10=Tea |last11=Chamroeun |first11=Chhan |last12=Latinis |first12=Kyle |display-authors=4 |date=1999 |title=Results of the 1995–1996 Archaeological Field Investigations at Angkor Borei, Cambodia |url=http://www.anthropology.hawaii.edu/people/faculty/stark/pdfs/AP1999%20article.pdf |journal=Asian Perspectives |publisher=University of Hawai'i-Manoa |volume=38 |issue=1 |access-date=5 July 2015 |quote=The development of maritime commerce and Hindu influence stimulated early state formation in polities along the coasts of mainland Southeast Asia, where passive indigenous populations embraced notions of statecraft and ideology introduced by outsiders... |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923172419/http://www.anthropology.hawaii.edu/People/Faculty/Stark/pdfs/AP1999%20article.pdf |archive-date=23 September 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Cultural and religious ideas had reached Funan via the [[Indian Ocean trade]] route. Trade with India had commenced well before 500 BC as [[Sanskrit]] had not yet replaced [[Pali]].<ref name="Stark-1999" /> Funan's language has been determined as to have been an early form of Khmer and its written form was Sanskrit.<ref>{{cite book |last=Rooney |first=Dawn |date=1984 |title=Khmer Ceramics |url=http://rooneyarchive.net/books/khmer_ceramics/khmer_ceramics.pdf |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=13 July 2015 |quote=The language of Funan was... |archive-date=7 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131107123649/http://rooneyarchive.net/books/khmer_ceramics/khmer_ceramics.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
[[File:Cat Tien large lingam.jpg|thumb|Stone lingam found in [[Cát Tiên archaeological site|Cát Tiên]], southern Vietnam]]
* '''[[Chenla Kingdom|Chenla]]''' was the successor polity of Funan that existed from around the late 6th century until the early 9th century in Indochina, preceding the [[Khmer Empire]]. Like its predecessor, Chenla occupied a strategic position where the maritime trade routes of the [[Indosphere]] and the [[East Asian cultural sphere]] converged, resulting in prolonged socio-economic and cultural influence, along with the adoption of the Sanskrit [[Epigraphy|epigraphic]] system of the south Indian [[Pallava dynasty]] and [[Chalukya dynasty]].<ref>Some Aspects of Asian History and Culture by Upendra Thakur p.2</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.khmerstudies.org/download-files/publications/siksacakr/no2/consideration.pdf?lbisphpreq=1 |title=Considerations on the Chronology and History of 9th Century Cambodia by Dr. Karl-Heinz Golzio, Epigraphist – ...the realm called Zhenla by the Chinese. Their contents are not uniform but they do not contradict each other. |publisher=Khmer Studies |access-date=5 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150524140459/http://www.khmerstudies.org/download-files/publications/siksacakr/no2/consideration.pdf?lbisphpreq=1 |archive-date=24 May 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Chenla's first ruler Vīravarman adopted the idea of divine kingship and deployed the concept of [[Harihara]], the [[Syncretism|syncretistic]] Hindu "god that embodied multiple conceptions of power". His successors continued this tradition, thus obeying the code of conduct [[Manusmṛti]], the ''Laws of Manu'' for the [[Kshatriya]] warrior caste and conveying the idea of political and religious authority.<ref name="Lavy-2003"/>
* '''[[Langkasuka]]''': Langkasuka (-''langkha'' [[Sanskrit]] for "resplendent land" -''sukkha'' of "bliss") was an ancient [[Hindu king]]dom located in the [[Malay Peninsula]]. The kingdom, along with the Old Kedah settlement, are probably the earliest territorial footholds founded on the Malay Peninsula. According to tradition, the founding of the kingdom happened in the 2nd century; [[Malay people|Malay]] legends claim that Langkasuka was founded at [[Kedah]], and later moved to [[Pattani province|Pattani]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a5rG6reWhloC&pg=PA162 |title=The Malay Peninsula: Crossroads of the Maritime Silk-Road (100 BC-1300 AD) |author=Michel Jacq-Hergoualc'h |pages=162–163 |others=Victoria Hobson (translator) |publisher=Brill |isbn=9789004119734 |date=January 2002 |access-date=26 March 2023 |archive-date=19 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230219073308/https://books.google.com/books?id=a5rG6reWhloC&pg=PA162 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* '''[[Champa]]''': The kingdoms of Champa controlled what is now south and central [[Vietnam]]. The earliest kingdom, [[Lâm Ấp]] was described by Chinese sources around 192. CE The dominant religion was [[Hinduism]] and the culture was heavily influenced by India. By the late fifteenth century, the Vietnamese – proponents of the [[Sinosphere]] – had eradicated the last remaining traces of the once powerful maritime kingdom of Champa.<ref>{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=R5p7cRyK748C|title= Blood and Soil: Modern Genocide 1500–2000 By Ben Kiernan p. 102 The Vietnamese destruction of Champa 1390–1509|access-date= 27 June 2015|isbn= 9780522854770|last1= Kiernan|first1= Ben|year= 2008|publisher= Melbourne Univ.|archive-date= 26 March 2023|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195118/https://books.google.com/books?id=R5p7cRyK748C|url-status= live}}</ref> The last surviving [[Cham (Asia)|Chams]] began their [[diaspora]] in 1471, many re-settling in [[Khmer people|Khmer]] territory.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chamtoday.com/index.php/history-l-ch-s/169-the-cham-descendants-of-ancient-rulers-of-south-china-sea-watch-maritime-dispute-from-sidelines |title=The Cham: Descendants of Ancient Rulers of South China Sea Watch Maritime Dispute From Sidelines Written by Adam Bray |publisher=IOC-Champa |access-date=26 June 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626101606/http://www.chamtoday.com/index.php/history-l-ch-s/169-the-cham-descendants-of-ancient-rulers-of-south-china-sea-watch-maritime-dispute-from-sidelines |archive-date=26 June 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=tVhvh6ibLJcC&pg=PA318 |title= The Cambridge History of China: Volume 8, The Ming Part 2 Parts 1368–1644 By Denis C. Twitchett, Frederick W. Mote |date= 28 January 1998 |access-date= 26 June 2015 |isbn= 9780521243339 |last1= Twitchett |first1= Denis C. |last2= Mote |first2= Frederick W. |publisher= Cambridge University Press |archive-date= 26 March 2023 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195126/https://books.google.com/books?id=tVhvh6ibLJcC&pg=PA318 |url-status= live }}</ref>
* '''[[Khmer empire|Kambuja]]''': The [[Khmer Empire]] was established by the early 9th century in a mythical initiation and [[consecration]] ceremony by founder [[Jayavarman II]] at Mount Kulen (Mount Mahendra) in 802 CE<ref>{{cite journal |last=Wolters |first=O. W. |date=1973 |title=Jayavarman II's Military Power: The Territorial Foundation of the Angkor Empire |journal=The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland |volume=105 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |issue=1 |pages=21–30 |doi=10.1017/S0035869X00130400 |jstor=25203407|s2cid=161969465 }}</ref> A succession of powerful sovereigns, continuing the [[Hindu]] [[devaraja]] tradition, reigned over the classical era of Khmer civilization until the 11th century. [[Buddhism]] was then introduced temporarily into royal religious practice, with discontinuities and decentralisation resulting in subsequent removal.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://studiesofasia.wikispaces.com/file/view/EDAS8003A+Assignment+1+Khmer+civilisation+at+Angkor.pdf |title=The emergence and ultimate decline of the Khmer Empire – Many scholars attribute the halt of the development of Angkor to the rise of Theravada... |publisher=Studies of Asia |access-date=11 June 2015 |archive-date=25 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200225164254/https://studiesofasia.wikispaces.com/file/view/EDAS8003A+Assignment+1+Khmer+civilisation+at+Angkor.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[List of kings of Cambodia|royal chronology]] ended in the 14th century. During this period of the Khmer empire, societal functions of [[Administration (government)|administration]], agriculture, architecture, [[hydrology]], [[logistics]], [[urban planning]], literature and [[art|the arts]] saw an unprecedented degree of development, refinement and accomplishment from the distinct expression of Hindu cosmology.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Khmer_Empire/ |title=Khmer Empire |date=12 March 2013 |publisher=[[World History Encyclopedia]] |access-date=7 July 2015 |archive-date=17 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417124558/https://www.worldhistory.org/Khmer_Empire/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* '''[[Mon kingdoms]]''': From the 9th century until the abrupt end of the [[Hanthawaddy kingdom]] in 1539, the Mon kingdoms ([[Dvaravati]], [[Hariphunchai]], [[Pegu]]) were notable for facilitating Indianized cultural exchange in lower Burma, in particular by having strong ties with Sri Lanka.<ref>{{harvtxt|Coedès|1968}}</ref>
* '''[[Sukhothai Kingdom|Sukhothai]]''': The first [[Tai peoples]] to gain independence from the Khmer Empire and start their own kingdom in the 13th century. Sukhothai was a precursor for the [[Ayutthaya Kingdom]] and the Kingdom of Siam. Though ethnically Thai, the Sukhothai kingdom in many ways was a continuation of the Buddhist Mon-Dvaravati civilizations, as well as the neighboring Khmer Empire.<ref name="sunnytantikumar736">{{Cite web |last=sunnytantikumar736 |title=भारत की कहानी |url=https://ourhindistory.in/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4-%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80-%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80/ |access-date=2022-06-29 |website=Hindi Stories |date=26 February 2022 |language=en-US |archive-date=3 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203183016/https://ourhindistory.in/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4-%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80-%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=พระราชพงษาวดาร ฉบับพระราชหัดถเลขา ภาค 1 |trans-title=Royal Chronicle: Royal Autograph Version, Volume 1 |publisher=[[National Library of Thailand|Wachirayan Royal Library]] |location=Bangkok |year=1912 |page=278}}</ref>

===Island kingdoms===
[[File:Avalokiteçvara, Malayu Srivijaya style.jpg|thumb|upright|Golden [[Avalokiteśvara]] from [[Melayu Kingdom|Malayu]]-[[Srivijaya]], Indonesia]]
[[File:Durga Mahisasuramardini Prambanan.jpg|thumb|upright|Statue [[Durga]] dated to the 9th-century [[Mataram Kingdom|Mataram]] from Central Java]]
[[File:Pura Ulandanu Temple, Batur, Bali, Indonesia 02.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Ganesha]] shrine in Bali, a widely present custom from [[Majapahit]]]]
* '''[[Salakanagara]]''': Salakanagara kingdom is the first historically recorded Indianized kingdom in Western Java, established by an Indian trader after marrying a local Sundanese princess. This Kingdom existed between 130 and 362 CE.<ref>{{cite web|title=Salakanagara, Kerajaan "Tertua" di Nusantara|url=http://www.wacananusantara.org/salakanagara-kerajaan-tertua-di-nusantara/|language=id|access-date=25 January 2015|archive-date=23 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150723200420/http://www.wacananusantara.org/salakanagara-kerajaan-tertua-di-nusantara/|url-status=usurped}}</ref>
* '''[[Tarumanagara]]''' was an early Sundanese Indianized kingdom, located not far from modern Jakarta, and according to Tugu inscription ruler Purnavarman apparently built a canal that changed the course of the Cakung River, and drained a coastal area for agriculture and settlement. In his inscriptions, Purnavarman associated himself with Vishnu, and Brahmins ritually secured the hydraulic project.
* '''[[Kalingga Kingdom|Kalingga]]''': Kalingga (Javanese: Karajan Kalingga) was the 6th century Indianized kingdom on the north coast of Central Java, Indonesia. It was the earliest Hindu-Buddhist kingdom in Central Java, and together with Kutai and Tarumanagara are the oldest kingdoms in Indonesian history.
* '''[[Melayu Kingdom|Malayu]]''' was a classical Southeast Asian kingdom. The primary sources for much of the information on the kingdom are the New History of the Tang, and the memoirs of the Chinese Buddhist monk Yijing who visited in 671 CE, and states that it was "absorbed" by Srivijaya by 692 CE, but had "broken away" by the end of the eleventh century according to Chao Jukua. The exact location of the kingdom is the subject of studies among historians.
* '''[[Srivijaya]]''': From the 7th to 13th centuries Srivijaya, a maritime empire centered on the island of [[Sumatra]] in Indonesia, had adopted Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism under a line of rulers from Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa to the [[Sailendra]]s. A stronghold of [[Vajrayana]] Buddhism, Srivijaya attracted pilgrims and scholars from other parts of Asia. I Ching reports that the kingdom was home to more than a thousand Buddhist scholars. A notable Buddhist scholar of local origin, [[Dharmakirti]], taught Buddhist philosophy in Srivijaya and [[Nalanda]] (in India), and was the teacher of [[Atisha]]. Most of the time, this Buddhist [[ethnic Malay|Malay]] empire enjoyed cordial relationship with China and the [[Pala Empire]] in [[Bengal]], and the 860 CE [[Nalanda inscription]] records that Maharaja [[Balaputra]] dedicated a monastery at [[Nalanda]] university near Pala territory. The Srivijaya kingdom ceased to exist in the 13th century due to various factors, including the expansion of the Javanese, Singhasari, and Majapahit empires.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thailandsworld.com/index.cfm?p=87|title=Thailand's World : The Srivijaya Kingdom in Thailand|access-date=25 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151120002507/http://www.thailandsworld.com/index.cfm?p=87|archive-date=20 November 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* '''[[Tambralinga]]''' was an ancient kingdom located on the Malay Peninsula that at one time came under the influence of Srivijaya. The name had been forgotten until scholars recognized Tambralinga as Nagara Sri Dharmaraja (Nakhon Si Thammarat). Early records are scarce but its duration is estimated to range from the seventh to the fourteenth century. Tambralinga first sent tribute to the emperor of the Tang dynasty in 616 CE. In Sanskrit, Tambra means "red" and linga means "symbol", typically representing the divine energy of Shiva.
* '''[[Mataram Kingdom|Mataram]]''': The Mataram Kingdom flourished between the 8th and 11th centuries. It was first centered in central Java before moving later to east Java. This kingdom produced numbers of Hindu-Buddhist temples in Java, including [[Borobudur]] Buddhist mandala and the [[Prambanan]] [[Trimurti]] Hindu temple dedicated mainly to [[Shiva]]. The [[Sailendra]]s were the ruling family of this kingdom at an earlier stage in central Java, before being replaced by the [[Isyana Dynasty]].
* '''[[Kediri Kingdom|Kadiri]]''': In the 10th century, Mataram challenged the supremacy of Srivijaya, resulting in the destruction of the Mataram capital by Srivijaya early in the 11th century. Restored by King [[Airlangga]] (c. 1020–1050), the kingdom split on his death; the new state of Kediri, in eastern Java, became the centre of Javanese culture for the next two centuries, spreading its influence to the eastern parts of Southeast Asia. The spice trade was now becoming increasingly important, as demand from European countries grew. Before they learned to keep sheep and cattle alive in the winter, they had to eat salted meat, made palatable by the addition of spices. One of the main sources was the [[Maluku Islands]] (or "Spice Islands") in Indonesia, and so Kediri became a strong trading nation.
* '''[[Singhasari]]''': In the 13th century, however, the Kediri dynasty was overthrown by a revolution, and [[Singhasari]] arose in east Java. The domains of this new state expanded under the rule of its warrior-king [[Kertanegara]]. He was killed by a prince of the previous Kediri dynasty, who then established the last great Hindu-Javanese kingdom, [[Majapahit]]. By the middle of the 14th century, Majapahit controlled most of Java, Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula, part of [[Borneo]], the southern Celebes and the Moluccas. It also exerted considerable influence on the mainland.
* '''[[Majapahit]]''': The Majapahit empire, centered in East Java, succeeded the [[Singhasari]] empire and flourished in the Indonesian archipelago between the 13th and 15th centuries. Noted for their naval expansion, the [[Javanese people|Javanese]] spanned west–east from Lamuri in [[Aceh]] to Wanin in [[West Papua (province)|Papua]]. Majapahit was one of the last and greatest Hindu empires in [[Maritime Southeast Asia]]. Most of [[Bali]]nese Hindu culture, traditions and civilisations were derived from Majapahit legacy. A large number of Majapahit nobles, priests, and artisans found their home in Bali after the decline of Majapahit to [[Demak Sultanate]].
* '''[[Galuh Kingdom|Galuh]]''' was an ancient Hindu kingdom in the eastern Tatar Pasundan (now west Java province and Banyumasan region of central Java province), Indonesia. It was established following the collapse of the Tarumanagara kingdom around the 7th century. Traditionally the kingdom of Galuh was associated with the eastern Priangan cultural region, around the [[Citanduy]] and Cimanuk rivers, with its territory spanning from Citarum river on the west, to the Pamali (present-day Brebes river) and Serayu rivers on the east. Its capital was located in Kawali, near present-day Ciamis city.
* '''[[Sunda Kingdom|Sunda]]''': The Kingdom of Sunda was a Hindu kingdom located in western Java from 669 CE to around 1579 CE, covering the area of present-day Banten, Jakarta, West Java, and the western part of Central Java. According to primary historical records, the Bujangga Manik manuscript, the eastern border of the Sunda Kingdom was the Pamali River (Ci Pamali, the present day Brebes River) and the Serayu River (Ci Sarayu) in Central Java.

