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Amrita Pritam

2023-09-22T14:10:07Z

Ananya: Amrita Pritam

{{Short description|Indian writer}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Infobox writer
| name = Amrita Pritam
| honorific_prefix =
| image = Amrita Pritam (1919 – 2005) , in 1948.jpg
| caption = Pritam in 1948
| birth_name = Amrita Kaur
| birth_date = {{birth date|1919|8|31|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Gujranwala]], [[Punjab (British India)|Punjab]], [[British India]] (now Pakistan)
| death_date = {{death date and age|2005|10|31|1919|8|31|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Delhi]], [[India]]
| occupation = Novelist, poet, essayist
| nationality = Indian
| period = 1936–2005
| genre = poetry, [[prose]], autobiography
| subject = Partition of India, Women, [[Dream]]
| movement = [[Romanticism|Romantic]]-[[Progressivism]]
| notableworks = ''[[Pinjar (novel)|Pinjar]]'' (novel) ''[[Ajj aakhaan Waris Shah nu]]'' (poem) ''Suneray'' (poem)
| spouse = Pritam Singh
| partner = Imroz
| children = 2
| awards = [[Sahitya Akademi Award]] {{small|(1956)}} [[Padma Shri]] {{small|(1969)}} [[Bharatiya Jnanpith]] {{small|(1982)}} Shatabdi Samman {{small|(2000)}} [[Padma Vibhushan]] {{small|(2004)}}
| signature =
| website =
| influences =
| influenced =
| module = {{Infobox officeholder
| embed = yes
| office = [[Member of Parliament]], [[Rajya Sabha]]
| constituency = [[List of nominated members of Rajya Sabha|Nominated]]
| termstart = 12 May 1986
| termend = 11 May 1992
}}
}}

'''Amrita Pritam''' ({{audio|Amrita Pritam pronunciation.ogg|listen}}; 31 August 1919 – 31 October 2005) was an [[Indian people|Indian]] novelist, essayist and poet, who wrote in [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] and [[Hindi]].<ref name=lang/> A prominent figure in [[Punjabi literature]], she is the recipient of the 1956 [[Sahitya Akademi Award]]. Her body of work comprised over 100 books of poetry, fiction, biographies, essays, a collection of Punjabi folk songs and an autobiography that were all translated into several [[Languages of India|Indian]] and foreign languages.<ref name=guar/><ref>[http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2005%5C11%5C14%5Cstory_14-11-2005_pg7_43 Amrita Pritam: A great wordsmith in Punjab’s literary history] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060619074153/http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2005%5C11%5C14%5Cstory_14-11-2005_pg7_43 |date=19 June 2006 }} ''[[Daily Times (Pakistan)]]'', 14 November 2005.</ref>

Pritam is best remembered for her poignant poem, ''[[Ajj aakhaan Waris Shah nu]]'' (Today I invoke Waris Shah – "Ode to Waris Shah"), an [[elegy]] to the [[Waris Shah|18th-century Punjabi poet]], and an expression of her anguish over massacres during the [[partition of India]]. As a novelist, her most noted work was ''[[Pinjar (novel)|Pinjar]]'' ("The Skeleton", 1950), in which she created her memorable character, ''Puro'', an [[epitome]] of violence against women, loss of humanity and ultimate surrender to [[Existentialism|existential]] fate; the novel was made into an award-winning film, ''[[Pinjar (film)|Pinjar]]'' (2003).<ref>[http://www.tribuneindia.com/2005/20051105/saturday/main1.htm Always Amrita, Always Pritam] ''Gulzar Singh Sandhu on the Grand Dame of Punjabi letters'', ''[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)|The Tribune]]'', 5 November 2005.</ref><ref>{{IMDb title|0347779|Pinjar}}</ref>

When [[India]] was partitioned into the independent states of India and Pakistan in 1947, she migrated from [[Lahore]] to India, though she remained equally popular in Pakistan throughout her life, as compared to her contemporaries like [[Mohan Singh (poet)|Mohan Singh]] and [[Shiv Kumar Batalvi]].

Pritam's [[Masterpiece|magnum opus]], the long poem ''Sunehade'', won her the 1956 [[Sahitya Akademi Award]], making her the first and the only woman to have been given the award for a work in Punjabi.<ref name=mod>[https://books.google.com/books?id=m1R2Pa3f7r0C&pg=PA945&dq=Amrita+Pritam&sig=ACfU3U0CpuZGiTYdM4_fgX4dsZaextbNnA#PPA945,M1 Amrita Pritam] ''Modern Indian Literature: an Anthology'', by K. M. George, [[Sahitya Akademi]]. 1992, {{ISBN|81-7201-324-8}}.''945–947''.</ref> She received the [[Bharatiya Jnanpith|Jnanpith Award]], one of India's highest literary awards, in 1982 for ''Kagaz Te Canvas'' ("The Paper and the Canvas"). She was awarded the [[Padma Shri]] in 1969, and the [[Padma Vibhushan]], India's second highest civilian award, in 2004. In that same year she was honoured with India's highest literary award given by the [[Sahitya Akademi]] (India's Academy of Letters), the [[List of Sahitya Akademi fellows|Sahitya Akademi Fellowship]], awarded to ''the "immortals of literature"'' for lifetime achievement.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20041210084639/http://www.hindu.com/2004/10/05/stories/2004100514031300.htm Sahitya Akademi fellowship for Amrita Pritam, Anantha Murthy] ''[[The Hindu]]'', 5 October 2004.</ref>

==Biography==

===Background===
Amrita Pritam was born as Amrit Kaur in 1919 in Gujranwala, [[Punjab (British India)|Punjab]], in [[British Raj|British India]],<ref name=guar>[https://www.theguardian.com/news/2005/nov/04/guardianobituaries.india Amrita Pritam – Obituary] ''[[The Guardian]]'', 4 November 2005.</ref> the only child of Raj Bibi, who was a school teacher, and Kartar Singh Hitkari, who was a poet, a scholar of the [[Braj Bhasha]] language, and the editor of a literary journal.<ref name=wom/><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=1lTnv6o-d_oC&pg=PA254&dq=Amrita+Pritam&sig=ACfU3U1QKgR3CqBR6Vw_eBNoNj5e38LdYw#PPA254,M1 New Panjabi Poetry ( 1935–47)] ''Handbook of Twentieth-century Literatures of India'', by Nalini Natarajan, Emmanuel Sampath Nelson, Greenwood Publishing Group, 1996. {{ISBN|0-313-28778-3}}.''Page 253-254''.</ref> Besides this, he was a ''pracharak'' – a preacher of the Sikh faith.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sikhtimes.com/bios_111205a.html|title=The Sikh Times - Biographies - Amrita Pritam: Queen of Punjabi Literature|website=Sikhtimes.com}}</ref> Amrita's mother died when she was eleven. Soon after, she and her father moved to [[Lahore]], where she lived till her migration to India in 1947. Confronting adult responsibilities and besieged by loneliness following her mother's death, she began to write at an early age. Her first anthology of poems, ''Amrit Lehran'' ("Immortal Waves") was published in 1936, at age sixteen, the year she married Pritam Singh, an editor to whom she was engaged in early childhood, and changed her name from Amrit Kaur to Amrita Pritam.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110701200641/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/amrita-pritam-513564.html Amrita Pritam – Obituary] ''[[The Independent]]'', 2 November 2005.</ref> Half a dozen collections of poems followed between 1936 and 1943.{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}

Though she began her journey as a romantic poet, she soon shifted gears,<ref name=mod/> and became part of the [[Progressive Writers' Movement]]. The effect was seen in her collection, ''Lok Peed'' ("People's Anguish", 1944), which openly criticised the war-torn economy after the [[Bengal famine of 1943]]. She was also involved in social work to a certain extent, and participated in such activities wholeheartedly after Independence, when social activist [[Guru Radha Kishan]] took the initiative to bring the first [[Janta library|Janta Library]] in Delhi. This was inaugurated by [[Balraj Sahni]] and [[Aruna Asaf Ali]], and she contributed to the occasion. This study centre cum library is still running at Clock Tower, Delhi. She also worked at a radio station in [[Lahore]] for a while, before the partition of India.<ref>[http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2005%5C11%5C02%5Cstory_2-11-2005_pg3_1 Editorial] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061113000641/http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2005%5C11%5C02%5Cstory_2-11-2005_pg3_1 |date=13 November 2006 }} ''[[Daily Times (Pakistan)]]'', 2 November 2005.</ref>

[[M. S. Sathyu]], the director of the partition movie ''[[Garam Hava]]'' (1973), paid a theatrical tribute to her through his performance 'Ek Thee Amrita'.{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}

===Partition of India===
One million people, [[Hindu]]s, [[Sikhs]] and [[Muslims]] died from communal violence that followed the partition of India in 1947, and left Amrita Pritam a Punjabi refugee at age 28, when she left [[Lahore]] and moved to New Delhi. Subsequently, in 1947, while she was pregnant with her son, and traveling from [[Dehradun]] to [[Delhi]], she expressed anguish on a piece of paper<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20051208053555/http://www.hindu.com/lr/2005/12/04/stories/2005120400040100.htm An alternative voice of history] Monica Datta, [[The Hindu]], 4 December 2005.</ref> like the poem, "[[Ajj Aakhaan Waris Shah Nu]]" (I ask Waris Shah Today); this poem was to later immortalize her and become the most poignant reminder of the horrors of Partition. The poem addressed to the Sufi poet [[Waris Shah]], author of the tragic saga of [[Heer Ranjha|Heer and Ranjah]] and with whom she shares her birthplace.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.apnaorg.com/poetry/heercomp/ |title=Archived copy |access-date=27 May 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070524000624/http://www.apnaorg.com/poetry/heercomp/ |archive-date=24 May 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Amrita Pritam worked until 1961 in the Punjabi service of [[All India Radio]], Delhi. After her divorce in 1960, her work became more feminist. Many of her stories and poems drew on the unhappy experience of her marriage. A number of her works have been translated into English, French, [[Danish language|Danish]], Japanese, Mandarin, and other languages from [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] and [[Urdu]], including her autobiographical works ''Black Rose'' and ''Rasidi Ticket'' (Revenue Stamp).{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}

The first of Amrita Pritam's books to be filmed was ''Dharti Sagar te Sippiyan'', as ''Kadambari'' (1965), followed by ''Unah Di Kahani'', as ''Daaku'' ([[Dacoit]], 1976), directed by [[Basu Bhattacharya]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sikhtimes.com/news_082702a.html|title=The Sikh Times - News and Analysis - Amrita Pritam's Novel to Be Rendered on Film|website=Sikhtimes.com}}</ref> Her novel ''[[Pinjar (novel)|Pinjar]]'' (The Skeleton, 1950) narrates the story of partition riots along with the crisis of women who suffered during the times. It was made into an [[Filmfare Best Art Direction|award-winning]] [[Pinjar (film)|Hindi movie]] by [[Chandra Prakash Dwivedi]], because of its [[humanism]]: "Amritaji has portrayed the suffering of people of both the countries." ''Pinjar'' was shot in a border region of [[Rajasthan]] and Punjab.{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}

She edited ''[[Nagmani (magazine)|Nagmani]]'', a monthly literary magazine in Punjabi for several years, which she ran together with [[Imroz (Punjabi painter)|Imroz]], for 33 years; though after Partition she wrote prolifically in Hindi as well.<ref name=lang/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pustak.org/bs/home.php?author_name=Amrita+Pritam|title=Amrita Pritam/अमृता प्रीतम|website=Pustak.org|access-date=28 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160117031543/http://pustak.org/bs/home.php?author_name=Amrita%20Pritam|archive-date=17 January 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> Later in life, she turned to [[Osho (Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh)|Osho]] and wrote introductions for several books of Osho, including ''Ek Onkar Satnam'',<ref>[http://www.sannyasworld.com/index.php?name=News&file=article&sid=627 A tribute to Amrita Pritam by Osho lovers] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716003659/http://www.sannyasworld.com/index.php?name=News&file=article&sid=627 |date=16 July 2011 }} ''Sw. Chaitanya Keerti'', ''sannyasworld.com''.</ref> and also started writing on spiritual themes and dreams, producing works like ''Kaal Chetna'' ("Time Consciousness") and ''Agyat Ka Nimantran'' ("Call of the Unknown").<ref>[http://www.lifepositive.com/Mind/arts/new-age-fiction/amritapritam.asp Visions of Divinity – Amrita Pritam] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080927031242/http://www.lifepositive.com/Mind/arts/new-age-fiction/amritapritam.asp |date=27 September 2008 }} ''Life Positive'', April 1996.</ref> She had also published autobiographies, titled, ''Kala Gulab'' ("Black Rose", 1968), ''Rasidi Ticket'' ("The Revenue Stamp", 1976), and ''Aksharon kay Saayee'' ("Shadows of Words").<ref name=wom>[https://books.google.com/books?id=OjZYf9Xf9bcC&pg=PA160&dq=Amrita+Pritam&sig=ACfU3U3DLfg8nbWhHgcYV9MdIhkuzxviSQ#PPA161,M1 Amrita Pritam] ''Women Writing in India: 600 B.C. to the Present'', by Susie J. Tharu, Ke Lalita, published by Feminist Press, 1991. {{ISBN|1-55861-029-4}}. ''Page 160-163''.</ref><ref>[http://www.chowk.com/articles/9116 Amrita Pritam Biography] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205105527/http://www.chowk.com/articles/9116 |date=5 December 2008 }} ''Chowk'', 15 May 2005.</ref>

===Awards and honors===
Amrita was the first recipient of [[Punjab Rattan Award]] conferred upon her by Punjab Chief Minister Capt. [[Amarinder Singh]]. She was the first female recipient of the [[Sahitya Akademi Award]] in 1956 for ''Sunehadey'' (poetic diminutive of the Punjabi word "ਸੁਨੇਹੇ" (Sunehe), ''Messages''), Amrita Pritam received the [[Jnanpith|Bhartiya Jnanpith Award]], India's highest literary award, in 1982 for ''Kagaj te Canvas (Paper and Canvas).''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jnanpith.net/laureates/index.html |title=Jnanpith Laureates Official listings |publisher=[[Jnanpith]] Website |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013122739/http://jnanpith.net/laureates/index.html |archive-date=13 October 2007 }}</ref> She received the [[Padma Shri]] (1969) and [[Padma Vibhushan]] (2004), India's second highest civilian award, and [[List of Sahitya Akademi fellows|Sahitya Akademi Fellowship]], India's highest literary award, also in 2004. She received [[D.Litt.]] honorary degrees, from many universities including, [[Delhi University]] (1973), [[Jabalpur University]] (1973) and [[Vishwa Bharati]] (1987).<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.punjabilok.com/poetry/amrita_pritam.htm |title=Amrita Pritam |access-date=11 October 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081030004303/http://www.punjabilok.com/poetry/amrita_pritam.htm |archive-date=30 October 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

She also received the international [[Nikola Vaptsarov|Vaptsarov]] Award from the Republic of [[Bulgaria]] (1979) and Degree of Officer dens, [[Ordre des Arts et des Lettres]] (Officier) by the [[French Government]] (1987).<ref name=lang>[http://www.languageinindia.com/dec2005/amritapritamsunwani1.html Amrita Pritam, The Black Rose] by Vijay Kumar Sunwani, Language in India, Volume 5: 12 December 2005.</ref> She was nominated as a member of [[Rajya Sabha]] 1986–92. Towards the end of her life, she was awarded by Pakistan's Punjabi Academy, to which she had remarked, ''Bade dino baad mere Maike ko meri Yaad aayi..'' (My motherland has remembered me after a long time); and also Punjabi poets of Pakistan, sent her a '''chaddar''', from the tombs of [[Waris Shah]], and fellow Sufi mystic poets [[Bulle Shah]] and [[Sultan Bahu]].<ref name=guar/>

==Personal life==
[[File:Amrita_Pritam.jpg|thumb|Amrita Pritam at Heathrow Airport, London in 1971.]]
In 1935, Amrita married Pritam Singh, son of a hosiery merchant of Lahore's [[Anarkali Bazaar|Anarkali bazaar]]. They had two children together, a son and a daughter.She had an unrequited affection for poet [[Sahir Ludhianvi]].The story of this love is depicted in her autobiography, ''Rasidi Ticket'' (Revenue Stamp). When another woman, singer [[Sudha Malhotra]] came into Sahir's life, Amrita found solace in the companionship of the artist and writer Inderjeet Imroz. She spent the last forty years of her life with Imroz, who also designed most of her book covers and made her the subject of his several paintings. Their life together is also the subject of a book, ''Amrita Imroz: A Love Story''.<ref>[http://passionforcinema.com/amrita-preetam-imroz-a-love-story-of-a-poet-and-a-painter/ Amrita Preetam Imroz : A love Story of a Poet and a Painter] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100108032205/http://passionforcinema.com/amrita-preetam-imroz-a-love-story-of-a-poet-and-a-painter/|date=8 January 2010}} Passionforcinema.com, 8 August 2008.</ref><ref>[http://www.tribuneindia.com/2006/20061105/spectrum/book4.htm Nirupama Dutt, "A Love Legend of Our Times"] ''[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)|The Tribune]]'', 5 November 2006.</ref>

She died in her sleep on 31 October 2005 at the age of 86 in New Delhi, after a long illness.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4393970.stm |title=Indian writer Amrita Pritam dies |work=[[BBC News]] |date=31 October 2005 |access-date=1 August 2012}}</ref> She was survived by her partner Imroz, daughter Kandlla, son Navraj Kwatra, daughter-in-law Alka, and her grandchildren, Kartik, Noor, Aman and Shilpi. Navraj Kwatra was found murdered in his Borivali apartment in 2012.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mumbaimirror.com/article/2/20120915201209150215309207efeb3dc/Author-Amrita-Pritam%E2%80%99s-son-found-murdered-in-his-Borivali-apartment.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120919045349/http://www.mumbaimirror.com/article/2/20120915201209150215309207efeb3dc/Author-Amrita-Pritam%E2%80%99s-son-found-murdered-in-his-Borivali-apartment.html|url-status=dead|title=Author Amrita Pritam's son found murdered in his Borivali apartment|archive-date=19 September 2012}}</ref> Three men were accused of the murder<ref>http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/police-cracks-amrita-pritam-sons-murder-arrests-female-assistant-boyfriend/1005465 Police cracks Amrita Pritam son's murder, arrests female assistant, boyfriend/</ref> but were acquitted due to lack of evidence.<ref>https://www.hindustantimes.com/mumbai-news/sessions-court-in-mumbai-acquits-3-in-2012-murder-case-of-amrita-pritam-s-son/story-vGaIxKfZJoUjGHX6DQ99WJ.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190831144752/https://www.hindustantimes.com/mumbai-news/sessions-court-in-mumbai-acquits-3-in-2012-murder-case-of-amrita-pritam-s-son/story-vGaIxKfZJoUjGHX6DQ99WJ.html |date=31 August 2019 }} Sessions court in Mumbai acquits 3 in 2012 murder case of Amrita Pritam’s son</ref>

==Legacy==
In 2007, an audio album titled, 'Amrita recited by Gulzar' was released by noted lyricist [[Gulzar (lyricist)|Gulzar]], with poems of Amrita Pritam recited by him.<ref>[http://www.gulzaronline.com/default.htm 'Amrita recited by Gulzar'] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080705222306/http://www.gulzaronline.com/default.htm |date=5 July 2008 }}, Gulzaronline.com.</ref><ref>[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Cities/City_Supplements/Bombay_Times/Gulzar_recites_for_Amrita_Pritam/articleshow/2008708.cms Gulzar recites for Amrita Pritam] ''[[The Times of India]]'', 7 May 2007.</ref> A film on her life is also in production.<ref>[http://www.realbollywood.com/news/2007/01/movie-on-amrita-pritam-to-be-shot-in-himachal.html Movie on Amrita Pritam to be shot in Himachal] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080709011536/http://www.realbollywood.com/news/2007/01/movie-on-amrita-pritam-to-be-shot-in-himachal.html |date=9 July 2008 }} ''Realbollywood.com''.</ref>
On 31 August 2019, [[Google]] honoured her by commemorating her 100th birth anniversary with a [[Google Doodle|Doodle]]. The accompanying write up read as, "Today’s Doodle celebrates Amrita Pritam, one of history’s foremost female Punjabi writers, who 'dared to live the life she imagines.' Born in Gujranwala, British India, 100 years ago today, Pritam published her first collection of verse at the age of 16."<ref name="Amrita Pritam's Google Doodle">{{cite web | title=Amrita Pritam's 100th Birthday | website=Google.com | date=2019-08-31 | url=https://www.google.com/doodles/amrita-pritams-100th-birthday| access-date=2019-08-31}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/google-celebrates-100th-birth-anniversary-of-punjabi-poet-author-amrita-pritam-with-a-doodle/articleshow/70918925.cms|title=Google celebrates 100th birth anniversary of Punjabi poet, author Amrita Pritam with a doodle|newspaper=[[The Times of India]] |date=31 August 2019|access-date=31 August 2019}}</ref>

==Bibliography==
{{Unreferenced section|date= August 2022}}
;Novels
* ''[[Pinjar (novel)|Pinjar]]''
* ''Doctor Dev''
* ''Kore Kagaz, Unchas Din''
* ''Dharti, Sagar aur Seepian''
* ''Rang ka Patta''
* ''Dilli ki Galiyan''
* ''Terahwan Suraj''
* ''Yaatri''
* ''Jilavatan'' (1968)
* ''Hardatt Ka Zindaginama ''

;Autobiographies
* ''Black Rose'' (1968)
* ''Rasidi Ticket'' (1976)
* ''Shadows of Words'' (2004)
'''Short stories'''
* ''Kahaniyan jo Kahaniyan Nahi''
* ''Kahaniyon ke Angan mein''
* ''Stench of Kerosene''

;Poetry anthologies
* ''Amrit Lehran'' (Immortal Waves)(1936)
* ''Jiunda Jiwan'' (The Exuberant Life) (1939)
* ''Trel Dhote Phul'' (1942)
* ''O Gitan Valia'' (1942)
* ''Badlam De Laali'' (1943)
* ''Sanjh de laali'' (1943)
* ''Lok Peera'' (The People's Anguish) (1944)
* ''Pathar Geetey'' (The Pebbles) (1946)
* ''Punjab Di Aawaaz'' (1952)
* ''Sunehade'' (Messages) (1955) – [[Sahitya Akademi Award]]
* ''Ashoka Cheti'' (1957)
* ''Kasturi'' (1957)
* ''Nagmani'' (1964)
* ''Ik Si Anita'' (1964)
* ''Chak Nambar Chatti'' (1964)
* ''Uninja Din'' (49 Days) (1979)
* ''Kagaz Te Kanvas'' (1981)- [[Jnanpith Award|Bhartiya Jnanpith]]
* ''Chuni Huyee Kavitayen''
* ''Ek Baat''

;Literary journals
* ''Nagmani'', poetry monthly

==See also==
* [[List of Indian writers|Indian Writers]]
* [[List of Indian poets|Indian Poets]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* [http://www.panjabdigilib.org/webuser/searches/displayPage.jsp?ID=4859&page=1&CategoryID=1&Searched= Amrita Pritam Di Kav-Kala] (Punjabi- Sikh Publishing House Ltd.; pages 258; Pub: October 1954)
*Amrita Work in Shahmukhi [http://www.apnaorg.com/poetry/amirta/ NAVEEN RUT____Index ACADEMY OF PUNJAB IN NORTH AMERICA]
* Uma Trilok, ''Amrita Imroz: A Love Story,'' Penguin India (2006) {{ISBN|0-14-310044-0}}
* Indra Gupta, ''India’s 50 Most Illustrious Women'' {{ISBN|81-88086-19-3}}
* ''Indian Fiction in English Translation'' – [https://books.google.com/books?id=R8nsSokP3jUC&pg=PA35&dq=Amrita+Pritam&lr=&sig=ACfU3U23Hh05PAk_jpa50eGg_n202IaRSg#PPA29,M1 ''Chapt 4: Comments on Amrita Pritam's Magnum Opus: The Skeleton'' (Jagdev Singh)], by Shubha Tiwari. Atlantic Publishers & Distributors, 2005. {{ISBN|81-269-0450-X}}. ''Page 28-35''
* ''Studies in Punjabi Poetry. Chapt. 9- Amrita Pritam: The Poetry of Protest'', by Darshan Singh Maini. Vikas Pub., 1979. {{ISBN|0-7069-0709-4}}. ''Page 109''.
* [http://www.apnaorg.com/articles/amrita-biography/ 1st chapter of ''Revenue Stamp'' by Amrita Pritam]
* [http://www.littlemag.com/bodypolitic/amritapritam.html "The Cellar" by Amrita Pritam]
* [http://www.littlemag.com/belonging/amrita.html “Sahiban in Exile” by Amrita Pritam]
* [http://www.thedailystar.net/2004/02/07/d402072101111.htm "The Weed" by Amrita Pritam]
* [http://www.littlemag.com/jan-feb01/amrita.html "Wild Flower" by Amrita Pritam]
* [http://www.littlemag.com/ghosts/amritapritam.html ''Main Tenu Phir Milangi'', (I will meet you yet again) Translation]

==External links==
{{External links|date=August 2019}}

*[http://www.gadyakosh.org/gk/index.php?title=%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE Amrita Pritam at Gadya Kosh] (her prose work in Devanagari script)
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050225205939/http://sawnet.org/books/authors.php?Pritam+Amrita Amrita Pritam and her Works at ''South Asian Women's Network'' (Sawnet)]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080618100709/http://www.razarumi.com/2008/06/09/amrita-pritam-1919-2005/ Amrita Pritam 1919-2005-a tribute by Raza Rumi]
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E2Q09F5Shyc Amrita Pritam talking about Partition and violence against women]
*[http://www.geocities.com/kavitayan/amritapritam.html Poems by Amrita Pritam at ''Kavitayan''] ([https://web.archive.org/web/20091026173015/http://www.geocities.com/kavitayan/amritapritam.html Archived] 2009-10-25)
*[https://kavishala.in/sootradhar/amrita-pritam Amrita Pritam | Kavishala Sootradhar]
;Video links
*{{YouTube|gvgSY81gVMM|''Aj Waris Shah Nu'', Amrita Pritam's most important poem, recited by Gulzar}}
*{{YouTube|um6QOvOPol4|Amrita Pritam's poem ''Main Tainu Pir Milangi'' recited by Gulzar}}

{{Padma Vibhushan Awards}}
{{SahityaAkademiFellowship}}
{{Jnanpith Award}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pritam, Amrita}}
[[Category:1919 births]]
[[Category:2005 deaths]]
[[Category:Indian feminist writers]]
[[Category:Indian women novelists]]
[[Category:Indian women poets]]
[[Category:Indian autobiographers]]
[[Category:Indian women non-fiction writers]]
[[Category:Poets from Lahore]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Sahitya Akademi Award in Punjabi]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Jnanpith Award]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Shri in literature & education]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Vibhushan in literature & education]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Sahitya Akademi Fellowship]]
[[Category:Indian Sikhs]]
[[Category:Indian feminists]]
[[Category:Punjabi-language poets]]
[[Category:Punjabi-language writers]]
[[Category:Punjabi people]]
[[Category:Hindi-language writers]]
[[Category:Nominated members of the Rajya Sabha]]
[[Category:Writers from Delhi]]
[[Category:Indian magazine editors]]
[[Category:Officiers of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres]]
[[Category:Sikh feminists]]
[[Category:Sikh writers]]
[[Category:Women autobiographers]]
[[Category:People from Gujranwala]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian poets]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian novelists]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian women writers]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian essayists]]
[[Category:Indian women essayists]]
[[Category:Women writers from Delhi]]
[[Category:Rajneesh movement]]
[[Category:Women magazine editors]]
[[Category:Women members of the Rajya Sabha]]

Hemam Shilky Devi

2023-09-16T21:08:02Z

Ananya: Shared an interesting publication.

'''Hemam Shilky Devi''' (born 23 November 2005) is an Indian women's professional [[Association football|footballer]] from [[Manipur]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hemam Shilky Devi |url=https://www.the-aiff.com/players/profile/67642 |access-date=2023-09-15 |website=www.the-aiff.com}}</ref> She plays as a Midfielder for the Young Welfare Club. Earlier, she played for [[Gokulam Kerala FC|Gokulam FC]] in the [[Indian Women's League]] and represents the [[India women's national football team]]. In 2022, she was the youngest player of the [[AFC Women's Asian Cup|AFC Women's Asia Cup]] at 16 years and two months.

== Early life ==
Hemam Shilky was born in [[Moirang]] in a poor family. Her father was a cook and he used to encourage Hemam to play football. But her mother, also a cook, reluctantly accepted later. And Hemam was sent to [[SAI Academy, Imphal]] for training.

== Football career ==
Hemam made her Junior India debut at the age of 12 years in 2018 when she captained India to victory at the SAFF under-15 Women's Championship in Bhutan and became the joint top-scorer. The other tournaments she played are:

2019: AFC U-16 Qualifiers in Mongolia.<ref>{{Cite web |title=14-year-old Shilky Devi aspires to dream big and fulfil world cup ambition |url=https://www.the-aiff.com/article/14-year-old-shilky-devi-aspires-to-dream-big-and-fulfil-world-cup-ambition |access-date=2023-09-11 |website=www.the-aiff.com}}</ref>

26 Nov 2021: Debut for the Senior India team in 2022 against Brazil.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tandon |first=Avishka |title=Who Is Shilky Devi? Youngest Football Player In Asia Women's Cup 2022 |url=https://www.shethepeople.tv/sportswomen/who-is-shilky-devi-youngest-football-player-in-asia-womens-cup-2022/ |access-date=2023-09-11 |website=www.shethepeople.tv |language=en}}</ref> Lost 1–5;

29 Nov 2021: Lost to Chile 0–3;

2 Dec 2021: Lost to Venezuela 1–2.

'''[[FIFA U-17 World Cup]]:'''

* 11 Oct 2022: India lost to USA u-17 = 0–8;<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Score |first=AI |title=Hemam Shilky Devi |url=https://www.aiscore.com/player-hemam-shilky-devi-/zrkn6invpyma0ql |url-status=live |access-date=2023-09-12 |website=www.aiscore.com}}</ref>
* 14 Oct 2022: India lost to Morocco U-17 = 0–3;<ref name=":0" />
* 17 Oct 2022: India lost to Brazil 0–5;<ref>{{Cite web |title=India - S. Hemam - Profile with news, career statistics and history - Soccerway |url=https://int.soccerway.com/players/hemam-shilky-devi/804981/matches/ |access-date=2023-09-11 |website=int.soccerway.com}}</ref>

2022, Asian Women's Cup;

2022: India Under-17 team at World cup (captain).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Youngest in Asia, Shilky Devi looking to take learnings into the future |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/sports/youngest-in-asia-shilky-devi-looking-to-take-learnings-into-the-future-101642239133081.html |access-date=2023-09-11 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
<references />

== External links ==
* [https://www.the-aiff.com/players/profile/67642 The-AIFF.com Hemam Shilky Devi]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Shilky Devi, Hemam}}
[[Category:2005 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian women's footballers]]
[[Category:Sportswomen from Manipur]]
[[Category:Footballers from Manipur]]
[[Category:India women's international footballers]]

Perumbalam Bridge

2023-09-16T17:49:14Z

Ananya:

{{Short description|Bridge under construction in Kerala, India}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Use Indian English}}
{{Infobox bridge
| bridge_name = Perumbalam Bridge
| native_name = പെരുമ്പളം പാലം
| native_name_lang = ml
| image =
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption =
| official_name =
| other_name =
| carries =
| crosses = [[Vembanad|Vembanad lake]]
| locale = [[Perumbalam]], [[Alappuzha district]], [[Kerala]]
| owner = [[Government of Kerala]]
| maint =
| id =
| website =
| architect =
| designer =
| engineering =
| design =
| material =
| length = 1115 m
| width = 11 m
| height =
| mainspan = 55 m
| spans = 27
| pierswater =
| load =
| clearance =
| below =
| life =
| builder = [[Uralungal Labour Contract Co-operative Society]]
| fabricator =
| begin = 2019
| complete = 2024 (expected)
| cost =
| open =
| inaugurated =
| toll =
| traffic =
| preceded =
| followed =
| heritage =
| collapsed =
| closed =
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| extra =
}}

The '''Perumbalam bridge''', also known as '''Perumbalam-Panavalli Bridge''' is a [[Tied-arch bridge|bow string arch bridge]] under construction in [[Alappuzha district]] in [[Kerala]], India. It is being constructed across the [[Vembanad|Vembanad lake]] to connect the village island [[Perumbalam]] with the mainland. The bridge will be having a length of 1100 m and is expected to be opened to public in 2024.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Perumbalam getsa new bridge of lifegets a new lease of life |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/perumbalam-getsa-new-bridge-of-lifegets-a-new-lease-of-life/articleshow/53121866.cms |access-date=2023-09-16 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

==Overview==
[[Perumbalam]] in [[Alappuzha district]] is the largest island village in [[Kerala]]. At present, the people of Perumbalam depend on boats and jankar services to connect with [[Alappuzha]]. Although the locals have been raising the demand for the bridge for the past five decades, the [[Government of Kerala|state government]] inaugurated the construction of the bridge in 2019. Meanwhile, another construction company, Cherian Varki Construction Company, filed a lawsuit against [[Uralungal Labour Contract Co-operative Society|Uralungal labour society]], which had contracted the construction of bridge, and the government. This resulted in the delay of the project. The [[Kerala High Court]] finally ruled in favor of Uralungal society and the government, and the construction work was resumed in late 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |title=പെരുമ്പളം - പാണാവള്ളി പാലം; പണി 60 ശതമാനം പൂർത്തിയായി; നാടിന്റെ സ്വപ്നം പൂവണിയുന്നു |url=https://malayalam.samayam.com/local-news/alappuzha/alappuzha-perumbalam-panavally-bridge/articleshow/99963451.cms |access-date=2023-09-16 |website=Samayam Malayalam |language=ml}}</ref>

The total construction cost for the project is nearly 100 crores. It is being implemented with the funds of [[Kerala Industrial Infrastructure Development Corporation|KIFBI]] from the [[Government of Kerala]]. The will have a length of 1115 m and width of 11 m. The span of the bridge is 11.0 m with 27 spans of 35 m length and 3 bow string arch spans of 55 m length. The carriageway will have a width of 7.5 m and the footpaths on both sides will have a width of 1.5 m.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Bureau |first=The Hindu |title=60% of Perumbalam bridge project completed |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/60-of-perumbalam-bridge-project-completed/article67303171.ece |access-date=2023-09-16 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Bridges in Kerala]]

Akshara Brahma Yoga

2023-09-11T06:15:52Z

Ananya: Article drafted.

{{POV}}{{Copyediting}}{{Infobox religious text||image=[[File:Aum Om black.svg|200px]]|image_size=|alt=|caption=‌''Om'', the sacred symbol described in the chapter|religion=[[Hinduism]]|verses=28|author=Traditionally attributed to [[Vyasa]]|language=[[Sanskrit]]|date=|chapters=|name=Akshara Brahma Yoga|previouslink=Jnana-Vijnana Yoga|next=Raja Vidya Raja Guhya Yoga|nextlink=Raja-Vidya Raja-Guhya Yoga|previous=Jnana-Vijnana Yoga}}

{{Italic title}}{{Short description|Eighth chapter of the Bhagavad Gita}}
The '''''Akshara Brahma Yoga''''' ({{Lang-sa|अक्षरब्रह्मयोग|translit=Akṣarabrahmayōga}})<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vyas |first=R. N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4GHl4X1wKpAC&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA166&dq&hl=en |title=The Bhagavadgītā and Jīvana Yoga |publisher=Abhinav Publications |isbn=978-81-7017-203-1 |pages=166 |language=en}}</ref> is the eighth of the eighteen chapters of the [[Bhagavad Gita|''Bhagavad Gita'']].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sharma |first=Amiya Bhushan |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1188954697 |title=Aristotle, Plato and Bhagvad Gita on the "Soul" In the Light Primarily of On the Soul, Phaedo and the Second Chapter of Bhagvad Gita |oclc=1188954697}}</ref> The chapter has a total of twenty-eight [[shloka]]<nowiki/>s.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chand |first=Dr Bharati |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-Es5EAAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PT61&dq=akshara+brahma+yoga&hl=en |title=Symphony of Philosophy & Education in Bhagavad Gita – Volume 2 |publisher=Notion Press |isbn=978-1-63957-488-9 |pages=61 |language=en}}</ref> It is the 30th chapter of [[Bhishma Parva]], the sixth book of the ''[[Mahabharata]]''.<ref>{{Cite book |translator-last=Cherniak |translator-first=Alex |title=Mahabharata Book Six |volume=1: Bhishma (Bhīṣmaparvan) |chapter=13–24 Shocking News: Bhishma fallen |access-date=19 August 2023 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1bmzmj1.9 |pages=105–170 |publisher=NYU Press }}</ref>

== Etymology ==
''Akshara'' refers to the imperishable or eternal, and ''Brahma Yoga'' signifies the yoga of an ultimate reality or the divine. In this chapter, [[Krishna]] explains to [[Arjuna]] the significance of understanding and realizing the eternal essence that [[Transcendence (religion)|transcends]] the material world. The term's etymology is rooted in the concepts of the ''Bhagavad Gita'' itself, emphasizing the pursuit of spiritual knowledge and the connection between the individual soul ([[jivatma]]) and the ultimate reality ([[Paramatman]]).<ref>{{Cite news |title=Jivatmaa, Paramatma relationship from two angles |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/religion/jivatmaa-paramatma-relationship-from-two-angles/article7655952.ece |access-date=2023-08-29 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

== Overview ==
'''1-5''': Inquiry about the nature of [[Brahman|ultimate reality]], the process of departing from the mortal world, and the importance of thoughts at the time of death.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shivakumar |first=K. N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OvHRDwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA66&dq=karma+sanyasa+renunciation+gita&hl=en |title=Bhagawad Gita: Bhagavad Gita |publisher=Sangeet Bharati |pages=66 |language=sa}}</ref>

'''6-12''': Attaining [[God in Hinduism|God]] in the final moments, divine manifestations, [[Dhyana in Hinduism|meditation]] on formless aspect, cycle of creation, and significance of devotion.

'''13-22''': Paths after death, cycle of creation and [[Pralaya|dissolution]], eternal nature of God, influence of [[Guṇa|guna]]<nowiki/>s, role of knowledge, and attaining God through [[Bhakti|devotion]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=What lesson does the Bhagavadgita teach about death? {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/question/What-lesson-does-the-Bhagavadgita-teach-about-death |access-date=2023-08-29 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

'''23-28''': Path of devotion, meditation on God, the significance of ''[[Om]]'', dedicating actions to God, importance of devotion, knowledge, and [[Nonattachment (philosophy)|detachment]].

== Content ==
In this chapter, [[Krishna]] elaborates on various concepts, including the nature of duty ([[dharma]]) and the imperishable nature of the soul ([[Ātman (Hinduism)|ātman]]). He advises [[Arjuna]] to fulfill his warrior duty without attachment to the results, emphasizing the importance of selfless action ([[karma yoga]]). Krishna explains that individuals have control only over their actions, not over the results, and encourages Arjuna to act in accordance with his dharma.

Krishna introduces the idea of the eternal soul, asserting that it transcends birth and death. He highlights the distinction between the physical body and the true self, which is immortal and unaffected by external circumstances ''([[akshara]])''. This understanding is the basis of spiritual discipline and renunciation ({{transl|sa|[[sannyasa]]}}).

== Themes ==

* '''The Eternal and Imperishable Nature of the Soul''': (Akshara: Ātman, the imperishable soul as described in the Bhagavad Gita) In this chapter, Krishna teaches Arjuna about the eternal and indestructible nature of the soul. The text emphasizes that the soul is beyond the physical body and mind: it does not undergo the cycles of birth and death. This understanding helps Arjuna overcome his fear of mortality.
* '''The Process of Transition at the Time of Death''': Krishna describes the process of departing from the physical body during death. He explains that the mental state and consciousness at the time of death determines the soul's journey to the next life. By maintaining a meditative and devotional state of mind, individuals can ensure a positive transition and a better future existence.
* '''The Importance of Devotion and Surrender to God''': The chapter underscores the significance of unwavering devotion (bhakti) and surrender to the divine. Krishna explains that by focusing one's thoughts on the Para Brahman (Supreme Being) and cultivating a deep connection through love and devotion, individuals can attain liberation ([[moksha]]) and break the cycle of birth and death.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/bhagavadgitawith00lond |title=The Bhagavad Gita : with an English translation, explanatory notes and an examination of its doctrines |publisher=London ; Madras : Christian Literature Society for India |others=Robarts - University of Toronto |pages=30 |language=English}}</ref>
* '''The Significance of the ''Om'' Sound in Spiritual Practice''': ''Om'' (or ''Aum'') is a sacred sound often considered to be the primordial vibration of the universe. It symbolizes the ultimate reality or Brahman. In the context of the Gita, Krishna mentions the syllable ''Om'' as a representation of the Divine.

The Akshara Brahma Yoga teaches about the eternal nature of the soul, the process of transitioning at death, the importance of devotion and surrender, and the significance of ''Om'' in spiritual practice.

== Significance ==
The Akshara Brahma Yoga emphasizes the eternal and indestructible nature of the soul ([[Ātman (Hinduism)|ātman]]) using the syllable ''Om'' as a representation of the ultimate reality.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gurumaa |first=Anandmurti |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VpSdEAAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA257&dq=akshara+brahma+yoga&hl=en |title=Srimad Bhagavad Gita: (Succinct Commentary) |publisher=Gurumaa Vani |isbn=978-93-81464-68-7 |pages=257 |language=en}}</ref> Krishna explains the concept of oneness between the individual soul and the universal consciousness. This chapter underscores the importance of spiritual discipline, devotion, and meditation as means to realize this unity. Through the metaphor of a tree, Krishna illustrates the roots as the divine, the trunk as the cosmic order, and the leaves as the individual souls. By understanding the imperishable nature of the soul and aligning oneself with the universal, one can attain liberation (moksha). Akshara Brahma Yoga teaches the path to self-realization, emphasizing the connection between individual and divine, and the pursuit of spiritual enlightenment.

