https://en.bharatpedia.org/w/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=AmitNeogiBharatpedia - User contributions [en]2026-07-28T12:39:39ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.43.6https://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ananta_Deb_Adhikari_(Politician)&diff=486330Ananta Deb Adhikari (Politician)2026-05-06T15:45:59Z<p>AmitNeogi: </p>
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<div>{{unreliable sources|date=May 2026}}<br />
{{distinguish|Ananta Deb Adhikari}}<br />
{{Infobox officeholder<br />
| name = Ananta Deb Adhikari<br />
| image =<br />
| caption = <br />
| office = Member of the [[West Bengal Legislative Assembly]]<br />
| term_start = 4 May 2026<br />
| term_end = <br />
| constituency = [[Jalpaiguri Assembly constituency|Jalpaiguri]]<br />
| predecessor = [[Pradip Kumar Barma]]<br />
| successor = <br />
| birth_place = <br />
| birth_date = <br />
| spouse = <br />
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]<br />
| alma_mater = [[University of North Bengal]]<br />
| profession = Politician, Advocate<br />
| website = <br />
| footnotes = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Ananta Deb Adhikari''' is an Indian politician from [[West Bengal]]. He won in the [[2026 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]] from Jalpaiguri, as a member of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]].<ref>{{Cite web|title= ANANTA DEB ADHIKARI JALPAIGURI (SC) (JALPAIGURI) - Affidavit Information of Candidate|url=https://www.myneta.info/WestBengal2026/candidate.php?candidate_id=109|access-date=2026-05-04|website=myneta.info}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Jalpaiguri Assembly Constituency Election Result 2026|url=https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenMay2026/candidateswise-S2517.htm|access-date=2026-05-04|website=results.eci.gov.in}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Jalpaiguri election result LIVE: Ananta Deb Adhikary of BJP wins|url=https://www.news18.com/elections/jalpaiguri-west-bengal-assembly-2026-winner-live-updates-highlights-exaxt-en-liveblog-10071709.html|date=2026-05-04|access-date=2026-05-04|publisher=News18}}</ref><br />
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==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Adhikari, Ananta Deb}}<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from West Bengal]]<br />
[[Category:West Bengal MLAs 2026–2031]]<br />
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{{India-politician-stub}}</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shree_Ram_Mandir_Mayur_Vihar_metro_station&diff=535303Shree Ram Mandir Mayur Vihar metro station2026-05-01T12:14:13Z<p>AmitNeogi: Created redirect page</p>
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<div>#REDIRECT [[Pink Line (Delhi Metro)#Stations]]<br />
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}}</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Majlis-e_Ahrar-e_Islam&diff=515227Majlis-e Ahrar-e Islam2026-04-28T22:04:01Z<p>AmitNeogi: </p>
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<div>{{Short description|Former Muslim organisation in the Indian subcontinent}}<br />
{{Use Pakistani English|date=December 2018}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2018}}<br />
{{Infobox organization<br />
| name = Majlis-e-Ahrar-e-Islam<br />
| formation = {{start date and age|df=yes|p=y|1929|12|29}}<br />
| native_name = {{lang|ur|مجلسِ احرارِ اسلام}}<br />
| native_name_lang = ur<br />
| logo = Majlis-e-Ahrar-ul-Islam Logo.png<br />
| image = Majlis-e-Ahrar-ul-Islam Flag.svg<br />
| caption = Flag of Majlis-e-Ahrar<br />
| founder = [[Syed Ata Ullah Shah Bukhari]] <br> [[Dawood Ghaznavi]]<br />
| type = [[Religious organisation]]<br />
| purpose = [[Khatam an-Nabiyyin|Finality of Prophethood]]<br/>[[Rule of law|Hukumat-e Ilahiyya]]<br/>[[Pakistani nationalism]]<br />
| headquarters = Ahrar Central Secretariat. 69-C, New Muslim Town, Wahdat Road, [[Lahore]], Pakistan<br />
| secretary_general = Abdul Latif Khalid Cheema<ref name="thenews"> {{cite news|url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/amp/653367-ministry-lauded-for-summary-on-proposed-minorities-commission|title=Ministry lauded for summary on proposed minorities' commission|date=3 May 2020|access-date=24 August 2021|work=The News International (newspaper)}}</ref><br />
| leader_title = President<br />
| leader_name = Syed Muhammad Kafeel Bukhari<ref name="jasarat">{{cite news|url=https://www.jasarat.com/2021/02/26/210226-11-18/|publisher=Daily Jasarat (newspaper)|language=ur|title=سید محمد کفیل بخاری مجلس احرار اسلام کے قائم مقام مرکزی امیر منتخب|date=26 February 2021|access-date=12 April 2021|archive-date=13 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231113135823/https://www.jasarat.com/2021/02/26/210226-11-18/|url-status=dead}}</ref><br />
| leader_title2 = Central & Senior Vice-President<br />
| leader_name2 = Professor Khalid Shabbir Ahmad <br> Malik Muhammad Yousuf<br />
| leader_title3 = Central preacher<br />
| leader_name3 = Maulana Muhammad Mugheera<br />
| leader_title4 = Central Information Secretary<br />
| leader_name4 = Dr. Umar Farooq Ahrar<br />
| affiliations = Tehreek-e Talaba-e-Islam<br /> Ahrar Students Federation (ASF)<br />
| website = {{URL|http://ahrarindia.com/}}<br/>{{URL|http://www.ahrar.org.pk}}<br />
}}<br />
{{Deobandi}}<br />
<br />
'''Majlis-e Ahrar-e Islam''' ({{langx|ur|مجلسِ احرارِ اسلام}}), also known simply as the '''Ahrar''', is a religious Muslim organisation in the [[Indian subcontinent]] that was formed during the [[British Raj]] (prior to the [[Partition of India]]) on 29 December 1929 at [[Lahore]].<ref name="MilliGazette">{{cite web|url=http://www.milligazette.com/news/3252-ahrar-a-chapter-in-indian-muslim-history |title=Ahrar: a chapter in Indian Muslim history|date=14 February 2012|work=The Milli Gazette|access-date=16 December 2018}}</ref><br />
<br />
The group became composed of Indian Muslims inspired by and supporting the [[Khilafat Movement]], which cleaved closer to the [[Indian National Congress|Congress Party]].<ref name="jaf"/> The organisation was based in [[Punjab (British India)|Punjab]] and gathered support from the urban lower-middle class. [[Chaudhry Afzal Haq]], [[Maulana Habib-ur-Rehman Ludhianvi]], [[Syed Ata Ullah Shah Bukhari]] [[Muhammad Ali Jalandhari]] were the leaders of the organisation.<ref name="books.google.com">Ahmad, Syed N. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=wzm36rEol3sC Origins of Muslim consciousness in India: a world-system perspective]''. New York u.a: Greenwood Press, 1991. p. 175</ref><br />
<br />
