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Rolf Schoembs Vidyashram

2026-05-06T05:44:38Z

Androidsub143: new info.

{{orphan|date=May 2026}}
{{Orphan|date=February 2026}}
{{Infobox school
| name = Rolf Schoembs Vidyashram
| image = File:Saikat_Surai,_Sarthak_Banerjee_and_Biswarup_Ganguly,_find_out_more_information_about_the_neighbourhood_of_the_RSV_Ashram,_Ghosaldanga,_Bolpur,_West_Bengal._December_5,_2024._02.jpg
| caption = Rolf Schoembs Vidyashram (RSV)
| location = Ghosaldanga, Bolpur-Sriniketan, Birbhum district, West Bengal, India
| country = India
| type = Primary / non-formal school
| established = 1996
| founder = Ghosaldanga Bishnubati Adibasi Seva Sangha
| grades = Primary level
| gender = Coeducational
| language = [[Santali language|Santali]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[English language|English]]
| website =
}}

'''Rolf Schoembs Vidyashram''' (commonly known as '''RSV''') is a non-formal primary school located in [[Ghoksadanga|Ghosaldanga]], near Bishnubati village in the Bolpur-Sriniketan area of [[Birbhum district]], [[West Bengal]], India. It was founded in 1996 by the [[Ghosaldanga Bishnubati Adibasi Seva Sangha]] with financial support from Rolf Schoembs, a German friend of the [[Santal people|Santal]] community.<ref name="DandC2024">{{cite web |title=Grassroots pre-school education in two Adivasi villages |url=https://www.dandc.eu/en/article/marginalised-communities-especially-benefit-good-pre-school-facilities-example-india |publisher=D+C Development and Cooperation |date=2 February 2024 |access-date=7 November 2025}}</ref> The school was established to provide culturally relevant education for Santal children and to promote learning through their mother tongue, [[Santali language|Santali]].<ref name="AlJazeera2020">{{cite web |title=The Indian school where Indigenous children are 'never outsiders' |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2020/2/10/the-indian-school-where-indigenous-children-are-never-outsiders |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=10 February 2020 |access-date=7 November 2025}}</ref>

== History ==
Before RSV was founded, local volunteers had started informal education programs for Santal children who often struggled in Bengali-medium [[State school|government schools]].<ref name="IndianExpress2022">{{cite news |title=In their own language: A school in West Bengal's Birbhum for Santal children |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/kolkata/in-their-own-language-a-school-in-west-bengals-birbhum-for-santal-children-7843955/ |work=The Indian Express |date=31 March 2022 |access-date=7 November 2025}}</ref> In 1996, with help from [[Germans|German]] donors and local teachers, these initiatives grew into a full primary school named after [[Rolf Schoembs]], who supported the project financially and morally.<ref name="Dorfentwicklung">{{cite web |title=Elementary School RSV – Ghosaldanga |url=https://www.dorfentwicklung-indien.de/en/village-work/bildungsarbeit/elementary-school-rsv/ |publisher=Dorfentwicklung Indien |access-date=7 November 2025}}</ref>

== Education and campus ==
The [[Philosophy of education|educational philosophy]] of Rolf Schoembs Vidyashram emphasizes mother-tongue instruction, community involvement, and respect for [[Santal people|Santal]] culture.<ref name="AlJazeera2020" /> Classes are taught primarily in [[Santali language|Santali]], while [[Bengali language|Bengali]] and [[English language|English]] are introduced gradually to build multilingual competence. The curriculum integrates traditional Santal songs, [[Folklore|folk stories]], and local history alongside basic subjects such as mathematics, science, and environmental studies.<ref name="IndianExpress2022" />

The school’s campus is set in a rural landscape surrounded by trees and open fields, encouraging outdoor learning and close connection to nature. The classrooms are simple, built with local materials such as clay, bamboo, and tiles, and designed to create a warm, familiar atmosphere for children. Besides regular lessons, students participate in gardening, art, and cultural festivals that strengthen their sense of identity and belonging.<ref name="DandC2024" /> Teachers are recruited mostly from nearby villages, ensuring that students are guided by educators who understand their language and social background.<ref name="Dorfentwicklung" />

== Community involvement ==
Rolf Schoembs Vidyashram is closely linked to local social development initiatives like the [[Ghosaldanga Bishnubati Adibasi Trust]], which runs health and livelihood projects in the same villages. Together, they aim to strengthen indigenous education, reduce dropout rates, and empower the [[Santal people|Santal community]].<ref name="Dorfentwicklung" /> The school has also been cited in development reports and educational journals as a successful model for integrating traditional knowledge with modern education in [[India]].<ref name="AlJazeera2020" /><ref name="IndianExpress2022" />

== Legacy ==
Over the years, RSV has become a model for tribal education in [[West Bengal]]. Its success has inspired similar projects in nearby villages and has attracted visitors from India and abroad who are interested in community-based education and preservation of indigenous languages.<ref name="DandC2024" /> The school continues to receive support from local and international partners committed to promoting sustainable education for tribal children.

== See also ==
* [[Santali language]]
* [[Education in West Bengal]]
* [[Adivasi]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Rolf_Schoembs_Vidyashram Media related to Rolf Schoembs Vidyashram] on Wikimedia Commons
{{Portal bar|School|Education}}

{{coord|23.712|87.655|type:edu_region:IN|display=title}}

[[Category:Schools in West Bengal]]
[[Category:1996 establishments in India]]
[[Category:Educational institutions established in 1996]]
[[Category:Schools in Birbhum district]]
[[Category:Primary schools in West Bengal]]

Durgapur Lok Sabha constituency

2026-05-05T06:54:09Z

Androidsub143: creating post - done

{{Short description|Lok Sabha constituency of West Bengal now obsolete}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2019}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| type = LS
|name = Durgapur
|map_image =
|map_caption =
|established = 1977
|abolished = 2009
|reservation = SC
|state = [[West Bengal]]
|assembly_cons = As of 2004: [[Gangajalghati Assembly constituency|Gangajalghati (SC)]] [[Barjora Assembly constituency|Barjora]] [[Sonamukhi Assembly constituency|Sonamukhi (SC)]] [[Durgapur Paschim Assembly constituency|Durgapur I]] [[Durgapur Purba Assembly constituency|Durgapur II]] [[Kanksa Assembly constituency|Kanksa (SC)]] [[Galsi Assembly constituency|Galsi]]
|electors =
}}
'''Durgapur Lok Sabha constituency''' was one of the 543 [[Lok Sabha|parliamentary]] constituencies in [[India]]. The constituency centred on [[Durgapur, West Bengal|Durgapur]] in [[West Bengal]]. The seat was reserved for [[Scheduled castes and scheduled tribes|scheduled castes]].

As a consequence of the order of the [[Delimitation Commission]] in respect of the [[delimitation of constituencies]] in the West Bengal, this parliamentary constituency ceased to exist from 2009; some of the assembly segments under this constituency will be part of a new [[Bardhaman-Durgapur Lok Sabha constituency]], others will be part of [[Bishnupur Lok Sabha constituency]].

This page also includes results for Ausgram Lok Sabha constituency during the short period of its existence from 1962 to 1971.

==Assembly segments==
Durgapur Lok Sabha constituency was composed of the following [[Vidhan Sabha|assembly]] segments:<ref>{{cite web| url =http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/statisticalreports/LS_2004/Vol_III_LS_2004.pdf | title = Statistical Report on General Elections, 2004 to the 14th Lok Sabha | access-date = 2010-10-01 | work = Volume III Details For Assembly Segments Of Parliamentary Constituencies | publisher = Election Commission of India }}</ref>
* [[Gangajalghati Assembly constituency|Gangajalghati (SC)]] (assembly constituency no. 249)
* [[Barjora Assembly constituency|Barjora]] (assembly constituency no. 250)
* [[Sonamukhi Assembly constituency|Sonamukhi (SC)]] (assembly constituency no. 256)
* [[Durgapur Paschim Assembly constituency|Durgapur I]] (assembly constituency no. 264)
* [[Durgapur Purba Assembly constituency|Durgapur II]] (assembly constituency no. 265)
* [[Kanksa Assembly constituency|Kanksa (SC)]] (assembly constituency no. 266)
* [[Galsi Assembly constituency|Galsi]] (assembly constituency no. 269)

== Members of Parliament ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"ìÍĦĤĠč
|-
! Lok Sabha!!Duration!!Constituency!!Name of M.P.!!Party affiliation
|-
|[[3rd Lok Sabha|Third]]||1962-67||Ausgram||[[Mono Mohan Das]]||[[Indian National Congress]]<ref name=loksabha1962>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1962/Vol_I_LS_62.pdf |title = General Elections, India, 1962- Constituency Wise Detailed Results |work = West Bengal | publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 2 June 2014}}</ref>
|-
|[[4th Lok Sabha|Fourth]]||1967-71||||B.Das||[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]]<ref name=loksabha1967>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1967/Vol_I_LS_67.pdf |title = General Elections, India, 1967 - Constituency Wise Detailed Results |work = West Bengal | publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 2 June 2014 }}</ref>
|-
|[[5th Lok Sabha|Fifth]] ||1971-77||||[[Krishna Chandra Halder]]||Communist Party of India (Marxist)<ref name=loksabha1971>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1971/Vol_I_LS71.pdf |title = General Elections, India, 1971 - Constituency Wise Detailed Results |work = West Bengal | publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 2 June 2014 }}</ref>
|-
| [[6th Lok Sabha|Sixth]]||1977-80||Durgapur||Krishna Chandra Halder||Communist Party of India (Marxist)<ref name=loksabha1977>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1977/Vol_I_LS_77.pdf |title = General Elections, 1977 - Constituency Wise Detailed Results |work = West Bengal | publisher = Election Commission of India|access-date = 2 June 2014 }}</ref>
|-
| [[7th Lok Sabha|Seventh]]||1980-84||||Krishna Chandra Halder||Communist Party of India (Marxist)<ref name =loksabha1980>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1980/Vol_I_LS_80.pdf |title = General Elections, 1980 - Constituency Wise Detailed Results |work = West Bengal | publisher = Election Commission of India|access-date = 2 June 2014 }}</ref>
|-
|[[8th Lok Sabha|Eighth]]||1984-89||||[[Purna Chandra Malik]]||Communist Party of India (Marxist)<ref name=loksabha1984>{{cite web| url =http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1984/Vol_I_LS_84.pdf |title = General Elections, 1984 - Constituency Wise Detailed Results |work = West Bengal | publisher = Election Commission of India|access-date = 2 June 2014 }}</ref>
|-
| [[9th Lok Sabha|Ninth]]||1989-91||||Purna Chandra Malik||Communist Party of India (Marxist)<ref name=loksabha1989>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1989/Vol_I_LS_89.pdf |title = General Elections, 1989 - Constituency Wise Detailed Results |work = West Bengal | publisher = Election Commission of India|access-date = 2 June 2014 }}</ref>
|-
| [[10th Lok Sabha|Tenth]]||1991-96||||Purna Chandra Malik||Communist Party of India (Marxist)<ref name=loksabha1991>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1991/VOL_I_91.pdf |title = General Elections, 1991 - Constituency Wise Detailed Results |work = West Bengal | publisher = Election Commission of India|access-date = 2 June 2014 }}</ref>
|-
| [[11th Lok Sabha|Eleventh]]||1996-98||||[[Sunil Khan]]||Communist Party of India (Marxist)<ref name=loksabha1996>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1996/Vol_I_LS_96.pdf |title = General Elections, 1996 - Constituency Wise Detailed Results |work = West Bengal | publisher = Election Commission of India|access-date = 2 June 2014 }}</ref>
|-
| [[12th Lok Sabha|Twelfth]]||1998-99||||Sunil Khan||Communist Party of India (Marxist) <ref name=loksabha1998>{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1998/Vol_I_LS_98.pdf |title=General Elections, 1998 - Constituency Wise Detailed Results |work=West Bengal |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=2 June 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140718181833/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1998/Vol_I_LS_98.pdf |archive-date=18 July 2014 }}</ref>
|-
| [[13th Lok Sabha|Thirteenth]]||1999-04||||Sunil Khan||Communist Party of India (Marxist)<ref name=loksabha1999>{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1999/Vol_I_LS_99.pdf |title=General Elections, 1999 - Constituency Wise Detailed Results |work=West Bengal |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=2 June 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140718183222/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1999/Vol_I_LS_99.pdf |archive-date=18 July 2014 }}</ref>
|-
|[[14th Lok Sabha|Fourteenth]]||2004-09||||Sunil Khan||Communist Party of India (Marxist)<ref name=loksabha2004>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_2004/Vol_I_LS_2004.pdf |title = General Elections, 2004 - Constituency Wise Detailed Results |work = West Bengal | publisher = Election Commission of India|access-date = 2 June 2014 }}</ref>
|}
For Members of Parliament from this area in subsequent years see [[Bardhaman Purba Lok Sabha constituency]] and [[Bardhaman-Durgapur Lok Sabha constituency]].

==Election results==
===2004===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2004 Indian general election]]: [[Durgapur]]<ref name=loksabha2004/>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Communist Party of India (Marxist)
|candidate = [[Sunil Khan]]
|votes = 505,252
|percentage = 59.60
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link |
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Shib Narayan Saha
|votes = 227,744
|percentage = 26.80
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate |
|party = INC
|candidate = Shova Dhibar
|votes = 72,419
|percentage = 8.60
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Nationalist Congress Party
|candidate = Umakanta Bhakat
|votes = 15,051
|percentage = 1.80
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate|
|party = Independent
|candidate = Rabindranath Bauri
|votes = 12,364
|percentage = 1.50
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate|
|party = Independent
|candidate = Banshi Lohar
|votes = 8,779
|percentage = 1.00
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate|
|party = Independent
|candidate = Mohan Chandra Bauri
|votes = 6,011
|percentage = 0.70
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 277,508
|percentage = 32.80
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 8,44,777
|percentage = 73.4
|change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Communist Party of India (Marxist)
|loser = Bharatiya Janata Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===General election 1999===
{{Election box begin | title=[[1999 Indian general election|General Election, 1999]]: [[Durgapur]]<ref name=loksabha1999/>
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Communist Party of India (Marxist)
|candidate = [[Sunil Khan]]
|votes = 461,940
|percentage = 52.20
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link |
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Anil Kumar Saha
|votes = 343,977
|percentage = 38.90
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate |
|party = INC
|candidate = Haradhan Mondal
|votes = 58,407
|percentage = 6.60
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Independent (politician)|Independent
|candidate = Tara Pada Mandal
|votes = 3,222
|percentage = 0.40
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate|
|party = Independent
|candidate = Rabindra Nath Saha
|votes = 1,545
|percentage = 0.20
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 117,963
|percentage = 13.3
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 8,85,335
|percentage = 73.0
|change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Communist Party of India (Marxist)
|loser = Bharatiya Janata Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===General election 1998===
{{Election box begin | title=[[1999 Indian general election|General Election, 1998]]: [[Durgapur]]<ref name=loksabha1998/>
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Communist Party of India (Marxist)
|candidate = [[Sunil Khan]]
|votes = 468,449
|percentage = 52.20
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link |
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Suryya Ray
|votes = 326,420
|percentage = 35.40
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate |
|party = INC
|candidate = Bhagbat Maji
|votes = 109,253
|percentage = 11.90
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 142,029
|percentage = 15.40
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 9,21,897
|percentage = 77.4%
|change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Communist Party of India (Marxist)
|loser = Bharatiya Janata Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===General elections 1962-2004===
Most of the contests were multi-cornered. However, only winners and runners-up are generally mentioned below:
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Year
!Voters
!Voter turnout
!Winner
|
|
!Runners up
|
|
|-
|
|
!%age
!Candidate
!%age
!Party
!Candidate
!%age
!Party
|-
|1962*
|233,065
|46.71
|[[Mono Mohan Das]]
|51.17
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|Krishna Chandra Halder
|40.61
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|-
|1967*
|308,908
|58.81
|B. Das
|51.49
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|Mono Mohan Das
|48.51
|INC
|-
|1971*
|363,981
|57.86
|Krishna Chandra Halder
|46.40
|CPI(M)
|Mahadeb Saha
|20.05
|[[Bangla Congress]]
|-
|1977
|3,59,280
|53.03
|Krishna Chandra Haldar
|63.20
|[[CPI (M)]]
|Manoranjan Pramanick
|36.80
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|1980
|5,13,170
|69.40
|Krishna Chandra Halder
|57.27
|CPI (M)
|Surya Kumar Roy
|38.17
|INC (I)
|-
|1984
|6,45,270
|77.85
|Purna Chandra Malik
|53.07
|CPI (M)
|Gopal Mondal
|46.93
|INC
|-
|1989
|7,32,790
|71.82
|Purna Chandra Malik
|65.68
|CPI (M)
|Gopal Mondal
|28.88
|INC
|-
|1991
|7,67,870
|73.75
|Purna Chandra Malik
|55.35
|CPI (M)
|Bhagabat Maji
|30.73
|INC
|-
|1996
|9.17,970
|80.56
|[[Sunil Khan]]
|55.68
|CPI (M)
|Chittaranjan Pramanik
|35.29
|INC
|-
|1998
|9,21,900
|77.37
|Sunil Khan
|51.81
|CPI (M)
|Suryya Ray
|36.10
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
|-
|1999
|8,85,340
|73.01
|Sunil Khan
|53.15
|CPI (M)
|Anil Kumar Saha
|39.58
|BJP
|-
|2004
|8,47,770
|73.66
|Sunil Khan
|59.61
|CPI (M)
|Shib Narayan Saha
|26.87
|BJP
|}
* Results for Ausgram constituency

==See also==
* [[List of constituencies of the Lok Sabha]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Lok Sabha constituencies of West Bengal}}
{{Paschim Bardhaman topics}}
{{Purba Bardhaman topics}}
{{Bankura topics}}

{{coord|23.5|87.3|display=title}}

{{West Bengal elections}}

[[Category:Former Lok Sabha constituencies of West Bengal]]
[[Category:Politics of Paschim Bardhaman district]]
[[Category:Politics of Purba Bardhaman district]]
[[Category:Politics of Bankura district]]
[[Category:Durgapur]]
[[Category:Former constituencies of the Lok Sabha]]
[[Category:2008 disestablishments in India]]
[[Category:Constituencies disestablished in 2008]]

Neengalum Vellalam Oru Kodi

2026-04-29T23:05:24Z

Androidsub143: started new data initial version

{{Short description|Indian-Tamil game show}}
{{Use British English|date=May 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2016}}
{{Infobox television
| image = Nvok logo.png
| caption =
| creator =
| presenter = {{unbulleted list|[[Suriya (actor)|Suriya]] (Season 1)|[[Prakash Raj]] (Season 2)|[[Arvind Swamy]] (Season 3)}}
| composer =
| country = India
| language = Tamil
| num_seasons = 3
| num_episodes = 231
| runtime = 90 minutes
| company = [[BIG Synergy]]
| network = [[STAR Vijay]]
| first_aired = {{Start date|2012|2|27|df=y}}
| last_aired = {{End date|2016|11|19|df=y}}
}}

'''''Neengalum Vellalam Oru Kodi''''' ({{translation|''You Too Can Win 1 [[Crore]]''}}), also known by the initialism '''''NVOK''''',<ref name=SUPERGOOD>{{cite web|url=http://www.supergoodmovies.com/41691/kollywood/surya-s-nvok-top-s-trp-ratings-news-details |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120321094824/http://www.supergoodmovies.com/41691/kollywood/surya-s-nvok-top-s-trp-ratings-news-details |url-status=usurped |archive-date=21 March 2012 |title=Surya's NVOK Top's TRP ratings |publisher=Supergoodmovies.com |date=20 March 2012 |access-date=5 May 2012}}</ref> is an Indian [[Tamil-language]] game show. It is the official Indian Tamil adaptation of the game show ''[[Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?]]''.<ref>{{cite web|date=22 December 2011|title=Suriya to host Tamil version of kaun banega crorepati|website=[[Sify Movies]]|access-date=23 December 2011|url=http://www.sify.com/movies/suriya-to-host-kaun-banega-crorepati-tamil-news-tamil-lmvngShbafb.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120107231601/http://www.sify.com/movies/suriya-to-host-kaun-banega-crorepati-tamil-news-tamil-lmvngShbafb.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=7 January 2012}}</ref>

Since its inaugural episode on 27 February 2012,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-metroplus/article2940012.ece |title=FEATURES / METRO PLUS : The guessing game begins |work=The Hindu |date=28 February 2012 |access-date=8 July 2012}}</ref> the show has aired on [[Star Vijay]]. The show's first season was hosted by [[Suriya (actor)|Suriya]] until its end on 12 July 2012. The show's second season, hosted by [[Prakash Raj]], commenced on 11 March 2013 and ended on 12 July 2013.<ref name="KAMAL">{{cite web | url=http://www.ibtimes.co.in/articles/449654/20130324/kamal-haasan-nvok-kaun-banega-crorepati-vishwaroopam.htm | title=Kamal Haasan Makes Television Appearance on 'Neengalum Vellalam Oru Kodi' | work=[[International Business Times]] | date=24 March 2013 | access-date=24 March 2013}}</ref> After a two-year hiatus, the show's third season commenced with a slightly altered format on 30 May 2016 with [[Aravind Swamy]] as host,<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/NVOK-Accham-Thavir-gets-more-than-million-viewers/articleshow/52743033.cms|title=NVOK & Accham Thavir gets more than million viewers|website=The Times of India|access-date=2016-06-21}}</ref> and ended on 19 November 2016.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hotstar.com/tv/neengalum-season-3/9265/the-season-finale-is-here/1000157994 |title=hotstar - Watch TV Shows, Movies & Live Cricket Matches Online |website=www.hotstar.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122154741/http://www.hotstar.com/tv/neengalum-season-3/9265/the-season-finale-is-here/1000157994 |archive-date=2016-11-22}}</ref>

==Background ==
K. Sriram, the general manager of [[Star Vijay]], claimed ''Neengalum Vellalam Oru Kodi'' to be "the first international format to hit the Tamil television screens".<ref name=WANT/> On the contrary, there was an earlier show named ''Deala No Deala'', the Tamil adaptation of ''[[Deal or No Deal]]'', which aired on [[Sun TV (India)|Sun TV]] briefly in 2009–2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tamilo.com/component/content/article/49-tvshow/1031-tamil-tv-show-deala-no-deala-new.html |title=Tamil TV Show Deala No Deala |publisher=Tamilo.com |date=6 December 2009 | access-date=29 May 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://movies.rediff.com/slide-show/2010/sep/24/slide-show-1-south-interview-with-rishi.htm |title=Meet Tamil TV's hottest host! | publisher= [[Rediff]] |date=24 September 2010 |access-date= 29 May 2012}}</ref>

''Neengalum Vellalam Oru Kodi'' is unrelated to the show ''Ungalil Yaar Maha Latchathipathi'', the official [[Sri Lankan Tamils|Sri Lankan Tamil]] adaptation of ''Who Wants to be a Millionaire'' which aired since 2011 in [[Shakthi TV]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.shakthitv.lk/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&id=383:maha-lakshathipathi |title=Maha Lakshathipathi Season 4 |publisher=Shakthitv.lk |date=8 February 2013 |access-date=15 March 2013}}</ref> [[R. Sarathkumar]] had hosted a show titled ''Kodeeswaran'', which followed a similar format and aired on Sun TV earlier.<ref name="Movie galleri">{{cite web |url=http://news.moviegalleri.net/2011/12/actor-suriya-to-host-kbc-in-tamil-kodeeswaran.html |title=Actor Suriya to host KBC in Tamil "Kodeeswaran" |publisher=News.moviegalleri.net |date=21 December 2011 |access-date=15 March 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111001519/http://news.moviegalleri.net/2011/12/actor-suriya-to-host-kbc-in-tamil-kodeeswaran.html |archive-date=11 January 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.idlerelax.com/news/Vikram-to-enter-Television-to-host-GameShow.html |title=Vikram to enter Television to host Game Show |publisher=Idlerelax.com |access-date=15 March 2013}}</ref>

==Production==

===Season 1===
In April 2011, ''[[Business Standard]]'' reported that actor [[Prakash Raj]] would host the licensed Tamil edition of the [[Hindi]] game show ''[[Kaun Banega Crorepati]]'', which was then titled ''Ungalil Yaar Kodeeswaran''.<ref name="Ungalil Yaar">{{cite news | url=http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/now-kbc-to-cross-language-barriers/433019/ | title=Now, KBC to cross language barriers | newspaper=Business Standard India | publisher=Business-standard.com | date=21 April 2011 | access-date=21 June 2012| last1=Bhat | first1=Varada }}</ref> Actor [[Vijay (actor)|Vijay]] was also considered to host the reality game show, but he declined the offer.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kollytalk.com/gossips/why-vijay-opted-out-of-tamil-kbc |title=Why Vijay opted out of Tamil KBC? |publisher=Kollytalk.com |date=24 December 2011 |access-date=29 May 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120113195553/http://www.kollytalk.com/gossips/why-vijay-opted-out-of-tamil-kbc |archive-date=13 January 2012 }}</ref> Eventually, it was confirmed that actor [[Suriya (actor)|Suriya]] would host the show.<ref name="Movie galleri"/>

The title of ''Kaun Banega Crorepati''{{'}}s Tamil version was later confirmed as ''Neengalum Vellalam Oru Kodi''. Suriya was initially apprehensive when approached, but after seeing the game format, he was "convinced it would work".<ref name=WANT>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/life-and-style/metroplus/article2741693.ece |title=Life & Style / Metroplus : Want to win a crore? |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=23 December 2011 |access-date=29 May 2012|last1=Kamath |first1=Sudhish }}</ref> The episodes for ''Neengalum Vellalam Oru Kodi'' were shot at [[AVM Studios]] in [[Chennai]], where its [[Malayalam]] equivalent ''[[Ningalkkum Aakaam Kodeeshwaran]]'' was also shot.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/setting-the-stage-for-stars/article3547220.ece | title=Setting the stage for stars | work=[[The Hindu]] | date=19 June 2012 | access-date=13 March 2013 | author=Sudhish Kamath}}</ref> Suriya was paid {{INR}}50 lakhs/- per episode,<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.filmibeat.com/tamil/news/2012/surya-charges-kbc-neengalum-vellalam-oru-kodi-140212.html |title=Surya charges a bomb to host Neengalum Vellalam Oru Kodi |publisher= Oneindia |date=14 February 2012 | access-date=29 May 2012}}</ref> and 40 episodes were planned for ''Neengalum Vellalam Oru Kodi'', thus amounting to a total remuneration of {{INR}}20 crore/-.<ref name=WANT/>

===Season 2===
In December 2012, Suriya stated that he could not host the second season due to his prior commitments.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-12-19/news-interviews/35911941_1_prakash-raj-suriya-pony-verma | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130329113726/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-12-19/news-interviews/35911941_1_prakash-raj-suriya-pony-verma | url-status=dead | archive-date=29 March 2013 | work=[[The Times of India]] | title=Prakash Raj to replace Suriya in NVOK? | access-date=24 March 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.filmibeat.com/tamil/news/2012/prakash-raj-surya-nvok-102063.html | title=Prakash Raj steps into the shoes of Surya in NVOK | work=Oneindia | date=19 December 2012 | access-date=24 March 2013}}</ref> Subsequently, [[Prakash Raj]], who was earlier considered for the show's first season,<ref name="Ungalil Yaar" /> and whose previous appearance on television was in the 2003 Tamil serial ''Sahana'', was finalised to host the show, making his debut as a television host.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/the-game-changer/article4414954.ece | title=The game changer | work=The Hindu | date=14 February 2013 | access-date=24 March 2013| last1=Raghavan | first1=Nikhil }}</ref>

===Season 3===
In 2016, three years after the second season ended, Star Vijay confirmed that the show was renewed for a third season.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/Neengalum-Vellalaam-Oru-Kodi-is-back/articleshow/51698245.cms|title=Neengalum Vellalaam Oru Kodi is back|website=The Times of India|access-date=18 April 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thenewsminute.com/article/guess-who-hosting-new-season-%E2%80%98neengalum-vellalam-oru-kodi%E2%80%99-41307|title=Guess who is hosting the new season of 'Neengalum Vellalam Oru Kodi'?|date=7 April 2016|access-date=31 May 2016}}</ref> [[Arvind Swamy]], who was a celebrity guest on the show in the previous season, was announced as the host.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/Its-Aravind-Swami-for-NVOK/articleshow/52279559.cms|title=It's Aravind Swami for NVOK|website=The Times of India|access-date=17 May 2016}}</ref> The season commenced on 30 May 2016, with a slightly altered format; such as two contestants per game, a new lifeline called double-dip (replacing the 50-50 option), and the ability for players to set their preferred safe-heaven amount on the money tree prior to playing.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.hotstar.com/tv/neengalum-vellalaam-oru-kodi-season-3/9150/shalinrani-on-the-hot-seat/1000096576#!%2Fstar-vijay-824|title=Neengalum Vellalam Oru Kodi Season 3 Episode 1|date=30 May 2016|website=[[Hotstar]]|publisher=[[Star Vijay]]|access-date=31 May 2016}}</ref>

==Game rules==

===Show format===
The contestants must undergo an initial round of "Fastest Finger First", in which the host introduces the ten contestants of the episode and asks them all the same question. The contestants must then arrange the answers in the order described in the question. The contestant that places the four options in the correct order in the fastest time gets the chance to go on the "hotseat", i.e. playing the main game. All contestants must be over the age of 18 and a citizen and resident of India to be eligible. The person must not be a former contestant of the show and must be able to converse well in English or [[Tamil language]]s.<ref name="PDF">{{Cite web |url=http://202.191.144.166/sunfeastworld.in/DreamCreamNVOK/index.html |title=RULES & REGULATIONS GOVERNING PARTICIPATION IN "NEENGALUM VELLALAM ORU KODI"}}</ref>

Each player will be asked fifteen questions, the prizes starting at {{INR}}1,000/- and leading up to {{INR}}1 crore/-. The first five questions are considered to be relatively easy. The player has 30 seconds per question. The second five are relatively harder. The time limit for these is 45 seconds per question. The final five are considered to be the most difficult hard and become increasingly more so. These have no timer and contestants can think for as long as they want. There can be, and generally is, more than one player per episode.

The show's host asks each contestant a number of multiple-choice questions. Of the four options, only one is correct. Players answer correctly to win an amount of money. They are then shown the next question and four answers. Successive questions are worth a greater sum of money. In most cases, this is double the previous sum. Players who answer questions five and ten correctly find themselves in a situation where their winnings are "safe". This means they will not lose their winnings under any circumstances. This allows the players to hazard a guess for question six and question eleven. Players answering a question incorrectly are eliminated from the game and their winnings return to the previous "safe" amount. If the contestant was in the process of answering questions one to five, the safe amount would be zero; for those answering questions six to ten, the safe amount will be {{INR}}10,000/-, and for questions eleven to fifteen, it will be {{INR}}3,20,000/-. Players can decide to stop at any time, after seeing the next question, and take the winnings they have accumulated up to that point.

===The lifelines===

For assistance, the contestant can use one, two or all three "lifelines" at any time during the game.
Contestants can use a lifeline when they are undecided which answer is correct. A contestant can use each lifeline only once. He can also use all lifelines on one question.<ref name=PDF/>
* '''Audience Poll''': The host repeats the question to the studio audience. When requested, the audience must now press a button in front of them within ten seconds to indicate which option they think is correct answer. The computer then displays the results as a percentage to help the player make a choice.
* '''Phone A Friend''': With this lifeline, the player may call one of up to three pre-arranged friends and ask for help. The host calls the player's friend and introduces him/her to the viewers. The question is only read out by the contestant to the phone friend once the host allows him or her to. The phone friend has 30 seconds to hear the question and answer.
* '''50-50''': When the player chooses this lifeline, the host tells the computer to randomly eliminate two of the "wrong" answers. This will leave one right answer and one randomly selected wrong answer.
* '''Double Dip (x2)''': This lifeline was introduced in season 3. By using this lifeline the candidate has the option to choose two answers for a single question. When this lifeline is used the timer is stopped and the candidate has to lock his/her first answer. If it is right the candidate can proceed to play for the next question. If wrong the candidate will be given a second chance to lock another answer while the timer is started again. On the use of this lifeline the candidate is not allowed to use any other lifelines. He or she is also not allowed to quit the game when this lifeline is used.

==Notable participants==

===Season 1===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Guest(s)
!Amount won
|-
|[[Shruti Haasan]]
|{{INR}}6,40,000
|-
|[[Ma Ka Pa Anand]] and [[Bhavana Balakrishnan]]<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XEG3nSzK-XU Makapa and Bhavana in Neengalum vellalam oru Kodi (with Suriya)]. YouTube (9 April 2012). Retrieved on 5 May 2012.</ref>
|{{INR}}1,60,000/-
|-
|[[Sivakarthikeyan]] and [[Poornitha|Kalyani]]<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xwK0zzTu7yc Neengalum Vellalam Oru Kodi 04/10/12]. YouTube. Retrieved on 5 May 2012.</ref>
|{{INR}}10,000/-
|-
|Senthil and Rajasekar<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WNTUpaRQc4Y Neengalum Vellalam Oru Kodi 04/11/12]. YouTube. Retrieved on 5 May 2012.</ref>
|{{INR}}6,40,000/-
|-
|[[Divyadarshini]] and [[Deepak]]<ref>[http://www.metromasti.com/tv/gossip/Neengalum-Vellalam-Oru-Kodi-NVOK-Deepak-DDDivyadarshini-Special/17381 Neengalum Vellalam Oru Kodi-NVOK Deepak DD(Divyadarshini) Special]. Metromasti.com. Retrieved on 5 May 2012.</ref>
|{{INR}}1,60,000/-
|-
|[[C. Gopinath]]<ref>[http://www.metromasti.com/tv/gossip/VijayTV-Neengalum-Vellalam-Oru-Kodi-NVOK-Gopinath-won-12-50-000/17404 VijayTV Neengalum Vellalam Oru Kodi (NVOK) Gopinath won 12,50,000]. Metromasti.com. Retrieved on 5 May 2012.</ref>
|{{INR}}12,50,000/-
|-
|[[Jagan (actor)|Jagan]] and Ramya<ref>[http://www.metromasti.com/tv/gossip/Neengalum-Vellalam-Oru-Kodi-NVOK-Anchor-Ramya-Jagan-Special/17407 Neengalum Vellalam Oru Kodi (NVOK) Anchor Ramya Jagan Special]. Metromasti.com. Retrieved on 5 May 2012.</ref>
|{{INR}}3,20,000/-
|-
|[[Ravichandran Ashwin]]<ref>[http://www.saveondish.com/forum/thread-52418.html Ravichandran Ashwin on Neengalum Vellalam Oru Kodi!!] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241130071345/http://www.saveondish.com/forum/thread-52418.html |date=30 November 2024 }}. Saveondish.com. Retrieved on 5 May 2012.</ref>
|{{INR}}12,50,000/-
|-
|[[Karthi]]<ref>[http://www.tubetamil.com/tamil-tv-shows/vijay-tv-shows/neengalum-vellalam-oru-kodi-03-05-2012-special-vijay-tv-game-show-surya-neengalum-vellalam-oru-kodi-03-05-2012-neengalum-vellalam-oru-kodi-03042012-neengalum-vellalam-oru-kodi.html Neengalum Vellalam Oru Kodi 03-05-2012 Special Guest Karthi] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120508000840/http://www.tubetamil.com/tamil-tv-shows/vijay-tv-shows/neengalum-vellalam-oru-kodi-03-05-2012-special-vijay-tv-game-show-surya-neengalum-vellalam-oru-kodi-03-05-2012-neengalum-vellalam-oru-kodi-03042012-neengalum-vellalam-oru-kodi.html |date=8 May 2012 }}. Tubetamil.com (16 April 2012). Retrieved on 5 May 2012.</ref>
|{{INR}}12,50,000/-
|-
|[[Vimal (actor)|Vimal]], [[Anjali (actress)|Anjali]], [[Shiva (actor)|Shiva]] and [[Oviya]]<ref>[http://www.tamilkey.com/neengalum-vellalam-oru-kodi-24-05-12.html Neengalum Vellalam Oru Kodi 24-05-12]. Tamilkey.com (24 May 2012). Retrieved on 29 May 2012.</ref>
|{{INR}}80,000/-
|-
|[[Jayam Ravi]] and [[M. Raja]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tubetamil.com/tamil-tv-shows/vijay-tv-shows/neengalum-vellalam-oru-kodi-31-05-2012-special-vijay-tv-game-show-surya-neengalum-vellalam-oru-kodi-31-05-2012-neengalum-vellalam-oru-kodi-31052012-neengalum-vellalam-oru-kodi.html|title=Neengalum Vellalam Oru Kodi 31-05-2012 Special - Vijay Tv game show - Surya - Neengalum Vellalam Oru Kodi 31.05.2012 - Neengalum Vellalam Oru Kodi 31/05/2012 - Neengalum Vellalam Oru Kodi|work=Tubetamil.com|access-date=27 January 2016}}</ref>
|{{INR}}12,50,000/-
|-
|[[Srinivas (singer)|Srinivas]] and [[Nithyashree Mahadevan]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tubetamil.com/tamil-tv-shows/vijay-tv-shows/neengalum-vellalaam-oru-kodi-surya/neengalum-vellalam-oru-kodi-srinivas-and-nithyashree-mahadevan.html |title=Neengalum Vellalam Oru Kodi | Srinivas and Nithyashree Mahadevan |publisher=Tubetamil.com |access-date=8 July 2012}}</ref>
|{{INR}}6,40,000/-
|-
|[[Naresh Iyer]] and [[Haricharan]]<ref>[http://www.tubetamil.com/tamil-tv-shows/vijay-tv-shows/neengalum-vellalam-oru-kodi-02-07-2012-vijay-tv-game-show-surya-neengalum-vellalam-oru-kodi-02-07-2012-neengalum-vellalam-oru-kodi-02072012-neengalum-vellalam-oru-kodi.html Neengalum Vellalam Oru Kodi 02-07-2012 | Vijay Tv game show | Surya | Neengalum Vellalam Oru Kodi 02.07.2012 | Neengalum Vellalam Oru Kodi 02/07/2012 | Neengalum Vellalam Oru Kodi]. Tubetamil.com. Retrieved on 19 July 2012.</ref>
|{{INR}}6,40,000/-
|-
|[[Karthik (singer)|Karthik]]<ref>[http://www.metromasti.com/tv/gossip/Vijay-TV-Neengalum-Vellalam-Oru-Kodi-NVOK-Karthik-won-Rs6-40-000/19144 Vijay TV Neengalum Vellalam Oru Kodi-NVOK Karthik won Rs.6,40,000]. Metromasti.com. Retrieved on 19 July 2012.</ref>
|{{INR}}6,40,000/-
|-
|[[Benny Dayal]] and [[Swetha Mohan]]<ref>[http://www.metromasti.com/tv/gossip/Vijay-TV-NVOK-Benny-Dayal-Swetha-Mohan-Special-won-Rs-6-40-000/19173 Vijay TV NVOK Benny Dayal & Swetha Mohan Special won Rs. 6,40,000]. Metromasti.com. Retrieved on 19 July 2012.</ref>
|{{INR}}6,40,000/-
|-
|[[Sathyaraj]] and [[Radha]]<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gfefCYpaATo Neengalum Vellalam Oru Kodi 07/09/12]. YouTube. Retrieved on 19 July 2012.</ref>
|{{INR}}6,40,000/-
|-
|[[Prathap Pothan]] and [[Khushbu Sundar|Khushbu]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kLO8Nni13AQ&feature=player_embedded |title=Neengalum Vellalam Oru Kodi 07/10/12 |date=10 July 2012 |publisher=YouTube |access-date=8 August 2012}}</ref>
|{{INR}}6,40,000/-
|-
|[[Nadhiya]] and [[Rahman (actor)|Rahman]]<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TcQQJ9F2Slw season 1 Neengalum Vellalam Oru Kodi EP 78 DTHRip victor love123 PART4]. YouTube (10 July 2012). Retrieved on 19 July 2012.</ref><ref name="tubetamil1">[http://www.tubetamil.com/tamil-tv-shows/neengalum-vellalam-oru-kodi-11-07-2012-vijay-tv-game-show-surya-neengalum-vellalam-oru-kodi-11-07-2012-neengalum-vellalam-oru-kodi-11072012-neengalum-vellalam-oru-kodi.html Neengalum Vellalam Oru Kodi 11-07-2012 | Vijay Tv game show | Surya | Neengalum Vellalam Oru Kodi 11.07.2012 | Neengalum Vellalam Oru Kodi 11/07/2012 | Neengalum Vellalam Oru Kodi]. Tubetamil.com. Retrieved on 19 July 2012.</ref>
|{{INR}}6,40,000/-
|-
|[[Suhasini Maniratnam|Suhasini]] and [[Mohan (actor)|Mohan]]<ref name="tubetamil1"/>
|{{INR}}12,50,000/-
|}

===Season 2===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Guest(s)
!Amount won
|-
|[[Kamal Haasan]] and [[Gautami]]<ref>{{cite AV media|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gt9P5Ha3rh0|title=YouTube|access-date=27 January 2016}}</ref>
|{{INR}}50,00,000/-
|-
|[[Arvind Swamy]]<ref name="youtube.com">{{cite AV media|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B9UaAwnRBlE|title=YouTube|access-date=27 January 2016}}</ref>
|{{INR}}25,00,000/-
|-
|[[Vijay Sethupathi]]<ref name="youtube.com"/>
|{{INR}}12,50,000/-
|-
|[[Sridevi]]<ref>{{cite AV media|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QOfI25M2OJk|title=YouTube|access-date=27 January 2016}}</ref>
|{{INR}}6,40,000/-
|-
|[[Radhika Sarathkumar]]<ref>{{cite AV media|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ajyCU2ioePA|title=YouTube|access-date=27 January 2016}}</ref>
|{{INR}}12,50,000/-
|-
|[[Sivakarthikeyan]]<ref>{{cite AV media|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kTlom3mn2Ao|title=YouTube|access-date=27 January 2016}}</ref>
|{{INR}}12,50,000/-
|-
|[[Prasanna (actor)|Prasanna]] and [[Sneha (actress)|Sneha]]{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}
|{{INR}}12,50,000/-
|-
|[[Hansika Motwani]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://behindwoods.com/tamil-movies-cinema-news-10/hansikas-special-turn-on-prakash-rajs-nvok--hansika-nvok-29-05-13.html|title=Hansika's special turn on Prakash Raj's NVOK, Hansika, NVOK|access-date=27 January 2016}}</ref>
|{{INR}}3,20,000/-
|-
|[[Suriya]]
|{{INR}}50,00,000/-
|}

===Season 3===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Guest(s)
!Amount won
|-
|[[Ma Ka Pa Anand]] and [[Kavin (actor)|Kavin]]
|{{INR}}12,50,000/-
|-
|[[Divyadharshini]] and [[C. Gopinath]]
|{{INR}}12,50,000/-
|-
|[[Erode Mahesh]] and Thadi Balaji
|{{INR}}6,40,000/-
|-
|[[Meena (actress)|Meena]] and Nainika
|{{INR}}6,40,000/-
|-
|[[Keerthy Suresh]]
|{{INR}}12,50,000/-
|-
|[[Vijay Sethupathi]]
|{{INR}}12,50,000/-
|-
|[[Amit Bhargav]] and Vandana
|{{INR}}3,20,000/-
|-
|[[Kajal Aggarwal]]
|{{INR}}6,40,000/-
|-
|Senthil and Sreeja
|{{INR}}3,20,000/-
|-
|[[Ashok Selvan]]
|{{INR}}3,20,000/-
|-
|[[Rio Raj]] and Gayathri
|{{INR}}3,20,000/-
|-
|[[Jayam Ravi]] and Aarthi
|{{INR}}12,50,000/-
|}

==References==
{{Reflist|hujm}}

==External links==
* {{Official website|http://www.orukodi.co.in/}}
* {{IMDb title|tt5000212}}

{{Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?}}
{{BIG Synergy}}
{{STAR Vijay TV shows}}
{{Tamil television shows}}

[[Category:Star Vijay original programming]]
[[Category:Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?]]
[[Category:Tamil-language quiz shows]]
[[Category:Tamil-language game shows]]
[[Category:2012 Tamil-language television series debuts]]
[[Category:2013 Tamil-language television series debuts]]
[[Category:2016 Tamil-language television series debuts]]
[[Category:Tamil-language television shows]]
[[Category:2012 Tamil-language television series endings]]
[[Category:2013 Tamil-language television series endings]]
[[Category:2016 Tamil-language television series endings]]
[[Category:Tamil-language television series based on British television series]]

36 Days (TV series)

2026-04-29T20:10:56Z

Androidsub143: put up basic info needs work

{{Short description|2024 Indian television series}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2024}}
{{AI-generated|date=March 2026|reason=2024 edits such as [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=36_Days_%28TV_series%29&diff=1234467942&oldid=1234407039 these] and others by user; note [[WP:AISIGNS]] in superficial analyses, vocab distro typical of 2023-24 LLM output, etc}}
{{Infobox television
| image = 36 Days (TV series).jpg
| genre = [[Crime-thriller]]
| creator =
| director = Vishal Furia
| executive_producer = Swati Patnaik Prasoon Garg Deepali Handa
| producer = [[Sameer Nair]] Deepak Segal Sameer Gogate
| writer = Anahata Menon Seneca Mendonsa
| starring = {{plainlist|
* [[Neha Sharma]]
* [[Purab Kohli]]
* [[Chandan Roy Sanyal]]
* [[Sharib Hashmi]]
* [[Chahat Vig]]
* [[Amruta Khanvilkar]]
* [[Shruti Seth]]
* [[Sushant Divgikar]]
}}
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| num_seasons = 1
| num_episodes = 8
| editor = Abhijeet Despande
| cinematography = Quais Waseeq
| runtime =
| network = [[SonyLIV]]
| music =
| company = [[Applause Entertainment]] [[BBC Studios|BBC Studio India]]
| composer =
| released = {{Start date|2024|07|12|df=y}}
}}

'''''36 Days''''' also known as '''''36 Days: Secrets are injurious to health''''' is an Indian [[Hindi-language]] [[crime-thriller]] [[streaming television]] series created for [[SonyLIV]], by Vishal Furia and produced by [[Applause Entertainment]] and [[BBC Studios]].<ref>{{cite news |author=|title='36 Days' trailer: Neha Sharma leads series about a mysterious tenant, secrets and murder |url=https://scroll.in/reel/1068505/36-days-trailer-neha-sharma-leads-series-about-a-mysterious-tenant-secrets-and-murder |access-date=11 July 2024 |work=[[Scroll.in]] |date=29 May 2024 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite news |last1=Shackleton |first1=Liz |title=SonyLIV, Applause Entertainment Deepen Partnership With New Shows 'Kafas', '36 Days' & Four Returning Seasons |url=https://deadline.com/2023/04/sonyliv-applause-entertainment-cage-kafas-36-days-scam-2003-1235339130/ |access-date=11 July 2024 |work=[[Deadline Hollywood|Deadline]] |date=27 April 2023}}</ref> The series features [[Neha Sharma]], [[Purab Kohli]], [[Chandan Roy Sanyal]], [[Sharib Hashmi]], [[Chahat Vig]], [[Amruta Khanvilkar]], [[Shruti Seth]] and [[Sushant Divgikar]] in the pivotal roles.<ref>{{cite news |last1=|first1=|title=Photos: Neha Sharma, Shruti Seth, Amruta Khanvilkar, Sushant Divgikar and Chandan Roy Sanyal promote their upcoming series 36 Days {{!}} Parties & Events - Bollywood Hungama |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/parties-and-events/photos-neha-sharma-shruti-seth-amruta-khanvilkar-sushant-divgikar-chandan-roy-sanyal-promote-upcoming-series-36-days/ |access-date=11 July 2024 |work=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |date=1 July 2024 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=36 Days: Neha Sharma, Chandan Roy Sanyal, Amruta Khanvilkar Starrer All Set To Stream on THIS OTT Platform- DEETS INSIDE {{!}} SpotboyE |url=https://www.spotboye.com/just-binge/binge-news/36-days-neha-sharma-chandan-roy-sanyal-amruta-khanvilkar-starrer-all-set-to-stream-on-this-ott-platform-deets-inside/66924688ed47ace0751234ac |access-date=2024-07-13 |website=www.spotboye.com |language=en}}</ref> Set in a serene suburban housing estate in Goa, this Indian thriller, an official adaptation by Anahata Menon of the British series ''35 Days'', explores a story of deceit, love, and suspense. When a mysterious woman arrives, she disrupts the neighborhood, leading to unexpected events, including a shocking murder, which intertwines the lives of the residents in a tale of mystery and suspense.<ref>{{cite news |title=36 Days review: Impatience rules in this Purab Kohli-Neha Sharma show |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/web-series/36-days-review-impatience-rules-in-this-purab-kohli-neha-sharma-show-9449728/ |access-date=13 July 2024 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |date=12 July 2024 |language=en}}</ref>

The series was officially announced by the streaming network in April 2023. [[Principal photography]] primarily took place in [[Goa]], with key scenes shot in [[Vasco da Gama, Goa|Vasco Da Gama]] and a few scenes shot in [[Mumbai]].

''36 Days'' premiered on 12 July 2024,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shah |first=Aditi |date=2024-07-12 |title='Showtime' To '36 Days', Here Are The New OTT Releases For This Weekend |url=https://www.ndtvprofit.com/trending/showtime-to-36-days-here-are-the-new-ott-releases-for-this-weekend |access-date=2024-07-14 |website=NDTV Profit |language=en}}</ref> to a positive response from audiences, although critics offered mixed reviews. The performances received praise, but the screenplay and predictability were criticized.<ref name=":1">{{cite news |title=36 Days Trailer: Neha Sharma And Amruta Khanvilkar Starrer 36 Days Official Trailer {{!}} Entertainment - Times of India Videos |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/videos/entertainment/web-series/hindi/36-days-trailer-neha-sharma-and-amruta-khanvilkar-starrer-36-days-official-trailer/videoshow/110492998.cms |access-date=11 July 2024 |work=[[The Times of India]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-07-12 |title=OTT Releases This Week: 36 Days, Pill, Wild Wild Punjab and More |url=https://www.gadgets360.com/entertainment/features/ott-releases-this-week-on-netflix-jiocinema-prime-video-sonyliv-zee5-6090175 |access-date=2024-07-13 |website=Gadgets 360 |language=en}}</ref>

== Premise ==
The story begins with the murder of Farah Zaidi,{{Who|date=March 2026}} an event that triggers a narrative countdown unfolding backwards from 36 days prior. Set within Casa De Magnolia, an upscale suburban housing complex located in [[Goa]], its various residents are introduced.

Among them is Tony Walia, a chauvinistic womanizer whose outward charm masks a darker, more sinister side, Noel, a menacing drug lord whose presence casts a shadow over the community, Benaifer Machado, an overbearing baker grieving the loss of her daughter, harboring secrets that complicate her relationships, Tara, a transgender artist, who struggles against societal prejudices while seeking acceptance, Lalita, a successful but enigmatic businesswoman, and Dr. Rishikesh Jaykar, a celebrated microbiologist, hides a hidden agenda beneath his professional facade.

==Cast==
{{colbegin}}

=== Main ===
* [[Neha Sharma]] as Farah Zaidi aka Suhana Mohan: Sameera's sister, she is an air hostess seeking revenge for her sister's suicide, who moves into the diverse neighborhood of Casa De Magnolia.
* [[Purab Kohli]] as Rishi aka Dr. Rishikesh Jaykar: Radhika's husband, Advait's stepfather and Sameera's ex-boss. He is a writer dealing with unresolved marital issues.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Hungama |first1=Bollywood |date=9 July 2024 |title=EXCLUSIVE: Purab Kohli reveals he had initially rejected 36 Days due to lack of dates; says, "I was actually approached for a different part" 36 : Bollywood News - Bollywood Hungama |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/features/exclusive-purab-kohli-reveals-initially-rejected-36-days-due-lack-dates-says-actually-approached-different-part/ |access-date=11 July 2024 |work=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Chandan Roy Sanyal]] as Tony Walia: Sia's husband and the owner of Casa De Magnolia's land. He is drawn to Farah's beauty.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shirodkar |first=Neel |date=2024-07-12 |title=Chandan Roy Sanyal wants people to hate his dark character in '36 Days' |url=https://pune.news/entertainment/chandan-roy-sanyal-wants-people-to-hate-his-dark-character-in-36-days-199484/ |access-date=2024-07-14 |website=PUNE.NEWS |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Sharib Hashmi]] as Vinod Shinde: Lalita's husband and a casino manager who is suspicious of Farah from the start.<ref>{{Cite web |title=36 Days actor Sharib Hashmi says 'OTT audience is very brutal'; find out why {{!}} Exclusive |url=https://www.ottplay.com/interview/sharib-hashmi-says-ott-audience-is-very-brutal-find-out-why/1810a4621a784 |access-date=2024-07-14 |website=OTTPlay |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=|first=|date=2024-07-05 |title=Sharib Hashmi recalls how cast of '36 Days' bonded over Goan feasts |url=https://newsroomodisha.com/sharib-hashmi-recalls-how-cast-of-36-days-bonded-over-goan-feasts/ |access-date=2024-07-14 |website=News Room Odisha |language=en-US}}</ref>
* [[Amruta Khanvilkar]] as Lalita Shinde: Vinod's wife and Bobo's sister. She is envious of Radhika and has lofty ambitions fulfilled through a shady side hustle involving drug sales.<ref>{{Cite web |last=शिकलगार |first=स्वालिया न |date=2024-07-10 |title=36 Days : साठी शरीब हाश्‍मीसोबत अमृता खानविलकर करणार अभिनय |url=https://pudhari.news/soneri/36-days-sharib-hashmi-amruta-khanvilkar-acting |access-date=2024-07-14 |website=Pudhari News |language=mr}}</ref>
* [[Shivam Patil]] as Bobo aka Baban: Lalita's brother who deals drugs, causing complications in his own relationships and affecting Lalita and Vinod's lives.
* [[Shruti Seth]] as Radhika Jaykar: Rishi's wife and an entrepreneur who is insecure about her husband's friendship with Farah.
* [[Sushant Divgikar]] as Tara aka Tarun: Sia's ex-lover who desires a sex change operation.<ref>{{cite news |title=36 Days - Tara aka Sushant Divgikr is not just glitz and glamour but also has sparkling secrets - Watch |url=https://www.ottplay.com/news/36-days-tara-aka-sushant-divgikr-is-not-just-glitz-and-glamour/2499ec632f616 |access-date=11 July 2024 |work=OTTPlay |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Shernaz Patel]] as Benaifer Machado aka Binny: Denzel's wife and the mother of Riad and Pari. She is a home baker deeply affected by the loss of her daughter and feels neglected by her husband.
* Faisal Rashid as Riad Machado: Binny and Denzel's son, Shonali's husband, and Mini's father. He navigates single parenthood after a divorce and deals with parental expectations.
* Keneth Desai as Denzel Machado: Binny's husband, Riad and Pari's father, Rishi and Tony friend, as well as a painter who withdraws into seclusion after a personal tragedy.
* KC Shankar as Noel: Ella's father, Vinod's boss and a close friend of Tony's. He owns the casino and operates as a kingpin in the drug trafficking world.
* [[Chahat Vig]] as Sia Walia: Tony's third wife and Tara's ex-lover, who quits her acting aspirations for her husband's desires.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-07-20 |title=Chahat Vig Wants To Work With Anurag Kashyap, Calls Working In 36 Days Is 'Once-In-A-Lifetime Experience'- EXCLUSIVE |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment-news/web-series/chahat-vig-wants-to-work-with-anurag-kashyap-calls-working-in-36-days-is-once-in-a-lifetime-experience-exclusive-article-111871679 |access-date=2024-07-28 |website=Times Now |language=en}}</ref>

=== Recurring ===
* Ajay Kumar Dutta as Thomas
* Nehal Vadoliya as Seductress4u: The blackmailer on video chat with Denzel
* Aman Desai as Advait: Radhika's son and Rishi's stepchild, who is in a relationship with Ella and Anushka but is forced to leave Goa by Noel.
* Sarah Gesawat as Ella: Advait's lover and Noel's daughter.
* [[Danish Pandor (actor)|Danish Pandor]] as Mohit: He is married to Sameera and Mehnaaz. He is the father of Munmun and Sona, and he cheats on Sameera.
* Sharvari Deshpande as Chayya
* Vishal Arora as Drug peddler
* Hardika Sharma as Mini: Raid and Shonali's daughter
* Ganesh Yadav as Savio: Police inspector
* Jagdish Chavan as Mangesh: Police constable
* [[Ketan Karande]] as Rodney (Noel's bodyguard)
* Bianca Arora as Anushka: Advait's lover
* Shweta Mehta as Kleo
* Khushi Bharadwaj as Aditi: Rishi and Radhika's daughter who becomes friends with Farah.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pillay |first=Neolin |date=2024-07-23 |title=Actress Khushi Bhardwaj opens up on playing Aditi Jaykar in 36 Days |url=https://urbanasian.com/entertainment/web-series/2024/07/actress-khushi-bhardwaj-opens-up-on-playing-aditi-jaykar-in-36-days/ |access-date=2024-07-28 |website=Blog |language=en-US}}</ref>
* Sapna Rathore as Sameera: Farah's sister and Mohit's wife, and Munmun's mother who commits suicide upon learning of her husband's affair.
* Ashmara Sharma as Pari
* Payal Arora as Dr. Prabhu Desai
* Daivik Balodia & Daivat Balodia as Twins
* Smaran Sahu as Karan: An actor who stars opposite Sia in a movie and eventually falls for her.
* Palash Tiwari as Jugal (House keeping staff)
* Supriya Mishra as Rohini (House keeping staff)
* Palvi Jaswal as Shonali
* Randeep Singh as Sukhwinder watchman
* Zara Khan as Munmun
* Abhijeet Pawar as Magician
* Asha Sharma as Mehnaaz
* Urvi Upadhyay as Sona
* Darshit Lahane as Amar
* Neeva Malik as Anjali
{{colend}}

== Episodes ==
{{Episode table|background=#8C224A|series=|title=|director=|writer=|airdate=29-10-20|country=India|episodes=
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber2 = 1
|Title = The Intruder's Arrival
|DirectedBy = Vishal Furia
|WrittenBy = Anahata Menon & Seneca Mendonsa
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2024|07|12|df=y}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = #8C224A
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber2 = 2
|Title = Hidden Agendas
|DirectedBy = Vishal Furia
|WrittenBy = Anahata Menon & Seneca Mendonsa
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2024|07|12|df=y}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = #8C224A
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber2 = 3
|Title = Beneath the Surface
|DirectedBy = Vishal Furia
|WrittenBy = Anahata Menon & Seneca Mendonsa
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2024|07|12|df=y}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = #8C224A
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber2 = 4
|Title = Denzel's Dilemma: Seduced and Blackmailed
|DirectedBy = Vishal Furia
|WrittenBy = Anahata Menon & Seneca Mendonsa
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2024|07|12|df=y}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = #8C224A
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber2 = 5
|Title = The Facade Cracks
|DirectedBy = Vishal Furia
|WrittenBy = Anahata Menon & Seneca Mendonsa
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2024|07|12|df=y}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = #8C224A
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber2 = 6
|Title = Masked Intentions
|DirectedBy = Vishal Furia
|WrittenBy = Anahata Menon & Seneca Mendonsa
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2024|07|12|df=y}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = #8C224A
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber2 = 7
|Title = Secrets Unraveled
|DirectedBy = Vishal Furia
|WrittenBy = Anahata Menon & Seneca Mendonsa
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2024|07|12|df=y}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = #8C224A
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber2 = 8
|Title = The Poisoned Olive Branch
|DirectedBy = Vishal Furia
|WrittenBy = Anahata Menon & Seneca Mendonsa
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2024|07|12|df=y}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = #8C224A
}}
}}

== Production ==
''36 Days'' is the Indian adaptation of the British series ''35 Diwrnod'', originally in [[Welsh language|Welsh]], which aired from 2014 to 2017 across four seasons.<ref>{{Cite web |title=36 Days on SonyLIV: Here's all you need to know about the original British series 35 Diwrnod |url=https://www.ottplay.com/news/36-days-sonyliv-all-you-need-to-know-about-original-british-series-35-diwrnod/4ab243f6b7386 |access-date=2024-07-14 |website=OTTPlay |language=en}}</ref> The adaptation was officially undertaken by writer Anahata Menon, who collaborated with Seneca Mendonsa on the screenplay.

In October 2022, it was revealed that [[Sharib Hashmi]], [[Chandan Roy Sanyal]], [[Sushant Divgikar]], [[Shernaz Patel]], Faisal Rashid, Kenneth Desai, among others, were cast in the series.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rajesh |first=Srividya |title=Exclusive: Kenneth Desai bags Applause Entertainment series 36 Days |url=https://www.iwmbuzz.com/digital/news-digital/exclusive-kenneth-desai-bags-applause-entertainment-series-36-days/2022/12/30 |access-date=2024-07-14 |website=IWMBuzz |date=30 December 2022 |language=en}}</ref> In April 2023, SonyLIV officially announced the series along with the rest of the main cast, including [[Neha Sharma]], [[Purab Kohli]], [[Shruti Seth]] and [[Amruta Khanvilkar]].<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-04-27 |title=Applause Entertainment announces two new shows 'Kafas' and '36 Days'; 'Scam' and 'Tanaav' set to return |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/web-series/news/hindi/applause-entertainment-announces-two-new-shows-kafas-and-36-days-scam-and-tanaav-set-to-return/articleshow/99808496.cms |access-date=2024-07-14 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> Child actor Zara Khan was cast in October 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rajesh |first=Srividya |title=Exclusive: Child actor Zara Khan to feature in Applause Entertainment's web series 36 Days |url=https://www.iwmbuzz.com/digital/news-digital/exclusive-child-actor-zara-khan-to-feature-in-applause-entertainments-web-series-36-days/2023/10/04 |access-date=2024-07-14 |website=IWMBuzz |date=4 October 2023 |language=en}}</ref>

Sharma, who portrays the enigmatic airhostess in the series, mentioned that she watched a portion of the original BBC show ''35 Diwrnod'', describing it as mind-bending. Reflecting on her role, she remarked, "I don't think anyone ever expected me to portray a morally ambiguous character."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Neha Sharma reveals she didn't think anyone ever imagined that she could pull off a grey character |url=https://www.punjabnewsexpress.com/entertainment/news/neha-sharma-reveals-she-didnt-think-anyone-ever-imagined-that-she-could-pull-off-a-grey-character-255596 |access-date=2024-07-14 |website=www.punjabnewsexpress.com}}</ref> Initially, Kohli was offered a different role, but due to scheduling conflicts, he had to decline it. However, a few months later, the makers approached Kohli again, this time offering him the role of Rishi.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hungama |first=Bollywood |date=2024-07-09 |title=EXCLUSIVE: Purab Kohli reveals he had initially rejected 36 Days due to lack of dates; says, "I was actually approached for a different part" 36 : Bollywood News - Bollywood Hungama |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/features/exclusive-purab-kohli-reveals-initially-rejected-36-days-due-lack-dates-says-actually-approached-different-part/ |access-date=2024-07-14 |language=en}}</ref> Kohli and Desai reunited after 26 years for this series; they had last worked together in the cult classic television series titled [[Hip Hip Hurray (TV series)|''Hip Hip Hurray'']]. Seth, who stars opposite Kohli, shared insights into their bond, saying, "Meeting after so long, we were catching up so much that our director, Vishal, had to request us to stop talking."<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-07-09 |title=Shruti Seth on collaborating with Purab Kohli for '36 Days' |url=https://www.mid-day.com/entertainment/web-series/article/shruti-seth-on-collaborating-with-purab-kohli-for-36-days-23362224 |access-date=2024-07-14 |website=Mid-day |language=en}}</ref>

The main schedule of [[principal photography]] predominantly occurred in [[Goa]], focusing on locations in [[North Goa district|North Goa]], with additional scenes filmed in [[Mumbai]]. Quais Waseeq served as the cinematographer, and Abhijeet Deshpande edited the series.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-05-28 |title='36 Days' trailer: Mysterious Neha Sharma promises to unravel Purab Kohli's secrets |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/television/web-series/story/36-days-trailer-neha-sharma-purab-kohli-2544896-2024-05-28 |access-date=2024-07-14 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref> The musical duo [[Clinton Cerejo]] and Bianca Gomes composed the songs under the band name Shor Police.<ref name=":1" />

== Soundtrack ==
The background score is composed by Roshin Balu, with sound design by Anirban Sengupta. All the songs are composed by the musical duo Shor Police, consisting of Clinton Cerejo and Bianca Gomes.

{{Track listing
| headline = Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| total_length = 8:14
| title1 = Ab Tak
| length1 = 2:45
| lyrics1 = Siddhant Kaushal
| extra1 = [[Sushant Divgikar]]
| title2 = Farebi Zindagi
| length2 = 3:03
| lyrics2 = Siddhant Kaushal
| extra2 = Sushant Divgikar
| title3 = Yeh Jahaan
| length3 = 2:26
| lyrics3 = Siddhant Kaushal
| extra3 = Sushant Divgikar
}}

== Release and reception ==
The makers released the trailer on 28 May 2024, featuring the main star cast.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Azad |first=Hardik |date=2024-07-09 |title=36 Days OTT Release Date: Plot, Cast, Streaming Platform, & all about Neha Sharma's upcoming web series |url=https://newsroompost.com/entertainment/36-days-ott-release-date-plot-cast-streaming-platform-all-about-neha-sharmas-upcoming-web-series/5321858.html |access-date=2024-07-14 |website=NewsroomPost |language=en}}</ref> Alongside sharing the trailer, they posed a question: "There are always three sides to every story—your side, my side... and the truth. But what if the truth lies hidden behind a wall of secrets?"<ref>{{Cite web |title=36 Days on OTT - Release date, trailer, plot, streaming platform and more |url=https://www.ottplay.com/news/36-days-on-ott-release-date-trailer-plot-streaming-platform-and-more/cfc3527bae775 |access-date=2024-07-14 |website=OTTPlay |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-05-29 |title=Trailer Of Neha Sharma-starrer 36 Days Promises Intense Suspense Thriller |url=https://www.news18.com/movies/trailer-of-neha-sharma-starrer-36-days-promises-intense-suspense-thriller-8908347.html |access-date=2024-07-14 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Reception ===
The series garnered mixed reviews from critics, who lauded its performances but criticized its writing.

Archika Khurana of ''[[The Times of India]]'' reviewed the series, awarding 3.5 out of 5 stars and observed, "While the show becomes somewhat predictable midway, the unexpected twists towards the end keep it engaging. The 35-minute episodes manage to maintain a compelling pace despite the dense web of characters and their interconnected lives."<ref>{{Cite news |title=36 Days Season 1 Review : An engaging suspenseful thriller with a few hiccups |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/web-series/reviews/hindi/36-days/season-1/seasonreview/111480544.cms |access-date=2024-07-14 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> Ronit Kawale for ''Presswire18'' commented, "The screenplay is so dull that one feels like watching it in fast forward" despite the decent performances and atmospheric technical elements".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kawale |first=Ronit |date=2024-07-12 |title=Web Series Review: Every Day Of Neha Sharma, Purab Kohli's '36 Days' Seems Heavy |url=https://presswire18.com/web-series-review-every-day-of-neha-sharma-purab-kohlis-36-days-seems-heavy/ |access-date=2024-07-14 |language=en}}</ref> ''[[Navbharat Times]]'' critic Upama Singh, giving 2 stars, praised performances, cinematography, setting, and background score, while remarking, "The screenplay is so sluggish that one feels like fast-forwarding through it. Direction lacks substance too; the initial two-three episodes lack any thrill."<ref>{{Cite web |title=वेब सीरीज रिव्यू: नेहा शर्मा, पूरब कोहली की इस '36 डेज' का हर दिन लगता है भारी |url=https://navbharattimes.indiatimes.com/entertainment/web-series/review/36-days-web-series-review-in-hindi-starring-neha-sharma-shruti-seth-purab-kohli-sharib-hashmi-sony-liv/moviereview/111680688.cms |access-date=2024-07-14 |website=Navbharat Times |language=hi}}</ref> [[Deepa Gahlot]] of ''[[Scroll.in]]'' reviewed "The eight-part series moves at a leisurely pace. Everything that happens does not necessarily connect to the murder. The helter-skelter format is more to build suspense and comment on the corrosive effects of pretence or the damage caused by ignoring mental health issues."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gahlot |first=Deepa |date=2024-07-12 |title='36 Days' review: In this crime series, murder is besides the point |url=https://scroll.in/reel/1070480/36-days-review-in-this-crime-series-murder-is-besides-the-point |access-date=2024-07-14 |website=Scroll.in |language=en}}</ref> Risha Ganguly of ''[[Times Now]]'', awarding 2.5 out of 5 stars, remarked, "It lacked originality and suspense," adding, "You can predict from the very first episode that the story is following a certain plot. Even the twists and turns ate so dated that you see them coming from a mile."<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-07-12 |title=36 Days Review: Neha Sharma Starrer Is A Lackluster Whodunnit With Predictable Plot Twists |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment-news/reviews/web-series/36-days-review-neha-sharma-starrer-is-a-lackluster-whodunnit-with-predictable-plot-twists-review-111663962 |access-date=2024-07-14 |website=Times Now |language=en}}</ref> Mitul Kansara of ''Tellychakkar'' praised it with 4 stars, stating, "All in all, this has been an amazing watch with good performances, good characters and a pace that could be improved."<ref>{{Cite web |title=36 Days REVIEW: Neha Sharma, Sharib Hashmi series is so good you'll repeatedly watch 36 Days for 36 hours on loop |url=https://www.tellychakkar.com/digital/36-days-review-neha-sharma-sharib-hashmi-series-so-good-youll-repeatedly-watch-36-days-36 |access-date=2024-07-14 |website=www.tellychakkar.com |language=en}}</ref>

[[Shubhra Gupta]] of ''[[The Indian Express]]'' mentioned, "This is an interesting ensemble, and I got pulled into all these questions which swirl around the residents.." but criticizes its excessive use of familiar tropes and a lack of sustained tension and urgency in the storytelling, giving it 2 stars.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-07-12 |title=36 Days review: Impatience rules in this Purab Kohli-Neha Sharma show |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/web-series/36-days-review-impatience-rules-in-this-purab-kohli-neha-sharma-show-9449728/ |access-date=2024-07-14 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> Vaibhavi Mishra of ''[[Gadgets 360]]'' described it as "Overstretched and Predictable," commenting, "the show falls prey to the classic mistake of stuffing unnecessary tropes in thrillers, just to add more faces to point the misdirected finger at".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-07-12 |title=36 Days Review: A Crime Thriller With Barely Any Thrills |url=https://www.gadgets360.com/entertainment/reviews/36-day-web-series-review-sonyliv-murder-mystery-neha-sharma-purab-kohli-6090257 |access-date=2024-07-13 |website=Gadgets 360 |language=en}}</ref> Manik Sharma from ''[[OTTPlay]]'' observed, "There are plenty of sub-plots to chew on... Instead what we get is short shrift on a bunch of situations, without any real insight into the people dealing with them."<ref>{{Cite web |title=36 Days Is Watchable But Offers Nothing To Commit To Memory |url=https://www.ottplay.com/news/36-days-is-watchable-but-offers-nothing-to-commit-to-memory/dd4d9d048a425 |access-date=2024-07-14 |website=OTTPlay |language=en}}</ref> A critic from ''ap7am.com'' rated it 2.75 out of 5, calling the screenplay "bit faster" and noting, "Although the story is told in the housing complex on the coast, it does not bore much. Photography ... background music ... editing helped this series."<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-07-13 |title='36 డేస్' (సోనీ లివ్) మూవీ రివ్యూ! |url=https://www.ap7am.com/index.php/mr/487/36-days/review |access-date=2024-07-13 |website=ap7am.com |language=te}}</ref> [[Riya Sharma]] from ''[[DNA News|DNA]]'' awarded 2 out of 5 stars, criticizing its predictable plot, lack of genuine suspense, and failure to fully utilize its talented cast, stating, "The show doesn't seem to do justice to an [[ensemble cast]] who gives their all and present you with a powerful performance despite a dull, predictable and boring storyline."<ref>{{Cite web |title=36 Days review: Neha Sharma's lackluster crime thriller with no thrill, mystery is not for anyone good taste |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-36-days-review-neha-sharma-lackluster-crime-thriller-no-thrill-mystery-not-for-people-with-brain-good-taste-3096589 |access-date=2024-07-14 |website=DNA India |language=en}}</ref> Critic Simran Kumari of ''Cinetales'' gave it 3 out of 5 stars, praising the performances as the "highlight" and summarizing, "...the twists in the narrative also seem quite predictable except for the last few. Therefore, you won't feel the relief at the end since there's no proper build-up."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kumari |first=Simran |date=2024-07-12 |title=36 Days Series Review: Neha Sharma Series Is A Mediocre Thriller With Predictable Plot |url=https://www.cine-tales.com/36-days-series-review-neha-sharma/ |access-date=2024-07-14 |website=Cinetales |language=en-US}}</ref>

Shatakshi Ganguly of ''IWMBuzz'' criticized the series for faltering despite its promising premise and talented cast, pointing out overindulgence, disjointed storytelling, and a lack of suspense or satisfying payoff, noting, "The sheer volume of characters dilutes the impact of the story, leaving viewers grappling with an ensemble cast that ultimately feels wasted."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ganguly |first=Shatakshi |title=Review Of 36 Days: A Laboured Attempt At Mystery |url=https://www.iwmbuzz.com/digital/editorial-digital/review-of-36-days-a-laboured-attempt-at-mystery/2024/07/12 |access-date=2024-07-14 |website=IWMBuzz |date=12 July 2024 |language=en}}</ref> In contrast, Troy Ribeiro of ''The [[Free Press Journal]]'' rated it 3 out of 5 stars, highlighting intricate character development and a slow-burn mystery set in Goa's serene backdrop, stating, "The pacing, initially leisurely as a Sunday morning in Goa, might test the patience of those accustomed to breakneck thrillers."<ref>{{Cite web |title=36 Days Review: Neha Sharma, Purab Kohli, Sushant Divgikr's Series Is Twisted Symphony of Secrets |url=https://www.freepressjournal.in/entertainment/36-days-review-neha-sharma-purab-kohli-sushant-divgikrs-series-is-twisted-symphony-of-secrets |access-date=2024-07-14 |website=Free Press Journal |language=en}}</ref> ''Leisure Byte'' reviewer Archi Sengupta commented, "''36 Days'' has its moments that will arrest you thoroughly, especially as you try to decipher who could've murdered Farah. However, the series isn't able to balance its many storylines, ending in the last episode becoming sort of an exposition dump rushing towards concluding everything quickly."<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-07-12 |title=36 Days Review {{!}} Leisurebyte |url=https://www.leisurebyte.com/36-days-review/ |access-date=2024-07-14 |website=www.leisurebyte.com |language=en-US}}</ref> Ravi Sharma of Bollywood Helpline gave 2.5 stars and wrote, "''36 Days'' may appeal to fans of murder mysteries and ensemble dramas, but its shortcomings in narrative execution and pacing prevent it from achieving greatness."<ref>{{Cite web |title=36 Days – Strong Performances Marred By Pacing Issues |url=https://www.bollywoodhelpline.com/reviews/36-Days-%E2%80%93-Strong-Performances-Marred-By-Pacing-Issues/forwarded/2216 |access-date=2024-07-28 |website=www.bollywoodhelpline.com |language=en}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|tt27618627}}
* ''[https://www.sonyliv.com/shows/36-days-1700001459 36 Days]'' at [[SonyLIV]]

[[Category:2024 Indian television series debuts]]
[[Category:SonyLIV original programming]]
[[Category:Hindi-language web series]]
[[Category:Indian thriller television series]]
[[Category:Hindi-language television shows]]

Bharatiya Shiksha Board

2026-04-26T18:43:00Z

Androidsub143: put up the info from scratch

{{short description|Organization in India}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2022}}
{{Infobox organization
| name = Bhartiya Shiksha Board
| image =
| image_size =
| caption = Logo of Board
| formation = {{Start date and age|2022|08|04|df=y}}
| type = Governmental Board of Education
| parent_organisation = [[Maharishi Sandipani Rashtriya Ved Vidya Pratishthan]]
| status = Active
| headquarters = [[Noida]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[India]]
| key_people = [[Swami Ramdev]] (Adhyaksha)
| abbreviation = BSB
| num_members =
| affiliations = [[Ministry of Education (India) ]]
| language = *Hindi
*English
| num_staff = 478
| num_students = Approx 2 Lakhs
| website = {{URL|https://bsb.org.in/}}
}}
'''Bharatiya Shiksha Board''' (BSB) (formed in August 2022) is a financially and administratively independent School Education board set up by the Government of India through its autonomous body Maharshi Sandipani Rastriya Veda Vidya Pratishthan (MSRVVP), Ujjain, in the Department of Higher Education, Ministry of the then HRD (now Ministry of Education).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/bharatiya-shiksha-board-ramdev-how-and-why-the-govt-bent-over-backwards-7368117/|title=Baba Ramdev's Bharatiya Shiksha Board: How and why the Govt bent over backwards|date=21 June 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.etvbharat.com/english/national/bharat/centre-hands-over-bharatiya-shiksha-board-to-patanjali-yogpeeth-trust/na20220804151105222222694|title=Centre hands over Bharatiya Shiksha Board to Patanjali Yogpeeth Trust|website=ETV Bharat News}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Indian educational programmes]]

{{India-edu-stub}}

Raju Devnath Parwe

2026-04-20T09:18:36Z

Androidsub143: new new data.

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2022}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Raju Devnath Parwe
| native_name = Rajubhau Parwe
| image =
| office = Member of [[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly]]
| term_start = 2019
| term_end = 2024
| predecessor = [[Sudhir Laxmanrao Parwe]]
| successor = [[Sanjay Meshram]]
| constituency1 = [[Umred Assembly constituency|Umred]]
| office1 =
| prime_minister1 =
| predecessor1 =
| successor1 =
| birth_date =
| birth_place = *'''[[Bhiwapur|Bhiwapur SubDivision ]], [[Umred]], [[Nagpur|Nagpur,Maharashtra]]'''
| occupation =
| children =
| party = *''' [[Bharatiya Janata Party|Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)]] (2024-Present)'''
| other_party = *'''[[File:Logo of Shiv Sena.svg|30px]] [[Shiv Sena (2022–present)|Shiv Sena (SHS)]] (2024)'''
*'''[[File:Indian National Congress hand logo.svg|30px]] [[Indian National Congress|Indian National Congress (INC)]] (2015-2024)'''
*'''[[Independent politician|Independent]] (2014)'''
| profession = *'''Politician'''
| spouse =
| sibling =
| website =
}}

'''Raju Devnath Parwe''' is a leader of [[Bharatiya Janata Party|Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)]] and a former member of the [[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly]] elected from [[Umred Assembly constituency]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 October 2019 |title=Umred Election Results 2019 Live Updates (उमरेड): Raju Devnath Parwe of Congress Wins|url=https://www.news18.com/news/politics/umred-election-results-2019-live-updates-winner-loser-leading-trailing-2358779.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101231321/https://www.news18.com/amp/news/politics/umred-election-results-2019-live-updates-winner-loser-leading-trailing-2358779.html |archive-date=1 November 2022 |access-date=1 November 2022 |website= [[News18 India]] |language=English
}}</ref> in [[Nagpur]] city.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 November 2022 |title=Raju Deonath Parwe:Constituency- UMRED (SC)(NAGPUR) Affidavit Information of Candidate|url=https://myneta.info/maharashtra2019/candidate.php?candidate_id=9726 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101230947/https://myneta.info/maharashtra2019/candidate.php?candidate_id=9726 |archive-date=1 November 2022 |access-date=1 November 2022 |website= [[Association for Democratic Reforms|myneta.info]] |language=English
}}</ref>

==Positions held==
2019: Elected to [[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 October 2019 |title=राज्यातील विजयी उमेदवारांची यादी येथे पाहा|url=https://marathi.indiatimes.com/maharashtra/mumbai-news/vidhan-sabha-nivadnuk-list-of-winning-candidates-in-the-state/articleshow/71749478.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221026162142/https://maharashtratimes.com/maharashtra/mumbai-news/vidhan-sabha-nivadnuk-list-of-winning-candidates-in-the-state/amp_articleshow/71749478.cms |archive-date=26 October 2022 |access-date=26 October 2022 |website= [[Maharashtra Times]] |language=Marathi
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=25 October 2019 |title=Maharashtra Election 2019 Winners Full List: Check full list of winning candidates in Maharashtra Vidhan Sabha Chunav 2019 |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/india-news/maharashtra-assembly-election-2019-winners-full-list/1744244/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221026205732/https://www.financialexpress.com/india-news/maharashtra-assembly-election-2019-winners-full-list/1744244/ |archive-date=26 October 2022 |access-date=26 October 2022 |website=[[The Financial Express (India)|The Financial Express]]|language=English
}}</ref> with 91,968 votes.<ref>{{Cite web |date=October 2019 |title=GENERAL ELECTION TO STATE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY-2019 CANDIDATE WISE VOTES |url=https://ceo.maharashtra.gov.in/Downloads/AC2019/CANDIDATEWISE-VOTES-2019.pdf |access-date=2 November 2022 |website=Chief Electoral Officer, Maharashtra |page=15}}</ref>

===Political career===
In 2015 Raju Parwe joined the [[Indian National Congress|Indian National Congress (INC)]]. Before that, In 2014 he unsuccessfully fought from [[Umred Assembly constituency|Umred Vidhan Sabha Seat]] as an [[Independent politician|Independent Candidate]] and lost by a margin of 68,002 votes. In 2019 the [[Indian National Congress|Congress Party]] offered him ticket from [[Umred Assembly constituency|Umred Vidhan Sabha Seat]] and he won by margin of 18,029 votes. On 24 March 2024, Raju Parwe left the [[Indian National Congress|Congress Party]] as he was denied ticket from [[Ramtek Lok Sabha constituency|Ramtek Lok Sabha Seat]]. He Joined [[Eknath Shinde|Eknath Shinde Led]] [[Shiv Sena (2022–present)|Shiv Sena (SHS)]] and got the ticket.

On 4 June 2024, Raju Parwe Lost To [[Indian National Congress|Indian National Congress Candidate]], [[Shyamkumar Barve|Shyamkumar (Bablu) Barve]] from [[Ramtek Lok Sabha constituency|Ramtek Lok Sabha Seat]] By A Margin Of 76,768 Votes.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-06-04 |title=Ramtek, Maharashtra Lok Sabha Election Results 2024 Highlights: Shyamkumar Barve Wins Race by 76768 Votes |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/elections/lok-sabha/story/ramtek-maharashtra-lok-sabha-election-results-2024-live-updates-clse-2547815-2024-06-04 |access-date=2024-06-04 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Quint |first=The |date=2024-06-04 |title=Ramtek Election Result 2024 Live Updates: Congress's Shyamkumar (Bablu) Daulat Barve is Leading This Lok Sabha Seat |url=https://www.thequint.com/news/ramtek-election-result-2024-live-updates-counting-of-votes-maharashtra-lok-sabha-seat-latest-news |access-date=2024-06-04 |website=TheQuint |language=en}}</ref><ref name="2024 Loksabha Elections Results - Ramtek">{{cite news |last1=Election Commission of India |date=4 June 2024 |title=2024 Loksabha Elections Results - Ramtek |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/PcResultGenJune2024/candidateswise-S139.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20241206091345/https://results.eci.gov.in/PcResultGenJune2024/candidateswise-S139.htm |archivedate=6 December 2024 |accessdate=6 December 2024}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Maharashtra MLAs 2019–2024]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Maharashtra]]
[[Category:People from Nagpur]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Shiv Sena politicians]]

{{Maharashtra-INC-politician-stub}}

Chaubattakhal Assembly constituency

2026-04-19T19:39:39Z

Androidsub143: creating details - done

{{short description|Legislative Assembly constituency in Uttarakhand State, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2018}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Chaubattakhal
| latest_election_year = 2022
| mla = [[Satpal Maharaj]]
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| state = Uttarakhand
| district = [[Pauri Garhwal district|Pauri Garhwal]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Garhwal (Lok Sabha constituency)|Garhwal]]
| reservation = None
| electors = {{formatnum:91136}}<ref name="ceouk">{{cite web |url=https://www.ceo.uk.gov.in/files/VS-2022/VoterTurnout-2022.pdf |title=Uttarakhand State General Assembly Election - 2022 - AC wise Voter Turnout |website=ceo.uk.gov.in |date=1 March 2022 |accessdate=8 April 2022 |url-status=live |archive-date=1 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301040631/https://www.ceo.uk.gov.in/files/VS-2022/VoterTurnout-2022.pdf}}</ref>{{update after|2027|03}}
| type= SLA
| constituency_no = 39
| map_image = Chaubattakhal Assembly constituency map.svg
}}

'''Chaubttakhal''' is one of the 70 constituencies in the [[Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly]] of [[Uttarakhand]] state of [[India]]. [[Chaubattakhal]] is also part of [[Garhwal (Lok Sabha constituency)|Garhwal Lok Sabha constituency]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Sitting and previous MLAs from Chaubttakhal Assembly Constituency |url=http://www.elections.in/uttarakhand/assembly-constituencies/chaubattakhal.html |work=Elections.in |access-date= 8 October 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=DELIMITATION OF PARLIAMENTARY AND ASSEMBLY CONSTITUENCIES ORDER, 2008 |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf |work=Election commission of India |access-date= 8 October 2017 }}</ref>

==Members of Legislative Assembly==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Year
!Member
!colspan="2"|Party
|-
| [[2012 Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly election|2012]] || [[Tirath Singh Rawat]] || {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=3}}
|-
| [[2017 Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly election|2017]] || rowspan=2 | [[Satpal Maharaj]]
|-
| [[2022 Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly election|2022]]
|}

== Election results ==
===Assembly Election 2022 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2022 Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly election]]: Chaubattakhal<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Chief Electoral Officer, Uttarakhand|title=Uttarakhand State General Assembly Elections 2022 - AC-Wise Detailed Result (Form-20) |url=https://election.uk.gov.in/CEO-Website/VidhanSabha2022/Form20/form20_2022.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220615102703/https://election.uk.gov.in/CEO-Website/VidhanSabha2022/Form20/form20_2022.htm|archive-date=15 June 2022}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Satpal Maharaj]] |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=24,927 |percentage=58.72% |change={{increase}}10.57 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Keshar Singh |party=Indian National Congress |votes=13,497 |percentage=31.80% |change={{increase}}0.57 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Digmohan Negi |party=Aam Aadmi Party |votes=1,908 |percentage=4.50% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Nota |party=None of the above |votes=590 |percentage=1.39% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ashwani Gusain |party=Independent politician |votes=533 |percentage=1.26% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Anu Pant |party=Uttarakhand Kranti Dal (Democratic) |votes=316 |percentage=0.74% |change={{increase}}0.02 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Arun Kumar |party=Independent politician |votes=260 |percentage=0.61% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=11,430 |percentage=26.93% |change= {{increase}}10.00 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=42,447 |percentage=44.86% |change= {{decrease}}2.05 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 94,620 |ref = |change= {{increase}}2.17 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Bharatiya Janata Party |loser=Bharatiya Janata Party |swing= {{increase}}10.57 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 2017 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2017 Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly election]]: Chaubattakhal<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Chief Electoral Officer, Uttarakhand|title=Uttarakhand State General Assembly Elections 2017 - AC-Wise Detailed Result (Form-20) |url=https://election.uk.gov.in/CEO-Website/VidhanSabha2017/Form_20/form20_2017.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220630093109/https://election.uk.gov.in/CEO-Website/VidhanSabha2017/Form_20/form20_2017.htm|archive-date=30 June 2022}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Satpal Maharaj]] |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=20,921 |percentage=48.16% |change={{increase}}14.72 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Rajpal Singh Bisht |party=Indian National Congress |votes=13,567 |percentage=31.23% |change={{increase}}2.24 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Sunder Singh Chauhan |party=Independent politician |votes=2,545 |percentage=5.86% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Kavinder Istwal |party=Independent politician |votes=2,339 |percentage=5.38% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Satendra Singh |party=Independent politician |votes=965 |percentage=2.22% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Nandan Singh Rawat |party=Independent politician |votes=433 |percentage=1.00% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ramendra Singh Bhandari |party=Independent politician |votes=323 |percentage=0.74% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Anu Pant |party=Uttarakhand Kranti Dal (Democratic) |votes=316 |percentage=0.73% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Manju Rawat |party=Independent politician |votes=241 |percentage=0.55% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=7,354 |percentage=16.93% |change= {{increase}}12.47 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=43,442 |percentage=46.91% |change= {{decrease}}4.02 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 92,610 |ref = |change= {{increase}}7.00 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Bharatiya Janata Party |loser=Bharatiya Janata Party |swing= {{increase}}14.72 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 2012 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2012 Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly election]]: Chaubattakhal<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Chief Electoral Officer, Uttarakhand|title=Uttarakhand State General Assembly Elections 2012 - AC-Wise Detailed Result (Form-20) |url=https://election.uk.gov.in/Vidhan_sabha2012/form20_2012_PDF/form20_2012.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929115647/https://election.uk.gov.in/Vidhan_sabha2012/form20_2012_PDF/form20_2012.htm|archive-date=29 September 2022}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Tirath Singh Rawat]] |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=14,741 |percentage=33.44% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Rajpal Singh Bisht |party=Indian National Congress |votes=12,777 |percentage=28.99% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Yashpal Benam |party=Independent politician |votes=6,253 |percentage=14.19% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Rajesh Kandari |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=4,725 |percentage=10.72% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Dr. Harender Singh Rawat |party=Independent politician |votes=2,915 |percentage=6.61% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Brig. (Retd) Surender Singh Patwal |party=Uttarakhand Raksha Morcha |votes=894 |percentage=2.03% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ramesh Chandra Juyal |party=Independent politician |votes=534 |percentage=1.21% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Bharat Bhushan |party=Independent politician |votes=422 |percentage=0.96% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Jaspal Singh |party=Independent politician |votes=379 |percentage=0.86% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=1,964 |percentage=4.46% |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=44,078 |percentage=50.93% |change= }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 86,551 |ref = |change= }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner=Bharatiya Janata Party |loser= |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
* [[Bironkhal (Uttarakhand Assembly constituency)]]
* [[List of constituencies of the Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Pauri Garhwal district]]

==References==

{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cite web |title=Record of all Uttarakhand Assembly Elections |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/category/93-uttarakhand/ |website=eci.gov.in |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=17 January 2024}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Uttarakhand}}

{{coord|29.95|79.3|display=title}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Uttarakhand]]
[[Category:Pauri Garhwal district]]
[[Category:Politics of Uttarakhand]]
[[Category:2012 establishments in Uttarakhand]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 2012]]

Siddhayoga

2026-04-19T19:26:13Z

Androidsub143: starting new article

{{Short description|Hindu sect}}
{{hatnote|This article concerns only the Tirtha lineage of Siddhayoga. For other uses see [[Siddha Yoga (disambiguation)]]}}
{{multiple issues|{{more citations needed|date=July 2023}}
{{independent sources|date=July 2023}}
{{copy editing|date=January 2026}}}}

{{use dmy dates|date=January 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2026}}
[[Image:gangaShankarMath.jpg|thumb|The [[Ganges]] river as seen from Shankar Math, a Siddhayoga retreat ([[matha]]).]]
'''Siddhayoga''' ([[Hindi]]: सिद्ध योग), also known as [[Sahaja Yoga|'''sahaj yoga''']], [[Kundalini yoga|'''kundalini yoga''']], '''[[shaktipat yoga]]''', [[Mahayoga|'''maha yoga''']], '''[[shakti yoga]]''', and [[Kriya Yoga school|'''kriya yoga''']],<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |title=Siddha Mahayoga FAQ |url=https://people.eecs.berkeley.edu/~keutzer/kundalini/siddha-mahayoga.html |access-date=2025-04-15 |website=people.eecs.berkeley.edu}}</ref> refers to a yoga tradition with the [[guru|guru-disciple]] relationship as central to some lineages. According to the tradition, the guru transfers [[Shakti|''shakti'']] (energy) to the disciple through a process called [[Shaktipat|''shaktipat'']].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Siddha Yoga – WRSP |url=https://wrldrels.org/2020/09/13/siddha-yoga/ |access-date=2025-10-16 |language=en}}</ref>

Multiple lineages are associated with Siddhayoga, some sharing historical connections and others developing independently. Different groups, even those who are not using the term Siddhayoga, discuss the awakening of the [[Kundalini|kundalini shakti]].<ref name=":02" />

Teachings of Siddhayoga can be traced back to [[Tantra|Tantric]] masters, such as [[Abhinavagupta]].<ref name=":02" /> In this tradition, Shakti is described as an energy inherent to the soul, which practitioners consider accessible regardless of religious background. Because of this perspective, Siddhayoga is sometimes viewed as having secular aspects rather than being exclusively [[Hinduism|Hindu]] in a [[Sectarianism|sectarian]] sense.<ref>{{Citation |title=Roots of Modern Yoga |work=History of Modern Yoga : Patañjali and Western Esotericism |url=https://doi.org/10.5040/9781472548436.ch-001 |access-date=2026-02-20 |publisher=Continuum |isbn=978-0-8264-8772-8}}</ref>

== Scriptural sources ==
The teachings of Siddhayoga focus on the development of qualities such as [[peace]], [[creativity]], and [[spiritual energy]]. The guru is considered to play a significant role in facilitating this transformation of the disciple. The ''[[Yoga Vasishtha|Yoga Vani]]'' is considered a significant scripture guiding practitioners on the path of Siddhayoga.<ref>Swami Sadashiva Tirtha. Founder, Swami Narayan Tirtha Math; Author, ''Bhagavad Gita for Modern Times'' & ''Ayurveda Encyclopedia''. Personal conversation, 2007</ref>

A Siddhayoga guru is believed to possess the [[Kundalini|kundalini shakti]], which radiates from the master to the disciple at the [[Muladhara|Muladhara Chakra]]. This process awakens and raises spiritual energy up the [[Nadi (yoga)|Sushumna]].<ref name=autogenerated1>Yoga Vani, 2</ref> Several classical texts within [[Yoga|Yogic]] and [[Tantra|Tantric traditions]] describe transformative effects attributed to proximity to a guru. The ''Kularnava Tantra'' states: "An intelligent person should regard this teacher as their preceptor, by whose contact inexpressible bliss is produced in the disciple."<ref>quoted in ''Yoga Vani,'' 28</ref> The ''[[Yoga Vasistha]]'' says: "A real preceptor can produce a blissful sensation in the body of the disciple by their sight, touch, or instructions."<ref>quoted in ''Yoga Vani,'' 27</ref>

Practitioners describe Siddhayoga as a focus on internal transformation and the realization of one's "true nature", regardless of specific external [[rites]] and [[Ritual|rituals]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Swami Vishnu |first=Tirtha |title=Devatma Shakti (Kundalini) Divine Power |publisher=Yoga Shri Peeth Trust |year=1948 |edition=1st |location=Rishikesh, India}}</ref> The tradition characterizes it as an individual spritual path ([[dharma]]) aligned with a person's specific inclinations and in balance with nature's rhythms. Traditional accounts describe these practices as being intended to promote mental tranquility and a sense of harmony.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Caldwell |first=Sarah |date=2001-10-01 |title=The Heart of the Secret: A Personal and Scholarly Encounter with Shakta Tantrism in Siddha Yoga |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/nr.2001.5.1.9 |journal=Nova Religio |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=9–51 |doi=10.1525/nr.2001.5.1.9 |issn=1092-6690|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==Siddhayoga lineage==
[[Image:SSPT.gif|thumb|Sri Swami Shankar Purushottam Tirtha Maharaj]]
'''Swami Shankar Purushottam Tirtha''' (1888-1958) is described in tradition as being associated with two monastic lineages. He was reportedly first initiated into Siddhayoga by Swami Narayana Dev Tirtha (born c. 1879), whose spiritual lineage was through Swami Gangadhara Tirtha. Swami Shankar Purushottam Tirtha later took [[sannyas]] under [[Swami Bharati Krishna Tirtha]] in [[Puri]]. During Swami Bharati Krishna Tirtha's visit to America, Swami Shankar Purushottam Tirtha was reportedly asked to maintain the seat of [[Shankaracharya]] of Puri Govardhan Mutt.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Skelton |first1=J. |last2=Rodgers |first2=C. |last3=Ellis |first3=L. |last4=Lyles |first4=A. |date=2014-05-15 |title=Rubrics and Evaluations |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.26634/jsch.9.4.2708 |journal=I-manager's Journal on School Educational Technology |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=7–13 |doi=10.26634/jsch.9.4.2708 |issn=0973-2217|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

He traveled north to the [[Himalayas]], a region traditionally associated with yogic and ascetic practice. According to accounts, the King of Tehri Garhwal offered him a substantial plot of land along the [[Ganges|Ganges River]], however, he is said to have accepted only a small portion after multiple requests.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Arya Samaj |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/2212-5019_beh_com_9000000226 |access-date=2023-06-12 |website=Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism Online|doi=10.1163/2212-5019_beh_com_9000000226 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Shankar Math, an ashram located in [[Uttarkashi]], was established in 1933. A second center, "Siddhayogashram," was founded in Varanasi's Chhoti Gaibi in 1934. Swami Shankar Purushottam Tirtha wrote several books, including ''Yogavani'',<ref>{{cite book | last = Tirtha | first = Swami Shankar Purushottam | title = Yogavaani | publisher = [[Purushottam Publishers]] | location = Varanasi | pages = 136 | isbn = 978-81-924129-2-4}}</ref> ''Japa Sadhana'', and ''Guruvani'', originally written in Bengali and later translated into Hindi. He also wrote a short treatise in English, titled ''Who Am I?''<ref>Swami Shankar Purushottam Tirtha's ''Yoga Vani: Instructions for the Attainment of Siddhayoga'' and ''Guru Bani: 100 Ways to Attain Inner Peace'' have been published in Bengali, Hindi, and English by [[Purushottam Publishers]] ordered by HH Swami Atmananda Tirtha Maharaj - Mathadhyaksha of [[Siddhayogashram, Varanasi]].</ref>

Swami Shankar Purushottam Tirtha was the [[guru]] of Swami Narayana Tirtha (d. 2001). [[Swami Vishnu Tirtha]] was another disciple, initiated in 1939. [[Swami Shivom Tirtha]], a disciple of Swami Vishnu Tirtha, has a website providing further details on the Tirtha Siddhayoga lineage tree.{{cn|date=March 2026}}

The Tirtha lineage of [[Swami Bharati Krishna Tirtha]] (1884-1960) traces itself back to Sri [[Adi Shankara]]. According to [[Guru-shishya tradition]], the lineage began when Lord Narayana passed wisdom to Brahma, Brahma to Vasishtha, to Shakti, to Parashara, to Veda Vyasa, and Shuka. This portion of the lineage is described as father to son. From Shuka, it was passed on from guru to shishya,{{Clarify|reason=what or who is that?|date=February 2026}} to [[Patanjali]], then to Gaudapada, Govinda, Chandra Sharma, and finally to Adi Shankara.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=P |first1=Sumathi |last2=K |first2=Mahadevamma |date=2016 |title=A Descriptive Note on Vedic Mathematics |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.26634/jmat.5.1.4866 |journal=I-manager's Journal on Mathematics |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=1 |doi=10.26634/jmat.5.1.4866 |issn=2277-5129|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Allegedly, this succession is said to have begun the tradition of wandering monks. Vyasa reportedly told Govinda of the advent of [[Shiva]] incarnating as Adi Shankara, to meet and give him [[sanyas]] [[diksha]]. Shankara's stated purpose in incarnating was to comment on the ''[[Brahma Sutras]]''.<ref>{{cite book | last = Kuppuswami | first = A | title = Sri Bhagavatpada Shankaracharya | publisher = Chokhamba Sanskrit Series | date = 1972 | location = Varanasi }}</ref> Shankaracharya is credited with establishing four monastic centers in the north, south, east, and west of India, traditionally regarded as significant institutions for religious guidance, and also set up the ten monastic orders: Tirtha, Ashrama, Vana, Aranya, Giri, Parvata, Sagara, Saraswati, Bharati, and Puri.<ref>{{cite book | last = Saraswati | first = His Holiness Jagadguru Sri Chandrasekharendra; Sri Shankaracharya of Kanchi Kamakoti Pitha | title = Adi Shankara, His Life and Times | publisher = Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan | date = 1988 | location = Mumbai }}</ref>
==Publications ==
Several books have been published in Bengali, Hindi, and English by [[Purushottam Publishers]] under the direction of Swami Atmananda Tirtha.{{citation needed|date=July 2021}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://swaminarayantirtha.org Swami Narayan Tirtha Math]
*[https://www.siddhamahayoga.com/swami-nardanand Swami Nardanand]
*[https://www.facebook.com/NarayanSanskritiKendra Swami Narayan Tirtha Ved Vidya Sanskriti Charcha Kendra, Varanasi]

[[Category:Hindu denominations|Siddhayoga]]

Gurudaspur Assembly constituency

2026-04-16T04:33:19Z

Androidsub143: stub

{{short description|Legislative Assembly constituency in Punjab State, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2018}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Gurdaspur
| map_image = 4-Gurudaspur.svg
| constituency_no = 4
| mla = [[Barindermeet Singh Pahra]]
| party = [[Indian National Congress]]
| latest_election_year = [[2022 Punjab Legislative Assembly election|2022]]
| state = [[Punjab, India|Punjab]]
| district = [[Gurdaspur district|Gurdaspur]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Gurdaspur (Lok Sabha constituency)|Gurdaspur]]
| reservation = None
| electors = {{formatnum:169628}} (in 2022){{update after|2026|02}}
| type= SLA
}}
'''Gurdaspur Assembly constituency''' is a [[Punjab Legislative Assembly]] constituency in [[Gurdaspur district]], [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] state, India.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://ceopunjab.nic.in/English/Elections/SE/List%20Of%20AC%20Name.pdf|title= List of Punjab Assembly Constituencies|accessdate= 19 July 2016|url-status= dead|archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20160423033326/http://ceopunjab.nic.in/english/Elections/SE/List%20Of%20AC%20Name.pdf|archivedate= 23 April 2016}}</ref>

==Members of Legislative Assembly==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Year
!Member
!colspan="2"|Party
|-
|[[1972 Punjab Legislative Assembly election|1972]]
|rowspan=2|[[Khushhal Bahl]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[1977 Punjab Legislative Assembly election|1977]]
|-
|[[1980 Punjab Legislative Assembly election|1980]]
|Rattan Lal
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress (R)}}
|-
|[[1985 Punjab Legislative Assembly election|1985]]
|Susheel
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1992 Punjab Legislative Assembly election|1992]]
|[[Khushhal Bahl]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1997 Punjab Legislative Assembly election|1997]]
|Kartar Singh Pahra
|{{Full party name with color|Shiromani Akali Dal}}
|-
|[[2002 Punjab Legislative Assembly election|2002]]
|[[Khushhal Bahl]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[2007 Punjab Legislative Assembly election|2007]]
|rowspan=2|[[Gurbachan Singh Babbehali]]
|{{Full party name with color|Shiromani Akali Dal|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[2012 Punjab Legislative Assembly election|2012]]
|-
|[[2017 Punjab Legislative Assembly election|2017]]<ref name=election2017/>
| rowspan=2|[[Barindermeet Singh Pahra]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[2022 Punjab Legislative Assembly election|2022]]
|-
|}

==Election results==
=== 2022 ===
 <section begin="Assembly Election 2022"/>
{{Election box begin | title=[[2022 Punjab Legislative Assembly election|Punjab Assembly election, 2022]]: Gurudaspur }}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = [[Barindermeet Singh Pahra]]<ref name="Punjab INC 2022">{{cite news |title=Punjab Elections 2022: Full list of Congress Candidates and their Constituencies |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/india-news/punjab-elections-2022-full-list-of-congress-candidates/2407341/ |access-date=18 February 2022 |work=FE Online |agency=The Indian Express Group |issue=The Financial Express (India) |date=February 18, 2022}}</ref>
|votes = 43,743
|percentage = 35.23
|change = {{decrease}}22.74
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Shiromani Akali Dal
|candidate = [[Gurbachan Singh Babbehali]]
|votes = 36,408
|percentage = 29.33
|change = {{decrease}}3.85
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Aam Aadmi Party
|candidate = Raman Bahl
|votes = 29,500
|percentage = 23.76
|change = {{increase}}17.81
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = [[Parminder Singh Gill]]
|votes = 9,819
|percentage = 7.91
|change = ''New''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Sanyukt Sangharsh Party
|candidate = Inderpal Singh
|votes = 2,391
|percentage = 1.93
|change = ''New''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = [[None of the above]]
|party = None of the above (India)
|votes = 699
|percentage = 0.56
|change = {{increase}}0.05
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 7,335
|percentage = 5.90
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 124,152
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box registered electors
|reg. electors = {{formatnum:169628}}
|ref=<ref name="Punjab Election 2022">{{cite web |title=Punjab General Legislative Election 2022 |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/14165-punjab-general-legislative-election-2022/ |website=Election Commission of India |access-date=18 May 2022}}</ref>
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|winner=Indian National Congress|swing=}}
{{Election box end}}<section end="Assembly Election 2022"/>

===2017===
 <section begin="Assembly Election 2017"/>
{{Election box begin | title=[[2017 Punjab Legislative Assembly election|Punjab Assembly election, 2017]]: Gurudaspur<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.punjabassembly.nic.in/index.php/members/detail/9|title= Gurudaspur Assembly election result, 2017|accessdate= 13 January 2017}}</ref><ref name=election2017>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3614-punjab-general-legislative-election-2017/ |title=Punjab General Legislative Election 2017 |author=Election Commission of India |access-date= 26 June 2021}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = [[Barindermeet Singh Pahra]]
|votes = 67,709
|percentage = 57.97
|change = {{increase}}21.33
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Shiromani Akali Dal
|candidate = [[Gurbachan Singh Babbehali]]
|votes = 38,753
|percentage = 33.18
|change = {{decrease}}24.07
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Aam Aadmi Party
|candidate = Amarjit Singh Chahal
|votes = 6,949
|percentage = 5.95
|change = new
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = None of the above
|candidate = None of the above
|votes = 593
|percentage = 0.51
|change = --
}}
{{Election box majority|votes=28,956|percentage=24.88|change=}}
{{Election box turnout|votes=117,390|percentage=75.60|change={{increase}}0.88}}
{{Election box registered electors
|reg. electors = {{formatnum:152519}}
|ref=<ref name=electors>{{cite web |url=http://ceopunjab.nic.in/English/Elections/SE/VS2017/D03-Electors%20and%20Polling%20Stations%20VS%202017.pdf |title=Electors and Polling Stations - VS 2017 |author=Chief Electoral Officer - Punjab |access-date= 24 June 2021}}</ref>
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|winner=Indian National Congress|loser=Shiromani Akali Dal|swing=}}
{{Election box end}}<section end="Assembly Election 2017"/>

===2012===
 <section begin="Assembly Election 2012"/>
{{Election box begin | title=[[2012 Punjab Legislative Assembly election|Punjab Assembly election, 2012]]: Gurudaspur<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.punjabassembly.nic.in/index.php/members/detail/9|title= Gurudaspur Assembly election result, 2012|accessdate= 13 January 2017}}</ref><ref name=election2012>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3614-punjab-general-legislative-election-2012/ |title=Punjab General Legislative Election 2012 |author=Election Commission of India |access-date= 26 June 2021}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Shiromani Akali Dal
|candidate = [[Gurbachan Singh Babbehali]]
|votes = 59,905
|percentage = 57.25
|change = {{increase}}7.57
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Raman Bahl
|votes = 38,335
|percentage = 36.64
|change = {{decrease}}8.85
}}
{{Election box majority|votes=19,570|percentage=18.70|change=}}
{{Election box turnout|votes=104,629|percentage=74.72|change={{increase}}1.20}}

{{Election box hold with party link|winner=Shiromani Akali Dal|swing=}}
{{Election box end}}<section end="Assembly Election 2012"/>

===2007===
 <section begin="Assembly Election 2007"/>
{{Election box begin | title=[[2007 Punjab Legislative Assembly election|Punjab Assembly election, 2007]]: Gurudaspur<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.punjabassembly.nic.in/index.php/members/detail/9|title= Gurudaspur Assembly election result, 2007|accessdate= 13 January 2017}}</ref><ref name=election2007>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3614-punjab-general-legislative-election-2007/ |title=Punjab General Legislative Election 2007 |author=Election Commission of India |access-date= 26 June 2021}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Shiromani Akali Dal
|candidate = [[Gurbachan Singh Babbehali]]
|votes = 51,446
|percentage = 49.68
|change = {{increase}}20.02
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Pritam Singh Bhinder
|votes = 47,109
|percentage = 45.49
|change = {{increase}}1.23
}}
{{Election box majority|votes=4,337|percentage=4.18|change=}}
{{Election box turnout|votes=103,540|percentage=73.52|change={{increase}}7.97}}

{{Election box gain with party link|winner=Shiromani Akali Dal|loser=Indian National Congress|swing=}}
{{Election box end}}<section end="Assembly Election 2007"/>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cite web |title=Record of all Punjab Assembly Elections |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/category/86-punjab/ |website=eci.gov.in |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=14 March 2022}}
{{Assembly constituencies of Punjab}}
{{coord|32.05|75.41|display=title}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Punjab, India]]
[[Category:Gurdaspur district]]
[[Category:Politics of Punjab, India]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1972]]
[[Category:1972 establishments in Punjab, India]]

Thalaimai Seyalagam

2026-04-14T16:02:51Z

Androidsub143:

{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2024}}
{{AI-generated|date=April 2026|reason=[[Special:Diff/1223154512|these May 2024 additions]], note [[WP:AISIGNS]] - undue emphasis on significance, vocab distro typical of 2023-24 LLM output, etc}}
{{Infobox television
| image = Thalaimai Seyalagam.jpg
| genre = [[Political thriller]]
| writer = [[G. Vasanthabalan]]
| story = S Jeyamohan [[G. Vasanthabalan]]
| screenplay = '''Dialogues:''' S.K. Jeeva Bharani Giri
| director = G. Vasanthabalan
| starring = [[Kishore (actor, born 1974)|Kishore]] [[Sriya Reddy]] [[Bharath (actor)|Bharath]] [[Kani Kusruti]]
| country = India
| language = Tamil
| num_seasons = 1
| num_episodes = 8
| list_episodes =
| executive_producer = Pooja Sarathkumar Krishna Chandar Elango
| producer = [[Radhika Sarathkumar]] [[R. Sarathkumar]]
| company = [[Radhika Sarathkumar|Radaan Mediaworks]]
| camera = [[Multi-camera]]
| theme_music_composer = [[Ghibran]] [[Simon K. King]]
| composer =
| open_theme =
| location = [[Chennai]]
| cinematography = Ravishankaran
| editor = Ravikumar M
| runtime = approx.30-40 minutes per episode
| released = {{Start date|df=yes|2024|05|17}}
| network = [[ZEE5]]
| related =
}}

'''''Thalaimai Seyalagam''''' ({{Translation|Chief Secretariat}}) is a 2024 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil-language]] [[political thriller]] [[streaming television]] series written and directed by [[Vasanthabalan]] for [[ZEE5]]. The show revolves around the cutthroat world of [[Tamil Nadu]] politics. The show is produced by [[Radhika Sarathkumar]] and [[R. Sarathkumar]] under the banner of Radaan Mediaworks.