==Indianized kingdoms of Southwest Asia==
{{see also|Hindu and Buddhist heritage of Afghanistan|Muslim conquests of Afghanistan}}
[[File:Corinthian Capital with Sun God Surya Riding a Chariot (Quadriga) Gandhara 100-200 CE.jpg|thumb|[[Surya]] sitting on a Corinthian chariot from [[Gandhara|ancient Afghanistan]]]]

The eastern regions of Afghanistan were considered regionally as parts of India and were also politically ruled by the [[Maurya Empire|Mauryan Empire]]. Buddhism and Hinduism held sway over the region until the Muslim conquest.<ref>{{cite book|title=The History and Culture of the Indian People: The Age of Imperial Unity|author=Ramesh Chandra Majumdar|publisher=G. Allen & Unwin|year=1951|page=635|author-link=Ramesh Chandra Majumdar}}</ref> Kabul and Zabulistan which housed Buddhism and other [[Indian religions]], offered stiff resistance to the Muslim advance for two centuries, with the [[Hindu Shahi|Kabul Shahi]] and [[Zunbils]] remaining unconquered until the [[Saffarid]] and [[Ghaznavid]] conquests.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g6swDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA43|title=Afghanistan's Islam: From Conversion to the Taliban|author=Nile Green|pages=43, 44|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=9780520294134|year=2017|access-date=26 March 2023|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195039/https://books.google.com/books?id=g6swDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA43|url-status=live}}</ref> The significance of the realm of [[Zun]] and its rulers Zunbils had laid in them blocking the path of Arabs in invading the [[Indus Valley]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g2m7_R5P2oAC|title=Al- Hind: The slave kings and the Islamic conquest. 2|author=André Wink|page=120|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]]|isbn=0391041738|year=2002}}</ref>

According to historian [[André Wink]], "In southern and eastern Afghanistan, the regions of [[Zamindawar]] (Zamin I Datbar or land of the justice giver, the classical [[Arachosia]]) and [[Zabulistan]] or [[Zabul]] (Jabala, [[Kingdom of Kapisa|Kapisha]], Kia pi shi) and [[Kabul]], the Arabs were effectively opposed for more than two centuries, from 643 to 870 AD, by the indigenous rulers the [[Zunbil]]s and the related [[Turk Shahi|Kabul-Shahs]] of the dynasty which became known as the Buddhist-Shahi. With [[Makran]] and [[Baluchistan, Pakistan|Baluchistan]] and much of Sindh this area can be reckoned to belong to the cultural and political frontier zone between India and [[Persia]]."<ref name="Wink-1996">{{citation |last=Wink |first=André |title=Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World, Vol 1: Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam, 7th–11th Centuries |publisher=Brill |year=1996 |edition=Third |orig-year=first published 1990 |isbn=0391041738 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bCVyhH5VDjAC |pages=112–114}}</ref> He also wrote, "It is clear however that in the seventh to ninth centuries the Zunbils and their kinsmen the Kabulshahs ruled over a predominantly Indian rather than a Persianate realm. The Arab geographers, in effect, commonly speak of 'that king of al-Hind ... (who) bore the title of Zunbil."<ref name="Wink-1996"/>

Archaeological sites such as the 8th-century [[Tapa Sardar]] and Gardez show a blend of Buddhism with strong [[Shaivism|Shaivst]] iconography.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://pro.geo.univie.ac.at/projects/khm/showcases/showcase15?language=en|title=15. The Rutbils of Zabulistan and the "Emperor of Rome" {{!}} Digitaler Ausstellungskatalog|website=pro.geo.univie.ac.at|access-date=19 December 2018|archive-date=2 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802204758/http://pro.geo.univie.ac.at/projects/khm/showcases/showcase15?language=en|url-status=dead}}</ref> Around 644 CE, the Chinese travelling monk [[Xuanzang]] made an account of Zabul (which he called by its Sanskrit name ''Jaguda''), which he describes as mainly pagan, though also respecting [[Mahayana]] Buddhism, which although in the minority had the support of its royals. In terms of other cults, the god Śuna,<ref>{{Cite book|title=A New Etymological Vocabulary of Pashto|last=Morgenstierne|first=Georg|publisher=Reichert Verlag|year=2003|isbn=9783895003646|location=Wiesbaden, Germany}}</ref> is described to be the prime deity of the country.<ref>{{citation |title=The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions |last=Li |first=Rongxi |publisher=Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research |year=1995 |isbn=1-886439-02-8 |location=Berkeley, California }}</ref>

The Caliph [[Al-Ma'mun]] (r. 813–833 A.D.) led the last Arab expeditions on Kabul and Zabul, after which the long-drawn conflict ended with the dissolution of the empire. Rutbil were made to pay double the tribute to the Caliph.<ref>{{cite book|title=Readings in Political History of India, Ancient, Mediaeval, and Modern|publisher=B.R. Publishing Corporation|author=Ramesh Chandra Majumdar|page=223|author-link=Ramesh Chandra Majumdar}}</ref> The king of Kabul was captured by him and converted to Islam.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Litvinsky |first1=B. A. |last2=Gung-da |first2=Zhang |editor1-last=Guand-da |editor1-first=Zhang |editor2-last=Litvinsky |editor2-first=B. |editor3-last=Shabani Samghabadi |editor3-first=R. |chapter=Central Asia, the Crossroads of Civilizations |title=History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The crossroads of civilizations, A.D. 250 to 750 |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000104612?posInSet=1&queryId=a6dad7c3-cad4-47e1-a5ef-49a1cd6d31f9 |year=1996 |publisher=UNESCO |volume=III |page=470 |isbn=978-92-3-103211-0 |access-date=26 March 2023}}</ref> The last Zunbil was killed by [[Ya'qub ibn al-Layth al-Saffar|Ya'qub bin al-Layth]] along with his former overlord Salih b. al-Nadr in 865.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hvx9jq_2L3EC&pg=PA99|title=The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4|author=William Bayne Fisher|page=99|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=9780521200936|date=1975-06-26|access-date=26 March 2023|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195020/https://books.google.com/books?id=hvx9jq_2L3EC&pg=PA99|url-status=live}}</ref> Meanwhile, the Hindu Shahi of Kabul were defeated under [[Mahmud of Ghazni]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Ewans |first=Martin |author-link=Martin Ewans |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TQC4AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA15 |title=Afghanistan - A New History |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-415-29826-1 |page=15 |access-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195007/https://books.google.com/books?id=TQC4AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA15 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> Indian soldiers were a part of the Ghaznavid army, [[Abu'l-Fadl Bayhaqi|Baihaki]] mentioned Hindu officers employed by [[Ma'sud I of Ghazni|Ma'sud]].<ref>{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=PnBMFaGMabYC&pg=PA40|title= Somanatha: The Many Voices of a History|publisher= Verso|author= Romila Thapar|page= 40|author-link= Romila Thapar|isbn= 9781844670208|year= 2005|access-date= 26 March 2023|archive-date= 26 March 2023|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195030/https://books.google.com/books?id=PnBMFaGMabYC&pg=PA40|url-status= live}}</ref> The 14th-century scholar Muslim scholar [[Ibn Battuta]] described the [[Hindu Kush]] as meaning "slayer of Indians", because large numbers of slaves brought from [[Indian subcontinent|India]] died from its treacherous weather.<ref>{{cite book|author=Christoph Witzenrath|title=Eurasian Slavery, Ransom and Abolition in World History, 1200–1860|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7LG1CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA45 |year=2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-14002-3 |page=45|quote=Ibn Battuta, the renowned Moroccan fourteenth century world traveller remarked in a spine-chilling passage that Hindu Kush means slayer of the Indians, because the slave boys and girls who are brought from India die there in large numbers as a result of the extreme cold and the quantity of snow.}}</ref>

===Zabulistan===
[[Zabulistan]], a historical region in southern [[Afghanistan]] roughly corresponding to the modern provinces of [[Zabul Province|Zabul]] and [[Ghazni Province|Ghazni]],<ref>{{citation |last=Minorsky |first=V. |title=Ḥudūd al-ʿĀlam (The Regions of the World) |publisher=The E. J. W. Gibb Memorial Trust |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-906094-03-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Ct1CQAAQBAJ |location=Great Britain}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://persian.packhum.org/persian//pf?file=03501051&ct=95 |title=Events Of The Year 910 (1525) |year=1921 |editor=John Leyden, Esq. |editor2=William Erskine, Esq. |work=[[Baburnama|Memoirs of Babur]] |publisher=[[Packard Humanities Institute]] |page=8 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071113215245/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=03501051&ct=95 |archive-date=13 November 2007 |url-status=dead |access-date=2010-08-22 }}</ref> was a collection of loose suzerains of the Hindu rulers when it fell to the [[Turk Shahi]]s in the 7th century, though the suzerainty continued up to the 11th century. The Hindu kingdom of Kapisha had split up as its western part formed a separate state called the kingdom of Zabul. It was a family division because there were consanguineous and political relationships between the states of Kabul and Zabul.<ref>Abdur Rahman, ''Last Two Dynasties of the Shahis:'' "In about AD 680, the [[Rutbil]] was a brother of the Kabul Shahi. In AD 726, the ruler of Zabulistan (Rutbil) was the nephew of Kabul Shah. Obviously the Kabul Shahs and the Rutbils belonged to the same family" – pp. 46 and 79, quoting Tabri, I, 2705-6 and Fuch, von W.</ref>

The [[Zunbil]]s, a royal dynasty south of the [[Hindu Kush]] in present-day southern Afghanistan region, worshiped the Zhuna, possibly a [[Solar deity|sun god]] connected to the Hindu god Surya and is sometimes referred to as Zoor or Zoon. He is represented with flames radiating from his head on coins. Statues were adorned with gold and used rubies for eyes. [[Xuanzang|Huen Tsang]] calls him "sunagir".<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.alamahabibi.com/English%20Articles/Zoor_or_zoon_temple.htm |title=The Temple of Zoor or Zoon in Zamindawar |work=[[Abdul Hai Habibi]] |year=1969 |publisher=alamahabibi.com |access-date=14 August 2012 |archive-date=29 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150629104229/http://www.alamahabibi.com/English%20Articles/Zoor_or_zoon_temple.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> It has been linked with the Hindu god [[Surya|Aditya]] at [[Multan]], [[Bon|pre-Buddhist religious]] and [[Imperial cult|kingship practices]] of [[Tibet]] as well as [[Shaivism]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Medieval History of Iran, Afghanistan, and Central Asia|pages= 344|publisher=Variorum Reprints|year=1977|author=[[Clifford Edmund Bosworth]]}}</ref> His shrine lay on a sacred mountain in Zamindawar. Originally it appears to have been brought there by [[Hepthalite]]s, displacing an earlier god on the same site. Parallels have been noted with the pre-Buddhist monarchy of Tibet, next to [[Zoroastrian]] influence on its ritual. Whatever its origins, it was certainly superimposed on a mountain and on a pre-existing mountain god while merging with Shaiva doctrines of worship.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bCVyhH5VDjAC&pg=PA118|title=Al- Hind: The slave kings and the Islamic conquest – Volume I|year=1991|publisher=Brill|pages=118, 119|isbn=9004095098}}</ref>

===Buddhist Turk Shahi dynasty of Kabul===
[[File:Mes Aynak stupa.jpg|thumb|Newly excavated Buddhist [[stupa]] at [[Mes Aynak]] in Logar Province. Similar stupas have been discovered in neighboring [[Ghazni Province]], including in the northern [[Samangan Province#Cultural heritage|Samangan Province]].]]