Religious leaders from all sects [[Barelvi]], [[Deobandi]], [[Ahle Hadith]], [[Shia]] [[Progressivism|Progressive]] and politically [[Communists]] were the members of Majlis-e-Ahrar. [[Chaudhry Afzal Haq]], [[Syed Ata Ullah Shah Bukhari]], [[Muhammad Ali Jalandhari]], [[Habib-ur-Rehman Ludhianvi]], [[Mazhar Ali Azhar]], [[Zafar Ali Khan]] and [[Dawood Ghaznavi]] were the founders of the organisation.<ref name="books.google.com"/> The Ahrar was composed of Indian Muslims disillusioned by the [[Khilafat Movement]], which cleaved closer to the [[Indian National Congress|Congress Party]].<ref name="jaf">Christophe Jaffrelot. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Q9sI_Y2CKAcC&q=militia&pg=PA243 A history of Pakistan and its origins]''. Anthem Press, 2004. {{ISBN|1-84331-149-6}}, {{ISBN|978-1-84331-149-2}}</ref><br />
<br />
The organisation, being a member of the [[All India Azad Muslim Conference]], is associated with [[Opposition to the partition of India|opposition]] to [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]] and establishment of an independent Pakistan.<ref name="Ali2017"/><ref name="QasmiRobb2017"/> [[Syed Faiz-ul Hassan Shah]] was the only ahrari leader who actively participated in the Pakistan independence movement.{{citation needed|date=March 2020}}<br />
<br />
After 1947, it separated into the '''Majlis-e-Ahrar Islam Hind''' ({{lang|ur|مجلس احرارلأسلام ہند}}), based in [[Ludhiana]] and led by descendants of [[Maulana Habib-ur-Rehman Ludhianvi]], as well as the '''Majlis-e-Ahrar-e-Islam''' ({{lang|ur|مجلس احرارلأسلام اسلام}}), based in [[Lahore]] and led by descendants of [[Syed Ata Ullah Shah Bukhari]].{{citation needed|date=March 2020}}<br />
<br />
==History and activities==<br />
===Ideology and philosophy===<br />
Majlis-e-Ahrar-ul-Islam or simply called 'Ahrars' had an anti-imperialist, anti-feudal and Indian nationalist ideology. It worked to free India from the British rule. This party, before fading away, was highly active in [[Punjab Province (British India)]] and left an impact on major cities of Punjab like [[Amritsar]], [[Lahore]], [[Sialkot]], [[Multan]], [[Ludhiana]] and [[Gurdaspur]].<ref name=MilliGazette/><br />
<br />
The Majlis-e-Ahrar-e-Islam,<ref>Samina Awan, ''Political islam in colonial Punjab Majlis-e-Ahrar 1929–1949'', P.153, Politics of Islamic symbolism, The MAI: Politics of Personalities, Oxford University Press</ref> was originally part of the failed [[Khilafat movement]] and emerged as a religio-political party after the [[Jallianwala Bagh massacre]] of 1919 and the disintegration of the Khilafat movement in 1922.<ref name=MilliGazette/><br />
<br />
[[Syed Ata Ullah Shah Bukhari]] presided over the meeting and [[Maulana Mazhar Ali Azhar]] delivered the manifesto of an All India Majlis-e-Ahrar-e-Islam. It became first line offending party against [[Ahmadi Muslim]]s by declaring that their objectives were to guide the Muslims of India on matters of nationalism as well as religion. Ahrar spearheaded the movement to have [[Ahmadi Muslims]] officially declared as non-Muslims.<ref>Samina Awan, Political Islam in colonial Punjab Majlis-e-Ahrar 1929–1949, P.27, Politics of Islamic symbolism, The MAI: Politics of Personalities, Oxford University Press</ref><br />
<br />
By the early 1930s, the Majlis-e-Ahrar-e-Islam (hereafter called Ahrars) had become an important [[political party]] of [[Muslims]] in the [[Punjab]]. The activists' agitation centered on the princely states, and was predicated on mobilisation around socio-religious issues. Besides these campaigns, the Ahrar also participated in the mainstream political developments of British India between 1931 and 1947. Its political career can be divided into two parts; the AHRAR's response to political and constitutional issues, and its performance in electoral politics.<ref>Samina Awan, ''Political Islam in colonial Punjab Majlis-e-Ahrar 1929–1949'', P.67, Politics of Islamic symbolism, The MAI: Politics of Personalities, Oxford University Press</ref><br />
<br />
The Majlis-e-Ahrar-ul-Islam [[Opposition to the partition of India|stood strongly against the partition of India]], with its leader Afzal Haq stating that the "Partition of India is, in fact, the cry of upper classes …. It is not a communal demand as some people think but a stunt in order that the poor classes may not concentrate their thought and energies on all important questions of social and economic justice."<ref name="Ali2017">{{cite web |last1=Ali |first1=Afsar |title=Partition of India and Patriotism of Indian Muslims |url=http://www.milligazette.com/news/15756-partition-of-india-and-patriotism-of-indian-muslims |work=[[The Milli Gazette]] |date=17 July 2017}}</ref> It was a member of the [[All India Azad Muslim Conference]], which gathered to show support for a united India.<ref name="QasmiRobb2017">{{cite book |last1=Qasmi |first1=Ali Usman |last2=Robb |first2=Megan Eaton |title=Muslims against the Muslim League: Critiques of the Idea of Pakistan |date=2017 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781108621236 |page=2 }}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Activism in Pakistan ===<br />
Syed Muhammad Kafeel Bukhari is present President Of Majlis Ahrar Islam Pakistan.<br />
In November 2012, the Government of Pakistan banned Abdul Latif Khalid Cheema, leader of Tehreek-e-Khatme Nabuwwat and Secretary General of Majlis-e-Ahrar-e-Islam, from delivering a speech in the [[Chichawatni]] and district [[Sahiwal]] area due to the security situation in [[Muharram]].{{cn|date=October 2024}}<br />
In Pakistan, the party opposed the [[Ahmadiyya Movement]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://time.com/archive/6620371/pakistan-the-mad-mullahs/|title=PAKISTAN: The Mad Mullahs|date=30 March 1953|website=TIME}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | first=Kalim | last=Bahadur | title=Democracy in Pakistan: crises and conflicts | page=176 | publisher=Har Anand Publications | year=1998}}</ref><ref>[https://herald.dawn.com/news/1398687 The early champions of anti-Ahmadi cause] Herald (Dawn Group of Newspapers), Published 3 November 2018, Retrieved 19 December 2018</ref> This culminated in the [[1953 Lahore riots]]; in 1954, Majlis-e-Ahrar was banned. The associated Islamist religious movement Tehreek-e-Khatme Nabuwwat remains.{{citation needed|date=March 2020}}<br />
<br />
==List of organisation leaders==<br />
*[[Syed Ata Ullah Shah Bukhari]], founder, 1st president<ref name="ReferenceA">Majlis-e-Ahrar-e-Islam, History, Introduction, Achievements, published from Multan edited by Syed Kafeel Bukhari editor of Naqeeb-e-Khatme Nabuwwat</ref> <br />
*[[Chaudhry Afzal Haq]], co-founder, 2nd president, [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|Member of the Legislative Assembly]], 1934–1942<br />
*[[Mazhar Ali Azhar]], co-founder, secretary General, [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|Member of the Legislative Assembly]], 1934–1942<br />
*[[Habib-ur-Rehman Ludhianvi]], third President, 1942–1944<br />
* Syed Muhammad Kafeel Bukhari, President<ref name="jasarat"/><br />
* Professor Khalid Shabbir Ahmad, Vice president<ref name="ReferenceA"/><br />
* Abdul Latif Khalid Cheema,<ref name="thenews"/> vice President.<br />
* Muhammad Mughira General Secretary<br />
* Dr Omar Farooq Ahrar, Secretary Information,<br />
*[[Master Taj-ud-Din Ansari]]<br />
*[[Sheikh Hissam-ud-Din]]<br />
*[[Agha Shorish Kashmiri]]<br />