The series explores the journey of one woman's quest for power, shedding light on the pivotal role of women in shaping political ideologies. The principal characters of the series include [[Kishore (actor, born 1974)|Kishore]], [[Sriya Reddy]], [[Bharath (actor)|Bharath]] and [[Kani Kusruti]].<ref>{{cite web|title='Thalaimai Seyalagam' teaser: Kishore, Sriya Reddy and Bharath starrer promises an engaging political thriller|url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/thalaimai-seyalagam-teaser-kishore-sriya-reddy-and-bharath-starrer-promises-an-engaging-political-thriller/article68135029.ece|website=TheHindu.com|date=3 May 2024 |language=en|access-date=9 May 2024|archive-date=9 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240509010640/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/thalaimai-seyalagam-teaser-kishore-sriya-reddy-and-bharath-starrer-promises-an-engaging-political-thriller/article68135029.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> The eight episodic series premiered on [[ZEE5]] on 17 May 2024.

==Synopsis==
In the turbulent landscape of Tamil Nadu's political arena, Chief Minister Arunachalam finds himself entangled in a trial concerning a corruption scandal from fifteen years ago. With his hold on power slipping, ambitious individuals lurk like predators, eagerly eyeing the prestigious CM position. Arunachalam's foes, including opposition leader Amudhavalli, his daughter, and his scheming son-in-law Hariharan, plot to seize control. Meanwhile, Arunachalam's trusted ally Kotravai, an experienced journalist, encounters unexpected challenges. As the saga unfolds, diverse strands of inquiry converge, revealing long-concealed truths.

== Cast ==

* [[Kishore (actor, born 1974)|Kishore]] as Chief Minister Arunachalam
* [[Sriya Reddy]] as Kottravai
* [[Kani Kusruti]] as Durga
* [[Bharath (actor)|Bharath]] as Inspector Manigandan and later DCP
* [[Remya Nambeesan]] as Amudhavalli
* [[Y. G. Mahendran]] as Advocate Rangarajan
* [[Santhana Bharathi]] as Minister Selvapuviarasan
* [[Shaji Chen]] as Political broker Krishnamurti
* [[Adithya Menon]] as CBI officer Nawaz Khan
* Niroop Nandakumar as Minister Hariharan
* [[Dharsha Gupta]] as Sundari
* Sara Black as Maya
* [[Siddharth Vipin]] as Pragadeesh
* [[Kanya Bharathi]]

== Development ==
=== Production ===
The series was announced as a part of ZEE5's future slate of content in April 2022.<ref>{{cite web|date=6 April 2022|title=ZEE5 announces upcoming slate of releases|url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2022/Apr/06/zee5-announces-upcoming-slate-of-releases-30731.html|website=[[Cinema Express]]|language=en|access-date=9 May 2024|archive-date=9 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240509190711/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2022/Apr/06/zee5-announces-upcoming-slate-of-releases-30731.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The series is Radhika and [[R. Sarathkumar]]`s first collaboration with [[ZEE5]].{{cn|date=October 2024}} The show based on the life of the politician in Tamil Nadu.

[[Vasanthabalan]] of ''[[Veyil (2006 film)|Veyil]]'' (2006), ''[[Angaadi Theru]]'' (2008) and ''[[Kaaviya Thalaivan (2014 film)|Kaaviya Thalaivan]]'' (2014) fame, has directed the series that deals with the politician.<ref>{{cite web |title='நீதிக்காகக் குற்றங்கள் செய்ய வேண்டியிருக்கும்' - வசந்த பாலனின் 'தலைமைச் செயலகம் |url=https://www.nakkheeran.in/cinema/cinema-news/vasantha-balan-thalaimai-seyalagam-series-teaser-released |website=Nakkheeran.in |date=2 May 2024 |language=ta |access-date=9 May 2024 |archive-date=9 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240509190709/https://www.nakkheeran.in/cinema/cinema-news/vasantha-balan-thalaimai-seyalagam-series-teaser-released |url-status=live }}</ref> The music for the series was composed by [[Ghibran]]. The cinematography was handled by Ravishankar, editing by Ravikumar M and Producer by [[Radhika Sarathkumar]] and [[R. Sarathkumar]] under the banner of [[Radhika Sarathkumar|Radaan Mediaworks]].<ref>{{cite web|title=ZEE5, Radhika Sarath Kumar's "Thalaimai Seyalagam" teaser out, gets a streaming date|url=https://telanganatoday.com/zee5-radhika-sarath-kumars-thalaimai-seyalagam-teaser-out-gets-a-streaming-date|website=telanganatoday.com|date=5 May 2024 |language=en|access-date=10 May 2024|archive-date=10 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240510071039/https://telanganatoday.com/zee5-radhika-sarath-kumars-thalaimai-seyalagam-teaser-out-gets-a-streaming-date|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Casting ===
[[Kishore (actor, born 1974)|Kishore]] was cast in the leading role of Chief Minister Arunachalam. [[Sriya Reddy]] was cast as Journalist Kottravai.<ref>{{cite web |title='Salaar' actress Sriya Reddy says she had to underplay her body language in 'Thalaimai Seyalagam'|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/salaar-actress-sriya-reddy-says-she-had-to-underplay-her-body-language-in-thalaimai-seyalagam/articleshow/109925157.cms|website=timesofindia.indiatimes.com|date=7 May 2024 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Sriya Reddy to play a power-hungry politician in Tamil web series 'Thalamai Seyalgam'|url=https://www.thestatesman.com/entertainment/sriya-reddy-to-play-a-power-hungry-politician-in-tamil-web-series-thalamai-seyalgam-1503298251.html|website=www.thestatesman.com|date=8 May 2024 |language=en|access-date=10 May 2024|archive-date=10 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240510071034/https://www.thestatesman.com/entertainment/sriya-reddy-to-play-a-power-hungry-politician-in-tamil-web-series-thalamai-seyalgam-1503298251.html|url-status=live}}</ref> actors [[Bharath (actor)|Bharath]] and [[Adithya Menon]] were selected as police officers. Veteran actors [[Y. G. Mahendran]] plays a lawyer and [[Santhana Bharathi]] plays an political leader. [[Bigg Boss (Tamil TV series) season 5|Bigg boss Tamil 5]] fame Niroop Nandakumar makes his movie debut.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bigg boss Tamil fame Niroop Nandakumar makes his movie debut|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/niroop-nandakumar-makes-his-movie-debut-with-actor-bharath/articleshow/110199463.cms|website=timesofindia.indiatimes.com|date=17 May 2024 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Release ===
It was announced in April 2022, by [[Radhika Sarathkumar]] that the series will be released on [[ZEE5]]. The first look Motion poster on 3 May 2024, The poster features a Kishore reading a newspaper which has a headline of his arrest and it also says that he has been accused of corruption and asks if the union government is responsible for this.<ref>{{cite web|title=Thalaimai Seyalagam trailer: Kishore, Shriya Reddy's thriller exposes quest for power in Tamil Nadu politics|url=https://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-thalaimai-seyalagam-trailer-kishore-shriya-reddy-s-thriller-exposes-quest-for-power-in-tamil-nadu-politics-3088656|website=www.dnaindia.com|language=en|access-date=10 May 2024|archive-date=10 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240510071033/https://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-thalaimai-seyalagam-trailer-kishore-shriya-reddy-s-thriller-exposes-quest-for-power-in-tamil-nadu-politics-3088656|url-status=live}}</ref>

The same day, first Teaser was released<ref>{{cite web |title=Thalaimai Seyalagam Teaser Out |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/radhika-sarath-kumars-thalaimai-seyalagam-to-stream-on-zee5-from-this-date-892467 |website=[[Deccan Chronicle]] |date=4 May 2024 |language=en |access-date=10 May 2024 |archive-date=10 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240510071039/https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/radhika-sarath-kumars-thalaimai-seyalagam-to-stream-on-zee5-from-this-date-892467 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title='நீதி என்பது யாதெனில்...' - வசந்தபாலனின் 'தலைமை செயலகம்' வெப் சீரிஸ் டீசர் எப்படி?|url=https://www.hindutamil.in/news/ott-platform/ott-news/1241028-vasanthabalan-directorial-thalaimai-seyalagam-series-official-tamil-teaser.html|website=www.hindutamil.in|date=3 May 2024 |language=ta|access-date=10 May 2024|archive-date=10 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240510071034/https://www.hindutamil.in/news/ott-platform/ott-news/1241028-vasanthabalan-directorial-thalaimai-seyalagam-series-official-tamil-teaser.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and the series was scheduled for a worldwide release on 17 May on [[ZEE5]].{{cn|date=October 2024}} It has also been dubbed in [[Telugu language|Telugu]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Shriya Reddy Web Series: త‌మిళ‌నాడు రాజ‌కీయాల‌పై స‌లార్ విల‌న్ శ్రియా రెడ్డి వెబ్ సిరీస్‌ - తెలుగులోనూ స్ట్రీమింగ్|url=https://telugu.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/shriya-reddy-thalaimai-seyalagam-web-series-streaming-on-zee5-ott-from-may-17th-121714713663679.html|website=hindustatimes.com|language=te|access-date=9 May 2024|archive-date=9 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240509190711/https://telugu.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/shriya-reddy-thalaimai-seyalagam-web-series-streaming-on-zee5-ott-from-may-17th-121714713663679.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

== Reception ==
Abhinav Subramanian of ''[[The Times of India]]'' rated 2.5 out of 5 and stated that "Vasanthabalan’s efforts are evident in filming Thalaimai Seyalagam. However, the series struggles to find a balance between its promising premise and its flawed execution. It offers glimpses of interest and strong performances, but is hampered by predictable plot twists, stretched screenplay and moments of Tamil serial vibe."<ref>{{Cite news |title=Thalaimai Seyalagam Season 1 Review : Power Plays and Predictable Plots |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/web-series/reviews/tamil/thalaimai-seyalagam/thalaimai-seyalagam-season-1/seasonreview/110175304.cms |access-date=2024-05-16 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

Divya Nair of ''[[Rediff.com]]'' rated it 2/5 stars and suggested, "If you are looking for an average political thriller with good performances, Thalamai Seyalagam may interest you."<ref>{{Cite web|title=Thalaimai Seyalagam Review: Strained Cliffhanger|url=https://m.rediff.com/movies/review/thalaimai-seyalagam-review/20240517.htm|date=17 May 2024|website=Rediff}}{{rating|2|5}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|32270661}}
* [https://www.zee5.com/web-series/details/thalaimai-seyalagam/0-6-4z5556586 ''Thalaimai Seyalagam''] on [[ZEE5]]
{{Vasanthabalan}}
[[Category:ZEE5 original programming]]
[[Category:2024 Tamil-language television series debuts]]
[[Category:Tamil-language thriller television series]]
[[Category:Tamil-language political television series]]
[[Category:Television shows set in Tamil Nadu]]

Pen Uran Assembly constituency

2026-04-09T18:26:09Z

Androidsub143: new a pg

{{Short description|Constituency of the Maharashtra legislative assembly in India}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Pen Uran
| type= SLA
| state = Maharashtra
| established = 1951 <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.eci.gov.in/146-archive-delimitation-orders |title= Archive Delimitation Orders - DPACO 1951 |access-date=31 January 2026 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]}}</ref>
| abolished = 1955 <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.eci.gov.in/146-archive-delimitation-orders |title= Archive Delimitation Orders - Final Order DC (1953-1955) |access-date=31 January 2026 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]}}</ref>
| electors = 57,808
| mla = Ambaji Tukaram Patil
| party = {{Party index link|Indian National Congress}}
| constituency_no =
| latest_election_year = [[1952 Bombay State Legislative Assembly election|1952]]
| district =
| loksabha_cons =
| reservation = None
}}
Pen Uran Assembly constituency was an assembly constituency in the [[India]] [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[Maharashtra]]. After 1955 Delimitation Act, its boundaries were revised and the area was added into the [[Pen Assembly constituency]].
==Members of the Legislative Assembly==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Election
! Member
! colspan=2|Party
|-
| bgcolor="#FFB2B2" | [[1952 Bombay State Legislative Assembly election|1952]] || Ambaji Tukaram Patil || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|}

==Election results==
=== Assembly Election 1952 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1952 Bombay State Legislative Assembly election]] : Pen Uran <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1951 to the Legislative Assembly of Bombay |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/StatReport_51_BOMBAY.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114083220/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/StatReport_51_BOMBAY.pdf |archive-date=14 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Ambaji Tukaram Patil |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 18,562 |percentage = 57.62% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Patil Ganpat Laxman |party = Peasants and Workers Party of India |votes = 10,424 |percentage = 32.36% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Patil Damodar Ramchandra |party = Socialist Party (India, 1948) |votes = 3,231 |percentage = 10.03% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 8,138 |percentage = 25.26% |change = }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 32,217 |percentage = 55.73% |change = }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 32,217}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 57,808 |ref = |change = }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner = Indian National Congress |swing = }}
{{Election box end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Assembly constituencies of Maharashtra}}
[[Category:Former assembly constituencies of Maharashtra]]
{{coord missing|Maharashtra}}
{{Maharashtra-geo-stub}}

1969 Indian vice presidential election

2026-04-01T10:27:30Z

Androidsub143:

{{Short description|Vice-presidential election in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}
{{Infobox election
| election_name = 1969 Indian vice presidential election
| country = India
| type = presidential
| ongoing = no
| previous_election = 1967 Indian vice presidential election
| previous_year = 1967
| next_election = 1974 Indian vice presidential election
| next_year = 1974
| election_date = 30 August 1969
| image1 =
| nominee1 = '''[[Gopal Swarup Pathak]]'''
| party1 = Independent politician
| color1 = D7D664
| home_state1 = [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| electoral_vote1 = '''400'''
| nominee2 =
| party2 =
| home_state2 =
| electoral_vote2 =
| title = [[Vice President of India|Vice President]]
| before_election = ''Vacant, last held by'' [[V. V. Giri|Varahagiri Venkata Giri]]
| before_party = Independent politician
| after_election = [[Gopal Swarup Pathak]]
| after_party = Independent politician
}}

The '''1969 Indian vice presidential election''' was held on 30 August 1969. [[Gopal Swarup Pathak]] won the election to become the fourth [[vice president of India]].<ref name=eci>[http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/President_VP_Elec2012/Vice%20Presidentail%20Election%20Background.pdf Background material regarding fourteenth election to the office of the Vice-President, 2012, Election Commission of India]</ref> The election was occurred since the sitting VP, [[Varahagiri Venkata Giri]] resigned to contest [[1969 Indian presidential election|the presidential election]] after the death of incumbent President [[Zakir Husain (politician)|Zakir Husain]].

==Schedule==
The election schedule was announced by the [[Election Commission of India]] on 31 July 1969.<ref name=election2017>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/6926-background-material-related-to-election-to-the-office-of-vice-president-of-india-2017/ |title=Background material related to Election to the office of Vice-President of India, 2017 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date= 26 January 2022}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!S.No.
!Poll Event
!Date
|-
!1.
| Last Date for filing nomination
| 9 August 1969
|-
!2.
| Date for Scrutiny of nomination
| 11 August 1969
|-
!3.
| Last Date for Withdrawal of nomination
| 14 August 1969
|-
!4.
| Date of Poll
| 30 August 1969
|-
!5.
| '''Date of Counting'''
|colspan="2" style="text-align:center| '''30 August 1969'''
|-
|}

==Result==
The Electoral College consisted of 759 members of [[Parliament of India]]. There were 6 contesting candidates and the counting of votes was taken up immediately after the conclusion of the poll. The result was declared after the first round of counting of first preference votes. Pathak was declared elected after getting 400 first preference votes.<ref name=election2017/>

==See also==
* [[1969 Indian presidential election]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Indian vice presidential elections}}

[[Category:Vice-presidential elections in India]]
[[Category:1969 elections in India|Vice President]]

Hangul

2026-03-29T18:17:08Z

Androidsub143: small update formatting as per guidelines and added references after review

{{Short description|Native alphabet of the Korean language}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=October 2025}}
{{Infobox writing system
| name = Korean alphabet
| type = [[Alphabet]]
| sample = Hangul chosongul fontembed.svg
| caption = Hangul text. Top is the North Korean name, {{tlit|ko|mr|Chosŏn'gŭl}}, and bottom is the international and South Korean name, {{tlit|ko|Hangul}} or {{tlit|ko|rr|Hangeul}}
| languages = {{hlist | [[Korean language|Korean]] | [[Jeju language|Jeju]] | [[Cia-Cia language|Cia-Cia]] }}
| time = 1443 or 1444 to present
| unicode = {{Plainlist|
* [[Hangul Syllables]]: U+AC00–U+D7AF
* [[Hangul Jamo (Unicode block)|Hangul Jamo]]: U+1100–U+11FF
* [[Hangul Compatibility Jamo]]: U+3130–U+318F
* [[Hangul Jamo Extended-A]]: U+A960–U+A97F
* [[Hangul Jamo Extended-B]]: U+D7B0–U+D7FF
}}
| iso15924 = Hang
| iso15924 note = {{mono|1=Jamo}} {{mono|1=({{ISO 15924 number|alpha4=Jamo}})}} (for the jamo subset)
| direction =
* Left-to-right
* [[Horizontal and vertical writing in East Asian scripts|Top-to-bottom, columns right-to-left]]
| module = {{Infobox Korean name/auto
|child=yes
| title = North Korean name
| hangul = ^조선글
| hanja = 朝鮮글
| ipa = {{IPA|ko|tsʰo.sʰɔn.ɡɯɭ|label=}}
| othername1 = South Korean name
| hangul1 = ^한글
| hanja1 = 
| ipa1 = {{IPA|ko|ha(ː)n.ɡɯɭ|audio=Ko-한글.oga|label=}}
}}
}}
The '''Korean alphabet''' is the modern [[writing system]] for the [[Korean language]]. It has gone by a [[Names of the Korean alphabet|variety of names]], such as '''{{tlit|ko|mr|Chosŏn'gŭl}}'''{{Efn|{{Korean/auto|조선글|ko_ipa=tsʰo.sʰɔn.ɡɯɭ}}}} in [[North Korea]], '''''Hangul''''' internationally, and '''{{tlit|ko|rr|Hangeul}}'''{{efn|{{lang|ko|한글}}; {{IPAc-en|lang|ˈ|h|ɑː|n|g|uː|l|audio=Ko-한글.oga}} {{Respell|HAHN|gool}}}} in [[South Korea]]. The script's original name was '''{{tlit|ko|rr|Hunminjeongeum}}'''.{{efn|{{Korean|hangul=훈민정음|hanja=訓民正音|labels=no}}}}

Before Hangul's creation, Korea had been using [[Hanja]] ([[Chinese characters]]) since antiquity. As Hanja was poorly suited for representing the Korean language, and because its difficulty contributed to high [[literacy|illiteracy]], Joseon king [[Sejong the Great]] ({{reign|1418|1450}}) moved to [[Origin of Hangul|create Hangul]]. The script was announced around late 1443 to early 1444 and officially published in 1446 via the text ''[[Hunminjeongeum]]'' and its companion commentary ''[[Hunminjeongeum Haerye]]''. While Hangul saw gradual adoption among both the elite and commoners, it was looked down upon by the elite for centuries. It only began to receive societal acceptance in the late 19th century. It is now the predominant script for Korean in both Koreas and among the [[Korean diaspora]]. It is also used to write the [[Jeju language]], and to a limited degree, the [[Cia-Cia language]] of Indonesia.

[[Hangul orthography]] has changed over time and differs between North and South Korea. Modern Korean language orthographies use 24{{efn|24 is the letter count used by international and South Korean scholars. North Korea considers the alphabet to have 40 letters, although both Koreas use the same set of letters. {{crossreference|See {{slink|#Letter counts}}.}}}} basic letters, which are called ''jamo''. These 14 consonants and 10 vowels can be combined to yield 27 additional letters; a total of 51. They are arranged in syllable blocks consisting of an initial consonant, a vowel, and an optional final consonant. The syllables can be arranged in [[Horizontal and vertical writing in East Asian scripts|vertical or horizontal rows]], although the latter practice has become dominant. [[Korean punctuation|Hangul punctuation]] is now largely similar to Western punctuation, with some differences. [[Space (punctuation)|Spaces]] between words or phrases are a modern feature of Hangul.

[[Origin of Hangul#Official narrative for letter design|Hangul letters were designed]] to be graphically simple, and traditionally consisted of only straight lines, dots, and circles. The shapes of 5 basic consonants are based on those of [[Place of articulation|human speech organs]]. Most of the other basic consonants, which are considered to correspond to "harsher" sounds than those 5, are derived by adding additional lines to those letters to indicate progressively harsher sounds. There are a [[Origin of Hangul#Hypothesized inspirations for Hangul|number of other hypothesized inspirations for the letter shapes]], but these are still debated.

The script has received significant praise from international linguists and historians. It is now a major point of pride for Korean people.

== Names ==
{{Main|Names of the Korean alphabet}}
The Korean alphabet has been referred to by various names since its invention. Its original name was ''Hunminjeongeum'' ({{Korean/auto|hangul=^훈민_정음|hanja=訓民正音|mr=yes|lit=Correct Sounds for the Instruction of the People|labels=no}}). It shared this name with [[Hunminjeongeum|the manuscript that introduced it]].{{Sfn|홍윤표|2019|pp=63–64}}

Internationally, the script goes by ''Hangul''. This spelling has been adopted as a word in the English language<ref name="MW">{{cite web |title=Hangul |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/hangul |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220218052113/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/hangul |archive-date=18 February 2022 |access-date=15 August 2017 |website=[[Merriam-Webster]]}}</ref> and is used by organizations like the [[International Organization for Standardization]] (which gives it the four-letter code <code>Hang</code> and numeric code <code>286</code>).<ref>{{Cite web |title=ISO 15924 Code Lists: Codes for the representation of names of scripts |url=https://unicode.org/iso15924/iso15924-codes.html |access-date=2025-09-23 |website=[[Unicode]]}}</ref> ''Hangul'' is an ad-hoc romanization of the name South Korea uses for the script; South Korea's preferred [[Revised Romanization of Korean|Revised Romanization]] system renders this as ''Hangeul'' ({{Lang|ko|한글}}). The [[McCune–Reischauer]] and related romanization systems render this as ''Han{{'}}gŭl''. Without diacritics, this is rendered as ''Hangul''. The name means ''script of Han'', where ''Han'' is one of the [[names of Korea]].{{Sfn|Cho|Whitman|2019|p=30}} The name appeared some time around the early 1910s.{{Sfn|홍윤표|2019|pp=38, 68}}<ref name=":2">{{Cite encyclopedia |author=김민수 |script-title=ko:한글모죽보기 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]] |url=https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0061516 |access-date=2025-10-02 |publisher=[[Academy of Korean Studies]] |language=ko |archive-date=June 20, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250620230710/https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0061516 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In North Korea, the name ''Hangul'' was briefly used until it was replaced by ''Chosŏn'gŭl'' in 1949. This is in part due to differing preferences for names of Korea: North Korea refers to the whole of Korea as ''Chosŏn'', while South Korea uses ''Hanguk''.<ref name=":0">{{Cite magazine |author=홍윤표 |date=June 2018 |script-title=ko:한글 사용에 남북한은 어떠한 차이가 있을까? |trans-title=What differences are there in the use of Hangul between North and South Korea? |url=https://www.hangeul.go.kr/webzine/201806/sub1_1.html |access-date=2025-09-23 |magazine=한박웃음 |publisher=[[National Hangeul Museum]] |language=ko |issue=59}}</ref>

The script also historically went by a variety of other names, including ''ŏnmun'' ({{Korean|hangul=언문|hanja=諺文|labels=no|lit=vernacular script}}),{{sfnm|1a1=Kim-Renaud|1y=2000|1pp=17–18|2a1=Pratt|2y=2007|2p=122|3a1=Ramsey|3y=1992|3p=44|4a1=Song|4y=2006|4pp=47–48}} ''panjŏl'' ({{Korean|hangul=반절|hanja=反切|labels=no}}),{{Sfn|홍윤표|2019|pp=66–67}} and {{Korean/auto|hangul=국문|hanja=國文|mr=yes|lit=national script|labels=no|order=mhz|out=yes}}.{{Sfn|홍윤표|2019|p=67}}

== Classifications ==
Hangul is a [[Writing system#Classification by basic linguistic unit|phonographic script]]: a writing system where [[Grapheme|graphemes]] represent the sounds of a language. It is also an [[alphabet]].{{Sfn|Sampson|1985|p=120}} The script is often described as "syllabic" because of how its letters are grouped into syllables {{crossreference|(see {{slink|#Syllable blocks}})}},{{sfnm|1a1=Lee|1a2=Ramsey|1y=2011|1p=122|2a1=Kim|2y=1997|2p=152}} although linguist [[John DeFrancis]] is skeptical of this.{{Sfn|DeFrancis|1989|p=192}} Several linguists have instead argued for calling it an "alphabetic syllabary", "syllabic alphabet", or "alpha-syllabary".{{Sfnm|1a1=Pae|1y=2011|1pp=104, 114|2a1=Taylor|2a2=Taylor|2y=2014|2p=198}} While Hangul was originally a more [[Phonemic orthography|phonemic]] script (where spelling is strictly tied to pronunciation), modern Hangul has become more [[Morphophonemic orthography|morphophonemic]] (where some pronunciation changes are not reflected in spelling) over time {{crossreference|(see {{slink|Hangul orthography|Buncheol vs. yeoncheol debate}})}}.{{sfnm|1a1=DeFrancis|1y=1989|1pp=193–194|2a1=Lee|2y=1997|2pp=19–23}}

Hangul and mixed script are considered to have a property called ''[[ŏnmun ilch'i]]'' ({{Korean|hangul=언문일치|hanja=言文一致|labels=no|lit=spoken–written agreement}}): tight correspondence between pronunciation and text. By contrast, the [[Idu script|Idu]] and [[Kugyŏl]] scripts for writing Korean do not have this property.{{Efn|Idu and Kugyŏl sometimes match single Chinese characters to multisyllabic Korean words.{{sfn|Ahn|2018|p=251}}}}{{Sfnm|1a1=Ahn|1y=2018|1p=252|2a1=Pae|2a2=Winskel|2a3=Kim|2y=2025a|2p=37}} Pae, Winskel, and Kim argue this property was initially stronger but weakened over time due to changes in the language and script.{{Sfn|Pae|Winskel|Kim|2025a|p=37}}

=== Featural script ===
Some scholars argue that Hangul is what is called a "[[Featural writing system|featural script]]": a writing system where the shapes of the symbols encode phonological features of the spoken language they represent. The term was coined by Sampson in a 1985 book, wherein he argued Hangul was featural. This argument is largely based on the ''Haerye''{{'}}s explanations for the derivations of the letter shapes.{{sfnm|1a1=Sampson|1y=1985|1pp=40–42|2a1=Park|2y=2015|2p=22|3a1=Cho|3a2=Whitman|3y=2019|3pp=31–32|4a1=Meletis|4y=2025|4p=524}}

In a 1989 book, DeFrancis praises Hangul but questions Sampson's classification of Hangul as featural. He argues that Hangul encodes too few features of Korean and that most people literate in Hangul do not actively learn or process the featural principles used to construct the shapes of the letters.{{sfn|DeFrancis|1989|pp=196–198}} In a 1997 book, Chin-Woo Kim rebuts DeFrancis's argument. He argues that DeFrancis relies on a count of Korean's features that is too high, and that other scholars provide lower counts. He also argues that, even if one accepts that most do not learn or perceive Hangul's featural aspects, that does not mean such aspects do not exist. Kim also claims that scholars argue Hangul is not a featural script because it does not neatly abide by [[Distinctive feature|Jakobsonian distinctive features]].{{Sfn|Kim|1997|pp=145, 148–150}} In the same book, linguist [[Young-Key Kim-Renaud]] argues against a featural label. She argues it should be considered that the derivation rules are applied to varying quality and that some symbols represent or contribute to multiple significantly different sounds. Kim-Renaud gives the example of the dot: the dot is used as a vowel ({{Lang|ko|ㆍ}}) and a component in other vowels (e.g. two of them in {{Lang|ko|ㅑ}}). When used as a component, it does not carry the meaning of the dot vowel.{{Sfn|Kim-Renaud|1997b|p=184}} Linguists Pae, Winskel, and Kim argue that the featural designation is difficult to [[Falsifiability|falsify]], debatable, and uncertain.{{Sfn|Pae|Winskel|Kim|2025a|pp=33–35}} Linguists Taylor and Taylor argue that not all of Hangul's letters are derived from articulatory features and their shape communicates little to learners and users of Korean.{{Sfn|Taylor|Taylor|2014|p=198}} Linguist Dimitrios Meletis feels that the label is given too much attention, and that the stroke addition rule and philosophical concepts behind the letters are not purely featural.{{sfn|Meletis|2025|pp=524–525}}

== History ==
{{Main|History of Hangul}}

=== Background ===
Before the invention of Hangul, Korea had been using [[Hanja]] ([[Chinese characters]]) since antiquity. The difficulty of the script limited its use to mostly upper-class people; commoners were largely illiterate.{{sfnm|1a1=Sohn|1y=2001|1p=122|2a1=Haarmann|2y=1993|2pp=144–145}} Hanja is not well suited for representing the [[Korean language]]; the Chinese and Korean [[Language family|languages are not closely related]] and differ in significant ways. For example, [[Classical Chinese]] uses [[subject–verb–object word order]] while [[Middle Korean]] uses [[subject–object–verb word order]].{{sfnm|1a1=Wang|1y=2023|1pp=70–71|2a1=Haarmann|2y=1993|2p=145|3a1=Kim-Renaud|3y=2000|3p=18}} Korean pronunciation and ideas could only be indirectly represented.{{Sfnm|1a1=Lee|1a2=Ramsey|1y=2011|1pp=1–2|2a1=Kim|2y=2005|2pp=3, 7–9|3a1=Oh|3y=2013|3pp=140–142}}

=== Origin ===
{{Main|Origin of Hangul}}
[[File:Hunminjeongum.jpg|thumb|First page of the ''[[Hunminjeongeum]]'', which formally introduced Hangul]]
Due to a lack of records, it is unknown when work on Hangul first began, nor what that process looked like.{{Sfn|Ledyard|1990|p=13}} Joseon king [[Sejong the Great]] ({{Reign|1418|1450}}) was responsible for Hangul's creation, and most scholars believe he was significantly personally involved in creating it.{{sfnm|1a1=Lee|1y=2009|1p=14|2a1=Ahn|2y=2004|2p=6}} Hangul was first introduced, likely in a mostly complete form, to Sejong's court in the 12th month of 1443 of the [[Korean calendar]] (around December 30, 1443 to January 28, 1444 in the [[Gregorian calendar]]).{{sfnm|1a1=Ledyard|1y=1998|1pp=85, 134–136|2a1=Yoo|2y=2006|2p=32}} Work then began on applying the script and developing official documentation for it. Part of this effort resulted in the creation of ''[[Yongbiŏch'ŏn'ga]]'', the first ever piece of Hangul literature.{{Sfn|Paek|2011|p=3}}

In the 9th month of 1446 ([[Hangul Day#Creation date of Hangul|the specific day of publication is not known]]), Hangul was officially promulgated via the introductory texts ''[[Hunminjeongeum]]'' and ''[[Hunminjeongeum Haerye]].{{sfnm|1a1=Ledyard|1y=1998|1pp=161–162|2a1=Ramsey|2y=1992|2pp=44–45}}'' The ''Hunminjeongeum'' begins with this now famous preface by Sejong:{{sfnm|1a1=Ledyard|1y=1998|1p=170|2a1=Wang|2y=2014|2p=60|3a1=Kim-Renaud|3y=2000|3p=17}}
{{Blockquote|text=The sounds of our country's language are different from those of the [[Names of China|Middle Kingdom]] and are not confluent with the sounds of characters. Therefore, among the ignorant people, there have been many who, having something they want to put into words, have in the end been unable to express their feelings. I have been distressed because of this, and have newly designed twenty-eight letters, which I wish to have everyone practice at their ease and make convenient for their daily use.{{sfnm|1a1=Ledyard|1y=1998|1p=170|2a1=Kim|2y=2000|2p=7|3a1=Kim-Renaud|3y=2000|3p=17}}|author=Sejong the Great|source=preface|title=''Hunminjeongeum''}}
Critics of Hangul emerged soon after its introduction. They argued that a native Korean script was too far a departure from [[Sadae|Chinese civilization, which they insisted Korea should be deferent to]] in a [[Confucianism|Confucian]] manner.{{sfnm|1a1=Ledyard|1y=1998|1pp=150–151|2a1=Wang|2y=2014|2p=60|3a1=Yoo|3y=2006|3p=26}} Modern historians have argued that elitism and self-interest were other motivators for anti-Hangul elite; literacy in Hanja was then seen as a status symbol and general literacy was seen as potentially harming their social positions.{{Sfnm|1a1=Ledyard|1y=1998|1pp=150–152|2a1=Haarmann|2y=1993|2pp=152–154|3a1=Song|3y=2006|3pp=47–48}}

=== Spread ===
[[File:Honggildongjeon.jpg|thumb|A copy of the landmark novel ''[[Hong Gildong jeon]]'']]
While Sejong had attempted to spread Hangul throughout the government and society, his efforts had limited success.{{sfnm|1a1=Ledyard|1y=1998|1p=379|2a1=Yoo|2y=2006|2p=33}} Hangul was only rarely used during the 15th century; its use was largely centered in Seoul, among people close to the royal family and court.{{Sfn|Ledyard|1998|pp=379–380}} It only began to spread outside of Seoul in the 16th century.{{Sfn|Ahn|2018|pp=253–256}} Women and Buddhists were significant early adopters of the script. While Hangul was rarely taught in traditional Confucianist curricula, it was often taught by women in the home.{{Sfn|Paek|2011|pp=20–21}}

[[Yeonsangun of Joseon|King Yeonsangun]] ({{Reign|1495|1506}}) persecuted the use of Hangul during the 1504 {{Ill|second literati purge|ko|갑자사화}}, after learning that criticisms of him had been written in the script.{{sfnm|1a1=Park|1y=2015|1pp=82–83|2a1=Kim|2y=2005|2p=135}} In the 16th century, the government agency [[Bureau of Interpreters]] became a significant center for Hangul scholarship, with one of its members [[Ch'oe Sejin]] still being revered today for his lasting contributions to the script and Korean linguistics.{{Sfnm|1a1=Lee|1a2=Ramsey|1y=2011|1pp=111–112|2a1=Ahn|2y=2018|2p=219|3a1=Cho|3a2=Whitman|3y=2019|3pp=48–49}}

[[Hangul orthography]] experienced significant changes in the script's early history. Around the time of Hangul's promulgation, an apparent dispute between whether to use a [[Phonemic orthography|phonemic or morphophonemic orthography]] resulted in an apparent victory for the morphophonemic faction; among that faction was Sejong himself.{{sfnm|1a1=Kim|1y=2005|1pp=27–30|2a1=Lee|2y=1997|2pp=19–23|3a1=Kim-Renaud|3y=1997b|3pp=179–180|4a1=Ahn|4y=2018|4pp=282–289}} [[Obsolete Hangul letters|A number of letters gradually stopped seeing significant use]] by the late 16th century, including the base letters {{Lang|ko|[[ㅿ]]}} and {{Lang|ko|[[ㆆ]]}}.{{Sfnm|1a1=Lee|1a2=Ramsey|1y=2011|1p=142|2a1=Ledyard|2y=1998|2p=231}} By the 17th century, the letters {{Lang|ko|[[ㅇ]]}} and {{lang|ko|[[ㆁ]]}} had merged into one.{{Sfnm|1a1=Ledyard|1y=1998|1pp=213–214, 245–246|2a1=Lee|2y=1997b|2pp=110–111|3a1=Sampson|3y=1985|3pp=127–128}} {{Ill|Tone markings in Hangul|lt=Tone markings|ko|방점}} for Hangul stopped being used around the 16th century.{{sfnm|1a1=Ledyard|1y=1998|1pp=255–256|2a1=Kim-Renaud|2y=1997b|2p=176|3a1=Cho|3a2=Whitman|3y=2019|3p=49}} The chaotic 1592–1598 [[Imjin War]] caused significant disruption and inconsistencies to Hangul orthography that persisted and even worsened into the late 19th century.{{Sfn|Lee|Ramsey|2011|pp=253–254}}

Hangul popular literature and ''[[sijo]]'' poetry began to flourish around the 17th century.{{Sfn|Lee|Ramsey|2011|pp=249–250}} The landmark novel ''[[Hong Gildong jeon]]'' was published around the beginning of the century.{{Sfn|Lee|Ramsey|2011|p=250}}

=== Enlightenment and Korean Empire periods ===
[[File:독립신문 1897.04.07 금요일자.gif|thumb|''[[Tongnip sinmun]]'', the first modern Korean newspaper and the first to use pure Hangul]]
With the end of Korea's [[isolationism]] in the 1870s, an influx of foreign ideas arrived in Korea. Around this time, Hangul began to be seen as a symbol of national identity and pride. Various Hangul reform movements arose, with many persisting into the late 20th century. Collectively, these efforts are referred to as the {{Ill|Hangul Movement|ko|한국어 운동의 역사}}.{{Sfn|Traulsen|2012|p=105}} Various issues became debated, such as whether to [[Debate on the use of Korean mixed script|use Hangul only or mixed script]],{{Sfn|Lee|Ramsey|2011|pp=287–288}} whether to [[Hangul orthography#Moasseugi vs. pureosseugi debate|abandon the syllable block structure and write linearly]],{{Sfn|King|1997|pp=222–223}} and whether to [[Hangul orthography#Horizontal vs. vertical writing debate|write vertically or horizontally]].{{Sfn|홍윤표|2019|pp=88–90}}

This era saw numerous landmark firsts for Hangul. Scottish missionary [[John Ross (missionary)|John Ross]]'s landmark 1877 work ''[[Corean Primer]]'' ({{lang|ko|조선어 첫걸음}}) saw the introduction of [[Space (punctuation)|spaces]] and horizontal writing for Hangul.{{sfn|홍윤표|2019|pp=88–90}} In 1888, a [[Morse code for non-Latin alphabets#Korean|Morse code specification for Hangul]] was developed for the first time by Korean scholar {{Ill|Kim Hagu|ko|김학우}}.{{Sfn|홍윤표|2019|pp=99–101}} In 1897, the first [[Korean Braille|Braille encoding for Hangul]], called [[Pyongyang Point]] ({{Lang|ko|평양점자}}), was invented by Canadian missionary [[Rosetta Sherwood Hall]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Chiu |first=Tasing |date=2024-07-03 |title=The tactile reading systems in East Asia: missionaries, colonialism, and unintended consequences |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00309230.2023.2269860 |journal=Paedagogica Historica |volume=60 |issue=4 |page=622 |doi=10.1080/00309230.2023.2269860 |issn=0030-9230}}</ref> This period also saw the [[History of newspapers in Korea|rise of newspapers in Korea]]. In 1886, the ''[[Hansŏng chubo]]'' became the first Korean newspaper to use mixed script.{{Sfn|Park|2015|p=130}} In 1896, ''[[Tongnip sinmun|The Independent]]'', one of the earliest independent modern Korean newspapers, was established. It was written in pure Hangul.{{Sfnm|1a1=Lee|1a2=Ramsey|1y=2011|1pp=288–289|2a1=Park|2y=2015|2p=130}}

On November 21, 1894, the Joseon government decreed pure Hangul to be the country's preferred script for administrative documents, although mixed script was also allowed.{{sfnm|1a1=Ahn|1y=2018|1pp=242–243|2a1=Kim|2y=2005|2p=35}} This edict was apparently enforced to varying degrees, as exclusive Hangul was rare in many documents even until the beginning of the colonial period.{{sfnm|1a1=Ahn|1y=2018|1p=243|2a1=Sohn|2y=2001|2pp=144–145}} Joseon was succeeded by the Korean Empire in 1897. On July 19, 1905, the Korean Empire approved the first official orthography for Hangul: the [[New Edition of National Writing]] ({{Korean|hangul=신정국문|hanja=新訂國文|labels=no}}).{{Sfn|Lee|Ramsey|2011|pp=289–290}} Ultimately, this orthography proved controversial and was not put into significant practice.{{sfnm|1a1=홍윤표|1y=2019|1pp=80–82|2a1=Park|2y=2015|2pp=138–139}}

=== Colonial period ===
[[File:개정한_한글_맞춤법_통일안-한글학회.jpg|thumb|307x307px|Cover of a revision of the {{Ill|Unified Hangul Orthography|ko|한글 맞춤법 통일안}}]]
In 1910, [[Korea under Japanese rule|Korea was colonized by the Empire of Japan]]. The Korean language and script saw varying degrees of repression during the colonial period.{{Sfn|King|2007|pp=206–207}} After the 1919 [[March First Movement]] protests, the Japanese colonial government temporarily eased suppression of Korean culture in a phenomenon now dubbed {{Ill|Cultural rule|lt=cultural rule|ja|文化政治|ko|문화 통치}}. Hangul use and reform significantly expanded as a result.{{Sfn|King|2007|p=207}}

This period saw significant orthographic reform efforts. The colonial [[Government-General of Chōsen]] published the first Hangul orthography to be put in common practice in 1912 (revised in 1921 and 1930).{{Sfn|King|1997|pp=239–240}} The [[Korean Language Society]] (KLS) published its landmark 1933 {{Ill|Unified Hangul Orthography|ko|한글 맞춤법 통일안}} (UHO). The orthographies of both North and South Korea are currently based on this one.{{sfnm|1a1=Ahn|1y=2018|1pp=296–299|2a1=King|2y=1997|2p=240}} These orthographies ended the use of the vowel {{Lang|ko|[[ㆍ]]}}, although that vowel's sound had long since disappeared from the language.{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=1997|1pp=239–240|2a1=홍윤표|2y=2019|2p=74}} The KLS also established [[Hangul Day]] in 1926.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=리의도 |year=2006 |title= |script-title=ko:한글날의 유래와 발자취 |trans-title=The Origin and Footprints of Hangul Day |url=https://www.dbpia.co.kr/journal/articleDetail?nodeId=NODE01071855 |journal=나라사랑 |language=ko |issue=111 |page=78 |issn=1739-7855 |via=[[DBpia]]}}</ref> With the rise of the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]], colonial repression of Hangul and the Korean language increased. The KLS [[Korean Language Society incident|was arrested en masse and tortured]] beginning in 1942. Hangul reform activity significantly slowed until the 1945 liberation.{{Sfn|King|2007|p=208}}

The [[Korean diaspora]] also participated in significant Hangul reform efforts. [[Koryo-saram]] (Koreans of the [[Russian Empire]] and [[Soviet Union]]) published a number of orthographic reforms,{{Sfn|King|1997|pp=240–255}} although their use of Hangul declined especially after they were subjected to [[Deportation of Koreans in the Soviet Union|a 1937 forced migration]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Son |first=Zhanna |year=2020 |title=Korean-language Textbooks (Hangul) Published in the USSR (1920-1930) |url=https://publications.hse.ru/en/articles/442577231 |journal=Journal of Multiculture and Education |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=32–33 |via=[[Higher School of Economics]] |archive-date=August 4, 2025 |access-date=November 2, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250804061339/https://publications.hse.ru/en/articles/442577231 |url-status=live }} {{Open access}}</ref> The [[Wonic Leigh Hangul typewriter|first Hangul typewriter]] was invented in 1913 by Korean-American Wonic Leigh ({{Lang|ko|이원익}}; Yi Wŏnik).{{Sfn|홍윤표|2019|pp=101–102}}

=== Liberation and division ===
1945 saw the [[liberation of Korea]] from colonial rule, as well as [[Division of Korea|its division]]. Soon after the liberation, use of [[North–South differences in the Korean language|Hangul began to diverge between the Koreas]]. Both Koreas continued orthographic reform efforts. North Korea's current {{Ill|Compendium of Korean Language Norms|ko|조선말규범집}} was published in 1966 and revised a number of times.{{Sfn|Song|2015|pp=487–488}} South Korea's [[Hangeul Orthography]] was published in 1989.{{Sfn|Ahn|2018|pp=301–302}} The South Korean language regulator [[National Institute of Korean Language]] was established in 1991.{{Sfn|Song|2015|pp=478–479}}

Soon after the liberation, both North and South Korea pushed to increase literacy, which had remained low during the colonial period. Within a decade, a significant majority of Koreans in both Koreas became literate in at least Hangul.{{sfnm|1a1=Pae|1y=2025|1p=114|2a1=King|2y=2007|2pp=210–211}} The Koreas also pushed to eliminate Hanja from writing. North Korea eliminated Hanja in 1949, although it continued to be used and taught thereafter.{{Sfn|King|2007|p=211}} South Korea oscillated between the elimination and preservation of Hanja for decades afterwards.{{Sfn|King|2007|p=211}} In the 1990s, newspapers switched to using mostly Hangul.{{Sfn|Lee|Ramsey|2011|p=289}}

The 1960s saw the rise of computers and the [[Korean language and computers|computerization of Hangul]] in South Korea.{{sfn|Park|2016|p=44}} Such efforts lacked a standard until 1974, when KS C 5601 (predecessor to the current [[KS X 1001]]) was published.{{sfn|Park|2016|p=44}} In 1995, South Korea adopted ISO 10646-1, the [[Universal Coded Character Set]], as its standard, in KS C 5700.{{Sfn|홍윤표|2019|p=113}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=2010 |title=Korean Localization |url=https://docs.oracle.com/cd/E19455-01/806-0169/6j9hsml3i/index.html |access-date=2025-10-28 |website=[[Oracle Corporation]] |archive-date=May 21, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230521063332/https://docs.oracle.com/cd/E19455-01/806-0169/6j9hsml3i/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

A Hangul internet slang culture has also developed. For example, single letters have been used to convey meaning, which is typically not allowed in mainstream orthographies. For example, {{Lang|ko|[[ㅋ]]}} indicates the sound of [[laughter]] and {{Lang|ko|[[ㅠ]]}} is a visual representation of [[crying]].{{Sfn|Harkness|2015|p=502}} In the late 2010s, the ''[[yaminjeongeum]]'' trend emerged. It substitutes similar looking letters and syllables in words, like substituting the nonsense word {{Korean/auto|hangul=댕댕이|rr=yes|labels=no|out=yes}} for {{Korean/auto|hangul=멍멍이|rr=yes|lit=doggy|labels=no|out=yes}}.<ref>{{Cite news |author1=고한솔 |author2=임재우 |date=2017-10-08 |script-title=ko:롬곡롬곡·댕댕이·띵곡…'야민정음' 아세요 |trans-title=Romgokromgok, daengdaengi, ttinggok... Do you know of 'yaminjeongeum'? |url=https://www.hani.co.kr/arti/society/society_general/813654.html |access-date=2025-11-02 |work=[[The Hankyoreh]] |language=ko |archive-date=May 24, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250524050925/https://www.hani.co.kr/arti/society/society_general/813654.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Lim |first=Jae-seong |date=2022-10-07 |title=[Newsmaker] What is 'daengdaengi?' Government's use of Hangeul slang stirs controversy |url=https://www.koreaherald.com/article/2973816 |access-date=2025-11-02 |work=[[The Korea Herald]] |archive-date=March 24, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250324032822/https://www.koreaherald.com/article/2973816 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Distribution outside Korea ==
{{See also|Korean as a foreign language|Korean language#Geographic distribution|Korean diaspora}}
Hangul has remained in significant use among parts of the [[Korean Chinese|Korean diaspora in China]]. In the [[Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture]] and [[Changbai Korean Autonomous County]], it is an official writing system.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pae |first=Hye K. |date=2024 |title=Analyzing the Korean Alphabet |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-031-49633-2 |journal=SpringerLink |language=en |page=90 |doi=10.1007/978-3-031-49633-2}}</ref> One 2004 book claimed that around 81% of the Korean population in China is literate in Hangul.{{Sfn|Brown|Yeon|2015b|p=465}} Hangul sees a moderate degree of use in Japan. In the mid 20th century, ''[[Chōsen gakkō]]'' and ''{{Ill|Kankoku gakkō|ja|韓国学校}}'', schools aligned with North and South Korea respectively, were significant centers of Hangul education in Japan. Now, a significant majority of [[Koreans in Japan|ethnic Koreans in Japan]] attend regular Japanese schools and have low Korean language ability and Hangul literacy. Otherwise, Hangul is often used for the numerous South Korean tourists, who form a significant proportion of tourists to the country. The rise of the [[Korean Wave]] around the beginning of the 21st century has corresponded with a rise in Korean language education for Japanese people.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ohe |first=Hye-Gyeong |url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/language-communities-in-japan-9780198856610 |title=Language Communities in Japan |date=25 April 2022 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-885661-0 |editor-last=Maher |editor-first=John C. |pages=82–90 |chapter=Korean: Transnational links of language and culture}}</ref> The Korean Wave has also impacted interest in [[Korean language education in the United States|Korean and Hangul in the United States]], with numerous universities and language learning tools like [[Duolingo]] teaching the subjects.<ref>{{Cite news |last=MacDonald |first=Joan |date=2013-12-11 |title=Interest In Learning Korean Grows With The Popularity Of The Hallyu |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/joanmacdonald/2023/12/11/interest-in-learning-korean-grows-with-the-popularity-of-the-hallyu/ |access-date=2025-11-07 |work=[[Forbes]] |language=en}}</ref>

== Letters ==
{{See also|Hangul consonant and vowel tables|List of Hangul jamo}}
Letters in the Korean alphabet are called ''{{transliteration|ko|rr|jamo}}'' ({{Korean|자모|hanja=字母|labels=no}}).<ref name="encyko jamo" /> Hangul letters generally have more consistent pronunciations than those of other scripts.{{Sfn|Pae|2011|p=108}}

=== Letter counts ===
The current mainstream Hangul orthographies for Korean use 24 basic ''jamo'': 14 basic [[Consonant|consonants]] ({{Korean/auto|hangul=자음|hanja=子音|rr=yes|lit=child sound|labels=no}}<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |author=최명옥 |script-title=ko:자음 (子音) |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]] |url=https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0048042 |access-date=2025-09-23 |publisher=[[Academy of Korean Studies]] |language=ko |archive-date=June 15, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250615143113/https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0048042 |url-status=live }}</ref>) and 10 basic [[Vowel|vowels]] ({{Korean/auto|hangul=모음|hanja=母音|rr=yes|lit=mother sound|labels=no}}<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |script-title=ko:모음 (母音) |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]] |publisher=[[Academy of Korean Studies]] |url=https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0018535 |access-date=2025-09-23 |author=최명옥 |language=ko |trans-title=Vowels |archive-date=June 19, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250619034905/https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0018535 |url-status=live }}</ref>).<ref name="encyko jamo">{{Cite encyclopedia |author=강신항 |script-title=ko:자모 (字母) |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]] |url=https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0047911 |access-date=2025-09-23 |publisher=[[Academy of Korean Studies]] |language=ko |author2=유창균 |archive-date=August 12, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250812055435/http://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0047911 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Sfn|Pae|Winskel|Kim|2025a|p=36}} The basic letters can be modified and combined to yield 51 ''jamo'' in total. Duplications result in 5 additional consonants ({{lang|ko|ㄲ}}, {{lang|ko|ㄸ}}, {{lang|ko|ㅃ}}, {{lang|ko|ㅆ}}, {{lang|ko|ㅉ}}), and modifications and combinations result in 11 additional vowels ({{lang|ko|ㅐ}}, {{lang|ko|ㅒ}}, {{lang|ko|ㅔ}}, {{lang|ko|ㅖ}}, {{lang|ko|ㅘ}}, {{lang|ko|ㅙ}}, {{lang|ko|ㅚ}}, {{lang|ko|ㅝ}}, {{lang|ko|ㅞ}}, {{lang|ko|ㅟ}}, {{lang|ko|ㅢ}}){{Sfn|Song|2006|pp=48–51}} and 11 additional heterogeneous consonant digraphs ({{lang|ko|ㄳ}}, {{lang|ko|ㄵ}}, {{lang|ko|ㄶ}}, {{lang|ko|ㄺ}}, {{lang|ko|ㄻ}}, {{lang|ko|ㄼ}}, {{lang|ko|ㄽ}}, {{lang|ko|ㄾ}}, {{lang|ko|ㄿ}}, {{lang|ko|ㅀ}}, {{lang|ko|ㅄ}}).{{efn|In general, horizontal consonant clusters are called {{Korean/auto|hangul=병서|hanja=竝書|rr=yes|labels=no|order=rhz|out=yes}}. Digraphs that are composed of duplicate consonants (e.g. {{lang|ko|ㄲ}}) are called {{korean/auto|각자병서|各自並書|rr=yes|out=yes|order=rhz|labels=no}}. Clusters where the consonants differ are called {{korean/auto|합용병서|合用竝書|rr=yes|out=yes|order=rhz|labels=no}}.{{sfn|홍윤표|2019|pp=48–49}}}} South Korea considers Hangul to have 24 letters (only counting basic letters) and North Korea 40 (not counting 11 heterogeneous consonant digraphs).{{Sfnm|1a1=Taylor|1a2=Taylor|1y=2014|1p=184|2a1=최호철|2y=1988|2pp=47–48}}<ref name=":0" />

Hangul uses the same letters for initial and final consonants. Some letters are not typically used as final consonants, however.{{Sfn|Park|2015|pp=62–63}}

=== Consonant letters ===
Below are the Hangul consonant letters that are in current use for Korean. They have different pronunciations as well as transcriptions in [[Revised Romanization of Korean|Revised Romanization]] depending on whether they are in the initial or final part of a syllable block.

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
|+Hangul consonant letters{{sfnm|1a1=Song|1y=2006|1pp=49–51, 66|2a1=Kim-Renaud|2y=1997c|2p=282}}<ref name="natinst">{{cite web |title=Romanization of Korean |url=http://www.korean.go.kr/front_eng/roman/roman_01.do |access-date=23 September 2025 |website=[[National Institute of Korean Language]] |archive-date=February 10, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250210183754/https://korean.go.kr/front_eng/roman/roman_01.do |url-status=live }}</ref>
! colspan="2" |Hangul
|{{lang|ko|[[ㄱ]]}}
|{{lang|ko|ㄲ}}
|{{lang|ko|[[ㄴ]]}}
|{{lang|ko|[[ㄷ]]}}
|{{lang|ko|ㄸ}}
|{{lang|ko|[[ㄹ]]}}
|{{lang|ko|[[ㅁ]]}}
|{{lang|ko|[[ㅂ]]}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅃ}}
|{{lang|ko|[[ㅅ]]}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅆ}}
|{{lang|ko|[[ㅇ]]}}
|{{lang|ko|[[ㅈ]]}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅉ}}
|{{lang|ko|[[ㅊ]]}}
|{{lang|ko|[[ㅋ]]}}
|{{lang|ko|[[ㅌ]]}}
|{{lang|ko|[[ㅍ]]}}
|{{lang|ko|[[ㅎ]]}}
|-
! rowspan="2" |Initial
![[Revised Romanization of Korean|RR]]
|''g''
|''kk''
|''n''
|''d''
|''tt''
|''r''
|''m''
|''b''
|''pp''
|''s''
|''ss''
| style="background-color:darkgray;" |{{efn-ua|{{lang|ko|ㅇ}} is [[Silent letter|silent]] when used as an initial letter. It is used as a placeholder. In RR, it is typically not transcribed. In the [[Revised Romanization of Korean#Reversible variant|reversible variant of RR]], it is transcribed as a hyphen ("-").<ref name="natinst" />}}
|''j''
|''jj''
|''ch''
|''k''
|''t''
|''p''
|''h''
|-
![[Help:IPA/Korean|IPA]]{{cn|date=November 2025|reason=The IPA values almost but don't 100% line up with Shin 2015.}}
|{{IPA|/k/}}
|{{IPA|/k͈/}}
|{{IPA|/n/}}
|{{IPA|/t/}}
|{{IPA|/t͈/}}
|{{IPA|/ɾ/}}
|{{IPA|/m/}}
|{{IPA|/p/}}
|{{IPA|/p͈/}}
|{{IPA|/s/}}
|{{IPA|/s͈/}}
|{{Ipa|/[[Zero (linguistics)|∅]]/}}
|{{IPA|/t͡ɕ/}}
|{{IPA|/t͈͡ɕ͈/}}
|{{IPA|/t͡ɕʰ/}}
|{{IPA|/kʰ/}}
|{{IPA|/tʰ/}}
|{{IPA|/pʰ/}}
|{{IPA|/h/}}
|-
! rowspan="2" |Final
! rowspan="1" |[[Revised Romanization of Korean|RR]]
|''k''
|''k''
|''n''
|''t''
|rowspan="2" style="background-color:darkgray;" |{{efn-ua|name="final"|This letter is not used as a final.}}
|''l''
|''m''
|''p''
|rowspan="2" style="background-color:darkgray;" |{{efn-ua|name="final"}}
|''t''
|''t''
|''ng''
|''t''
|rowspan="2" style="background-color:darkgray;" |{{efn-ua|name="final"}}
|''t''
|''k''
|''t''
|''p''
|''t''
|-
![[Help:IPA/Korean|IPA]]{{cn|date=November 2025|reason=The IPA values almost but don't 100% line up with Shin 2015.}}
| colspan="2" |{{IPA|/k̚/}}
|{{IPA|/n/}}
|{{IPA|/t̚/}}
|{{IPA|/ɭ/}}
|{{IPA|/m/}}
|{{IPA|/p̚/}}
| colspan="2" |{{IPA|/t̚/}}
|{{IPA|/ŋ/}}
|{{IPA|/t̚/}}
|{{IPA|/t̚/}}
|{{IPA|/k̚/}}
|{{IPA|/t̚/}}
|{{IPA|/p̚/}}
|{{IPA|/t̚/}}
|-
| colspan="21" style="font-size:85%" |
{{notelist-ua}}
|}

Korean consonants are broadly categorized into two categories:{{Sfn|Kim-Renaud|2009|pp=16–17}}

* [[Obstruent|obstruents]]: sounds produced when airflow either completely stops (i.e., a [[Stop consonant|plosive]] consonant) or passes through a narrow opening (i.e., a [[Fricative consonant|fricative]]).
* [[Sonorant|sonorants]]: sounds produced when air flows out with little to no obstruction through the mouth, nose, or both.

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
|+Consonants in standard Hangul orthography{{Sfn|Shin|2015|p=7}}{{nobold|{{cn|date=November 2025|reason=The IPA values almost but don't 100% line up with Shin 2015.}}}}
!
!
!
!Bilabial
!Alveolar
!Alveolo-palatal
!Velar
!Glottal
|-
! rowspan="8" |Obstruent
! rowspan="3" |[[Plosive]]
!Lax
|{{IPA|p}} (ㅂ)
|{{IPA|t}} (ㄷ)
|
|{{IPA|k}} (ㄱ)
|
|-
!Tense
|{{IPA|p͈}} (ㅃ)
|{{IPA|t͈}} (ㄸ)
|
|{{IPA|k͈}} (ㄲ)
|
|-
!Aspirated
|{{IPA|pʰ}} (ㅍ)
|{{IPA|tʰ}} (ㅌ)
|
|{{IPA|kʰ}} (ㅋ)
|
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
!Lax
|
|{{IPA|s}} (ㅅ)
|
|
|{{IPA|h}} (ㅎ)
|-
!Tense
|
|{{IPA|s͈}} (ㅆ)
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="3" |[[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
!Lax
|
|
|{{IPA|t͡ɕ}} (ㅈ)
|
|
|-
!Tense
|
|
|{{IPA|t͈͡ɕ͈}} (ㅉ)
|
|
|-
!Aspirated
|
|
|{{IPA|t͡ɕʰ}} (ㅊ)
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" |Sonorant
! colspan="2" |[[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
|{{IPA|m}} (ㅁ)
|{{IPA|n}} (ㄴ)
|
|{{IPA|ŋ}} (ㅇ)
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Liquid consonant|Liquid]]
|
|l (ㄹ)
|
|
|
|}

=== Vowel letters ===
Below are the basic Hangul vowel letters, digraphs and sequences currently in use for Korean.

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
|+Hangul vowel letters
!Hangul
|{{lang|ko|[[ㅏ]]}}
|{{lang|ko|[[ㅐ]]}}
|{{lang|ko|[[ㅑ]]}}
|{{lang|ko|[[ㅒ]]}}
|{{lang|ko|[[ㅓ]]}}
|{{lang|ko|[[ㅔ]]}}
|{{lang|ko|[[ㅕ]]}}
|{{lang|ko|[[ㅖ]]}}
|{{lang|ko|[[ㅗ]]}}
|{{lang|ko|[[ㅘ]]}}
|{{lang|ko|[[ㅙ]]}}
|{{lang|ko|[[ㅚ]]}}
|{{lang|ko|[[ㅛ]]}}
|{{lang|ko|[[ㅜ]]}}
|{{lang|ko|[[ㅝ]]}}
|{{lang|ko|[[ㅞ]]}}
|{{lang|ko|[[ㅟ]]}}
|{{lang|ko|[[ㅠ]]}}
|{{lang|ko|[[ㅡ]]}}
|{{lang|ko|[[ㅢ]]}}
|{{lang|ko|[[ㅣ]]}}
|-
![[Revised Romanization of Korean|RR]]<ref name="natinst" />
|''a''
|''ae''
|''ya''
|''yae''
|''eo''
|''e''
|''yeo''
|''ye''
|''o''
|''wa''
|''wae''
|''oe''
|''yo''
|''u''
|''wo''
|''we''
|''wi''
|''yu''
|''eu''
|''ui''
|''i''
|-
![[Help:IPA/Korean|IPA]]{{Cn|date=November 2025|reason=These values almost but don't 100% line up with Shin 2015}}{{Efn-ua|IPA values here are for traditional Standard Korean ([[Gyeonggi dialect|Seoul dialect]]). Current Standard South Korean has diverged from these practices.{{sfnm|1a1=Shin|1y=2015|1p=6|2a1=Qian|2y=2018|2p=34}}}}
|{{IPA|/[[open front unrounded vowel|a]]/}}
|{{IPA|/[[open-mid front unrounded vowel|ɛ]]/}}{{Efn-ua|name="eye"|text=Recent speakers pronounce both {{lang|ko|ㅐ}} and {{lang|ko|ㅔ}} as {{ipa|/ɛ/}} and {{lang|ko|ㅒ}} and {{lang|ko|ㅖ}} as {{ipa|/jɛ/}}.{{sfnm|1a1=Shin|1y=2015|1pp=4–5|2a1=Qian|2y=2018|2p=34}}}}
|{{IPA|/[[voiced palatal approximant|j]]a/}}
|{{IPA|/jɛ/}}{{Efn-ua|name="eye"}}
|{{IPA|/[[open-mid back unrounded vowel|ʌ]]/}}
|{{IPA|/[[close-mid front unrounded vowel|e]]/}}{{Efn-ua|name="eye"}}
|{{IPA|/jʌ/}}
|{{IPA|/je/}}{{Efn-ua|name="eye"}}
|{{IPA|/[[close-mid back rounded vowel|o]]/}}
|{{IPA|/[[voiced labial–velar approximant|w]]a/}}
|{{IPA|/wɛ/}}
|{{IPA|/[[close-mid front rounded vowel|ø]]/}}{{efn-ua|name="we"|Recent speakers pronounce {{lang|ko|ㅚ}}, {{lang|ko|ㅞ}}, and {{lang|ko|ㅙ}} as {{ipa|/wɛ/}}.{{sfn|Shin|2015|p=5}}}}
|{{IPA|/jo/}}
|{{IPA|/[[close back rounded vowel|u]]/}}
|{{IPA|/wʌ/}}
|{{IPA|/we/}}
|{{IPA|/[[close front rounded vowel|y]]/}}{{efn-ua|{{lang|ko|ㅟ}} is now commonly pronounced {{ipa|/wi/}}.{{sfn|Shin|2015|pp=3–5}}}}
|{{IPA|/ju/}}
|{{IPA|/[[close back unrounded vowel|ɯ]]/}}
|{{IPA|/[[voiced velar approximant|ɰ]]i/}}
|{{IPA|/[[close front unrounded vowel|i]]/}}
|-
| colspan="22" style="font-size:85%" |
{{notelist-ua}}
|}

Even though [[vowel length]] has been a feature of many historical and current [[dialects of Korean]] since the invention of Hangul, mainstream forms of Hangul have never indicated vowel length.{{sfn|Sampson|1985|pp=132–133}}

=== Letter names ===
{{Main|Hangul letter names}}

Hangul vowels have been consistently named after the sound they produce, for example {{lang|ko|ㅑ}} is named ''ya''.{{sfnm|1a1=안경상|1y=2020|1p=46|2a1=Sohn|2y=2001|2pp=140–141|3a1=Martin|3y=1992|3p=22}}

The names of the consonants have varied across time and now between North and South Korea.{{Sfn|Sohn|2001|pp=138–139}}

In South Korea, most consonant names follow a {{lang|ko|ㅣ으}} spelling pattern, where the consonant being named appears in the beginning of the first syllable and end of the second. For example, {{Lang|ko|ㅂ}} is named ''bieup'' ({{lang|ko|비읍}}). There are three exceptions: {{lang|ko|ㄱ}} is named ''giyeok'' ({{lang|ko|기역}}), {{lang|ko|ㄷ}} is named ''digeut'' ({{lang|ko|디귿}}), and {{lang|ko|ㅅ}} is named ''siot'' ({{lang|ko|시옷}}). These inconsistencies are the result of approximate Hanja transcriptions of these names in the 16th century. South Korea decided to keep these traditional spellings; these spellings had been used for centuries and had become a part of Korean culture. Doubled consonants have the prefix ''ssang'' ({{lang|ko|쌍}}) attached to the name of the letter being doubled. For example, {{lang|ko|ㅆ}} is named ''ssangsiot'' ({{lang|ko|쌍시옷}}).<ref name="NIKLQA">{{cite web |script-title=ko:한글 자모의 수는 스물넉 자로 하고, 그 순서와 이름은 다음과 같이 정한다. |trans-title=The number of Hangul letters is 24, and their order and names are as follows |url=https://korean.go.kr/kornorms/regltn/regltnView.do#a224 |access-date=2025-09-23 |website=한국어 어문규범 |publisher=[[National Institute of Korean Language]] |language=ko |archive-date=May 24, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250524190953/https://korean.go.kr/kornorms/regltn/regltnView.do#a224 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|이관규|2024|p=43}}

North Korea decided to regularize the inconsistencies to all fit the {{lang|ko|ㅣ으}} spelling pattern. For doubled consonants, North Korea uses ''toen'' ({{Korean|hangul=된|labels=no|lit=hard}}, referring to the harder pronunciation) instead of ''ssang'' ({{Korean|hangul=쌍|hanja=雙|labels=no|lit=double}}, referring to letter shapes) for the duplicated consonants (e.g. the name of {{lang|ko|ㄲ}} is {{Korean/auto|hangul=된기윽|mr=yes|labels=no}}).<ref name=":0" />{{sfnm|1a1=최호철|1y=1988|1p=37|2a1=Martin|2y=1992|2p=22}} One reason for doing this was that ''ssang'' is a [[Sino-Korean vocabulary|Sino-Korean word]], which North Korea sometimes discourages in favor of native Korean vocabulary.<ref name=":0" />

=== Design ===
{{See also|Origin of Hangul#Official narrative for letter design}}
[[File:Pronounciation ㄱ.png|thumb|The shape of {{lang|ko|ㄱ}} resembles the shape of the tongue (red line) when pronouncing the letter's sound.]]

Hangul letters were designed to be graphically simple, and originally consisted of only straight lines, dots, and circles.{{Sfn|Kim|1983|p=85}} The ''Hunminjeongeum Haerye'' provides explanations of how the shapes of Hangul letters were derived. The shapes of 5 basic consonants are based on those of [[Place of articulation|human speech organs]] during the production of the letter's sound:{{Sfnm|1a1=Lee|1a2=Ramsey|1y=2011|1pp=116–117|2a1=Ledyard|2y=1998|2pp=243–246}}

* {{Lang|ko|[[ㄱ]]}} depicts the root of the [[tongue]] blocking the upper [[palate]]
* {{Lang|ko|[[ㄴ]]}} depicts the tongue touching the upper palate
* {{Lang|ko|[[ㅁ]]}} depicts the [[mouth]]
* {{Lang|ko|[[ㅅ]]}} depicts the [[incisor]]
* {{Lang|ko|[[ㅇ]]}} depicts the [[throat]]

From these five, most of the other consonant shapes are derived. In most cases, lines are added to the letters to represent related sounds that are considered more "severe" or "harsh". For example, {{Lang|ko|ㄱ}} ({{IPA|/k/}}) {{Arrow|r}} {{Lang|ko|[[ㅋ]]}} ({{IPA|/kʰ/}}).{{Sfnm|1a1=Lee|1a2=Ramsey|1y=2011|1pp=116–117|2a1=Ledyard|2y=1998|2pp=243–246|3a1=Kim-Renaud|3y=1997b|3p=164}}

The vowels are claimed to be designed based on concepts in [[Chinese philosophy]]:{{Sfnm|1a1=Ledyard|1y=1998|1pp=204–206, 242–243, 248–249|2a1=Lee|2a2=Ramsey|2y=2011|2pp=120–121}}

* {{Lang|ko|[[ㆍ]]}}, an archaic vowel, represents [[Yin and yang|yin]] and earth
* {{Lang|ko|[[ㅡ]]}} represents yang and the sun
* {{Lang|ko|[[ㅣ]]}} represents man

The rest of the vowels are derived from these three letters, for example {{Lang|ko|ㅏ}} is a combination of {{Lang|ko|ㅣ}} and {{Lang|ko|ㆍ}} (the dot was originally drawn detached from the line, but has since become an attached short line).{{Sfnm|1a1=Ledyard|1y=1998|1pp=204–206, 242–243, 248–249|2a1=Lee|2a2=Ramsey|2y=2011|2pp=120–121|3a1=Kim|3y=1983|3p=85}} Other philosophical concepts are linked to the vowels and consonants, although modern scholars have expressed skepticism of the concepts, and by proxy, their link to Hangul.{{sfnm|1a1=Ledyard|1y=1998|1pp=285–286|2a1=Taylor|2a2=Taylor|2y=2014|2pp=185–186}}

Since Hangul's creation, scholars have also argued that perhaps other scripts may have influenced Hangul as well, although this is still debated.{{sfn|Taylor|Taylor|2014|p=194}} Chinese characters almost certainly had some influence on Hangul's design, for example in the syllable block format.{{sfnm|1a1=Pae|1y=2011|1p=107|2a1=Meletis|2y=2025|2pp=531–532}} There are a [[Origin of Hangul#Hypothesized inspirations for Hangul|variety of hypotheses]], with the [[ʼPhags-pa inspiration for Hangul hypothesis|ʼPhags-pa hypothesis]] in particular having some traction among modern scholars.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tranter |first=Nicolas |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781315028521/language-change-east-asia-mcauley |title=Language Change in East Asia |date= |publisher=Curzon Press |year=2001 |isbn=0-7007-1377-8 |editor-last=McAuley |editor-first=Thomas E. |edition=1st |pages=200–202 |language=en |chapter=Script 'Borrowing', Cultural Influence, and the Development of the Written Vernacular in East Asia |doi=10.4324/9781315028521 |via=[[Taylor & Francis]] |archive-date=June 6, 2024 |access-date=November 8, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240606102119/https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781315028521/language-change-east-asia-mcauley |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Kim |first=Chin-Woo |title=Korean Script: History and Description |date=2006-01-01 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics]] |pages=239–243 |editor-last=Brown |editor-first=Keith |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542045685 |access-date=2025-08-09 |edition=2nd |place=Oxford |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044854-1 |author-link=Chin-Woo Kim |archive-date=March 13, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120313094539/http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542045685 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Alphabetic order ===
{{Main|Hangul alphabetical order}}

The ordering of the letters has varied across time and now between North and South Korea.

The 11,172 characters in the [[Hangul Syllables]] Unicode character block follow [[Hangul alphabetical order#KS X 1026-1|a sort order]] specified in the South Korean national standard {{ill|KS X 1026-1|ko|KS X 1026-1}}. That order accounts for the various Hangul Unicode code points, including obsolete letters.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2008 |title=An introduction to Korean Standard KS X 1026-1:2007, Hangul processing guide for information interchange |url=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2008/08225-n3422.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210921132517/http://unicode.org/L2/L2008/08225-n3422.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2021 |access-date=17 September 2021 |publisher=[[Unicode Consortium]]}}</ref>

==== North Korean order ====
North Korea uses the following orders:

: Initial consonants: {{lang|ko|ㄱ ㄴ ㄷ ㄹ ㅁ ㅂ ㅅ ㅈ ㅊ ㅋ ㅌ ㅍ ㅎ ㄲ ㄸ ㅃ ㅆ ㅉ ㅇ}}{{efn|The initial {{lang|ko|ㅇ}} is introduced in North Korea's official {{ill|Compendium of Korean Language Norms|ko|조선말규범집}} after {{lang|ko|ㅅ}}.{{sfn|North Korea|2010|pp=4–6}} Some non–North Korean scholarly sources also use that ordering.{{sfnm|1a1=Sohn|1y=2001|1pp=146–147|2a1=Martin|2y=1992|2p=21}} This ordering places {{lang|ko|ㅇ}} at the end because, when it is an initial, it does not produce its own sound.<ref name=":0" />{{sfn|Martin|1992|pp=21–22}} In 1999, North Korea submitted a proposal to [[Unicode]] and [[ISO]] (that was eventually rejected) that places {{lang|ko|ㅇ}} at the end of the order for initial consonants.<ref name="N5999">{{cite web |url=https://unicode.org/L2/L1999/99380.htm |title=New Work item proposal (NP) for an amendment of the Korean part of ISO/IEC 10646-1:1993 |date=1999-12-07 |id=[[NCITS|L2]]/99-380, [[ISO/IEC JTC 1]] N5999 |website=[[Unicode Consortium]] |access-date=October 27, 2025 |archive-date=January 14, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250114193636/https://www.unicode.org/L2/L1999/99380.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>}}
: Vowels: {{lang|ko|ㅏ ㅑ ㅓ ㅕ ㅗ ㅛ ㅜ ㅠ ㅡ ㅣ ㅐ ㅒ ㅔ ㅖ ㅚ ㅟ ㅢ ㅘ ㅝ ㅙ ㅞ}}{{sfn|Sohn|2001|pp=146–147}}
: Final consonants: [[Zero (linguistics)|∅]] {{lang|ko|ㄱ ㄳ ㄴ ㄵ ㄶ ㄷ ㄹ ㄺ ㄻ ㄼ ㄽ ㄾ ㄿ ㅀ ㅁ ㅂ ㅄ ㅅ ㅇ ㅈ ㅊ ㅋ ㅌ ㅍ ㅎ ㄲ ㅆ}}{{sfnm|1a1=Sohn|1y=1997|1p=197|2a1=North Korea|2y=2010|2pp=4–6}}

Modifications and combinations of initial consonants and vowels are placed at the end of the order. Final consonants follow the same order as initial, but combinations of consonants are inserted into that order and are sorted by the second consonant.<ref name="NIKL1999">{{Cite news |url=https://korean.go.kr/nkview/nknews/d_199901.html |volume=6 |script-title=ko:옛 글자의 배열 순서와 북한의 자모 배열 순서 |author=이승재 |language=ko |trans-title=Ordering archaic Hangul and North Korea's order |newspaper=새국어 소식 |publisher=[[National Institute of Korean Language]] |year=1999 |archive-date=August 14, 2025 |access-date=October 27, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250814055500/https://korean.go.kr/nkview/nknews/d_199901.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== South Korean order ====
South Korea uses the following orders:<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.korean.go.kr/nkview/news/12/128.htm |volume=5 |script-title=ko:한글 자모의 배열 순서 |author=이승재 |language=ko |trans-title=Alphabetical order for Hangul |newspaper=새국어 소식 |publisher=[[National Institute of Korean Language]] |year=1998 |access-date=2025-10-15 |archive-date=February 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210226161705/https://www.korean.go.kr/nkview/news/12/128.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Yeon|Brown|2011|pp=9–10}}
: Initial consonants: {{lang|ko|ㄱ ㄲ ㄴ ㄷ ㄸ ㄹ ㅁ ㅂ ㅃ ㅅ ㅆ ㅇ ㅈ ㅉ ㅊ ㅋ ㅌ ㅍ ㅎ}}
: Vowels: {{lang|ko|ㅏ ㅐ ㅑ ㅒ ㅓ ㅔ ㅕ ㅖ ㅗ ㅘ ㅙ ㅚ ㅛ ㅜ ㅝ ㅞ ㅟ ㅠ ㅡ ㅢ ㅣ}}
: Final consonants: ∅ {{lang|ko|ㄱ ㄲ ㄳ ㄴ ㄵ ㄶ ㄷ ㄹ ㄺ ㄻ ㄼ ㄽ ㄾ ㄿ ㅀ ㅁ ㅂ ㅄ ㅅ ㅆ ㅇ ㅈ ㅊ ㅋ ㅌ ㅍ ㅎ}}

Modifications and combinations of letters are placed just after the primary or initial parent letter. Such modifications and combinations are then sorted according to the previously established orderings. E.g. {{lang|ko|ㄱ}} is followed by {{lang|ko|ㄲ}} and {{lang|ko|ㅘ}} by {{lang|ko|ㅙ}}.<ref name="NIKL1999" />

=== Obsolete letters ===
{{Main|Obsolete Hangul jamo}}
{{Contains special characters|Old Hangul|section=section}}

A number of letters and letter combinations are no longer in use for transcribing Korean, although some are still actively used for transcribing other languages.{{Sfn|Cho|Whitman|2019|p=54}} This includes the base consonants {{lang|ko|[[ㆁ]]}}, {{Lang|ko|[[ㅿ]]}}, and {{Lang|ko|[[ㆆ]]}}, as well as the base vowel {{Lang|ko|[[ㆍ]]}},{{Sfn|Lee|Ramsey|2011|pp=116–119, 156}} although that last letter is still used for the [[Jeju language]].{{Sfn|Lee|Ramsey|2011|p=156}} Examples of obsolete doubled letters include {{Lang|ko|[[ㆀ]]}},{{Sfn|Lee|Ramsey|2011|p=130}} {{Lang|ko|[[ㆅ]]}},{{Sfn|Ledyard|1998|pp=226–227}} and the doubled vowel {{Lang|ko|[[ᆢ]]}}.{{Sfn|홍윤표|2019|pp=76–77}} A number of now obsolete letters were virtually exclusively used for transcribing Chinese, like the {{Ill|pure dental and palatal-supradental sibilants in Hunminjeongeum|lt=pure dental and palatal-supradental sibilants|ko|훈민정음의 치두음과 정치음}} ({{Lang|ko|ᄼ}}, {{Lang|ko|ᄽ}}, {{Lang|ko|ᅎ}}, {{Lang|ko|ᅏ}}, {{Lang|ko|ᅔ}} and {{Lang|ko|ᄾ}}, {{Lang|ko|ᄿ}}, {{Lang|ko|ᅐ}}, {{Lang|ko|ᅑ}}, {{Lang|ko|ᅕ}}){{Sfn|Osterkamp|2012|p=90}} and most of the [[Obsolete Hangul jamo#Light labial letters|light labial letters]] (e.g. {{Lang|ko|ㆄ}}, {{Lang|ko|ᄛ}}, {{Lang|ko|ㅱ}}, {{Lang|ko|ㅹ}}), although {{lang|ko|ㅸ}} was used for Korean.{{Sfn|Lee|Ramsey|2011|p=119}} Clustered consonants have also changed. Clusters mixing different letters were once acceptable for initial consonants, with some clusters even including up to three letters, like {{Lang|ko|ㅴ}}, which was used in {{Lang|ko|ᄢᅳᆷ}} ({{Lit|crack, opening}}).{{Sfn|Lee|Ramsey|2011|p=119}} A number of letters were invented in the centuries following Hangul's invention, for example {{Lang|ko|[[ᆖ]]}} (a doubled form of {{Lang|ko|ㅡ}}) was invented in the 1900s.{{Sfn|King|1997|p=221}}

== Orthography ==
{{Main|Hangul orthography}}

[[File:자귀나무 sign.jpg|thumb|A sample of Hangul writing using the South Korean orthography. Letters are arranged in syllable blocks, spacing is used, and most punctuation used is similar to that of the West, with the exception of the [[tilde]] (~) for number ranges.]]
Hangul orthography has changed over time. Since 1948, [[North–South differences in the Korean language|North and South Korea have used different orthographies]]. However, because their current orthographies are based on the 1933 {{Ill|Unified Hangul Orthography|ko|한글 맞춤법 통일안}}, they are still relatively similar. North Korea now uses the {{Ill|Compendium of Korean Language Norms|ko|조선말규범집}}{{Sfn|Song|2015|pp=487–488}} and South Korea the Hangeul Orthography.{{sfnm|1a1=Ahn|1y=2018|1pp=301–302|2a1=Song|2y=2006|2p=168}}

The [[Orthographic depth|depth of current Hangul orthographies]] is a subject of some disagreement. Many scholars argue current orthographies have a relatively [[Shallow orthographies|shallow or transparent orthography]], in that pronunciation generally closely corresponds to what is written. Their complexities are often the product of sound changes in the Korean language over time as well as [[Morphophonemic orthography|morphophonemic orthographic]] practices (changing some spellings to reflect the function or meaning of some words).{{Sfn|Kim|2025|p=377}} Some have described current orthographies as deep because of the morphophonemic practices.{{Sfn|Yang|Yang|O'Grady|2019|p=22}}

=== Syllable blocks ===
Hangul letters are arranged into syllable blocks in a principle called ''moasseugi'' ({{Korean|hangul=모아쓰기|labels=no|lit=gathering together and writing}}).{{Sfn|King|1997|p=222}} Each syllable block is broadly divided into two or three components: an initial consonant ({{Korean/auto|hangul=초성|hanja=初聲|rr=yes|labels=no}}), vowel ({{Korean/auto|hangul=중성|hanja=中聲|rr=yes|labels=no}}; also called "medial"), and optional final consonant ({{Korean/auto|hangul=종성|hanja=終聲|rr=yes|labels=no}}; also called {{Korean/auto|hangul=받침|rr=yes|lit=pedestal|labels=no}}).{{Sfnm|1a1=Cho|1a2=Whitman|1y=2019|1p=33|2a1=Lee|2a2=Ramsey|2y=2000|2pp=17–18|3a1=Martin|3y=1992|3p=6}} Final heterogenous [[Digraph (orthography)|digraph]] consonant clusters are orthographically considered to be two different letters combined, but phonologically considered to be a single letter.{{Sfn|Pae|Winskel|Kim|2025a|pp=36–37}} When no initial consonant sound is needed, the [[Zero consonant|zero initial consonant]] {{Lang|ko|ㅇ}} is used.{{Sfn|Lee|Ramsey|2000|pp=17–18}}

In modern orthographies, to construct a syllable block, the following rules are applied in order:{{sfnm|1a1=Kim-Renaud|1y=1997c|1pp=283–284|2a1=Kim-Renaud|2y=2009|2pp=10–12}}

# Write the initial consonant.
# Place the vowel depending on the appropriate condition below:
#* If the vowel has a long vertical stroke ({{Lang|ko|ㅏ}}, {{Lang|ko|ㅑ}}, {{Lang|ko|ㅓ}}, {{Lang|ko|ㅕ}}, {{Lang|ko|ㅐ}}, {{Lang|ko|ㅒ}}, {{Lang|ko|ㅔ}}, {{Lang|ko|ㅖ}}, or {{Lang|ko|ㅣ}}), write it to the right of the initial.
#* If the vowel has a long horizontal stroke ({{Lang|ko|ㅗ}}, {{Lang|ko|ㅛ}}, {{Lang|ko|ㅜ}}, {{Lang|ko|ㅠ}}, {{Lang|ko|ㅡ}}), write it below the initial.
#* If the vowel is a combination and begins with a long horizontal stroke followed by a long vertical stroke (e.g. {{Lang|ko|ㅢ}}), place the initial above the horizontal stroke.
# If there is a non-[[Zero (linguistics)|zero]] final consonant, it is written at the bottom. If the final consonant is a combination, place the letters side by side.

Assuming consonant clusters are treated as single letters, following the above steps yields the following possible consonant blocks:{{sfn|Lunde|2009|p=59}}

{{col-begin|width=auto}}
{{col-break}}
{|
|- align=center
| style="width:30px; background:#faa; height:60px;"|initial|| style="background:#afa; width:30px;"|medial
|}
{{col-break|gap=1em}}
{|
|- align=center
| style="width:60px; background:#faa; height:30px;"|initial
|- align=center
| style="background:#afa; height:30px;"|medial
|}
{{col-break|gap=1em}}
{|
|- align=center
| style="width:30px; background:#faa; height:30px;"|initial
| style="background:#afa; width:30px;" rowspan="2"|med. 2
|- align=center
| style="background:#afa; height:30px;"|med. 1
|}
{{col-end}}{{col-begin|width=auto}}
{{col-break}}
{|
|- align=center
| style="width:30px; background:#faa; height:40px;"|initial
| style="background:#afa; width:30px;"|medial
|- align=center
| style="background:#aaf; height:20px;" colspan="2"|final
|}
{{col-break|gap=1em}}
{|
|- align=center
| style="width:60px; background:#faa; height:20px;"|initial
|- align=center
| style="background:#afa; height:20px;"|medial
|- align=center
| style="background:#aaf; height:20px;"|final
|}
{{col-break|gap=1em}}
{|
|- align=center
| style="width:30px; background:#faa; height:20px;"|initial
| style="background:#afa; width:30px;" rowspan="2"|med. 2
|- align=center
| style="background:#afa; height:20px;"|med.
|- align=center
| style="background:#aaf; height:20px;" colspan="2"|final
|}
{{col-end}}
Hangul letters currently used for Korean (19 initial consonants, 21 vowels, and 28 final consonants) can be combined to yield 11,172 syllables.{{Efn|This is derived from multiplying the number of initial consonants, vowels, and final consonants together. Of the total, 399 are just initial consonant and vowel pairs.{{sfn|Pae|2011|p=115}}}}{{sfnm|1a1=Park|1y=2016|1p=43|2a1=Pae|2y=2011|2p=108}} However, many of those syllables virtually never see use in natural language; scholars have argued that only around 2,000 are used in Korean.{{sfnm|1a1=Hwang|1y=2025|1p=76|2a1=Taylor|2a2=Taylor|2y=2014|2p=188}}

Several scholars have argued that the syllable block structure was likely inspired by and makes Hangul resemble the form of Chinese characters,{{sfnm|1a1=Pae|1y=2011|1p=107|2a1=Meletis|2y=2025|2pp=531–532}} and that their similar form aids compatibility in writing them together in mixed script.{{Sfn|Meletis|2025|pp=531–532}}

Several scholars have argued that the syllable block structure is a good fit for the phonology and speech cadence of Korean. Several have also argued that the limited number of syllable shapes, with vowels and consonants in consistent positions, makes Hangul easier to read and learn.{{sfnm|1a1=Meletis|1y=2025|1p=527|2a1=Taylor|2a2=Taylor|2y=2014|2pp=189–190|3a1=Winskel|3y=2025|3p=551}} Taylor and Taylor argue that the syllable block structure is especially helpful to young children learning Korean and for people with disabilities that affect reading.{{Sfn|Taylor|Taylor|2014|p=222}}

Some scholars have argued that syllable blocks have the downside of causing orthographic complexity{{Sfnm|1a1=Song|1y=2006|1pp=54–57|2a1=Lee|2a2=Ramsey|2y=2000|2pp=29–30}} and difficulty with moveable type and computers.{{sfnm|1a1=Kim-Renaud|1y=1997b|1p=178|2a1=Sampson|2y=1985|2p=144}} In especially the 19th and 20th centuries, these downsides motivated Hangul reformers to [[Hangul orthography#Moasseugi vs. pureosseugi debate|debate if the syllable block structure should be abandoned in favor of a fully linear orthography]]. Such an orthography is called ''{{ill|pureosseugi|ko|풀어쓰기}}'' ({{Korean|hangul=풀어쓰기|labels=no|lit=separate and write}}). While several ''pureosseugi'' orthographies were developed, none ever saw significant adoption.{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=1997|1pp=222–223|2a1=Traulsen|2y=2012|2pp=120–121}}

=== Spelling ===
In general, words are spelled as they sound in the respective standard Korean dialect, with most exceptions being due to [[Phonemic orthography|morphophonemic]] word-formation rules. For example, {{Korean/auto|hangul=하늘|rr=yes|lit=sky|labels=no|order=hrl|out=yes}} is spelled the way it is pronounced; there is no need to spell it {{lang|ko|한을}}, as {{lang|ko|하늘}} is already a whole word and not a stem with particle.{{sfn|Taylor|Taylor|2014|p=205}} However, {{Korean/auto|hangul=먹어|rr=yes|lit=to eat|labels=no|order=hrl|out=yes}} has this spelling despite being pronounced {{Lang|ko|머거}}. This is because it follows a word-formation rule that preserves the spellings of the stem verb {{Lang|ko|먹}} and the particle {{Lang|ko|어}}. Other exceptions also exist, for example relating to pronunciation differences between stem words when pronounced alone and when attached to particles that begin with {{Lang|ko|ㅇ}}.{{Sfn|Taylor|Taylor|2014|pp=204–205}}

==== North–South differences ====
{{See also|North–South differences in the Korean language}}
Various shared words are spelled differently between North and South Korea. One significant reason for this is the differing [[Standard language|standard dialects]] used. North Korea uses the [[Pyongan dialect]] and South Korea the [[Gyeonggi dialect]]. Differences arise due to various phonemena, including the [[initial sound rule]], [[vowel harmony]], local pronunciations, [[Loanword|loanwords]], [[Tenseness|tensing]], [[Compound (linguistics)|compounds]], [[morphological derivation]], and the ''{{Ill|saisiot|ko|사잇소리 현상}}'' (epenthic {{Lang|ko|ㅅ}}).{{Sfn|Sohn|1997|pp=200–212}}

=== Punctuation ===
{{Main|Korean punctuation}}

Hangul has used varying punctuation over time and now in both North and South Korea. Modern Hangul now uses a mix of modern Western, Korean, and East Asian punctuation.{{Sfn|Song|2006|p=58}}

==== South Korean punctuation ====
South Korean punctuation largely follows Western practice, with some exceptions.{{Sfn|Martin|1992|pp=20–21}} Examples of exceptions include 『』 or [[Guillemet|≪ ≫]];{{please verify|reason=The characters written here are Unicode U+226A MUCH LESS-THAN and U+226B MUCH GREATER-THAN, but the context indicates that they're being used like quotation marks and the link goes to the article "guillemet" (French quotation marks). Is the choice of Unicode characters correct, or should they be replaced with actual guillemets « » ? or CJK angle brackets ⟪ ⟫ ?|date=December 2025}} either of these sets of characters can be put around titles of works. Also, the [[tilde]] (~) can be used to indicate ranges of numbers or dates, as well as distances.<ref>{{Cite web |script-title=ko:문장 부호 |trans-title=Punctuation |url=https://korean.go.kr/kornorms/regltn/regltnView.do#a714 |access-date=2025-10-07 |website=한국어 어문 규범 |publisher=[[National Institute of Korean Language]] |language=ko |archive-date=May 24, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250524190953/https://korean.go.kr/kornorms/regltn/regltnView.do#a714 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Space (punctuation)|Spaces]] are used in Hangul. As with most other scripts, practices around spaces are somewhat arbitrary and ambiguous because it is difficult to define what a [[word]] is. Spacing is considered to be one of the most difficult aspects of Hangul orthography; many native Korean speakers do not use spaces properly or sometimes even at all.{{Sfn|Lee|Ramsey|2000|pp=25–26}} In general, spaces are inserted between lexical clusters called ''eojeol'' ({{Korean|hangul=어절|hanja=語節|labels=no}}). These lexical clusters can be subdivided into various other categories.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |author=이래호 |script-title=ko:어절 (語節) |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]] |url=https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0036073 |access-date=2025-10-24 |publisher=[[Academy of Korean Studies]] |language=ko |archive-date=June 20, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250620125602/https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0036073 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Sfn|Kim|Lee|Song|Kim|2025|p=241}} Each ''eojeol'' can consist of a word and its subsequent corresponding particles or compounds. For example, "{{lang|ko|학교에 간다}}" consists of two ''eojeol'' separated by a space. The first is "{{lang|ko|학교}}" ({{lit|school}}) with an attached [[adposition]]al particle "{{lang|ko|에}}". The second is "{{lang|ko|간다}}", a [[Grammatical conjugation|conjugated verb]].{{Sfn|Kim|Lee|Song|Kim|2025|pp=239–240}}

==== North Korean punctuation ====
North Korean punctuation is similar to Western practice. Differences include the lack of Western [[Quotation mark|quotation marks]] (e.g. "), which are replaced by [[guillemet]] (≪ ≫).{{Sfn|North Korea|2010|pp=37–38}} Like South Korea, it recommends the tilde (~) for ranges of numbers or dates.{{Sfn|North Korea|2010|pp=42–43}} Recommendations are also given for vertical writing. Vertical writing punctuation is largely the same as horizontal, but guidance is given on the placement and rotation of some punctuation marks.{{Sfn|North Korea|2010|pp=45–46}}

North Korean spacing rules result in fewer spaces and more compound words when compared to South Korea's.{{Sfn|Sohn|1997|pp=210–212}}

=== Writing direction ===
{{See also|Horizontal and vertical writing in East Asian scripts}}
Historically, Hangul syllable blocks were arranged vertically (top to bottom, right to left). Over the course of the 20th century, horizontal writing (left to right, top to bottom) became dominant in both Koreas.{{Sfn|홍윤표|2019|pp=88–90}} South Korea allows both horizontal and vertical writing, while North Korea officially prefers horizontal writing.{{Sfn|Sohn|1997|pp=195–196}} Lee and Ramsey argue that the syllable block structure of Hangul aids the adaptability of the script to both directions of writing.{{Sfn|Lee|Ramsey|2000|p=20}}

== Style ==
[[File:Hangul TypeStyles sansPen.svg|thumb|150px|Several major categories of Hangul font styles]]
The [[History of Hangul#History of style|style of Hangul writing has changed over time]]. Originally, Hangul letters were drawn highly geometric and regular. They were thus awkward to write with brushes. Their style gradually changed in response to that issue.{{Sfn|Kim|1983|p=85}} Aesthetic considerations have also impacted Hangul style. The sizes and shapes of letters in syllable blocks are typically altered depending on the format of the syllable block, to make letters relatively proportionally sized.{{Sfn|Kim-Renaud|1997c|p=283}}

There are a variety of Hangul [[Font|fonts]]. [[Serif]] fonts are called [[Batang (font style)|''batang'' or ''myongjo'']]. [[Sans-serif]] fonts are called ''[[dotum]]'' or ''Gothic'' ({{Korean/auto|hangul=^고딕|rr=yes|labels=no}}).{{Sfn|Lunde|2009|p=25}}

===Stroke order===
Hangul adopted aspects of [[Stroke order|Chinese stroke order]]. Broadly, strokes of letters are written from top to bottom, left to right.{{Sfn|Kim-Renaud|1997c|p=283}}
<gallery widths="160" heights="36" perrow="7">
File:ㄱ (giyeok) stroke order.png|{{lang|ko|ㄱ|nocat=yes}} (giyeok {{lang|ko|기역|nocat=yes}})
File:ㄴ stroke order.png|{{lang|ko|ㄴ|nocat=yes}} (nieun {{lang|ko|니은|nocat=yes}})
File:ㄷ (digeut) stroke order.png|{{lang|ko|ㄷ|nocat=yes}} (digeut {{lang|ko|디귿|nocat=yes}})
File:ㄹ (rieul) stroke order.png|{{lang|ko|ㄹ|nocat=yes}} (rieul {{lang|ko|리을|nocat=yes}})
File:ㅁ (mieum) stroke order.png|{{lang|ko|ㅁ|nocat=yes}} (mieum {{lang|ko|미음|nocat=yes}})
File:ㅂ (bieup) stroke order.png|{{lang|ko|ㅂ|nocat=yes}} (bieup {{lang|ko|비읍|nocat=yes}})
File:ㅅ (siot) stroke order.png|{{lang|ko|ㅅ|nocat=yes}} (siot {{lang|ko|시옷|nocat=yes}})
File:ㅇ (ieung) stroke order.png|{{lang|ko|ㅇ|nocat=yes}} (ieung {{lang|ko|이응|nocat=yes}})
File:ㅈ (jieut) stroke order.png|{{lang|ko|ㅈ|nocat=yes}} (jieut {{lang|ko|지읒|nocat=yes}})
File:ㅊ (chieut) stroke order.png|{{lang|ko|ㅊ|nocat=yes}} (chieut {{lang|ko|치읓|nocat=yes}})
File:ㅋ (kieuk) stroke order.png|{{lang|ko|ㅋ|nocat=yes}} (kieuk {{lang|ko|키읔|nocat=yes}})
File:ㅌ (tieut) stroke order.png|{{lang|ko|ㅌ|nocat=yes}} (tieut {{lang|ko|티읕|nocat=yes}})
File:ㅍ (pieup) stroke order.png|{{lang|ko|ㅍ|nocat=yes}} (pieup {{lang|ko|피읖|nocat=yes}})
File:ㅎ (hieut) stroke order.png|{{lang|ko|ㅎ|nocat=yes}} (hieut {{lang|ko|히읗|nocat=yes}})
File:ㅏ (a) stroke order.png|{{lang|ko|ㅏ|nocat=yes}} (a)
File:ㅐ (ae) stroke order.png|{{lang|ko|ㅐ|nocat=yes}} (ae)
File:ㅓ (eo) stroke order.png|{{lang|ko|ㅓ|nocat=yes}} (eo)
File:ㅔ (e) stroke order.png|{{lang|ko|ㅔ|nocat=yes}} (e)
File:ㅗ (o) stroke order-2.png|{{lang|ko|ㅗ|nocat=yes}} (o)
File:ㅜ (u) stroke order.png|{{lang|ko|ㅜ|nocat=yes}} (u)
File:一 (eu) stroke order.png|{{lang|ko|ㅡ|nocat=yes}} (eu)
File:ㅣ (i) stroke order.png|{{lang|ko|ㅣ|nocat=yes}} (i)
</gallery>

== Hangul and computers ==
{{Main|Korean language and computers}}

=== Encoding methods ===
Hangul has been implemented for use on [[Computer|computers]] in a number of ways. The implementations fall into two broad categories: the composition model (also called ''{{ill|Johab|ko|한글 조합형 인코딩}}'') and the precomposed model (also called ''{{ill|Wansung|ko|한글 완성형 인코딩}}''). Johab considers syllables to be a combination of letters, while Wansung renders syllables as entire fixed blocks.{{sfn|Park|2016|pp=43–44}} [[Unicode]] implements both Johab and Wansung<ref name="corespec18">{{cite book |title=The Unicode Standard Version 17.0 – Core Specification |chapter-url=https://unicode.org/versions/Unicode17.0.0/core-spec/chapter-18/ |chapter=East Asia |access-date=2025-11-07 |date=2025-09-09 |isbn=978-1-936213-35-1 |publisher=[[Unicode Consortium]] |archive-date=September 17, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250917065947/https://unicode.org/versions/Unicode17.0.0/core-spec/chapter-18/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and implements Johab using several mathematical tricks that allow for efficient composition and decomposition of syllables.<ref name="corespec18" /> In mainstream Unicode, while contemporary Hangul for Korean can all be rendered using Wansung, [[Obsolete Hangul jamo|archaic letters and syllables]] are rendered using Johab. Particular fonts may be needed to display archaic letters properly.{{sfn|양왕성|2018|pp=227–232}}

The primary encoding method for Hangul currently in use is [[Unicode]]. There are a number of other coded character set standards that were used largely historically, although they continue to see some use. The South Korean government maintains [[KS X 1001]] and [[KS X 1002]]. North Korea maintains [[KPS 9566]]. China maintains [[GB 12052]]. There is also the [[Unified Hangul Code]], a private standard by the company [[Microsoft]].{{sfn|Lunde|2009|pp=87–88, 269}} {{As of|2026}}, 96.1% of websites with the [[.kr]] domain (used by South Korea) used [[UTF-8]] encoding, with only 6.3% using an alternate standard [[EUC-KR]] (total exceeds 100%; websites can use multiple encodings).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Distribution of Character Encodings among websites that use .kr |url=https://w3techs.com/technologies/segmentation/tld-kr-/character_encoding |access-date=2026-01-22 |website=w3techs.com}}</ref>

Archaic Hangul was not fully supported in Unicode until the late 2000s. [[Private Use Areas]] were often used for that purpose until official Unicode implementation was added.{{sfn|양왕성|2018|pp=226–228}}

{| class="wikitable"
|+Hangul-related blocks in Unicode<ref name="corespec18" />
!Block
!Range
!Description
|-
|[[Hangul Syllables]]
|<code>U+AC00</code>–<code>U+D7AF</code>
|Pre-composed 11,172 Hangul syllable blocks using letters for modern Korean
|-
|[[Hangul Jamo (Unicode block)|Hangul Jamo]]
|<code>U+1100</code>–<code>U+11FF</code>
|Letters that can be combined into syllables, including many [[Obsolete Hangul jamo|archaic letters]]
|-
|[[Hangul Jamo Extended-A]]
|<code>U+A960</code>–<code>U+A97F</code>
|Contains 29 archaic consonant clusters for composing syllables
|-
|[[Hangul Jamo Extended-B]]
|<code>U+D7B0</code>–<code>U+D7FF</code>
|Contains 72 archaic vowel and consonant clusters for composing syllables
|-
|[[Hangul Compatibility Jamo]]
|<code>U+3130</code>–<code>U+318F</code>
|Solely for compatibility with KS X 1001:1998. Standalone letters that cannot be joined
|-
|[[Enclosed CJK Letters and Months]]
|<code>U+3200</code>–<code>U+321E</code> <code>U+3260</code>–<code>U+327E</code>
|Selection of 62 parenthesized (e.g. {{lang|ko|㈝}}) and circled (e.g. {{lang|ko|㉨}}) Hangul letters and words
|-
|[[Halfwidth and Fullwidth Forms (Unicode block)|Halfwidth and Fullwidth Forms]]
|<code>U+FFA0</code>–<code>U+FFDC</code>
|[[Halfwidth and fullwidth forms|Halfwidth forms]] for Hangul letters
|-
|[[CJK Symbols and Punctuation]]
|<code>U+302E</code>, <code>U+302F</code>
|{{Ill|Tone markings in Hangul|lt=Tone markings for archaic Hangul|ko|방점}} ({{lang|ko|〮}}, {{lang|ko|〯}})
|}

=== Hangul keyboards ===
[[File:KB South Korea.svg|thumb|The South Korean ''{{ill|dubeolsik|ko|두벌식}}'' keyboard layout]]
For typing Hangul, there are a number of keyboard layouts in use. The current most common layout is called ''{{ill|dubeolsik|ko|두벌식}}''. In this layout, consonants are on the left of the keyboard and vowels on the right, and no distinction is made between keys for initial and final consonants.{{sfn|Lunde|2009|pp=340–341}} North and South Korea have different versions of ''dubeolsik''.<ref>{{Cite journal |script-title=ko:한글 세벌식 자판의 세 가지 유형과 남북 통합 설계 |trans-title=Three Modes of Three Sets Type Korean Keyboards and Unified Designs for North and South Koreas |last=Kim |first=Kuk |year=2009 |volume=37 |issue=4 |url=https://jksqm.org/journal/view.php?number=1751 |journal=Journal of Korean Society for Quality Management |page=52 |archive-date=March 19, 2025 |access-date=November 8, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250319115440/https://www.jksqm.org/journal/view.php?number=1751 |url-status=live }}</ref> For the South Korean ''dubeolsik'' there is a designated key or keystroke used to toggle between Hangul and Latin input modes.{{sfn|Lunde|2009|pp=311, 340–341}}

== Derivatives and uses for other languages ==
[[File:Korean Braille.jpg|thumb|[[Korean Braille]] encodes the letters of Hangul]]
There are a number of communication systems that encode the letters of Hangul. Examples include [[Korean Braille]],<ref name=":3" /> [[Morse code for non-Latin alphabets#Korean|Korean morse code]],{{Sfn|홍윤표|2019|pp=99–101}} the [[Korean manual alphabet]],<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |author=윤병천 |script-title=ko:한글 지문자 (한글 指文字) |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]] |url=https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0070741 |access-date=2025-11-04 |publisher=[[Academy of Korean Studies]] |language=ko |archive-date=May 19, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250519234446/https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0070741 |url-status=live }}</ref> the [[Korean spelling alphabet]],<ref>{{Cite web |script-title=ko:[별표 1] 무선통신에 사용하는 모르스부호·약어 및 통화표(제4조관련) |trans-title=[Appendix 1] Morse code, abbreviations, and terminology used in wireless communication (regarding article 4) |url=https://www.law.go.kr/LSW/admRulLsInfoP.do?admRulSeq=2200000049192 |access-date=2025-11-03 |website=Korean Law Information Center |publisher=[[Ministry of Government Legislation]] |page=47 |language=ko |archive-date=March 5, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250305222040/https://www.law.go.kr/LSW/admRulLsInfoP.do?admRulSeq=2200000049192 |url-status=live }}</ref> and Hangul [[shorthand]].{{Sfn|홍윤표|2019|pp=108–109}} Most [[Romanization of Korean|romanization systems for Korean]] work by mapping Hangul spellings to Latin letters. However, many of them are [[Transcription (linguistics)|transcription]] systems and not [[transliteration]] systems. While transliteration systems are fully [[Romanization#Methods|reversible]], meaning one can always retrieve the original Hangul spelling from romanized text, transcription systems are not.{{sfn|Lunde|2009|pp=44–45}}

=== Use for Jeju ===
{{Main|Jeju language#Orthography}}

The [[Jeju language]] was traditionally not written. Hangul has since become used to write it.{{Sfn|Yang|Yang|O'Grady|2019|pp=22–23}} Two orthographies are in current use: one created in 1991 by the Jeju Dialect Research Society ({{Lang|ko|제주방언연구회}}) and another created in 2014 by the provincial government.<ref>{{cite conference |author=강영봉 |date=16 June 2018 |title= |script-title=ko:'제주어 표기법'에 대한 단상 |trans-title=Brief Thoughts on "Jeju Language Orthography" |url=http://www.jst.re.kr/upload/board/pdf/364_1551924777898.pdf |conference=제주어 표기법 토론회 |language=ko |location= |pages=12–14 |access-date=November 3, 2025 |archive-date=September 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230930151443/http://jst.re.kr/upload/board/pdf/364_1551924777898.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Hangul orthography for Jeju is relatively similar to those for Korean, with one notable difference being the use of the vowel {{Lang|ko|[[ㆍ]]}}, which is no longer used for Korean. Spelling is attempted to be made to be morphophonemic, although there is some uncertainty around how to do this.{{Sfn|Yang|Yang|O'Grady|2019|pp=22–23}}

=== Uses for non-Koreanic languages ===
[[File:兒學編 sample.png|thumb|Entries from the 1908 text ''[[Ahakp'yŏn]]''. Here, Hangul is used to transcribe Korean, Chinese, Japanese, and English (in order, within each cell, from top right to left, then bottom).]]
Since its creation, Hangul has been used to encode the sounds of other languages. It was designed to be able to transcribe both [[Middle Korean|Korean]] and [[Late Middle Chinese|Chinese of the time]]. To accomplish this, additional consonants were created exclusively to transcribe Chinese;{{sfnm|1a1=Ledyard|1y=1998|1pp=132–133|2a1=Ramsey|2y=1992|2pp=49–50}} these consonants have often been revived or repurposed for use in other languages. Before the modern era, Hangul was also used to transcribe [[Japanese language|Japanese]], [[Ryukyuan languages|Ryukyuan]], and [[Manchu language|Manchu]].{{Sfn|Osterkamp|2012|pp=94–95, 98–100}} Beginning around the 19th century, Hangul was used to transcribe Russian<ref>{{Cite journal |last=King |first=Ross |author-link=Ross King (academic) |date=May 2024 |title=Another 'language that failed'? The beginnings of 'Soviet' Korean in the Russian Far East, 1922–1937 |url=https://www.jbe-platform.com/content/journals/10.1075/kl.00007.kin |journal=Korean Linguistics |publisher=[[John Benjamins Publishing Company]] |volume=20 |issue=1 |page=49 |doi=10.1075/kl.00007.kin |issn=0257-3784 |eissn=2212-9731 |archive-date=September 26, 2025 |access-date=November 3, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250926025329/https://www.jbe-platform.com/content/journals/10.1075/kl.00007.kin |url-status=live }}</ref> and English.{{Sfn|Osterkamp|2012|pp=88–89}}