The area had been under the rule of the [[Turk Shahi]] who took over the rule of Kabul in the seventh century and later were attacked by the Arabs.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bnv4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA58|title=The Huns|author=Hyun Jin Kim|publisher=Routledge|pages=58–59|isbn=9781317340911|date=2015-11-19|access-date=26 March 2023|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195008/https://books.google.com/books?id=bnv4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA58|url-status=live}}</ref> The Turk Shahi dynasty was [[Buddhist]] and were followed by a [[Hindu]] dynasty shortly before the Saffarid conquest in 870 A.D.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g2m7_R5P2oAC&pg=PA125|title=Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World – Volume I: Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam 7th–11th Centuries|author=André Wink|publisher=Brill|page=125|isbn=0391041738|year=2002}}</ref>

The Turk Shahi were a Buddhist [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] dynasty that ruled from Kabul and [[Kapisa (city)|Kapisa]] in the 7th to 9th centuries. They replaced the [[Nezak]] – the last dynasty of Bactrian rulers. [[Kabulistan]] was the heartland of the Turk Shahi domain, which at times included [[Zabulistan]] and [[Gandhara]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pro.geo.univie.ac.at/projects/khm/showcases/showcase15?language=en |title=15. The Rutbils of Zabulistan and the "Emperor of Rome" |newspaper=Pro.geo.univie.ac.at |access-date=22 July 2017 |archive-date=2 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802204758/http://pro.geo.univie.ac.at/projects/khm/showcases/showcase15?language=en |url-status=dead }}</ref> The last Shahi ruler of Kabul, Lagaturman, was deposed by a [[Brahmin]] minister, possibly named Vakkadeva,<ref name="W. Macdowall 1968, pp. 189-224"/><ref name="Raizada Harichand Vaid pp. 83">Raizada Harichand Vaid, ''Gulshane Mohyali'', II, pp. 83 and 183-84.</ref><ref name="Tabaqat-i-Nasiri' p. 82"/> in c. 850, signaling the end of the Buddhist Turk Shahi dynasty, and the beginning of the [[Hindu Shahi]] dynasty from Kabul.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pro.geo.univie.ac.at/projects/khm/showcases/showcase16?language=en |title=16. The Hindu Shahis in Kabulistan and Gandhara and the Arab conquest |newspaper=Pro.geo.univie.ac.at |access-date=22 July 2017 |archive-date=10 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310235911/http://pro.geo.univie.ac.at/projects/khm/showcases/showcase16?language=en |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Hindu Shahis===
[[File:AMB Temple in Soon Sakasar Valley by Usman Ghani.JPG|thumb|The [[Amb Temples|Amb Hindu Temple complex]] was built between the 7th and 9th centuries CE during the reign of the Hindu Shahi Empire<ref>{{cite book|title=Gazetteer of the Attock District, 1930, Part 1|date=1932|publisher=Sang-e-Meel Publications|isbn=9789693514131|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gfdtAAAAMAAJ&q=amb+temple|access-date=21 September 2017|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195023/https://books.google.com/books?id=gfdtAAAAMAAJ&q=amb+temple|url-status=live}}</ref>]]

The Hindu Shahi (850–1026 CE) was a [[Hindu]] dynasty that held sway over the [[Kabul Valley]], [[Gandhara]] (modern-day north-west Pakistan and north-east Afghanistan), and present-day northwestern India, during the [[Medieval India|early medieval period in the Indian subcontinent]]. They succeeded the [[Turk Shahi]]s. There were two successive dynasties in [[Kabul Valley]] and [[Gandhara]] – the [[Kshatriya]] dynasty and the [[Brahmana dynasty]] which replaced it.<ref name="Samad2011"/> Both used the title of ''Shahi''. Details about these rulers have been assembled from [[chronicle]]s, coins and stone inscriptions by researchers as no consolidated account of their history has become available.<ref name="Samad2011">{{cite book|author=Rafi U. Samad|title=The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PMEd8Cqh-YQC&pg=PA275|year=2011|publisher=Algora Publishing|isbn=978-0-87586-860-8|pages=275–|access-date=26 March 2023|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195107/https://books.google.com/books?id=PMEd8Cqh-YQC&pg=PA275|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1973, Historian Yogendra Mishra proposed that according to [[Rajatarangini]], Hindu Shahis were [[Kshatriya]]s.<ref>Yogendra Mishara, ''The Hindu Shahis of Afghanistan and the Punjab AD 865-1026'', p. 4.</ref>

According to available inscriptions following are the names of Hindu Shahi kings: Vakkadeva, Kamalavarman, Bhimadeva, [[Jayapala]], [[Anandapala]], [[Trilochanapala]] and Bhimpala.<ref name="W. Macdowall 1968, pp. 189-224">D. W. Macdowall, "The Shahis of Kabul and Gandhara" ''Numismatic Chronicle'', Seventh Series, Vol. III, 1968, pp. 189–224, see extracts in R. T. Mohan, ''AFGHANISTAN REVISITED'' … Appendix –B, pp. 164–68</ref><ref name="Raizada Harichand Vaid pp. 83"/><ref name="Tabaqat-i-Nasiri' p. 82">[[H. G. Raverty]], Tr. ''Tabaqat-i-Nasiri'' of Maulana Minhaj-ud-din, Vol. I, p. 82</ref>
* '''Vakkadeva:''' According to ''The Mazare Sharif Inscription of the Time of the Shahi Ruler Veka'', recently discovered from northern Afghanistan and reported by the Taxila Institute of Asian Civilisations, [[Islamabad]], [[Veka]] (sic.) conquered northern region of Afghanistan 'with eightfold forces' and ruled there. He established a [[Shiva]] temple there which was inaugurated by ''[[Parimaha Maitya]]'' (the Great Minister).<ref>See R. T. Mohan, ''AFGHANISTAN REVISITED'' … Appendix – A, pp. 162–163.</ref> He also issued copper coins of the Elephant and Lion type with the legend Shri Vakkadeva. Nine principal issues of Bull and Horseman silver coins and only one issue of corresponding copper coins of Spalapatideva have become available. As many as five Elephant and Lion type of copper coins of Shri Vakkadeva are available and curiously the copper issues of Vakka are ''contemporaneous'' with the silver issues of Spalapati.<ref name="W. Macdowall 1968, pp. 189-224"/>
* '''Kamalavarman:''' During the reign of Kamalavarman, the Saffarid rule weakened precipitately and ultimately Sistan became a part of the [[Samanid Empire]]. The disorder generally prevailed and the control of Zabulistan changed hands frequently. Taking advantage of the situation, the Shahis stepped up activities on their western frontier. The result was the emergence of a small Hindu power at Ghazni, supported by the Shahis. "The authorities either themselves of early date or enshrining early information mention [[Lawik]]", a Hindu, as the ruler at Ghazni, before this place was taken over by the Turkish slave governor of the Samanids.<ref>C. E. Bosworth, 'Notes on Pre-Ghaznavid History of Eastern Afghanistan, ''Islamic Quarterly'', Vol. XI, 1965.</ref>
* '''Jayapala:''' With [[Jayapala]], a new dynasty started ruling over the former Shahi kingdom of southeastern Afghanistan and the change over was smooth and consensual. On his coronation, Jayapala used the additional name-suffix ''Deva'' from his predecessor's dynasty in addition to the ''pala'' name-ending of his own family. (With Kabul lost during the lifetime of Jayapaladeva, his successors – Anandapala, Trilochanapala and Bhimapala – reverted to their own family ''pala''-ending names.) Jayapala did not issue any coins in his own name. Bull and Horseman coins with the legend Samantadeva, in billon, seem to have been struck during Jayapala's reign. As the successor of Bhima, Jayapala was a Shahi monarch of the state of Kabul, which now included Punjab. Minhaj-ud-din describes Jayapala as "the greatest of the Rais of Hindustan."<ref name="Tabaqat-i-Nasiri' p. 82"/>

===Balkh===
From historical evidence, it appears [[Tokharistan]] (Bactria) was the only area heavily colonized by Arabs where [[Buddhism]] flourished and the only area incorporated into the Arab empire where Sanskrit studies were pursued up to the conquest.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZfWXIfbynwYC&pg=PA47|title=Islam and Tibet – Interactions along the Musk Route|publisher=Routlegde|pages=46–48|isbn=9780754669562|year=2011}}</ref> [[Hyecho|Hui'Chao]], who visited around 726, mentions that the Arabs ruled it and all the inhabitants were [[Buddhists]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZfWXIfbynwYC&pg=PA53|title=Islam and Tibet – Interactions along the Musk Route|publisher=Routlegde|pages=51, 53|isbn=9780754669562|year=2011|access-date=26 March 2023|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195027/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZfWXIfbynwYC&pg=PA53|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Balkh]]'s final conquest was undertaken by [[Qutayba ibn Muslim]] in 705.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6TN8CgAAQBAJ&pg=PT32|title=The Arab Conquests in Central Asia|publisher=Read Books Ltd.|author=H.A.R. Gibb|year=2013|page=32|author-link=H.A.R. Gibb|isbn=9781446545638|access-date=26 March 2023|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195023/https://books.google.com/books?id=6TN8CgAAQBAJ&pg=PT32|url-status=live}}</ref> Among Balkh's Buddhist monasteries, the largest was ''[[Nava Vihara]]'', later Persianized to ''Naw Bahara'' after the Islamic conquest of Balkh.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g6swDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA53|title=Afghanistan's Islam: From Conversion to the Taliban|author=Nile Green|publisher=University of California Press|page=44|isbn=9780520294134|year=2017|access-date=26 March 2023|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326205028/https://books.google.com/books?id=g6swDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA53|url-status=live}}</ref> It is not known how long it continued to serve as a place of worship after the conquest. Accounts of early Arabs offer contradictory narratives.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5rZGAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA85|title=Sacred Landscape in Medieval Afghanistan: Revisiting the Faḍā'il-i Balkh|author=Arezou Azad|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=85|isbn=9780199687053|date=November 2013|access-date=26 March 2023|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195010/https://books.google.com/books?id=5rZGAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA85|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Ghur===
[[Amir Suri]], a king of the [[Ghurid dynasty]], in the [[Ghor]] region of present-day central Afghanistan, and his son [[Muhammad ibn Suri]], despite bearing Arabic names were Buddhists.<ref>Medieval India Part 1 Satish Chandra Page 22</ref> During their rule from the 9th century to the 10th century, they were considered [[paganism|pagans]] by the surrounding Muslim people, and it was only during the reign of Muhammad's son [[Abu Ali ibn Muhammad]] that the Ghurid dynasty became an Islamic dynasty. Amir Suri was a descendant of the Ghurid king [[Amir Banji]], whose rule was legitimized by the [[Abbasid]] [[caliph]] [[Harun al-Rashid]]. He is known to have fought the [[Saffarid]] ruler [[Ya'qub ibn al-Layth al-Saffar]], who managed to conquer much of [[Khurasan]] except [[Ghur]].<ref>''History of Civilizations of Central Asia'', C.E. Bosworth, M.S. Asimov, p. 184.</ref> Ghur remained a pagan enclave until the 11th century. [[Mahmud of Ghazni]], who raided it, left Muslim precepts to teach Islam to the local population. The region became Muslim by 12th century though the historian [[Satish Chandra (historian)|Satish Chandra]] states that [[Mahayana Buddhism]] is believed to have existed until the end of the century.<ref>{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=L5eFzeyjBTQC&pg=PA22|title= Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206–1526) – Part One|publisher= Har-Anand Publishers|author= Satish Chandra|page= 22|author-link= Satish Chandra (historian)|isbn= 9788124110645|year= 2004|access-date= 26 March 2023|archive-date= 26 March 2023|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195019/https://books.google.com/books?id=L5eFzeyjBTQC&pg=PA22|url-status= live}}</ref>

===Nuristan===
The vast area extending from modern [[Nuristan]] to Kashmir (styled "Peristan" by A. M. Cacopardo) containing host of "[[Nuristanis|Kafir]]" cultures and Indo-European languages that became Islamized over a long period. Earlier, it was surrounded by Buddhist areas. The Islamization of the nearby [[Badakhshan]] began in the 8th century and Peristan was completely surrounded by Muslim states in the 16th century with Islamization of [[Baltistan]]. The Buddhist states temporarily brought literacy and state rule into the region. The decline of Buddhism resulted in it becoming heavily isolated.<ref name="academia">{{cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/35077429|journal=Archivio per l'Antropologia e la Etnologia|title=Fence of Peristan – The Islamization of the "Kafirs" and Their Domestication|publisher=Società Italiana di Antropologia e Etnologia|author=Alberto M. Cacopardo|year=2016|pages=69, 77|access-date=26 March 2023|archive-date=10 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220610175404/https://www.academia.edu/35077429|url-status=live}}</ref>

Successive wave of [[Pashtuns|Pashtun]] immigration, before or during 16th and 17th centuries, displaced the original Kafirs and [[Pashayi people]] from [[Kunar Valley]] and Laghman valley, the two eastern provinces near [[Jalalabad]], to the less fertile mountains.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mf2cvE5jYrYC&pg=PA160|title=State and Tribe in Nineteenth-century Afghanistan: The Reign of Amir Dost Muhammad Khan (1826–1863)|publisher=[[Psychology Press]]|author=Christine Noelle|page=160|isbn=9780700706297|year=1997|access-date=26 March 2023|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195036/https://books.google.com/books?id=Mf2cvE5jYrYC&pg=PA160|url-status=live}}</ref> Before their conversion, the ''Kafir'' people of [[Kafiristan]] practiced a form of [[ancient Hinduism]] infused with locally developed accretions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nuristan.info/Nuristani/Nuristanis1.html|title=Richard Strand's Nuristân Site: Peoples and Languages of Nuristan|author=Richard F. Strand|date=31 December 2005|work=nuristan.info|author-link=Richard Strand|access-date=26 March 2023|archive-date=1 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401180243/http://nuristan.info/Nuristani/Nuristanis1.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The region from [[Nuristan]] to [[Kashmir]] (styled ''Peristan'' by A. M. Cacopardo) was host to a vast number of "Kafir" cultures.<ref name=academia/> They were called Kafirs due to their enduring paganism, remaining politically independent until being conquered and forcibly converted by Afghan Amir [[Abdul Rahman Khan]] in 1895–1896<ref>{{cite book|title=The Encyclopaedia of Islam: New Edition – Volume I|editor=[[Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb|H. A. R. Gibb]] |editor2=[[Johannes Hendrik Kramers|J. H. Kramers]] |editor3=[[Évariste Lévi-Provençal|E. Lévi-Provençal]] |editor4=[[Joseph Schacht|J. Schact]] |editor5=[[Bernard Lewis]] |editor6=[[Charles Pellat]]|page=852|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|year=1986}}</ref> while others also converted to avoid paying ''[[jizya]]''.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g6swDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA142|title=Afghanistan's Islam: From Conversion to the Taliban|author=Nile Green|publisher=University of California Press|pages=142–143|isbn=9780520294134|year=2017|access-date=26 March 2023|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195025/https://books.google.com/books?id=g6swDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA142|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 1020–21, Sultan Mahmud of Ghazna led a campaign against Kafiristan and the people of the "pleasant valleys of Nur and Qirat" according to Gardizi.<ref>{{cite book|title= A Comprehensive History of India|publisher=Orient Longmans|author=Ram Sharan Sharma|page=357|author-link=Ram Sharan Sharma}}</ref> These people worshipped the lion.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rw1EBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA74|title=The Life and Times of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazna|publisher=Cambridge University Press|author=Muhmmad Nazim|page=75|isbn=9781107456594|date=2014-08-13|access-date=26 March 2023|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195029/https://books.google.com/books?id=Rw1EBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA74|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Mohammad Habib]] however considers they might have been worshipping Buddha in form of a lion (''Sakya Sinha'').<ref>{{cite book|title= Politics and Society During the Early Medieval Period: Collected Works of Professor Mohammad Habib, Volume 2|publisher=People's Publishing House|author=Mohammad Habib|pages=58–59, 100|author-link=Mohammad Habib}}</ref> [[Ramesh Chandra Majumdar]] states they had a Hindu temple which was destroyed by Mahmud's general.<ref>{{cite book|title=The History and Culture of the Indian People: The struggle for empire|author=Ramesh Chandra Majumdar|page=13|publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan|year=1966|author-link=Ramesh Chandra Majumdar}}</ref>