*[[Janbaz Mirza]], official Ahrar historian<br />
<br />
==Notable members and leaders==<br />
<br />
===Presidents===<br />
* [[Syed Ata Ullah Shah Bukhari]], founder and first President, 1929–1930, 1946–1948<br />
* [[Chaudhry Afzal Haq]], second President, 1931–1934 [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|Member of the Legislative Assembly]]<br />
* [[Habib-ur-Rehman Ludhianvi]], third President, 1935–1939<br />
* [[Sheikh Hissam-ud-Din]], 1939–1940, 1942–1946, 1962–1966<br />
* [[Master Taj-ud-Din Ansari]], 1948–1952<br />
* [[Ghulam Ghaus Hazarvi]], 1958<br />
* Ubaid Ullah Ahrar, 1966–1974<br />
* [[Syed Abuzar Bukhari]], 1975–1978, 1993–1994<br />
* Malik Abdul Ghafur Anwari, 1979–1980<br />
* Mirza Muhammad Hassan Chughtai, 1981–1992<br />
* Abdul Haq Chauhan, 1995–1997<br />
* [[Syed Ata-ul-Mohsin Bukhari]], 1998–1999<br />
* [[Syed Ata-ul-Muhaimin Bukhari]],<ref name="ReferenceA"/> President 1999–2021 president of Majlis-e-Ahrar-e-Islam, Pakistan<ref name=TNI>[https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/341559-khatm-e-nabuwwat-oath-religious-parties-flay-govt-for-challenging-verdict Khatm-e-Nabuwwat oath: Religious parties flay govt for challenging verdict] The News International (newspaper), Published 14 July 2018, Retrieved 19 December 2018</ref><br />
* Syed Muhammad Kafeel Bukhari, President 2021–present<br />
<br />
===Secretaries general===<br />
* [[Maulana Dawood Ghaznavi]], founder, 1st Secretary General, 1929–1932<br />
* [[Maulana Mazhar Ali Azhar]], founder, 2nd Secretary General, 1932–1933, 1933–1938, 1941–1945 [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|Member of the Legislative Assembly]] <br />
* [[Agha Shorish Kashmiri]], 1939–1940, 1945 secretary Ahrar Punjab <br />
* [[Nawabzada Nasrullah Khan]], 1946–1947<br />
* [[Sheikh Hissam-ud-Din]], 1948–1953<br />
* [[Syed Abuzar Bukhari]], 1962–1963, 1965–1973<br />
* [[Janbaz Mirza]], 1964–1965<br />
* Chaudhry Sana Ullah Bhutta, 1973–1974<br />
* [[Syed Ata-ul-Mohsin Bukhari]], 1975–1983, 1990–1995<br />
* Abdul Aleem Raipuri Shaheed, 1984–1986<br />
* Syed Ata-ul-Momin Bukhari, 1987–1989<br />
* Ishaq Saleemi, 1990–1995<br />
* Professor Khalid Shabbir Ahmad, 1998–2008<br />
* Abdul Latif Khalid Cheema,<ref name="ReferenceA"/> 2008–2011, 2012–present<ref name=TNI/><ref name="thenews"/><br />
<br />
===Other===<br />
* [[Janbaz Mirza]], journalist<br />
* [[Muhammad Ismail Zabeeh]], Secretary, Punjab, 1937<br />
* [[Syed Faiz-ul Hassan Shah]], scholar<br />
* Haji Abdul Jabar Khan Abbottabad NWFP<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
* [[List of Deobandi organisations]]<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
== Further reading ==<br />
* {{Cite journal |last1=موذنی |first1=علی محمد |last2=عالمی |first2=خدیه |last3=کاظمی پور |first3=محمد |date=2021|title=نقش ملس احرار اسلامی در نبشهای ضدقادیانی در پناب (1929-1953م) |url=https://doi.org/10.22111/JSR.2020.36016.2118 |journal=مطالعات شبه قاره |volume=13 |issue=41 |doi=10.22111/JSR.2020.36016.2118}}<br />
* {{citation |last=Copland |first=Ian |title=Islam and Political Mobilization in Kashmir, 1931-34 |journal=Pacific Affairs |volume=54 |number=2 |date=1981 |pages=228–259 |doi=10.2307/2757363 |jstor=2757363}}<br />
* {{citation |last=Copland |first=Ian |title=State, Community and Neighbourhood in Princely India, c.&nbsp;1900–1950 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2005 |isbn=0230005985 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=squHDAAAQBAJ }}<br />
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{{Islam in South Asia}} <br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Islamic organisations based in India]]<br />
[[Category:Indian independence movement]]<br />
[[Category:Sunni Islamic movements]]<br />
[[Category:Organisations based in Punjab, India]]<br />
[[Category:1930 establishments in India]]<br />
[[Category:Majlis-e-Ahrar-ul-Islam]]<br />
[[Category:Deobandi organisations]]<br />
[[Category:Organizations established in 1930]]<br />
[[Category:Islamic organisations based in Pakistan]]</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Akula_Lalitha&diff=485353Akula Lalitha2026-04-28T05:33:22Z<p>AmitNeogi: new a bio.</p>
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<div>{{Short description|Indian politician (born 1965)}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2026}}<br />
<br />
'''Akula Lalitha''' (born 8 December 1965) was an Indian politician from [[Telangana]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2020-07-02 |title=Akula Lalitha {{!}} MLC {{!}} Manik Bhandar {{!}} Makloor {{!}} Armur |url=https://theleaderspage.com/akula-lalitha/ |access-date=2026-04-28 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-03-16 |title=Congress adopts counter-strategy against BJP, BRS |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/news/congress-adopts-counter-strategy-against-bjp-brs-885419 |access-date=2026-04-28 |website=www.deccanchronicle.com |language=en}}</ref> She was a member of the Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly from Dichpalli Assembly constituency in Nizamabad district representing the [[Indian National Congress]], winning the 2008 bypoll.<ref>{{Cite web |last=archive |first=From our online |date=2018-12-24 |title=MLC Akula Lalitha ‘teaches lesson’ to Telangana Congress leaders |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/telangana/2018/Dec/24/akula-lalitha-teaches-lesson-to-cong-leaders-1915713.html |access-date=2026-04-28 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Early life and education ==<br />
Lalitha is from [[Manikbhandar]] village, Makloor mandal, Nizamabad district, [[Telangana State]]. She was the daughter of Hanumanthu and Suguna. She married Akula Raghavender. She completed her graduation in arts at a college affiliated with [[Osmania University]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Akula Lalitha(Indian National Congress(INC)):Constituency- NIZAMABAD (RURAL)(NIZAMABAD) - Affidavit Information of Candidate: |url=https://www.myneta.info/ap09/candidate.php?candidate_id=1197 |access-date=2026-04-28 |website=www.myneta.info}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Career ==<br />