=== ''Om'' ===
{{See also|Om{{!}}''Om''}}Verse 13 of this chapter is as follows:<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gurumaa |first=Anandmurti |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VpSdEAAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA257&dq=o%E1%B9%81+ityek%C4%81k%E1%B9%A3hara%E1%B9%81+brahma+vy%C4%81haran+m%C4%81m+anusmaran&hl=en |title=Srimad Bhagavad Gita: (Succinct Commentary) |publisher=Gurumaa Vani |isbn=978-93-81464-68-7 |pages=257 |language=en}}</ref>{{verse translation|lang=sa
|oṁ ityekākṣharaṁ brahma vyāharan mām anusmaran yaḥ prayāti tyajan dehaṁ sa yāti paramāṁ gatim
|The one who utters the single syllable 'Om,' remembering me, and departs
abandoning the body, that person attains the supreme goal.|attr1=Verse 8.13 |attr2=English translation}}
[[File:Aum red.svg|thumb|The sacred symbol ''[[Om]]'', discussed in the Akshara Brahma Yoga<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bhagavad Gita Chapter 8 - Akshara Brahma Yoga |url=https://bhagavadgita.io/chapter/8/ |access-date=2023-08-29 |website=Bhagavad Gita}}</ref>]]
The ''Om'' symbol holds profound significance in Akshara Brahma Yoga, a sacred syllable representing the ultimate reality, encompassing creation, preservation, and dissolution. The three phonetic components of Aum — ''A'', ''U'', and ''M'' — symbolize these phases of existence.

In Akshara Brahma Yoga, Aum signifies the unchanging, eternal essence amidst the ever-changing world. ''A'' resonates with the waking state, symbolizing creation and the beginning (of human personhood). ''U'' corresponds to the dream state, representing preservation and continuity. ''M'' signifies the state of deep sleep and dissolution, leading to rebirth.

=== Oneness of Krishna ===
{{See also|Krishna}}
[[File:India 40's Print KRISHNA SHOWING HIS UNIVERSAL FORM TO ARJUNA.jpg|thumb|1940 print of Krishna revealing his true form to Arjuna ]]
Verses 8.6-8.7 of this chapter are as follows:<ref>{{Cite book |last=Marga |first=Bhakti |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_BLDDAAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA145&dq=akshara+brahma+yoga&hl=en |title=Shreemad Bhagavad Gita - Verses and Translations |publisher=BoD – Books on Demand |isbn=978-3-940381-59-0 |pages=145 |language=en}}</ref>
{{verse translation|lang=sa
|yaṁ yaṁ vāpi smaran bhāvaṁ tyajatyante kalevaram taṁ tam evaiti kaunteya sadā tad-bhāva-bhāvitaḥ tasmāt sarveṣhu kāleṣhu mām anusmara yudhya cha mayyarpita-mano-buddhir mām evaiṣhyasyasanśhayam
|Whatever one remembers upon giving up the body at the time of death, O son of Kunti, one attains that state, being always absorbed in such contemplation.

Therefore, always remember me and also do your duty of fighting the war. With mind and intellect surrendered to me, you will definitely attain me; of this, there is no doubt.|attr1=Verse 8.6–8.7|attr2=English translation}}
The emphasizes the oneness of Krishna as the eternal, imperishable reality that transcends the material and spiritual. In this discourse, Krishna reveals himself as the Akshara Brahma, the unchanging and indestructible {{transl|sa|[[Svayam Bhagavan]]}} ('God Himself') consciousness that resides within all beings. He describes how everything in the universe, both perishable and imperishable, emanates from this ultimate reality.

Krishna illustrates that he is the essence of all creation, the source from which all things originate, and the destination to which all things return, the Para Brahman. He is the cosmic intelligence that sustains the universe, and the eternal thread that connects all living beings. By realizing this oneness with the Akshara Brahma, the chapter states that individuals may attain liberation from the [[Saṃsāra|cycle of birth and death]].

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Bhagavad Gita]]

Mohalla Tech

2023-07-18T05:02:10Z

Ananya: Finished writing a new addition.

{{Short description|Indian Multinational Technology Company}}
{{Use Indian English}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Infobox company
| name = Mohalla Tech
| logo =
| logo_size = 120
| screenshot =
| caption =
| location = [[Bangalore]], [[India]]
| founder = {{plainlist|
*Ankush Sachdeva
*Bhanu Pratap Singh
*Farid Ahsan}}
| industry = {{plainlist|
*[[Internet]]
*[[Social network advertising]]
*[[Social Media]] }}
| products = {{plainlist|
* [[ShareChat]]
* [[MX TakaTak]]
* [[Moj]]
}}
| services =
| assets =
| equity =
| type = [[Privately held company|Private]]
| traded_as = [[Mohalla Tech]]
| foundation = {{Start date and age|2015|1}}
| incorporated =
| area_served = [[World|Worldwide]]
| key_people = {{plainlist|
*Ankush Sachdeva ([[CEO]])
*Manohar Singh Charan ([[CFO]])
*Amit Zunjarwad ([[Chief product officer|CPO]])}}
| revenue = {{increase}} US$5 billion (2022)
| operating_income =
| net_income =
| num_employees =
| website =
}}

'''Mohalla Tech''' is an Indian [[internet]] [[technology company]], headquartered in [[Bangalore]], [[India]]. Mohalla Tech developed applications such as [[ShareChat]], Moj and Moj Lite + (TakaTak). It acquired MX TakaTak, a short video platform in February 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ShareChat's Moj and MX Taka Tak will soon be one short video app |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/technology/tech-news-technology/sharechat-moj-buys-mx-taka-tak-7767385/ |access-date=16 November 2022 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |agency=TNN|title=MX TakaTak, Moj to merge - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/mx-takatak-moj-to-merge/articleshow/89492404.cms |access-date=16 November 2022 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref> The current valuation of the company is $5 billion.<ref>{{Cite web |author=John Sarkar|title=ShareChat closes $520 million round at $5 billion valuation - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/startups/companies/sharechat-closes-520-million-round-at-5-billion-valuation/articleshow/92259394.cms |access-date=12 October 2022 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref>

== Foundation and history ==
Mohalla Tech Pvt Ltd was incorporated in January 2015 by three IIT Kanpur graduates: Ankush Sachdeva, Bhanu Pratap Singh and Farid Ahsan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/tech/iit-k-alumni-made-sharechat-app-wields-local-languages-to-challenge-facebook/story-7GFHg4yytjmD5NJkF16X3O.html|title=IIT-K alumni-made ShareChat app wields local languages to challenge Facebook|website=Hindustan Times|access-date=19 August 2019}}</ref> The company is headquartered in Bengaluru, Karnataka, and presently employs over 2500 people.<ref>{{Cite web|title=ShareChat hires back half of laid-off employees, expected to add another 150-200 in six months|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/tech/internet/sharechat-hires-back-half-of-laid-off-employees-expected-to-add-another-150-200-in-six-months/articleshow/77528292.cms|access-date=1 September 2020|website=The Economic Times}}</ref>

Initially, ShareChat primarily worked as a content sharing platform, without any scope of users generating their own content. In April 2016, ShareChat enabled [[user-generated content]] creation on its platform, allowing its users to share their own posters and creative content. At around the same time, it also introduced open tagging for users, which would allow anyone to create their own hashtags depending on the content.<ref name="nie7May2018">{{Cite web|url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/lifestyle/tech/2018/may/07/sharechat-announces-private-messaging-shake-n-chat-open-tagging-on-its-platform-1811349.html|title=ShareChat announces 'Private Messaging', 'Shake-N-Chat', 'Open Tagging' on its platform|website=The New Indian Express|access-date=18 April 2019}}</ref>

In January 2023, Farid Ahsan and Bhanu Pratap Singh stepped down from their respective roles as Chief Operating Officer and Chief Technology Officer.<ref>{{Cite news |title=ShareChat cofounders Farid Ahsan and Bhanu Pratap Singh to step down |work=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/tech/startups/sharechat-founders-farid-ahsan-and-bhanu-pratap-singh-to-step-down-from-active-roles/articleshow/97312212.cms |access-date=2023-06-09 |issn=0013-0389}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=ShareChat's two co-founders step down from active roles |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/info-tech/social-media/sharechats-two-co-founders-step-down-from-active-roles/article66432158.ece |access-date=2023-06-09 |website=www.thehindubusinessline.com |language=en}}</ref> Currently, Manohar Singh Charan (CFO) and Amit Zunjarwad (CPO) are leading the management along with Ankush Sachdeva (CEO).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Meet The MSD Of Finance: Sharechat's Manohar Singh Charan |url=https://www.forbesindia.com/article/newage-cfos/meet-the-msd-of-finance-sharechats-manohar-singh-charan/73995/1 |access-date=2023-06-10 |website=Forbes India |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=www.ETHRWorld.com |title=Amit Zunjarwad joins ShareChat as Chief Product Officer - ETHRWorld |url=https://hr.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/industry/amit-zunjarwad-joins-sharechat-as-chief-product-officer/90936282 |access-date=2023-06-10 |website=ETHRWorld.com |language=en}}</ref>
== Acquisitions ==

In March 2019, Mohalla Tech acquired Transversal Tech-owned short video sharing platform, Clip.<ref name="inc">{{Cite web|url=https://inc42.com/buzz/exclusive-clip-gets-acquired-by-sharechat-in-all-cash-deal-to-help-it-fight-off-bytedance-in-india|title=Exclusive: Clip Gets Acquired By ShareChat In All Cash Deal To Help It Fight Off ByteDance in India|website=Inc42 Media|access-date=18 April 2019}}</ref> In February 2020, it acquired Bengaluru-based online fashion marketplace Elanic.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://inc42.com/buzz/sharechat-acquihires-elanic-to-tap-social-ecommerce/|title=Acquisitions|website=INC42|access-date=25 February 2019}}</ref> In March 2020, it acquired a meme discovery and sharing platform, Memer.<ref>{{Cite news|title=ShareChat buys meme sharing app Memer|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/tech/internet/sharechat-acquires-kae-capital-backed-meme-sharing-app-memer/articleshow/75409607.cms|last=|first=|date=|newspaper=The Economic Times|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=12 May 2020|last1=Laghate|first1=Gaurav}}</ref> In August 2020, it acquired a hyperlocal information platform, Circle Internet.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Banerjee|first=Prasid|title=ShareChat acquires hyperlocal information platform Circle Internet|url=https://www.livemint.com/companies/news/sharechat-acquires-hyperlocal-information-platform-circle-internet-11598247397522.html|access-date=28 August 2020|website=Livemint|language=en}}</ref> Sharechat parent company also bought MX TakaTak from [[Times Internet]] Group for $700 million in one of the biggest acquisitions of 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ShareChat buys MX TakaTak for USD 700 million - The New Indian Express |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/business/2022/feb/11/sharechat-buys-mx-takatak-for-usd-700-million-2418103.amp |access-date=13 March 2022 |website=www.newindianexpress.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Sil |first=Debarghya |title=2022 In Review: Startup M&As Surge Amidst Funding Crunch & Downturn |url=https://inc42.com/features/2022-in-review-startup-acquisitions-and-mergers-surge-amidst-funding-crunch-downturn/ |access-date=5 January 2023 |website=Inc42 Media |language=en}}</ref>

== Funding ==
In September 2020, ShareChat raised $40 million from investors Dr. Pawan Munjal of [[Hero MotoCorp]], Ajay Shridhar Shriram of [[Delhi Cloth & General Mills|DCM Shriram]], [[Twitter]], SAIF Partners, [[Lightspeed Venture Partners|Lightspeed Ventures]] and India Quotient.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Twitter-backed Indian social network ShareChat raises $40 million|url=https://social.techcrunch.com/2020/09/24/indias-sharechat-raises-40-million-says-its-short-video-platform-moj-now-reaches-80-million-users/|access-date=25 September 2020|website=TechCrunch|language=en-US}}</ref> By April 2021 ShareChat had raised $500 million from investors and was valued at over $2 billion.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Murgia |first1=Madhumita |title=ShareChat valued at $2bn after India's TikTok ban |url=https://www.ft.com/content/3a5e44e2-b2c0-4f37-9c4a-f51c6ef46eb6 |access-date=3 June 2021 |work=[[Financial Times]] }}</ref> In May 2022, ShareChat raised $300 million from [[Google]], [[The Times Group|Times Group]] and [[Temasek Holdings]] at a valuation of $5 billion.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Vengattil |first=Munsif |title=Google backs India's ShareChat in $300 mln funding round at $5 bln valuation |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/technology/google-backs-indias-sharechat-300-mln-funding-round-5-bln-valuation-2022-05-30/ |access-date=30 May 2022}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[ShareChat]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{uncategorized}}

Kabaddi (franchise)

2023-07-13T23:08:59Z

Ananya: Just finished drafting a new article.

{{Short description|Nepali film series directed by Ram Babu Gurung}}

{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Kabaddi
| image =
| alt =
| caption =
| native_name = {{Infobox name module|Nepali|कबड्डी}}
| director = [[Ram Babu Gurung]]
| producers = [[Nischal Basnet]] {{small|(''[[Kabaddi (2014 film)|Kabaddi]])''}} Raunak Bikram Kandel {{small|(''[[Kabaddi (2014 film)|Kabaddi]], [[Kabaddi Kabaddi (2015 film)|Kabaddi Kabaddi]]'')}} Sunil Rauniyar {{small|(''[[Kabaddi (2014 film)|Kabaddi]], [[Kabaddi Kabaddi (2015 film)|Kabaddi Kabaddi]]'')}} Arjun Karki {{small|(''[[Kabaddi Kabaddi Kabaddi]]'')}} Mani Ram Pokharel {{small|(''[[Kabaddi Kabaddi Kabaddi]], [[Kabaddi 4: The Final Match]]'')}} Om Chand Rauniyar {{small|(''[[Kabaddi Kabaddi Kabaddi]], [[Kabaddi 4: The Final Match]]'')}}
| writer = Ram Babu Gurung [[Upendra Subba]] {{small|(''[[Kabaddi Kabaddi (2015 film)|Kabaddi Kabaddi]], [[Kabaddi 4: The Final Match]]'')}}
}}

'''''Kabaddi''''' ({{lang-ne|कबड्डी}}) is a series of [[Comedy film|comedy]] [[Drama (film and television)|drama films]] directed by [[Ram Babu Gurung]] and is one of the biggest franchises of [[Cinema of Nepal|Nepali Cinema]]. The first film in the series, [[Kabaddi (2014 film)|''Kabaddi'']] was released on 2014. The latest movie, [[Kabaddi 4: The Final Match|''Kabaddi 4: The Final Match'']] was released on 2022[[Kabaddi 4: The Final Match|.]] There are a total of 4 films in this franchise.

==Films==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#b6fcb6;"| *
| Denotes films still running in theatres
|}
These are the films that have been released in this franchise.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:70%;"
|+List of Kabaddi Franchise Films
!Film
!Release date
!Director(s)
!Screenwriter(s)
!Ref(s)
|-
|''[[Kabaddi (2014 film)|Kabaddi]]''
| 25 April 2014
| rowspan="4" style="text-align: center;" |[[Ram Babu Gurung]]
| Ram Babu Gurung
|<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |last=Rai |first=Jessica |title=The director who made the nation go Kabaddi |url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/entertainment/events/the-director-who-made-the-nation-go-kabaddi/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190930193053/https://thehimalayantimes.com/entertainment/events/the-director-who-made-the-nation-go-kabaddi/ |archive-date=30 September 2019 |access-date=15 October 2020 |website=[[The Himalayan Times]] |language=en-US}}</ref>
|-
|''[[Kabaddi Kabaddi (2015 film)|Kabaddi Kabaddi]]''
| 27 November 2015
| rowspan="3" style="text-align: center;" |Ram Babu Gurung [[Upendra Subba]]
|<ref>{{Cite news |title=Laugh riot in Kabaddi Kabaddi |work=[[The Himalayan Times]] |url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/entertainment/movie-review/laugh-riot-in-kabaddi-kabaddi-2/ |url-status=dead |access-date=2023-03-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208131159/https://thehimalayantimes.com/entertainment/movie-review/laugh-riot-in-kabaddi-kabaddi-2/ |archive-date=2015-11-28}}</ref>
|-
|''[[Kabaddi Kabaddi Kabaddi]]''
| 20 September 2019
|<ref name="auto1">{{Cite web |last=Dixit |first=Abhimanyu |title=Did we really need a third Kabaddi movie? |url=https://kathmandupost.com/movie-review/2019/09/28/third-time-is-not-the-charm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200521160845/https://kathmandupost.com/movie-review/2019/09/28/third-time-is-not-the-charm |archive-date=21 May 2020 |access-date=15 October 2020 |website=[[The Kathmandu Post]] |language=English}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Mahat |first=Sunny |title=A complete family entertainer |url=https://theannapurnaexpress.com/news/a-complete-family-entertainer-1927 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190930193334/https://theannapurnaexpress.com/news/a-complete-family-entertainer-1927 |archive-date=30 September 2019 |access-date=15 October 2020 |website=[[The Annapurna Express]] |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|''[[Kabaddi 4: The Final Match]]''
| 27 May 2022
|<ref>{{Cite web |last=नेपाल |first=सुकृत |title=कमेडी शैलीको चलचित्र 'कबड्डी ४' |url=https://gorkhapatraonline.com/news/14455 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220530052825/https://gorkhapatraonline.com/news/14455 |archive-date=2022-05-30 |access-date=2022-07-30 |website=[[Gorkhapatra]] |language=ne}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=बराल |first=सजना |title=यी हुन् चर्चामा नआएकी कबड्डी–४ की पम्फा |url=https://www.himalkhabar.com/news/130382 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220728171746/https://www.himalkhabar.com/news/130382 |archive-date=2022-07-28 |access-date=2022-07-30 |website=[[Himal Khabarpatrika]] |language=ne}}</ref>
|}
==Cast==
This table below lists the main characters who appeared in the ''Kabaddi Franchise''.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:90%;"
|-
! scope="col" rowspan="2" style="text-align:center width=100%;"| Actors
! scope="col" colspan="8" style="text-align:center:"| Films
|-
! scope="col" style="width:20%" | ''[[Kabaddi (2014 film)|Kabaddi]]'' (2014)
! scope="col" style="width:20%" | ''[[Kabaddi Kabaddi (2015 film)|Kabaddi Kabaddi]]'' (2015)
! scope="col" style="width:20%" | ''[[Kabaddi Kabaddi Kabaddi]]'' (2019)
! scope="col" style="width:20%" | ''[[Kabaddi 4: The Final Match]]'' (2022)
|-
|[[Dayahang Rai]]
|colspan="4"|Kaji {{small|(Main)}}
|-
|[[Saugat Malla]]
|{{cEmpty}}
|Bam Kaji {{small|(Main)}}
|{{cEmpty}}
|Bam Kaji {{small|(Main)}}
|-
|[[Buddhi Tamang]]
|colspan="4"|Buddhi Lal Magar/Chhantyal {{Small|(Main)}}
|-
|[[Bijay Baral]]
|colspan="4"|B.K./Bir Kaji {{Small|(Main)}}
|-
|[[Rishma Gurung]]
|colspan="2"|Maiya {{Small|(Main)}}
|Maiya {{small|(Cameo)}}
|{{cEmpty}}
|-
|Puskar Gurung
|colspan="4"|Mukhiya
|-
|[[Karma Shakya]]
|{{cEmpty}}
|{{cEmpty}}
|Myaki {{small|(Main)}}
|{{cEmpty}}
|-
|[[Miruna Magar]]
|{{cEmpty}}
|{{cEmpty}}
|{{cEmpty}}
|Miss Shanti {{small|(Main)}}
|-
|[[Upasana Singh Thakuri]]
|{{cEmpty}}
|{{cEmpty}}
|Kasi {{small|(Main)}}
|{{cEmpty}}
|-
|[[Nischal Basnet]]
|Bibek {{small|(Main)}}
|Bibek {{small|(Cameo)}}
|{{cEmpty}}
|{{cEmpty}}
|-
|}

==Producers==
The table below lists the producers who were part of the production team, including producers, co-producers, and executive producers.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:90%;"
|-
! scope="col" rowspan="2" style="text-align:center width=100%;"| Producer
! scope="col" colspan="8" style="text-align:center:"| Films
|-
! scope="col" style="width:20%" | ''[[Kabaddi (2014 film)|Kabaddi]]'' (2014)
! scope="col" style="width:20%" | ''[[Kabaddi Kabaddi (2015 film)|Kabaddi Kabaddi]]'' (2015)
! scope="col" style="width:20%" | ''[[Kabaddi Kabaddi Kabaddi]]'' (2019)
! scope="col" style="width:20%" | ''[[Kabaddi 4: The Final Match]]'' (2022)
|-
|[[Nischal Basnet]]
|Producer
|Executive
|{{cEmpty}}
|{{cEmpty}}
|-
|Sunil Chand Rauniyar
|colspan="2"|Producer
|{{cEmpty}}
|{{cEmpty}}
|-
|Om Chand Rauniyar
|Executive
|Co-Producer
|colspan="2"|Producer
|-
|Mani Ram Pokhrel
|{{cEmpty}}
|{{cEmpty}}
|colspan="2"|Producer
|-
|Arjun Karki
|Executive
|Co-Producer
|Producer
|Executive
|-
|Raunak Bikram Kandel
|{{cEmpty}}
|Producer
|{{cEmpty}}
|{{cEmpty}}
|-
|Ruden Sada Lepcha
|{{cEmpty}}
|{{cEmpty}}
|Co-Producer
|{{cEmpty}}
|-
|}

==Release and reception==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:90%;"
|-
! Film
! Release date
! Budget
! Box Office
!Ref(s)
|-
| ''[[Kabaddi (2014 film)|Kabaddi]]''
| 25 April 2014
| रु 35 Lakh (US$27.9k)
| रु 2.6 Crore (US$ 207k)
|{{Cn}}
|-
| ''[[Kabaddi Kabaddi (2015 film)|Kabaddi Kabaddi]]''
| 27 November 2015
| रु 1 Crore (US$79.7k)
| रु 10.3 Crore (US$ 821k)
|{{Cn}}
|-
| ''[[Kabaddi Kabaddi Kabaddi]]''
| 20 September 2019
| रु 2.5 Crore (US$ 203k)
| रु 11 Crore (US$877k)
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=वर्ष २०७६ : सिक्वेलले टिकाएको बक्स अफिस |url=https://www.nepalsamaya.com/detail/27633 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200521164855/https://www.nepalsamaya.com/detail/27633 |archive-date=21 May 2020 |access-date=21 May 2020 |website=Nepal Samaya}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Kabaddi 4: The Final Match]]''
| 27 May 2022
| रु 3 Crore (US$241k)
| रु 22.9 Crore (US$1.81 Million)
|<ref>{{Cite web |title='कबड्डी ४'लाई ५ लाख दर्शकले हेरे, यी हुन् 'ब्लकबस्टर' हुनुका ८ कारण ul |url=https://www.onlinekhabar.com/2022/06/1138969 |url-status=live |access-date=2022-06-07 |website=[[Online Khabar]] |language=ne}}</ref><ref name=":099">{{Cite web |title=आज ५१ दिन मनाउँदै 'महापुरुष' : ११ करोड हारहारीमा कमाइ |url=https://www.onlinekhabar.com/2022/12/1233651 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230208052918/https://www.onlinekhabar.com/2022/12/1233651 |archive-date=2023-02-08 |access-date=2023-03-11 |website=[[Online Khabar]] |language=ne}}</ref>
|-
! colspan="2" | Total Budget and Box-office Collection
! रु 6.85 Crore (US$ 546k)
! रु 49.3 Crore (US$3.65 Million)
!
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category: Films directed by Ram Babu Gurung]]
[[Category:Nepalese romance films]]
[[Category:Film franchises]]

MMY

2023-07-09T16:10:58Z

Ananya: Page generated.

'''MMY''' or '''mmy''' may refer to:

* ''[[Mental Measurements Yearbook]]'', an American non-fiction reference book
* MMY, the IATA code for [[Miyako Airport]], Okinawa, Japan
* MMY, the Indian Railways station code for [[Marwar Mathania railway station]], Rajasthan, India
* MMY, the Metro Trains station code for [[Montmorency railway station, Melbourne]], Victoria, Australia
* MMY, the V/Line station code for [[Malmsbury railway station]], Victoria, Australia
* mmy, the ISO 639-3 code for [[Migaama language]], Chad

{{Disambiguation}}

Inside Man (soundtrack)

2023-07-06T18:15:30Z

Ananya: Wrote an inspiring article.

{{Infobox album
| name = Inside Man (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack)
| type = film
| artist = [[Terence Blanchard]]
| released = March 21, 2006
| genre = [[Film score]]
| length = 56:16
| label = [[Varèse Sarabande]]
| producer = [[Terence Blanchard]]
| misc = {{Extra chronology
| artist = [[Terence Blanchard]]
| type = film
| prev_title = [[She Hate Me]]
| prev_year = 2004
| title = Inside Man
| year = 2006
| next_title = [[Talk to Me (2007 film)|Talk to Me]]
| next_year = 2007
}}
}}

'''''Inside Man (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack)''''' is the [[Soundtrack album|soundtrack]] to the 2006 film ''[[Inside Man]]'' directed by [[Spike Lee]]. The soundtrack featured several themes from the film score composed by [[Terence Blanchard]], Lee's regular collaborator and the track "Chaiyya Chaiyya Bollywood Joint", which is a remixed version of the song "[[Chaiyya Chaiyya]]" from the Hindi film [[Dil Se..|''Dil Se..'']] (1998).<ref name="inside">{{cite news |title=Ryan Reynold's Deadpool has a famous Bollywood song playing in the background |work= |publisher=[[Deccan Chronicle]] |url=http://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/hollywood/060216/ryan-reynold-s-deadpool-has-a-famous-bollywood-song-playing-in-the-background.html |access-date=July 6, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160211233358/http://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/hollywood/060216/ryan-reynold-s-deadpool-has-a-famous-bollywood-song-playing-in-the-background.html |archive-date=February 11, 2016}}</ref> This song is played in the opening credits of the film, while its remix (performed by [[Panjabi MC]]) is appeared in the end credits. It was first released in [[Compact disc|physical formats]] on March 21, 2006 by [[Varèse Sarabande]].<ref name=":0">{{cite web |title=Inside Man |url=http://www.varesesarabande.com/servlet/the-270/Inside-Man/Detail |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130614073738/http://www.varesesarabande.com/servlet/the-270/Inside-Man/Detail |archive-date=June 14, 2013 |access-date=July 1, 2013 |work= |publisher=[[Varèse Sarabande]]}}</ref> Most of the themes featured in the film consisted of a old-school [[rhythm and blues]] flavor, which was to match [[Denzel Washington]]'s career.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Terence Blanchard on Scoring Spike Lee Joints |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=19084952 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100422094439/https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=19084952 |archive-date=April 22, 2010 |access-date=July 4, 2023 |publisher=[[National Public Radio]]}}</ref>

== Reception ==
James Southall of ''Movie Wave'' wrote "The album as a whole is effective and impressive, if not the most entertaining; a solid thriller score."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Southall |first=James |title=Blanchard: Inside Man |url=http://www.movie-wave.net/titles/inside_man.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071029033010/http://www.movie-wave.net/titles/inside_man.html |archive-date=October 29, 2007 |access-date=July 4, 2023 |website= |publisher=Movie Wave}}</ref> ''[[Filmtracks.com]]'' wrote "this music is all over the map, and as much interesting talent as Blanchard exhibits on a regular basis, it might have been more fruitful had he resisted the temptation of a standard orchestral action score and infused the film with some consistent high stakes jazz or other genre-bending style that would cater to his abilities."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Filmtracks: Inside Man (Terence Blanchard) |url=https://www.filmtracks.com/titles/inside_man.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061020024214/https://www.filmtracks.com/titles/inside_man.html |archive-date=October 20, 2006 |access-date=July 4, 2023 |website= |publisher=Filmtracks.com}}</ref>

== Track listing ==
{{Track listing
| extra_column = Artist(s)
| title1 = Ten Thirty
| length1 = 1:58
| title2 = Thrown a Bone
| length2 = 2:36
| title3 = Steve Switcharoo
| length3 = 1:35
| title4 = Dalton's World
| length4 = 0:45
| title5 = 357
| length5 = 0:58
| title6 = 392
| length6 = 1:39
| title7 = 2nd Floor Window
| length7 = 0:46
| title8 = Defend Brooklyn
| length8 = 1:17
| title9 = Food Chain
| length9 = 1:11
| title10 = Above Your Pay Grade
| length10 = 1:27
| title11 = Everything Hunky Dory
| length11 = 1:29
| title12 = Frazier's Tour
| length12 = 4:52
| title13 = Press Here to Play
| length13 = 1:41
| title14 = Nothing Yet
| length14 = 2:06
| title15 = Demands In Place
| length15 = 1:00
| title16 = Here Lies Peter Hammond
| length16 = 2:34
| title17 = Nazis Pay Too Well
| length17 = 3:54
| title18 = Nice Talking to You
| length18 = 1:18
| title19 = They Bugged Us
| length19 = 1:45
| title20 = Hostage Takedown
| length20 = 2:49
| title21 = Dr. Phil
| length21 = 1:12
| title22 = Photo Ops
| length22 = 2:00
| title23 = ESU Search
| length23 = 1:26
| title24 = Dalton's Cell
| length24 = 1:11
| title25 = Follow the Ring
| length25 = 4:17
| title26 = Good and Ready
| length26 = 2:20
| title27 = [[Chaiyya Chaiyya]] Bollywood Joint
| extra27 = [[Sukhwinder Singh|Sukwinder Singh]] and [[Sapna Awasthi]] featuring [[Panjabi MC]]
| length27 = 6:10
| total_length = 56:16
}}

== Accolades ==
Blanchard received a nomination for Outstanding Original Score at the [[Black Reel Awards of 2007]].<ref name="bma">{{cite web |title=2006 Nominees and Winners |url=http://www.blackmovieawards.com/index.php?p=2006-nominees-and-winners |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140811020942/http://blackmovieawards.com/index.php?p=2006-nominees-and-winners |archive-date=August 11, 2014 |access-date=May 31, 2014 |publisher=[[Black Movie Awards]]}}</ref>

== Credits ==
Credits adapted from liner notes.<ref name=":0" />
{{div col}}
* Composer – Terence Blanchard
* Producer – Spike Lee, Terence Blanchard
* Engineer – Frank Wolf
* Music editor – Todd Bozung
* Mastering – Erick Labson
* Music co-ordinator – Robin Burgess
* Assistant co-ordinator – Vincent Bennett
* Copyist – Julian Bartolyubov
* Scoring crew – Jay Silvester, Kirsten Smith, Marc Gebauer, Tom Hardisty
* Executive producer – Robert Townson, Brian Grazer, Spike Lee
* Assistant producer – Robin Burgess
* Liner notes – Terence Blanchard
* Album direction (Universal Pictures) – David Buntz
* Executive in charge of music (Universal Pictures) – Harry Garfield, Kathy Nelson
* Music business and legal affairs (Universal Pictures) – Phil Cohen
; Instruments
* Bass – Derrick Hodge, Don Ferrone, Mike Valerio, Neil Garber, Nicholas Franco, Nicolas Philippon, Oscar Hidalgo, Steve Edelman, Timothy Eckert, Ed Meares
* Bassoon – Kenneth Munday, Michael O'Donovan
* Cello – Christina Soule, Dane Little, David Low, Douglas Davis, Eric Sung, Erika Duke, George Scholes, Larry Corbett, Roger Lebow, Rowena Hammill, Sebastian Toettcher, Stan Sharp, Steve Richards, Todd Hemmenway, Trevor Handy, Victor Lawrence, Dave Speltz
* Clarinet – Steve Roberts, Jim Kanter
* Drums – Kendrick Scott
* Flute – Geri Rotella, James Walker
* Horn – James Thatcher, John Reynolds, Kristy Morrell, Mark Adams, Brian O'Connor
* Oboe – Phil Ayling, Thomas Boyd
* Percussion – Alan Estes, Dan Greco, Donald Williams, Gregory Goodall, Wade Culbreath, Steve Schaeffer
* Piano – Aaron Parks
* Saxophone – Brice Winston
* Trombone – Alan Kaplan, Bill Reichenbach, George Thatcher, Charlie Loper
* Trumpet – Jon Lewis, Terence Blanchard, Malcolm McNab
* Tuba – Tommy Johnson
* Viola – Andrew Duckles, Andrew Picken, Dan Neufeld, Denyse Buffum, Jennie Hansen, Karen Van Sant, Karie Prescott, Lynne Richburg, Pamela Goldsmith, Piotr Jandula, Rick Gerding, Robert Becker, Sam Formicola, Scott Hosfeld, Simon Oswell
* Violin – Agnes Gottschewski, Alyssa Park, Armen Garabedian, Charlie Bisharat, Darius Campo, Galina Golovin, Henry Gronnier, Isabelle Senger, Ishani Bhoola, Jay Rosen, Joel Derouin, Josefina Vergara, Julie Gigante, Liane Mautner, Lorand Lokuszta, Marc Sazer, Marina Manukian, Mario DeLeon, Michele Richards, Miran Kojian, Ray Kobler, Robin Olson, Roger Wilkie, Shalini Vijayan, Sid Page, Songa Lee-Kitto, Tereza Stanislav
; Orchestra
* Orchestra – The Hollywood Studio Symphony
* Orchestration – Howard Drossin, Terence Blanchard
* Conductor – Terence Blanchard
* Contractor – Sandy de Crescent
* Concertmaster – Bruce Dukov
{{div col end}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:2006 soundtrack albums]]
[[Category:Terence Blanchard albums]]
[[Category:Varèse Sarabande soundtracks]]

Gender equality

2023-01-26T01:53:06Z

Ananya: Established a new page structure.

{{short description|Equal access for all genders to rights, resources, opportunities and protections}}

{{Feminism sidebar}}
{{masculism sidebar}}
{{Liberalism sidebar}}

'''Gender equality''', also known as '''sexual equality''' or '''equality of the sexes''', is the state of equal ease of access to resources and opportunities regardless of gender, including economic participation and decision-making; and the state of valuing different behaviors, aspirations and needs equally, regardless of gender.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gender Equality, what does it mean ? – Egalité Femmes/Hommes |url=http://gender-equality.essec.edu/home/gender-equality-what-does-it-mean#:~:text=Gender%20equality,%20also%20known%20as,needs%20equally,%20regardless%20of%20gender. |access-date=2022-10-14 |website=gender-equality.essec.edu}}</ref>

Gender equality is the goal, while gender neutrality and gender equity are practices and ways of thinking that help in achieving the goal. [[Gender parity]], which is used to measure gender balance in a given situation, can aid in achieving gender equality but is not the goal in and of itself. Gender equality is more than just equal representation, it is strongly tied to [[women's rights]], and often requires policy changes. {{As of|2017}}, the global movement{{Which}} for gender equality has not incorporated the proposition of [[Third gender|genders besides women and men]], or [[Gender identity|gender identities]] outside of the [[gender binary]].

[[UNICEF]] says gender equality "means that women and men, and girls and boys, enjoy the same rights, resources, opportunities and protections. It does not require that girls and boys, or women and men, be the same, or that they be treated exactly alike."<ref name="UNICEF">{{cite web|url=http://www.unicef.org/gender/files/Overarching_2Pager_Web.pdf|title=Promoting Gender Equality: An Equity-based Approach to Programming|first=Roger|website=Operational Guidance Overview in Brief|publisher=UNICEF|access-date=2011-01-28|last=LeMoyne|archive-date=2017-10-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020152744/https://www.unicef.org/gender/files/Overarching_2Pager_Web.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref group="lower-alpha">The [[ILO]] similarly defines gender equality as "the enjoyment of equal rights, opportunities and treatment by men and women and by boys and girls in all spheres of life"</ref>

On a global scale, achieving gender equality also requires eliminating harmful practices against women and girls, including [[sex trafficking]], [[femicide]], [[wartime sexual violence]], [[gender wage gap]],<ref name="ReferenceC">{{Cite journal|last1=Meriküll|first1=Jaanika|last2=Mõtsmees|first2=Pille|title=Do you get what you ask? The gender gap in desired and realised wages|journal=International Journal of Manpower|volume=38|issue=6|pages=893–908|doi=10.1108/ijm-11-2015-0197|s2cid=155152121 |issn=0143-7720}}</ref> and other [[Violence against women|oppression tactics]]. [[UNFPA]] stated that, "despite many international agreements affirming their human rights, women are still much more likely than men to be poor and illiterate. They have less access to property ownership, credit, training and employment. This partly stems from the archaic stereotypes of women being labelled as child-bearers and home makers, rather than the bread winners of the family.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fineman|first=Martha|title=Cracking the Foundational Myths: Independence, Autonomy, and Self-Sufficiency|journal=[[Journal of Gender, Social Policy and the Law]]|volume=8|pages=13–29|via=HeinOnline}}</ref> They are far less likely than men to be politically active and far more likely to be victims of [[domestic violence]]."<ref name="unfpa.org1">{{cite web|url=http://www.unfpa.org/gender-equality|title=Gender equality|website=United Nations Population Fund|publisher=UNFPA|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190520233303/https://www.unfpa.org/gender-equality|archive-date=20 May 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref>

{{As of|2017|post=,}} gender equality is the fifth of seventeen [[Sustainable Development Goals|sustainable development goals]] ([[Sustainable Development Goal 5|SDG 5]]) of the [[United Nations]]. [[Gender inequality]] is measured annually by the [[United Nations Development Programme]]'s [[Human Development Report]]s.

==History==
[[Christine de Pizan]], an early advocate for gender equality, states in her 1405 book ''[[The Book of the City of Ladies]]'' that the oppression of women is founded on irrational prejudice, pointing out numerous advances in society probably created by women.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Creating a Caring Economics|url=https://archive.org/details/realwealthofnati0000eisl|url-access=registration|first=Riane|last=Eisler|author-link=Riane Eisler|year=2007|page=[https://archive.org/details/realwealthofnati0000eisl/page/72 72]|isbn=9781576753880}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=de Pizan|first=Christine|title=From The Book of the City of Ladies (1404)|work=Available Means|year=2001|pages=33–42|publisher=University of Pittsburgh Press|doi=10.2307/j.ctt5hjqnj.11|isbn=978-0-8229-7975-3}}</ref>

===Shakers===
{{Main|Shakers}}{{multiple image
| align = right
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| header_align = center
| width =
| image1 = Life of the Diligent Shaker.jpg
| width1 = 200
| caption1 = ''Life of the Diligent Shaker,'' Shaker Historical Society
| image2 = The Ritual Dance of the Shakers.jpg
| width2 = 200
| caption2 = ''The Ritual Dance of the Shakers,'' Shaker Historical Society
| image3 = The Shakers harvesting their famous herbs.jpg
| width3 = 200
| caption3 = The Shakers harvesting their famous herbs
}}
The [[Shakers]], an evangelical group, which practiced segregation of the sexes and strict [[celibacy]], were early practitioners of gender equality. They branched off from a [[Quaker]] community in the north-west of England before emigrating to America in 1774. In America, the head of the Shakers' central ministry in 1788, Joseph Meacham, had a revelation that the sexes should be equal. He then brought [[Lucy Wright]] into the ministry as his female counterpart, and together they restructured the society to balance the rights of the sexes. Meacham and Wright established leadership teams where each elder, who dealt with the men's spiritual welfare, was partnered with an eldress, who did the same for women. Each deacon was partnered with a deaconess. Men had oversight of men; women had oversight of women. Women lived with women; men lived with men. In Shaker society, a woman did not have to be controlled or owned by any man. After Meacham's death in 1796, Wright became the head of the Shaker ministry until her death in 1821.

Shakers maintained the same pattern of gender-balanced leadership for more than 200 years. They also promoted equality by working together with other women's rights advocates. In 1859, Shaker Elder Frederick Evans stated their beliefs forcefully, writing that Shakers were "the first to disenthrall woman from the condition of vassalage to which all other religious systems (more or less) consign her, and to secure to her those just and equal rights with man that, by her similarity to him in organization and faculties, both God and nature would seem to demand".<ref>{{cite book |first=Frederick William |last=Evans |url=https://archive.org/details/shakerscompendi00conggoog |title=Shakers: Compendium of the Origin, History, Principles, Rules and Regulations, Government, and Doctrines of the United Society of Believers in Christ's Second Appearing |place=New York |publisher=D. Appleton & Co. |year=1859 |page=[https://archive.org/details/shakerscompendi00conggoog/page/n40 34] }}</ref> Evans and his counterpart, Eldress Antoinette Doolittle, joined women's rights advocates on speakers' platforms throughout the northeastern U.S. in the 1870s. A visitor to the Shakers wrote in 1875:
{{Blockquote|Each sex works in its own appropriate sphere of action, there being a proper subordination, deference and respect of the female to the male in his order, {{em|and of the male to the female in her order}} [emphasis added], so that in any of these communities the zealous advocates of "women's rights" may here find a practical realization of their ideal.<ref>Glendyne R. Wergland, ''Sisters in the Faith: Shaker Women and Equality of the Sexes'' (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2011).</ref>}}

The Shakers were more than a radical religious sect on the fringes of American society; they put equality of the sexes into practice. It has been argued that they demonstrated that gender equality was achievable and how to achieve it.<ref>Wendy R. Benningfield, Appeal of the Sisterhood: The Shakers and the Woman's Rights Movement (University of Kentucky Lexington doctoral dissertation, 2004), p. 73.</ref>

In wider society, the movement towards gender equality began with the [[suffragette|suffrage movement]] in Western cultures in the late-19th century, which sought to allow women to vote and hold elected office. This period also witnessed significant changes to [[women's property rights]], particularly in relation to their marital status. (See for example, [[Married Women's Property Act 1882]].)