== Land area ==

* [[India]]
* Bangladesh
* Pakistan
* Afghanistan
* Sri Lanka
* Nepal
* Bhutan
* Myanmar
* Maldives
* Indonesia
* Malaysia
* Thailand
* Singapore
* Brunei
* Combodia
* Laos
* Cham (nowadays in the southern portion of Vietnam)
* Philippines
* Timore Leste
* China (Tibet and Yunnan Province)

==See also==
*{{annotated link|Desi|''Desi''}}
* [[Indocentrism]]
* [[Indo-Mediterranean]]
** [[Indo-Roman trade relations]]
* [[Indus–Mesopotamia relations]]
* [[List of Sanskrit-related topics]]
* [[Silk Road transmission of Buddhism]]
* [[South Asian diaspora]]

==Citations==
{{reflist}}

==References==
* {{Citation|last1=Ali|first1=Jason R.|last2=Aitchison|first2=Jonathan C.|title=Greater India|journal=Earth-Science Reviews|volume=72 |issue=3–4|year=2005|pages=169–188|doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2005.07.005|bibcode=2005ESRv...72..169A}}
* {{Citation|last1=Azurara|first1=Gomes Eannes de|title=Chronica do Discobrimento e Conquista de Guiné (eds. Carreira and Pantarem, 1841)|place=Paris|year=1446}}
* {{Citation|last=Bayley|first=Susan|title=Imagining 'Greater India': French and Indian Visions of Colonialism in the Indic Mode|journal=Modern Asian Studies|volume=38|issue=3|year=2004|pages=703–744|doi=10.1017/S0026749X04001246|s2cid=145353715}}
* {{Citation|last1=Beazley| first1=Raymond|author-link=Raymond Beazley|date=December 1910|title=Prince Henry of Portugal and the Progress of Exploration|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1449266|journal=The Geographical Journal|volume=36|issue=6|pages=703–716| doi=10.2307/1776846|jstor=1776846| bibcode=1910GeogJ..36..703B}}
* {{Citation|last1=Caverhill|first1=John|title=Some Attempts to Ascertain the Utmost Extent of the Knowledge of the Ancients in the East Indies|journal=Philosophical Transactions|volume=57|year=1767|pages=155–178|doi=10.1098/rstl.1767.0018|s2cid=186214598}}
* {{citation |last1=Coedes |first1=George |title=The Indianized States of Southeast Asia |publisher=Australian National University Press |date=1967 |url=https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/115019/2/b11055005.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306043031/https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/115019/2/b11055005.pdf |archive-date=6 March 2019}}
* {{citation |first=George |last=Coedès |title=The Indianized States of South-East Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iDyJBFTdiwoC&pg=PA14 |year=1968 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-0368-1}}
* {{Citation|last1=Guha-Thakurta|first1=Tapati|title=The making of a new 'Indian' art. Artists, aesthetics and nationalism in Bengal, c. 1850–1920|year=1992|publisher=Cambridge University Press|place=Cambridge, UK}}
* {{Citation|last1=Handy|first1=E. S. Craighill|year=1930|title=The Renaissance of East Indian Culture: Its Significance for the Pacific and the World|journal=Pacific Affairs|publisher=University of British Columbia|volume=3|issue=4|pages=362–369|doi=10.2307/2750560 |jstor=2750560}}
* {{Citation|last1=Keenleyside|first1=T. A.|date=Summer 1982|title=Nationalist Indian Attitudes Towards Asia: A Troublesome Legacy for Post-Independence Indian Foreign Policy|journal=Pacific Affairs|publisher=University of British Columbia|volume=55|issue=2 |pages=210–230|doi=10.2307/2757594|jstor=2757594}}
* {{Citation|last1=Majumdar|first1=R. C., [[Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri|H. C. Raychaudhuri]], and Kalikinkar Datta|title=An Advanced History of India|year=1960|publisher=Macmillan and Co., 1122 pages|place=London|title-link=An Advanced History of India}}
* {{Citation|last1=Narasimhaiah|first1=C. D.|title=The cross-cultural dimensions of English in religion, politics and literature|journal=World Englishes|volume=5|issue=2–3|year=1986|pages=221–230|doi=10.1111/j.1467-971X.1986.tb00728.x}}
* {{Citation|last1=Thapar|first1=Romila|author-link=Romila Thapar|date=1968|title=Interpretations of Ancient Indian History|journal=History and Theory|publisher=Wesleyan University|volume=7|issue=3|pages=318–335|doi=10.2307/2504471|jstor=2504471}}
* {{Citation|last1=Wheatley|first1=Paul|date=November 1982|title=Presidential Address: India Beyond the Ganges—Desultory Reflections on the Origins of Civilisation in Southeast Asia|journal=The Journal of Asian Studies|publisher=Association for Asian Studies|volume=42|issue=1|pages=13–28|doi=10.2307/2055365|jstor=2055365|s2cid=161697583 }}
* {{citation|last=Zoetmulder|first=P. J.|title=Old Javanese-English Dictionary|year=1982|url=http://sealang.net/ojed/}}

==Further reading==
* Language variation: Papers on variation and change in the Sinosphere and in the Indosphere in honour of James A. Matisoff, David Bradley, Randy J. LaPolla and Boyd Michailovsky eds., pp. 113–144. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
* {{citation|author=Bijan Raj Chatterjee|title=Indian Cultural Influence in Cambodia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jLZAAAAAMAAJ|year=1964|publisher=University of Calcutta}}
* {{citation|last=Cœdès|first= George|author-link= George Cœdès|editor= Walter F. Vella|others= trans. Susan Brown Cowing|title= The Indianized States of Southeast Asia|year= 1968|publisher= University of Hawaii Press|isbn= 978-0-8248-0368-1}}
* Lokesh, Chandra, & International Academy of Indian Culture. (2000). Society and culture of Southeast Asia: Continuities and changes. New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture and Aditya Prakashan.
* R. C. Majumdar, Study of Sanskrit in South-East Asia
* [[R. C. Majumdar]], ''India and South-East Asia'', I.S.P.Q.S. History and Archaeology Series Vol. 6, 1979, {{ISBN|81-7018-046-5}}.
* R. C. Majumdar, ''Champa'', ''Ancient Indian Colonies in the Far East'', Vol.I, Lahore, 1927. {{ISBN|0-8364-2802-1}}
* R. C. Majumdar, ''Suvarnadvipa'', ''Ancient Indian Colonies in the Far East'', Vol.II, Calcutta,
* R. C. Majumdar, ''Kambuja Desa or an Ancient Hindu Colony in Cambodia'', Madras, 1944
* {{citation|author=Daigorō Chihara|title=Hindu-Buddhist Architecture in Southeast Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wiUTOanLClcC|year=1996|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-10512-6}}
* Hoadley, M. C. (1991). Sanskritic continuity in Southeast Asia: The ṣaḍātatāyī and aṣṭacora in Javanese law. Delhi: Aditya Prakashan.
* [[The Golden Road: How Ancient India Transformed the World]]

==External links==
{{Commons category-inline}}
* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20071120043520/http://www.questhimalaya.com/journal/turin-tibeto-burman-02.htm Rethinking Tibeto-Burman – Lessons from Indosphere]}} (archived 20 November 2007)
* [http://www.oeaw.ac.at/sozant/files/working_papers/suedostasien/soa001.pdf THEORIES OF INDIANISATION] Exemplified by Selected Case Studies from Indonesia (Insular Southeast Asia), by Dr. Helmut Lukas.

{{South Asian topics}}
{{Eastern world}}

[[Category:Cultural assimilation]]
[[Category:Cultural regions]]
[[Category:Country classifications]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of India]]
[[Category:Geography of India]]
[[Category:Culture of South Asia]]
[[Category:Culture of Southeast Asia]]
[[Category:Historical regions of Asia]]
[[Category:Indosphere]]

Kappa pappadam

2026-01-20T21:11:09Z

Ankitchadha: creating new data w/ infobox...

{{Short description|Snack from Kerala, India}}
{{Orphan|date=January 2026}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2019}}
{{Infobox food|name=Kappa Pappadam|image=[[File:Kappa pappadam 01.jpg|P 20161008 144443 HDR]]|caption=|alternate_name=Maracheni/Cheeni Pappadam/Appalam, Cassava Papad|country=[[South India]]|region=[[Kerala]], [[Tamil Nadu]]|creator=|course=|served=|main_ingredient=[[Tapioca]]|variations=|calories=|other=}}

'''Kappa pappadam''' is a variety of [[Papadum]], from the South Indian state of [[Kerala]]. It derives its name from its main ingredient [[Tapioca]], which is known as "kappa" in [[Malayalam]].<ref>{{citation |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/food/recipe/2020/06/03/crispy-kappa-pappadam-recipe.html |title=Crispy Kappa Pappadam |publisher=Manorama Online |date=3 June 2020 |access-date=8 April 2024}}</ref>

==Ingredients and preparation==
The key ingredient, [[tapioca]], is spiced with [[red chili]], peppers, salt, [[cumin]] and [[asafoetida]]. The red chili is responsible for the characteristic brownish-orange color of kappa pappadam. Some variants appear white in color owing to the replacement of red chili with [[green chili]].

The tapioca is diced and ground with chili, pepper, cumin and water to form a fine paste. This paste is further boiled with salt, asafoetida, coconut oil and more water till it thickens.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://cookwith.whiskaffair.com/kappa-pappadam-tapioca-papad/|title=Kappa Pappadam Recipe, How to make Kappa Pappadam or Tapioca Papad - Cook with Whiskaffair|date=2016-07-12|newspaper=Cook with Whiskaffair|language=en-US|access-date=2016-10-08|archive-date=17 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160717181246/http://cookwith.whiskaffair.com/kappa-pappadam-tapioca-papad/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

It is then spread out in circles on a cheesecloth or plastic sheet and is allowed to dry in the sun. Traditionally, a straw mat was used to dry the pappadams. After a few hours the pappadams are peeled and the sides reversed. After 2–3 days of good sunlight, the pappadams become crisp, indicating that they are ready to be fried.

The dried pappadams are then deep fried in oil and served. For those who wish to refrain from deep fried dishes, the pappadams can be coated with minimal oil and microwaved for one minute.

==Storage==
Once completely dried, the pappadams can to stored in an airtight container for over a year. Their long shelf life implies that these pappadams are produced in bulk in summer and are utilized for the rest of the year. The pappadams are also sold as packages containing 50-100 pieces/pack.

==Regional variants and miscellany==
Kappa pappadam is usually served as a snack or as an accompaniment to a rice based meal.

Maracheeni Appalam is a variant of Kappa pappadam that is more popular in the South Indian state of [[Tamil Nadu]].{{citation needed|date=December 2019}} Some variants contain rice in addition to the tapioca as the main ingredient.{{citation needed|date=December 2019}}

A 2017 film starring [[Fahadh Faasil|Fahadh Fazil]] is titled ''Kappa Pappadam'', a reference to the snack and its culture.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.indiaglitz.com/fahad-in-kappa-pappadam-malayalam-news-100228.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211018024040/https://www.indiaglitz.com/fahad-in-kappa-pappadam-malayalam-news-100228.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=18 October 2021|title=IndiaGlitz - Fahad in Kappa Pappadam - Malayalam Movie News|access-date=2016-10-08}}</ref><ref>{{citation |url=https://www.filmibeat.com/malayalam/movies/kappa-pappadam.html#cast |title=Kappa Pappadam |publisher=FilmiBeat |date=1 November 2021 |access-date=8 April 2024}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Indian snack foods]]
[[Category:Flatbreads]]
[[Category:Kerala cuisine]]

Mahipatram Rupram Nilkanth

2026-01-19T17:23:13Z

Ankitchadha: started

{{Short description|Gujarati educationist and biographer (1829–1891)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2018}}
{{Infobox writer
| name = Mahipatram Rupram Nilkanth
| embed =
| honorific_prefix = [[Rai Sahib|Rao Saheb]]
| honorific_suffix = [[Order of the Indian Empire|CIE]]
| image = Mahipatram Rupram Nilkanth.jpg
| image_size =
| image_upright =
| alt =
| caption =
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| pseudonym =
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| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1829|12|03}}
| birth_place = [[Surat]], [[British India]]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|1891|05|30|1829|12|03}}
| death_place = [[Ahmedabad]]
| resting_place =
| occupation = Educationist, reformer, novelist and biographer
| language = [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]
| residence =
| nationality =
| citizenship =
| education =
| alma_mater =
| period =
| genre = 
| subject = 
| movement =
| notableworks = ''Englandni Musafarinu Varnan'' (1862)
| spouse = Parvatikunwar
| partner =
| children = [[Ramanbhai Nilkanth]]
| relatives = [[Pico Iyer]] (great-great-great grandson)
| awards =
| signature =
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| years_active =
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| website = {{URL|http://mahipatram.org/}}{{dead link|date=June 2022}}
| portaldisp = 
}}
'''Mahipatram Rupram Nilkanth''' was a [[Gujarati people|Gujarati]] educationist, reformer, novelist and biographer from 19th-century India.