Lalitha entered politics in 2001 when she got elected as MPTC member of Makloor mandal.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Pulloor |first=Narender |date=2023-10-21 |title=Akula Lalitha's ghar wapsi invites Congress leaders' flak {{!}} Akula Lalitha's ghar wapsi invites Congress leaders' flak |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/politics/211023/akula-lalithas-congress-ghar-vapasi-hits-party-leaders-blo.html |access-date=2026-04-28 |website=www.deccanchronicle.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2007-10-28 |title=MLAs booked for disrupting trains |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/mlas-booked-for-disrupting-trains/articleshow/2496139.cms |access-date=2026-04-28 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> In 2003, she served as a member of the Mandal Praja Parishad.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2015-05-17 |title=Competition hots up for MLC candidature |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/competition-hots-up-for-mlc-candidature/article7215761.ece |access-date=2026-04-28 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> She was the president of the Nizamabad District Congress Committee for eight years from 2005 to 2013 and was also as served as the general secretary of the [[All India Mahila Congress]], the women wing of the Congress Party. In 2015, she was elected as a [[Member of the Legislative Council]] as an [[Indian National Congress]] nominee but soon shifted to [[Telangana Rashtra Samithi]].<ref name=":0" /> In 2009, she declared assets worth Rs.1 crore before contesting the Assembly polls.<ref name=":1" /> In [[2018 Telangana Legislative Assembly election]] from [[Armur Assembly constituency]] she lost to A Jeevan Reddy of Bharath Rashtra Samithi. But later, unexpectedly joined BRS.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite news |date=2018-12-20 |title=Congress MLCs meets KCR |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/congress-mlcs-meets-kcr/article25792150.ece |access-date=2026-04-28 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> In October 2023, she rejoined Congress following the ''Ghar Wapsi'' call given by Congress leader [[Rahul Gandhi]].<ref name=":2" /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Lalitha, Akula}}<br />
[[Category:1965 births]]<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Women members of the Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]<br />
[[Category:21st-century women politicians]]<br />
[[Category:20th-century women politicians]]<br />
[[Category:People from Nizamabad district]]<br />
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Andhra Pradesh]]</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vijay_Singh_Gond&diff=544420Vijay Singh Gond2026-04-22T02:17:21Z<p>AmitNeogi: started new bio - done</p>
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<div>{{Short description|Indian politician (1957–2026)}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2019}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2019}}<br />
{{Infobox officeholder<br />
| honorific_prefix =<br />
| name = Vijay Singh Gond<br />
| honorific_suffix = <br />
| image = <br />
| alt = <br />
| caption = <br />
| constituency1 = [[Duddhi Assembly constituency|Duddhi]]<br />
| office = Member of the [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]<br />
| term_start1 = 1980<br />
| term_end1 = 2007<br />
| predecessor1 = Ishwar Prasad<br />
| successor1 = Chandra Mani Prasad<br />
| constituency = [[Duddhi Assembly constituency|Duddhi]]<br />
| term_start = 4 June 2024<br />
| term_end = 8 January 2026<br />
| predecessor = [[Ramdular Gaur]]<br />
| successor = <br />
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1957|3|10}}<br />
| birth_place = [[Farrukhabad district|Farrukhabad]], Uttar Pradesh, India<br />
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|2026|1|8|1957|3|10}}<br />
| death_place = [[Lucknow]], Uttar Pradesh, India<br />
| resting_ place = <br />
| resting_place_coordinates = <br />
| birth_name = <br />
| parents = <br />
| citizenship = <br />
| party = [[Samajwadi Party]]<br />
| other_party = [[Indian National Congress]]<br />
| spouse = Damyanti Singh<br />
| partner = <br />
| relations = <br />
| children = 2<br />
| alma_mater = <br />
| occupation = <br />
| profession = Politician<br />
| cabinet = <br />
| committees = <br />
| portfolio = <br />
| signature = <br />
| signature_alt = <br />
| website = <br />
| footnotes = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Vijay Singh Gond''' (10 March 1957 – 8 January 2026) was an Indian politician. He served as Member of [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]] from [[Duddhi Assembly constituency|Duddhi]]. He served as State Minister in [[Mulayam Singh Yadav]] Government. He was elected to the [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]] for eight terms beginning in 1980. He was a member of the [[Samajwadi Party]].<ref name="Candidate affidavit">{{cite news|title=Candidate affidavit|publisher=My neta.info|accessdate=September 24, 2015|url=http://myneta.info/up2012/candidate.php?candidate_id=1988}}</ref><ref name="All MLAs from constituency">{{cite news|title=All MLAs from constituency|publisher=elections.in|accessdate=September 24, 2015|url=http://www.elections.in/uttar-pradesh/assembly-constituencies/milak.html}}</ref><ref name=":0" /><br />
<br />
==Early life==<br />
Vijay Singh Gond was born in [[Farrukhabad]] of [[Uttar Pradesh]] on 10 March 1957, to a [[Hindus|Hindu]] family.<br />
<br />
==Political career==<br />
In [[1980 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1980]], he was elected to the Uttar Pradesh Assembly for first time as a member of the [[Indian National Congress]] and then again in [[1985 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1985]] he won the Assembly elections. In [[1989 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1989]] he contested the assembly elections [[Independent politician|Independently]] and secured his seat for a third term. In [[1991 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1991]] and [[1993 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1993]] he won the Assembly elections as a member of [[Janata Dal]]. Later he joined the [[Samajwadi Party]] and won successive elections in [[1996 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1996]], [[2002 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2002]] from [[Duddhi Assembly constituency|Duddhi]]. He won the [[2007 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2007]] Assembly elections from [[Farrukhabad Assembly constituency|Farrukhabad]] and [[2012 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2012 Assembly elections]] from [[Milak Assembly constituency|Milak]] constituency as a member of the [[Samajwadi Party]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=विजय सिंह गोंड दुद्धी उपचुनाव में सपा के प्रत्याशी:एक बार फिर अखिलेश ने पूर्व मंत्री पर जताया भरोसा, मुलायम सिंह यादव की सरकार में राज्यमंत्री रह चुके |url=https://www.bhaskar.com/local/uttar-pradesh/sonbhadra/news/sp-candidate-in-vijay-singh-gond-duddhi-by-election-132762651.html |website=Dainik Bhaskar}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Death==<br />
Singh Gond died on 8 January 2026, at the age of 68, after a long struggle with kidney failure.<ref name=death>{{Cite news |date=8 January 2026 |title=Veteran SP Leader, Eight-Time MLA Vijay Singh Gond Passes Away at 68 |url=https://www.thenewsagency.in/uttar-pradesh/veteran-sp-leader-eight-time-mla-vijay-singh-gond-passes-away-at-68 |access-date=8 January 2026 |work=The News Agency}}</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Singh Gond, Vijay}}<br />
[[Category:1957 births]]<br />
[[Category:2026 deaths]]<br />
[[Category:Samajwadi Party politicians from Uttar Pradesh]]<br />