===Post-war era===
{{Further|Anti-discrimination laws}}
{{Further|Timeline of women's legal rights (other than voting)}}
Since [[World War II]], the [[women's liberation]] movement and [[feminism]] have created a general movement towards recognition of [[women's rights]]. The [[United Nations]] and other international agencies have adopted several conventions which promote gender equality. These conventions have not been uniformly adopted by all countries, and include:
* The [[Convention against Discrimination in Education]] was adopted in 1960, and came into force in 1962 and 1968.
* The [[Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women]] (CEDAW) was adopted in 1979 by the [[United Nations General Assembly]]. It has been described as an international [[bill of rights]] for women, which came into force on 3 September 1981.
* The [[Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action]], a [[human rights]] declaration adopted by consensus at the [[World Conference on Human Rights]] on 25 June 1993 in [[Vienna]], [[Austria]]. Women's rights are addressed at para 18.<ref>{{cite web | last = United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees | author-link = United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees | title = Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action | url = http://www.refworld.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/rwmain?page=topic&tocid=459d17822&toid=459b17a82&docid=3ae6b39ec&skip=O | publisher = [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees]] | access-date = 14 June 2015 | archive-date = 25 June 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180625185713/http://www.refworld.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/rwmain?page=topic&tocid=459d17822&toid=459b17a82&docid=3ae6b39ec&skip=O | url-status = live }}</ref>
* The [[Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women]] was adopted by the [[United Nations General Assembly]] in 1993.
* In 1994, the twenty-year ''Cairo Programme of Action'' was adopted at the [[International Conference on Population and Development]] (ICPD) in [[Cairo]]. This [[Non-binding resolution|non binding]] programme-of-action asserted that governments have a responsibility to meet individuals' reproductive needs, rather than demographic targets. As such, it called for [[family planning]], [[reproductive rights]] services, and strategies to promote gender equality and stop violence against women.
* Also in 1994, in the Americas, the [[Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment and Eradication of Violence against Women]], known as the [[Belém do Pará Convention]], called for the end of violence and discrimination against women.<ref>{{cite web | last = Organization of American States | author-link = Organization of American States | title = Follow-up Mechanism to the Belém do Pará Convention (MESECVI): About the Belém do Pará Convention | publisher = [[Organization of American States]] | url = http://www.oas.org/en/mesecvi/convention.asp | access-date = 14 June 2015 | date = August 2009 | archive-date = 26 June 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150626043825/http://www.oas.org/en/mesecvi/convention.asp | url-status = live }}</ref>
* At the end of the [[Fourth World Conference on Women]], the UN adopted the [[Beijing Declaration]] on 15 September 1995 – a [[United Nations General Assembly resolution|resolution]] adopted to promulgate a set of principles concerning gender equality.
* The [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325]] (UNSRC 1325), which was adopted on 31 October 2000, deals with the rights and protection of women and girls during and after [[armed conflict]]s.
* The [[Maputo Protocol]] guarantees comprehensive rights to women, including the right to take part in the political process, to social and political equality with men, to control their [[reproductive health]], and an end to [[female genital cutting|female genital mutilation]]. It was adopted by the [[African Union]] in the form of a protocol to the [[African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights]] and came into force in 2005.
* The EU [[Directive (European Union)|directive]] ''Directive 2002/73/EC – equal treatment of 23 September 2002 amending Council Directive 76/207/EEC on the implementation of the principle of equal treatment for men and women as regards access to employment, vocational training and promotion, and working conditions'' states that: "Harassment and sexual harassment within the meaning of this Directive shall be deemed to be discrimination on the grounds of sex and therefore prohibited."<ref>{{cite book|url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CONSLEG:1976L0207:20021005:EN:PDF|title=Directive 2002/73/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of European Communities|publisher=EUR-Lex Access to European Union law|format=PDF|access-date=28 January 2014|archive-date=4 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140204010321/http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CONSLEG:1976L0207:20021005:EN:PDF|url-status=live}}</ref>
* The [[Council of Europe]]'s [[Istanbul Convention|Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence]], the first legally binding instrument in Europe in the field of violence against women,<ref>{{cite book | title = The Convention of Belém do Pará and the Istanbul Convention: a response to violence against women worldwide | url = https://www.oas.org/es/mesecvi/docs/CSW-SideEvent2014-Flyer-EN.pdf | publisher = [[Organization of American States]], [[Council of Europe]], [[Permanent Mission of France to the United Nations]] and Permanent Mission of Argentina to the United Nations | date = March 2014 | access-date = 2014-11-24 | archive-date = 2016-03-04 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304093634/https://www.oas.org/es/mesecvi/docs/CSW-SideEvent2014-Flyer-EN.pdf | url-status = live }} CSW58 side event flyer 2014.</ref> came into force in 2014.
* The [[Council of Europe]]'s ''Gender Equality Strategy 2014–2017'', which has five strategic objectives:<ref>{{cite web|url=https://wcd.coe.int/ViewDoc.jsp?id=2105977&Site=COE&BackColorInternet=C3C3C3&BackColorIntranet=EDB021&BackColorLogged=F5D383|title=Committee of Ministers – Gender Equality Commission (GEC) – Gender Equality Strategy 2014–2017 [1183 meeting]|author=Council of Europe, Committee of Ministers, CM document (CM)|website=Wcd.coe.int|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=17 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150617133718/https://wcd.coe.int/ViewDoc.jsp?id=2105977&Site=COE&BackColorInternet=C3C3C3&BackColorIntranet=EDB021&BackColorLogged=F5D383|url-status=live}}</ref>
:*Combating [[gender stereotypes]] and sexism
:*Preventing and combating [[violence against women]]
:*Guaranteeing Equal Access of Women to Justice
:*Achieving balanced participation of women and men in political and public decision-making
:*Achieving [[Gender mainstreaming|Gender Mainstreaming]] in all policies and measures

Such [[legislation]] and [[affirmative action]] policies have been critical to bringing changes in societal attitudes. A 2015 Pew Research Center survey of citizens in 38 countries found that majorities in 37 of those 38 countries said that gender equality is at least "somewhat important", and a global median of 65% believe it is "very important" that women have the same rights as men.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/03/08/strong-global-support-for-gender-equality-especially-among-women/|title=Strong global support for gender equality, especially among women|last=Zainulbhai|first=Hani|website=Pew Research|access-date=2016-08-12|archive-date=2016-08-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160812193430/http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/03/08/strong-global-support-for-gender-equality-especially-among-women/|url-status=live}}</ref> Most occupations are now equally available to men and women, in many countries.{{Refn|For example, many countries now permit women to serve in the [[armed forces]], the [[police|police forces]] and to be [[fire fighter]]s – occupations traditionally reserved for men. Although these continue to have a male majority, an increasing number of women are now active, especially in directive fields such as politics, and occupy high positions in business.|group=lower-roman}}

Similarly, men are increasingly working in occupations which in previous generations had been considered [[women's work]], such as [[nursing]], [[Maid|cleaning]] and [[child care]]. In domestic situations, the role of [[Parenting]] or child rearing is more commonly shared or not as widely considered to be an exclusively female role, so that women may be free to pursue a [[career]] after [[childbirth]]. For further information, see [[Shared earning/shared parenting marriage]].

Another manifestation of the change in social attitudes is the [[Married and maiden names#Feminism and preserving one's personal name|non-automatic taking by a woman of her husband's surname on marriage]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-29804450|title=Why should women change their names on getting married?|last=Coulombeau|first=Sophie|publisher=BBC|website=[[BBC News]]|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=14 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150514084133/http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-29804450|url-status=live}}</ref>

A highly contentious issue relating to gender equality is the role of women in [[religious law|religiously orientated societies]].{{Refn|For example, [[Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam#Contents|the Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam]] declared that women have equal dignity but not equal rights, and this was accepted by many predominantly Muslim countries.|group=lower-roman}}{{Refn|In some [[Christianity|Christian churches]], the practice of [[churching of women]] may still have elements of [[ritual purification]] and the [[Ordination of women]] to the priesthood may be restricted or forbidden.|group=lower-roman}} Some Christians or Muslims believe in [[Complementarianism]], a view that holds that men and women have different but complementing roles. This view may be in opposition to the views and goals of gender equality.
[[File:FEMEN Ukraine is not a brothel (cropped).jpg|thumb|From the documentary ''[[Ukraine Is Not a Brothel]]''. Radical group [[Femen]] protest against the increase in [[Sex tourism in Ukraine|sex tourism]] into Ukraine.]]
In addition, there are also non-Western countries of low religiosity where the contention surrounding gender equality remains. In China, a [[Sex-selective abortion and female infanticide#Cultural preference|cultural preference for a male child]] has resulted in a [[Missing women of Asia|shortfall of women]] in the population. [[Feminism in Japan|The feminist movement in Japan]] has made many strides which resulted in the [[Gender Equality Bureau]], but Japan still remains low in gender equality compared to other industrialized nations.

The notion of gender equality, and of its degree of achievement in a certain country, is very complex because there are countries that have a history of a high level of gender equality in certain areas of life but not in other areas.{{Refn|An example is [[Finland]], which has offered very high opportunities to women in public/professional life but has had a weak legal approach to the issue of [[violence against women]], with the situation in this country having been called a [[paradox]].<ref group=upper-roman>{{Cite journal | last = Clarke | first = Kris | title = The paradoxical approach to intimate partner violence in Finland | journal = [[Tokiwa University#Publications|International Perspectives in Victimology]] | volume = 6 | issue = 1 | pages = 9–19 | doi = 10.5364/ipiv.6.1.19 | date = August 2011 | url = http://connection.ebscohost.com/c/articles/83438809/paradoxical-approach-intimate-partner-violence-finland | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151208230306/http://connection.ebscohost.com/c/articles/83438809/paradoxical-approach-intimate-partner-violence-finland | url-status = dead | archive-date = 2015-12-08 | doi-broken-date = 31 December 2022}}</ref><ref group=upper-roman>{{Cite journal |url=http://www.scottishaffairs.org/backiss/pdfs/sa48/sa48_McKie_and_Hearn.pdf |last1=McKie |first1=Linda |last2=Hearn |first2=Jeff |title=Gender-neutrality and gender equality: comparing and contrasting policy responses to 'domestic violence' in Finland and Scotland |journal=[[Scottish Affairs]] |volume=48 |issue=1 |pages=85–107 |doi=10.3366/scot.2004.0043 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021023708/http://www.scottishaffairs.org/backiss/pdfs/sa48/sa48_McKie_and_Hearn.pdf |archive-date=October 21, 2013}}</ref> "Finland is repeatedly reminded of its widespread problem of violence against women and recommended to take more efficient measures to deal with the situation. International criticism concentrates on the lack of measures to combat violence against women in general and in particular on the lack of a national action plan to combat such violence and on the lack of legislation on domestic violence. (...) Compared to Sweden, Finland has been slower to reform legislation on violence against women. In Sweden, domestic violence was already illegal in 1864, while in Finland such violence was not outlawed until 1970, over a hundred years later. In Sweden the punishment of victims of incest was abolished in 1937 but not until 1971 in Finland. Rape within marriage was criminalised in Sweden in 1962, but the equivalent Finnish legislation only came into force in 1994 — making Finland one of the last European countries to criminalise marital rape. In addition, assaults taking place on private property did not become impeachable offences in Finland until 1995. Only in 1997 did victims of sexual offences and domestic violence in Finland become entitled to government-funded counselling and support services for the duration of their court cases."<ref name=Amnesty_Finland group=upper-roman>{{citation | last = Danish, Swedish, Finnish and Norwegian sections of Amnesty International | contribution = Rape and human rights in Finland | editor-last = Danish, Swedish, Finnish and Norwegian sections of Amnesty International | title = Case closed: rape and human rights in the Nordic countries | url = http://humanrightshouse.org/Articles/13618.html | pages = 89–91 | publisher = [[Amnesty International]] | date = March 2010 | postscript = . | access-date = 2015-12-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171017022954/http://humanrightshouse.org/Articles/13618.html |archive-date=October 17, 2017 | url-status = dead }}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}{{Refn|[[Denmark]] received harsh criticism for inadequate laws in regard to [[sexual violence]] in a 2008 report produced by [[Amnesty International]],<ref name=Amnesty_Finland group=upper-roman /> which described Danish laws as "inconsistent with international human rights standards".<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite book | last = Amnesty International | author-link = Amnesty International | title = Denmark: human rights violations and concerns in the context of counter-terrorism, immigration-detention, forcible return of rejected asylum-seekers and violence against women | url = http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrc/docs/ngos/AI_Denmark_November2010.pdf | publisher = [[Amnesty International]] | date = May 2011 | access-date = 2015-06-11 | archive-date = 2015-02-24 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150224200419/http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrc/docs/ngos/AI_Denmark_November2010.pdf | url-status = live }} Amnesty International submission to the UN Universal Periodic Review, May 2011.</ref> This led to Denmark reforming its sexual offenses legislation in 2013.<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://www.amnesty.dk/nyhed/amnesty/ny-voldtaegtslovgivning-er-en-sejr-danske-kvinders-retssikkerhed|title=Ny voldtægtslovgivning er en sejr for danske kvinders retssikkerhed|website=Amnesty.dk – Amnesty International|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=2 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150702182036/http://www.amnesty.dk/nyhed/amnesty/ny-voldtaegtslovgivning-er-en-sejr-danske-kvinders-retssikkerhed|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://www.b.dk/nationalt/slut-med-konerabat-for-voldtaegt|title=Slut med "konerabat" for voldtægt|website=www.b.dk|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=3 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160403003651/http://www.b.dk/nationalt/slut-med-konerabat-for-voldtaegt|url-status=live}}</ref><ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=https://www.retsinformation.dk/Forms/R0710.aspx?id=164192|title=Straffeloven – Bekendtgørelse af straffeloven|website=Retsinformation.dk|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=15 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215123516/https://www.retsinformation.dk/Forms/R0710.aspx?id=164192|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}} Indeed, there is a need for caution when categorizing countries by the level of gender equality that they have achieved.<ref>{{cite book|title=Working with men in health and social care|url=https://archive.org/details/workingwithmenhe00feat|url-access=limited|last2=Rivett|first2=Mark|last3=Scourfield|first3=Jonathan|year=2007|isbn=9781412918503|pages=[https://archive.org/details/workingwithmenhe00feat/page/n33 27]|last1=Featherstone|first1=Brid}}</ref> According to [[Mala Htun]] and [[S. Laurel Weldon]] "gender policy is not one issue but many" and:<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Htun | first1 = Mala | last2 = Weldon | first2 = S. Laurel | title = When and why do governments promote women's rights? Toward a comparative politics of states and sex equality | journal = Delivery at the Conference Toward a Comparative Politics of Gender: Advancing the Discipline Along Interdisciplinary Boundaries, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, October | url = https://www.academia.edu/2694918 | date = 2007 | access-date = 2018-06-25 | archive-date = 2021-09-25 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210925000227/https://www.academia.edu/2694918 | url-status = live }} [https://web.archive.org/web/20160509164035/http://government.arts.cornell.edu/assets/psac/sp10/Htun_PSAC_Feb12.pdf Work in progress pdf.]
Paper prepared for delivery at the [[American Political Science Association]], Annual Meeting, Chicago, 29 August – 2 September 2007.</ref>
{{Blockquote|When Costa Rica has a better maternity leave than the United States, and Latin American countries are quicker to adopt policies addressing violence against women than the Nordic countries, one at least ought to consider the possibility that fresh ways of grouping states would further the study of gender politics.}}

Not all beliefs relating to gender equality have been popularly adopted. For example, [[topfreedom]], the right to be bare breasted in public, frequently applies only to males and has remained a marginal issue. [[Breastfeeding in public]] is now more commonly tolerated, especially in semi-private places such as restaurants.<ref>{{cite book | last = Jordan | first = Tim | title = Social Change (Sociology and society) | publisher = Blackwell | year = 2002 | isbn = 978-0-631-23311-4 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/socialchange0000unse }}</ref>

===United Nations===
{{Main|Special measures for gender equality in the United Nations}}
It is the vision that men and women should be treated equally in [[Social equality|social]], economic and all other aspects of society, and to not be [[gender discrimination|discriminated against on the basis of their gender]].{{Refn|"Mainstreaming a gender perspective is the process of assessing the implications for women and men of any planned action, including legislation, policies or programmes, in all areas and at all levels. It is a strategy for making women's as well as men's concerns and experiences an integral dimension of the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies and programmes in all political, economic and societal spheres so that women and men benefit equally and inequality is not perpetuated. The ultimate goal is to achieve gender equality."<ref group=upper-roman>United Nations. Report of the Economic and Social Council for 1997. A/52/3.18 September 1997, p 28.</ref>|group=lower-roman}} Gender equality is one of the objectives of the United Nations [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wwda.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/undechr1.pdf|title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights|website=Wwda.org|publisher=United Nations|access-date=October 31, 2016|archive-date=March 28, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190328144442/http://wwda.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/undechr1.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> World bodies have defined gender equality in terms of [[human rights]], especially [[women's rights]], and [[economic development]].<ref name="Smart">{{cite web |title=Gender Equality as Smart Economics: A World Bank Group Gender Action Plan (Fiscal years 2007–10) |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTGENDER/Resources/GAPNov2.pdf |access-date=April 25, 2021 |author=World Bank |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110505090417/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTGENDER/Resources/GAPNov2.pdf |archive-date=May 5, 2011}}</ref><ref name="MDG3">{{cite web|url=http://www.endpoverty2015.org/goals/gender-equity|title=Goal #3 Gender Equity|year=2008|publisher=United Nations Millennium Campaign|access-date=2008-06-01|author=United Nations Millennium Campaign|archive-date=2012-08-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120826104009/http://endpoverty2015.org/goals/gender-equity|url-status=live}}</ref> The United Nation's Millennium Development Goals Report states that their goal is to "achieve gender equality and the empowerment of women". Despite economic struggles in developing countries, the United Nations is still trying to promote gender equality, as well as help create a sustainable living environment is all its nations. Their goals also include giving women who work certain full-time jobs equal pay to the men with the same job.

== Gender biases ==
[[File:Midsommarkransar.jpg|thumb|There is controversy with regard to ideologies according to which [[Western culture]] and Western feminism should be considered the international standard to be followed by the [[developing world]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ucu.edu.uy/sites/default/files/facultad/dcsp/western_feminy_theory.pdf |title=Third World Critiques of Western Feminist Theory in the Post-Development Era |author=Javier Pereira Bruno |publisher=The University of Texas at Austin |access-date=April 25, 2021 |archive-date=March 8, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308144504/https://ucu.edu.uy/sites/default/files/facultad/dcsp/western_feminy_theory.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
[[File:Malleus maleficarum, Köln 1520, Titelseite.jpg|thumb|An example of a [[Western European]] ideology responsible for persecution of women:<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/articles/3FLjmvvjWDhRGswzCgYkzrF/six-spellbinding-facts-about-the-european-witch-craze |title=BBC Radio 4 - You're Dead To Me - Six spellbinding facts about the European Witch Craze |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |accessdate=2022-02-19 |archive-date=2022-02-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220208052819/https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/articles/3FLjmvvjWDhRGswzCgYkzrF/six-spellbinding-facts-about-the-european-witch-craze |url-status=live }}</ref> ''[[Malleus Maleficarum]]'', a book endorsing the [[Witch trials in the early modern period|extermination of witches]]. The book was written by the German Catholic clergyman [[Heinrich Kramer]].]]
A study involving predicting personality characteristics of individuals in photographs across 44 countries found that the [[women-are-wonderful effect]] is lower in countries with high measures of gender equality, with the increase arising from men being viewed less negatively.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Krys |first1=Kuba |last2=Capaldi |first2=Colin A. |last3=van Tilburg |first3=Wijnand |last4=Lipp |first4=Ottmar V. |last5=Bond |first5=Michael Harris |last6=Vauclair |first6=C.-Melanie |last7=Manickam |first7=L. Sam S. |last8=Domínguez-Espinosa |first8=Alejandra |last9=Torres |first9=Claudio |last10=Lun |first10=Vivian Miu-Chi |last11=Teyssier |first11=Julien |last12=Miles |first12=Lynden K. |last13=Hansen |first13=Karolina |last14=Park |first14=Joonha |last15=Wagner |first15=Wolfgang |title=Catching up with wonderful women: The women-are-wonderful effect is smaller in more gender egalitarian societies: CATCHING UP WITH WONDERFUL WOMEN |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ijop.12420 |journal=International Journal of Psychology |language=en |volume=53 |pages=21–26 |doi=10.1002/ijop.12420|pmid=28295294 |s2cid=31983366 }}</ref>

=== Criticism ===
There has been criticism from some feminists towards the political discourse and policies employed in order to achieve the above items of "progress" in gender equality, with critics arguing that these gender equality strategies are superficial, in that they do not seek to challenge social structures of male domination, and only aim to improve the situation of women within the societal framework of subordination of women to men,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Man's dominion : religion and the eclipse of women's rights in world politics|last=Sheila|first=Jeffreys|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9780415596732|page=94|oclc=966913723}}</ref> and that official public policies (such as state policies or international bodies policies) are questionable, as they are applied in a patriarchal context, and are directly or indirectly controlled by agents of a system which is for the most part male.<ref>{{cite journal|title=EU Gender Policy: Trapped in the 'Wollstonecraft Dilemma'?|first=Emanuela|last=Lombardo|journal=European Journal of Women's Studies|volume=10|issue=2|pages=159–180|doi=10.1177/1350506803010002003|s2cid=143732030}}</ref> One of the criticisms of the gender equality policies, in particular, those of the [[European Union]], is that they disproportionately focus on policies integrating women in public life, but do not seek to genuinely address the deep private sphere oppression.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Multiple meanings of gender equality : a critical frame analysis of gender policies in Europe|last1=Lombardo|first1=Emanuela|last2=Jalušiè|first2=Vlasta|last3=Maloutas|first3=Maro Pantelidou|last4=Sauer|first4=Birgit|publisher=Central European University Press Budapest|year=2007|isbn=9786155211393|editor-last=Verloo|editor-first=Mieke|editor1-link=Mieke Verloo|location=New York|pages=79–108|chapter=III. Taming the Male Sovereign? Framing Gender Inequality in Politics in the European Union and the Member States|oclc=647686058}}</ref>

A further criticism is that a focus on the situation of women in non-Western countries, while often ignoring the issues that exist in the West, is a form of [[imperialism]] and of reinforcing Western moral superiority; and a way of "othering" of domestic violence, by presenting it as something specific to outsiders – the "violent others" – and not to the allegedly progressive Western cultures.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Othering of Domestic Violence: The EU and Cultural Framings of Violence against Women|first1=Celeste|last1=Montoya|first2=Lise|last2=Rolandsen Agustín|journal=Social Politics|volume=20|issue=4|pages=534–557|doi=10.1093/sp/jxt020|s2cid=22204941}}</ref> These critics point out that women in Western countries often face similar problems, such as domestic violence and rape, as in other parts of the world.<ref>{{Cite book|title=An introduction to feminist philosophy|last=Alison|first=Stone|publisher=Polity Press|year=2008|isbn=9780745638836|pages=209–211|oclc=316143234}}</ref> They also cite the fact that women faced de jure legal discrimination until just a few decades ago; for instance, in some Western countries such as Switzerland, Greece, Spain, and France, women obtained equal rights in [[family law]] in the 1980s.{{Refn|In Switzerland in 1985, a referendum guaranteed women legal equality with men within marriage.<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17988450|title=Switzerland profile – Timeline|date=28 December 2016|website=Bbc.com|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=17 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180617053429/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17988450|url-status=live}}</ref><ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://history-switzerland.geschichte-schweiz.ch/chronology-womens-right-vote-switzerland.html|title=The Long Way to Women's Right to Vote in Switzerland: a Chronology|first=Markus G. Jud, Lucerne|last=Switzerland|website=History-switzerland.geschichte-schweiz.ch|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=21 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191121120734/http://history-switzerland.geschichte-schweiz.ch/chronology-womens-right-vote-switzerland.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The new reforms came into force in January 1988.<ref name="auto1">{{Cite book|title=Women's movements of the world : an international directory and reference guide|publisher=Cartermill International|year=1988|isbn=9780582009882|editor-last=Schreir|editor-first=Sally|page=254|oclc=246811744}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}{{Refn|In Greece in 1983, legislation was passed guaranteeing equality between spouses, abolishing [[dowry]], and ending legal discrimination against illegitimate children.<ref name="auto2" group=upper-roman>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1983/01/26/world/around-the-world-greece-approves-family-law-changes.html#|title=AROUND THE WORLD; Greece Approves Family Law Changes|agency=Reuters|date=26 January 1983|newspaper=The New York Times|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=16 June 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120616093929/http://www.nytimes.com/1983/01/26/world/around-the-world-greece-approves-family-law-changes.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref group=upper-roman>''Demos, Vasilikie. (2007) "The Intersection of Gender, Class and Nationality and the Agency of Kytherian Greek Women." Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Sociological Association. August 11''.</ref>|group=lower-roman}}{{Refn|In 1981, Spain abolished the requirement that married women must have their husbands' permission to initiate judicial proceedings<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://wbl.worldbank.org/~/media/FPDKM/WBL/Documents/Reports/2014/Women-Business-and-the-Law-2014-Key-Findings.pdf |title=Women Business and the Law 2014 Key Findings |access-date=2014-08-25 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140824032832/http://wbl.worldbank.org/~/media/FPDKM/WBL/Documents/Reports/2014/Women-Business-and-the-Law-2014-Key-Findings.pdf |archive-date=2014-08-24 }}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}{{Refn|Although married women in France obtained the right to work without their husbands' permission in 1965,<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/explore/cmcf-vsi-women-in-france.pdf |title=Modern and Contemporary France: Women in France |access-date=2016-04-03 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304092212/http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/explore/cmcf-vsi-women-in-france.pdf |archive-date=2016-03-04 }}</ref> and the paternal authority of a man over his family was ended in 1970 (before that parental responsibilities belonged solely to the father who made all legal decisions concerning the children), it was only in 1985 that a legal reform abolished the stipulation that the husband had the sole power to administer the children's property.<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://ceflonline.net/wp-content/uploads/France-Parental-Responsibilities.pdf|title=National Report: France|first=Frédérique|last=Ferrand|website=Parental Responsibilities|publisher=Commission on European Family Law|access-date=2015-01-05|archive-date=2014-08-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140811145534/http://ceflonline.net/wp-content/uploads/France-Parental-Responsibilities.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}} Another criticism is that there is a selective public discourse with regard to different types of oppression of women, with some forms of violence such as [[honor killings]] (most common in certain geographic regions such as parts of Asia and North Africa) being frequently the object of public debate, while other forms of violence, such as the lenient punishment for [[crimes of passion]] across [[Latin America]], do not receive the same attention in the West.<ref name="National">{{cite web|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/02/0212_020212_honorkilling.html|title=Thousands of Women Killed for Family "Honor"|last=Mayell|first=Hillary|website=National Geographic News|publisher=National Geographic Society|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=5 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905122357/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/02/0212_020212_honorkilling.html|url-status=live}}</ref>{{Refn|In 2002, Widney Brown, advocacy director for [[Human Rights Watch]], pointed out that "crimes of passion have a similar dynamic [to honor killings] in that the women are killed by male family members and the crimes are perceived [in those relevant parts of the world] as excusable or understandable".<ref name="National" />|group=lower-roman}} It is also argued that the criticism of particular laws of many developing countries ignores the influence of [[colonialism]] on those legal systems.{{Refn|Especially of the French [[Napoleonic Code]],<ref group=upper-roman>{{Cite book|title=Secular and Islamic feminist critiques in the work of Fatima Mernissi|last=Raja.|first=Rhouni|date=2010-01-01|publisher=Brill|isbn=9789004176164|page=52|oclc=826863738}}</ref> which was extremely powerful in its influence over the world (historian Robert Holtman regards it as one of the few documents that have influenced the whole world<ref group=upper-roman>{{Cite book|title=The Napoleonic revolution|last=Holtman|first=Robert B.|publisher=Louisiana State University Press|year=1979|isbn=9780807104873|oclc=492154251}}</ref>) and which designated married women a subordinate role, and provided for leniency with regard to 'crimes of passion' (which was the case in France until 1975<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://www.gallup.com/poll/107521/Common-Ground-Europeans-Muslims-Among-Them.aspx|title=Common Ground for Europeans and Muslims Among Them|last1=Rheault|first1=Magali|last2=Mogahed|first2=Dalia|website=Gallup Poll|publisher=Gallup, Inc|access-date=February 5, 2016|archive-date=September 7, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080907161300/http://www.gallup.com/poll/107521/Common-Ground-Europeans-Muslims-Among-Them.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref>)|group=lower-roman}} There has been controversy surrounding the concepts of [[Westernization]] and [[Europeanisation]], due to their reminder of past colonialism,<ref>{{cite thesis |url=http://repository.usfca.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1286&context=diss |title=Complexity of Women's Liberation in the Era of Westernization: Egyptian Islamic and Secular Feminists in their Own Context |last=Alkhawaja |first=Assim |publisher=University of San Francisco |access-date=April 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150911081340/http://repository.usfca.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1286&context=diss |archive-date=September 11, 2015}}</ref> and also due to the fact that some Western countries, such as Switzerland, have been themselves been very slow to give women legal rights.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/08/country-that-didnt-let-women-vote-till-1971/|title=Non! Nein! No! A Country That Wouldn't Let Women Vote Till 1971|website=News.nationalgeographic.com|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=1 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171101101633/https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/08/country-that-didnt-let-women-vote-till-1971/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/politics/swiss-suffragettes-were-still-fighting-for-the-right-to-vote-in-1971-10514445.html|title=Swiss suffragettes were still fighting for the right to vote in 1971|website=Independent.co.uk|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=15 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115015025/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/politics/swiss-suffragettes-were-still-fighting-for-the-right-to-vote-in-1971-10514445.html|url-status=live}}</ref> There have also been objections to the way Western media presents women from various cultures creating stereotypes, such as that of 'submissive' Asian or Eastern European women, a stereotype closely connected to the [[mail order bride]]s industry.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/03/21/italian-tv-programme-axed-portraying-eastern-european-women/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/03/21/italian-tv-programme-axed-portraying-eastern-european-women/ |archive-date=2022-01-11 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Italian TV programme axed after portraying Eastern European women as submissive sex objects|first=Nick|last=Squires|access-date=14 November 2017|newspaper=The Telegraph}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Such stereotypes are often blatantly untrue: for instance women in many Eastern European countries occupy a high professional status.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.grantthornton.global/en/press/press-releases-2015/women-in-business-2015/|title=Women in business 2015 results|website=Grant Thornton International Ltd. Home|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=13 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190413230553/https://www.grantthornton.global/en/press/press-releases-2015/women-in-business-2015/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zdnet.com/article/women-in-tech-why-bulgaria-and-romania-are-leading-in-software-engineering/|title=Women in tech: Why Bulgaria and Romania are leading in software engineering – ZDNet|first=Andrada|last=Fiscutean|website=Zdnet.com|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=5 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171105211644/http://www.zdnet.com/article/women-in-tech-why-bulgaria-and-romania-are-leading-in-software-engineering/|url-status=live}}</ref> Feminists in many developing countries have been strongly opposed to the idea that women in those countries need to be 'saved' by the West.<ref>''Transmediterranean: Diasporas, Histories, Geopolitical Spaces'', edited by Joseph Pugliese pg.60–61</ref> There are questions on how exactly should gender equality be measured, and whether the West is indeed "best" at it: a study in 2010 found that among the top 20 countries on female graduates in the [[science]] fields at university level most countries were countries that were considered internationally to score very low on the position of women's rights, with the top 3 being Iran, Saudi Arabia and Oman, and only 5 European countries made it to that top: Romania, Bulgaria, Italy, Georgia and Greece.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://contexts.org/articles/what-gender-is-science/|title=What Gender Is Science? – Contexts|first=Contexts|last=Magazine|website=contexts.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=21 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190321145619/https://contexts.org/articles/what-gender-is-science/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Controversy regarding Western cultural influence in the world is not new; in the late 1940s, when the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] was being drafted, the [[American Anthropological Association]] warned that the document would be defining universal rights from a Western perspective which could be detrimental to non-Western countries, and further argued that the West's history of colonialism and forceful interference with other societies made them a problematic moral representative for universal global standards.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://franke.uchicago.edu/aaa1947.pdf |title=Statement on Human Rights |journal=American Anthropologist |volume=49 |issue=4 |pages=539–543 |doi=10.1525/aa.1947.49.4.02a00020 |access-date=April 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140801105700/http://franke.uchicago.edu/aaa1947.pdf |archive-date=August 1, 2014|last1=Association |first1=The Executive Board, American Anthr }}</ref>

There has been criticism that [[international law]], [[international courts]], and universal [[gender neutrality|gender neutral]] concepts of human rights are at best silent on many of the issues important to women and at worst male centered; considering the male person to be the default.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Gender and democratic citizenship: the impact of CEDAW|first=F.|last=Raday|journal=International Journal of Constitutional Law|volume=10|issue=2|pages=512–530|doi=10.1093/icon/mor068|doi-access=free}}</ref> Excessive [[gender neutrality]] can worsen the situation of women, because the law ''assumes'' women are in the same position as men, ignoring the biological fact that in the process of [[reproduction]] and [[pregnancy]] there is no 'equality', and that apart from physical differences there are socially constructed limitations which assign a socially and culturally inferior position to women – a situation which requires a specific approach to women's rights, not merely a gender neutral one.<ref>''EU Non-Discrimination Law in the Courts: Approaches to Sex and Sexualities, Discrimination in the EU law'', by Jule Mulder, pg 35–39</ref> In a 1975 interview, [[Simone de Beauvoir]] talked about the negative reactions towards women's rights from the left that was supposed to be progressive and support social change, and also expressed skepticism about mainstream international organizations.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=adMHPnaMTtI| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180928052902/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=adMHPnaMTtI| archive-date=2018-09-28|title=Why I Am A Feminist : An Interview with Simone de Beauvoir (1975)|last=Philosophy Matters|access-date=14 November 2017|publisher=[[YouTube]]}}</ref> There have been questions about the acceptability of international intervention into societal domestic issues from international organizations,<ref>{{Cite journal | url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-law-in-context/article/abs/backlash-against-international-courts-explaining-the-forms-and-patterns-of-resistance-to-international-courts/BFFB3130BF448758B01FAACD60C50C6A | doi=10.1017/S1744552318000034 | title=Backlash against international courts: Explaining the forms and patterns of resistance to international courts | year=2018 | last1=Madsen | first1=Mikael Rask | last2=Cebulak | first2=Pola | last3=Wiebusch | first3=Micha | journal=International Journal of Law in Context | volume=14 | issue=2 | pages=197–220 | s2cid=44099059 }}</ref> especially since the multitude of such international bodies can create confusion, including through contradictory rulings on the same issue: for example the [[ECtHR]] upheld in 2014 France's ban on wearing a [[burqa]] in public,<ref>{{Cite news | url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-28106900 | title=European Court upholds French full veil ban | work=BBC News | date=July 2014 }}</ref> while the [[United Nations Human Rights Committee]] concluded in 2018 that France's ban on burqa in public violates human rights.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://ijrcenter.org/2018/11/14/un-human-rights-committee-condemns-burqa-ban-countering-european-court/ | title=UN Human Rights Committee Condemns "Burqa Ban," Countering European Court | date=14 November 2018 }}</ref> International bodies have been criticized for being based on an ideology of [[one size fits all]] approach to issues, which does not take into account that a specific approach may work in one culture but not in another,<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://brill.com/view/journals/icla/17/4/article-p591_591.xml?language=en | doi=10.1163/15718123-01704002 | title=The Future of the International Criminal Court. On Critique, Legalism and Strengthening the icc's Legitimacy | year=2017 | last1=De Hoon | first1=Marieke | journal=International Criminal Law Review | volume=17 | issue=4 | pages=591–614 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5305/amerjintelaw.106.2.0225 | jstor=10.5305/amerjintelaw.106.2.0225 | doi=10.5305/amerjintelaw.106.2.0225 | title=Assessing the Effectiveness of International Courts: A Goal-Based Approach | year=2012 | last1=Shany | first1=Yuval | journal=American Journal of International Law | volume=106 | issue=2 | pages=225–270 | s2cid=147638769 }}</ref> and that historically international intervention into another country has often done more harm than good; and that ultimately the problems from a culture must be solved from within that culture, not through forceful foreign intervention.<ref>{{cite book | chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-57621-3_3 | doi=10.1007/978-3-319-57621-3_3 | chapter=Humanitarian Intervention as Neocolonialism | title=Domesticating Human Rights | series=Philosophy and Politics - Critical Explorations | year=2017 | last1=Ingiyimbere | first1=Fidèle | volume=4 | pages=57–121 | isbn=978-3-319-57620-6 }}</ref> A criticism of international organizations is that while they purport to support universal global human rights, they often support the interests of Western elites.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/leiden-journal-of-international-law/article/abs/western-centrism-contemporary-international-law-and-international-courts/F06A8B2D89BE63DA08925D64370C1E2E | doi=10.1017/S0922156521000017 | title=Western centrism, contemporary international law, and international courts | year=2021 | last1=Caserta | first1=Salvatore | journal=Leiden Journal of International Law | volume=34 | issue=2 | pages=321–342 | s2cid=233732933 }}</ref> The legitimacy of international organizations has came into question in the 21st century especially in the light of international scandals, such as [[child sexual abuse by UN peacekeepers]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/bigideas/sexual-abuse-by-un-and-non-un-peacekeepers/12247920 | title=Sexual abuse by UN and non-UN peacekeepers | website=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] | date=15 June 2020 }}</ref>

==Efforts to fight inequality==
{{see also|Gender inequality}}
In 2010, the [[European Union]] opened the [[European Institute for Gender Equality]] (EIGE) in [[Vilnius]], [[Lithuania]] to promote gender equality and to fight [[sex discrimination]]. In 2015 the EU published the Gender Action Plan 2016–2020.<ref name="GAP2016">{{cite web|title=The European Union's new Gender Action Plan 2016–2020: gender equality and women's empowerment in external relations|url=https://www.odi.org/publications/10021-gender-equality-empowerment-eu-external-relations-gap-2016_2020|website=odi.org| date=26 October 2015 |access-date=2017-11-16|archive-date=2018-12-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215133747/https://www.odi.org/publications/10021-gender-equality-empowerment-eu-external-relations-gap-2016_2020|url-status=live}}</ref>

Gender equality is part of the national curriculum in Great Britain and many other European countries. By presidential decree, the Republic of Kazakhstan created a Strategy for Gender Equality 2006–2016 to chart the subsequent decade of gender equality efforts.<ref name="sgeinkz">{{cite web|title=Strategy for Gender Equality in Kazakhstan 2006–2016|url=https://www.ndi.org/files/Kazakhstan-Gender-Strategy-2006-2016.pdf|website=NDI.org|access-date=2017-11-16|archive-date=2022-02-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220219142019/https://www.ndi.org/sites/default/files/Kazakhstan-Gender-Strategy-2006-2016.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Personal, Social and Health Education]], [[Religious education|religious studies]] and [[Language acquisition]] curricula tend to address gender equality issues as a very serious topic for discussion and analysis of its effect in society.