==Life==
He was born in [[Surat]] on 3 December 1829 to Vadnagara Nagar Brahmin family of Rupram Nilkanth and Girijagauri. He lost his mother when he was one and half years old. He was engaged, when four years old, to three years old girl Parvatikunwar. He completed elementary education of local 'village school' in Gopipura, [[Surat]] known as Pranshankar Mehtaji's school. Later he joined Government English school. During his school days, he was influenced by his teachers and reformers [[Durgaram Mehta]] and [[Dadoba Pandurang]], brother of [[Atmaram Pandurang]] who founded [[Prarthana Samaj]]. He also attended weekly meetings of [[Manav Dharma Sabha]] run by them.<ref name="Raval2002"/><ref name="GSP"/>

Later he joined his alma mater as an associated teacher in 1851. In 1852, he joined Highschool department of [[Elphinstone College|Elphinstone Institute]], [[Bombay]] and was appointed an assistant teacher in 1854. He was closely associated with reformist organisations; Gyan Prasarak Sabha and Buddhivardhak Sabha in Bombay. He was later appointed an acting headmaster at the Ahmedabad High School in 1857 and later made a deputy education inspector there. In 1859, he was appointed a member of school textbooks committee, the textbooks known by [[Theodore Hope|T. C. Hope]]'s name as ''Hope Series'', and was sent to [[England]] on 27 March 1860 to experience training colleges by Education Department. After returning on 13 April 1861, he served as a principal of P. R. Training College in Ahmedabad until his retirement. He was excommunicated from community for twelve years by his Nagar Brahmin community for crossing the sea. He was not even allowed to perform last rites of his father. He had to seek compromise and went to several rituals to enter his community again.<ref name="Raval2002">{{cite book|url=http://www.dli.ernet.in/handle/2015/5396|title=Mahipatram|author=Raval|first=R. L.|publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]]|year=2002|isbn=978-81-260-1265-7|location=Mumbai|pages=1–64}}{{Dead link|date=March 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name="GSP">{{cite web | title=મહીપતરામ નીલકંઠ (Mahipatram Nilkanth) | website=[[Gujarati Sahitya Parishad]] | url=http://gujaratisahityaparishad.com/prakashan/sarjako/savishesh/Savishesh-Mahipatram-Nilkanth.html | language=gu | accessdate=20 February 2017 | archive-date=9 November 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161109070146/http://www.gujaratisahityaparishad.com/prakashan/sarjako/savishesh/Savishesh-Mahipatram-Nilkanth.html | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="John 2013">{{cite web | last=John | first=Paul | title=Mahipatram crossed the seas and paid the price | website=The Times of India | date=25 November 2013 | url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/Mahipatram-crossed-the-seas-and-paid-the-price/articleshow/26330658.cms | accessdate=20 February 2017 | archive-date=28 April 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170428220426/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/Mahipatram-crossed-the-seas-and-paid-the-price/articleshow/26330658.cms | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Johnb 2013">{{cite web | last=John | first=Paul | title=The itchy feet gene | website=The Times of India | date=8 December 2013 | url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/sunday-times/The-itchy-feet-gene/articleshow/27052365.cms | accessdate=20 February 2017 | archive-date=27 August 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170827102314/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/sunday-times/The-itchy-feet-gene/articleshow/27052365.cms | url-status=live }}</ref>

He had edited ''Parhejdar'' magazine in 1850 and also edited educational monthly ''Gujarat Shala Patra'' (1862–78, 1887–91). He was an incharge of reformist weekly ''Satyaprakash'' for ten months in 1857.<ref name="Raval2002"/> In 1885, he was awarded Rao Saheb and [[Order of the Indian Empire|Companions of the Order of the Indian Empire]] (CIE) by the British government. He was associated with Ahmedabad [[Prarthana Samaj]] and [[Gujarat Vernacular Society]] as well several other organisations seeking social reforms like widow remarriage, prohibition of child marriage. He had also served as commissioner and chairman of [[Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation|Ahmedabad Municipality]].<ref name="Raval2002"/><ref name="GSP"/>

[[File:Mahipatram Rupram Ashram.jpg|thumb|Mahipatram Rupram Ashram, founded in 1892 in Raipur area of [[Ahmedabad]], is named after him]]
He died in [[Ahmedabad]] on 30 May 1891.<ref name="GSP"/> His wife Parvatikunwar had supported and participated in his social reform activities.<ref name="John 2013"/> His son [[Ramanbhai Nilkanth]] was also writer and he also served as a mayor of Ahmedabad. An orphanage named Mahipatram Rupram Ashram was established on 17 December 1892 in Raipur, Ahmedabad in his memory which is now one of the largest and the oldest orphanages in India.<ref name="John 2013"/><ref name="Mahipatram Rupram Ashram 2017">{{cite web | title=About Us | website=Mahipatram Rupram Ashram | date=18 January 2017 | url=http://mahipatram.in/about-us.html | accessdate=20 February 2017 | archive-date=21 February 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170221005808/http://www.mahipatram.in/about-us.html | url-status=dead }}</ref> British travel writer [[Pico Iyer]] is his great-great-grandson.<ref name="Johnb 2013"/>

==Works==
He wrote the first travelogue of Gujarati literature, ''Englandni Musafarinu Varnan'' (1862) in which he had described political, social, education condition of England then as well as descriptions of some popular places in England.<ref name="Raval2002"/> ''Uttam Kapol Karsandas Mulji Charitra'' (1877) is a biography of his public figure and friend [[Karsandas Mulji]]. ''Mehtaji Durgaram Manchharam Charitra'' (1879) is a biography based on diary of [[Durgaram Mehta]]. ''Parvatikunwar Akhyan'' (1881, second edition) is biography of his wife. ''Akbarcharitra'' (1887, second edition) is his historical biography of [[Akbar]] which is mostly based on English translation of ''[[Akbarnama]]''.<ref name="Raval2002" /><ref name="GSP"/><ref name="John 2013"/>

His initial, basic and historically important three novels of Gujarati literature are as follows: ''Sasuvahuni Ladai'' (1866) is about family life with mild humour which is considered as the first social novel in Gujarati.<ref name="Raval2002"/> ''Sadhara Jesang'' (1880) and ''Vanraj Chavdo'' (1881) are basic historical novels on [[Jayasimha Siddharaja]] and [[Vanraj Chavda]] respectively. They are chiefly based on folklores and cultural history.<ref name="GSP"/><ref name="Raval2002"/><ref>{{cite book|author=[[Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi]]|title=Gujarāta and Its Literature: A Survey from the Earliest Times|url=http://www.dli.ernet.in/handle/2015/245019|year=1935|publisher=Longmans, Green & Company, Limited|page=248}}{{Dead link|date=March 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

He collected and edited the first collection ''Vesha''s of folk theatre [[Bhavai]] as ''Bhavai Sangrah''. He wrote his wish to reestablish Bhavai in its preface. He also published a collection of ''[[Garba (dance)|Garbi]]''s. He published ''Bodhvachan'', a collection of sayings in poetic form.<ref name="GSP"/><ref name="Raval2002"/>

From 1856 onward, he wrote booklets on life-sketches of [[Christopher Columbus|Columbus]], [[Galileo Galilei]], [[Isaac Newton]] etc. He also translated work of Chamber{{who|date=February 2017}} with [[Nanabhai Haridas]]. He also wrote school textbooks; ''Gujarati Bhashanu Navu Vyakaran'' (New Grammar of Gujarati language, 1883) and ''Vyutpattiprakash'' (1889). He had also written books on education, geography, geology, science, medicine which were mostly translated works for students.<ref name="GSP"/>

==Further reading==
* {{cite book|last1=Parikh|first1=Sukumar|last2=Parikh|first2=Shailaja Kalelkar|title=Marching to a Different Beat: The Nilkanths of Gujarat|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=szpNoAEACAAJ|year=2013|publisher=Akshara Prakashan |isbn=978-93-82255-35-2}}

==References==
{{wikisource|gu:સર્જક:મહિપતરામ રૂપરામ નીલકંઠ|Mahipatram Rupram Nilkanth}}
{{reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Nilkanth, Mahipatram Rupram}}
[[Category:Gujarati-language writers]]
[[Category:1891 deaths]]
[[Category:1829 births]]
[[Category:Companions of the Order of the Indian Empire]]
[[Category:People from Surat]]
[[Category:19th-century Indian biographers]]
[[Category:19th-century Indian essayists]]
[[Category:Indian social reformers]]
[[Category:19th-century Indian educators]]
[[Category:19th-century Indian novelists]]
[[Category:Novelists from Gujarat]]
[[Category:Indian male novelists]]
[[Category:Indian historical novelists]]
[[Category:Prarthana Samaj]]
[[Category:Nilkanth family]]
[[Category:Indian male biographers]]
[[Category:Novelists from British India]]
[[Category:Essayists from British India]]
[[Category:Indian male essayists]]
[[Category:Biographers from British India]]
[[Category:People from Bombay Presidency]]

Aman Mokhade

2026-01-16T07:09:39Z

Ankitchadha: created new article

{{Short description|Indian cricketer (born 2001)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2026}}
{{Infobox cricketer
| name = Aman Mokhade
| image =
| country = India
| fullname = Aman Ravindra Mokhade
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|2001|1|16|df=yes}}
| birth_place =
| batting = Right-handed
| bowling = [[Leg spin#Legbreak|Right-arm legbreak]]
| role = Top-order batter

| club1 = [[Vidarbha cricket team|Vidarbha]]
| year1 = {{nowrap|2023/24–present}}
| columns = 3
| column1 = [[First-class cricket|FC]]
| matches1 = 13
| runs1 = 8,70
| bat avg1 = 39.54
| 100s/50s1 = 3/3
| top score1 = 183
| deliveries1 = 36
| wickets1 = 1
| bowl avg1 = 18.00
| fivefor1 = 0
| tenfor1 = 0
| best bowling1 = 1/17
| catches/stumpings1 = 14/–

| column2 = [[List A cricket|LA]]
| matches2 = 17
| runs2 = 1013
| bat avg2 = 67.53
| 100s/50s2 = 5/3
| top score2 = 150[[not out|*]]
| deliveries2 = 18
| wickets2 = 0
| bowl avg2 = -
| fivefor2 = 0
| tenfor2 = 0
| best bowling2 = -
| catches/stumpings2 = 8/–

| column3 =[[Twenty20|T20]]
| matches3 = 14
| runs3 = 306
| bat avg3 = 27.81
| 100s/50s3 = 0/3
| top score3 = 73[[not out|*]]
| deliveries3 = 24
| wickets3 = 0
| bowl avg3 = –
| fivefor3 = 0
| tenfor3 = 0
| best bowling3 = –
| catches/stumpings3 = 8/–
| date = 16 January
| year = 2026
| source = http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/1216158.html ESPNcricinfo
}}

'''Aman Mokhade''' (born 16 January 2001) is an Indian [[cricket]]er.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/1216158.html |title=Aman Mokhade |access-date=16 January 2026 |work=ESPNcricinfo}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-01-16 |title=Who Is Aman Mokhade? Vidarbha Batter Who Became The Fastest Indian To.... |url=https://news24online.com/photos/who-is-aman-mokhade-vidarbha-batter-who-became-the-fastest-indian-to-achieve-1000-list-a-runs/ |access-date=2026-01-16 |website=News24 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-01-15 |title=Aman Mokhade's rise from fringes to front row ft. chats with Karun Nair |url=https://www.espn.co.uk/cricket/story/_/id/47616205/aman-mokhade-rise-fringes-front-row-ft-chats-karun-nair |access-date=2026-01-16 |website=ESPN.com |language=en}}</ref> In December 2022, he made his [[First-class cricket|first-class]] debut against [[Jammu and Kashmir cricket team|Jammu & Kashmir]]. He made his [[List A cricket|List A]] debut for Vidarbha, against Meghalaya, in the Vijay Hazare Trophy on 23 November 2023. He made his [[Twenty20]] debut on 11 October 2022, for Vidarbha in the Syed Mushtaq Ali Trophy against Assam.

In the [[2025–26 Vijay Hazare Trophy]] equalled the record for the quickest to reach 1000 runs in List A cricket.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-01-16 |title=Aman Mokhade equals world record with stellar performance against Karnataka in Vijay Hazare Trophy |url=https://www.indiatvnews.com/sports/cricket/aman-mokhade-equals-world-record-with-stellar-performance-against-karnataka-in-vijay-hazare-trophy-2026-01-16-1026110 |access-date=2026-01-16 |website=India TV News |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Record-breaking century by Aman Mokhade sends Vidarbha into Vijay Hazare Trophy final |url=https://www.aninews.in/news/sports/cricket/record-breaking-century-by-aman-mokhade-sends-vidarbha-into-vijay-hazare-trophy-final20260116014028/ |access-date=2026-01-16 |website=ANI News |language=en}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{ESPNcricinfo|id=1216158}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mokhade, Aman}}
[[Category:2001 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian cricketers]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian sportsmen]]
[[Category:Place of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Vidarbha cricketers]]

Siliserh Lake

2026-01-06T20:01:28Z

Ankitchadha: Adding New Pg More To Come...

{{Short description|Lake in Rajasthan}}
{{Infobox body of water
| name = Siliserh Lake
| length =
| islands =
| elevation =
| shore =
| residence_time =
| volume =
| max-depth = {{convert |32|ft|abbr=on}}
| depth =
| area =
| width =
| basin_countries = India
| caption =
| catchment =
| outflow =
| inflow =
| type =
| coords = {{coord|27|31|45|N|76|31|43|E|type:waterbody|display=title,inline}}
| location = [[Alwar]], [[Rajasthan]]
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map = Rajasthan
| caption_bathymetry =
| cities =
| mapframe = yes
| extra = {{Designation list
| embed = yes
| designation1 = Ramsar
| designation1_date = 12 December 2025
| designation1_number = 2581<ref>https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/2581?__goaway_challenge=meta-refresh&__goaway_id=19dbc72e385caf52b8e37458247d33f4&__goaway_referer=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2F</ref>
}}
| image = Siliser Lake.jpg
}}

'''Siliserh Lake''' is an [[artificial lake]] situated eight miles southwest of [[Alwar]]. It covers an area of about 7km2{{Efn-la|Up to 10 square km with good monsoon|name=a}} and is flanked by dense woodland and [[Cenotaph|cenotaphs]] on its embankment.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/travel/destinations/siliserh-lake-in-rajasthan-is-the-secret-celestial-lake/as68762815.cms | title=Siliserh Lake in Rajasthan is the secret celestial lake | website=[[The Times of India]] | last1=Sengar | first1=Resham}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2015-07-04 |title=Rajasthan District Gazetteers Alwar : Ram, Maya : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.146820 |access-date=2022-04-15 |website=Internet Archive |ref={{sfnref | Internet Archive | 2015}}}}</ref>

== History ==
The lake was built in 1845 by Maharaja Vinay Singh, the then-ruler of Alwar, by constructing an embankment on a tributary of the Ruparel River. The purpose of creating the lake was to provide water to Alwar, evidenced by the aqueducts that surround the lake. The lake is flanked by its namesake, a palace which was built by the king for his wife.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rtdc.tourism.rajasthan.gov.in/Client/HotelDetails.aspx?HotelID=SiliserhLakePalace|title=Rajasthan Tourism Development Corporation|website=www.rtdc.tourism.rajasthan.gov.in}}</ref><ref name="Internet Archive 2015">{{cite web |date=2015-07-04 |title=Rajasthan District Gazetteers Alwar : Ram, Maya : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.146820 |access-date=2022-04-15 |website=Internet Archive}}</ref> The palace has since been converted to the RTDC hotel. A boating facility is available nearby.