[[Category:Uttar Pradesh MLAs 2012–2017]]<br />
[[Category:People from Pratapgarh district, Uttar Pradesh]]<br />
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Uttar Pradesh]]<br />
[[Category:Janata Dal politicians]]<br />
[[Category:Uttar Pradesh MLAs 1980–1985]]<br />
[[Category:Uttar Pradesh MLAs 1985–1989]]<br />
[[Category:Uttar Pradesh MLAs 1989–1991]]<br />
[[Category:Uttar Pradesh MLAs 1991–1993]]<br />
[[Category:Uttar Pradesh MLAs 1993–1996]]<br />
[[Category:Uttar Pradesh MLAs 1997–2002]]<br />
[[Category:Uttar Pradesh MLAs 2002–2007]]<br />
[[Category:Uttar Pradesh MLAs 2007–2012]]</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sanjay_Kumar_Jha&diff=532713Sanjay Kumar Jha2026-04-21T04:20:06Z<p>AmitNeogi: started a bio - done</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Indian politician (born 1967)}}<br />
{{for|the Indian businessman|Sanjay Jha (businessman)}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2024}}<br />
{{Infobox officeholder<br />
| name = Sanjay Kumar Jha<br />
| image = File:Sanjay Jha with Nitish Kumar and Lalan Singh (cropped).jpg<br />
| party = [[Janata Dal (United)|JD(U)]] (2012 - present)<br />
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1967|12|01|df=yes}}<br />
| birth_place = [[Jhanjharpur]], [[Madhubani district|Madhubani]]<br />
| spouse = Enakshi Jha<br />
| profession = [[Politician]]<br />
| alma_mater = [[Jawaharlal Nehru University]] ([[Master of Arts|M.A]])<br />
| office = [[Member of Parliament, Rajya Sabha]]<br />
| constituency = [[List of Rajya Sabha members from Bihar|Bihar]]<br />
| term_start = 4 April 2024<br />
| term_end = <br />
| succeeding = <br />
| office1 = Member of [[Bihar Legislative Council]]<br />
| term_start1 = 2019<br />
| term_end1 = 2024<br />
| term_start2 = 2006<br />
| term_end2 = 2012<br />
| term_start3 = 9 February 2021<br />
| term_end3 = 28 January 2024<br />
| successor1 = <br />
| predecessor1 = <br />
| office3 = Cabinet Minister<br> [[Government of Bihar]]<br />
| 1blankname3 = Chief Minister<br />
| 1namedata3 = [[Nitish Kumar]]<br />
| 2blankname3 = Ministry or Departments<br />
| 2namedata3 = *Water Resources<br />
*Information & Public Relations<br />
| predecessor3 = [[Vijay Kumar Chaudhary]]<br />
| successor3 = [[Vijay Kumar Chaudhary]]<br />
| children = 3<br />
| predecessor = [[Bashistha Narain Singh]]<br />
| other_party = [[Bhartiya Janta Party|BJP]] (till 2012)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/ex-bjp-spokesman-joins-ally-jdu/articleshow/14660716.cms|title=Ex-BJP spokesman joins ally JD(U)|work=The Times of India |date=4 July 2012|access-date=10 June 2025}}</ref><br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Sanjay Kumar Jha''' (commonly known as '''Sanjay Jha'''; born 1 December 1967) is an [[Politics of India|Indian politician]] from Janata Dal (United). He currently serves as a [[Member of Parliament, Rajya Sabha|Member of Parliament]] in the Rajya Sabha, representing Bihar, and holds the position of National Working President of the JD(U).<ref> {{Cite news |date=2024-06-29 |title=Who is Sanjay Jha, JDU's newly elected working party president |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/who-is-sanjay-jha-jdus-newly-elected-working-party-president/articleshow/111361950.cms |access-date=2025-06-10 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}} </ref> He is also the leader of the JD(U) parliamentary party in the [[Rajya Sabha]] and chairs the Parliamentary Committee on Transport, Tourism and Culture.<ref> {{Cite web |title=मैं तैयार हूं..., संजय झा बने परिवहन, पर्यटन और संस्कृति समिति का अध्यक्ष |url=https://zeenews.india.com/hindi/india/bihar-jharkhand/politics/standing-committees-of-parliament-formed-jdu-sanjay-jha-will-chair-committee-on-transport-tourism-and-culture/2448389 |access-date=2025-06-10 |website=Zee News Hindi |language=hi}} </ref> Previously, Jha served as the Minister for Water Resources as well as Information and Public Relations in the [[Government of Bihar]] as a Member of the [[Bihar Legislative Council]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Singh |first=Dharmendra Kumar |title=नीतीश के सबसे करीबी मधुबनी के संजय झा बिहार कैबिनेट में तीसरी बार बने मंत्री |url=https://www.jagran.com/bihar/muzaffarpur-sanjay-jha-of-madhubani-closest-to-nitish-kumar-has-become-minister-in-the-bihar-cabinet-for-the-third-time-22983540.html |access-date=2023-02-09 |website=[[Dainik Jagran]] |language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Singh |first=Abhay |date=2019-05-29 |title=Sanjay Jha, Radha Mohan Sharma to be MLCs |work=[[The Times of India]] |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/sanjay-radha-mohan-to-be-mlcs/articleshow/69548153.cms |access-date=2023-02-09 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> In February 2024, he was elected unopposed to the Rajya Sabha, succeeding [[Bashistha Narain Singh]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Srivastava |first=Amitabh |title=Sanjay Kumar Jha: A rising star in Nitish's cabinet |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india-today-insight/story/sanjay-kumar-jha-a-rising-star-in-nitish-s-cabinet-1769199-2021-02-14 |access-date=2023-02-09 |website=[[India Today]] |date=14 February 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Tewary |first=Amarnath |date=2024-02-20 |title=All six candidates from Bihar elected unopposed to Rajya Sabha |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/all-6-candidates-from-bihar-elected-unopposed-to-rajya-sabha/article67867235.ece |access-date=2024-02-29 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Personal life ==<br />
Sanjay Jha was born on 1 December 1967 in Araria Sangram village, located in the [[Jhanjharpur]] block of [[Madhubani district]], Bihar. He holds a postgraduate degree from the prestigious [[Jawaharlal Nehru University]] (JNU). He is married to Enakshi Jha, and the couple has three children.<br />
<br />
== Political life ==<br />
<br />
=== Early association with BJP (2004–2012) ===<br />
Jha entered active politics in the mid-2000s through the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP). He was known to be close to senior BJP leader [[Arun Jaitley]] and played a backchannel role during the BJP–JD(U) alliance in Bihar. In 2006, he was elected to the [[Bihar Legislative Council]] as a BJP member and remained in office until 2012.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sanjay Jha: भाजपा से की थी सियासी पारी की शुरुआत, अब बनाए गए JDU के कार्यकारी अध्यक्ष; पढ़ें इनका राजनीतिक सफर - Sanjay Jha Political journey JDU National Working President bihar Politics |url=https://www.jagran.com/bihar/patna-city-sanjay-jha-political-journey-jdu-national-working-president-bihar-politics-23748904.html |access-date=2025-06-10 |website=Jagran |language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=KHAN |first=M. I. |title=Is Sanjay Jha Nitish's Political Heir? |url=https://www.rediff.com/news/special/is-sanjay-jha-nitishs-political-heir/20240703.htm |access-date=2025-06-10 |website=Rediff |language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