A large and growing body of research has shown how gender inequality undermines health and development. To overcome gender inequality the [[United Nations Population Fund]] states that women's empowerment and gender equality requires strategic interventions at all levels of programming and policy-making. These levels include reproductive health, economic empowerment, educational empowerment and political empowerment.<ref>{{cite web
|url=https://www.unfpa.org/gender-equality
|publisher=[[UNFPA]]
|title=Gender equality
|at=Key issues
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230617103408/https://aa.unfpa.org/gender-equality
|archive-date=17 June 2023
|url-status=live
}}</ref>

[[UNFPA]] says that "research has also demonstrated how working with men and boys as well as women and girls to promote gender equality contributes to achieving health and development outcomes."<ref name=":2">{{cite web|url=http://www.unfpa.org/resources/engaging-men-and-boys-brief-summary-unfpa-experience-and-lessons-learned|title=Engaging Men and Boys: A Brief Summary of UNFPA Experience and Lessons Learned|website=UNFPA: United Nations Population Fund|language=en|access-date=2017-03-28|archive-date=2018-01-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180108064142/http://www.unfpa.org/resources/engaging-men-and-boys-brief-summary-unfpa-experience-and-lessons-learned|url-status=live|page=2}}</ref>

===Health and safety===
{{Further|Gender disparities in health}}
====Effect of gender inequality on health====
[[File:Composite FGM world map.svg|thumb|right|A composite data map showing the percentage of women aged 15-49 who have undergone FGM. The source is UNICEF (2016), and a number of additional studies for countries outside Africa (with the exception of Indonesia) not surveyed by UNICEF. There is no data for the countries in grey]]Social constructs of [[gender]] (that is, cultural ideals of socially acceptable [[masculinity]] and [[femininity]]) often have a negative effect on health. The World Health Organization cites the example of women not being allowed to travel alone outside the home (to go to the hospital), and women being prevented by cultural norms to ask their husbands to use a condom, in cultures which simultaneously encourage male promiscuity, as social norms that harm [[women's health]]. Teenage boys suffering accidents due to social expectations of impressing their peers through [[risk|risk taking]], and men dying at much higher rate from [[lung cancer]] due to [[smoking]], in cultures which link smoking to masculinity, are cited by the WHO as examples of gender norms negatively affecting [[men's health]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/gender/genderandhealth/en/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040707221735/http://www.who.int/gender/genderandhealth/en/|url-status=dead|archive-date=July 7, 2004|title=WHO: World Health Organization|website=Who.int|access-date=14 June 2015}}</ref> The World Health Organization has also stated that there is a strong connection between gender socialization and transmission and lack of adequate management of [[HIV/AIDS]].<ref name="ReferenceA" />
[[File:Maternal mortality ratio (With SDG Target), OWID.svg|thumb|upright=1.6|Maternal mortality ratio (with [[Sustainable Development Goal]] target) as of 2015<ref>{{cite web |title=Maternal mortality ratio |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/maternal-mortality-ratio-sdgs |website=Our World in Data |access-date=16 February 2020 |archive-date=26 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190926041925/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/maternal-mortality-ratio-sdgs |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
Certain cultural practices, such as [[female genital mutilation]] (FGM), negatively affect women's health.<ref name="who.int">{{cite web | url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/female-genital-mutilation | title=Female genital mutilation | access-date=2019-03-18 | archive-date=2021-01-29 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129023511/https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/female-genital-mutilation | url-status=live }}</ref> Female genital mutilation is the ritual cutting or removal of some or all of the external female genitalia. It is rooted in inequality between the sexes, and constitutes a form of discrimination against women.<ref name="who.int" /> The practice is found in Africa,[https://www.unfpa.org/data/fgm/KE] Asia and the Middle East, and among immigrant communities from countries in which FGM is common. The preference rate in Kenya is 21 per cent and an estimated 4 million girls and women have undergone FGM in [https://reliefweb.int/report/kenya/profile-female-genital-mutilation-kenya Kenya] with hot spot areas/ communities including the Kuria community both in Kenya and Tanzania border, Kisii, Maasai, Somali, Samburu and Kuria ethnic groups. [https://www.unfpa.org/news/taking-female-genital-mutilationcutting-out-cultural-mosaic-kenya#:~:text=But%20the%20practice%2C%20condemned%20by,prerequisite%20for%20a%20good%20marriage. UNICEF] estimated in 2016 that 200 million women have undergone the procedure.<ref name="UNICEF2016">{{cite web |url=http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGMC_2016_brochure_final_UNICEF_SPREAD.pdf |title=Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: A Global Concern |location=New York |publisher=United Nations Children's Fund |access-date=2020-12-26 |archive-date=2017-02-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170210071422/http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGMC_2016_brochure_final_UNICEF_SPREAD.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>[[File:Total Fertility Rate Map by Country.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.35|Map of countries by fertility rate (2020), according to the [[Population Reference Bureau]]]]According to the World Health Organization, gender equality can improve men's health. The study shows that traditional notions of masculinity have a big impact on men's health. Among European men, [[non-communicable diseases]], such as [[cancer]], [[cardiovascular diseases]], [[Respiratory disease|respiratory illnesses]], and [[diabetes]], account for the vast majority of deaths of men aged 30–59 in Europe which are often linked to unhealthy diets, stress, [[substance abuse]], and other habits, which the report connects to behaviors often stereotypically seen as masculine behaviors like heavy drinking and smoking. Traditional gender [[stereotypes]] that keep men in the role of [[breadwinner]] and [[Discrimination#Sex, sex characteristics, gender, and gender identity|systematic discrimination]] preventing women from equally contributing to their households and participating in the workforce can put additional stress on men, increasing their risk of health issues and men bolstered by [[cultural norms]], tend to take more risks and engage in [[interpersonal violence]] more often than women, which could result in fatal injuries.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.euronews.com/2018/09/19/gender-equality-could-help-men-in-europe-live-longer-report|title=Gender equality could help men in Europe live longer: report|work=[[Euronews]]|access-date=February 6, 2019|archive-date=February 7, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190207015554/https://www.euronews.com/2018/09/19/gender-equality-could-help-men-in-europe-live-longer-report|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://qz.com/work/1392183/mens-health-is-worse-in-countries-with-less-gender-equality/|title=Countries where men hold the power are really bad for men's health|work=[[Quartz (publication)|Quartz]]|access-date=February 6, 2019|archive-date=February 7, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190207072201/https://qz.com/work/1392183/mens-health-is-worse-in-countries-with-less-gender-equality/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/gender-inequality-mens-health/|title=Gender Inequality Is Bad for Men's Health, Report Says|work=[[Global Citizen Festival|Global Citizen]]|access-date=February 6, 2019|archive-date=February 7, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190207021024/https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/gender-inequality-mens-health/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/health-determinants/gender/mens-health|title=Men's health and well-being in the WHO European Region|work=[[WHO]]|access-date=2019-02-06|archive-date=2019-02-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190222062158/http://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/health-determinants/gender/mens-health|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Violence against women====
[[File:MURDER-SCALE-4-2019.jpg|thumb|A map of the world showing murders per 100,000 population committed against women, 2019]]
[[File:FGM road sign, Bakau, Gambia, 2005.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Anti-[[FGM]] road sign, Bakau, Gambia, 2005]]
{{Main|Violence against women}}
[[File:Bound feet (X-ray).jpg|thumb|left|An X-ray of two bound feet. [[Foot binding]] was practiced for centuries in China.]]
[[Violence against women]] (VAW) is a technical term used to collectively refer to violent acts that are primarily or exclusively committed against women.{{Refn|Forms of violence against women include [[Sexual violence]] (including [[War Rape]], [[Marital rape]], [[Date rape]] by drugs or alcohol, and [[Child sexual abuse]], the latter often in the context of [[Child marriage]]), [[Domestic violence]], [[Forced marriage]], [[Female genital mutilation]], [[Forced prostitution]], [[Sex trafficking]], [[Honor killing]], [[Dowry killing]], [[Acid attacks]], [[Stoning]], [[Flogging]], [[Forced sterilisation]], [[Forced abortion]], violence related to accusations of witchcraft, mistreatment of widows (e.g. widow inheritance). Fighting against violence against women is considered a key issue for achieving gender equality. The Council of Europe adopted the Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence (Istanbul Convention).|group=lower-roman}} This type of violence is gender-based, meaning that the acts of violence are committed against women expressly ''because'' they are women, or as a result of patriarchal gender constructs.{{Refn|The UN [[Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women]] defines violence against women as "any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life" and states that:"violence against women is a manifestation of historically unequal power relations between men and women, which have led to domination over and discrimination against women by men and to the prevention of the full advancement of women, and that violence against women is one of the crucial social mechanisms by which women are forced into a subordinate position compared with men."<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://www.un-documents.net/a48r104.htm|title=Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women|publisher=United Nations General Assembly|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=4 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180804222717/http://www.un-documents.net/a48r104.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}} Violence and mistreatment of women in marriage has come to international attention during the past decades. This includes both violence committed inside marriage ([[domestic violence]]) as well as violence related to marriage customs and traditions (such as [[dowry]], [[bride price]], [[forced marriage]] and [[child marriage]]).

According to some theories, violence against women is often caused by the acceptance of violence by various cultural groups as a means of conflict resolution within intimate relationships. Studies on [[Intimate partner violence]] victimization among ethnic minorities in the United Studies have consistently revealed that immigrants are a high-risk group for intimate violence.<ref>{{cite web |last=Bachman |first=Ronet |title=Violence Against Women: A National Crime Victimization Survey Report |url=https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/digitization/145325ncjrs.pdf |publisher=U.S. Department of Justice |access-date=April 25, 2021 |archive-date=August 10, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190810184521/https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/145325NCJRS.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Prevalence and Impact of Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) Among an Ethnic Minority Population|first1=Sabine|last1=Hellemans|first2=Tom|last2=Loeys|first3=Ann|last3=Buysse|first4=Olivia|last4=De Smet|journal=Journal of Interpersonal Violence|volume=30|issue=19|pages=3389–3418|doi=10.1177/0886260514563830|pmid=25519236|hdl=1854/LU-5815751|s2cid=5958973|url=https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/5815751|access-date=11 December 2019|archive-date=1 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801003835/https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/5815751|url-status=live}}</ref>

In countries where gang murders, armed kidnappings, civil unrest, and other similar acts are rare, the vast majority of murdered women are killed by partners/ex-partners.{{Refn|As of 2004–2009, former and current partners were responsible for more than 80% of all cases of [[femicide|murders of women]] in [[Cyprus]], [[France]], and [[Portugal]].<ref name=":1">{{cite web|url=http://www.smallarmssurvey.org/fileadmin/docs/H-Research_Notes/SAS-Research-Note-14.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120403000428/http://www.smallarmssurvey.org/fileadmin/docs/H-Research_Notes/SAS-Research-Note-14.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=April 3, 2012|title=Femicide: A Global Problem|date=February 2012|website=Small Arms Survey|publisher=Research Notes: Armed Violence}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}} By contrast, in countries with a high level of organized criminal activity and gang violence, murders of women are more likely to occur in a public sphere, often in a general climate of indifference and impunity.<ref name=":1" /> In addition, many countries do not have adequate comprehensive data collection on such murders, aggravating the problem.<ref name=":1" />

In some parts of the world, various forms of violence against women are tolerated and accepted as parts of everyday life.{{Refn|According to UNFPA:<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://www.unfpa.org/gender/practices.htm|title=Gender equality|publisher=United Nations Population Fund|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=20 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141020025509/http://www.unfpa.org/gender/practices.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
:"In some developing countries, practices that subjugate and harm women – such as wife-beating, killings in the name of honour, female genital mutilation/cutting and dowry deaths – are condoned as being part of the natural order of things."|group=lower-roman}}

In most countries, it is only in more recent decades that domestic violence against women has received significant legal attention. The [[Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence|Istanbul Convention]] acknowledges the long tradition of European countries of ignoring this form of violence.{{Refn|In its [http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Reports/Html/210.htm explanatory report] at para 219, it states:
:"There are many examples from past practice in Council of Europe member states that show that exceptions to the prosecution of such cases were made, either in law or in practice, if victim and perpetrator were, for example, married to each other or had been in a relationship. The most prominent example is rape within marriage, which for a long time had not been recognised as rape because of the relationship between victim and perpetrator."<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Reports/Html/210.htm|title=Explanatory Report to the Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence (CETS No. 210)|website=Conventions.coe.int|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=20 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150720234156/http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Reports/Html/210.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}{{Refn|In ''Opuz v Turkey'', the [[European Court of Human Rights]] recognized violence against women as a form discrimination against women: "[T]he Court considers that the violence suffered by the applicant and her mother may be regarded as ''gender-based violence which is a form of discrimination against women''."<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://hudoc.echr.coe.int/sites/eng/pages/search.aspx?i=001-92945#{%22itemid%22:[%22001-92945%22]}|title=Case of Opuz v. Turkey|date=September 2009|website=European Court of Human Rights|access-date=14 June 2015}}</ref> This is also the position of the Istanbul Convention which reads:"Article 3 – Definitions, For the purpose of this Convention: a "violence against women" is understood as a violation of human rights and ''a form of discrimination against women'' [...]".<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Treaties/Html/210.htm|author=Council of Europe|title=Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence (CETS No. 210)|website=Conventions.coe.int|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=23 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923210455/http://www.conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Treaties/Html/210.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}

In some cultures, acts of violence against women are seen as crimes against the male 'owners' of the woman, such as husband, father or male relatives, rather the woman herself. This leads to practices where men inflict violence upon women in order to get revenge on male members of the women's family.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite web|url=http://www.unwomen.org/~/media/headquarters/attachments/sections/library/publications/2012/12/unw-legislation-supplement-en%20pdf.pdf|title=Supplement to the Handbook for Legislation on Violence Against Women: Harmful Practices Against Women|website=UN Women|access-date=2015-06-10|archive-date=2015-06-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150610131259/http://www.unwomen.org/~/media/headquarters/attachments/sections/library/publications/2012/12/unw-legislation-supplement-en%20pdf.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Such practices include [[Types of rape#Payback rape|payback rape]], a form of rape specific to certain cultures, particularly the [[Pacific Islands]], which consists of the rape of a female, usually by a group of several males, as revenge for acts committed by members of her family, such as her father or brothers, with the rape being meant to humiliate the father or brothers, as punishment for their prior behavior towards the perpetrators.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://waaiabulletin.files.wordpress.com/2009/12/png_activist_toolkit_16_days_2009_-_iwd_2010.pdf|title=Many Voices One Message: Stop Violence Against Women in PNG|website=Activist Toolkit, Amnesty International|access-date=2017-03-28|archive-date=2017-10-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020153358/https://waaiabulletin.files.wordpress.com/2009/12/png_activist_toolkit_16_days_2009_-_iwd_2010.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Richard A. Posner]] writes that "Traditionally, rape was the offense of depriving a father or husband of a valuable asset — his wife's chastity or his daughter's virginity".<ref>''Sex and Reason'', by Richard A. Posner, page 94.</ref> Historically, rape was seen in many cultures (and is still seen today in some societies) as a crime against the [[Family honor|honor of the family]], rather than against the self-determination of the woman. As a result, victims of rape may face violence, in extreme cases even honor killings, at the hands of their family members.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/honourcrimes/crimesofhonour_1.shtml|title=Ethics: Honour crimes|website=Bbc.co.uk|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=21 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921053506/http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/honourcrimes/crimesofhonour_1.shtml|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13760895|title=Libya rape victims 'face honour killings'|website=BBC News|access-date=14 June 2015|last1=Harter|first1=Pascale|archive-date=2013-09-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921101600/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13760895|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Catharine MacKinnon]] argues that in male dominated societies, sexual intercourse is imposed on women in a coercive and unequal way, creating a continuum of victimization, where women have few positive sexual experiences.{{Refn|She writes "To know what is wrong with rape, know what is right about sex. If this, in turn, is difficult, the difficulty is as instructive as the difficulty men have in telling the difference when women see one. Perhaps the wrong of rape has proved so difficult to define because the unquestionable starting point has been that rape is defined as distinct from intercourse, while for women it is difficult to distinguish the two under conditions of male dominance."<ref group=upper-roman>''Toward a Feminist Theory of the State'', by Catharine A. MacKinnon, pp 174</ref>|group=lower-roman}} Socialization within rigid gender constructs often creates an environment where sexual violence is common.{{Refn|According to the World Health Organization: "Sexual violence is also more likely to occur where beliefs in male sexual entitlement are strong, where gender roles are more rigid, and in countries experiencing high rates of other types of violence."<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/world_report/en/summary_en.pdf|title=World report on violence and health: summary|website=World Health Organization|date=2002|access-date=2020-10-04|archive-date=2019-03-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190305201126/https://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/world_report/en/summary_en.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}} One of the challenges of dealing with sexual violence is that in many societies women are perceived as being readily available for sex, and men are seen as entitled to their bodies, until and unless women object.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/32000/ior530012011en.pdf|title=Rape and Sexual Violence: Human rights law and standards in the international criminal court|website=Amnesty International|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=13 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150613020021/https://www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/32000/ior530012011en.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/64000/eur270022007en.pdf|title=Hungary: Cries Unheard: The Failure To Protect Women From Rape And Sexual Violence In The Home|publisher=Amnesty International|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=13 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150613012347/https://www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/64000/eur270022007en.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>{{Refn|Rebecca Cook wrote in ''Submission of Interights to the European Court of Human Rights in the case of [[M.C. v. Bulgaria]], 12 April 2003'': "The equality approach starts by examining not whether the woman said 'no', but whether she said 'yes'. Women do not walk around in a state of constant consent to sexual activity unless and until they say 'no', or offer resistance to anyone who targets them for sexual activity. The right to physical and sexual autonomy means that they have to affirmatively consent to sexual activity."|group=lower-roman}}

=====Types of VAW=====

Violence against women may be classified according to different approaches.

* '''WHO's life cycle typology''':

The [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) has developed a typology of violence against women based on their cultural life cycles.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| '''Phase''' || '''Type of violence'''
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
| Pre-birth || Sex-selective abortion; effects of battering during pregnancy on birth outcomes
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
| Infancy || Female infanticide; physical, sexual and psychological abuse
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
| Girlhood || Child marriage; female genital mutilation; physical, sexual and psychological abuse; incest; child prostitution and pornography
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
| Adolescence and adulthood || Dating and courtship violence (e.g. acid throwing and date rape); economically coerced sex (e.g. school girls having sex with "sugar daddies" in return for school fees); incest; sexual abuse in the workplace; rape; sexual harassment; forced prostitution and pornography; trafficking in women; partner violence; marital rape; dowry abuse and murders; partner homicide; psychological abuse; abuse of women with disabilities; forced pregnancy
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
| Elderly || Forced "suicide" or homicide of widows for economic reasons; sexual, physical and psychological abuse<ref name="WHO_VAW">{{cite book | last = WHO | author-link = World Health Organization | title = Violence against women: Definition and scope of the problem, 1, 1-3 | url = https://www.who.int/gender/violence/v4.pdf | publisher = [[World Health Organization]] | date = July 1997 | access-date = 30 November 2013 | archive-date = 30 November 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181130173014/http://www.who.int/gender/violence/v4.pdf | url-status = live }}</ref>
|}

Significant progress towards the protection of women from violence has been made on international level as a product of collective effort of lobbying by many women's rights movements; international organizations to civil society groups. As a result, worldwide governments and international as well as civil society organizations actively work to combat violence against women through a variety of programs. Among the major achievements of the women's rights movements against violence on girls and women, the landmark accomplishments are the "[[Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women]]" that implies "political will towards addressing VAW " and the legal binding agreement, "the Convention on Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women ([[CEDAW]])".<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Rosche | first1 = Daniela | last2 = Dawe | first2 = Alexandra | title = Oxfam Briefing Note: Ending violence against women the case for a comprehensive international action plan | page = 2 | publisher = [[Oxfam|Oxfam GB]] | location = Oxford | year = 2013 | url = http://www.oxfam.org/sites/www.oxfam.org/files/bn-ending-violence-against-women-action-plan-220213-en.pdf | isbn = 9781780772639 | access-date = 2 December 2013 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170925212852/https://www.oxfam.org/sites/www.oxfam.org/files/bn-ending-violence-against-women-action-plan-220213-en.pdf | archive-date = 25 September 2017 | url-status = dead }}</ref> In addition, the UN General Assembly resolution also designated 25 November as [[International Day for the Elimination of Violence against Women]].<ref>{{cite book | last = UN | author-link = United Nations | title = International Day for the Elimination of Violence against Women | url = https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/news/vawd.html | website = un.org | publisher = [[United Nations]] | date = 17 December 1999 | access-date = 3 April 2016 | archive-date = 13 February 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210213161934/https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/news/vawd.html | url-status = live }}</ref>

* '''''The Lancet'''s over time typology''':

A typology similar to the WHO's from an article on violence against women published in the academic journal ''[[The Lancet]]'' shows the different types of violence perpetrated against women according to what time period in a women's life the violence takes place.<ref name="VAM: Global scope & magnitude">{{cite journal | last1 = Watts | first1 = Charlotte | last2 = Zimmerman | first2 = Cathy | title = Violence against women: global scope and magnitude | journal = [[The Lancet]] | volume = 359 | issue = 9313 | pages = 1232–1237 | publisher = [[Elsevier]] | pmid = 11955557 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08221-1 | date = 6 April 2002 | s2cid = 38436965 }}</ref> However, it also classifies the types of violence according to the perpetrator. One important point to note is that more of the types of violence inflicted on women are perpetrated by someone the woman knows, either a family member or intimate partner, rather than a stranger.

*'''Council of Europe's nine forms of violence''':

The Gender Equality Commission of the [[Council of Europe]] identifies nine forms of violence against women based on subject and context rather than life cycle or time period:<ref name="Hagemann-White">{{cite web |url=https://rm.coe.int/16805915e9 |title=Analytical study of the results of the 4th round of monitoring the implementation of Recommendation Rec(2002)5 on the protection of women against violence in Council of Europe member states |first=Carol |last=Hagemann-White |pages=7, 8, 11 |publisher=Council of Europe Equality Division |access-date=5 April 2020 |archive-date=3 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803211102/https://rm.coe.int/16805915e9 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://edoc.coe.int/en/fundamental-freedoms/5949-state-of-democracy-human-rights-and-the-rule-of-law-in-europe.html |title=State of democracy, human rights and the rule of law in Europe (2014) |first=Thorbjørn |last=Jagland |author-link=Thorbjørn Jagland |work=Report by the Secretary General of the Council of Europe |page=48 |publisher=Council of Europe |access-date=5 April 2020 |archive-date=24 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200424094422/https://edoc.coe.int/en/fundamental-freedoms/5949-state-of-democracy-human-rights-and-the-rule-of-law-in-europe.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
*'Violence within the family or domestic violence'
*'Rape and sexual violence'
*'Sexual harassment'
*'Violence in institutional environments'
*'Female genital mutilation'
*'Forced marriages'
*'Violence in conflict and post-conflict situations'
*'Killings in the name of honour'
*'Failure to respect freedom of choice with regard to reproduction'

=====Violence against trans women=====
{{further|Transgender women}}

Killings of [[transgender]] individuals, especially transgender women, continue to rise yearly. 2020 saw a record 350 transgender individuals murdered, with means including suffocation and burning alive.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/jamiewareham/2020/11/11/350-transgender-people-have-been-murdered-in-2020-transgender-day-of-remembrance-list/?sh=e5a18d965a61 |title=Murdered, Suffocated and Burned Alive - 350 Transgender People Killed in 2020 |last=Wareham |first=Jamie |website=Forbes |access-date=April 25, 2021 |archive-date=February 19, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220219142029/https://gum.criteo.com/syncframe?origin=publishertag&topUrl=www.forbes.com |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2009, United States data showed that transgender people are likely to experience a broad range of violence in the entirety of their lifetime. Violence against trans women in Puerto Rico started to make headlines after being treated as "An Invisible Problem" decades before. It was reported at the 58th Convention of the Puerto Rican Association that many transgender women face institutional, emotional, and structural obstacles. Most trans women do not have access to health care for [[STD prevention]] and are not educated on violence prevention, mental health, and social services that could benefit them.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rodríguez-Madera|first1=Sheilla L.|last2=Padilla|first2=Mark|last3=Varas-Díaz|first3=Nelson|last4=Neilands|first4=Torsten|last5=Guzzi|first5=Ana C. Vasques|last6=Florenciani|first6=Ericka J.|last7=Ramos-Pibernus|first7=Alíxida|title=Experiences of Violence Among Transgender Women in Puerto Rico: An Underestimated Problem|journal=Journal of Homosexuality|volume=64|issue=2|pages=209–217|doi=10.1080/00918369.2016.1174026|issn=0091-8369|pmc=5546874|pmid=27054395}}</ref>

[[Trans woman|Trans women]] in the United States have encountered the subject of anti-trans stigma, which includes criminalization, dehumanization, and violence against those who identify as transgender. From a societal standpoint, a trans person can be victim to the stigma due to lack of family support, issues with health care and social services, [[police brutality]], discrimination in the work place, cultural marginalisation, poverty, sexual assault, assault, bullying, and mental trauma. The [[Human Rights Campaign]] tracked over 128 cases{{Clarify|reason=so it was 129 cases? or...?}} that ended in fatality against transgender people in the US from 2013 to 2018, of which eighty percent included a trans woman of color. In the US, high rates of [[Intimate partner violence|Intimate Partner violence]] impact trans women differently because they are facing discrimination from police and health providers, and alienation from family. In 2018, it was reported that 77 percent of transgender people who were linked to sex work and 72 percent of transgender people who were homeless, were victims of intimate partner violence.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hrc.org/resources/a-national-epidemic-fatal-anti-transgender-violence-in-america-in-2018/|title=A National Epidemic: Fatal Anti-Transgender Violence in America|last=Campaign|first=Human Rights|website=Human Rights Campaign|language=en|access-date=2019-02-25|archive-date=2019-03-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190301202408/https://www.hrc.org/resources/a-national-epidemic-fatal-anti-transgender-violence-in-america-in-2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Reproductive and sexual health and rights====
{{Main|Reproductive health|Reproductive rights}}
{{Further|Forced sterilization|Forced pregnancy|Forced abortion}}
[[File:Maternal mortality rate worldwide.jpg|thumb|Global maternal mortality rate per 100 000 live births (2010)<ref name=CIA>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2223rank.html |title=Country Comparison: Maternal Mortality Rate |website=Central Intelligence Agency |access-date=April 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201209080903/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2223rank.html |archive-date=December 9, 2020}}</ref>]]
[[File:Maternal health (4798750001).jpg|thumb|In 2010, [[Sierra Leone]] launched free healthcare for pregnant and breastfeeding women]]
[[File:Guangzhou-family-planning-posters-0532.jpg|thumb|left|A wall along a residential lane in [[Guangzhou]], [[China]], with family planning posters stressing the importance of balanced sex-ratios, in order to prevent [[sex-selective abortion]]]]

The importance of women having the right and possibility to have control over their body, reproduction decisions, and sexuality, and the need for gender equality in order to achieve these goals are recognized as crucial by the [[Fourth World Conference on Women]] in Beijing and the UN [[International Conference on Population and Development]] Program of Action. The World Health Organization (WHO) has stated that promotion of gender equality is crucial in the fight against [[HIV/AIDS]].<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/gender/hiv_aids/en/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030727141344/http://www.who.int/gender/hiv_aids/en/|url-status=dead|archive-date=July 27, 2003|title=WHO: World Health Organization|website=Who.int|access-date=14 June 2015}}</ref>

[[Maternal mortality]] is a major problem in many parts of the world. [[UNFPA]] states that countries have an obligation to protect women's [[right to health]], but many countries do not do that.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|url=https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/reducing_mm.pdf|title=Reducing Maternal Mortality: The contribution of the right to the highest attainable standard of health|last1=Hunt|first1=Paul|last2=Mezquita de Bueno|first2=Julia|publisher=University of Essex|year=2010|location=United Nations Population Fund|access-date=2017-03-28|archive-date=2017-11-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107032623/http://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/reducing_mm.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Maternal mortality is considered today not just an issue of development but also an issue of [[human rights]].{{Refn|[[UNFPA]] says that, "since 1990, the world has seen a 45 per cent decline in maternal mortality – an enormous achievement. But in spite of these gains, almost 800 women still die every day from causes related to pregnancy or childbirth. This is about one woman every two minutes."<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite news|url=http://www.unfpa.org/maternal-health|title=Maternal health: UNFPA – United Nations Population Fund|newspaper=United Nations Population Fund|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=29 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129122355/https://www.unfpa.org/maternal-health|url-status=live}}</ref> According to UNFPA:<ref name=":3" />

:"Preventable maternal mortality occurs where there is a failure to give effect to the rights of women to health, equality, and non-discrimination. Preventable maternal mortality also often represents a violation of a woman's right to life."|group=lower-roman}}

The right to reproductive and sexual autonomy is denied to women in many parts of the world, through practices such as [[forced sterilization]], forced/coerced sexual partnering (e.g. [[forced marriage]], [[child marriage]]), criminalization of consensual sexual acts (such as [[sex outside marriage]]), lack of criminalization of [[marital rape]], violence in regard to the choice of partner ([[honor killings]] as punishment for 'inappropriate' relations).{{Refn|Amnesty International's Secretary General has stated that: "It is unbelievable that in the twenty-first century some countries are condoning child marriage and marital rape while others are outlawing abortion, sex outside marriage and same-sex sexual activity – even punishable by death."<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/news/sexual-and-reproductive-rights-under-threat-worldwide-2014-03-06|title=Sexual and reproductive rights under threat worldwide|publisher=Amnesty International|date=March 6, 2014|access-date=2014-07-15|archive-date=2014-12-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141206225115/http://www.amnesty.org/en/news/sexual-and-reproductive-rights-under-threat-worldwide-2014-03-06|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}} The sexual health of women is often poor in societies where a woman's right to control her sexuality is not recognized.{{Refn|High Commissioner for Human Rights [[Navi Pillay]] has called for full respect and recognition of women's autonomy and sexual and reproductive health rights, stating:

:"Violations of women's human rights are often linked to their sexuality and reproductive role. Women are frequently treated as property, they are sold into marriage, into trafficking, into sexual slavery. Violence against women frequently takes the form of sexual violence. Victims of such violence are often accused of promiscuity and held responsible for their fate, while infertile women are rejected by husbands, families, and communities. In many countries, married women may not refuse to have sexual relations with their husbands, and often have no say in whether they use contraception."<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://www.chr.up.ac.za/images/files/news/news_2012/Navi%20Pillay%20Lecture%2015%20May%202012.pdf|title=Valuing Women as Autonomous Beings: Women's sexual and reproductive rights|last=Pillay|first=Navi|date=May 15, 2012|website=University of Pretoria, Centre for Human Rights|access-date=July 15, 2014|archive-date=March 13, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313210726/http://www.chr.up.ac.za/images/files/news/news_2012/Navi%20Pillay%20Lecture%2015%20May%202012.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>
These practices infringe on the right of achieving reproductive and sexual health.|group=lower-roman}}

[[Adolescent]] girls have the highest risk of sexual coercion, sexual ill health, and negative reproductive outcomes. The risks they face are higher than those of boys and men; this increased risk is partly due to gender inequity (different socialization of boys and girls, gender based violence, child marriage) and partly due to biological factors.{{Refn|Females' risk of acquiring sexually transmitted infections during unprotected sexual relations is two to four times that of males'.<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://www.unfpa.org/resources/giving-special-attention-girls-and-adolescents|title=Giving Special Attention to Girls and Adolescents|website=Unfpa.org|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=7 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150707005611/http://www.unfpa.org/resources/giving-special-attention-girls-and-adolescents|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}

=====Family planning and abortion=====
[[File:Familiy Planning Ethiopia (bad effects).jpg|thumb|Placard showing negative effects of lack of family planning and having too many [[child]]ren and [[infant]]s ([[Ethiopia]])]]
[[File:Familyplanningmalaysia.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|left|A family planning facility in Kuala Terengganu, [[Malaysia]]]]
[[Family planning]] is the practice of freely deciding the number of children one has and the intervals between their births, particularly by means of contraception or voluntary sterilization. Abortion is the induced termination of pregnancy. [[Abortion law]]s vary significantly by country. The availability of contraception, sterilization and abortion is dependent on laws, as well as social, cultural and religious norms. Some countries have liberal laws regarding these issues, but in practice it is very difficult to access such services due to doctors, pharmacists and other social and medical workers being [[conscientious objector]]s.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/mar/11/italian-gynaecologists-refuse-abortions-miscarriages|title=Seven in 10 Italian gynaecologists refuse to carry out abortions|first1=Stephanie Kirchgaessner Pamela|last1=Duncan|first2=Alberto|last2=Nardelli|first3=Delphine|last3=Robineau|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=20 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190420115157/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/mar/11/italian-gynaecologists-refuse-abortions-miscarriages|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/doctors-refusal-to-perform-abortions-divides-croatia-02-13-2017 |title=Doctors' Refusal to Perform Abortions Divides Croatia |website=Balkan Insight |access-date=14 November 2017 |archive-date=2018-11-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181116141407/http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/doctors-refusal-to-perform-abortions-divides-croatia-02-13-2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> Family planning is particularly important from a women's rights perspective, as having very many pregnancies, especially in areas where malnutrition is present, can seriously endanger women's health. UNFA writes that "Family planning is central to gender equality and women's empowerment, and it is a key factor in reducing poverty".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unfpa.org/family-planning|title=Family planning: UNFPA – United Nations Population Fund|website=Unfpa.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=30 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330132526/https://www.unfpa.org/family-planning|url-status=live}}</ref>

Family planning is often opposed by governments who have strong [[natalist]] policies. During the 20th century, such examples have included the aggressive natalist policies from [[communist Romania]] and [[communist Albania]]. State mandated [[forced marriage]] was also practiced by some authoritarian governments as a way to meet population targets: the [[Khmer Rouge]] regime in [[Cambodia]] systematically forced people into marriages, in order to increase the population and continue the revolution.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.d.dccam.org/Abouts/Intern/Natalae_Forced_marriage.pdf|first=Natalae|last=Anderson|title=Documentation Center of Cambodia, ''Memorandum: Charging Forced Marriage as a Crime Against Humanity,''|website=D.dccam.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=20 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020153617/http://www.d.dccam.org/Abouts/Intern/Natalae_Forced_marriage.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> By contrast, the [[one child policy|one-child policy]] of China (1979–2015) included punishments for families with more than one child and [[forced abortion]]s. The fine is so-called "social maintenance fee" and it is the punishment for the families who have more than one child. According to the policy, the families who violate the law may bring the burden to the whole sociey. Therefore, the social maintenance fee will be used for the operation of the basic government.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jiang |first1=Quanbao |last2=Liu |first2=Yixiao |title=Low fertility and concurrent birth control policy in China |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/1081602X.2016.1213179 |journal=The History of the Family |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=551–577 |doi=10.1080/1081602X.2016.1213179 |s2cid=157905310 |issn=1081-602X}}</ref> Some governments have sought to prevent certain ethnic or social groups from reproduction. Such policies were carried out against ethnic minorities in Europe and North America in the 20th century, and more recently in Latin America against the Indigenous population in the 1990s; in [[Peru]], President [[Alberto Fujimori]] (in office from 1990 to 2000) has been accused of [[genocide]] and [[crimes against humanity]] as a result of a sterilization program put in place by his administration targeting indigenous people (mainly the [[Quechua people|Quechuas]] and the [[Aymara people|Aymaras]]).<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/2148793.stm|title=Mass sterilisation scandal shocks Peru|website=News.bbc.co.uk|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=21 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190521121426/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/2148793.stm|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Investigation and prosecution of crimes against women and girls====
Human rights organizations have expressed concern about the legal [[impunity]] of perpetrators of crimes against women, with such crimes being often ignored by authorities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/ImpunityForVAWGlobalConcern.aspx|title=Impunity for violence against women is a global concern|website=Ohchr.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=10 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810113251/https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/ImpunityForVAWGlobalConcern.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref> This is especially the case with murders of women in [[Latin America]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cedaw/docs/ngos/CDDandCMDPDH_forthesession_Mexico_CEDAW52.pdf|title=Femicide and Impunity in Mexico: A context of structural and generalized violence|website=2.ohchr.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=24 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210424140151/https://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cedaw/docs/ngos/CDDandCMDPDH_forthesession_Mexico_CEDAW52.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unwomen.org/en/news/stories/2013/4/femicide-in-latin-america|title=Femicide in Latin America|website=Unwomen.org|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=7 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171207042250/http://www.unwomen.org/en/news/stories/2013/4/femicide-in-latin-america|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://cgrs.uchastings.edu/our-work/central-america-femicides-and-gender-based-violence|title=Central America: Femicides and Gender-Based Violence|website=Cgrs.uchastings.edu|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=14 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714224933/http://cgrs.uchastings.edu/our-work/central-america-femicides-and-gender-based-violence|url-status=live}}</ref> In particular, there is impunity in regard to [[domestic violence]].{{Refn|High Commissioner for Human Rights, [[Navi Pillay]], has stated on domestic violence against women: "The reality for most victims, including victims of honor killings, is that state institutions fail them and that most perpetrators of domestic violence can rely on a culture of impunity for the acts they commit – acts which would often be considered as crimes, and be punished as such, if they were committed against strangers."<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/en/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=9869&LangID=E|title=High Commissioner speaks out against domestic violence and "honour killing" on occasion of International Women's Day"|website=Ohchr.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=14 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714182718/http://www.ohchr.org/en/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=9869&LangID=E|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}

Women are often, in law or in practice, unable to access legal institutions. UN Women has said that: "Too often, justice institutions, including the police and the courts, deny women justice".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://progress.unwomen.org/|title=Progress of the World's Women 2015–2016|website=My Favorite News|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=23 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150423135248/http://progress.unwomen.org/|url-status=live}}</ref> Often, women are denied legal recourse because the state institutions themselves are structured and operate in ways incompatible with genuine justice for women who experience violence.{{Refn|According to Amnesty International, "Women who are victims of gender-related violence often have little recourse because many state agencies are themselves guilty of gender bias and discriminatory practices."<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://www.amnestyusa.org/our-work/issues/women-s-rights/violence-against-women/violence-against-women-information|title=Violence Against Women Information|website=Amnesty International USA|access-date=2015-12-19|archive-date=2016-04-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160404225053/http://www.amnestyusa.org/our-work/issues/women-s-rights/violence-against-women/violence-against-women-information|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}

====Harmful traditional practices====
[[File:Say no to dowry.jpg|thumb|Anti-dowry poster in [[Bangalore, India|Bangalore]], India]]
[[File:FGM prevalence UNICEF 2016.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|alt=map|FGM in Africa, Iraqi Kurdistan and Yemen, as of 2015 ([[Special:Filepath/AfricaCIA-HiRes.jpg|map of Africa]]).<ref name=UNICEF2016/>]]
"Harmful traditional practices" refer to forms of violence which are committed in certain communities often enough to become cultural practice, and accepted for that reason. Young women are the main victims of such acts, although men can be affected.<ref name="NHS Traditional">{{cite web|url=http://www.gbv.scot.nhs.uk/gbv/harmful-traditional-practices|title=National Gender Based Violence & Health Programme|website=Gbv.scot.nhs.uk|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=8 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141208001701/http://www.gbv.scot.nhs.uk/gbv/harmful-traditional-practices|url-status=live}}</ref> They occur in an environment where women and girls have unequal rights and opportunities.<ref name="ohchr.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/FactSheet23en.pdf|title=Fact Sheet No.23, Harmful Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of Women and Children|website=Ohchr.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=10 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190910231123/https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/FactSheet23en.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
These practices include, according to the [[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights]]:<ref name="ohchr.org" />

{{Blockquote|[[female genital mutilation]] (FGM); forced feeding of women; early marriage; the various taboos or practices which prevent women from controlling their own fertility; nutritional taboos and traditional birth practices; son preference and its implications for the status of the girl child; female infanticide; early pregnancy; and dowry price}}

Son preference refers to a cultural preference for sons over daughters, and manifests itself through practices such as sex selective abortion; female infanticide; or abandonment, neglect or abuse of girl-children.<ref name="ohchr.org" />

Abuses regarding nutrition are taboos in regard to certain foods, which result in poor nutrition of women, and may endanger their health, especially if pregnant.<ref name="ohchr.org" />

The [[caste system in India]] which leads to [[untouchability]] (the practice of ostracizing a group by segregating them from the mainstream society) often interacts with gender discrimination, leading to a double discrimination faced by [[Dalit]] women.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cerd/docs/ngos/chrgj-hrw.pdf|title=CASTE DISCRIMINATION AGAINST DALITS OR SO-CALLED UNTOUCHABLES IN INDIA|website=2.ohchr.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=28 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180728154019/http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cerd/docs/ngos/chrgj-hrw.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> In a 2014 survey, 27% of Indians admitted to practicing untouchability.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/one-in-four-indians-admit-to-practising-untouchability-biggest-caste-survey/|title=Biggest caste survey: One in four Indians admit to practising untouchability|newspaper=[[The Indian Express]]|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=18 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171218114401/http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/one-in-four-indians-admit-to-practising-untouchability-biggest-caste-survey/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Traditional customs regarding birth sometimes endanger the mothers. Births in parts of Africa are often attended by traditional birth attendants (TBAs), who sometimes perform rituals that are dangerous to the health of the mother. In many societies, a difficult labour is believed to be a divine punishment for marital infidelity, and such women face abuse and are pressured to "confess" to the infidelity.<ref name="ohchr.org" />

Tribal traditions can be harmful to males; for instance, the [[Satere-Mawe]] tribe use [[bullet ant]]s as an [[initiation rite]]. Men must wear gloves with hundreds of bullet ants woven in for ten minutes: the ants' stings cause severe pain and paralysis. This experience must be completed twenty times for boys to be considered "warriors".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/travel/Holidays/Wildlife/article77936.ece|title=Bitten by the Amazon|last=Backshall|first=Steve|newspaper=The Sunday Times|location=London|access-date=13 July 2013|archive-date=22 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222144437/http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/travel/Holidays/Wildlife/article77936.ece|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Other harmful traditional practices include [[marriage by abduction]], ritualized [[sexual slavery]] ([[Devadasi]], [[Trokosi]]), [[breast ironing]] and [[widow inheritance]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.krepublishers.com/02-Journals/T-Anth/Anth-13-0-000-11-Web/Anth-13-2-000-11-Abst-Pdf/Anth-13-2-121-11-720-Wadesango-N/Anth-13-2-121-11-720-Wadesango-N-Tt.pdf|title=Violation of Women's Rights by Harmful Traditional Practices|first1=Newman|last1=Wadesango|first2=Symphorosa|last2=Rembe|first3=Owence|last3=Chabaya|website=Krepublishers.com|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=24 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181024141418/http://www.krepublishers.com/02-Journals/T-Anth/Anth-13-0-000-11-Web/Anth-13-2-000-11-Abst-Pdf/Anth-13-2-121-11-720-Wadesango-N/Anth-13-2-121-11-720-Wadesango-N-Tt.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/egm/elim-disc-viol-girlchild/ExpertPapers/EP.4%20%20%20Raswork.pdf|title=The impact of harmful traditional practices on the girl child|website=Un.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=3 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190703173157/https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/egm/elim-disc-viol-girlchild/ExpertPapers/EP.4%20%20%20Raswork.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/CEDAW/HarmfulPractices/GenderEmpowermentandDevelopment.pdf|title=Breast Ironing... A Harmful Practice That Has Been Silenced For Too Long|website=Ohchr.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=26 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150226024853/http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/CEDAW/HarmfulPractices/GenderEmpowermentandDevelopment.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kit.nl/net/KIT_Publicaties_output/ShowFile2.aspx?e=1415|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819085837/http://www.kit.nl/net/KIT_Publicaties_output/ShowFile2.aspx?e=1415|url-status=dead|archive-date=19 August 2014|title=Exchange on HIV/AIDS, Sexuality and Gender|access-date=14 November 2017}}</ref>