Since 1986, the South Korean [[National Institute of Korean Language]] has provided official guidance on how to approximately render a number of non–Korean languages into South Korean standard Hangul, particularly for seamless use alongside the Korean language.<ref>{{Cite web |script-title=ko:국립국어원 외래어 표기법 |trans-title=Methods for transcribing foreign languages |url=https://www.korean.go.kr/front/page/pageView.do?page_id=P000104&mn_id=97 |access-date=2025-11-02 |website=[[National Institute of Korean Language]] |language=ko |archive-date=July 16, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250716045414/https://www.korean.go.kr/front/page/pageView.do?page_id=P000104&mn_id=97 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Qian|2018|pp=35–36}} A number of scholars have attempted to modify Hangul to be able to represent the sounds of every language, similar to the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kim-Renaud |first=Young-Key |author-link=Young-Key Kim-Renaud |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-030-90761-7 |title=The Two Koreas and their Global Engagements |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan|Palgrave Macmillan Cham]] |year=2022 |isbn=978-3-030-90761-7 |editor-last=Jackson |editor-first=Andrew David |edition=eBook |page=210 |chapter=Korean Language, Power, and National Identity |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-90761-7 |archive-date=August 11, 2024 |access-date=November 3, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240811020322/https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-030-90761-7 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Efforts have been made to make Hangul the primary script for various languages. Some South Korean linguists have been encouraging ethnic groups without scripts for their languages to adopt Hangul. In the 1990s, a Hangul-based alphabet was devised for the [[Lahu language]] of China and Southeast Asia, but this did not see significant adoption.<ref name=":02">{{Cite news |last=Wright |first=Tom |last2=Fairclough |first2=Gordon |date=12 September 2009 |title=To Save Its Dying Tongue, Indonesian Isle Orders Out for Korean |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB125261759118600981 |access-date=27 October 2025 |work=Wall Street Journal |issn=0099-9660 |archive-date=September 1, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250901003355/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB125261759118600981 |url-status=live }}</ref> In October 2012, a pilot program was launched for Hangul to be taught to speakers of the [[Ghari language|Ghari]] and [[Kwaraqae]] languages of the [[Solomon Islands]]. The program was halted less than a year after its launch due to a lack of funding.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Choi |first=Jae-hee |date=2023-04-09 |title=A case study: The Solomon Islands project 10 years ago |url=https://www.koreaherald.com/article/3100596 |access-date=2025-11-07 |work=[[The Korea Herald]] |archive-date=April 19, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250419212006/https://www.koreaherald.com/article/3100596 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In the late 1980s, Taiwanese linguists made at least one [[Taiwanese Hangul|adaptation of Hangul for Taiwanese Hokkien]], a [[Sinitic languages|Sinitic language]]. However, the Taiwanese government eventually endorsed the use of Chinese characters for that language.<ref name="IdealSMin">{{cite journal |last=洪惟仁 |date=2010 |title=閩南語書寫法的理想與現實 |url=http://www.twlls.org.tw/jtll/documents/5.1-5.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=臺灣語文研究 |language=zh |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=89, 101–105 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170308190715/http://www.twlls.org.tw/jtll/documents/5.1-5.pdf |archive-date=8 March 2017 |access-date=14 January 2022 |trans-title=Idealism vs. Reality: Writing Systems for Taiwanese Southern Min}}</ref><ref name="WrittenTaiwanese">{{cite book |author1=楊允言 |url=http://ip194097.ntcu.edu.tw/memory/tgb/thak.asp?id=321 |title=台語文運動訪談暨史料彙編 |author2=張學謙 |author3=呂美親 |date=2008 |publisher=國史館 |isbn=9789860132946 |location=Taiwan |pages=284–285 |language=zh |trans-title=Compilation of Historical Materials and Interviews on the Written Taiwanese Movement |access-date=14 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220926161110/http://ip194097.ntcu.edu.tw/memory/TGB/thak.asp?id=321 |archive-date=26 September 2022 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="TLLS">{{citation |author=Dong Zhongsi (董忠司) |title=「台灣閩南語槪論」講授資料彙編 |publisher=Taiwan Languages and Literature Society}}</ref>

==== Cia-Cia language ====
Beginning in the late 2000s, efforts began to be made by the South Korean private organization [[Hunminjeongeum Society]] to have Hangul be used for the [[Cia-Cia language]] of Indonesia. That language did not already have a script in significant use for it. While Hangul was not legally made an official script for the language due to Indonesian legal restrictions, the local government of [[Baubau]] partnered with the Hunminjeongeum Society and several other organizations to promote the use of Hangul for Cia-Cia. A number of local schools taught the script.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lee |first=Tae-hoon |date=6 October 2010 |title=Hangeul didn't become Cia Cia's official writing |url=https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/southkorea/20101006/hangeul-didnt-become-cia-cias-official-writing |access-date=27 October 2025 |website=[[The Korea Times]]}}</ref><ref name=":22">{{Cite news |last=Choe |first=Sang-Hun |date=11 September 2009 |title=South Korea's Latest Export: Its Alphabet |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/12/world/asia/12script.html |access-date=27 October 2025 |work=[[The New York Times]] |archive-date=February 6, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180206222936/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/12/world/asia/12script.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The program was not financially supported by the South Korean or Indonesian governments. It experienced several difficulties in the early 2010s,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Yi |first1=Whan-woo |date=8 October 2012 |title=Sejong Institute withdrawal to leave Cia-Cia out in cold |url=https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2012/10/113_121766.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170206184347/http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2012/10/113_121766.html |archive-date=6 February 2017 |access-date=30 June 2017 |work=[[The Korea Times]]}}</ref> although it continued to operate. It saw renewed activity and support in the early 2020s.<ref name="KimSH2">{{cite news |last1=Kim |first1=So-hyun |date=2 April 2023 |title=[Hello Hangeul] Sharing the Korean alphabet with the world |url=https://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20230402000150 |access-date=5 January 2024 |work=[[The Korea Herald]] |archive-date=November 26, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241126115812/https://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20230402000150 |url-status=live }}</ref> Hangul has since continued to be taught and used in the area.<ref name="nytimes">{{Cite news |last=Suhartono |first=Muktita |date=4 November 2024 |title=An Indonesian Tribe's Language Gets an Alphabet: Korea's |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/11/04/world/asia/indonesia-korea-hangul.html |access-date=5 November 2024 |work=New York Times |archive-date=November 4, 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20241104054626/https://www.nytimes.com/2024/11/04/world/asia/indonesia-korea-hangul.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Chitembo language ====

The sister of a [[Great Lakes Twa|Twa]] leader from eastern [[Democratic Republic of Congo]] visited South Korea in 2015 for a cultural-exchange event. She learned that Hangul was used for the Cia-Cia language in Indonesia, and thought it would help her people, who speak the [[Chitembo language]], estimated to be spoken by 500,000 to 700,000 people. Four South Korean linguists developed a Hangule alphabet for Chitembo over the next few years. Teachers from a Hangul school in [[Los Angeles, California]], taught the alphabet to primary-school teachers from [[Bunyakiri]] in Congo. Those school teachers, along with South Korean missionaries, in turn taught it to Twa in the region, who were mostly illiterate. {{As of|2023}}, they reported that 40 adults and 300 children had been taught the Chitembo Hangul alphabet. Children could write their names within half an hour, but the adults took months to do the same.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kim |first=So-hyun |date=April 2, 2023 |title=Hangeul as a writing system for African tribe |url=https://www.koreaherald.com/article/3095044 |access-date=2025-11-19 |website=[[The Korea Herald]] |language=en |archive-date=May 23, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250523012811/https://www.koreaherald.com/article/3095044 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Evaluations and legacy ==
Linguist [[John DeFrancis]] wrote that "scholars are in general agreement on the excellence of the Korean alphabetic script".{{sfn|DeFrancis|1989|p=196}} Hangul has been described by various linguists and historians as the best or among the best actively used writing systems,{{sfnm|1a1=Sampson|1y=1985|1p=120|2a1=DeFrancis|2y=1989|2p=198}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=Livaccari |first=Chris |date=2025-10-24 |title=The World's Most Incredible Alphabet |url=https://asiasociety.org/education/worlds-most-incredible-alphabet |access-date=2025-10-24 |publisher=[[Asia Society]] |quote="In an interview shortly before his death in 1999, <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[James D. McCawley]]<nowiki>]</nowiki> noted that 'Hangul is the most ingeniously devised writing system that exists, and it occupies a special place in the typology of writing systems.'" |archive-date=March 20, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250320152253/https://asiasociety.org/education/worlds-most-incredible-alphabet |url-status=live }}</ref> as well as a landmark intellectual achievement in Korean and human history.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Reischauer |first=Edwin O. |author-link=Edwin O. Reischauer |url=http://archive.org/details/eastasiagreattra00reis |title=East Asia: The great tradition |last2=Fairbank |first2=John King |author-link2=John King Fairbank |date=1960 |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin]] |isbn=978-1125640975 |publication-date=1960 |pages=434–436 |access-date=2025-10-15 |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref>{{sfnm|1a1=Sohn|1y=2001|1p=129|2a1=Shin|2y=2014|2p=22}} Hangul is a significant aid for modern scholars interested in the [[historical linguistics]] of the Korean language. Scholarly understanding of historical Korean sharply improves right at the invention of Hangul.{{Sfnm|1a1=Lee|1a2=Ramsey|1y=2011|1pp=1–2|2a1=Sohn|2y=2001|2p=11|3a1=Lee|3a2=Ramsey|3y=2000|3p=4}} Several linguists have argued that Hangul is distinguished among writing systems in common use in that it was created, designed to suit the Korean language and be easy to learn, and original in a number of ways.{{Sfn|Meletis|2025|pp=529–530}}

When Westerners first began encountering Hangul in the 19th century, a number of them evaluated it glowingly and bemoaned that it was not yet respected by Koreans themselves.{{Sfn|Pae|Winskel|Kim|2025a|p=32}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Silva |first=David J. |date=2002 |title=Western Attitudes toward the Korean Language: An Overview of Late Nineteenth-and Early Twentieth-Century Mission Literature |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23719764 |journal=[[Korean Studies (journal)|Korean Studies]] |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=277–278, 282 |issn=0145-840X}}</ref> Since then, Hangul has become a major source of pride for Korean people.{{sfnm|1a1=Kim|1y=2005|1pp=1–2|2a1=King|2y=2007|2pp=220–221|3a1=Meletis|3y=2025|3pp=532–533}}

A copy of the ''Hunminjeongeum Haerye'', the document that formally introduced Hangul, was designated a [[National Treasure (South Korea)|National Treasure of South Korea]] on December 20, 1962<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hunminjeongeum (The Proper Sounds for the Instruction of the People) |url=https://english.khs.go.kr/chaen/search/selectGeneralSearchDetail.do?mn=EN_02_02&sCcebKdcd=11&ccebAsno=0000700000000&sCcebCtcd=11&pageIndex=1&region=&canAsset=&ccebPcd1=&searchWrd=HUNMINJEONGEUM&startNum=&endNum=&stCcebAsdt=&enCcebAsdt=&canceled=&ccebKdcd=&ccebCtcd= |access-date=2025-09-27 |website=[[Korea Heritage Service]]}}</ref>{{Sfn|Ahn|2018|p=5}} and a UNESCO [[Memory of the World Register – Asia and the Pacific|Memory of the World]] in 1997.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hunminjeongum Manuscript |url=https://www.unesco.org/en/memory-world/hunminjeongum-manuscript |access-date=2025-09-27 |website=[[UNESCO]] |archive-date=March 7, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250307011634/https://www.unesco.org/en/memory-world/hunminjeongum-manuscript |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Sfn|Ahn|2018|p=5}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

=== Sources ===

==== In English ====

===== Books =====
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ahn |first=Pyong-hi |author-link=Ahn Pyong-hi |title=Studies in Hunminjeongeum |publisher=[[National Hangeul Museum]] |year=2018 |isbn=979-11-89438-00-5 |edition=English |translator-last=Jung |translator-first=Ha-yun |orig-year=2007}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last1=Brown |editor-first1=Lucien |editor-last2=Yeon |editor-first2=Jaehoon |date=June 2015 |title=The Handbook of Korean Linguistics |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |isbn=978-1-118-35491-9 |url=https://www.wiley.com/en-us/The+Handbook+of+Korean+Linguistics-p-9781118354919 |archive-date=July 31, 2024 |access-date=October 26, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240731161309/https://www.wiley.com/en-us/The+Handbook+of+Korean+Linguistics-p-9781118354919 |url-status=live }}
** {{harvc|last=Shin|first=Jiyoung|year=2015|in=Brown|in2=Yeon|c=Vowels and Consonants}}
** {{harvc|last=Brown|first=Lucien|year=2015|in=Brown|in2=Yeon|c=Varieties of contemporary korean|anchor-year=2015b|first2=Jaehoon|last2=Yeon}}
** {{harvc|last=Song|first=Jae Jung|year=2015|in=Brown|in2=Yeon|c=Language Policies in North and South Korea}}
** {{harvc|last=Harkness|first=Nicholas|year=2015|in=Brown|in2=Yeon|c=Linguistic Emblems of South Korean Society}}
* {{Cite book |last=Cho |first=Sungdai |last2=Whitman |first2=John |year=2019 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/korean/1F8BF29C717FB36EBB48024B087BD1F5 |title=Korean: A Linguistic Introduction |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-51485-9 |doi=10.1017/9781139048842 |archive-date=June 21, 2025 |access-date=October 26, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250621100133/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/korean/1F8BF29C717FB36EBB48024B087BD1F5 |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |url=https://brill.com/edcollbook/title/19909 |title=The Idea of Writing: Writing Across Borders |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |year=2012 |isbn=978-90-04-21700-3 |editor-last=de Voogt |editor-first=Alex |editor-link=Alexander de Voogt |volume=2 |doi=10.1163/9789004217003 |editor-last2=Quack |editor-first2=Joachim Friedrich |archive-date=April 16, 2024 |access-date=November 2, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240416160747/https://brill.com/edcollbook/title/19909 |url-status=live }}
** {{harvc|last=Osterkamp|first=Sven|year=2012|in=de Voogt|c=Early Adaptations of the Korean Script to Render Foreign Languages|in2=Quack}}
** {{harvc|last=Traulsen|first=Thorsten|year=2012|in=de Voogt|c=Han'gŭl Reform Movement in the Twentieth Century: Roman Pressure on Korean Writing|in2=Quack}}
* {{Cite book |last=DeFrancis |first=John |year=1989 |title=Visible Speech: The Diverse Oneness of Writing Systems |url=https://uhpress.hawaii.edu/title/visible-speech-the-diverse-oneness-of-writing-systems/ |author-link=John DeFrancis |publisher=[[University of Hawaiʻi Press]] |isbn=0-8248-1207-7 |archive-date=October 8, 2025 |access-date=October 26, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251008063759/https://uhpress.hawaii.edu/title/visible-speech-the-diverse-oneness-of-writing-systems/ |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Kim |first=Zong-Su |url=https://brill.com/display/title/19367 |title=The History and Future of Hangeul: Korea's Indigenous Script |date=2005 |work= |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |isbn=978-90-04-21369-2 |language=en |translator-last=King |translator-first=Ross |orig-year=1990 |translator-link=Ross King (academic) |archive-date=May 6, 2025 |access-date=October 26, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250506231426/https://brill.com/display/title/19367 |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Kim-Renaud |editor-first=Young-Key |editor-link=Young-Key Kim-Renaud |date=1992 |title=King Sejong the Great: The Light of Fifteenth Century Korea |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/King_Sejong_the_Great/6ilyAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |publisher=International Circle of Korean Linguistics |isbn=978-1-882177-00-4 |language=en |archive-date=May 15, 2025 |access-date=October 26, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250515030850/https://www.google.com/books/edition/King_Sejong_the_Great/6ilyAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |url-status=live }}
** {{harvc|last=Ramsey|first=S. Robert|author-link=S. Robert Ramsey|year=1992|in=Kim-Renaud|c=The Korean Alphabet}}
* {{Cite book |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Korean_Alphabet/nonRl2cerIgC?hl=en |title=The Korean Alphabet: Its History and Structure |date=1997 |publisher=[[University of Hawaiʻi Press]] |isbn=978-0-8248-1989-7 |editor-last=Kim-Renaud |editor-first=Young-Key |editor-link=Young-Key Kim-Renaud |language=en |archive-date=May 15, 2025 |access-date=October 26, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250515034852/https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Korean_Alphabet/nonRl2cerIgC?hl=en |url-status=live }}
** {{harvc|last=Lee|first=Ki-Moon|author-link=Ki-Moon Lee|year=1997|in=Kim-Renaud|c=The Inventor of the Korean Alphabet}}
** {{harvc|last=Lee|first=Sang-Oak|author-link=Sang-Oak Lee|year=1997|anchor-year=1997b|in=Kim-Renaud|c=Graphical Ingenuity in the Korean Writing System: With New Reference to Calligraphy}}
** {{harvc|last=Kim|first=Chin W.|author-link=Chin-Woo Kim|year=1997|in=Kim-Renaud|c=The Structure of Phonological Units in Han'gŭl}}
** {{harvc|last=Kim-Renaud|first=Young-Key|author-link=Young-Key Kim-Renaud|year=1997|in=Kim-Renaud|c=The Phonological Analysis Reflected in the Korean Writing System|anchor-year=1997b}}
** {{harvc|last=Sohn|first=Ho-min|author-link=Ho-min Sohn |year=1997|in=Kim-Renaud|c=Orthographic Divergence in South and North Korea Toward a Unified Spelling System}}
** {{harvc|last=King|first=Ross|author-link=Ross King (academic)|year=1997|in=Kim-Renaud|c= Experimentation with Han'gŭl in Russia and the USSR, 1914–1937}}
** {{harvc|last=Kim-Renaud|first=Young-Key|author-link=Young-Key Kim-Renaud|year=1997|in=Kim-Renaud|c=Appendix|anchor-year=1997c}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kim-Renaud |first=Young-Key |author-link=Young-Key Kim-Renaud |url=https://www.routledge.com/Korean-An-Essential-Grammar/Kim-Renaud/p/book/9780415383882 |title=Korean: An Essential Grammar |date=June 26, 2009 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9780203883617 |edition=eBook |archive-date=June 5, 2024 |access-date=November 2, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240605165605/https://www.routledge.com/Korean-An-Essential-Grammar/Kim-Renaud/p/book/9780415383882 |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=King |first=Ross |author-link=Ross King (academic) |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/48569 |title=Language and National Identity in Asia |date=August 2007 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=9781383041026 |editor-last=Simpson |editor-first=Andrew |chapter=North and South Korea |doi=10.1093/oso/9780199267484.001.0001 |chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/48569/chapter-abstract/421415001 }}
* {{Cite book |editor=Korean National Commission for UNESCO |title=The Korean Language |publisher=Si-sa-yong-o-sa, Inc., Pace International Research |year=1983 |isbn=0-89209-019-7 |ref={{SfnRef|Korean National Commission|1983}}}}
** {{harvc|last=Kim|first=Jin-p'yŏng|year=1983|in=Korean National Commission|c=The Letterforms of Han'gŭl}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ledyard |first=Gari Keith |author-link=Gari Ledyard |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Korean_Language_Reform_of_1446/zvZKAQAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=The Korean Language Reform of 1446: The Origin, Background, and Early History of the Korean Alphabet |date= |publisher=신구문화사 |year= |publication-date=1998 |language=en |orig-date= |orig-year=1966 |archive-date=May 15, 2025 |access-date=October 26, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250515024553/https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Korean_Language_Reform_of_1446/zvZKAQAAMAAJ?hl=en |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last1=Lee |first1=Iksop |author-link1=Iksop Lee |url=https://sunypress.edu/Books/T/The-Korean-Language |title=The Korean Language |last2=Ramsey |first2=S. Robert |author-link2=S. Robert Ramsey |publisher=[[SUNY Press]] |year=2000 |isbn=0-7914-4832-0 |archive-date=March 6, 2025 |access-date=October 26, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250306010425/https://sunypress.edu/Books/T/The-Korean-Language |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Lee |first=Ki-Moon |author-link=Ki-Moon Lee |last2=Ramsey |first2=S. Robert |author-link2=S. Robert Ramsey |date=2011 |title=A History of the Korean Language | title-link=A History of the Korean Language |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=9780511974045}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lunde |first=Ken |year=2009 |title=CJKV Information Processing |isbn=978-0-596-51447-1 |edition=2nd |url=https://www.oreilly.com/library/view/cjkv-information-processing/9780596156114/ |publisher=[[O'Reilly Media]] |archive-date=September 6, 2025 |access-date=November 8, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250906101310/https://www.oreilly.com/library/view/cjkv-information-processing/9780596156114/ |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Martin |first=Samuel E. |author-link=Samuel E. Martin |year=1992 |title=A Reference Grammar of Korean |title-link=A Reference Grammar of Korean |publisher=[[Tuttle Publishing|Charles E. Tuttle Company]] |isbn=0-8048-1887-8 |edition=1st}}
* {{Cite book |last=Oh |first=Young Kyun |url=https://brill.com/display/title/22000 |title=Engraving Virtue: The Printing History of a Premodern Korean Moral Primer |date=2013-05-24 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |isbn=978-90-04-25196-0 |series=Brill's Korean Studies Library |volume=3 |language=en |archive-date=May 11, 2024 |access-date=November 2, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240511234217/https://brill.com/display/title/22000 |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Pae |editor-first=Hye K. |editor-last2=Winskel |editor-first2=Heather |editor-last3=Kim |editor-first3=Say Young |date=2025-08-26 |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-031-88087-2 |title=Handbook on the Korean Language and Literacy: Insights into Hangul and Text Processing |publisher=[[Springer Publishing]] |isbn=978-3-031-88087-2 |doi=10.1007/978-3-031-88087-2 }}
** {{harvc|last=Pae|first=Hye K.|last2=Winskel|first2=Heather|last3=Kim|first3=Say Young|year=2025|c=An Introduction to the Korean Language and the Special Status of the Korean Alphabet|anchor-year=2025a|in=Pae|in2=Winskel|in3=Kim}}
** {{harvc|last=Hwang|first=Jiwon K.|year=2025|c=Hangul as a Sound Representation System: Efficacy and Innovation|in=Pae|in2=Winskel|in3=Kim}}
** {{harvc|last=Pae|first=Hye K.|year=2025|c=From Oligoliteracy to Literacy for All Citizens: The Korean Alphabet as the Engine Behind the Rise of Korea|in=Pae|in2=Winskel|in3=Kim}}
** {{harvc|last=Kim|first=Joonwoo|last2=Lee|first2=Wonjae|last3=Song|first3=Jisoo|last4=Kim|first4=Jeahong|last5=Nam|first5=Kichun|last6=Kim|first6=Sangyub|year=2025|c=Korean Eojeol Representation and Lexical Processing|in=Pae|in2=Winskel|in3=Kim}}
** {{harvc|last=Kim|first=Young-Suk Grace|year=2025|c=Learning to Read in Korean: An Application of the Direct and Indirect Effect Model of Reading (DIER)|in=Pae|in2=Winskel|in3=Kim}}
** {{harvc|last=Meletis|first=Dimitrios|year=2025|c=What Hangul Means for Grapholinguistics: Theoretical Implications of a 'Unique' Writing System|in=Pae|in2=Winskel|in3=Kim}}
** {{harvc|last=Winskel|first=Heather|year=2025|c=Does Korean Hangul Qualify as an Alphasyllabary? A Comparison with Brahmi-Derived Scripts|in=Pae|in2=Winskel|in3=Kim}}
* {{Cite book |last=Park |first=Chang-won |title=Hangeul: The Korean Alphabet |date=2015-08-31 |publisher=Ehwa Womans University Press |isbn=979-11-85909-68-4 |translator-last1=Cho |translator-first1=Yoon-jung |translator-last2=Han |translator-first2=Mi-sun}}
* {{cite book |last=Pratt |first=Keith |author-link=Keith Pratt |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Everlasting_Flower/1Gui8CdUfVoC?hl=en&gbpv=0 |title=Everlasting Flower: A History of Korea |date= |publisher=[[Reaktion Books]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-1861893352 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Qian |first=Youyong |url=https://www.routledge.com/A-Study-of-Sino-Korean-Phonology-Its-Origin-Adaptation-and-Layers/Qian/p/book/9780367597917 |title=A Study of Sino-Korean Phonology: Its Origin, Adaptation and Layers |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-315-27981-7 |edition=eBook |archive-date=November 22, 2022 |access-date=November 8, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221122053644/https://www.routledge.com/A-Study-of-Sino-Korean-Phonology-Its-Origin-Adaptation-and-Layers/Qian/p/book/9780367597917 |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Sampson |first=Geoffrey |author-link=Geoffrey Sampson |url=http://archive.org/details/writingsystems00geof |title=Writing Systems: A Linguistic Introduction |date=1985 |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |others= |isbn=0-8047-1756-7 |location=Stanford, California |via=[[Internet Archive]] }}
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Shin |editor-first=Michael D. |url=https://brill.com/display/title/24686 |title=Economy and Society |date=2014-01-09 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |isbn=978-90-04-26115-0 |series=Everyday Life in Joseon-Era Korea |language=en |archive-date=November 2, 2024 |access-date=October 26, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241102114850/https://brill.com/display/title/24686 |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Sohn |first=Ho-min |author-link=Ho-min Sohn |url=https://archive.org/details/koreanlanguage0000sohn/mode/1up |title=The Korean Language |date=2001 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-36943-5 |language=en }}
* {{Cite book |last=Song |first=Jae Jung |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Korean_Language/U9M3fZo4tj4C?hl=en |title=The Korean Language: Structure, Use and Context |date=2006 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-134-33590-9 |language=en }}
* {{Cite book |last=Taylor |first=Insup |last2=Taylor |first2=M. Martin |url=https://www.benjamins.com/catalog/swll.14 |edition=Revised |orig-date=1995 |year=2014 |title=Writing and Literacy in Chinese, Korean and Japanese |series=Studies in Written Language and Literacy |volume=14 |publisher=[[John Benjamins Publishing Company]] |doi=10.1075/swll.14 |isbn=9789027269447 |editor-last1=Verhoeven |editor-first1=Ludo |editor-last2=van den Broek |editor-first2=Paul W. |archive-date=October 7, 2024 |access-date=October 26, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241007211049/https://benjamins.com/catalog/swll.14 |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Wang |first=Sixiang |url=https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004279278/B9789004279278_004.xml |title=Rethinking East Asian Languages, Vernaculars, and Literacies, 1000–1919 |date=2014-01-01 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-27927-8 |editor-last=Elman |editor-first=Benjamin A. |series=Sinica Leidensia |volume=115 |pages=58–95 |language=en |chapter=The Sounds of Our Country: Interpreters, Linguistic Knowledge, and the Politics of Language in Early Chosŏn Korea |access-date=2025-07-27 |archive-date=April 16, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250416022613/https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004279278/B9789004279278_004.xml |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Wang |first=Sixiang |url=https://cup.columbia.edu/book/boundless-winds-of-empire/9780231556019/ |title=Boundless Winds of Empire: Rhetoric and Ritual in Early Choson Diplomacy with Ming China |date=July 2023 |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |isbn=978-0-231-55601-9 |archive-date=August 3, 2025 |access-date=November 2, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250803225739/https://cup.columbia.edu/book/boundless-winds-of-empire/9780231556019/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Yang |first1=Changyong |url=https://uhpress.hawaii.edu/title/jejueo-the-language-of-koreas-jeju-island/ |title=Jejueo: The Language of Korea's Jeju Island |last2=Yang |first2=Sejung |last3=O'Grady |first3=William |date=October 2019 |publisher=University of Hawai{{okina}}i Press |isbn=9780824874438 |location=Honolulu, Hawaii |archive-date=October 25, 2021 |access-date=November 3, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211025204922/https://uhpress.hawaii.edu/title/jejueo-the-language-of-koreas-jeju-island/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Yeon |first1=Jaehoon |last2=Brown |first2=Lucien |title=Korean: A Comprehensive Grammar |edition=1st |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-203-83300-1 |publisher=[[Routledge]]}}
{{refend}}
===== Academic articles =====
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite book |last=Haarmann |first=Harald |author-link=Harald Haarmann |title=The Earliest Stage of Language Planning |date=1993 |editor-last=Fishman |editor-first=Joshua A. |editor-link=Joshua Fishman |chapter=The emergence of the Korean script as a symbol of Korean identity |chapter-url=https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110848984.143/html |language=en |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |pages=143–158 |doi=10.1515/9783110848984.143 |isbn=978-3-11-084898-4}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Kim |first=Chin W. |date=2000 |title=The Legacy of King Sejong the Great |url=https://www.ideals.illinois.edu/items/9673 |journal=Studies in the Linguistic Sciences |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=3–12 |issn=0049-2388 |via=[[University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign University Library]] |archive-date=January 24, 2025 |access-date=November 2, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250124035825/https://www.ideals.illinois.edu/items/9673 |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Kim-Renaud |first=Young-Key |author-link=Young-Key Kim-Renaud |date=2000 |title=Sejong's Theory of Literacy and Writing |url=https://www.ideals.illinois.edu/items/9674 |journal=Studies in the Linguistic Sciences |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=13–45 |issn=0049-2388 |via=[[University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign University Library]] |archive-date=August 8, 2025 |access-date=October 26, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250808180837/https://www.ideals.illinois.edu/items/9674 |url-status=live}} {{Open access}}
* {{Cite report |url=https://www.koreasociety.org/images/pdf/KoreanStudies/Monographs_GeneralReading/GettingtoKnowKorea/GTKK%202%20Ledyard%20Sejong%20The%20Great.pdf |title=The Cultural Work of Sejong the Great |last=Ledyard |first=Gari Keith |author-link=Gari Ledyard |date=1990 |publication-date=November 2002 |pages=7–18 |access-date=2025-07-26 |via=[[Korea Society]] |archive-date=October 10, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251010020812/https://www.koreasociety.org/images/pdf/KoreanStudies/Monographs_GeneralReading/GettingtoKnowKorea/GTKK%202%20Ledyard%20Sejong%20The%20Great.pdf |url-status=live}} {{Open access}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Lee |first=Ki-Moon |author-link=Ki-Moon Lee |date=September 2009 |title=Reflections on the Invention of the Hunmin jeongeum |url=http://www.scripta.kr/scripta_v0010/scripta_v0010_en_jarchive |journal=Scripta |publisher=The Hunmin jeongeum Society |volume=1 |pages=1–34 |issn=2092-7215 |archive-date=February 19, 2025 |access-date=November 2, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250219153751/http://scripta.kr/scripta_v0010/scripta_v0010_en_jarchive |url-status=live}} {{Open access}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Pae |first=Hye K. |date=2011-01-01 |title=Is Korean a syllabic alphabet or an alphabetic syllabary |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/wsr/wsr002 |journal=[[Writing Systems Research]] |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=103–115 |doi=10.1093/wsr/wsr002 |issn=1758-6801}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Paek |first=Doohyeon |date=September 2011 |title=Hunmin jeongeum: Dissemination Policy and Education |url=http://www.scripta.kr/scripta_v0010/scripta_v0010_en_jarchive |journal=Scripta |publisher=The Hunmin jeongeum Society |volume=2 |pages=1–23 |issn=2092-7215 |archive-date=February 19, 2025 |access-date=November 2, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250219153751/http://scripta.kr/scripta_v0010/scripta_v0010_en_jarchive |url-status=live}} {{Open access}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Park |first=Dongoh |date=2016-05-25 |title=The Korean Character Code: A National Controversy, 1987-1995 |journal=[[IEEE Annals of the History of Computing]] |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=40–53 |publisher=[[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]] |issn=1934-1547 |doi=10.1109/MAHC.2016.14 |url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/7478485}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Yoo |first=Mi-rim |date=2006-09-01 |title=King Sejong's Leadership and the Politics of Inventing the Korean Alphabet |url=https://accesson.kr/rks/v.9/3/7/7571 |journal=The Review of Korean Studies |language=en |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=7–38 |issn=2733-9351 |via=AccessON}} {{Open access}}
{{refend}}
==== In Korean ====

===== Books =====
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite book |author=홍윤표 |date=2019-12-13 |script-title=ko:한글 |trans-title=Hangul |edition=Ebook |publisher=세창출판사 |isbn=978-89-8411-924-6 |url=https://play.google.com/store/books/details?id=OIbCDwAAQBAJ&rdid=book-OIbCDwAAQBAJ&rdot=1 |language=ko}}
{{refend}}
===== Academic articles =====
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite journal |author=안경상 |year=2020 |script-title=ko:어학고전 《훈몽자회》의 몇가지 특징 |trans-title=Some Features of "Hunmong Jahoe" |language=ko |journal=Korean Language in China |volume=225 |pages=38–51 |url=https://www.dbpia.co.kr/journal/articleDetail?nodeId=NODE09302157 |via=[[DBpia]]}} {{Closed access}}
* {{Cite journal |last=양왕성 |year=2018 |title=옛한글 코드의 변천사 |trans-title=A Study on Changes in the Old Hangul Code |url=https://www.dbpia.co.kr/journal/articleDetail?nodeId=NODE07571400 |journal=정신문화연구 |language=ko |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=213–238 |issn=2671-8197 |via=[[DBpia]]}} {{Closed access}}
* {{Cite journal |author=이관규 |url=https://www.kci.go.kr/kciportal/ci/sereArticleSearch/ciSereArtiView.kci?sereArticleSearchBean.artiId=ART003112337 |via=[[Korea Citation Index]] |language=ko |title=한글 자음자의 명칭에 대한 고찰 |trans-title=A Study on the Names of Korean Consonants |journal=문법 교육 |publisher=한국문법교육학회 |doi=10.21850/kge.2024.51..41 |year=2024 |volume=51 |pp=41–71}} {{Open access}}
* {{Cite journal |last=최호철 |date=1988 |title=북한의 맞춤법 |trans-title=North Korea's orthography |url=https://www.korean.go.kr/nkview/nklife/1988_15.htm |journal=국어생활 |language=ko |volume=13 |pages=33–48 |via=[[National Institute of Korean Language]] |archive-date=March 7, 2005 |access-date=October 26, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050307215901/http://www.korean.go.kr/nkview/nklife/1988_15.htm |url-status=live}} {{Open access}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Ahn |first=Pyong-hi |author-link=Ahn Pyong-hi |date=2004 |title=世宗의 訓民正音創製와 그 協贊者 |trans-title=On Se-jong's creation of Hunminjeongeum(訓民正音) and his supporters |url=http://www.skl.or.kr/journal/thesis.asp |journal=국어학 |language=ko |publisher=국어학회 |issue=44 |pages=3–39 |archive-date=May 16, 2025 |access-date=November 2, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250516203122/http://www.skl.or.kr/journal/thesis.asp |url-status=live}} {{Free access}}
{{refend}}

===== Primary sources =====
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite report |url=https://ko.wikisource.org/wiki/%EC%A1%B0%EC%84%A0%EB%A7%90_%EA%B7%9C%EB%B2%94%EC%A7%91_(2010%EB%85%84) |trans-title=Compendium of Korean Language Norms |year=2010 |publisher=국어사정위원회 |language=ko |ref={{SfnRef|North Korea|2010}} |script-title=ko:조선말규범집 |via=[[Wikisource]] |archive-date=August 2, 2025 |access-date=October 26, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250802140619/https://ko.wikisource.org/wiki/%EC%A1%B0%EC%84%A0%EB%A7%90_%EA%B7%9C%EB%B2%94%EC%A7%91_(2010%EB%85%84) |url-status=live}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* {{Commons category-inline|Hangul}}

{{Hangul Jamo}}
{{Joseon}}
{{List of writing systems}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Hangul| ]]
[[Category:Korean inventions]]
[[Category:Korean language]]
[[Category:Korean writing systems]]
[[Category:National symbols of Korea]]
[[Category:Spelling reform]]
[[Category:Constructed scripts]]
[[Category:15th-century introductions]]
[[Category:Writing systems introduced in the 2nd millennium]]

Sudhanshu Pandey

2026-03-29T15:47:23Z

Androidsub143: cleanup layout also and fixed typos per sources

{{short description|Indian television actor (born 1974)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2023}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Sudhanshu Pandey
| image = Sudhanshu Pandey at the Star Parivaar Awards 2023 (cropped).jpg
| caption = Pandey in 2023
| birth_date =
| birth_place = India
| occupation = {{hlist| Model|actor|singer|writer|producer|Part time poet}}
| spouse(s) = {{marriage|Mona Pandey|1996}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sudhanshu Pandey:"I got married when I was 22-years old"|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/lifestyle/brunch/nostalgia-with-sudhanshu-pandey-i-got-married-and-moved-to-mumbai-when-i-was-22-101653683743373-amp.html|access-date=22 June 2022|website=Hindustan Times|language=en}}</ref>
| children = 2
| years_active = 1994–present
| height_cm =
}}

'''Sudhanshu Pandey''' (Born 22 Aug 1974) is an [[India]]n model, film and television actor, singer, writer producer and part time poet. He has appeared in many [[Hindi]] films and few [[Tamil language|Tamil]] films.

==Career==
After a successful modelling career,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-05-26 |title=Anupamaa's Sudhanshu Pandey shares throwback pic, recalls being a top model at 20; fans say 'you still look the same' |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/tv/anupamaas-sudhanshu-pandey-shares-throwback-pic-recalls-being-a-top-model-at-20-fans-say-you-still-look-the-same-101653564789033.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230410035111/https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/tv/anupamaas-sudhanshu-pandey-shares-throwback-pic-recalls-being-a-top-model-at-20-fans-say-you-still-look-the-same-101653564789033.html |archive-date=2023-04-10 |access-date=2025-04-08 |work=Hindustan Times |language=en-us}}</ref> he made his television debut with ''Beta'', which aired in 1999. That same year, Pandey featured in the song, ''Maikhane se Sharab se'' from [[Pankaj Udhas]] 's Album ''Mahek''. Pandey's first film was supposed to be "Khajuraho 950 AD" in 2000 alongside Divya dutta, Kulbhushan kharbanda and Anupam kher but later the film got shelved later he made his film debut in ''[[Khiladi 420]]'' as co-lead with [[Akshay Kumar]]. He then became part of India's first ever boy band ''[[A Band of Boys]]''. In 2002, his first album ''Yeh Bhi Woh Bhi'' was released. Pandey left ''A Band of Boys'' in 2005, as he needed to settle down financially,<ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/i-needed-to-settle-down-financially-so-had-to-opt-out-of-band-of-boys-sudhanshu-pandey/articleshow/97980540.cms | title=I needed to settle down financially, so had to opt out of Band of Boys: Sudhanshu Pandey | newspaper=The Times of India | date=17 February 2023 }}</ref> but rejoined in 2024.
After leaving, he had done movies like Yakeen, Unns, Humrahi, Singh Is King and Many More.

Pandey also regularly appeared in Tamil cinema throughout the 2010s, and portrayed his first main antagonist role in ''[[Billa II]]'' (2012) starring [[Ajith Kumar]]. He later followed that up with roles in ''[[Meaghamann]]'' (2014), ''[[Indrajith (2017 film)|Indrajith]]'' (2017) and ''[[2.0 (film)|2.0]]'' (2018), the most expensive Indian film at the time of its release.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sudhanshu Pandey says I've Fallen in Love with Tamil Cinema|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2017/nov/22/i-have-fallen-in-love-with-tamil-cinema-sudhanshu-pandey-1708522.html|access-date=22 June 2022|website=Indian Express|date=23 November 2017 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Sudhanshu Pandey can't stop praising Tollywood|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2016/nov/29/sudhanshu-pandey-cant-stop-gushing-about-ktown-1543932.html|date=29 November 2016|access-date=22 June 2022|website=Indian Express|language=en}}</ref>

Pandey had a production house, named ''Raw Stock Production Private Limited'', under which he produced a music video for his first single ''Teri Adaa'' in 2018, for which he also served as lyricist, as well as a short film named ''Fitrat'' in 2021, along with Tahir Baig, his second home production. Later he dissolved that company.

In 2020, he began portraying Vanraj Shah in ''[[Anupamaa]]'', which popularized him among the Hindi-speaking audience.<ref name= "Anupamaa">{{Cite news|title=Sudhanshu Pandey says ''Anupamaa'' gave me popularity that even Hollywood and Robot 2.0 can't give|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/exclusive-sudhanshu-pandey-anupamaa-gave-me-the-popularity-which-even-my-hollywood-film-or-robot-2-0-couldnt-give/articleshow/91995870.cms|access-date=22 June 2022|website=Times of India|date=4 June 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Sudhanshu Pandey on massive success of ''Anupamaa'': "Did Films with Priyanka Chopra but didn't experienced anything like this|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/tv/sudhanshu-pandey-on-anupamaa-success-did-films-with-priyanka-chopra-but-didn-t-experience-anything-like-this-101654323483996.html|access-date=22 June 2022|website=Hindustan Times|date=4 June 2022 |language=en}}</ref> However, he quit the series in August 2024, after four years.<ref name="Quit">{{Cite web|title=Sudhanshu Pandey Walks Out Of Anupamaa, Announces Exit|url=https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment-news/tv/sudhanshu-pandey-walks-out-of-anupamaa-announces-exit-article-112872457|access-date=2024-08-28|website=Times Now News|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Sudhanshu Pandey aka 'Vanraj' quits 'Anupamaa'; says 'I want to tell all of you with a heavy heart that I am now not a part of the show'|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/sudhanshu-pandey-aka-vanraj-quits-anupamaa-says-i-want-to-tell-all-of-you-with-a-heavy-heart-that-i-am-now-not-a-part-of-the-show/articleshow/112873259.cms|access-date=2024-08-28|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref>
In 2022, he reprised his role of Vanraj Shah in ''[[Anupamaa]]'s'' eleven-episode prequel web series ''[[Anupama: Namaste America]]'' which streams on [[Disney+ Hotstar]].<ref name= "Namaste America "/>

His second solo single ''Dil Ki Tu Zameen'' was launched in 2023 in which he performed alongside [[Madalsa Sharma]]. He produced the song. In June 2025, he participated as contestant in the [[Prime Video]]'s ''[[The Traitors India season 1|The Traitors India]]'', where he finished at 4th place.<ref>{{Cite news|last=|first=|date=3 September 2024|title=Did Sudhanshu Pandey leave Anupamaa for Prime Video's reality show 'The Traitors'? Here's what we know|url=https://www.indiatvnews.com/entertainment/tv/did-sudhanshu-pandey-leave-anupamaa-for-prime-video-s-reality-show-the-traitors-here-s-what-we-know-2024-09-03-950117|access-date=1 July 2025|work=[[India TV]]|language=en}}</ref>
In November 2025 Pandey Featured in Vertical Drama Series Engineer Vs Billionaire as Ranvijay a business tycoon on kuku TV

In March 2026, Pandey returned to television with colors limited series [[Do Duniya Ek Dil]] as Baldev Singh Chauhan.

==Personal life==
His mother is a [[Punjabis|Punjabi]] and in an interview, he identified himself as 'half-Punjabi'.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tiwari |first=Vijaya |date=21 November 2012 |title=Sudhanshu Pandey enjoys playing Sampooran Singh! |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/sudhanshu-pandey-enjoys-playing-sampooran-singh/articleshow/17309020.cms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250130100918/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/sudhanshu-pandey-enjoys-playing-sampooran-singh/articleshow/17309020.cms |archive-date=30 January 2025 |website=[[The Times of India]] |quote="I consider myself half Punjabi because my mother is from Punjab and I have a very deep connection."}}</ref>

Pandey is married to Mona Pandey and they have two sons, Nirvaan and Vivaan Pandey.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/newsscroll/sudhanshu-pandey-im-a-very-simple-person/1863722|title=Sudhanshu Pandey: I'm very simple person}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Sudhanshu Pandey speaks about his wife Mona Pandey, says "I decided that she was the one for me"|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/relationships/love-sex/i-decided-that-she-was-the-one-for-me-sudhanshu-pandey/articleshow/18985940.cms|access-date=2022-06-22|website=Times of India|date=15 March 2013 |language=en}}</ref>

==Filmography==
=== Films ===
{| class="wikitable"
! Year !! Title !! Role !! Notes
|-
| 2000 || ''[[Khiladi 420]]'' || Rahul ||
|-
| 2004 || ''Kiss Kis Ko'' || Sudhanshu Mathur || Also singer
|-
| rowspan="3" |2005 || ''[[Pehchaan: The Face of Truth]]'' || Milind D. Khanna ||
|-
| ''[[The Myth (film)|The Myth]]'' || Dasar temple guard captain ||
|-
| ''[[Yakeen (2005 film)|Yakeen]]'' || Kabir ||
|-
|rowspan="4" |2006 || ''Manoranjan :The Entertainment'' || Vicky ||
|-
| ''Unns'' || Rishi Rampal ||
|-
| '' Jadu Sa Chal Gaya '' || Raj ||
|-
|''Katputti'' || Bar Tender ||
|-
|rowspan="2"|2007 || ''[[Dus Kahaniyaan]]''||Aditya Singh || Anthology film; Segment: "Matrimony"
|-
|| '' Humrahi'' || ||
|-
| 2008 || ''[[Singh Is Kinng]]'' || Raftaar ||
|-
| 2008|| ''Dhara'' || Sagar ||
|-
|2008
||''[[Saas Bahu Aur Sensex]]''
| Yash Modi ||
|-
|2010 || ''Sky Ki Umeed''|| Rajendar & Vir||Dual roles
|-
|rowspan="5"|2011 || ''[[Singham]]'' || Rakesh Kadam || Cameo
|-
| ''EK Noor'' || Renjith ||[[Punjabi cinema|Punjabi film]]
|-
| ''[[Murder 2]]'' || Inspector Sadaa ||
|-
| ''[[Tell Me O Kkhuda]]'' || Kunwar Virat Pratap ||
|-
| '' Alibag '' || || Unreleased
|-
|rowspan="2"|2012 || ''Bekhabar'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Billa II]]'' || Abbasi || [[Tamil film]] Nominated—[[SIIMA Award for Best Actor in a Negative Role - Tamil|SIIMA Award for Best Actor in a Negative Role]]
|-
|2013 ||''[[Rajdhani Express (film)|Rajdhani Express]]'' || Muneesh ||
|-
|2014 || ''[[Meaghamann]]'' || Rane || Tamil film
|-
| 2015 || ''[[Chooriyan]]'' || Aman Brar ||Punjabi film
|-
|2017 || ''[[Indrajith (2017 film)|Indrajith]]'' || Kapil Sharma || Tamil film
|-
|2017 ||''[[Jia Aur Jia]]'' || Arvind Jaisingh || Hindi
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2018 || ''[[2.0 (film)|2.0]]'' || Dhinendra Bohra || Tamil
|-
| ''The Bar'' || Kabir || Short film
|-
| rowspan="3" |2019 || ''[[Bypass Road (film)|Bypass Road]]''|| Narang Kapoor ||
|-
| ''[[Manmadhudu 2]]''|| Amith || [[Telugu film]]
|-
|''Seasoned With Love'' ||Arjun|| Short film
|-
| rowspan="3" |2021
|''[[Radhe (2021 film)|Radhe]]''
| Dilawar
| Cameo Appearance
|-
|''[[Pon Manickavel (film)|Pon Manickavel]]''
| Badrinath
| Tamil film
|-
|''Fitrat''
|Nasir
| Short film
|-
|}

=== Music videos ===
{| class="wikitable"
! Year !! Title !! Singer !! Notes
|-
|1999 || ''Maikhane se Sharab se'' || [[Pankaj Udhas]]|| Album: ''Mahek''
|-
|2008 || ''Mujhko Rana Ji Maaf Karna''||
|| Album : "Ghoonghat Mix"
|-
| 2018 || ''Teri Adaa '' || Himself ||
|-
| 2023 || ''Dil Ki Tu Zameen '' || Himself|| <ref name="timesofindia.indiatimes.com">{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/sudhanshu-pandey-to-feature-in-solo-single-dil-ki-tu-zameen-after-almost-five-years/articleshow/99937580.cms | title=Sudhanshu Pandey to feature in solo single 'Dil Ki Tu Zameen' after almost five years | newspaper=The Times of India | date=2 May 2023 }}</ref><ref name="Check Out Latest Hindi Video Song '">{{cite web | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/videos/entertainment/music/hindi/check-out-latest-hindi-video-song-dil-ki-tu-zameen-sung-by-sudhanshu-pandey/videoshow/99984401.cms | title=Check Out Latest Hindi Video Song 'Dil Ki Tu Zameen' Sung by Sudhanshu Pandey | Hindi Video Songs - Times of India | website=[[The Times of India]] }}</ref>
|-
|2024 || ''Maa'' || [[Ankit Tiwari]] ||
|}

=== Television ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Year
! Serial
! Role
! Notes
|-
|1997
|''[[Mano Ya Na Mano (1995 TV series)]]''
|Unnamed
|Episodic Character
|-
|1999
|''Suspense Hour'' (1999 TV Series)
|Vikram
|Cameo appearance
|-
|1999
|''[[Kanyadaan (1999 TV series)|Kanyadaan]]''
|Karan
|
|-
|1999
|''Beta''
|Akash
|
|-
|2000-2001
|''[[Rishtey (TV series)|Rishtey]]''
| Various
|
|-
|2001-2005
|''[[Dishayen]]''
|Samir (Baba)
|
|-
|2002
|''[[Sanjivani (2002 TV series)|Sanjivani]]''
|Vishal Kapoor
|
|-
|2002
|'' Cook It Up With Tarla Dalal''
|Host
|
|-
|2002
|'' Kismey Kitnaa Hai Dam ''
|Himself
|
|-
|2003
|'' Hai Na Bolo Bolo ''
|Himself
|
|-
|2006
|''Akela''
|Ranvir
|
|-
|2006
|''[[Man Mein Hai Visshwas]]''
|Wing commander Shashikant Oak
| Cameo appearance
|-
|2009
|''[[Monica Mogre|Monica Mogre - Case Files]]''
|Hritivik
|
|-
|2011
|''[[Jhansi Ki Rani (2009 TV series)|Jhansi Ki Rani]]''
|Yuvraj
|
|-
|2012–2013
|''[[Ek Veer Ki Ardaas...Veera]]''
|Sampooran Singh
|
|-
|2015
|''[[Siyaasat]]''
|[[Jahangir]] aka Salim
|
|-
|2015–2016
|''[[Chakravartin Ashoka Samrat]]''
|Keechak
|
|-
| rowspan="3" | 2016
|''[[Tamanna (TV series)|Tamanna]]''
|Diwakar Limaye
|
|-
|''[[24 (Indian TV series)|24 (Season 2)]]''
|Vedant Acharya
|
|-
|''[[Bharatvarsh (TV series)|Bharatvarsh]]''
|[[Shivaji]]
|
|-
| 2020–2024
| ''[[Anupamaa]]''
| rowspan = "2" | Vanraj "V" Shah
| <ref name="Quit"/>
|-
| 2022
| ''[[Ravivaar With Star Parivaar]]''
| Episodes 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 15 & 16
|-
| 2025
| ''[[Wagle Ki Duniya – Nayi Peedhi Naye Kissey]]''
|Rakesh Diwan (Rocky D)
| Cameo
|-
|rowspan='3'|2026
| [[Mahadev & Sons]]
|Baldev Singh Chauhan
| Cameo
|-
|'' [[Laughter Chefs - Unlimited Entertainment]] season 3''
|
| Cameo, for the promotion of Do Duniya Ek Dil
|-
|''[[Do Duniya Ek Dil]]''
| Baldev Singh Chauhan
|
|-
|}

=== Web series ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Year
!Title
!Role
!Notes
|-
|rowspan="2" |2019
|''Jamai 2.O''
|Cheeram
|
|-
|''Dance Bar''
| Dhanraj Shekhawat
| Ullu Series
|-
| rowspan="2" |2020
|''[[Hundred (TV series)|Hundred]]''
|Pravin Shukla
|<ref>{{cite news|title=Raftaar, Krsna release 'Chaukanna' featuring Karan Wahi; inspired by Hotstar Specials' 'Hundred'|url=https://www.dnaindia.com/television/report-raftaar-krsna-release-chaukanna-featuring-karan-wahi-inspired-by-hotstar-specials-hundred-2826382}}</ref>
|-
|''[[The Casino (Indian TV series)|The Casino]] ''
|Shailendra Singh Marwah
|<ref>{{cite news|title=Stars of ZEE5 The Casino slay on the cover of Filmfare|url=https://www.filmfare.com/features/stars-of-zee5s-the-casino-slay-on-the-cover-of-filmfare-41517.html}}</ref>
|-
|2022
|''[[Anupama: Namaste America]]''
|Vanraj "Guthlu" Shah
|<ref name= "Namaste America">{{Cite web |date=2022-04-18 |title=Anupama Namaste America Promo: Rupali Ganguly and Sudhanshu Pandey's Younger Look Leave Fans Excited |url=https://www.news18.com/news/movies/anupama-namaste-america-promo-rupali-ganguly-and-sudhanshu-pandeys-younger-look-leave-fans-excited-5007235.html |access-date=2022-04-19 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|2023
|A Day Turns Daark
|Radhe Shayam Hooda
|
|-
|2025
|''[[The Traitors India season 1|The Traitors India]]''
|Contestant
|4th place
|}

=== Vertical Drama ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Year
!Title
!Role
!Notes
|-
|2025
| Engineer Vs Billionaire
| Ranvijay
| Kuku TV originals
|-
|}

== Discography ==
===Albums===
{| class="wikitable"
! Year !! Album !! Notes
|-
|-
| 2002 || ''Yeh Bhi Woh Bhi'' || Band Of Boys
|-
|2004 || ''Kis Kis Ko '' || Band of boys
|-
| 2024 || ''A Band of Boys: Reignite'' || Band Of Boys
|-
| 2026 || Groove With God || Rudra Rhythm
|-
|}

=== Film music ===
{| class="wikitable"
! Year !! Album !! Track !! Notes
|-
| 2007 || ''[[Dus Kahaniyaan]]''|| Aaja Soniye ||
|-
|}

=== Singles ===
{| class="wikitable"
! Year !! Track !! Artist !! Producer !! Lyricist !! Reference
|-
|2018 || ''Teri Adaa'' || Sudhanshu Pandey, Myra Sareen || Sudhanshu Pandey || Sudhanshu Pandey, Ravi Singhal ||
|-
|2023 ||'' Dil Ki Tu Zameen''|| Sudhanshu Pandey, [[Madalsa Sharma Chakraborty]] || Sudhanshu Pandey || Himanshu Kholi || <ref name="timesofindia.indiatimes.com"/><ref name="Check Out Latest Hindi Video Song '"/>
|-
|2024||''Behisaba''|| || || [[Kumaar]]||
|-
|}

==Awards and nominations==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! Year
! Award
! Category
! Work
! Result
! Ref.
|-
| 2012
| [[South Indian International Movie Awards]]
| Best Actor In A Negative Role
| ''[[Billa II]]''
| {{nominated}}
|
|-
| 2020
| [[Gold Awards]]
| Dynamic Actor
| rowspan=5|''[[Anupamaa]]''
|{{won}}
|<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sudhanshu Pandey calls out Gold Awards for no sanitisers, masks at event. Viral video|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/television/celebrity/story/sudhanshu-pandey-calls-out-gold-awards-for-no-sanitisers-masks-at-event-viral-video-1744220-2020-11-26|website=India Today|date=26 November 2020 }}</ref>
|-
|2021
|[[Indian Television Academy Awards|20th Indian Television Academy Awards]]
| [[ITA Award for Best Actor Popular|Best Actor Popular]]
|{{won}}
|<ref>{{Cite web|title=ITA Awards 2021 full winners list out. Surbhi Chandna and Pratik Gandhi win big|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/television/top-stories/story/ita-awards-2021-full-winners-list-out-surbhi-chandna-and-pratik-gandhi-win-big-1769533-2021-02-15|website=India Today|date=15 February 2021 }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" |2022
|[[Indian Television Academy Awards|21st Indian Television Academy Awards]]
| [[ITA Award for Best Actor Drama|Best Actor Jury]]
| {{won}}
|<ref>{{Cite web|title=Know the winners list of ITA 2022|url=https://www.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/indian-television-academy-ita-awards-winners-list-check-who-won-what-here-1646724656-1|access-date=2022-03-09|website=Jagran Josh|date=8 March 2022 |language=en}}</ref>
|-
||[[Indian Television Academy Awards|22nd Indian Television Academy Awards]]
|[[ITA Award for Best Actor Popular|Best Actor Popular- Drama]]
|{{nom}}
||<ref>{{Cite web|title=ITA Awards 2022 complete winners list: Varun Dhawan, Nakuul Mehta, The Kashmir Files win big|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/television/ita-awards-2022-complete-winners-list-varun-dhawan-nakuul-mehta-the-kashmir-files-win-big-8320262/|access-date=2023-01-01|website=The Indian Express|date=12 December 2022 |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|2023
||[[Indian Telly Awards]]
|Most Outstanding Performance
|{{won}}
||
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb name|id=0659249|name=Sudhanshu Pandey}}

{{Subject bar|auto=y|d=y}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pandey, Sudhanshu}}
[[Category:Indian male models]]
[[Category:Indian male film actors]]
[[Category:Indian male television actors]]
[[Category:Male actors from Uttarakhand]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Punjabi people]]
[[Category:1974 births]]

Siege of Delhi (1857)

2026-03-28T08:04:04Z

Androidsub143: starting data

{{Short description|Conflict of the Indian Rebellion}}
{{For|the siege during the [[Second Anglo-Maratha War]]|Siege of Delhi (1804)}}
{{Other uses|Battle of Delhi (disambiguation)}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2024}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Siege of Delhi
| partof = the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]]
| image = 1857 cashmeri gate delhi.jpg
| caption = Battle damage to the [[Kashmiri Gate, Delhi|Kashmiri Gate]] in Delhi, 1857
| date = {{start and end dates|1857|6|8|1857|9|21|df=yes}} {{nwr|({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=06|day1=08|year1=1857|month2=09|day2=21|year2=1857}})}}
| place = [[Delhi]], [[Mughal Empire]]
| result = British victory
| combatant1 = {{flag|British Empire}} [[File:Flag of the British East India Company (1801).svg|25px|border]] [[East India Company]]
| combatant2 = {{ubl|{{flagicon image|Captured flag of the Mughal Empire (1857).png}} [[Mughal Empire]]|[[Sepoy]] [[Mutiny|mutineers]]}}
| commander1 = {{ubl|{{flagicon|British Empire}} [[George Anson (British Army officer, born 1797)|George Anson]]|{{flagicon|British Empire}} [[Sir Henry William Barnard]] {{flagicon|British Empire}} [[Archdale Wilson]]|[[File:Flag of the British East India Company (1801).svg|25px|border]] [[John Nicholson (East India Company officer)|John Nicholson]]{{KIA}}|
[[File:Flag of the British East India Company (1801).svg|25px|border]] [[William Stephen Raikes Hodson|William Hodson]]|{{flagicon|British Empire}} [[James Hope Grant]]}}
| commander2 = {{ubl|{{flagicon image|Captured flag of the Mughal Empire (1857).png}} [[Bahadur Shah II]]{{Surrendered}}|{{flagicon image|Captured flag of the Mughal Empire (1857).png}} [[Mirza Mughal]]{{Executed}}|{{flagicon image|Captured flag of the Mughal Empire (1857).png}} [[Mirza Khizr Sultan]]{{Executed}}|{{flagicon image|Captured flag of the Mughal Empire (1857).png}} [[Bakht Khan]]}}
| strength1 = 3,000 regular 6000 [[Punjabis]], [[Sikhs]], and [[Gurkhas]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Siege of Delhi {{!}} Summary|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Siege-of-Delhi|access-date=2021-06-07|website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Latter|first=Mick|date=2020-09-14|title=Delhi Day – Gurkhas at the Siege of Delhi, 1857|url=https://www.gurkhabde.com/delhi-day-gurkhas-at-the-siege-of-delhi-1857/|access-date=2021-06-07|website=Welcome to the Gurkha Brigade Association}}</ref> 2,200 [[Kashmir]]i [[irregular army|irregulars]]<ref name=Roberts116>Roberts (1893), p.116</ref> 42 [[field gun]]s 60 [[siege gun]]s
| strength2 = 12,000 [[sepoy]]s, approx. 30,000 irregulars or [[mujahideen]],<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dalrymple|first=William|title=The Last Mughal-Fall of a dynasty Delhi 1857|publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing]]|pages=269–270}}</ref> approx. 100 guns
| casualties1 = 1,254 killed 4,493 wounded
| casualties2 = Approx. 5,000 killed and wounded|
}}
{{Campaign box India 1857}}

The '''siege of Delhi''' was a decisive conflict of the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]]. The rebellion against the authority of the [[East India Company]] was widespread through much of Northern India, but was essentially sparked by the mass uprising by the [[sepoy]]s of the Bengal Army, which the company had itself raised in its [[Bengal Presidency]] (which actually covered a vast area from [[Assam]] to borders of Delhi). Seeking a symbol around which to rally, the first sepoys to rebel sought to reinstate the power of the [[Mughal Empire]], which had ruled much of the [[Indian subcontinent]] in the previous centuries. Lacking overall direction, many who subsequently rebelled also flocked to Delhi.

This made the siege decisive for two reasons. Firstly, large numbers of rebels were committed to the defence of a single fixed point, perhaps to the detriment of their prospects elsewhere, and their defeat at Delhi was thus a very major military setback. Secondly, the British recapture of Delhi and the refusal of the aged Mughal Emperor [[Bahadur Shah II]] to continue the struggle deprived the rebellion of much of its national character. Although the rebels still held large areas, there was little co-ordination between them, and the British were able to [[Defeat in detail|overcome them separately]].

==Outbreak of the rebellion==
After several years of increasing tension among the [[sepoys]] (Indian soldiers) of the British [[East India Company]]'s [[Bengal Presidency|Bengal Army]], the sepoys at [[Meerut]], {{convert|43|mi|km}} northeast of Delhi, openly rebelled against their British officers. The flashpoint was the introduction of the [[Pattern 1853 Enfield]] rifle. The cartridges for this were widely believed to be greased with a mixture of cow and pig fat, and to bite them open when loading the rifle (as required by the drill books) would defile both [[Hindu]] and [[Muslim]] soldiers.

Eighty-five men of the [[3rd Bengal Cavalry]] stationed at Meerut refused to accept their cartridges. They were hastily [[court martial]]led, and on 9 May 1857 they were sentenced to long periods of imprisonment and were paraded in irons before the British and Bengal regiments in the garrison. On the evening of the following day, soldiers of the Bengal regiments (3rd Light Cavalry, 11th and 20th Infantry) rebelled, releasing the imprisoned troopers and killing their British officers and many British civilians in their cantonment.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.defencejournal.com/dec99/1857.htm |title=Analysis of the 1857 War of Independence – Defence Journal |access-date=30 May 2007 |archive-date=29 May 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070529220301/http://defencejournal.com/dec99/1857.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The senior Company officers at Meerut were taken by surprise. Although they had ample warning of disaffection among the Bengal Army after earlier outbreaks of unrest at [[Berhampur]], [[Barrackpur]] and [[Ambala]], they had assumed that at Meerut, where the proportion of European to Indian troops was higher than anywhere else in India, the Bengal units would not risk open revolt. They were fortunate that they did not suffer disaster. The Bengal regiments broke into rebellion on Sunday, when European troops customarily attended evening [[church parade]] without arms. Due to the increasingly hot summer weather, the church services on 10 May took place half an hour later than on previous weeks, and when the outbreak occurred, the British troops had not yet left their barracks and could quickly be mustered and armed.<ref name="Hibbert">{{cite book|last=Hibbert|first=Christopher|author-link=Christopher Hibbert|title=The Great Mutiny – India 1857|publisher=Penguin|year=1980|isbn=0-14-004752-2}}</ref>{{rp|82–90}}

Other than defending their own barracks and armouries, the company's commanders at Meerut took little action, not even notifying nearby garrisons or stations. (The [[telegraph]] had been cut, but dispatch riders could easily have reached Delhi before the sepoys, had they been sent immediately.) When they had rallied the British troops in the cantonment and prepared to disperse the sepoys on 11 May, they found that Meerut was quiet and the sepoys had marched off to Delhi.

===Capture of Delhi by the rebels===
[[File:1858 Delhi flag tower.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Flagstaff Tower]], Delhi, where the British survivors of the rebellion gathered on 11 May 1857]]
Delhi was the capital of the [[Mughal Empire]], which had been reduced to insignificance over the preceding century. The emperor, [[Bahadur Shah II]], who was 82, had been informed by the East India Company that the title would die with him. At the time, Delhi was not a major centre of Company administration, although Company officials controlled the city's finances and courts. They and their families lived in the "[[Civil Lines, Delhi|Civil Lines]]" to the north of the city.
[[File:View of Delhi, from the Palace Gate.jpg|thumb|View of Delhi, from the Palace Gate, 1858]]

There were no units of the [[British Army]] or "European" units of the East India Company forces at Delhi. Three [[Bengal Native Infantry]] regiments (the 38th, 54th and 74th) were stationed in barracks {{convert|2|mi|km}} north-west of the city. They provided guards, working parties and other details to a "Main Guard" building just inside the walls near the [[Kashmiri Gate (Delhi)|Kashmiri Gate]] on the northern circuit of walls, the arsenal in the city and other buildings. By coincidence, when the regiments paraded early in the morning of 11 May, their officers read out to them the [[general order]] announcing the execution of sepoy [[Mangal Pandey]], who had attempted to start a rebellion near [[Barrackpore]] earlier in the year, and the disbandment of his regiment, the 34th Bengal Native Infantry. This produced much muttering in the ranks.<ref name="Hibbert" />{{rp|96}}

Later in the morning, the rebels from Meerut arrived quite unexpectedly, crossing the [[Pontoon bridge|bridge of boats]] over the [[Jumna River]]. The leading ''sowars'' (troopers) of the 3rd Light Cavalry halted under the windows of the Palace and called on the Emperor to lead them. Bahadur Shah called for them to go to another palace outside the city, where their case would be heard later. Company officials then tried to close all the city gates, but were too late to prevent the ''sowars'' gaining entry through the Rajghat Gate to the south. Once inside, the ''sowars'' were quickly joined by mobs which began attacking Company officials and looting bazaars.<ref name="Dalrymple">{{cite book|last=Dalrymple|first=William|author-link=William Dalrymple (historian)|title=The Last Mughal|publisher=Viking Penguin|year=2006|isbn=0-670-99925-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wYW5J-jQn8QC}}</ref>{{rp|155–156}}

Some Company officers and civilians tried to take refuge in the Main Guard, but the sepoys there joined the revolt, and they were slaughtered. Other officers arrived from the barracks, accompanied by two field guns and several companies of sepoys who had not yet joined the rebellion, and recaptured the Main Guard, sending the bodies of the dead officers to the cantonments in a cart.<ref name="Hibbert" />{{rp|97–8}} In the city meanwhile nine British officers from the [[Royal Army Ordnance Corps|Ordnance Corps]], led by [[George Willoughby (soldier)|George Willoughby]] were conducting the [[The Defence of the Magazine at Delhi|Defence of the Magazine]], which contained artillery, stocks of firearms and ammunition. They found that their troops and labourers were deserting, using ladders provided from the palace to climb over the walls. The officers opened fire on their own troops and the mobs to prevent the arsenal falling intact into the rebels' hands. After five hours, they had run out of ammunition and blew up their magazine, killing many rioters and onlookers, and badly damaging nearby buildings. Only three of them escaped and received the [[Victoria Cross]]: [[John Buckley (soldier)|John Buckley]], [[George Forrest (VC)|George Forrest]] and [[William Raynor]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.defencejournal.com/dec99/1857.htm |title=Defence Journal |access-date=30 May 2007 |archive-date=29 May 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070529220301/http://defencejournal.com/dec99/1857.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Shortly after this, the troops at the Main Guard were ordered to withdraw. The sepoys there, who had hitherto remained aloof from the revolt, turned on their officers, a few of whom escaped after the sepoys left to join the looting.<ref name="Hibbert" />{{rp|100–101}}

About half the European civilians in Delhi and in the cantonments and Civil Lines were able to flee, first to the Flagstaff Tower on the ridge to the north-west of Delhi where telegraph operators were trying to warn other British stations of the uprising. After it became clear that no help could arrive from Meerut or elsewhere, and the cart carrying the bodies of the officers killed at the Main Guard in the morning arrived at the tower by mistake,<ref name="Dalrymple" />{{rp|178}} most of the Europeans fled to [[Karnal]], several miles west. Some were helped by villagers on the way, others fell prey to plunderers.

===Mughal restoration===
[[File:Painting of Cavalry in Durbar Procession of Mughal Emperor Akbar II.png|thumb|Cavalry in the Procession of the Mughal king under the British Resident]]
On 12 May, Bahadur Shah held his first formal audience in several years. It was attended by several excited sepoys who treated him familiarly or even disrespectfully.<ref name="Dalrymple" />{{rp|212}} Although Bahadur Shah was dismayed by the looting and disorder, he gave his public support to the rebellion. On 16 May, sepoys and palace servants killed 52 British who had been held prisoner within the palace or who had been discovered hiding in the city. The killings took place under a [[Sacred fig|peepul tree]] in front of the palace, despite Bahadur Shah's protests. The avowed aim of the killers was to implicate Bahadur Shah in the killings, making it impossible for him to seek any compromise with the company.<ref name="Dalrymple" />{{rp|223–5}}

The administration of the city and its new occupying army was chaotic, although it continued to function haphazardly. The Emperor nominated his eldest surviving son, [[Mirza Mughal]], to be commander-in-chief of his forces, but Mirza Mughal had little military experience and was treated with little respect by the sepoys. Nor did the sepoys agree on any overall commander, with each regiment refusing to accept orders from any but their own officers. Although Mirza Mughal made efforts to put the civil administration in order, his writ extended no further than the city. Outside, [[Gujjar]] herders began levying their own tolls on traffic, and it became increasingly difficult to feed the city.<ref name="Dalrymple" />{{rp|145}}

News of the rebellion at Meerut and the capture of Delhi spread rapidly throughout India. Rumours and envoys from the rebels spread the tidings fast and precipitated widespread rebellions and uprisings, but the Company learned of the events at Delhi even more quickly, thanks to the telegraph. Where the commanders of stations were energetic and distrustful of their sepoys, they were able to forestall some of the most dangerous revolts.

==Company moves==
[[File:1857 hindu raos house2.jpg|thumb|right|[[Hindu Rao]]'s house in Delhi, now a hospital, was extensively damaged in the fighting.]]

Although there were several Company units available in the cool "hill stations" in the foothills of the Himalayas, it took time before any action could be taken to recapture Delhi. This was partly due to lack of transport and supplies. After the end of the [[Second Anglo-Sikh War]], the Bengal Army's transport units had been disbanded as an economy measure, and transport had to be improvised from scratch. Also, many of the senior British officers were widely regarded as dotards, far too senile to act decisively or sensibly.

Nevertheless, a Company force under General [[George Anson (British Army officer, born 1797)|George Anson]], the commander-in-chief in India, was able to move from [[Ambala]] to Karnal starting on 17 May. On 7 June, they were joined at [[Alipur, Delhi|Alipur]] by a force from Meerut, which had fought several skirmishes en route.<ref name="HCRE">{{cite book |last=Porter |first=Maj Gen Whitworth |title=History of the Corps of Royal Engineers Vol I |year=1889|publisher=The Institution of Royal Engineers |location=Chatham}}</ref>{{rp|475}} The Meerut force was led by Brigadier Archdale Wilson, who had conspicuously failed to prevent the rebel sepoys' move to Delhi on 11 May. Anson died of cholera at Karnal on 27 May. Under his successor, Major General [[Henry William Barnard|Henry Barnard]], the combined force advanced on Delhi.

On 8 June, they found the mutineers had entrenched themselves outside the city. They drove the large but disorganised rebel force from the field at the [[Battle of Badli-ki-Serai]] {{convert|6|mi|km}} west of Delhi, and captured Delhi ridge {{convert|2|mi|km}} north of the city<ref name=HCRE/>{{rp|475}} and the Bengal infantry barracks to the west of it. As a gesture of defiance and contempt, they set fire to the barracks. This was a senseless act, as it condemned the besiegers (and all their sick and wounded and noncombatants) to live in tents through the hot weather and [[monsoon]] rain seasons.

The ridge was of hard rock, about {{convert|60|ft|m}} high, and ran from a point only {{convert|1200|yd|m}} east of the Kabul Gate on the city walls to the [[Yamuna]] River {{convert|3|mi|km}} north of the city. Fortunately for the besiegers, a canal ran from the Yamuna west of their encampments, protecting the rear of their camp and also providing drinking water. The besiegers occupied various fortified posts along the top of the ridge. The nearest to the city and the most exposed was known as "Hindu Rao's house", defended by the [[60th Rifles]] and [[Gurkha]]s of the [[8th (Sirmoor) Local Battalion]]. South of it was a maze of villages and walled gardens, called the Subzi Mundi, in which the rebel forces could gather before launching attacks on the British right.

===The siege: June through July===
[[File:Delhi-lond-illust-1858.jpg|thumb|right|500px|The City of [[Delhi]] Before the Siege – The Illustrated London News 16 Jan 1858]]
[[File:1857 ruins jantar mantar observatory2.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Jantar Mantar]] observatory in Delhi in 1858, damaged in the fighting.]]
[[File:1857 bank of delhi2.jpg|thumb|right|Bank of Delhi was attacked by mortar and gunfire.]]

It was quickly apparent that Delhi was too well-fortified and strongly held to fall to a ''[[coup de main]]''. Barnard ordered a dawn assault on 13 June, but the orders were confused and failed to reach most of his subordinates in time. The attack had to be called off, amidst much recrimination. After this, it was accepted that the odds were too great for any assault to be successful until the besiegers were reinforced.

Large contingents of rebellious sepoys and volunteers continued to arrive in Delhi. The majority of no less than ten regiments of cavalry and fifteen of infantry of the Bengal Army rebelled and made their way to Delhi during June and July,<ref name="Amin">Major A. H. Amin, [http://orbat.com/site/history/historical/india/bengalarmy1857.html orbat.com] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070419214543/http://orbat.com/site/history/historical/india/bengalarmy1857.html |date=19 April 2007 }}</ref> along with large numbers of irregulars, mainly Muslim ''mujahaddin''.<ref name=Hibbert/>{{rp|279}} As each new contingent arrived, the rebels made attacks on Hindu Rao's house and other outposts on several successive days. A major attack was mounted from three directions on 19 June, and nearly forced the exhausted besiegers to retreat, but the rebels did not know how close they came to success.<ref name="Dalrymple" />{{rp|174}} Another major attack was made on 23 June, the centenary of the [[Battle of Plassey]]. (It was believed that the presence of East India Company in India would end one hundred years after this famous battle).So was the [[Battle of the Cavalry Lines|attack on the British Cavalry Lines ]]on the night of 3rd July beaten.

Although all these attacks were beaten off, the besiegers were ground down through exhaustion and disease. Conditions on the ridge and in the encampment were extremely unhealthy and unpleasant.<ref name=HCRE/>{{rp|477}} General Barnard died of [[cholera]] on 5 July. His successor, Reed, was also stricken with cholera and forced to hand over command to Archdale Wilson, who was promoted to major general. Although Wilson made efforts to clear the unburied corpses and other refuse from the ridge and encampment and reorganise the outposts and reliefs, he himself was scarcely capable of exercising command, and in every letter he wrote, he complained of his exhaustion and prostration. Brigadier [[Neville Bowles Chamberlain|Neville Chamberlain]], a much younger officer who might have provided better leadership, was severely wounded repelling a sortie on 14 July.

[[File:Sikh officers of the British 15th Punjab Infantry regiment.jpg|thumb|Sikh officers of the British army by Felice Beato, 1858]]

Meanwhile, in Delhi, there had been some loss of morale due to the failures of Mirza Moghul and Bahadur Shah's equally unmilitary grandson, Mirza Abu Bakr. A large party of reinforcements arrived from [[Bareilly]] under [[Bakht Khan]], a veteran artillery officer of the company's army. (In the British Indian artillery, North Indian Muslims were generaIIy preferred and had been the majority of the establishment.)<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zp0FbTniNaYC&dq=hindustanis+artillery+muslims&pg=PA49|title=War, Culture and Society in Early Modern South Asia, 1740-1849 |date=2011 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |page=49 |author=Kaushik Roy|isbn=9781136790874 }}</ref> Pleased with the loot they brought with them, Bahadur Shah made Bakht Khan the new commander-in-chief. Bakht Khan was able to replenish the city's finances and inspire the rebel soldiers to renewed efforts. Bahadur Shah however, was growing discouraged, and turned away offers of assistance from other rebel leaders.<ref name="Hibbert" />{{rp|227}}

===The siege: August to September===
In one vital area of India, the [[Punjab region|Punjab]], which had been annexed by the East India Company only eight years before, the Bengal Native units were quickly disarmed to prevent them rebelling or were defeated when they did rebel. Most of the available Company units were stationed there, along with units of the [[Punjab Irregular Force]], which were formed from [[Sikhs]] and [[Pakhtun]]s who had little in common with the [[Indian caste system|high caste Hindus]] of the Bengal Native Infantry.

As the situation in the Punjab stabilised, units could be dispatched to reinforce the besiegers at Delhi. Also, the rulers of the states of [[Patiala]], [[Jhind]] and [[Nabha]] were induced to support the East India Company, sending contingents of their armies to secure the lines of communication between the besiegers and the Punjab.<ref>Roberts (1893), p.57</ref>

The first reinforcements to arrive at Delhi, the [[Corps of Guides (British India)|Corps of Guides]], made an epic forced march of several hundred miles through the hottest season of the year, which also coincided with the month of [[Ramadan]], during which their Muslim soldiers could neither eat nor drink during the day. They nevertheless went into action almost immediately when they arrived at the ridge.

The major forces dispatched from the Punjab to Delhi were a "Flying Column" of 4,200 men under Brigadier [[John Nicholson (general)|John Nicholson]] and a [[siege train]]. Nicholson himself arrived on 14 August. The rebels had heard of the imminent arrival of the siege train and sent a force out of the city to intercept it. On 25 August, Nicholson led a force against their position at the [[Battle of Najafgarh]]. Although the monsoon had broken and the roads and fields were flooded, Nicholson drove his force to make a rapid march and gained an easy victory, raising European morale and lowering that of the rebels.

The siege train arrived at the beginning of September, comprising six 24-pounders, eight [[18-pounder long gun]]s, six 8 inch howitzers and four 10 inch mortars, with almost 600 ammunition carts. On 8 September a further four guns arrived.<ref name=HCRE/>{{rp|477}} With the guns already present, the besiegers had a total of 15 24-pounder guns, 20 18-pounder guns and 25 mortars and howitzers.<ref name=AHAmin>{{cite web|last=Amin|first=A.H.|title=Pakistan Army Defence Journal|url=http://www.defencejournal.com/2000/jan/dehli-campaign.htm|access-date=30 July 2009|archive-date=9 October 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121009083400/http://www.defencejournal.com/2000/jan/dehli-campaign.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==The capture of Delhi==

===The bombardment===
[[File:British army beseiging Delhi, 1857.jpg|thumb|The outline of the siege with the British camp (cantonment) just north of the city]]
By early September, the British had assembled a force of some 9,000, which consisted of 3,000 regular troops and 6,000 Sikhs, Punjabis, and Gurkhas.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Siege of Delhi {{!}} Summary|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Siege-of-Delhi|access-date=2021-06-04|website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref>

Wilson's chief Engineer Officer, [[Richard Baird Smith]], had drawn up a plan to breach the city walls and make an assault. Wilson was unwilling to risk any attack, but was urged by Nicholson to agree to Baird Smith's plan. There were moves among the British officers, in which Nicholson was prominent, to replace Wilson as commander if he failed to agree to make the attack.

As a preliminary step, on 6 September the Company forces constructed "Reid's Battery", or the "Sammy House Battery", of two 24-pounder and four 9-pounder guns, near the southern end of the ridge, to silence the guns on the Mori Bastion. Under cover of Reid's Battery, on 7 September the first siege battery proper was established, {{convert|700|yd|m}} from the Mori Bastion. Opening fire on 8 September, four of its guns engaged the artillery on the Kashmir Bastion, while six guns and a heavy mortar silenced the rebels' guns on the Mori Bastion after a long duel. The direction of this attack also deceived the rebels into believing that the storming attempt would be made from the east, rather than the north.<ref name=AHAmin/>

A second battery, consisting of nine 24-pounder guns, two 18-pounder guns and seven 8-inch howitzers, was set up near a flamboyantly designed house known as "[[Ludlow Castle, Delhi|Ludlow Castle]]" in the Civil Lines, and opened fire against the Kashmir Bastion on 10 September.<ref name=HCRE/>{{rp|478}} A third battery of six 18-pounder guns and 12 [[Coehorn]] mortars was set up near the old Custom House less than {{convert|200|yd|m}} from the city walls, and opened fire against the Water Bastion near the Yamuna next day.<ref name=AHAmin/> A fourth battery of ten heavy mortars was set up in cover near the Khudsia Bagh, opening fire on 11 September. Because the element of surprise had been lost and these batteries were being enfiladed from across the river,<ref name=HCRE/>{{rp|478}} the Indian sappers and pioneers who carried out much of the work of constructing the second and third batteries and moving the guns into position suffered over 300 casualties, but the batteries quickly made breaches in the bastions and walls. Fifty guns continued to fire day and night, and the walls began to crumble away.<ref name=HCRE/>{{rp|478}}

The opening of this phase of the siege seems to have coincided with the exhaustion of the ammunition the rebels had captured from the magazine, as the rebel fire became suddenly much less effective. By this time also, the rebels had become depressed through lack of supplies and money and by defeatist rumours which were spread by agents and spies organised by [[William Stephen Raikes Hodson|William Hodson]].

===Preparation for the assault===
The attack was scheduled for 3 a.m. on 14 September. The storming columns moved into position during the night of 13 September. The future Field Marshal [[Frederick Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts|Lord Roberts]], then a junior staff officer, recorded their composition:

:1st Column – Brigadier General Nicholson
::[[Gordon Highlanders|75th Foot]] – 300
::[[1st Bengal Fusiliers]]<ref name="BengalFusiliers">The Bengal Fusiliers were "European" infantry, mainly Irish, raised by the [[Honourable East India Company]]. They were later absorbed into the British Army</ref> – 250
::[[2nd Punjab Infantry]] (''Greene's Rifles'') – 450
::Total – 1000

:2nd Column – Brigadier Jones
::[[8th (The King's) Regiment of Foot|8th Foot]] – 250
::[[2nd Bengal Fusiliers]]<ref name="BengalFusiliers"/> – 250
::[[54th Sikhs (Frontier Force)|4th Sikhs]] – 350
::Total – 850

:3rd Column – Colonel Campbell<ref>Commanding officer of the 52nd Foot, not to be confused with Sir [[Colin Campbell, 1st Baron Clyde|Colin Campbell]], soon to be appointed Commander-in-chief in India</ref>
::[[52nd (Oxfordshire) Regiment of Foot|52nd Foot]] – 200
::[[3 Gorkha Rifles|Kumaon Battalion (Gurkhas)]] – 250
::[[1st Punjab Infantry]] (''Coke's Rifles'') – 500
::Total – 950

:4th Column – [[Charles Reid (Indian Army officer)|Major Reid]]
::[[2nd King Edward VII's Own Gurkha Rifles (The Sirmoor Rifles)|Sirmur Battalion (Gurkhas)]]
::[[Corps of Guides (British India)|Guides Infantry]]
::Collected picquets
::Total – 850
::Plus Kashmir contingent in reserve – 1000

:5th Column – Brigadier Longfield
::[[61st (South Gloucestershire) Regiment of Foot|61st Foot]] – 250
::[[4th Punjab Infantry]] (''Wilde's Rifles'') – 450
::Baluch Battalion (one "wing" only) – 300
::Total – 1000

Detachments of the [[King's Royal Rifle Corps|60th Rifles]], totalling 200, preceded all the columns, as skirmishers.
Engineers and sappers were attached to lead each column.<ref name=HCRE/>{{rp|479}}

There was also a cavalry brigade in reserve under [[James Hope Grant]], which probably consisted of:
::6th Carbineers (one "wing" only)
::[[9th Queen's Royal Lancers|9th Lancers]]
::Guides Cavalry
::[[1st Punjab Cavalry]] (one squadron)
::[[2nd Punjab Cavalry]] (one squadron)
::[[5th Punjab Cavalry]] (one squadron)
::[[Hodson's Horse]] (irregular levies)

===The assault===
[[File:Blowing of Kashmir by Sergeant Carmichael.jpg|left|thumb|Blowing of Kashmir gate by Sergeant Carmichael]]
[[File:PLAQUE KASHMIRI GATE.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Plaque at [[Kashmiri Gate (Delhi)|Kashmiri Gate]], commemorating the attack on it on 14 September 1857]]

The first three columns, under Nicholson's overall command, gathered in and behind a building known as the [[Khudsia Bagh]], a former summer residence of the Mughal Kings, about a quarter of a mile from the north walls. The fourth column was intended to attack only when the Kabul Gate on the west of the city walls was opened from behind by the other columns. The fifth column and the cavalry were in reserve.

The attack was supposed to be launched at dawn, but the defenders had repaired some of the breaches overnight with sandbags, and further bombardment was required. Eventually, Nicholson gave the signal and the attackers charged. The first column stormed through the breach in the Kashmir Bastion and the second through that in the Water Bastion by the Jumna River, but this was not without difficulty, as most of the scaling ladders were broken before they could be emplaced.<ref name=HCRE/>{{rp|481}}

The third column attacked the Kashmiri Gate on the north wall. Two sapper officers, Lieutenants [[Duncan Charles Home|Home]] and [[Philip Salkeld|Salkeld]] (both of whom subsequently won the [[Victoria Cross]]), led a suicidal mission, a small party of British and Indian sappers which placed four gunpowder charges and sandbags against the gate under fire from just {{convert|10|ft|m}} away. Several of them were wounded or killed trying to light the fuse. The explosion demolished part of the gate, a bugler with the party signalled success and the third column charged in.<ref name=HCRE/>{{rp|480}}

Meanwhile, the fourth column encountered a rebel force in the suburb of Kishangunj outside the Kabul Gate before the other columns attacked, and was thrown into disorder. Major [[Charles Reid (Indian Army officer)|Reid]], its commander, was seriously injured, and the column retired. The rebels followed up, capturing four guns from the Kashmiri troops, and threatened to attack the British camp, which had been emptied of its guards to form the assault force. The artillery batteries at Hindu Rao's House (directed by Chamberlain from a [[Palanquin|doolie]]) stopped them until Hope Grant's cavalry and horse artillery could move up to replace Reid's column. The cavalry remained in position under fire from guns on the Kabul Gate and suffered heavy casualties, until relieved by infantry.

In spite of this reverse, Nicholson was keen to press on into the city. He led a detachment down a narrow lane to try to capture the Burn Bastion, on the walls north of the Kabul Gate. Rebel soldiers held most of the flat rooftops and walled compounds, and guns mounted on the bastion fired grapeshot down the lanes between the houses. After two rushes were stopped with heavy casualties, Nicholson led a third charge and was mortally wounded.

Temporarily repulsed, the British now withdrew to the Church of Saint James, just inside the walls of the Kashmir Bastion. They had suffered 1,170 casualties in the attack. Archdale Wilson moved to the Church, and faced with the setback, he wished to order a withdrawal. When he heard of Wilson's indecision, the dying Nicholson threatened to shoot him. Eventually, Baird Smith, Chamberlain and other officers persuaded Wilson to hold on to the British gains.

===The capture of the city===
[[File:Capture of Delhi, 1857..jpg|thumb|left|300px|Capture of Delhi, 1857]]

The British and Company forces were disordered. Many British officers had been killed or wounded, and their units were now in confusion. The British foothold included many of the liquor stores and over the next two days, many British soldiers became drunk and incapacitated on looted spirits. However, the rebel sepoy regiments had become discouraged by their defeats and lack of food, while the irregular ''mujahhadin'' defended their fortified compounds with great determination, but could not be organised to make a coordinated counter-attack.

Wilson eventually ordered all liquor to be destroyed, and discipline was restored. Slowly, the attackers began to clear the rebels from the city. They captured the magazine on 16 September. Another Victoria Cross was earned here, by Lieutenant [[Edward Thackeray|Thackerey]] for extinguishing a fire in the magazine whilst under musket fire. Bahadur Shah and his entourage abandoned the palace on 18 September, and a British force captured the great mosque, the Jama Masjid, and the abandoned palace the next day. They also captured the Selimgarh Fort, attached to the palace and dominating the [[bridge of boats]] over the River Yamuna. Most rebels who had not already left the city now did so before the Company forces captured all the gates and trapped them.

The city was finally declared to be captured on 21 September. John Nicholson died the next day.

==Aftermath==
{{Unreferenced section|date=July 2020}}
[[File:The capture of the king of delhi by Captain Hodson.jpg|thumb|Capture of [[Bahadur Shah Zafar]] and his sons by [[William Stephen Raikes Hodson|William Hodson]] at [[Humayun's tomb]] on 20 September 1857]]
[[File:James Hill Johnes, VC, Attacking the Enemy (gcf03672).jpg|thumb|Two British soldiers, [[James Hills-Johnes]] (pictured) and [[Henry Tombs]] were awarded the [[Victoria Cross]] for their part in the battle]]
The cost to the British, Company, and loyal Indian armies in besieging Delhi from the start of the siege to the capture of the city was 1,254 killed, and 4,493 wounded, of which 992 were killed, 2,795 were wounded and 30 missing in action during the last six days of brutal fighting in the city during the final assault. Of that total of 3,817 casualties during the capture of the city, 1,677 were loyalist Indian soldiers. It is almost impossible to say how many rebels and their supporters were killed during the siege, but the number was far greater. Unofficial sources place the rebel casualties at over 5,000.

It is also impossible to estimate how many civilians died during the fighting in Delhi, which included those killed by the rebels, the British, or in the cross-fire. After the siege, many civilians were subsequently expelled from the city to makeshift camps in the nearby countryside, as there was no way of feeding them until order was restored to the entire area. The British, Sikh and Pakhtun soldiers were all fairly callous with regard to life. For four days, after the fall of the city, there was extensive looting, although many British soldiers were more interested in drink than material possessions. Prize agents later moved into the city behind the troops, and organised the search for concealed treasure on a more systematic basis.

[[File:King of Delhi and his suite at the time of his capture by the English army.jpg|thumb|King of Delhi and his suite at the time of his capture by the English army|left]]
The British, eager to avenge the killing of several hundred of their countryfolk in Delhi, [[Cawnpore]], and elsewhere in India, were in no mood to be merciful. Several hundred rebel prisoners as well as suspected rebels and sympathisers were subsequently hanged without trial or much legal process. In many cases, the officers of the "Queen's" Army were inclined to be lenient, but [[East India Company]] officials such as [[Sir Theophilus John Metcalfe, 5th Baronet|Theophilus Metcalfe]] were vengeful.

Bahadur Shah and three of his sons had taken refuge at [[Humayun's Tomb]], {{convert|6|mi|km}} south of Delhi. Although he was urged to accompany Bakht Khan and rally more troops, the aged Emperor was persuaded that the British were seeking vengeance only against the sepoys they regarded as mutineers, and he would be spared. On 20 September, a party under William Hodson took him into custody on promise of clemency and brought him back to the city. The next day, Hodson also took prisoner two of Bahadur Shah's sons and a grandson, but with no guarantee of any sort. On the pretext that a mob was about to release them, Hodson executed the three princes at ''[[Khooni Darwaza]]'' (Bloody Gate).<ref name="Dalrymple" />{{rp|400}} Their heads were later presented to Bahadur Shah, who was subsequently put on trial by the British Military Commission.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bates |first=Crispin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VJ-HAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 |title=Mutiny at the Margins: New Perspectives on the Indian Uprising of 1857: Volume I: Anticipations and Experiences in the Locality |date=2013-03-26 |publisher=SAGE Publications India |isbn=978-81-321-1336-2 |pages=3–4}}</ref>{{Citation needed|date=August 2017}} He was exiled to [[Yangon|Rangoon]] in [[British rule in Burma|British-controlled Burma]] in 1858, after being convicted on several charges.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Justice System and Mutinies in British India|last=Bhatia|first=H.S.|pages=204}}</ref>

By recapturing the Indian capital city, the British and Company forces dealt the Indian Army mutineers a major military and psychological blow, while releasing troops to assist in the relief of Lucknow, thus contributing to another British victory.

A total of 29 Victoria Crosses were awarded to recipients for bravery in the Siege of Delhi. A Delhi clasp was authorised for the [[Indian Mutiny Medal]].

== Footnotes ==
{{reflist}}

== References ==
* {{cite book|last=Allen|first=Charles|author-link = Charles Allen (writer)|title=Soldier Sahibs|publisher=Abacus|year=2000|isbn=0-349-11456-0}}
* {{cite book|last=Dalrymple|first=William|author-link=William Dalrymple (historian)|title=The Last Mughal|publisher=Viking Penguin|year=2006|isbn=0-670-99925-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wYW5J-jQn8QC}}
* {{cite book|last=Edwardes|first=Michael|title=Battles of the Indian Mutiny|publisher=Pan|year=1963|isbn=0-330-02524-4}}
* {{cite book|last=Hibbert|first=Christopher|author-link=Christopher Hibbert|title=The Great Mutiny – India 1857|publisher=Penguin|year=1980|isbn=0-14-004752-2}}
* {{cite book|last=Perkins|first=Roger|title=The Kashmir Gate: Lieutenant Home & the Delhi VCs|publisher=Picton Publishing Chippenham|year=1983|isbn=0902633872}}
* {{cite book|last=Perrett|first=Bryan|title=At All Costs! Stories of Impossible Victories|chapter=3: The Walls of Delhi, 1857|publisher=Arms and Armour Press|year=1993|isbn=1-85409-157-3}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070926231205/http://www.kapadia.com/NativeNarrative/NarrativeofMunshiJeewanLal.htm Memoirs of an Indian translator for the East India Company] (archived 26 September 2007)
* {{cite web| url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/16528/16528-h/16528-h.htm |title=Forty one years in India from subaltern to Field Marshal |last=Roberts |first=Frederick Sleigh |date=1893 |via=Project Gutenberg |access-date=7 June 2021 }}

{{Mughal Empire}}
{{Authority control}}
{{coord missing|Delhi}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Delhi, Siege of}}
[[Category:Battles of the Indian Rebellion of 1857]]
[[Category:Sieges involving the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:1857 in India]]
[[Category:Military history of Delhi]]
[[Category:19th century in Delhi]]
[[Category:Sieges involving Nepal]]
[[Category:19th-century sieges]]
[[Category:Sieges involving the Mughal Empire|Delhi 1857]]

Alok Kumar Soren

2026-03-27T13:58:29Z

Androidsub143: put up basic bio w/ refs!

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| office = Member of the [[Jharkhand Legislative Assembly]]
| constituency = [[Sikaripara Assembly constituency|Sikaripara]]
| term_start = 23 November 2024
| term_end =
| profession = Politician
| father = [[Nalin Soren]]
| predecessor = [[Nalin Soren]]
| party = [[Jharkhand Mukti Morcha]]
}}
[[File:ᱟᱞᱚᱠ_ᱠᱩᱢᱟᱨ_ᱥᱚᱨᱮᱱ.jpg | thumb | right | alt=Alok Kumar Soren | Alok Kumar Soren]]
'''Alok Kumar Soren''' is an Indian politician from Jharkhand. He is a [[Jharkhand Legislative Assembly|member of the Jharkhand Legislative Assembly]] from [[2024 Jharkhand Legislative Assembly election|2024]], representing [[Sikaripara Assembly constituency]] as a member of the [[Jharkhand Mukti Morcha]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Shikaripara Election Result 2024 LIVE: Alok Kumar Soren of JMM Wins |url=https://www.news18.com/elections/shikaripara-election-result-2024-live-leading-winner-mla-9130243.html |access-date=23 November 2024 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=23 November 2024 |title=Shikaripara (Jharkhand) Assembly Election Results 2024 Live: Winner, Runner-up, Candidates List |url=https://indianexpress.com/elections/shikaripara-jharkhand-assembly-election-results-2024-live-winner-runner-up-candidates-9684218/ |access-date=23 November 2024 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[List of chief ministers of Jharkhand]]
* [[Jharkhand Legislative Assembly]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Soren, Alok Kumar}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Jharkhand MLAs 2024–2029]]
[[Category:Jharkhand Mukti Morcha politicians]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

{{Jharkhand-politician-stub}}

Printing in Goa

2026-03-27T13:14:36Z

Androidsub143: new new data

{{more footnotes|date=October 2012}}
[[File:1616 CE Kristapurana manuscript by Thomas Stephens, Purana-style Old and New Testaments 02.jpg|thumb|A page of a rare incomplete copy of the [[Krista Purana]] by [[:pt:Thomas_Stephens|Thomas Stephens]], an epic poem about the life of [[Jesus|Christ]] written in [[Konkani language|Konkani]] and [[Marathi language|Marathi]] (manuscript from 1616, now in the British Library)]]
The art of [[printing]] first entered [[India]] through [[Goa]]. In a letter to [[St. Ignatius of Loyola]], written on April 30, 1556,<ref name="sardessai2000">{{cite book|title=A History of Konkani Literature (From 1500 to 1992)|author=Manohar Rai Sardessai|edition=First|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|location=New Delhi|year=200|page=15}}</ref> Father Gasper Caleza speaks of a ship carrying a [[printing press]] setting sail for [[Ethiopian Empire|Abyssinia]] from [[Portugal]], with the purpose of helping missionary work in Abyssinia. Circumstances prevented this printing press from leaving India, and consequently, printing was initiated in India. And thus, the first mechanical [[Movable type|movable-type]] printing press in [[Asia]] was established in Goa in 1556 by the [[Jesuits]] at [[Saint Paul's College, Goa|St. Paul’s College]], [[Old Goa]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Printing Press in Goa , a forerunner of Print Activity in Asia – Jnanamrit |url=https://www.jnanamrit.com/2025/04/03/the-printing-press-in-goa-a-forerunner-of-print-activity-in-asia/ |access-date=2026-03-26 |language=en-US}}</ref>

==The arrival of the first press==
{{See also|Global spread of the printing press}}

There is evidence that the use of the concept of mass duplication in India dates back to the time of the [[Indus Valley civilization]]. Grants of land were originally recorded by [[engraving]] the information on copper plates and [[etchings]] on different surfaces like wood, bone, ivory and shells. However, printing arrived about a hundred years after the [[Gutenberg Bible]] was first printed.

Many factors contributed to the necessity of the initiation of printing in the subcontinent, the primary being [[evangelization]] and the [[Jesuits]] were solely responsible for this. [[Francis Xavier]] is known to have been teaching the [[Bible]] in [[Tharangambadi]] (Tranquebar), Tamil Nadu, around 1542. Also, when the viceroy of Goa, on behalf of King [[João III of Portugal]], opened schools for Indians, Francis Xavier pressured Portugal to make printing presses available to India, [[Ethiopia]] and [[Japan]]. Meanwhile, the emperor of Abyssinia (now Ethiopia) also requested Portugal to send a press along with missionaries. Consequently, the first batch of Jesuit missionaries, along with the printing press, left for Ethiopia on March 29, 1556, on a Spanish ship. The patriarch-designate of Abyssinia, [[João Nunes Barreto]], as well as a team of technicians accompanied the press.

The prevalent route from Portugal to Abyssinia then required ships to round the [[Cape of Good Hope]], touch Goa and reach Abyssinia. The press thus reached Goa, but soon after, news reached Goa that the Abyssinian emperor was not keen on receiving the missionaries. Around the same time, the [[clergy]] in Goa felt the need for a printing press and on their request to the then [[governor-general]] the press was made available to them. Thus, the press stayed in Goa. This was after Mexico had seen its first printing press, but preceded the press in [[Lima]]. The patriarch-designate Barreto was detained in Goa, and it appears he never left India but died in Goa on December 22, 1562.

==Saint Paul's College and the first works printed==
[[File:Garcia de Orta Coloquios 1563 tp Torre do Tombo.jpg|thumb|Cover page of [[:pt:Colóquios_dos_Simples_e_Drogas_da_Índia|''Colóquios'']] by [[:pt:Garcia_de_Orta|Garcia da Orta]]. Goa, 1563.]]
Printing operations began in Goa in 1556 (with the first printing press being established at the Jesuit [[Saint Paul's College, Goa|Saint Paul's College]] in [[Old Goa]]), resulting in the publication of ''Conclusiones Philosophicas''. The year 1557 saw the posthumous printing of St. Francis Xavier's ''Catecismo da Doutrina Christa'' five years after the death of its author. No [[extant literature|extant]] copy of this work is, however, available.

==Juan Bustamante and the early days of printing in India==

The individual responsible for the initiation of printing in India was one [[João de Bustamante]] (rechristened João Rodrigues in 1563), a [[Spaniard]] who joined the Society of Jesus in 1556. Bustamante, who was an expert printer, along with his Indian assistant set up the new press and began to operate it. Among others, four books are known to have been printed by Bustamante:
*''Conclusões e outras coisas'' (Theses and other things) in 1556.
*''Confecionarios'' in 1557.
*''[[Doutrina Christa]]'' by St. Francis Xavier in 1557.
*''Tratado contra os erros scismaticos dos Abexins'' (A Tract against the Schismatic Errors of the Abyssinians) by Gonçalo Rodrigues in 1560.

The earliest, ''surviving'' printed book in India is the ''Compendio Spiritual da Vida Christãa'' (Spiritual Compendium of the Christian life) of [[Gaspar Jorge de Leão Pereira]], the Portuguese Archbishop of Goa. It was printed by João de Quinquencio and João de Endem in 1561,<ref name="priolkar1958">{{cite book|title=The Printing Press in India - Its Beginnings and Early Development|author=Anant Kakba Priolkar|edition=First|publisher=Marathi Samshodhana Mandala|location=Bombay|year=1958|page=15}}</ref> and re-edited by Manuel de Araujo in 1600, and was embellished with ornate woodcut initials on each opening chapter. This was followed by the printing of [[Garcia da Orta]]'s ''Colóquios dos simples e drogas he cousas medicinais da Índia'' on 10 April 1563 by João de Endem. In 1568, the first illustrated cover page (the illustration being done with the relief technique of woodblock) was printed in Goa for the book ''Constituciones do Arcebispado de Goa''.

==Printing in the vernacular==
[[File:Krista Puranna (1654).jpg|thumb|Third edition of the [[Krista Purana]], by [[:pt:Thomas_Stephens|Thomas Stephens]], 1654]]
Another Spaniard to play a major role in the history of printing in India was João Gonsalves, who is credited with preparing the first printing [[Typeface|types]] of an Indian script—[[Tamil language|Tamil]]. However, since they were not satisfactory, new casts were made in [[Quilon]] (Kollam) by Father João da Faria. On 20 October 1578, these types were used to print the first book in an Indian language ''in India'' (the first Tamil book was printed in [[Lisbon]] in 1554 in romanized Tamil script.)—[[Henrique Henriques]]'s ''Doctrina Christam en Lingua Malauar Tamul – Tampiran Vanakam'', a Tamil translation of St Francis Xavier's ''Doutrina Christa''. This 16-page book of prayers and catechetical instructions was printed in Quilon. Although no extant copies of the first edition are available, manuscript copies dating 1548–1614 are preserved in Lisbon and [[Rome]]. It should be mentioned here that Henriques was inducted into the Society of Jesus with the express intention of sending him to India to assist Francis Xavier. After the first press, a second press was set up. Not much is known about it save that it belonged to John Quinquencio and John Endem. The third press was set up in the St. Ignatius College, Rachol. Though [[Devanagari]] types were cast in 1577, the ''[[Christa Purana]]''—an epic poem on the life of [[Jesus Christ]] written in the literary form of the [[Hindu]] ''[[puranas]]''—was published not in Devanagari but in the [[Roman script]] in the College of Rachol (1616 and 1649) and the College of St Paul (1654). This was primarily because of the intricate shapes of the Devanagari types. In 1626, Diogo Reberio compiled the ''Vocabulario da lingoa Canarim'' (A Vocabulary of the Konkani language) a [[Konkani language|Konkani]]–[[Portugal|Portuguese]] and Portuguese–Konkani dictionary.

The 17th century saw the beginning of a large-scale book-printing in Goa, egged on massively by the need to print [[Christianity|Christian]] texts for the benefit of the newly converted Christians. This time also saw a shift from the use of coercion to that of religious education for conversions. Thus, a number of books were printed in Konkani and [[Marathi language|Marathi]] due to the initiative of, among others, Father Thomas Stephens (who, in 1640, produced the first Konkani grammar—the ''Arte de Lingua Canarim''—and in 1622, published ''[[Doutrina Christam]] em lingoa Bramana Canarim, ordenada a maneira de dialogo, pera ensinar os mininos, por Thomas Estevao, Collegio de Rachol'' or Christian Doctrines in the Canarese Brahmin Language, arranged in dialogue to teach children, which was the first book in Konkani and any Indian language), Father Antonio Saldanha, Father Etienne do la Croix, Father Miguel do Almeida and Father Diogo Ribeiro (whose ''Declaraçam da Doutrina Christam'', or Exposition of Christian Doctrine in Konkani was printed in 1632). Despite the efforts of Father Stephens and the general familiarity of the Devanagari script, it was found easier to cast not Devanagari, but Roman types for Konkani. This was one of the major factors that alienated Konkani from other Indian languages, since the Roman script failed to fix a number of Konkani sounds that the Europeans faced difficulty in pronouncing. It was, however, this adoption of the Roman script for printing in the vernacular helped printing to flourish in Goa till 1684, when the official decree suppressed the vernacular languages and printing suffered a setback. Printing in Tamil stopped after 1612, and the last books printed in Latin and Portuguese before printing fairly died were published in 1674.

==Ziegenbalg and the revival of printing==

It was not until 1706 when [[Bartholomaeus Ziegenbalg]], a Danish missionary, arrived at [[Tharangambadi]] that printing in India could flourish again. A printing press arrived around 1712–1713 and the Tranquebar Press produced its first publications. On Ziegenbalg's insistence, the first Tamil publication from the press reached the mass in 1713, followed by the New Testament in 1714.<ref>{{cite news|title=The Missionary's footprints|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/the-missionary-s-footprints/656934/0|author=Madhulika Liddle|accessdate=5 August 2013|newspaper=Indian Express|date=8 August 2010|location=India}}</ref> It was as late as 1821 that printing was revived in Goa with the starting of a weekly called ''Gazeta de Goa'', later known as the ''Chronista Constitucional de Goa'' (1835) and still later, the ''Boletim de Governo do Estado da India'' (1837).

==Later years==

From 1940 to 1960 there were four to six printers in Goa, of which the prominent ones were J. D. Fernandes, Gomantak Printers and Borkar Printers. Smaller entrepreneurs also joined the fray. One of these was a teacher in a local school in Churchorem. Rohidas Bandekar quit his profession to start a press—Bandekar Offset—with a meagre investment of Rs 24,000.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* "[http://www.mail-archive.com/goanet@lists.goanet.org/msg03166.html 450 Years of Printing in India] (6.8.1556 – 6.8.2006)", Pratap Naik, S.J.
* "[https://web.archive.org/web/20101015225613/http://www.artconcerns.net/2007jan1/html/essay_Printmaking1.htm Print making: Story and history]., Bhavna Kakar
* "{{usurped|[https://web.archive.org/web/20080221082941/http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/mag/2007/04/01/stories/2007040100080400.htm From palm leaves to the printed word]}}", Babu K. Verghese, in ''The Hindu'', April 1, 2007.
* "[http://www.mail-archive.com/goanet-news@lists.goanet.org/msg01331.html Printing in Goa: back to the future]" Noel D'Cunha, PrintWeek, ''Goanet Reader'', March 17, 2009
* "[https://web.archive.org/web/20080828171254/http://www.goakonkaniakademi.org/konkaniweb/language-literature.htm Konkani Language and Literature]" in Goa Konkani Akademi
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=miD5YO05jpUC&q=jo&pg=PA103 Joseph Gerson Da Cunha], ''The origin of Bombay'', p. 103
* "'[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721165025/http://www.navhindtimes.in/iexplore/konkani-literature-roman-script-brief-history-released Konkani Literature in Roman Script – A Brief History]' released", ''[[The Navhind Times]]'', May 11, 2010
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=1YILeUD_oZUC&dq=printing+press+goa&pg=PA15 Manohararāya Saradesāya], ''A History of Konkani Literature: from 1500 to 1992'', p. 17

[[Category:History of printing]]
[[Category:Colonial Goa]]
[[Category:Printing in India]]
[[Category:1550s in Portuguese India]]
[[Category:1550s in India]]
[[Category:Jesuit Asia missions]]
[[Category:Jesuit publications]]

Tansen

2026-03-27T12:59:25Z

Androidsub143:

{{Short description|Hindustani composer (c. 1493–1589)}}
{{other uses}}
{{EngvarB|date=July 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2020}}
{{Infobox musical artist
| honorific_prefix = [[Mian (title)|Mian]]
| name = Tānsen
| caption = Portrait of Mian Tansen, {{circa|1585–90}}<ref>{{cite book|author1=Stuart Cary Welch|author2=Metropolitan Museum of Art|title=India: Art and culture, 1300–1900|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MEvZaVmBQtgC&pg=badk
|year=1985|publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art|isbn=978-0-03-006114-1|pages=171–172}}</ref>
| image = Tansen of Gwalior. (11.8x6.7cm) Mughal. 1585-90. National Museum, New Delhi..jpg
| image_upright = .80
| background = non_vocal_instrumentalist
| associated_acts = [[Swami Haridas]]
| birth_name = Ramtanu Mukund Gaud
| birth_date = {{circa|1493}}
| birth_place = [[Gwalior]], [[Tomaras of Gwalior|Tomar Kingdom]]
 (modern day [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[India]])
| death_date = 26 April 1589 (aged 96) <ref>{{cite book|author=Abul Fazl|title=Akbarnama|translator=Henry Beveridge|publisher=Asiatic Society of Bengal|page=816}}</ref>
| death_place = [[Gwalior]], [[Mughal Empire]]<ref>{{cite book|author=Susheela Misra|title=Great masters of Hindustani music|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Li4uAAAAMAAJ|year=1981|publisher=Hem Publishers|page=16}}</ref>
 [[India]]
| genre = [[Hindustani Classical Music]]
| occupation = Musician, Instrumentalist, Vocalist, Music Studies
| years_active = Till 1562: Raja Ramchandra Singh, [[Rewa (princely state)|Rewah]] After 1562: Emperor [[Akbar]]
| label =
}}

'''Rāmtanu Panday''' ({{circa|1493}} – 26 April 1589), popularly referred to as '''Mian Tānsen''' ({{lit|the Learned One}}), or '''Sangeet Samrāt''' ({{lit|Monarch of Hindustani Music}}), was a [[Hindustani classical music]]ian.<ref name="Wade1998p108"/> Born into a Hindu [[Gaur Brahmin]] family in [[Gwalior]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=Tansen, Famous Hindustani Classical Singer Tansen|url=https://www.indiaonline.in/about/personalities/singers/tansen|access-date=2022-01-15|website=indiaonline.in}}</ref> he learnt and perfected his art in the northwest region of modern [[Madhya Pradesh]]. He got his first break as musician and composer in the court of [[Man Singh Tomar|Raja Man Singh Tomar]] of [[Gwalior]] and spent most of his adult life in the court and patronage of the Hindu king of [[Rewa (princely state)|Rewa]], Raja Ramchandra Singh Baghel (r. 1555–1592), where Tānsen's musical abilities and studies gained widespread fame.<ref name="Wade1998p108">{{cite book|author=Bonnie C. Wade|title=Imaging Sound: An Ethnomusicological Study of Music, Art, and Culture in Mughal India|url=https://archive.org/details/imagingsoundethn0000wade|url-access=registration|year=1998|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-86841-7|pages=[https://archive.org/details/imagingsoundethn0000wade/page/108 108]–110}}</ref> This reputation brought him to the attention of the Mughal Emperor [[Akbar]]. In 1562, at about the age of 60, Tānsen joined Akbar's court, and his performances became the subject of many court historians.<ref name="Wade1998p108"/>

Numerous legends have been written about Tānsen, mixing facts and fiction, and the historicity of these stories is doubtful.<ref name=nazir19>{{cite book|author=Nazir Ali Jairazbhoy|author-link=Nazir Ali Jairazbhoy|title=The Rāgs of North Indian Music: Their Structure and Evolution|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hGLRqLscf78C&pg=PA19|year=1995|publisher=Popular Prakashan|isbn=978-81-7154-395-3|pages=19–20}}</ref> Akbar considered him one of the [[Navaratnas]] Nine Ministers (the nine jewels) and gave him the title Mian, an honorific, meaning learned man.<ref name="davar">{{cite book|last=Davar|first=Ashok|title=Tansen – The Magical Musician|year=1987|publisher=National book trust|location=India}}</ref>Tansen was a great composer musician and vocalist, to whom many compositions have been attributed in the northern regions of the Indian subcontinent. He was also an instrumentalist who popularized and improved musical instruments. He is among the most influential personalities in the North Indian tradition of [[Indian classical music]], called ''Hindustani''. His 16th-century studies in music and compositions inspired many, and he is considered by numerous North Indian ''gharana'' (regional music schools) to be their lineage founder.<ref name="stanton125">{{cite book|author1=Andrea L. Stanton|author2=Edward Ramsamy|author3=Peter J. Seybolt |display-authors=etal |title=Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nVN2AwAAQBAJ |year=2012|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=978-1-4522-6662-6|page=125}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Bruno Nettl|author2=Ruth M. Stone|author3=James Porter |display-authors=etal |title=The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: South Asia : the Indian subcontinent|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOlNv8MAXIEC |year=1998|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-8240-4946-1|pages=376–377}}</ref>

Tānsen is remembered for his epic [[Dhrupad]] compositions, creating several new ''[[raga|rāg]]s'', as well as for writing two classic books on music, ''Sri [[Ganesh]] [[Stotra]]'' and ''Sangita Sara''.<ref>{{cite book|author=Bonnie C. Wade|title=Imaging Sound: An Ethnomusicological Study of Music, Art, and Culture in Mughal India|url=https://archive.org/details/imagingsoundethn0000wade|url-access=registration|year=1998|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-86841-7|page=[https://archive.org/details/imagingsoundethn0000wade/page/117 117]}}</ref>

==Early life==
Tansen's date of birth is unclear, but most sources place his birth about 1493 CE, or between 1493 and 1506. His biography is also unclear and many conflicting accounts exist, with some common elements. Historical facts about Tansen are difficult to extract from the extensive and contradictory legends that surround him.<ref name=wade114>{{cite book|author=Bonnie C. Wade|title=Imaging Sound: An Ethnomusicological Study of Music, Art, and Culture in Mughal India|url=https://archive.org/details/imagingsoundethn00wade|url-access=registration|year=1998|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-86841-7|pages=[https://archive.org/details/imagingsoundethn00wade/page/113 113]–114}}</ref>

According to the common elements in the various stories, Tansen's name as a child was Ramtanu.<ref name=dawn>{{cite news |title =Profile: Tansen — the mesmerizing maestro |author=Maryam Juzer Kherulla |publisher=Dawn newspaper |url=http://dawn.com/weekly/yworld/archive/021012/yworld5.htm |date=12 October 2002|access-date=18 November 2024|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071121000709/http://dawn.com/weekly/yworld/archive/021012/yworld5.htm |archive-date =21 November 2007|df=dmy-all}}</ref> His father Mukund Ram (also known as Mukund Gaud or Mukund Chand)<ref>{{cite book |author=Sunita Dhar |title=Senia gharana, its contribution to Indian classical music |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZbgHAQAAMAAJ |year=1989 |publisher=Reliance |isbn=978-81-85047-49-2 |page=19}}</ref> was a wealthy poet and accomplished musician of [[Gwalior]], who for some time was a Hindu temple priest in [[Varanasi]].<ref name=dawn/> According to some versions of the story, it is believed that Tansen was born profoundly mute and did not speak until the age of 5.