In 2009, he sought a BJP ticket to contest the [[2009 Indian general election|Lok Sabha]] elections from [[Darbhanga Lok Sabha constituency|Darbhanga]], but the party denied him a nomination. Following this, Jha moved closer to JD(U) leader and Bihar Chief Minister [[Nitish Kumar]]. He formally joined the Janata Dal (United) in July 2012.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2012-07-03 |title=Alliance turns sour? BJP leader Sanjay Jha joins Nitish Kumar's party JD(U) |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/bjp-leader-sanjay-jha-joins-nitish-kumar-107847-2012-07-02 |access-date=2025-06-10 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Janta Dal (United) (2012–present) ===<br />
After joining JD(U), Jha quickly became one of Nitish Kumar’s trusted aides. He contested the 2014 Lok Sabha elections from [[Darbhanga Lok Sabha constituency|Darbhanga]] on a JD(U) ticket but lost. He was re-elected to the Bihar Legislative Council in 2019 as a JD(U) representative.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-06-30 |title=Rise and rise of Sanjay Jha: Nitish's man Friday and key NDA mover to JD(U)'s first working president |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/political-pulse/sanjay-jha-jdu-working-president-9423688/ |access-date=2025-06-10 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
In June 2019, Jha was appointed as Cabinet Minister in Bihar, overseeing the portfolios of Water Resources and Information & Public Relations. He continued in these roles until [[2024 Bihar political crisis|January 2024]], when JD(U) exited the [[Mahagathbandhan (Bihar)|Grand Alliance]] coalition. During his tenure, he oversaw several significant initiatives, including - The [[Ganga Water Supply Scheme]], The construction of a [[Rubber dams|rubber dam]] on the [[Phalgu River]] in Gaya and The development of [[Mithila Haat]] and other cultural promotion projects.<ref> {{Cite news |date=2022-09-16 |title=Water resources department to focus on flood control: Bihar minister Sanjay Kumar Jha |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/water-resources-department-to-focus-on-flood-control-bihar-minister-sanjay-kumar-jha/articleshow/94233693.cms |access-date=2025-06-10 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}} </ref><ref> {{Cite web |title=Mithila Urban Haat: जल संसाधन मंत्री ने मिथिला अर्बन हाट का किया निरीक्षण, कही ये बड़ी बात |url=https://zeenews.india.com/hindi/india/bihar-jharkhand/darbhanga/water-resources-minister-sanjay-kumar-jha-reached-madhubani-inspected-mithila-urban-haat/1966793 |access-date=2025-06-10 |website=Zee News Hindi |language=hi}} </ref><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist}} <br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Jha, Sanjay Kumar}}<br />
[[Category:1967 births]]<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Rajya Sabha members from Bihar]]<br />
[[Category:Janata Dal (United) politicians]]</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=K._M._Matthew&diff=506931K. M. Matthew2026-04-20T02:45:20Z<p>AmitNeogi: put up some info more to come</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Indian botanist (1930–2004)}}<br />
{{Infobox person<br />
| name = Father Dr. K. M. Matthew<br />
| image = Drmathewkoyappillil.jpg<br />
| imagesize = <br />
| caption = <br />
| birth_date = {{birth date text|16 March 1930}}<br />
| birth_place = Koyapillil, Ramapuram, Kottayam, [[Kerala]], India<br />
| death_date = {{death-date and age|16 April 2004|16 March 1930}}<br />
| death_place = [[Tiruchirapalli]]<br />
| restingplace = <br />
| restingplacecoordinates = <br />
| othername = <br />
| occupation = [[Botanist]]<br />
| yearsactive = <br />
| known for = [[Taxonomy (biology)|Taxonomical]] research<br />
| spouse = <br />
| domesticpartner = <br />
| children = <br />
| parents = Mathai and Teresa<br />
| website = <br />
| awards = Indira Gandhi Paryavaran Puraskar<br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Indian name|Matthew|Koyapillil Mathai}}'''Koyapillil Mathai Matthew''' (1930–2004) was an Indian [[Jesuit priest]] and [[botanist]].<ref name="sjweb1">{{cite web|url=http://www.sjweb.info/sjs/networks/ecology/Indian%20Jesuits%20Contribution%20to%20Environmental%20Protection.pdf |title=Jesuit Contribution to Environmental Protection |date= |accessdate=2017-05-11}}</ref><ref name="autogenerated1">Savarimuthu Ignacimuthu, S.J. (2016). The Contributions of South Asian Jesuits to Environmental Work. journal of jesuit studies 3. 619-644. doi 10.1163/22141332-00304005</ref> He extensively studied the floral diversity of [[Tamil Nadu]], and published several research papers and books.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Search/Home?lookfor=%22Matthew,%20K.%20M.%22&type=author&inst=|title=Catalog Search Results &#124; HathiTrust Digital Library}}</ref> In 1967, he established the Rapinat Herbarium at [[St. Joseph's College, Tiruchirappalli]].<ref name="autogenerated1"/><br />
<br />
==Early life and work==<br />
<br />
He was born to Teresa and K. O. Mathai of the Koyapillil family on March 16, 1930 in [[Ramapuram, Kottayam]], [[Kerala]], India.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://talent-kerala.net/previous/2005/jan/23.htm |title=Inspiration for the day ! |publisher=Talent-Kerala |date=2004-08-22 |accessdate=2017-05-11}}</ref> Born into a family of farmers he completed his school education at St. Augustine's High School, Ramapuram, initial collage studies at [[St. Berchmans College|SB College Changanacherry]] and moved to [[Tiruchirapalli]] for higher studies.<ref name="thehindu2004">{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/2004/10/05/stories/2004100513480300.htm |title=Tamil Nadu / Tiruchi News : Award for Tiruchi botanist |date=2004-10-05|work=[[The Hindu]] |accessdate=2017-05-11}}{{dead link|date=April 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref><ref name="archive1">{{Cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/Shola2004|title = Shola 2004}}</ref><br />
He did his bachelor's degree in University of Madras, India and completing his M.Sc. degree during 1958-60, he acquired his doctorate (1960–62) on the alien plants of the Palni hills with the guidance of [[Hermenegild Santapau]] and he did his Doctor of Philosophy from University of Bombay in 1963.<ref name="archive1"/> He also did Master of Science in 1973 from University Reading, United Kingdom.{{citation needed|date=May 2017}}<br />
<br />