=====Female genital mutilation=====
[[File:Campaign road sign against female genital mutilation (cropped) 2.jpg|thumb|left|Road sign near [[Kapchorwa]], [[Uganda]], 2004]]
[[UNFPA]] and [[UNICEF]] regard the practice of [[female genital mutilation]] as "a manifestation of deeply entrenched gender inequality. It persists for many reasons. In some societies, for example, it is considered a rite of passage. In others, it is seen as a prerequisite for marriage. In some communities – whether Christian, Jewish, Muslim – the practice may even be attributed to religious beliefs."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unfpa.org/female-genital-mutilation|title=Female genital mutilation|website=United Nations Population Fund|access-date=April 25, 2021|archive-date=May 27, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190527085515/https://www.unfpa.org/female-genital-mutilation|url-status=live}}</ref>

An estimated 125 million women and girls living today have undergone FGM in the 29 countries where data exist. Of these, about half live in Egypt and Ethiopia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unfpa.org/publications/unfpa-unicef-joint-programme-female-genital-mutilationcutting-accelerating-change|title=UNFPA-UNICEF Joint Programme on Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: Accelerating Change|website=Unfpa.org|access-date=4 April 2017|archive-date=9 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170409002244/http://www.unfpa.org/publications/unfpa-unicef-joint-programme-female-genital-mutilationcutting-accelerating-change|url-status=live}}</ref> It is most commonly carried out on girls between infancy and 15 years old.<ref name="NHS Traditional" />

=====Forced marriage and child marriage=====
[[File:Girl Summit - 22nd July in London (14498368279).jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|left|Poster against child and forced marriage]]
{{Main|Forced marriage|Child marriage}}
Early marriage, child marriage or [[forced marriage]] is prevalent in parts of Asia and Africa. The majority of victims seeking advice are female and aged between 18 and 23.<ref name="NHS Traditional" /> Such marriages can have harmful effects on a girl's education and development, and may expose girls to social isolation or abuse.<ref name="ohchr.org" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unicef.org/protection/57929_58008.html|title=Child marriage|website=UNICEF|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=7 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180907061839/https://www.unicef.org/protection/57929_58008.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/topic/womens-rights/child-marriage|title=Child Marriage|website=Human Rights Watch|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=12 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180712041122/https://www.hrw.org/topic/womens-rights/child-marriage|url-status=live}}</ref>

The 2013 UN Resolution on Child, Early and Forced Marriage calls for an end to the practice, and states that "Recognizing that child, early and forced marriage is a harmful practice that violates abuses, or impairs human rights and is linked to and perpetuates other harmful practices and human rights violations, that these violations have a disproportionately negative impact on women and girls [...]".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/pmnch/media/events/2014/child_marriage.pdf?ua=1|format=PDF|title=Resolution adopted by the General Assembly : 69/XX. Child, Early and Forced Marriage|website=Who.int|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=20 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020153359/http://www.who.int/pmnch/media/events/2014/child_marriage.pdf?ua=1|url-status=live}}</ref> Despite a near-universal commitment by governments to end child marriage, "one in three girls in developing countries (excluding China) will probably be married before they are 18."<ref name="unfpa.org2">{{cite web|url=http://www.unfpa.org/end-child-marriage|title=End Child Marriage|website=UNFPA – United Nations Population Fund|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=14 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150714002638/http://www.unfpa.org/end-child-marriage|url-status=live}}</ref> [[UNFPA]] states that, "over 67 million women 20–24 year old in 2010 had been married as girls. Half were in Asia, one-fifth in Africa. In the next decade 14.2 million girls under 18 will be married every year; this translates into 39,000 girls married each day. This will rise to an average of 15.1 million girls a year, starting in 2021 until 2030, if present trends continue."<ref name="unfpa.org2" />

=====Bride price=====
{{Main|Bride price}}
[[Bride price]] (also called bridewealth or bride token) is money, property, or other form of wealth paid by a groom or his family to the parents of the bride. This custom often leads to women having reduced ability to control their fertility. For instance, in northern Ghana, the payment of bride price signifies a woman's requirement to bear children, and women using birth control face threats, violence and reprisals.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.popcouncil.org/uploads/pdfs/councilarticles/sfp/SFP301Bawah.pdf|title=Women's Fears and Men's Anxieties : The Impact of Family Planning on Gender Relations in Northern Ghana|website=Popcouncil.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=20 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190420115200/https://www.popcouncil.org/research/womens-fears-and-mens-anxieties-the-impact-of-family-planning-on-gender-rel|url-status=live}}</ref> The custom of bride price has been criticized as contributing to the mistreatment of women in marriage, and preventing them from leaving abusive marriages. [[UN Women]] recommended its abolition, and stated that: "Legislation should ... State that divorce shall not be contingent upon the return of bride price but such provisions shall not be interpreted to limit women's right to divorce; State that a perpetrator of [[domestic violence]], including marital rape, cannot use the fact that he paid bride price as a defence to a domestic violence charge."<ref name="ReferenceB"/>

The custom of bride price can also curtail the free movement of women: if a wife wants to leave her husband, he may demand back the bride price that he had paid to the woman's family; and the woman's family often cannot or does not want to pay it back, making it difficult for women to move out of violent husbands' homes.<ref>{{cite web|title=Equality Now (2007) Protecting the girl child: Using the law to end child, early and forced marriage and related human rights violations|url=http://www.equalitynow.org/sites/default/files/Protecting_the_Girl_Child.pdf|website=Equalitynow.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=28 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150528120452/http://www.equalitynow.org/sites/default/files/Protecting_the_Girl_Child.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Lelieveld, M.|title=Child protection in the Somali region of Ethiopia. A report for the BRIDGES project Piloting the delivery of quality education services in the developing regional states of Ethiopia|access-date=17 April 2015|url=http://www.savethechildren.org.uk/sites/default/files/docs/FINALChild_Protection_in_the_Somali_Region_30511.pdf|website=Savethechildren.org.uk|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924095119/http://www.savethechildren.org.uk/sites/default/files/docs/FINALChild_Protection_in_the_Somali_Region_30511.pdf|archive-date=24 September 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Stange, Mary Zeiss, and Carol K. Oyster, Jane E. Sloan|title=Encyclopedia of Women in Today's World, Volume 1|year=2011|publisher=SAGE|isbn=9781412976855|page=496}}</ref>

===Economy and public policy===
====Economic empowerment of women====
{{Main|Women in the workforce|Female economic activity}}[[File:EU 27 Gender Pay Gap 2014.png|thumb|upright=1.35|alt=Bar graph showing the gender pay gap in European countries|[[Gender pay gap]] in average gross hourly earnings in the [[European Union|EU]] member states, according to [[Eurostat]] 2014<ref name="EC stats">{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/justice/gender-equality/gender-pay-gap/situation-europe/index_en.htm|title=The situation in the EU|publisher=[[European Commission]]|access-date=July 12, 2011|archive-date=December 19, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171219234951/http://ec.europa.eu/justice/gender-equality/gender-pay-gap/situation-europe/index_en.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>{{failed verification}}]]
Promoting gender equality is seen as an encouragement to greater [[Prosperity|economic prosperity]].<ref name="Smart" />{{Refn|For example, nations of the [[Arab world]] that deny equality of opportunity to women were warned in a 2008 [[United Nations]]-sponsored report that this disempowerment is a critical factor crippling these nations' return to the first rank of global leaders in commerce, [[Education|learning]], and [[culture]].<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=20879#.WNpwsRLyub8|title=Gender equality in Arab world critical for progress and prosperity, UN report warns|date=2006-12-07|website=UN News Service Section|language=en|access-date=2017-03-28|archive-date=2017-03-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170329142215/http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=20879#.WNpwsRLyub8|url-status=live}}</ref> That is, Western bodies are less likely to conduct commerce with nations in the Middle East that retain culturally accepted attitudes towards the status and function of women in their society in an effort to [[cultural globalization|force them to change their beliefs]] in the face of relatively underdeveloped economies.|group=lower-roman}} [[Female economic activity]] is a common measure of gender equality in an economy.{{Refn|[[UN Women]] states that: "Investing in women's economic empowerment sets a direct path towards gender equality, poverty eradication and inclusive economic growth."<ref name="unwomen.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.unwomen.org/ru/what-we-do/economic-empowerment|title=What we do: Economic empowerment: UN Women – Headquarters|website=headQuarters|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=25 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170825221217/http://www.unwomen.org/ru/what-we-do/economic-empowerment|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}
[[File:Why diversity is important in local government.webm|thumb|A government video: Why diversity is important in local government]]

Gender discrimination often results in women obtaining low-wage jobs and being disproportionately affected by poverty, discrimination and exploitation.<ref name="unwomen.org" />{{Refn|The [[UN Population Fund]] says that, "Six out of 10 of the world's poorest people are women. Economic disparities persist partly because much of the unpaid work within families and communities falls on the shoulders of women, and because women continue to face discrimination in the economic sphere."<ref name="unfpa.org1" />|group=lower-roman}} A growing body of research documents what works to economically empower women, from providing access to formal financial services to training on agricultural and business management practices, though more research is needed across a variety of contexts to confirm the effectiveness of these interventions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.womeneconroadmap.org/|title=Roadmap for Promoting Women's Economic Empowerment|website=Womeneconroadmap.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=7 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181007115204/http://www.womeneconroadmap.org/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Gender biases also exist in product and service provision.<ref name=":0">{{Citation|last=Harvard Law Review Association|title=Civil rights – gender discrimination: California prohibits gender-based pricing}}</ref> The term "Women's Tax", also known as "[[Pink tax|Pink Tax]]", refers to gendered pricing in which products or services marketed to women are more expensive than similar products marketed to men. [[Gender-based price discrimination]] involves companies selling almost identical units of the same product or service at comparatively different prices, as determined by the target market. Studies have found that women pay about $1,400 a year more than men due to gendered discriminatory pricing. Although the "pink tax" of different goods and services is not uniform, overall women pay more for commodities that result in visual evidence of feminine body image.<ref>{{Cite journal|last2=Grauerholz|first2=Liz|last3=Weichsel|first3=Rebecca|last4=Guittar|first4=Nicholas A.|year=2011|title=The Cost of Doing Femininity: Gendered Disparities in Pricing of Personal Care Products and Services|journal=Gender Issues|volume=28|issue=4|pages=175–191|doi=10.1007/s12147-011-9106-3|first1=Megan|last1=Duesterhaus|s2cid=145812818}}</ref>{{Refn|For example, studies have shown that women are charged more for services especially tailoring, hair cutting and laundering.<ref name=":0" />|group=lower-roman}}

In addition, gender wage gap is a phenomenon of gender biases. That means women do the same job or work with their male counterpart, but they could not receive the same salary or opportunity at workforce.<ref name="ReferenceC"/> Across the [[European Union]], for example, since women continue to hold lower-paying jobs, they earn 13% less than men on average. According to European Quality of Life Survey and European Working Conditions Survey data, women in the European Union work more hours but for less pay. Adult men (including the retired) work an average of 23 hours per week, compared to 15 hours for women.

Women continue to earn around 25% less than males. Almost a billion women are unable to obtain loans to establish a company or create a bank account in order to save money.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |title=Bridging the Gender Gap in Access to Finance |url=https://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/NEWS_EXT_CONTENT/IFC_External_Corporate_Site/News+and+Events/News/Bridging+the+Gender+Gap+in+Access+to+Finance |access-date=2023-02-28 |website=www.ifc.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite web |title=Expanding Women's Access to Financial Services |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/results/2013/04/01/banking-on-women-extending-womens-access-to-financial-services |access-date=2023-02-28 |website=World Bank |language=en}}</ref> Increasing women's equality in banking and the workplace might boost the global economy by up to $28 trillion by 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Women's solutions stories create a world where everyone thrives |url=https://www.eib.org/en/stories/women-solutions-stories |access-date=2023-02-28 |website=European Investment Bank |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":02" /><ref name=":12" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Feloni |first=Richard |title=If we closed the gender gap by 2025, the global economy could see a $28 trillion windfall |url=https://www.businessinsider.nl/closing-gender-gap-could-add-as-much-as-28-trillion-to-global-economy-2019-3/ |access-date=2023-02-28 |website=Business Insider Nederland |language=nl}}</ref> Funding is becoming more available for this, for example with the European Investment Bank establishing the SheInvest program in 2020 with the goal of raising €1 billion in investments to assist women in obtaining loans and running enterprises across Africa.<ref name=":03">{{Cite web |title=Women's solutions stories create a world where everyone thrives |url=https://www.eib.org/en/stories/women-solutions-stories |access-date=2023-02-28 |website=European Investment Bank |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Boosting gender equality around the world: EIB expands SheInvest initiative and strengthens cooperation with Development Bank of Rwanda |url=https://www.eib.org/en/press/all/2022-411-boosting-gender-equality-around-the-world-eib-expands-sheinvest-initiative-and-strengthens-cooperation-with-development-bank-of-rwanda |access-date=2023-02-28 |website=European Investment Bank |language=en}}</ref>

The European Investment Bank funded an additional €2 billion in gender-lens investment in Africa, Asia, and Latin America at the Finance in Common Summit at the end of 2022.<ref name=":03" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Boosting gender equality around the world: European Investment Bank expands SheInvest initiative.... |url=https://www.businessghana.com/ |access-date=2023-02-28 |website=BusinessGhana}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Finance in Common FICS Progress Report |url=https://financeincommon.org/sites/default/files/2022-10/Finance%20in%20Common%20Progress%20Report%202022.pdf}}</ref>

====Gendered arrangements of work and care====
{{Main|Women's work|Gender role}}
Since the 1950s, social scientists as well as feminists have increasingly criticized gendered arrangements of work and care and the male breadwinner role. Policies are increasingly targeting men as fathers as a tool of changing gender relations.<ref>{{cite journal|year=2014|title=Changing men, changing times; fathers and sons from an experimental gender equality study|url=http://www.margunnbjornholt.no/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/Changing-men-changing-times-fathers-and-sons-from-an-experimental-gender-equality-study.pdf|journal=[[The Sociological Review]]|volume=62|issue=2|pages=295–315|doi=10.1111/1467-954X.12156|last1=Bjørnholt|first1=M.|s2cid=143048732|author-link1=Margunn Bjørnholt|access-date=2014-09-11|archive-date=2018-10-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181021020857/http://www.margunnbjornholt.no/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/Changing-men-changing-times-fathers-and-sons-from-an-experimental-gender-equality-study.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[Shared earning/shared parenting marriage]], that is, a relationship where the partners collaborate at sharing their responsibilities inside and outside of the home, is often encouraged in Western countries.<ref name="Vachon">{{cite book|title=Equally Shared Parenting|last=Vachon|first=Marc and Amy|publisher=Perigree Trade|year=2010|isbn=978-0-399-53651-9|location=United States|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/equallysharedpar0000vach}}; {{cite book|title=Halving It All: How Equally Shared Parenting Works|url=https://archive.org/details/halvingitallhowe00deut|url-access=registration|author-link1=Francine Deutsch|last=Deutsch|first=Francine|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-00209-8}}; {{cite book|title=Love Between Equals: How Peer Marriage Really Works|last=Schwartz|first=Pepper|publisher=Touchstone|isbn=978-0-02-874061-4}}</ref>

Western countries with a strong emphasis on women fulfilling the role of homemakers, rather than a professional role, include parts of German speaking Europe (i.e. parts of Germany, Austria and Switzerland); as well as the Netherlands and Ireland.{{Refn|In 2011, [[Jose Manuel Barroso]], then president of the [[European Commission]], stated "Germany, but also Austria and the Netherlands, should look at the example of the northern countries [...] that means removing obstacles for women, older workers, foreigners and low-skilled job-seekers to get into the workforce".<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web |url=http://www.dw.com/en/germanys-persistently-low-birthrate-gets-marginal-boost/a-15325123-0 |title=Germany's persistently low birthrate gets marginal boost |date=18 August 2011 |website=Deutsche Welle |access-date=14 November 2017 |archive-date=15 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115082907/http://www.dw.com/en/germanys-persistently-low-birthrate-gets-marginal-boost/a-15325123-0 |url-status=live }}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}{{Refn|The Netherlands and Ireland are among the last Western countries to accept women as professionals; despite the Netherlands having an image as progressive on gender issues, women in the Netherlands work less in paid employment than women in other comparable Western countries. In the early 1980s, the Commission of the [[European Communities]] report ''Women in the European Community'', found that the Netherlands and Ireland had the lowest labour participation of married women and the most public disapproval of it.<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web |quote=It is in the Netherlands (17.6%) and in Ireland (13.6%) that we see the smallest numbers of married women working and the least acceptance of this phenomenon by the general public |page=14 |url=http://aei.pitt.edu/4560/1/4560.pdf |title=Women in the European Community |date=1984 |access-date=2016-04-08 |archive-date=2015-11-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117014109/http://aei.pitt.edu/4560/1/4560.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}{{Refn|In Ireland, until 1973, there was a [[marriage bar]].<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=https://martindale.cc.lehigh.edu/sites/martindale.cc.lehigh.edu/files/Patterson.pdf|title=Martindale Center – Lehigh Business|website=Martindale.cc.lehigh.edu|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=8 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151008154655/https://martindale.cc.lehigh.edu/sites/martindale.cc.lehigh.edu/files/Patterson.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}{{Refn|In the Netherlands, from the 1990s onwards, the numbers of women entering the workplace have increased, but with most of the women [[part time job|working part time]]. As of 2014, the Netherlands and Switzerland were the only OECD members where most employed women worked part-time,<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web |url=http://www.oecd.org/els/soc/LMF_1_6_Gender_differences_in_employment_outcomes.pdf |title=LMF1.6: Gender differences in employment Outcomes |website=OECD - Social Policy Division |access-date=April 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304071301/http://www.oecd.org/els/soc/LMF_1_6_Gender_differences_in_employment_outcomes.pdf |archive-date=March 4, 2016}}</ref> while in the United Kingdom, women made up two-thirds of workers on long term sick leave, despite making up only half of the workforce and even after excluding maternity leave.<ref group=upper-roman>{{Cite news|title=Women make up two-thirds of workers on long-term sick leave|last=Watts|first=Joseph|work=[[London Evening Standard]]|page=10}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}} In the computer technology world of [[Silicon Valley]] in the United States, ''[[New York Times]]'' reporter [[Nellie Bowles]] has covered harassment and bias against women as well as a backlash against female equality.<ref name=twsNYTimes11>{{cite news |first=Nellie |last=Bowles |website=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/23/technology/silicon-valley-men-backlash-gender-scandals.html |title=Push for Gender Equality in Tech? Some Men Say It's Gone Too Far |quote=...Silicon Valley has for years accommodated a fringe element of men who say women are ruining the tech world.... backlash against the women in technology movement ... surveys show there is no denying the travails women face in the male-dominated industry ... |access-date=April 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170923161814/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/23/technology/silicon-valley-men-backlash-gender-scandals.html |archive-date=September 23, 2017}}</ref><ref name=twsWillamette101>{{cite web |first=Thacher |last=Schmid |website=Willamette Week |url=http://www.wweek.com/technology/2018/03/12/while-startups-increasingly-move-to-portland-a-new-york-times-reporter-warns-that-theres-a-gender-problem-in-tech/ |title=While Startups Increasingly Move to Portland, a New York Times Reporter Warns That There's a "Gender Problem" in Tech |quote=...Bowles has written a number of groundbreaking stories on the "gender problem" in tech, including a profile of a "contrarian" fringe element of men leading a backlash against women asserting their rights.... |access-date=April 25, 2021 |archive-date=March 12, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210312095939/https://www.wweek.com/technology/2018/03/12/while-startups-increasingly-move-to-portland-a-new-york-times-reporter-warns-that-theres-a-gender-problem-in-tech/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Females are underrepresented in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) at all levels of society. Fewer females are completing STEM school subjects, graduating with STEM degrees, being employed as STEM professionals, and holding senior leadership and academic positions in STEM. This problem is exacerbated by the gender pay gap; family role expectations; lack of visible role models or mentors; discrimination and harassment; and bias in hiring and promotion practices.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ward |first1=Jodie |last2=Johnson |first2=Rebecca N. |last3=Wilson-Wilde |first3=Linzi |title=Gender equity: how do the forensic sciences fare? |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00450618.2019.1568556 |journal=Australian Journal of Forensic Sciences |language=en |volume=51 |issue=sup1 |pages=S263–S267 |doi=10.1080/00450618.2019.1568556 |s2cid=86587238 |issn=0045-0618}}</ref>

A key issue towards insuring gender equality in the workplace is the respecting of [[maternity rights]] and [[reproductive rights]] of women.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fawcettsociety.org.uk/Handlers/Download.ashx?IDMF=a40b96ed-8bf4-4db1-9ceb-71ca2d6fada4 |title=Modern workplaces, maternity rights, and gender equality |access-date=2016-04-26 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160509134200/http://www.fawcettsociety.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/Modern-Workplaces-Policy-Position-November-2012.pdf |archive-date=2016-05-09 |publisher = Fawcett Society |date = November 2012 }}</ref> Different countries have different rules regarding [[maternity leave]], paternity leave and [[parental leave]].{{Refn|In the [[European Union]] (EU) the policies vary significantly by country, but the EU members must abide by the minimum standards of the [[Pregnant Workers Directive]] and [[Parental Leave Directive]].<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/justice/gender-equality/rights/work-life-balance/index_en.htm|title=Professional, private and family life – European Commission|website=Ec.europa.eu|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=22 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171122183759/http://ec.europa.eu/justice/gender-equality/rights/work-life-balance/index_en.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}} Another important issue is ensuring that employed women are not ''[[de jure]]'' or ''[[de facto]]'' prevented from having a child.{{Refn|For example, some countries have enacted legislation explicitly outlawing or restricting what they view as abusive clauses in [[employment contract]]s regarding reproductive rights (such as clauses which stipulate that a woman cannot get pregnant during a specified time) rendering such contracts [[void (law)|void]] or [[voidable]].<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web |url=http://www.maastrichtuniversity.nl/web/file?uuid=d01c336a-95bd-4b7d-b291-59623c7918be&owner=8318a38b-02db-4343-8ee4-c81474278688 |title=Private Law and Fundamental Rights: a sceptical view |last=Smits |first=Jan |date=October 2006 |publisher=University of Maastricht |access-date=April 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160509070119/http://www.maastrichtuniversity.nl/web/file?uuid=d01c336a-95bd-4b7d-b291-59623c7918be&owner=8318a38b-02db-4343-8ee4-c81474278688 |archive-date=May 9, 2016}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}} In some countries, employers ask women to sign formal or informal documents stipulating that they will not get pregnant or face legal punishment.<ref>For example, {{cite web|title=Law n. 202/2002, Art. 10 (4) and Art. 37|url=http://www.dreptonline.ro/legislatie/legea_egalitatii_sanse_femei.php|website=Romanian Law Online|language=ro|access-date=2016-04-26|archive-date=2016-05-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160509000153/http://www.dreptonline.ro/legislatie/legea_egalitatii_sanse_femei.php|url-status=live}}</ref> Women often face severe violations of their reproductive rights at the hands of their employers; and the [[International Labour Organization]] classifies [[forced abortion]] coerced by the employer as [[Exploitation of labour|labour exploitation]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/@ed_norm/@declaration/documents/publication/wcms_105035.pdf|title=Details of indicators for labour exploitation|website=Ilo.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=20 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020153412/http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/@ed_norm/@declaration/documents/publication/wcms_105035.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>{{Refn|Being the victim of a forced abortion compelled by the employer was ruled a ground of obtaining [[political asylum]] in the US.<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6729339.stm|title=US asylum rule on forced abortion|website=News.bbc.co.uk|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=15 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115022913/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6729339.stm|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}} Other abuses include routine [[virginity test]]s of unmarried employed women.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dw.com/en/hrw-calls-on-indonesia-to-scrap-virginity-tests-for-female-police/a-18082547|title=HRW calls on Indonesia to scrap 'virginity tests' for female police|website=Dw.com|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=15 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115082713/http://www.dw.com/en/hrw-calls-on-indonesia-to-scrap-virginity-tests-for-female-police/a-18082547|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.igfm-muenchen.de/tibet/Phayul/2006/TWA-CEDAWReport_Aug2006_form.pdf|title=THE CONVENTION ON THE ELIMINATION OF ALL FORMS OF DISCRIMINATION AGAINST WOMEN (CEDAW)|website=Igfm-muenchen.de|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=20 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020153408/http://www.igfm-muenchen.de/tibet/Phayul/2006/TWA-CEDAWReport_Aug2006_form.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

{{See also|Parental leave#Effects on gender equality|l1=Effect of parental leave policies on gender equality}}

====Freedom of movement====
[[File:Group of Women Wearing Burkas.jpg|thumb|Women in [[Afghanistan]] wearing [[burqa]]s. Some clothes that women are required to wear, by law or custom, can restrict their movements.]]
{{Further|Freedom of movement}}
The degree to which women can participate (in law and in practice) in public life varies by culture and socioeconomic characteristics. [[Seclusion]] of women within the home was a common practice among the [[upper classes]] of many societies, and this still remains the case today in some societies. Before the 20th century it was also common in parts of Southern Europe, such as much of Spain.<ref>''Liberating Women's History:Theoretical and Critical Essays'', edited by Berenice A. Carroll, pp. 161–2</ref>

Women's [[freedom of movement]] continues to be legally restricted in some parts of the world. This restriction is often due to [[marriage laws]].{{Refn|For instance, in [[Yemen]], marriage regulations stipulate that a wife must obey her husband and must not leave home without his permission.<ref name="www2.ohchr.org" group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrc/docs/ngos/Yemen%27s%20darkside-discrimination_Yemen_HRC101.pdf|title=Yemen's Dark Side: Discrimination and violence against women and girls.|website=2.ohchr.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=26 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160326165645/http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrc/docs/ngos/Yemen%27s%20darkside-discrimination_Yemen_HRC101.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}} In some countries, women must legally be accompanied by their male guardians (such as the husband or male relative) when they leave home.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/24691034|title=Why can't women drive in Saudi Arabia?|publisher=BBC|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=5 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171105205216/http://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/24691034|url-status=live}}</ref>

The Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) states at Article 15 (4) that:
{{Blockquote|4. States Parties shall accord to men and women the same rights with regard to the law relating to the movement of persons and the freedom to choose their residence and domicile.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/text/econvention.htm |title=CEDAW 29th Session 30 June to 25 July 2003 |access-date=14 June 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110406123853/http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/text/econvention.htm |archive-date=April 6, 2011 }}</ref>}}

In addition to laws, women's freedom of movement is also restricted by social and religious norms.{{Refn|For example, [[purdah]], a religious and social practice of female seclusion prevalent among some Muslim communities in [[Afghanistan]] and [[Pakistan]] as well as upper-caste Hindus in [[North India|Northern India]], such as the [[Rajputs]], which often leads to the minimizing of the movement of women in public spaces and restrictions on their social and professional interactions;<ref name=Papanek group=upper-roman>{{cite journal | last1 = Papanek | first1 = Hanna | year = 1973 | title = Purdah: Separate Worlds and Symbolic Shelter | journal = Comparative Studies in Society and History | volume = 15 | issue = 3| pages = 289–325 | doi = 10.1017/S001041750000712X | s2cid = 144508005 }}</ref> or [[namus]], a cultural concept strongly related to [[family honor]].|group=lower-roman}} Restrictions on freedom of movement also exist due to traditional practices such as [[Baad (practice)|baad]], [[Swara (custom)|swara]], or [[Vani (custom)|vani]].{{Refn|Common especially among [[Pashtun tribes]] in Pakistan and Afghanistan, whereby a girl is given from one family to another (often though a marriage), in order to settle the disputes and feuds between the families. The girl, who now belongs to the second family, has very little autonomy and freedom, her role being to serve the new family.<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://www.refworld.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/rwmain?docid=49dc4b201c|title=Afghan Girls Suffer for Sins of Male Relatives|author=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees|website=Refworld|access-date=2015-10-10|archive-date=2015-10-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018234916/http://www.refworld.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/rwmain?docid=49dc4b201c|url-status=live}}</ref><ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://www.newspakistan.pk/2011/10/26/vani-pain-of-child-marriage-in-our-society/|title=Vani: Pain of child marriage in our society|website=News Pakistan|access-date=2015-10-10|archive-date=2014-06-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140603165151/http://www.newspakistan.pk/2011/10/26/vani-pain-of-child-marriage-in-our-society/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref group=upper-roman>{{cite journal |last1=Nasrullah |first1=M. |last2=Muazzam |first2=S. |last3=Bhutta |first3=Z. A. |last4=Raj |first4=A. |year=2013 |title=Girl Child Marriage and Its Effect on Fertility in Pakistan: Findings from Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey, 2006–2007 |journal=Maternal and Child Health Journal |pages=1–10 }}</ref><ref name=hk2004 group=upper-roman>{{cite web |url=http://fact.com.pk/archives/july/feng/vani.htm |title=Vani a social evil |first1=Anwar |last1=Hashmi |first2=Rifat |last2=Koukab |website=The Fact |access-date=April 25, 2021 |archive-date=November 17, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181117192829/http://fact.com.pk/archives/july/feng/vani.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Ahsan, I. (2009). PANCHAYATS AND JIRGAS (LOK ADALATS): Alternative Dispute Resolution System in Pakistan. Strengthening Governance Through Access To Justice</ref>|group=lower-roman}}

====Girls' access to education====
[[File:Girls lining up for class - Flickr - Al Jazeera English.jpg|thumb|School girls in [[Gaza Strip]]]]
{{Main|Female education|Gender and education}}
In many parts of the world, girls' access to education is very restricted. In developing parts of the world women are often denied opportunities for education as girls and women face many obstacles. These include: early and forced marriages; early pregnancy; prejudice based on gender stereotypes at home, at school and in the community; violence on the way to school, or in and around schools; long distances to schools; vulnerability to the HIV epidemic; school fees, which often lead to parents sending only their sons to school; lack of gender sensitive approaches and materials in classrooms.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.teachers.org.uk/node/12978|title=Global issues affecting women and girls |website=National Union of Teachers|access-date=14 June 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150429020903/http://www.teachers.org.uk/node/12978|archive-date=29 April 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.campaignforeducationusa.org/obstacles-to-education-for-girls-and-women|title=Global Campaign For Education United States Chapter|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=16 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180916235149/http://campaignforeducationusa.org/obstacles-to-education-for-girls-and-women|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://plan-international.org/files/Africa/progress-and-obstacles-to-girls-education-in-africa|title=Progress and Obstacles to Girls' Education in Africa|website=Plan International|access-date=21 June 2014|archive-date=29 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729202549/http://plan-international.org/files/Africa/progress-and-obstacles-to-girls-education-in-africa|url-status=live}}</ref> According to [[OHCHR]], there have been multiple attacks on schools worldwide during the period 2009–2014 with "a number of these attacks being specifically directed at girls, parents and teachers advocating for gender equality in education".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=15555&LangID=E|title=Attacks against girls' education occurring with "increasing regularity" – UN human rights report|website=Ohchr.org|language=en-US|access-date=2017-03-27|archive-date=2018-08-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810113244/https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=15555&LangID=E|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[United Nations Population Fund]] says:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unfpa.org/gender-equality|title=Gender equality|website=[[United Nations Population Fund]]|access-date=17 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190520233303/https://www.unfpa.org/gender-equality|archive-date=20 May 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref>
{{Blockquote|About two thirds of the world's [[Gender disparities in literacy|illiterate]] adults are women. Lack of an education severely restricts a woman's access to information and opportunities. Conversely, increasing women's and girls' educational attainment benefits both individuals and future generations. Higher levels of women's education are strongly associated with lower infant mortality and lower fertility, as well as better outcomes for their children.}}According to [[UNESCO]], extreme exclusion still characterizes some countries, and pockets of exclusion remain in others. In Afghanistan, where girls have been banned again from secondary schools, there had been rapid progress in completion rates. For example, girls’ primary completion increased from 8% in 2000 to 56% in 2020, although the gender gap remained at 20 percentage points. In some provinces, such as Uruzgan, just 1% of girls completed primary in 2015. A 20 percentage point gender gap in access to upper secondary education is also observed in sub-Saharan African countries, including Chad and Guinea.<ref>Global Education Monitoring Report Team (2022). [https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000381329.locale=en ''Global education monitoring report 2022: gender report, deepening the debate on those still left behind''.] UNESCO. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[Special:BookSources/978-92-3-100524-4|<bdi>978-92-3-100524-4</bdi>]].</ref>

====Political participation of women====
{{Main|Women in government}}
[[File:National Association Against Woman Suffrage.jpg|thumb|left|Headquarters of the National Association Opposed to Woman Suffrage, United States, early 20th century]]
[[File:Countries with female Heads of State and Government.svg|thumb|upright=1.15|Map showing countries which since independence have had (counting [[Governor-General|Governors-General]] as heads of state, but excluding monarchs):
{{legend|#ffeda6|Female head of government{{Efn|name="Peru"}}}}
{{legend|#cae0ff|Female head of state{{Efn|name="Andorra"}}}}
{{legend|#b7ebb7|Female head of state/government (combined)}}
{{legend|#59d159|Female head of state and female head of government}}
Three former sovereign states ([[Sabine Bergmann-Pohl|East Germany]], [[Khertek Anchimaa-Toka|Tannu Tuva]], and [[Milka Planinc|Yugoslavia]]) have also had a female Head of State or Head of Government]]
[[File:Map3.8Government Participation by Women compressed.jpg|right|thumb|A world map showing countries governmental participation by women, 2010]]

Women are underrepresented in most countries' National Parliaments.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/world.htm|title=Women in Parliaments: World and Regional Averages|website=Ipu.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=30 March 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070330191653/http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/world.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> The 2011 UN General Assembly resolution on women's political participation called for female participation in politics, and expressed concern about the fact that "women in every part of the world continue to be largely marginalized from the political sphere".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dag.un.org/handle/11176/294223 |title=Women and Political Participation: resolution |website=United Nations |access-date=14 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303105958/http://dag.un.org/handle/11176/294223 |archive-date=3 March 2018}}</ref>{{Refn|The Council of Europe states that:<ref name="coe.int">{{cite web|url=https://www.coe.int/en/web/genderequality/gender-equality-strategy|title=Gender Equality Strategy 2014–2017|website=Council of Europe|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=16 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190516223227/https://www.coe.int/en/web/genderequality/gender-equality-strategy|url-status=live}}</ref>
:"Pluralist democracy requires balanced participation of women and men in political and public decision-making. Council of Europe standards provide clear guidance on how to achieve this."|group=lower-roman}} Only 22 percent of parliamentarians globally are women and therefore, men continue to occupy most positions of political and legal authority.<ref name="unfpa.org1" /> As of November 2014, women accounted for 28% of members of the single or lower houses of parliaments in the [[European Union]] member states.<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/justice/gender-equality/gender-decision-making/index_en.htm|title=Gender balance in decision-making positions|website=Ec.europa.eu|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=17 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171117163226/http://ec.europa.eu/justice/gender-equality/gender-decision-making/index_en.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

In some Western countries women have only recently [[Women's suffrage|obtained the right to vote]].{{Refn|Notably in [[Switzerland]], where women gained the right to vote in federal elections in 1971;<ref name="switzerland-chronology" group=upper-roman>{{cite web |url=http://history-switzerland.geschichte-schweiz.ch/chronology-womens-right-vote-switzerland.html |title=The Long Way to Women's Right to Vote in Switzerland: a Chronology |publisher=History-switzerland.geschichte-schweiz.ch |access-date=2011-01-08 |archive-date=2019-11-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191121120734/http://history-switzerland.geschichte-schweiz.ch/chronology-womens-right-vote-switzerland.html |url-status=live }}</ref> but in the canton of [[Appenzell Innerrhoden]] women obtained the right to vote on local issues only in 1991, when the canton was forced to do so by the [[Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland]].<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2003/WOM1373.doc.htm |title=United Nations press release of a meeting of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), issued on 14 January 2003 |publisher=Un.org |access-date=2011-09-02 |archive-date=2013-06-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130618092604/http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2003/WOM1373.doc.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}

In 2015, 61.3% of [[Rwanda]]'s [[Lower house|Lower House]] of Parliament were women, the highest proportion anywhere in the world, but worldwide that was one of only two such bodies where women were in the majority, the other being [[Bolivia]]'s Lower House of Parliament.<ref name=IPU2015a>{{cite web |author=Inter-Parliamentary Union |title=Women in national parliaments |author-link=Inter-Parliamentary Union |url=http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif.htm |access-date=31 August 2015 |archive-date=28 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328105108/http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> (See also [[Gender equality in Rwanda]]).