Tansen learnt and perfected his art in the city of [[Gwalior]], in modern-day [[Madhya Pradesh]]. He began his career from the Imperial Court of [[Tomaras of Gwalior|Gwalior Kingdom]] and spent most of his adult life in the court and patronage of the Hindu king of [[Rewa (princely state)|Rewa]], Raja Ramchandra Singh, where Tansen's musical abilities and studies gained him widespread fame and following.<ref name="Wade1998p108"/> He was a close confidant of Raja Ramchandra Singh, and they used to make music together. Tansen's reputation brought him to the attention of the Mughal Emperor [[Akbar]], who sent messengers to Raja Ramchandra Singh, requesting Tansen to join the musicians at the Mughal court. Tansen initially refused to go and sought to retire instead into solitude, but Raja Ramchandra Singh sent him to Akbar's court. In 1562, about the age of sixty, Tansen who was still a [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnava]] musician, arrived for the first time in Akbar's court.<ref name="Babineau1979p54">{{cite book|author=Edmour J. Babineau|title=Love of God and Social Duty in the Rāmcaritmānas|url=https://archive.org/details/loveofgodsociald0000babi|url-access=registration|year=1979|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-0-89684-050-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/loveofgodsociald0000babi/page/54 54]}}</ref>

Tansen's influence was central to create the Hindustani classical ethos as we know today. He was instrumental in establishing the very first musical gharana the "[[Gwalior gharana|Gwalior Gharana]]". A number of descendants and disciples trace him to be their lineage founder. Many [[gharana]]s (schools) of Hindustani classical music claim some connection to his lineage. To these ''gharanas'', Tansen is the founder of Hindustani classical music.<ref>{{cite book|author=Bruno Nettl|title=Heartland Excursions: Ethnomusicological Reflections on Schools of Music|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wZZ1_pQJnKEC&pg=PA68 |year=1995|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=978-0-252-06468-5|page=68}}, Quote: "This is a recital of the identities of their teachers, perhaps the teachers' own teachers and association with gharanas, or schools, of musicianship, and often an attempt to link the main performer of the day through student-teacher genealogies to one of the early great figures of music, such as the revered Tansen, the mythical culture hero and founder of Hindustani music". When he was a member in the court of Mughal Emperor Akbar he was forced to sing Raga Deepak (dieing song) by his enemies. He was saved by Singing Raga Megh by his daughter and her friend</ref>

==Schooling==
[[File:Akbar and Tansen visit Haridas.jpg|thumb|250px|right|[[Akbar the Great|Akbar]] watching as Tansen receives a lesson from [[Swami Haridas]]. Imaginary situation depicted in [[Mughal miniature painting]] ([[Rajput painting|Rajasthani style]], c. 1750 AD).]]
The legendary oral versions about Tansen's early life and schooling particularly differ depending on whether the story has origins in Hindu legends ([[Vaishnavism]]) or Muslim legends ([[Sufism]]).<ref name="wade114" /> The Hindu [[Bhakti movement|bhakti saint]], poet and court musician of Raja Man Singh Tomar of Gwalior [[Swami Haridas]] was the major influence on Tansen. In Islamic biographies, the Sufi Muslim mystic named [[Muhammad Ghaus|Muhammad Ghaus Gwaliori]] is said to have influenced Tansen. According to Bonnie Wade – a professor of Music specializing in South Asia Studies, Swami Haridas is widely accepted to have been Tansen's teacher, and it is clear that Tansen connected with Muhammad Ghaus as well, but the evidence suggests that Tansen is less affiliated with either religion, more with music.<ref name="wade114" /><ref name="Tansen">{{Cite web |title=Tansen |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Tansen}}</ref>

Tansen showed musical talent at the age of 6. At some point, he was discipled to [[Swami Haridas]], for a brief period, the legendary composer from [[Vrindavan]] and court musician of the stellar [[Gwalior]] court of Raja [[Man Singh Tomar]] (1486–1516 AD), specialising in the [[Dhrupad]] style of singing. His talent was recognised early and it was the ruler of [[Gwalior]] who conferred upon the maestro the honorific title 'Tansen'. Haridas was considered to be a legendary music teacher in that time. It is said that Tansen had no equal apart from his teacher. From Haridas, Tansen acquired not only his love for dhrupad but also his interest in compositions in the local language. This was the time when the [[Bhakti]] tradition was fomenting a shift from [[Sanskrit]] to the local idiom ([[Brij Bhasha|Brajbhasa]] and [[Hindi]]), and Tansen's compositions also highlighted this trend. During some point of his apprenticeship, Tansen's father died, and he returned home, where it is said that he used to sing at a local [[Shiva]] temple in [[Gwalior]].{{citation needed|date=December 2016}}

Hagiographies mention that Tansen met the Sufi mystic [[Muhammad Ghaus]]. The interaction with Ghaus brought a strong Sufi influence on Tansen.<ref>{{cite book | author=Wade, Bonnie C. | title=Imaging Sound : An Ethnomusicological Study of Music, Art, and Culture in [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] India | publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] | year=1998 | isbn=0-226-86840-0 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/imagingsoundethn00wade/page/113 113–114] }}</ref> Later in his life, he continued to compose in [[Brij Bhasha|Brajbhasha]] invoking traditional motifs such as [[Krishna]] and [[Shiva]].<ref>{{cite book | author=Wade, Bonnie C. | title=Imaging Sound : An Ethnomusicological Study of Music, Art, and Culture in [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] India | publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] | year=1998 | isbn=0-226-86840-0 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/imagingsoundethn00wade/page/114 114–115] }}</ref>

The presence of musicians like Tansen in Akbar's court was an attempt to accept and integrate the Hindu and Muslim traditions within the Mughal Empire.<ref>{{cite book | author=Wade, Bonnie C. | title=Imaging Sound : An Ethnomusicological Study of Music, Art, and Culture in [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] India | publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] | year=1998 | isbn=0-226-86840-0}}</ref> Tansen became one of the treasured [[Navaratnas]] (lit. ''nava''=nine, ''ratna''=jewel) of Akbar's court. He received the honorific title ''Mian'' there, and the name Mian Tansen.

=== Compositions ===
{{listen
| header = [[Malhar]], common raga performed by Tansen
| type = music
| image = none
| filename = Rag Megh Malhar - NCERT.ogg
| title = 1. Malhar
| description =
| help = no
}}

Tansen's musical compositions covered many themes, and employed [[Dhrupad]]. Most of these were derived from the Hindu [[Puranas]], composed in [[Braj Bhasha]], and written in praise of gods and goddesses such as [[Ganesha]], [[Saraswati]], [[Surya]], [[Shiva]], [[Vishnu]] (Narayana and Krishna avatar).<ref name="Martinez186">{{cite book |author=José Luiz Martinez |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OwJRnFIcM4cC&pg=PA186 |title=Semiosis in Hindustani Music |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=2001 |isbn=978-81-208-1801-9 |pages=186–187}}</ref><ref>Françoise Delvoye (1990), ''Tânsen et la tradition des chants dhrupad en langue braj, du XVIe siècle à nos jours'', Thèse d'État non publiée. Paris : Université de la Sorbonne Nouvelle (in French), {{oclc|416547961}}; For a review, see Allison Busch (2010), Hidden in Plain View: Brajbhasha Poets at the Mughal Court, Modern Asian Studies, Cambridge University Press, Vol. 44, No. 2 (MARCH 2010), pages 275, 267-309</ref> He also composed and performed compositions dedicated to eulogizing kings and emperor Akbar.<ref name="Martinez186" />
[[File:Akbar, Todarmal, Tansen and Abul Fazal, Faizi and Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khana in a court scene (16th Century A.D.).jpg|center|thumb|520x520px|Tansen in Emperor [[Akbar|Akbar's]] Court along with [[Todar Mal|Todarmal]], [[Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak|Abul Fazal]], [[Faizi]] and [[Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khanan|Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khana]] c.16th century]]

==Family ==
Tansen married a girl named Hussaini, who was from Gwalior, and from this marriage he had four sons and one daughter, namely: Surat Sen, Sarat Sen, Tarang Khan, Bilas Khan and Saraswati. All five became proficient musicians of [[Gwalior]] in their own right. His daughter, Saraswati, later married [[Naubat Khan|Misri Singh]], a notable [[Veena|veena player]] and music composer from Singhalgarh, who was the grandson of [[Samokhan Singh|Raja Samokhan Singh]] of [[Kishangarh]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Haldar|first=Amal|title=Miya Tansen|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.506796/page/n153/mode/2up|journal=The Modern Review|volume=CXV|issue=2|date=February 1964|page=131}}</ref> One legend states that Tansen had also been married to a daughter of Akbar, named Mehrunissa, for which he had to [[Conversion to Islam|convert to Islam]].<ref name="Dhar1989">{{cite book|last=Dhar|first=Sunita|title=Senia Gharana, Its Contribution to Indian Classical Music|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZbgHAQAAMAAJ|year=1989|publisher=Reliance Publishing House|isbn=978-81-85047-49-2|page=24}}</ref>

==Death==
The year of the death of Tansen, like much of his biography, is unclear. According to one version, written by Islamic historians, Tansen died in 1586 in [[Delhi]], and that Akbar and much of his court attended the funeral procession which was completed according to [[Islamic funeral|Muslim customs]] in [[Gwalior]].<ref name=dawn/><ref>{{cite book|author=Stephen F. Dale|title=The Muslim Empires of the Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vNmaBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT160 |year=2009| publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-316-18439-4|page=160}}</ref> Other versions, written in Akbarnama, written by Abul Fazl, as well as by Hindu historians give 26 April 1589 as the date of his death and that his funeral observed mostly [[Antyesti|Hindu customs]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Bonnie C. Wade|title=Imaging Sound: An Ethnomusicological Study of Music, Art, and Culture in Mughal India|url=https://archive.org/details/imagingsoundethn00wade|url-access=registration|year=1998|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-86840-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/imagingsoundethn00wade/page/115 115]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Fazl|first=Abul|title=Akbarnama|publisher=Asiatic Society of Bengal|pages=816|translator-last=Beveridge|translator-first=Henry}}</ref> Scholars states reason to refute the viewpoint of Tansen being converted to Islam due to his belief on Hindu tradition and various composition on Hindu gods. However, his composition shows no trace of Islamic influence.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://archive.org/details/imagingsoundethn00wade/page/115/mode/1up?view=theater | title=Imaging sound : An ethnomusicological study of music, art, and culture in Mughal India | date=1998 }}</ref> Tansen's remains were buried in the mausoleum complex of his Sufi master Shaikh [[Muhammad Ghawth|Muhammad Ghaus]] in Gwalior. Every year in December, an annual festival, the ''[[Tansen Samaroh]]'', is held in [[Gwalior]] to celebrate Tansen life and legacy.<ref name=TheHindu>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/mag/2004/01/11/stories/2004011100040100.htm
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20040930093656/http://www.hindu.com/mag/2004/01/11/stories/2004011100040100.htm
|url-status = dead|archive-date=30 September 2004
|newspaper=The Hindu newspaper|title= Strains of a raga ... in Gwalior|date=11 January 2004|access-date=18 November 2024|author=Roshan Shahani}}</ref>

==Popular culture==
Several Hindi films have been made on Tansen's life, with mostly anecdotal story lines. Some of them are ''[[Tansen (film)|Tansen]]'' (1943), a musical hit produced by Ranjit Movietone, starring [[K. L. Saigal]] and [[Khursheed Bano]].<ref name="NettlArnold2000">{{cite book|last1=Nettl|first1=Bruno|last2=Arnold|first2=Alison|title=The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: South Asia : the Indian subcontinent|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOlNv8MAXIEC&pg=PA525|year=2000|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-8240-4946-1|page=525}}</ref> ''Tansen'' (1958) and ''Sangeet Samrat Tansen'' (1962). Tansen is also a central character, though remaining mostly in the backdrop, in the historical musical [[Baiju Bawra (1952 film)|''Baiju Bawra'']] (1952), based on the life of his eponymous contemporary.{{citation needed|date=December 2016}}<gallery>
File:Mia Tansen by Lala Deo Lal.jpg|Modern Artist impression of Tansen
File:Photo Mian Tansen 1580.jpg|Mughal painting of Tansen c.1580
File:Tansen Tomb - panoramio.jpg|Tansen's tomb in [[Gwalior]], near the tomb of his [[Sufism|Sufi]] master Muhammad Ghaus
File:Tansen's tomb (16290416076).jpg|Inside Tansen's tomb
File:Fatehpur Sikri anup-talao-crp.jpg|[[Fatehpur Sikri]] audience chambers, with [[Anup Talao]] on the left.
File:Tansen mughal.jpg|20th century depiction of Tansen
</gallery>

==Legacy==
===Tansen award===
[[File:Stamp of India - 1986 - Colnect 167172 - Miyan Tansen.jpeg|thumb|Stamp of India depicting Tansen]]
A national music festival known as 'Tansen Samaroh' is held every year in December, near the tomb of Tansen at Hazira, [[Gwalior]] as a mark of respect to his memory. The [[Tansen Samman]] or Tansen award is given away to exponents in [[Hindustani Classical music]].

===Buildings===
The fort at [[Fatehpur Sikri]] is strongly associated with Tansen's tenure at Akbar's court. Near the emperor's chambers, a pond was built on a small island in the middle, where musical performances were given. Today, this tank, called ''Anup Talao'', can be seen near the public audience hall ''Diwan-i-Aam'' – a central platform reachable via four footbridges. It is said that Tansen would perform different ragas at different times of day, and the emperor and his select audience would honour him with coins. Tansen's supposed residence is also nearby.

===Miracles and legends===
The bulk of Tansen's biography as found in Akbar court historians' accounts and ''gharana'' literature consists of inconsistent and miraculous legends.<ref name="davar"/> Among the legends about Tansen are stories of his bringing down the rains with [[Raga]] [[Megh Malhar]] and lighting lamps by performing Raga Deepak.<ref>{{cite book|author1=George Ruckert|author2=Ali Akbar Khan|title=The Classical Music of North India: The first years study|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uWIJAQAAMAAJ|year=1998|publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal|isbn=978-81-215-0872-8|page=270}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Deva|first=Bigamudre|title=Indian Music|year=1995|publisher=Taylor & Francis|location=India}}</ref> Raga Megh Malhar is still in the mainstream repertoire, but raga Deepak is no longer known; three different variants exist in the [[Bilaval (thaat)]], [[Poorvi (thaat)]] and [[Khamaj (thaat)]] [[thaat]]s. It is not clear which, if any, corresponds to the Deepak of Tansen's time. Other legends tell of his ability to bring wild animals to listen with attention (or to talk their language). Once, a wild white elephant was captured, but it was fierce and could not be tamed. Finally, Tansen sang to the elephant who calmed down and the emperor was able to ride him. Besides this, there is also the theory of him being the inventor of [[Rubab (instrument)|rabab]]-a stringed instruments.<ref name="Tansen"/>

===Crater===
A [[Tansen (crater)|crater]] on the planet [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]] has been named in Tansen's honor.<ref>{{cite web |url = https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/5858|title = Tansen |publisher = [[IAU]]/[[USGS]]/[[NASA]] |work = Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature |access-date = 12 May 2022}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:1490s births]]
[[Category:1580s deaths]]
[[Category:Indian male classical musicians]]
[[Category:Indian Hindus]]
[[Category:Nobility from the Mughal Empire]]
[[Category:16th-century nobility]]
[[Category:People from Agra]]
[[Category:People from Gwalior]]
[[Category:People from Rewa, Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:Akbar]]
[[Category:Indian male composers]]
[[Category:16th-century Indian musicians]]
[[Category:16th-century Mughal Empire people]]
[[Category:Gwalior gharana]]

Diesel Loco Shed, Siliguri

2026-03-26T07:53:28Z

Androidsub143: creating article

{{Short description|Loco shed in West Bengal, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date = June 2023}}
{{Infobox railway depot
| name = Diesel Loco Shed, Siliguri
| depot_logo =
| logo_upright =
| logo_alt =
| logo_caption =
| image = WDP4 20014 (SGUJ) NFR at NGC yard 2.jpg
| image_upright =
| image_alt =
| caption = A Siliguri-based WDP-4 at New Guwahati City
| location = [[Siliguri]], [[Darjeeling district|Darjeeling]], [[West Bengal]]
| coordinates = {{Coord|26.7234|88.4138|type:railwaystation_region:IN|display=inline,title}}
| mapframe =
| grid_ref_UK =
| owner = [[Indian Railways]]
| operator = [[Northeast Frontier Railway zone]]
| depotcode = SGUJ
| type = [[Locomotive shed]]
| roads = 6
| rollingstock = {{plainlist|
* [[WDP-4|WDP-4 / WDP-4B / WDP-4D]]
* [[WDG-4|WDG-4 / WDG-4D]]
* [[WAP-7]]
* [[WAG-9]]
* [[WDG-4G]]
* [[WDG-6G]]
}}
| routes =
| opened = {{plainlist|
* [[Metre-gauge railway|Metre-gauge]]: {{Start date and age|1962|01|26}}<ref name = "History of Siliguri Diesel Shed">{{cite web |last= |first= |year=2010 |title=Brief History of the Siliguri Diesel Shed |url=https://nfr.indianrailways.gov.in/railwayboard/uploads/directorate/mec_engg/downloads/DLS/nfr/Siliguri.pdf |website=nfr.indianrailways.gov.in |location= |publisher=[[Northeast Frontier Railway zone|NFR]] |access-date=17 January 2026}}</ref>
* [[5 ft 6 in gauge railway|Broad-gauge]]: {{Start date and age|2007|01|13}}<ref name = "History of Siliguri Diesel Shed" />
}}
| closed =
| original =
| pregrouping =
| postgrouping =
| BR_region =
| former_depot_codes =
| former_rolling_stock =
| map_type = India West Bengal
| map_size = 200
| embed =
}}

The '''Diesel Loco Shed, Siliguri''' is a [[motive power depot]] performing locomotive maintenance and repair work for [[diesel locomotive]]s of the [[Indian Railways]].<ref name = "History of Siliguri Diesel Shed" /> Located at the [[Siliguri Junction railway station|Siliguri Junction]] (SGUJ) in [[Siliguri]], [[West Bengal]], it is one of the three diesel loco sheds under [[Northeast Frontier Railway zone]].<ref name = "IRFCA - Sheds and Workshops">{{cite web |last= |first= |date= |title=Locomotive Sheds and Workshops |url=https://irfca.org/faq/faq-shed.html |website= |location= |publisher=IRFCA |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260116085350/https://irfca.org/faq/faq-shed.html |archive-date=16 January 2026 |access-date=28 February 2026}}</ref>

==Operations==
Like all locomotive sheds, Siliguri does regular maintenance, overhaul and repair (including painting and washing) of locomotives. It not only attends to locomotives housed at Siliguri but also to the ones coming in from other sheds. The shed has a sanctioned homing capacity of 100 locomotives and four pit lines for loco repair.<ref name = "NFR's Annual Report - 2023-24">{{cite web |last= |first= |date=14 October 2025 |title=Northeast Frontier Railway - Annual Report, 2023-24 |url=https://nfr.indianrailways.gov.in/uploads/files/1760508372417-GMAR_Final_2023-24.pdf |website=nfr.indianrailways.gov.in |location= |publisher=[[Northeast Frontier Railway zone|NFR]] |access-date=17 January 2026}}</ref>{{rp|156}} In 2026, it was allotted the new 4,500 HP (3.4 MW) [[WDG-4G]] and 6,000 HP (4.5 MW) [[WDG-6G]] locomotives of the [[GE Evolution Series]], making it the fourth shed in [[Indian Railways]] (after Roza, Gandhidham and Gooty) and the first one in [[Northeast India]], to home these locomotives.<ref>{{cite press release |last= |first= |date=15 January 2026 |title=Wabtec Expands Locomotive Services Capabilities in India |url=https://www.wabteccorp.com/newsroom/press-releases/wabtec-expands-locomotive-services-capabilities-in-india |location=[[Siliguri]] |publisher=[[Wabtec]] |agency= |access-date=21 February 2026}}</ref>

==Livery & Markings==
{{More citations needed section|date=February 2026}}
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=400|caption_align=center
| image1 = 605 The first Tri-Colour NG loco of SGUJ DLS.jpg||caption1=#605 '''Swaraj''': The first tricolor NG loco of Siliguri DLS
| image2 = 20075 The first Tri-Colour EMD of SGUJ shed.jpg|caption2=#20075 '''Heerak''' (WDG 4B): The first tricolor EMD loco of Siliguri DLS (now homed at New Guwahati)
| image3 = 33628 The first E-loco of DLSS.jpg|caption3=#33628 (WAG9 HC): The first electric loco of Siliguri DLS
| image4 = 12064 The first EMD loco of DLSS.jpg|caption4=#12064 (WDG4): The first EMD loco of Siliguri DLS}}

SGUJ has its own livery on [[WDP-4]], it has navy blue, light yellow band and black.

SGUJ has its own stencils and logo. It is written in both Hindi and English in bold letters.

SGUJ DLS was renaming some [[Electro-Motive Diesel|EMD]] locos for promoting the culture and tourism of Northeast India which is proposed by NF Rail Enthusiasts group.

The [[WAG-9]] HC of this shed are green with a yellow band and locomotive number written on the band in dark blue or black colour. The name "[[Siliguri]]" is written on the locomotive body just below the band.

The [[WAP-7]] of this shed are white with a red band and locomotive number written on the band in black colour. The name "[[Siliguri]]" is also written on the locomotive body below the band.

===Broad Gauge===
* 20075 - Heerak (now homed at [[Guwahati railway station#Diesel Loco Shed, New Guwahati City|New Guwahati]])
* 40023 - Netaji (Tricolour)<ref>{{cite web |last=Sharma |first=Kapinjal Kishore |date=31 July 2025 |title=NFR pays tribute to Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose and His Azad Hind Fauj |url=https://nfr.indianrailways.gov.in/cris/view_detail.jsp?lang=0&id=0,4,268&dcd=2768&did=175396841566519B3A1C657D9FD313A14265C5616E455 |website=nfr.indianrailways.gov.in |location=[[Maligaon]] |publisher= |access-date=19 February 2026}}</ref>
* 40096 - [[Jaldapara National Park|Jaldapara]]<ref>{{cite news |last=Choudhury |first=Anirban |date=24 June 2024 |title='Jaldapara' forest chugs on tracks |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/jaldapara-forest-chugs-on-tracks-locomotive-to-make-more-people-aware-of-rhino-habitat/cid/2029156 |work=The Telegraph |location= |publisher= |access-date=19 February 2026}}</ref>
* 40383 - Baghajatin (Tricolour striped)<ref>{{cite web |last= |first= |date= |title=WDP-4D 40383 (BAGHAJATIN) |url=https://irfca.org/apps/locos/14864 |website= |location= |publisher=IRFCA |url-status= |archive-url= |archive-date= |access-date=19 February 2026}}</ref>
* 40404 - Ramanujan (Tricolour striped)<ref>{{cite web |last= |first= |date= |title=WDP-4D 40404 (RAMANUJAN) |url=https://irfca.org/apps/locos/14990 |website= |location= |publisher=IRFCA |url-status= |archive-url= |archive-date= |access-date=19 February 2026}}</ref>
* 40436 - Gaj Prahari<ref>{{cite web |last= |first= |date= |title=WDP-4D 40436 (GAJ PRAHARI) |url=https://irfca.org/apps/locos/15074 |website= |location= |publisher=IRFCA |url-status= |archive-url= |archive-date= |access-date=19 February 2026}}</ref>
* 38130 - Trisrota<ref>{{cite web |last= |first= |date= |title=WAG-9HC 38130 (TRISROTA) |url=https://irfca.org/apps/locos/21132 |website= |location= |publisher=IRFCA |url-status= |archive-url= |archive-date= |access-date=4 March 2026}}</ref>
* 38135 - Deshbandhu

===Narrow gauge===
* 601 - Kanchanjungha
* 602 - Himalaya
* 603 - Tridhara<ref>{{cite web |last= |first= |date= |title=NDM-6 603 (TRIDHARA) |url=https://irfca.org/apps/locos/7870 |website= |location= |publisher=IRFCA |url-status= |archive-url= |archive-date= |access-date=21 February 2026}}</ref>
* 604 - Sherpa<ref>{{cite web |last= |first= |date= |title=NDM-6 604 (SHERPA) |url=https://irfca.org/apps/locos/7871 |website= |location= |publisher=IRFCA |url-status= |archive-url= |archive-date= |access-date=21 February 2026}}</ref>
* 605 - Swaraj (Tricolour)<ref>{{cite web |last= |first= |date= |title=NDM-6 605 (SWARAJ) |url=https://irfca.org/apps/locos/7872 |website= |location= |publisher=IRFCA |url-status= |archive-url= |archive-date= |access-date=21 February 2026}}</ref>

==Locomotives==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Serial No.
! Locomotive Class
! Horsepower
!Quantity
|-
|1.
| [[WDG-4|WDG-4/4D]]
|4000/4500
|156
|-
|2.
| [[WDP 4|WDP-4/4B/4D]]
|4000/4500
|63
|-
|3.
|[[WAP-7]]
|6350
|43
|-
|4.
|[[WAG-9|WAG-9H]]
|6120
|13
|-
|5.
|[[WDG-4G]]
|4500
|26
|-
|6.
|[[WDG-6G]]
|6000
|18
|-
|colspan="3" |'''Total active locomotives as of March 2026'''<ref>{{cite web |last= |first= |date= |title=Mechanical Engineering - Traction Circulars |url=https://indianrailways.gov.in/railwayboard/view_section.jsp?lang=0&id=0,1,304,366,541,710,717 |website=indianrailways.gov.in |location= |publisher=[[Indian Railway Service of Mechanical Engineering|Department of Mechanical Engineering]] |access-date=16 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Electric Loco Holding & Availability Targets |url=https://elocos.railnet.gov.in/Holding/holding.html |website=elocos.railnet.gov.in |access-date=28 May 2025}}</ref>||319
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Locomotives Sheds of India}}

[[Category:Siliguri]]
[[Category:Railway depots in India]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in West Bengal]]

Mazgaon

2026-03-25T11:37:34Z

Androidsub143: started initial article added tags

{{More citations needed|date=February 2012}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2018}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Mazagaon
| settlement_type = Neighbourhood
| pushpin_map = Mumbai
| coordinates = {{coord|18.97|N|72.85|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = India
| subdivision_type1 = State
| subdivision_name1 = [[Maharashtra]]
| subdivision_type2 = Metro
| subdivision_name2 = Mumbai
| government_type = Municipal Corporation
| governing_body = [[Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation]]
| unit_pref = Metric
| population_density_km2 = auto
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = PIN
| postal_code = 400010
| registration_plate = MH 01
}}

{{Expand section|date=February 2024}}

'''Mazagaon''', also spelled '''Mazgaon''' or '''Mazagon''', and historically known as '''Mazagão''' during the Portuguese era,<ref name="origins">{{cite book|last=D'Cunha|first=Jose Gerson|title=The Origins of Bombay|publisher=Asian Educational Services|location=Bombay|year=1900|edition=3|pages=265|chapter=IV The Portuguese Period|isbn=81-206-0815-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=miD5YO05jpUC&q=the+origins+of+bombay|access-date=2009-01-04}}</ref> is a historic neighbourhood in South Mumbai. It was one of the original [[Seven Islands of Bombay]] and is now fully integrated into the [[Mumbai Metropolitan Area]]. Locally, Christian [[Bombay East Indians]] refer to it as 'Mazgon' or 'Maz-a-gon'.

== Location ==
Mazagaon is located in South Mumbai and is bordered by [[Byculla]] to the west, [[Reay Road railway station|Reay Road]] and [[Ghodapdeo]] to the northeast, and [[Dockyard Road railway station|Dockyard Road]] to the east. It falls under the 'E' Ward of the [[Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation]] (BMC).<ref><mapframe latitude="18.9678" longitude="72.8401" zoom="14" width="400" height="300" /></ref>

== Landmarks and Heritage ==

=== Aga Khan's Maqbara ===
{{Main|Aga Khan's Maqbara}}

Also known as Hasanabad Dargah, this mausoleum is the resting place of Aga Khan I. Constructed between 1881 and 1884, its architecture is inspired by the Taj Mahal. The site is maintained by the local Khoja Muslim community and is often referred to as \"Mumbai’s Taj Mahal\".<ref>{{Cite web |title=History speaks: Rediscovering Hasanabad |url=https://the.ismaili/in/en/news/history-speaks-rediscovering-hasanabad |access-date=2025-03-07 |website=The Ismaili}}</ref>

=== Gloria Church ===
{{Main|Gloria Church}}

Gloria Church was originally built in 1632 by Portuguese Franciscans at the foot of Mazagaon Hill. The current structure, located in Byculla, was rebuilt in 1913 in the English Gothic Revival style. The church has been featured in Indian films, including ''[[Amar Akbar Anthony]]'' (1977).<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wbhIfnw6SSg&feature=youtu.be |title=Hindi Film - Amar Akbar Anthony - Drama Scene - Amitabh Bachchan - Anthony Pleads Before Lord Jesus |date=2011-12-30 |last=Shemaroo |access-date=2025-03-07 |via=YouTube}}</ref>

=== Joseph Baptista Gardens ===
{{Main|Joseph Baptista Gardens}}

Also known as Mazagaon Gardens, this 1.5-acre hilltop park was developed over a covered water reservoir between 1880 and 1884. The garden offers panoramic views of the Mumbai harbour and was once the site of [[Mazgaon Fort]]. It is named after Indian freedom fighter Joseph Baptista and remains a popular local recreational spot.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-03-22 |title=Mazagaon: A visual walk-through |url=https://exhibits.jioinstitute.edu.in/spotlight/matharpacady/feature/mazagaon-a-visual-walk-through |access-date=2025-06-21 |website=Jio Institute Exhibits}}</ref>

=== Matharpacady Village ===
{{Main|Matharpacady, Mumbai}}

Matharpacady is a heritage East Indian Catholic enclave within Mazagaon. It features well-preserved Portuguese-style homes and narrow lanes that reflect Mumbai's colonial architectural legacy. Although its footprint has reduced over time, the area retains much of its original character and continues to be a focus for cultural preservation efforts.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Matharpacady: An East Indian Enclave |url=https://exhibits.jioinstitute.edu.in/spotlight/matharpacady/feature/matharpacady-an-east-indian-enclave |access-date=2025-06-21 |website=Jio Institute Exhibits}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{portal|Islands}}
* [[Joseph Baptista Gardens]]

== References ==
{{commons category|Mazagaon}}

=== Notes ===
{{reflist}}

=== Sources ===
* [http://www.matharpacadyvillage.com/ Matharpacady Village Official Website]

[[Category:Neighbourhoods in Mumbai]]
[[Category:Islands of Mumbai]]
[[Category:History of Mumbai]]
[[Category:Islands of India]]
[[Category:Populated places in India]]

Sila Nerangalil

2026-03-23T08:46:44Z

Androidsub143: Page updated with relevant improvements

{{Use Indian English|date=January 2026}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2026}}
{{Infobox film
| image = Sila Nerangalil.jpg
| caption = Poster
| director = [[Jayaraj]]
| writer = [[Pattukkottai Prabakar]] (dialogue)
| screenplay = Jayaraj
| story = Raj R.
| producer = Raj Naresh Felix Kishore Sri
| starring = [[Vincent Asokan]] [[Navya Nair]] [[Vineeth]] [[Raghuvaran]]
| cinematography = Rajavel
| editing = [[A. Sreekar Prasad]]
| music = [[Srikanth Deva]]
| studio = New Light Productions Ltd
| released = {{Film date|2008|02|29|df=y}}
| country = India
| language = Tamil
}}
'''''Sila Nerangalil''''' ({{Translation|Sometimes}}) is a 2008 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language [[romantic thriller film]] directed by [[Malayalam]] director [[Jayaraj]] in his Tamil debut. The film stars [[Vincent Asokan]] and [[Navya Nair]], while [[Vineeth]] and [[Raghuvaran]] play supporting roles. The music was composed by [[Srikanth Deva]]. The film received positive reviews and was an immediate box office success, reaching number two in the Tamil film charts in its first week of release.<ref>{{Cite news |date=4 March 2008 |title=Malayalam directors triumph at Tamil box office |url=http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/entertainment/malayalam-directors-triumph-at-tamil-box-office_10023705.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080320070337/http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/entertainment/malayalam-directors-triumph-at-tamil-box-office_10023705.html |archive-date=20 March 2008 |access-date=9 March 2008 |work=Thaindian News}}</ref> The film was an uncredited remake of the American [[romantic thriller]] film, ''[[Dead Again]]'' (1991).

== Plot ==
A murder case that took place in the mid-60s is narrated through a voice and radio news as the titles role on. A man is accused of murdering his wife and has been sentenced to death.

The film then moves forward with a dream by a girl ([[Navya Nair]]), who dreams of getting killed by a man. The girl is clad in an old-style dress, resembling the trends of the '60s. She is not able to identify the man nor could she rationalise her dream. However, she is terribly frightened, so much so that she could not speak, recall her past, and get to terms with the present.

She is now in a home run by Christian missionaries. She is under care of the Jo ([[Vincent Asokan]]), the person in charge for the rehabilitation of physically and mentally challenged people. He names her Anjali and develops a secret love towards her.

Enters psychiatrist Krishnan ([[Raghuvaran]]), an expert in hypnotist therapy, who comes forward to help them. The therapy reveals that she is Anjali reincarnation of the girl, who was allegedly killed by her husband in 1965. The shocking revelation gives her the power of speech back, but still, she is unable to recall her past in this birth.

Further sittings with the psychiatrist reveal the possible reason for the murder. The husband suspected an affair between his wife and his friend, a famous playback singer Madhavan ([[Vineeth]]). The scenes surfaced in hypnotic sleep identify the husband. It is none other than Jo, who is the reincarnation of the husband. Now, Anjali is afraid of Jo, and the doctor starts counselling Jo by putting him into hypnotic sleep. Jo, in his travel to his previous birth, finds that the husband was not responsible for the murder. Both Anjali and doctor are not ready to accept his words, and they suspect that he would repeat the effort in this birth as well.

Jo, who is in love with Anjali, is shaken and determined to find the truth. This leads him searching the missing lines of the murder that took place 40 years ago. The script reveals the truth with many unexpected twists in the tale. Jo and his friend go and ask Madhavan, the singer who loved Thamarai, the girl who was killed. He tells them that her husband saw a boy talking to his mother about lying in the court. Madhavan says that the killer is a person named Gopikrishnan, and Jo understands immediately that he means the hypnotist Krishnan, who helped Anjali.

== Cast ==
{{Cast listing|
*[[Vincent Asokan]] as Jo / Chidambaram
*[[Navya Nair]] as Anjali / Thamarai
*[[Vineeth]] as Madhavan
*[[Raghuvaran]] as Krishnan
*[[Ramesh Khanna]] as Photographer
*[[Sriman (actor)|Sriman]] as Gopikrishnan
*[[Manobala]] as Rajavel
*[[VTV Ganesh]] as Ganesh
}}

==Production==
The film marked the directorial debut of Jayaraj in Tamil while the film saw Vincent Asokan playing lead actor for first time.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mannath |first=Malini |date=25 September 2007 |title=Sila Nerangalil |url=http://chennaionline.com/film/Onlocation/Sep07/09silanerangalil.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011005656/http://chennaionline.com/film/Onlocation/Sep07/09silanerangalil.asp |archive-date=11 October 2007 |access-date=10 August 2024 |website=Chennai Online}}</ref>

== Soundtrack ==
The music was composed by [[Srikanth Deva]], with lyrics by [[Vairamuthu]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sila Nerangalil |url=https://www.hungama.com/album/sila-nerangalil/1581082/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240201054403/https://www.hungama.com/album/sila-nerangalil/1581082/ |archive-date=1 February 2024 |access-date=23 April 2019 |website=Hungama}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Srinivas |first=Saraswathy |date=22 October 2007 |title=Sila Nerangalil's music is fascinating |url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/2007/oct/22sila.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071023214224/http://www.rediff.com/movies/2007/oct/22sila.htm |archive-date=23 October 2007 |website=[[Rediff.com]] |access-date=13 January 2026 }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%;"
! Song !! Singers
|-
| "Embavai Embavai" || [[Senthildass Velayutham]], Reshmi
|-
| "Ponguthu Ponguthu" || T. M. S. Selvaraj
|-
| "Thirudapatta Nilave" || [[Haricharan]], [[K. S. Chithra]]
|-
| "Pottu Vaitha" || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| "Chella Phonai" || [[Suchitra]]
|}

== Reception ==
''[[Rediff.com]]'' wrote, "Altogether, a nice fare if you're in the mood for a good old-fashioned crime thriller".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Srinivasan |first=Pavithra |date=29 February 2008 |title=Review: Sila Nerangalil |url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/2008/feb/29sssn1.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230729065451/https://www.rediff.com/movies/2008/feb/29sssn1.htm |archive-date=29 July 2023 |access-date=1 February 2024 |website=[[Rediff.com]]}}</ref> ''Tamil Star'' wrote, "While director Jayaraj manages to keep the suspense intact in a few places in this two-hour movie, it is clear that crafting such a shape-shifting screenplay has eluded even a good director like him".<ref>{{Cite news |date=29 February 2008 |title=Sila Nerangalil. |url=http://www.tamilstar.com/news/publish/article_5754.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080303062945/http://www.tamilstar.com/news/publish/article_5754.shtml |archive-date=3 March 2008 |access-date=9 March 2008 |work=Tamil Star}}</ref> Lakshmi Saravanakumar of ''[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]]'' felt the fast pace in the first and last scene was completely missing in rest of the scenes and despite the scope of offering twists and turns, most of them were predictable due to faulty screenplay. He also felt Vincent Asokan was ill-suited for the role.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=சரவணக்குமார் |first=லஷ்மி |date=16 March 2008 |title=சில நேரங்களில்... |url=https://archive.org/details/kalki2008-03-16/page/n5/mode/2up |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20260113183556/https://archive.org/details/kalki2008-03-16/page/n5/mode/2up |archive-date=13 January 2026 |access-date=10 January 2026 |magazine=[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]] |page=4 |language=ta |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{IMDb title}}
{{Jayaraj}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:2000s romantic thriller films]]
[[Category:2008 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:2008 films]]
[[Category:2008 Indian films]]
[[Category:Films about reincarnation]]
[[Category:Films directed by Jayaraj]]
[[Category:Films scored by Srikanth Deva]]
[[Category:Indian remakes of American films]]
[[Category:Indian romantic thriller films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language romantic thriller films]]

Racism

2026-03-19T21:59:09Z

Androidsub143: Revised and enhanced article content

{{Short description|Race or ethnic-based discrimination}}
{{Distinguish|Discrimination based on nationality}}
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'''Racism''' is the belief that groups of humans possess different behavioral traits corresponding to inherited attributes and can be divided based on the superiority of one [[Race (human categorization)|race]] or [[ethnicity]] over another.{{r|Dennis}}<ref name="Ghani">{{cite book |last=Ghani |first=Navid |editor-last=Schaefer |editor-first=Richard T. |title=Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society |date=2008 |publisher=Sage|isbn=978-1-4129-2694-2 |pages=1113–1115 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YMUola6pDnkC&q=racism |chapter=Racism}}</ref><ref name="Newman p405">{{cite book | last = Newman | first = David M. | title = Sociology: Exploring the Architecture of Everyday Life | publisher = SAGE Publications | location = Thousand Oaks, Calif. | year = 2012 | edition = 9th | isbn = 978-1-4129-8729-5 | page = 405 | quote = Racism: Belief that humans are subdivided into distinct groups that are different in their social behavior and innate capacities and that can be ranked as superior or inferior.}}</ref> It may also mean [[prejudice]], [[discrimination]], or antagonism directed against other people because they are of a different ethnic background.<ref name="Ghani" /> Modern variants of racism are often based in social perceptions of biological differences between peoples. These views can take the form of [[social actions]], practices or beliefs, or [[political systems]] in which different races are ranked as inherently superior or inferior to each other, based on presumed shared inheritable traits, abilities, or qualities.{{r|Ghani|Newman p405}} There have been attempts to legitimize racist beliefs through scientific means, such as [[scientific racism]], which have been overwhelmingly shown to be unfounded. In terms of political systems (e.g. [[apartheid]]) that support the expression of prejudice or aversion in discriminatory practices or laws, racist ideology may include associated social aspects such as [[Nativism (politics)|nativism]], [[xenophobia]], [[Other (philosophy)|otherness]], [[Racial segregation|segregation]], [[Hierarchy|hierarchical ranking]], and [[supremacism]].

While the concepts of race and ethnicity are considered to be separate in contemporary [[social science]], the two terms have a long history of equivalence in popular usage and older social science literature. "Ethnicity" is often used in a sense close to one traditionally attributed to "race", the division of human groups based on qualities assumed to be essential or innate to the group (e.g., shared [[ancestry]] or shared behavior). ''Racism'' and ''[[racial discrimination]]'' are often used to describe discrimination on an ethnic or cultural basis, independent of whether these differences are described as racial. According to the [[United Nations]]'s [[Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination]], there is no distinction between the discrimination resulting from either basis of race or ethnicity, but that the terms do have different meanings that may not always coincide. It further concludes that superiority based on racial differentiation is [[scientifically false]], morally condemnable, socially [[unjust]], and dangerous. The convention also declared that there is no justification for racial discrimination, anywhere, in theory or in practice.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/international-convention-elimination-all-forms-racial |title=International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination |publisher=[[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights]] |date=21 December 1965 |access-date=23 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240702232413/https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/international-convention-elimination-all-forms-racial |archive-date=2 July 2024}}</ref>

Racism is frequently described as a relatively modern concept, evolving during the European [[age of imperialism]], transformed by [[capitalism]],<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://doi.org/10.1177/02632764221140780 |doi=10.1177/02632764221140780 |title=Race, Capitalism, and the Necessity/Contingency Debate |date=2024 |last1=Conroy |first1=William |journal=[[Theory, Culture & Society]] |volume=41 |pages=39–58|url-access=subscription }}</ref> and the [[Atlantic slave trade]],<ref name="Dennis">{{cite book |last1=Dennis |first1=R. M. |editor1-last=Kuper |editor1-first=A. |editor2-last=Kuper |editor2-first=J. |title=The Social Science Encyclopedia, Volume 2 |date=2004 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London; New York |isbn=978-1-134-35969-1 |edition=3rd |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EiNiAgAAQBAJ&q=racism |chapter=Racism |quote=Racism [is] the idea that there is a direct correspondence between a group's values, behavior and attitudes, and its physical features ... Racism is also a relatively new idea: its birth can be traced to the European colonization of much of the world, the rise and development of European capitalism, and the development of the European and US slave trade.}}</ref><ref name="Lieberman1997">{{cite web |last=Lieberman |first=Leonard |author-link=Leonard Lieberman |year=1997 |title="Race" 1997 and 2001: A Race Odyssey
|publisher=[[American Anthropological Association]] |page=2 |url=http://s3.amazonaws.com/rdcms-aaa/files/production/public/FileDownloads/pdfs/cmtes/commissions/aec/upload/A_Race_Odyssey.pdf |quote=In the period since 1492, European overseas empires and colonies were established ... The establishment of mines and plantations enriched Europe while impoverishing and decimating the conquered and enslaved peoples in Africa and the New World. The race concept helped to give all this the appearance of scientific justification. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240403124923/https://s3.amazonaws.com/rdcms-aaa/files/production/public/FileDownloads/pdfs/cmtes/commissions/aec/upload/A_Race_Odyssey.pdf |archive-date=3 April 2024}}</ref> of which it was a major driving force.<ref>{{cite book |author-link=George M. Fredrickson |last=Fredrickson |first=George M. |date=1988 |title=The arrogance of race: historical perspectives on slavery, racism, and social inequality |location=Middletown, Conn |publisher=[[Wesleyan University Press]]}}</ref> It was also a major force behind [[racial segregation in the United States]] in the 19th and early 20th centuries, and of [[apartheid in South Africa]]; 19th and 20th-century racism in [[Western culture]] is particularly well documented and constitutes a reference point in studies and discourses about racism.<ref name="auto">{{cite book |title=Racism: a global reader |first1=Kevin |last1=Reilly |first2=Stephen |last2=Kaufman |first3=Angela |last3=Bodino |year=2003 |publisher=[[M. E. Sharpe]] |location=Armonk, NY |isbn=978-0-7656-1060-7 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/racismglobalread0000unse/page/45 45–52] |url=https://archive.org/details/racismglobalread0000unse/page/45}}</ref> Racism has played a role in [[genocide]]s such as [[the Holocaust]], the [[Armenian genocide]], the [[Rwandan genocide]], and the [[Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia]], as well as colonial projects including the [[European colonization]] of [[Colonization of the Americas|the Americas]], [[Colonisation of Africa|Africa]], [[Western imperialism in Asia|Asia]], and the [[population transfer in the Soviet Union]] including deportations of indigenous minorities.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Martin |first=Terry |year=1998 |title=The Origins of Soviet Ethnic Cleansing |journal=[[The Journal of Modern History]] |volume=70 |issue=4 |pages=813–861 |jstor=10.1086/235168 |doi=10.1086/235168 |s2cid=32917643 |url=https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/3229636/Martin%201998.pdf?sequence=2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240521001613/https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/3229636/Martin%201998.pdf?sequence=2 |archive-date=21 May 2024}}</ref> [[Indigenous peoples]] have been—and are—often subject to racist attitudes.

== Etymology, definition, and usage ==
{{Race}}
[[File:ProceedingsLakeMohonkConference.png|thumb|left|An early use of the word ''racism'' by [[Richard Henry Pratt]] in 1902: "Association of races and classes is necessary to destroy racism and [[classism]]."]]
In the 19th century, many scientists subscribed to the belief that the human population can be divided into races. The term ''racism'' is a noun describing the state of being racist, i.e., subscribing to the belief that the human population can or should be classified into races with differential abilities and dispositions, which in turn may motivate a political ideology in which rights and privileges are differentially distributed based on racial categories. The term "racist" may be an adjective or a noun, the latter describing a person who holds those beliefs.<ref name="Merriam-Webster">{{cite book |title=Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary |date=1983 |publisher=Merriam-Webster, Inc. |isbn=0-87779-508-8 |pages=969}}</ref> The origin of the root word "race" is not clear. Linguists generally agree that it came to the English language from [[Middle French]], but there is no such agreement on how it generally came into Latin-based languages. A recent proposal is that it derives from the Arabic ''ra's'', which means "head, beginning, origin" or the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''rosh'', which has a similar meaning.<ref>{{cite dictionary |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=race&allowed_in_frame=0 |title=race (n2) |dictionary=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=21 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240404005057/https://www.etymonline.com/word/race |archive-date=4 April 2024}}</ref> Early race theorists generally held the view that some races were inferior to others and they consequently believed that the differential treatment of races was fully justified.<ref name="Garner09" /><ref name="Canadian Encyclo">{{cite web |url=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/racism/ |title=Racism |website=The Canadian Encyclopedia |access-date=21 February 2016 |year=2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190608204710/https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/racism |archive-date=8 June 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>Multiple sources:
* {{cite web |title=Framework decision on combating racism and xenophobia |url=http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/justice_freedom_security/combating_discrimination/l33178_en.htm |website=Council Framework Decision 2008/913/JHA of 28 November 2008 |publisher=[[European Union]] |access-date=3 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514084654/http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/justice_freedom_security/combating_discrimination/l33178_en.htm |archive-date=14 May 2011}}
* {{cite web |title=International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination |url=http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/cerd.htm |department=UN Treaty Series |publisher=[[United Nations]] |access-date=3 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110804043913/http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/cerd.htm |archive-date=4 August 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> These early theories guided [[Pseudoscience|pseudo-scientific]] research assumptions; the collective endeavors to adequately define and form hypotheses about racial differences are generally termed [[scientific racism]], though this term is a misnomer, due to the lack of any actual science backing the claims.

Most [[biologist]]s, [[Anthropology|anthropologists]], and [[Sociology|sociologists]] reject a [[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomy]] of races in favor of more specific and/or empirically verifiable criteria, such as [[geography]], ethnicity, or a history of [[endogamy]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Does Race Exist? |journal=[[Scientific American]] |date=December 2003 |first1=Michael |last1=Bamshad |first2=Steve E. |last2=Olson |quote=If races are defined as genetically discrete groups, no. Researchers can, however, use some genetic information to group individuals into clusters with medical relevance. |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican1203-78 |pmid=14631734 |volume=289 |issue=6 |pages=78–85 |bibcode=2003SciAm.289f..78B}}</ref> [[Human genome]] research indicates that race is not a meaningful genetic classification of humans.<ref name="Patrinos04">{{cite journal |title='Race' and the human genome |author=Patrinos, Ari |journal=Nature Genetics |year=2004 |volume=36 |issue=S1–S2 |doi=10.1038/ng2150 |pages=S1–S2 |pmid=15510100|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Keita97">{{cite journal |url=http://www.councilforresponsiblegenetics.org/pageDocuments/WAURRSZQOE.pdf |title=The persistence of racial thinking and the myth of racial divergence |last1=Keita |first1=Shomarka O. Y. |first2=Rick A. |last2=Kittles |name-list-style=amp |journal=[[American Anthropologist]] |year=1997 |volume=99 |issue=3 |pages=534–544 |doi=10.1525/aa.1997.99.3.534 |access-date=10 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161007080932/http://www.councilforresponsiblegenetics.org/pageDocuments/WAURRSZQOE.pdf |archive-date=7 October 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Smedley05">{{cite journal |title=Race as biology is fiction, racism as a social problem is real: Anthropological and historical perspectives on the social construction of race |author1=Smedley, Audrey |author2=Brian D. Smedley |name-list-style=amp |journal=[[American Psychologist]] |year=2005 |volume=60 |issue=1 |pages=16–26 |doi=10.1037/0003-066x.60.1.16 |pmid=15641918 |citeseerx=10.1.1.694.7956}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yudell |first1=M. |last2=Roberts |first2=D. |last3=DeSalle |first3=R. |last4=Tishkoff |first4=S. |date=5 February 2016 |title=Taking race out of human genetics |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aac4951 |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=351 |issue=6273 |pages=564–565 |bibcode=2016Sci...351..564Y |doi=10.1126/science.aac4951 |issn=0036-8075 |pmid=26912690 |s2cid=206639306|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

An entry in the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' (2008) defines [[racialism]] as "[a]n earlier term than racism, but now largely superseded by it", and cites the term "racialism" in a 1902 quote.<ref>"racialism, n." [http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/157084 OED Online]. September 2013. Oxford University Press. (Accessed 3 December 2013).</ref> The revised ''Oxford English Dictionary'' cites the shorter term "racism" in a quote from the year 1903.<ref>[http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/157097 "racism, n."]. ''OED Online''. September 2013. Oxford University Press. Accessed 3 December 2013.</ref> It was defined by the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' (2nd edition 1989) as "[t]he theory that distinctive human characteristics and abilities are determined by race"; the same dictionary termed ''racism'' a [[synonym]] of ''racialism'': "belief in the superiority of a particular race". By the end of [[World War II]], ''racism'' had acquired the same supremacist connotations formerly associated with ''racialism'': ''racism'' by then implied racial [[discrimination]], racial [[supremacism]], and a harmful intent. The term "race hatred" had also been used by sociologist [[Frederick Hertz]] in the late 1920s.

As its history indicates, the popular use of the word ''racism'' is relatively recent. The word came into widespread usage in the [[Western world]] in the 1930s, when it was used to describe the social and political ideology of [[Nazism]], which treated "race" as a naturally given political unit.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://press.princeton.edu/titles/7243.html |title=Racism: A Short History |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |author-link=George M. Fredrickson |last=Fredrickson |first=George M. |year=2002 |location=Princeton, NJ |page=5 |isbn=978-0-691-11652-5 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308115725/http://press.princeton.edu/titles/7243.html |archive-date=8 March 2016}}</ref> It is commonly agreed that racism existed before the coinage of the word, but there is not a wide agreement on a single definition of what racism is and what it is not.<ref name="Garner09">{{cite book |url=https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/racisms/book245769 |title=Racisms: An Introduction |publisher=Sage |last=Garner |first=Steve |year=2009 |access-date=21 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401055935/https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/racisms/book245769 |archive-date=1 April 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Today, some scholars of racism prefer to use the concept in the plural ''racisms'', in order to emphasize its many different forms that do not easily fall under a single definition. They also argue that different forms of racism have characterized different historical periods and geographical areas.<ref name="Bethen14">{{cite book |title=Racisms: From the Crusades to the Twentieth Century |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |last=Bethencourt |first=Francisco |year=2014 |location=Princeton, NJ}}</ref> Garner (2009: p. 11) summarizes different existing definitions of racism and identifies three common elements contained in those definitions of racism. First, a historical, hierarchical [[Power (social and political)|power]] relationship between groups; second, a set of ideas (an ideology) about racial differences; and, third, discriminatory actions (practices).<ref name="Garner09" />

=== Legal ===
Though many countries around the globe have passed [[law]]s related to race and discrimination, the first significant international [[human rights]] instrument developed by the United Nations (UN) was the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] (UDHR),<ref name="UNUDHR">{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/index.html |title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights |date=6 October 2015 |publisher=[[United Nations]] |access-date=22 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171031224448/http://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/index.html |archive-date=31 October 2017}}</ref> which was adopted by the [[United Nations General Assembly]] in 1948. The UDHR recognizes that if people are to be treated with dignity, they require [[economic rights]], [[civil rights|social rights]] including education, and the rights to [[culture|cultural]] and political participation and [[Civil liberties|civil liberty]]. It further states that everyone is entitled to these rights "without distinction of any kind, such as race, [[Human skin color|colour]], sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, [[Nationality|national]] or [[society|social]] origin, property, birth or other status".

The UN does not define "racism"; however, it does define "racial discrimination". According to the 1965 UN [[International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination]],<ref name="UNICERD">{{cite web |url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/CERD.aspx |title=International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination |publisher=[[United Nations]]. Adopted December 1965, entered into force January 1969 |access-date=22 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240702232413/https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/international-convention-elimination-all-forms-racial |archive-date=2 July 2024}}</ref>
<blockquote>
The term "racial discrimination" shall mean any distinction, exclusion, restriction, or preference based on race, colour, [[Cultural heritage|descent]], or national or [[ethnicity|ethnic]] origin that has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life.
</blockquote>

In their 1978 [[UNESCO|United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)]] Declaration on Race and Racial Prejudice (Article 1), the UN states, "All human beings belong to a single species and are descended from a common stock. They are born equal in dignity and rights and all form an integral part of humanity."<ref name="UNESCO78">{{cite web |url=http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=13161&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html |title=Declaration on Race and Racial Prejudice |publisher=[[United Nations]] |date=1978 |access-date=22 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221122163043/https://www.unesco.org/en/legal-affairs/declaration-race-and-racial-prejudice |archive-date=22 November 2022}}</ref>

The UN definition of racial discrimination does not make any distinction between [[Discrimination based on skin color|discrimination based on ethnicity and race]], in part because the distinction between the two has been a matter of debate among [[Academic staff|academics]], including [[Anthropology|anthropologists]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Metraux |first1=A. |year=1950 |title=United nations Economic and Security Council Statement by Experts on Problems of Race |journal=American Anthropologist |volume=53 |issue=1|pages=142–145 |doi=10.1525/aa.1951.53.1.02a00370}}</ref> Similarly, in [[Law of the United Kingdom|British law]], the phrase ''racial group'' means "any group of people who are defined by reference to their race, colour, nationality (including citizenship) or ethnic or national origin".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cps.gov.uk/publications/prosecution/rrpbcrbook.html |title=Racist and Religious Crime – CPS Prosecution Policy |publisher=The CPS |access-date=23 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100119032241/http://www.cps.gov.uk/publications/prosecution/rrpbcrbook.html |archive-date=19 January 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

In Norway, the word "race" has been removed from national laws concerning discrimination because the use of the phrase is considered problematic and unethical.<ref>{{cite news |first=Jon Dagsland |last=Holgersen |date=23 July 2010 |url=http://www.aftenposten.no/norge/Rasebegrepet-pa-vei-ut-av-loven-215256b.html |title=Rasebegrepet på vei ut av loven |language=no |trans-title=The concept of race on the way out of the law |work=[[Aftenposten]] |access-date=6 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240404043334/https://www.aftenposten.no/norge/i/eKXpK/rasebegrepet-paa-vei-ut-av-loven |archive-date=4 April 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.aftenposten.no/meninger/debatt/Rase-Et-ubrukelig-ord-6610475.html |title=Rase: Et ubrukelig ord |language=no |trans-title=Race: A useless word |work=[[Aftenposten]] |date= |access-date=10 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140301214159/http://www.aftenposten.no/meninger/debatt/Rase-Et-ubrukelig-ord-6610475.html |archive-date=1 March 2014}}</ref> The Norwegian Anti-Discrimination Act bans discrimination based on ethnicity, national origin, descent, and skin color.<ref>{{cite web |author=[[Ministry of Labour and Social Inclusion]] |url=http://www.regjeringen.no/en/dep/ad/doc/lover_regler/reglement/2005/the-anti-discrimination-act.html?id=420606 |title=The Act on prohibition of discrimination based on ethnicity, religion, etc. |website=Regjeringen.no | date=26 September 2005 |access-date=10 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230319090031/https://www.regjeringen.no/en/dokumenter/the-anti-discrimination-act/id420606/ |archive-date=19 March 2023}}</ref>

=== Social and behavioral sciences ===
{{Main|Sociology of race and ethnic relations}}

[[Sociology|Sociologists]], in general, recognize "race" as a [[Social constructivism|social construct]]. This means that, although the concepts of race and racism are based on observable biological characteristics, any conclusions drawn about race on the basis of those observations are heavily influenced by cultural ideologies. Racism, as an ideology, exists in a society at both the individual and institutional level.

While much of the research and work on racism during the last half-century or so has concentrated on "white racism" in the Western world, historical accounts of race-based social practices can be found across the globe.<ref name="Gossett">Gossett, Thomas F. ''Race: The History of an Idea in America''. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. {{ISBN|0-19-509778-5}}</ref> Thus, racism can be broadly defined to encompass individual and group prejudices and acts of discrimination that result in material and cultural advantages conferred on a majority or a dominant social group.<ref>{{cite book |title=Racist America: Roots, Current Realities, and Future Reparations |publisher=[[Routledge]] |last=Feagin |first=Joe R. |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-415-92531-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/racistamericaroo00feag_0}}</ref> So-called "white racism" focuses on societies in which white populations are the majority or the dominant social group. In studies of these majority white societies, the aggregate of material and cultural advantages is usually termed "[[white privilege]]".

Race and race relations are prominent areas of study in [[sociology]] and [[economics]]. Much of the sociological literature focuses on white racism. Some of the earliest sociological works on racism were written by sociologist [[W. E. B. Du Bois]], the first African American to earn a doctoral degree from [[Harvard University]]. Du Bois wrote, "[t]he problem of the twentieth century is the problem of the [[color line (civil rights issue)|color line]]."<ref name="DuBois03">{{cite book |title=The Souls of Black Folk |publisher=Bantam Classic |last=Du Bois |first=W. E. B. |author-link=W. E. B. Du Bois |year=1903 |location=New York |title-link=The Souls of Black Folk}}</ref> Wellman (1993) defines racism as "culturally sanctioned beliefs, which, regardless of intentions involved, defend the advantages whites have because of the subordinated position of racial minorities".<ref name="Wellman">{{cite book |last=Wellman |first=David T. |title=Portraits of White Racism |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1993 |location=New York |page=x}}</ref> In both sociology and economics, the outcomes of racist actions are often measured by the [[Social inequality|inequality]] in [[income]], [[wealth]], [[net worth]], and access to other cultural resources (such as education), between racial groups.<ref name="Massey89">{{cite journal |title=Hypersegregation in U.S. Metropolitan areas: Black and Hispanic Segregation Along Five Dimensions |last1=Massey |first1=D. |author1-link=Douglas S. Massey |first2=N. |last2=Denton |author2-link=Nancy A. Denton |name-list-style=amp |journal=[[Demography (journal)|Demography]] |year=1989 |volume=26 |issue=3 |pages=378–379 |doi=10.2307/2061599 |jstor=2061599 |pmid=2792476 |s2cid=37301240 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

In sociology and [[social psychology]], [[Identity (social science)|racial identity]] and the acquisition of that identity, is often used as a variable in racism studies. Racial ideologies and racial identity affect individuals' perception of race and discrimination. Cazenave and Maddern (1999) define racism as "a highly organized system of 'race'-based group privilege that operates at every level of society and is held together by a sophisticated ideology of color/'race' supremacy. Racial centrality (the extent to which a culture recognizes individuals' racial identity) appears to affect the degree of discrimination African-American young adults perceive whereas racial ideology may buffer the detrimental emotional effects of that discrimination."<ref name="Cazenave">{{cite journal |title=Defending the White Race: White Male Faculty Opposition to a White Racism Course |last1=Cazenave |first1=Noel A. |first2=Darlene Alvarez |last2=Maddern |name-list-style=amp |journal=Race and Society |year=1999 |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=25–50 |doi=10.1016/s1090-9524(00)00003-6}}</ref> Sellers and Shelton (2003) found that a relationship between racial discrimination and emotional distress was moderated by racial ideology and social beliefs.<ref name="Sellers03">{{cite journal |title=The role of racial identity in perceived racial discrimination |last1=Sellers |first1=R. M. |first2=J. N. |last2=Shelton |name-list-style=amp |journal=[[Journal of Personality and Social Psychology]] |year=2003 |volume=84 |issue=5 |pages=1079–1092 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.84.5.1079 |pmid=12757150}}</ref>

Some sociologists also argue that, particularly in the West, where racism is often [[Social control|negatively sanctioned]] in society, racism has changed from being a blatant to a more covert expression of racial prejudice. The "newer" (more hidden and less easily detectable) forms of racism—which can be considered embedded in social processes and structures—are more difficult to explore and challenge. It has been suggested that, while in many countries overt or explicit racism has become increasingly [[taboo]], even among those who display egalitarian explicit attitudes, an [[Implicit-association test|implicit]] or [[aversive racism]] is still maintained subconsciously.<ref name="Greenwald" />

This process has been studied extensively in social psychology as implicit associations and [[implicit attitude]]s, a component of [[implicit cognition]]. Implicit attitudes are evaluations that occur without conscious awareness towards an attitude object or the self. These evaluations are generally either favorable or unfavorable. They come about from various influences in the individual experience.<ref>{{cite book |title=Implicit attitudes 101: Theoretical and empirical Insights |last=Devos |first=T. |publisher=[[Psychology Press]] |year=2008 |location=New York |chapter=Attitudes and attitude change |pages=61–84}}</ref> Implicit attitudes are not consciously identified (or they are inaccurately identified) traces of past experience that mediate favorable or unfavorable feelings, thoughts, or actions towards social objects.<ref name="Greenwald">{{cite journal |last1=Greenwald |first1=A.G. |last2=Banaji |first2=M. R. |year=1995 |title=Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes |journal=[[Psychological Review]] |volume=102 |issue=1 |pages=4–27 |doi=10.1037/0033-295x.102.1.4 |pmid=7878162 |citeseerx=10.1.1.304.6161 |s2cid=8194189}}</ref> These feelings, thoughts, or actions have an influence on behavior of which the individual may not be aware.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Gawronski |first1=B. |last2=Payne |first2=B. K. |title=Handbook of Implicit Social Cognition: Measurement, Theory and Application |date=2010
|publisher=[[Guilford Press]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8UiqBlGT7z4C |isbn=978-1-60623-674-1}}</ref>

Therefore, subconscious racism can influence our visual processing and how our minds work when we are subliminally exposed to faces of different colors. In thinking about crime, for example, [[Social psychology|social psychologist]] [[Jennifer Eberhardt|Jennifer L. Eberhardt]] (2004) of [[Stanford University]] holds that, "blackness is so associated with crime you're ready to pick out these crime objects."<ref name="Eberhardt04">{{cite journal |title=Seeing Black: Race, Crime, and Visual Processing |last=Eberhardt |first=Jennifer L. |journal=[[Journal of Personality and Social Psychology]] |year=2004 |volume=87 |issue=6 |pages=876–893 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.87.6.876 |display-authors=etal |pmid=15598112 |citeseerx=10.1.1.408.3542|s2cid=6322610 }}</ref> Such exposures influence our minds and they can cause subconscious racism in our behavior towards other people or even towards objects. Thus, racist thoughts and actions can arise from stereotypes and fears of which we are not aware.<ref name="Eberhardt14">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=itTHBAAAQBAJ&q=Racism+goes+beyond+prejudicial+discrimination+and+bigotry.+It+arises+from+stereotypes+and+fears+of+which+we+are+vastly+unaware.&pg=PA202 |title=Drugs, Crime, and Justice |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |date=2014 |last1=Belenko |first1=Steven |first2=Cassia |last2=Spohn |author2-link=Cassia Spohn |name-list-style=amp |isbn=978-1-4833-1295-8}}</ref> For example, scientists and activists have warned that the use of the stereotype "Nigerian Prince" for referring to [[advance-fee scam]]mers is racist, i.e. "reducing Nigeria to a nation of scammers and fraudulent princes, as some people still do online, is a [[stereotype]] that needs to be called out".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yékú |first1=James |title=Anti-Afropolitan ethics and the performative politics of online scambaiting |journal=[[Social Dynamics]] |date=3 May 2020 |volume=46 |issue=2 |pages=240–258 |doi=10.1080/02533952.2020.1813943 |s2cid=222232833}}</ref>

=== Humanities ===
[[Language]], [[linguistics]], and [[discourse]] are active areas of study in the [[humanities]], along with literature and the arts. [[Discourse analysis]] seeks to reveal the meaning of race and the actions of racists through careful study of the ways in which these factors of human society are described and discussed in various written and oral works. For example, Van Dijk (1992) examines the different ways in which descriptions of racism and racist actions are depicted by the perpetrators of such actions as well as by their victims.<ref>{{cite book |title=Analyzing Racism Through Discourse Analysis Some Methodological Reflections in Race and Ethnicity in Research Methods |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |last=Van Dijk |first=Tuen |year=1992 |location=Newbury Park, CA |pages=92–134 |isbn=978-0-8039-5007-8}}</ref> He notes that when descriptions of actions have negative implications for the majority, and especially for white elites, they are often seen as controversial and such controversial interpretations are typically marked with quotation marks or they are greeted with expressions of distance or doubt. The previously cited book, ''[[The Souls of Black Folk]]'' by W.E.B. Du Bois, represents early [[African-American literature]] that describes the author's experiences with racism when he was traveling in the [[Southern United States|South]] as an African American.

Much American fictional literature has focused on issues of racism and the black "racial experience" in the US, including works written by whites, such as ''[[Uncle Tom's Cabin]]'', ''[[To Kill a Mockingbird]]'', and ''[[Imitation of Life (novel)|Imitation of Life]]'', or even the non-fiction work ''[[Black Like Me]]''. These books, and others like them, feed into what has been called the "[[white savior narrative in film]]", in which the heroes and heroines are white even though the story is about things that happen to black characters. [[Content analysis|Textual analysis]] of such writings can contrast sharply with black authors' descriptions of African Americans and their experiences in US society. African-American writers have sometimes been portrayed in [[African-American studies]] as retreating from racial issues when they write about "[[Whiteness studies|whiteness]]", while others identify this as an African-American literary tradition called "the literature of white estrangement", part of a multi-pronged effort to challenge and dismantle [[white supremacy]] in the US.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Souls of White Folk: African American Writers Theorize Whiteness |publisher=[[University Press of Mississippi]] |last=Watson |first=Veronica T. |year=2013 |location=Jackson |page=137 |isbn=978-1-4968-0245-3}}</ref>

=== Popular usage ===
According to dictionary definitions, racism is prejudice and discrimination based on race.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/racism |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160927163823/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/racism |url-status=dead |archive-date=27 September 2016 |title=Definition of racism in English |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |access-date=3 January 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite dictionary |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/racism |title=Definition of racism |dictionary=Merriam-Webster |access-date=3 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171225025723/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/racism |archive-date=25 December 2017}}</ref>

Racism can also be said to describe a condition in society in which a dominant racial group benefits from the [[oppression]] of others, whether that group wants such benefits or not.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/reverse-racism-isnt-a-thing_us_55d60a91e4b07addcb45da97 |title='Reverse Racism': 4 Myths That Need To Stop |date=26 August 2015 |access-date=28 February 2016 |last=Blay |first=Zeba |publisher=[[HuffPost|Huffpost Black Voices]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240511024537/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/reverse-racism-isnt-a-thing_n_55d60a91e4b07addcb45da97 |archive-date=11 May 2024}}</ref> Foucauldian scholar Ladelle McWhorter, in her 2009 book, ''Racism and Sexual Oppression in Anglo-America: A Genealogy'', posits modern racism similarly, focusing on the notion of a dominant group, usually whites, vying for racial purity and progress, rather than an overt or obvious ideology focused on the oppression of nonwhites.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Racism and sexual oppression in Anglo-America: a genealogy |last=McWhorter |first=Ladelle |year=2009 |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |isbn=978-0-253-35296-5 |location=Bloomington |oclc=406565635}}</ref>

In popular usage, as in some academic usage, little distinction is made between "racism" and "[[ethnocentrism]]". Often, the two are listed together as "racial and ethnic" in describing some action or outcome that is associated with prejudice within a majority or dominant group in society. Furthermore, the meaning of the term racism is often conflated with the terms prejudice, [[bigotry]], and discrimination. Racism is a complex concept that can involve each of those; but it cannot be equated with, nor is it synonymous, with these other terms.{{Citation needed|date=April 2020}}

Some use the [[prejudice plus power]] approach to racism, seeing racism not in terms of individual discrimination, but in terms of [[Power (social and political)|power]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hoyt |first1=Carlos |title=The Pedagogy of the Meaning of Racism: Reconciling a Discordant Discourse |journal=Social Work |date=2012 |volume=57 |issue=3 |pages=225–234 |doi=10.1093/sw/sws009 |jstor=23719752 |pmid=23252314 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23719752 |issn=0037-8046}}</ref> This approach denies that minority groups are capable of racism, such as [[Interminority racism in the United States|interminority racism]].

== Aspects ==
{{Globalize|1=section|2=USA|date=May 2022}}
The ideology underlying racism can manifest in many aspects of social life. Such aspects are described in this section, although the list is not exhaustive.

=== Aversive racism ===
{{main|Aversive racism}}

Aversive racism is a form of implicit racism, in which a person's unconscious negative evaluations of racial or ethnic minorities are realized by a persistent avoidance of interaction with other racial and ethnic groups. As opposed to traditional, overt racism, which is characterized by overt hatred for and explicit discrimination against racial/ethnic minorities, aversive racism is characterized by more complex, [[ambivalence|ambivalent]] expressions and attitudes.<ref name="Gaertner">{{cite book |year=1986 |chapter=The aversive form of racism |pages=61–89 |editor1-first=John F. |editor1-last=Dovidio |editor1-link=John Dovidio |editor2-first=Samuel L. |editor2-last=Gaertner |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/prejudicediscrim0000unse/page/61/mode/2up|title=Prejudice, Discrimination and Racism |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0-12-221425-7}}</ref> Aversive racism is similar in implications to the concept of symbolic or modern racism (described below), which is also a form of implicit, unconscious, or covert attitude which results in unconscious forms of discrimination.

The term was coined by Joel Kovel to describe the subtle racial behaviors of any ethnic or racial group who rationalize their aversion to a particular group by appeal to rules or stereotypes.<ref name="Gaertner" /> People who behave in an aversively racial way may profess egalitarian beliefs, and will often deny their racially motivated behavior; nevertheless they change their behavior when dealing with a member of another race or ethnic group than the one they belong to. The motivation for the change is thought to be implicit or subconscious. Experiments have provided empirical support for the existence of aversive racism. Aversive racism has been shown to have potentially serious implications for decision making in employment, in legal decisions and in helping behavior.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1016/S0065-2601(04)36001-6 |chapter=Aversive Racism |title=Advances in Experimental Social Psychology |year=2004 |last1=Dovidio |first1=John F. |author1-link=John Dovidio |last2=Gaertner |first2=Samuel L. |isbn=978-0-12-015236-0 |volume=36 |pages=1–52 |editor1-first=James M. |editor1-last=Olson |editor2-first=Mark P. |editor2-last=Zanna |editor2-link=Mark Zanna}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1207/s15327957pspr0901_1 |title=Differences in Helping Whites and Blacks: A Meta-Analysis |year=2005 |last1=Saucier |first1=Donald A. |last2=Miller |first2=Carol T. |last3=Doucet |first3=Nicole |journal=[[Personality and Social Psychology Review]] |volume=9 |pages=2–16 |pmid=15745861 |issue=1 |s2cid=14542705}}</ref>

=== Color blindness ===
{{main|Color blindness (race)}}

In relation to racism, color blindness is the disregard of racial characteristics in [[social interaction]], for example in the rejection of affirmative action, as a way to address the results of past patterns of discrimination. Critics of this attitude argue that by refusing to attend to racial disparities, [[racial color blindness]] in fact unconsciously perpetuates the patterns that produce racial inequality.<ref name="Ansell 2008">{{cite book |last=Ansell |first=Amy E. |editor-last=Schaefer |editor-first=Richard T. |title=Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society |date=2008 |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |isbn=978-1-4522-6586-5 |pages=320–322 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=STR1AwAAQBAJ&q=%22color+blindness%22 |chapter=Color Blindness}}</ref>

[[Eduardo Bonilla-Silva]] argues that color blind racism arises from an "abstract [[liberalism]], biologization of culture, naturalization of racial matters, and minimization of racism".<ref name="Bonilla-Silva">{{cite book |last=Bonilla-Silva |first=Eduardo |author-link=Eduardo Bonilla-Silva |title=White Supremacy and Racism in the Post-Civil Rights Era |publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc. |year=2001 |pages=137–166 |isbn=978-1-58826-032-1}}</ref> Color blind practices are "subtle, [[institution]]al, and apparently nonracial"<ref name="Bonilla-Silva1">{{cite book |last=Bonilla-Silva |first=Eduardo |author-link=Eduardo Bonilla-Silva |title=Racism without Racists: Color-blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in the United States |year=2003 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |location=Lanham |isbn=978-0-7425-1633-5 |pages=2–29 |url=https://archive.org/details/racismwithoutrac0000boni_b6w1 }}{{cbignore}}</ref> because race is explicitly ignored in decision-making. If race is disregarded in predominantly white populations, for example, whiteness becomes the [[norm (social)|normative]] standard, whereas [[people of color]] are [[Othering|othered]], and the racism these individuals experience may be minimized or erased.<ref name="Parker">{{cite book |title=Race Is – Race Isn't: Critical Race Theory and Qualitative Studies in Education |last=Parker |first=Laurence |year=1999 |publisher=Westview Press |isbn=978-0-8133-9069-7 |page=184}}</ref><ref name="Social">{{cite book |title=Our Social World: Introduction to Sociology (Condensed Version) |publisher=Sage |year=2015 |location=Los Angeles |isbn=978-1-4522-7575-8 |first1=Jeanne H. |last1=Ballantine |author1-link=Jeanne Ballantine |first2=Keith A. |last2=Roberts |edition=3rd}}</ref> At an individual level, people with "color blind prejudice" reject racist ideology, but also reject systemic policies intended to fix [[institutional racism]].<ref name="Social" />

=== Cultural ===
{{see also|Cultural racism|Xenophobia}}
Cultural racism manifests as societal beliefs and customs that promote the assumption that the products of a given culture, including the language and traditions of that culture, are superior to those of other cultures. It shares a great deal with [[xenophobia]], which is often characterized by fear of, or aggression toward, members of an [[Ingroups and outgroups|outgroup]] by members of an [[Ingroups and outgroups|ingroup]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=xenophobia - European Commission |url=https://home-affairs.ec.europa.eu/networks/european-migration-network-emn/emn-asylum-and-migration-glossary/glossary/xenophobia_en |access-date=17 March 2024 |website=home-affairs.ec.europa.eu |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240701172343/https://home-affairs.ec.europa.eu/networks/european-migration-network-emn/emn-asylum-and-migration-glossary/glossary/xenophobia_en |archive-date=1 July 2024}}</ref>
In that sense it is also similar to [[Communalism (South Asia)|communalism]] as used in South Asia.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kundnani |first=Arun |date=1 October 2002 |title=An Unholy Alliance? Racism, Religion and Communalism |journal=[[Race & Class]] |language=en-US |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=71–80 |doi=10.1177/0306396802044002976 |s2cid=145013667 |issn=0306-3968}}</ref>

Cultural racism exists when there is a widespread acceptance of stereotypes concerning diverse ethnic or population groups.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Cultural racism: Something rotten in the state of Denmark? |journal=[[Social & Cultural Geography]] |doi=10.1080/14649360120047788 |first=Karen |last=Wren |volume=2 |issue=2 |year=2001 |pages=141–162 |s2cid=33883381}}</ref> Whereas racism can be characterised by the belief that one race is inherently superior to another, cultural racism can be characterised by the belief that one culture is inherently superior to another.<ref>{{Cite journal |url=http://www.columbia.edu/~lnp3/mydocs/Blaut/racism.htm |title=The Theory of Cultural Racism |journal=[[Antipode (journal)|Antipode: A Radical Journal of Geography]] |volume=24 |issue=4 |year=1992 |pages=289–299 |first=James M. |last=Blaut |author-link=James Morris Blaut |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8330.1992.tb00448.x |bibcode=1992Antip..24..289B |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240213081052/http://www.columbia.edu/~lnp3/mydocs/Blaut/racism.htm |archive-date=13 February 2024|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Economic ===
{{Further|Criticism of capitalism#Racism|Racial pay gap in the United States|Racial wealth gap in the United States}}
Historical economic or social disparity is alleged to be a form of [[discrimination]] caused by past racism and historical reasons, affecting the present generation through deficits in the formal education and kinds of preparation in previous generations, and through primarily unconscious racist attitudes and actions on members of the general population. Some view that capitalism generally transformed racism depending on local circumstances, but racism is not necessary for capitalism.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Conroy | first1=William | title=Race, Capitalism, and the Necessity/Contingency Debate | journal=Theory, Culture & Society | date=2024 | volume=41 | pages=39–58 | doi=10.1177/02632764221140780 | url=https://doi.org/10.1177/02632764221140780 | url-access=subscription }}</ref> [[Economic discrimination]] may lead to choices that perpetuate racism. For example, color photographic film was tuned for white skin<ref>{{cite news |last1=Lewis |first1=Sarah |title=The Racial Bias Built Into Photography |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/25/lens/sarah-lewis-racial-bias-photography.html |access-date=4 December 2020 |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=15 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240701025727/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/25/lens/sarah-lewis-racial-bias-photography.html |archive-date=1 July 2024}}</ref> as are automatic soap dispensers<ref>{{cite news |last1=Fussell |first1=Sidney |title=Why Can't This Soap Dispenser Identify Dark Skin? |url=https://gizmodo.com/why-cant-this-soap-dispenser-identify-dark-skin-1797931773 |access-date=4 December 2020 |work=[[Gizmodo]] |date=17 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240705061747/https://gizmodo.com/why-cant-this-soap-dispenser-identify-dark-skin-1797931773 |archive-date=5 July 2024}}</ref> and [[facial recognition system]]s.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Lohr |first1=Steve |title=Facial Recognition Is Accurate, if You're a White Guy |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/02/09/technology/facial-recognition-race-artificial-intelligence.html |access-date=4 December 2020 |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=9 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240304002448/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/02/09/technology/facial-recognition-race-artificial-intelligence.html |archive-date=4 March 2024}}</ref>

=== Institutional ===
{{Further|Institutional racism|Structural racism|State racism|Racial profiling|Racism by country}}
[[File:Vivian Malone registering.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.35|[[African American|African-American]] university student [[Vivian Malone Jones|Vivian Malone]] entering the [[University of Alabama]] in the U.S. to register for classes as one of the first African-American students to attend the institution. Until 1963, the university was [[Racial segregation|racially segregated]] and African-American students were not allowed to attend.]]

[[Institutional racism]] (also known as [[structural racism]], [[state racism]] or systemic racism) is racial discrimination by governments, corporations, religions, or educational institutions or other large organizations with the power to influence the lives of many individuals. [[Stokely Carmichael]] is credited for coining the phrase ''institutional racism'' in the late 1960s. He defined the term as "the collective failure of an organization to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their colour, culture or ethnic origin".<ref>{{citation |first=Richard W. |last=Race |url=http://www.shef.ac.uk/socstudies/Shop/race_article.pdf |title=Analysing ethnic education policy-making in England and Wales |series=Sheffield Online Papers in Social Research |publisher=[[University of Sheffield]] |page=12 |access-date=20 June 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060923102013/http://www.shef.ac.uk/socstudies/Shop/race_article.pdf |archive-date=23 September 2006}}</ref>

[[Maulana Karenga]] argued that racism constituted the destruction of culture, language, religion, and human possibility and that the effects of racism were "the morally monstrous destruction of human possibility involved redefining African humanity to the world, poisoning past, present and future relations with others who only know us through this stereotyping and thus damaging the truly human relations among peoples".<ref>{{cite web |last1=Karenga |first1=Maulana |author-link=Maulana Karenga |title=The Ethics of Reparations: Engaging the Holocaust of Enslavement |url=http://www.ncobraonline.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Karenga-THE-ETHICS-OF-REPARATIONS.pdf |publisher=[[The National Coalition of Blacks for Reparations in America]] (N'COBRA) |access-date=31 January 2017 |date=22–23 June 2001 |archive-date=1 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801090448/http://www.ncobraonline.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Karenga-THE-ETHICS-OF-REPARATIONS.pdf |url-status=usurped }}</ref>

[[Institutional racism]] refers to racism in terms of a power structure that protects the interests of the dominant culture and actively discriminates against ethnic minorities, not only in terms of individual prejudice or formal discrimination.{{r|Cashmore|Yee}}

=== Othering ===
{{main|Othering}}
Othering is the term used by some to describe a system of discrimination whereby the characteristics of a group are used to distinguish them as separate from the norm.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mountz |first=Alison |date=2009 |title=Key Concepts in Political Geography |publisher=Sage |page=328}}</ref>

Othering plays a fundamental role in the history and continuation of racism. To [[Objectification|objectify]] a culture as something different, exotic or underdeveloped is to generalize that it is not like 'normal' society. Europe's colonial attitude towards the Orientals exemplifies this as it was thought that the East was the opposite of the West; feminine where the West was masculine, weak where the West was strong and traditional where the West was progressive.<ref name="Said, Edward 1978 pp.357">{{cite book |last=Said |first=Edward |author-link=Edward Said |date=1978 |title=Orientalism |title-link=Orientalism (book) |location=New York |publisher=[[Pantheon Books]] |page=357}}</ref> By making these [[generalization]]s and othering the East, Europe was simultaneously defining herself as the norm, further entrenching the gap.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gregory |first=Derek |date=2004 |title=The Colonial Present |publisher=[[Blackwell publishers]] |page=4}}</ref>

Much of the process of othering relies on imagined difference, or the expectation of difference. Spatial difference can be enough to conclude that "we" are "here" and the "others" are over "there".<ref name="Said, Edward 1978 pp.357"/> Imagined differences serve to categorize people into groups and assign them characteristics that suit the imaginer's expectations.{{sfn|Said|1978|p=360}}

=== Racial discrimination ===
{{Main|Racial discrimination}}
Racial discrimination refers to [[discrimination]] against someone on the basis of their race.

=== Racial segregation ===
{{Main|Racial segregation}}
{{external media | width = 210px | float = right | video1 = [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N6LxuFpDIYM James A. White Sr.: The little problem I had renting a house], [[TED (conference)|TED Talks]], 14:20, 20 February 2015 }}
Racial segregation is the separation of humans into [[Race (human categorization)|socially-constructed racial groups]] in daily life. It may apply to activities such as eating in a restaurant, drinking from a water fountain, using a bathroom, attending school, going to the movies, or in the rental or purchase of a home.<ref>''Principles to Guide Housing Policy at the Beginning of the Millennium'', Michael Schill & Susan Wachter, [[Cityscape]]</ref> Segregation is generally outlawed, but may exist through social norms, even when there is no strong individual preference for it, as suggested by [[Thomas Schelling]]'s models of segregation and subsequent work.

===Reverse racism===
[[Reverse racism]] is a concept often used to describe acts of discrimination or hostility against members of a dominant racial or ethnic group or favoring members of minority groups.<ref name="Cashmore">{{cite book |editor-last=Cashmore |editor-first=Ellis |editor-link=Ellis Cashmore |title=Encyclopedia of Race and Ethnic Studies |date=2004 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-134-44706-0 |page=373 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2L-5lBDPJJMC&q=%22reverse+racism%22&pg=PA373 |chapter=Reverse Racism/Discrimination}}</ref><ref name="Yee">{{cite book |last=Yee |first=June Ying |editor-last=Shaefer |editor-first=Richard T. |title=Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society |date=2008 |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |isbn=978-1-4129-2694-2 |pages=1118–1119 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YMUola6pDnkC&q=%22reverse+racism%22&pg=PT1244 |chapter=Racism, Types of}}</ref> This concept has been used especially in debates over [[color-conscious]] policies (such as [[affirmative action]]) intended to remedy racial inequalities.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ansell |first=Amy Elizabeth |title=Race and Ethnicity: The Key Concepts |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8_y3Q6fzgQAC&q=%22reverse%20racism%22 |date=2013 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-415-33794-6 |chapter=Affirmative Action; Color-Consciousness |pages=4, 46}}</ref> However, many deny the existence of reverse racism.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Wida |first=Erica Chayes |date=26 June 2020 |title=What does 'reverse racism' mean and is it actually real? Experts weigh in |work=Today |url=https://www.today.com/tmrw/what-reverse-racism-experts-weigh-term-t184580 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240308234353/https://www.today.com/tmrw/what-reverse-racism-experts-weigh-term-t184580 |archive-date=8 March 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Newkirk II |first=Vann R. |author-link=Vann R. Newkirk II |date=5 August 2017 |title=The Myth of Reverse Racism |magazine=[[The Atlantic]] |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2017/08/myth-of-reverse-racism/535689/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004050613/https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2017/08/myth-of-reverse-racism/535689/ |archive-date=4 October 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Massie |first=Victoria M. |title=Americans are split on "reverse racism." That still doesn't mean it exists. |page=29 June 2016 |work=[[Vox (website)|Vox]] |url=https://www.vox.com/2016/6/29/12045772/reverse-racism-affirmative-action |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240305015907/https://www.vox.com/2016/6/29/12045772/reverse-racism-affirmative-action |archive-date=5 March 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first1=Emily |last1=Torbett |date=21 August 2015 |title=Reverse racism: Can't exist by definition, insulting to minority groups |work=The Daily Athenaeum |url=http://www.thedaonline.com/opinion/article_25e8b7cc-47bc-11e5-bb94-7f79b1590106.html |access-date=3 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407091425/https://www.thedaonline.com/opinion/article_25e8b7cc-47bc-11e5-bb94-7f79b1590106.html |archive-date=7 April 2022}}</ref> According to the [[substantive equality]] approach, while [[minority group]]s may discriminate against members of the dominant group, they lack the [[social power]] to actively oppress them, and they are therefore incapable of the [[prejudice plus power]] form of racism.{{r|Dennis|Cashmore}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Ansell |first=Amy Elizabeth |title=Race and Ethnicity: The Key Concepts |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8_y3Q6fzgQAC&q=%22reverse%20racism%22 |date=2013 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-415-33794-6 |chapter=Reverse Racism |pages=135–138}}</ref> [[Martha Minow]] refers to the differences between [[Equal opportunity#Formal equality of opportunity|formal equality of opportunity]] and [[substantive equality]] as the Dilemma of difference.<ref name="j013">{{cite journal | last=Minow | first=Martha | title=Learning to Live with the Dilemma of Difference: Bilingual and Special Education | journal=Law and Contemporary Problems | publisher=Duke University School of Law | volume=48 | issue=2 | year=1985 | issn=0023-9186 | jstor=1191571 | pages=157–211| doi=10.2307/1191571 | url=http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:12876711 }}</ref> According to [[Richard Arneson]] affirmative action violates formal equality of opportunity.<ref name="c358">{{cite encyclopedia | last=Arneson | first=Richard | title=Equality of Opportunity §2.4 Affirmative Action |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy | date=8 October 2002 | url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2023/entries/equal-opportunity/#AffAct}}</ref>

=== Supremacism ===
{{Main|Supremacism}}
[[File:1899BalanceCartoon.jpg|thumb|right|In 1899 [[Uncle Sam]] (a personification of the United States) balances his new possessions which are depicted as savage children. The figures are Puerto Rico, Hawaii, Cuba, Philippines and "Ladrones" (the [[Mariana Islands]]).]]

Centuries of [[European colonialism]] in the Americas, Africa and Asia were often justified by [[White supremacy|white supremacist]] attitudes.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Takashi |last1=Fujitani |first2=Geoffrey Miles |last2=White |first3=Lisa |last3=Yoneyama |title=Perilous memories: the Asia-Pacific War(s) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ltm9hv0_4A0C&pg=PA303 |year=2001 |publisher=[[Duke University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8223-2564-2 |page=303}}</ref> During the early 20th century, the phrase "[[The White Man's Burden]]" was widely used to justify an [[Imperialism|imperialist]] policy as a noble enterprise.<ref>{{cite book |last=Miller |first=Stuart Creighton |title=Benevolent Assimilation: The American Conquest of the Philippines, 1899–1903 |date=1984 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |isbn=978-0-300-03081-5 |page=5 |quote=... imperialist editors came out in favor of retaining the entire archipelago (using) higher-sounding justifications related to the "white man's burden".}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=In Our Pages: 100, 75 and 50 Years Ago; 1899: Kipling's Plea |newspaper=[[International Herald Tribune]] |date=4 February 1999 |at=p. 6 col 6 |url=https://archive.org/details/InternationalHeraldTribune1999FranceEnglish/Feb%2004%201999%2C%20International%20Herald%20Tribune%2C%20%2336056%2C%20France%20%28en%29/page/n5/mode/1up?view=theater |via=Internet Archive Digital Library}}{{void|comment|also at https://www.nytimes.com/1999/02/04/opinion/04iht-edold.t_10.html (subscription required)}} : Notes that Rudyard Kipling's new poem, "The White Man's Burden", "is regarded as the strongest argument yet published in favor of expansion".</ref> A justification for the policy of conquest and subjugation of [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] emanated from the stereotyped perceptions of the indigenous people as "merciless Indian savages", as they are described in the [[United States Declaration of Independence]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Out West |date=2000 |publisher=[[University of Nebraska Press]] |page=96}}</ref> Sam Wolfson of ''[[The Guardian]]'' writes that "the declaration's passage has often been cited as an encapsulation of the [[dehumanizing]] attitude toward indigenous Americans that the US was founded on."<ref>{{cite news |title=Facebook labels declaration of independence as 'hate speech' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jul/05/facebook-declaration-of-independence-hate-speech |access-date=7 August 2019 |work=[[The Guardian]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329055724/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jul/05/facebook-declaration-of-independence-hate-speech |archive-date=29 March 2024}}</ref> In an 1890 article about colonial expansion onto Native American land, author [[L. Frank Baum]] wrote: "The Whites, by law of conquest, by justice of civilization, are masters of the American continent, and the best safety of the frontier settlements will be secured by the total annihilation of the few remaining Indians."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.northern.edu/hastingw/baumedts.htm |title=L. Frank Baum's Editorials on the Sioux Nation |access-date=9 December 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071209193251/http://www.northern.edu/hastingw/baumedts.htm |archive-date=9 December 2007}} Full text of both, with commentary by professor A. Waller Hastings</ref> In his ''[[Notes on the State of Virginia]]'', published in 1785, [[Thomas Jefferson]] wrote: "blacks, whether originally a distinct race, or made distinct by time or circumstances, are inferior to the whites in the endowments of both body and mind."<ref>{{cite news |title=Fact check: Quotes from prominent American statesmen on race are accurate |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-factcheck-quotes-statesmen-race-idUSKBN2471YA |date=6 July 2020 |access-date=8 December 2022 |publisher=[[Reuters]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411060303/https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-factcheck-quotes-statesmen-race-idUSKBN2471YA |archive-date=11 April 2023}}</ref> Attitudes of [[black supremacy]], [[Arab supremacy]], and [[Sinocentrism|East Asian supremacy]] also exist.

=== Symbolic/modern ===
{{Main|Symbolic racism}}
[[File:Little Rock integration protest.jpg|thumb|left|A rally against [[Desegregation busing|school integration]] in [[Little Rock, Arkansas]], 1959]]
Some scholars argue that in the US, earlier violent and aggressive forms of racism have evolved into a more subtle form of prejudice in the late 20th century. This new form of racism is sometimes referred to as "modern racism" and it is characterized by outwardly acting unprejudiced while inwardly maintaining prejudiced attitudes, displaying subtle prejudiced behaviors such as actions informed by attributing qualities to others based on racial stereotypes, and evaluating the same behavior differently based on the race of the person being evaluated.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Aronson |first1=E. |last2=Wilson |first2=T. D. |last3=Akert |first3=R. M. |date=2010 |title=Social Psychology |edition=7th |location=New York |publisher=Pearson}}</ref> This view is based on studies of prejudice and discriminatory behavior, where some people will act ambivalently towards black people, with positive reactions in certain, more public contexts, but more negative views and expressions in more private contexts. This ambivalence may also be visible for example in hiring decisions where job candidates that are otherwise positively evaluated may be unconsciously disfavored by employers in the final decision because of their race.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McConahay |first1=J. B. |year=1983 |title=Modern Racism and Modern Discrimination The Effects of Race, Racial Attitudes, and Context on Simulated Hiring Decisions |journal=[[Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin]] |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=551–558 |doi=10.1177/0146167283094004 |s2cid=144674550 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brief |first1=A. P. |last2=Dietz |first2=J. |last3=Cohen |first3=R. R. |last4=Pugh |first4=S. D. |last5=Vaslow |first5=J. B. |year=2000 |title=Just doing business: Modern racism and obedience to authority as explanations for employment discrimination |journal=Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes |volume=81 |issue=1 |pages=72–97 |doi=10.1006/obhd.1999.2867 |pmid=10631069 |citeseerx=10.1.1.201.4044}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=McConahay |first=J. B. |date=1986 |title=Modern racism, ambivalence, and the modern racism scale}}</ref> Some scholars consider modern racism to be characterized by an explicit rejection of stereotypes, combined with resistance to changing structures of discrimination for reasons that are ostensibly non-racial, an ideology that considers opportunity at a purely individual basis denying the relevance of race in determining individual opportunities and the exhibition of indirect forms of [[micro-aggression]] toward and/or avoidance of people of other races.<ref>{{cite journal |author-link=Thomas F. Pettigrew (sociologist) |last=Pettigrew |first=T. F. |date=1989 |title=The nature of modern racism in the United States |journal=Revue Internationale de Psychologie Sociale}}</ref>

=== Subconscious biases ===
{{Main|Implicit bias#Racial bias}}
Recent research has shown that individuals who consciously claim to reject racism may still exhibit race-based subconscious biases in their decision-making processes. While such "subconscious racial biases" do not fully fit the definition of racism, their impact can be similar, though typically less pronounced, not being explicit, conscious or deliberate.<ref>{{cite news |author=Staff |date=30 March 2015 |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/race-lab |title=How the biases in the back of your mind affect how you feel about race |work=[[PBS Newshour]] |access-date=9 October 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230418063714/https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/race-lab |archive-date=18 April 2023}}</ref>

== International law and racial discrimination ==
In 1919, a [[Racial Equality Proposal, 1919|proposal]] to include a racial equality provision in the [[Covenant of the League of Nations]] was supported by a majority, but not adopted in the [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919|Paris Peace Conference]] in 1919. In 1943, Japan and its allies declared work for the abolition of racial discrimination to be their aim at the [[Greater East Asia Conference]].<ref>{{cite web |first=C. Peter |last=Chen |url=http://ww2db.com/battle_spec.php?battle_id=70%20WW2DB:%20Greater%20East%20Asia%20Conference |title=Joint Declaration of the Greater East Asia Conference (below) |publisher=Ww2db.com |date=23 February 1945 |access-date=26 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220406230116/https://ww2db.com/battle_spec.php?battle_id=70%20WW2DB:%20Greater%20East%20Asia%20Conference |archive-date=6 April 2022}}</ref> Article 1 of the 1945 [[UN Charter]] includes "promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race" as UN purpose.

In 1950, [[UNESCO]] suggested in ''[[The Race Question]]''—a statement signed by 21 scholars such as [[Ashley Montagu]], [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]], [[Gunnar Myrdal]], [[Julian Huxley]], etc.—to "drop the term ''race'' altogether and instead speak of [[ethnic groups]]". The statement condemned [[scientific racism]] theories that had played a role in [[the Holocaust]]. It aimed both at debunking scientific racist theories, by popularizing modern knowledge concerning "the race question", and morally condemned racism as contrary to the [[philosophy of the Enlightenment]] and its assumption of [[Social equality|equal rights]] for all. Along with Myrdal's ''[[An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy]]'' (1944), ''The Race Question'' influenced the 1954 U.S. Supreme Court [[racial segregation in the United States|desegregation]] decision in ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]''.<ref name="Prins">[http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=30431&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html "Toward a World without Evil: Alfred Métraux as UNESCO Anthropologist (1946–1962)"], by [[Harald E.L. Prins]], UNESCO</ref> Also, in 1950, the [[European Convention on Human Rights]] was adopted, which was widely used on racial discrimination issues.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.echr.coe.int/NR/rdonlyres/2F848EFD-6B29-43E5-BB1C-497CD77BB2BF/0/FICHES_Racial_discrimination_EN.pdf |title=European Court of Human Rights case law factsheet on racial discrimination |access-date=26 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614002623/http://www.echr.coe.int/NR/rdonlyres/2F848EFD-6B29-43E5-BB1C-497CD77BB2BF/0/FICHES_Racial_discrimination_EN.pdf |archive-date=14 June 2011}}</ref>

The United Nations use the definition of racial discrimination laid out in the ''[[International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination]]'', adopted in 1966:<ref>[http://www.ohchr.org/english/law/cerd.htm Text of the Convention] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726053246/http://www.ohchr.org/english/law/cerd.htm |date=26 July 2011 }}, ''[[International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination]]'', 1966</ref>

<blockquote>... any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race, color, descent, or national or ethnic origin that has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life. (Part 1 of Article 1 of the U.N. International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination)</blockquote>

In 2001, the [[European Union]] explicitly banned racism, along with many other forms of social discrimination, in the [[Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union]], the legal effect of which, if any, would necessarily be limited to [[Institutions of the European Union]]: "Article 21 of the charter prohibits discrimination on any ground such as race, color, ethnic or social origin, genetic features, language, religion or belief, political or any other opinion, membership of a national minority, property, disability, age or sexual orientation and also discrimination on the grounds of nationality."<ref>{{cite web |date=28 February 1998 |url=http://www.lbr.nl/internationaal/charter%20uk.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030421181614/http://www.lbr.nl/internationaal/charter%20uk.html |archive-date=21 April 2003 |title=Charter of European Political Parties for a non-racist society}}{{void|comment|Fabrickator|there appears to be a relationship between "European Political Parties for a non-racist society" and "European Commission against Racism and Intolerance" but it is unclear just what that relationship is}}</ref>

==Ideology==
[[File:Racistcampaignposter1.jpg|thumb|left|A pro–[[Hiester Clymer]] racist political campaign poster from the [[1866 Pennsylvania gubernatorial election]]]]
Racism existed during the 19th century as [[scientific racism]], which attempted to provide a [[typology (anthropology)|racial classification]] of humanity.<ref>[[Pierre-André Taguieff]], ''La force du préjugé'', 1987 {{in lang|fr}}</ref> In 1775 [[Johann Blumenbach]] divided the world's population into five groups according to skin color (Caucasians, Mongols, etc.), positing the view that the non-Caucasians had arisen through a process of degeneration. Another early view in scientific racism was the [[Polygenism|polygenist view]], which held that the different races had been separately created. Polygenist [[Christoph Meiners]] (1747 – May 1810) for example, split mankind into two divisions which he labeled the "beautiful White race" and the "ugly Black race". In Meiners' book, ''The Outline of History of Mankind'', he claimed that a main characteristic of race is either beauty or ugliness. He viewed only the white race as beautiful. He considered ugly races to be inferior, immoral and animal-like.

[[Anders Retzius]] (1796–1860) demonstrated that neither Europeans nor others are one "pure race", but of mixed origins. While [[Typology (anthropology)#Typology|discredited]], derivations of Blumenbach's taxonomy are [[Definitions of whiteness in the United States|still widely used]] for the classification of the population in the United States. [[Hans Peder Steensby]], while strongly emphasizing that all humans today are of mixed origins, in 1907 claimed that the origins of human differences must be traced extraordinarily far back in time, and conjectured that the "purest race" today would be the [[Australian Aboriginals]].<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://img.kb.dk/tidsskriftdk/pdf/gto/gto_0019-PDF/gto_0019_67206.pdf |title=Racestudier i Danmark |trans-title=Race Studies in Denmark |journal=[[Danish Journal of Geography|Geografisk Tidsskrift]] |volume=19 |language=da |year=1907 |access-date=14 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240403224723/https://img.kb.dk/tidsskriftdk/pdf/gto/gto_0019-PDF/gto_0019_67206.pdf |archive-date=3 April 2024}}</ref>

[[File:DurbanSign1989.jpg|thumb|A sign on a [[racially segregated]] beach during [[Apartheid]] in South Africa, stating that the area is for the "sole use of members of the white race group"]]
Scientific racism fell strongly out of favor in the early 20th century, but the origins of fundamental human and societal differences are still researched within academia, in fields such as [[human genetics]] including [[paleogenetics]], [[social anthropology]], [[comparative politics]], [[history of religions]], [[history of ideas]], [[prehistory]], [[history]], [[ethics]], and [[psychiatry]]. There is widespread rejection of any methodology based on anything similar to Blumenbach's races. It is more unclear to which extent and when [[ethnic stereotype|ethnic]] and national [[archetype|stereotypes]] are accepted.

Although after [[World War II]] and [[the Holocaust]], racist ideologies were discredited on ethical, political and scientific grounds, racism and [[racial discrimination]] have remained widespread around the world.

[[W.E.B. Du Bois|Du Bois]] observed that it is not so much "race" that we think about, but culture: "... a common history, common laws and religion, similar habits of thought and a conscious striving together for certain ideals of life".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.asp?document=1119 |title=The Conservation of Races |last=Du Bois |first=W. E. B. |author-link=W. E. B. Du Bois |year=1897 |page=21 |access-date=16 July 2007 |archive-date=29 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130329004824/http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.asp?document=1119 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Late 19th century nationalists were the first to embrace contemporary discourses on "race", ethnicity, and "[[survival of the fittest]]" to shape new nationalist doctrines. Ultimately, race came to represent not only the most important traits of the human body, but was also regarded as decisively shaping the character and personality of the nation.<ref>{{cite book |first=Marius |last=Turda |title=The idea of national superiority in Central Europe, 1880–1918 |year=2004 |publisher=[[Edwin Mellen Press]] |isbn=978-0-7734-6180-2}}</ref> According to this view, culture is the physical manifestation created by ethnic groupings, as such fully determined by racial characteristics. Culture and race became considered intertwined and dependent upon each other, sometimes even to the extent of including nationality or language to the set of definition. Pureness of race tended to be related to rather superficial characteristics that were easily addressed and advertised, such as blondness. Racial qualities tended to be related to nationality and language rather than the actual geographic distribution of racial characteristics. In the case of [[Nordicism]], the denomination "[[Germanic people|Germanic]]" was equivalent to superiority of race.

Bolstered by some [[Nationalism|nationalist]] and [[Ethnocentrism|ethnocentric]] values and achievements of choice, this concept of racial superiority evolved to distinguish from other cultures that were considered inferior or impure. This emphasis on culture corresponds to the modern mainstream definition of racism: "[r]acism does not originate from the existence of 'races'. It ''creates'' them through a process of social division into categories: anybody can be racialised, independently of their somatic, cultural, religious differences."<ref>National Analytical Study on Racist Violence and Crime, RAXEN Focal Point for Italy – Annamaria Rivera {{cite web |url=http://fra.europa.eu/fra/material/pub/RAXEN/4/RV/CS-RV-NR-IT.pdf |title=Helping to make fundamental rights a reality for everyone in the European Union |author=FRA |publisher=[[Fundamental Rights Agency|European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights]] |access-date=22 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216225620/http://fra.europa.eu/fra/material/pub/RAXEN/4/RV/CS-RV-NR-IT.pdf |archive-date=16 December 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

This definition explicitly ignores the biological concept of race, which is still subject to scientific debate. In the words of [[David C. Rowe]], "[a] racial concept, although sometimes in the guise of another name, will remain in use in biology and in other fields because scientists, as well as lay persons, are fascinated by human diversity, some of which is captured by race."<ref>{{cite book |first=Joseph L. |last=Graves |author-link=Joseph L. Graves Jr. |title=The Emperor's new clothes: biological theories of race at the millennium |year=2001 |publisher=[[Rutgers University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8135-2847-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/emperorsnewcloth00grav}}</ref>

Racial prejudice became subject to international legislation. For instance, the [[Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination]], adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 20 November 1963, addresses racial prejudice explicitly next to discrimination for reasons of race, colour or ethnic origin (Article I).<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070808133610/http://scm.oas.org/doc_public/ENGLISH/HIST_02/CP09414E07.DOC Inter-American Convention against Racism and all forms of Discrimination and Intolerance – Study prepared by the Inter-American Juridical Committee] 2002</ref>

==Ethnicity and ethnic conflicts==
{{Further|Ethnicity}}
[[File:Woundedknee1891.jpg|thumb|A mass grave being dug for frozen bodies from the 1890 [[Wounded Knee Massacre]], in which the U.S. Army killed 150 [[Lakota people]], marking the end of the [[American Indian Wars]]]]
Debates over the origins of racism often suffer from a lack of clarity over the term. Many use the term "racism" to refer to more general phenomena, such as [[xenophobia]] and [[ethnocentrism]], although scholars attempt to clearly distinguish those phenomena from racism as an [[ideology]] or from scientific racism, which has little to do with ordinary xenophobia. Others conflate recent forms of racism with earlier forms of ethnic and national conflict. In most cases, ethno-national conflict seems to owe itself to conflict over land and strategic resources. In some cases, [[ethnicity]] and [[nationalism]] were harnessed in order to rally [[combatant]]s in wars between great religious empires (for example, the Muslim Turks and the Catholic Austro-Hungarians).

Notions of race and racism have often played central roles in [[ethnic conflict]]s. Throughout history, when an adversary is identified as "other" based on notions of race or ethnicity (in particular when "other" is interpreted to mean "inferior"), the means employed by the self-presumed "superior" party to appropriate territory, human chattel, or material wealth often have been more ruthless, more brutal, and less constrained by [[morality|moral]] or [[ethics|ethical]] considerations. According to historian Daniel Richter, [[Pontiac's Rebellion]] saw the emergence on both sides of the conflict of "the novel idea that all Native people were 'Indians,' that all Euro-Americans were 'Whites,' and that all on one side must unite to destroy the other".<ref>Richter, ''[[Facing East from Indian Country]]'', p. 208</ref> [[Basil Davidson]] states in his documentary, ''Africa: Different but Equal'', that racism, in fact, only just recently surfaced as late as the 19th century, due to the need for a justification for slavery in the Americas.