He extensively carried out field work in Tamil Nadu and this effort resulted in a four-volume The Flora of Tamil Nadu Carnatic.<ref name="sjweb1"/><ref>{{cite book|url=https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/009107449 |title=Catalog Record: The flora of the Tamilnadu Carnatic &#124; HathiTrust Digital Library |series=The flora of the Tamilnadu Carnatic series; v. 3 |year=1983 |publisher=Catalog.hathitrust.org |accessdate=2017-05-11}}</ref> A total of 2020 species was covered in this work. Another contribution is an illustrated Flora entitled the Flora of the Palani Hills in three volumes.<ref name="sjweb1"/> He described four new species, one subspecies, and proposed quite a few new combinations. ''[[Strobilanthes matthewiana]]'' R.W. Scotland has been published in his honour.<ref>SCOTLAND, R. W. (1998), One new and one rediscovered species of Strobilanthes Blume (Acanthaceae). Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 128: 203–210. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8339.1998.tb02116.x,</ref><ref name = "source">{{Cite web |url=http://worldplants.webarchiv.kit.edu/ |title=World Plants: Synonymic Checklists of the Vascular Plants of the World |access-date=2017-05-07 |archive-date=2019-03-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190318221109/http://worldplants.webarchiv.kit.edu/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://efloraindia.nic.in/efloraindia/speciesDesc_PCL.action?species_id=1017 |title=Botanical Survey of India &#124; Flora of India |publisher=Efloraindia.nic.in |date= |accessdate=2017-05-11 }}{{Dead link|date=July 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ipni.org/ipni/idPlantNameSearch.do?id=1004168-1 |title=IPNI Plant Name Details |publisher=Ipni.org |date=1987-08-16 |accessdate=2017-05-11}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Awards==<br />
He was awarded the Best Teacher Award of the Tamil Nadu State Government in 1989,<ref name="archive1"/> ZWO fellowship of the Dutch Government, Leiden, 1978.{{citation needed|date=May 2017}} He was conferred with the Indira Gandhi Paryavaran Puraskar for 2002 under the `individual' category posthumously for his outstanding contribution for the environmental protection.<ref name="autogenerated1"/><ref name="thehindu2004"/><br />
<br />
==Authority name==<br />
{{botanist|K.M.Matthew|Matthew, Koyapillil Mathai}}<br />
<br />
==Publications==<br />
<br />
*{{Cite book | author1=Mathew, K. M | author2=Rapinat Herbarium | title=The flora of the Tamilnadu Carnatic | publication-date=1981 | publisher=Rapinat Herbarium | url=http://trove.nla.gov.au/work/24770878 | accessdate=8 May 2017 }}<br />
*{{Cite book | author1=Matthew, K. M | title=An excursion flora of Central Tamilnadu, India | year=1991 | publication-date=1991 | publisher=Oxford & IBH Pub. Co | isbn=978-81-204-0628-5 }}<br />
*{{Cite book | author1=Matthew, K. M | author2=Matthew, K. M. Illustrations on the flora of the Palni Hills, South India | author3=Matthew, K. M. Supplement to illustrations on the flora of the Palni Hills, South India | author4=Rapinat Herbarium | title=The flora of the Palni Hills, South India | publication-date=1999 | publisher=Rapinat Herbarium | isbn=978-81-900539-4-5 }}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist|2}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* [https://archive.org/stream/Shola2004/SholaMatthews2004#page/n0/mode/2up Biographical sketch]<br />
<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Matthew, Koyapillil Mathai}}<br />
[[Category:1930 births]]<br />
[[Category:2004 deaths]]<br />
[[Category:20th-century Indian botanists]]<br />
[[Category:20th-century Indian Jesuits]]</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manik_Bhattacharya&diff=515969Manik Bhattacharya2026-04-20T01:55:53Z<p>AmitNeogi: created new entry</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Legislator of West Bengal}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2024}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2024}}<br />
{{Infobox officeholder<br />
| office = Member of the [[West Bengal Legislative Assembly]]<br />
| preceded = Tapan Kumar Saha<br />
| constituency = Palashipara, Nadia<br />
| term_start = 7 May 2021<br />
| office1 = [[President of the West Bengal Board of Primary Education]]<br />
| term_start1 = 2011<br />
| term_end1 = 2022<br />
| successor1 = [[Goutam Pal]]<br />
| party = [[Trinamool Congress]]<br />
| alma_mater = [[Calcutta University]]<br>[[Burdwan University]]<br />
| education = [[M.Com]], [[B.Ed]], [[L.L.M.]], [[Ph.D.]]<br />
}}<br />
'''Manik Bhattacharya''' is an Indian teacher, advocate and politician who served as president of [[West Bengal Board of Primary Education|West Bengal Board of Primary Education (WBBPE)]] until 2022. During SLST Examination 2016, he was the president of WBBPE. In late 2023, he was admitted to SSKM Hospital, citing chest pains.[11]<br />
<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-12-06 |title=Manik wants his ring, poita & maduli back from ED custody |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/manik-bhattacharya-seeks-return-of-ring-poita-and-maduli-from-ed-custody/articleshow/105768587.cms |access-date=2024-02-01 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> A member of [[Trinamool Congress]], he is serving as member of [[West Bengal Legislative Assembly]] from [[Palashipara Assembly constituency|Palashipara]], Nadia since 7 May 2021.<br />
He was arrested by [[Enforcement Directorate|ED]] on 11 October 2022 in connection with [[2022 West Bengal School Service Commission recruitment scam]]. He got bail from Calcutta High Court in September 2024.<br />
<ref>{{Cite news |last=Singh |first=Shiv Sahay |date=2022-10-11 |title=Teacher recruitment scam {{!}} ED arrests TMC MLA Manik Bhattacharya |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/teacher-recruitment-scam-ed-arrests-tmc-mla-manik-bhattacharya/article65995472.ece |access-date=2024-02-01 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Education ==<br />
Bhattacharya earned a [[Bachelor of Commerce]] in 1975 at [[University of Calcutta|Calcutta University]] followed by a master's degree in 1977. He later studied [[Bachelor of Education|B.Ed.]] in 1982. He also earned a bachelor's degree from Law in 1981. Bhattacharya later completed [[Master of Laws|L.L.M.]] From [[Utkal University]] in 1997 and earned a [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] From [[University of Burdwan|Burdwan University]] in 1998.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dr. Manik Bhattacharya(All India Trinamool Congress(AITC)):Constituency- PALASHIPARA(NADIA) - Affidavit Information of Candidate |url=https://myneta.info/WestBengal2021/candidate.php?candidate_id=1309 |access-date=2024-02-02 |website=myneta.info}}</ref><br />
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== Career ==<br />
<br />
=== Teaching career ===<br />