====Marriage, divorce and property laws and regulations====
Equal rights for women in marriage, divorce, and property/land ownership and inheritance are essential for gender equality. The Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) has called for the end of discriminatory [[family law]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/Equalityinfamilyrelationsrecognizingwomensrightstoproperty.aspx|title=Equality in family relations: recognizing women's rights to property|website=Ohchr.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=10 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810113353/https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/Equalityinfamilyrelationsrecognizingwomensrightstoproperty.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2013, UN Women stated that "While at least 115 countries recognize equal land rights for women and men, effective implementation remains a major challenge".<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.unwomen.org/en/news/stories/2013/11/womens-land-rights-are-human-rights-says-new-un-report|title = Women's land rights are human rights, says new UN report|date = 11 November 2013|website = UN Women|access-date = 2 March 2018|archive-date = 22 December 2017|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171222072443/http://www.unwomen.org/en/news/stories/2013/11/womens-land-rights-are-human-rights-says-new-un-report|url-status = live}}</ref>

The legal and social treatment of married women has been often discussed as a political issue from the 19th century onwards.{{Refn|[[John Stuart Mill]], in ''[[The Subjection of Women]]'' (1869) compared marriage to [[slavery]] and wrote that: "The law of servitude in marriage is a monstrous contradiction to all the principles of the modern world, and to all the experience through which those principles have been slowly and painfully worked out."<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/mill-john-stuart/1869/subjection-women/ch04.htm|title=The Subjection of Women by John Stuart Mill|website=Marxists.org|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=18 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150918233515/https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/mill-john-stuart/1869/subjection-women/ch04.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}{{Refn|In 1957, James Everett, then Minister for Justice in Ireland, stated: "The progress of organised society is judged by the status occupied by married women".<ref name=Oireachtas group=upper-roman>{{cite web |url= http://oireachtasdebates.oireachtas.ie/debates%20authoring/debateswebpack.nsf/takes/seanad1957011600008?opendocument |title= Married Women's Status Bill, 1956—Second Stage: Minister for Justice (Mr. Everett) |website= [[Houses of the Oireachtas|Oireachtas]] |date= 16 January 1957 |access-date= 6 September 2015 |archive-date= 26 September 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150926014352/http://oireachtasdebates.oireachtas.ie/debates%20authoring/debateswebpack.nsf/takes/seanad1957011600008?opendocument |url-status= live }}</ref>|group=lower-roman}} Until the 1970s, legal subordination of married women was common across European countries, through [[marriage laws]] giving legal authority to the husband, as well as through [[marriage bar]]s.{{Refn|In France, married women obtained the right to work without their husband's consent in 1965;<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web |url=http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/explore/cmcf-vsi-women-in-france.pdf |title=Modern & Contemporary France: Women in France |website=Routledge |access-date=April 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304092212/http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/explore/cmcf-vsi-women-in-france.pdf |archive-date=March 4, 2016}}</ref> while the paternal authority of a man over his family was ended in 1970 (before that parental responsibilities belonged solely to the father who made all legal decisions concerning the children); and a new reform in 1985 abolished the stipulation that the father had the sole power to administer the children's property.<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://ceflonline.net/wp-content/uploads/France-Parental-Responsibilities.pdf|title=National Report: France|website=Ceflonline.net|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=11 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140811145534/http://ceflonline.net/wp-content/uploads/France-Parental-Responsibilities.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}{{Refn|In [[Austria]], the marriage law was overhauled between 1975 and 1983, abolishing the restrictions on married women's right to work outside the home, providing for equality between spouses, and for joint ownership of property and assets.<ref group=upper-roman>''Women and Politics in Contemporary Ireland: From the Margins to the Mainstream'', by Yvonne Galligan, pp.90</ref>|group=lower-roman}} In 1978, the [[Council of Europe]] passed the ''Resolution (78) 37 on equality of spouses in civil law''.<ref>{{cite web|title=RESOLUTION (78) 37 ON EQUALITY OF SPOUSES IN CIVIL LAW|url=https://wcd.coe.int/com.instranet.InstraServlet?command=com.instranet.CmdBlobGet&InstranetImage=596422&SecMode=1&DocId=662346&Usage=2|publisher=Council of Europe|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160121025014/https://wcd.coe.int/com.instranet.InstraServlet?command=com.instranet.CmdBlobGet&InstranetImage=596422&SecMode=1&DocId=662346&Usage=2|archive-date=21 January 2016}}</ref> [[Switzerland]] was one of the last countries in Europe to establish gender equality in marriage, in this country married women's rights were severely restricted until 1988, when legal reforms providing for gender equality in marriage, abolishing the legal authority of the husband, come into force (these reforms had been approved in 1985 by voters in a [[Voting in Switzerland|referendum]], who narrowly voted in favor with 54.7% of voters approving).<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1985/09/23/world/swiss-grant-women-equal-marriage-rights.html|title=SWISS GRANT WOMEN EQUAL MARRIAGE RIGHTS|newspaper=The New York Times|last1=Times|first1=Special to the New York|access-date=8 February 2017|archive-date=11 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111232657/https://www.nytimes.com/1985/09/23/world/swiss-grant-women-equal-marriage-rights.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17988450|title=Switzerland Profile: Timeline|website=BBC News|access-date=21 July 2018|archive-date=17 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180617053429/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17988450|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://history-switzerland.geschichte-schweiz.ch/chronology-womens-right-vote-switzerland.html|title=The Long Way to Women's Right to Vote in Switzerland: a Chronology|author=Markus G. Jud, Lucerne, Switzerland|website=History-switzerland.geschichte-schweiz.ch|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=21 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191121120734/http://history-switzerland.geschichte-schweiz.ch/chronology-womens-right-vote-switzerland.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="auto1"/> In the [[Netherlands]], it was only in 1984 that full legal equality between husband and wife was achieved: prior to 1984 the law stipulated that the husband's opinion prevailed over the wife's regarding issues such as decisions on children's education and the domicile of the family.<ref>''The Economics of Imperfect Labor Markets: Second Edition'', by Tito Boeri, Jan van Ours, pp. 105</ref><ref>{{cite web|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170906070337/https://rm.coe.int/168045ae0e |archive-date = 6 September 2017| title = Dutch gender and LGBT-equality policy 2013–2016|url = https://rm.coe.int/168045ae0e}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/Gender/publication/Netherlands_2015_Review_BPFA_Report_of_the_Netherlands_Government.pdf|title=2015 Review Report of the Netherlands Government in the context of the twentieth anniversary of the Fourth World Conference on Women and the adoption of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action|website=Unece.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=5 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151005144755/http://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/Gender/publication/Netherlands_2015_Review_BPFA_Report_of_the_Netherlands_Government.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

In the [[United States]], a wife's legal subordination to her husband was fully ended by the case of ''[[Kirchberg v. Feenstra]]'', {{Ussc|450|455|1981|el=no}}, a [[Supreme Court of the United States|United States Supreme Court]] case in which the Court held a [[Louisiana]] [[Head and Master law]], which gave sole control of marital property to the husband, unconstitutional.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/450/455/|title=Kirchberg v. Feenstra :: 450 U.S. 455 (1981) :: Justia U.S. Supreme Court Center|website=Justia Law|access-date=2015-10-10|archive-date=2016-03-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304130159/https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/450/455/|url-status=live}}</ref>

There have been and sometimes continue to be unequal treatment of married women in various aspects of everyday life. For example, in [[Australia]], until 1983 a husband had to authorize an application for an [[Australian passport]] for a married woman.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.passports.gov.au/Web/passport_history.aspx|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060614171552/http://www.passports.gov.au/Web/passport_history.aspx|title=The History of Passports in Australia|archive-date=14 June 2006|access-date=14 November 2017}}</ref> Other practices have included, and in many countries continue to include, a requirement for a husband's consent for an application for bank loans and credit cards by a married woman, as well as restrictions on the wife's [[reproductive rights]], such as a requirement that the husband consents to the wife's acquiring [[contraception]] or having an [[abortion]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.amnesty.ca/sites/default/files/womens_lives_womens_rights_campaigning.pdf|title=Women's Lives Women's Rights: Campaigning for maternal health and sexual and reproductive rights.|website=Amnesty.ca|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=26 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140626165326/http://www.amnesty.ca/sites/default/files/womens_lives_womens_rights_campaigning.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cedaw/docs/ngos/AmnestyInternational_for_PSWG_en_Indonesia.pdf|title=Left without a choice : Barriers to reproductive health in Indonesia|website=2.ohchr.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=23 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180423125558/http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cedaw/docs/ngos/AmnestyInternational_for_PSWG_en_Indonesia.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> In some places, although the law itself no longer requires the consent of the husband for various actions taken by the wife, the practice continues ''[[de facto]]'', with the authorization of the husband being asked in practice.<ref>{{cite book|title = Education For Women|first =D. Bhaskara|last = Rao|page = 161|date = 2004|publisher = Discovery Publishing House|isbn = 9788171418732}}</ref>

Although [[dowry]] is today mainly associated with [[South Asia]], the practice has been common until the mid-20th century in parts of [[Southeast Europe]].{{Refn|For example, in [[Greece]] dowry was removed from [[family law]] only in 1983 through legal changes which reformed marriage law and provided gender equality in marriage.<ref group=upper-roman>Demos, Vasilikie. (2007) "The Intersection of Gender, Class and Nationality and the Agency of Kytherian Greek Women." Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Sociological Association. August 11.</ref> These changes also dealt with the practice of women [[Married and maiden names|changing their surnames to that of the husbands]] upon getting married, a practice which has been outlawed or restricted in some jurisdictions, because it is seen as contrary to women's rights. As such, women in Greece are required to ''keep'' their birth names for their whole life.<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/oct/06/women-change-name-after-marriage-greece |title=Should women change their names after marriage? Ask a Greek woman |first=Heather |last=Long |newspaper=The Guardian |date=2013-10-06 |access-date=2016-12-11 |archive-date=2013-10-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131006115711/http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/oct/06/women-change-name-after-marriage-greece |url-status=live }}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}

Laws regulating marriage and divorce continue to discriminate against women in many countries.{{Refn|For example, in [[Yemen]], marriage regulations state that a wife must obey her husband and must not leave home without his permission.<ref name="www2.ohchr.org" group=upper-roman />|group=lower-roman}} In [[Iraq]] husbands have a legal right to "punish" their wives, with paragraph 41 of the criminal code stating that there is no crime if an act is committed while exercising a legal right.{{Refn|Examples of legal rights include: "The punishment of a wife by her husband, the disciplining by parents and teachers of children under their authority within certain limits prescribed by law or by custom".<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://law.case.edu/saddamtrial/documents/Iraqi_Penal_Code_1969.pdf |title=The Penal-Code with Amendments |access-date=April 25, 2021 |date=1969 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021100954/http://law.case.edu/saddamtrial/documents/Iraqi_Penal_Code_1969.pdf |archive-date=October 21, 2012 }}</ref>|group=lower-roman}} In the 1990s and the 21st century there has been progress in many countries in Africa: for instance in Namibia the [[marital power]] of the husband was abolished in 1996 by the ''Married Persons Equality Act''; in Botswana it was abolished in 2004 by the ''Abolition of Marital Power Act''; and in Lesotho it was abolished in 2006 by the ''Married Persons Equality Act''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nyulawglobal.org/globalex/lesotho.htm |title=The Law and Legal Research in Lesotho |author=Buhle Angelo Dube |access-date=2010-07-04 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620014058/http://nyulawglobal.org/globalex/Lesotho.htm |archive-date=2010-06-20 }}</ref> Violence against a wife continues to be seen as legally acceptable in some countries; for instance in 2010, the [[United Arab Emirates]] Supreme Court ruled that a man has the right to physically discipline his wife and children as long as he does not leave physical marks.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/meast/10/19/uae.court.ruling/index.html?_s=PM:WORLD|title=Court in UAE says beating wife, child OK if no marks are left|website=Edition.cnn.com|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=15 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115015526/http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/meast/10/19/uae.court.ruling/index.html?_s=PM:WORLD|url-status=live}}</ref> The criminalization of [[adultery]] has been criticized as being a prohibition, which, in law or in practice, is used primarily against women; and incites violence against women ([[crimes of passion]], honor killings).{{Refn|A Joint Statement by the United Nations Working Group on discrimination against women in law and in practice in 2012 stated:<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=12672& |title=Statement by the United Nations Working Group on discrimination against women in law and in practice |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150306103836/http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=12672& |archive-date=2015-03-06 }}</ref> "the United Nations Working Group on discrimination against women in law and in practice is deeply concerned at the criminalization and penalization of adultery whose enforcement leads to discrimination and violence against women." UN Women also stated that "Drafters should repeal any criminal offenses related to adultery or extramarital sex between consenting adults".<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://www.endvawnow.org/en/articles/738-decriminalization-of-adultery-and-defenses.html%29|title=Decriminalization of adultery and defenses|website=Endvawnow.org|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=8 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160108112544/http://www.endvawnow.org/en/articles/738-decriminalization-of-adultery-and-defenses.html%29|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}

===Social and ideological===

====Political gender equality====
Two recent movements in countries with large Kurdish populations have implemented political gender equality. One has been the Kurdish movement in southeastern Turkey led by the [[Democratic Regions Party]] (DBP) and the [[Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey)|Peoples' Democratic Party]] (HDP), from 2006 or before.
The mayorships of 2 metropolitan areas and 97 towns{{citation needed|reason= The citation was to [[2014 Turkish local elections]]. See [[WP:CIRC]] and [[Talk:Gender equality#new section Political Gender Equality|Political Gender Equality]].}} are led jointly by a man and a woman, both called co-mayors. Party offices are also led by a man and a woman. Local councils were formed, which also had to be co-presided over by a man and a woman together. However, in November 2016 the Turkish government cracked down on the HDP, jailing ten of its members of Parliament, including the party's male and female co-leaders.<ref name=Nordland>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/12/07/world/middleeast/turkey-kurds-womens-rights.html |title=Crackdown in Turkey Threatens a Haven of Gender Equality Built by Kurds |last=Nordland |first=Rod |work=The New York Times |access-date=2018-01-23 |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=2019-02-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227131020/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/12/07/world/middleeast/turkey-kurds-womens-rights.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

A movement in northern Syria, also Kurdish, has been led by the [[Democratic Union Party (Syria)|Democratic Union Party]] (PYD).<ref name=Mogelson>{{Cite news|url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2017/11/06/dark-victory-in-raqqa|title=Dark Victory in Raqqa|last=Mogelson|first=Luke|magazine=The New Yorker|access-date=2018-01-23|issn=0028-792X|archive-date=2018-04-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180414174302/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2017/11/06/dark-victory-in-raqqa|url-status=live}}</ref> In northern Syria all villages, towns and cities governed by the PYD were co-governed by a man and a woman. Local councils were formed where each sex had to have 40% representation, and minorities also had to be represented.<ref name=Mogelson />

====Gender stereotypes====
[[File:Bettie Page driving.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|alt=Series of photographs lampooning women drivers|1952 portrayal of stereotypes about women drivers, based on the stereotype that women cannot drive well. Features [[Bettie Page]].]]
{{See|Gender role}}
Gender [[stereotype]]s arise from the socially approved roles of women and men in the private or public sphere, at home or in the workplace. In the household, women are typically seen as mother figures, which usually places them into a typical classification of being "supportive" or "nurturing". Women are expected to want to take on the role of a mother and take on primary responsibility for household needs.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Women Voices and Feminist Visions|last=Shaw and Lee|first=Susan and Janet|page=450|quote=Women are expected to want to be mothers}}</ref> Their male counterparts are seen as being "assertive" or "ambitious" as men are usually seen in the workplace or as the primary breadwinner for his family.<ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=https://www.geteverwise.com/human-resources/how-does-gender-bias-really-affect-women-in-the-workplace/|title=How Does Gender Bias Really Affect Women in the Workplace?|language=en-US|access-date=2016-09-23|archive-date=2017-11-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115015212/https://www.geteverwise.com/human-resources/how-does-gender-bias-really-affect-women-in-the-workplace/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Due to these views and expectations, women often face discrimination in the public sphere, such as the workplace.<ref name="auto"/> Women are stereotyped to be less productive at work because they are believed to focus more on family when they get married or have children.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Durbin |first1=Susan |title=Gender inequality in employment: Editors' introduction |journal=Equality, Diversity and Inclusion |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=221–238 |doi=10.1108/02610151011028831}}</ref>
A [[gender role]] is a set of societal [[norm (social)|norms]] dictating the types of behaviors which are generally considered acceptable, appropriate, or desirable for people based on their sex. Gender roles are usually centered on conceptions of [[femininity]] and [[masculinity]], although there are [[Third gender|exceptions]] and [[genderqueer|variations]].

====Portrayal of women in the media====
{{Main|Exploitation of women in mass media}}
The way women are represented in the media has been criticized as perpetuating negative gender stereotypes. The [[exploitation of women in mass media]] refers to the criticisms that are levied against the use or objectification of women in the [[mass media]], when such use or portrayal aims at increasing the appeal of media or a product, to the detriment of, or without regard to, the interests of the women portrayed, or women in general. Concerns include the fact that all forms of media have the power to shape the population's perceptions and portray images of unrealistic stereotypical perceptions by portraying women either as submissive housewives or as sex objects.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/etudes/join/2013/474442/IPOL-FEMM_ET%282013%29474442_EN.pdf|title=Women and Girls as Subjects of Media's Attention and Advertisement Campaigns : The Situation in Europe, Best Practices and Legislations|website=Europarl.europa.eu|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=18 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171118182934/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/etudes/join/2013/474442/IPOL-FEMM_ET(2013)474442_EN.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> The media emphasizes traditional domestic or sexual roles that normalize violence against women. The vast array of studies that have been conducted on the issue of the portrayal of women in the media have shown that women are often portrayed as irrational, fragile, not intelligent, submissive and
subservient to men.<ref name="Acevedo 2010">Acevedo et al. 2010. 'A Content Analysis of the Roles Portrayed by Women in Commercials: 1973 – 2008', Revista Brasileira de Marketing Vol. 9. Universidade Nove de Julho, Sao Paulo.</ref> Research has shown that stereotyped images such as these have been shown to negatively impact on the mental health of many female viewers who feel bound by these roles, causing amongst other problems, self-esteem issues, depression and anxiety.<ref name="Acevedo 2010"/>

According to a study, the way women are often portrayed by the media can lead to: "Women of average or normal appearance feeling inadequate or less beautiful in comparison to the overwhelming use of extraordinarily attractive women"; "Increase in the likelihood and acceptance of sexual violence"; "Unrealistic expectations by men of how women should look or behave"; "Psychological disorders such as body dysmorphic disorder, anorexia, bulimia and so on"; "The importance of physical appearance is emphasized and reinforced early in most girls' development." Studies have found that nearly half of females ages 6–8 have stated they want to be slimmer. (Striegel-Moore & Franko, 2002)".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.westminstercollege.edu/myriad/index.cfm?parent=...&detail=4475&content=4795|title=The Myriad: Westminster's Interactive Academic Journal|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160428172944/http://www.westminstercollege.edu/myriad/index.cfm?parent=...&detail=4475&content=4795|archive-date=2016-04-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/gretchen-kelly/the-thing-all-women-do-you-dont-know-about_b_8630416.html|title=The Thing All Women Do That You Don't Know About|first=Gretchen|last=Kelly|work=[[Huffington Post]]|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=20 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020152712/https://www.huffingtonpost.com/gretchen-kelly/the-thing-all-women-do-you-dont-know-about_b_8630416.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Statistics on women's representation in the media====
*Women have won only a quarter of [[Pulitzer Prize|Pulitzer prizes]] for foreign reporting and only 17 per cent of awards of the [[Martha Gellhorn Prize for Journalism]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2016/03/women-foreign-correspondents/472596/|title=Why Don't Female Journalists Win More Awards?|last=Asquith|first=Christina|website=The Atlantic|language=en-US|access-date=2019-08-21|archive-date=2019-01-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190126024723/https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2016/03/women-foreign-correspondents/472596/|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2015 the [[African Development Bank]] began sponsoring a category for [[Women's rights|Women's Right]]s in Africa, designed to promote gender equality through the media, as one of the prizes awarded annually by [[One World Media]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.afdb.org/en/news-and-events/african-development-bank-promotes-gender-equality-in-the-media-through-womens-rights-in-africa-award-14447|title=African Development Bank promotes gender equality in the media through 'Women's Rights in Africa' Award|website=African Development Bank – Building today, a better Africa tomorrow|language=en|access-date=2019-08-21|archive-date=2019-08-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190821083615/https://www.afdb.org/en/news-and-events/african-development-bank-promotes-gender-equality-in-the-media-through-womens-rights-in-africa-award-14447|url-status=live}}</ref>
*Created in 1997, the [[UNESCO/Guillermo Cano World Press Freedom Prize]] is an annual award that honors a person, organization or institution that has made a notable contribution to the defense and/or promotion of press freedom anywhere in the world. Nine out of 20 winners have been women.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|title=World Trends in Freedom of Expression and Media Development Global Report 2017/2018|publisher=UNESCO|year=2018|url=http://www.unesco.org/ulis/cgi-bin/ulis.pl?catno=261065&set=005B2B7D1D_3_314&gp=1&lin=1&ll=1|page=202}}</ref>
*The [[Poynter Institute]] since 2014 has been running a Leadership Academy for Women in Digital Media, expressly focused on the skills and knowledge needed to achieve success in the digital media environment.
*The [[World Association of Newspapers and News Publishers|World Association of Newspapers and News Publisher]]s (WAN-IFRA), which represents more than 18,000 publications, 15,000 online sites and more than 3,000 companies in more than 120 countries, leads the Women in the News (WIN) campaign together with UNESCO as part of their Gender and Media Freedom Strategy. In their 2016 handbook, WINing Strategies: Creating Stronger Media Organizations by Increasing Gender Diversity, they highlight a range of positive action strategies undertaken by a number of their member organizations from [[Germany]] to [[Jordan]] to [[Colombia]], with the intention of providing blueprints for others to follow.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wan-ifra.org/reports/2018/05/28/winning-strategies-creating-stronger-news-media-organizations-by-increasing-gende|title=WINning Strategies – Creating Stronger News Media Organizations by Increasing Gender Diversity (2018 update) – WAN-IFRA|website=www.wan-ifra.org|access-date=2019-08-21|archive-date=2020-09-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200921082454/https://www.wan-ifra.org/reports/2018/05/28/winning-strategies-creating-stronger-news-media-organizations-by-increasing-gende|url-status=dead}}</ref>

====Informing women of their rights====
While in many countries, the problem lies in the lack of adequate legislation, in others the principal problem is not as much the lack of a legal framework, but the fact is that most women do not know their legal rights. This is especially the case as many of the laws dealing with women's rights are of recent date. This lack of knowledge enables to abusers to lead the victims (explicitly or implicitly) to believe that their abuse is within their rights. This may apply to a wide range of abuses, ranging from domestic violence to employment discrimination.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/law-crime-and-justice/criminal-justice/bc-criminal-justice-system/if-victim/publications/hsh-english-domestic-violence.pdf|title=Help is available if you or someone you know is a victim of Domestic Violence|website=2.gov.bc.ca|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=8 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181108030110/https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/law-crime-and-justice/criminal-justice/bc-criminal-justice-system/if-victim/publications/hsh-english-domestic-violence.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.maternityaction.org.uk/2015/01/know-your-rights-get-your-rights/|title=Know your rights – get your rights!|website=Maternityaction.org.uk|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=2018-11-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181103014001/https://www.maternityaction.org.uk/2015/01/know-your-rights-get-your-rights/|url-status=live}}</ref> The United Nations Development Programme states that, in order to advance gender justice, "Women must know their rights and be able to access legal systems".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/ourwork/crisispreventionandrecovery/focus_areas/gender_equality_andwomensempowerment/eight_point_agendaforwomensempowermentandgenderequality.html|title=Eight Point Agenda for Women's Empowerment and Gender Equality|website=Undp.org|access-date=14 November 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170509195554/http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/ourwork/crisispreventionandrecovery/focus_areas/gender_equality_andwomensempowerment/eight_point_agendaforwomensempowermentandgenderequality.html|archive-date=9 May 2017}}</ref>

The 1993 UN [[Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women]] states at Art. 4 (d) [...] "States should also inform women of their rights in seeking redress through such mechanisms".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.un-documents.net/a48r104.htm|title=A/RES/48/104 – Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women – UN Documents: Gathering a body of global agreements|first=United Nations General|last=Assembly|website=Un-documents.net|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=4 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180804222717/http://www.un-documents.net/a48r104.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Enacting protective legislation against violence has little effect, if women do not know how to use it: for example a study of Bedouin women in Israel found that 60% did not know what a [[restraining order]] was;<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/study-most-bedouin-victims-of-domestic-violence-believe-it-s-a-decree-from-god-1.427190|title=Study: Most Bedouin Victims of Domestic Violence Believe It's a 'Decree From God'|first=Jack|last=Khoury|newspaper=Haaretz|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=15 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115143740/https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/study-most-bedouin-victims-of-domestic-violence-believe-it-s-a-decree-from-god-1.427190|url-status=live}}</ref> or if they do not know what acts are illegal: a report by Amnesty International showed in Hungary, in a public opinion poll of nearly 1,200 people in 2006, a total of 62% did not know that marital rape was an illegal (it was outlawed in 1997) and therefore the crime was rarely reported.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.refworld.org/pdfid/465bfa162.pdf|title=Hungary : Cries unheard : The failure to protect women from rape and sexual violence in the home|website=Refworld.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=20 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020153402/http://www.refworld.org/pdfid/465bfa162.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6643727.stm|title=Hungary law 'fails rape victims'|work=[[BBC]]|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=26 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171026004038/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6643727.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> Ensuring women have a minimum understanding of health issues is also important: lack of access to reliable medical information and available medical procedures to which they are entitled hurts [[women's health]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/gender/women_health_report/full_report_20091104_en.pdf|title=Women and health : today's evidence tomorrow's agenda|website=Who.int|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=25 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181125163944/http://www.who.int/gender/women_health_report/full_report_20091104_en.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Gender mainstreaming====
{{Main|Gender mainstreaming}}
Gender mainstreaming is described as the [[public policy]] of assessing the different implications for women and men of any planned [[policy]] action, including [[legislation]] and [[Program (management)|programmes]], in all areas and levels, with the aim of achieving gender equality.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Booth | first1 = C. | last2 = Bennett | year = 2002 | title = Gender Mainstreaming in the European Union | journal = European Journal of Women's Studies | volume = 9 | issue = 4| pages = 430–46 | doi = 10.1177/13505068020090040401 | s2cid = 143702617 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ilo.org/public/english/bureau/gender/newsite2002/about/defin.htm|title=Definition of Gender Mainstreaming|website=International Labor Organization|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=21 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181021172809/http://www.ilo.org/public/english/bureau/gender/newsite2002/about/defin.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> The concept of gender mainstreaming was first proposed at the 1985 Third World Conference on Women in [[Nairobi]], [[Kenya]]. The idea has been developed in the [[United Nations]] development community.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jeanmonnetprogram.org/papers/00/000201-03.html |title=II. The Origins of Gender Mainstreaming in the EU |website=Harvard Law School |access-date=April 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010708124202/http://www.jeanmonnetprogram.org/papers/00/000201-03.html |archive-date=July 8, 2001}}</ref> Gender mainstreaming "involves ensuring that gender perspectives and attention to the goal of gender equality are central to all activities".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/gendermainstreaming.htm|title=Gender Mainstreaming|website=UN Women|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=20 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920124801/http://www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/gendermainstreaming.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

According to the Council of Europe definition: "Gender mainstreaming is the (re)organization, improvement, development and evaluation of policy processes, so that a gender equality perspective is incorporated in all policies at all levels and at all stages, by the actors normally involved in policy-making."<ref name="coe.int"/>

An integrated gender mainstreaming approach is "the attempt to form alliances and common platforms that bring together the power of faith and gender-equality aspirations to advance human rights."<ref name="unfpa.org3">{{cite web|url=http://www.unfpa.org/publications/gender-heart-icpd|title=Gender at the Heart of ICPD: The UNFPA Strategic Framework on Gender Mainstreaming and Women's Empowerment|website=United Nations Population Fund|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=17 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150817033015/http://www.unfpa.org/publications/gender-heart-icpd|url-status=live}}</ref> For example, "in Azerbaijan, [[UNFPA]] conducted a study on gender equality by comparing the text of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women with some widely recognized Islamic references and resources. The results reflect the parallels between the Convention and many tenets of Islamic scripture and practice. The study showcased specific issues, including VAW, child marriage, respect for the dignity of women, and equality in the economic and political participation of women. The study was later used to produce training materials geared towards sensitizing religious leaders."<ref name="unfpa.org3"/>

==See also==
{{cleanup rewrite|section=yes}}
{{Portal bar|Feminism}}

===General issues===
* [[Coloniality of gender]]
* [[Egalitarianism]]
* [[Equal opportunity]]
*[[Gender discrimination]]
* [[Gender empowerment]]
* [[Masculism]]
* [[Men's rights]]
* [[Sex and gender distinction]]
* [[Sexism]]
* [[Sex industry]]
* [[Sex ratio]]
* [[Special Measures for Gender Equality in The United Nations(UN)|Special Measures for Gender Equality in The United Nations]]

===Specific issues===
* [[Baháʼí Faith and gender equality]]
* [[Female education]]
* [[Gender Parity Index]] (in education)
* [[Gender polarization]]
* [[Gender sensitization]]
* [[Matriarchy]]
* [[Matriname]]
* [[Mixed-sex education]]
* [[Patriarchy]]
* Quaker [[Testimony of Equality]]
* [[Shared parenting]] (after divorce)
* [[Women in Islam]]

===Laws===
* [[2009 Danish Act of Succession referendum]]
* [[Anti-discrimination law]]
* [[Equal Pay Act of 1963]] (United States)
* [[Equal Protection Clause]] (United States)
* [[Equality Act 2006]] (UK)
* [[Equality Act 2010]] (UK)
* [[Equality Act (United States)]]
* [[European charter for equality of women and men in local life]]
* [[Gender Equality Duty in Scotland]]
* [[Gender Equity Education Act (Taiwan)]]
* [[Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act]] (United States, 2009)
* [[List of gender equality lawsuits]]
* [[Paycheck Fairness Act]] (in the US)
* [[Sex Discrimination Act 1975]] (UK)
* [[Title IX]] of the [[Education Amendments of 1972]] (United States)
* [[Uniform civil code]] (India)
* [[Women's Petition to the National Assembly]] (France, 1789)

===Organizations and ministries===
* [[Afghan Ministry of Women Affairs]] (Afghanistan)
* [[Christians for Biblical Equality]], an organization that opposes gender discrimination within the church
* [[Committee on Women's Rights and Gender Equality]] (European Parliament)
* [[Equal Opportunities Commission (United Kingdom)]]
* [[Gender Empowerment Measure]], a metric used by the United Nations
* [[Gender-related Development Index]], a metric used by the United Nations
* [[The Girl Effect]], an organization to help girls, worldwide, toward ending poverty
* [[Government Equalities Office]] (UK)
* [[International Center for Research on Women]]
* [[Ministry of Integration and Gender Equality (Sweden)]]
* [[Ministry of Women, Family and Community Development (Malaysia)]]
* [[Philippine Commission on Women]] (Philippines)
* [[UN Women]], United Nations entity working for the empowerment of women

===Historical anecdotal reports===
* [[The New York Times#Gender discrimination in employment|New York Times]]

===Other related topics===
* [[Gender apartheid]]
* ''[[Global Gender Gap Report]]''
* [[Illustrators for Gender Equality]]
* [[International Men's Day]]
* [[Potty parity]]
* [[Tampon tax]]
* [[Women's Equality Day]]
* [[Transgender]]
* [[Thealogy|Theaology, Feminine divine]]

==Notes==
{{notelist|group=lower-alpha|refs=
{{Efn|name="Peru"|Although the Peruvian constitution and the government itself state that the President is the Head of Government,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.peru.gob.pe/directorio/pep_directorio_gobierno.asp|title=Portal del Estado Peruano|publisher=Oficina Nacional de Gobierno Electrónico e Informática|access-date=September 6, 2016|quote=El Poder Ejecutivo está constituido por el Presidente, quien desarrolla las funciones de Jefe de Estado. El simboliza y representa los intereses permanentes del país. A su vez, como Jefe de Gobierno, es quien dirige la política gubernamental, respaldado por la mayoría político-electoral.|archive-date=September 3, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160903093441/http://www.peru.gob.pe/directorio/pep_directorio_gobierno.asp|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://portal.jne.gob.pe/informacionlegal/Constitucin%20y%20Leyes1/CONSTITUCION%20POLITICA%20DEL%20PERU.pdf|title=Constitución Política del Perú 1993|publisher=Government of Peru|access-date=September 6, 2016|quote=Artículo 118°.- Atribuciones del Presidente de la República Corresponde al Presidente de la República: 1. Cumplir y hacer cumplir la Constitución y los tratados, leyes y demás disposiciones legales. [...] 3. Dirigir la política general del Gobierno.|archive-date=September 10, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160910181050/http://portal.jne.gob.pe/informacionlegal/Constitucin%20y%20Leyes1/CONSTITUCION%20POLITICA%20DEL%20PERU.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> other sources name the President of the Council of Ministers as the head of government.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.int/protocol/sites/www.un.int/files/Protocol%20and%20Liaison%20Service/hspmfm.pdf|title=List of Heads of State, Heads of Government, and Ministers for Foreign Affairs|author=UN Protocol and Liaison Service|access-date=September 6, 2016|archive-date=November 3, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211103034514/https://www.un.int/protocol/sites/www.un.int/files/Protocol%20and%20Liaison%20Service/hspmfm.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>}}
{{Efn|name="Andorra"|Including female representatives of heads of state, such as [[Governor-General|Governors-General]] and [[List of Co-Princes of Andorra|French Representatives of Andorra]]}}
}}
{{notelist-lr}}

==Citations==
{{reflist|group=upper-roman}}

==Sources==
{{Free-content attribution
|title=World Trends in Freedom of Expression and Media Development Global Report 2017/2018|author=University of Oxford|publisher=UNESCO|page numbers=202|source=|documentURL=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0026/002610/261065e.pdf|license statement URL=http://www.unesco.org/ulis/cgi-bin/ulis.pl?catno=261065&set=005B2A1A4F_2_135&gp=1&lin=1&ll=1|license=CC BY SA 3.0 IGO}}

{{Free-content attribution
| title = Global education monitoring report 2022: gender report, deepening the debate on those still left behind
| author = Global Education Monitoring Report Team
| publisher = UNESCO
| page numbers = 70
| source = UNESCO
| documentURL = https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000381329.locale=en
| license = CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO
}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==

{{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|others=no|about=yes|label=Gender equality}}
* [https://www.un.org/ruleoflaw/thematic-areas/human-rights-and-gender/ United Nations Rule of Law: Gender Equality], on the relationship between gender equality, the [[rule of law]] and the [[United Nations]].
* [https://www.un.org/womenwatch Women and Gender Equality], the United Nations Internet Gateway on Gender Equality and Empowerment of Women.
* [https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/2030-agenda-for-sustainable-development/people/gender-equality.html Gender Equality] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416001427/https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/2030-agenda-for-sustainable-development/people/gender-equality.html }}, an overview of the United Nations Development Program's work on Gender Equality.
* [http://www.watershedpedia.com/gender-issue-significance-in-watershed-management-programmes Gender issue -Significance in Watershed Management Programmes], Watershedpedia.
* [http://www.oecd.org/dac/gender-development/About-GENDERNET.htm GENDERNET] International forum of gender experts working in support of Gender equality. Development Co-operation Directorate of the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] (OECD).
* [http://www.oecd.org/gender OECD's Gender Initiative], an overview page which also links to wikiGENDER, the Gender equality project of the [[OECD Development Centre]].
* [http://www.annette-boeckler.de/liturgie/EgalitarianServices.html Egalitarian Jewish Services] A Discussion Paper.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160824045521/http://www.gender-in-equality.com/ End The Gender Pay Gap] Project based in Palo Alto, California.
* [http://www.cedpa.org/ Center for Development and Population Activities (CEDPA)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201124215710/http://cedpa.org/ }}

{{Gender equality}}
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{{Sexual identities}}
{{Types of justice}}

[[Category:Gender equality| ]]
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[[Category:Feminist theory]]
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Sikhism in the United States

2022-08-22T10:28:58Z

Ananya: Wrote an informative guide.

{{Short description|Religious community}}
{{Infobox religious group
| group = American Sikhs

| pop ='''~200,000 '''(2021 est.)
 '''{{Percentage|200,000|331893745|2}}''' of the total American population

| langs = [[American English]] • [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] {{smaller|[[Spanish language in the United States|American Spanish]] • [[Hindi]] • [[Urdu]]}}
| rels = [[File:Khanda.svg|12px]] [[Sikhism]]
|image=San Jose Gurdwara Sahib (2448909577).jpg|image_caption=[[Gurdwara Sahib of San Jose|A gurdwara]] in [[Evergreen, San Jose|Evergreen]], [[San Jose, California]].}}

'''American Sikhs''' number around 200,000 people (estimates vary from 78,000 to 1,000,000) and account for 0.1% of the [[United States]] population as of 2021, forming the country's [[Religion in the United States|sixth-largest]] religious group.<ref>{{cite web|title=Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2012 - Section 1: Population - Table 75: Self-Described Religious Identification of Adult Population: 1990, 2001, and 2008 (page 61)|url=https://www2.census.gov/library/publications/2011/compendia/statab/131ed/2012-statab.pdf|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|access-date=14 April 2023}}</ref><ref name = "Pew">{{Cite web|title=Why Pew Research Center typically can’t report the views of smaller U.S. religious groups|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2022/08/08/why-pew-research-center-typically-cant-report-the-views-of-smaller-u-s-religious-groups/|access-date=2022-11-23|website=www.pewresearch.org|language=en-US}}</ref> The [[U.S. Census]] does not ask about religion and it is hard for surveys to estimate the populations of smaller religious groups like Sikhs.<ref>{{cite web|title=
Does the Census Bureau have data for religion?
|url=https://ask.census.gov/prweb/PRServletCustom/app/ECORRAsk2_/YACFBFye-rFIz_FoGtyvDRUGg1Uzu5Mn*/!STANDARD?pzuiactionzzz=CXtpbn0rTEpMcGRYOG1vS0tqTFAwaENUZWpvM1NNWEMzZ3p5aFpnWUxzVmw0TjJndno5ZkJPc24xNWYvcCtNbVVjWk5Z*|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|access-date=18 March 2023}}</ref> The [[U.S. Census Bureau]] estimated the adult Sikh American population at 78,000 in 2008, while the [[Pew Research Center]] estimated the Sikh American adult population to be 140,000 and the total population at 200,000 in 2012.<ref>{{cite web|title=Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2012 - Section 1: Population - Table 75: Self-Described Religious Identification of Adult Population: 1990, 2001, and 2008 (page 61)|url=https://www2.census.gov/library/publications/2011/compendia/statab/131ed/2012-statab.pdf|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|access-date=14 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=How Many U.S. Sikhs?|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/2012/08/06/ask-the-expert-how-many-us-sikhs/|publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]|access-date=18 March 2023}}</ref> Sikh organizations like the [[Sikh Coalition]] and [[American Sikh Congressional Caucus]] estimate the Sikh American population to be as high as 500,000-1,000,000, but do not provide any sources for these figures, which are often cited in news reports.<ref>{{cite web|title=About Sikhs|url=https://www.sikhcoalition.org/about-sikhs/|publisher=[[Sikh Coalition]]|access-date=14 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=H. RES. 275 - 118th Congress (2023-2024)|url=https://www.congress.gov/bill/118th-congress/house-resolution/275/text?s=1&r=1/|publisher=[[United States Congress]]|access-date=14 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=How Many U.S. Sikhs?|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/2012/08/06/ask-the-expert-how-many-us-sikhs/|publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]|access-date=18 March 2023}}</ref> With 1% of [[Asian Americans#Religion|Asian Americans]] being Sikh, and 90.7% of Sikh Americans being Asian American, the American Sikh population can be estimated at around 200,000 in 2021.<ref>{{cite web|title=Asian Americans: A Mosaic of Faiths|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2012/07/19/asian-americans-a-mosaic-of-faiths-overview/|publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]|access-date=14 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=2020 National Sikh American Survey: Key Findings|url=https://issuu.com/saldefmedia/docs/2020_national_sikh_american_survey|publisher=[[Sikh American Legal Defense and Education Fund]]|access-date=14 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=DP05ACS DEMOGRAPHIC AND HOUSING ESTIMATES|url=https://data.census.gov/table?tid=ACSDP1Y2021.DP05|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|access-date=14 April 2023}}</ref> The largest Sikh populations in the U.S. are found in [[Northern California]], especially in the [[Central Valley (California)|Central Valley]] and the [[Bay Area]], and in the [[New York metropolitan area]]. Around 49.2% of [[Punjabi Americans]] lived in California in 2021.<ref>{{cite web|title=B16001LANGUAGE SPOKEN AT HOME BY ABILITY TO SPEAK ENGLISH FOR THE POPULATION 5 YEARS AND OVER|url=https://data.census.gov/table?q=punjabi&g=040XX00US06&tid=ACSDT1Y2021.B16001|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|access-date=2 June 2023}}</ref>

[[Sikhism]] is a religion originating from [[medieval India]] (predominantly from the [[Punjab]] region of modern-day [[India]] and [[Pakistan]]) which was introduced into the [[United States]] during the 19th century. While most American Sikhs are [[Punjabi Americans|Punjabi]], the United States also has a number of non-Punjabi converts to Sikhism.<ref name="Bayor2011">{{cite book|author=Ronald H. Bayor|title=Multicultural America: An Encyclopedia of the Newest Americans|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YN9jC2_7UHYC&pg=PA985|access-date=6 June 2013|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-35787-9|pages=985–}}</ref> Sikh men are typically identifiable by their unshorn beards and [[Dastar|turban]]s (head coverings), articles of their faith. Following the 9/11 terrorist attacks, and subsequent other terrorism related activities by Islamic groups, Sikhs have often been mistaken as Muslims or Arabs, and have been subject to several [[Hate crimes in the United States|hate crimes]], including murders.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Crimes against Sikhs continue in US amidst spotlight on race relations|url=https://www.cnbctv18.com/politics/crimes-against-sikhs-continue-in-us-amidst-spotlight-on-race-relations-6199811.htm|access-date=2020-08-31|website=cnbctv18.com|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Gumbel|first=Andrew|title='The violence is always there': life as a Sikh in Trump's America|language=en-GB|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/sep/19/sikh-in-america-hate-crime-surge-trump-religion|access-date=2020-08-31|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> Sikh temples have also been targets of violence due to being mistaken for mosques. A [[Wisconsin Sikh temple shooting|2012 shooting]] at a Sikh temple in [[Oak Creek, Wisconsin]] garnered national and international attention, with then [[President Obama]] ordering flags to be [[Half-mast|half-staffed]] at all [[federal building]]s.{{Sikhism sidebar}}

==History==

===First immigrants===
[[File:The Sikh Temple in Stockton, California, 1915.jpg|thumb|The [[Gurdwara Sahib of Stockton|Stockton gurdwara]], the oldest in the U.S., opened on October 24, 1912.<ref>{{cite web|title=History of Stockton Gurwara|url=http://sikhcentury.us/stockton-gurdwara-history/|access-date=September 22, 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927184319/http://sikhcentury.us/stockton-gurdwara-history/|archive-date=September 27, 2013|df=mdy-all}}</ref>|left]]
Sikhs have lived in the United States for more than 130 years. The first Sikh immigrants to the United States started to arrive in the second half of the 19th century, when poor economic conditions in [[British Raj|British India]] drove many Indians to emigrate elsewhere. Most Sikh immigrants to the United States came from the province of [[Punjab (British India)|Punjab]] and came to the U.S. to work on [[Agriculture in California|agricultural farms in California]], travelling via [[British Hong Kong|Hong Kong]] to [[Angel Island, California|Angel Island]].<ref>Passage From India - Asian Indian Immigrants in North America", Joan M. Jensen, Yale University Press, 1988. {{ISBN|0-300-03846-1}}</ref>

In the years just after 1900, hundreds of Sikhs had arrived to work in the lumber mills of [[Bellingham, Washington]]. In 1907, 400–500 white men, predominantly members of the [[Asiatic Exclusion League]], attacked the Sikhs’ homes in what is now known as the [[Bellingham riots]]. This quickly drove the East Indian immigrants out of the town.<ref name="Englesberg 2015">{{cite journal |last=Englesberg |first=Paul |title=The 1907 Bellingham Riot and Anti-Asian Hostilities in the Pacific Northwest |year=2015 |journal=The Richard W. Riley College of Education and Leadership Publications |url=https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/cel_pubs/62 |access-date=2021-01-11}}</ref><ref name="depts.washington.edu 1907">{{cite web |title=News Coverage: 1907-2007 - Seattle Civil Rights and Labor History Project |website=depts.washington.edu |url=https://depts.washington.edu/civilr/bham_news.htm |access-date=2021-01-11}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Johnson |first=Tim |title=Dark Century: Observing the Anniversary of Anti-Sikh Riots |url=https://www.cascadiaweekly.com/pdfs/issues/200735.pdf#page=8 |newspaper=Cascadia Weekly |location=Bellingham, WA |publisher=Cascadia Newspaper Company |volume=2 |issue=35 |pages=8, 10–11 |issn=1931-3292 |oclc=711684947 |access-date=2021-01-11 |archive-date=2021-03-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301065840/http://www.cascadiaweekly.com/pdfs/issues/200735.pdf#page=8 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

<blockquote>Some Sikhs worked in lumber mills of [[Oregon]] or in railroad construction and for some Sikhs it was on a railway line, which allowed other Sikhs who were working as migrant laborers to come into the town on festival days.<ref name="kabira.freeservers.com">{{cite web |title=Sikhism in North America |website=kabira.freeservers.com |url=http://kabira.freeservers.com:80/sikhsinnorthamerica.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130416045004/http://kabira.freeservers.com:80/sikhsinnorthamerica.html |archive-date=2013-04-16 |url-status=dead}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?}}</blockquote>

A big effect on Sikh migration to the western states occurred during [[World War I]] and [[World War II]], where Sikhs were recruited by the [[British Indian Army]] to serve for them. Sikhs fought bravely during these wars and began to live in England after their serving period. Among the Sikhs who already lived in America prior to the wars, many Sikhs joined them, mainly during World Wars I and II. Among those who served in the US military include [[Bhagat Singh Thind]] in World War I.

The first Sikh [[gurdwara]] established in the U.S. was the [[Gurdwara Sahib Stockton]], in [[Stockton, California]], which was established in 1912 by Baba Wasakha Singh Ji Dadehar and Baba Jawala Singh Ji.<ref>[http://www.stocktongurdwarasahib.com/ Stockton Gurdwara, America, "Stockton California"] 31 October 2006</ref>

===Discrimination after the September 11 attacks===
[[File:USASikhMLKDayParade2016Houston.jpg|thumb|Sikhs of America parade float at the 2016 [[Martin Luther King Day]] parade in [[Midtown Houston]]]]
[[File:HoustonSikhMLKDayParade2016Houston.jpg|thumb|Houston Sikh Community at the 2016 [[Martin Luther King Day]] parade in [[Midtown Houston]]|left]]

As a result of the [[September 11 attacks]], some Sikh Americans have become subject to discrimination, often from individuals who mistakenly believe that they are [[Arab]] or [[Muslim]].