== See also ==

* [[List of lakes of India]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist-la}}

== References ==
<references />

[[Category:Lakes of Rajasthan]]
[[Category:Artificial lakes of India]]
[[Category:Ramsar sites in India]]

B. N. Adarkar

2026-01-03T00:12:51Z

Ankitchadha: basic enhance citations based on references and improved wording to improve readability

{{Short description|Governor of the Reserve Bank of India (1910–1998)}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2015}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Bhaskar Namdeo Adarkar
| image = BN Adarkar.jpg
| image_size =
| office = Governor [[Reserve Bank of India]]
| caption =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{birth date|df=yes|1910|05|18}}
| birth_place = [[Vengurla]], [[Bombay Presidency]], India
| death_date = 20 March 1988
| death_place =
| resting_place =
| resting_place_coordinates =
| residence =
| nationality = [[India]]n
| known_for = Governor, RBI; Executive Director, [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]]
| predecessor = [[L. K. Jha]]
| successor = [[Sarukkai Jagannathan]]
| education = M.A.
| alma_mater =
| occupation = Economist, Banker
| title = [[Order of the British Empire]]
| party =
| spouse =
| partner =
| children =
| signature =
| website =
| term_start = 4 May 1970
| term_end = 15 June 1970
| footnotes =
}}

'''Bhaskar Namdeo Adarkar''' {{post-nominals|country=GBR|MBE}} (18 May 1910<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.google.co.in/search?tbm=bks&hl=en&q=%22Malhotra%22+Reserve+bank+india#hl=en&q=%22Adarkar,+Bhaskar%22+who%27s+who&tbm=bks|title="Malhotra" Reserve bank india - Google Search|website=www.google.co.in}}</ref> – 20 March 1998<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://rbi.org.in/scripts/AnnualReportPublications.aspx|title=Reserve Bank of India - Annual Report|website=rbi.org.in}}</ref>) was the ninth Governor of the [[Reserve Bank of India]] from 4 May 1970 to 15 June 1970.<ref name="RBI">{{cite web
|url =http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/governors.aspx#adarkar
|title =B N Adarkar
|access-date =2008-09-15
|publisher =Reserve Bank of India| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080916083919/http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/governors.aspx| archive-date= 16 September 2008 | url-status= live}}</ref> His term was the second-shortest (42 days) after [[Amitav Ghosh (banker)|Amitav Ghosh]] who had served for only 20 days. His term was short since he was filling in as interim before S. Jaganathan took over.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/governors.aspx
|title = List of Governors
|access-date = 2006-12-08
|publisher = Reserve Bank of India| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20061230121809/http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/governors.aspx| archive-date= 30 December 2006 | url-status= live}}</ref>

==Professional career==

Unlike his predecessors who were from the [[Indian Civil Service]], Adarkar was an [[economist]] and had served in the office of the Economic Adviser of the Government of India. Prior to that he had held various important positions in the Ministry of Commerce & Industry. He was appointed a Member of the [[Order of the British Empire]] (MBE) in the [[1946 New Year Honours]].<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=37407|page=59|date=28 December 1945}}</ref> He was the Deputy Governor of the Reserve Bank before filling in as interim Governor. In March 1947 before Indian independence he was appointed by the Government of India to create a health insurance scheme for industrial workers.<ref name="ESI">[https://books.google.com/books?id=MoQa3QV5aE0C&dq=%22B.+N.+Adarkar%22&pg=PA207 Social Security and Social Obligation] Sociology for Nurses : A Textbook for Nurses and Other Medical Practitioners By C M Abraham Retrieved 23 August 2013</ref> A year later the report he submitted became the basis for the Employment State Insurance (ESI) Act of 1948.<ref name="ESI" />

==Major contributions==

During his tenure the [[Indian Rupee]] notes of denominations ₹ 2, 5, 10, and 100, commemorating the birth centenary of [[Mahatma Gandhi]] was reissued on 24 August 1970, these notes bear his signature, the earlier issue bears the signature of [[L. K. Jha]].<ref>{{cite book
| last = Jain
| first = Manik
| title = 2004 Phila India Paper Money Guide Book
| publisher = Philatelia
| year = 2004
| location = Kolkata
| pages = 19, 26, 35, and 61
}}</ref> Due to his short interim term his signature does not appear on any other Indian rupee notes. Due to their relative rarity, banknotes bearing his signature<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.news18.com/news/business/new-rs-500-and-rs-2000-notes-a-visual-history-of-rbi-governors-signatures-on-indian-currency-notes-1310715.html|title= RBI Governors' Signatures on Indian Banknotes| work= News 18 | access-date=2019-06-26}}</ref> are sold at a huge premium in grey market.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://goldencollection.co.in/5-rupees-note-b-n-adarkar-1970-price-value-buyer-phone-number/|title= 5 Rupee Bank Note B N Adarkar| work= Golden Collection | access-date=2019-06-23}}</ref> A five rupee banknote signed by him sells at rupees 300 to 500.{{fact|date=June 2019}}

In March 1947, before India's independence, Adarkar had submitted a report to Government on health insurance scheme for industrial workers. Later this report became the basis of the [[Employees' State Insurance|Employees' State Insurance Act, 1948]]. Adarkar also served as India's Executive Director at the [[International Monetary Fund]]. As Deputy Governor, RBI he was involved in the establishment of the [[National Institute of Bank Management]].{{fact|date=June 2019}}

==References==

{{reflist}}

{{Governors of Reserve Bank of India}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Adarkar, B N}}
[[Category:Governors of the Reserve Bank of India]]
[[Category:Indian bankers]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian civil servants]]
[[Category:Members of the Order of the British Empire]]
[[Category:1910 births]]
[[Category:1998 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian economists]]

K. Sudhakar (politician)

2026-01-02T15:20:47Z

Ankitchadha: reworked section after review and added references

{{short description|Member of the Legislative Assembly, Chikkaballapur}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = K. Sudhakar
| honorific_prefix =
| image = K. Sudhakar (politician) 1.jpg
| image_size = 150px
| caption = Sudhakar in 2021
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1973|06|27|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Chikkaballapura]], [[Karnataka]], India
| office = [[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha]]
| term_start = 4 June 2024
| term_end =
| predecessor = [[B. N. Bache Gowda]]
| successor =
| constituency = [[Chikballapur (Lok Sabha constituency)|Chikballapur]]
| office2 = [[Cabinet Minister]] [[Government of Karnataka]]
| term_start2 = 6 February 2020
| term_end2 = 13 May 2023
| 1blankname2 = {{centre|Ministry}}
| 1namedata2 = {{centre|'''Term'''}}
| 2blankname2 = Minister of Health & Family Welfare
| 2namedata2 = 12 October 2020 - 13 May 2023
| 3blankname2 = Minister of Medical Education
| 3namedata2 = 6 February 2020 - 13 May 2023
| residence = [[Sadashivanagar, Bangalore]]
| death_date =
| death_place =
| office3 = Member of [[Karnataka Legislative Assembly]]
| term_start3 = 2013
| term_end3 = 2023
| constituency3 = [[Chikballapur (Vidhana Sabha constituency)|Chikballapur]]
| predecessor3 = K. P. Bache Gowda
| successor3 = Pradeep Eshwar
| office4 = Minister in-charge of Chikkaballapur District
| term_start4 = April 2020
| term_end4 = May 2023
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata party]] {{small|(2019–present)}}
| otherparty = [[Indian National Congress]] {{small|(2013–2019)}}
| spouse = Preethi
| children = 3
| website =
| footnotes =
| year =
| education = [[Sri Siddhartha Medical College]] ([[M.B.B.S]])
}}

'''Keshavareddy Sudhakar''' is an Indian politician and also he was Ex-Minister of Medical Education and Health of Karnataka from 6 February 2020 to 13 May 2023. He was elected to the [[Karnataka Legislative Assembly]] from [[Chikkaballapur (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Chikkaballapur]] in the [[2018 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] as a member of the [[Indian National Congress]] and later was re-elected to the house in 2019 as a member of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://myneta.info/karnatka2008/candidate.php?candidate_id=691|title=PRATAP GOUDA PATIL(Bharatiya Janata Party(BJP)):Constituency- Maski(RAICHUR) - Affidavit Information of Candidate|website=myneta.info|access-date=2020-04-13}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.oneindia.com/india/karnataka-election-results-2018-full-list-of-winners-bjp-congress-jds-2696524.html|title=Karnataka MLA's List 2018: Full List of Winners From BJP, Congress, JDS and More|last=Madhuri|date=2018-05-15|website=www.oneindia.com|language=en|access-date=2020-04-13}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/disqualified-karnataka-mlas-barring-roshan-baig-join-bjp/articleshow/72051891.cms|title=Disqualified Karnataka MLAs, barring Roshan Baig, join BJP|date=2019-11-14|work=The Economic Times|access-date=2020-04-13}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.freepressjournal.in/india/rebel-karnataka-mlas-barring-roshan-baig-to-join-bjp-after-sc-allows-them-to-contest-bypolls|title=Rebel Karnataka MLAs barring Roshan Baig to join BJP after SC allows them to contest bypolls|website=Free Press Journal|language=en|access-date=2020-04-13}}</ref> He also contested [[2023 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] in [[Chikballapur (Vidhana Sabha constituency)|Chikballapur]] from BJP but lost to INC candidate [[Pradeep Eshwar]]. In March 2024, he was announced as the BJP candidate from the [[Chikballapur Lok Sabha constituency|Chikballapur Constituency]] for the [[2024 Indian general election|2024 Lok Sabha Elections]]. He was elected to the [[Lok Sabha]] from [[Chikkaballapur Lok Sabha constituency|Chikkaballapur]] in the [[18th Lok Sabha]] as a member of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fifth-list-bjp-candidates-ensuing-general-elections-2024-parliamentary-constituencies |url=https://www.bjp.org/pressreleases/fifth-list-bjp-candidates-ensuing-general-elections-2024-parliamentary-constituencies |access-date=25 March 2024}}</ref>

He was the youngest cabinet minister in the [[Fourth B. S. Yeddyurappa ministry]] being only 46 years old at the time of taking charge, serving as the Minister of Medical education from Health and Family Welfare Department. He was again sworn-in as a minister in the [[Basavaraj Bommai ministry]].

During the [[COVID-19 pandemic in Karnataka]] he was part of the COVID-19 Response team for Karnataka along with Chief Minister [[B. S. Yeddyurappa]] and Minister of Health and Family Welfare [[B. Sriramulu]] and few others. He was key participant of key policy making and rapid response to the pandemic.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/karnataka-government-forms-rapid-response-teams-to-contain-coronavirus-11583316625193.html|title = Karnataka government forms rapid response teams to contain coronavirus|date = 4 March 2020}}</ref><ref name="Doctors {{!}} Healthy corps">{{cite news|last1=India Today|title=Doctors {{!}} Healthy corps|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/cover-story/18th-lok-sabha-the-debutants/story/20240722-doctors-healthy-corps-2565856-2024-07-13|accessdate=9 November 2024|date=13 July 2024|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20241109153202/https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/cover-story/18th-lok-sabha-the-debutants/story/20240722-doctors-healthy-corps-2565856-2024-07-13|archivedate=9 November 2024|language=en}}</ref>

==Controversies==
===Operation Kamala===
{{Main|Operation Kamala|Operation Kamala in Karnataka}}
{{#section:Operation Kamala|lead section}}

He was one of the 15 MLAs who fell in Operation Kamala and resigned in July 2019, effectively bringing down the [[H. D. Kumaraswamy]]-led coalition government of [[Indian National Congress]] and [[Janata Dal (Secular)]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/galleries/nation/2019/jul/24/the-15-mlas-who-brought-down-kumaraswamy-government-102416.html|title=The 15 MLAs who brought down Kumaraswamy government|newspaper=[[The New Indian Express]]|access-date=28 July 2019}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|group=note}}
{{reflist}}

{{Commons category}}

{{Bharatiya Janata Party}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sudhakar, K.}}
[[Category:1979 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Karnataka MLAs 2013–2018]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Karnataka]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Karnataka]]
[[Category:People from Chikkaballapur]]
[[Category:Karnataka MLAs 2018–2023]]
[[Category:India MPs 2024–2029]]

Ram Kumar Yadav (Indian politician)

2025-12-14T15:18:03Z

Ankitchadha: New New Biography

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2025}}
'''Ram Kumar Yadav''' (born 1979)<ref name=":0" /> is an Indian politician from [[Chhattisgarh]]. He is an MLA from [[Chandrapur, Chhattisgarh Assembly constituency|Chandrapur Assembly constituency]] in [[Sakti district]]. He won the [[2023 Chhattisgarh Legislative Assembly election]] representing the Indian National Congress.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chandrapur Election Results 2023: Congress' Ram Kumar Yadav Won |url=https://zeenews.india.com/india/chandrapur-election-results-2023-live-updates-congress-ram-kumar-yadav-vs-bjp-s-sanyogita-singh-judev-2694483.html |access-date=2024-10-25 |website=Zee News |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=रायपुर |first=रवि मिरी |date=2022-06-04 |title=Chhattisgarh News: चरवाहा बना विधायक, जानिए- टायर से बनी चप्पल पहनने वाले MLA की दिलचस्प कहानी |url=https://www.abplive.com/states/chhattisgarh/chhattisgarh-news-interesting-story-of-mla-ram-kumar-yadav-who-faced-many-problem-in-life-ann-2138774 |access-date=2024-10-25 |website=www.abplive.com |language=hi}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
Yadav is from Chandrapur, Sakti district, Chhattisgarh. He is the son of Cholal Yadav. He passed Class 8 at Pre Secondary School, [[Bhilai Charoda|Charoda]] in 1994 and later discontinued his studies. He used to work as a daily wage labourer.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Ram Kumar Yadav(Indian National Congress(INC)):Constituency- CHANDRAPUR(JANJGIR-CHAMPA) - Affidavit Information of Candidate |url=https://myneta.info/chhattisgarh2018/candidate.php?candidate_id=2037 |access-date=2024-10-25 |website=myneta.info}}</ref>

== Career ==
Yadav won from Chandrapur Assembly constituency representing [[Indian National Congress]] in 2023 Chhattisgarh Legislative Assembly election. He polled 85,525 votes and defeated his nearest rival, Bahu Rani Sanyogita Singh Judev of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]], by a margin of 15,976 votes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ramkumar Yadav, INC Candidate from Chandrapur Assembly Election 2024 Seat: Electoral History & Political Journey, Winning or Losing - News18 Assembly Election 2024 Result News |url=https://www.news18.com/elections/assembly/chhattisgarh/ramkumar-yadav-s26aed2008a036e2023c002/ |access-date=2024-10-25 |website=www.news18.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-03 |title=Chandrapur Election Result 2023 LIVE Updates and Highlights: Winner, Loser, Leading, Trailing, MLA, Margin |url=https://www.news18.com/elections/chandrapur-election-result-2023-live-updates-and-highlights-winner-loser-leading-trailing-mla-margin-8688285.html |access-date=2024-10-25 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Yadav, Ram Kumar}}
[[Category:1979 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Chhattisgarh]]
[[Category:Chhattisgarh MLAs 2023–2028]]
[[Category:People from Sakti district]]
[[Category:Chhattisgarh MLAs 2018–2023]]

{{Chhattisgarh-INC-politician-stub}}

Y.A.R.O. Ka Tashan

2025-12-10T13:03:53Z

Ankitchadha: Adding Basic Entry More To Come

{{Short description|Indian sitcom series}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2016}}
{{Additional citations|date=May 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2016}}
{{Infobox television
| image =
| genre = [[Comedy]] [[Drama]] [[Science fiction]]
| creator = [[Vipul D. Shah]] Amit Aryan
| writer = [[Vipul D. Shah]] Amit Aryan
| director = [[Dheeraj Kumar]]
| creative_director = Shashank Srivastava
| presenter =
| starring = [[#Cast|See below]]
| judges =
| theme_music_composer = Yashraj-Ajay
| opentheme = ''Yaro Ka Tashan Hai''
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| num_seasons = 2
| num_episodes = 216
| producer =
| location = [[Mumbai]], [[India]]
| cinematography =
| camera = [[Multi-camera]]
| runtime = 19 minutes
| network = [[Sony SAB]]
| company = Optimystix Entertainment [[Creative Eye Limited]]
| first_aired = {{Start date|df=y|2016|07|26}}
| last_aired = {{End date|df=y|2017|05|22}}
}}