Historically, racism was a major driving force behind the [[Transatlantic slave trade]].<ref>[[George M. Fredrickson|Fredrickson, George M.]] 1988. ''The Arrogance of Race: Historical Perspectives on Slavery, Racism, and Social Inequality''. Middletown, Conn: Wesleyan University Press</ref> It was also a major force behind [[racial segregation]], especially in the [[United States]] in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, and South Africa under [[apartheid]]; 19th and 20th century racism in the [[Western culture|Western world]] is particularly well documented and constitutes a reference point in studies and discourses about racism.<ref name="auto"/> Racism has played a role in [[genocide]]s such as the [[Armenian genocide]], and the [[The Holocaust|Holocaust]], and colonial projects like the European [[colonization of the Americas]], [[Colonisation of Africa|Africa]], and [[Western imperialism in Asia|Asia]]. [[Indigenous peoples]] have been—and are—often subject to racist attitudes. Practices and ideologies of racism are condemned by the United Nations in the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights|Declaration of Human Rights]].<ref>UN General Assembly, ''Universal Declaration of Human Rights'', 10 December 1948, 217 A (III), available at: [https://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/] [accessed 18 July 2012]</ref>

===Ethnic and racial nationalism===
{{Further|Ethnic nationalism|Racial nationalism|Romantic nationalism}}

[[File:Keep Australia White.jpg|thumb|A 1917 anti-[[conscription]] propaganda leaflet imploring voters to "[[White Australia policy|keep Australia white]]". A horde of Asians bearing a dragon flag is shown to the north.]]

After the [[Napoleonic Wars]], Europe was confronted with the new "[[nationalities]] question", leading to reconfigurations of the European map, on which the frontiers between the states had been delineated during the 1648 [[Peace of Westphalia]]. [[Nationalism]] had made its first appearance with the invention of the ''[[levée en masse]]'' by the [[French Revolution]]aries, thus inventing mass [[conscription]] in order to be able to defend the newly founded [[French First Republic|Republic]] against the ''[[Ancien Régime]]'' order represented by the European monarchies. This led to the [[French Revolutionary Wars]] (1792–1802) and then to the conquests of [[Napoleon]], and to the subsequent European-wide debates on the concepts and realities of [[nation]]s, and in particular of [[nation-state]]s. The [[Westphalia Treaty]] had divided Europe into various empires and kingdoms (such as the [[Ottoman Empire]], the [[Holy Roman Empire]], the [[Swedish Empire]], the [[France|Kingdom of France]], etc.), and for centuries wars were waged between princes (''[[Kabinettskriege]]'' in German).

Modern [[nation-state]]s appeared in the wake of the French Revolution, with the formation of [[patriotism|patriotic]] sentiments for the first time in [[Enlightenment Spain|Spain]] during the [[Peninsula War]] (1808–1813, known in Spain as the Independence War). Despite the restoration of the previous order with the 1815 [[Congress of Vienna]], the "nationalities question" became the main problem of Europe during the [[Industrial Era]], leading in particular to the [[1848 Revolutions]], the [[Italian unification]] completed during the 1871 [[Franco-Prussian War]], which itself culminated in the proclamation of the [[German Empire]] in the Hall of Mirrors in the [[Palace of Versailles]], thus achieving the [[German unification]].

Meanwhile, the [[Ottoman Empire]], the "[[sick man of Europe]]", was confronted with endless nationalist movements, which, along with the dissolving of the [[Austrian-Hungarian Empire]], would lead to the creation, after [[World War I]], of the various nation-states of the [[Balkan]]s, with "national [[minorities]]" in their borders.<ref>On this "[[nationalities]] question" and the problem of nationalism, see the relevant articles for a non-exhaustive account of the state of contemporary historical researches; famous works include: [[Ernest Gellner]], ''Nations and Nationalism'' (1983); [[Eric Hobsbawm]],''The Age of Revolution : Europe 1789–1848'' (1962), ''Nations and Nationalism since 1780 : programme, myth, reality'' (1990); [[Benedict Anderson]], ''[[Imagined Communities]]'' (1991); [[Charles Tilly]], ''Coercion, Capital and European States AD 990–1992'' (1990); [[Anthony D. Smith]], ''Theories of Nationalism'' (1971), etc.</ref>

[[Ethnic nationalism]], which advocated the belief in a hereditary membership of the nation, made its appearance in the historical context surrounding the creation of the modern nation-states.

One of its main influences was the [[Romantic nationalist]] movement at the turn of the 19th century, represented by figures such as [[Johann Gottfried Herder|Johann Herder]] (1744–1803), [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte|Johan Fichte]] (1762–1814) in the ''Addresses to the German Nation'' (1808), [[Friedrich Hegel]] (1770–1831), or also, in France, [[Jules Michelet]] (1798–1874). It was opposed to [[Civic nationalism|liberal nationalism]], represented by authors such as [[Ernest Renan]] (1823–1892), who conceived of the nation as a community, which, instead of being based on the ''[[Volk]]'' ethnic group and on a specific, common language, was founded on the subjective will to live together ("the nation is a daily [[plebiscite]]", 1882) or also [[John Stuart Mill]] (1806–1873).<ref>[[John Stuart Mill]], ''Considerations on Representative Government'', 1861</ref>
Ethnic nationalism blended with scientific racist discourses, as well as with "continental [[imperialist]]" ([[Hannah Arendt]], 1951<ref name="Arendt">[[Hannah Arendt]], ''[[The Origins of Totalitarianism]]'' (1951)</ref>) discourses, for example in the [[pan-Germanism]] discourses, which postulated the racial superiority of the German ''[[Volk]]'' (people/folk). The [[Alldeutscher Verband|Pan-German League]] (''Alldeutscher Verband''), created in 1891, promoted [[German colonial empire|German imperialism]] and "[[racial hygiene]]", and was opposed to intermarriage with [[Jews]]. Another popular current, the ''[[Völkisch movement]]'', was also an important proponent of the [[German ethnic nationalist]] discourse, and it combined Pan-Germanism with modern [[racial antisemitism]]. Members of the Völkisch movement, in particular the [[Thule Society]], would participate in the founding of the [[German Workers' Party]] (DAP) in Munich in 1918, the predecessor of the [[Nazi Party]]. Pan-Germanism played a decisive role in the [[interwar period]] of the 1920s–1930s.<ref name=Arendt />

These currents began to associate the idea of the nation with the biological concept of a "[[master race]]" (often the "[[Aryan race]]" or the "[[Nordic race]]") issued from the scientific racist discourse. They conflated nationalities with ethnic groups, called "races", in a radical distinction from previous racial discourses that posited the existence of a "race struggle" inside the nation and the state itself. Furthermore, they believed that political boundaries should mirror these alleged racial and ethnic groups, thus justifying [[ethnic cleansing]], in order to achieve "racial purity" and also to achieve ethnic homogeneity in the nation-state.

Such racist discourses, combined with nationalism, were not, however, limited to pan-Germanism. In France, the transition from Republican liberal nationalism, to ethnic nationalism, which made nationalism a characteristic of [[History of far-right movements in France|far-right movements in France]], took place during the [[Dreyfus Affair]] at the end of the 19th century. During several years, a nationwide crisis affected French society, concerning the alleged treason of [[Alfred Dreyfus]], a French Jewish military officer. The country polarized itself into two opposite camps, one represented by [[Émile Zola]], who wrote ''[[J'Accuse…!]]'' in defense of Alfred Dreyfus, and the other represented by the nationalist poet, [[Maurice Barrès]] (1862–1923), one of the founders of the ethnic nationalist discourse in France.<ref>[[Maurice Barrès]], ''Le Roman de l'énergie nationale'' (The Novel of National Energy, a trilogy started in 1897)</ref> At the same time, [[Charles Maurras]] (1868–1952), founder of the monarchist ''[[Action française]]'' movement, theorized the "anti-France", composed of the "four confederate states of Protestants, Jews, Freemasons and foreigners" (his actual word for the latter being the pejorative ''[[Metic|métèques]]''). Indeed, to him the first three were all "internal foreigners", who threatened the ethnic unity of the [[French people]].

=={{anchor|In history}}History==
{{Redirect|History of racism|racism concept in history|historical race concepts}}

===Ethnocentrism and proto-racism===
[[File:Ksenophontov noah.jpg|thumb|The [[Book of Genesis]]'s biblical curse on [[Canaan (son of Ham)|Canaan]], which was often misinterpreted as [[Curse of Ham|a curse on his father]] [[Ham (son of Noah)|Ham]], was used to justify [[Slavery in the United States|slavery in 19th century America]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hess |first1=Richard S. |title=The Old Testament: A Historical, Theological, and Critical Introduction |date=2016 |publisher=Baker Academic |isbn=978-1-4934-0573-2 |page=59 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kfvBDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT59 |access-date=4 October 2017}}</ref>]]

====Aristotle====
[[Bernard Lewis]] has cited the [[Greek philosophy|Greek philosopher]] [[Aristotle]] who, in his discussion of slavery, stated that while Greeks are free by nature, "[[barbarian]]s" (non-Greeks) are slaves by nature, in that it is in their nature to be more willing to submit to a [[Despotism|despotic]] government.<ref name=Lewis /> Though Aristotle does not specify any particular races, he argues that people from nations outside Greece are more prone to the burden of slavery than those from [[Ancient Greece|Greece]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Bernard |last=Lewis |author-link=Bernard Lewis |title=Race and slavery in the Middle East: an historical enquiry |year=1992 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-505326-5 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/raceslaveryinmid0000lewi/page/54 54–55] |url=https://archive.org/details/raceslaveryinmid0000lewi/page/54}}</ref> While Aristotle makes remarks about the most natural slaves being those with strong bodies and slave souls (unfit for rule, unintelligent) which would seem to imply a physical basis for discrimination, he also explicitly states that the right kind of souls and bodies do not always go together, implying that the greatest determinate for inferiority and natural slaves versus natural masters is the soul, not the body.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/phl302/distance_arc/las_casas/Aristotle-slavery.html |title=Aristotle on Slavery |publisher=[[Oregon State University]] |access-date=14 November 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130906070456/http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/phl302/distance_arc/las_casas/Aristotle-slavery.html |archive-date=6 September 2013}}</ref> The modern version of racism based on the idea of [[Heredity|hereditary]] inferiority had not yet been developed, and Aristotle never explicitly stated whether he believed the supposed natural inferiority of Barbarians was caused by environment and climate (like many of his contemporaries) or by birth.<ref>{{cite book |last=Isaac |first=Benjamin H. |author-link=Benjamin Isaac |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jfylyRawl8EC&q=aristotle+racism&pg=PA175 |title=The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-691-12598-5 |page=175 |access-date=14 November 2013}}</ref>

Historian Dante A. Puzzo, in his discussion of Aristotle, racism, and the ancient world writes that:<ref>{{cite journal |title=Racism and the Western Tradition |first=Dante A. |last=Puzzo |journal=[[Journal of the History of Ideas]] |volume=25 |issue=4 |year=1964 |pages=579–586 |doi=10.2307/2708188 |jstor=2708188}}</ref>

<blockquote>Racism rests on two basic assumptions: that a correlation exists between physical characteristics and moral qualities; that mankind is divisible into superior and inferior stocks. Racism, thus defined, is a modern conception, for prior to the XVIth century there was virtually nothing in the life and thought of the West that can be described as racist. To prevent misunderstanding a clear distinction must be made between racism and [[ethnocentrism]] ... The Ancient [[Hebrews]], in referring to all who were not Hebrews as [[Gentile]]s, were indulging in ethnocentrism, not in racism. ... So it was with the [[Greeks|Hellenes]] who denominated all non-Hellenes—whether the wild [[Scythians]] or the [[Egyptians]] whom they acknowledged as their mentors in the arts of [[civilization]]—Barbarians, the term denoting that which was strange or foreign.</blockquote>

==== Early antisemitism ====
Some scholars suggest that anti-Jewish policies under the [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic empires]] and the [[Roman Empire]] constitute examples of ancient racism.<ref>{{cite book |last=Flannery |first=Edward H. |author-link=Edward Flannery |title=The Anguish of the Jews: Twenty-three Centuries of Antisemitism |publisher=Paulist Press |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-8091-4324-5 |page=11}}</ref><ref name="gruen">{{cite encyclopedia |year=1993 |title=Hellenism and Persecution: Antiochus IV and the Jews |encyclopedia=Hellenistic History and Culture |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |last=Gruen |first=Erich S. |author-link=Erich S. Gruen |editor-last=Green |editor-first=Peter |pages=250–252}}</ref><ref>Benjamin Isaac, ''The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity'' (Princeton University Press 2004).</ref> Other scholars have criticized this view as based on an ahistorical conception of race,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Seth |first=Vanita |date=19 August 2022 |title=When Did Racism Begin? The history of race has animated a highly contentious debate. |url=https://www.chronicle.com/article/when-did-racism-begin |work=The Chronicle of Higher Education}}</ref> and argued that such policies were aimed at repressing a religious group resistant to imperialism and conformity rather than a racialized entity.<ref name="tcherikover">Tcherikover, Victor, ''Hellenistic Civilization and the Jews'', New York: Atheneum, 1975</ref><ref name="Bohak">Bohak, Gideon. "The Ibis and the Jewish Question: Ancient 'Antisemitism' in Historical Context" in Menachem Mor et al., ''Jews and Gentiles in the Holy Land in the Days of the Second Temple, the Mishna and the Talmud'', Yad Ben-Zvi Press, 2003, pp. 27–43.</ref>

====Medieval Arab writers====
{{See also|Medieval Arab attitudes to Black people}}

Bernard Lewis has also cited historians and geographers of the [[MENA|Middle East and North Africa]] region,<ref name="Lewis53">{{cite book |first=Bernard |last=Lewis |title=Race and slavery in the Middle East: an historical enquiry |url=https://archive.org/details/raceslaveryinmid0000lewi |url-access=registration |year=1992 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-505326-5 |page=[https://archive.org/details/raceslaveryinmid0000lewi/page/53 53]}}</ref> including [[Al-Muqaddasi]], [[Al-Jahiz]], [[Al-Masudi]], [[Abu Rayhan Biruni]], [[Nasir al-Din al-Tusi]], and [[Ibn Qutaybah]].<ref name="Lewis53" /> Though the [[Qur'an]] expresses no racial prejudice, Lewis argues that ethnocentric prejudice later developed among [[Arab]]s, for a variety of reasons:<ref name=Lewis53 /> their [[Early Muslim conquests|extensive conquests]] and [[Arab slave trade|slave trade]]; the influence of [[Aristotelianism|Aristotelian]] ideas regarding slavery, which some [[Early Islamic philosophy|Muslim philosophers]] directed towards [[Zanj]] ([[Bantu peoples|Bantu]]<ref name="Tlosfea">{{cite book |last1=Khalid |first1=Abdallah |title=The Liberation of Swahili from European Appropriation |date=1977 |publisher=East African Literature Bureau |page=38 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M4QOAAAAYAAJ |access-date=10 June 2014}}</ref>) and [[Turkic peoples]];<ref name="Lewis">{{cite book |first1=Kevin |last1=Reilly |first2=Stephen |last2=Kaufman |first3=Angela |last3=Bodino |title=Racism: A Global Reader |year=2002 |publisher=[[M. E. Sharpe]] |isbn=978-0-7656-1060-7 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/racismglobalread0000unse/page/52 52–58] |url=https://archive.org/details/racismglobalread0000unse/page/52}}</ref> and the influence of [[Judeo-Christian]] ideas regarding divisions among humankind.<ref>{{cite journal |title='Race', slavery and Islam in Maghribi Mediterranean thought: the question of the Haratin in Morocco |first=Chouki |last=El Hamel |journal=The Journal of North African Studies |volume=7 |issue=3 |year=2002 |pages=29–52 [39–40]|quote=Neither in the Qur'an nor in the [[Hadith]] is there any indication of racial difference among humankind. But as a consequence of the Arab conquests, a mutual assimilation between [[Islam]] and the cultural and the scriptural traditions of Christian and Jewish populations occurred. Racial distinctions between humankind with reference to the [[Generations of Noah|sons of Noah]] is found in the [[Talmud|Babylonian Talmud]], a collection of rabbinic writings which dates back to the sixth century. |doi=10.1080/13629380208718472 |s2cid=219625829}}</ref> By the eighth century, anti-black prejudice among Arabs resulted in discrimination. A number of medieval Arabic authors argued against this prejudice, urging respect for all black people and especially [[Ethiopians]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Bernard |last=Lewis |author-link=Bernard Lewis |title=Race and slavery in the Middle East: an historical enquiry |year=1992 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-505326-5 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/raceslaveryinmid0000lewi/page/28 28–34] |url=https://archive.org/details/raceslaveryinmid0000lewi/page/28}}</ref>
Notable Islamic [[caliphs]] with Sub-Saharan ancestry include [[Abu al-Misk Kafur]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hassan |first1=Yusuf Fadl |title=The Arabs and the Sudan: from the Seventh to the Early Sixteenth Century |date=1967 |publisher=Edinburgh U.P. |isbn=978-0-85224-023-6 |pages=47|url=https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Arabs_and_the_Sudan_from_the_Seventh/_hpyAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=Yusuf+Fadl+Hasan,+The+Arabs+and+the+Sudan+From+the+Seventh+to+the+Early+Sixteenth+Century&dq=Yusuf+Fadl+Hasan,+The+Arabs+and+the+Sudan+From+the+Seventh+to+the+Early+Sixteenth+Century&printsec=frontcover |language=en}}</ref> [[Al-Mustansir Billah]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Morgan |first1=Robert |title=History of the Coptic Orthodox People and the Church of Egypt |date=21 September 2016 |publisher=FriesenPress |isbn=978-1-4602-8027-0 |pages=254 |url=https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/History_of_the_Coptic_Orthodox_People_an/OpIgDQAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=al-Mustansir+Billah+mother+slave&pg=PA254&printsec=frontcover |language=en}}</ref> [[Yaqub al-Mansur]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Landau |first1=Rom |title=Morocco: Marrakesh, Fez, Rabat |date=1967 |publisher=Elek |isbn=978-0-236-30866-8 |page=74 |url=https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Morocco_Marrakesh_Fez_Rabat/wnTWAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=Yaqub+al-Mansur+mother&dq=Yaqub+al-Mansur+mother&printsec=frontcover |language=en}}</ref> [[Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn Othman]], Sultan of the [[Marinid dynasty]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Badawi |first1=Zeinab |title=An African History of Africa: Instant Sunday Times bestseller and shortlisted for the Nero Book Awards |date=18 April 2024 |publisher=Ebury Publishing |isbn=978-0-7535-6015-0 |pages=186–200|url=https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/An_African_History_of_Africa/7PzLEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Yakub+al-Mansour+had+a+black+mother.&pg=PT109&printsec=frontcover |language=en}}</ref> and [[Ismail Ibn Sharif|Moulay Ismail Ibn Sharif]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hamel |first1=Chouki El |title=Black Morocco: A History of Slavery, Race, and Islam |date=27 February 2014 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-62004-8 |pages=160–164|url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UwogAwAAQBAJ&redir_esc=y |language=en}}</ref>

By the 14th century, a significant number of slaves came from [[sub-Saharan Africa]]; Lewis argues that this led to the likes of Egyptian historian Al-Abshibi (1388–1446) writing that "[i]t is said that when the [black] slave is sated, he fornicates, when he is hungry, he steals."<ref>{{cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |author-link=Bernard Lewis |title=Race and Slavery in the Middle East |year=2002 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-505326-5 |page=[https://archive.org/details/raceslaveryinmid0000lewi/page/93 93] |url=https://archive.org/details/raceslaveryinmid0000lewi/page/93}}</ref> According to Lewis, the 14th-century Tunisian scholar [[Ibn Khaldun]] also wrote:<ref name="Lewis53" /><ref name="colorq">{{cite web |url=http://www.colorq.org/Articles/article.aspx?d=2002&x=arabviews |title=West Asian views on black Africans during the medieval era |publisher=Colorq.org |access-date=23 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228121150/http://www.colorq.org/articles/article.aspx?d=2002&x=arabviews |archive-date=28 December 2023}}</ref>

<blockquote>...beyond [known peoples of black West Africa] to the south there is no civilization in the proper sense. There are only humans who are closer to dumb animals than to rational beings. They live in thickets and caves, and eat herbs and unprepared grain. They frequently eat each other. They cannot be considered human beings. Therefore, the Negro nations are, as a rule, submissive to slavery, because (Negroes) have little that is (essentially) human and possess attributes that are quite similar to those of dumb animals, as we have stated.</blockquote>

According to [[Wesleyan University]] professor Abdelmajid Hannoum, French [[Orientalists]] projected racist and [[colonialist]] views of the 19th century into their translations of medieval Arabic writings, including those of Ibn Khaldun. This resulted in the translated texts [[racializing]] Arabs and [[Berbers|Berber]] people, when no such distinction was made in the originals.<ref>{{cite journal |jstor=3590803 |title=Translation and the Colonial Imaginary: Ibn Khaldûn Orientalist |first=Abdelmajid |last=Hannoum |date=1 January 2003 |journal=[[History and Theory]] |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=61–81 |doi=10.1111/1468-2303.00230}}</ref> James E. Lindsay argues that the concept of an [[Arab nationalism|Arab identity]] itself did not exist until modern times,<ref>{{cite book |title=Daily Life in the Medieval Islamic World |first=James E. |last=Lindsay |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-313-32270-9 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/dailylifeinmedie00lind/page/12 12–15] |url=https://archive.org/details/dailylifeinmedie00lind/page/12}}</ref> though others like [[Robert Hoyland]] have argued that a common sense of [[Arab identity]] already existed by the 9th century.<ref>{{cite book |title=Arabia and the Arabs |first=Robert G. |last=Hoyland |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |year=2002 |isbn=9781134646357 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w5-EAgAAQBAJ |page=229}}</ref>

===''Limpieza de sangre''===
{{Further|Limpieza de sangre}}

With the [[Umayyad conquest of Hispania|Umayyad Caliphate's conquest of Hispania]], Muslim Arabs and [[Berbers]] overthrew the previous [[Visigoths|Visigothic]] rulers and created [[Al-Andalus]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Collins |first=Roger |title=The Arab Conquest of Spain: 710–797 |publisher=Wiley |year=1995 |isbn=9780631194057}}</ref> which contributed to the [[Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain|Golden age of Jewish culture]], and lasted for six centuries.<ref>[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Sephardim.html Sephardim]. [[Jewish Virtual Library]]. Last accessed 27 December 2011.</ref> It was followed by the centuries-long ''[[Reconquista]]'',<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4gVIt5u0U5wC |title=Reconquest and Crusade in Medieval Spain |last=O'Callaghan |first=Joseph F. |date=2013 |publisher=[[University of Pennsylvania Press]] |isbn=978-0-8122-0306-6 |language=en}}</ref> during which Christian Iberian kingdoms contested Al-Andalus and progressively conquered the divided Muslim kingdoms, culminating in the [[Granada War#Last stand at Granada|fall of the Nasrid kingdom of Granada]] in 1492 and the rise of [[Ferdinand V of Spain|Ferdinand V]] and [[Isabella I of Spain|Isabella I]] as [[Reyes Catolicos|Catholic monarchs]] of Spain. The legacy Catholic [[Spanish people|Spaniards]] then formulated the ''[[limpieza de sangre]]'' ("cleanliness of blood") doctrine. It was during this time in history that the Western concept of aristocratic "[[Nobility#"Blue" blood|blue blood]]" emerged in a racialized, religious and feudal context,<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |url=http://pachami.com/Inquisicion/LimpiezaSangre.html |title=Limpieza de Sangre |language=es |trans-title=Cleanliness of blood |last=A. Chami |first=Pablo |access-date=1 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240123142530/https://pachami.com/Inquisicion/LimpiezaSangre.html |archive-date=23 January 2024}}</ref> so as to stem the upward social mobility of the converted [[Converso|New Christians]]. Robert Lacey explains:<ref>{{cite book |first=Robert |last=Lacey |title=Aristocrats |publisher=Little, Brown and Company |date=1983 |page=67}}</ref>

<blockquote>It was the Spaniards who gave the world the notion that an aristocrat's blood is not red but blue. The Spanish nobility started taking shape around the ninth century in classic military fashion, occupying land as warriors on horseback. They were to continue the process for more than five hundred years, clawing back sections of the peninsula from its Moorish occupiers, and a nobleman demonstrated his pedigree by holding up his sword arm to display the filigree of blue-blooded veins beneath his pale skin—proof that his birth had not been contaminated by the dark-skinned enemy. Sangre azul, blue blood, was thus a euphemism for being a [[white people|white]] man—Spain's own particular reminder that the refined footsteps of the aristocracy through history carry the rather less refined spoor of racism.</blockquote>

Following the expulsion of the Arabic [[Moors]] and most of the [[Sephardic Jews]] from the [[Iberian peninsula]], the remaining [[Jews]] and [[Muslim]]s were forced to [[Converso|convert]] to Roman Catholicism, becoming "[[New Christian]]s", who were sometimes discriminated against by the "[[Old Christian]]s" in some cities (including [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]]), despite condemnations by the Church and the State, which both welcomed the new flock.<ref name=":0" /> The [[Inquisition]] was carried out by members of the [[Dominican Order]] in order to weed out the converts who still practiced [[Judaism]] and [[Islam]] in secret. The system and ideology of the ''limpieza de sangre'' ostracized false Christian converts from society in order to protect it against [[treason]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Los estatutos de Limpieza de Sangre |language=es |trans-title= |page=121 |last=Sicroff |first=Albert A.}}</ref> The remnants of such legislation persevered into the 19th century in military contexts.<ref>''Colección Legislativa de España'' (1870), p. 364</ref>

In [[Portugal]], the legal distinction between New and Old Christian was only ended through a legal decree issued by the [[Marquis of Pombal]] in 1772, almost three centuries after the implementation of the racist discrimination. The ''limpieza de sangre'' legislation was common also during the [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|colonization of the Americas]], where it led to the racial and feudal separation of peoples and social strata in the colonies. It was however often ignored in practice, as the new colonies needed skilled people.<ref>{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of the Jewish diaspora: origins, experiences, and culture |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-85109-873-6 |page=689 |last=Avrum Ehrlich |first=Mark}}</ref>

[[File:De Bry 1c.JPG|thumb|A 16th-century illustration by [[Dutch Revolt#Protestantism|Flemish Protestant]] [[Theodor de Bry]] for [[Bartolomé de las Casas|Las Casas]]'s ''Brevisima relación de la destrucción de las Indias'', depicting Spanish atrocities during the [[History of Cuba#Spanish conquest and early colonization (1492 - 1800)|conquest of Cuba]]]]

At the end of the [[Spanish Renaissance|Renaissance]], the [[Valladolid debate]] (1550–1551), concerning the treatment of the [[Indigenous people of the Americas|natives]] of the "[[New World]]" pitted the Dominican friar and Bishop of Chiapas, [[Bartolomé de Las Casas]], to another Dominican and Humanist [[philosophy|philosopher]], [[Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda]]. The latter argued that the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Indians]] practiced [[human sacrifice]] of innocents, [[Human cannibalism|cannibalism]], and other such "crimes against nature"; they were unacceptable and should be suppressed by any means possible including war,<ref>{{cite book|title=Tratado sobre las Justas Causas de la Guerra contra los Indios|publisher=Fondo de Cultura Económica|year=1941|location=Mexico D.F.|page=155|author=Ginés de Sepúlveda, Juan (trans. Marcelino Menendez y Pelayo and Manuel Garcia-Pelayo)}}</ref> thus reducing them to slavery or serfdom was in accordance with Catholic theology and [[natural law]]. To the contrary, Bartolomé de Las Casas argued that the Amerindians were free men in the natural order and deserved the same treatment as others, according to [[Catholic theology]]. It was one of the many controversies concerning racism, slavery, religion, and European morality that would arise in the following centuries and which resulted in the legislation protecting the natives.<ref name="Hernandez">{{cite journal |title=The Las Casas-Sepúlveda Controversy: 1550–1551 |url=http://userwww.sfsu.edu/~epf/journal_archive/volume_X,_2001/hernandez_b.pdf |journal=Ex Post Facto |volume=10 |pages=95–104 |first=Bonar Ludwig |last=Hernandez |date=2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150421063702/http://userwww.sfsu.edu/epf/journal_archive/volume_X%2C_2001/hernandez_b.pdf |archive-date=21 April 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The marriage between Luisa de Abrego, a free black domestic servant from Seville and Miguel Rodríguez, a white segovian conquistador in 1565 in St. Augustine (Spanish Florida), is the first known and recorded Christian marriage anywhere in the continental United States.<ref>{{citation |author1-link=J. Michael Francis |first=J. Michael |last=Francis |title=Luisa de Abrego: Marriage, Bigamy, and the Spanish Inquisition |url=http://laflorida.org/florida-stories/ |publisher=laflorida.org |access-date=5 April 2018 |archive-date=4 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210204110350/http://laflorida.org/florida-stories/ |url-status=dead}}</ref>

In the Spanish colonies, Spaniards developed a complex [[Castas|caste system]] based on race, which was used for social control, and which also determined a person's importance in society.<ref name="Acuña-p23-24">{{cite book |last=Acuña |first=Rodolfo F. |author-link=Rodolfo F. Acuña |title=Occupied America: A History of Chicanos |edition=7th |date=2010 |publisher=[[Longman]] |location=Boston |isbn=978-0-205-78618-3 |pages=23–24}}</ref> While many Latin American countries have long since rendered the system officially illegal through legislation, usually at the time of their independence, [[prejudice]] based on degrees of perceived racial distance from European ancestry combined with one's socioeconomic status remain, an echo of the colonial caste system.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990CEEDF1330F932A25755C0A963958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=1 |title=The World; Racism? Mexico's in Denial |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=11 June 1995 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230920195738/https://www.nytimes.com/1995/06/11/weekinreview/the-world-racism-mexico-s-in-denial.html |archive-date=20 September 2023}}</ref>

===Racism as a modern phenomenon===
Racism is frequently described as a ''modern'' phenomenon. In the view of the French philosopher and historian [[Michel Foucault]], the first formulation of racism emerged in the [[Early modern Europe|Early Modern period]] as the "[[discourse]] of race struggle", and a historical and political discourse, which Foucault opposed to the philosophical and juridical discourse of [[sovereignty]].<ref>Michel Foucault, ''Society Must Be Defended'' (1976–77)</ref>

This European discourse, which first appeared in [[United Kingdom|Great Britain]], was then carried on in [[France]] by such people as [[Henri de Boulainvilliers|Boulainvilliers]] (1658–1722), [[Nicolas Fréret]] (1688–1749), and then, during the 1789 [[French Revolution]], [[Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès|Sieyès]], and afterwards, [[Augustin Thierry]] and [[Antoine Augustin Cournot|Cournot]]. Boulainvilliers, who created the matrix of such racist discourse in France, conceived of the "race" as being something closer to the sense of a "nation", that is, in his time, the "race" meant the "people".

He conceived of France as being divided between various nations—the unified [[nation-state]] is an [[anachronism]] here—which themselves formed different "races". Boulainvilliers opposed the [[absolute monarchy]], which tried to bypass the [[aristocracy]] by establishing a direct relationship to the [[Estates General (France)|Third Estate]]. Thus, he developed the theory that the French aristocrats were the descendants of foreign invaders, whom he called the "[[Franks]]", while according to him, the Third Estate constituted the autochthonous, vanquished [[Gallo-Romans]], who were dominated by the Frankish aristocracy as a consequence of the [[right of conquest]]. Early modern racism was opposed to nationalism and the nation-state: the [[François Dominique de Reynaud de Montlosier|Comte de Montlosier]], in exile during the [[French Revolution]], who borrowed Boulainvilliers' discourse on the "Nordic race" as being the French aristocracy that invaded the plebeian "Gauls", thus showed his contempt for the Third Estate, calling it "this new people born of slaves ... [[miscegenation|mixture of all races and of all times]]".

===19th century===
[[File:Advert for Pears' Soap Wellcome L0030380.jpg|thumb|Advertisement for [[Pears (soap)|Pears' Soap]] Caption reads, "Matchless for the complexion..." Illustration of 'before and after' use of soap by black child in the bath; soap washes off his dark complexion.]]

While 19th-century racism became closely intertwined with nationalism,<ref>Academic Press (2000). [https://books.google.com/books?id=pvHRNNk9hHEC&q=racism+and+ethnic+nationalism+in+the+19th+century%2C%2F&pg=PA435 " Encyclopedia of Nationalism, Two-Volume Set, Volume 2"].</ref> leading to the [[ethnic nationalist]] discourse that identified the "race" with the "[[Volk (German word)|folk]]", leading to such movements as [[pan-Germanism]], [[pan-Turkism]], [[pan-Arabism]], and [[pan-Slavism]], medieval racism precisely divided the nation into various non-biological "races", which were thought to be the consequence of historical conquests and [[social conflict]]s. Michel Foucault traced the genealogy of modern racism to this medieval "historical and political discourse of race struggle". According to him, it divided itself in the 19th century according to two rival lines: on one hand, it was incorporated by racists, biologists and [[eugenicists]], who gave it the modern sense of "race", and they also transformed this popular discourse into a "[[state racism]]" (e.g., Nazism). On the other hand, [[Marxists|Marxism]] also seized this discourse founded on the assumption of a political struggle that provided the real [[philosophy of history|engine of history]] and continued to act underneath the apparent peace. Thus, Marxists transformed the [[essentialist]] notion of "race" into the historical notion of "[[class struggle]]", defined by socially structured positions: capitalist or proletarian. In ''[[The Will to Knowledge]]'' (1976), Foucault analyzed another opponent of the "race struggle" discourse: [[Sigmund Freud]]'s [[psychoanalysis]], which opposed the concept of "blood [[heredity]]", prevalent in the 19th century racist discourse.

Authors such as [[Hannah Arendt]], in her 1951 book ''[[The Origins of Totalitarianism]]'', have said that the racist ideology (''popular racism'') which developed at the end of the 19th century helped legitimize the [[New Imperialism|imperialist conquests]] of foreign territories and the atrocities that sometimes accompanied them (such as the [[Herero and Nama genocide]] of 1904–1908 or the [[Armenian genocide]] of 1915–1917). [[Rudyard Kipling]]'s poem, ''[[The White Man's Burden]]'' (1899), is one of the more famous illustrations of the belief in the inherent superiority of the [[Western culture|European culture]] over the rest of the world, though it is also thought to be a satirical appraisal of such imperialism. Racist ideology thus helped legitimize the conquest and incorporation of foreign territories into an empire, which were regarded as a humanitarian obligation partially as a result of these racist beliefs.

[[File:Scientific racism irish.jpg|thumb|left|A late-19th-century illustration from ''Ireland from One or Two Neglected Points of View'' by H. Strickland Constable shows an alleged similarity between "[[Irish Iberian]]" and "Negro" features in contrast to the "higher" "Anglo-Teutonic".]]
However, during the 19th century, Western European colonial powers were involved in the suppression of the [[Arab slave trade]] in Africa,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.royal-navy.mod.uk/server?show=nav.5938&outputFormat=print |title=Royal Navy and the Slave Trade : Battles : History |publisher=Royal-navy.mod.uk |access-date=23 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510210721/http://www.royal-navy.mod.uk/server?show=nav.5938&outputFormat=print |archive-date=10 May 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> as well as in the suppression of the [[History of slavery|slave trade]] in West Africa.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.royalnavalmuseum.org/visit_see_victory_cfexhibition_infosheet.htm |title=Chasing Freedom Exhibition: the Royal Navy and the Suppression of the Transatlantic Slave Trade |publisher=Royalnavalmuseum.org |date=21 November 2006 |access-date=23 May 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091210021701/http://www.royalnavalmuseum.org/visit_see_victory_cfexhibition_infosheet.htm |archive-date=10 December 2009}}</ref> Some Europeans during the time period objected to injustices that occurred in some colonies and lobbied on behalf of [[aboriginal peoples]]. Thus, when the [[Saartjie Baartman|Hottentot Venus]] was displayed in England in the beginning of the 19th century, the African Association publicly opposed itself to the exhibition. The same year that Kipling published his poem, [[Joseph Conrad]] published ''[[Heart of Darkness]]'' (1899), a clear criticism of the [[Congo Free State]], which was owned by [[Leopold II of Belgium]].

Examples of racial theories used include the creation of the [[Hamites|Hamitic theory]] during the [[European exploration of Africa]]. The term ''Hamite'' was applied to different populations within North Africa, mainly comprising Ethiopians, [[Demographics of Eritrea|Eritreans]], [[Somali people|Somalis]], [[Berber people|Berbers]], and the ancient Egyptians. Hamites were regarded as Caucasoid peoples who probably originated in either Arabia or Asia on the basis of their cultural, physical and linguistic similarities with the peoples of those areas.<ref>Ronald James Harrison, ''Africa and the Islands'', (Wiley: 1965), p. 58</ref><ref>Dorothy Dodge, ''African Politics in Perspective'', (Van Nostrand: 1966), p. 11</ref><ref>Michael Senior, ''Tropical Lands: a human geography'', (Longman: 1979), p. 59</ref> Europeans considered Hamites to be more civilized than [[Black people|Sub-Saharan Africans]], and more akin to themselves and [[Semitic peoples]].<ref>A.H.M. Jones, [[Elizabeth Monroe (historian)|Elizabeth Monroe]], ''History of Abyssinia'', (Kessinger Publishing: 2003), p. 25</ref> In the first two-thirds of the 20th century, the Hamitic race was, in fact, considered one of the branches of the [[Caucasian race]], along with the [[Aryan race|Indo-Europeans]], [[Semitic people|Semites]], and the [[Mediterranean race|Mediterraneans]].

However, the Hamitic peoples themselves were often deemed to have failed as rulers, which was usually ascribed to [[miscegenation|interbreeding]] with [[Negroe]]s. In the mid-20th century, the German scholar [[Carl Meinhof]] (1857–1944) claimed that the [[Bantu peoples|Bantu]] race was formed by a merger of [[Hamitic]] and [[Negroid|Negro]] races. The Hottentots ([[Nama people|Nama]] or [[Khoikhoi|Khoi]]) were formed by the merger of Hamitic and [[Bushmen]] (San) races—both being termed nowadays as [[Khoisan]] peoples.

[[File:Freedman's bureau.jpg|thumb|One in a series of posters attacking [[Radical Republicans]] on the issue of black suffrage, issued during the [[Pennsylvania gubernatorial election, 1866|Pennsylvania gubernatorial election of 1866]]]]
In the United States in the early 19th century, the [[American Colonization Society]] was established as the primary vehicle for proposals to return black Americans to greater freedom and equality in Africa.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fcnl.org/issues/item.php?item_id=731&issue_id=75 |title=Background on conflict in Liberia |publisher=Fcnl.org |date=30 July 2003 |access-date=26 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110108042234/http://www.fcnl.org/issues/item.php?item_id=731&issue_id=75 |archive-date=8 January 2011}}</ref> The colonization effort resulted from a mixture of motives with its founder [[Henry Clay]] stating that "unconquerable prejudice resulting from their color, they never could amalgamate with the free whites of this country. It was desirable, therefore, as it respected them, and the residue of the population of the country, to drain them off".<ref>Maggie Montesinos Sale (1997). ''The Slumbering Volcano: American Slave Ship Revolts and the Production of Rebellious Masculinity''. p. 264. [[Duke University Press]], 1997</ref> Racism spread throughout the New World in the late 19th century and early 20th century. [[Whitecapping]], which started in Indiana in the late 19th century, soon spread throughout all of North America, causing many African laborers to flee from the land they worked on. In the US, during the 1860s, racist posters were used during election campaigns. In one of these racist posters (see above), a black man is depicted lounging idly in the foreground as one white man ploughs his field and another chops wood. Accompanying labels are: "In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat thy bread", and "The white man must work to keep his children and pay his taxes." The black man wonders, "Whar is de use for me to work as long as dey make dese appropriations." Above in a cloud is an image of the "Freedman's Bureau! Negro Estimate of Freedom!" The bureau is pictured as a large domed building resembling the U.S. Capitol and is inscribed "Freedom and No Work". Its columns and walls are labeled, "Candy", "Rum, Gin, Whiskey", "Sugar Plums", "Indolence", "White Women", "Apathy", "White Sugar", "Idleness", and so on.

On 5 June 1873, Sir [[Francis Galton]], distinguished English explorer and cousin of Charles Darwin, wrote in a letter to ''[[The Times]]'':

{{blockquote|1=My proposal is to make the encouragement of [[Han Chinese|Chinese]] settlements of Africa a part of our national policy, in the belief that the Chinese immigrants would not only maintain their position, but that they would multiply and their descendants supplant the inferior Negro race ... I should expect that the African seaboard, now sparsely occupied by lazy, palavering savages, might in a few years be tenanted by industrious, order-loving Chinese, living either as a semidetached dependency of China, or else in perfect freedom under their own law.<ref>{{cite news|last=Galton |first=Francis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DKZUAAAAcAAJ&q=%22Africa+for+the+Chinese%22&pg=PA377 |title=Africa for the Chinese |work=The London and China Telegraph |date=9 June 1873 |volume=15 |number=510 |location=London}}</ref>}}

===20th century===
{{Further|Racial policy of Nazi Germany|Holocaust|Forced settlements in the Soviet Union|Apartheid|Racial segregation in the United States|Rwandan genocide}}
[[File:Austrian Nazis and local residents watch as Jews are forced to scrub the pavement after Nazi annexation.jpg|thumb|Austrian Nazis and local residents watch as Jews are forced to scrub the pavement, Vienna, March 1938]]
[[File:WannseeList.jpg|thumb|[[Adolf Eichmann|Eichmann]]'s list of the Jewish population in Europe, drafted for the [[Wannsee Conference]], held to ensure the cooperation of various levels of the Nazi government in the [[Final Solution]]]]

The Nazi party, which seized power in the [[German federal election, March 1933|1933 German elections]] and maintained a dictatorship over much of Europe until the [[End of World War II in Europe|End of World War II on the European continent]], deemed the Germans to be part of an Aryan "[[master race]]" (''Herrenvolk''), who therefore had the right to expand their territory and enslave or kill members of other races deemed inferior.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dac.neu.edu/holocaust/Hitlers_Plans.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070727021822/http://www.atsweb.neu.edu/holocaust/Hitlers_Plans.htm |archive-date=27 July 2007 |title=Hitler's Plans for Eastern Europe |website=Poland under Nazi Occupation |first1=Janusz |last1=Gumkowski |first2=Kazimierz |last2=Leszczynski}}</ref>

[[Adolf Hitler]]'s 1925 memoir ''[[Mein Kampf]]'' was full of admiration for America's treatment of "[[colored]]s".<ref>[http://www.timesofisrael.com/american-laws-against-coloreds-influenced-nazi-racial-planners/ "American laws against 'coloreds' influenced Nazi racial planners"]. [[Times of Israel]]. Retrieved 23 September 2017</ref> Nazi praise for America's institutional racism was continuous throughout the early 1930s, and Nazi lawyers were advocates of the use of American models.<ref name="Whitman">{{cite book |last1=Whitman |first1=James Q. |author1-link=James Whitman |title=Hitler's American Model: The United States and the Making of Nazi Race Law |date=2017 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |pages=37–43}}</ref> Race-based U.S. citizenship laws and [[anti-miscegenation laws]] (no race mixing) directly inspired the Nazi's two principal [[Nuremberg Laws|Nuremberg racial laws]]—the Citizenship Law and the Blood Law.<ref name="Whitman" /> Nazi expansion eastward was accompanied with invocation of America's colonial expansion westward, with the accompanying actions toward the Native Americans.<ref name="Westermann">{{cite book |last1=Westermann |first1=Edward. B. |author1-link=Edward B. Westermann |title=Hitler's Ostkrieg and the Indian Wars: Comparing Genocide and Conquest |date=2016 |publisher=[[University of Oklahoma Press]] |page=3}}</ref> In 1928, Hitler praised Americans for having "gunned down the millions of Redskins to a few hundred thousand, and now keeps the modest remnant under observation in a cage."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Whitman |first1=James Q. |title=Hitler's American Model: The United States and the Making of Nazi Race Law |date=2017 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |page=47}}</ref> On Nazi Germany's expansion eastward, in 1941 Hitler stated, "Our [[Mississippi River|Mississippi]] [the line beyond which Thomas Jefferson wanted all Indians expelled] must be the [[Volga]]."<ref name="Westermann" />

The racial ideology conceived by the Nazis graded humans on a scale of pure Aryan to non-Aryan, with the latter viewed as subhuman. At the top of the scale of pure Aryans were Germans and other Germanic peoples including the Dutch, Scandinavians, and the [[English people|English]] as well as other peoples such as some northern Italians and the French, who were said to have a suitable admixture of Germanic blood.<ref name="Davies06">[[Norman Davies|Davies, Norman]] (2006). ''Europe at War 1939–1945: No Simple Victory''. Macmillan Pubs (pp. 167, 4).</ref> Nazi policies labeled [[Romani people]], [[Black people|people of color]], and [[Slavs]] (mainly [[Polish people|Poles]], [[Serbs]], [[Russians]], [[Belarusians]], [[Ukrainians]] and [[Czechs]]) as inferior non-Aryan subhumans.<ref name="Operation Barbarossa 2004 page 180">''Operation Barbarossa: Ideology and Ethics against Human Dignity'', by André Mineau, (Rodopi, 2004) p. 180</ref><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Jews were at the bottom of the hierarchy, considered inhuman and thus [[life unworthy of life|unworthy of life]].<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite book|title=The Czechs under Nazi Rule: The Failure of National Resistance, 1939–1942|first=Vojtěch|last=Mastný|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=1971|isbn=0231033036}}{{Page needed|date=May 2013}}</ref><ref>''Historical Dictionary of the Holocaust'', p. 175 Jack R. Fischel. 2010. The policy of [[Lebensraum]] was also the product of Nazi racial ideology, which held that the Slavic peoples of the east were inferior to the Aryan race.</ref><ref>''Hitler's Home Front: Wurttemberg Under the Nazis'', Jill Stephenson p. 135, Other non-'Aryans' included Slavs, Blacks and Roma.</ref><ref>''Race Relations Within Western Expansion'', p. 98 Alan J. Levine. 1996. Preposterously, Central European Aryan theorists, and later the Nazis, would insist that the Slavic-speaking peoples were not really Aryans</ref><ref name="ReferenceB">''The Politics of Fertility in Twentieth-Century Berlin'', p. 118 Annette F. Timm. 2010. The Nazis' singleminded desire to "purify" the German race through the elimination of non-Aryans (particularly Jews, Gypsies, and Slavs)</ref>{{sfn|Curta|2001|p=9, 26–30}}<ref>Jerry Bergman, "Eugenics and the Development of Nazi Race Policy", ''[[Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith]]'' [[PSCF]] 44 (June 1992): 109–124</ref> In accordance with Nazi racial ideology, approximately six million Jews were killed in the [[The Holocaust|Holocaust]]. 2.5 million [[Nazi crimes against the Polish nation|ethnic Poles]], 0.5 million [[Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia|ethnic Serbs]] and 0.2–0.5 million [[Porajmos|Romani]] were killed by the regime and its collaborators.<ref>{{cite web |title=Holocaust Encyclopedia – Genocide of European Roma (Gypsies), 1939–1945 |publisher=[[United States Holocaust Memorial Museum]] (USHMM) |url=http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005219 |access-date=9 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240619141114/https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/genocide-of-european-roma-gypsies-1939-1945 |archive-date=19 June 2024}}</ref>

The Nazis considered most [[Slavs]] to be non-Aryan ''[[Untermenschen]]''. The Nazi Party's chief racial theorist, [[Alfred Rosenberg]], adopted the term from [[Klansman]] [[Lothrop Stoddard]]'s 1922 book ''The Revolt Against Civilization: The Menace of the Under-man''.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Pauwels|first1=Jacques R.|title=The Great Class War 1914–1918|publisher=Formac Publishing Company Limited|page=88}}</ref> In the secret plan {{lang|de|[[Generalplan Ost]]}} ("Master Plan East") the Nazis resolved to expel, enslave, or exterminate most Slavic people to provide "[[Lebensraum|living space]]" for Germans,<ref name="Gumkowski">{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/PolandUnderNaziOccupation/mode/2up |title=Hitler's Plans for Eastern Europe |first1=Janusz |last1=Gumkowski |first2=Kazimierz |last2=Leszczynski |translator-last=Rothert |translator-first=Edward |series=Poland Under Nazi Occupation |publisher=Polonia Pub. House |edition=First |year=1961 |oclc=750570006}}</ref> but Nazi policy towards Slavs changed during World War II due to manpower shortages which necessitated limited Slavic participation in the [[Waffen-SS]].<ref name="Norman Davies Pp. 167, 209">[[Norman Davies]]. ''Europe at War 1939–1945: No Simple Victory''. pp. 167, 209.</ref> Significant war crimes were committed against Slavs, particularly [[Nazi crimes against the Polish nation|Poles]], and [[German mistreatment of Soviet prisoners of war|Soviet POWs]] had a far higher mortality rate than their American and British counterparts due to deliberate neglect and mistreatment. Between June 1941 and January 1942, the Nazis killed an estimated 2.8 million [[Red Army]] POWs, whom they viewed as "subhuman".<ref>[[Daniel Goldhagen]], ''Hitler's Willing Executioners'' (p. 290) – "2.8 million young, healthy Soviet POWs" killed by the Germans, "mainly by starvation ... in less than eight months" of 1941–42, before "the decimation of Soviet POWs ... was stopped" and the Germans "began to use them as laborers".</ref>

In the years 1943–1945, around 120,000 Polish people, mostly women and children, became the victims of [[massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia|ethnicity-based massacres]] by the [[Ukrainian Insurgent Army]], which was then operating in the territory of [[Occupation of Poland (1939–45)|occupied Poland]].<ref name="no simple victory">[[Norman Davies]], ''[[Europe at War 1939–1945: No Simple Victory]]'' Publisher: Pan Books, 2007, 544 pages, {{ISBN|978-0-330-35212-3}}</ref> In addition to Poles who represented the vast majority of the murdered people, the victims also included Jews, Armenians, Russians, and Ukrainians who were married to Poles or attempted to help them.<ref name="ZZWRP0">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ha5pAAAAMAAJ |title=Ethnic Cleansing of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia: 1942–1946 |publisher=Alliance of the Polish Eastern Provinces, Toronto Branch, 1993 |series=Original from the University of Michigan |year=2008 |first=Mikolaj |last=Terles |via=Google Books, search inside |isbn=978-0-9698020-0-6}}</ref>

During the intensification of ties with Nazi Germany in the 1930s, [[Ante Pavelić]] and the [[Ustaše]] and their idea of the [[Croats|Croatian nation]] became increasingly race-oriented.<ref name=Kallis>{{cite book |last1=Kallis |first1=Aristotle |author-link=Aristotle Kallis |title=Genocide and Fascism: The Eliminationist Drive in Fascist Europe |date=2008 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9781134300341 |pages=130–134}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Yeomans |first=Rory |author-link=Rory Yeomans |title=The Utopia of Terror: Life and Death in Wartime Croatia |year=2015 |publisher=[[Boydell & Brewer]] |isbn=9781580465458 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8HEDCwAAQBAJ}}</ref><ref name=Payne>{{Cite journal |last=Payne |first=Stanley G. |author-link= Stanley G. Payne |date=2006 |title=The NDH State in Comparative Perspective |journal=Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=409–415 |doi=10.1080/14690760600963198 |s2cid=144782263}}</ref> The Ustaše view of national and racial identity, as well as the theory of [[Serbs]] as an inferior race, was influenced by [[Croatian nationalism|Croatian nationalists]] and intellectuals from the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century.<ref name=Kallis /><ref>{{cite book |last=Yeomans |first=Rory |author-link=Rory Yeomans |title=Visions of Annihilation: The Ustasha Regime and the Cultural Politics of Fascism, 1941–1945 |year=2012 |location=Pittsburgh |publisher=[[University of Pittsburgh Press]] |isbn=9780822977933 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yxv4-iqVe2wC|page=7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Bartulin |first=Nevenko |title=The Racial Idea in the Independent State of Croatia: Origins and Theory |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|BRILL]] |year=2013 |isbn=9789004262829 |page=124}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Kenrick |first=Donald |title=The Final Chapter |date=2006 |publisher=[[University of Hertfordshire Press]] |isbn=9781902806495 |page=92}}</ref> Serbs were primary targets of racial laws and murders in the puppet [[Independent State of Croatia]] (NDH); Jews and Roma were also targeted.<ref>{{cite book |title=Political Violence in Twentieth-Century Europe |first1=Donald |last1=Bloxham |author1-link=Donald Bloxham |first2=Robert |last2=Gerwarth |author2-link=Robert Gerwarth |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2011 |isbn=9781139501293 |page=111}}</ref> The Ustaše introduced laws to strip Serbs of their citizenship, livelihoods, and possessions.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Levy |first=Michele Frucht |title="The Last Bullet for the Last Serb": The Ustaša Genocide against Serbs: 1941–1945 |journal=Nationalities Papers |volume=37 |issue=6 |pages=807–837 |year=2009 |doi=10.1080/00905990903239174 |s2cid=162231741}}</ref> During the [[Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia|genocide]] in the NDH, Serbs suffered among the highest casualty rates in Europe during the World War II, and the NDH was one of the most lethal regimes in the 20th century.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dulić |first=Tomislav |date=2006 |title= Mass killing in the Independent State of Croatia, 1941–1945: a case for comparative research |journal=[[Journal of Genocide Research]] |volume=8 |pages=255–2281 |doi=10.1111/nana.12433 |s2cid=242057219}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Charny |first=Israel |author-link=Israel Charny |title=Encyclopedia of Genocide: A–H |year=1999 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |isbn=978-0874369281 |pages=18–23}}</ref><ref name=Payne />

[[File:Golden Thirteen 1944.jpg|thumb|[[Golden Thirteen|The Golden Thirteen]], photographed on 17 March 1944. The navy class consisted of 16 African-American men who were selected for Navy Training.<ref name="The Golden Thirteen">{{cite web |title=The Golden Thirteen |url=https://www.history.navy.mil/content/history/nhhc/browse-by-topic/wars-conflicts-and-operations/world-war-ii/manning-the-us-navy/golden-thirteen.html |website=Naval History and Heritage Command}}</ref> Initially passing the training courses with outstanding scores, the group faced overt discrimination from by the US navy and were forced to resit their exams due to pervasive racism.<ref name="The Golden Thirteen"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Gonzalez |first1=Therese |title=Great Lakes Naval Training Station |date=2008 |publisher=Arcadia Publishing |isbn=978-0-7385-5193-7 |page=92 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CbX3WAOPaHIC&dq=golden+thirteen+african+american&pg=PA92 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Forgotten Story of How 13 Black Men Broke the Navy's Toughest Color Barrier |website=[[Politico]] |date=25 May 2020 |url=https://www.politico.com/news/magazine/2020/05/25/thirteen-black-men-navy-color-barrier-271084}}</ref>]]

{{multiple image
| align = left
| total_width = 450

| image1 = Negro drinking at "Colored" water cooler in streetcar terminal, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma by Russell Lee.jpg
| caption1 = A [[drinking fountain]] from the mid-20th century labelled "Colored" with an [[African-American]] man drinking

| image2 = No beer sold to indians.jpg
| caption2 = A sign posted above a bar that reads "No beer sold to Indians [Native Americans]". [[Birney, Montana]], 1941.
}}
White supremacy was dominant in the U.S. from its founding up to the [[civil rights movement]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Fredrickson |first=George |author-link=George M. Fredrickson |title=White Supremacy |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford Oxfordshire |year=1981 |isbn=978-0-19-503042-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/whitesupremacy00geor/page/162 162] |url=https://archive.org/details/whitesupremacy00geor/page/162}}</ref> On the U.S. immigration laws prior to 1965, sociologist Stephen Klineberg cited the law as clearly declaring "that [[Northern European]]s are a superior subspecies of the white race."<ref name="Immigration law"/> While anti-Asian racism was embedded in U.S. politics and culture in the early 20th century, [[Indian people|Indians]] were also racialized for their anticolonialism, with U.S. officials, casting them as a "Hindu" menace, pushing for Western imperial expansion abroad.<ref>{{cite book |first=Seema |last=Sohi |title=Echoes of Mutiny: Race, Surveillance, and Indian Anticolonialism in North America |year=2014 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-937625-4 |page=8 |quote=During the early decades of the twentieth century, US Immigration, Justice, and State Department officials cast Indian anticolonialists as a "Hindu" menace}}</ref> The [[Naturalization Act of 1790]] limited U.S. citizenship to whites only, and in the 1923 case, ''[[United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind]]'', the Supreme Court ruled that high caste Hindus were not "white persons" and were therefore racially ineligible for naturalized citizenship.<ref>Zhao, X. & Park, E.J.W. (2013). ''Asian Americans: An Encyclopedia of Social, Cultural, Economic, and Political History''. Greenwood. p. 1142. {{ISBN|978-1-59884-239-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Schultz |first=Jeffrey D. |title=Encyclopedia of Minorities in American Politics: African Americans and Asian Americans |page=284 |year=2002}}</ref> It was after the [[Luce–Celler Act of 1946]] that a quota of 100 Indians per year could immigrate to the U.S. and become citizens.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/rootsinthesand/a_lucecellar.html |title=Roots in the Sand – the Archives |publisher=[[PBS]] |access-date=6 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230412193726/http://www.pbs.org/rootsinthesand/a_lucecellar.html |archive-date=12 April 2023}}</ref> The [[Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965]] dramatically opened entry to the U.S. to immigrants other than traditional Northern European and [[Germanic peoples|Germanic groups]], and as a result would significantly alter the demographic mix in the U.S.<ref name="Immigration law">{{cite news |date=9 May 2006 |title=1965 immigration law changed face of America |first=Jennifer |last=Ludden |newspaper=[[NPR]] |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5391395 |publisher=[[NPR]] |access-date=7 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240702010908/https://www.npr.org/2006/05/09/5391395/1965-immigration-law-changed-face-of-america |archive-date=2 July 2024}}</ref>

Serious [[Durban Riot|race riots in Durban]] between [[Indian South Africans|Indians]] and [[Zulus]] erupted in 1949.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/uncategorized/current-race-riots-like-1949-anti-indian-riots-south-african-minister_10052573.html |title=Current race riots like 1949 anti-Indian riots: South African minister |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180826154005/http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/uncategorized/current-race-riots-like-1949-anti-indian-riots-south-african-minister_10052573.html |archive-date=26 August 2018 |website=Thaindian News |date=25 May 2008}}</ref> [[Ne Win]]'s rise to power in Burma in 1962 and his relentless persecution of "resident aliens" led to an exodus of some 300,000 [[Burmese Indians]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Martin |last=Smith |year=1991 |title=Burma – Insurgency and the Politics of Ethnicity |publisher=[[Zed Books]] |location=London; New Jersey |pages=43–44, 56–57, 98, 176}}</ref> They migrated to escape [[Racial Discrimination against Burmese Indians|racial discrimination]] and wholesale nationalisation of private enterprises a few years later, in 1964.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,875949,00.html |title=Burma: Asians v. Asians |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081208073731/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,875949,00.html |archive-date=8 December 2008 |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=17 July 1964}}</ref> The [[Zanzibar Revolution]] of 12 January 1964, put an end to the local [[Arab]] dynasty.<ref name="nyt13jan">{{cite news |last=Conley |first=Robert |author1-link=Robert Conley (reporter) |title=African Revolt Overturns Arab Regime in Zanzibar |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=13 January 1964 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1964/01/13/archives/african-revolt-overturns-arab-regime-in-zanzibar-all-strategic.html |access-date=16 November 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240501055725/https://www.nytimes.com/1964/01/13/archives/african-revolt-overturns-arab-regime-in-zanzibar-all-strategic.html |archive-date=1 May 2024}}</ref> Thousands of Arabs and Indians in Zanzibar were massacred in riots, and thousands more were detained or fled the island.<ref>{{cite book |last=Plekhanov |first=Sergey |author-link=Sergei Plekhanov |title=A Reformer on the Throne: Sultan Qaboos Bin Said Al Said |year=2004 |publisher=Trident Press |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_-U8BL-tEPLwC |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_-U8BL-tEPLwC/page/n93 91] |isbn=978-1-900724-70-8}}</ref> In August 1972, Ugandan President [[Idi Amin]] started the expropriation of properties owned by Asians and Europeans.<ref>{{cite book |title=Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GEorDwAAQBAJ&dq=amin+idi+asians+european+properties&pg=PT12 12] |first=Meike de |last=Goede |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |date=2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=K. |last=Rahemtulla |title=Where In the World Should I Invest: An Insider's Guide to Making Money Around the Globe |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=22uPPanw0FUC&dq=amin+idi+asians+european+properties&pg=PA156 156] |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]]}}</ref> In the same year, Amin ethnically cleansed [[Expulsion of Asians in Uganda in 1972|Uganda's Asians]], giving them 90 days to leave the country.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/7/newsid_2492000/2492333.stm |title=1972: Asians given 90 days to leave Uganda |publisher=[[BBC]] |work=On This Day |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240614130327/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/7/newsid_2492000/2492333.stm |archive-date=14 June 2024}}</ref> Shortly after World War II, the South African [[National Party (South Africa)|National Party]] took control of the government in South Africa. Between 1948 and 1994, the [[apartheid]] regime took place. This regime based its ideology on the racial separation of whites and non-whites, including the unequal rights of non-whites. Several protests and violence occurred during the [[Internal resistance to South African apartheid|struggle against apartheid]], the most famous of these include the [[Sharpeville Massacre]] in 1960, the [[Soweto uprising]] in 1976, the [[Church Street bombing]] of 1983, and the [[Cape Town peace march]] of 1989.<ref>{{cite news |first=Michael |last=Gallagher |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/575204.stm |title=The birth and death of apartheid |work=[[BBC News]] |date=17 June 2002 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231210113529/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/575204.stm |archive-date=10 December 2023}}</ref>

===Contemporary===
[[File:Julius Malema 2011-09-14.jpg|thumb|On 12 September 2011, [[Julius Malema]], the youth leader of South Africa's ruling [[African National Congress|ANC]], was found guilty of hate speech for singing "[[Dubul' ibhunu|Shoot the Boer]]" at a number of public events.<ref>Staff reporters (11 September 2011). [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/sep/12/julius-malema-guilty-hate-speech?INTCMP=SRCH "ANC's youth leader found guilty of hate speech for Shoot the Boer song"]. The Guardian. Retrieved 11 September 2011.</ref>]]

During the [[Second Congo War|Congo Civil War]] (1998–2003), [[Pygmy people]] were hunted down like game animals and eaten. Both sides in the war regarded them as "subhuman" and some say their flesh can confer magical powers. UN human rights activists reported in 2003 that rebels had carried out acts of [[Human cannibalism|cannibalism]]. Sinafasi Makelo, a representative of the [[Mbuti]] pygmies, has asked the [[UN Security Council]] to recognise cannibalism as both a [[Crimes against humanity|crime against humanity]] and an act of [[genocide]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/2933524.stm |title=DR Congo Pygmies appeal to UN |work=[[BBC News]] |date=23 May 2003 |access-date=23 May 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240507015325/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/2933524.stm |archive-date=7 May 2024}}</ref> A report released by the United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination condemns [[Botswana]]'s treatment of the '[[Bushmen]]' as racist.<ref>[http://www.survival-international.org/news/81 UN {{sic|nolink=y|Condems|expected=Condemns}} Botswana's Racism]. Survival International. 31 August 2002.</ref> In 2008, the tribunal of the 15-nation Southern African Development Community (SADC) accused Zimbabwean President [[Robert Mugabe]] of having a racist attitude towards white people.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thetimes.com/travel/destinations/africa-travel/south-africa/stop-your-racist-land-grab-tribunal-tells-robert-mugabe-ccct2p6pxdw |title=Stop your racist land grab, tribunal tells Robert Mugabe |work=[[The Times]] |date=5 March 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240403123039/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/stop-your-racist-land-grab-tribunal-tells-robert-mugabe-ccct2p6pxdw |archive-date=3 April 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/zimbabwe/8598458/The-end-of-an-era-for-Zimbabwes-last-white-farmers.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/zimbabwe/8598458/The-end-of-an-era-for-Zimbabwes-last-white-farmers.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=The end of an era for Zimbabwe's last white farmers? |date=26 June 2011 |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |last1=Freeman |first1=Colin}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

The [[Nanjing Anti-African protests|mass demonstrations and riots]] against African students in [[Nanjing]], China, lasted from December 1988 to January 1989.<ref>{{cite news |first= |last= |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/12/30/world/black-africa-leaves-china-in-quandary.html?sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all |title=Black Africa Leaves China In Quandary |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=30 December 1988 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240406005748/https://www.nytimes.com/1988/12/30/world/black-africa-leaves-china-in-quandary.html?sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all |archive-date=6 April 2024}}</ref> In November 2009, British newspaper ''[[The Guardian]]'' reported that [[Lou Jing (singer)|Lou Jing]], of mixed Chinese and African parentage, had emerged as the most famous talent show contestant in China and has become the subject of intense debate because of her skin color.<ref name="Guardian">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/nov/01/lou-jing-chinese-talent-show |title=China's black pop idol exposes her nation's racism |first=Stephen |last=Vines |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=1 November 2009 |access-date=3 November 2009 |location=London |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230609144220/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/nov/01/lou-jing-chinese-talent-show |archive-date=9 June 2023}}</ref> Her attention in the media opened serious debates about [[racism in China]] and racial prejudice.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/asiapcf/12/21/china.race/index.html |work=[[CNN]] |title=TV talent show exposes China's race issue |access-date=11 May 2010 |date=22 December 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231216002522/http://www.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/asiapcf/12/21/china.race/index.html |archive-date=16 December 2023}}</ref>

Some 70,000 black African Mauritanians were expelled from Mauritania in the late 1980s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportId=70522 |title=Mauritania: Fair elections haunted by racial imbalance | date=5 March 2007 |publisher=IRIN Africa }}</ref> In the Sudan, black African captives in the civil war were often [[Slavery in contemporary Africa|enslaved]], and female prisoners were often sexually abused.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/sudan/1463215/Arab-militia-use-rape-camps-for-ethnic-cleansing-of-Sudan.html |title=Arab militia use 'rape camps' for ethnic cleansing of Sudan |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=30 May 2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220421164240/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/sudan/1463215/Arab-militia-use-rape-camps-for-ethnic-cleansing-of-Sudan.html |archive-date=21 April 2022}}</ref> The [[Darfur conflict]] has been described by some as a racial matter.<ref>[https://www.csmonitor.com/2004/0714/p09s02-coop.html Racism at root of Sudan's Darfur crisis]. Csmonitor.com. 14 July 2004.</ref> In October 2006, Niger announced that it would deport the approximately 150,000<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/L25138454.htm |title= Niger's Arabs say expulsions will fuel race hate |publisher=Reuters Alertnet.org |date=25 October 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081110112313/http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/L25138454.htm |archive-date=10 November 2008}}</ref> Arabs living in the [[Diffa]] region of eastern Niger to Chad.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6087048.stm |title=Africa | Niger starts mass Arab expulsions |work=[[BBC News]] |date=26 October 2006 |access-date=23 May 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190514103149/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6087048.stm |archive-date=14 May 2019}}</ref> While the government collected Arabs in preparation for the [[deportation]], two girls died, reportedly after fleeing Government forces, and three women suffered miscarriages.<ref>{{cite web |author=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees |url=http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/refworld/rwmain?docid=469638881e |title=Refworld – The Leader in Refugee Decision Support |publisher=[[UNHCR]] |date=11 July 2007 |access-date=23 May 2010 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121228065000/http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/refworld/rwmain?docid=469638881e |archive-date=28 December 2012}}</ref>

[[File:Fiji-0050.JPG|thumb|The burnt out remains of Govinda's Indian Restaurant in [[Fiji]], May 2000]]

The [[Jakarta riots of May 1998]] [[Discrimination against Chinese Indonesians|targeted]] many [[Chinese Indonesian]]s.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/analysis/51981.stm |title=Analysis | Indonesia: Why ethnic Chinese are afraid |work=[[BBC News]] |date=12 February 1998 |access-date=23 May 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190613063451/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/analysis/51981.stm |archive-date=13 June 2019}}</ref> The [[Anti-Chinese legislation in Indonesia|anti-Chinese legislation]] was in the Indonesian constitution until 1998. Resentment against [[Overseas Chinese|Chinese]] workers has led to violent confrontations in Africa<ref>{{cite web |url=http://en.afrik.com/article16008.html |title=Algeria: Xenophobia against Chinese on the rise in Africa |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100213015723/http://en.afrik.com/article16008.html |archive-date=13 February 2010 |website=Afrik.com |date=5 August 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1530464/Rioters-attack-Chinese-after-Zambian-poll.html |title=Rioters attack Chinese after Zambian poll |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=3 October 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240407083117/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1530464/Rioters-attack-Chinese-after-Zambian-poll.html |archive-date=7 April 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76405 |title=Lesotho: Anti-Chinese resentment flares |date=24 January 2008 |publisher=IRIN Africa }}</ref> and Oceania.<ref>{{cite news |last=Spiller |first=Penny |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4930994.stm |title=Riots highlight Chinese tensions |work=[[BBC News]] |date=21 April 2006 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231004082605/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4930994.stm |archive-date=4 October 2023}}</ref><ref name="NZ_Herald_229612">{{cite news |url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=229612 |title=Editorial: Racist moves will rebound on Tonga |date=23 November 2001 |work=[[The New Zealand Herald]] |access-date=4 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220503140000/https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/ieditorial-iracist-moves-will-rebound-on-tonga/AS6OGNON2TCF5EP52HAXZNKJNQ/?c_id=1&objectid=229612 |archive-date=3 May 2022}}</ref> Anti-Chinese rioting, involving tens of thousands of people,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,25197,25524906-2703,00.html |title=Looters shot dead amid chaos of Papua New Guinea's anti-Chinese riots |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130709164436/http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/looters-shot-dead-amid-chaos-of-papua-new-guineas-anti-chinese-riots/story-e6frg6no-1225715006615 |archive-date=9 July 2013 |website=[[The Australian]] |date=23 May 2009}}</ref> broke out in [[Papua New Guinea]] in May 2009.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.economist.com/news/2009/08/11/overseas-and-under-siege |title=Overseas and under siege |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |date=11 August 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120909054302/http://www.economist.com/node/14207132 |archive-date=9 September 2012}}</ref> [[Indians in Fiji|Indo-Fijians]] suffered violent attacks after the [[2000 Fijian coup d'état|Fiji coup in 2000]].<ref>{{cite news |first=Phil |last=Mercer |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/830926.stm |title=Future bleak for Fiji's Indians |work=[[BBC News]] |date=12 July 2000 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240403215810/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/830926.stm |archive-date=3 April 2024}}</ref> Non-indigenous citizens of Fiji are subject to discrimination.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0%2C25197%2C25339291-28737%2C00.html |title=Dealing with the dictator |website=[[The Australian]] |date=16 April 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090421212510/http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0%2C25197%2C25339291-28737%2C00.html |archive-date=21 April 2009}}</ref><ref>[http://www.migrationinformation.org/Profiles/display.cfm?ID=110 Fiji Islands: From Immigration to Emigration]. Brij V. Lal. The Australian National University.</ref> Racial divisions also exist in Guyana,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/webarchive/https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fcaribbean%2Fnews%2Fstory%2F2005%2F09%2F050920_guyana_race.shtml |title=Guyana turns attention to racism |work=[[BBC News]] |date=20 September 2005 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240403134138/https://www.bbc.co.uk/caribbean/news/story/2005/09/050920_guyana_race.shtml |archive-date=3 April 2024}}</ref> Malaysia,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/HC24Ae01.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060324183428/http://atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/HC24Ae01.html |archive-date=24 March 2006 |title=Racism alive and well in Malaysia |work=Asia Times |date=24 March 2006}}</ref> Trinidad and Tobago,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/crossing_continents/1959567.stm |title=Trouble in paradise |work=[[BBC News]] |date=1 May 2002 }}</ref> Madagascar,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1987383.stm |title=Ethnic strife rocks Madagascar |work=[[BBC News]] |date=14 May 2002 }}</ref> and South Africa.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.iol.co.za/capetimes/race-war-rocks-grabouw-1.1260536 |title=Race war rocks Grabouw |work=[[Cape Times]] |date=20 March 2012 }}</ref> In Malaysia such racist state policies are codified on many levels,<ref>{{Cite news |title=A Never Ending Policy |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |url=https://www.economist.com/briefing/2013/04/27/a-never-ending-policy |access-date=10 July 2020 |issn=0013-0613 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2 March 2009 |title=Nik Aziz says 'bumiputera' term is racist |url=http://www.themalaysianinsider.com/index.php/malaysia/19428-nik-aziz-says-bumiputera-term-is-racist |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090302051938/http://www.themalaysianinsider.com/index.php/malaysia/19428-nik-aziz-says-bumiputera-term-is-racist |url-status=dead |archive-date=2 March 2009 |access-date=10 July 2020}}</ref> see [[Bumiputera (Malaysia)|Bumiputera]].

Peter Bouckaert, the [[Human Rights Watch]]'s emergencies director, said in an interview that "racist hatred" is the chief motivation behind the [[persecution of Muslims in Myanmar|violence against Rohingya Muslims]] in [[Myanmar]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2017/09/rohingya-refugees-share-stories-sexual-violence-170929095909926.html |title=Rohingya refugees share stories of sexual violence |work=[[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]] |date=29 September 2017 }}</ref>

One form of racism in the United States was enforced [[racial segregation in the United States|racial segregation]], which existed until the 1960s, when it was outlawed in the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]]. It has been argued that this separation of races continues to exist ''de facto'' today in different forms, such as lack of access to loans and resources or discrimination by police and other government officials.<ref>{{cite book |author-link=Thomas Sugrue |first=Thomas J. |last=Sugrue |title=Sweet Land of Liberty: the Forgotten Struggle for Civil Rights in the North |publisher=[[Random House]] |location=New York |date=2008 |pages=533–543}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |last1=Massey |first1=Douglas S. |author1-link=Douglas S. Massey |year=1993 |location=Cambridge, MA |last2=Denton |first2=Nancy A. |author2-link=Nancy A. Denton}}</ref>

The 2016 [[Pew Research Center|Pew Research]] poll found that Italians, in particular, hold strong [[Anti-Romanyism|anti-Romani views]], with 82% of Italians expressing negative opinions about [[Romani people|Romani]]. In Greece, there are 67%, in Hungary, 64%, in France, 61%, in Spain, 49%, in Poland, 47%, in the UK, 45%, in Sweden, 42%, in Germany, 40%, and in the Netherlands, 37%, that have an unfavourable view of Roma.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pewglobal.org/2016/07/11/europeans-fear-wave-of-refugees-will-mean-more-terrorism-fewer-jobs/lede-chart-2/ |title=Negative opinions about Roma, Muslims in several European nations |website=[[Pew Research Center]] |date=11 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231207203326/https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2016/07/11/europeans-fear-wave-of-refugees-will-mean-more-terrorism-fewer-jobs/lede-chart-2/ |archive-date=7 December 2023}}</ref> A survey conducted by [[Harvard University]] found the Czech Republic, Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine had the strongest racial bias against black people in Europe, while Serbia, Slovenia and Bosnia and Herzegovina had the weakest racial bias, followed by Croatia and Ireland.<ref>{{cite web |last=Vesey-Byrne |first=Joe |date=22 February 2022 |title=A map of the most racist countries in Europe |url=https://www.indy100.com/lifestyle/map-racist-countries-europe |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111210921/https://www.indy100.com/article/racism-europe-mapped-harvard-university-implicit-association-test-7717886 |archive-date=11 November 2020 |website=[[indy100]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://theconversation.com/this-map-shows-what-white-europeans-associate-with-race-and-it-makes-for-uncomfortable-reading-76661 |title=This map shows what white Europeans associate with race – and it makes for uncomfortable reading |date=2 May 2017 |website=[[The Conversation (website)|The Conversation]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240526214051/https://theconversation.com/this-map-shows-what-white-europeans-associate-with-race-and-it-makes-for-uncomfortable-reading-76661 |archive-date=26 May 2024}}</ref>

A 2023 [[University of Cambridge]] survey which featured the largest sample of Black people in Britain found that 88% had reported racial discrimination at work, 79% believed the police unfairly targeted black people with [[stop and search]] powers and 80% definitely or somewhat agreed that the biggest barrier to academic attainment for young Black students was [[discrimination in education|racial discrimination in education]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Black British Voices: the findings |url=https://www.cam.ac.uk/stories/black-british-voices-report |website=[[University of Cambridge]] |language=en |date=28 September 2023 }}</ref>

==Scientific racism==
{{Main|Scientific racism}}
{{Further|Unilineal evolution}}
[[File:Races and skulls.png|thumb|upright|Drawings from [[Josiah C. Nott]] and [[George Gliddon]]'s ''Indigenous races of the earth'' (1857), which suggested [[black people]] ranked between [[white people]] and chimpanzees in terms of intelligence]]

The modern biological definition of race developed in the 19th century with scientific racist theories. The term ''scientific racism'' refers to the use of science to justify and support racist beliefs, which goes back to the early 18th century, though it gained most of its influence in the mid-19th century, during the [[New Imperialism]] period. Also known as academic racism, such theories first needed to overcome the [[Roman Catholic Church|Church]]'s resistance to [[positivism|positivist]] accounts of history and its support of [[monogenism]], the concept that all human beings were originated from the same ancestors, in accordance with [[creationist]] accounts of history.

These racist theories put forth on scientific hypothesis were combined with [[unilineal evolution|unilineal theories of social progress]], which postulated the superiority of the European civilization over the rest of the world. Furthermore, they frequently made use of the idea of "[[survival of the fittest]]", a term coined by [[Herbert Spencer]] in 1864, associated with ideas of competition, which were named [[social Darwinism]] in the 1940s. [[Charles Darwin]] himself opposed the idea of rigid racial differences in ''[[The Descent of Man]]'' (1871), in which he argued that humans were all of one species, sharing common descent. He recognised racial differences as varieties of humanity, and emphasised the close similarities between people of all races in mental faculties, tastes, dispositions and habits, while still contrasting the culture of the "lowest savages" with European civilization.<ref name="dom">{{cite web |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F937.1&viewtype=text&pageseq=245 |title=The descent of man, and selection in relation to sex |access-date=2 December 2007 |first=Charles |last=Darwin |author-link=Charles Darwin |year=1871 |publisher=John Murray |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930014528/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F937.1&viewtype=text&pageseq=245 |archive-date=30 September 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Desmond |first1=Adrian |author1-link=Adrian Desmond |first2=James Richard |last2=Moore |author2-link=James Moore (biographer) |title=Darwin |year=1991 |publisher=Michael Joseph, Penguin Group |isbn=978-0-7181-3430-3 |oclc=185764721 |pages=28, 147, 580}}</ref>

At the end of the 19th century, proponents of scientific racism intertwined themselves with [[eugenics]] discourses of "[[Social degeneration|degeneration]] of the race" and "blood [[heredity]]".{{citation needed|date=January 2015}} Henceforth, scientific racist discourses could be defined as the combination of polygenism, unilinealism, social Darwinism, and eugenism. They found their scientific legitimacy on [[physical anthropology]], [[anthropometry]], [[craniometry]], [[phrenology]], [[physiognomy]], and others now discredited disciplines in order to formulate racist prejudices.

Before being disqualified in the 20th century by the American school of [[cultural anthropology]] ([[Franz Boas]], etc.), the British school of [[social anthropology]] ([[Bronisław Malinowski]], [[Alfred Radcliffe-Brown]], etc.), the French school of [[ethnology]] ([[Claude Lévi-Strauss]], etc.), as well as the discovery of the [[Modern synthesis (20th century)|neo-Darwinian synthesis]], such sciences, in particular anthropometry, were used to deduce behaviours and psychological characteristics from outward, physical appearances.

The neo-Darwinian synthesis, first developed in the 1930s, eventually led to a [[gene-centered view of evolution]] in the 1960s. According to the [[Human Genome Project]], the most complete mapping of human DNA to date indicates that there is no clear [[Race and genetics|genetic basis to racial groups]]. While some genes are more common in certain populations, there are no genes that exist in all members of one population and no members of any other.<ref name="ornl">{{cite web |title=Minorities, Race, and Genomics |url=http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/elsi/minorities.shtml |access-date=12 May 2009 |archive-date=15 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090515144721/http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/elsi/minorities.shtml |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Heredity and eugenics===
{{Further|Eugenics}}

The first theory of [[eugenics]] was developed in 1869 by [[Francis Galton]] (1822–1911), who used the then-popular concept of ''[[Social degeneration|degeneration]]''. He applied [[statistics]] to study human differences and the alleged "[[inheritance of intelligence]]", foreshadowing future uses of "[[intelligence testing]]" by the anthropometry school. Such theories were vividly described by the writer [[Émile Zola]] (1840–1902), who started publishing in 1871, a twenty-novel cycle, ''[[Les Rougon-Macquart]]'', where he linked [[heredity]] to behavior. Thus, Zola described the high-born Rougons as those involved in politics (''[[Son Excellence Eugène Rougon]]'') and medicine (''[[Le Docteur Pascal]]'') and the low-born Macquarts as those fatally falling into [[alcoholism]] (''[[L'Assommoir]]''), [[prostitution]] (''[[Nana (novel)|Nana]]''), and [[homicide]] (''[[La Bête humaine]]'').

During the rise of [[Nazi Germany|Nazism in Germany]], some scientists in Western nations worked to debunk the regime's racial theories. A few argued against racist ideologies and discrimination, even if they believed in the alleged existence of biological races. However, in the fields of anthropology and biology, these were minority positions until the mid-20th century.<ref>[[UNESCO]], ''[[The Race Question]]'', 1950</ref> According to the 1950 UNESCO statement, ''[[The Race Question]]'', an international project to debunk racist theories had been attempted in the mid-1930s. However, this project had been abandoned. Thus, in 1950, UNESCO declared that it had resumed:

<blockquote>...up again, after a lapse of fifteen years, a project that the [[International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation]] has wished to carry through but that it had to abandon in deference to the [[Appeasement of Hitler|appeasement policy]] of the pre-war period. The race question had become one of the pivots of [[Nazi ideology]] and policy. [[Tomáš Masaryk|Masaryk]] and [[Edvard Beneš|Beneš]] took the initiative of calling for a conference to re-establish in the minds and consciences of men everywhere the truth about race ... Nazi propaganda was able to continue its baleful work unopposed by the authority of an international organisation.</blockquote>

The [[Third Reich's racial policies]], its [[Nazi eugenics|eugenics programs]] and the extermination of Jews in [[the Holocaust]], as well as the [[Romani people]] in the [[Porrajmos]] (the [[Porajmos|Romani Holocaust]]) and others minorities led to a change in opinions about scientific research into race after the war.{{citation needed|date=January 2015}} Changes within scientific disciplines, such as the rise of the [[Franz Boas|Boasian]] school of anthropology in the United States contributed to this shift. These theories were strongly denounced in the 1950 UNESCO statement, signed by internationally renowned scholars, and titled ''[[The Race Question]]''.

===Polygenism and racial typologies===
{{Further|Polygenism |Typology (anthropology)|Nordicism}}
[[File:Passing of the Great Race - Map 4.jpg|thumb|Madison Grant's map, from 1916, charting the "present distribution of European races", with the [[Nordic race|Nordics]] in red, the [[Alpine race|Alpines]] in green, and the [[Mediterranean race|Mediterraneans]] in yellow]]

Works such as [[Arthur de Gobineau]]'s ''[[An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races]]'' (1853–1855) may be considered one of the first theorizations of this new racism, founded on an essentialist notion of race, which opposed the former racial discourse, of [[Henri de Boulainvilliers|Boulainvilliers]] for example, which saw in races a fundamentally historical reality, which changed over time. Gobineau, thus, attempted to frame racism within the terms of biological differences among humans, giving it the legitimacy of [[biology]].

Gobineau's theories would be expanded in France by [[Georges Vacher de Lapouge]] (1854–1936)'s [[typology (anthropology)|typology of races]], who published in 1899 ''The Aryan and his Social Role'', in which he claimed that the white "[[Aryan]] race" "[[Cephalic index|dolichocephalic]]", was opposed to the "brachycephalic" race, of whom the "[[Jew]]" was the archetype. Vacher de Lapouge thus created a [[hierarchical classification]] of races, in which he identified the "''[[Nordic race|Homo europaeus]]'' (Teutonic, Protestant, etc.), the "''[[Homo alpinus]]''" ([[Auvergne (province)|Auvergnat]], [[Turkish people|Turkish]], etc.), and finally the "''[[Homo mediterraneus]]''" ([[Naples|Neapolitan]], [[Andalusia|Andalus]], etc.) He assimilated races and [[social class]]es, considering that the French upper class was a representation of the ''Homo europaeus'', while the lower class represented the ''Homo alpinus''. Applying Galton's eugenics to his theory of races, Vacher de Lapouge's "selectionism" aimed first at achieving the annihilation of [[trade union]]ists, considered to be a "degenerate"; second, creating types of man each destined to one end, in order to prevent any contestation of [[labour condition]]s. His "anthroposociology" thus aimed at blocking [[social conflict]] by establishing a fixed, hierarchical social order.<ref>Matsuo Takeshi ([[Shimane Prefecture|University of Shimane]], Japan). ''L'Anthropologie de Georges Vacher de Lapouge: Race, classe et eugénisme'' (Georges Vacher de Lapouge anthropology) in ''{{ill|Japanese Society for French Literature|lt=Studies in French Language and Literature|jp|日本フランス語フランス文学会}}'' 2001, n°79, pp. 47–57. {{ISSN|0425-4929}}; [[INIST]]-[[Centre national de la recherche scientifique|CNRS]], Cote INIST : 25320, 35400010021625.0050 ([http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=13473405 Abstract resume on the INIST-CNRS])</ref>

The same year, [[William Z. Ripley]] used identical racial classification in ''[[The Races of Europe (Ripley)|The Races of Europe]]'' (1899), which would have a great influence in the United States. Other scientific authors include [[Houston Stewart Chamberlain|H.S. Chamberlain]] at the end of the 19th century (a British citizen who [[naturalization|naturalized]] himself as German because of his admiration for the "Aryan race") and [[Madison Grant]], a eugenicist and author of ''[[The Passing of the Great Race]]'' (1916). Madison Grant provided statistics for the [[Immigration Act of 1924]], which severely restricted immigration of Jews, [[Slavs]], and Southern Europeans, who were subsequently hindered in seeking to escape Nazi Germany.<ref>{{cite book |title=The funding of scientific racism: Wickliffe Draper and the Pioneer Fund |last=Tucker |first=William H. |author-link=William H. Tucker (psychologist) |publisher=[[University of Illinois Press]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-252-07463-9}}</ref>

=== Human zoos ===
[[Human zoo]]s (called "People Shows"), were an important means of bolstering ''popular racism'' by connecting it to scientific racism: they were both objects of public curiosity and of [[anthropology]] and [[anthropometry]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://spectrum.library.concordia.ca/979954/ |title=On A Neglected Aspect Of Western Racism |first=Kurt |last=Jonassohn |date=December 2000 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231202161436/https://spectrum.library.concordia.ca/id/eprint/979954/ |archive-date=2 December 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Human zoos – Racist theme parks for Europe's colonialists |work=[[Le Monde diplomatique]] |date=August 2000 |url=http://mondediplo.com/2000/08/07humanzoo |first1=Pascal |last1=Blanchard |first2=Sandrine |last2=Lemaire |first3=Nicolas |last3=Bancel |name-list-style=amp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240519143603/https://mondediplo.com/2000/08/07humanzoo |archive-date=19 May 2024}}; {{cite news |title=Ces zoos humains de la République coloniale |trans-title=These human zoos of the Colonial Republic |work=[[Le Monde diplomatique]] |date=August 2000 |url=https://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/2000/08/BANCEL/14145.html |language=fr }}</ref> [[Joice Heth]], an African-American slave, was displayed by [[Phineas Taylor Barnum|P.T. Barnum]] in 1836, a few years after the exhibition of [[Saartjie Baartman]], the "Hottentot Venus", in England. Such exhibitions became common in the New Imperialism period, and remained so until World War II. [[Carl Hagenbeck]], inventor of the modern zoos, exhibited animals beside humans who were considered "savages".<ref name="Diplo">{{cite news |url=http://mondediplo.com/2000/08/07humanzoo |title=Human Zoos |first1=Nicolas |last1=Bancel |first2=Pascal |last2=Blanchard |first3=Sandrine |last3=Lemaire |work=[[Le Monde diplomatique]] |date=August 2000 }} [https://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/2000/08/BANCEL/14145.html French – free]</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1252/is_16_131/ai_n13463375 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120629100243/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1252/is_16_131/ai_n13463375 |archive-date=29 June 2012 |title=Savages and Beasts – The Birth of the Modern Zoo |first=Nigel |last=Rothfels |publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]]}}</ref>

Congolese [[Pygmies|pygmy]] [[Ota Benga]] was displayed in 1906 by [[eugenicist]] [[Madison Grant]], head of the [[Bronx Zoo]], as an attempt to illustrate the "missing link" between humans and [[orangutan]]s: thus, racism was tied to [[Darwinism]], creating a [[social Darwinism|social Darwinist]] ideology that tried to ground itself in [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]]'s scientific discoveries. The 1931 Paris [[Colonial Exhibition]] displayed [[Kanaks]] from [[New Caledonia]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.port.ac.uk/special/france1815to2003/chapter6/interviews/filetodownload,18533,en.pdf |title= The Colonial Exhibition of May 1931 |access-date=1 August 2006 |archive-date=15 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215171736/http://www2.port.ac.uk/special/france1815to2003/chapter6/interviews/filetodownload,18533,en.pdf |url-status=dead}} {{small|(96.6 KB)}} by Michael G. Vann, History Dept., [[Santa Clara University]]</ref> A "Congolese village" was on display as late as 1958 at the [[Expo '58|Brussels' World Fair]].

== Theories about the origins of racism ==
{{See also|Ethnocentrism|Tribalism}}
[[File:Model of ethnic & racial conflict.png|thumb|upright=2.5|Sociological model of ethnic and racial conflict]]

Evolutionary psychologists [[John Tooby]] and [[Leda Cosmides]] were puzzled by the fact that in the US, race is one of the three characteristics most often used in brief descriptions of individuals (the others are age and sex). They reasoned that [[natural selection]] would not have favoured the evolution of an instinct for using race as a classification, because for most of human history, humans almost never encountered members of other races. Tooby and Cosmides hypothesized that modern people use race as a proxy (rough-and-ready indicator) for coalition membership, since a better-than-random guess about "which side" another person is on will be helpful if one does not actually know in advance.

Their colleague [[Robert Kurzban]] designed an experiment whose results appeared to support this hypothesis. Using the [[memory confusion protocol]], they presented subjects with pictures of individuals and sentences, allegedly spoken by these individuals, which presented two sides of a debate. The errors that the subjects made in recalling who said what indicated that they sometimes mis-attributed a statement to a speaker of the same race as the "correct" speaker, although they also sometimes mis-attributed a statement to a speaker "on the same side" as the "correct" speaker. In a second run of the experiment, the team also distinguished the "sides" in the debate by clothing of similar colors; and in this case the effect of racial similarity in causing mistakes almost vanished, being replaced by the color of their clothing. In other words, the first group of subjects, with no clues from clothing, used race as a visual guide to guessing who was on which side of the debate; the second group of subjects used the clothing color as their main visual clue, and the effect of race became very small.<ref name="KurzbanToobyCosmides2001ErasingRace">{{cite journal |title=Can race be erased? Coalitional computation and social categorization |author1=Robert Kurzban |author1-link=Robert Kurzban |author2=John Tooby |author2-link=John Tooby |author3=Leda Cosmides |author3-link=Leda Cosmides |name-list-style=amp |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] |date=18 December 2001 |volume=98 |issue=26 |pages=15387–15392 |doi=10.1073/pnas.251541498 | pmid=11742078 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=65039 |bibcode=2001PNAS...9815387K |doi-access=free}}. The authors provide a summary and other comments at {{cite web |url=http://www.psych.ucsb.edu/research/cep/erasingrace.htm |title=(untitled) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080627070117/https://www.psych.ucsb.edu/research/cep/erasingrace.htm |archive-date=27 June 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Some research suggests that ethnocentric thinking may have actually contributed to the development of cooperation. Political scientists Ross Hammond and Robert Axelrod created a computer simulation wherein virtual individuals were randomly assigned one of a variety of skin colors, and then one of a variety of trading strategies: be color-blind, favor those of your own color, or favor those of other colors. They found that the ethnocentric individuals clustered together, then grew, until all the non-ethnocentric individuals were wiped out.<ref>''[[New Scientist]]''. Issue 2595, 17 March 2007.</ref>

In ''[[The Selfish Gene]]'', evolutionary biologist [[Richard Dawkins]] writes that "Blood-feuds and inter-clan warfare are easily interpretable in terms of [[W. D. Hamilton|Hamilton]]'s [[kin selection|genetic theory]]." Dawkins writes that racial prejudice, while not evolutionarily adaptive, "could be interpreted as an irrational generalization of a kin-selected tendency to identify with individuals physically resembling oneself, and to be nasty to individuals different in appearance."<ref name="Dawkins2006">{{cite book |first=Richard |last=Dawkins |author-link=Richard Dawkins |title=The selfish gene |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EJeHTt8hW7UC&pg=PA99 |year=2006 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-929115-1 |page=99 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> Simulation-based experiments in [[evolutionary game theory]] have attempted to provide an explanation for the selection of ethnocentric-strategy phenotypes.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1177/0022002706293470 |last1=Hammond |first1=R. A. |last2=Axelrod |first2=R. |title=The Evolution of Ethnocentrism |journal=[[Journal of Conflict Resolution]] |volume=50 | issue=6 |pages=926–936 |year=2006 |s2cid=9613947}}</ref>

Despite support for evolutionary theories relating to an innate origin of racism, various studies have suggested racism is associated with lower intelligence and less diverse peer groups during childhood. A neuroimaging study on amygdala activity during racial matching activities found increased activity to be associated with adolescent age as well as less racially diverse peer groups, which the author conclude suggest a learned aspect of racism.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Telzer |first1=Eva |last2=Humphreys |first2=Kathryn |last3=Mor |first3=Shapiro |last4=Tottenham |first4=Nim |author4-link=Nim Tottenham |title=Amygdala Sensitivity to Race Is Not Present in Childhood but Emerges over Adolescence |journal=Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=234–244 |doi=10.1162/jocn_a_00311 |pmid=23066731 |year=2013 |pmc=3628780}}</ref> A meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies found amygdala activity correlated to increased scores on implicit measures of racial bias. It was also argued amygdala activity in response to racial stimuli represents increased threat perception rather than the traditional theory of the amygdala activity represented ingroup-outgroup processing.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chekroud |first1=Adam M. |last2=Everett |first2=Jim A.C. |last3=Bridge |first3=Holly |last4=Hewstone |first4=Miles |author4-link=Miles Hewstone |title=A review of neuroimaging studies of race-related prejudice: does amygdala response reflect threat? |journal=[[Frontiers in Human Neuroscience]] |date=27 March 2014 |volume=8 |page=179 |doi=10.3389/fnhum.2014.00179 |pmc=3973920 |issn=1662-5161 |pmid=24734016 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Racism has also been associated with lower childhood IQ in an analysis of 15,000 people in the UK.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hodson |first1=G. |last2=Busseri |first2=M.A. |title=Bright Minds and Dark Attitudes: Lower Cognitive Ability Predicts Greater Prejudice Through Right-Wing Ideology and Low Intergroup Contact |journal=[[Psychological Science]] |date=5 January 2012 |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=187–195 |doi=10.1177/0956797611421206 |pmid=22222219 |s2cid=206585907 |language=en}}</ref>

== Psychological causes ==
A 2017 study in the ''American Political Science Review'' found that prejudice towards marginalized groups, such as refugees, could be explained by a failure to take the perspective of the marginalized group.<ref name="Simonovits">{{Cite journal |last1=Simonovits |first1=Gábor |last2=Kézdi |first2=Gábor |last3=Kardos |first3=Péter |date=2017 |title=Seeing the World Through the Other's Eye: An Online Intervention Reducing Ethnic Prejudice |journal=American Political Science Review |volume=112 |pages=186–193 |doi=10.1017/S0003055417000478 |issn=0003-0554 |s2cid=148909505}}</ref> The study found that young Hungarian adults who played a perspective-taking game (a game intended to reduce prejudice towards marginalized groups by having players assume the role of a member of a marginalized group) showed reduced prejudice towards Romani people and refugees, as well as reduced their vote intentions for Hungary's overtly racist, far right party by 10%.<ref name="Simonovits" />

== State-sponsored racism ==
{{Main|Nazism and race|Racial policy of Nazi Germany|Racial antisemitism|Eugenics in Showa Japan|Apartheid in South Africa|Racial segregation in the United States|Ketuanan Melayu|Anti-Chinese legislation in Indonesia|White Australia policy}}

[[State racism]]—the institutions and practices of a nation-state that are grounded in racist ideology—has played a major role in all instances of [[settler colonialism]], from the United States to Australia.{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}} It also played a prominent role in the [[Nazi Germany|Nazi German]] regime, in [[Fascism|fascist]] regimes throughout Europe, and during the early years of Japan's [[Shōwa period]]. These governments advocated and implemented ideologies and policies that were racist, xenophobic, and, in the case of [[Nazism]], genocidal.<ref>{{cite book |first=Edward |last=Russel |title=The Knights of Bushido |date=2002 |page=238}}; {{cite book |last=Bix |first=Herbert |author-link=Herbert Bix |title=[[Hirohito and the making of modern Japan]] |date=2001 |pages=313–314, 326, 359–360}}; {{cite book |last=Wolferen |first=Karel van |author-link=Karel van Wolferen |title=The Enigma of Japanese Power |date=1989 |pages=263–272}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Paulino |first1=Edward |title=Anti-Haitianism, Historical Memory, and the Potential for Genocidal Violence in the Dominican Republic |journal=[[Genocide Studies International]] |date=December 2006 |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=265–288 |doi=10.3138/7864-3362-3R24-6231 |issn=2291-1847 |eissn=2291-1855 |url=https://scholarcommons.usf.edu/gsp/vol1/iss3/5 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

The [[Nuremberg Laws|Nuremberg Race Laws]] of 1935 prohibited sexual relations between any Aryan and Jew, considering it ''[[Rassenschande]]'', "racial pollution". The Nuremberg Laws stripped all Jews, even quarter- and half-Jews (second and first degree ''Mischlings''), of their German citizenship. This meant that they had no basic citizens' rights, e.g., the [[the right to vote|right to vote]]. In 1936, Jews were banned from all professional jobs, effectively preventing them from having any influence in education, politics, higher education, and industry. On 15 November 1938, Jewish children were banned from going to normal schools. By April 1939, nearly all Jewish companies had either collapsed under financial pressure and declining profits, or had been persuaded to sell out to the Nazi government. This further reduced their rights as human beings; they were in many ways officially separated from the German populace. Similar laws existed in Bulgaria ([[Law for protection of the nation|The Law for protection of the nation]]), Hungary, Romania, and Austria.

Legislative state racism is known to have been enforced by the [[National Party (South Africa)|National Party]] of South Africa during its [[Apartheid]] regime between 1948 and 1994. Here, a series of [[Apartheid legislation in South Africa|Apartheid legislation]] was passed through the legal systems to make it legal for white South Africans to have rights which were superior to those of non-white South Africans. Non-white South Africans were not allowed involvement in any governing matters, including voting; access to quality healthcare; the provision of basic services, including clean water; electricity; as well as access to adequate schooling. Non-white South Africans were also prevented from accessing certain public areas, from using certain public transportation, and were required to live only in certain designated areas. Non-white South Africans were taxed differently than white South Africans and they were also required to carry on them at all times additional documentation, which later became known as "dom passes", to certify their non-white South African citizenship. All of these legislative racial laws were abolished through a series of equal [[human rights]] laws which were passed at the end of the Apartheid era in the early 1990s.

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
File:WhiteDoorColoredDoor.jpg|Separate "white" and "colored" entrances to a café in [[Durham, North Carolina|North Carolina]], 1940
File:Neurenberger Rassenwetten NL.JPG|1935 Chart from Nazi Germany used to explain the [[Nuremberg Laws]], defining which Germans were to be considered Jews and stripped of their citizenship. Germans with three or more Jewish grandparents were defined as Jews, Germans with one or two Jewish grandparents were deemed ''Mischling'' (mixed-blood).
File:The Chinese Must Go - Magic Washer - 1886 anti-Chinese US cartoon.jpg|19th century [[political cartoon]]: ''[[Uncle Sam]] kicks out the [[Chinaman]]'', referring to the [[Chinese Exclusion Act]]
</gallery>

==Anti-racism==
{{Main|Anti-racism|Racial equality|Anti-fascism|Anti-imperialism|Anti-colonialism|Multiracial democracy}}

[[File:Mandela Bust at Southbank.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Bust of [[Nelson Mandela]] erected on London's [[South Bank]]. Mandela is widely considered a global hero for his role in opposing the [[apartheid system]] and inaugurating a [[multiracial democracy]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Legacy of Madiba |url=https://www.nobelpeacecenter.org/aktuelt/the-legacy-of-madiba |website=www.nobelpeacecenter.org |language=nb}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Allison |first1=Scott T |title=Encyclopedia of Heroism Studies |date=1 October 2024 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-031-48129-1 |page=2068 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ALklEQAAQBAJ&dq=nelson+mandela+widely+considered+a+hero&pg=PA2068 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Allison |first1=Scott T. |last2=Goethals |first2=George R. |title=Heroic Leadership: An Influence Taxonomy of 100 Exceptional Individuals |date=4 July 2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-23273-2 |page=25 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uWnRs5wCpJsC&dq=nelson+mandela+global+hero&pg=PA25 |language=en}}</ref>]]

[[File:ME EMME VAIKENE 023 Rasismia ja fasismia vastaan (53163900837).jpg|thumb|Demonstration against racism in [[Helsinki]], Finland 2023]]
Anti-racism includes beliefs, actions, scholarship, [[Political movement|movements]], and [[Public policy|policies]] which are adopted or developed in order to oppose racism. In general, it promotes an egalitarian society in which people are not discriminated against on the basis of race. Examples of anti-racist movements include the [[civil rights movement]], the [[Anti-Apartheid Movement]] and [[Black Lives Matter]]. [[Socialist]] groups have also been closely aligned with a number of anti-racist organizations such as [[Anti-Nazi League]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Høgsbjerg |first1=Christian |title=Trotskyology: A review of John Kelly, Contemporary Trotskyism: Parties, Sects and Social Movements in Britain |journal=International Socialism |date=18 October 2018 |issue=160 |url=https://isj.org.uk/trotskyology/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240525203955/https://isj.org.uk/trotskyology/ |archive-date=25 May 2024}}</ref> and [[Unite Against Fascism]].<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Platt |first1=Edward |title=Comrades at war: the decline and fall of the Socialist Workers Party |url=https://www.newstatesman.com/uncategorized/2014/05/comrades-war-decline-and-fall-socialist-workers-party |magazine=[[New Statesman]] |date=20 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240630024250/https://www.newstatesman.com/uncategorized/2014/05/comrades-war-decline-and-fall-socialist-workers-party |archive-date=30 June 2024}}</ref> [[Nonviolent resistance]] is sometimes embraced as an element of anti-racist movements, although this was not always the case. [[Hate crime]] laws, [[affirmative action]], and bans on racist speech are also examples of government policy which is intended to suppress racism.

==See also==
{{Div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Afrophobia]]
* [[Allport's Scale]]
* [[Anti-Black racism]]
* [[Anti-white racism]]
* [[Aporophobia]]
* [[Christian Identity]]
* [[Covert racism]]
* [[Creativity (religion)]]
* [[Curse and mark of Cain]]
* [[Curse of Ham]]
* [[Discrimination based on skin color]]
* [[Environmental racism]]
* [[Environmental racism in Europe]]
* [[Ethnic hatred]]
* [[Hate crime]]
* [[Hate speech]]
* [[Hipster racism]]
* [[Historical trauma]]
* [[Identitarianism]]
* [[Index of racism-related articles]]
* [[In-group favoritism]]
* [[Internalized racism]]
* [[Labeling theory]]
* [[Minority stress]]
* [[Nigger]]
* [[Racial bias in criminal news]]
* [[Racial bias on Wikipedia]]
* [[Racial fetishism]]
* [[Racial literacy]]
* [[Racialization]]
* [[Raciolinguistics]]
* [[Pre-Adamite#Racist pre-Adamism|Racist pre-Adamism]]
* [[Racism in horror films]]
* [[Racism in the LGBT community]]
* [[Redlining]]
* [[Romantic racism]]
* [[Social interpretations of race]]
* [[Speciesism]]
* [[Stereotype threat]]
* [[Tatarophobia]]
* [[Tragic mulatto]]
* [[Yellow Peril]]
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{Library resources box
|by=no
|onlinebooks=no
|others=no
|about=yes
|label=Racism}}
{{Refbegin|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Theodore W. Allen|Allen, Theodore]]. (1994). ''The Invention of the White Race: Volume 1'' London: [[Verso Books]].
* [[Theodore W. Allen|Allen, Theodore]]. (1997). ''The Invention of the White Race: Volume 2'' London: [[Verso Books]].
* Barkan, Elazar (1992), ''The Retreat of Scientific Racism : Changing Concepts of Race in Britain and the United States between the World Wars'', Cambridge University Press, New York.
* Barth, Boris: [https://web.archive.org/web/20160304054305/http://nbn-resolving.de/urn: nbn:de:0159-2010092173 ''Racism ''], [[European History Online]], Mainz: [[Institute of European History]], 2011, retrieved: 16 November 2011.
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Bolick |first=Clint |author-link=Clint Bolick |editor-first=Ronald |editor-last=Hamowy |editor-link=Ronald Hamowy |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism |chapter=Racism |chapter-url=https://sk.sagepub.com/reference/libertarianism/n253.xml |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC  |year=2008 |publisher=[[SAGE Publishing|Sage]]; [[Cato Institute]] |location=Thousand Oaks, CA |isbn=978-1412965804 |oclc=750831024| pages=411–412}}
* Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo. 2018. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=QQglDwAAQBAJ Racism without Racists: Color-Blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in the United States]''. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.
* {{Cite book |last=Curta |first=Florin |author-link=Florin Curta |title=The Making of the Slavs: History and Archaeology of the Lower Danube Region, c. 500–700 |year=2001 |location=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rcFGhCVs0sYC |isbn=978-1-139-42888-0}}
* Dain, Bruce (2002), ''A Hideous Monster of the Mind : American Race Theory in the Early Republic'', [[Harvard University Press]], Cambridge. (18th century US racial theory)
* Daniels, Jessie (1997), ''White Lies: Race, Class, Gender and Sexuality in White Supremacist Discourse'', [[Routledge]], New York.
* Daniels, Jessie (2009), ''Cyber Racism: White Supremacy Online and the New Attack on Civil Rights'', [[Rowman & Littlefield]], Lanham, MD.
* {{cite book |last=Ehrenreich |first=Eric |date=2007 |title=The Nazi Ancestral Proof: Genealogy, Racial Science, and the Final Solution |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |location=Bloomington}}
* {{cite book |last1=Ewen |last2=Ewen |date=2006 |title=Typecasting: On the Arts and Sciences of Human Inequality |publisher=Seven Stories Press |location=New York}}
* {{cite book |last=Feagin |first=Joe R. |author-link=Joe Feagin |date=2006 |title=Systemic Racism: A Theory of Oppression |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=New York}}
* {{cite book |last=Feagin |first=Joe R. |author-link=Joe Feagin |date=2009 |title=Racist America: Roots, Current Realities, and Future Reparations |edition=2nd |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=New York}}
* {{cite book |last1=Eliav-Feldon |first1=Miriam |last2=Isaac |first2=Benjamin |author2-link=Benjamin Isaac |last3=Ziegler |first3=Joseph |date=2009 |title=The Origins of Racism in the West |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge}}
* [http://richgibson.com/againstracism.htm Gibson, Rich (2005) Against Racism and Irrationalism]
* Graves, Joseph. (2004) ''The Race Myth'' NY: Dutton.
* {{cite book |last=Ignatiev |first=Noel |date=1995 |title=How the Irish Became White |location=New York |publisher=[[Routledge]]}}
* {{cite book |last=Isaac |first=Benjamin |author-link=Benjamin Isaac |date=1995 |title=The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity |location=Princeton |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]}}
* {{cite book |last=Lentin |first=Alana |date=2008 |title=Racism: A Beginner's Guide |location=Oxford |publisher=One World}}
* {{cite book |last=Lévi-Strauss |first=Claude |author-link=Claude Lévi-Strauss |date=1952 |title=Race and History |publisher=[[UNESCO]]}}
* {{cite book |last=Memmi |first=Albert |title=Racism |year=2000 |publisher=[[University of Minnesota Press]] |isbn=978-0-8166-3165-0}}
* {{citation |last=Moody-Adams |first=Michele |contribution=Racism |editor1-last=Frey |editor1-first=R. G. |editor2-last=Heath Wellman |editor2-first=Christopher |title=A companion to applied ethics |page=[https://archive.org/details/companiontoappli0000unse/page/89 89–101] |publisher=[[Blackwell Publishing]] |series=Blackwell Companions to Philosophy |location=Oxford; Malden, MA |year=2005 |doi=10.1002/9780470996621.ch7 |isbn=978-1-4051-3345-6 |postscript=. |url=https://archive.org/details/companiontoappli0000unse/page/89}}
* {{cite book |last=Rocchio |first=Vincent F. |date=2000 |title=Reel Racism: Confronting Hollywood's Construction of Afro-American Culture |publisher=[[Westview Press]]}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Smedley |first1=Audrey |last2=Smedley |first2=Brian D. |year=2005 |title=Race as Biology if Fiction, Racism as a Social Problem is Real |journal=[[American Psychologist]] |volume=60 |issue=1 |pages=16–26 |doi=10.1037/0003-066x.60.1.16 |pmid=15641918 |citeseerx=10.1.1.694.7956}}
* Smedley, Audrey. 2007. ''Race in North America: Origins and Evolution of a World View''. Boulder, CO: Westview.
* {{cite journal |last1=Stoler |first1=Ann Laura |year=1997 |title=Racial Histories and Their Regimes of Truth |journal=Political Power and Social Theory |volume=11 |pages=183–206}} ([[historiography]] of race and racism)
* [[Pierre-André Taguieff|Taguieff, Pierre-André]] (1987), ''La Force du préjugé : Essai sur le racisme et ses doubles'', Tel Gallimard, La Découverte.
* [[Leon Poliakov|Poliakov, Leon]]. The Aryan Myth: A History of Racist and Nationalistic Ideas In Europe (Barnes & Noble Books (1996)) {{ISBN|0-7607-0034-6}}.
* Trepagnier, Barbara. 2006. ''Silent Racism: How Well-Meaning White People Perpetuate the Racial Divide''. Paradigm Publishers.
* [[France Winddance Twine|Twine, France Winddance]] (1997), ''Racism in a Racial Democracy: The Maintenance of White Supremacy in Brazil'', [[Rutgers University Press]].
* [[UNESCO]], ''[[The Race Question]]'', 1950
* [http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3389823,00.html Tali Farkash, "Racists among us" in Y-Net (Yediot Aharonot), "Jewish Scene" section, April 20, 2007]
* [[Howard Winant|Winant, Howard]] ''The New Politics of Race'' (2004)
* Winant, Howard and [[Michael Omi|Omi, Michael]] ''Racial Formation in the United States'' Routeledge (1986); Second Edition (1994).
* {{cite book| author = Bettina Wohlgemuth| title = Racism in the 21st century: how everybody can make a difference| date = 2007| publisher = AV Akademikerverlag GmbH & Company KG| isbn = 978-3-8364-1033-5 }}
* Wright W.D. (1998) ''"Racism Matters"'', Westport, CT: Praeger.
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Wiktionary}}
* [https://havanatimes.org/features/being-a-black-male-in-cuba/ Being a Black Male in Cuba] – By Lucia Lopez, ''Havana Times'' 5 May 2009.
* [https://us.corwin.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/4021_Jandt_Reader_Reading_11_Final_Proof.pdf Race, history and culture – Ethics – March 1996] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220616053243/https://us.corwin.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/4021_Jandt_Reader_Reading_11_Final_Proof.pdf |date=16 June 2022 }} – Extract of two articles by [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20170731235312/http://racism.org/ Race, Racism and the Law] – Information about race, racism and racial distinctions in the law.
* [http://www.racismreview.com/blog RacismReview] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171119071329/http://www.racismreview.com/blog/ |date=19 November 2017 }} – Created and maintained by American sociologists [[Joe Feagin]], PhD and Jessie Daniels, PhD, provides a research-based analysis of racism.
* [https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/144/2/e20191765 The Impact of Racism on Child and Adolescent Health]

{{Navboxes
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[[Category:Racism| ]]
[[Category:Prejudice and discrimination by type]]
[[Category:Politics and race]]

Farida Jalal

2026-03-17T08:24:29Z

Androidsub143: Revised and enhanced article content

{{Short description|Indian actress (born 1950)}}
{{confused|Farida Jalal (Nigerian actress)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2016}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Farida Jalal
| image = Farida Jalal at the premiere of Heera Mandi.jpg
| caption = Jalal at the 2024 premiere of ''[[Heeramandi]]''
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1949|03|14|df=yes}}
| birth_name = Farida Sami
| birth_place = [[Bombay]], [[Maharashtra]], India
| occupation = Actress
| years_active = 1967{{endash}}present
| spouse = {{marriage|Tabrez Barmavar|1978|2003|end=died}}
| children = 1
| website =
| signature =
}}

'''Farida Jalal''' (born as '''Farida Sami'''; 14 March 1949) is an Indian actress who has primarily worked in [[Hindi]] films. In a film career spanning almost fifty years, Jalal appeared in over 200 films. Best known for her character-driven roles in [[independent film|independent cinema]] and supporting work in mainstream Bollywood productions, Jalal has received such accolades as four [[Filmfare Awards]] and two [[Bengal Film Journalists Association Awards]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Farida Jalal Awards: List of awards and nominations received by Farida Jalal {{!}} Times of India Entertainment |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/topic/Farida-Jalal/awards |access-date=29 June 2020 |website=The Times of India |archive-date=16 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200716215022/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/topic/Farida-Jalal/awards |url-status=live}}</ref>

Jalal started her career with ''Taqdeer'' (1967). She went on to play leading and supporting roles in numerous motion pictures through the 1970s and early 80s. She is widely remembered for her roles in ''[[Aradhana (1969 film)|Aradhana]]'' (1969), ''[[Paras (1971 film)|Paras]]'' (1971), ''[[Henna (film)|Henna]]'' (1991) and ''[[Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge]]'' (1995), the last three of which garnered the [[Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress]]. She became a household name after portraying motherly roles and strong female characters in the 1990s and the early 2000s. She has also won the [[Filmfare Critics Award for Best Actress|Filmfare Award for Best Actress (Critics)]] for her role in ''[[Mammo]]'' (1994). She won the Best Actress Award at the 2012 Harlem International Film Festival for her role in ''[[A Gran Plan]]'' (2012).<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/bollywood/story/this-is-what-filmmakers-tell-farida-jalal-on-her-wish-to-play-negative-character-1431190-2019-01-15 |title=This is what filmmakers tell Farida Jalal on her wish to play negative character |last=15 January 2019 |website=India Today |date=15 January 2019 |access-date=31 March 2020 |archive-date=12 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201012021442/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/bollywood/story/this-is-what-filmmakers-tell-farida-jalal-on-her-wish-to-play-negative-character-1431190-2019-01-15 |url-status=live}}</ref>

She has also worked in numerous shows on [[Indian television]] alongside her work in films. Some of her notable works are the sitcom ''[[Yeh Jo Hai Zindagi]]'', ''[[Dekh Bhai Dekh]]'',
and ''[[Shararat (TV series)|Shararat]]''.