Balbir Singh Sodhi, a gas station owner, [[Murder of Balbir Singh Sodhi|was killed]] on September 15, 2001, due to being mistaken for a Muslim. In a 2011 report to the [[United States Senate]], the [[Southern Poverty Law Center]] reported several assaults and incidents of arson at [[Gurdwara|Sikh temples]] after September 11. All were labeled as [[hate crime]]s that resulted from the perpetrators' misconceptions that their targets were Muslim.<ref>{{cite web|title=Anti-Muslim Incidents Since Sept. 11, 2001|url=http://www.splcenter.org/get-informed/news/splc-testifies-about-increase-in-anti-muslim-bias/anti-muslim-incidents-since-9-11|publisher=Southern Poverty Law Center|access-date=January 12, 2012}}</ref> In August 2012, a Sikh temple in [[Oak Creek, Wisconsin]], was the [[Wisconsin Sikh temple shooting|site of a shooting]], leading to six Sikh individuals being killed.<ref>{{cite news |title=Gunman's tattoos lead officials to deem Sikh shooting terrorism|author=Matt Pearce |author2=Brian Bennett |url=http://www.latimes.com/news/nation/nationnow/la-na-nn-sikh-temple-domestic-terrorism-20120805,0,6094643.story |newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]] |access-date=5 August 2012}}</ref> On May 7, 2013, an elderly Sikh man was attacked with an iron bar in Fresno, California, in a possible [[hate crime]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Fresno police: Sikh beating a possible hate crime|author=SF Gate|url=http://www.sfgate.com/news/crime/article/Fresno-police-Sikh-beating-a-possible-hate-crime-4496778.php |newspaper=[[SF Gate]] |access-date=8 May 2013}}</ref> On September 21, 2013, Prabhjot Singh, a Sikh professor was attacked in [[Harlem]], New York, by a group of 20-30 men who branded him as "Osama" and Terrorist".<ref>{{cite web|title=Indian Professor attacked in Columbia after being called Osama|url=http://news.biharprabha.com/2013/09/indian-professor-attacked-in-columbia-after-being-called-osama/|access-date=23 September 2013}}</ref>

A 2007 survey of Sikh students by the [[Sikh Coalition]] found that three out of four male students interviewed "had been teased or harassed on account of their religious identity."<ref>{{cite book |title= Civil Rights in Wartime: The Post-9/11 Sikh Experience |last=Sidhu |first= Darwinder S. |author2=Neha Singh Gohil |year=2009 |publisher=Ashgate Publishing |isbn=978-0-7546-7553-2 |page=72}}</ref> In 2014, the Sikh Coalition released a national report on the bullying of Sikh children in American schools. The report found that 55.8% of Sikh students surveyed in [[Indianapolis]] reported being bullied, while 54.5% of Sikh students surveyed in [[Fresno, California]], reported being bullied.<ref>{{cite news|title=Report: Fresno County Sikh students say they're bullied at school|url=http://www.fresnobee.com/2014/03/13/3818923/sikh-community-alarmed-by-bullying.html|newspaper=Fresno Bee|author=Juan Orozco|author2=Carmen George}}</ref> According to the surveys, Sikh students wearing turbans are twice as likely to be bullied as the average American child.

===Converts===

In the 1960s, due to increased Indian immigration and rising interest in Indian spirituality in the American counterculture, a number of non-Punjabi Americans began to enter 3HO. Prominent in this trend was [[Yogi Bhajan]], leader of the Sikh-related movement [[3HO]] (Healthy, Happy, Holy Organization), whose Los Angeles temple was the first to introduce non-Punjabi Americans to Sikhism.<ref name="Bayor2011"/>

== Demography ==
=== Occupations ===

====''Bhagat Singh Thind v. United States''====
[[File:CivilWarLondanBranch.jpg|thumb|A gathering of British veterans who served in the [[Union Army]] during the [[American Civil War]]; a Sikh is present among them (c. 1917)]]
[[File:CaptRattansikh.jpg|right|200px|thumb|A Sikh-American U.S. Army officer (2010)]]
{{Main|Sikhism in the United States military}}
Sikhs have served in the United States military at least as far back as the early 20th century, when one [[Bhagat Singh Thind]], who though not a citizen joined the [[United States Army]] and served in [[World War I]]. Thind requested citizenship at the end of the war, being granted and revoked twice, before finally being naturalized in 1936.<ref>Dawinder S. Sidhu, Neha Singh Gohil. [https://books.google.com/books?id=J9zlF4muMjMC&pg=PA137 Civil rights in wartime: the post-9/11 Sikh experience]. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2009. {{ISBN|0-7546-7553-X}}, 9780754675532. Pg 137</ref> Far larger numbers of Sikhs served in [[World War II]], and all American wars following.

The ability of observant Sikhs to serve in the American military has, since 1985, been compromised by a discontinuation of exemptions to uniform standards which previously allowed Sikhs to maintain their religiously mandated beards and turbans while in uniform.<ref name="CH">{{Cite news |title=Beard Ban Deters Chabad Rabbis From Becoming Chaplains in Army |url=http://www.crownheights.info/index.php?itemid=479 |access-date=25 October 2009}}</ref> As of 2010, a Sikh doctor, Kamaljeet S. Kalsi, and dentist, Tejdeep Singh Rattan, are the only Sikh officers to be permitted to serve in uniform with beard and turban.<ref name="Exempt">{{cite web|url=https://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory?id=10172836|title=1st Sikh in Decades Graduates Army Officer School, Page 1|author=Michelle Roberts|access-date=2010-03-22|work=ABC News}}</ref> In addition, Simranpreet Lamba was permitted to enlist, with exemption to wear his turban and beard, in 2010 due to his knowledge of Punjabi and Hindi.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.army.mil/article/47924/keeping-faith-sikh-soldier-graduates-basic-training/ |title=Keeping faith: Sikh Soldier graduates basic training |author=Susanne Kappler |work=Fort Jackson Leader |publisher=United States Army |access-date=26 December 2011}}</ref>

==== Military ====
In the federal appeals court in Washington, a preliminary injunction allowed two Sikh men to enter the military recruit training wearing a turban as it was considered an article of religion. The military recruits Milaap Singh Chahal and Jaskirat Singh sued the Marine Corps in April due to violation of the first amendment which allows the freedom of religion. The branch that they were a part of declined full religious exemption.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Molina |first=Alejandra |title=In court ruling, Sikh recruits can attend USMC training while keeping beards and turbans |work=Religion News Service |url=https://religionnews.com/2022/12/23/in-court-ruling-sikh-recruits-can-attend-marine-corps-training-while-keeping-beards-and-turbans/ |access-date=December 26, 2022}}</ref>

====Policing====
In 2016, the [[New York City Police Department]] (NYPD) began to allow turbans, subject to standards compatible with unimpeded performance of duty.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cnn.com/2016/12/29/homepage2/nypd-sikh-officers-turbans-policy-change/|title=NYPD changes policy, will allow officers to wear turbans|author=David Shortell|publisher=CNN|access-date=December 31, 2016}}</ref> In 2015, Sandeep Dhaliwal became the first Deputy Sheriff in Texas to wear a turban on duty (Harris County Sherriff's Office). He was shot and killed from behind in 2019 while conducting a routine traffic stop on the Copperbrook subdivision in Houston Texas.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.yahoo.com/entertainment/deputy-gained-national-attention-first-133039093.html|title=Deputy Who Gained National Attention as First Texas Cop to Wear Turban Shot & Killed on Duty|website=Yahoo|language=en-US|access-date=2019-09-28}}</ref>

In 2019, the [[Houston Police Department]] changed their rules to allow beards and turbans, joining 25 other law enforcement agencies.<ref>{{Cite web |title=HPD changes uniform policy to honor Deputy Sandeep Dhaliwal |url=https://www.khou.com/article/news/local/honored-father-of-deputy-sandeep-dhaliwal-thanks-hpd-for-allowing-sikh-officers-to-wear-articles-of-faith/285-dd4f77d6-3e7c-44de-9cb4-b3dc1d980cdb |access-date=2022-06-22 |website=khou.com |language=en-US}}</ref>

====Professionals====
Many Sikhs started life in America working in lumber mills, mines, and as farm laborers, with many eventually becoming landowners. Many early Sikh immigrants were restaurant owners. In 1956, [[Dalip Singh Saund]] became the first Asian Indian-born person to be elected to the [[United States House of Representatives]].

====Elected officials====
* [[Dalip Singh Saund]] served three terms in the [[United States House of Representatives]] between 1957 and 1963. He was the first [[Asian Americans|Asian American]] and the first person of a non-Abrahamic faith to serve in Congress.
* Preet Didbal was elected to the position of mayor of Yuba City, California in 2017. She is the first Sikh woman to serve as a city mayor in United States history.<ref>Willon, Phil. [http://www.latimes.com/politics/la-pol-ca-preet-didbal-20171228-htmlstory.html "Meet the nation's first known Sikh woman to serve as a city mayor"], ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'', December 28, 2017. Accessed January 16, 2018.</ref>
* [[Balvir Singh]] was elected to the [[Burlington County, New Jersey|Burlington County]] [[Board of Chosen Freeholders]], [[New Jersey]] on November 7, 2017. He became the first Asian-American to win a countywide election in Burlington County and the first [[Sikh|Sikh-American]] to win a countywide election in New Jersey.<ref>Hefler, Jan. [http://www.philly.com/philly/news/new_jersey/race-baiting-ads-backfired-says-sikh-who-broke-barriers-in-south-jersey-freeholder-race-20171109.html "Race-baiting ads backfired, says Sikh who broke barriers in South Jersey freeholder race"], ''[[The Philadelphia Inquirer]]'', November 8, 2017. Accessed December 2, 2017.</ref>
* City planner Satyendra Huja was elected mayor of [[Charlottesville, Virginia]] in January 2012.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.timesdispatch.com/news/2012/jan/22/tdobit03-sikh-city-planner-becomes-charlottesville-ar-1629743/ |title=Sikh city planner becomes Charlottesville mayor | Richmond Times-Dispatch |publisher=.timesdispatch.com |access-date=2012-08-07}}</ref>
* Amarjit Singh Buttar was elected in December 2001 to the [[Vernon, Connecticut]] Board of Education and won re-election in 2011.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://vernon.patch.com/articles/board-of-education-members-become-official | title=School Board Members Make It Official | date=November 23, 2011 | access-date=August 9, 2012 | last=Tanjua | first=Damon | work=Vernon Patch}}</ref>
* [[United States Ambassador to the United Nations]] and former [[Governor of South Carolina]] [[Nikki Haley]] was born a Sikh but later converted to Christianity.<ref>{{Cite news|title=All Her Life, Nikki Haley Was the Different One|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/14/us/politics/14haley.html|first1=Shaila|last1=Dewan|work=[[The New York Times]]|first2=Robbie|last2=Brown|name-list-style=amp|access-date=August 9, 2012}}</ref>
* [[Ravinder Bhalla]] was elected mayor of [[Hoboken, New Jersey|Hoboken]], New Jersey in November 2017. He is also the first Sikh mayor to wear a turban.
* Satwinder Kaur became the first Sikh elected to the City Council of [[Kent, Washington]] in November 2017.
* [[Manka Dhingra]] of Washington became the first Sikh woman elected to a state legislature in November 2017.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiaabroad.com/indian-americans/high-stakes-showdown-in-washington-state/article_7333a526-7971-11e7-bf36-b70059ba14bf.html|title=High-stakes showdown in Washington State|last=Haniffa|first=Aziz|website=IndiaAbroad.com|language=en|access-date=2018-12-05}}</ref>
* Pargat S. Sandhu was elected as mayor of Galt, California on Dec 3, 2019. He became the first Sikh to be elected for City Council and Mayor for the city of Galt.
* In November 2020, California's Sutter County and Stanislaus County became the first two America to elect turbaned Sikh supervisors (Karm Bains and Mani Grewal, respectively).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.suttercounty.org/Home/Components/StaffDirectory/StaffDirectory/146/190|title=Bains, Karm - Sutter County Board of Supervisors|language=en|access-date=2023-02-28}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.stancounty.com/board/district4.shtm|title=Mani Grewal - District 4 Supervisor - Stanislaus County|language=en|access-date=2023-02-28}}</ref>

== Geographical distribution ==
{{Main|Punjabi Americans#Geographical distribution}}
[[File:Sikhs in Union Square Somerville.jpg|thumb|right|Members of the Sikh community of [[Somerville, Massachusetts]]]]
Nearly half of American Sikhs live in California. Most of California's Sikh population live in [[NorCal]], especially in the [[Central Valley (California)|Central Valley]] and the [[Bay Area]]. The nation's largest Sikh population is in [[California]]'s [[Central Valley (California)|Central Valley]], where Punjabi is the third most spoken language after only [[California English|English]] and [[Spanish language in the United States|Spanish]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Sewell |first=Summer |title='This has to end peacefully': California's Punjabi farmers rally behind India protests |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2021/feb/08/california-indian-farmers-protest-sikh-punjab-yuba-city |access-date=2022-11-27 |work=[[The Guardian]] |quote=Community members have also raised funds to support billboards drawing attention to India’s protests throughout the Central Valley, where Punjabi is the third-most spoken language, after English and Spanish.}}</ref> Sikhs can found across the [[Sacramento River|Sacramento]] and [[San Joaquin River|San Joaquin]] valleys, but the largest concentrations can be found in the valley's largest cities ([[Sacramento]] in the Sacramento Valley and [[Stockton, California|Stockton]], [[Fresno]], and [[Bakersfield]] in the San Joaquin Valley), and in smaller communities associated with the farming of almonds, peaches, walnuts, and plums. There are also significant concentrations of Sikh Americans in the [[Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta]] and in the Bay Area near [[Fremont, California]].

In the [[Sacramento Valley]], [[Yuba City]] and [[Live Oak, Sutter County, California|Live Oak]] have prominent Sikh populations, with the first Sikh arriving in Yuba City in 1906.<ref>{{Cite web|title=
Tuly Singh Johl- Pioneering Punjabis Digital Archive|url=https://pioneeringpunjabis.ucdavis.edu/people/pioneers/tully-singh-johl/|access-date=2023-03-22|website=ucdavis.edu|language=en-US}}</ref> In 2021, Yuba City was home to an [[Indian American]] population of 10,638 (15.3% of the city's population), while Live Oak was home to an Indian American population of 1,038 (11.4% of the city's population), with most of these being Sikhs.<ref>{{Cite web|title= DP05ACS DEMOGRAPHIC AND HOUSING ESTIMATES|url=https://data.census.gov/table?q=yuba+city&tid=ACSDP5Y2021.DP05&moe=false|access-date=2022-11-23|website=data.census.gov|language=en-US}}</ref> [[Sutter County, California]] as a whole is home to 12,753 Indian Americans (12.9% of the county population); with most of these being Sikhs, this makes Sutter County the most proportionally Sikh county in America. Down south in the [[San Joaquin Valley]], [[Livingston, California|Livingston]] is home to 2,798 Indian Americans (19.9% of the city's population); with most of these being Sikh, Livingston is the most proportionally Sikh municipality in America.<ref>{{Cite web|title= DP05ACS DEMOGRAPHIC AND HOUSING ESTIMATES|url=https://data.census.gov/table?q=Livingston+city,+California&tid=ACSDP5Y2021.DP05|access-date=2022-11-23|website=data.census.gov|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title= Data Center Results - Livingston, California|url=https://apps.mla.org/map_data_results&state_id=6&place_id=42006&cty_id=|access-date=2023-02-04|website=apps.mla.org|language=en-US}}</ref>

The [[New York metropolitan area]] also has a significant Punjabi American presence, with 49,005 Punjabis living in the area. 18,187 Punjabis live in New York City ({{Percentage | 18187 | 7966163| 2 }} of the city's population), including 16,139 in the borough of [[Queens, New York|Queens]] ({{Percentage | 16139| 2199677| 2 }} of the borough's population).<ref>{{Cite web|title= B16001LANGUAGE SPOKEN AT HOME BY ABILITY TO SPEAK ENGLISH FOR THE POPULATION 5 YEARS AND OVER|url=https://data.census.gov/table?q=punjabi&g=050XX00US36081_160XX00US3651000&tid=ACSDT1Y2021.B16001|access-date=2023-03-25|website=data.census.gov|language=en-US}}</ref> The [[Richmond Hill, Queens|Richmond Hill]] neighborhood of [[Queens, New York|Queens]] is often referred to as "Little Punjab" due to its large Punjabi population. In 2020, the stretch of 101st Avenue between 111th and 123rd streets in Richmond Hill was renamed [[Punjab Avenue|Punjab Avenue (ਪੰਜਾਬ ਐਵੇਨਿਊ)]] and the stretch of 97th Avenue between Lefferts Boulevard and 117th Street was renamed Gurdwara Street.<ref>{{Cite web|title= Richmond Hill Street Co-Named 'Punjab Avenue' To Honor Neighborhood's South Asian Culture|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/newyork/news/richmond-hill-street-co-named-punjab-avenue-to-honor-neighborhoods-south-asian-culture/|access-date=2022-11-23|website=[[CBS News]]|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title= ‘Punjab Way,’ ‘Gurdwara St.’ coming to Queens|url=https://www.nydailynews.com/news/politics/ny-punjab-way-gurdwara-street-queens-20191219-33xa63nt5zgpdbujxfhxolezcy-story.html?fbclid=IwAR3yJE3LoB9B3n6SAs_Ngd2axGCUXN6EBeqzJPxJKNw2ju0o5yxUYA_mD7E/|access-date=2022-11-23|website=[[New York Daily News]]|language=en-US}}</ref> Outside of the city, the suburbs of [[Hicksville, New York|Hicksville]] in [[Long Island]] and [[Carteret, New Jersey|Carteret]] in [[Central Jersey]] have significant Punjabi populations. In 2021, Hicksville was home to 8,040 Indian Americans (18.7% of the community's population) while Carteret was home to 4,708 Indian Americans (18.8% of the borough's population), with many of these being Sikhs.<ref>{{Cite web|title= DP05ACS DEMOGRAPHIC AND HOUSING ESTIMATES|url=https://data.census.gov/table?q=Carteret+borough,+New+Jersey&tid=ACSDP5Y2021.DP05|access-date=2022-11-23|website=data.census.gov|language=en-US}}</ref>

Outside of California and the New York metropolitan area, there are significant populations of Punjabi Sikhs in [[Kent, Washington]] and [[Greenwood, Indiana]]. There is also a concentration of non-Punjabi converts to Sikhism in [[Española, New Mexico|Española]], [[New Mexico]].<ref>{{Cite web|title= American Sikhs Run Billion-Dollar Security Firm|url=https://www.npr.org/transcripts/104869550|access-date=2022-11-23|website=www.npr.org|language=en-US}}</ref>

==Notable Sikh Americans==
* [[Uttam Dhillon]]
* [[Jagjit Singh (activist)|J.J. Singh]]
* [[Sabrina Singh]]
* [[Daleep Singh]]
* [[:simple:Swann VR|Taegh Sokhey]], created the world's first virtual reality Alzheimer's/Dementia tool, entrepreneur, medical researcher
* [[Ravinder Bhalla]], Mayor of Hoboken, New Jersey
* [[Preet Bharara]], U.S. Attorney for the Southern District of New York, 2009–2017
* [[Gurbaksh Chahal]], entrepreneur
* [[Sant Singh Chatwal]], businessperson
* [[Vikram Chatwal]], hotelier and actor
* [[Harmeet Dhillon]], vice chairman of the California Republican Party
* [[Gurbir Grewal]], Attorney General of New Jersey, and former prosecutor of Bergen County, New Jersey
* [[Ryan Hurst]], actor, converted to Sikhism and uses the Sikh name Gobind Seva Singh<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.instagram.com/rambodonkeykong/|title=Ryan Hurst Instagram with Sikh name|publisher=[[Instagram]]|access-date=January 13, 2016}}</ref>
* [[Narinder Singh Kapany]], physicist
* [[Snatam Kaur]], singer, songwriter, and author
* [[Harpreet Sandhu (politician)|Harpreet Sandhu]], member of the Richmond City Council (California), 2007–2008
* [[Dalip Singh Saund]], member of United States House of Representatives from California's 29th district, 1957–1963; first Asian Pacific American member of Congress
* [[Arjun Singh Sethi]], civil rights writer, political rights writer, human rights lawyer, and professor of law
* [[Balvir Singh]], [[Board of Chosen Freeholders|Freeholder]], [[Burlington County, New Jersey|Burlington County]], [[New Jersey]]
* [[G. B. Singh]], author, first turbaned officer in United States Army
* [[Bhagat Singh Thind]], first turbaned soldier in United States Army; plaintiff in ''United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind'', involving an important legal battle over the rights of Indians to obtain U.S. citizenship
* [[Harbhajan Singh Yogi]], yogi, spiritual teacher, and entrepreneur
* [[Waris Ahluwalia]], actor and tastemaker
* [[Simran Jeet Singh]], author and civil rights activist
* [[Preet Didbal]], mayor of Yuba City, [[California]]; first Sikh woman mayor
* [[Manka Dhingra]], state senator of [[Washington (U.S. state)|Washington]]; first Sikh state senator
* [[Sandeep Dhaliwal]], First member of the Sikh community in [[Harris County, Texas]], to be allowed to wear his turban and beard while on duty as a Harris County Sheriff's deputy. Murdered by a motorist during a traffic stop in 2019.
* [[Thaminder Singh Anand]], scholar and translator of Guru Granth Sahib.

==See also==
* [[Indian American]]
* [[Indians in the New York City metropolitan region]]
* [[Sikhism by country]]
* [[List of gurdwaras in the United States]]
* [[Murder of Balbir Singh Sodhi]]
* [[Wisconsin Sikh temple shooting]]
* [[Sikhism in Australia]]
* [[Sikhism in Canada]]
* [[Sikhism in the United Kingdom]]
* [[Sikhism in New Zealand]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=nb}}

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
{{Further|Indian Americans#Further reading}}
* Atkinson, David C. ''The burden of white supremacy: Containing Asian migration in the British empire and the United States'' (U North Carolina Press, 2016).
* Hawley, John Stratton, and Gurinder Singh Mann. ''Studying the Sikhs: Issues for North America'' (State University of New York Press, 1993).
* Kurien, Prema. "Shifting US racial and ethnic identities and Sikh American activism." ''RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences'' 4.5 (2018): 81–98. [https://www.rsfjournal.org/content/rsfjss/4/5/81.full.pdf online]
* Mahmood, Cynthia Keppley, and Stacy Brady. ''The Guru's Gift: An Ethnography Exploring Gender Equality with North American Sikh Women'' (Mayfield Publishers, 2000).
* Mann, Gurinder Singh et al. ''Buddhists, Hindus, and Sikhs in America'' (Oxford University Press, 2008).
* Sidhu, Dawinder S., and Neha Singh Gohil. ''Civil Rights in Wartime: The Post-9/11 Sikh Experience'' (Ashgate, 2009).
* Stabin, Tova. "Sikh Americans." in ''Gale Encyclopedia of Multicultural America,'' edited by Thomas Riggs, (3rd ed., vol. 4, Gale, 2014), pp. 179–192. [https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3273300163/GPS?u=wikipedia&sid=GPS Online]

==External links==
* [https://pioneeringpunjabis.ucdavis.edu/ Pioneering Punjabis Digital archive at the University of California, Davis]
* [https://www.sikhri.org/ Sikh Research Institute]
* [https://punjab.global.ucsb.edu/ Center for Sikh and Punjab Studies at the University of California, Santa Barbara]

{{Demographics of the United States}}
{{North America topic|Sikhism in}}
{{Sikhism}}
{{portalbar|United States}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sikhism In The United States}}
[[Category:Sikhism in the United States| ]]

Bhartendu Singh

2022-07-04T13:38:27Z

Ananya: Shared an engaging article.

#REDIRECT [[Bharatendra Singh]]
{{R from move}}

Hindu Adoptions and Maintenance Act (1956)

2022-04-08T19:26:38Z

Ananya: Drafted new content.

#REDIRECT [[Hindu Adoptions and Maintenance Act, 1956]]

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Tibetan Empire

2022-03-03T18:50:10Z

Ananya: Published a captivating reference.

{{Short description|Empire in East Asia from 618 to 842/848}}
{{lead too long}}
{{EngvarB}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Infobox former country
| native_name = {{Bo-textonly|བོད་ཆེན་པོ}} {{transliteration|bo|bod chen po}}
| conventional_long_name = Tibetan Empire
| common_name = Tibet
| image_map = Tibetan empire greatest extent 780s-790s CE.png
| image_map_caption = Map of the Tibetan Empire's influence at its greatest extent, in the late 8th to mid 9th century<ref>{{cite book |last=Kapstein |first=Matthew T. |author-link=Matthew Kapstein |year=2006 |chapter-url=https://www.reed.edu/anthro/364/maps/Kapstein.2006.xx.Tibetan.Empire-small.jpg |chapter=The Tibetan Empire, late eighth-early ninth centuries |title=The Tibetans |location=[[Chichester, West Sussex]] |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |page=XX |isbn=978-0-631-22574-4 |access-date=8 August 2021 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170308203908/https://www.reed.edu/anthro/364/maps/Kapstein.2006.xx.Tibetan.Empire-small.jpg |archive-date=8 March 2017 |via=[[Reed College|Reed.edu]]}}</ref>
| era = [[Late Antiquity]]
| status =
| event_start =
| year_start = 618
| date_start =
| event_end =
| year_end = 842/848
| date_end =
| event1 =
| date_event1 =
| event2 =
| date_event2 =
| stat_pop1 =
| p1 = Sumpa
| p2 = Zhangzhung
| p3 = Tuyuhun
| p4 = Tang dynasty
| s1 =
| s2 =
| s3 =
| s4 =
| image_flag = Tibetan snow leopard.svg
| flag_type = Standard of the Tibetan King, {{nowrap|[[Songtsen Gampo]]}} (7th century)
| flag_alt = {{Citation needed|reason=source needed for the factual basis of this created image }}
| capital = [[Lhasa]]
| common_languages = [[Tibetic languages]]
| religion = [[Tibetan Buddhism]], [[Bon]]
| government_type = [[Monarchy]]
| leader1 = [[Songtsen Gampo]] (first)
| year_leader1 = 618–650
| leader6 = [[Trisong Detsen]]
| year_leader6 = 753–797
| leader9 = [[Ralpacan|Ralpachen]]
| year_leader9 = 815–838
| leader10 = [[Langdarma|U Dum Tsen]] (last)
| year_leader10 = 841–842<ref>Arthur Mandelbaum, "Lhalung Pelgyi Dorje", Treasury of Lives</ref>
| title_leader = [[List of emperors of Tibet|''Tsenpo'']] (Chief)
| representative1 = [[Gar Tongtsen Yülsung]]
| year_representative1 = 652–667
| representative2 = [[Gar Trinring Tsendro]]
| year_representative2 = 685–699
| representative3 = [[Nganlam Takdra Lukhong]]
| year_representative3 = 782?–783
| representative4 = [[Nanam Shang Gyaltsen Lhanang]]
| year_representative4 = 783–796
| title_representative = ''[[List of Lönchen of Tibetan Empire|Lönchen]]'' (Chief Minister)
| deputy1 = [[Nyang Tingngezin Sangpo]] (first)
| year_deputy1 = 798–?
| deputy2 = [[Dranga Palkye Yongten]] (last)
| year_deputy2 = ?–838
| title_deputy = ''Banchenpo'' (Chief Monk)
| stat_year1 = 800 est.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Turchin|first1=Peter|last2=Adams|first2=Jonathan M.|last3=Hall|first3=Thomas D|title=East-West Orientation of Historical Empires|journal=Journal of World-Systems Research|volume=12|issue=2|page=222|url=http://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/jwsr/article/view/369/381|access-date=14 September 2016|issn=1076-156X|archive-date=20 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190520161830/http://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/jwsr/article/view/369/381|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia|journal=[[International Studies Quarterly]]|volume=41|issue=3|page=500|doi=10.1111/0020-8833.00053|author=Rein Taagepera|author-link=Rein Taagepera|jstor=2600793|url=http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/3cn68807|access-date=3 July 2019|archive-date=19 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181119114740/https://escholarship.org/uc/item/3cn68807|url-status=live}}</ref>
| stat_area1 = 4600000
| membership_type =
| membership =
}}
{{History of Tibet}}

The '''Tibetan Empire''' ({{Bo|t=བོད་ཆེན་པོ|w=bod chen po}}, {{literal translation|Great Tibet}}; {{zh|t=吐蕃|p=Tǔbō / Tǔfān}}) was an empire centered on the [[Tibetan Plateau]], formed as a result of imperial expansion under the [[Yarlung dynasty]] heralded by its 33rd king, [[Songtsen Gampo]], in the 7th century. The empire further expanded under the 38th king, [[Trisong Detsen]], and expanded to its greatest extent under the 41st king, [[Ralpacan|Rapalchen]], whose 821–823 treaty was concluded between the Tibetan Empire and the [[Tang dynasty]]. This treaty, carved into the [[Jokhang Pillar]], delineated Tibet as being in possession of an area larger than the Tibetan Plateau, stretching east to [[Chang'an]], west beyond modern [[Afghanistan]], and south into modern [[India]] and the [[Bay of Bengal]].<ref>Claude Arpi, "Glimpse on the History of Tibet". Dharamsala: The Tibet Museum, p.5.</ref>

The Yarlung dynasty was founded in 127 BCE in the [[Yarlung Valley]] along the Yarlung River, south of [[Lhasa]]. The Yarlung capital was moved in the 7th century from the palace [[Yumbulingka]] to Lhasa by the 33rd king Songsten Gampo, and into the Red Fort during the imperial period which continued to the 9th century. The beginning of the imperial period is marked in the reign of the 33rd king of the Yarlung dynasty, Songtsen Gampo. The power of Tibet's military empire gradually increased over a diverse terrain. During the reign of Trisong Detsen, the empire became more powerful and increased in size. At this time, a 783 treaty between the Tibetan Empire and the Tang dynasty defined the borders, as commemorated by the [[Shol|Shol Potala Pillar]] in Lhasa.<ref name =Arpi/> Borders were again confirmed during the later reign of the 41st king [[Relpachen|Ralpachen]] through his 821–823 treaty between the Tibetan Empire and Tang dynasty, which was also commemorated by three inscribed stelae.<ref>H.E.Richardson, "The Sino-Tibetan Treaty Inscription of AD 821–823 at Lhasa", JRAS, 2, 1978.</ref><ref name= Arpi>Claude Arpi."Glimpses on The History of Tibet". The Tibet Museum, 2013</ref> In the opening years of the 9th century, the Tibetan Empire controlled territories extending from the [[Tarim Basin]] to the [[Himalayas]] and [[Bengal]], and from the [[Pamirs]] into what are now the Chinese provinces of [[Sichuan]], [[Gansu]] and [[Yunnan]]. The murder of King Rapalchen in 838 by his brother Langdarma, and Langdarma's subsequent enthronement<ref name= Arpi/> followed by his assassination in 842 marks the simultaneous beginning of the dissolution of the empire period.

Before the empire period, sacred Buddhist relics were discovered by the Yarlung dynasty's 28th king, Iha-tho-tho-ri (Thori Nyatsen), and then safeguarded.<ref name=renamed_from_8_on_20210620214735>Khenchen Palden Sherab Rinpoche, "The Eight Manifestations of Guru Padmasambhava". Translated by Khenpo Tsewang Dongyal Rinpoche, edited by Padma Shugchang. Turtle Hill: 1992.</ref> Later, Tibet marked the advent of its empire period under King Songsten Gampo, while Buddhism initially spread into Tibet after the king's conversion to Buddhism, and during his pursuits in translating Buddhist texts while also developing the Tibetan language.<ref name=renamed_from_8_on_20210620214735/> Under King Trisong Detsen, the empire again expanded as the founding of [[Tibetan Buddhism]] and the revealing of the [[Vajrayana]] by [[Guru Padmasambhava]] was occurring.<ref name=renamed_from_8_on_20210620214735/>

The empire period then corresponded to the reigns of Tibet's three 'Religious Kings',<ref name= Arpi/> which includes King Rapalchen's reign. After Rapalchen's murder, King Lang darma nearly destroyed Tibetan Buddhism<ref name= Arpi/> through his widespread targeting of Nyingma monasteries and monastic practitioners. His undertakings correspond to the subsequent dissolution of the unified empire period, after which semi-autonomous polities of chieftains, minor kings and queens, and those surviving Tibetan Buddhist polities evolved once again into autonomous independent polities, similar to those polities also documented in the Tibetan Empire's nearer frontier region of Do Kham ([[Amdo]] and [[Kham]]).<ref>Jann Ronis, "An overview of Kham (Eastern Tibet) historical polities", University of Virginia, SHANTI Places, 2011.</ref><ref>Gray Tuttle, "An overview of Amdo (Eastern Tibet) historical polities", University of Virginia, SHANTI Places, 2013.</ref>

Other unreferenced ideas about the dissolution of the empire period include: The varied terrain of the empire and the difficulty of transportation, coupled with the new ideas that came into the empire as a result of its expansion, helped to create stresses and power blocs that were often in competition with the ruler at the center of the empire.{{according to whom}}{{citation needed}} Thus, for example, adherents of the [[Bön]] religion and the supporters of the ancient noble families gradually came to find themselves in competition with the "recently" introduced [[Tibetan Buddhism]].{{citation needed}}

== History ==

===Namri Songtsen and founding of the dynasty===
{{see also|Timeline of the Tibetan Empire}}

The power that became the Tibetan state originated at the [[Taktsé Castle]] ({{bo|w=Stag-rtse}}) in the Chingba (''Phying-ba'') district of Chonggyä (''Phyongs-rgyas''). There, according to the [[Old Tibetan Chronicle]], a group convinced Tagbu Nyazig (''Stag-bu snya-gzigs'') to rebel against Gudri Zingpoje (''Dgu-gri Zing-po-rje''), who was, in turn, a vassal of the [[Zhangzhung]] empire under the Lig myi dynasty. The group prevailed against Zingpoje. At this point [[Namri Songtsen]] (also known as [[Namri Löntsän]]) was the leader of a clan which one by one prevailed over all his neighbouring clans. He besieged the [[Sumpa|Kingdom of Sumpa]] in the early 7th century and eventually conquered it. He gained control of all the area around what is now Lhasa, before his assassination around 618. This new-born regional state would later become known as the "Tibetan Empire". The government of Namri Songtsen sent two embassies to the Chinese [[Sui Dynasty]] in 608 and 609, marking the appearance of Tibet on the international scene.<ref name="beckwith17">Beckwith 1987, pg. 17.</ref>

:"This first mention of the name Bod, the usual name for [[Tibet]] in the later Tibetan historical sources, is significant in that it is used to refer to a conquered region. In other words, the ancient name Bod originally referred only to a part of the Tibetan Plateau, a part which, together with Rtsaṅ (Tsang, in Tibetan now spelled Gtsaṅ) has come to be called Dbus-gtsaṅ (Central Tibet)."<ref name="beckwith16">Beckwith 1987, p. 16.</ref>

===Reign of Songtsen Gampo (618–650)===
[[Songtsen Gampo]] (''Srong-brtsan Sgam-po'') (c. 604 – 650) was the first great emperor who expanded Tibet's power beyond Lhasa and the [[Yarlung Valley]], and is traditionally credited with introducing [[Buddhism]] to Tibet.
[[File:King Songsten Gampo's statue in his meditation cave at Yerpa.jpg|thumb|A statue of Emperor Songtsen Gampo in a cave at [[Yerpa]]]]
When his father Namri Songtsen died by poisoning (circa 618<ref name="beckwith19-20">Beckwith 1987, pp. 19–20</ref>), Songtsen Gampo took control after putting down a brief rebellion. Songtsen Gampo proved adept at diplomacy as well as combat. The emperor's minister, [[Myang Mangpoje]] (''Myang Mang-po-rje Zhang-shang''), defeated the [[Sumpa]] people ca. 627.<ref name="OTA">''[[Old Tibetan Annals]]'', hereafter OTA l. 2</ref> Six years later (c. 632–33) Myang Mangpoje was accused of treason and executed.<ref>OTA l. 4–5</ref><ref name="Richardson1965">Richardson, Hugh E. (1965). "How Old was Srong Brtsan Sgampo", ''Bulletin of Tibetology'' 2.1. pp. 5–8.</ref><ref name=autogenerated1>OTA l. 8–10</ref> He was succeeded by minister [[Gar Tongtsen Yulsung|Gar Tongtsen]] (''mgar-stong-btsan'').

The Chinese records mention an envoy to Tibet in 634. On that occasion, the Tibetan Emperor requested (demanded according to Tibetan sources) marriage to a Chinese princess but was refused. In 635-36 the Emperor attacked and defeated the [[Tuyuhun Kingdom|Tuyuhun]] ([[Standard Tibetan|Tibetan]]: ''‘A zha''), who lived around Lake [[Koko Nur]] and controlled important trade routes into China. After a series of military campaigns between Tibet and the [[Tang dynasty]] in 635-8,<ref>OTA l. 607</ref>（see also [[Tibetan attack on Songzhou]]）the Chinese emperor agreed (only because of the threat of force, according to Tibetan sources<ref name="powers168-9">Powers 2004, pp. 168–69</ref>) to provide a Chinese princess to Songtsen Gampo.

Circa 639, after [[Songtsen Gampo]] had a dispute with his younger brother Tsänsong (''Brtsan-srong''), the younger brother was burned to death by his own minister Khäsreg (''Mkha’s sregs'') (presumably at the behest of his older brother the emperor).<ref name="Richardson1965" /><ref name=autogenerated1 />

The Chinese [[Princess Wencheng]] (Tibetan: ''Mung-chang Kung-co'') departed China in 640 to marry Songtsen Gampo's son. She arrived a year later. This is traditionally credited with being the first time that Buddhism came to Tibet, but it is very unlikely Buddhism extended beyond foreigners at the court.

Songtsen Gampo’s sister Sämakar (''Sad-mar-kar'') was sent to marry Lig-myi-rhya, the king of [[Zhangzhung]] in what is now Western Tibet. However, when the king refused to consummate the marriage, she then helped her brother to defeat Lig myi-rhya and incorporate Zhangzhung into the Tibetan Empire. In 645, Songtsen Gampo overran the kingdom of Zhangzhung.

Songtsen Gampo died in 650. He was succeeded by his infant grandson [[Mangsong Mangtsen|Trimang Lön]] (''Khri-mang-slon''). Real power was left in the hands of the minister Gar Tongtsen. There is some confusion as to whether Central Tibet conquered Zhangzhung during the reign of Songtsen Gampo or in the reign of [[Trisong Detsen]], (r. 755 until 797 or 804).<ref>Karmey, Samten G. (1975). "'A General Introduction to the History and Doctrines of Bon", p. 180. ''Memoirs of Research Department of The Toyo Bunko'', No, 33. Tokyo.</ref> The records of the ''[[Old Book of Tang|Tang Annals]]'' do, however, seem to clearly place these events in the reign of Songtsen Gampo for they say that in 634, Zhangzhung and various [[Qiang people|Qiang]] tribes "altogether submitted to him." Following this, he united with the country of Zhangzhung to defeat the Tuyuhun, then conquered two more Qiang tribes before threatening the Chinese region of [[Songzhou (historical prefecture in Sichuan)|Songzhou]] with a very large army (according to Tibetan sources 100,000; according to the Chinese more than 200,000 men).<ref name="Powers168">Powers 2004, pg. 168</ref> He then sent an envoy with gifts of gold and silk to the Chinese emperor to ask for a Chinese princess in marriage and, when refused, [[Tibetan attack on Songzhou|attacked Songzhou]]. According to the ''Tang Annals'', he finally retreated and apologised, after which the emperor granted his request.<ref name="Lee7 9">Lee 1981, pp. 7–9</ref><ref name="Pelliot3 4">Pelliot 1961, pp. 3–4</ref>

After the death of Songtsen Gampo in 650 AD, the Chinese [[Tang dynasty]] attacked and took control of the Tibetan capital [[Lhasa]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U7C0I2KRyEUC&q=chinese+captured+lhasa+650&pg=PA28|title=Tibet Past and Present|author=Charles Bell|year=1992|publisher=CUP Motilal Banarsidass Publ.|isbn=978-81-208-1048-8|page=28|access-date=17 July 2010|archive-date=3 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103054322/http://books.google.com/books?id=U7C0I2KRyEUC&pg=PA28&dq=chinese+captured+lhasa+650|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=faoSAAAAIAAJ&q=chinese+captured+lhasa+650|title=The China quarterly, Issue 1|author=University of London. Contemporary China Institute, Congress for Cultural Freedom|year=1960|page=88|access-date=17 July 2010|archive-date=3 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103054334/http://books.google.com/books?id=faoSAAAAIAAJ&q=chinese+captured+lhasa+650&dq=chinese+captured+lhasa+650|url-status=live}}</ref> Soldiers of the [[Tang dynasty]] could not sustain their presence in the hostile environment of the Tibetan Plateau and soon returned to China proper."<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ecaeybfrl1IC&q=chinese+captured+lhasa+650&pg=PA12|title=Tears of the lotus: accounts of Tibetan resistance to the Chinese invasion, 1950–1962|author=Roger E. McCarthy|year=1997|publisher=McFarland|isbn=978-0-7864-0331-8|page=12|access-date=17 July 2010|archive-date=3 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103054340/http://books.google.com/books?id=Ecaeybfrl1IC&pg=PA12&dq=chinese+captured+lhasa+650|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Reign of Mangsong Mangtsen (650–676)===
[[File:Map of the Four Horns of the Tibetan Empire (7th century)-EN.svg|thumb|400px|Map of the Four Horns (administrative divisions) of the Tibetan Empire in the 7th century.]]
After having incorporated Tuyuhun into Tibetan territory, the powerful minister Gar Tongtsen died in 667.