'''''Y.A.R.O. Ka Tashan''''' ({{Translation|''Friend's style''}}) is an Indian comedy and drama television series that aired from 26 July 2016 on [[Sony SAB|SAB TV]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/yaro-ka-tashan-is-moving-towards-its-end/articleshow/58729698.cms|title=YARO ka Tashan is moving towards its end|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=May 18, 2017}}</ref>
It starred [[Aniruddh Dave]], [[Rakesh Bedi]], Malini Kapoor and Mahira Sharma.<ref name="Y.A.R.O. the humanoid is set to entertain viewers with his robotic antics">{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/Y-A-R-O-the-humanoid-is-set-to-entertain-viewers-with-his-robotic-antics/articleshow/53079120.cms|title=Y.A.R.O. the humanoid is set to entertain viewers with his robotic antics|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|date=7 July 2016|access-date=8 July 2016}}</ref>

==Plot==
The story of the series is about Professor Govardhan Agrawal ([[Rakesh Bedi]]) and his wife Beena Agrawal ([[Malini Kapoor]]) who consider Y.A.R.O. (Young Assembled Robotic Object) as their own son and programmed him to behave like a 6-year-old human but later 15 and 21 year old human.<ref name="Y.A.R.O. the humanoid is set to entertain viewers with his robotic antics"/> In the first episode, Professor Govardhan Agrawal is happily married to Beena. However, the couple does not have a child despite many years of marriage. Professor Agrawal creates a humanoid and names it Y.A.R.O. Professor and his wife treat Y.A.R.O. as their own son and show love and affection to him. Three goons plan to kidnap Mr. Raju’s son. Y.A.R.O. comes to the rescue of the child and saves him from the kidnappers. On the other hand, Amar and Prem come to the office of Cool Advertising. Yaro makes a call to the police and informs them that a child has been kidnapped from his family. Y.A.R.O. learns that Chaturvedi is getting late for his office. Yaro hits Chaturvedi’s scooter with full force which helps him reach the office in time. Dolly meets Yaro and suggests him to not cause any trouble to Chaturvedi in the future. Beena thanks Yaro for cleaning her house.

In episode 4, Y.A.R.O. welcomes his new tenants Amar, Prem and Shilpy to his house. He also extends his hand of friendship to them. However, the trio gets terrified to see Y.A.R.O.'s superhuman capabilities and avoid him. Later, Chaturvedi yells at Y.A.R.O.'s tenants for insulting him in their house. Dolly has fallen for Prem and she is trying hard to get his attention. On the other hand, Professor Govardhan Agrawal inserts a tracker in Y.A.R.O.'s body to keep an eye on his activities. Shilpy, Amar and Prem invite Y.A.R.O. to a party. They offer Y.A.R.O. a glass of juice which would ward off evil spirit from his body. Y.A.R.O. drinks the juice, which causes circuit damage in his body. Beena tells her tenants that Y.A.R.O. is a humanoid. Professor Govardhan decides to reboot the system of Y.A.R.O. He requests Amar and Prem to not allow Chaturvedi to enter his house. Then a new family enters the friends' colony. Thus Y.A.R.O. became the entertainment of people.

==Cast==
*[[Aniruddh Dave|Anirudh Dave]] as Young Assembled Robotic Object aka Y.A.R.O. (Bina and Govardhan Agrawal's son, Sanjana's husband, Amar, Prem, Dolly and Shilpy's friend)
*[[Shubhi Ahuja]] as Sanjana Kapoor Agrawal (Y.A.R.O's wife)
*[[Rakesh Bedi]] as Govardhan Agrawal (Y.A.R.O's father)
*[[Malini Kapoor]] as Bina Agrawal (Y.A.R.O's mother)
*[[Shoma Anand]] as Dadi Cool (Y.A.R.O's grandmother)
*Mahira Sharma as Shilpy
*Shivam Sharma/Abhishek Sharma<ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/Abhishek-Sharma-replaces-Shivam-Sharma-in-.YARO/articleshow/54294010.cms|title=Abhishek invati replaces Shivam Sharma in 'YARO'|newspaper=[[Times of India]]|date=13 September 2016}}</ref> as Amar
*Dheeraj Gumber as Prem
*Ajay Sharma as Mr. X
*Salim Zaidi as Inspector Doobey
*[[Jayshree Soni]] as Dolly
*Umesh Bajpai as Chaturvedi Chintamani
*Manish Mishraa as Puppy sir
*[[Krissann Barretto]] as Shanaya Oberoi
*[[Gopi Bhalla]] as Goga Kapoor
*[[Monica Castelino]] as Sushmita Kapoor (Shush)
*Karan Chhabra as Ranjeet
*[[Ishita Ganguly]] as Minty
*Shakeel Abbasi as Jatin Birbal
*Jazz Sodhi as Petra
*[[Shefali Rana]] as Prem's mother

==References==
{{reflist}}
==External links==
* {{IMDb title|tt10375346}}

{{SAB TV Programmes}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Y.A.R.O. Ka Tashan}}
[[Category:2016 Indian television series debuts]]
[[Category:2017 Indian television series endings]]
[[Category:Hindi-language television shows]]
[[Category:Indian drama television series]]
[[Category:Sony SAB original programming]]
[[Category:Indian science fiction television series]]
[[Category:Indian superhero television shows]]
[[Category:Androids in television]]

The Savages (Indian band)

2025-12-01T03:39:36Z

Ankitchadha: Adding Some Post W/ Infobox...

{{Short description|Indian band (active 1965–1976)}}
'''The Savages''' were an Indian band based in [[Mumbai]] who were one of the first Indian bands to play [[rock and roll]] music. Active from 1965 to 1976, The Savages became one of Mumbai's most popular bands. They are considered to have release the first Indian rock LP.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2021-09-18 |title=5 Forgotten Bands who Brought Rock’n’Roll to India - Score Short Reads - Highonscore {{!}} The Score Magazine |url=https://highonscore.com/5-forgotten-bands-who-brought-rocknroll-to-india-score-short-reads/ |access-date=2025-11-17 |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Fernandes |first=Naresh |url=http://archive.org/details/tajmahalfoxtrots0000fern |title=Taj Mahal foxtrot : the story of Bombay's jazz age |date=2012 |publisher=New Delhi : Lustre Press : Roli Books |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-81-7436-759-4}}</ref>

The Savages were one of a number of bands to spring up in India following the worldwide popularity of rock and roll, generally referred to as beat music in India. The Savages, like most Indian beat music groups, played mostly [[Cover version|covers]] of Western rock and roll songs.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Booth |first=Gregory D. |title=More than Bollywood: studies in Indian popular music |last2=Shope |first2=Bradley |date=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-992883-5 |location=Oxford New York}}</ref> They were formed in 1965 by [[Bashir Sheikh]], who was inspired to become a drummer after seeing the film [[The Gene Krupa Story|''The Gene Krupa Story'']] (1959), featuring [[Sal Mineo]] as jazz drummer [[Gene Krupa]]. He recruited guitarist Lenny Cason to form The Savages.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Bhatia |first=Sidharth |title=India psychedelic: the story of a rocking generation |date=2014 |publisher=HarperCollins Publishers India |isbn=978-93-5029-837-4 |location=Noida}}</ref> They took their name from the 1961 instrumental rock song [[The Savage (song)|"The Savage"]] by [[The Shadows]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kvetko |first=Peter |date=2025-01-02 |title=Beatlemania in Bombay |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/19472498.2024.2442820 |journal=South Asian History and Culture |language=en |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=46–56 |doi=10.1080/19472498.2024.2442820 |issn=1947-2498|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Cason soon left the band, but the band added guitarist Hemant Rao, bassist Pio Manzi, and rhythm guitarist Clifford Lee.<ref name=":2" />

The Savages won city-wide beat music competitions in 1967 and 1968. As a result, they were signed to the record label [[HMV]]. Their first single in 1967 featured two original songs: "The Girl Next Door" and "Pain," the latter written by Lee and featuring singer [[Asha Puthli]].<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> Leo and Manzi left and the band added keyboardist Prabhakar Mundkur, bass guitarist Ralph Pais, and singer Russell Pereira. They were signed by [[Polydor Records]] and released their first LP, ''The Savages Live,'' which was record in a studio with applause sounds added in later.<ref name=":2" />

Hemant Rao departed the band and was replaced by [[Remo Fernandes]], an architecture student who would go on to a long musical career after The Savages. They released an EP with Fernandes singing a cover of the [[Jose Feliciano]] song "[[Old Turkey Buzzard]]" and his own song, "Ode to the Messiah". Fernandes returned to school and the band added Barry and Joe Alvares.<ref name=":2" /> Their next album ''Black Scorpio'' (1973) has become a cult classic and a copy of it sold for $3000 on [[eBay]] in 2011.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2" />

In 1972, The Savages merged with [[Nandu Bhende]]'s band Brief Encounter to form a short-lived band called Savage Encounter.<ref name=":2" />

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Indian rock musicians]]
[[Category:Musicians from Mumbai]]

Pran

2025-11-28T17:58:29Z

Ankitchadha: updated page

{{wikt|prana}}
'''Pran''' most often refers to [[Prana|{{IAST|prāṇa}}]], the concept of a "life force" in Hindu philosophy.
{{TOC right}}

'''Pran''' may also refer to:

==People==
*[[Pran Kishore Kaul]], Kashmiri actor
*[[Pran Nath (disambiguation)]]
**[[Pran Nath (musician)]] (1918–1996), Hindustani classical singer
**[[Pran Nath (physicist)]] (born 1939), Indian-American physicist
**[[Pran Nath Lekhi]] (1924/1925–2010), Indian lawyer
**[[Pran Nath Thapar]] (1906–1975), Indian military commander
*[[Pran Nevile]] (1922–2018), Indian writer
*[[Pran Kumar Sharma]] (1938–2014), commonly known as ''Pran'', Indian cartoonist
*[[Pran (actor)]] (1920–2013), born Pran Krishan Sikand, Indian film actor
*[[Dith Pran]] (1942–2008), Cambodian photojournalist, subject of ''The Killing Fields''

==Places==
*[[Pranburi (disambiguation)]], several places in Thailand
*[[Pran Buri District]], district in Prachuap Khiri Khan Province, Thailand

==Other==
*[[PRAN-RFL Group]], a Bangladeshi food-products corporation
**[[PRAN]], largest processors of fruits and vegetables in Bangladesh
*''[[Pran of Albania]]'', 1929 novel by Elizabeth Miller

==See also==
*[[Paran (disambiguation)]]

{{disambiguation|given name}}

Jupadu Bunglow

2025-11-24T05:29:26Z

Ankitchadha: creating some entry nd citations...

{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2019}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Jupadu Bunglow
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = Village
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| mapframe = yes
| mapframe-zoom = 14
| pushpin_map = India Andhra Pradesh
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Andhra Pradesh, India
| coordinates =
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Andhra Pradesh]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = Nandyal
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| parts_type = [[Taluka]]s
| parts = Jupadu bungalow
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total =
| population_as_of =
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Telugu language|Telugu]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = 
| postal_code =
| registration_plate =
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Jupadu Bunglow''' is a village and a [[Subdivisions of India|Mandal]] in [[Nandyal district]] in the state of [[Andhra Pradesh]] in [[India]].<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/
|title=List of Sub-Districts
|publisher=Census of India
|accessdate=2007-05-17
|url-status=dead
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070514045222/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/
|archivedate=2007-05-14
}}</ref>

==Geography==
11 villages are currently under this Mandal.

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{coord|15|52|04|N|78|23|08|E|region:IN_type:city_source:kolossus-tewiki|display=title}}

[[Category:Villages in Nandyal district]]

M. T. B. Nagaraj

2025-11-17T19:29:24Z

Ankitchadha: enhanced lead after review

{{short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2019}}
{{Infobox officeholder
|name = M. T. B. Nagaraj
|image =
|office = Minister of Small Scale Industries and Municipal Administration of Karnataka
|term_start = 4 August 2021
|term_end = 13 May 2023
|predecessor = Himself
| successor = [[Sharanabassappa Darshanapur]]
|office1 = Minister of Municipal administration, Sugarcane development and directorate of Sugar from Commerce & Industries department of Karnataka
|term_start1 = 21 January 2021
|term_end1 = 26 July 2021

|office2 = [[Karnataka Legislative Assembly|Member of Legislative Assembly Karnataka]]
|term_start2 = 2018
|term_end2 = 2019
|constituency2 = Hoskote
|successor2 = [[Sharath Kumar Bache Gowda]]

|term_start3 = 2013
|term_end3 = 2018
|constituency3 = [[Hosakote Assembly constituency|Hoskote]]
|predecessor3 = [[B. N. Bache Gowda]]

|office4 = Minister of Housing [[Government of Karnataka]]
|term_start4 = December 2018
|term_end4 = July 2019

|office5 =Minister of Excise of Karnataka
|term_start5 = 21 January 2021
|term_end5 = 22 January 2021
|predecessor5 =[[H. Nagesh]]
|successor5 =[[K. Gopalaiah]]

|birth_date ={{birth date and age|1951|7|20|df=y}}
|birth_place = [[Garudacharpalya]]
|residence =
|spouse =
|children =
|alma_mater =
|party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]2019 present
|otherparty = [[Indian National Congress]] (2001 to 2019 )
|website =
}}
'''M. T. B. Nagaraj''' or '''N. Nagaraja''' (b 1952) is an Indian politician from [[Karnataka]] state and who was previously Minister of Small Scale Industries and Municipal Administration of Karnataka from 4 August 2021 to 13 May 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |title=City of Mahadevapura |url=http://www.mahadevapuracity.gov.in/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051024033545/http://www.mahadevapuracity.gov.in/ |archive-date=2005-10-24 |access-date=2025-10-24 |website=www.mahadevapuracity.gov.in}}</ref> He is a member of [[Karnataka Legislative Council]] from [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] since 2020. Also he was district incharge of [[Bangalore Rural district|Bangalore Rural]] District from 24 June 2021 to date.

He was elected to Karnataka Vidhan Sabha from [[Hosakote (Vidhan Sabha constituency)]] as a Congress candidate in 2004, 2013 and 2018. He lost in 2008. He resigned from Congress in 2019, joined BJP, and contested again from Hosakote only to be defeated by the rebel BJP candidate Sharath Gowda. But BJP got him elected to the Legislative Council in 2020.