== Career ==
Farida Jalal, who was born on 14 March 1949 in [[Bombay]],<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zct0BMN26eA |title=Farida Jalal: The Iconic Character Artist | Tabassum Talkies |via=[[YouTube]] |time=2:03 |access-date=22 September 2021 |archive-date=8 March 2025 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/Zct0BMN26eA |url-status=live }}{{cbignore}}</ref> started her career in the 1960s when she won the United Film Producers Talent Hunt sponsored by [[Filmfare]] in 1965. She, along with [[Rajesh Khanna]] was chosen as a finalist and both were presented on stage as winners at the Filmfare Awards function. She got her first film offer for ''Taqdeer'' from [[Tarachand Barjatya]] who happened to be in the audience.<ref name="Farida Jalal – Interview 2000">{{cite interview |author-mask=Farida Jalal |interviewer=Manisha Vibhuti |title=Farida Jalal – Interview (2000) |date=2000|publisher=cineplot.com |url=http://cineplot.com/farida-jalal-interview-2000/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140303095738/http://cineplot.com/farida-jalal-interview-2000/ |archive-date=3 March 2014}}</ref> In an interview in 2014, she said, when asked her about the initial part of her career: "I started my acting career when I was just out of my school St Joseph's Convent in Panchgani, in a film called ''Taqdeer''. I took part in a talent contest and even won. Kaka (Rajesh Khanna) and I were the finalists. How was I to know that I'd soon be doing a film ''Aradhana'' with him?".<ref name="2014 interview">{{cite interview |author-mask=Farida Jalal |interviewer=Subhash K. Jha |title="I virtually grew up and grew old in the industry" – Farida Jalal |date=9 December 2014|publisher=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/celebrities/features/type/view/id/7616 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141227200519/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/celebrities/features/type/view/id/7616 |archive-date=27 December 2014}}</ref>

She usually played the sister or rejected fiancée of the male lead. When asked as to how she started getting typecast as a hero's sister, she quoted in an interview: "It all started with ''Gopi'' where I was offered the greatest Mr Dilip Kumar's sister's role. Forget about refusing, I jumped at the offer. Even if I had the chance to just go and observe him on the set I'd have done it. I love the man. I remember during those days each and every actor was copying Dilip Saab whether it was Dharmendra, Jeetendra, or Manoj Kumar. I was much in demand as Dilip Saab's sister. Every hero wanted the same. Every actor wanted me to play his sister. Sometimes the sister was the film's heroine. The official heroine would just sing her songs, whereas I had all the dramatic scenes. I got my recognition and the awards. In a film called ''Paras'' I was Sanjeev Kumar's sister. But I had a lot more to do than Raakhee-di who played the heroine. I got my first award for it. Then I got my second award for ''Majboor'', a film written by Salimbhai and Javedbhai where Bachchan Saab played my brother. It was so heartening. Why would I want to be heroine when I was getting the stronger parts as the sister?"<ref name="2014 interview" />

During the 1990s, Jalal had a part in many major films, among them ''[[Raja Hindustani]]'', ''[[Dil To Pagal Hai]]'', ''[[Kuch Kuch Hota Hai]]'', ''[[Kaho Naa... Pyaar Hai]]'', ''[[Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham]]'' and ''[[Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge]]'', for which she won the [[Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress]] in 1996. Farida Jalal played the lead in the film ''[[Mammo]]''. The film won the [[National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Hindi]], and Jalal won the [[Filmfare Critics Award for Best Actress|Filmfare Award for Best Actress (Critics)]]. She acted in many television serials, such as the sitcom ''[[Dekh Bhai Dekh]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/television/soaps/story/throwback-thursday-dekh-bhai-dekh-the-tv-show-that-made-india-keep-up-with-diwans-1627663-2019-12-12|title=Throwback Thursday: Dekh Bhai Dekh, the TV show that made India keep up with Diwans|website=India Today|date=12 December 2019|last=Singh|first=Nisha|access-date=28 June 2023|archive-date=8 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231208061848/https://www.indiatoday.in/television/soaps/story/throwback-thursday-dekh-bhai-dekh-the-tv-show-that-made-india-keep-up-with-diwans-1627663-2019-12-12|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2003, Jalal starred in ''[[Shararat (TV series)|Shararat]]'', in which she played a leading role. In 2005, she co-hosted the [[50th Filmfare Awards]] alongside [[Saif Ali Khan]] and [[Sonali Bendre]], in Mumbai. In 2008, she made a special appearance in the [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] film ''[[Yaariyan (2008 film)|Yaariyan]]''. Later, she appeared in the soap opera ''[[Balika Vadhu]]''.

== Personal life ==
Jalal was married to actor Tabrez Barmavar, who hailed from [[Bhatkal]], [[Karnataka]]. She met her husband on the sets of Jeevan Rekha and fell in love in the course of the film and got married in November 1978. The couple moved to [[Bangalore]] where her husband had a soap factory business.<ref name="Farida Jalal – Interview 2000"/> They have a son named Yaseen.<ref name="2014 interview" /> Her husband died in September 2003.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.zoomtventertainment.com/celebrity/article/farida-jalal-rare-and-unseen-photos-the-veteran-actress-throwback-photos-will-take-you-down-the-memory-lane/732257|title=Farida Jalal birthday: The veteran actress' throwback photos will take you down the memory lane|date=14 March 2021|website=Zoomtventertainment.com|publisher=[[Zoom (Indian TV channel)|Zoom]]|access-date=17 June 2021|archive-date=24 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624201841/https://www.zoomtventertainment.com/celebrity/article/farida-jalal-rare-and-unseen-photos-the-veteran-actress-throwback-photos-will-take-you-down-the-memory-lane/732257|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2017, she was the victim of a [[death hoax]]. There were several fake reports on various websites about her death.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Basu|first=Nilanjana|url=https://movies.ndtv.com/bollywood/farida-jalal-is-not-dead-internet-stop-spreading-fake-news-please-1661303 |title=Farida Jalal Is Not Dead, Internet. 'Stop Spreading Fake News' Please - NDTV Movies |website=NDTVMovies.com|publisher=[[NDTV]]|access-date=31 March 2020 |archive-date=15 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190115104553/http://movies.ndtv.com/bollywood/farida-jalal-is-not-dead-internet-stop-spreading-fake-news-please-1661303 |url-status=live|date=20 February 2017}}</ref>

== Filmography ==
{{Pending films key}}
=== Film ===
{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background:#CCC; text-align:center;"
! Year !! Title !! Role !! Notes
|-
||1967 ||''Taqdeer''|| Geeta ||
|-
||1968 || [[Baharon Ki Manzil (1968 film)|''Baharon ki Manzil'']] || ||
|-
| rowspan="2"|1969 || [[Mahal (1969 film)|''Mahal'']] || ||
|-
| [[Aradhana (1969 film)|''Aradhana'']]<ref>{{Cite web|author=Charukesi Ramadurai|url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/arts-culture/the-best-of-rajesh-khanna-1.382533 |title=The best of Rajesh Khanna |website=The National |date=31 July 2012 |access-date=31 March 2020 |archive-date=9 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190609113154/https://www.thenational.ae/arts-culture/the-best-of-rajesh-khanna-1.382533 |url-status=live}}</ref> || Renu ||Nominated—[[Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress]]
|-
| rowspan="4"|1970 || ''[[Puraskar]]'' || Reshma ||
|-
|''[[Naya Raasta]]'' || Radha Singh ||
|-
| ''[[Gopi (1970 film)|Gopi]]'' || Nandini ||
|-
| ''[[Devi (1970 film)|Devi]]'' || Shobha ||
|-
| rowspan="3"|1971||''[[Paras (1971 film)|Paras]]''||Bela Singh||
|-
| ''[[Khoj (1971 film)|Khoj]]'' || Asha ||
|-
| ''[[Pyar Ki Kahani]]'' || Lata ||
|-
| rowspan="4"|1972 || ''[[Zindagi Zindagi]]'' || Shyama ||
|-
| ''[[Amar Prem]]'' || Mrs. Nandkishore Sharma ||
|-
| ''[[Rivaaj]]'' || ||
|-
| ''Buniyaad'' || ||
|-
| rowspan="5"|1973 || [[Heera (film)|''Heera'']] || Lahariya ||
|-
| [[Bobby (1973 film)|''Bobby'']] || Alka Sharma "Nikki" ||
|-
| [[Achanak (1973 film)|''Achanak'']] || Nurse Radha ||
|-
| [[Raja Rani (1973 film)|''Raja Rani'']] || Anita || Uncredited
|-
| [[Loafer (1973 film)|''Loafer'']]|| Roopa ||
|-
| rowspan="4"|1974 ||''[[Naya Din Nai Raat]]'' || ||
|-
| ''Jeevan Rekha'' || ||
|-
| [[Majboor (1974 film)|''Majboor'']] || Renu Khanna ||<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/slide-show/slide-show-1-raksha-bandhan-special-bollywoods-endearing-bhai-behan-portrayals/20120802.htm |title=Rakhi special: Bollywood's endearing bhai-bahen portrayals |website=Rediff |access-date=31 March 2020 |archive-date=15 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200715190058/https://www.rediff.com/movies/slide-show/slide-show-1-raksha-bandhan-special-bollywoods-endearing-bhai-behan-portrayals/20120802.htm |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Sankalp]]'' || Geeta Sehgal ||
|-
| rowspan="7"|1975 || [[Khushboo (1975 film)|''Khushboo'']] || Kusum's friend ||
|-
| ''[[Uljhan]]'' || Kamla ||
|-
| ''[[Kaala Sona]]'' || Bela ||
|-
| ''[[Do Jasoos]]'' || Hema Khushalchand ||
|-
| ''[[Dhoti Lota Aur Chowpatty]]'' || Rajni ||
|-
| ''[[Dharmatma]]'' || Mona ||
|-
| ''[[Aakraman]]'' || Asha ||
|-
| rowspan="4"|1976 || ''[[Shaque]]'' || Mrs. Subramaniam ||
|-
| [[Sabse Bada Rupaiya (1976 film)|''Sabse Bada Rupaiya'']] || Bindiya/Shobha ||
|-
| ''[[Koi Jeeta Koi Haara]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Bandalbaaz]]'' || Malti ||
|-
| rowspan="6"|1977 || ''[[Kasam Khoon Ki]]'' || Ganga ||
|-
| ''[[Alaap]]'' || Sulakshana Gupta ||
|-
| ''[[Abhi To Jee Lein]]'' || The Nun ||
|-
| ''[[Aakhri Goli]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[The Chess Players (film)|Shatranj Ke Khiladi]]''<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/slide-show/slide-show-1-when-amjad-khan-attenborough-sanjeev-kumar-got-together/20120927.htm |title=Exclusive excerpt from Manik And I, My Life with Satyajit Ray |website=Rediff |access-date=31 March 2020 |archive-date=25 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200325040026/https://www.rediff.com/movies/slide-show/slide-show-1-when-amjad-khan-attenborough-sanjeev-kumar-got-together/20120927.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> || Nafisa ||
|-
| ''[[Palkon Ki Chhaon Mein]]'' ||Chhutki ||
|-
| rowspan="2"|1978 || [[Naya Daur (1978 film)|''Naya Daur'']] || Jenny||
|-
| ''[[Ganga Ki Saugand]]'' || Champa || Guest appearance
|-
| rowspan="2"|1979 || ''[[Jurmana (1979 film)|Jurmana]]'' || Laila ||
|-
| ''[[Dhongee]]'' || Geeta Khanna ||
|-
| rowspan="3"|1980 || ''Patthar Se Takkar'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Chambal Ki Kasam]]'' || ||
|-
| [[Abdullah (1980 film)|''Abdullah'']] || Yashoda || Uncredited
|-
| rowspan="2"|1981 || ''[[Jwala Daku]]'' || Sita ||
|-
| [[Yaarana (1981 film)|''Yaarana'']] || Mary || Uncredited
|-
| rowspan="1"|1983 || ''Salam e Mohabbat'' || ||
|-
||1987 || ''[[Pushpaka Vimana (1987 film)|Pushpaka Vimana]]'' || Magician's wife ||
|-
||1991 || [[Henna (film)|''Henna'']] || Bibi Gul ||
|-
| rowspan="4"|1992 || ''[[Paayal (1992 film)|Paayal]]'' || Shanti Devi ||
|-
| ''[[Bekhudi]]'' || Aunty ||
|-
| ''[[Bandhu (1992 film)|Bandhu]]'' || Mausi ||
|-
| ''[[Dil Aashna Hai]]'' || Razia ||
|-
||1993 || ''[[Gardish]]'' || Lakshmi (Shiva's mother) ||
|-
| rowspan="5"|1994 || ''[[Mammo]]'' || Mehmooda Begum Anwar Ali "Mammo" ||
|-
| ''[[Laadla (1994 film)|Laadla]]''<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/163896/13-songs-to-dedicate-this-mothers-day/ |title=13 songs to dedicate this Mother's Day |date=7 May 2011 |website=The Express Tribune |access-date=31 March 2020 |archive-date=9 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809030451/https://tribune.com.pk/story/163896/13-songs-to-dedicate-this-mothers-day |url-status=live}}</ref> || Gayetri Verma ||
|-
| ''[[Krantiveer]]'' || Mrs. Tilak (Pratap's Mother) ||
|-
| [[Elaan (1994 film)|''Elaan'']] || Revati Chaudhry ||
|-
| ''[[Dulaara (1994 film)|Dulaara]]'' || Florence ||
|-
| rowspan="4"|1995 || [[Andolan (1995 film)|''Andolan'']] || ||
|-
| [[Jawab (1995 film)|''Jawab'']] || ||
|-
| ''[[Veergati]]'' || Parvati ||
|-
| ''[[Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge]]'' || Lajwanti "Lajjo" Singh ||
|-
| rowspan="7"|1996 ||''Shastra''|| ||
|-
| [[Rajkumar (1996 film)|''Rajkumar'']] || Panna ||
|-
| [[Loafer (1996 film)|''Loafer'']] || Janki Kumar ||
|-
| ''[[Dushman Duniya Ka]]'' || Manager of women's shelter ||
|-
| ''[[Raja Hindustani]]'' || Chachi ||
|-
| ''[[Angaara]]'' || Saraswati ||
|-
| [[Ajay (1996 film)|''Ajay'']] || Ajay's Mother ||
|-
| rowspan="9"|1997 || ''[[Saat Rang Ke Sapne]]'' || Yashoda ||
|-
| ''[[Mrityudaata]]'' || Mother Ghayal ||
|-
| [[Mohabbat (1997 film)|''Mohabbat'']] || Geeta Kapoor ||
|-
| [[Judaai (1997 film)|''Judaai'']] || Kajal's mom ||
|-
|''Zor''|| ||
|-
| [[Lahu Ke Do Rang (1997 film)|''Lahoo Ke Do Rang'']] || Halima ||
|-
| [[Ziddi (1997 film)|''Ziddi'']] || Jaya's mother ||
|-
| ''[[Dil To Pagal Hai]]'' || Ajay's mom ||
|-
| [[Aflatoon (1997 film)|''Aflatoon'']] || Raja's mother ||
|-
| rowspan="5"|1998 || [[Salaakhen (1998 film)|''Salaakhen'']] || Vishal's mother ||
|-
| [[Duplicate (1998 film)|''Duplicate'']] || Mrs. Chaudhary "Bebe" ||
|-
| ''[[Jab Pyaar Kisise Hota Hai]]'' || Komal's mother ||
|-
| [[Soldier (1998 Indian film)|''Soldier'']] || Shanti Sinha ||
|-
| ''[[Kuch Kuch Hota Hai]]'' || Mrs. Khanna ||
|-
| rowspan="3"|1999 || ''[[Dil Kya Kare]]'' || Nandita's aunt ||
|-
| ''[[Hindustan Ki Kasam (1999 film)|Hindustan Ki Kasam]]'' || Mother of Ajay and Tauheed ||
|-
| [[Khoobsurat (1999 film)|''Khoobsurat'']] || Sudha Chaudhary ||
|-
| rowspan="9"|2000 || ''[[Kaho Naa... Pyaar Hai]]'' || Lily||
|-
| ''[[Hey Ram]]'' || [[Kasturba Gandhi]] || Simultaneously made in Tamil and Hindi
|-
| ''[[Dulhan Hum Le Jayenge]]'' || Mrs. Oberoi ||
|-
| [[Pukar (2000 film)|''Pukar'']] || Gayetri Rajvansh ||
|-
| ''[[Khauff]]'' || Mrs. Jaidev Singh ||
|-
| ''[[Kya Kehna]]''<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://bbfc.co.uk/releases/kya-kehna-2000-1 |title=Kya Kehna! |website=bbfc.co.uk}}{{dead link|date=April 2025|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> || Rohini Baxi ||
|-
| ''[[Bichhoo]]'' || Jeeva's mom ||
|-
| ''[[Tera Jadoo Chal Gayaa]]'' || Pooja's mother ||
|-
| ''[[Gaja Gamini]]'' || Noorbibi ||
|-
| rowspan="6"|2001 || [[Farz (2001 film)|''Farz'']] || Rukmani Singh ||
|-
| ''[[Zubeidaa]]'' || Mammo ||
|-
| ''[[Chori Chori Chupke Chupke]]'' || Asha Malhotra ||
|-
| [[Lajja (2001 film)|''Lajja'']] || Mother of Bride ||
|-
| ''[[Moksha: Salvation]]'' || Salim's mother ||
|-
| ''[[Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham]]'' || Sayeeda/Daijan ||
|-
| rowspan="5"|2002 || ''[[Pyaar Diwana Hota Hai]]'' || Mrs. Chaudhary ||
|-
| ''[[The Legend of Bhagat Singh]]''<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/magazine/story/bhagat-singh-films/216170/__LINK__ |title=Bhagat Singh Films | Outlook India Magazine |website=outlookindia.com/ |access-date=31 March 2020 |archive-date=12 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201012021445/https://magazine.outlookindia.com/story/bhagat-singh-films/216170 |url-status=live}}</ref> || Vidyavati ||
|-
| ''[[Badhaai Ho Badhaai]]'' || Mrs. Chaddha ||
|-
| ''[[Kuch Tum Kaho Kuch Hum Kahein]]''<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/2002/jun/13sld1.htm |title=rediff.com, Movies: Kuch Tum Kaho Kuch Hum Kahein: Story in Pictures |work=Rediff.com |access-date=31 March 2020 |archive-date=23 August 2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040823131407/http://www.rediff.com/movies/2002/jun/13sld1.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> || Mangala Vishnupratap Singh ||
|-
| ''[[Deewangee]]'' || Mrs. Goyal ||
|-
| rowspan="6"|2003 || [[Pinjar (film)|''Pinjar'']] || Mrs. Shyamlal ||
|-
| ''[[Aapko Pehle Bhi Kahin Dekha Hai]]'' || Jiji ||
|-
| ''[[Kaise Kahoon Ke... Pyaar Hai]]'' ||Lakshmi ||
|-
| ''[[Main Prem Ki Diwani Hoon]]'' || Mrs. Kapoor ||
|-
| ''[[Jaal: The Trap]]'' || Sudha Kaul ||
|-
| ''[[Fun 2shh: Dudes In the 10th Century]]'' || Mrs. DiSouza/Hiraka ||Double role
|-
| rowspan="2"|2004 || ''[[Garv: Pride and Honour]]'' || Mrs. Shakuntala Dixit ||
|-
| ''[[Taarzan: The Wonder Car]]'' || Mrs. Chaudhary<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.sify.com/movies/taarzan-the-wonder-car-review-bollywood-pclv5lhaggeeh.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201012021457/https://www.sify.com/movies/taarzan-the-wonder-car-review-bollywood-pclv5lhaggeeh.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=12 October 2020 |title=Taarzan The Wonder Car |website=[[Sify]]}}</ref> ||
|-
| rowspan="2"|2005 || ''[[Pyaar Mein Twist]]'' || Ms. Arya ||
|-
| [[Barsaat (2005 film)|''Barsaat'']] ||Anushka Sanghi ||
|-
|-
| rowspan="1"|2006
| ''[[Aryan (2006 film)|Aryan]]'' ||Mrs. Braganza ||
|-
| rowspan="2"|2007 || ''[[Big Brother (2007 film)|Big Brother]] ''||Sita devi ||
|-
| ''[[Laaga Chunari Mein Daag]]'' || ||
|-
| rowspan="2"|2010 || ''Krantiveer – The Revolution'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Aashayein]]'' || Madhu ||
|-
| rowspan="2"|2011 || ''[[Love Breakups Zindagi]]'' || Beeji ||
|-
| ''[[Chala Mussaddi... Office Office]]'' || Shanti || Special appearance
|-
| rowspan="3"|2012 || ''[[Chaar Din Ki Chandni]]''<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/chaar-din-ki-chandni/921806/ |title=Chaar Din Ki Chandni - Indian Express |website=The Indian Express |access-date=31 March 2020 |archive-date=22 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180322122705/http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/chaar-din-ki-chandni/921806/ |url-status=live}}</ref> || Pammi Kaur ||
|-
| ''[[Student of the Year]]'' || Abhimanyu's grandmother ||
|-
| ''[[A Gran Plan]]'' || Satvinder Kaur Bedi || Harlem International Film Festival Award for Best Actress
|-
| rowspan="3"|2015 || ''[[Bezubaan Ishq]]'' || Savitri ||
|-
| ''Tina Ki Chaabi'' || ||
|-
| ''An Untold Story of a Known Irony'' || ||Short film
|-
| 2017 || ''I'm Not A Terrorist'' || Zabira || Malaysian film
|-
| 2018 || ''[[Batti Gul Meter Chalu]]'' || Lalita's Grandmother||
|-
| 2020 || ''[[Jawaani Jaaneman]]''
|| Jazz's Mother ||
|-
|2021
|''Lines''
|Dadi
|<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/bollywood/story/lines-movie-review-hina-khan-drives-this-film-on-love-across-indo-pak-border-1834176-2021-07-29|title=Lines Movie Review: Hina Khan drives this film on love across Indo-Pak border|website=India Today|date=29 July 2021 |access-date=28 June 2023|archive-date=28 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230628200025/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/bollywood/story/lines-movie-review-hina-khan-drives-this-film-on-love-across-indo-pak-border-1834176-2021-07-29|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|rowspan="3"|2025
|''[[Aabeer Gulaal]]''
|Nani
|
|-
|''[[Love in Vietnam]]''
|Bebbe
|
|-
|''[[The Great Shamsuddin Family]]''
| Akko
|[[JioHotstar]] film<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Great Shamsuddin Family starring Farida Jalal, Sheeba Chaddha gets premiere date; trailer unveiled|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/hindi/2025/Dec/03/hindinews2025dec02the-great-shamsuddin-family-starring-farida-jalal-sheeba-chaddha-gets-premiere-date-trailer-unveiled|access-date=2025-12-03 |website=The New Indian Express|language=en}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2"| 2026
|''[[O'Romeo]]''
| rowspan="3"| {{TableTBA}}
|
|-
| {{Pending film|Welcome to the Jungle}}
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 January 2026 |last=Kaur |first=Loveleen |title=Welcome To The Jungle: Akshay Kumar, Suniel Shetty, Raveena Tandon’s film to hit cinemas on June 26 |url=https://www.pinkvilla.com/cinema/welcome-to-the-jungle-akshay-kumar-suniel-shetty-raveena-tandons-film-to-hit-cinemas-on-june-26-1400237 |website=[[Pinkvilla]] |access-date=28 January 2026}}</ref>
|-
| {{TBA}}
| {{Pending film|Karmaa Meets Kismet}}
|<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/art-entertainment/vaishnavi-macdonald-to-play-a-single-mother-in-sanjay-mishra-farida-jalal-starrer-karmaa-meets-kismet--news-287976|title=Vaishnavi Macdonald To Play A Single Mother In Sanjay Mishra, Farida Jalal Starrer 'Karmaa Meets Kismet'|date=20 May 2023 |access-date=28 June 2023|archive-date=29 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230629141231/https://www.outlookindia.com/art-entertainment/vaishnavi-macdonald-to-play-a-single-mother-in-sanjay-mishra-farida-jalal-starrer-karmaa-meets-kismet--news-287976|url-status=live}}</ref>
|}

===Television===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year !! Series !! Role !! Notes
|-
| 1984 || ''[[Yeh Jo Hai Zindagi]]'' || Ranjit's aunt ||<ref name="auto">{{Cite web |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/bollywood/funny-sweet-dadi-of-bollywood-turns-grumpy-i-haven-t-got-my-due-says-farida-jalal/story-SArpZIy7CcdOzBekPvfb3J.html |title=Funny, sweet dadi of Bollywood turns grumpy? I haven't got my due, says Farida Jalal |date=21 November 2014 |website=Hindustan Times |access-date=1 April 2020 |archive-date=12 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201012021455/https://www.hindustantimes.com/bollywood/funny-sweet-dadi-of-bollywood-turns-grumpy-i-haven-t-got-my-due-says-farida-jalal/story-SArpZIy7CcdOzBekPvfb3J.html |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| 1993–1994 || ''[[Dekh Bhai Dekh]]''|| Suhasini ||<ref name="auto2">{{Cite news |date=2014-11-22 |title=Dekh Bhai Dekh duo Farida Jalal-Bhavana Balsaver back after 20 years |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/Dekh-Bhai-Dekh-duo-Farida-Jalal-Bhavana-Balsaver-back-after-20-years/articleshow/45229749.cms |access-date=2023-07-31 |issn=0971-8257 |archive-date=1 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401041348/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/Dekh-Bhai-Dekh-duo-Farida-Jalal-Bhavana-Balsaver-back-after-20-years/articleshow/45229749.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>|
|-
| 1993–1998 || ''[[Junoon (1994 TV series)|Junoon]]'' || Ganga||
|-
| 1994 || ''[[The Great Maratha]]'' || Chimnabai ||
|-
| 1995–1996 || ''Beauty Parlour'' || ||<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Chandra |first=Anupama |author-link=Anupama Chopra |date=31 January 1996 |title=A flourish of the pen |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/society-and-the-arts/story/19960131-as-soaps-explode-it-is-boomtime-for-scribes-835196-1996-01-30 |magazine=[[India Today]] |location=New Delhi |publisher=[[Living Media]] |access-date=17 March 2024}}</ref>
|-
| 1997–1999 || ''Star Yaar Kalakaar'' || Host ||<ref>{{cite news |title=Recalling the Raj |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/1998/98aug23/sunday/filmtv.htm |access-date=21 December 2022 |work=The Tribune |date=23 August 1998 |archive-date=26 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220626200200/https://www.tribuneindia.com/1998/98aug23/sunday/filmtv.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
|1997–1998 || ''Daal Mein Kala'' || ||<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/society-and-the-arts/media/story/19971006-actors-or-anchors-most-telestars-can-be-both-with-ease-830667-1997-10-05 | title=Actors or anchors? Most telestars can be both with ease | date=6 October 1997 | access-date=27 January 2024 | archive-date=27 January 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240127021417/https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/society-and-the-arts/media/story/19971006-actors-or-anchors-most-telestars-can-be-both-with-ease-830667-1997-10-05 | url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| 1998 || ''Is Duniya Ke Sitare'' || Host || <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/society-and-the-arts/story/19980406-celebrities-come-calling-on-tv-glamour-shows-826057-1998-04-05|title=Celebrities come calling on TV glamour shows|website=India Today|date=6 April 1998 |access-date=28 June 2023|archive-date=3 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230903224443/https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/society-and-the-arts/story/19980406-celebrities-come-calling-on-tv-glamour-shows-826057-1998-04-05|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| 1999 || ''Aashiqui''|| Shobha ||<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/1999/99apr25/sunday/filmtv.htm |title=Tribuneindia... Film and tv |website=The Tribune |access-date=31 March 2020 |archive-date=12 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612234635/http://www.tribuneindia.com/1999/99apr25/sunday/filmtv.htm |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| 2003–2006 || ''[[Shararat (TV series)|Shararat]]'' || Sushma Mehra || <ref name="auto1">{{cite web |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/2003/20030302/spectrum/tv.htm |title=Magic in the air waves...again! - The Sunday Tribune - Spectrum - Television |website=[[Tribune India]] |last=Khosla |first=Mukesh |access-date=30 March 2020 |archive-date=10 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170710125759/http://www.tribuneindia.com/2003/20030302/spectrum/tv.htm |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| 2005 || ''[[Hero - Bhakti Hi Shakti Hai]]'' || Bebe || Guest<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.indiantelevision.com/headlines/y2k5/july/july174.htm |title=Frida Jalal meets 'Hero' |date=15 July 2005 |access-date=31 December 2017 |archive-date=1 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401123949/http://www.indiantelevision.com/headlines/y2k5/july/july174.htm |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| 2009–2012 || ''[[Balika Vadhu]]'' || Badi Masiji ||<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/Farida-Jalal-hurt-by-SRK-Karan-Chopra/articleshow/4388383.cms |title=Farida Jalal hurt by SRK-Karan-Chopra - Times of India |website=The Times of India |date=11 April 2009 |access-date=31 March 2020 |archive-date=16 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316203301/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/Farida-Jalal-hurt-by-SRK-Karan-Chopra/articleshow/4388383.cms |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| 2010 || ''[[Rishta.com]]'' || Ruchika's mother || Guest<ref>{{Cite tweet |last=Seth |first=Shruti |author-link=Shruti Seth |user=SethShruti |number=9411903789 |date=21 February 2010 |title=Farida Jalal makes a guest appearance in RISHTA.COM tonight at 8PM on Sony. I hope you'll all be watching |location=Mumbai |access-date=28 June 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190919162200/https://twitter.com/sethshruti/status/9411903789 |archive-date=19 September 2019}}{{Primary source inline|date=July 2022}}</ref>
|-
| 2011 || ''Dolly Aunty Ka Dream Villa'' || Dolly Aunty ||
|-
| 2011|| ''[[Ammaji Ki Galli]]'' || Ammaji<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.afaqs.com/news/company_briefs/?id=50054_SAB+TV+launches+Ammaji+Ki+Galli |title=SAB TV launches 'Ammaji Ki Galli' |date=16 June 2011 |access-date=14 March 2018 |archive-date=15 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180315134121/http://www.afaqs.com/news/company_briefs/?id=50054_SAB+TV+launches+Ammaji+Ki+Galli |url-status=live}}</ref>
||
|-
| 2013 || ''[[Jeannie Aur Juju]]'' || Duggu Dadi ||<ref name="auto"/> |
|-
| 2014–2016 || ''[[Satrangi Sasural]]'' || Gomti Devi Vatsal ||<ref name="auto2"/>
|-
|2024
|''[[Heeramandi]]''
|Qudsia Begum
|<ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/farida-jalal-joins-sanjay-leela-bhansalis-heeramandi-exclusive/articleshow/95373372.cms?from=mdr|title=Farida Jalal joins Sanjay Leela Bhansali's Heeramandi|work=The Times of India|date=8 November 2022|access-date=1 February 2024|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326165527/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/farida-jalal-joins-sanjay-leela-bhansalis-heeramandi-exclusive/articleshow/95373372.cms?from=mdr|url-status=live}}</ref>
|}

=== Web ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Year
!Title
!Role
!Notes
|-
|2016
|''Love Shots''
|Mrs. Chaudhary
|Episode 4<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/pti-feed/story/farida-ji-is-a-brilliant-actress-kulbhushan-kharbanda-582837-2016-04-01|title=Farida ji is a brilliant actress: Kulbhushan Kharbanda|website=India Today|date=April 2016 |access-date=28 June 2023|archive-date=3 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230903224443/https://www.indiatoday.in/pti-feed/story/farida-ji-is-a-brilliant-actress-kulbhushan-kharbanda-582837-2016-04-01|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|2019
|''Mehram''
|Muslim woman
|Short film<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mumbaimirror.indiatimes.com/entertainment/farida-jalal-starrer-short-film-mehram-receives-standing-ovation-at-5th-woodpecker-international-film-festival-held-in-delhi/articleshow/61672743.cms|title=Farida Jalal-starrer short film Mehram receives standing ovation at 5th Woodpecker International Film Festival held in Delhi|website=Mumbai Mirror|access-date=17 June 2021|archive-date=16 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416202823/https://mumbaimirror.indiatimes.com/entertainment/farida-jalal-starrer-short-film-mehram-receives-standing-ovation-at-5th-woodpecker-international-film-festival-held-in-delhi/articleshow/61672743.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|2019
|''Parchhayee''
|Ricky's Dadi
|<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/web-series/farida-jalal-parchhayee-zee5-5553836/ |title=Farida Jalal: Want to play a negative character but no filmmaker wants to take that risk |date=24 January 2019 |website=The Indian Express |language=en-IN |access-date=27 June 2019 |archive-date=27 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190627054109/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/web-series/farida-jalal-parchhayee-zee5-5553836/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-ruskin-bond-s-the-wind-on-haunted-hill-on-zee5-here-s-what-this-ghost-story-is-all-about-2710680 |title=Ruskin Bond's 'The Wind On Haunted Hill' on ZEE5: Here's what this ghost story is all about! |date=22 January 2019 |website=DNA India |language=en |access-date=27 June 2019 |archive-date=27 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190627054116/https://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-ruskin-bond-s-the-wind-on-haunted-hill-on-zee5-here-s-what-this-ghost-story-is-all-about-2710680 |url-status=live}}</ref>
|}

== Awards and nominations ==
{{BLP unreferenced section|date=November 2024}}
{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!Award
!Nominated work
!Category
!Result
!{{Abbr|Ref.|Reference(s)}}
|-
!colspan="6"|Major awards
|-
|1971
|rowspan="2"|[[Bengal Film Journalists' Association Awards]]
|''[[Paras (1971 film)|Paras]]''
|[[BFJA Awards for Best Supporting Actress (Hindi)|Best Supporting Actress (Hindi)]]
|{{won}}
|rowspan="22"|
|-
|1996
|''[[Mammo]]''
|[[Bengal Film Journalists' Association Award for Best Actress (Hindi)|Best Actress (Hindi)]]
|{{won}}
|-
|1970
|rowspan="8"|[[Filmfare Awards]]
|''[[Aradhana (1969 film)|Aradhana]]''
|rowspan="6"|[[Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress|Best Supporting Actress]]
|{{nom}}
|-
|1972
|''[[Paras (1971 film)|Paras]]''
|{{won}}
|-
|1976
|''[[Majboor (1974 film)|Majboor]]''
|{{nom}}
|-
|1978
|''[[Shaque]]''
|{{nom}}
|-
|1980
|''[[Jurmana (1979 film)|Jurmana]]''
|{{nom}}
|-
|1992
|''[[Henna (film)|Henna]]''
|{{won}}
|-
|1995
|''[[Mammo]]''
|[[Filmfare Critics Award for Best Actress|Best Actress (Critics)]]
|{{won}}
|-
|1996
|''[[Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge]]''
|[[Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress|Best Supporting Actress]]
|{{won}}
|-
|rowspan=2"|2003
|rowspan=2"|[[Indian Television Academy Awards]]
|rowspan="4"|''[[Shararat (TV series)|Shararat]]''
|[[ITA Award for Best Actress Popular|Best Actress (Popular)]]
|{{nom}}
|-
|[[ITA Award for Best Actress - Comedy|Best Actress – Comedy]]
|{{won}}
|-
|2004
|rowspan="2"|[[Indian Telly Awards]]
|rowspan="2"|[[Indian Telly Award for Best Actress in a Comic Role|Best Actress in a Comic Role]]
|{{nom}}
|-
|2007
|{{nom}}
|-
|1998
|rowspan="2"|[[Zee Cine Awards]]
|''[[Dil To Pagal Hai]]''
|rowspan="2"|[[Zee Cine Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role – Female|Best Actress in a Supporting Role]]
|{{nom}}
|-
|1999
|''[[Jab Pyaar Kisise Hota Hai]]''
|{{nom}}
|-
!colspan="5"|Other awards
|-
|2012
|[[Harlem International Film Festival]]
|''[[A Gran Plan]]''
||Best Actress
|{{won}}
|-
|2015
|[[Los Angeles Indian Film Festival]]
|''An Untold Story of a Known Irony''
|Best Actress
|{{won}}
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Farida Jalal}}
*{{IMDb name|0416077|Farida Jalal}}

{{FilmfareAwardBestSupportingActress}}
{{FilmfareCriticsAwardBestActress}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Jalal, Farida}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1950 births]]
[[Category:Indian Muslims]]
[[Category:Actresses in Hindi cinema]]
[[Category:Indian film actresses]]
[[Category:Indian television actresses]]
[[Category:Indian women television presenters]]
[[Category:Indian television presenters]]
[[Category:Actresses from New Delhi]]
[[Category:Actresses in Tamil cinema]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian actresses]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian actresses]]
[[Category:Actresses in Telugu cinema]]
[[Category:Actresses in Hindi television]]
[[Category:Filmfare Awards winners]]

Nurul Islam Mollah

2026-03-17T03:45:24Z

Androidsub143: new new stub.

{{Short description|West Bengal politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Nurul Islam Mollah
| native_name =
| office = Member of [[West Bengal Legislative Assembly]]
| term_start = 1972
| term_end = 1977
| predecessor = [[Hare Krishna Konar]]
| successor = [[Guruprasad Sinha Roy]]
| constituency = [[Kalna Assembly constituency|Kalna]]
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [[Kalna subdivision|Kalna]], [[Bardhaman district]], [[Bengal Presidency]]
| death_place =
| death_date =
| party = [[Indian National Congress]]
| alma_mater =
| relatives =
| children =
}}
'''Nurul Islam Mollah''' is an Indian politician belonging to the [[Indian National Congress]]. He was the MLA of [[Kalna Assembly constituency]] in the [[West Bengal Legislative Assembly]].

==Early life and family==
Mollah was born into a [[Bengalis|Bengali]] family of [[Muslim]] [[Mullah|Mollahs]] in [[Kalna subdivision|Pandua]], [[Bardhaman district]], [[Bengal Presidency]].

==Career==
Mollah contested in the [[1971 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]] where he ran as an [[Indian National Congress]] candidate for [[Kalna Assembly constituency]] but was unsuccessful.<ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=https://www.latestly.com/elections/assembly-elections/west-bengal/1972/kalna/|title=Kalna, 1972|website=Latestly|access-date=9 May 2024}}</ref> At the subsequent [[1972 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]], he won a seat in Kalna.<ref name="auto"/>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mollah, Nurul Islam}}
[[Category:West Bengal MLAs 1972–1977]]
[[Category:Politicians from Purba Bardhaman district]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian Muslims]]
[[Category:20th-century Bengali people]]
[[Category:Bengali Muslims]]
[[Category:Indian Sunni Muslims]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from West Bengal]]

{{WestBengal-INC-politician-stub}}

Birpur, Vaishali

2026-03-15T19:37:38Z

Androidsub143:

{{more citations needed|date=May 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2018}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Birpur
| settlement_type = Village
| pushpin_map = India Bihar
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Bihar, India
| coordinates = {{coord|25.523570|N|85.457191|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Bihar]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Vaishali district|Vaishali]]
| established_title = 
| named_for =
| government_type = [[Gram Panchayat]]
| governing_body =Mukhiya
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_total_km2 = 25
| area_rank =2
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 46
| population_total = 20000
| population_as_of = 2016
| population_footnotes =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_rank =
| population_demonym =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Regional
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 844508
| area_code = 06224
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| registration_plate =
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[Lok Sabha]] constituency
| blank1_info_sec1 = [[Hajipur (Lok Sabha constituency)|Hajipur]]
| website =
| footnotes =
| demographics1_info1 = [[Maithili language|Maithili]], [[Thēthi|Thethi]]
| blank2_name_sec1 = [[Vidhan Sabha]] constituency
| blank2_info_sec1 = [[Raghopur, Vaishali (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Raghopur]]
}}
[[File:Birpur toilets.jpg|alt=Toilets|thumb|News Clipping of opening of 18 Deluxe toilets in Village]]
'''Birpur'''<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.brandbharat.com/english/bihar/districts/vaishali/Vaishali_Raghopur_Birpur.html|title=Birpur}}</ref> is a village in [[Vaishali (ancient city)|Vaishali]] district, [[Bihar]] which is situated at the river island called [[Raghopur, Vaishali|Raghopur]] Diyara Island.

Birpur derives its name from Thakur Bir Singh, a Rathore Rajput from Jodhpur. His descendants still maintain a strong presence in the village. The residents are primarily dependent on agriculture, and traditionally, many of them join the Indian Army. The village has an approximate population of 20,000. A large number of villagers are employed outside the area in different sectors.
Birpur falls under the Raghopur community block, and its police station is located in Jurawanpur. It is the second largest village in the Raghopur block in terms of both area and population. The village’s PIN code is 844508. The literacy rate is relatively low, and Bajjika is the most widely spoken language. It is spread over in the area of 20 km.

==Geography==
Birpur is primarily divided into two major areas: Birpur Purvi (Birpur East) and Birpur Paschimi (Birpur West). These two areas comprise several smaller blocks or wards known as tolas. The village is surrounded by Rupas Mahaji to the east, Shiv Nagar to the west, Kala Diyara to the south, and the River Ganga to the north. The land near the river Ganga in the north is the main agricultural area.

Hajipur serves as the headquarters for this region, with the local Registrar's office located in Mahnar. Birpur is part of the Raghopur Community Development Block. The village is prone to flooding every 4–5 years due to its proximity to the River Ganga, causing significant challenges for the residents.

After 70 years of India's independence, Birpur was electrified in 2017.

===Adjacent communities===
*[[Khushropur]]
*[[Bakhtiyarpur]]
*[[Fatuha]]
*[[Mehnar]]
*[[Hajipur]]
*[[Patna]]

==Schools==
* Birpur High School 10+2, Birpur uttri
* Shishu Gyan Shala Birpur
* Govt. middle school, Fenuabad, Birpur
* Govt. middle school, Sengar Tola, Birpur
* Harijan middle school, Birpur Purbi

==Temples==
[[File:Shiv temple birpur 844508.jpg | thumb|330x186px | right]]
*Maa Badi Durga Mandir Uttari
*Maa Kali Mandir
*Brahma Baba Mandir"Barari east"
Maa Durga Mandir"Pethiya pr"
* Mahavireshwar Nath Mandir, Uparki, Birpur
* Maa Kaali mandir, Birpur east
* Maa Kaali Mandir, Birpur Badka Tola
* Mahavir Mandir, Birpur Badka Tola
* Janakeshwar nath mandir, Birpur east
* Shiv mandir, Uparki Tola, Birpur

==Transportation==
Birpur is connected to Patna by pontoon bridge, Gyaspur andpontoon bridge, and kachchi dargah. When the floating bridge is not operational during the rainy season, people use boats or strimmers to cross the river because Pipa Pool is a seasonal floating bridge. Local vans operate between Gyaspur or Kachidragh.

===Nearby railway stations===
* [[Karauta]]
* [[Bakhtiyarpur]]
* [[Khushropur]]
* [[Fatuha]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Tirhut Division}}

[[Category:Villages in Vaishali district]]

TED Talks India

2026-03-15T04:55:24Z

Androidsub143: starting new pg

{{Short description|2017–2019 Indian TV series}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date= January 2018}}
{{Infobox television
| image = TED Talks India Nayi Soch.jpg
| genre = [[Talk show]]
| creator = [[TED (conference)|TED Conferences, LLC]]
| presenter = [[Shah Rukh Khan]]
| country = India
| language = [[Hindi]]
| num_seasons = 2
| num_episodes = 16
| runtime = 60 minutes
| company = [[TED (conference)|TED Conferences, LLC]]
| network = [[STAR Plus]]
| first_aired = {{Start date|2017|12|10|df=y}}
| last_aired = {{end date|2019|11|24|df=y}}
| alt_name = TED Talks India Nayi Soch TED Talks India Nayi Baat
}}
'''''TED Talks India''''' (originally known as '''''TED Talks India Nayi Soch''''' (season 1) and also known as '''''TED Talks India Nayi Baat''''' (season 2)) is an Indian talk show hosted by [[Shah Rukh Khan]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-04-29 |title=The world's most famous man gave a TED talk and many in the audience didn't know who he was |url=https://qz.com/india/971478/the-worlds-most-famous-man-gave-a-ted-talk-and-many-in-the-audience-didnt-know-who-he-was |access-date=2023-07-16 |website=Quartz |language=en}}</ref> that premiered on [[StarPlus]].<ref>{{cite news|title=TED Talks India Nayi Soch: Shah Rukh Khan returns to TV, this time with some heartfelt stories|url=http://indiatoday.in/story/ted-talks-india-nayi-soch-shah-rukh-khan-trailer-lifetv/1/1101013.html|accessdate=December 1, 2017|publisher=INDIATODAY.IN}}</ref> The slogan of the show is "Don't kill ideas".<ref>{{cite news|title=TED Talks India Nayi Soch: What to expect from Shah Rukh Khan's show|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/television/ted-talks-india-nayi-soch-shah-rukh-khan-4975482/|accessdate=December 10, 2017|publisher=indianexpress}}</ref>

==Series overview==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
! style="padding: 0 8px" colspan="2" rowspan="2" | Season
! style="padding: 0 8px" rowspan="2" | No. of episodes
! colspan="2" | Originally broadcast ([[India]])
|-
! style="padding: 0 8px" | First aired
! style="padding: 0 8px" | Last aired
|-
| style="background:purple;"|
| style="text-align:center;"| 1
| style="text-align:center;"| 8
| style="text-align:center;"| {{start date|df=yes|2017|12|10}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{end date|df=yes|2018|1|28}}
|-
| style="background:lime;"|
| style="text-align:center;"| 2
| style="text-align:center;"| 8
| style="text-align:center;"| {{start date|df=yes|2019|11|2}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{end date|df=yes|2019|11|24}}
|}

== Episodes ==
===Season 1===
In every episode, there are guest speakers who shares new ideas. Special appearance speakers are [[Javed Akhtar]], [[Jasmeen Patheja]], [[Karan Johar]], [[Bittu Sahgal]], [[Vikas Khanna]], [[Sundar Pichai]], [[Ekta Kapoor]] and [[Shubha Tole]], Sarover Zaidi etc.

{{Episode table
|caption = Episode list
|total_width = 72
|background = #ff8c55
|overall = 5
|title = 53
|airdate = 14
|episodes =
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 1
|Title = Re-imagining India
|RTitle = <ref name="Watch TED Talks India Nayi Soch Episode 1">{{cite web|title=Watch TED Talks India Nayi Soch Episode 1|url=http://www.hotstar.com/tv/ted-talks-india-nayi-soch/15930/reimagining-india-ted-talks/1000197800|website=[[Hotstar]]|accessdate=17 January 2018}}</ref>
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|df=yes|2017|12|10}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = ff8c55
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 2
|Title = Power of Words
|RTitle = <ref name="Watch TED Talks India Nayi Soch Episode 2">{{cite web|title=Watch TED Talks India Nayi Soch Episode 2|url=http://www.hotstar.com/tv/ted-talks-india-nayi-soch/15930/power-of-words-ted-talks-india/1000198577|website=[[Hotstar]]|accessdate=17 January 2018}}</ref>
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|df=yes|2017|12|17}}
|ShortSummary = In the second episode, 'Power of Words' is the underlying theme.

''Speakers'': [[Javed Akhtar]], life skills educator Deepak Ramola, child and adolescent psychologist Shelja Sen, college student and social media campaigner [[Gurmehar Kaur]] (daughter of Kashmir martyr Captain Mandeep Singh) and founder-CEO, [[Uniphore]], Umesh Sachdev.
''Performers'': [[Clinton Cerejo]]
|LineColor = ff8c55
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 3
|Title = Badalte Rishte
|RTitle = <ref name="Watch TED Talks India Nayi Soch Episode 3">{{cite web|title=Watch TED Talks India Nayi Soch Episode 3|url=http://www.hotstar.com/tv/ted-talks-india-nayi-soch/15930/badalte-rishte-ted-talks-india/1000199090|website=[[Hotstar]]|accessdate=17 January 2018}}</ref>
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|df=yes|2017|12|24}}
|ShortSummary = This episode talks about our relationships with each other, the society, with machines, with the world and most importantly, with ourselves.

''Speakers'': Disruptive artist [[Jasmeen Patheja]], artist and photographer Samar Singh Jodha, filmmaker [[Karan Johar]], innovator-social entrepreneur Trisha Prabhu and environmental activist-writer [[Bittu Sahgal]].
''Performers'': [[Sivamani (percussionist)|Sivamani]]
|LineColor = ff8c55
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 4
|Title = Dekho Aanewala Kal
|RTitle = <ref name="Watch TED Talks India Nayi Soch Episode 4">{{cite web|title=Watch TED Talks India Nayi Soch Episode 4|url=http://www.hotstar.com/tv/ted-talks-india-nayi-soch/15930/dekho-aanewala-kal-at-ted-talks/1000199835|website=[[Hotstar]]|accessdate=17 January 2018}}</ref>
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|df=yes|2017|12|31}}
|ShortSummary = One always lives with the hope of a, and for a better 'Tomorrow' – and that is the theme for this episode.

''Speakers'': CEO, [[Google Inc.]] [[Sundar Pichai]], designer and inventor Anab Jain, Senior Manager, AI Science for Alexa, [[Ashwin Ram]], Co-founder of [[SocialCops]], Data Intelligence Company, Prukalpa Sankar, Sciences and Aerospace Engineer and Deputy Director, [[Mars Orbiter Mission]], [[Ritu Karidhal]].
''Performers'': Piano star Lydian Nadhaswaram and singer [[Shalmali Kholgade]]
|LineColor = ff8c55
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 5
|Title = Power to Women
|RTitle = <ref name="Watch TED Talks India Nayi Soch Episode 5">{{cite web|title=Watch TED Talks India Nayi Soch Episode 5|url=http://www.hotstar.com/tv/ted-talks-india-nayi-soch/15930/power-to-women-ted-talks-india/1000200853|website=[[Hotstar]]|accessdate=17 January 2018}}</ref>
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|df=yes|2018|1|7}}
|ShortSummary = The underlying theme is "Meri Marzi #PowerToWomen".

''Speakers'': Film and TV producer [[Ekta Kapoor]], co-founder of the #100sareepact Anju Kadam, medical officer Dr Ramindar Dhillon, engineer, innovator, and entrepreneur [[Mihir Shah]], and the captain of the [[Indian women's cricket team]] [[Mithali Raj]].
''Performers'': Nritarutya Dance Company, featuring Chandana Bala
|LineColor = ff8c55
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 6
|Title = Wonder of Learning
|RTitle = <ref name="Watch TED Talks India Nayi Soch Episode 6">{{cite web|title=Watch TED Talks India Nayi Soch Episode 6|url=http://www.hotstar.com/tv/ted-talks-india-nayi-soch/15930/wonder-of-learning-ted-talks-india/1000201585|website=[[Hotstar]]|accessdate=17 January 2018}}</ref>
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|df=yes|2018|1|14}}
|ShortSummary = In this episode, we have a mix of speakers sharing their thoughts on learning.

''Speakers'': Neuroscientist Dr [[Shubha Tole]]; astrophysicist Dr Karan Jani; founder and CEO of [[Blippar]] Ambarish Mitra; cyber security expert Jagdish Mahapatra, and education scientist [[Sugata Mitra]].
''Performers'': [[Prahlad Tipanya]]
|LineColor = ff8c55
}}
}}

== Season 2 ==
Season 2 of the show named as ''TED Talks India Nayi Baat'' premiered on 2 November 2019 and ended on 24 November 2019 in [[Star Plus]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/videos/tv/hindi/shah-rukh-khan-on-ted-talks-india-nayi-baat-inspiring-story-of-heroes-can-be-a-movie/videoshow/71446229.cms|title=Shah Rukh Khan on Ted Talks India: Nayi Baat: Inspiring story of heroes can be a movie|last=|first=|date=|website=Times Of India|access-date=}}</ref> The last episode titled ''Ed Tech'' was host by [[Karan Johar]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.freepressjournal.in/entertainment/karan-johar-hosts-ted-talks-india-nayi-baat-for-a-special-ed-tech-episode|title=Karan Johar hosts 'TED Talks India Nayi Baat' for a special Ed-Tech episode|last=|first=|date=|website=The Free Press Journal|access-date=}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[TED (conference)]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{Official website|http://www.ted.com}}
* [http://www.hotstar.com/tv/ted-talks-india-nayi-soch/15930 TED Talks India Nayi Soch] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180117031409/http://www.hotstar.com/tv/ted-talks-india-nayi-soch/15930 |date=17 January 2018 }} Streaming on [[Hotstar]]

{{Star Plus Shows}}

[[Category:Hindi-language television shows]]
[[Category:Indian reality television series]]
[[Category:2017 Indian television series debuts]]
[[Category:StarPlus original programming]]
[[Category:TED (conference)]]

Yak

2026-03-10T15:11:45Z

Androidsub143: reworked formatting to improve readability and added references for clarity

{{Short description|Long-haired domesticated bovid}}
{{For multi|the progenitor species Bos mutus|Wild yak|other uses|Yak (disambiguation)}}
{{Redirect|Dri|the Argentine Roman Catholic cardinal|Luis Pascual Dri}}
{{Redirect|Dri|other uses|DRI}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}}
{{Speciesbox
| name = Yak
| image = Sarlyk Yak2.jpg
| image_caption = A yak near [[Chagan-Uzun]], Altai Republic, Russia
| status = DOM
| taxon = Bos grunniens
| authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1766
| synonyms = ''Poephagus grunniens''
}}

The '''yak''' ('''''Bos grunniens'''''), also known as the '''Tartary ox''', '''grunting ox''',<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Scherf |first=Beate |date=2000 |title=World Watch List for Domestic Animal Diversity |url=https://www.fao.org/3/x8750e/x8750e.pdf |journal=World Watch List for Domestic Animal Diversity |publisher=FAO |page=653}}</ref> '''hairy cattle''',<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/animal/yak|title = Yak | mammal |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> '''sarlak''' or '''sarlyk''',<ref>{{Cite dictionary|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/sarlak|title = SARLAK Definition & Meaning - Merriam-Webster |dictionary=Merriam-Webster}}</ref> or '''domestic yak''', is a species of long-haired [[domestication|domesticated]] [[bos|cattle]] found throughout the [[Himalayas|Himalayan]] region, the [[Tibetan Plateau]], [[Tajikistan]], the [[Pamir Mountains]], and as far north as [[Mongolia]] and [[Siberia]]. It is descended from the [[wild yak]] (''Bos mutus'').<ref name = MSW3>{{MSW3 Artiodactyla | id = 14200680 | page = 691}}</ref>

==Etymology==
The English word ''Yak'' originates from the {{bo|t=གཡག་|w=g.yag}}. In Tibetan and [[Balti language|Balti]] it refers only to the male of the species, the female being called {{bo|t=འབྲི་|w='bri}} or {{bo|t=གནག|w=gnag}} in Tibetan and {{bo|t=ཧཡག་མོ་|w=hYag-mo}} in Balti. In English, as in most other languages that have borrowed the word, ''yak'' is usually used for both sexes, with ''bull'' or ''cow'' referring to each sex separately.

==Taxonomy==
[[File:Gansu Museum 2007 318.jpg|thumb|left|Bronze model of yak from [[Gansu]], China; [[Yuan dynasty]], 1271–1368 AD]]

Belonging to the genus ''[[Bos]]'', yaks are related to [[cattle]] and [[bison]]. [[Mitochondrial DNA]] analyses to determine the evolutionary history of yaks have been inconclusive.

The yak may have diverged from cattle at any point between one and five million years ago, and there is some suggestion that it may be more closely related to bison than to the other members of its designated genus.<ref name=Guo2006>{{cite journal | author = Guo, S.| year = 2006 | title = Taxonomic placement and origin of yaks: implications from analyses of mtDNA D-loop fragment sequences |url=http://www.mammal.cn/EN/abstract/abstract2079.shtml| journal = Acta Theriologica Sinica | volume = 26 | issue = 4 | pages = 325–330|display-authors=etal}}</ref> Apparent close fossil relatives of the yak, such as ''[[Bos baikalensis]]'', have been found in eastern Russia, suggesting a possible route by which yak-like ancestors of the modern [[American bison]] could have entered the Americas.<ref name=Leslie2009/>

The species was originally designated as ''Bos grunniens'' ("grunting ox") by [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]] in 1766. Still, this name is now generally considered to refer only to the domesticated form of the animal, with ''Bos mutus'' ("mute ox") being the preferred name for the wild species. Although some authors still consider the wild yak to be a [[subspecies]], ''Bos grunniens mutus'', the [[International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature|ICZN]] made [[Opinion 2027|an official ruling]] in 2003<ref name=iczn2027>{{cite journal | author = International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature | year = 2003 | title = Opinion 2027. Usage of 17 specific names based on wild species that are predated by or contemporary with those based on domestic animals (Lepidoptera, Osteichthyes, Mammalia): conserved | journal = Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature | volume = 60 | pages = 81–84 | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/34357823}}</ref> permitting the use of the name ''Bos mutus'' for [[wild yak]]s, and this is now the more common usage.<ref name=iucn>{{cite iucn |author=Buzzard, P. |author2=Berger, J. |date=2016 |title=''Bos mutus'' |volume=2016 |article-number=e.T2892A101293528 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-2.RLTS.T2892A101293528.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref><ref name=Leslie2009/><ref name=Gentry2004>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.jas.2003.10.006| title = The naming of wild animal species and their domestic derivatives| journal = Journal of Archaeological Science| volume = 31| issue = 5| page = 645| year = 2004| last1 = Gentry | first1 = A. | last2 = Clutton-Brock | first2 = J. | last3 = Groves | first3 = C. P. | bibcode = 2004JArSc..31..645G}}</ref>

There are no recognised subspecies of yak except where the wild yak is considered a subspecies of ''Bos grunniens''.

==Physical characteristics==
[[File:Yak in Langtang Valley.jpg|left|thumb|A yak at [[Langtang]] valley, Nepal ]]
Yaks are heavily built animals with bulky frames, sturdy legs, rounded, cloven hooves, and extremely dense, long fur hanging lower than the belly. While wild yaks are generally dark, blackish to brown in colouration, domestic yaks can be quite variable, often having rusty brown and cream patches. They have small ears and broad foreheads, with smooth horns that are generally dark in colour. In males (bulls), the horns sweep out from the sides of the head and then curve backwards; they typically range from {{cvt|48|to|99|cm}} in length.

The horns of females (cows) are smaller, at {{cvt|27|to|64|cm}} in length, and have a more upright shape. Both sexes have a short neck with a pronounced hump over the shoulders, although this is larger and more visible in males.<ref name=Leslie2009>{{cite journal | author1 = Leslie, D.M. | author2 = Schaller, G.B. | year = 2009 | title = ''Bos grunniens'' and ''Bos mutus'' (Artiodactyla: Bovidae) | journal = Mammalian Species | volume = 836 | pages = 1–17 | doi = 10.1644/836.1 | bibcode = 2009MamSp.836....1L | doi-access = free }}</ref> Males weigh {{Cvt|350|to|585|kg|lb}}, females weigh {{Cvt|225|to|255|kg|lb}}. Wild (feral) yaks can be substantially heavier, bulls reaching weights of up to {{cvt|1000|kg|lb}}.<ref>Buchholtz, C. (1990). True Cattle (Genus ''Bos''). pp. 386–397 in S. Parker, ed. ''Grzimek's Encyclopedia of Mammals, Volume 5''. New York: McGraw-Hill Publishing Company. (quoted in [http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Bos_grunniens.html Oliphant, M. (2003). ''Bos grunniens'' (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed 4 April 2009])</ref> Depending on the breed, domestic yak males are {{cvt|111|-|138|cm|in}} high at the withers, while females are {{cvt|105|-|117|cm|in}} high at the withers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/AD347E/ad347e06.htm|title=The Yak. Chapter 2: Yak breeds|website=FAO|access-date=2017-08-31}}</ref>

Both sexes have long, shaggy hair with a dense woolly undercoat over the chest, flanks, and thighs to insulate them from the cold. Especially in bulls, this may form a long "skirt" that can reach the ground. The tail is long and horselike rather than tufted like the tails of cattle or bison. Domesticated yaks have a wide range of coat colours, with some individuals being white, grey, brown, [[Roan (color)|roan]] or [[piebald]]. The [[udder]] in females and the [[scrotum]] in males are small and hairy as protection against the cold. Females have four [[teat]]s.<ref name=Leslie2009/>

Yaks are not known to produce the characteristic lowing (mooing) sound of cattle, but both wild and domestic yaks grunt and squeak, which inspired the scientific name of the domestic yak variant, ''Bos grunniens'' (grunting bull). [[Nikolay Przhevalsky]] named the wild variant ''Bos mutus'' (silent bull), believing that it did not make a sound at all, but it does.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/AD347E/ad347e05.htm|title=Origins, Domestication and Distribution of Yak|website=FAO|access-date=2017-08-31}}</ref>

===Physiology===
[[File:The Yak Rider.JPG|thumb|upright|Yak rider near [[Lake Tsomgo|Tsomgo Lake]], Sikkim ({{Convert|3700|m|abbr=on|disp=or}})]]
Yak physiology is well [[high-altitude adaptation|adapted to high altitudes]], having larger lungs and heart than cattle found at lower altitudes, as well as greater capacity for transporting oxygen through their blood,<ref name=Wiener>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/006/AD347E/ad347e08.htm|title=The Yak in Relation to Its Environment|website=FAO}}</ref><ref>''The Yak, Second Edition''. Bangkok: Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, {{ISBN|92-5-104965-3}}. Accessed 8 August 2008.</ref> due to the persistence of [[foetal haemoglobin]] throughout life.<ref name=Sarkar1999>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1053/tvjl.1999.0361| pmid = 10409419| title = Fetal Haemoglobin in Pregnant Yaks (''Poephagus grunniens'' L.)| journal = The Veterinary Journal| volume = 158| issue = 1| pages = 68–70| year = 1999| last1 = Sarkar | first1 = M.| last2 = Das | first2 = D. N. | last3 = Mondal | first3 = D. B. }}</ref> Conversely, yaks have trouble thriving at lower altitudes,<ref>[http://agtr.ilri.cgiar.org/BreedInformation/breedpg/Others/Yak.htm Yak] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725111943/http://agtr.ilri.cgiar.org/BreedInformation/breedpg/Others/Yak.htm |date=25 July 2011 }}, Animal genetics training resources version II: Breed Information. Adopted from: Bonnemaire, J. "Yak". In: Mason, Ian L. (ed). (1984). ''Evolution of Domesticated Animals''. London: Longman, pp. 39–45. {{ISBN|0-582-46046-8}}. Accessed 8 August 2008.</ref> and are prone to suffering from heat exhaustion above about {{cvt|15|C}}. Further adaptations to the cold include a thick layer of [[subcutaneous fat]] and an almost complete lack of functional [[sweat glands]].<ref name=Wiener/>

Compared with domestic cattle, the [[rumen]] of yaks is unusually large, relative to the [[omasum]].{{Citation needed|date=October 2014}} This likely allows them to consume greater quantities of low-quality food at a time, and to ferment it longer to extract more nutrients.<ref name=Wiener/> Yak consume the equivalent of 1% of their body weight daily while cattle require 3% to maintain condition.{{Citation needed|date=February 2012}} They are grazing herbivores, with their wild ancestors feeding primarily on [[Poaceae|grass]] and [[sedges]],<ref name=Harris1995>{{cite journal |last1= Harris |first1= R.B. |last2= Miller |first2= D.J. |date= October 2009 |title= Overlap in summer habitats and diets of Tibetan Plateau ungulates |journal= Mammalia |volume= 59 |issue= 2 |pages= 197–212 |doi= 10.1515/mamm.1995.59.2.197|s2cid= 84659876 }}</ref> with some herbs and dwarf shrubs.<ref name=Schaller1996>{{cite journal |last1= Schaller |first1= G.B. |last2= Liu |first2= W. |date= 1996 |title= Distribution, status, and conservation of wild yak ''Bos grunniens'' |journal= Biological Conservation |volume= 76 |issue= 1 |pages= 1–8 |doi= 10.1016/0006-3207(96)85972-6|bibcode= 1996BCons..76....1S }}</ref>

==Reproduction and life history==
[[File:Yak calf in Austria 2009.jpg|thumb|left|Ten-day-old yak]]
Yaks mate in the summer, typically between July and September, depending on the local environment. For the remainder of the year, many bulls wander in small bachelor groups away from the large herds. Still, as the [[Rut (mammalian reproduction)|rut]] approaches, they become aggressive and regularly fight with each other to establish dominance. In addition to non-violent threat displays, bellowing, and scraping the ground with their horns, bull yaks compete more directly, repeatedly charging at each other with heads lowered or sparring with their horns. Like [[bison]], but unlike cattle, males wallow in dry soil during the rut, often while [[Urination#Other animals|scent-marking with urine]] or dung.<ref name=Leslie2009/> Females enter [[Estrous cycle#Estrus|oestrus]] up to four times a year, and females are receptive only for a few hours in each cycle.<ref name=Sarkar2005>{{cite journal | author1 = Sarkar, M. | author2 = Prakash, B.S. | year = 2005 | title = Timing of ovulation in relation to onset of estrus and LH peak in yak (''Poephagus grunniens'' L.) | journal = Animal Reproduction Science | volume = 86 | issue = 4 | pages = 353–362 | doi = 10.1016/j.anireprosci.2004.08.005| pmid = 15766812 }}</ref>

[[Gestation]] lasts between 257 and 270 days,<ref name=Wiener/> so that the young are born between May and June, and results in the birth of a single calf. The cow finds a secluded spot to give birth, but the calf can walk within about ten minutes of birth, and the pair soon rejoin the herd.<ref name=Wiener/> Females of both the wild and domestic forms typically give birth only once every other year,<ref name=Leslie2009/> although more frequent births are possible if the food supply is good.

Calves are [[weaning|weaned]] at one year and become independent shortly thereafter. Wild calves are initially brown in color and only later develop darker adult hair. Females generally give birth for the first time at three or four years of age,<ref name=Zi2003>{{cite journal | author = Zi, X.D. | year = 2003 | title = Reproduction in female yaks (''Bos grunniens'') and opportunities for improvement | journal = Theriogenology | volume = 59 | issue = 5–6 | pages = 1303–1312 | doi = 10.1016/S0093-691X(02)01172-X | pmid = 12527077}}</ref> and reach their peak reproductive fitness at around six years. Yaks may live for more than twenty years in domestication or captivity,<ref name=Leslie2009/> although it is likely that this may be somewhat shorter in the wild.

==Husbandry==
[[File:Yaks on Manali, Himachal Pradesh.jpg|thumb|A domesticated Yak being used for tourists in [[Manali, Himachal Pradesh]], India.]]
[[File:Bos grunniens at Yundrok Yumtso Lake.jpg|thumb|Near [[Yamdrok Lake]] in [[Tibet Autonomous Region|Tibet]].]]
For thousands of years,{{cn|date=October 2024}} domesticated yaks have been kept in Mongolia and Tibet, primarily for their milk, [[Yak fiber|fibre]] (wool), and meat, and as [[Working animal|beasts of burden]].<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QzuheS7ZSWkC&pg=PA40 |first=K. J. |last=Peters |page=40 |title=Unconventional livestock: Classification and potential uses |journal=ILCA Bulletin |number=27 |publisher=International Livestock Centre for Africa |date=April 1987}}</ref> Their dried droppings are an important fuel, used all over Tibet, and are often the only fuel available on the high, treeless [[Tibetan Plateau]]. Yaks transport goods across mountain passes for local farmers and traders and are an attraction for climbing and trekking expeditions:
<blockquote>
Only one thing makes it hard to use yaks for long journeys in barren regions. They will not eat [[grain]], which could be carried on the journey. They will starve unless they can be brought to a place where there is grass.<ref>Golden Book Encyclopedia, Vol. 16 p. 1505b. Rockefeller Center, NY: [[Golden Press]] (1959).</ref>
</blockquote>
They also are used to draw [[plough]]s.<ref name="bhutanyaks">{{cite web|url=http://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/journals/jbs/pdf/JBS_02_01_04.pdf |website=Digital Himalaya |title=Economy of Yak Herders|last=Gyamtsho|first=Pema}}</ref> Yaks' milk is often processed to a cheese called ''[[chhurpi]]'' in Tibetan and Nepali languages, and ''[[Mongolian cuisine|byaslag]]'' in Mongolia. [[Yak butter|Butter made from yaks' milk]] is an ingredient of the [[butter tea]] that Tibetans consume in large quantities,<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.flavorandfortune.com/dataaccess/article.php?ID=205 |access-date=2012-12-19 |title=Tibet and Tibetan Foods |date=Winter 1999 |first1=Jacqueline M. |last1=Newman |magazine=Flavor and Fortune |volume=6 |issue=4 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130701001047/http://www.flavorandfortune.com/dataaccess/article.php?ID=205 |archive-date= Jul 1, 2013 }}</ref> and is also used in lamps and made into [[Torma|butter sculptures]] used in religious festivities.<ref>"[http://www.webexhibits.org/butter/countries-tibet.html Butter - Yaks, butter & lamps in Tibet]", WebExhibits.</ref>

===Outside the Himalayas===
Small numbers of herds can be found in the United States, Canada, New Zealand, and some parts of Europe. Yaks have generated interest outside the Himalayas as a commercial crop and by cattle breeders. The main interest of North American yak breeders is lean meat production by [[Hybrid (biology)|hybridizing]] with other cattle, followed by [[wool]] production.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/3/ad347e/ad347e0u.htm|title=Part 3 - Yak in nontraditional environments by Gerald Wiener|publisher=FAO |work=the Yak - Second Edition |date= 2003 }}</ref>

===Research===
The [[Indian government]] established a dedicated centre for research into yak husbandry, the ICAR-National Research Centre on Yak, in 1989. It is located at [[Dirang]], Arunachal Pradesh, and maintains a yak farm in the Nyukmadung area at an altitude of {{convert|2750|m|ft}} above MSL.<ref>{{cite web|title=Welcome to the Official Website of ICAR-NRCY |website=nrcy.icar.gov.in |url=http://nrcy.icar.gov.in/}}</ref>

===Breeding and hybridization===
In [[Nepal]], [[Tibet]], and [[Mongolia]], domestic cattle are crossbred with yaks. This gives rise to the infertile male [[dzo]] མཛོ། as well as fertile females known as {{lang|ne|dzomo}} or {{lang|ne|zhom}} མཛོ་མོ།, which may be crossed again with cattle. The Dwarf Lulu breed, "the only ''Bos primigenius taurus'' type of cattle in Nepal" has been tested for DNA markers and found to be a mixture of both taurine and [[zebu]] types of cattle (''B. p. taurus'' and ''B. p. indicus'') with yak.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Mitochondrial DNA analysis of Nepalese domestic dwarf cattle Lulu|journal=Animal Science Journal|author1=Takeda, K. |author2=Satoh, M. |author3=Neopane, S.P. |author4=Kuwar, B.S. |author5=Joshi, H.D. |author6=Shrestha, N.P. |author7=Fujise, H. |author8=Tasai, M. |author9=Tagami, T. |author10=Hanada, H. |doi=10.1111/j.1740-0929.2004.00163.x|year=2004|volume=75|issue=2|page=103}}</ref> According to the [[International Veterinary Information Service]], the low productivity of second-generation cattle–yak crosses makes them suitable only as meat animals.<ref name="ivis.org"/>

Crosses between yaks and domestic cattle (''Bos primigenius taurus'') have been recorded in Chinese literature for at least 2,000 years.<ref name=Leslie2009/> Successful crosses have also been recorded between [[Yakalo|yak and American bison]],<ref name="ivis.org">Zhang, R.C. (14 December 2000). [http://www.ivis.org/advances/Zhao/zhang3/IVIS.pdf "Interspecies Hybridization between Yak, ''Bos taurus'' and ''Bos indicus'' and Reproduction of the Hybrids"]. In: ''Recent Advances in Yak Reproduction'', Zhao, X.X.; Zhang, R.C. (eds.). International Veterinary Information Service.</ref> [[gaur]], and [[banteng]], generally with similar results to those produced with domestic cattle.<ref name=Leslie2009/>

===Domestication===
Jacques et al. (2021)<ref>{{cite journal|title=Yak Domestication: A Review of Linguistic, Archaeological, and Genetic Evidence|journal=Ethnobiology Letters|author1=Jacques, G.|author1-link=Guillaume Jacques |author2=d'Alpoim Guedes, J. |author3=Zhang, S. |doi=10.14237/ebl.12.1.2021.1755|year=2021|volume=12|issue=1|pages=103–114|s2cid=238997533|doi-access=free}}</ref> show that most elaborate yak-related terminologies are found within Tibetic and [[Gyalrongic]] languages. Both branches also have native terms for [[dzo|yak-cattle hybrids]], suggesting that Tibetic and Gyalrongic speakers may have independently cross-bred yaks and cattle, predating the proto-Gyalrongic split (3221 [2169–4319] [[Before present|BP]]<ref>{{cite journal|title=Dated language phylogenies shed light on the ancestry of Sino-Tibetan|journal= Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|author1=Sagart, L.|author1-link=Laurent Sagart |author2=Jacques, G.|author2-link=Guillaume Jacques|author3=Lai, Y.|author4=Ryder, R.J.|author5=Thouzeau, V.|author6=Greenhill, S. J.|author6-link=Simon Greenhill |author7=List, J.-M.|author7-link=Johann-Mattis List|doi=10.1073/pnas.1817972116 |pmc=6534992 |year=2019|volume=116|issue=21|pages=10317–10322|pmid=31061123|bibcode=2019PNAS..11610317S |doi-access=free}}</ref>) from Tibeto-Gyalrongic. The oldest dated physical evidence of yak domestication is from 2,500 years BP.<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 December 2023 |title=Earliest evidence for domestic yak found using both archaeology, ancient DNA |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2023/12/231213143709.htm |access-date=14 December 2023 |website=ScienceDaily |language=en}}</ref>

==Customs==
[[File:Yak racing.jpg|thumb|right|[[Yak racing]]]]
In parts of Tibet and Karakorum, [[yak racing]] is a form of entertainment at traditional festivals and an important part of their culture. More recently, sports involving domesticated yaks, such as yak skiing or [[yak polo]], are being marketed as tourist attractions in South Asian countries, including in [[Gilgit-Baltistan]], Pakistan.{{Citation needed|date=December 2016}}

In Nepal, an annual festival is held to drink the fresh blood of yak, and it is believed that it cures various diseases such as gastritis, [[jaundice]], and body strain.<ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.3167/np.2007.110204| volume = 11| issue = 2| pages = 57–85| last1 = Degen| first1 = Allan A.| last2 = Kam| first2 = Michael| last3 = Pandey| first3 = Shambhu B.| last4 = Upreti| first4 = Chet R.| last5 = Pandey| first5 = Sanjeev| last6 = Regmi| first6 = Prajwal| title = Transhumant Pastoralism in Yak Production in the Lower Mustang District of Nepal| journal = Nomadic Peoples| date = 2007-10-21}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| title = People flock to Mustang to drink yak blood| access-date = 2021-06-07| url = https://kathmandupost.com/miscellaneous/2016/04/23/people-flock-in-mustang-to-drink-yak-blood}}</ref> The fresh blood is extracted from the neck of a yak without killing it. The cut is healed after the ceremony is over.<ref>{{cite web| title = Festival to drink Yak blood begins in Nepal| work = Hindustan Times| access-date = 2021-06-07| date = 2008-07-20| url = https://www.hindustantimes.com/world/festival-to-drink-yak-blood-begins-in-nepal/story-sbE82I3UCI6YoC2eCN7cCK.html}}</ref> The ritual is believed to be originated in Tibet and [[Mustang District|Mustang]].<ref>{{Cite news| issn = 0971-751X| last = Ians| title = Nepal now sees blood drinking festival| work = The Hindu| location = Kathmandu| access-date = 2021-06-07| date = 2010-03-11| url = https://www.thehindu.com/news/Nepal-now-sees-blood-drinking-festival/article16559874.ece}}</ref>

Traditionally, yaks are used to transport deceased people to [[charnel ground]]s for [[sky burial]]s in Tibet, with Tibetan practice holding that the yaks be set free upon the conclusion of the task.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sky Burial – The traditional Tibetan Funeral Custom |url=http://eng.tibet.cn/eng/index/life/201907/t20190726_6646094.html |website=Tibet.cn |access-date=12 April 2025}}</ref><ref name=Runze>{{citation |url=http://english.sina.com/china/2012/1213/537423.html |website=Sina English |title=Funeral Reforms Edge Along in Tibetan Areas |date=December 13, 2012 |editor-last=Runze |editor-first=Yu |access-date=August 12, 2024 |publisher=Xinhua |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224131001/http://english.sina.com/china/2012/1213/537423.html |archive-date=February 24, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Jigme |first1=Catherine |title=Sky burial may be replaced by cremation in Qinghai |url=https://www.tibettravel.org/news/201403242081.html |website=Tibet Travel |access-date=12 April 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Logan |first1=Pamela |title=Survival and Evolution of Sky Burial Practices |url=https://www.pamela-logan.com/culture/survival-and-evolution-of-sky-burial/ |access-date=12 April 2025}}</ref>

Yak skiing is a sport practiced in the Indian hill resort of [[Manali, Himachal Pradesh]], as a tourist attraction. The sport involves a skier waiting at the bottom of a slope and a [[yak]] at the top of the hill; yak and skier are connected by means of a rope going around a [[pulley]] at the top of the hill. To engage the yak, the skier must shake (and swiftly put down) a bucket of [[Equine nutrition#Special feeding issues for ponies|pony nuts]]. This attracts the yak, which charges downhill and pulls the skier upward by means of the rope.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Perry |first=Alex |date=4 July 2005 |title=Extreme Yak Sports |url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1077223,00.html |access-date=2012-03-08 |magazine=Time |archive-date=7 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140307205812/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1077223,00.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=3 July 2005 |title=Asia's newest sport - yak skiing |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4644933.stm |access-date=2008-10-21 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery mode="packed" widths="160" heights="140">
File:Yaks in Manali.jpg|Yaks in [[Manali, Himachal Pradesh]], India, saddled for riding
File:LitangMonastery.jpg|Train of pack yaks at Litang monastery in [[Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture]], Sichuan, China
File:Yaks still provide the best way to plow fields in Tibet.jpg|Yaks plowing fields in Tibet
File:YakRace.jpg|Yaks in [[Gilgit-Baltistan]], Pakistan
File:四川阿坝白牦牛 - panoramio.jpg|Domestic yak in [[Mao County]], China
File:四姑娘山景区 Mount Siguniang Scenic Area 17.jpg|A yak at [[Mount Siguniang|Mount Siguniang Scenic Area]], Sichuan, China
File:Yak rearing at highest altitude- Rigma, Dolpa.jpg|Yak are reared on grazing pastures and meadows at elevations of {{cvt|3000|-|5000|m|ft}} above sea level in 28 northern mountain districts in Nepal.
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[Yak dance]]
* [[Yakalo]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Wikispecies}}
{{Commons}}
* [https://www.iyak.org/ International Yak Association (IYAK)]; {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200304073748/https://www.iyak.org/ |date=4 March 2020 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070928013330/http://www.eyak.ch/ European Yak Association (EYAK)]
* [http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/ad347e/ad347e06.htm Article on Yak breeds in FAO archives]
* [http://kekexili.typepad.com/life_on_the_tibetan_plate/2006/10/yaks.html Yaks: The Official Animal of Tibet]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130523064042/http://me.lzu.edu.cn/yak/ Yak Genome Database]

{{Artiodactyla|R.4}}
{{Fibers}}
{{Meat}}
{{Working animals}}
{{Animal domestication}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q19829410}}

[[Category:Yaks| ]]
[[Category:Animal taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]
[[Category:Bos]]
[[Category:Domesticated animals]]
[[Category:Fauna of the Himalayas]]
[[Category:Livestock]]
[[Category:Mammals described in 1766]]
[[Category:Mammals of Central Asia]]
[[Category:Mammals of East Asia]]
[[Category:Mammals of Siberia]]
[[Category:Mammals of South Asia]]
[[Category:Mammals of Tibet]]
[[Category:Pack animals]]

Chiyangal

2026-03-03T02:39:00Z

Androidsub143: creating a stub

{{Short description|2020 Indian film by Vaigarai Balan}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2024}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Chiyangal
| image = Chiyangal poster.jpg
| caption = Release poster
| director = Vaigarai Balan
| producer = G.Karikalan
| writer = Vaigarai Balan
| starring = {{plainlist|
*Karikalan
*Risha
}}
| music = Muthamil
| editing = Mabbu Jyothi Prakash
| cinematography = Babu Kumar.I.E
| studio = KL Production
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|2020|12|22|df=y}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Tamil
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''Chiyangal''''' ({{translation|Grandfathers}}){{efn|People in [[Meghamalai]] refer to their grandfathers as Chiyan.<ref name="NI">{{Cite news |last=Darshan |first=Navein |date=9 April 2019 |title=Chiyangal to feature several debutants, all of them over 60 years of age |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2019/apr/09/life-begins-at-60-1961839.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216041041/https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2019/apr/09/life-begins-at-60-1961839.html |archive-date=2021-12-16 |access-date=2024-02-11 |work=The New Indian Express}}</ref>}} is a 2020 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language film written and directed by Vaigarai Balan. The film stars Karikalan and Risha, with [[Nalinikanth]] and several senior newcomers in supporting roles.<ref name="Deccan">{{Cite web |last=Subramanian |first=Anupama |date=30 November 2019 |title=Film focussing on elderly men |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/kollywood/301119/film-focussing-on-elderly-men.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216041035/https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/kollywood/301119/film-focussing-on-elderly-men.html |archive-date=16 December 2021 |access-date=16 December 2021 |website=Deccan Chronicle}}</ref><ref name="NI" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=20 December 2020 |title=சியான்கள் |url=https://cinema.maalaimalar.com/cinema/preview/2020/12/20170336/2180334/Tamil-cinema-chiyangal-movie-preview-in-tamil.vpf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216041040/https://cinema.maalaimalar.com/cinema/preview/2020/12/20170336/2180334/Tamil-cinema-chiyangal-movie-preview-in-tamil.vpf |archive-date=16 December 2021 |access-date=16 December 2021 |website=maalaimalar.com}}</ref>

== Cast ==
{{Cast listing|
*Karikalan
*Risha
*[[Nalinikanth]]
*[[Ratsasan|Pasupathiraj]]
*Samuthira Seeni
* Eswar Thiyagarajan
*Sakthivel
*Narayanasamy
*Durai Sundaram
}}

== Production ==
The film is directed by Vaigarai Balan, who previously directed ''[[Kadikara Manithargal]]'' (2018).<ref name="NI" /> The film was shot in [[Theni]] and Meghamalai.<ref>{{Cite news |date=17 April 2019 |title=Chiyangal is a fun script with older people in the lead |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/chiyangal-is-a-fun-script-with-older-people-in-the-lead/articleshow/68906838.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216102724/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/chiyangal-is-a-fun-script-with-older-people-in-the-lead/articleshow/68906838.cms |archive-date=2021-12-16 |access-date=2021-12-16 |work=The Times of India}}</ref> The film introduces seventy new faces.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Subramanian |first=Anupama |date=20 April 2019 |title=Chiyangal delves on the lives of elderly |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/kollywood/200419/chiyangal-delves-on-the-lives-of-elderly.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216041043/https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/kollywood/200419/chiyangal-delves-on-the-lives-of-elderly.html |archive-date=16 December 2021 |access-date=16 December 2021 |website=Deccan Chronicle}}</ref> ''Chiyangal'' has a similar premise to ''[[Varuthapadatha Valibar Sangam]]'' (2013).<ref name="Deccan" /> The film was released under the English title ''Oldage Villagers''.<ref name="TOI" />

==Soundtrack==
Music by Muthamil.<ref name="NI" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=17 January 2020 |title=Chiyangal - Karthik, Priya Hemesh - Download or Listen Free - JioSaavn |url=https://www.jiosaavn.com/album/chiyangal/AADhK-cMRY4_}}</ref>
*"Otti Otti Naanum Vaaren" - [[Karthik (singer)|Karthik]], [[Priya Himesh]]
*"Otti Otti Naanum Vaaren" - Karthik
*"Chiyaan Chiyaan" - Saisharan
*"Ithu Enna Vithiyo" - Muthamil

== Release ==
A critic from ''[[The Times of India]]'' gave the film a rating of two-and-a-half out of five stars and opined that "But as the movie inches towards its climax, some of the scenes become melodramatic and the dialogues about protecting parents, though relevant, appear preachy".<ref>{{Cite news |title=Chiyangal Movie Review: The prime attraction of the film is the portrayal of friendship among the senior citizens |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movie-reviews/chiyangal/movie-review/79873100.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216155812/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movie-reviews/chiyangal/movie-review/79873100.cms |archive-date=2021-12-16 |access-date=2021-12-16 |work=The Times of India}}</ref> A critic from ''[[Dinamalar]]'' gave the film a rating of three-and-a-quarter out of five stars and praised the unique storyline.<ref>{{Cite web |title=சியான்கள் - விமர்சனம் {3.25/5} : சியான்கள் - மரியாதை - Chiyangal |url=https://cinema.dinamalar.com/movie-review/2987/Chiyangal/ |website=[[Dinamalar]]}}</ref>

== Awards ==
*2020 - Foreign Features Category at the WorldFest-Houston International Film & Video Festival - Silver Remi Award<ref name="TOI">{{Cite news |date=14 April 2020 |title=Tamil film on elderly men bags award at international film fest |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/tamil-film-on-elderly-men-bags-award-at-international-film-fest/articleshow/75128262.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216133543/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/tamil-film-on-elderly-men-bags-award-at-international-film-fest/articleshow/75128262.cms |archive-date=2021-12-16 |access-date=2021-12-16 |work=The Times of India}}</ref>
*Five Continents International Film Festival<ref name="TOI" />
* Grantville International Film Festival<ref name="TOI" />
*L’Age d’Or International Arthouse Film Festival<ref name="TOI" />

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links ==
*{{IMDb title|13633416}}

[[Category:2020 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:2020 Indian films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]

Bhopal: A Prayer for Rain

2026-03-02T09:37:03Z

Androidsub143: small fix lead based on references additionally and cleaned formatting

{{Short description|2014 Indian English-language historical drama film}}
{{good article}}
{{Use British English|date=March 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2018}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Bhopal: A Prayer for Rain
| image = Bhopal a prayer for rain poster.jpg
| alt = 
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = Ravi Kumar
| producer = Ravi Walia 
Sahara Movie Studios
| writer = Ravi Kumar David Brooks
| starring = {{plainlist|
*[[Martin Sheen]]
*[[Mischa Barton]]
*[[Kal Penn]]
*[[Rajpal Yadav]]
*[[Tannishtha Chatterjee]]
*[[Fagun Thakrar]]
*[[Martin Brambach]]
* David Brooks
*[[Satish Kaushik]]
*[[Vineet Kumar]]
*[[Joy Sengupta]]
*[[Manoj Joshi (actor)|Manoj Joshi]]
}}
| music = [[Benjamin Wallfisch]]
| cinematography = {{ubl|Charlie Wuppermann|Jean Marc Selva|Anil Chandel}}
| editing = Chris Gill
| studio =
| distributor = [[Revolver Entertainment]] [[Sahara Movie Studios]] (India)
| released = {{Film date|2014|11|07|[[US]]|2014|12|05|df=y|India}}
| runtime = 96 minutes
| country = {{ubl|India|United Kingdom}}
| language = {{ubl|Hindi|English}}
| budget =
| gross = $12,628
}}
'''''Bhopal: A Prayer for Rain''''' is a 2014 [[Cinema of India|Indian]] English-language [[historical drama]] film directed by Ravi Kumar. Based on the [[Bhopal disaster]] that happened in India on 2–3 December 1984, the film stars [[Martin Sheen]], [[Mischa Barton]], [[Kal Penn]], [[Rajpal Yadav]], [[Tannishtha Chatterjee]] and [[Fagun Thakrar]]. [[Benjamin Wallfisch]] composed the film's music. Kumar's idea for making a film based on the Bhopal disaster came after he read Sanjoy Hazarika's book: "Bhopal: Lessons of a Gas Tragedy" about it. Shot over a period of 18 months, it was originally scheduled for a late 2010 release. However, the lack of responses from distributors kept delaying the release.

In April 2013, a new trailer was released and the film received a market screening at the [[2013 Cannes Film Festival]] on 16 and 19 May. It was also screened at Pan Asia, Dingle and the [[Tokyo International Film Festival|Tokyo International]] film festivals. ''Bhopal: A Prayer for Rain'' was released in the United States on 7 November 2014 and in India on 5 December 2014. A private screening of the film was held at the youth assembly in the [[United Nations]] on 7 August 2014.

The film received mixed reviews from critics, who praised the actors' portrayal of their respective characters but found the film underwhelming. A few organisations fighting for the rights of the victims of the tragedy blamed the film for presenting the facts in a distorted manner. Kumar and Sheen denied these allegations. The [[Madhya Pradesh]] government exempted the film from paying tax.

== Plot ==
{{Long plot|date=July 2024}}
In 1984, a few months before the Bhopal disaster, Dilip, a rickshaw driver, loses his income when his rickshaw breaks down while transporting an employee to the [[Union Carbide]] pesticide plant in [[Bhopal]]. Dilip lives in the slums near the plant with his wife, a son and his sister. He obtains a job in the plant as a labourer, and is happy since his daily wage is restored.

The plant's revenues drop due to lower sales of pesticides, and in order to reduce costs the officials neglect safety and maintenance. Questioning the chemicals used in the plant, Motwani, a tabloid reporter, publishes reports on his printing press which are disregarded by most of the officials and workers. Roy, the plant safety officer, expresses his concerns. The officials however ignore his warnings, and a worker is killed when a drop of [[methyl isocyanate]] leaking from a pipe lands on his arm. The officials deem the worker's irresponsibility as the cause of the accident and the plant continues to function. Dilip is given a better-paying vacant job in the plant despite lacking the skill to operate the machinery. A gas leak is prevented by Roy when water is mixed with methyl isocyanate, and in an attempt to stop people from panicking, the official in the plant disables the warning siren.

[[Warren Anderson (American businessman)|Warren Anderson]], the CEO of Union Carbide, visits the plant to inspect its functionality, where he is briefed about a plan to connect two additional tanks for storage of methyl isocyanate to increase the output of the plant, ignoring the deteriorated condition of the tanks. Motwani meanwhile meets Eva Caulfield, a reporter for ''[[Paris Match]]'', and persuades her to interview Anderson. She falsely claims to be an [[Associated Press]] reporter, but her lie is exposed during the interview. Motwani convinces Dilip of the danger posed by the chemicals.

As the date of the disaster nears, Dilip arranges a loan for his sister's wedding. Roy later explains how the company is ignoring safety standards and that a future leak might become uncontrolled as the officials had turned off safety measures to reduce maintenance costs. Roy gives his resignation to the company and advises Dilip not to talk about the plant's safety if he wishes to retain his job. Dilip makes a phone call to Motwani describing what Roy just said, and expresses his fear about the plant's safety, saying he will return to the rickshaw-pulling business as soon as his sister is married.

To overcome the increasing revenue loss, the officials shut down the plant, firing most of the workers, including Dilip. The plant officials then order the use of the remaining methyl isocyanate as soon as possible. Meanwhile, Dilip is busy with his sister's wedding, and Roy has a final look of the control room. The safety measures fail and a runaway reaction follows. The faulty tanks cause the gas to start leaking, and an attempt to contain the leak fails. The gas escapes to the surroundings and is carried east by the wind. Motwani rushes to alert the people in the vicinity of the plant to vacate and head west, since the warning sirens were previously sabotaged. He meets Dilip, who ignores the warning and asks Motwani to leave the area without causing any hindrance to the wedding. Meanwhile, the guests experience irritation in the eyes and discomfort in breathing. Dilip senses the danger and visits the plant, realising that the plant had been compromised. He rushes back to his residence where he finds his family and relatives dying from acute exposure to the toxic gas. He carries away his son, paying farewell to his wife's corpse and flees the slum.

As the gas shows its effects, a nearby hospital is filled with hundreds of patients reporting cyanide poisoning, and the lack of antidote results in most of the patients' death. Dilip, on his deathbed, and using the last of his strength, rips off his Union Carbide identity badge and after flinging it away, rests his dead son on the ground. He eventually accepts his fate to die in the highly toxic gas cloud and succumbs to the toxic gas, dying by his son's side. The story jumps to the present day, where a blind boy is holding Dilip's identity badge, and the film ends with Motwani narrating the words, "Whatever may be the cause of the disaster, Carbide never left Bhopal." A photo montage depicts the aftermath of the disaster and pictures of the characters and their real-life counterparts.