Between 665 and 670, [[Kingdom of Khotan|Khotan]] was defeated by the Tibetans, and a long string of conflicts ensued with the Chinese Tang Dynasty. In the spring of 670, Tibet attacked the remaining Chinese territories in the western [[Tarim Basin]] after winning the [[Battle of Dafeichuan]] against the [[Tang dynasty]]. With troops from Khotan they conquered [[Aksu, Xinjiang|Aksu]], upon which the Chinese abandoned the region, ending two decades of Chinese control.<ref>Beckwith, Christopher I. ''The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia''. (1987), pp. 34–-36. Princeton University Press. {{ISBN|0-691-02469-3}}.</ref> They thus gained control over all of the Chinese [[Four Garrisons of Anxi]] in the Tarim Basin in 670 and held them until 692, when the Chinese finally managed to regain these territories.<ref>Beckwith, 36, 146.</ref>

Emperor [[Mangsong Mangtsen]] (''Trimang Löntsen''' or ''Khri-mang-slon-rtsan'') married [[Thrimalö]] (''Khri-ma-lod''), a woman who would be of great importance in Tibetan history. The emperor died in the winter of 676–677, and Zhangzhung revolts occurred thereafter. In the same year the emperor's son [[Tridu Songtsen]] (''Khri 'dus-srong btsan'' or ''Khri-'dus-srong-rtsan'') was born.<ref name="Beckwith1987">Beckwith 1987, pp. 14, 48, 50.</ref>

===Reign of Tridu Songtsen (677–704)===
[[File:East-Hem 700ad.jpg|thumb|left|280px|The Tibetan Empire in 700 AD]]
The power of Emperor [[Tridu Songtsen]] was offset, to an extent, by that of his mother, Thrimalö and the influence of the Gar clan. ([[Wylie transliteration|Wylie]] ''mgar''; also ''sgar'' and ''′gar''). (There is evidence that the Gar were descended from members of the [[Lesser Yuezhi]], a people who had originally spoken an [[Indo-European language]] and migrated, sometime after the 3rd century BC, from [[Gansu]] or the [[Tarim Basin|Tarim]] into [[Kokonur]].)

In 685, minister [[Gar Tsenye Dompu]] (''mgar btsan-snya-ldom-bu'') died and his brother, [[Gar Trinring Tsendro|Gar Tridring Tsendrö]] (''mgar Khri-‘bring-btsan brod'') was appointed to replace him.<ref name="beckwith50">Beckwith 1987, pg. 50</ref> In 692, the Tibetans lost the Tarim Basin to the Chinese. Gar Tridring Tsendrö defeated the Chinese in battle in 696 and sued for peace. Two years later in 698 emperor Tridu Songtsen reportedly invited the Gar clan (who numbered more than 2000 people) to a hunting party and had them massacred. Gar Tridring Tsendrö then committed suicide, and his troops joined the Chinese. This brought to an end the influence of the Gar.<ref name=autogenerated7>Beckwith 1987, pp. 14, 48, 50</ref>

From 700 until his death the emperor remained on campaign in the northeast, absent from Central Tibet, while his mother Thrimalö administrated in his name.<ref name="Petech">Petech, Luciano (1988). "The Succession to the Tibetan Throne in 704-5." ''Orientalia Iosephi Tucci Memoriae Dicata'', Serie Orientale Roma 41.3. pp. 1080–87.</ref> In 702, [[Zhou dynasty (690–705)|Zhou China]] under Empress [[Wu Zetien]] and the Tibetan Empire concluded peace. At the end of that year, the Tibetan imperial government turned to consolidating the administrative organisation khö chenpo (''mkhos chen-po'') of the northeastern Sumru area, which had been the Sumpa country conquered 75 years earlier. Sumru was organised as a new "horn" of the empire.

During the summer of 703, Tridu Songtsen resided at Öljak (''‘Ol-byag'') in Ling (''Gling''), which was on the upper reaches of the [[Yangtze]], before proceeding with an invasion of Jang (''‘Jang''), which may have been either the [[Mosuo]] or the kingdom of [[Nanzhao]].<ref>{{cite book |last= Backus |first= Charles |title= The Nan-chao Kingdom and T'ang China's Southwestern Frontier |year= 1981 |publisher= Cambridge University Press |isbn= 978-0-521-22733-9 |page= 43}}</ref> In 704, he stayed briefly at Yoti Chuzang (''Yo-ti Chu-bzangs'') in Madrom (''Rma-sgrom'') on the [[Yellow River]]. He then invaded Mywa, which was at least in part Nanzhao (the Tibetan term ''mywa'' likely referring to the same people or peoples referred to by the Chinese as Man or [[Miao people|Miao]])<ref>Backus (1981) pp. 43–44</ref><ref>Beckwith, C. I. "The Revolt of 755 in Tibet", p. 5 note 10. In: ''Weiner Studien zur Tibetologie und Buddhismuskunde''. Nos. 10–11. [Ernst Steinkellner and Helmut Tauscher, eds. ''Proceedings of the Csoma de Kőrös Symposium Held at Velm-Vienna, Austria, 13–19 September 1981''. Vols. 1–2.] Vienna, 1983.</ref><ref>Beckwith (1987) pp. 64–65</ref> but died during the prosecution of that campaign.<ref name="Petech" />

===Reign of Tride Tsuktsän (704–754)===
[[File:Shakyamuni Buddha.jpg|260px|thumb|right|Copper-plated Sakyamuni Buddha statue during [[History of Tibetan Buddhism|First dissemination]]]]
Gyeltsugru (Rgyal-gtsug-ru), later to become King Tride Tsuktsen (''Khri-lde-gtsug-brtsan''), generally known now by his nickname [[Me Agtsom]] ("Old Hairy"), was born in 704. Upon the death of Tridu Songtsen, his mother Thrimalö ruled as regent for the infant Gyältsugru.<ref name="Petech" /> The following year the elder son of Tridu Songtsen, [[Lha of Tibet|Lha Balpo]] (''Lha Bal-pho'') apparently contested the succession of his one-year-old brother, but was "deposed from the throne" at Pong Lag-rang.<ref name="Petech" /><ref>Beckwith, C. I. "The Revolt of 755 in Tibet", pp. 1–14. In: ''Weiner Studien zur Tibetologie und Buddhismuskunde''. Nos. 10–11. [Ernst Steinkellner and Helmut Tauscher, eds. ''Proceedings of the Csoma de Kőrös Symposium Held at Velm-Vienna, Austria, 13–19 September 1981''. Vols. 1–2.] Vienna, 1983.</ref>

Thrimalö had arranged for a royal marriage to a Chinese princess. The [[Princess Jincheng]] (Tibetan: Kyimshang Kongjo) arrived in 710, but it is somewhat unclear whether she married the seven-year-old Gyeltsugru<ref>Yamaguchi 1996: 232</ref> or the deposed Lha Balpo.<ref>Beckwith 1983: 276.</ref> Gyeltsugru also married a lady from Jang (Nanzhao) and another born in Nanam.<ref>Stein 1972, pp. 62–63</ref>

Gyältsugru was officially enthroned with the royal name Tride Tsuktsän in 712,<ref name="Petech" /> the year that dowager empress Thrimalö died.

The [[Umayyad Caliphate]] and [[Turgesh]] became increasingly prominent during 710–720. The Tibetans were allied with the Türgesh. Tibet and China fought on and off in the late 720s. At first Tibet (with Türgesh allies) had the upper hand, but then they started losing battles. After a rebellion in southern China and a major Tibetan victory in 730, the Tibetans and Türgesh sued for peace.

The Tibetans aided the Turgesh in fighting against the Muslim Arabs during the [[Muslim conquest of Transoxiana]].<ref name="Beckwith1993">{{cite book|last=Beckwith|first=Christopher I.|author-link=Christopher I. Beckwith|title=The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia: A History of the Struggle for Great Power Among Tibetans, Turks, Arabs, and Chinese During the Early Middle Ages|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7G61UifCEZMC&pg=PA108|year=1993|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-02469-1|pages=108–121|access-date=7 April 2016|archive-date=18 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200818185213/https://books.google.com/books?id=7G61UifCEZMC&pg=PA108|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 734, the Tibetans married their princess Dronmalön (''‘Dron ma lon'') to the Türgesh Qaghan. The Chinese allied with the Caliphate to attack the Türgesh. After victory and peace with the Türgesh, the Chinese attacked the Tibetan army. The Tibetans suffered several defeats in the east, despite strength in the west. The Türgesh empire collapsed from internal strife. In 737, the Tibetans launched an attack against the king of Bru-za ([[Gilgit]]), who asked for Chinese help, but was ultimately forced to pay homage to Tibet. In 747, the hold of Tibet was loosened by the campaign of general [[Gao Xianzhi]], who tried to re-open the direct communications between Central Asia and Kashmir.

By 750, the Tibetans had lost almost all of their central Asian possessions to the Chinese. In 753, even the kingdom of "Little Balur" (modern Gilgit) was captured by the Chinese. However, after Gao Xianzhi's defeat by the Caliphate and [[Karluks]] at the [[Battle of Talas]] (751), Chinese influence decreased rapidly and Tibetan influence began to increase again. Tibet conquered large sections of northern India during this time.

In 755, Tride Tsuktsen was killed by the ministers Lang and ‘Bal. Then Takdra Lukong (''Stag-sgra Klu-khong'') presented evidence to prince Song Detsen (''Srong-lde-brtsan'') that they were disloyal and causing dissension in the country, and were about to attack him also. Lang and ‘Bal subsequently did revolt; they were killed by the army and their property was confiscated.<ref>Beckwith 1983: 273</ref>

===Reign of Trisong Detsen (756–797?)===
[[File:Tibetan Empire.png|thumb|400px|Map of Tibetan Empire at its greatest extent in 790 {{Citation needed|reason=Map of the Four Horn representative of plausible Tibetan sphere of influence }}]]
In 756, prince Song Detsän was crowned Emperor with the name [[Trisong Detsen]] (''Khri srong lde brtsan'') and took control of the government when he attained his majority<ref>Stein 1972, p. 66</ref> at 13 years of age (12 by Western reckoning) after a one-year [[interregnum]] during which there was no emperor.

In 755, China had already begun to be weakened because of the [[An Shi Rebellion]] started by [[An Lushan]] in 751, which would last until 763. In contrast, Trisong Detsän's reign was characterised by the reassertion of Tibetan influence in Central Asia. Early in his reign regions to the West of Tibet paid homage to the Tibetan court. From that time onward the Tibetans pressed into the territory of the Tang emperors, reaching the Chinese capital Chang'an (modern [[Xi'an]]) in late 763.<ref>Beckwith 1987, pg. 146</ref> Tibetan troops under the command of [[Nganlam Takdra Lukhong]] occupied Chang'an for fifteen days and installed a [[Li Chenghong|puppet emperor]] while [[Emperor Daizong of Tang|Emperor Daizong]] was in [[Luoyang]]. [[Kingdom of Nanzhao|Nanzhao]] (in [[Yunnan]] and neighbouring regions) remained under Tibetan control from 750 to 794, when they turned on their Tibetan overlords and helped the Chinese inflict a serious defeat on the Tibetans.<ref>Marks, Thomas A. (1978). "Nanchao and Tibet in South-western China and Central Asia." ''The Tibet Journal''. Vol. 3, No. 4. Winter 1978, pp. 13–16.</ref>

In 785, Wei Kao, a Chinese serving as an official in Shuh, repulsed Tibetan invasions of the area.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L1guAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA249|title=The Chinese reader's manual: A handbook of biographical, historical, mythological, and general literary reference|author=William Frederick Mayers|year=1874|publisher=American Presbyterian mission press|page=249|access-date=28 October 2010|author-link=William Frederick Mayers|archive-date=19 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819140832/https://books.google.com/books?id=L1guAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA249|url-status=live}}</ref>

In the meantime, the [[Yenisei Kyrgyz|Kyrgyz]] negotiated an agreement of friendship with Tibet and other powers to allow free trade in the region. An attempt at a peace treaty between Tibet and China was made in 787, but hostilities were to last until the Sino-Tibetan treaty of 821 was inscribed in Lhasa in 823 (see below). At the same time, the [[Yugur|Uyghurs]], nominal allies of the Tang emperors, continued to make difficulties along Tibet's Northern border. Toward the end of this king's reign Uyghur victories in the North caused the Tibetans to lose a number of their allies in the Southeast.<ref>Beckwith 1987, pp. 144–157</ref>

Recent historical research indicates the presence of [[Christianity]] in as early as the sixth and seventh centuries, a period when the [[Hephthalites]] had extensive links with the Tibetans.<ref>Palmer, Martin, ''The Jesus Sutras,'' Mackays Limited, Chatham, Kent, Great Britain, 2001)</ref>{{Better source needed}} A strong presence existed by the eighth century when [[Timothy I (Nestorian patriarch)|Patriarch Timothy I]] (727–823) in 782 calls the Tibetans one of the more significant communities of the eastern church and wrote of the need to appoint another bishop in ca. 794.<ref>Hunter, Erica, "The Church of the East in Central Asia," ''Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester'', 78, no.3 (1996)</ref>

There is a stone pillar (now blocked off from the public), the Lhasa Shöl ''rdo-rings'', Doring Chima or [[Lhasa Zhol Pillar]], in the ancient village of Shöl in front of the [[Potala]] in Lhasa, dating to c. 764 CE during Trisong Detsen's reign. It also contains an account of the conquest of large swathes of northwestern China including the capture of [[Chang'an]], the Chinese capital, for a short period in 763 CE, during the reign of [[Emperor Daizong]].<ref>Stein 1972, p. 65</ref><ref>''A Corpus of Early Tibetan Inscriptions''. H. E. Richardson. Royal Asiatic Society (1985), pp. 1–25. {{ISBN|0-947593-00-4}}.</ref>

===Reign of Muné Tsenpo (c. 797–799?)===
Trisong Detsen is said to have had four sons. The eldest, Mutri Tsenpo, apparently died young. When Trisong Detsen retired he handed power to the eldest surviving son, [[Muné Tsenpo]] (''Mu-ne btsan-po'').<ref>Stein, R. A. (1972) ''Tibetan Civilization'', p. 101. Stanford University Press. {{ISBN|0-8047-0806-1}} (cloth); {{ISBN|0-8047-0901-7}} (pbk)</ref> Most sources say that Muné's reign lasted only about a year and a half. After a short reign, Muné Tsenpo was supposedly poisoned on the orders of his mother.

After his death, [[Mutik Tsenpo]] was next in line to the throne. However, he had been apparently banished to Lhodak Kharchu (lHo-brag or Lhodrag) near the [[Bhutan]]ese border for murdering a senior minister.<ref>Shakabpa, Tsepon W. D. ''Tibet: A Political History'' (1967), p. 47. Yale University Press, New Haven and London.</ref> The youngest brother, Tride Songtsen, was definitely ruling by AD 804.<ref>Shakabpa, Tsepon W. D. ''Tibet: A Political History'' (1967), p. 48. Yale University Press, New Haven and London.</ref><ref>Richardson, Hugh. ''A Corpus of Early Tibetan Inscriptions'' (1981), p. 44. Royal Asiatic Society, London. {{ISBN|0-947593-00-4}}.</ref>

===Reign of Tride Songtsen (799–815)===
Under Tride Songtsen (''Khri lde srong brtsan'' – generally known as [[Sadnalegs]]), there was a protracted war with the [[Abbasid Caliphate]]. It appears that Tibetans captured a number of Caliphate troops and pressed them into service on the eastern frontier in 801. Tibetans were active as far west as [[Samarkand]] and [[Kabul]]. Abbasid forces began to gain the upper hand, and the [[Tibetan people|Tibetan]] governor of [[Kabul]] submitted to the [[Caliphate]] and became a [[Islam|Muslim]] about 812 or 815. The Caliphate then struck east from [[Kashmir]] but were held off by the [[Tibetans]]. In the meantime, the [[Uyghur Khaganate]] attacked [[Tibet]] from the northeast. Strife between the [[Uyghurs]] and [[Tibetans]] continued for some time.<ref>Beckwith 1987, pp. 157–165</ref>

===Reign of Tritsu Detsen (815–838)===
[[File:Tang-Tibetan alliance stele.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The bilingual text of peace treaty inscribed on the Tang-Tibetan alliance stele, Jokhang temple.]]
Tritsu Detsen (''Khri gtsug lde brtsan''), best known as [[Ralpacan]], is important to [[Tibetan Buddhists]] as one of the three '''Dharma Kings''' who brought Buddhism to Tibet. He was a generous supporter of Buddhism and invited many craftsmen, scholars and translators from neighbouring countries. He also promoted the development of written [[Standard Tibetan|Tibetan]] and translations, which were greatly aided by the development of a detailed Sanskrit-Tibetan lexicon called the ''[[Mahāvyutpatti|Mahavyutpatti]]'' which included standard Tibetan equivalents for thousands of [[Sanskrit]] terms.<ref name=autogenerated6>Shakabpa, Tsepon W. D. (1967). ''Tibet: A Political History'', pp. 49–50. Yale University Press, New Haven & London.</ref><ref>''Ancient Tibet: Research Materials from the Yeshe De Project'' (1986), pp. 296–97. Dharma Publishing, California. {{ISBN|0-89800-146-3}}.</ref>

Tibetans attacked Uyghur territory in 816 and were in turn attacked in 821. After successful Tibetan raids into Chinese territory, Buddhists in both countries sought mediation.<ref name=autogenerated6 />

Ralpacan was apparently murdered by two pro-[[Bön]] ministers who then placed his anti-Buddhist brother, [[Langdarma]], on the throne.<ref>Shakabpa, Tsepon W. D. (1967). ''Tibet: A Political History'', p. 51. Yale University Press, New Haven & London.</ref>

Tibet continued to be a major Central Asian empire until the mid-9th century. It was under the reign of Ralpacan that the political power of Tibet was at its greatest extent, stretching as far as Mongolia and Bengal, and entering into treaties with China on a mutual basis.

A Sino-Tibetan treaty was agreed on in 821/822 under Ralpacan, which established peace for more than two decades.<ref>Beckwith 1987, pp. 165–67</ref> A bilingual account of this treaty is inscribed on a [[Sino-Tibetan Treaty Inscription|stone pillar]] which stands outside the [[Jokhang]] temple in Lhasa.

===Reign of Langdarma (838–842)===
[[File:East-Hem 800ad.jpg|thumb|left|Tibetan Empire in 820 AD]]
The reign of [[Langdarma]] (''Glang dar ma''), regal title Tri Uidumtsaen (''Khri 'U'i dum brtsan''), was plagued by external troubles. The Uyghur state to the north collapsed under pressure from the Kyrgyz in 840, and many displaced people fled to Tibet. Langdarma himself was assassinated, apparently by a Buddhist hermit, in 842.<ref>Beckwith 1987, pp. 168–69</ref><ref>Shakabpa, p. 54.</ref>

===Decline===
[[File:Era of Fragmentation.png|thumb|[[Era of Fragmentation]] in the post-empire period]]
[[File:Dunhuang Zhang Yichao army.jpg|thumb|Mural commemorating victory of [[Zhang Yichao]] over the Tibetan Empire in 848. [[Mogao Caves|Mogao cave]] 156]]
{{main|Era of Fragmentation}}
A civil war that arose over Langdarma's successor led to the collapse of the Tibetan Empire. The period that followed, known traditionally as the Era of Fragmentation, was dominated by rebellions against the remnants of imperial Tibet and the rise of regional warlords.<ref>Schaik, Galambos. p.4.</ref>

==Military==
===Armor===
The soldiers of the Tibetan Empire wore armour such as lamellar and chainmail, and were proficient in the use of swords and lances. According to the Tibetan author Tashi Namgyal, writing in 1524, the history of lamellar armour in Tibet was divided into three distinct periods. The oldest armour dated from the time of the "Righteous Kings, Uncle, and Nephew" which would place it sometime during the Yarlung dynasty, early seventh to mid ninth century. {{sfn|LaRocca|2006|p=52}}

According to [[Du You]] (735–812) in his encyclopaedic text, the ''[[Tongdian]]'', the Tibetans were less proficient in archery and fought in the following manner:

{{quotation|The men and horses all wear chain mail armor. Its workmanship is extremely fine. It envelops them completely, leaving openings only for the two eyes. Thus, strong bows and sharp swords cannot injure them. When they do battle, they must dismount and array themselves in ranks. When one dies, another takes his place. To the end, they are not willing to retreat. Their lances are longer and thinner than those in China. Their archery is weak but their armor is strong. The men always use swords; when they are not at war they still go about carrying swords.{{sfn|Beckwith|1987|p=110}}|Du You}}

The Tibetans might have exported their armour to the neighbouring steppe nomads. When the [[Turgesh]] attacked the [[Arabs]], their khagan [[Suluk (Turgesh khagan)|Suluk]] was reported to have worn Tibetan armour, which saved him from two arrows before a third penetrated his breast. He survived the ordeal with some discomfort in one arm.{{sfn|Beckwith|1987|p=109}}

===Organization===
The Tibetan Empire's officers were not employed full-time and were only called upon on an ad hoc basis. These warriors were designated by a golden arrow seven inches long which signified their office. The officers gathered once a year to swear an oath of fealty. They assembled every three years to partake in a sacrificial feast.{{sfn|Bushell|1880|p=410-411}}

While on campaign, Tibetan armies carried no provision of grain and lived on plunder.{{sfn|Bushell|1880|p=442}}

==Society==
{{multiple image
| perrow = 2/2/2
| total_width = 300
| caption_align = center
| title = Unearthed artifacts of the Tibetan Empire
| image1 = 金胡瓶03596.jpg
| caption1 = 1500-year-old pottery, Gold bottle found in the tomb of [[Amdo]]
| image2 = 玛瑙长杯03602.jpg
| caption2 = [[Sasanian art|Sasan]]-style long cup made of yellow agate
| image3 = 人物纹贴金锡盘03589.jpg
| caption3 = Tin plate with figures painted in gold
| image4 = 带把金杯03598.jpg
| caption4 = Gold cup with handle
}}
The early Tibetans worshipped a god of war known as "Yuandi" (Chinese transcription) according to a Chinese transliteration from the ''[[Old Book of Tang]]''.{{sfn|Walter|2009|p=26}}

The ''Old Book of Tang'' states:

{{quotation|They grow no rice but have black oats, red pulse, barley, and buckwheat. The principal domestic animals are the yak, pig, dog, sheep, and horse. There are flying squirrels, sembling in shape those of our own country, but as large as cats, the fur of which is used for clothes. They have abundance of gold, silver, copper, and tin. The natives generally follow their flocks to pasture and have no fixed dwelling-place. They have, however, some walled cities. The capital of the state is called the city of Lohsieh. The houses are all flat-roofed and often reach to the height of several tens of feet. The men of rank live in large felt tents, which are called ''fulu''. The rooms in which they live are filthily dirty, and they never comb their hair nor wash. They join their hands to hold wine, and make plates of felt, and knead dough into cups, which they fill with broth and cream and eat the whole together.{{sfn|Bushell|1880|p=442}}}}

==See also==
* [[Guge]]
* [[Shule Kingdom]]
* [[Nanzhao]]
* [[Sumpa]]
* [[Purang-Guge Kingdom]]

== References ==

=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}

LaRocca, Donald J. ''Warriors of the Himalayas: Rediscovering the Arms and Armor of Tibet.'' (2006) Metropolitan Museum of Art. {{ISBN|0-300-11153-3}}
* Beckwith, Christopher I. ''The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia: A History of the Struggle for Great Power among Tibetans, Turks, Arabs, and Chinese during the Early Middle Ages''' (1987) Princeton University Press. {{ISBN|0-691-02469-3}}
* {{citation|last=Bushell|first=S. W.|year=1880|title=The Early History of Tibet. From Chinese Sources|publisher=Cambridge University Press}}
* Lee, Don Y. ''The History of Early Relations between China and Tibet: From Chiu t'ang-shu, a documentary survey'' (1981) Eastern Press, Bloomington, Indiana. {{ISBN|0-939758-00-8}}
* Pelliot, Paul. ''Histoire ancienne du Tibet'' (1961) Librairie d'Amérique et d'orient, Paris
* Powers, John. ''History as Propaganda: Tibetan Exiles versus the People's Republic of China'' (2004) Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-19-517426-7}}
* [[Sam van Schaik|Schaik, Sam van]]. [[Imre Galambos|Galambos, Imre]]. ''Manuscripts and Travellers: The Sino-Tibetan Documents of a Tenth-Century Buddhist Pilgrim'' (2011) Walter de Gruyter {{ISBN|978-3-11-022565-5}}
* Stein, Rolf Alfred. ''Tibetan Civilization'' (1972) Stanford University Press. {{ISBN|0-8047-0901-7}}
* {{citation |last=Walter|first=Michael L.|year=2009|title=Buddhism and Empire The Political and Religious Culture of Early Tibet|publisher=Brill }}
* Yamaguchi, Zuiho. (1996). “The Fiction of King Dar-ma’s persecution of Buddhism” ''De Dunhuang au Japon: Etudes chinoises et bouddhiques offertes à Michel Soymié''. Genève : Librarie Droz S.A.
* Nie, Hongyin. [http://iea.cass.cn/xs/xsdt/html/20090227xixiawenxian.pdf 西夏文献中的吐蕃]{{Dead link|bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
* [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25196861 "The Early History of Tibet. From Chinese Sources"] S. W. Bushell, ''The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland'', New Series, Vol. 12, No. 4 (Oct. 1880), pp. 435–541, Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland

== External links ==

{{-}}
{{Tibet topics}}
{{Inner Asia}}
{{Empires}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Tibetan Empire}}
[[Category:Tibetan Empire| ]]
[[Category:Former monarchies of Asia]]
[[Category:History of Tibet|.]]
[[Category:History of Asia]]
[[Category:Former countries in Chinese history]]
[[Category:Former countries in East Asia]]
[[Category:Former countries in Central Asia]]
[[Category:Former countries in South Asia]]
[[Category:Former monarchies of East Asia]]
[[Category:Former monarchies of Central Asia]]
[[Category:Former monarchies of South Asia]]
[[Category:7th-century establishments in Tibet]]
[[Category:9th-century disestablishments in Tibet]]
[[Category:840s disestablishments]]
[[Category:618 establishments]]
[[Category:States and territories established in the 610s]]

Economic Times Awards

2022-01-11T09:17:52Z

Ananya: Crafted a unique article.

{{Short description|Awards presented by The Economic Times}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Use Indian English}}
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{{Update|ET Awards 2018}}
}}
'''The Economic Times Awards for Corporate Excellence''' (also referred as '''ET Awards''') are the awards conferred by ''[[The Economic Times]]'' in the field of business, corporate and government policies, economies in [[India]]. It is an annual awards, conferred in various categories. Since 2017, Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu India LLP (Deloitte) has been the title sponsor of the awards. The 2018 leg of the awards will be held on 22 November in Mumbai.

==ET Awards 1998==
* Company of the year: [[Infosys]]<ref name=infosys>{{cite web|url=https://www.infosys.com/about/awards/pages/index.aspx|title=Infosys - Technology Awards & Accolades - About Us|website=www.infosys.com}}</ref>

==ET Awards 2002==
* Business Leader of the Year: [[Arun Shourie]], Union Minister for Disinvestment<ref name=et2002>{{cite web|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/etawards/intro.html|title=ET Awards 2002|publisher=}}</ref>
* Businesswoman of the Year: [[Lijjat Papad]]<ref name=et2002/>
* Entrepreneur of the Year: Jerry Rao of Mphasis BFL<ref name=et2002/>
* Company of the Year: [[Hero Honda]]<ref name=et2002/>
* Emerging Company of the Year: [[Balaji Telefilms]]<ref name=et2002/>
* Lifetime Achievement: [[M S Swaminathan]], father of the Green Revolution and [[F C Kohli]], father of Indian software<ref name=et2002/>
* Corporate Citizen of the Year: [[Aditya Vikram Birla Group]]<ref name=et2002/>

==ET Awards 2004==
* Businesswoman of the Year: [[Kiran Mazumdar-Shaw]]<ref name=ECTimes2004>{{cite news|title=Kiran Mazumdar-Shaw: Businesswoman of the year|url=http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2004-10-18/news/27408028_1_entrepreneur-kiran-mazumdar-shaw-biocon|accessdate=17 September 2014|work=Economic Times}}</ref>

==ET Awards 2006==
* Businesswoman of the year: [[Mallika Srinivasan]], Tractors and Farm Equipment (TAFE)<ref name=tcs2006>{{cite web|url=http://www.tata.co.in/company/Media/inside.aspx?artid=VvpgIy4hJqc=|title=TCS named company of the year, The Times of India, 11 Sep 2006|access-date=29 August 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721154343/http://www.tata.co.in/company/Media/inside.aspx?artid=VvpgIy4hJqc%3D|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* Entrepreneur of the year: H K Mittal, Mercator Lines<ref name=tcs2006/>
* Global Indian of the year: [[Indra Nooyi]], [[Pepsi]]<ref name=tcs2006/>
* Business Reformer of the year: [[P Chidambaram]]<ref name=tcs2006/>
* Policy Change Agent of the year: [[Montek Singh Ahluwalia]], Planning Commission<ref name=tcs2006/>
* Company of the year: [[Tata Consultancy Services]]<ref name=tcs2006/>
* Emerging company of the year: [[Amtek Auto]]<ref name=tcs2006/>
* Lifetime Achievement: N Vaghul, [[ICICI Bank]]<ref name=tcs2006/>
* Corporate Citizen of the Year: Azim Premji Foundation<ref name=tcs2006/>

==ET Awards 2008==
* Business Leader of the year: [[A M Naik]], L&T
* Business Woman of the year: [[Shikha Sharma]], [[ICICI Prudential]]
* Entrepreneur of the year: [[Dilip Sanghavi]], [[Sun Pharmaceuticals]]
* Global Indian of the year: [[Arun Sarin]], [[Vodafone]] Group
* Business Reformer of the year: [[Kamal Nath]], Union Commerce and Industry Minister
* Policy Change Agent of the year: [[E Sreedharan]], [[Delhi Metro Rail Corporation]]
* Company of the year: [[Tata Steel]]
* Emerging Company of the year: Welspun Gujarat Stahl Rohren
* Lifetime Achievement Award: [[Ashok Ganguly]], former Chairman, HLL
* Corporate Citizen of the year: Dr Reddy's Foundation

==ET Awards 2009==
* Business Leader of the year: [[Anand Mahindra]], Mahindra Group<ref name=et2009>[http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/Top-10-of-India-Inc-show-guts-grace-under-pressure/articleshow/4931080.cms ET Awards 2009 winners, ''The Economic Times'', 25 Aug 2009]</ref>
* Business Woman of the year: [[Vinita Bali]], [[Britannia Industries]]<ref name=et2009/>
* Entrepreneur of the year: [[GVK Reddy]], [[GVK Group]]<ref name=et2009/>
* Global Indian of the year: [[Ram Charan]], management guru and thinker<ref name=et2009/>
* Business Reformer of the year: [[Nitish Kumar]], [[Chief Minister]] of [[Bihar]] state<ref name=et2009/>
* Policy Change Agent of the year: [[Jean Dreze]], National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme<ref name=et2009/>
* Company of the year: [[Hero Honda]]<ref name=et2009/>
* Emerging Company of the year: [[Idea Cellular]]<ref name=et2009/>
* Lifetime Achievement Award: [[Keshub Mahindra]], Mahindra Group<ref name=et2009/>
* Corporate Citizen of the year: The Energy and Resources Institute ([[TERI]])<ref name=et2009/>

==ET Awards 2010==
* Business Leader of the year: [[Aditya Puri]], HDFC Bank<ref name=et2010> [http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/articleshow/6703195.cms ET Awards: The top 10 of 2010, ''The Economic Times'', 7 October 2010]</ref>
* Business Woman of the year: [[Zia Mody]], [[AZB Partners]]<ref name=et2010/>
* Entrepreneur of the year: [[Narendra Murkumbi]], [[Renuka Sugars]]<ref name=et2010/>
* Global Indian of the year: [[Nitin Nohria]], [[Dean (education)|Dean]], [[Harvard Business School]]<ref name=et2010/>
* Business Reformer of the year: [[Kapil Sibal]], minister of human resources development<ref name=et2010/>
* Policy Change Agent of the year: [[Aruna Roy]] and [[Arvind Kejriwal]], — the founders of [[Parivartan]]<ref name=et2010/>
* Company of the year: [[Larsen & Toubro]]<ref name=et2010/>
* Emerging Company of the year: [[Cadila Healthcare]]<ref name=et2010/>
* Lifetime Achievement Award: [[R. C. Bhargava]], the non-executive chairman of [[Maruti Suzuki]]<ref name=et2010/>

==ET Awards 2011==
* Business Leader of the year: [[Chanda Kochhar]], ICICI Bank<ref name="et2011">{{cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/news-by-company/corporate-trends/the-economic-times-awards-for-corporate-excellence-2011-india-incs-captains-display-their-fighting-streak-when-world-battles-deepening-crisis/articleshow/10237590.cms|title=The Economic Times Awards for Corporate Excellence 2011: India Inc's captains display their fighting streak when world battles deepening crisis|publisher=|newspaper=The Economic Times}}</ref>
* Entrepreneur of the year: Rahul Bhatia, [[Indigo Airlines]]<ref name=et2011/>
* Global Indian of the year: [[Vikram Pandit]], Citi Bank<ref name=et2011/>
* Policy Change Agent of the year: [[Nandan Nilekani]]<ref name=et2011/>
* Company of the year: [[Bajaj Auto]]<ref name=et2011/>
* Emerging Company of the year: [[Shree Renuka Sugars]]<ref name=et2011/>
* Lifetime Achievement Award: [[Yaga Venugopal Reddy]], Former Governor of the [[Reserve Bank of India]]<ref name=et2011/>

==ET Awards 2012==
* Business Leader of the year: [[Anil_Agarwal_(businessman)|Anil Agarwal]]
* Corporate Citizen of the year: [[Aditya Birla Group]]
* Entrepreneur of the year: [[Devi Prasad Shetty]]
* Global Indian of the year: [[Anshu Jain]]
* Policy Change Agent of the year: [[Sam Pitroda]]
* Company of the year: [[HDFC Bank]]
* Emerging Company of the year: [[Jubilant FoodWorks]]
* Lifetime Achievement Award: [[Prithvi_Raj_Singh_Oberoi|PRS Oberoi]]

==ET Awards 2017==
Deloitte was the title sponsor for the event, held on 28 October 2017 in Mumbai.
*ET AWARDS FOR CORPORATE EXCELLENCE<ref>{{cite web|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/ecorporateexcellence.cms|title=The Economic Times Awards for Corporate Excellence 2018 - Economic Times|website=The Economic Times}}</ref>
*The Economic Times Awards for Corporate Excellence<ref name="indiatimes.com">{{cite web|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/ecorporateexcellence.cms|title=The Economic Times Awards for Corporate Excellence 2018 - Economic Times|website=The Economic Times}}</ref>

* Lifetime Achievement Award: [[Yogesh_Chander_Deveshwar|YC Deveshwar]], Chairman, [[ITC_Limited|ITC]]
* Business Leader of the Year: [[Mukesh Ambani]], Chairman and MD, [[Reliance Industries]]
* Entrepreneur of the Year: [[Bhavish_Aggarwal|Bhavish Aggarawal]], Co-founder & CEO, [[Ola Cabs]]
* Global Indian of the Year: [[Prem Watsa]], Chairman & Chief Executive, [[Fairfax_Financial|Fairfax Financial Holdings]]
* Business Reformer & Policy Change Agent: [[Arun Jaitley]], Union Minister of Finance and Corporate Affairs

==ET Awards 2018==
The Economic Times Awards for Corporate Excellence<ref name="indiatimes.com"/>

The 2018 leg of the awards will be held on 17 November 2018 in Mumbai. Deloitte continues to be the title sponsor of the event.

The jury for the awards met on 4 September 2018 in Mumbai. It comprised:
* [[Aditya Puri]]: Managing Director, [[HDFC Bank]]
* [[Nandan Nilekani]]: Chairman, [[Infosys]]
* [[Harish Manwani]]: Independent Director, [[Tata Sons]]
* [[Uday Kotak]]: MD, [[Kotak Mahindra Bank]]
* [[Ritesh Agarwal]]: Founder, [[OYO Rooms]]
* [[Vijay Shekhar Sharma]]: Founder, [[Paytm]]
* [[Kalpana Morparia]]: CEO, South and South East Asia, [[JPMorgan_Chase|JP Morgan]]
* [[Cyril Shroff]]: Managing Partner, [[Cyril Amarchand Mangaldas]]

The jury members also participated in a panel discussion on the topic, "Spurring equitable growth: role of government, technology, and business". They were joined in the panel discussion by N. Venkatram, Managing Partner and CEO, [[Deloitte]] India.

2018 award winners:
* Lifetime Achievement Award: [[Adi Godrej]]: Chairman, [[Godrej Group]]
* Business Leader of the Year: Sanjiv Bajaj, Managing Director, [[Bajaj Finserv]]
* Entrepreneur of the Year: [[Sumant Sinha]], Chairman & MD, [[ReNew_Power|ReNew Power Ventures]]
* Global Indian: [[Shantanu Narayen]], CEO, [[Adobe_Inc.|Adobe]] Systems
* Business Performer of the Year: [[Kalvakuntla_Chandrashekar_Rao|K. Chandrashekar Rao]], Chief Minister, [[Telangana]]
* Company of the Year: HDFC Bank
* Emerging Company of the Year: [[Page Industries]]
* Policy Change Agent of the Year: [[National Payments Corporation of India]] (NPCI)
* Corporate Citizen: [[Hindustan Unilever]]

==ET Awards 2019==
The Economic Times Awards for Corporate Excellence<ref name="indiatimes.com"/>

The 2019 leg of the awards will be held on 30 November 2019 in Mumbai. Deloitte continues to be the title sponsor of the event.

The jury for the awards met on 25 September 2019 in Delhi. It comprised:
* [[Anu Aga]]
* [[Nandan Nilekani]]
* [[Bhavish Aggarwal]]: Co-founder, [[OLA Cabs]]
* [[Sunil Mittal]]: Founder and Chairman, [[Bharti Enterprises]]
* [[Kalpana Moraparia]]: Chief Executive Officer, [[JP Morgan India]]
* [[Pawan Munjal]]: Chairman, Managing Director & CEO, [[Hero Motocorp]]
* [[Sadhguru]]: Founder, [[Isha Foundation]]
* [[Uday Shankar]]: chairman and CEO, [[Star India]]
* [[Cyril Shroff]]: Managing Partner, [[Cyril Amarchand Mangaldas]]

== ET Awards 2020 ==
The Economic Times ET Rise, India’s Fastest Growing MSME 2020 Awards<ref>{{Cite web|title=Fastest growing MSMEs: Read about the Fastest growing MSMEs in India on The Economic Times.|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/small-biz/top-fastest-growing-msme/msme_companies/categoryid-02.cms|access-date=2021-03-31|website=The Economic Times}}</ref>

* Vivifi India Finance Pvt Ltd
* Kor Energy (India) Pvt Ltd
* Epimoney Pvt Ltd
* Upcurve Business Services Pvt Ltd ([[udChalo]])
* Star Trace Pvt Ltd
* 3M Digital Networks Pvt Ltd
* Imperative Business Ventures Pvt Ltd
* Vedehi Constructions LLP
* GEIE Solar Products India Pvt Ltd
* Sai Bio Organics

The Economic Times ET Rise, India’s Top Performing MSME 2020 Awards<ref>{{Cite web|title=Top Performing MSMEs: Read about the Top Performing MSMEs in India on The Economic Times.|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/small-biz/top-performing-msme/msme_companies/categoryid-03.cms|url-status=live|access-date=2021-03-31|website=The Economic Times|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210520051740/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/small-biz/top-performing-msme/msme_companies/categoryid-03.cms |archive-date=20 May 2021 }}</ref>

* Clairvoyant India Pvt Ltd
* REConnect Energy Solutions Pvt Ltd
* Rotomag Motors And Controls Pvt Ltd
* Asian Consulting Engineers PvtLtd
* Webkul Software Pvt Ltd
* Acewin Agriteck Limited
* TO THE NEW Pvt Ltd
* Oilmax Systems Pvt Ltd
* Star Trace Pvt Ltd
* Enkebee Infratech India Pvt Ltd

== ET Awards 2021 ==
The Economic Times ET Rise, India’s Fastest Growing MSME 2021 Awards<ref>{{cite news | url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/small-biz/sme-sector/et-rise-top-msmes-ranking-awards-here-are-the-winners/articleshow/88559805.cms | title=ET Rise Top MSMEs Ranking Awards: Here are the winners | newspaper=The Economic Times }}</ref>

* Campus Sutra Retail Pvt Ltd
* Dev Milk Food Pvt Ltd
* US Transworld Logistics
* White rivers Media Solutions Pvt Ltd
* Solitaire Overseas
* Panacea Infosec Pvt Ltd
* UpCurve Business Services Pvt Ltd ([[udChalo]])
* DGS Translogistics India Pvt Ltd
* Satya Exports
* Data cipher solutions pvt ltd

==See also==

* [[List of economics awards]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{official|http://www.etawards.economictimes.com/ }}

[[Category:Economics awards]]
[[Category:Business and industry awards]]
[[Category:Economic development awards]]
[[Category:Indian awards]]
[[Category:Economy of India]]
[[Category:Events of The Times Group]]
[[Category:Awards established in 1998]]
[[Category:1998 establishments in Maharashtra]]