M. T. B. Nagaraj was one of the seventeen rebel MLAs who were disqualified by Speaker Ramesh Kumar of Karnataka Assembly for anti-party activities.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/galleries/nation/2019/jul/24/the-15-mlas-who-brought-down-kumaraswamy-government-102416.html|title=The 15 MLAs who brought down Kumaraswamy government|newspaper=[[The New Indian Express]]|access-date=28 July 2019}}</ref>

N. Nagaraj has been appointed as Karnataka Food and Civil Supplies Corporation Chairman in 2016.<ref name="21 MLAs to head boards, corporations">{{cite news |date=2 November 2016 |title=21 MLAs to head boards, corporations |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/21-MLAs-to-head-boards-corporations/article16091341.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250423075123/https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/21-MLAs-to-head-boards-corporations/article16091341.ece |archive-date=23 April 2025 |access-date=23 April 2025 |publisher=The Hindu |language=en-IN}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|group=note}}
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Nagaraju, M. T. B.}}
[[Category:1952 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Karnataka]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Karnataka]]
[[Category:People from Bengaluru]]
[[Category:Karnataka MLAs 2018–2023]]
[[Category:Karnataka MLAs 2004–2007]]
[[Category:Karnataka MLAs 2013–2018]]

{{Karnataka-INC-politician-stub}}
{{Karnataka-BJP-politician-stub}}

Kaadhalan (soundtrack)

2025-10-27T16:28:48Z

Ankitchadha: redirect created

#REDIRECT [[Kaadhalan#Soundtrack]]

{{R from merge}}
{{R to section}}

Slowly Slowly (Guru Randhawa song)

2025-10-27T04:32:54Z

Ankitchadha:

{{Short description|2019 single by Guru Randhawa featuring Pitbull}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2019}}
{{Infobox song
| name = Slowly Slowly
| cover = Slowly Slowly Cover Art.jpeg
| artist = [[Guru Randhawa]] featuring [[Pitbull (rapper)|Pitbull]]
| album =
| language = {{hlist|[[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]|[[Hindi language|Hindi]]|[[English language|English]]|[[Spanish language|Spanish]]}}
| released = 19 April 2019
| genre = {{hlist|[[Electronic dance music|EDM]]|[[reggaeton]]|[[Indian pop]]|[[rap music|rap]]}}
| length = 3:25
| label = [[T-Series (company)|T-Series]]
| writer =
| composer = * [[Guru Randhawa]]
* DJ Shadow
* BlackOut
* DJ Money Willz
* Vee Music
* MKSHFT
| lyricist = * [[Guru Randhawa]]
* [[Pitbull (rapper)|Pitbull]]
| producer = [[Vee Music, Dj Shadow, DJ Money Willz, MKSHFT]]
| misc =
{{Extra chronology
| artist = Guru Randhawa
| type = single
| prev_title = Daaru Wargi
| prev_year = 2019
| title = Slowly Slowly
| year = 2019
| next_title = Ishq Tera
| next_year = 2019
}}
{{Extra chronology
| artist = Pitbull
| type = singles
| prev_title = Yayo
| prev_year = 2019
| title = Slowly Slowly
| year = 2019
| next_title = [[No Lo Trates]]
| next_year = 2019
}}
{{External music video
| {{YouTube|hGsVLXnFgbA|"Slowly Slowly"}}
| type = single
| header = Music videos
}}
| type = Single
}}
"'''Slowly Slowly'''" is a song by Indian singer-songwriter [[Guru Randhawa]] featuring American rapper [[Pitbull (rapper)|Pitbull]], released on 19 April 2019 via [[T-Series (company)|T-Series]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment/news/people/article/the-wait-is-now-over-guru-randhawas-most-anticipated-track-slowly-slowly-featuring-pitbull-is-out-now/402819|title=The wait is now over! Guru Randhawa's most anticipated track Slowly Slowly featuring Pitbull is out now {{!}} Entertainment News|website=www.timesnownews.com|date=19 April 2019 |language=en-GB|access-date=2019-04-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190419055703/https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment/news/people/article/the-wait-is-now-over-guru-randhawas-most-anticipated-track-slowly-slowly-featuring-pitbull-is-out-now/402819|archive-date=19 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thehansindia.com/cinema/bollywood/bhushan-kumar-unveils-slowly-slowly-feat-guru-randhawa-and-pitbull-522374|title=Bhushan Kumar Unveils Slowly Slowly Feat. Guru Randhawa And Pitbull|last=Service|first=Hans News|date=2019-04-19|website=www.thehansindia.com|access-date=2019-04-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190419161229/https://www.thehansindia.com/cinema/bollywood/bhushan-kumar-unveils-slowly-slowly-feat-guru-randhawa-and-pitbull-522374|archive-date=19 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Background ==
The song is a collaboration between [[Guru Randhawa]] and [[Pitbull (rapper)|Pitbull]], and is released under the [[T-Series (company)|T-Series]] label. It is [[Guru Randhawa]]'s first international collaboration. The lyrics, written by [[Guru Randhawa]] and [[Pitbull (rapper)|Pitbull]] themselves, are in [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Indian English|English]], and [[Spanish language|Spanish]]. It has been described as the "party anthem of the year" by [[T-Series (company)|T-Series]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.news18.com/news/movies/guru-randhawas-song-slowly-slowly-featuring-pitbull-is-the-new-party-anthem-2108933.html|title=Guru Randhawa's Song 'Slowly Slowly' Featuring Pitbull is the New Party Anthem|website=News18|date=19 April 2019 |access-date=2019-04-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190419161226/https://www.news18.com/news/movies/guru-randhawas-song-slowly-slowly-featuring-pitbull-is-the-new-party-anthem-2108933.html|archive-date=19 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/videos/entertainment/music/punjabi/latest-punjabi-song-slowly-slowly-sung-by-guru-randhawa-featuring-pitbull/videoshow/68949569.cms|title=Latest Punjabi Song 'Slowly Slowly' Sung By Guru Randhawa featuring Pitbull {{!}} Punjabi Video Songs - Times of India|newspaper=The Times of India|access-date=2019-04-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190422000024/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/videos/entertainment/music/punjabi/latest-punjabi-song-slowly-slowly-sung-by-guru-randhawa-featuring-pitbull/videoshow/68949569.cms|archive-date=22 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bhaskar.com/videos/bollywood/guru-randhawa-s-song-slowly-slowly-01525715.html|title=गुरु रंधावा का गाना स्लोली-स्लोली रिलीज|website=Dainik Bhaskar|language=hi|access-date=2019-04-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190419161224/https://www.bhaskar.com/videos/bollywood/guru-randhawa-s-song-slowly-slowly-01525715.html|archive-date=19 April 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref> It became popular not only due to the presence of international audience but also the fact that it was released during the time T-Series was gaining subscribers at a faster rate and going to become the most subscribed channel on YouTube.

== Credits and personnel ==
* [[Guru Randhawa]] – vocals, songwriting
* [[Pitbull (rapper)|Pitbull]] – vocals, songwriting
* DJ Shadow – music
* [[DJ BlackOut]] – music, mixing
* DJ Money Willz – music
* Vee Music – music
* MKSHFT – music
* Al Burna – mixing
* David Fuller – mastering

== Reception ==

The song marked [[Guru Randhawa]] and label [[T-Series (company)|T-Series]]' international debut. It was well received by audiences. The song's music video was watched about 38 million times on [[YouTube|YouTube India]] in its first 24 hours and the only one on the list not accompanied by an album release.<ref name="india">{{cite news|last1=Desk|first1=India com Buzz|url=https://www.india.com/buzz/punjabi-singer-guru-randhawa-grooves-to-his-latest-hit-track-slowly-slowly-as-he-celebrates-the-success-of-the-peppy-song-3636863/|title=Punjabi Singer Guru Randhawa Grooves to His Latest Hit Track 'Slowly Slowly' as he Celebrates The Success of The Peppy Song|date=20 April 2019|work=[[India.com]]|access-date=20 April 2019|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190420153144/https://www.india.com/buzz/punjabi-singer-guru-randhawa-grooves-to-his-latest-hit-track-slowly-slowly-as-he-celebrates-the-success-of-the-peppy-song-3636863/|archive-date=20 April 2019|publisher=[[Penske Media Corporation]]}}</ref> The video was watched 100 million times on [[YouTube]] in less than 14 days.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ptcpunjabi.co.in/guru-randhawas-slowly-slowly-gets-100-million-views-in-just-12-days/|title=Guru Randhawa's Slowly Slowly Gets 125 Million Views In Just 14 Days!|date=2019-05-02|website=PTC Punjabi|language=en-US|access-date=2019-05-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190502123014/https://www.ptcpunjabi.co.in/guru-randhawas-slowly-slowly-gets-100-million-views-in-just-12-days/|archive-date=2 May 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

As of October 2025, it has over 250 million views on [[YouTube]].


== References ==
{{reflist}}
{{T-Series}}
{{Pitbull songs}}

[[Category:2019 singles]]
[[Category:Bhangra (music) songs]]
[[Category:Indian pop]]
[[Category:Indian songs]]
[[Category:T-Series (company) singles]]
[[Category:Pitbull (rapper) songs]]
[[Category:Guru Randhawa songs]]
[[Category:Songs in Punjabi]]
[[Category:Songs in Spanish]]
[[Category:Macaronic songs]]
[[Category:Songs written by Pitbull (rapper)]]
[[Category:Songs written by DJ Shadow]]

Kulavruttanta

2025-10-23T11:19:54Z

Ankitchadha: General cleanup and content improvements

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2021}}
{{Short description|Indian almanac}}
{{Infobox book
| name = Kulavruttanta
| authors = Various
| title_orig = कुलवृत्तांत
| country = India
| language = [[Marathi language|Marathi]]
| genre = [[Nobility]], [[heraldry]], [[genealogy]]
| media_type = [[Almanac]], [[biographical dictionary]]
| subject = {{unbulleted list|[[Chitpavan]] [[Brahmin]]s|[[Maratha]]s|[[Nobility]] from the [[Maratha Empire]]}}
| image = Genealogy-page of a Kulavruttanta book titled 'Kolhatkar Kula Vrittanta' (September 1936, Pune) by Balkrishna Sridhar.jpg
| caption = Genealogy-page of a Kulavruttanta book titled 'Kolhatkar Kula Vrittanta' (September 1936, Pune) by Balkrishna Sridhar
}}

A '''Kulavruttanta''' or a '''Kul-vrttant''' ({{langx|mr|कुलवृत्तांत}}; [[IAST]]: Kula-vr̥ttānta; {{translation|literal=yes|''family report''}}), is a [[genealogy|genealogical]] [[almanac]] and [[biographical dictionary]], a format of genealogical [[record keeping]] predominantly found in the Indian state of [[Maharashtra]].

== History ==

Kulavruttantas are categorically published by [[family name]], or [[surname]],<ref name="Sardesai">{{cite book |last1=Sardesai |first1=G. S. |author-link=Govind Sakharam Sardesai |title=Historical Genealogies |date=1957 |location=[[Bombay]]}}</ref> and are usually in [[Marathi language|Marathi]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Marāṭhī granthasūcī: 1971–1978 |date=1943 |publisher=Rājya Marāṭhī Vikāsa Sãsthā |isbn=978-81-87889-06-9 |page=503 |language=mr}}</ref> They usually document various aspects of that particular family's history, heraldry, the etymology of their name, ancestral land holdings, migration maps, and religious traditions.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Structure and change in Indian society|date=2007|publisher=AldineTransaction|others=Milton B. Singer, Bernard S. Cohn|isbn=978-0-202-36138-3|location=New Brunswick, N.J.|oclc=155122029}}</ref> The genealogical charts are usually sectioned based on each ''gharana'', or branch, of the family; these are then followed by biographies of individuals within those gharanas; and followed finally by indices of births, deaths and marriages within the family.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Chitpavan Brahmins, a history|journal=JSPUI|publisher=[[Pune University]]|pages=12}}</ref>

Kulavruttantas have been historically attributed to the genealogical history of [[Chitpavan]] [[brahmin]]s.<ref name="Sardesai" /> The [[Bhat family]], during their rule of the [[Maratha confederacy]], are usually credited for commissioning surveys and censuses of Chitpavan brahmin households, recorded on [[parchment|paper or cloth]] [[scroll]]s.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Divekar |first1=Mahadevshastri |title=Chitpavan Brahmins |date=1927 |page=17 |volume=5 |language=mr |chapter=Brahman}}</ref> These scrolls are generally used as the references of the historical and genealogical data for the compilation of these almanacs.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Chitpavan Brahmins, a history|journal=JSPUI|publisher=[[Pune University]]|pages=22}}</ref> Beginning with the publication of the Kulavruttanta of the [[Apte]] family in 1915,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Chitpavan Brahmins, a history|journal=JSPUI|publisher=[[Pune University]]|pages=23}}</ref> throughout most of the 20th century, several other Chitpavan families have gone on to commission or publish their own versions.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Structure and change in Indian society|date=2007|publisher=AldineTransaction|others=Milton B. Singer, Bernard S. Cohn|isbn=978-0-202-36138-3|location=New Brunswick, N.J.|oclc=155122029}}</ref> Historian and biographer [[Sadashiv Ranade]] has notably authored several of these.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sāṭhe |first1=Śarada Keśava |title=Marāṭhī granthasūcī: 1963-1970 |date=2001 |publisher=Rājya Marāṭhī Vikāsa Sãsthā |isbn=978-81-87889-06-9 |page=51 |language=mr}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Marāṭhī granthasūcī: 1971-1978 |date=1943 |publisher=Rājya Marāṭhī Vikāsa Sãsthā |isbn=978-81-87889-06-9 |page=503 |language=mr}}</ref>

In the 21st century, Kulavruttants have also been adopted by several other communities as a means of documenting their genealogical data, most notably the [[Maratha]] community.<ref>{{cite news |title=सातपाटील कुलवृत्तांत – रंगनाथ पठारे |url=https://www.lokmat.com/manthan/veteran-witer-rangnath-pathare-expresses-process-bout-his-new-book-satpatil-kulvruttant/ |work=[[Lokmat]] |date=27 October 2019 |language=mr-IN}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Rajeshirke Gharanyacha Kulvruttant – राजेशिर्के घराण्याचा कुलवृत्तांत|url=https://sahyadribooks.com/rajeshirke-gharanyacha-kulvruttant/ |website=Sahyadri Books |publisher=Shivaji Shirke |access-date=18 August 2021}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[List of biographical dictionaries]]
* [[Hindu genealogy registers at Haridwar]]
* ''[[Almanach de Gotha]]''
* ''[[Burke's Landed Gentry]]''
* ''[[Debrett's]] Peerage & Baronetage''
* ''[[Social Register]]''
* ''[[Carnet Mondain]]''
* ''[[Libro d'Oro (disambiguation)|Libro d'Oro]]''

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{Official website|url=https://www.worldcat.org/search?q=Kula-vr%CC%A5tta%CC%84nta&fq=&dblist=638&start=1&qt=page_number_link|name=List of Chitpavan brahmin Kulavruttantas}} at [[WorldCat]]
{{Portal bar|India|Asia|History}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kulavruttanta}}
[[Category:Family history]]
[[Category:Genealogy publications]]
[[Category:Literature on heraldry]]
[[Category:Book series]]
[[Category:Books about social history]]
[[Category:History books about India]]
[[Category:History books about ethnic groups]]
[[Category:Books about families]]