== Cast ==
[[File:Martin Sheen Cannes.jpg|thumb|right|[[Martin Sheen]] played the role of [[Warren Anderson (American businessman)|Warren Anderson]]]]
* [[Martin Sheen]] as [[Warren Anderson (American businessman)|Warren Anderson]], the chief executive of [[Union Carbide]]. Anderson was declared a fugitive by an Indian court.<ref name="Mercy" /><ref>{{cite news|author1=Indo-Asian News Service |title=Bhopal fugitive Warren Anderson is dead |url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/bhopal-fugitive-warren-anderson-is-dead-roundup-changing-dateline-114103101530_1.html |access-date=13 December 2014 |work=[[Business Standard]] |date=31 October 2014 |location=Washington |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150507213000/http://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/bhopal-fugitive-warren-anderson-is-dead-roundup-changing-dateline-114103101530_1.html |archive-date=7 May 2015 |author1-link=Indo-Asian News Service }}</ref>
* [[Mischa Barton]] as Eva Caulfield, a ''Paris Match'' reporter
* [[Kal Penn]] as Motwani, a local journalist. Penn said that the "larger-than-life, colourful role" of the reporter was what attracted him to the project.<ref name="India">{{cite news|agency=Press Trust of India |title='Bhopal: A Prayer for Rain' is an honest film: Kal Penn |url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/bhopal-a-prayer-for-rain-is-an-honest-film-kal-penn-114102000671_1.html |access-date=13 December 2014 |work=[[Business Standard]] |date=20 October 2014 |location=Mumbai |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141208032716/http://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/bhopal-a-prayer-for-rain-is-an-honest-film-kal-penn-114102000671_1.html |archive-date=8 December 2014 |author1-link=Press Trust of India }}</ref> His role is inspired by the story of the Indian journalist [[Rajkumar Keswani]].
* [[Rajpal Yadav]] as Dilip, a factory worker
* [[Tannishtha Chatterjee]] as Leela, Dilip's wife
* [[Manoj Joshi (actor)|Manoj Joshi]] as Dr. Chandra
* [[Fagun Thakrar]] as Rekha
* [[Gopichand Lagadapati]] as Steward
* [[Akhil Mishra]] as Napoleon
* [[Joy Sengupta]] as Roy
* David Brooks as Shane
* [[Satish Kaushik]] as Labour Minister Lalit

== Production ==
In 2004, while reading Sanjoy Hazarika's book ''Bhopal: Lessons of a Tragedy'', Ravi Kumar got the idea of making a film based on the Bhopal disaster,<ref name="Debesh" /> considered the world's deadliest<ref>{{cite news|last1=Paniker |first1=Shruti |title=Make Us Laugh & Cry |url=http://www.ahmedabadmirror.com/entertainment/hip-happening/Make-us-laugh-cry/articleshow/45389881.cms |access-date=14 December 2014 |work=[[Ahmedabad Mirror]] |date=6 December 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304030905/http://www.ahmedabadmirror.com/entertainment/hip-happening/Make-us-laugh-cry/articleshow/45389881.cms |archive-date=4 March 2016 }}</ref> industrial disaster.<ref name="Dhillon" /><ref name="HTMumbai" /> Seeing that very few people of the newer generation knew about the disaster, Kumar decided to make a film based on it.<ref name="Dhillon" /> He chose several well known actors for the film because he felt that this provided more chances of showing the "story to the world."<ref name="Debesh" /> He wanted to cast Sheen for the role of Anderson, because of his political views and acting skills.<ref name="Hebbar" /> [[Tannishtha Chatterjee]] and [[Rajpal Yadav]] were also cast for the film.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Jha|first1=Subhash K|title=Tannishtha pairs up with Martin Sheen|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/Tannishtha-pairs-up-with-Martin-Sheen/articleshow/3228657.cms|access-date=12 December 2014|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=14 July 2008}}</ref> [[Sienna Miller]] was previously attached to the project, but later dropped out and her role was given to [[Mischa Barton]].<ref name="National">{{cite news|last1=Dhillon |first1=Amrit |title=Bhopal: A Prayer for Rain tells the story of India's worst industrial disaster |url=http://www.thenational.ae/arts-lifestyle/film/bhopal-a-prayer-for-rain-tells-the-story-of-indias-worst-industrial-disaster |access-date=13 December 2014 |work=[[The National (Abu Dhabi)|The National]] |date=30 November 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150404172447/http://www.thenational.ae/arts-lifestyle/film/bhopal-a-prayer-for-rain-tells-the-story-of-indias-worst-industrial-disaster |archive-date=4 April 2015 }}</ref> In December 2008, it was confirmed that Barton, Sheen and Penn were filming in India for the project.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Dasgupta |first1=Priyanka |title=India calling! |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/news-interviews/India-calling/articleshow/3852125.cms |access-date=11 December 2014 |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=18 December 2008 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305123025/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/news-interviews/India-calling/articleshow/3852125.cms |archive-date=5 March 2016 }}</ref> A copy of the script was sent to Penn, who agreed to join the project.<ref name=Khanzada>{{cite news|last1=Khanzada |first1=Farida |title=Opening the Pandora's box |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/screen/opening-the-pandoras-box/99/ |access-date=14 December 2014 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |publisher=[[Indian Express Limited]] |date=5 December 2014 |location=Mumbai |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305081726/http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/screen/opening-the-pandoras-box/99/ |archive-date=5 March 2016 }}</ref> Penn played the role of an Indian journalist and learnt Hindi from an instructor. Shooting finished in January 2009.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Ray|first1=Sarit|title=Kal, aaj aur kal|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/Kal-aaj-aur-kal/articleshow/3933715.cms|access-date=12 December 2014|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=5 January 2009}}</ref> Initially, the film's story was written like a thriller and then dramatic elements were added.<ref name="Obligation" /> Kumar wanted to depict Anderson as a victim of organisational error of judgement but Sheen insisted that Anderson should be depicted as a guilty and so he rewrote some of the scenes.<ref name="Mercy">{{cite news|last1=Jha|first1=Subhash K|title=No mercy for Warren Anderson|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/No-mercy-for-Warren-Anderson/articleshow/6031372.cms|access-date=12 December 2014|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=10 June 2010}}</ref><ref name="Amrit" /> Made on a total budget of US$12 million, the film was shot in Hyderabad's [[Charminar]] area and [[Golconda Fort]],<ref>{{cite news|last1=Ray|first1=Sarit|title=All that Mischa saw & did in Hyd|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hollywood/news-interviews/All-that-Mischa-saw-did-in-Hyd/articleshow/3933617.cms|access-date=12 December 2014|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=5 January 2009}}</ref> [[Mumbai]] and the [[Union Carbide]] factory in Bhopal during a course of 18 months.<ref name="Debesh" /> A few scenes were also shot in [[Los Angeles]].<ref name=Khanzada /> [[Hyderabad]] was chosen since it bore great resemblance to Bhopal in terms of its [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] influence and architecture.<ref name="Obligation" /> Only a few important scenes were shot in Bhopal while the majority were shot on different factory locations and sets in order to create the setup for the period.<ref name="Garima">{{cite news|last1=Sharma|first1=Garima|title=Gas tragedy film on the right track|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/Gas-tragedy-film-on-the-right-track/articleshow/11156085.cms|access-date=12 December 2014|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=19 December 2011}}</ref>

The script was jointly written by Kumar and David Brooks Miller. To present the correct technical and medical facts in the film, Kumar analysed documents of the court proceedings, forensic evidences and interviewed several survivors of the tragedy and also the staff members of the Union Carbide plant.<ref name="Debesh">{{cite news|last1=Banerjee|first1=Debesh|title=Bhopal Before Tragedy|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/bhopal-before-tragedy/636330/0|access-date=12 December 2014|work=[[The Indian Express]]|publisher=[[Indian Express Limited]]|date=21 June 2010}}</ref><ref name="Obligation" /> Bhopal Group for Information and Action and many activists fighting for the rights of the victim of the disaster wanted to stop the film's screening, called it an insult to the victims, blamed the filmmakers of distorting the facts related to the disaster, diverting attention from [[Dow Chemical Company]] which acquired Union Carbide in 2001 and for portraying Anderson as a person who wanted to help the people but was unable to do so.<ref name="Dhillon" /><ref name="Amrit">{{cite news|last1=Dhillon |first1=Amrit |title=Bhopal disaster movie slammed for letting a bad guy off the hook |url=https://www.smh.com.au/world/bhopal-disaster-movie-slammed-for-letting-a-bad-guy-off-the-hook-20111230-1pfkz.html |access-date=12 December 2014 |work=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]] |date=31 December 2011 |location=Delhi |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140704090938/http://www.smh.com.au/world/bhopal-disaster-movie-slammed-for-letting-a-bad-guy-off-the-hook-20111230-1pfkz.html |archive-date=4 July 2014 }}</ref> Sheen denied these allegations and said that he did not sympathise for Anderson.<ref>{{cite news|title=Hollywood film on Bhopal accused of whitewash |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/india/7846389/Hollywood-film-on-Bhopal-accused-of-whitewash.html |access-date=12 December 2014 |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=22 June 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100625063431/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/india/7846389/Hollywood-film-on-Bhopal-accused-of-whitewash.html |archive-date=25 June 2010 }}</ref> Kumar also denied these allegations and said that the organisations had seen an older script.<ref name="Garima" /> He added that making the film was a life-changing experience for him.<ref name="Amrit" /> ''A Prayer for Rain'' was added to the film's title because had it rained on the night of 2—3 December 1984, fewer people would have died.<ref name="Dhillon">{{cite news|last1=Dhillon |first1=Amrit |title=A film about the Union Carbide industrial disaster in India is courting controversy |url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/arts-culture/a-film-about-the-union-carbide-industrial-disaster-in-india-is-courting-controversy-1.363998 |access-date=12 December 2014 |work=[[The National (Abu Dhabi)|The National]] |date=9 January 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304060639/http://www.thenational.ae/arts-culture/film/a-film-about-the-union-carbide-industrial-disaster-in-india-is-courting-controversy |archive-date=4 March 2016 }}</ref>

On 7 January 2009, Barton was questioned by the Indian media on why she chose to sign on the project to which she responded "I'm interested in all kinds of things, I did this film for moral reasons. Also, I felt the story needed to be told, I feel that this is going to be an important film."<ref>{{cite news|last1=Singh |first1=Preeti |title=India is truly a beautiful country: Mischa |url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/india-is-truly-a-beautiful-country-mischa-barton/82105-8.html |access-date=12 December 2014 |publisher=[[CNN-IBN]] |date=7 January 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141125180750/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/india-is-truly-a-beautiful-country-mischa-barton/82105-8.html |archive-date=25 November 2014 }}</ref> Benjamin Wallfisch, an [[Emmy Awards|Emmy]] and [[Ivor Novello Awards|Ivor Novello]]-nominated composer, composed music for ''Bhopal: A Prayer for Rain''.<ref name="National" /> The film was slated to release in 2010 but the lack of response from the distributors delayed the release.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Bhadani |first1=Priyanka |title=Released...Finally! |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/screen/released-finally/ |access-date=12 December 2014 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |publisher=[[Indian Express Limited]] |date=31 October 2014 |location=Mumbai |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141207235036/http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/screen/released-finally/ |archive-date=7 December 2014 }}</ref> On the 30th anniversary of the Bhopal gas disaster, [[Shivraj Singh Chouhan]], the chief minister of Madhya Pradesh attended the film's premiere in Bhopal and after watching the film he announced that the state government would not charge any tax on the film's earning. Chouhan called the film "very sensitive" and praised the "heart-rending" performance given by actors.<ref>{{cite news|author1=Indo-Asian News Service |title=MP govt makes Bhopal: A Prayer for Rain tax free |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/MP-govt-makes-Bhopal-A-Prayer-for-Rain-tax-free/articleshow/45373963.cms |access-date=12 December 2014 |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=4 December 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160405024929/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/MP-govt-makes-Bhopal-A-Prayer-for-Rain-tax-free/articleshow/45373963.cms |archive-date=5 April 2016 |author1-link=Indo-Asian News Service }}</ref> To promote awareness about the tragedy a [[Non Government Organisation|NGO]] The Bhopal Medical Appeal and the film's director collaborated with mobile commerce portal [[Paytm]] and the online shopping website [[Snapdeal]]. As part of the partnership Paytm and Snapdeal offered their customers a chance to donate money in form of online coupons to the disaster victims.{{citation needed|date=May 2024}}

== Marketing and release ==
The first look of the film was unveiled on 18 September 2014 and the official trailer was released on the following day.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Kaushal |first1=Sweta |title=Watch: Martin Sheen, Mischa Barton in Bhopal: A Prayer for Rain trailer |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/watch-martin-sheen-mischa-barton-in-bhopal-a-prayer-for-rain-trailer/article1-1265975.aspx |access-date=11 December 2014 |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |date=19 September 2014 |location=New Delhi |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141029164652/http://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/watch-martin-sheen-mischa-barton-in-bhopal-a-prayer-for-rain-trailer/article1-1265975.aspx |archive-date=29 October 2014 }}</ref> Sheen felt that finding a theatrical release for the film would be difficult. He said that the film portrayed "America's cultural arrogance." Director Ravi Kumar opined that Anderson was guilty of the disaster.<ref name="Bhaskaran">{{cite news|last1=Bhaskaran |first1=Gautaman |title=Bhopal: A Prayer for Rain conveys America's cultural arrogance, says Martin Sheen |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/hollywood/bhopal-a-prayer-for-rain-conveys-america-s-cultural-arrogance-says-martin-sheen/article1-1292562.aspx |access-date=11 December 2014 |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |date=2 December 2014 |location=Chennai |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141204105542/http://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/hollywood/bhopal-a-prayer-for-rain-conveys-america-s-cultural-arrogance-says-martin-sheen/article1-1292562.aspx |archive-date= 4 December 2014 }}</ref> While promoting the film in [[New Delhi]], he compared it to ''[[Titanic (1997 film)|Titanic]]'' and said that the film "is realistic and poignant, but entertaining."<ref name="Hebbar">{{cite news|last1=Hebbar |first1=Prajakta |title='Bhopal: A Prayer For Rain' is like 'Titanic'; realistic and poignant, but entertaining, says director Ravi Kumar |url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/bhopal-a-prayer-for-rain-is-like-titanic-realistic-and-poignant-but-entertaining-says-director-ravi-kumar/516344-8-66.html |access-date=11 December 2014 |publisher=[[CNN-IBN]] |date=4 December 2014 |location=New Delhi |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141204091636/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/bhopal-a-prayer-for-rain-is-like-titanic-realistic-and-poignant-but-entertaining-says-director-ravi-kumar/516344-8-66.html |archive-date=4 December 2014 }}</ref> Rajpal Yadav termed it the biggest project of his life<ref>{{cite news|author1=Indo-Asian News Service |title='Bhopal: A Prayer...' my biggest project: Rajpal Yadav |url=http://zeenews.india.com/entertainment/bollywood/-bhopal-a-prayer-my-biggest-project-rajpal-yadav_124105.html |access-date=12 December 2014 |publisher=[[Zee News]] ([[Essel Group]]) |date=8 December 2012 |location=Mumbai |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303221437/http://zeenews.india.com/entertainment/bollywood/-bhopal-a-prayer-my-biggest-project-rajpal-yadav_124105.html |archive-date=3 March 2016 |author1-link=Indo-Asian News Service }}</ref> and dedicated his role to the victims of the disaster.<ref>{{cite news|author1=Press Trust of India |title=Rajpal Yadav: 'Bhopal: A Prayer for Rain' Dedicated to Victims of Disaster |url=http://www.indiawest.com/entertainment/global/rajpal-yadav-bhopal-a-prayer-for-rain-dedicated-to-victims/article_5eced28a-6138-11e4-9aef-ebca82d8c543.html |access-date=12 December 2014 |work=India-West |date=31 October 2014 |location=New Delhi |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141112172928/http://www.indiawest.com/entertainment/global/rajpal-yadav-bhopal-a-prayer-for-rain-dedicated-to-victims/article_5eced28a-6138-11e4-9aef-ebca82d8c543.html |archive-date=12 November 2014 |author1-link=Press Trust of India }}</ref>

The film was screened in [[Cannes]], at the [[Pan Asia Film Festival]] in London, the [[Dingle Film Festival]], and the [[Tokyo International Film Festival]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Roseingrave |first1=Louise |title=Silent killer is still claiming victims every day |url=http://www.irishexaminer.com/lifestyle/artsfilmtv/silent-killer-is-still-claiming-victims-every-day-300213.html |access-date=13 December 2014 |work=[[Irish Examiner]] |publisher=[[Landmark Media Investments]] |date=1 December 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141203195616/http://www.irishexaminer.com/lifestyle/artsfilmtv/silent-killer-is-still-claiming-victims-every-day-300213.html |archive-date=3 December 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Mitchell |first1=Wendy |title=Festival briefs: Berlin, Tokyo, Locarno, Kinoteka, Pan-Asia, Ilkley |url=http://www.screendaily.com/festivals/festival-briefs-berlin-tokyo-locarno-kinoteka-pan-asia-ilkley/5065879.article |access-date=13 December 2014 |work=[[Screen International]] |publisher=[[Emap International Limited]] |date=28 January 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141026154512/http://www.screendaily.com/festivals/festival-briefs-berlin-tokyo-locarno-kinoteka-pan-asia-ilkley/5065879.article |archive-date=26 October 2014 }}</ref> The distributors advised director Kumar to remove a scene which they considered to be too dramatic for Western audiences.<ref name="HTMumbai">{{cite news|last1=Singh |first1=Prashant |title=Martin Sheen to bring Bhopal gas tragedy on silver screen |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/hollywood/martin-sheen-to-bring-bhopal-gas-tragedy-on-silver-screen/article1-1146463.aspx |access-date=12 December 2014 |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |date=2 November 2013 |location=Mumbai |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129234214/http://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/hollywood/martin-sheen-to-bring-bhopal-gas-tragedy-on-silver-screen/article1-1146463.aspx |archive-date=29 November 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Bhaskaran |first1=Gautaman |title=Martin Sheen plays 'Bhopal villain' in Gas Tragedy film |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/hollywood/martin-sheen-plays-bhopal-villain-in-gas-tragedy-film/article1-1160760.aspx |access-date=12 December 2014 |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |date=9 December 2013 |location=Dubai |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140121165425/http://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/hollywood/martin-sheen-plays-bhopal-villain-in-gas-tragedy-film/article1-1160760.aspx |archive-date=21 January 2014 }}</ref> A private screening for a youth assembly was held at the United Nations. [[Revolver Entertainment]] acquired the distributor rights of the film for North American region in September 2014.<ref>{{cite news|author1=Press Trust of India |title=UK distributor acquires rights to 'Bhopal tragedy' film |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/hollywood/uk-distributor-acquires-rights-to-bhopal-tragedy-film/ |access-date=13 December 2014 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |publisher=[[Indian Express Limited]] |date=17 September 2014 |location=Los Angeles |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140927034105/http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/hollywood/uk-distributor-acquires-rights-to-bhopal-tragedy-film/ |archive-date=27 September 2014 |author1-link=Press Trust of India }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Ben Kingsley, Brie Larson Head For 'Brooklyn Bridge'; Revolver Takes 'Bhopal' Disaster Drama |url=https://deadline.com/2014/09/ben-kingsley-brie-larson-brooklyn-bridge-bhopal-a-prayer-for-rain-disaster-835481/ |access-date=12 December 2014 |website=[[Deadline Hollywood]] ([[Penske Media Corporation]]) |date=16 September 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103231450/http://deadline.com/2014/09/ben-kingsley-brie-larson-brooklyn-bridge-bhopal-a-prayer-for-rain-disaster-835481/ |archive-date=3 January 2015 }}</ref> The worldwide sales rights were acquired by GFM Films.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Tartaglione |first1=Nancy |title=Cannes Briefs: Bekmambetov's 'Squirrels'; Darclight's 'Tell Tale Heart'; Vision's Duff McKagan Doc; More |url=https://deadline.com/2013/05/cannes-briefs-cohen-hires-john-kochman-sue-brooks-goes-driving-108-media-in-for-the-time-being-more-495043/ |access-date=12 December 2014 |website=[[Deadline Hollywood]] ([[Penske Media Corporation]]) |date=10 May 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305211204/http://deadline.com/2013/05/cannes-briefs-cohen-hires-john-kochman-sue-brooks-goes-driving-108-media-in-for-the-time-being-more-495043/ |archive-date=5 March 2016 }}</ref> The film's United States release was scheduled for 7 November 2014.<ref name="Obligation">{{cite news|author1=Indo-Asian News Service |title=We had moral obligation to represent truth: 'Bhopal: A Prayer for Rain' director |url=http://zeenews.india.com/entertainment/movies/we-had-moral-obligation-to-represent-truth-bhopal-a-prayer-for-rain-director_1506267.html |access-date=13 December 2014 |publisher=[[Zee News]] ([[Essel Group]]) |date=28 November 2014 |location=New Delhi |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141201012748/http://zeenews.india.com/entertainment/movies/we-had-moral-obligation-to-represent-truth-bhopal-a-prayer-for-rain-director_1506267.html |archive-date=1 December 2014 |author1-link=Indo-Asian News Service }}</ref> A special screening of the film was held in [[New York City|New York]] on 18 September.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Shahryar |first1=Faridoon |title=Bhopal A Prayer For Rain jolts New York |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movies/features/type/view/id/7239/Bhopal+A+Prayer+For+Rain+jolts+New+York |access-date=13 December 2014 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |date=22 September 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141203222612/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movies/features/type/view/id/7239/Bhopal%2BA%2BPrayer%2BFor%2BRain%2Bjolts%2BNew%2BYork |archive-date=3 December 2014 }}</ref> Another special screening was conducted in Bhopal just prior to the release, attended by many well known actors of the Hindi film industry.<ref name="James">{{cite news|last1=James |first1=Anu |title='Bhopal: A Prayer for Rain': Riteish Deshmukh, Kal Penn, Rajpal Yadav, Dino Morea and Other Celebs Attend Premiere [PHOTOS] |url=http://www.ibtimes.co.in/bhopal-prayer-rain-riteish-deshmukh-kal-penn-rajpal-yadav-dino-morea-other-celebs-attend-616211 |access-date=14 December 2014 |work=[[International Business Times]] |date=5 December 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141207205916/http://www.ibtimes.co.in/bhopal-prayer-rain-riteish-deshmukh-kal-penn-rajpal-yadav-dino-morea-other-celebs-attend-616211 |archive-date=7 December 2014 }}</ref> The film opened in New York on 7 November, [[Los Angeles]] on 14 November<ref>{{cite news|last1=Tsering |first1=Lisa |title='Bhopal: A Prayer for Rain' Director Drives the Message Home |url=http://www.indiawest.com/entertainment/global/bhopal-a-prayer-for-rain-director-drives-the-message-home/article_66778504-6e85-11e4-b37e-eff0c66828f2.html |access-date=14 December 2014 |work=India-West |date=17 November 2014 |location=San Leandro, California |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141201054400/http://www.indiawest.com/entertainment/global/bhopal-a-prayer-for-rain-director-drives-the-message-home/article_66778504-6e85-11e4-b37e-eff0c66828f2.html |archive-date=1 December 2014 }}</ref> and in India on 5 December 2014.<ref name="India" /> Reportedly, Kumar had insured the film against libel for an undisclosed amount.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Ayub |first1=Jamal |title='Prayer For Rain' director takes libel insurance |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bhopal/Prayer-For-Rain-director-takes-libel-insurance/articleshow/45370161.cms |access-date=14 December 2014 |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=4 December 2014 |location=Bhopal |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141212044926/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bhopal/Prayer-For-Rain-director-takes-libel-insurance/articleshow/45370161.cms |archive-date=12 December 2014 }}</ref> Bhopal-based journalist [[Rajkumar Keswani]] wanted to sue the film producers for portraying him as a "salacious gossip columnist" before his lawyer advised him to watch the film first. He had seen the film's original script in which Penn's character was named Keswani.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Ghose |first1=Debobrat |title=Film on Bhopal tragedy: Journo who exposed rot at carbide plant hurt at 'gossip columnist' tag |url=http://www.firstpost.com/india/film-bhopal-tragedy-journo-exposed-rot-carbide-plant-hurt-gossip-columnist-tag-1834455.html |access-date=14 December 2014 |publisher=Firstpost ([[Network 18]]) |date=4 December 2014 |location=New Delhi |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141204214632/http://www.firstpost.com/india/film-bhopal-tragedy-journo-exposed-rot-carbide-plant-hurt-gossip-columnist-tag-1834455.html |archive-date=4 December 2014 }}</ref> Inspired by the film, musician [[Sting (musician)|Sting]] collaborated with [[Anoushka Shankar]] to record a song. Kumar also confirmed their collaboration.<ref>{{cite news|author1=Indo-Asian News Service |title=Sting's guitar meets Anoushka Shankar's sitar for 'Bhopal: A Prayer For Rain' |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/bhopal/sting-s-guitar-meets-anoushka-shankar-s-sitar-for-bhopal-a-prayer-for-rain/article1-1271705.aspx |access-date=13 December 2014 |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |date=4 October 2014 |location=Mumbai |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016103120/http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/bhopal/sting-s-guitar-meets-anoushka-shankar-s-sitar-for-bhopal-a-prayer-for-rain/article1-1271705.aspx |archive-date=16 October 2014 |author1-link=Indo-Asian News Service }}</ref>

== Reception ==
[[Rotten Tomatoes]], a [[review aggregator]], rated the film 68% based on a total of 19 critic reviews, with an average rating of 6.40/10.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/bhopal_a_prayer_for_rain/ |title=Bhopal: A Prayer for Rain |website=[[Rotten Tomatoes]] |publisher=[[Flixster]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180306134136/https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/bhopal_a_prayer_for_rain/ |archive-date=6 March 2018 |url-status=live |access-date=8 May 2020 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Another review aggregator, [[Metacritic]], gives the film a rating of 50% based on seven critic reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.metacritic.com/movie/bhopal-a-prayer-for-rain|title=Bhopal: A Prayer for Rain|website=[[Metacritic]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180306140413/http://www.metacritic.com/movie/bhopal-a-prayer-for-rain|archive-date=6 March 2018|url-status=live|access-date=6 March 2018|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

Meena Iyer of ''[[The Times of India]]'' praised the actors and noted that despite being based on true incidents the film "[managed] to connect emotionally".<ref>{{cite news|last1=Iyer |first1=Meena |title=Bhopal: A Prayer for Rain movie review |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/movie-review/bhopal-a-prayer-for-rain/movie-review/45359967.cms |access-date=6 December 2014 |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=5 December 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141206135232/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/movie-review/Bhopal-A-Prayer-for-Rain/movie-review/45359967.cms |archive-date=6 December 2014 }}{{rating|3|5}}</ref> In her review for ''[[Hindustan Times]]'', Sweta Kaushal wrote that director Ravi Kumar "should be congratulated for picking a rather grave subject" and praised the actors for doing justice to their respective characters. However, she felt that in portraying Dilip, Kumar took away the "severity of the issue" and that he did not put "the blame on anyone". Further, she opined that the film had depicted Anderson "as a rather humanist [person]". She concluded that better research should have been done and that the film "could have been a more involving story".<ref>{{cite news|last1=Kaushal |first1=Sweta |title=Bhopal A Prayer For Rain review: It's heart-wrenching, grave film you must watch |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/reviews/bhopal-a-prayer-for-rain-review-it-s-heart-wrenching-but-where-s-the-intensity/article1-1293101.aspx |access-date=6 December 2014 |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |date=5 December 2014 |location=New Delhi |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141205152116/http://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/reviews/bhopal-a-prayer-for-rain-review-it-s-heart-wrenching-but-where-s-the-intensity/article1-1293101.aspx |archive-date= 5 December 2014 }}{{rating|2.5|5.0}}</ref> While Kaushal felt that Barton's role was unnecessary, Anuj Kumar of ''[[The Hindu]]'' suggested that this role was planted in the story to provide Warren Anderson a chance to express his views. Kumar praised Yadav's acting by calling him the "face of the tragedy." He also praised Sheen but felt that Penn looked "out of place in the mofussil surroundings."<ref>{{cite news|last1=Kumar|first1=Anuj|title=Bhopal – A Prayer For Rain: Breathing through the gas|url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/cinema-reviews/bhopal-a-prayer-for-rain-breathing-through-the-gas/article6665071.ece|access-date=11 December 2014|work=[[The Hindu]]|publisher=[[The Hindu Group]]|date=5 December 2014}}</ref> Shubhra Gupta of ''[[The Indian Express]]'' noted that Chatterjee was effective in her role.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Gupta |first1=Shubhra |title=Bhopal : A Prayer For Rain review |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/movie-review/bhopal-a-prayer-for-rain-review/ |access-date=6 December 2014 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |publisher=[[Indian Express Limited]] |date=5 December 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141205083333/http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/movie-review/bhopal-a-prayer-for-rain-review/ |archive-date=5 December 2014 }}{{rating|2.5|5.0}}</ref> ''[[India Today]]''{{'s}} Rohit Khilnani praised the director for "[capturing] everything that [the] drama needed". However, he felt that the overall quality of the film could have been better.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Khilnani |first1=Rohit |title=Movie Review: Bhopal — A Prayer for Rain is a story that needed to be told |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/reviews/story/movie-review-bhopal-a-prayer-for-rain-229782-2014-12-04 |access-date=11 December 2014 |work=[[India Today]] |publisher=[[Living Media]] |date=4 December 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141210140955/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/movie-review-bhopal---a-prayer-for-rain/1/405146.html |archive-date=10 December 2014 }}{{rating|3.5|5}}</ref>

Bryan Durham of ''[[Daily News and Analysis]]'' praised the actors, particularly Martin Sheen, the costumes and sets used for the film. He considered Barton's character and Hinglish unnecessary. He also questioned how Rajpal's character was able to live for a longer period of time than others who were exposed to the gas, and how the doctor and nurses survived the whole disaster. He concluded that "the film takes [the] viewer for granted in places." Durham noted that the film had "its heart in the right place."<ref>{{cite news|last1=Durham |first1=Bryan |title=Film Review: 'Bhopal — A Prayer For Rain' has its heart in right place, had it beaten little more passionately |url=http://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/review-film-review-bhopal-a-prayer-for-rain-has-its-heart-in-right-place-had-it-beaten-little-more-passionately-2041325 |access-date=6 December 2014 |work=[[Daily News and Analysis]] |date=5 December 2014 |location=Mumbai |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141211032020/http://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/review-film-review-bhopal-a-prayer-for-rain-has-its-heart-in-right-place-had-it-beaten-little-more-passionately-2041325 |archive-date=11 December 2014 }}{{rating|2.5|5.0}}</ref> Prasanna D. Zore of [[Rediff.com]] called ''Bhopal: A Prayer for Rain'' an "honest yet haunting film" and appreciated Anil Chandel's cinematography.<ref>{{cite news|last1=D Zore |first1=Prasanna |title=Review: Bhopal: A Prayer For Rain is a haunting film |url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/report/review-bhopal-a-prayer-for-rain-is-a-haunting-film/20141205.htm |access-date=6 December 2014 |work=[[Rediff.com]] |date=5 December 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141205164237/http://www.rediff.com/movies/report/review-bhopal-a-prayer-for-rain-is-a-haunting-film/20141205.htm |archive-date=5 December 2014 }}{{rating|4|5}}</ref> [[Rajeev Masand]] of [[CNN-IBN]] praised Yadav, Sheen and Chatterjee for their acting. He criticised the film for its dialogues and Mischa Barton's role. He further noted that there was "a sense of drama in the final moments" but the film "has few moments that are extraordinary or even genuinely moving."<ref>{{cite news|last1=Masand|first1=Rajeev|authorlink1=Rajeev Masand|title='Bhopal: A prayer for rain' review: There is a sense of drama in the final moments|url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/bhopal-a-prayer-for-rain-review-there-is-a-sense-of-drama-in-the-final-moments/516643-47.html|archive-url=https://archive.today/20141206125046/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/bhopal-a-prayer-for-rain-review-there-is-a-sense-of-drama-in-the-final-moments/516643-47.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=6 December 2014|access-date=6 December 2014|publisher=[[CNN-IBN]]|date=6 December 2014}}{{rating|2|5}}</ref>

Martin Tsai of the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' wrote that the "cautionary tale could not be more relevant".<ref>{{cite news|last1=Tsai |first1=Martin |title=Review 'Bhopal: A Prayer for Rain' an effective cautionary tale |url=https://www.latimes.com/entertainment/movies/la-et-mn-bhopal-prayer-for-rain-review-20141114-story.html |access-date=12 December 2014 |work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |date=13 November 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141224011005/http://www.latimes.com/entertainment/movies/la-et-mn-bhopal-prayer-for-rain-review-20141114-story.html |archive-date=24 December 2014 }}</ref> Stephanie Merry of ''[[The Washington Post]]'' wrote that despite the terrible finale, the "movie never feels as powerful as it should." She felt that the dialogue, acting and music tended to be melodramatic but "the overt heartstring-pulling doesn't add much."<ref>{{cite news|last1=Merry |first1=Stephanie |title='Bhopal: A Prayer for Rain': Kal Penn, Martin Sheen star in melodramatic retelling of Indian disaster |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/goingoutguide/movies/bhopal-a-prayer-for-rain-kal-penn-martin-sheen-star-in-melodramatic-retelling-of-indian-disaster/2014/11/25/0a8c8198-73fa-11e4-a589-1b102c2f81d0_story.html |access-date=12 December 2014 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=25 November 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141213134704/http://www.washingtonpost.com/goingoutguide/movies/bhopal-a-prayer-for-rain-kal-penn-martin-sheen-star-in-melodramatic-retelling-of-indian-disaster/2014/11/25/0a8c8198-73fa-11e4-a589-1b102c2f81d0_story.html |archive-date=13 December 2014 }}{{rating|2|5}}</ref> In his review for ''[[The Hollywood Reporter]]'', Frank Scheck praised Sheen's portrayal of Anderson and the visuals of the leakage but felt that the film is "slack in its tension".<ref>{{cite news|last1=Scheck |first1=Frank |title='Bhopal: A Prayer for Rain': Film Review |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/review/bhopal-a-prayer-rain-film-746112 |access-date=12 December 2014 |work=[[The Hollywood Reporter]] ([[Prometheus Global Media]]) |date=4 November 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141113095258/http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/review/bhopal-a-prayer-rain-film-746112 |archive-date=13 November 2014 }}</ref> Writing for ''[[The New York Times]]'', Ben Kenigsberg noted that the film "mines every chemical drip and gurgle for suspense."<ref>{{cite news|last1=Kenigsberg |first1=Ben |title=30 Years Later, Reliving an Industrial Disaster: 'Bhopal: A Prayer for Rain' Stars Martin Sheen |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/07/movies/bhopal-a-prayer-for-rain-stars-martin-sheen.html |access-date=12 December 2014 |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=6 November 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141214100335/http://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/07/movies/bhopal-a-prayer-for-rain-stars-martin-sheen.html |archive-date=14 December 2014 }}</ref>

== Box office ==

In the first three days of its release, the film grossed merely {{INRConvert|900000}} at the Indian box office.<ref>{{cite news|title=Weekend box-office report: Action Jackson has a poor weekend... |url=http://www.filmfare.com/news/weekend-boxoffice-report-7914.html |access-date=12 December 2014 |work=[[Filmfare]] |publisher=[[Times Internet]] |date=8 December 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141227141751/http://www.filmfare.com/news/weekend-boxoffice-report-7914.html |archive-date=27 December 2014 }}</ref> In its first weekend the film collected {{INRConvert|7|m}}.<ref>{{cite news |title='Action Jackson' box office collections: Ajay Devgn starrer fails to impress |url=http://www.financialexpress.com/article/lifestyle/showbiz/action-jackson-box-office-collections-ajay-devgn-starrer-fails-to-impress/18332/ |access-date=12 December 2014 |work=[[The Financial Express (India)|The Financial Express]] |publisher=[[Indian Express Limited]] |date=12 December 2014 |location=Mumbai |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141217153112/http://www.financialexpress.com/article/lifestyle/showbiz/action-jackson-box-office-collections-ajay-devgn-starrer-fails-to-impress/18332/ |archive-date=17 December 2014 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> At the United States domestic box office, the film grossed US$6,150 in its first weekend<ref>{{cite news|last1=Brooks |first1=Brian |title='The Theory of Everything' Hawking Relatively Strong Box Office Debut |url=https://deadline.com/2014/11/the-theory-of-everything-frederick-wiseman-box-office-1201279516/ |access-date=12 December 2014 |website=[[Deadline Hollywood]] ([[Penske Media Corporation]]) |date=9 November 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141214161935/http://deadline.com/2014/11/the-theory-of-everything-frederick-wiseman-box-office-1201279516/ |archive-date=14 December 2014 }}</ref> and a total of US$12,628.<ref>{{cite news|title=Bhopal: A Prayer for Rain (2014) |url=https://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?page=main&id=bhopal.htm |access-date=13 December 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150915002834/http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?page=main&id=bhopal.htm |archive-date=15 September 2015 }}</ref> It grossed US$6,317 in its first week and US$6,311 in its second weekend.<ref>{{cite news|title=Weekly collection of Bhopal: A Prayer for Rain |url=https://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?page=weekly&id=bhopal.htm |access-date=13 December 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924175928/http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?page=weekly&id=bhopal.htm |archive-date=24 September 2015 }}</ref>

== See also ==

* [[2014 in film]]
* [[List of British films of 2014]]
* [[List of Bollywood films of 2014]]
* [[Bhopal Express (film)]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|25em}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Bhopal: A Prayer for Rain}}

* {{IMDb title|0839742}}
* {{Mojo title|id=bhopal|title=Bhopal: A Prayer for Rain}}
* {{Rotten Tomatoes|id=bhopal_a_prayer_for_rain|title=Bhopal: A Prayer for Rain}}
* {{Official website|http://bhopalmovie.com/}}

[[Category:2010s disaster films]]
[[Category:2014 films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Papon (singer)]]
[[Category:Bhopal disaster]]
[[Category:British drama films]]
[[Category:Disaster films based on actual events]]
[[Category:2014 English-language films]]
[[Category:English-language Indian films]]
[[Category:Films set in 1984]]
[[Category:Films set in Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:Films shot in Hyderabad, India]]
[[Category:Films shot in Los Angeles]]
[[Category:Films shot in Mumbai]]
[[Category:Films scored by Benjamin Wallfisch]]
[[Category:2014 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:2014 Indian films]]
[[Category:Indian disaster films]]
[[Category:2014 drama films]]
[[Category:2014 British films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Swanand Kirkire]]
[[Category:English-language drama films]]

Jim Mathieson (sculptor)

2026-02-27T09:23:37Z

Androidsub143: new.

{{Short description|British-Indian sculptor (1931–2003)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
{{Infobox artist
| name = James William Mathieson
| image =
| image_size =
| caption =
| birth_name = James William Mathieson
| birth_date = {{birth date|1931|6|21|df=y}}
| birth_place = Calcutta, India
| death_date = {{death date and age|2003|04|12|1931|6|21|df=y}}
| death_place =
| known_for = Sculpture
| training = [[City and Guilds of London Art School]]
| movement =
| notable_works = Statue of William Hogarth and his pug dog
| patrons =
| awards =
}}
'''James William Mathieson''' (21 June 1931 – 12 April 2003) was a British Indian [[sculptor]].

== Biography ==

=== Early life ===
Mathieson was born in [[Kolkata|Calcutta]], India, and attended the Lawrence Royal Military School in Simla Hills. His parents hoped that he and his brother David would become army officers. When the British began to leave India, he moved with his family to [[Scotland]] in 1947. Despite showing early skill in art, his father refused to fund his art studies.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=23 April 2003 |title=Jim Mathieson |url=https://www.the-independent.com/news/obituaries/jim-mathieson-36463.html |website=[[The Independent]]}}</ref> As a young adult, he completed national service, then worked in [[insurance]] while completing his school studies (O- and A-levels) at evening classes. He joined the [[Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament]] in 1960, becoming an active member.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |last=Bott |first=Val |date=2003-04-24 |title=Jim Mathieson |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2003/apr/24/guardianobituaries.artsobituaries1 |access-date=2025-04-20 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> He campaigned against the [[Suez Crisis]] and joined both the [[Communist Party of Britain|Communist Party]] and the [[Committee of 100 (United Kingdom)|Committee of 100]]. He was arrested twice while protesting.<ref name=":1" />

=== Career ===
In 1964, at the age of 34, he started a four-year art course at [[City and Guilds of London Art School]] in [[London, England|London]]. Following this, between 1969 and 1979, he taught part-time at the Sir John Cass and Ealing schools of art, teaching aspects of sculpture.<ref name=":0" /> While still studying, he was chosen to cast Prince of Wales's crown for the [[Investiture of Charles, Prince of Wales|investiture of Charles]] at [[Caernarfon Castle|Caernarvon Castle]] in 1969.<ref name=":1" />

From 1979, he worked full-time as a sculptor.<ref name=":1" /> His best-known sculpture is of the artist [[William Hogarth]] and his [[pug]] dog [[Trump (dog)|Trump]], which stands on [[Chiswick High Road]], London. This was unveiled by [[Ian Hislop]] and [[David Hockney]] in October 2001. While he did create portrait and figurative sculptures, he most enjoyed abstract sculpture. In his abstract work he tried to capture the "essential qualities that express this miracle of life".<ref name=":0" /> Between 1984 and 1998 he sculpted portraits for [[Madame Tussauds]] as a way to make money while pursuing his personal art.<ref name=":1" />

=== Personal life ===
Mathieson married Edna Skinner in 1959. They had a daughter, but she died as a baby in 1964. He and Edna had a second daughter, named Catherine, in 1966. Mathieson divorced Edna in 1979 and later married Judy Craig in 1981. Judy Craig, also a sculptor, became the head of the portrait studio at Madame Tussauds.<ref name=":0" />

He was diagnosed with cancer in 1992.<ref name=":1" /> Mathieson died in April 2003, and was survived by his wife, his daughter, his stepson, and three grandchildren.<ref name=":0" />

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070927200131/http://www.mathiesonsculpture.com/ Gallery of Mathieson's sculptures]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mathieson, Jim}}
[[Category:1931 births]]
[[Category:2003 deaths]]
[[Category:Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament activists]]
[[Category:20th-century Scottish sculptors]]
[[Category:Scottish male sculptors]]
[[Category:20th-century British sculptors]]
[[Category:Alumni of the City and Guilds of London Art School]]
[[Category:Deaths from cancer in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Artists from Kolkata]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian sculptors]]
[[Category:Indian male sculptors]]
[[Category:Communist Party of Britain members]]

Shri C V Gandhi High School

2026-02-22T20:12:45Z

Androidsub143: starting new stub

{{Infobox school
| name = Shri C V Gandhi High School
| image = Shri_C_V_Gandhi_HighSchool_Ranasan.jpg
| caption = Shri Chhotalal Virchand Gandhi High School
| motto = "Knowledge is Power"
| location = Ranasan [[Ranasan Town|Ranasan]] 383305
| country = India
| coordinates = {{Coord|23.46585|73.11144|region:IN_type:edu|display=inline,title}}
| type = Public School (1961)
| established = {{Start date|1961}}
| founder =
| district = [[Sabarkantha]]
| dean =
| principal = Mr. Nitinbhai Kothari
| staff =
| faculty =
| grades = K-12
| houses =
| athletics = Track and field, and athletics meet annually
| athletic_conference = Boys and Girls Assemble
| sports = [[Cricket]], [[Association football|Football]], [[Volleyball]], [[Badminton]]
| mascot =
| nickname = C V Gandhi
| alumni =
| enrollment =
| affiliation = [[Central Board of Secondary Education|CBSE]]
| president =
| head_of_school =
| free_label =
| free_text =
| free_label2 =
| free_text2 =
| website =
}}
The '''Shri C V Gandhi High School''' (or '''C V Gandhi''') in [[Ranasan Town]] in [[Talod]] in [[Sabarkantha]] is one of the oldest public schools in [[India]].

== Student life ==
Sport teams from the school travel around the country to participate in inter public school competitions and district/state/national level events.
Co-curricular activities include public speaking/recitation/debates, bio-enrichment camps, and other cultural activities.
The school motto is ''Yasya Bhuddhi, Balam Tasya'' ("Power is where there is knowledge").

== Council presidents ==
* Prakashchandra M Shah
* Lalitbhai Trivedi
* Naranbhai M Patel

== See also ==
* [[Ranasan]]
* [[List of the oldest schools in the world]]

== External links ==
* [http://facebook.com/school.ranasan/ Facebook Page]

[[Category:High schools and secondary schools in Gujarat]]
[[Category:Sabarkantha district]]

Vijaya Mehta

2026-02-20T07:40:10Z

Androidsub143: fix

{{Short description|Indian actress (born 1934)}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2022}}
{{BLP sources|date=February 2013}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Vijaya Mehta
| image = Vijaya mehta.jpg
| imagesize = 200px
| caption = Mehta in 2012
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1934|11|04}}
| birth_place = [[Baroda]], [[Baroda State]], [[British Raj|British India]] (present-day [[Vadodara]], [[Gujarat]], [[India]])
| height =
| death_date =
| death_place =
| yearsactive =
| birth_name = Vijaya Jaywant
| othername =
| spouse = Harin Khote (died) Farrokh Mehta
| children = [[Anahita Uberoi]]
| website =
| awards = 1975 [[Sangeet Natak Akademi Award]] 1985 [[Asia Pacific Film Festival]], Best Actress: [[Party (1984 film)|Party]] 1986 [[National Film Award for Best Supporting Actress]]: [[Rao Saheb (film)|Rao Saheb]]
}}
'''Vijaya Mehta''' (born 4 November 1934),<ref>Abhijit Varde: [http://www.google.com/search?q=%22Vijaya+Mehta%22+1934&btnG=Nach+B%C3%BCchern+suchen&tbm=bks&tbo=1&hl=de Daughters of Maharashtra: Portraits of Women who are Building Maharastra : Interviews and Photographs], 1997, p. 87</ref> is a noted [[Indian people|Indian]] [[Marathi language|Marathi]] film and theatre director and also an actor in many films from the [[Parallel Cinema]]. She is a founder member of Mumbai-based theatre group, Rangayan with playwright [[Vijay Tendulkar]], and actors Arvind Deshpande and [[Shriram Lagoo]]. She is most known for her acclaimed role in film ''[[Party (1984 film)|Party]]'' (1984) and for her directorial ventures, ''[[Rao Saheb (film)|Rao Saheb]]'' (1986) and ''[[Pestonjee]]'' (1988). As the founder member of theatre group, ''Rangayan'', she became a leading figure in the experimental [[Marathi theatre]] of the 1960s.<ref>{{cite web |title=The return of Desdemona |work=Mumbai Mirror |url=http://www.mumbaimirror.com/others/sunday-read/The-return-of-Desdemona/articleshow/29368448.cms |date=25 January 2014 |access-date=22 June 2014}}</ref>

==Early life and education==
Vijaya Mehta was born as Vijaya Jaywant in [[Baroda]], [[Gujarat]] in 1934.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gulati |first1=Leela (editor) |last2=Bagchi |first2=Jasodhara (Editor) |last3=Mehta |first3=Vijaya (Author) |title=A space of her own : personal narratives of twelve women |date=2005 |publisher=SAGE |location=London |isbn=9780761933151 |page=181 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HdzF06JsGyMC&q=ckp&pg=PA181}}</ref> She graduated from [[Mumbai University]]. She studied theatre with [[Ebrahim Alkazi]] in [[Delhi]] and with Adi Marzban.{{cn|date=February 2026}}

==Career==
She became a major figure in 60s [[Marathi language|Marathi]] experimental theatre. She is a founder member of theatre group, ''Rangayan'' with playwright [[Vijay Tendulkar]], [[Arvind Deshpande]] and [[Shriram Lagoo]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Shantata! Awishkar Chalu Aahe |url=http://www.mumbaitheatreguide.com/dramas/features/08/aug/28_feature_shantata.asp |date=August 2008 |publisher=Mumbai Theatre Guide}}</ref>

Her stage production of [[C. T. Khanolkar]]'s ''Ek Shoonya Bajirao'' is considered as a landmark in contemporary Indian theatre. She introduced [[Bertold Brecht]] into [[Marathi theatre]] with adaptation of ''[[The Caucasian Chalk Circle]]'' (''Ajab Nyay Vartulacha''), and [[Eugène Ionesco|Ionesco]] with ''[[Les Chaises|Chairs]]''.

She collaborated on Indo-German theatre projects with German director [[Fritz Bennewitz]] including a traditional performance of [[Bhasa]]'s ''Mudrarakshasa'' with German actors. Except ''Pestonjee'', most of her work consists of film and television adaptations of her stage plays.

She was awarded the 1975 [[Sangeet Natak Akademi Award]] for excellence in Direction, in 1986 she won the [[National Film Award for Best Supporting Actress]] for her role in ''[[Rao Saheb (film)|Rao Saheb]]'' (1986).

==Personal life==
She first married Harin Khote, son of actress [[Durga Khote]], however he died at an early age, leaving behind two young sons. Thereafter, she married Farrokh Mehta.<ref>{{cite news |title=Life at play |author=Shanta Gokhale |author-link=Shanta Gokhale |url=http://www.punemirror.in/printarticle.aspx?page=comments&action=translate&sectid=63&contentid=2012112620121126075151856ed14874e&subsite= |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130217225014/http://www.punemirror.in/printarticle.aspx?page=comments&action=translate&sectid=63&contentid=2012112620121126075151856ed14874e&subsite= |url-status=dead |archive-date=17 February 2013 |work=Pune Mirror |date=26 November 2012}}</ref>

==Filmography==
* ''[[Kalyug (1981 film)|Kalyug]]'' (1981) - Actor
* ''Smriti Chitre'' (1982, TV film) - Director, Actor a
* ''Shakuntalam'' (1986, TV film) - Director
* ''[[Party (1984 film)|Party]]'' (1984) - Actor
* ''[[Rao Saheb (film)|Rao Saheb]]'' (1985) - Director, Screenwriter, Actor
* ''Haveli Bulund Thi'' (1987, TV film) - Director
* ''Hamidabai Ki Kothi'' (1987, TV film) - Director
* ''[[Pestonjee]]'' (1988) - Director, Screenwriter
* ''Lifeline'' (1991, TV Series) - Director
* ''[[Quest (2006 film)|Quest]]'' (2006) - Actor

==Awards==
* 1975 [[Sangeet Natak Akademi Award]]
* 1985 [[Asia Pacific Film Festival]]: Best Actress: [[Party (1984 film)|Party]]<ref>[https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0248289/awards Awards] IMDb.</ref>
* 1986 [[National Film Award for Best Supporting Actress]]: ''[[Rao Saheb (film)|Rao Saheb]]''<ref name="33rdaward">{{cite web |url=http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm33NFAAward.aspx |title=33rd National Film Awards |publisher=[[International Film Festival of India]] |pages=28, 36 |access-date=22 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140505170442/http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm33NFAAward.aspx |archive-date=5 May 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* 2004 [[Zee Chitra Gaurav Lifetime Achievement Award]]
* 2009 Tanveer Sanmaan<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.maayboli.com/node/24834 |title=तन्वीर सन्मान सोहळा - २००९ | Maayboli}}</ref>
* 2012 [[Sangeet Natak Akademi Tagore Ratna]]

==See also==
* [[Theatre in India]]

==Further reading==
*Abode of Colour, an autobiographical account by Vijaya Mehta<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gulati |first1=Leela (editor) |last2=Bagchi |first2=Jasodhara (Editor) |last3=Mehta |first3=Vijaya (Author) |title=A space of her own : personal narratives of twelve women |date=2005 |publisher=SAGE |location=London |isbn=9780761933151 |page=181 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HdzF06JsGyMC&q=ckp&pg=PA181}}</ref>
* Vijaya Mehta on theatre and Guru [[Mani Madhava Cakyar]] [https://web.archive.org/web/20080828165400/http://www.rotaryclubofbombay.org/ps121206.htm]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb name|0576587}}

{{Padma Shri Award Recipients in Art}}
{{NationalFilmAwardBestSupportingActress}}
{{Marathi Theatre}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mehta, Vijaya}}
[[Category:1934 births]]
[[Category:Gujarati actresses]]
[[Category:University of Mumbai alumni]]
[[Category:People from Vadodara]]
[[Category:Indian women dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:Indian stage actresses]]
[[Category:Indian film actresses]]
[[Category:Indian women film directors]]
[[Category:Academic staff of the National School of Drama]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian theatre directors]]
[[Category:Marathi theatre]]
[[Category:Best Supporting Actress National Film Award winners]]
[[Category:Indian women television directors]]
[[Category:Indian television directors]]
[[Category:Actresses in Hindi cinema]]
[[Category:Actresses in Gujarati cinema]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian actresses]]
[[Category:Women writers from Gujarat]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:Screenwriters from Gujarat]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Shri in arts]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian women writers]]
[[Category:Actresses from Gujarat]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian actresses]]
[[Category:Indian television writers]]
[[Category:Indian women screenwriters]]
[[Category:Film directors from Gujarat]]
[[Category:Indian television actresses]]
[[Category:Indian women television writers]]

Madala Panji

2026-01-29T03:16:55Z

Androidsub143: correct details for consistency and corrected details

{{Short description|Chronicle of the Jagannath Temple}}
The '''Madala Panji''' is a chronicle of the [[Jagannath Temple, Puri]], [[Odisha]], [[India]]. It describes the historical events of Odisha related to [[Lord Jagannath]] and the Jagannath Temple.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://jagannath.nic.in/architecture.asp |title=Shree Jagannath Temple - Architecture |access-date=2012-11-29 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121120171916/http://jagannath.nic.in/architecture.asp |archive-date=2012-11-20 }}</ref> The ''Madala Panji'' dates from the 12th century.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/355633/Madala-panji Britannica.com]</ref> However other scholars like [[Harekrushna Mahatab]], [[Krishna Chandra Panigrahi]], [[Nilakantha Das]] etc. date it to 16th century with its writing commencing during the reign of [[Ramachandra Deva I]] of [[Bhoi dynasty]] who used panji as a proof of succession over the throne of Odisha.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Dash |first=Rajata Kanta |title=Madala Panji: Towards Historicising a Discourse |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/389337946_Madala_Panji_Towards_Historicising_a_Discourse |journal=PROCEEDINGS OF THE ODISHA HISTORY CONGRESS, 42nd Session, Department of History and Archeology, Fakir Mohan University}}</ref>

==Madala Panji's role in Odia history==
The Madala Panji was traditionally written on a year-to-year basis on Vijaya-Dashami day by the [[Karan (caste)|Karanas]] (official history writers of Puri, a caste of Odisha, involved in keeping the chronicle).<ref name="Rath 1983 p. ">{{cite book | last=Rath | first=B.K. | title=Cultural history of Orissa, A.D. 855-1110 | publisher=Sundeep Prakashan | year=1983 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xhFuAAAAMAAJ | access-date=2019-05-15 }}</ref> This ritual is cited as a proof that the tradition of keeping this chronicle began with Odia king [[Anantavarman Chodaganga]] Dev (1078–1150) himself. There are some, like Dr. [[Harekrushna Mahatab]], Dr.Nilakantha Dash and Dr. [[Krushna Chandra Panigrahi]] who hold that the Panji dates from the reign of Ramachandra Deva I who re-established the worship of [[Jagannath|Lord Jagannatha]] after [[Kalapahad]] said to have destroyed it. The arguments are complex, but it is likely that much of the early record was indeed lost in the period that followed Kala Pahad and was rewritten in a fashion that mixed legend with history. In 1926 a researcher named Ram Prasad Chand arrived in Puri and collected copies of the Madala Panji from Deula Karana Gauranga Charan Samantaray, as per his inspection Panji dates from the reign of [[Ramachandra Deva I]].<ref name=":0" />

==Writers of Panji==
According to the tradition, [[Anantavarman Chodaganga]] created 24 families of [[Karan (caste)|Karanas]] to preserve the temple records. Of these, five were entrusted with the writing and preservation of the Madala Panji. They are:
* Panjia Karan—preserves the Madala Panji
* Tadau Karan—writes the Madala Panji
* Deula Karan—enforces the Madala
* Kotha Karan—the main compiler
* Baithi Karan – assistant

==Classification==
In subsequent stage, due to the bulky size of Madala Panji, its content covering different dimensions related to temple management, it was divided into four parts:
# Bhandara Khanja Madala (maintained by Pattajoshi Mohapatra)
# Deula Madala / Karmangi Madala (maintained by Deula Karana)
# Deshapanji Madala (prepared by Deula Karana)
# Rajakhanja Madala (prepared and maintained by Tadhau Karana),<ref>{{Cite web| title=Temple Administration : Past and Present | url=http://www.orissa.gov.in/e-magazine/Orissareview/june_july-2007/engpdf/Pages91-96.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120318074111/http://www.orissa.gov.in/e-magazine/Orissareview/june_july-2007/engpdf/Pages91-96.pdf | archive-date=2012-03-18}}</ref>

==Types of Panjis==
There are also five different categories of Panjis. No one has seen them all.
* Raja Khanja—important events of the Rajas. Read on Paush Purnima (Pushyabhishek). Kept by Tadau Karan.
* Desh Khanja—Records gifts of land and money and occasions when the Jagannath temple was plundered. Kept by Kotha Karan.
* Karmangi. Daily rituals. Important events related to the rituals recorded. Announced daily at the Beherana.
* Dina Panji—The daily almanac read by the temple astrologer at the time of the Avakash. These were prepared annually and finalized on Vishuva Sankranti.

Besides the Madala, there were other Karans who wrote regional chronicles, known as Chakadas. "All the Kadatas and Chakadas taken together will be about a cartload."

==Madala Panji in recent years==
Madala Panji language is Odia and was recorded in Odia and Telugu script, preserved in the Manuscript Library in Madras, which speaks about the story regarding image of [[Neela Madhava]] or Lord Jagannath of Udra desa, as Odisha was known in Middle Ages. It seems to have re-written during 16th century when the King of [[Khurda]] had newly installed the images after destruction made by [[Kalapahad]], the notorious general of the Sultan of Bengal.

Notable Odia writer and [[Padma Shri]] awardee [[Artaballabha Mohanty]] has published the only available print record of Madala Panji.<ref>{{citation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ra86AAAAMAAJ&q=Artaballabh+Mohanty+madala+panji |title=The Cult and Culture of Lord Jagannath |author=Sarata Chandra Panigrahi, Daityari Panda |page=134 |publisher=Rashtrabhasha Samavaya Prakashan |date=1984 }}</ref> Madala Panji was traditionally kept in the houses of Deula Karana, Tadhau Karana and Gajapati Maharaja.<ref name=":0" />

== See also ==
* [[Odia script]]
* [[Odia language]]
* [[Odia literature]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Jagannath|state=expanded}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:History of Odisha]]
[[Category:Jagannath]]
[[Category:Calendars]]
[[Category:Indian chronicles]]

Yeh Jawani Ta Ra Ri Ri

2026-01-22T18:37:23Z

Androidsub143: starting article

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2023}}
{{Infobox television
| image = Yeh_Jawani_Ta_Ra_Ri_Ri.jpeg
| image_upright =
| image_size =
| image_alt =
| caption =
| creator = [[BOLT Media Limited]]
| genre = [[Teen drama]]
| writer = [[Karan Agarwal]]
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| num_seasons = 1
| num_episodes = 47
| camera = Multi-camera
| runtime = 
| company = 
| budget =
| network = [[Channel V India]]
| released =
| first_aired = {{Start date|df=y|2014|5|16}}
| last_aired = {{End date|df=y|2014|10|24}}
}}

'''''Yeh Jawani Ta Ra Ri Ri''''' is an Indian television series that premiered on 16 May 2014 on [[Channel V India]]. ''Ye Jawani Ta Ra Ri Ri'' is a story of three brothers and their journey of discovering their adulthood. The story telecast the common problems faced by young men(boys) and how they get in a relationship.

== Cast==
* Mohit Tolani as Siddharth Khosla
* Pooja Bhamrah as Devika
* Chirag Mahbubani as Aditya Khosla
* Shritama Mukherjee as Kimaya
* Anshuman Malhotra as Ishaan Khosla
* Shrishti Ganguly Rindani as Gattu

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://www.hotstar.com/in/tv/yeh-jawaani/972 Official Website on Hotstar] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220118131734/https://www.hotstar.com/in/tv/yeh-jawaani/972 |date=18 January 2022 }}

{{Channel V India Shows}}

[[Category:2014 Indian television series debuts]]
[[Category:Channel V India original programming]]
[[Category:Indian teen drama television series]]
[[Category:2014 Indian television series endings]]

Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya

2026-01-20T11:06:15Z

Androidsub143: creating article - done

{{Short description|Museum in Mumbai, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2020}}
{{Infobox museum
| name = Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sanghralaya (CSMVS)
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| logo =
| logo_upright =
| logo_alt =
| logo_caption =
| image = Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya.jpg
| image_upright = 1.5
| alt =
| caption = [[Façade]] of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sanghralaya (CSMVS)
| map_type =
| map_relief =
| map_size =
| map_caption =
| map_dot_label =
| coordinates = {{coord|18.926667|72.832222|type:landmark_region:IN_scale:100|display=inline}}
| former_name = Prince of Wales Museum of Western India
| established = {{Start date and age|1922|01|10|df=yes}}
| dissolved =
| location = Mahatma Gandhi Road, [[Fort (Mumbai precinct)|Fort]], [[Mumbai]], [[India]]
| type = [[Archaeology museum|Archaeology]], [[Art museum|Art]] and [[Natural history museum|Natural history]] museum
| accreditation =
| key_holdings =
| collections =
| collection_size = Approx. 50,000 artefacts<ref name = "PIB">{{cite web|url = http://www.pibmumbai.gov.in/scripts/detail.asp?releaseId=E2008PR703|author = Press Information Bureau: Union Ministry of Culture|date = 5 September 2008|title = Union Ministry of Culture give Administrative approval for 124.3 million Rupees for Modernization of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj vastu Sangrahalaya, Mumbai|access-date = 2 April 2009|archive-date = 7 January 2019|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190107000735/http://www.pibmumbai.gov.in/scripts/detail.asp?releaseId=E2008PR703|url-status = live}}</ref>
| visitors =
| founder =
| executive_director =
| deputy_director =
| leader_type =
| leader =
| director = Sabyasachi Mukherjee<ref name="MM"/>
| president =
| ceo =
| chairperson =
| curator =
| architect = [[George Wittet]]
| historian =
| owner =
| employees =
| publictransit = {{rint|mumbai|suburban}} [[Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus]]; [[Churchgate railway station|Churchgate]]
| parking =
| website = {{URL|https://csmvs.in/}}
| network =
| embedded = {{designation list | embed = yes
| designation1 = WHS
| designation1_partof = [[Victorian Gothic and Art Deco Ensembles of Mumbai]]
| designation1_type =
| designation1_criteria = {{UNESCO WHS type|(ii), (iv)}}(ii) (iv)
| designation1_number = [https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1480 1480]
| designation1_date = [[List of World Heritage Sites by year of inscription#2018 (42nd session)|2018]] (43rd [[World Heritage Committee|session]])
}}
}}
'''Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya''', (CSMVS) formerly named the '''Prince of Wales Museum of Western India''', is a museum in [[Mumbai]] (Bombay) which documents the history of India from prehistoric to modern times.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://travel.nytimes.com/travel/guides/asia/india/mumbai/33189/prince-of-wales-museum/attraction-detail.html|title=Prince of Wales Museum|work=Extract from Frommer's India, 4th Edition|publisher=The New York Times|access-date=3 December 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100830182934/http://travel.nytimes.com/travel/guides/asia/india/mumbai/33189/prince-of-wales-museum/attraction-detail.html|archive-date=30 August 2010}}</ref>

It was founded during [[British Raj|British rule of India]] in the early years of the 20th century by prominent citizens of the city then called Bombay, with the help of the government, to commemorate the visit of the [[Prince of Wales]] (later [[George V]], [[king of the United Kingdom]] and [[emperor of India]]). It is located in the heart of South Mumbai near the [[Gateway of India]]. The museum was renamed in 1998 after [[Shivaji]], the founder of the [[Maratha Kingdom]].

The building is built in the [[Indo-Saracenic]] style of architecture, incorporating elements of other styles of architecture like the Mughal, Maratha and Jain. The museum building is surrounded by a garden of palm trees and formal flower beds.

The museum houses approximately 50,000 exhibits of ancient Indian history as well as objects from foreign lands, categorised primarily into three sections: Art, Archaeology and Natural History. The museum houses [[Indus Valley Civilization]] artefacts, and other relics from ancient India from the time of the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]]s, [[Mauryan art|Maurya]]s, [[Chalukyas]] and [[Rashtrakuta]].<ref name = "collection">{{cite book|last=Desai|first=Kalpana|title=Jewels on the Crescent: Masterpieces of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya|publisher=Mapin Publishing|year=2002|edition=Illustrated|pages=356|isbn=978-81-88204-00-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1-CzQgAACAAJ&q=Jewels%20on%20the%20Crescent}}</ref>

==History==
[[File:Portrait of Chhatrapati Shivaji.JPG|right|thumb|200px|A portrait of [[Shivaji]] at the entrance of the museum]]
In 1904, some leading citizens of Bombay decided to provide a museum to commemorate the visit of the [[Prince of Wales]], the future [[King George V]]. On 14 August 1905, the committee passed a resolution saying:
[[File:Chatrapathi Shivaji maharaj Vastu sangrahalaya, Fort, Mumbai.JPG|right|thumb|200px|Statue of The Prince of Wales, who later became the Emperor, George V]]
"The museum building embodies the pomp and height at which the British raj was moving ahead with their ambitious plans, in building the great metropolis Bombay". "In keeping pace with the best style of local architecture, many buildings were built, among which, [[Bombay High Court]] building, and later, [[Gateway of India]] buildings were the most notable ones".

[[File:The Statue has got many inscriptions on it.JPG|right|thumb|200px|On two sides of the statue has mural type of stone carving depicting the POW inaugurating the museum]]
The foundation stone was laid by the Prince of Wales on 11 November 1905 and the museum was formally named "Prince of Wales Museum of Western India".<ref name = "PIB"/> On 1 March 1907, the government of the [[Bombay Presidency]] granted the museum committee a piece of land called the "Crescent Site", where the museum now stands. Following an open design competition, in 1909 the architect [[George Wittet]] was commissioned to design the Museum building. Wittet had already worked on the design of the [[General Post Office (Mumbai)|General Post Office]] and in 1911 would design one of Mumbai's most famous landmarks, the [[Gateway of India]].<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.csmvs.in/|title = Official site|access-date = 27 January 2015|archive-date = 23 November 2016|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161123022609/http://www.csmvs.in/|url-status = live}}</ref>

The museum was funded by the Royal Visit (1905) Memorial Funds. Additionally, the Government and the Municipality granted Rs. 300,000 and Rs. 250,000 respectively. Sir Currimbhoy Ibrahim (first Baronet) donated another Rs. 300,000 and Sir [[Cowasji Jehangir]] gave Rs. 50,000. The Museum was established under Bombay Act No. III of 1909. The museum is now maintained by annual grants from the Government and the [[Bombay Municipal Corporation]]. The latter pays for these grants from the interest accruing on the funds at the disposal of the Trust of the Museum.

The museum building was completed in 1915, but was used as a Children's Welfare Centre and a Military Hospital during the First World War, before being handed over to the committee in 1920. The Prince of Wales Museum was inaugurated on 10 January 1922, by Lady Lloyd, the wife of [[George Lloyd, 1st Baron Lloyd|George Lloyd]], [[Governor of Bombay]].<ref name="mahagazatteer"/>

The museum building is a Grade I Heritage Building of the city and was awarded first prize (''Urban Heritage Award'') by the Bombay Chapter of the Indian Heritage Society for heritage building maintenance in 1990. In 1998 the Museum was renamed Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya after the warrior king and founder of the [[Maratha Kingdom]], [[Shivaji]].<ref name=DNATakeHomeArticle>{{cite web|title=Now, you can take museum relics home from Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/mumbai/report-now-you-can-take-museum-relics-home-from-chhatrapati-shivaji-maharaj-vastu-sangrahalaya-1890382|website=www.dnaindia.com|publisher=Diligent Media Corporation Ltd.|access-date=30 June 2015|archive-date=16 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170816205604/http://www.dnaindia.com/mumbai/report-now-you-can-take-museum-relics-home-from-chhatrapati-shivaji-maharaj-vastu-sangrahalaya-1890382|url-status=live}}</ref> The museum was renamed after the renaming of the city in 1995, when the colonial name "Bombay" was replaced by the native "Mumbai".<ref name=SlateNameChange>{{cite web|title=Why Did Bombay Become Mumbai?|url=http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/recycled/2008/12/why_did_bombay_become_mumbai.html|website=www.slate.com|date=December 2008|publisher=The Slate Group|access-date=30 June 2015|archive-date=15 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150615105241/http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/recycled/2008/12/why_did_bombay_become_mumbai.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Architecture==
The museum building is situated in {{convert|3|acre|m2}} area, having a built-up area of 12,142.23m sq.<ref name = "PIB"/> It is surrounded by a garden of palm trees and formal flower beds.<ref name = "MTDC"/>

The museum building, built of locally quarried grey [[Kurla]] [[basalt]] and buff coloured [[trachyte]] [[Malad]] stone.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/the-museum-built-by-the-british-with-kurla-basalt-and-malad-stone/1202430/|title=The museum built by the British, with Kurla basalt and Malad stone|work=[[Indian Express]]|date=3 December 2013|access-date=7 September 2014|archive-date=5 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305124405/http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/the-museum-built-by-the-british-with-kurla-basalt-and-malad-stone/1202430/|url-status=live}}</ref> It is a three-storied rectangular structure, capped by a dome set upon a base, which adds an additional storey in the centre of the building. Built in the Western Indian and [[Indo-Saracenic]] style of architecture, the building accommodates a central entrance [[porch]], above which rises a dome, tilled and modified well "tiled in white and blue flecks, supported on a lotus - petal base". A cluster of pinnacles, topped with miniature domes surround the central dome. The building incorporates features like Islamic dome with a [[finial]] along with protruding balconies and inlaid floors, inspired by [[Mughal architecture|Mughal palace architecture]]. The architect, [[George Wittet]], modelled the dome on that of [[Golconda Fort]] and the inner [[Vault (architecture)#India|vaulting arches]] on those at the [[Gol Gumbaz]] in [[Bijapur, Karnataka|Bijapur]].<ref name = "MTDC"/><ref name = "archi">{{cite web|title = Architectural Note on the Building of Prince of Wales Museum of Western India, Mumbai|url = http://www.bombaymuseum.org/powm/bldgarch.htm|access-date = 2 April 2009|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090511042133/http://www.bombaymuseum.org/powm/bldgarch.htm|archive-date = 11 May 2009|url-status = dead}}</ref> The interior of the museum combines the columns, railings and balcony of an 18th-century ''Wada'' (a [[Maratha]] mansion) with Jain style interior columns, which form the main body of the central [[pavilion]] below the Maratha balcony.<ref name = "archi"/>
[[File:Gate of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya.jpg|thumb|Gate of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya]]
In its recent modernisation programme (2008), the museum created {{convert|30000|sqft|m2|abbr=on}} space for installation of five new galleries, a conservation studio, a visiting exhibition gallery and a seminar room, in the East Wing of the museum.<ref name="PIB" /> The museum also houses a library.<ref name="PIB" />
[[File:The Prince of Wales Museum lobby.JPG|thumb|200px|left|Main lobby of the museum]]

==Collections==
[[File:Prince of Wales Museum second floor gallery.jpg|thumb|200px|Karl and Meherbai Khandalavala collection - gallery]]

The museum collection comprises approximately 50,000 artefacts.<ref name = "PIB"/> The collection of the museum is categorised primarily into three sections: art, archaeology and natural history.
The museum also houses a forestry section, which has specimens of timbers grown in the [[Bombay Presidency]] (British India), and one exhibiting a small local geological collection of rocks, minerals and fossils.<ref name = "mahagazatteer">{{cite web|url = http://www.maharashtra.gov.in/english/gazetteer/greater_bombay/places.html#46|title = Places: Prince of Wales Museum|author = Maharashtra state gazetteers, Greater Bombay District|archive-date=14 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614182506/http://www.maharashtra.gov.in/english/gazetteer/greater_bombay/places.html}}</ref> The Maritime Heritage Gallery, which displays objects relating to navigation, is the "first of its kind in India".<ref name = "mumbaimuseums">{{cite web|url = http://www.maharashtratourism.gov.in/MTDC/HTML/MaharashtraTourism/Default.aspx?strpage=../MaharashtraTourism/Articles/Mumbai_Museums.html|title = Mumbai Museums|author = Maharashtra Tourism Development Corporation|year = 2004|access-date = 2 April 2009|archive-date = 2 May 2009|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090502040625/http://www.maharashtratourism.gov.in/MTDC/HTML/MaharashtraTourism/Default.aspx?strpage=../MaharashtraTourism/Articles/Mumbai_Museums.html|url-status = live}}</ref> In 2008, the museum installed two new galleries, displaying the "[[Karl Jamshed Khandalavala|Karl]] and Meherbai Khandalavala collection" and "the Coins of India".<ref name = "PIB"/>

===Art section===
The art section displays the collections of Sir [[Purushottam Mavji]], acquired in 1915, and the art collections of Sir [[Ratanji Dadabhoy Tata|Ratan Tata]] and Sir [[Dorab Tata]], donated in 1921 and 1933 respectively.<ref name = "MTDC"/>

[[File:Dancing Krishna Prince Of Wales Museum.jpg|thumb|200px|Dancing [[Krishna]], from the Nepal-Tibet section. Nepal, 18th century AD. The headphone symbol at the foot of the image indicates that the artefact is part of the audio tour. The museum provides an audio tour in six languages to visitors.<ref name = "PIB"/>]]

The museum's miniature collection encompasses representations of the main schools of Indian painting namely, Mughal, Rajasthani, Pahari and Deccani. It features palm leaf manuscripts dating to the 11th-12th centuries to the early 19th century pahari paintings, as well as paintings from the Sultanate period.<ref name = "MTDC"/> Notable manuscripts housed in the museum include the [[Anwar-Suhayli]] painted in [[Mughal empire|Mughal]] emperor [[Akbar]]’s studio and a 17th-century manuscript of the Hindu epic [[Ramayana]] from [[Mewar]].<ref name = "mumbaimuseums"/>

The ivory section has artefacts dating as early as the Gupta era.<ref name = "MTDC"/> The museum also has decorative artefacts such as textiles, ivories, Mughal jades, silver, gold and artistic metal ware. It also has a collection of European paintings, Chinese and Japanese porcelain, ivory and jade artefacts.<ref name = "MTDC"/> The museum also has sections dedicated to arms and armour and another to [[Culture of Nepal#Art & Craft|Nepali]] and [[Tibetan art]].
The arms and armour section contains a finely decorated armour of [[Akbar]] dating to 1581 CE, consisting of a steel breastplate and a shield, the former inscribed with religious verses.<ref name="akbar">{{cite book|last=Brend|first=Barbara|title=Islamic art|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1991|edition=Illustrated|pages=[https://archive.org/details/islamicart0000bren/page/212 212]|isbn=0-674-46866-X|url=https://archive.org/details/islamicart0000bren|url-access=registration|quote=akbar armour mumbai museum.|access-date=4 April 2009}}</ref>

===Archaeological section===
Sculptures and coins transferred from the Poona Museum in [[Pune]] and the collections of the Bombay branch of the [[Royal Asiatic Society]] resulted in the development of an archaeological section, with precious sculptures and [[epigram]]s.<ref name = "MTDC"/> The Indus Valley Culture Gallery houses fishing hooks, weapons, ornaments and weights and measures from the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] (2600–1900 BCE).<ref name = "mumbaimuseums"/> Artefacts from the excavation of the Buddhist [[stupa]] of [[Mirpurkhas]], were housed in the Museum in 1919.<ref name = "PIB"/> The sculpture collection holds [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]] (280 to 550 CE) terracotta figures from Mirpurkhas in [[History of Sindh|Sind]] of the early 5th century, artefacts dating to the [[Chalukya]]n era (6th-12th century, [[Badami Chalukyas]] and [[Western Chalukyas]]), and sculptures of the [[Rashtrakuta]] period (753 – 982 CE) from [[Elephanta Caves|Elephanta]], near Mumbai.<ref name = "MTDC"/>

===Natural history section===
The [[Bombay Natural History Society]] aided the Museum Trust in creating the natural history section.<ref name = "MTDC">{{cite web|url = http://www.maharashtratourism.gov.in/mtdc/HTML/MaharashtraTourism/Default.aspx?strpage=../MaharashtraTourism/MaharashtraMusems/Prince_Museums.html|title = CHHATRAPATI SHIVAJI MAHARAJ VASTU SANGRAHALAYA|author = Maharashtra Tourism Development Corporation, Govt. of India|access-date = 2 April 2009|archive-date = 24 April 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150424010007/http://www.maharashtratourism.gov.in/mtdc/HTML/MaharashtraTourism/Default.aspx?strpage=..%2FMaharashtraTourism%2FMaharashtraMusems%2FPrince_Museums.html|url-status = live}}</ref> The museum's natural history section makes use of habitat group cases and [[diorama]]s, along with diagrams and charts, to illustrate Indian wildlife, including [[flamingo]]es, [[great hornbill]]s, [[Indian bison]], and [[tiger]]s.<ref name = "MTDC"/>

===New galleries===
An exhibition entitled ''Pravaha'' highlighting early phase of [[Sir J. J. School of Art]] and the Progressive Art Movement was launched on 24 July 2017. The exhibition covered a range of paintings from the 1880s to 1950s through works of [[Pestonji Bomanji]], Rustom Siodia, [[Sawlaram Haldankar]], [[António Xavier Trindade]], [[S. N. Gorakshakar]], [[Govind Solegaonkar|Govind Mahadev Solegaonkar]], G. H. Nagarkar, [[J. M. Ahivasi]], Raghunath Dhondopant Dhopeshwarkar, Raghuveer Govind Chimulkar, Rasiklal Parikh and Y. K. Shukla, [[Abalal Rahiman]], Keshav Bhavanrao Chudekar, Lakshman Narayan Taskar, [[S. H. Raza|Syed Haider Raza]], and [[K. H. Ara]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.csmvs.in/about-us/press-room/press-release/210-pravaha.html|title=Pravaha|access-date=27 September 2017|language=en-gb|archive-date=14 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170814094737/http://www.csmvs.in/about-us/press-room/press-release/210-pravaha.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/cities/mumbai/exhibition-pravaha-a-tribute-to-jj-principal-solomon-bombay-school-of-art-he-patronised-4785505/|title=Exhibition 'Pravaha' a tribute to JJ principal Solomon, Bombay school of art he patronised|date=7 August 2017|work=The Indian Express|access-date=27 September 2017|language=en-US|archive-date=27 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170927113208/http://indianexpress.com/article/cities/mumbai/exhibition-pravaha-a-tribute-to-jj-principal-solomon-bombay-school-of-art-he-patronised-4785505/|url-status=live}}</ref>

A prints gallery was launched with an exhibition entitled ''Bombay to Mumbai - Door of the East with its face to the West'' on 29 January 2015. The gallery was inaugurated by [[Neil MacGregor]], Director of the [[British Museum]] in London, who also gave an illustrated lecture on 'World Cultures' at the central foyer of the museum.

As part of the renovation project initiated in October 2008, the Krishna Gallery holding artworks related to the Hindu god [[Krishna]], a Hindu deity of the preserver-god [[Vishnu]], was opened in March 2009.

A textile gallery, the first gallery in the city, was opened in April 2010. It illustrates "various techniques of textile manufacturing, regional collections and traditional Indian costumes".<ref name = "MM">{{cite news|url=http://www.mumbaimirror.com/index.aspx?Page=article&sectname=News%20-%20City&sectid=2&contentid=20090713200907130258416406f04a997|title=New-Seum!|last=Mahorey|first=Sumedha|date=13 July 2009|work=[[Mumbai Mirror]]|access-date=13 July 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120223141254/http://www.mumbaimirror.com/index.aspx?Page=article&sectname=News%20-%20City&sectid=2&contentid=20090713200907130258416406f04a997|archive-date=23 February 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Matrika Design Collaborative is currently designing the museum's Indian miniature painting gallery. The content developed for the gallery will be converted into [[Braille]] text and tactile labels for the blind with help from designers, fabricators and consultants from the [[Helen Keller]] Institute.

A new gallery on traditional Indian jewellery will be opening in 2020. At the gallery, there will be an exhibit on [[Golconda diamonds]] - replicas of which have been presented to the museum.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.aninews.in/news/business/gia-india-donates-replicas-of-famous-diamonds-to-chhatrapati-shivaji-maharaja-vastu-sangrahalaya20191119113925/|title=GIA India donates replicas of famous diamonds to Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaja Vastu Sangrahalaya|date=19 November 2019|work=www.aninews.in|access-date=27 December 2019|archive-date=27 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191227093135/https://www.aninews.in/news/business/gia-india-donates-replicas-of-famous-diamonds-to-chhatrapati-shivaji-maharaja-vastu-sangrahalaya20191119113925/|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Galleries==
CSMVS Museum has various galleries. They are related to [[Art]], [[History]], [[Natural History]] and [[Indian Culture]]. They are as follows:
* Sculpture gallery
* Pre and Proto History gallery
* Natural History Section
* Indian Miniature Painting gallery
* Krishna gallery
* Himalayan Art gallery
* Decorative Metalware gallery
* House of Laxmi- Coin gallery
* Karl and Meherbai Khandalavala gallery
* Chinese and Japanese Art gallery
* Sir Ratan Tata and Sir Dorab Tata gallery of European Paintings
*Arms and Armour gallery
* Jehangir Nicholson gallery
* Premchand Roychand gallery
* Key gallery
* First Floor Circle gallery
* Second Floor Circle gallery
* European Decorative Art gallery
* Bombay School gallery
* Jahangir Sabawala gallery
* Textile Gallery
* Prints gallery
* Curators gallery and Conservation Centre

==Sculpture Gallery==
The archaeological collections were originally started by pioneering archaeologists Sir [[Henry Cousens]] and Sir [[John Marshall (archaeologist)|John Marshall]]. Amongst the important sculptures are the [[Gupta]] period terracottas and bricks from Mirpurkhas excavated by Cousens, a large number of Buddhist images from [[Gandhara]] and ceiling panels from a dilapidated temple at [[Aihole]]. The early examples are from [[Pauni]] and [[Pitalkhora]]. Mumbai itself has a rich tradition exemplified by the colossal [[Parel Relief]] of [[Shiva]] (represented here by a cast) and a [[Matrika]] from [[Baijanath Temple]] at [[Sewri]] near [[Parel]] belonging to the same phase as [[Elephanta Caves|Elephanta]]. Other noteworthy images from [[Maharashtra]] are a [[Vishnu]] and a [[Ganesha]] of the eleventh century CE. Some well known sculptures are:
* [[Brahma]], from [[Elephanta Caves]]
* [[Mahishasuramardini]], from Elephanta
* [[Parel Relief]] of Shiva (plaster cast) from [[Parel]]
* Sculptures from Aihole and [[Pattadakal]]
* Dvarapala, from [[Shamalji]], Gujarat
* [[Garuda]], from the [[Konark Sun Temple]]
* [[Yaksha]], from Pitalkhora
* [[Buddha]] and [[Buddhist devotion|Devotee]] from [[Mirpur Khas]]
* Early 2nd Century BCE & 1st Century CE bronze images of 23rd Jain Tirthankara [[Pārśvanātha]]
* Ashthamahesha Replica bust

==Centenary celebrations==
{{Expand section|date=May 2025}}
<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.thehindu.com/society/the-jewel-on-the-crescent-the-csmvs-at-100/article65001585.ece, |title=The jewel on the crescent: The CSMVS at 100, Mumbai's Chhatrapati Shivaji museum at 100 is gloriously alive and talking with the past and the present |website=[[The Hindu]] |date=18 February 2022 |access-date=26 November 2022 |archive-date=21 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230421102100/https://www.thehindu.com/society/the-jewel-on-the-crescent-the-csmvs-at-100/article65001585.ece |url-status=live |last1=Das |first1=Soumitra }}</ref>[[File:Vidushi. Shubha mudgal is rendering Hindustani vocal music program.jpg|thumb|CSMVS, Mumbai, is celebrating its centenary year.]]

==Picture gallery==
<gallery mode="packed" heights="200">
File:Dvarapala Yaksha.JPG|Dvarapala [[Yaksha]], [[Pitalkhora|Pitalkhora Buddhist caves]] (2nd century CE)
File:Devotee statue.JPG|Devotee statue from Mirpur Khas in Sindh (present day Pakistan) (5th century CE)
File:Gautama Buddha statue (5th century CE).jpg|[[Buddha]] statue made of [[terracotta]], [[Mirpur Khas]] (5th century CE)
File:Mahadeva.JPG|[[Parel Relief]] of Shiva (plaster cast), 6th century CE
File:Parshvanatha - 2CE - CSMVS (2).jpg|[[Parshvanatha]], bronze, Eastern India (2nd century CE)
File:Brahma statue (6th century CE).jpg|[[Brahma]] statue made of [[basalt]] and found in [[Elephanta Caves]] (6th century CE).
File:Terracotta Head.JPG|Terracotta head from Akhnoor (Jammu). Head presented to the museum from the collection of Alma Latifi. (6th century CE)
File:Gautama Buddha first sermon in Sarnath.jpg|Statue of [[Gautama Buddha]] delivering his first sermon in the deer park at [[Sarnath]], [[Varanasi]]
File:Uma Maheshvara Prince of Wales Museum.jpg|[[Uma–Maheshvara|Uma-Maheshvara]], [[Aihole]] (7th century CE)
File:Varuna with Varunani.jpg|[[Varuna]] with Varunani. Statue made from [[Basalt]] and discovered in [[Karnataka]]. (8th century CE)
File:Sadashiva statue (10th century CE).jpg|[[Shiva|Sadashiva]] statue made of buff [[sandstone]]. Statue found in [[Madhya Pradesh]]. (10th century CE)
File:Gautama Buddha 12th century statue.jpg|[[Gautama Buddha]] statue discovered in the Indian state of [[Odisha]] (12th century CE)
File:Captive Gardabhilla. Kalpasutra. C.1375, Western India.JPG|Captive Gardabhilla, Kalpasutra, c. 1375 CE
File:Prince of Wales Museum Bombay si0082.jpg|[[Shantinath]] statue from Varaval in Sindh (present day Pakistan)
File:Tirthankara.JPG|Tirthankara statue, marble, late medieval period, Gujarat
File:Akbar's amrour.jpg|Akbar's amrour
File:Heruka in Yab-Yum form (1544 AD).jpg|[[Heruka]] (in [[Yab-Yum]] form) is one of the nine deities emanating from [[Five Dhyani Buddhas|Dhyani Buddha]] [[Akshobhya]], [[Nepal]], 1544 AD.
File:Vishnu 2015.JPG|[[Vishnu]] statue originating from [[Nepal]] and was a part of [[Ratan Tata]] collection (18th century CE)
File:La Source Fountain.JPG|Marble statue based on [[The Source (Ingres)|The Source]] by [[Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres|Jean Ingres]]. Statue was formerly on display in [[Musee du Louvre]].
File:Prince of Wales Museum Japanese Sculpture.jpg|Japanese sculpture
File:Tirthapata.JPG|Śvētāmbara Jainism [[Tirthapata]] (20th century CE)
</gallery>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
{{commons category|Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya}}
* {{official website}}
* [https://artsandculture.google.com/partner/chhatrapati-shivaji-maharaj-vastu-sangrahalaya Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya at Google Cultural Institute]

{{Mumbai topics}}
{{Tourist attractions in Mumbai}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Museums in Mumbai]]
[[Category:History museums in India]]
[[Category:Museums established in 1922]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures completed in 1915]]
[[Category:1922 establishments in India]]
[[Category:Natural history museums in India]]
[[Category:Art museums and galleries in India]]
[[Category:Archaeological museums in India]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials to Shivaji]]
[[Category:Victorian Gothic and Art Deco Ensembles of Mumbai]]
[[Category:20th-century architecture in India]]
[[Category:UNESCO Asia-Pacific Heritage Awards winners]]

Sashidhar Jagdishan

2026-01-16T10:03:56Z

Androidsub143: starting entry

{{Short description |CEO of HDFC Bank}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Sashidhar Jagdishan
| image =
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{Birth year and age|1965}}
| birth_place = [[Mumbai]], [[India]]
| death_date =
| death_place =
|alma_mater = ([[Bachelor of Science|BSc]]) [[University of Mumbai]] ([[Master of Science|MSc]]) [[The University of Sheffield]]
| occupation = [[Banker]]
| years_active =
| known_for = CEO of Indian [[HDFC Bank]]
| notable_works =
}}

'''Sashidhar Jagdishan''' (born 1965) is an [[Indian people|Indian]] [[banker]] who is the current managing director and [[chief executive officer]] of [[HDFC Bank]], one of India's largest private sector banks by market capitalization.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2020-08-04 |title=Meet Sashidhar Jagdishan, the man set to take over from Aditya Puri as CEO of HDFC Bank - CNBC TV18 |url=https://www.cnbctv18.com/finance/meet-sashidhar-jagdishan-the-man-set-to-take-over-from-aditya-puri-as-ceo-of-hdfc-bank-6538261.htm |access-date=2025-06-18 |website=CNBCTV18 |language=en}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
Jagdishan was born in and raised in [[Mumbai]], India. He completed his secondary education at [[Don Bosco High School, Matunga|Don Bosco High School]] and obtained a Bachelor's degree in Science with a specialization in Physics from the [[University of Mumbai]]. He also qualified as a [[chartered accountant]]. He went on to obtained a Master's degree in Economics of Money, Banking, and Finance from the [[University of Sheffield]] in the [[United Kingdom]].<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-06-09 |title=Who is Sasidhar Jagdishan, MD and CEO of HDFC Bank named in Lilavti Trust FIR? |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/banking/finance/banking/hdfc-bank-shares-who-is-sasidhar-jagdishan-md-and-ceo-of-hdfc-bank-accused-in-lilavti-trust-fir/articleshow/121720349.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2025-06-18 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref>

== Career ==
He joined HDFC Bank in 1996 as a manager in the finance department. Over the years, he took on increasing responsibilities, including being appointed Business Head - Finance and Chief Financial Officer (CFO) in 2008. In 2019, he assumed the role of 'Change Agent of the Bank,' overseeing various critical functions within HDFC Bank.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-26 |title=Meet Sashidhar Jagdishan, the CEO of HDFC Bank who met Tim Cook and is about to launch Apple card in India, know about his journey & net worth |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/life/lifestyle-meet-shashidhar-jagdishan-the-ceo-of-hdfc-bank-who-met-tim-cook-and-is-about-to-launch-apple-card-in-india-know-about-his-journey-net-worth-3178317/ |access-date=2025-06-18 |website=The Financial Express |language=en}}</ref>

He was appointed as the CEO of HDFC Bank in October 2020, succeeding [[Aditya Puri]]. In 2023, he was recognized as the highest-paid bank chief executive in India.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Team |first=DNA Web |title=Meet Sashidhar Jagdishan, Mumbai University alumnus, CEO of Rs 8,90,000 crore HDFC Bank, salary is... |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/business/report-meet-sashidhar-jagdishan-mumbai-university-alumnus-ceo-890000-crore-hdfc-bank-salary-651-crore-kaizad-bharucha-3030521 |access-date=2025-06-18 |website=DNA India |language=en}}</ref>

== Recognition ==
Jagdishan was named the Bank CEO of the Year in Asia Pacific for 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sashidhar Jagdishan's strategic leadership at HDFC Bank recognised in Asia Pacific |url=https://www.theasianbanker.com/updates-and-articles/sashidhar-jagdishans-strategic-leadership-at-hdfc-bank-recognised-in-asia-pacific |access-date=2025-06-18 |website=www.theasianbanker.com |language=en}}</ref>

A notable achievement during his tenure was the merger of HDFC Limited into HDFC Bank in 2023, a move that boosted HDFC Bank's market capitalization to over INR 12 trillion (approximately $154 billion).<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-20 |title=HDFC Ltd HDFC Bank merger: Behind Sashi Jagdishan's big plans for HDFC Bank - BusinessToday |url=https://www.businesstoday.in/magazine/the-buzz/story/hdfc-ltd-hdfc-bank-merger-behind-sashi-jagdishans-big-plans-for-hdfc-bank-390643-2023-07-20 |access-date=2025-06-18 |website=Business Today |language=en}}</ref>

== Controversies ==
In 2025, Sashidhar Jagdishan faced allegations of financial fraud. The Lilavati Kirtilal Mehta Medical Trust, which owns and controls Lilavati Hospital in [[Mumbai]], filed a [[First information report|First Information Report]] (FIR) against him and eight others, including former bank employees. The trust alleged that Jagdishan was involved in misappropriating funds, citing a seized cash diary that reportedly indicated his direct receipt of ₹2.05 crore out of a total of ₹14.42 crore misappropriated by the trustees.

The Mehta family, controlling the trust, called for his suspension from HDFC Bank and urged regulatory bodies such as the [[Reserve Bank of India]] (RBI) and the [[Securities and Exchange Board of India|Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI)]] to take action. HDFC Bank has publicly denied these charges, stating they are "malicious and baseless" and are linked to an attempt by individuals to avoid repaying a loan.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-06-09 |title=Who is Sashidhar Jagdishan, the banking executive at the centre of HDFC Bank's fraud allegations - CNBC TV18 |url=https://www.cnbctv18.com/business/finance/sashidhar-jagdishan-profile-ceo-md-hdfc-bank-fraud-allegations-19617113.htm |access-date=2025-06-18 |website=CNBCTV18 |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Jagdishan, Sashidhar}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1965 births]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian people]]
[[Category:Indian business executives]]
[[Category:University of Mumbai alumni]]
[[Category:HDFC Group]]

Ganapati Muni

2026-01-06T21:12:21Z

Androidsub143: creating a article - done

{{Short description|Indian poet (1878-1936)}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2019}}
{{infobox person
| name = Ganapati Muni
| other_names =
| image =
| imagesize =
| caption =
| birth_name = Ayyalasomayajula Surya Ganapati Sastry
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1878|11|17}}
| birth_place = [[Kalavarai]], [[Vizianagaram]]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|1936|07|25|1878|11|17}}
| death_place = Kharagpur
| death_cause =
| known =
| occupation = scholar, poet
| title =
| term =
| predecessor =
| successor =
| party =
| boards =
| spouse =
| partner =
| children =
| father = Narasimha Sastry
| mother = Narasamamba
| website = http://kavyakantha.arunachala.org
| footnotes =
| employer =
| height =
}}
[[File:Ganapathi Mahamuni01.png|thumb|'''Ganapathi Mahamuni Birth place In Logisa Agraharam''']]
'''Ayyalasomayajula Ganapathi Sastry''', also known as '''Ganapati Muni''' (1878–1936), was a disciple of [[Ramana Maharshi]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Nandakumar|first1=Prema|title=The Vedanta Kesari|volume=93|page=43}}</ref> He was also variously known as "Kavyakantha" (one who has poetry in his throat), and "Nayana" by his disciples.<ref name=Pandit>{{cite journal|last1=Pandit|first1=M.P.|title=Prabuddha Bharata|volume=89|page=277}}</ref>

==Biography==
Ganapati Muni was born in [https://archive.org/stream/ganapatimuniabiographykrishnag._202004_995_d/Ganapati%20Muni%20A%20Biography%20%20Krishna%20G.%20_djvu.txt Logisa Agraharam] near [[Gajapathinagaram]] in Andhra Pradesh on 26 November 1878. His parents, Narasimha Sastri and Narasamamba had three sons, Muni being the second. Ganapati, when 18 years old, set out and wandered from one place to another, residing in places like [[Bhuvaneshwar]], where he performed his [[Tapas (Sanskrit)|tapas]]. When Ganapati was staying in [[Varanasi]] he learned of an assembly of [[Sanskrit]] scholars in the city of [[Nabadwip]] in Bengal. He participated in it and on passing the tests in extempore Sanskrit prose and poetry, was conferred the title 'Kavyakantha'. He was then 22 years old. He returned home at the age of 25. From [[Kanchipuram]] he came to [[Arunachala]] (Tiruvannamalai) in 1903 to perform tapas. At that time he visited Ramana Maharshi, who was then known as Brahmanaswami, before he accepted a teaching post in [[Vellore]] in 1904. He wrote his devotional epic hymn "Uma Sahasram," One Thousand Verses on Uma (goddess Parvathi), after accepting Ramana Maharshi as his [[Guru]] on 17 November 1907. He also met [[Sri Aurobindo]] on 15 August 1928. Ganapati Muni died at [[Kharagpur]] on 25 July 1936.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://kavyakantha.arunachala.org/KNatesan.htm |title=Guru Mahaprasadhavan's Tribute to Kavyakantha Ganapati Sastri |publisher=Kavyakantha.arunachala.org |date= |access-date=2014-06-28}}</ref>

==Influence==
Ganapati Muni's teachings are laid out in his magnum opus, 'Uma Sahasram' and other works like 'Mahavidyadi Sutras'. They helped to reduce popular prejudice about the teachings of [[Tantra]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Shankarnarayanan|first1=S|title=The Vedanta Kesari|volume=68|page=467}}</ref>

His students include T.V. [[Kapali Sastry]].

==Literary works==
* ''Umasahasram''<ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/99999990293176Umasahsatram |title=Umasahasram : Free Download: Internet Archive |date=10 March 2001 |access-date=2014-06-28}}</ref>
* {{cite book|last1=Muni|first1=Gaṇapati|title=Śrīramaṇagītā|date=2004|publisher=Sri Ramanasramam|location=Tiruvannamalai, India|isbn=9788188018185|edition=9}} An anthology of the teachings of [[Ramana Maharshi]], along with English translations.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Prabuddha Bharata|date=August 1955|volume=60|page=352}}</ref>
* Herambopasthaanam - Poem on Lord Ganesha <ref>https://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_ganesha/herambopasthAnam.html?lang=iast</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

===Books===
*Gunturu, Lakshmi Kantam. (1958). NAYANA: Kavyakantha Vasishtha Ganapati Muni : Biography in Telugu. J.V.S.Lakshmi, Chennai. (Latest reprint : 2013).
*{{cite book|last1=Osborne|first1=Arthur|title=Ramana Maharshi and the path of self-knowledge : a biography|date=2008|publisher=Sri Ramanasramam|location=Tiruvannamalai|isbn=978-8188018116|edition=5th|ref=Osborne}}
*Krishna, G. (1978). Nayana: Kavyakantha Vasishtha Ganapati Muni : biography. Madras: Kavyakantha Vasishtha Ganapati Muni Trust.
*Gaṇapatimuni, Vāsiṣṭha [Honoree] (1978), Jayanti: Kavyakanta Ganapati Muni centenary commemoration volume. Kavyakantha Centenary Committee.

== External links ==
* [https://www.scribd.com/collections/3986154/Collected-Works-of-Vasishtha-Ganapati-Muni Collected Works of Vasishtha Ganapati Muni]
* [http://kavyakantha.arunachala.org/KNatesan.htm Biography by Shri. K. Natesan]
* [http://kavyakantha.arunachala.org/ Guru Mahaprasaddhavan's Tribute to Kavyakantha Sri Ganapati Sastri]
* http://kavyakantha.arunachala.org/KNatesan.htm

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Muni, Ganpati}}
[[Category:20th-century Indian philosophers]]
[[Category:1878 births]]
[[Category:1936 deaths]]
[[Category:Indian spiritual teachers]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian writers]]
[[Category:Writers from Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:People from Vizianagaram district]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian male writers]]
[[Category:Ramana Maharshi]]

Bhor Garh

2025-12-25T04:55:53Z

Androidsub143: put up a stub basic info!

{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2018}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Bhor Garh
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = census town
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Delhi
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in India
| coordinates =
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|Union Territory]]
| subdivision_name1 = Delhi
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[North West Delhi|North West]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 8,627
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes = <ref name=census2011>{{cite web|url=http://www.census2011.co.in/data/town/63906-bhor-garh-delhi.html|title=Census 2011, Bhor Garh town Data}}</ref>
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Commonly used
| demographics1_info1 = Hindi, [[Kauravi dialect|Khariboli]] or [[Haryanvi]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = 
| postal_code = 110040
| registration_plate =
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Bhor Garh''' is a [[census town]] in [[North West Delhi|North West district]] in the Indian [[States and union territories of India|territory]] of Delhi.<ref name=censusindia>{{cite web | url=http://www.censusindia.co.in/towns/bhor-garh-population-north-west-delhi-63906 | title=Bhor Garh town | publisher=censusindia.co.in | accessdate=1 November 2017}}</ref>

==Demography==
In the 2011 census, Bhor Garh had 1,765 houses with a population of 8,627, consisting of 4,815 males and 3,812 females.<ref name=census2011/> The population of children aged 0–6 was 1,276, making up 14.79% of the total population of the village.<ref name=census2011/> The average sex ratio was 792 out of 1000, which is lower than the state average of 868 out of 1000.<ref name=census2011/> The child sex ratio in the village was 815 out of 1000, which is lower than the average of 871 out of 1000 in the territory of Delhi.<ref name=census2011/> There are 83.06% Hindus, 12.87% Muslims, 3.92% Sikhs, 0.10% Christians and 0.05% Buddhists residing in it.<ref name=census2011/> The total [[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes]] population in the town was 1,236 people and all were Scheduled Castes. There are no people of the Scheduled Tribe in the town.<ref name=censusindia/>

== Accessibility ==
The closest nearby towns are Shahpur Garhi (2.9 km) and [[Alipur, Delhi|Alipur]] (6.7 km),<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://alldistancebetween.com/in/distance-between/alipur-bhorgarh-0b8caa0ab0eec7fa95a757354716e536/|title=Distance between Alipur and Bhorgarh}}</ref> [[Bawana]] (8.1 km) etc.
Nearby hospitals include Satyawadi Raja Harish Chandra Hospital (4.1 km). There are two government aided schools, out of which one is a primary school and other is a senior secondary school, both affiliated by the [[Central Board of Secondary Education|CBSE]]. Nearby private schools and institutions include Lala Hans Raj Gupta ITI and L.K. International School.

== Politics ==
[[Raj Kumar Khatri]] of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] is the incumbent [[Member of Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]] from the area after the [[2025 Delhi Legislative Assembly election]] under which Bhor Garh falls.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ourneta.com/neta/sharad-chauhan|title=Sharad Chauhan, AAP MLA from Narela – Our Neta}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{coord missing|Delhi}}

[[Category:Cities and towns in North West Delhi district]]

{{Delhi-geo-stub}}

Chetanya Adib

2025-12-22T18:53:45Z

Androidsub143: brief corrected page based on references and improved wording for consistency

{{short description|Indian actor (born 1971)}}
{{BLP sources|date=January 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2023}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Chetanya Adib
| image = 
| alt = 
| caption =
| birth_name = 
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1971|11|10|df=yes}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.modelspoint.com/chetanyaadib |title=Chetanya Adib (Talent), Mumbai, India |publisher=Modelspoint.com |date= |accessdate=27 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120502032730/http://modelspoint.com/chetanyaadib |archive-date=2 May 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| birth_place = [[Jaipur]], [[Rajasthan]], [[India]]
| occupation = {{hlist|Actor|model|singer}}
| years_active = 1997–present<ref name="mumbaitheatreguide"/>
}}
'''Chetanya Adib''' is an Indian actor, [[Model (person)|model]] and singer who speaks English and Hindi. He is best known for playing Khajan Singh in the [[Indian television drama|Hindi soap-opera]] show, ''[[Balika Vadhu]]'' on [[Colors TV]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-04-22 |title=Chetanya Adib joins Siya Ke Ram |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/television/chetanya-adib-joins-siya-ke-ram-2765634/ |access-date=2023-06-21 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2016-01-21 |title=Chetanya Adib replaced without intimation |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/chetanya-adib-replaced-without-intimation/articleshow/50657313.cms |access-date=2023-06-21 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

==Filmography==
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Film
! Role
! Notes
|-
| 2004
| ''Ab Bas!''
| Bhaskar
|
|-
| 2010
| ''[[Rakta Charitra]]''
| Tella Durga
|
|-
| 2016
| ''Mumbai Central''
| Sailm Dalla
|
|-
|}

== Television ==
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Serial
! Role
! Notes
|-
| 1999
| ''[[Suraag – The Clue]]''
| Vinod Shukla, Sanjeev Choudhary, Rohan Kumar Ranjan, Brijesh Karthik, Rocky Malhotra, Munna, Srikant Rai, and Akash
| Episodic roles
|-
| 2002
| ''[[Kuntee]]''
| Mann
| Love interest of Kuntee (DD Metro)
|-
| 2003
| ''[[C.I.D. (Indian TV series)|C.I.D.]]''
| Kaushal
| Episodic role in episode 252 - ''The Case of the Wedding Blues (Part 2)''
|-
| 2004
| Aakrosh
| Alok Ahuja
|
|-
| 2005–2008
| ''[[Saat Phere – Saloni Ka Safar]]''
| Kunjan Singh
|
|-
| 2007
| ''[[Hero - Bhakti Hi Shakti Hai]]''
| Veer Sehgal (Joy's father) / Virat (Main Antagonist)
|
|-
| 2011
| ''[[CID (Indian TV series)|C.I.D.]]''
| Manu
| Episodic role in episode 738 - ''Raaz Khooni Chetawani Ka''
|-
| 2008–2015
| ''[[Balika Vadhu]]''
| Khajan Singh
|
|-
| 2016
| ''[[Siya Ke Ram]]''
| [[Jatayu]]
|
|-
| 2018
| ''[[Chandrashekhar (TV series)|Chandrashekhar]]''
| [[Ashfaqulla Khan]]
|
|-
|2019-2020
|''[[Pyaar Ki Luka Chuppi]]''
|Ravi Shankar
|
|-
| 2021
| ''[[Kuch Toh Hai: Naagin Ek Naye Rang Mein]]''
|
|
|-
| 2022
| ''[[Rang Jaun Tere Rang Mein]]''
| Surendra Chaubey
|
|-
|2023
|''[[Tulsidham Ke Laddu Gopal]]''
|[[Rahu]]
|
|-
|}

==Dubbing roles==

===Live action television series===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Title !! Actor !! Character !! Dub Language !! Original Language !! Episodes !! Original airdate !! Dub airdate !! Notes
|-
| ''[[The Young and the Restless]]'' || N.P. Schoch<hr>[[J. Eddie Peck]] || [[Cole Howard]] || Hindi || English || 11000 || 26 March 1973 – present || ||
|-

|-
| ''[[Batman (TV series)|Batman]]'' || [[Adam West]] † || [[Batman|Bruce Wayne / Batman]] || Hindi || English || 120 || 12/1/1966– 14 March 1968 || || Dubbed into Hindi.
|-
| ''[[Power Rangers Dino Thunder]]'' || [[Jason David Frank]] † || [[Tommy Oliver|Dr. Tommy Oliver / Black Dino Ranger]] || Hindi || English || 38 || 14 February – 20 November 2004 || ||
|-
| ''[[Lucifer (TV series)|Lucifer]]'' || [[Tom Ellis (actor)|Tom Ellis]] || [[Lucifer (DC Comics)|Lucifer Morningstar]] || Hindi || English || || 25/1/2016– present || ||
|-
| ''[[Dracula (2020 TV series)|Dracula]]'' || [[Claes Bang]] || [[Count Dracula]] || Hindi || English || || 1 January 2020– present || ||
|-
|}

===Animated series===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Title !! Original voice !! Character !! Dub Language !! Original Language !! Episodes !! Original airdate !! Dubbed airdate !! Notes
|-
| ''[[Spider-Man: The New Animated Series]]'' || [[Ian Ziering]] || [[Harry Osborn]] || Hindi || English || 13 || 11 July – 12 September 2003 || ||
|-
| ''[[Justice League Unlimited]]'' || [[Carl Lumbly]] || [[Martian Manhunter|J'onn J'onzz/Martian Manhunter]] || Hindi || English || 39 || 07/31/2004- 5/13/2006 || ||Only dubbed in Season 1 & 2 while [[Uday Sabnis]] dubbed [[J'onn J'onzz]] in Season 3. Aired on [[Cartoon Network India]]. Season 1 & 2 (26 episodes) are airing on [[JioCinema]].
|-
| ''[[The Avengers: Earth's Mightiest Heroes]]'' || [[Brian Bloom]] || [[Captain America|Steve Rogers / Captain America]] || Hindi || English || 52 || 22 September 2010 – 5 May 2013 || ||
|-
| ''[[Ultimate Spider-Man (TV series)|Ultimate Spider-Man]]'' || [[Roger Craig Smith]] || [[Captain America|Steve Rogers / Captain America]] || Hindi || English || 9 || || ||
|-
| ''[[Hulk and the Agents of S.M.A.S.H.]]'' || [[Roger Craig Smith]] || [[Captain America|Steve Rogers / Captain America]] || Hindi || English || 4 || || ||
|-
| ''[[Avengers Assemble (TV series)|Avengers Assemble]]'' || [[Roger Craig Smith]] || [[Captain America|Steve Rogers / Captain America]] || Hindi || English || 126 || || ||
|-
| ''[[Guardians of the Galaxy (TV series)|Guardians of the Galaxy]]'' || [[Roger Craig Smith]] || [[Captain America|Steve Rogers / Captain America]] || Hindi || English || 3 || || ||
|-
| ''[[Spider-Man (2017 TV series)|Spider-Man]]'' || [[Roger Craig Smith]] || [[Captain America|Steve Rogers / Captain America]] || Hindi || English || 5 || || ||
|-
| ''[[The Adventures of Rocky and Bullwinkle (TV series)|The Adventures of Rocky and Bullwinkle]]'' || [[Daran Norris]] || Narrator || Hindi || English || || || ||
|-
| ''[[Batman: Caped Crusader]]'' || [[Diedrich Bader]] || [[Two-Face|Harvey Dent / Two-Face]] || Hindi || English || 10 || 1 August 2024 || 1 August 2024 ||
|}

===Live action films===
====Indian films====
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Title !! Actor !! Character !! Dub Language !! Original Language !! Original Year release !! Dub Year release !! Notes
|-
|''[[Prince (2010 film)|Prince]]''
|[[Isaiah]]
|Sarang Sanghvi
| colspan="2" |Hindi
| colspan="2" |2010
|
|-
|''[[Saaho]]''
|[[Arun Vijay]]
|Vishwank
| colspan="2" |Hindi
| colspan="2" |2019
|
|-
|''[[Sooryavanshi]]''
|[[Ajay Devgn]]
|Bajirao Singham
|English
|Hindi
|2021
|2021
|
|-
|''[[Mr. Perfect (film)|Mr. Perfect]]''
|[[Prabhas]]
|Vicky
|Hindi
|Telugu
|2011
|2013
|The Hindi dub was titled: ''No. 1 Mr. Perfect''.
|-
|''[[Athadu]]''
|[[Mahesh Babu]]
|Nanda Gopal (Nandu) / Partha Sarathi (Pardhu) (Paras in Hindi version)
|Hindi
|Telugu
|2005
|2013
|The Hindi dub was titled: ''Cheetah: The Power Of One''.
|-
|''[[Baadshah (2013 film)|Baadshah]]''
| colspan="2" |Narrator
|Hindi
|Telugu
|2013
|2013
|The Hindi dub was titled: ''Rowdy Baadshah''.
|-
|''[[Darling (2010 film)|Darling]]''
|[[Prabhas]]
|Prabha / Prabhas
|Hindi
|Telugu
|2010
|2013
|The Hindi dub was titled: ''Sabse Badhkar Hum''.
|-
|''[[Vettaikaran (2009 film)|Vettaikaran]]''
|[[Vijay (actor)|Vijay]]
|"Police" Ravi
|Hindi
|Tamil
|2009
|2014
|The Hindi dub was titled: ''Dangerous Khiladi 3''.
|-
|''[[Takkari Donga]]''
|[[Mahesh Babu]]
|Raja
|Hindi
|Telugu
|2002
|2014
|The Hindi dub was titled: ''Choron Ka Chor''.
|-
|''[[Jilla]]''
|[[Vijay (actor)|Vijay]]
|Sakthi
|Hindi
|Tamil
|2014
|2014
|The Hindi dub was titled: ''Policewala Gunda 2''.
|-
|''[[Rebel (2012 film)|Rebel]]''
|[[Prabhas]]
|Rishi/Rebel
|Hindi
|Telugu
|2012
|2014
|
|-
|''[[Veta (2014 film)|Veta]]''
|[[Srikanth (Telugu actor)|Srikanth]]
|Jagan
|Hindi
|Telugu
|2014
|2014
|The Hindi dub was titled: ''Badle Ki Aag''.
|-
|''[[Chakram (2005 film)|Chakram]]''
|[[Prabhas]]
|Chakram
|Hindi
|Telugu
|2005
|2014
|
|-
|''[[All the Best (film)|All the Best]]''
|[[Srikanth (Telugu actor)|Srikanth]]
|Ravi
|Hindi
|Telugu
|2012
|2014
|The Hindi dub was titled: ''Risk''.
|-
|''[[Balupu]]''
| colspan="2" |Narrator
|Hindi
|Telugu
|2013
|2014
|The Hindi dub was titled: ''Jani Dushman''.
|-
|''[[Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu]]''
|[[Venkatesh (actor)|Venkatesh]]
|Peddodu
|Hindi
|Telugu
|2013
|2015
|The Hindi dub was titled: ''Sabse Badhkar Hum 2''.
|-
| rowspan="2" |''[[Mirchi (film)|Mirchi]]''
| rowspan="2" |[[Prabhas]]
| rowspan="2" |Jai
|Hindi
| rowspan="2" |Telugu
| rowspan="2" |2013
|2015
|The Hindi dub was titled: ''Khatarnak Khiladi''.
|-
|Hindustani
|2021
|
|-
|''[[Thuppakki]]''
|[[Vijay (actor)|Vijay]]
|Jagdish
|Hindi
|Tamil
|2012
|2015
|The Hindi dub was titled: ''Indian Soldier: Never On Holiday''.
|-
|''[[Thirumalai]]''
|[[Vijay (actor)|Vijay]]
|Thirumalai
|Hindi
|Tamil
|2003
|2015
|The Hindi dub was titled: ''Dum 2''.
|-
|''[[Thadaka]]''
|[[Sunil (actor)|Sunil]]
|Sivarama Krishna
|Hindi
|Telugu
|2013
|2016
|
|-
|''[[Aambala]]''
|[[Abhishek Shankar|Abhishek]]
|Periya Ponnu's husband
|Hindi
|Tamil
|2015
|2016
|
|-
|''[[Vedalam]]''
|[[Ashwin Kakumanu]]
|Arjun
|Hindi
|Tamil
|2015
|2016
|
|-
| ''[[Maari (film)|Maari]]'' || [[Vijay Yesudas]] || Inspector Arjun || Hindi || Tamil || 2015 || 2016 || The Hindi dub was titled: ''Rowdy Hero''.
|-
| ''[[Biriyani (film)|Biriyani]]'' || [[Karthi]] || Sugan || Hindi || Tamil || 2013 || 2016 || The Hindi dub was titled: ''Dum Biryani''.
|-
|''[[Saguni]]''
|[[Karthi]]
|Kamalakannan alias Kannan
|Hindi
|Tamil
|2012
|2016
|The Hindi dub was titled: ''Rowdy Leader''.
|-
|''[[Kaashmora]]''
|[[Karthi]]
|Kaashmora / Raja Nayak
|Hindi
|Tamil
|2016
|2017
|
|-
|''[[Terror (2016 film)|Terror]]''
|[[Srikanth (Telugu actor)|Srikanth]]
|Vijay
|Hindi
|Telugu
|2016
|2017
|
|-
|''[[Aayirathil Oruvan (2010 film)|Aayirathil Oruvan]]''
|[[Karthi]]
|Muthu
|Hindi
|Tamil
|2010
|2017
|The Hindi dub was titled: ''Kaashmora 2''.
|-
|''[[Thalaivaa]]''
|[[Vijay (actor)|Vijay]]
|Vishwa Bhai
|Hindi
|Tamil
|2013
|2017
|The Hindi dub was titled: ''Thalaivaa - The Leader''.
|-
|''[[Sura (film)|Sura]]''
|[[Vijay (actor)|Vijay]]
|Sura
|Hindi
|Tamil
|2010
|2016
|
|-
|''[[Santhu Straight Forward]]''
|[[Shaam (actor)|Shaam]]
|Deva
|Hindi
|Kannada
|2016
|2018
|The Hindi dub was titled: ''Rambo Straight Forward''.
|-
|''[[All in All Azhagu Raja]]''
|[[Karthi]]
|Azhagu Raja (Ajay Raja in Hindi version) and Young Muthukrishnan
|Hindi
|Tamil
|2013
|2018
|
|-
|''[[Nenu Local]]''
|[[Naveen Chandra]]
|Siddharth Varma
|Hindi
|Telugu
|2017
|2018
|
|-
|''[[Gopala Gopala (2015 film)|Gopala Gopala]]''
|[[Venkatesh (actor)|Venkatesh]]
|Kanneganti Gopal Rao
|Hindi
|Telugu
|2015
|2018
|
|-
| ''[[Gulaebaghavali]]'' || [[Prabhu Deva]] || Badri || Hindi || Tamil || 2018 || 2018 ||
|-
| ''[[Hebbuli]]'' || [[Sudeep]] || Ram || Hindi || Kannada || 2017 || 2018 ||
|-
| ''[[Abhinetri (2016 film)|Abhinetri]]'' || [[Prabhu Deva]] || Krishna Kumar || Hindi || Telugu || 2016 || 2018 ||
|-
| ''[[Vikram Vedha]]'' || [[R. Madhavan]] || Vikram || Hindi || Tamil || 2017 || 2018 ||
|-
| ''[[Theeran Adhigaaram Ondru]]'' || [[Karthi]] || Theeran Thirumaran DSP || Hindi || Tamil || 2017 || 2018 || The Hindi dub was titled: ''Theeran''.
|-
| ''[[Saithan]]'' || [[Vijay Antony]] || Dinesh / Sharma || Hindi || Tamil || 2016 || 2018 || The Hindi dub was titled: ''Shaitan''.
|-
| ''[[Paruthiveeran]]'' || [[Karthi]] || Paruthiveeran || Hindi || Tamil || 2007 || 2018 || The Hindi dub was titled: ''Meri Awargi''.
|-
| ''[[Tik Tik Tik (2018 film)|Tik Tik Tik]]'' || [[Aaron Aziz]] || Captain Lee Wei || Hindi || Tamil || 2018 || 2018 ||
|-
| ''[[Thikka]]'' || colspan="2" | Narrator || Hindi || Telugu || 2016 || 2018 || The Hindi dub was titled: ''Rocket Raja''.
|-
| ''[[Remo (film)|Remo]]'' || [[S.J. Suryah]] || Narrator || Hindi || Tamil || 2016 || 2018 ||
|-
| ''[[Kavacham (2018 film)|Kavacham]]'' || [[Neil Nitin Mukesh]] (voice in original version dubbed by [[Vedala Hemachandra]]) || Vikramaditya || Hindi || Telugu || 2018 || 2019 || The Hindi dub was titled: ''Inspector Vijay''.
|-
| ''[[Shailaja Reddy Alludu]]'' || colspan = "2" |Narrator || Hindi || Telugu || 2018 || 2019 || The Hindi dub was titled: ''Thadaka 2''.
|-
| ''[[Kalakalappu 2]]'' || [[Jai (actor)|Jai]] || Raghu || Hindi || Tamil || 2018 || 2019 ||
|-
| ''[[U Turn (2018 film)|U Turn]]'' || [[Narain (actor)|Narain]] || Ritesh || Hindi || Telugu || 2018 || 2019 ||
|-
| ''[[Dev (2019 film)|Dev]]'' || [[Karthi]] || Dev Ramalingam || Hindi || Tamil || 2019 || 2019 ||
|-
| ''[[Kaithi (2019 film)|Kaithi]]'' || [[Karthi]] || Dilli (Shiva in Hindi version) || Hindi || Tamil || 2019 || 2020 ||
|-
| ''[[Thambi (2019 film)|Thambi]]'' || [[Karthi]] || Saravanan / Vicky || Hindi || Tamil || 2019 || 2020 || The Hindi dub was titled: ''My Brother Vicky''.
|-
| ''[[Stalin (2006 film)|Stalin]]'' || [[Chiranjeevi]] || Stalin || Hindi ||Telugu || 2006 || 2022 ||
|-
|''[[Puthiya Niyamam]]''
|[[Mammootty]]
|Adv. Louis Pothen
|Hindi
|Malayalam
|2016
|2020
|The Hindi dub was titled: ''Mera Sangharsh''.
|-
| ''[[Siruthai]]'' || [[Karthi]] || Rocket Raja and DSP Rathnavel Pandian || Hindi || Tamil || 2011 || 2020 ||
|-
| ''[[Vada Chennai]]'' || colspan="2" | Narrator || Hindi || Tamil || 2018 || 2020 || The Hindi dub was titled: ''Chennai Central''.
|-
| ''[[Jack & Daniel]]'' || [[Arjun Sarja]] || Daniel Alexander IPS || Hindi || Malayalam || 2019 || 2020 ||
|-
|[[Sathya (2017 Tamil film)|''Sathya'']]
|[[Santhosh (actor)|Santhosh]]
|SI Ganesh
|Hindi
|Tamil
|2017
|2020
|
|-
| ''[[Soorarai Pottru]]'' || [[Vivek Prasanna]] || Sebastian || Hindi || Tamil || 2020 || 2021 || The Hindi dub was titled: ''Udaan''.
|-
| ''[[Miss India (film)|Miss India]]'' || [[Naveen Chandra]] || Vijay Anand || Hindi || Telugu || 2020 || 2021 ||
|-
| ''[[Asuran (2019 film)|Asuran]]'' || colspan="2" | Narrator || Hindi || Tamil || 2019 || 2021 ||
|-
| ''[[Tamaar Padaar]]'' || [[Prithviraj Sukumaran]] || ACP Pouran || Hindi || Malayalam || 2014 || 2021 || The Hindi dub was titled: ''The Real De Dana Dan 2''.
|-
|''[[Munna (2007 film)|Munna]]''
|[[Prabhas]]
|Munna
|Hindustani
|Telugu
|2007
|2021
|The Hindustani dub was titled: ''Rowdy Munna''.
|-
|[[Odeya (film)|''Odeya'']]
|[[Darshan (Kannada actor)|Darshan]]
|Gajendra Narayana Verma
|Hindi
|Kannada
|2019
|2021
|
|-
|[[Lakshmi (2006 film)|''Lakshmi'']]
|[[Venkatesh (actor)|Venkatesh]]
|Lakshmi Narayana (Surya Narasimha in Hindustani version)
|Hindustani
|Telugu
|2007
|2021
|
|-
|''[[Magamuni]]''
|[[Arya (actor)|Arya]]
|Magadevan and Muniraj
|Hindi
|Tamil
|2019
|2021
|The Hindi dub was titled: ''Mahamuni''.
|-
|[[Chatrapathi (2005 film)|''Chatrapathi'']]
|[[Prabhas]]
|Sivaji / Chatrapathi '''(Second Dub)'''
|Hindi
|Telugu
|2005
|2021
|The Hindi dub was titled: ''Hukumat Ki Jung''.
|-
|''[[Namo Venkatesa]]''
|[[Venkatesh (actor)|Venkatesh]]
|Venkataramana a.k.a. Venky / Praneeth
|Hindustani
|Telugu
|2010
|2021
|
|-
|[[Bheeshma (2020 film)|''Bheeshma'']]
|[[Jisshu Sengupta]] (voice in original version dubbed by [[Vedala Hemachandra]])
|Raghavan
|Hindi
|Telugu
|2020
|2022
|
|-
|[[Yogi (2007 film)|''Yogi'']]
|[[Prabhas]]
|Eeshwar Chandra Prasad alias Yogi
|Hindustani
|Telugu
|2007
|2022
|
|-
|''[[Sarileru Neekevvaru]]''
|[[Murali Sharma]]
|Ajay's Brigadier
|Hindi
|Telugu
|2020
|2022
|The Hindi dub was titled: ''Sarileru''.
|-
|[[Skanda (film)|''Skanda'']]
|[[Srikanth (actor, born 1968)|''Srikanth'']]
|Rudrakant Ramakrishna Raju
|Hindi
|Telugu
|2023
|2023
|
|-
|}

====Foreign language films====
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Title !! Actor !! Character !! Dub Language !! Original Language !! Original Year release !! Dub Year release !! Notes
|-
|[[Dr. No (film)|''Dr. No'']]
|[[Sean Connery]] †
|[[James Bond (literary character)|James Bond]]
|Hindi
|English
|1962
|Unknown
|
|-
| ''[[Bram Stoker's Dracula (1992 film)|Bram Stoker's Dracula]]'' || [[Keanu Reeves]] || [[Jonathan Harker]] || Hindi || English Romanian Greek Bulgarian Latin || 1992 || 2001 || 2001 Hindi-dubbed Home media release
|-
| ''[[The Fast and the Furious (2001 film)|The Fast and the Furious]]'' || [[Vin Diesel]] || [[Dominic Toretto]] || Hindi || English || 2001 || 2001 ||
|-
| ''[[Fast & Furious]]'' || [[Paul Walker]] † || [[Brian O'Conner]] || Hindi || English || 2009 || 2009 ||
|-
| ''[[Fast Five]]'' || [[Paul Walker]] † || [[Brian O'Conner]] || Hindi || English || 2011 || 2011 ||
|-
| ''[[Fast & Furious 6]]'' || [[Paul Walker]] † || [[Brian O'Conner]] || Hindi || English Spanish || 2013 || 2013 ||
|-
| ''[[Furious 7]]'' || [[Paul Walker]] † Caleb Walker [[Cody Walker (actor)|Cody Walker]] || [[Brian O'Conner]] || Hindi || English || 2015 || 2015 ||
|-
| ''[[Spider-Man (2002 film)|Spider-Man]]''<ref name="mumbaitheatreguide">{{cite web|url=http://www.mumbaitheatreguide.com/dramas/interviews/25-chetanya-adib-interview.asp |title=Interview With Chetanya Adib |publisher=www.MumbaiTheatreGuide.com |date= |accessdate=27 May 2012}}</ref> || [[James Franco]] || [[Harry Osborn]] || Hindi || English || 2002 || 2002 ||
|-
| ''[[Spider-Man 2]]''|| [[James Franco]] || [[Harry Osborn]] || Hindi || English || 2004 || 2004 ||
|-
| ''[[Spider-Man 3]]''|| [[James Franco]] || [[Harry Osborn|Harry Osborn / New Goblin]] || Hindi || English || 2007 || 2007 ||
|-
| ''[[Tron Legacy]]'' || [[Garrett Hedlund]] || Sam Flynn || Hindi || English || 2010 || 2010 ||
|-
| ''[[Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest]]'' || [[Tom Hollander]] || [[Cutler Beckett]] || Hindi || English || 2006 || 2006 ||
|-
| ''[[Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End]]'' || [[Tom Hollander]] || [[Cutler Beckett]] || Hindi || English || 2007 || 2007 ||
|-
| ''[[Iron Man (2008 film)|Iron Man]]'' || [[Clark Gregg]] || [[Phil Coulson|Agent Phil Coulson]] || Hindi || English || 2008 || 2008 ||
|-
| ''[[Iron Man 2]]'' || [[Clark Gregg]] || [[Phil Coulson|Agent Phil Coulson]] || Hindi || English || 2010 || 2010 ||
|-
| ''[[Thor (film)|Thor]]'' || [[Clark Gregg]] || [[Phil Coulson|Agent Phil Coulson]] || Hindi || English || 2011 || 2011 ||
|-
| ''[[The Avengers (2012 film)|The Avengers]]'' || [[Clark Gregg]] || [[Phil Coulson|Agent Phil Coulson]] || Hindi || English || 2012 || 2012 ||
|-
| ''[[Captain Marvel (film)|Captain Marvel]]'' || [[Clark Gregg]] || [[Phil Coulson|Agent Phil Coulson]] || Hindi || English || 2019 || 2019 ||
|-
| ''[[Transformers: Age of Extinction]]'' || [[Mark Wahlberg]] || Cade Yeager || Hindi || English || 2014 || 2014 ||
|-
| ''[[Transformers: The Last Knight]]'' || [[Mark Wahlberg]] || Cade Yeager || Hindi || English || 2017 || 2017 ||
|-
| ''[[Don't Be Afraid of the Dark (2011 film)|Don't Be Afraid of the Dark]]'' || [[Guy Pearce]] || Alex Hurst || Hindi || English || 2011 || 2011 ||
|-
| ''[[World War Z (film)|World War Z]]'' || [[Pierfrancesco Favino]] || Head of Research Team || Hindi || English || 2013 || 2013 ||
|-
| ''[[Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (2014 film)|Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles]]'' || [[William Fichtner]] || Eric Sacks || Hindi || English || 2014 || 2014 ||
|-
| ''[[Inkheart (film)|Inkheart]]'' || [[Brendan Fraser]] || Mortimer "Mo" Folchart || Hindi || English || 2008 || || Aired by UTV Action
|-
| ''[[Inception]]'' || [[Ken Watanabe]] || Mr. Saito || Hindi || English || 2010 || 2013 ||
|-
| ''[[The Twilight Saga: New Moon]]'' || [[Robert Pattinson]] || [[Edward Cullen]] || Hindi || English || 2009 || 2009 ||
|-
| ''[[The Twilight Saga: Eclipse]]'' || [[Robert Pattinson]] || [[Edward Cullen]] || Hindi || English || 2010 || 2010 ||
|-
| ''[[Star Wars: The Force Awakens]]'' || [[Adam Driver]] || [[Kylo Ren]] || Hindi || English || 2015 || 2015 ||
|-
| ''[[Star Wars: The Last Jedi]]'' || [[Adam Driver]] || [[Kylo Ren]] || Hindi || English || 2017 || 2017 ||
|-
| ''[[Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker]]'' || [[Adam Driver]] || [[Kylo Ren]] || Hindi || English || 2019 || 2019 ||
|-
| ''[[Captain America: Civil War|Captain America: Civil War]]'' || [[Martin Freeman]] || [[Everett K. Ross]] || Hindi || English || 2016 || 2016 ||
|-
| ''[[Black Panther (film)|Black Panther]]'' || [[Martin Freeman]] || [[Everett K. Ross]] || Hindi || English || 2018 || 2018 ||
|-
| ''[[Logan (film)|Logan]]'' || [[Boyd Holbrook]] || [[Donald Pierce]] || Hindi || English || 2017 || 2017 ||
|-
| ''[[Kingsman: The Golden Circle]]'' || [[Pedro Pascal]] || Jack Daniels / Whiskey || Hindi || English || 2017 || 2017 ||
|-
| ''[[Constantine (film)|Constantine]]'' || [[Keanu Reeves]] || [[John Constantine]] || Hindi || English || 2005 || 2005 ||
|-
| ''[[The Greatest Showman]]'' || [[Hugh Jackman]] || [[P. T. Barnum]] || Hindi || English || 2017 || 2018 ||
|-
| ''[[Venom (2018 film)|Venom]]'' || [[Tom Hardy]] || [[Eddie Brock]] || Hindi || English || 2018 || 2018 ||
|-
| ''[[The Meg]]'' || [[Jason Statham]] || Jonas Taylor || Hindi || English Chinese || 2018 || 2018 ||
|-
| ''[[Gemini Man (film)|Gemini Man]]'' || [[Will Smith]] || Henry Brogan / Jackson Brogan (dual role) || Hindi || English || 2019 || 2019 ||
|}

===Animated films===
{| class="wikitable"
! Title !! Original voice !! Character !! Dub Language !! Original Language !! Original Year Release !! Dub Year Release !! Notes
|-
| ''[[Stuart Little 3: Call of the Wild]]'' || [[Hugh Laurie]] || Mr. Frederick || Hindi || English || 2005 || Unknown ||
|-
| ''[[Epic (2013 film)|Epic]]'' || [[Colin Farrell]] || Ronin || Hindi || English || 2013 || 2013 ||
|-
|}

==See also==
*[[List of Indian dubbing artists]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb name|4464725}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Adib, Chetanya}}
[[Category:1971 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian male models]]
[[Category:Indian male singers]]
[[Category:Indian male voice actors]]
[[Category:Male actors from Mumbai]]
[[Category:Male actors in Hindi cinema]]
{{authority control}}

Trilokinath Temple, Mandi

2025-12-17T07:52:11Z

Androidsub143: starting place

{{Short description|Shaivite temple in Himachal Pradesh}}

{{Infobox religious building
| religious_affiliation = [[Hinduism]] [[Buddhism]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sharma |quote=Triloknath Temple....Triloknath idol is a six armed image of white marble of Avalokiteshvara Bodhisatva.|first=Manorma |url=https://archive.org/details/sharma-manorma-1998-tribal-melodies-of-himachal-pradesh-lahaul-valley/page/12/mode/1up |title=Tribal Melodies of Himachal Pradesh-Lahaul Valley |date=1998 |pages=12}}</ref>
| name = Trilokinath Temple, Mandi
| image = TRILOKINATH TEMPLE FULL VIEW.jpg
| caption =
| alt =
| coordinates = {{coord|31|42|25|N|76|55|54|E|type:landmark_region:IN|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| map_type = India Himachal Pradesh#India
| map_relief = yes
| state = [[Himachal Pradesh]]
| country = India
| district = [[Mandi district]]
| locale = Mandi
| creator =
| year_completed = 16th century
}}

The '''Trilokinath Temple''' in [[Mandi, Himachal Pradesh]], is dedicated to the Hindu god [[Shiva]]. It contains a three-faced [[murti]] (image) of Shiva, which is the origin of the name Trilokinath, "Lord of Three Worlds".<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Trilokinath Temple, Mandi|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/travel/destinations/trilokinath-temple-mandi/as71295467.cms|access-date=2021-10-31|website=Times of India Travel}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=him_admin|title=Mandi|url=https://himachaltourism.gov.in/destination/mandi/|access-date=2021-11-16|website=Himachal Tourism Official Website|language=en-US}}</ref>

The temple is a popular destination for tourists and pilgrims, and a number of festivals are celebrated there every year.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tourmyindia.com/states/himachal/triloknath-temple-mandi.html|title=Trilokinath Temple, Mandi|access-date=12 June 2022|website=Tour my India}}</ref>

== History ==
It is believed that Sultan Devi, queen of Raja Ajber Sen, in the 16th century, commissioned the construction of the Trilokinath temple,<ref name=":0" /> which was built around 1520 [[AD]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Triloknath Temple, Mandi, Himachal Pradesh|url=https://www.tourmyindia.com/states/himachal/triloknath-temple-mandi.html|access-date=2021-10-31|website=www.tourmyindia.com}}</ref>

The [[Sena dynasty]] who built this temple are believed to have come from [[Karnataka]] who settled in [[Bengal]] by taking over the declining [[Pala Empire]]. After losing lands to the devastating attacks by [[Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji|Bakhtiyar Khalji]] in 1203–1204 CE, the [[Sena dynasty]] lost north-east [[Bengal]], the eastern parts of [[Bengal]] remained under the Senas until 1230 CE. The [[Sena dynasty|Sena Dynasty]] built many temples, including one in [[Kashmir]], named and known as Sankara Gaureshwara.<ref>{{Cite web|last=admin|date=2020-12-19|title=Trilokinath Temple Mandi / त्रिलोकीनाथ मंदिर मंडी|url=http://hptemples.in/?p=199|access-date=2021-11-16|website=HP Temples|language=en-US}}</ref>

The princely state of [[Mandi district|Mandi]] was created in the 13th century by Bahu Sen, but the city of [[Mandi, Himachal Pradesh|Mandi]] emerged as a separate entity much later, at the beginning of the 16th century. Bahu Sen's descendant Raja Ajber Sen (19th descendant of Bahu Sen), who founded the present Mandi city centred around the Bhootnath Temple between 1500 CE-1534 CE, built his palace near this temple. The temple of Trilokinath was constructed during his rule by his queen.<ref name=":1" />

== Architecture ==
It is one of the oldest temples in the town, and features images of [[Narada]], Sharda and many [[Hindu deities]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2014-11-28|title=TrilokNath Temple, Mandi Town|url=http://hpmandi.com/temples/76-triloknath-temple-mandi-town|access-date=2021-10-31|website=Mandi District Himachal Pradesh|language=en}}</ref>

The [[Shikhara]] or the dome of the temple originally had Chaitya dormers in relief as is evident from some parts still showing the design. There are detailed carvings on the walls of the temple.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=TRILOKNATH Temple Mandi, Himachal Pradesh|url=https://www.esamskriti.com/essay-chapters.aspx?sectionname=Culture&subsectionname=Indian-Culture&topicname=TRILOKNATH-Temple-Mandi,-Himachal-Pradesh-&chapter=1|access-date=2021-10-31|website=www.esamskriti.com|language=en-us}}</ref>

== Location ==
Trilokinath Temple is located in Purani (old) [[Mandi, Himachal Pradesh|Mandi]]. It is almost a kilometer away from the main [[bus stand]] of Mandi. The temple is situated on the bank of the [[Beas River]] on the [[Victoria Bridge, Mandi|old Victoria Bridge]] at Mandi - [[Pathankot]] [[National highways of India|National Highway]].<ref name=":0" />

== Gallery ==
<gallery>
File:TRILOKINATH TEMPLE FULL VIEW.jpg|Trilokinath Temple full view
File:SCULPTURES IN TRILOKINATH TEMPLE.jpg|Sculpture in Trilokinath Temple
File:STONE CARVINGS IN TRILOKINATH TEMPLE 01.jpg|Stone carving at Trilokinath Temple
</gallery>

== See also ==

* The [[Mata Kuan Rani Temple]], or 'Princess of the Well Temple', is situated near the bank of the [[Beas River]] in the town of [[Mandi, Himachal Pradesh|Mandi]], [[Himachal Pradesh]], India.
* [[IIT Mandi|Indian Institute of Technology Mandi (IIT Mandi)]] is a public technical and research university located in [[Mandi district]] of [[Himachal Pradesh]].

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Shiva temples in India]]
[[Category:Hindu temples in Himachal Pradesh]]

South End Circle metro station

2025-12-09T23:23:32Z

Androidsub143: starting a data

{{Short description|Namma Metro's Green Line metro station}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2017}}
{{Infobox station
| name = South End Circle
| type = {{Namma Metro Infobox station line|line=Green}}
| style = Namma Metro
| image = Southend Circle metro station.jpg
| image_size =
| image_caption = Southend Circle metro station, February 2020
| address = Rashtriya Vidyalaya Rd, 2nd Block, Basavanagudi, Bengaluru, Karnataka 560004
| coordinates = {{coord|12.938237|77.580076|display=inline,title}}
| line = {{rcb|Namma Metro|Green|croute}}
| other =
| structure = [[Elevated]], [[Double-track railway|Double track]]
| platform = [[Side platform]] 
Platform-1 → {{stl|Namma Metro|Madavara}} Platform-2 → {{stl|Namma Metro|Silk Institute}}
| depth =
| levels = 2
| tracks = 2
| parking =
| bicycle =
| baggage_check =
| opened = {{start date and age|2017|June|18|df=yes}}
| closed =
| rebuilt =
| electrified = 750 [[Volt|V]] [[Direct current|DC]] [[third rail]]
| accessible = Yes {{access icon}}
| status = Staffed
| code = SECE
| owned = [[Bangalore Metro Rail Corporation Ltd]] (BMRCL)
| operator = [[Namma Metro]]
| architect = [[Larsen & Toubro]]
| architectural_style =
| wifi =
| zone =
| smartcardname =
| smartcardstatus =
| former =
| passengers =
| pass_year =
| pass_rank =
| pass_percent =
| pass_system =
| mpassengers =
| services = {{adjacent stations|system=Namma Metro|line=Green |left=Lalbagh |right=Jayanagar}}
| route_map = {{BMR Green Line}}
| map_state = collapsed
| mapframe = yes
| mapframe-marker = rail
| mapframe-marker-color = #{{rail color|Namma Metro|Green}}
| mapframe-zoom = 14
}}

'''South End Circle''' is an elevated metro station on the North-South corridor of the [[Green Line (Namma Metro)|Green Line]] of [[Namma Metro]] serving the Basavanagudi area of [[Bengaluru]], India. It was opened to the public on 18 June 2017.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/nagasandra-puttenahalli-metro-line-to-open-by-may-end-says-george/articleshow/58484491.cms |title=Nagasandra-Puttenahalli Metro line to open by May-end, says KJ George |newspaper=The Times of India |date=2017-05-03 |accessdate=2017-07-02}}</ref>

== Station layout ==
{{stack|{{Routemap
| title = South End Circle track layout
| title color = white
| title-bg = #{{rail color|Namma Metro|Green}}
| legend = track
| collapsible = no
| map = vCONTgfa
cPLT\vSTR\cPLT ~~ ~~ ~~ to {{stl|Namma Metro|Lalbagh}}
*'''P1'''\cPLT\vSTR\cPLT\*'''P2'''
cPLT\vSTR\cPLT ~~ ~~ ~~ to {{stl|Namma Metro|Jayanagar}}
vCONTgfe
| bottom = <div style="width:23.5em;text-align:center">Station with two tracks and two side platforms</div>
}}}}
{|table border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=3
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;border-top:solid 1px gray;" width=30 valign=top|'''G'''
|style="border-top:solid 1px gray;border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width=85 valign=top|Street level
|style="border-top:solid 1px gray;border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width=500 valign=top|Exit/Entrance
|-
|valign=top|'''L1'''
|valign=top|Mezzanine
|valign=top|Fare control, station agent, Metro Card vending machines, crossover 
|-
|style="border-top:solid 1px gray;border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width=30 rowspan=4 valign=top|'''L2'''
|style="border-top:solid 1px gray;border-right:solid 2px black;border-left:solid 2px black;border-bottom:solid 2px black;text-align:center;" colspan=2|[[Side platform]] | Doors will open on the left {{access icon}}
|-
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width=85|'''Platform 2''' '''Southbound'''
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width=500|Towards → {{stl|Namma Metro|Silk Institute}} '''Next Station:''' {{stl|Namma Metro|Jayanagar}}
|-
|'''Platform 1''' '''Northbound'''
|Towards ← {{stl|Namma Metro|Madavara}} '''Next Station:''' {{stl|Namma Metro|Lalbagh}}
|-
|style="border-top:solid 2px black;border-right:solid 2px black;border-left:solid 2px black;border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" colspan=2 align=center|[[Side platform]] | Doors will open on the left {{access icon}}
|-
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width=30 rowspan=2 valign=top|'''L2'''
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width=85|
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width=500|
|-
|}

==See also==
*[[Bengaluru]]
*[[List of Namma Metro stations]]
*[[Transport in Karnataka]]
*[[List of metro systems]]
*[[Rapid transit in India|List of rapid transit systems in India]]
{{Clear}}
{{Portal bar|Bengaluru|Transport|Engineering}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons|Namma Metro}}
{{Wikivoyage|Bengaluru}}
* [https://english.bmrc.co.in Bangalore Metro Rail Corporation Ltd. (Official site)]
* [https://www.urbanrail.net ''UrbanRail.Net''] – descriptions of all metro systems in the world, each with a schematic map showing all stations.

{{Namma Metro|green line=yes}}

[[Category:Namma Metro stations]]
[[Category:Railway stations in India opened in 2015]]
[[Category:2015 establishments in Karnataka]]
[[Category:Railway stations in Bengaluru]]
[[Category:Railway stations in India opened in 2017]]

{{Karnataka-railstation-stub}}

Rashtrapati Bhavan, New Delhi

2025-11-19T09:16:32Z

Androidsub143: starting some article w/ infobox

#REDIRECT [[Rashtrapati Bhavan]]

{{Redirect category shell|
{{R from move}}
}}

Rajeev Sharma (politician)

2025-10-27T13:57:38Z

Androidsub143: new a bio

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2025}}
{{infobox officeholder
|name = Rajeev Sharma
|image =
|caption =
|office = [[Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly|Member of Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly]]
|term_start = 2014
|term_end = 2018
|predecessor = [[Sham Lal Sharma]]
|successor = [[Mohan Lal (politician)|Mohan Lal]]
|constituency = [[Akhnoor Assembly constituency|Akhnoor]]
|party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
}}
'''Rajeev Sharma''' (born 1972) is an Indian politician from [[Jammu and Kashmir (state)|Jammu and Kashmir]]. He was a former MLA from [[Akhnoor Assembly constituency]] in [[Jammu district]]. He won the [[2014 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election]] representing the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]].

== Early life and education ==
Sharma is from [[Akhnoor]], Jammu district, Jammu and Kashmir. He is the son of Som Dutt Sharma. He passed Class 8 in 1986 at J.K. Bose school and later discontinued his studies.<ref name="ceojk">{{cite web|url=https://www.ceojk.nic.in/LAEAFF2014/AC79AFF/Rajeev-Sharma.pdf|date=2014-12-03|title= Form 2A {{pipe}} NOMINATlON PAPER {{pipe}} Election to the Legislative Assembly of Jammu & Kashmir |access-date=2024-09-22}}</ref> He runs his own business.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rajeev Sharma (Bharatiya Janata Party(BJP)): Constituency- AKHNOOR(JAMMU) – Affidavit Information of Candidate|url=https://www.myneta.info/jk2014/candidate.php?candidate_id=860 |access-date=2024-09-22 |website=www.myneta.info}}</ref>

== Career ==
Sharma won from Akhnoor Assembly constituency representing Bharatiya Janata Party in the 2014 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election. He polled 41,901 votes and defeated his nearest rival, Sham Lal Sharma of [[Indian National Congress]], by a margin of 9,380 votes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Akhnoor Lok Sabha Election 2024 Live: Get Akhnoor Lok Sabha Election Results and Candidate List |url=https://indianexpress.com/elections/jammu-kashmir-assembly-election/akhnoor-constituency/ |access-date=2024-09-22 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-09-22 |title=Akhnoor Assembly Election Results 2024: Akhnoor Jammu Kashmir Election Schedule, Vote share and Results |url=https://www.loksatta.com/elections/jammu-kashmir-assembly-election/akhnoor-constituency/ |access-date=2024-09-22 |website=Loksatta |language=mr}}</ref>

For the 2024 Assembly election, the BJP nominated him to contest from Chhamb Assembly seat and allotted the Akhnoor seat to retired police officer, [[Mohan Lal (politician)|Mohan Lal Bhagat]], who joined the party in August 2024, and Bhagat won from Aknoor.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-08-27 |title=Big names dropped, BJP goes with the same, ‘cancelled’, J-K candidate list |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/political-pulse/bjp-names-candidates-jk-assembly-polls-9535774/ |access-date=2024-09-22 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> He lost the 2024 Assembly election to independent candidate Satish Sharma from Chhamb Assembly constituency by 6,929 votes.

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rajeev, Sharma}}
[[Category:1972 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Jammu and Kashmir]]
[[Category:Jammu and Kashmir MLAs 2014–2018]]
[[Category:People from Jammu district]]
{{JammuKashmir-BJP-politician-stub}}

Ranaraga

2025-10-15T00:51:01Z

Androidsub143: new article

{{Short description|Chalukya king from c. 520 to 540}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2019}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Ranaraga
| title =
| succession = [[Chalukya king]]
| reign = {{circa|520|540}}
| predecessor = [[Jayasimha (Vatapi Chalukya dynasty)|Jayasimha]]
| successor = [[Pulakeshin I]]
| house = [[Chalukyas of Vatapi]]
| house-type = Dynasty
| father = Jayasimha
}}
{{Chalukyas|Vatapi}}
'''Ranaraga''' ([[IAST]]: Raṇarāga) was an early 6th century ruler of the [[Chalukyas of Vatapi|Chalukya]] dynasty of [[Vatapi]] (modern Badami) in present-day India. A [[vassal]] ruler, he was the father of the dynasty's first sovereign ruler, [[Pulakeshin I]].

== Reign ==

A 543 CE ([[Shaka era|Shaka]] 465) inscription dated to the reign of Ranaraga's son [[Pulakeshin I]] has been discovered at [[Badami]]. Assuming a reign of around 20 years for Ranaraga, historian Durga Prasad Dikshit dates Jayasimha's reign to c. 520-540 CE.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=29}}

Ranaraga succeeded his father Jayasimha, who was also a vassal ruler, possibly that of the [[Kadamba dynasty|Kadambas]] or the early Rashtrakutas of Manapura (not to be confused with the later imperial [[Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta]]). Jayasimha seems to have carved out a principality around modern [[Bijapur]] after the decline of his overlords, and Ranaraga appears to have spent his reign stabilizing the Chalukya power in the area.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=27-30}}

Like his father, Ranaraga finds a mention in the [[Aihole]] and [[Mahakuta group of temples|Mahakuta]] inscriptions of the Vatapi Chalukyas. The Mahakuta inscription states that "his fondness for war elicited the affection of his own people and caused vexation of mind to his enemies."{{sfn|K. V. Ramesh|1984|p=29}} The dynasty's inscriptions do not credit Ranaraga with any military achievements. According to the Yevor inscription of the later [[Chalukyas of Kalyani|Kalyani Chalukyas]], who claimed descent from the Vatapi Chalukyas, Jayasimha was a brave ruler, and bore a "stately and gigantic personality". The Kalyani Chalukya court poet [[Ranna (Kannada poet)|Ranna]] calls him Raṇarāga-siṃha.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=30}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

=== Bibliography ===

{{ref begin}}
* {{cite book |author=Durga Prasad Dikshit |title=Political History of the Chālukyas of Badami |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lEB11tKmCgcC&pg=PA152 |year=1980 |publisher=Abhinav |oclc=8313041 }}
* {{cite book |author=K. V. Ramesh |title=Chalukyas of Vātāpi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JAwhAAAAMAAJ |year=1984 |publisher=Agam Kala |oclc=567370037 }}
{{ref end}}

[[Category:Early Chalukyas]]
[[Category:6th-century Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:Chalukya kings]]

Eigi Kona

2025-10-07T03:46:08Z

Androidsub143:

{{Short description|2019 Manipuri film by Bobby Wahengbam}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2021}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2021}}
{{Infobox film
|name = Eigi Kona
|image = File:Eigi_Kona,_Manipuri_Film_Poster.jpg
|alt =
|caption = Poster
|director = [[Bobby Wahengbam]] Maipaksana Haorongbam
|producer = Dr. K. Sushila Leima
|writer =
|screenplay = Maipaksana Haorongbam
|story = Maipaksana Haorongbam
|starring = Sinam Shaolin Oinam Prafullochandra Ayekpam Shanti [[Leishangthem Tonthoingambi Devi|Leishangthem Tonthoi]] Romesh Elangbam
|music = R.K. Birendrajit
|cinematography = [[Irom Maipak]]
|editing = Rajkumar Lalmani
|studio = Luwang Apokpa Mamikol
|distributor = Luwang Apokpa Mamikol
|released = {{Film date|2019}}
|runtime = 90 minutes
|country = [[India]]
|language = [[Meitei language|Meiteilon]] ([[Manipuri language|Manipuri]])

}}

'''''Eigi Kona''''' ([[English language|English]]: ''Stallone, My Pony'') is a 2019 [[Cinema of Manipur|Manipuri film]] directed by [[Bobby Wahengbam]] and Maipaksana Haorongbam and produced by Dr. K. Sushila Leima, under the banner of Luwang Apokpa Mamikol Productions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://filmguide.iffigoa.org/detail/?id=4871#|title=Eigi Kona|website=my.iffigoa.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thestorymug.com/manipuri-films-eigi-kona-highways-of-life-part-of-iffis-indian-panorama-lineup/|title=Manipuri Films Eigi Kona, Highways of Life Part of IFFI's Indian Panorama lineup|date=December 25, 2020|access-date=20 February 2021}}</ref> The film was premiered at Manipur State Film Development Society (MSFDS), Palace Compound in December 2021.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/imphal/2-manipuri-films-also-selected-for-indian-panaroma-section-of-event/articleshow/79837777.cms|title=2 Manipuri films also selected for Indian Panaroma section of event | Imphal News - Times of India|first=K Sarojkumar |last=Sharma|website=The Times of India|date=21 December 2020|access-date=20 February 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://nenow.in/entertainment/manipur-film-journalists-body-to-introduce-annual-manipuri-feature-film-award.html|title=Manipur film journalists body to introduce annual Manipuri feature film award|website=nenow.in}}</ref> ''Eigi Kona'' was selected for Indian Panorama of the [[51st International Film Festival of India]] (IFFI) 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/two-manipuri-films-selected-for-indian-panorama-of-iffi-2020/story-KSifBvZqfEC5IvaOX7WQrL.html|title=Two Manipuri films selected for Indian Panorama of IFFI 2020|first=Sobhapati| last=Samom|date=December 20, 2020|access-date=20 February 2021|website=Hindustan Times}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://e-pao.net/GP.asp?src=4..211220.dec20|title='Bridge', 'Eigi Kona', 'Highways of Life' get entry to Indian Panorama|website=e-pao.net}}</ref> The movie won the [[National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Manipuri]] at the [[67th National Film Awards]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/67th-national-film-awards-complete-list-updating/article34131921.ece/|title=67th National Film Awards: Complete List|newspaper=The Hindu}}</ref>

''Eigi Kona'' got official selections at the Indica Film Utsav 2020, 4th Ottawa Indian Film Festival Awards (OIFFA) 2021 and Thrissur International Film Festival 2021.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.goelevent.com/oiffa/e/StalloneMyPony|title=Stallone My Pony: OIFFA 2021|website=www.goelevent.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thesangaiexpress.com/Encyc/2021/10/26/IMPHAL-Oct-25-Eigi-Kona-Stallone-My-Pony-has-been-conferred-the-Rajat-Kamal-for-the-Best-Region.amp.html|title=Eigi Kona - The Sangai Express|newspaper=The Sangai Express}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://ifp.co.in/10562/eigi-kona-receives-rajat-kamal-for-best-regional-manipuri-feature-film|title=‘Eigi Kona’ receives Rajat Kamal for best regional Manipuri feature film|newspaper=Imphal Free Press|access-date=27 October 2021|archive-date=28 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240928121850/https://www.ifp.co.in/10562/eigi-kona-receives-rajat-kamal-for-best-regional-manipuri-feature-film|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The film was also screened at the [[52nd International Film Festival of India]] 2021 under the section '''''India@75'''''. It was organized as a part of the celebrations to commemorate 75 years of India's independence, ''Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav'' and 18 films were selected under the section.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://indiaeducationdiary.in/52nd-iffi-to-celebrate-india75-by-showcasing-the-glory-of-indian-cinema/|title=52nd IFFI to celebrate India@75 by showcasing the glory of Indian Cinema|website=indiaeducationdiary.in}}</ref>

==Plot==
Thawai, a young boy, loves to play polo riding Stallone, a [[Manipuri pony]]. Stallone is descendant of the horse his famous polo pony his grandfather rode, but the family have fallen on hard times. When Thawai's father is forced to sell Stallone to alleviate their poverty, Thawai becomes sick with pangs of separation from the horse. Finding Thawai's suffering unbearable, his friends and family, including his coach and mentor try to get Stallone back. The owner, who was once a great polo player, finally hands over the pony to Thawai for the love of the game.

==Cast==
* Sinam Shaolin as Thawai
* Oinam Prafullochandra as Ibopishak, Thawai's father
* Ayekpam Shanti as Ashangbi, Thawai's mother
* [[Leishangthem Tonthoingambi Devi|Leishangthem Tonthoi]] as Nganthoi
* Romesh Elangbam as Romesh
* Jasmin Elangbam as Latabi
* Sukanya Haorongbam as Bembem
* Chajing Deben as Latabi's father
* Angom Phiroj as Dhojo
* Yengkhom Ingocha as Police
* Barlin
* Surjakanya
* Surajlata
* Ningthou Ranjan
* Eigya Inaocha

==Accolades==
The movie won the National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Manipuri at the [[67th National Film Awards]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.news18.com/news/movies/67th-national-film-awards-live-updates-heres-list-of-winners-3561545.html|title=67th National Film Awards Live Updates: Here's the list of winners|website=www.news18.com}}</ref> The citation for the National Award reads, "''A thrilling film revealing the present plight and conditions of polo players and ponies in their place of origin.''"

Sinam Shaolin who plays the role of Thawai won the Best Child Artist award at the 13th Manipur State Film Awards 2020.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nenow.in/north-east-news/manipur/manipur-state-film-awards-announced-documentary-on-pugilist-laishram-sarita-wins-big.html|title=Manipur State Film Awards announced: Documentary on pugilist Laishram Sarita wins big|website=nenow.in}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://e-pao.net/epSubPageExtractor.asp?src=reviews.movies.13th_Manipur_State_Film_Awards_2020_Result|title=13th Manipur State Film Awards 2020 Result|website=e-pao.net}}</ref>

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Award
!Category
!Winner's name
!Result
|-
| [[67th National Film Awards]]
| [[National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Manipuri|Best Feature Film in Manipuri]]
| '''Producer:''' Luwang Apokpa Mamikol Productions '''Directors:''' [[Bobby Wahengbam]] & Maipaksana Haorongbam
| {{won}}
|-
|rowspan="4"|13th Manipur State Film Awards 2020
| Special Jury Mention
| '''Producer:''' Dr. K. Sushila Leima '''Directors:''' Bobby Wahengbam & Maipaksana Haorongbam
| {{won}}
|-
| Best Child Artist
| Sinam Shaolin
| {{won}}
|-
| Best Costume Design
| Abujam Ragini & Wangjam Chandrima
| {{won}}
|-
|Special Jury Mention
|Yendrenbam Manitomba (Art Direction)
| {{won}}
|}

==References==

{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5YqS306Kcgo|title= Eigi Kona (Stallone, My Pony) Official Trailer|via=YouTube}}

[[Category:2010s Meitei-language films]]
[[Category:2019 films]]
[[Category:Cinema of Manipur]]

Goa football team

2025-09-28T22:13:11Z

Androidsub143: general correct structure per standard format and improved wording

{{About|the men's team|the women's team|Goa women's football team}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
{{Infobox football club
| clubname = Goa
| current =
| image = Goa Football Association logo.gif
| image_size = 200px
| fullname =
| nickname =
| shortname =
| founded =
| ground = [[Fatorda Stadium]]
| capacity = 19,000
| owner = [[Goa Football Association]]
| mgrtitle = Head coach
| manager = Nobert Gonsalves
| league = [[Santosh Trophy]]
| season = [[2024–25 Santosh Trophy|2024–25]]
| position = Final round
| pattern_la1 =
| pattern_b1 = _bluecollar_2
| pattern_ra1 =
| pattern_sh1 = _Alma08
| pattern_so1 = _3_stripes_yellow
| leftarm1 = 0000FF
| body1 = FFFF00
| rightarm1 = 0000FF
| shorts1 = FFFF00
| socks1 = 0000FF
| pattern_la2 =
| pattern_b2 = _whitebow
| pattern_ra2 =
| pattern_sh2 = _adidaswhite
| pattern_so2 = _band_white
| leftarm2 = 8B0000
| body2 = 8B0000
| rightarm2 = 8B0000
| shorts2 = 8B0000
| socks2 = 8B0000
| pattern_la3 = _cska_home_1011
| pattern_b3 = _whitecollar
| pattern_ra3 = _whiteadidasplate
| pattern_sh3 = _adidaswhite
| pattern_so3 =
| leftarm3 = 228B22
| body3 = 228B22
| rightarm3 = 228B22
| shorts3 = 228B22
| socks3 = FFFFFF
| website =
}}

The '''Goa football team''' is an Indian [[association football|football]] team representing the state of [[Goa]] in Indian state football competitions including the [[Santosh Trophy]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.the-aiff.com/association/492|title=Goa Football Association}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Bengal lift record sixth crown |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/1999/99apr05/sports.htm#11 |website=tribuneindia.com |publisher=The Tribune India |agency=Press Trust of India |date=5 April 1999 |access-date=26 January 2022 |archive-date=28 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220428084646/https://www.tribuneindia.com/1999/99apr05/sports.htm#11 }}</ref>

Goa made their Santosh Trophy debut in the 1964 Madras Nationals. They have appeared in the Santosh Trophy finals 13 times, and have won the trophy 5 times.

==Players and staff==
The following 20 players were called up prior to the [[2019–20 Santosh Trophy qualification]]:

===Current players===
{{fs start}}
{{fs player |no= |nat=IND |pos=GK |name=Jason D'Mello }}
{{fs player |no= |nat=IND |pos=GK |name=Melroy Fernandes }}
{{fs player |no= |nat=IND |pos=GK |name=Ozen Silva }}
{{fs player |no= |nat=IND |pos=DF |name=Brian Faria }}
{{fs player |no= |nat=IND |pos=DF |name=[[Matthew Gonsalves]] }}
{{fs player |no= |nat=IND |pos=DF |name=[[Joseph Clemente]] }}
{{fs player |no= |nat=IND |pos=DF |name= Clive Miranda }}
{{fs player |no= |nat=IND |pos=DF |name=[[Sanson Pereira]] }}
{{fs player |no= |nat=IND |pos=DF |name=Leslie Rebello |other=[[under-20]] }}
{{fs player |no= |nat=IND |pos=MF |name=Ribhav Sardesai |other=[[under-20]] }}
{{fs player |no= |nat=IND |pos=MF |name=Samuel Costa }}
{{fs mid}}
{{fs player |no= |nat=IND |pos=MF |name=[[Velito Cruz]] }}
{{fs player |no= |nat=IND |pos=MF |name=Chaitan Komarpant |other=[[under-20]] }}
{{fs player |no= |nat=IND |pos=MF |name=Moses D'Sa }}
{{fs player |no= |nat=IND |pos=MF |name=[[Stendly Fernandes]] |other=[[under-20]] }}
{{fs player |no= |nat=IND |pos=MF |name=Denson Fernandes |other=[[under-20]] }}
{{fs player |no= |nat=IND |pos=FW |name=[[Joaquim Abranches]] |other=[[Captain (association football)|captain]] }}
{{fs player |no= |nat=IND |pos=FW |name=[[Devendra Murgaonkar]]}}
{{fs player |no= |nat=IND |pos=FW |name=Aaren D'Silva }}
{{fs player |no= |nat=IND |pos=FW |name=Olvin Cardozo }}
{{fs end}}

===Coaching staff===
As of 03 February 2023
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''Position'''
|'''Name'''
|-
| Head coach
|{{flagicon|IND}} Norbert Gonsalves
|-
| Assistant coach
| {{flagicon|IND}} Mario Soares
|-
| Goalkeeping coach
| {{flagicon|IND}} Sebastiao Noronha (Seby)
|-
| Physio
| {{flagicon|IND}} Ankit Gaunkar
|-
| Manager
| {{flagicon|IND}} Omkar vaigankar
|-
|}

==Record since 2000==
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan=9|[[Santosh Trophy]] record
! style="width:1%;" rowspan="26"|
!colspan=6|[[2019-20 Santosh Trophy qualification|Santosh Trophy qualification]] record
|-
! style="width:100px;"|Host/Year
! style="width:100px;"|Result
! style="width:70px;"|Position
! style="width:20px;"|{{Abbr|Pld|Games played}}
! style="width:20px;"|{{Abbr|W|Won}}
! style="width:20px;"|{{Abbr|D|Draw}}
! style="width:20px;"|{{Abbr|L|Lost}}
! style="width:20px;"|{{Abbr|GF|Goals for}}
! style="width:20px;"|{{Abbr|GA|Goals against}}
! style="width:20px;"|{{Abbr|Pld|Games played}}
! style="width:20px;"|{{Abbr|W|Won}}
! style="width:20px;"|{{Abbr|D|Draw}}
! style="width:20px;"|{{Abbr|L|Lost}}
! style="width:20px;"|{{Abbr|GF|Goals for}}
! style="width:20px;"|{{Abbr|GA|Goals against}}
|-
|[[Kerala]] [[1999–2000 Santosh Trophy|2000]]||'''Semi-finalists'''||4th||5||1||2||2||6||7||colspan=6|''Bye''
|-style="background:silver;"
|[[Maharashtra]] [[2001–02 Santosh Trophy|2001]]||'''Runners-up'''||'''2nd'''||'''4'''||'''3'''||'''0'''||'''1'''||'''4'''||'''3'''||colspan=6|''Bye''
|-
|[[Manipur]] [[2002-03 Santosh Trophy|2002]]||'''Semi-finalists'''||3rd-4th||3||2||0||1||4||2||colspan=6|''Bye''
|-
|[[Delhi]] [[2004-05 Santosh Trophy|2004]]||Quarterfinal league||5th-8th||2||1||1||0||3||2||colspan=6|''Bye''
|-
|-style="background:gold;"
|[[Kerala]] [[2005–06 Santosh Trophy|2005]]||'''Champions'''||'''1st'''||'''4'''||'''3'''||'''1'''||'''0'''||'''12'''||'''2'''||'''3'''||'''3'''||'''0'''||'''0'''||'''32'''||'''0'''
|-
|[[Haryana]] [[2006-07 Santosh Trophy|2006]]||Quarterfinal league||5th-6th||3||1||1||1||4||4||colspan=6|''Bye''
|-
|[[Jammu and Kashmir (state)|Jammu and Kashmir]] [[2007-08 Santosh Trophy|2008]]||Quarterfinal league||5th-6th||3||1||1||1||2||1||3||3||0||0||5||2
|-
|-style="background:gold;"
|[[Tamil Nadu]] [[2008-09 Santosh Trophy|2009]]||'''Champions'''||'''1st'''||'''5'''||'''4'''||'''1'''||'''0'''||'''7'''||'''0'''||'''2'''||'''2'''||'''0'''||'''0'''||'''5'''||'''0'''
|-
|[[West Bengal]] [[2009-10 Santosh Trophy|2010]]||'''Semi-finalists'''||3rd-4th||4||3||0||1||9||1||colspan=6|''Bye''
|-
|[[Assam]] [[2010-11 Santosh Trophy|2011]]||Quarterfinal league||7th-8th||3||0||2||1||3||6||colspan=6|''Bye''
|-
|[[Odisha]] [[2011-12 Santosh Trophy|2012]]||Quarterfinal league||5th-8th||3||2||1||0||6||3||colspan=6|''?''
|-
|[[Kerala]] [[2012-13 Santosh Trophy|2013]]||Quarterfinal league||9th-12th||3||0||2||1||2||5||2||1||1||0||4||3
|-
|[[West Bengal]] [[2013-14 Santosh Trophy|2014]]||Group stage||7th-8th||4||1||1||2||5||8||2||2||0||0||7||0
|-
|[[Punjab]] [[2014-15 Santosh Trophy|2015]]||Group stage||5th-6th||4||1||2||1||5||4||4||4||0||0||23||3
|-
|[[Maharashtra]] [[2015-16 Santosh Trophy|2016]]||'''Semi-finalist'''||3rd-4th||5||3||1||1||5||2||4||4||0||0||20||2
|-style="background:silver;"
|style="border: 3px solid red"|[[Goa]] [[2016-17 Santosh Trophy|2017]]||'''Runners-up'''||'''2nd'''||'''6'''||'''3'''||'''2'''||'''1'''||'''7'''||'''4'''||'''2'''||'''2'''||'''0'''||'''0'''||'''12'''||'''0'''
|-
|[[West Bengal]] [[2017-18 Santosh Trophy|2018]]||Group stage||5th-6th||4||2||0||2||12||9||2||2||0||0||22||1
|-
|[[Punjab]] [[2018-19 Santosh Trophy|2019]]||'''Semi-finalist'''||3rd-4th||5||3||1||1||10||7||3||2||1||0||5||0
|-
|[[Mizoram]] [[2019-20 Santosh Trophy|2020]]||colspan=8; " rowspan="2"|''Tournaments suspended due to the [[COVID-19 pandemic]]''|||3||3||0||0||23||1
|-
|2021||colspan=6|''Qualifiers too were not held''
|-
|[[Kerala]] [[2021-22 Santosh Trophy|2022]]||colspan=8|'' Did not qualify ''||3||2||0||1||7||1
|-
|[[Odisha]] [[2022-23 Santosh Trophy|2023]]||Group stage||11th-12th||5||0||0||5||4||14||5||3||2||0||8||3
|-
|[[Arunachal Pradesh]] [[2023-24 Santosh Trophy|2024]]||''Finalist''||||||||||||||||4||3||1||0||5||2
|}

==Honours==
===State (senior)===
* '''[[Santosh Trophy]]'''<ref>[https://www.rsssf.org/tablesi/indiasantoshhist.html List of Santosh Trophy Finals]</ref>
** Winners (5): 1982–83, [[1983–84 Santosh Trophy|1983–84]],<ref>{{cite web|first=Marcus|last=Mergulhao|agency=TNN|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/tough-tackling-former-salgaocar-defender-anthony-rebello-no-more/articleshow/98829687.cms|title=Tough-tackling former Salgaocar defender Anthony Rebello no more|date=21 March 2023|access-date=21 March 2023|website=timesofindia.indiatimes.com|publisher=[[The Times of India]]|archive-date=20 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230320191502/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/tough-tackling-former-salgaocar-defender-anthony-rebello-no-more/articleshow/98829687.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> [[1989–90 Santosh Trophy|1989–90]], [[2005–06 Santosh Trophy|2005–06]], [[2008–09 Santosh Trophy|2008–09]]
** Runners-up (9): 1978–79, [[1991–92 Santosh Trophy|1991–92]], 1995–96, 1996–97, 1997–98, 1998–99, [[2001–02 Santosh Trophy|2001–02]], [[2016–17 Santosh Trophy|2016–17]], [[2023–24 Santosh Trophy|2023–24]]

*'''[[Football at the National Games of India|National Games]]'''
** Silver medal (2): 1997, 2001
** Bronze medal (1): [[2011 National Games of India|2011]]

===State (youth)===
* '''[[B.C. Roy Trophy]]'''
** Winners (2): 1979–80, 1982–83
** Runners-up (5): 1983–84, 1989–90, 2001–02, 2002–03, 2005–06

* '''[[Mir Iqbal Hussain Trophy]]'''
** Winners (2): 1988–89, 1990–91
** Runners-up (1): 1991–92

* '''[[M. Dutta Ray Trophy]]'''
** Winners (6): 1993, 1999, 2001, 2006, 2007, 2010
** Runners-up (1): 2000

===Others===
* '''[[Bordoloi Trophy]]'''
** Runners-up (1): 1976

==See also==
* [[Goans in football]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.goa-fa.com/ Goa Football Association website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180822171306/http://www.goa-fa.com/ |date=22 August 2018 }}

{{Santosh Trophy}}
{{Indian state football teams}}
{{Football in Goa}}

[[Category:Football in Goa]]
[[Category:Santosh Trophy teams]]

{{India-footyclub-stub}}

Benoît de Boigne

2025-09-05T15:57:22Z

Androidsub143: enhance details as per guidelines

{{Short description|French mercenary (1751–1830)}}
{{More citations needed|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2023}}
[[File:Comte de boigne.jpg|thumb|Portrait of Benoît de Boigne]]

'''Benoît Leborgne''' (24 March 1751{{snd}}21 June 1830), better known as '''Count Benoît de Boigne''' or '''General Count de Boigne''', was a mercenary from the [[Duchy of Savoy]] (when he was born part of the [[Kingdom of Sardinia]]) who made his fortune and name in India with the [[Marathas]]. He was also named president of the general council of the French [[Mont-Blanc (department)|''département'' of Mont-Blanc]] by [[Napoleon I]].

The son of shopkeepers, Leborgne was a career military man. He was trained in European regiments and then became a success in India in the service of [[Mahadaji Sindhia]] of [[Gwalior]] in central India, who ruled over the [[Maratha Empire]]. Sindhia entrusted him with the creation and organization of an army. He became its general, and trained and commanded a force of nearly 100,000 men organized on the European model, which allowed the Maratha Empire to dominate north India, though it ultimately proved unable to match the military of the [[East India Company]] in the [[Second Anglo-Maratha War|Second]] and [[Third Anglo-Maratha War]]s. Along with his career in the army, Benoît de Boigne also worked in commerce and administration. Among other titles, he became a ''[[Jagir|Jaghirdar]]'' which gave him enormous land holdings in India.

After a turbulent life, Benoît de Boigne returned to Europe, first to England, where he married a French emigrant after having repudiated his first, Persian wife; then to France during the [[French Consulate|Consulate]], and finally back to Savoy. He devoted the end of his life to charity in [[Chambéry]], where he was born. The king of [[Kingdom of Sardinia|Sardinia]] gave him the title of Count.

==Early life==
He was born at [[Chambéry]] in Savoy on 24 March 1751, the son of a fur merchant. His paternal grandfather, born at Burneuil in [[Picardy]], moved to Chambéry, in the [[Duchy of Savoy|Dukedom of Savoy]], at the beginning of the 18th century. In 1709 the grandfather married Claudine Latoud, born in 1682. They had thirteen children, of whom only four reached the age of twenty, and opened up a fur shop on rue Tupin in Chambéry.
[[File:Furriers shop.jpg|thumb|Fur shop of the time]]
This shop made an impression on the young Benoît Leborgne. In his ''Mémoires'', he wrote that he was fascinated by the exotic sign outside the shop. It was brightly colored and featured wild animals including lions, elephants, panthers and tigers, with the motto underneath: "You can go ahead and try something else, you will all come to Leborgne, the fur dealer." The child's imagination was stimulated, and he kept asking his parents and grandparents about the animals. He wanted to know more about the far-off countries where they lived.

His father, Jean-Baptiste Leborgne, born in 1718, frequently traveled on business to wild-fur markets and brought back bearskins, fox, beaver, and marten furs, and many other animal pelts. Sometimes he traveled as far as Scotland, and he dreamed of going to the Indies. His wife was against this, but he passed his dream on to his son.

His mother, Hélène Gabet, born in 1744, was born into a family of notaries who worked closely with the Savoy Senate. Although her family was not happy about her marriage to a fur merchant, they accepted it. Benoît was the third of the couple's seven children – three boys and three girls. One of his brothers, Antoine-François, became a monk at the monastery of [[Grande Chartreuse]], but influenced by ideas of the [[French Revolution]], he left and later married. His son Joseph became a notable lawyer in [[Turin]]. Benoît, who had been destined for the law, was not the only adventurer in his family. His brother Claude went to [[Santo Domingo]], in what is now the [[Dominican Republic]]. Claude was imprisoned in Paris during the [[Reign of Terror]], and later became a deputy for the island of Santo Domingo (now called [[Hispaniola]]) in the [[Council of Five Hundred]] under the [[French Directory]]. During the first empire (of [[Napoleon]]) he was named to office in Paris and took the title of Baron. This title was given to him, like the title of Count given to his brother Benoît Leborgne, by the king of Sardinia, in 1816. At the age of 17, Benoît Leborgne fought a duel with a [[Piedmont]] officer and wounded him. This cost him his chance to join the Brigade de Savoie. He therefore enlisted in the [[Grande Armée|French Army]].

==Early military career==
[[File:Comte Benoît de Boigne gravure 1835 par Goutière.jpg|left|thumb|Portrait engraving of de Boigne by Goutière, 1835.]]
Leborgne began his military career in the north of France in 1768, as an ordinary soldier in [[Louis XV]]'s Irish Regiment, directed by Lord Clare and quartered in [[Flanders]]. This regiment was made up mostly of Irish emigrants who had [[Flight of the Wild Geese|left Ireland for other Catholic nations in Europe]]; at this time [[Irish Catholics]] were disenfranchised in [[Kingdom of Ireland]] under the [[Penal Laws (Ireland)|penal laws]]. During this period, many Irishmen left Ireland for the Catholic countries of Europe or for North America. Here Benoît Leborgne learned English and the rudiments of army life. He listened to the military tales of his superior officers, especially those of Major [[Daniel Charles O'Connell]] about India. Many years later, he met O'Connell again in England and was introduced through him to his future wife Adèle.

While in the Irish Regiment, Leborgne took part in several campaigns which took him across Europe, as well as to islands in the [[Indian Ocean]], including Bourbon Island (now called [[Réunion]]). In 1773, at age 22, Benoît Leborgne resigned from the army. Lord Clare and Colonel Meade had died, bringing changes to the Regiment. Europe was at peace and his chances of promotion had become slim.

==The Russian-Turkish war==
As he was leaving the Irish Regiment, young Leborgne learned from the newspapers that Prince Fyodor Grigoryevich [[Orlov (family)|Orlov]] of Russia was raising, in the name of [[Empress Catherine II of Russia]], a Greek regiment to attack the [[Ottoman Empire]]. At the time, Russia was attempting to extend its territory to acquire a port on the [[Black Sea]], and was using the anti-Turkish sentiments of people under Ottoman domination to aid its project. Leborgne saw a chance of advancement and adventure. He went back to Chambéry for a short time and got a letter of recommendation to Prince Orlov through the cousin of a client of his mother's, who was a close acquaintance of the prince. First Leborgne went to [[Turin]], which was then the capital of the Kingdom of Sardinia, where he met the cousin. Afterwards, he went to the [[Veneto]], then crossed to the [[Aegean Sea]]. He arrived in [[Paros]], where Prince Orlov was forming his Greek-Russian regiment. The prince accepted him and he joined the ranks.

Leborgne quickly saw that his enlistment was a mistake. The prince confided to him his doubts on the future military campaign and its chances of victory. These pessimistic forecasts were quickly confirmed. On the island of [[Tenedos]], the Turks were victorious, and the [[Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)]] ended for Leborgne with his capture by the Turks, although some members of his regiment succeeded in escaping. He was taken to [[Constantinople]] and became a slave, where he had to do menial work for many weeks. However, his owner soon noticed that he could speak English and put him to work serving the British official [[Lord Algernon Percy]]. Percy, surprised to see an enslaved European, was able to procure Leborgne's freedom after a week of negotiations, with the aid of the British embassy.

==Preparations for India==
[[File:Warren Hastings greyscale.jpg|thumb|left|[[Warren Hastings]], engraving from a portrait by [[Joshua Reynolds]]]]

Lord Percy took Leborgne as a guide through the Greek islands back to Paros, where Leborgne officially resigned from his regiment. He was free again, but had only his last pay received from before his resignation. He travelled to [[Smyrna]] (now [[İzmir]]), which at the time was a prosperous, booming city. There, Leborgne met merchants from many countries, including India, which was believed to hold much wealth, like the diamonds of [[Golkonda|Golconda]] and the sapphires of Ceylon (now [[Sri Lanka]]). Some of these merchants told him their theories about the existence of trade routes passing north of India, in upper [[Kashmir]] or along the glaciers of [[Karakoram]]. He also learned that many [[rajah]]s regularly sought out European officers to organize and command their armies.

These stories persuaded Leborgne to try his chances. Through his friend Lord Percy, he was able to get letters of recommendation to Lord [[Warren Hastings|Hastings]] and Lord [[George Macartney, 1st Earl Macartney|Macartney]] in India. He also asked for letters of recommendation from Prince Orlov in [[Saint Petersburg]], where the prince obtained an audience for him with the Empress Catherine II. Leborgne explained to her he wanted to discover new trade routes to India passing through [[Afghanistan]] or [[Kashmir]]. The empress, wishing to extend her power to Afghanistan, agreed to help him. At the end of 1777, Leborgne began a journey with many detours. After having tried to travel by land, he gave up and decided to reach India by ship. However, during the voyage to Egypt, a storm washed away all his possessions, including the letters of recommendation. Not wishing to abandon his journey, Leborgne went to the British consulate in Egypt and met [[Sir Baldwin Leighton, 6th Baronet|Sir Baldwin]]. After a number of discussions, he was advised to take service in British [[East India Company]], and he was given a letter of recommendation to this effect.

==Military glory and fortune in India==
In the late 18th century, the influence of the [[Maratha Empire]] was gradually declining. The British were triumphing over their [[Portuguese India|Portuguese]], [[French India|French]], and [[Dutch India|Dutch]] rivals in India, where all the countries had hastened to install trading posts. The [[East India Company|British East India Company]] was the most powerful military and economic force and came to dominate India. The East India Company established a powerful administration placed under the direct responsibility of the [[The Crown|British Crown]]. Many Europeans benefited from the political confusion on the Indian subcontinent, offering their services as mercenaries to Indian princes and becoming rich merchants themselves. The Europeans had the advantage of military experience in the European wars, knowledge of arms production, especially cannons, and of new military strategies.

==Arrival in India==
In 1778, Leborgne arrived at the Indian port of Madras (now [[Chennai]]). He was poor and to make a living, taught fencing. While teaching, he met a nephew of the British governor of the city, Sir [[Sir Thomas Rumbold, 1st Baronet|Thomas Rumbold]]. He was offered a position as an officer in the 6th battalion of [[sepoy]]s, a troop of local inhabitants raised by the Company. He accepted, and gradually learned the local customs and began training the sepoys. He lived in Madras for four years, but became restless. He was ambitious, and decided to go to [[Delhi]] in the north of India, where the Mughal Emperor [[Shah Alam II]] held court. The [[Marathas]] and [[Rajput]]s were employing Europeans and giving them the command of their armies. The new governor, Lord MacCartney, gave Leborgne letters of recommendation to the governor of the province of [[Bengal]], in [[Calcutta]], and Leborgne sailed there.

He met governor Warren Hastings, who approved his projects of exploration. Again he was given letters of recommendation, this time to [[Asaf-Ud-Dowlah]], the Nawab of Oudh, in [[Lucknow]]. The rajah was a vassal of the East India Company. In January 1783, Leborgne started his trip. He traveled through many extremely poor villages, learning about the culture and religion of India and noted the different Muslim and Hindu neighborhoods in various places.

==Arrival in Lucknow==
[[File:Zoffany Claude Martin and his friends.jpg|thumb|Painting of [[Antoine Polier]], [[Johan Zoffany]], [[Claude Martin]] and [[John Wombwell]].]]

In Lucknow, Leborgne was received by the nawab [[Asaf-ud-Daulah]] and was invited to live with Colonel Pollier, in the service of the Company. As Middleton, an Englishman present when Leborgne met the nawab, explained to him afterward, this invitation was in fact an order; if he refused he would have been thrown in prison. Colonel [[Antoine Polier]], a Swiss, received him warmly. Leborgne discovered that Lucknow had many European residents. He met two who spoke French. The first, [[Claude Martin]], was from [[Lyon]]s and had made his fortune in India; the second, Drugeon, was from Savoy like himself.

The nawab gave Leborgne a kelat, richly decorated with gold and diamonds, along with letters of exchange for [[Kandahar]] and [[Kabul]], and 12,000 rupees. The nawab kept Leborgne, with many others, as a privileged captive for five months. Polier explained to Leborgne that although he had been given the letters of exchange, he would have to be patient. While waiting, Leborgne began to learn Persian and Hindi.

He also changed his name at this time to sound more aristocratic. From then on he called himself de Boigne, inspired by the English pronunciation of his name (English-speakers could not pronounce the "r" correctly). Along with Claude Martin, his friend from Lyons, de Boigne occupied himself by selling silver jewelry, silk carpets, and arms enameled in gold. He also went tiger-hunting on elephant-back with Polier and the nawab.

==Leaving Lucknow for Delhi==
[[File:Portrait Benoît de Boigne gravure par Boilly 1823.jpg|thumb|left|Portrait of Benoît de Boigne by Boilly, 1823.]]
In August 1783, de Boigne received permission to leave Oudh and went north to search for new trade routes. His journey by horse led him to [[Delhi]] in the company of Polier, who also had to go there for business. During the trip, de Boigne saw the [[Taj Mahal]] and other Indian sights, including various smaller kingdoms and tribes. In Delhi, an Englishman named Anderson offered to get de Boigne an audience with Emperor Shah Alam, whose court was at the [[Red Fort]]. During this audience, de Boigne told the emperor about his proposal to seek new trade routes, but the emperor put off any decision ("We'll see"). De Boigne waited in Delhi, hoping for a favorable answer. However, circumstances were about to change. The day after the audience, an imperial edict gave [[Mahadji Sindhia]] the government of the provinces of Delhi and [[Agra]]. In other words, Sindhia became the imperial regent and the real power, while Emperor Shah Alam, without being deposed, was now only a figurehead. In 1790, de Boigne summarized Indian politics of the time:

"The respect toward the house of [[Timur]] [the Moghul dynasty] is so strong that even though the whole subcontinent has been withdrawn from its authority, no prince of India has taken the title of sovereign. Sindhia shared this respect, and Shah Alam [Shah Alam II] was still seated on the Moghul throne, and everything done in his name."

In the midst of these political upheavals, de Boigne met Armand de Levassoult, a European friend of Polier. Levassoult was in the service of Begum Joanna Nobilis ([[Begum Samru]] of [[Sardhana]], d. 1836), an influential woman respected by the emperor, but also by his Maratha adversaries. For a few days, de Boigne found himself in Delhi unable to go north, since the local administration did not give him permission. However, he met Levassoult again and Levassoult invited him to go to Sindhia's camp with him.

==Doubted by Marathas, fired by Jaipur==
[[File:Fort Gwalior.jpg|thumb|Fort of Gwalior]]

The [[Marathas]] had set up camp to besiege the [[Gwalior Fort|citadel]] of [[Gwalior]], in which a Scot named George Sangster, whom de Boigne had met in Lucknow, was commanding the garrison. When Levassoult and de Boigne arrived in the Maratha camp, they received a warm welcome. Levassoult presented his friend as the bravest of soldiers, and de Boigne was given a tent. However, while he was away from it, his baggage was stolen, and with it the precious letters of exchange of Hastings and also the letter for Kabul and [[Peshawar]]. He soon learned that this theft had been ordered by [[Scindia|Sindhia]] himself, who wanted to know more about this suspect European. De Boigne, wanting revenge, decided to send a discreet message to Sangster in the besieged citadel and proposed an attack on the Maratha camp. But while he was waiting for the answer, he was called by an enraged Sindhia who had discovered the message. De Boigne had to explain that his act was a response to the theft of his baggage and letters of exchange.

Sindhia discussed with De Boigne about an expedition to the north of India and a resulting possible invasion by the Afghans. He then offered to de Boigne the command of the camp guard, which de Boigne refused. Vexed, Sindhia dismissed him without returning his precious papers. This misadventure showed de Boigne that his project of exploration was unpopular among Indians, and he decided to abandon it. His argument with Sindhia came to the ears of Sindhia's enemies, first to the Rajah [[Pratap Singh of Jaipur]], who was looking for a European officer to form two battalions. De Boigne accepted the offer and returned to Lucknow to raise and train the troops. The British, suspicious, asked de Boigne to explain himself to Hastings, who, after hearing his intentions, allowed him to continue. Once the battalions were recruited and operational, de Boigne and his men started for Jaipur. However, en route they were stopped at [[Dholpur State]] by a local [[Jats|Jat]] lord whose fortress blocked the only passage. After they gave him a ransom, he allowed them to pass. This episode displeased the Rajah of Jaipur, who dismissed de Boigne without any compensation, while keeping the two new battalions.

==In the service of the Maratha empire==
After a time wandering, de Boigne again met his friend Levassoult, who introduced him to the Catholic convert Begum Joanna. She confided to him that Sindhia, the Maratha chief wanted him back. Although Sindhia had been mistrustful of de Boigne's projects of exploration, and in spite of their argument over the confiscated baggage, Sindhia had been impressed with de Boigne's two European-trained battalions, which contrasted sharply with his own troops. De Boigne finally agreed to enter the service of the [[Marathas]]. He was put in charge of organizing a cannon foundry in Agra, as well as equipping and arming 7000 men in two battalions. De Boigne from this time quickly became an influential man. One of the first actions under his command was the October 1783 capture of the citadel of [[Kalinjar]] in the region of [[Bundelkhand]]. The rajah of this region ended up parleying with de Boigne, which allowed Sindhia to enter Delhi as its master. The Maratha chief named himself "Column of the Empire" and Prime Minister. His seizure of power led to many conflicts and betrayals.

Over the next few years there were many battles among [[Marathas]], [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]]s, [[Kachwahas]] and [[Rathore dynasty|Rathore]]s. At the battles of [[Battle of Lalsot|Lalsot]] (May 1787) and of [[Battle of Chaksana|Chaksana]] (24 April 1788), de Boigne and his two battalions proved their worth by holding the field when the Marathas were losing. The year 1788 was especially turbulent. On 10 August [[Ghulam Kadir]] had the Emperor Shah Alam's eyes torn out. On 14 August the Maratha army, allied with the army of Begum Joanna and of that of her old enemy [[Ismail Beg]], entered Delhi, retaking the town it had once lost. Kadir escaped but was captured, and the Marathas killed him gruesomely, among other tortures putting out his eyes and cutting off his ears and nose. His corpse was then given to the emperor. Once more Mahadji Sindhia had triumphed and was now the true power in India. It was at this time that Benoît de Boigne proposed to Sindhia the creation of a brigade of 10,000 men in order to consolidate his conquest of India. Sindhia refused because his treasury could not afford it, but also because he had doubts about the superiority of the artillery-infantry combination, as opposed to the cavalry that had been the main weapon of the Maratha armies. This refusal caused a new dispute between the two men, and Benoît de Boigne resigned. Once more unemployed, he returned to Lucknow.
<ref>{{cite book |last=Dalrymple|first=William |authorlink=William Dalrymple (historian)|title=White Mughals |publisher=[[Harper Perennial]] |year=2002|isbn=978-0-00-655096-9}}</ref>

==Commercial life and first marriage==
Back in Lucknow, Benoît de Boigne found his old friends Antoine-Louis Polier and Claude Martin. Martin persuaded de Boigne to work with him in trade. His military skills were useful, for at the time, Indian trade routes were dangerous, and even warehouses in the cities were sometimes robbed. Claude Martin and Benoît de Boigne built a warehouse inside an old fort. It included saferooms and a trained armed guard to watch it. Quickly, this business became successful. De Boigne also carried on a trade in precious stones, copper, gold, silver, indigo, cashmere shawls, silks, and spices. He became rich and now owned a luxurious house with many servants, a wine-cellar, and valuable horses. At this time, de Boigne fell in love with a young woman from Delhi known as [[Nur Begum]] ("light" in Arabic). Her name was '''Halime Banu''' or HalimeBanu BanuHalime.<ref name=wife1>{{Cite ODNB |title=The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |date=2004-09-23 |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/63495 |pages=ref:odnb/63495 |editor-last=Matthew |editor-first=H. C. G. |place=Oxford |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/63495 |access-date=2023-02-09 |editor2-last=Harrison |editor2-first=B.}}</ref> She was the daughter of a colonel in the Persian Guard of the Great Moghul, whom he had met to discuss a simple lawsuit. The same day, he asked the colonel for his daughter's hand in marriage. After a long discussion, the father accepted, even though de Boigne refused to convert to Islam as was normally required for the husband of a Muslim woman. De Boigne wooed Noor, who could speak perfect English. The wedding lasted several days, first in Delhi, with sumptuous feasts, then more simply in Lucknow. The couple had two children, a daughter, Banu, or Anna (1789–1804) and a son Ali Bakhsh (otherwise Charles Alexander born in 1792. He visited England in 1797 with his wife and their two young children.<ref name=wife1/>

==A general in the service of the Maratha empire, with the title of jaghir==
[[File:General Benoit de Boigne après la bataille de Patan.jpg|thumb|Portrait of Benoît de Boigne after the battle of Patan.]]

In 1788, Sindhia sent a discreet message to de Boigne. Sindhia wished to unite north and northwest India. At the time, the Rajputs and the Marathas had a tense relationship. The Marathas were levying the peasants with more taxes. Sindhia succeeded in convincing de Boigne to return to his service. He asked him to organize a brigade of 12,000 men within a year (January 1789–January 1790). De Boigne became commander-in-chief and general, the highest title under "rajah." To be able to pay his men, Sindhia gave his new general a ''[[jaghir]]'', a fief given for the lifetime of its holder, against a payment in return to the imperial treasury. At the death of its holder, the ''jaghir'' reverted to another deserving officer. The revenues from the ''jaghir'' allowed the officer to pay his men. Benoît de Boigne received the [[Doab]], a region of plains in Uttar Pradesh. This plain was covered with jungle and included several towns like [[Meerut]], Kol and [[Aligarh]]. De Boigne had to use some of his savings to renovate this new land. He built a citadel and stores. The military camp built by de Boigne was very European. To work with the new brigade, he hired Drugeon from Savoy, Sangster from Scotland, [[John Hessing]], a Dutchman, as well as Frémont and [[Pierre Cuillier-Perron]], two Frenchmen, a German named [[Anthony Pohlmann]] and an Italian, Michael Filoze. The administrative and military language became French, and the flag of Savoy, red with a white cross, became the ensign of the new brigade.

Because of his high rank, Sindhia obliged de Boigne to have a personal guard, and de Boigne chose 400 Sikhs and Persians. The brigade itself consisted of approximately nine battalions of infantry, each with its own artillery and baggage train. The brigade artillery included about fifty bronze cannons, of which half were big-caliber and transported by oxen, and the other pieces by elephants and camels. De Boigne's brigade also invented a weapon composed of six musket-barrels joined together. The brigade was supported by 3000 elite cavalry, 5000 servants, team drovers, carpenters, blacksmiths, and others. A novelty for India was the ambulance corps, in charge of rescuing wounded soldiers, including enemy soldiers. De Boigne also acquired a parade elephant named Bhopal. The brigade was ready in 1790.

==Military campaigns and victories==
Starting in 1790, the brigade had to face Rajputs, Ismail Beg, and the rajahs of [[Bikaner State|Bikaner]] and [[Jaipur State|Jaipur]]. De Boigne decided to attack this coalition by surprise on 23 May. De Boigne demonstrated his military talent by gaining one victory after another. The East India Company began to become concerned about this new Maratha army, dangerous to their domination. Within six months of 1790, in a hostile, hilly terrain, de Boigne's brigade defeated 100,000 men, confiscated 200 camels and 200 cannons, many bazaars, and fifty elephants. The Maratha army attacked and took seventeen fortresses by siege. It won several decisive battles, among which the most difficult were the battles of Patan, Merta, and [[Ajmer]]. The Rajputs recognized the authority of [[Sindhia]] as prime minister. The Marathas were now the masters of northern and northwestern India. During these military campaigns, de Boigne continued his commercial association with Claude Martin from a distance. Sindhia, more powerful than ever, asked de Boigne to raise two more brigades. These were formed and their command was given by de Boigne to Frémont and Perron, assisted by Drugeon.

For a while, de Boigne could enjoy his new social position and the respect that his victories had won him, as well as the reforms which he had undertaken in his ''jaghir''. But the calm was of short duration, and military campaigns started up again. The Marathas of central India became a threat. Due to internal differences, a new coalition of Holkar and Sindhia's enemy Ismail Beg, menaced the territory of Sindhia in northern India, and in spite of diplomatic negotiations and promises of imperial titles, there was a battle of Lakhari in 1793 between [[House of Holkar|Holkar]]-Ismail Beg and Sindhia. De Boigne's brigades won and captured Ismail Beg, but his life was spared because de Boigne admired his brave spirit. De Boigne now attacked Holkar and after a fourth battle, the most exciting and dangerous, according to de Boigne, his troops won another victory. However, de Boigne was weary of war. The rajah of Jaipur, now in a position of weakness, preferred peace. De Boigne was rewarded by Sindhia with an enlargement of the ''jaghir'', and also gave a ''jaghir'' to de Boigne's son, only an infant at the time.

==Trusted by Maratha chiefs. European events==
Sindhia had become the most powerful man in India, with many enemies. As they were not able to beat him militarily, the Maratha chief faced conspiracies, intrigue and treason. De Boigne was a faithful follower and Sindhia trusted him and made him a confidant. De Boigne now was running imperial affairs for Sindhia in north and northwestern India. The minister Gopal Rao, whose brother had been engaged in a famous plot with Nana Farnavis ([[Nana Fadnavis]]), came to Aligarh to visit de Boigne to show his loyalty to Sindhia. But while India was now a confederation under the Maratha authority, the situation in Europe was changing profoundly. The [[French Revolution]] had overturned the equilibrium in Europe, and also in Europe's colonial empires. On 12 November 1792 a Savoy assembly proclaimed its unity with France. Until 1815, de Boigne was now considered a Frenchman like any other. The brigades of the Maratha army under de Boigne's command were under European officers now divided by the political situation in Europe: one of the two French officers was a royalist and the other supported the revolution. De Boigne tried to keep his army out of European politics. He was more worried about the situation of Sindhia, who was still in [[Pune|Poona]]; Sindhia ordered him to send help, as he became concerned with British intrigues. De Boigne sent him 10,000 men under the command of Perron.

On 12 February 1794, Sindhia died of high fever. De Boigne remained faithful to [[Daulat Rao Sindhia]], the nephew and legitimate heir of Sindhia. De Boigne soon realized that the political situation had changed. His ideal of India as a confederation of free states would never come to pass. Sindhia's successor was less capable than his predecessor. In 1795, after twenty years in India, and in worsening health, de Boigne left his command, installing Perron in his place, and prepared his departure for Europe. At the end of his career in India, he was head of an army of almost 100,000 men, organized on the European model; this army would later see action in the [[Second Anglo-Maratha War|Second]] and [[Third Anglo-Maratha War]]s. In November 1796 de Boigne left India, accompanied by his family and his most faithful Indian servants. He sold his personal guard to the British, with the consent of his men, for a price equivalent to 900,000 [[French Franc#French Empire and Restoration|Francs Germinal]].

==Return to Europe and second marriage==
Benoît de Boigne left for England, where he installed his household near London. Although he had been born a Savoyard, the Revolution had made him a Frenchman, and therefore a potential enemy of the British. His wealth and his letters of credit were held in abeyance at the bank. However, his military prowess was known to many British who had campaigned in India, some of whom had dined with him in India. This sympathy allowed de Boigne to take British nationality on 1 January 1798. The nationality was conditional upon his remaining in Britain or its colonies. Wishing to leave London, de Boigne acquired a house in the English countryside, in [[Dorset]]shire. He considered going back to Chambéry, his native town, but the political situation was too uncertain.

He also thought of entering politics, but his position was not good enough for the British parliament, since the parties expected candidates to have gone to the best British schools, have well-connected friends, and also to have a wife who could carry on diplomatic conversation and organize parties and receptions. De Boigne had his family christened, and Noor became Hélène. Although his seat was in the country, he was near London and went there often. He met many French emigrants, all waiting to be able to go back to France. In 1798, de Boigne met a Mademoiselle d'Osmond, sixteen years old. He repudiated his first wife, who had not been able to adapt to British customs and had become more and more distant, returning to her Indian habits. De Boigne was now completely taken by his new love. Not being legally married to Hélène under British law, he agreed to give her alimony and engaged a tutor for their children. On 11 June 1798, he married [[Adèle d'Osmond]].

==Unhappy second marriage; discovery of France under the Consulate==
His second wife, born in 1781, was an emigrant from a penniless, though noble, old family from [[Normandy]]. De Boigne did not reveal his own lowly origins before the marriage. He seems to have wished, after his adventurous life, to start a family and establish himself in Europe through the help of his wife's high-placed relations. But from the beginning, the marriage was not a success. De Boigne had a hard time adapting to European manners after so long in India, and the 30-year difference in age between him and his wife added to the difficulty. He was jealous. He also now took opium to assuage the pain of his dysentery, and his wife and her family claimed he abused it. During this period, France was under the Consulate, and many French emigrants returned to France. De Boigne decided to go back as well, and in 1802 he settled in Paris, where the consul Napoleon Bonaparte was enjoying great popularity. De Boigne's wife went back to live with her parents. On 30 April 1802, de Boigne discovered from Drugeon, who had stayed in India, that Perron had become an important person there, but that Perron was greedy for money and seized his friend's property to get de Boigne's money and accelerate its decline.

In Paris, de Boigne became friends with General [[Paul Thiébault]], who asked him several times to meet Napoleon so that he could become an officer in the French army. However, de Boigne, who was now in his fifties, did not want to return to his former rank of colonel, under the orders of younger men. Although he refused, the offer was renewed. In 1803, Napoleon offered a new proposition to Benoît de Boigne. He asked him to take command of Russian and French troops who would reach India through Afghanistan and push the East India Company out of the subcontinent. But nothing came of this. Benoît de Boigne bought the [[Château de Beauregard, La Celle-Saint-Cloud]] for his wife, and she moved in on 2 November 1804. The property was ceded to Francesco Borghèse, Prince Aldobrandini of the [[House of Borghese]], on 14 November 1812, in exchange for a house in Châtenay (now [[Châtenay-Malabry]]).

==Final return to Savoy==
[[File:Statue benoit de boigne sommet fontaine des éléphants.jpg|thumb|left|Statue of Benoît de Boigne in Chambéry.]]
[[File:Lucey1.JPG|thumb|The [[Château de Lucey (Lucey, Savoie)|château de Lucey]] was one of de Boigne's properties.]]
Benoît de Boigne returned to Savoy definitively in 1807. There, he had himself called "General de Boigne." He lived alone in the [[château of Buisson-Rond]] near Chambéry, which he had bought in 1802 and appointed luxuriously for his young wife. But she continued to live in the Paris region, where she lived in the château of Beauregard and then of Châtenay. In this Parisian life she found the material for her celebrated ''Mémoires'', which were published in 1907. The Comtesse de Boigne rarely came to Buisson-Rond, although she occasionally gave urbane receptions during the summer on her way home from taking the waters at [[Aix-les-Bains|Aix]], in the company of her friends [[Madame Récamier]], [[Madame de Staël]], Adrien de Montmorency ([[Anne Adrien Pierre de Montmorency-Laval]]), and [[Benjamin Constant]].

Having returned from the isle of Réunion, Benoît de Boigne received the title of Field Marshal on 20 October 1814, and the Croix de Saint-Louis ([[Order of Saint Louis]]) on 6 December. His wife was pleased. On 27 February 1815, [[Louis XVIII]] gave him the [[Legion of Honor]] for services rendered as President of the Conseil général du département du Mont-Blanc. De Boigne was a fervent royalist, and ardent partisan of the Savoy government. [[Victor Emmanuel I of Sardinia]], king of Sardinia and Savoy, gave him the title of Count in 1816, and [[Charles Felix of Sardinia]] conferred upon him the Grand [[Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus]]. In 1814 and 1816 he was named General in France and in Savoy.

During the last years of his life, Benoît de Boigne occupied himself in managing his immense fortune. He bought much land in the vicinity of Chambéry and of [[Geneva]], and also in the west of the modern département of [[Savoie]], including, in 1816, the [[château de Lucey]]. He spent much of his time on the development of his native city. He was a member of the city council of Chambéry in 1816. Although he no longer served in the military, he received the title of lieutenant-general in the armies of the king of Sardinia in 1822. On 26 December 1824 he was elected to the Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Belles-Lettres of Savoy, with the academic title "Effectif."

From 1814 until his death, de Boigne made many donations to the city of Chambéry, financing public and religious organizations, for welfare, education, and public works. He had no children with Adèle d'Osmond, so he made the decision to legitimize and naturalize his son Charles-Alexandre from his first marriage to Hélène (Noor). On 21 June 1830, Benoît de Boigne died in Chambéry. He was buried inside the church of Saint-Pierre-le-Lémenc. A funeral oration was given for him on 19 August 1830, in the metropolitan church of Chambéry, by the Canon Vibert, pro-vicar-general of the diocese and member of the royal academic society of Savoy.

==Descendants of Benoît de Boigne==
Charles-Alexandre de Boigne was born in Delhi, India in 1791. He married Césarine Viallet de Montbel in 1816. The marriage had been encouraged by his father. Césarine Viallet de Montbel was from a large Savoy family who had been parliamentarians and later ennobled. They had thirteen children. Charles-Alexandre, educated in England, had studied law, but spent most of his life as a minor courtier at the Savoy court, managing his land and inheritance. He was assisted by Thomas Morand, a Chambéry notary who had been chosen by Benoît de Boigne. Charles-Alexandre also had to liquidate the foundations and donations of his father. Charles-Alexandre died on 23 July 1853. His son Ernest acceded to the title. Ernest married Delphine de Sabran-Pontevès. Ernest de Boigne became captain of the firemen of the city of Chambéry, but soon became involved in politics. He was elected to the Savoy parliament, then became a deputy to the legislative body in 1860. He was twice reelected, as a conservative, in 1863 and 1869. He was decorated with the Legion of Honor. At the fall of the [[Second French Empire|Second Empire]], he lost his election in 1877. He became the mayor of [[Lucey, Savoie|Lucey]]. He died in 1895 at Buisson-Rond.

==Benefactor of Chambéry==
[[File:Benoît de Boigne statue Chambéry Savoie détail.JPG|left|140px|thumb|Statue of Benoît de Boigne at the old age home Maison Saint-Benoît in Chambéry]]
At his death, Benoît de Boigne left a fortune estimated at 20 million French francs of the time. Altogether, his donations to his native city amounted to about 3,484,850 francs.
He left a permanent fund of 6500 pounds yearly to the metropolitan church of Chambéry for, among other things, the choir. He gave a second fund of 1250 pounds to the Compagnie des nobles Chevaliers-Tireurs-à-l'Arc (Company of noble knight archers).

De Boigne gave many donations for charity, including giving beds to hospitals. He donated 22,400 francs for three hospital beds at the Hôtel-Dieu, a charity hospital, and later gave 24,000 francs for another four beds for poor, sick foreign travelers of any nation or religion. He paid 63,000 francs for the construction of various buildings at the Hôtel-Dieu of Chambéry, and gave a beggars' home the sum of 649,150 francs. He founded an old age home, the Maison de Saint-Benoît, which cost him 900,000 francs. He also paid for a place in the orphanage for 7300 francs, and ten beds at the charity hospital, for patients with contagious illnesses, who could not be admitted to Hôtel-Dieu.

De Boigne also gave a trust fund of 1650 pounds a year, about 33,000 francs, to help poor prisoners every week with laundry and food. He gave another perpetual trust of 1200 pounds or 24,000 francs to the poor "shameful" of the city, to be distributed at their homes. Finally, he left a trust fund of 1200 pounds to the firemen of Chambéry to help the sick and wounded.

De Boigne gave 30,000 francs to build the church of the Capucins, and 60,000 francs to build a theater. Among his other numerous donations, two were important. One was 320,000 francs for various works, as well as the ownership without usufruct of the property of Châtenay. The second donation was for 300,000 francs to demolish the cabornes [stone huts] and open up a wide avenue across the city. He also gave 30,000 francs for the repair of the city hall and 5000 francs for the bell-tower of Barberaz.

De Boigne also gave four major donations to education. He gave 270,000 francs to reorganize the collège of Chambéry; he gave a trust fund of 1000 pounds a year, 20,000 francs, to the Société royale académique de Chambéry for the encouragement of agriculture, arts, and letters; he gave two trust funds of 150 pounds apiece, or 3000 francs, to the Frères des Écoles chrétiennes (Brothers of Christian Schools) and to the Sisters of Saint Joseph. Both of these groups gave a free education to children, the first to poor children, the second to girls.

==Further reading==
{{Commons category|Benoît de Boigne}}
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Boigne, Benoît de |volume=4 |page=139}}
* {{Cite book|last=Compton|first=Herbert|url=https://archive.org/details/particularaccoun00compiala|title=A particular Account of the European Military Adventures of Hindustan, from 1784 to 1803|publisher=T. Fisher Unwin|year=1892|location=London|pages=7–108|chapter=De Boigne|author-link=Herbert Eastwick Compton|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/particularaccoun00compiala/page/n17/mode/2up}}
* [[Desmond Young (British Army officer)|Young, Desmond]] – ''Fountain of the Elephants'' (London, Collins, 1959)

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{MarathaEmpire}}

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Boigne, Benoit De}}
[[Category:1751 births]]
[[Category:1830 deaths]]
[[Category:French mercenaries]]
[[Category:Military personnel from Chambéry]]
[[Category:Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint Louis]]
[[Category:People from the Maratha Empire]]
[[Category:Mercenaries in India]]
[[Category:18th-century French explorers]]
[[Category:19th-century French people]]
[[Category:People from the Kingdom of Sardinia]]

Karm Narayan Bahl

2025-08-16T15:24:12Z

Androidsub143: done.

{{Short description|Indian zoologist (1891–1954)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2025}}
[[File:Karm_Narayan_Bahl.jpg|thumb|Karm Narayan Bahl]]
'''Karm Narayan Bahl''' (14 February 1891 – 21 April 1954) was an Indian zoologist who studied earthworms, their [[Nephridium|nephridial]] morphology, and excretion. He served as a professor of zoology at [[University of Lucknow|Lucknow University]]. He founded a series of memoirs on model animals of Indian origin for the purposes of teaching zoology in India.

== Life and work ==
Bahl was born in [[Multan]] and was educated at the Government college in Lahore receiving a master's degree in 1913 with a Maclagan Gold medal.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hardy |first=A. C. |date=1954 |title=Prof. K. N. Bahl |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=174 |issue=4418 |pages=16 |doi=10.1038/174016a0 |s2cid=4263145 |issn=0028-0836|doi-access=free |bibcode=1954Natur.174...16H }}</ref> He then joined there as an assistant professor. He then moved to [[St. John's College, Agra]] and then to [[Muir Central College|Muir Central College, Allahabad]] in 1916. A major influence was professor [[John Stephenson (zoologist)|John Stephenson]] and with his reference spent some time at the [[Indian Museum, Kolkata|Indian Museum]] in Calcutta. In 1919 he went to [[Merton College, Oxford|Merton College, Oxford University]] and worked under [[Edwin Stephen Goodrich]], receiving a D.Phil. in 1921 for a thesis entitled ''The development of the nephridial system in Pheretima, the blood-vascular system in Pheretima, and the gametogenesis in scorpions''. He also receive a D.Sc. from [[University of the Punjab|Punjab University, Lahore]] for a thesis on the excretory system of ''[[Pheretima]]'' in 1920. He returned to India and became head of the department of zoology at [[University of Lucknow|Lucknow University]]. He worked there until his retirement. He then became a vice chancellor of [[Patna University]] from 1951 to 1952 and resigned following a nervous breakdown.<ref name=":0" />

Bahl worked for a while on ant-mimic spiders in 1915<ref>{{cite journal |author=Narayan, Karm |year=1915 |title=Notes on ant-like spiders or the family Attidae in the collection of the Indian Museum |url=https://archive.org/details/records-indian-museum-11-393-406 |journal=Rec. Indian Mus. |volume=11 |pages=393–406}}</ref> and later studied the anatomy of physiology of earthworms, particularly those found commonly around Lucknow such as ''Pheretima'' and ''Eutyphaeus'', and founded a series on the monographs of Indian animals called the ''Indian Zoological Memoirs on Indian Animal Types''. Zoology dissections in India at the time were based on organisms that could not be easily found in India. At the Indian Science Congress, Bangalore (1924) he suggested that memoirs along the lines of those produced by the Liverpool Marine Biology Committee edited by Sir William Herdman were desirable. Eight volumes of the monograph were edited by him. He studied ''Pheretima'' and classified its nephridia into three types, septal, pharyngeal and integumentary.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bahl |first=Karm Narayan |date=1919 |title=Memoirs: On a New Type of Nephridia found in Indian Earthworms of the Genus Pheretima |url=https://journals.biologists.com/jcs/article/s2-64/253/67/62908/Memoirs-On-a-New-Type-of-Nephridia-found-in-Indian |journal=Journal of Cell Science |language=en |volume=s2-64 |issue=253 |pages=67–117 |doi=10.1242/jcs.s2-64.253.67 |issn=1477-9137|url-access=subscription }}</ref> He classified nephridia that open into the intestine as entero-nephritic and suggested that they had evolved for life away from water and in arid conditions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bahl |first=Karm Narayan |date=1934 |title=Memoirs: On the Significance of the Enteronephric Nephridia System found in Indian Earthworms |url=https://journals.biologists.com/jcs/article/s2-76/304/559/63302/Memoirs-On-the-Significance-of-the-Enteronephric |journal=Journal of Cell Science |language=en |volume=s2-76 |issue=304 |pages=559–572 |doi=10.1242/jcs.s2-76.304.559 |issn=1477-9137|url-access=subscription }}</ref> He published an influential review on ''Excretion in the Oligochaeta'' in 1947.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bahl |first=Karm Narayan |date=1942 |title=Studies on the Structure, Development, and Physiology of the Nephridia of Oligochaeta |url=https://journals.biologists.com/jcs/article/s2-83/331/423/63489/Studies-on-the-Structure-Development-and |journal=Journal of Cell Science |language=en |volume=s2-83 |issue=331 |pages=423–457 |doi=10.1242/jcs.s2-83.331.423 |issn=1477-9137|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bahl |first=Karm Narayan |date=1941 |title=Memoirs: The Enteronephric Type of Nephridial System in the Genus Tonoscolex (Gates) |url=https://journals.biologists.com/jcs/article/s2-82/327/443/63410/Memoirs-The-Enteronephric-Type-of-Nephridial |journal=Journal of Cell Science |language=en |volume=s2-82 |issue=327 |pages=443–466 |doi=10.1242/jcs.s2-82.327.443 |issn=1477-9137|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bahl |first=Karm Narayan |date=1927 |title=Memoirs: On the Reproductive Processes of Earthworms: Part I. The Process of Copulation and Exchange of Sperms in Eutyphoeus waltoni Mich |url=https://journals.biologists.com/jcs/article/s2-71/283/479/63064/Memoirs-On-the-Reproductive-Processes-of |journal=Journal of Cell Science |language=en |volume=s2-71 |issue=283 |pages=479–502 |doi=10.1242/jcs.s2-71.283.479 |issn=1477-9137|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bahl |first=Karm Narayan |date=1922 |title=Memoirs: On the Development of the 'Enteronephric' type of Nephridial system found in Indian Earthworms of the genus Pheretima' |url=https://journals.biologists.com/jcs/article/s2-66/261/49/62946/Memoirs-On-the-Development-of-the-Enteronephric |journal=Journal of Cell Science |language=en |volume=s2-66 |issue=261 |pages=49–103 |doi=10.1242/jcs.s2-66.261.49 |issn=1477-9137|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bahl |first=Karm Narayan |date=1947 |title=Excretion in the Oligochaeta |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1469-185X.1947.tb00325.x |journal=Biological Reviews |language=en |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=109–147 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-185X.1947.tb00325.x|pmid=20247603 |s2cid=46686530 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> He also conducted studies on the common apple snail, ''Pila globosa'' and on the skull of monitor lizards of the genus ''Varanus''.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |author=Roonwal, M. L. |year=1966 |title=Karm Narayan Behl |url=http://www.insa.ndl.iitkgp.ac.in/xmlui/handle/1234567/10 |journal=Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy |pages=1–6 |archive-date=12 January 2023 |access-date=12 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112042714/http://www.insa.ndl.iitkgp.ac.in/xmlui/handle/1234567/10 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Bahl, Karm Narayan |year=1937 |title=Skull of Varanus monitor (Linn.) |url=http://recordsofzsi.com/index.php/zsoi/article/download/162297/111978 |journal=Records of the Zoological Survey of India |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=133–174|doi=10.26515/rzsi/v39/i2/1937/162297 |s2cid=251687001 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Bahl was a Fellow of the Asiatic Society of Bengal and served on the University Education Commission from 1948 to 1949.<ref name=":0" /> The Sri Lankan earthworm ''[[Metaphire bahli]]'' (originally placed in the genus ''Pheretima'') is named after him.<ref>{{cite journal|author =Gates, G.E. |year=1945|title= On some earthworms from Ceylon. II. |journal=Spolia Zeylanica| volume=24|pages= 70–90}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==

* [https://www.insaindia.res.in/detail.php?id=F00-0040 INSA Fellow biography]
* [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.262543 The Indian Zoological Memoirs on Indian animal types. 1. ''Pheretima''] (Fourth edition, 1947)

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bahl, Karm Narayan}}
[[Category:1891 births]]
[[Category:1954 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian zoologists]]
[[Category:Academic staff of the University of Lucknow]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy]]
[[Category:People from Multan]]
[[Category:People from Punjab Province (British India)]]
[[Category:Alumni of Merton College, Oxford]]

Kumaraswamy Layout

2025-08-13T06:26:12Z

Androidsub143: Article updated with improved flow

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| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 35384<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.vigeyegpms.in/bbmp/?module=public&action=wardinfo&wardid=142 | title=Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagara Palika }}</ref>
| population_as_of =
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Kannada]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 560078
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| area_code = 91-80
| registration_plate = KA 05
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[Lok Sabha]] constituency
| blank1_info_sec1 = Bangalore South
| blank2_name_sec1 = [[Vidhan Sabha]] constituency
| blank2_info_sec1 = Padmanabhanagar, Bangalore South
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Kumaraswamy Layout''' is a sub locality in [[Banashankari]], South [[Bengaluru]], [[Karnataka]], [[India]]. It is a relatively laidback area where one can find plenty of residences, educational institutions, government offices and commercial establishments.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kumaraswamy Layout, Bangalore Pin Code Number, Taluk / Tehsil Details & More |url=https://housing.com/pin-code/kumaraswamy-layout-bangalore-pin-code-560078 |access-date=2025-08-04 |website=Housing |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Saldanha |first=Kenneth |date=2024-03-20 |title=Everything you need to know about Kumaraswamy Layout, Bangalore |url=https://mygate.com/blog/neighbourhood/kumaraswamy-layout/ |access-date=2025-08-04 |language=en-US}}</ref>

==History==
Kumaraswamy Layout was formed in the late 1970's by the [[Bangalore Development Authority|BDA]]. In recent years, it has been seeing development under the [[Bruhat Bangalore Mahanagara Palike|BBMP]]. Many residential infrastructure projects have been carried out in the locality, with many still in progress. Despite good progress in infrastructure, economy and population growth, there have been issues pertaining to garbage collection, cleanliness, public safety and water-logging.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kumaraswamy Layout Transformed: Community and BBMP Unite for Cleanup |url=https://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/bangalore/civic/kumaraswamy-layout-transformed-community-and-bbmp-unite-for-cleanup/articleshow/114920975.cms |access-date=2025-08-04 |website=Bangalore Mirror |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Service |first=Express News |date=2024-10-21 |title=Rain woes continue to haunt Bengaluru |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/karnataka/2024/Oct/21/rain-woes-continue-to-haunt-bengaluru |access-date=2025-08-04 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-04-27 |title=Three arrested for assaulting professor over garbage row in Bengaluru |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/three-arrested-for-assaulting-professor-over-garbage-row-in-bengaluru/article69497486.ece |access-date=2025-08-04 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

==General Information==
*Kumaraswamy Layout is divided into 2 stages, with the 1st stage being the largest.
*An office of the [[Geological Survey of India]] (GSI) is located in this area. A celebratory marathon in honor of GSI's 175th anniversary started from its office in Kumaraswamy Layout.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Walkathon to mark Geological Survey of India's 175 years |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/karnataka/bengaluru/walkathon-to-mark-geological-survey-of-india-s-175-years-3428664 |access-date=2025-08-04 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref>
*Kumaraswamy layout is also an educational hub surrounded by many colleges and institutions. The prominent ones being the Dayananda Sagar Institutions, Delhi Public school South and Alpine School.
*The area has many parks. All are maintained by the BDA. However, until recently the parks were not as well developed as other parks in the city. The park near 15E bus stand, called the Shri [[Atal Bihari Vajpayee]] Park, is well known for its size and extensive tree cover.
*Atma Darshan Yogashram, the southern branch of the Bihar School of Yoga is located in Kumaraswamy Layout (opposite to [[Dayananda Sagar University]]).
*[[Dayananda Sagar College of Engineering]] which was established in 1979 is located in Kumaraswamy Layout.
*The area is home to eminent Kannada writers like [[Jayanth Kaikini]], [[A.N.Prahlada Rao]] and B.S.Keshava Rao. The late [[Vyasaraya Ballal]], another famous Kannada writer, also lived here.
*There are quite a few shopping complexes in the proximity of Kumaraswamy Layout.
*There are many [[Hindu temple]]s nearby, with most of them being dedicated to [[Ganesha]], [[Venkateswara]], [[Ayyappan]] and [[Lakshmi]].
*SAGAR Hospital and Vasavi Hospital are two major healthcare centers in the area.

==Areas under Kumaraswamy layout==
*[[ISRO]] Layout aka Vikram Sarabhai Layout- It is an {{convert|83|acre|m2|adj=on}} planned residential area formed by BDA in the mid-1980s for ISRO employees. The area is now managed by the Space Employees Cooperative Housing Society. This area is also known as Vikram Sarabhai Layout (ವಿಕ್ರಮ ನಗರ), after the Indian space scientist, [[Vikram Sarabhai]]. The BDA's development of ISRO layout acted as a catalyst for further infrastructural developments in surrounding areas.
*Vasanthapura- It is a mythologically important village, just 12 km away from the City. The village is located on a small hillock with an ancient, quaint temple dedicated to Vasantha Vallabharayaswamy.<ref>[http://bangalore.citizenmatters.in/articles/view/1307-lost-villages-bengaluru Citizen Matters, Bangalore: Vallabharaya's abode Vasantapura]. {{Archive url|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721153352/http://bangalore.citizenmatters.in/articles/view/1307-lost-villages-bengaluru|date=2011-07-21}}</ref> It is over 600 years old. An idol of goddess Vasanthanayaki, the consort of Vallabharaya swami, can also be found here.<ref>{{Cite web
| url = http://www.deccanherald.com/content/340798/vasanthapuras-twin-temples.html
| title = Vasanthapura's twin temples
| website = Deccan Herald
| date = 25 June 2013
| access-date = 2016-02-28
}}</ref> Legend has it that sage Mandavya once disappeared from his ashram situated on the banks of the Ganges. His disciples were highly perturbed at the absence of their guru. They made a frantic search over the dales and hills. Finally, they located the rishi meditating in a cave in Vasanthapura. Another temple, situated by the side of Vallabharaya swami temple, is dedicated to Lord Bhavanishankara. This temple was constructed over 400 years ago by Samarth Ramadas, the guru of the well known Maratha ruler, [[Shivaji]].
*'''Subramanyapura'''- It is a popular suburb near Kumaraswamy Layout which is adjacent to Vasanthapura. This area is famous for a freshwater lake called 'Dore kere' which is a popular destination for joggers in mornings and evenings.
*Vitthal Nagara- A newly formed residential area towards the west of ISRO Layout.
*Ilyas Nagar- A [[Muslims|Muslim]] majority area which houses the famous Jamia Masjid and the Army Salvation Church.
*Yelachenahalli- A rapidly developing part of the city with a [[Namma Metro]] station and several commercial establishments.
*Bikasipura- It housed several industries and commercial establishments that serve consumers, such as Khoday's Breweries and Metro.
*Vasantha Vallabha Nagar- A developing part of the area. City Engineering College, Shri Shreedhara Swamy Ashram, ISKCON Krishna Leela Theme Park, and Mantri Arena Mall are located here.
*Kanaka Nagar
*Minhaj Nagar
*JHBCS (Jarganahalli Housing Board Cooperative Society) Layout (Kanaka Gruha)
*Teacher's Colony- An upper middle class sublocality. Divided into 2 stages, 1st stage is in Kumaraswamy Layout and 2nd stage is in Banashankari 2nd stage.
*Eshwara Nagar- One of ISRO's offices is located here.
*Bendre Nagar
*Gowdanapalya- Also, a very fast developing area in Bangalore.
*Naidu Layout
*Devarakere Extension- Part of ISRO Layout, located near Devarakere. Also known as Kalyani Nagar. Well known for the famous 'Kere Srinivasa' Temple. It also houses "Sri Krishna Bhavana", a popular restaurant.
*Kailash Nagar, Siddanna Layout, Prasanti Nagar, Chandra Nagar (ಚಂದ್ರ ನಗರ)- Known for the 'Om Shakthi Temple', Nanjappa Layout, Krishna Devaraya Nagar, Harsha Layout, Kashi Nagar , Nanjappa Layout, Sharada Nagar,
*Vallabhai Layout
*Prathibha Industrial Estate
*Anuradha Industrial Estate
*Jayachamarajendra Industrial Estate
*Sri Maruthi Nagara
*Umarbagh Layout
*Rajyotsavanagar
*Lingegowda Colony
*Govinayakanahalli

==Transport==
The area is easily accessible by [[Bengaluru Metropolitan Transport Corporation]] (BMTC) buses. Kumaraswamy Layout 2nd Stage is a sub Locality of Jayanagar Locality in Bangalore. Kumaraswamy Layout 2nd Stage is 8.46 km from Kempegowda Bus Station (Majestic Station).
*15C (from 1st Stage via South end circle, RV Road), 15E (1st Stage), 15F (2nd Stage), 15G (2nd stage), 210A (ISRO Layout), 210AA (ISRO Layout), 210R (Vasanthapura), 210U (KS Layout West), 210UB (KS Layout West), 210X (Chandra Nagara) connects Kumaraswamy Layout to KR market and Kempegowda Bus Station/Majestic
*13A, 13C, 210G, 210GA connects Kumaraswamy Layout to Banashankari, Jayanagar, Shanthinagar and Shivajinagar
*412 (Hebbal via Inner Ring Road, Domlur, Hennur Cross), 500W (ITPL) connects Kumaraswamy Layout to Banashankari, Central Silk Board and beyond
*411 connects Kumaraswamy Layout to Madiwala, Koramangala and Dommaluru
*600G connects Kumaraswamy Layout to Central Silk Board, Jayadeva, Electronics City and Chandapura
*MBS-9 (210A-276) connects Kumaraswamy Layout to Malleshwaram, BEL Circle and Vidyaranyapura

Route numbers Chakra 3/3A (to Banashankari, RR Nagara), 402G (to Yelahanka Satellite Town 5th Phase), 202 (to Yeshwanthpura), 340C (to Parangipalya), 202E (to Mathikere), 374H (to Vijayanagara), 271M (to Jalahalli 7th camp) were discontinued due to poor response from the public.

All three metro stations on the [[Green Line (Namma Metro)]] (''Silk Institute to Nagasandra'') – ''Banashankari'', ''Jayaprakash Nagara'' and ''Yelachenahalli'' are very close to the area.

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20121004205806/http://archive.deccanherald.com/Content/Jul282008/metromon2008072781247.asp Kumaraswamy Layout in Metrolife]

{{Neighbourhoods of Bangalore}}

[[Category:Neighbourhoods in South Bengaluru]]

Premier Handball League (India)

2025-07-23T16:27:16Z

Androidsub143: starting some post basic info

{{Short description|Handball tournament in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2022}}
{{For|English handball league|Premier Handball League}}
{{Infobox sports league
| name = Premier Handball League
| logo = Indian Premier Handball League logo.png
| logo_size = 300px
| sport = [[Handball]]
| founded = {{Start date and age|df=yes|2020}}
| founder = {{unbulleted list|[[Handball Association of India]] (HAI)|[[Bluesport Entertainment Pvt Ltd]]}}
| inaugural = 2023
| motto = ''It's a Different Ball Game''
| teams = [[#Teams|6]]
| country = India
| confed = [[Asian Handball Federation]]
| champions = [[Maharashtra Ironmen]] (2023)<ref>{{Cite web | title=Premier Handball League 2023: Maharashtra Ironmen Crowned Champions of first-ever Season - myKhel | url=https://www.mykhel.com/more-sports/premier-handball-league-2023-maharashtra-ironmen-crowned-champions-of-first-ever-season-220121.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230626030124/https://www.mykhel.com/more-sports/premier-handball-league-2023-maharashtra-ironmen-crowned-champions-of-first-ever-season-220121.html | access-date=2025-04-05 | archive-date=2023-06-26}}</ref>
| most_champs = [[Maharashtra Ironmen]] (1 title)
| tv = {{bulleted list|[[Sports18]]|[[JioCinema]]|[[FanCode]]|PHL ([[YouTube]])}}
| levels = 1
| confed_cup = [[Asian Club League Handball Championship|AHF Handball Championship]]
| tournament_format = [[Round Robin tournament|Round-robin]], [[Knockout tournament|knockout]]
| website = {{URL|www.premierhandball.com| Official website}}
| current = [[2023 Premier Handball League (India)|2023 PHL]]
}}

'''Premier Handball League (PHL)''' is [[Handball in India|India's]] men's professional [[handball]] league.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-05-12 |title=Jaipur to host the inaugural season of the Premier Handball League |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/sports/others/jaipur-to-host-the-inaugural-season-of-the-premier-handball-league-101683893375686.html |access-date=2023-06-08 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2023-06-08 |title=Premier Handball League: Format, squads, fixtures – what you need to know about new competition |url=https://scroll.in/field/1050381/premier-handball-league-format-squads-fixtures-what-you-need-to-know-about-new-competition |access-date=2023-06-08 |website=Scroll.in |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-06-07 |title=Premier Handball League: Little-known sport hopes to raise its game in new avatar |url=https://www.espn.in/olympics/handball/story/_/id/37809799/premier-handball-league-starting-june-8-atul-kumar-deepak-ahlawat-phl-news |access-date=2023-06-08 |website=ESPN |language=en}}</ref> The league is an initiative between the [[Handball Association of India]] (HAI) and the ''Bluesport Entertainment Private Limited''. Premier Handball League uses a [[franchising|franchise]]-based model. It is sanctioned by the South Asian Handball Federation and affiliated with the [[Asian Handball Federation]].<ref name=":1" />

==History==
The Premier Handball League encompasses six franchises, each representing cities across [[India]]. The teams were officially announced at a press conference in [[Jaipur]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.knocksense.com/jaipur/inaugural-edition-of-premier-handball-league-slated-to-be-held-in-jaipur-december-24-onwards |title=Inaugural edition of Premier Handball League slated to be held in Jaipur, December 24 onwards |date=7 December 2020 |access-date=11 December 2020 |work=www.knocksence.com }}</ref> The first season was held between 8 and 25 June 2023 at [[Sawai Mansingh Indoor Stadium]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2023-04-25 |title=Premier Handball League 2023 Auction: India Internationals draw strong attention from all teams |url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/other-sports/premier-handball-league-2023-auction-harender-singh-nain-indian-international-domestic-foreign-players-russia-iraq/article66776664.ece |access-date=2023-06-08 |website=sportstar.thehindu.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-06-08 |title=All you need to know about Premier Handball League 2023 |url=https://thebridge.in/handball/all-you-need-to-know-about-premier-handball-league-2023-42388 |access-date=2023-06-08 |website=thebridge.in |language=en}}</ref> The first player [[auction]] was held on 23 April.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-04-25 |title=Premier Handball League 2023 Auction: Full List of India & Overseas Players Bought, Complete Squads of 6 Teams |url=https://www.mykhel.com/more-sports/premier-handball-league-2023-auction-full-list-players-bought-complete-squads-213829.html |access-date=2023-06-08 |website=www.mykhel.com |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0"/><ref name="auto1">{{cite news |date=22 April 2023 |title=Telugu Talons and Delhi Panzers join Premier Handball League |newspaper=The Times of India |agency=PTI |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/more-sports/others/telugu-talons-delhi-panzers-join-premier-handball-league/articleshow/99689383.cms?from=mdr |access-date=22 April 2023}}</ref>

==Teams==
{{Location map+|India3|float=right|width=350|alt=Locations of the Premier Handball League clubs|caption=Locations of the Premier Handball League clubs|places=
{{Location map~ |India3 |lat=17.446333 |long=78.344129 |label_size=90 |label={{nowrap|[[Telugu Talons]]}} |position=bottom}}


{{Location map~ |India3 |lat=26.912434 |long=75.787270 |label_size=90 |label={{nowrap|[[Rajasthan Patriots]]}} |position=left}}


{{Location map~ |India3 |lat=26.846709 |long=80.946159 |label_size=90 |label={{nowrap|[[Golden Eagles Uttar Pradesh]]}} |position=right}}


{{Location map~ |India3 |lat=23.022505 |long=72.571362 |label_size=90 |label={{nowrap|,[[Garvit Gujarat]]}} |position=bottom}}


{{Location map~ |India3 |lat=19.076090 |long=72.877426 |label_size=90 |label={{nowrap|[[Maharashtra Ironmen]]}} |position=right}}


{{Location map~ |India3 |lat=28.704060 |long=77.102493 |label_size=90 |label={{nowrap|[[Delhi Panzers]]}} |position=top}}}}

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!style="background:#1F1C4C;color:#FFFFFF"| City
!style="background:#1F1C4C;color:#FFFFFF"| Team
!style="background:#1F1C4C;color:#FFFFFF"| Debut
! style="background:#1F1C4C;color:#FFFFFF" | Owner(s)
|-
| [[Hyderabad]] || [[Telugu Talons]]
| 2023 || [[Abhishek Reddy Kankanala]]
|-
|[[Jaipur]] || [[Rajasthan Patriots]]
|2023|| [[Shiv Vilas Resorts Private Limited]]
|-
| [[Lucknow]] || [[Golden Eagles Uttar Pradesh]]
| 2023 || [[Iconic Olympic Games Academy]]
|-
| [[Ahmedabad]] || [[Garvit Gujarat]]
| 2023 || [[R. K. Naidu]]
|-
| [[Mumbai]] || [[Maharashtra Ironmen]]
| 2023 || [[Punit Balan]]
|-
| [[Delhi]]
| [[Delhi Panzers]]
| 2023
| [[Vineet Bhandari]], [[Rajat Agarwal]], [[Sailesh Arya]]
|}

==Winners==
{| class="sortable wikitable"
! Year !! Winner !! width=150| Runner-up !! Score !! Venue (city) !!
|-
| [[2023 Premier Handball League (India)|2023]]|| '''[[Maharashtra Ironmen]]''' || Golden Eagles Uttar Pradesh || 38–24 || colspan=3 align="center"| [[Sawai Mansingh Indoor Stadium]] ([[Jaipur]])<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-06-25 |title=Maharashtra Ironmen crowned champions of the first-ever Premier Handball League |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/more-sports/others/maharashtra-ironmen-crowned-champions-of-the-first-ever-premier-handball-league/articleshow/101261592.cms |access-date=2023-07-20 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
|}

==See also==
* [[Maha Handball Super League]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Official website|https://www.premierhandball.com}}
{{Indian Premier Handball League}}
{{Handball in India}}
{{Men's Global Handball Leagues}}
{{Sports leagues of India}}

[[Category:Premier Handball League (India)]]
[[Category:Professional sports leagues in India]]
[[Category:2020 establishments in India]]
[[Category:Sport in India]]
[[Category:Sports leagues established in 2020]]
[[Category:Handball leagues in Asia|India]]