Bhattacharya joined [[Jogesh Chandra Chaudhuri Law College]] as teaching clerk in 1998. At the same time during [[Left Front (West Bengal)|Left Front Administration]], he was promoted to Principal in that college. He retired after entering politics. In 2023, during a trial on [[2022 West Bengal School Service Commission recruitment scam|West Bengal School Service Commission (SSC) recruitment scam]] at [[Calcutta High Court]], the [[University Grants Commission (India)|University Grant Commission]] and the State Government submitted an affidavit, admitting that the appointment of Bhattacharya as the principal had flouted all norms.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Manik Bhattacharya was illegally made Jogesh Chandra Chaudhuri Law College principal: UGC |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/my-kolkata/news/manik-bhattacharya-was-illegally-made-principal-of-jogesh-chandra-chaudhuri-law-college-university-grants-commission/cid/1986230 |access-date=2024-02-02 |website=www.telegraphindia.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=www.ETEducation.com |title=Manik Bhattacharya was appointed illegally as law college principal: UGC informs Calcutta HC - ET Education |url=https://education.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/industry/manik-bhattacharya-was-appointed-illegally-as-law-college-principal-ugc-informs-calcutta-hc/105921282 |access-date=2024-02-02 |website=ETEducation.com |language=en}}</ref><br />
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=== Political career ===<br />
He joined Trinamool Congress in 2011, and contested from [[Palashipara Assembly constituency#2011|Palashipara seat]] but lost to his rival and then legislator S. M. Sadi of [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Manik Bhattacharjee(All India Trinamool Congress(AITC)):Constituency- PALASHIPARA(NADIA) - Affidavit Information of Candidate |url=https://www.myneta.info/westbengal2011/candidate.php?candidate_id=366 |access-date=2024-02-02 |website=www.myneta.info}}</ref><br />
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=== As President of State Primary Education Board ===<br />
Following his defeat in 2011 elections, the State Government appointed him as State Primary Education Board President in 2011. In August 2022, he was removed from this post following his arrest on SSC scam by [[Enforcement Directorate]] (ED) and replaced by [[Goutam Paul]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Teachers' recruitment scam: ED seeks Centre's help to find TMC's Manik Bhattacharya's London property |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/ed-seeks-centres-help-to-find-tmcs-manik-bhattacharyas-london-property-2338269-2023-02-22 |access-date=2024-02-01 |website=India Today |date=22 February 2023 |language=en}}</ref><br />
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== Controversies ==<br />
{{See also|2022 West Bengal School Service Commission recruitment scam}}<br />
Manik Bhattacharya was arrested by the [[Enforcement Directorate]] on 11 October 2022 in connection with [[2022 West Bengal School Service Commission recruitment scam]]. During SLST Examination 2016, he was the president of WBBPE. In late 2023, he was admitted to SSKM Hospital, citing chest pains.[11]<br />
<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-26 |title=CBI files FIR against TMC lawmaker Manik Bhattacharya in school recruitment case |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/kolkata-news/cbi-files-first-case-against-trinamool-congress-legislator-in-west-bengal-school-recruitment-case-101690385605998.html |access-date=2024-02-01 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-05-13 |title=Partha Chatterjee, Manik Bhattacharya Sold Jobs Through Agent Network; Calcutta HC Verdict |url=https://www.news18.com/india/partha-chatterjee-manik-bhattacharya-sold-jobs-through-agent-network-calcutta-hc-verdict-7807399.html |access-date=2024-02-01 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref> During SLST Examination 2016, he was the president of WBBPE.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-27 |title=FIR against former chief of primary education board over 'illegality' in postings |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/kolkata/fir-against-former-chief-of-primary-education-board-over-illegality-in-postings-8862332/ |access-date=2024-02-01 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> In late 2023, he was admitted to SSKM Hospital, citing chest pains.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bharat |first=E. T. V. |date=2023-12-13 |title=বুকে ব্যথা নিয়ে এসএসকেএমে মানিক, সুপারের ঘরে কেন! প্রশ্ন শুনে চটলেন প্রাক্তন পর্ষদ সভাপতি |url=https://www.etvbharat.com/bengali/state/kolkata/manik-bhattacharya-at-sskm-for-treatment-after-he-visits-superintendents-office/wb20231213154506870870031 |access-date=2024-02-02 |website=ETV Bharat News |language=en}}</ref><br />
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== References ==<br />
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{{reflist}}<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Bhattacharya, Manik}}<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]<br />
[[Category:West Bengal MLAs 2021–2026]]<br />
[[Category:Trinamool Congress politicians from West Bengal]]<br />
[[Category:University of Calcutta alumni]]<br />
[[Category:People from Nadia district]]</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=2008_bombing_of_Indian_embassy_in_Kabul&diff=4822512008 bombing of Indian embassy in Kabul2026-04-20T00:42:15Z<p>AmitNeogi: new a details</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Suicide bomb terrorist attack}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}<br />
{{Use British English|date=March 2012}}<br />
{{Coord|34.533|69.166|display=title}}<br />
{{Infobox terrorist attack<br />
| title = 2008 Embassy bombing in Kabul<br />
| image = 2008 07 07 Kabul.jpg<br />
| caption = The blast site outside the Indian embassy in Kabul<br />
| location = Embassy of India, Malalai Watt, Shahr-e-Nau, [[Kabul]], Afghanistan<ref name="Indian Missions Abroad">{{cite web|url=http://india.gov.in/overseas/indian_missions.php|title=Indian Missions Abrogilanaiad|publisher=india.gov.in|access-date=7 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060413182635/http://india.gov.in/overseas/indian_missions.php |archive-date=13 April 2006|url-status=dead}}</ref><br />
| target = Indian embassy<br />
| date = 7 July 2008<br />
| time-begin = 8:30&nbsp;a.m. local time. (0400 GMT)<br />
| time-end = <br />
| timezone = <br />
| type = [[Suicide attack|Suicide]] [[car bomb]]<br />
| fatalities = 58<ref name="ref1">{{cite web|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2008/07/09/news/Afghan-Explosion.php |title=AP Interview: Indian Embassy bomber hoped to destroy Kabul embassy, ambassador says |work=International Herald Tribune |access-date=10 July 2008}}</ref><br />
| injuries = 141<br />
| susperps = <br />
| perps = [[Taliban]] (suspected)<br />
}}<br />
The '''2008 Indian embassy bombing in Kabul''' was a suicide bomb [[terror attack]] on the [[Embassy of India, Kabul|Indian embassy in Kabul]], Afghanistan on 7 July 2008 at 8:30&nbsp;AM local time.<ref name="Militants mounting pressure to destabilise Afghan gov't">{{cite news|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-07/07/content_8506817.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021060925/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-07/07/content_8506817.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=21 October 2012|title=Militants mounting pressure to destabilize Afghan gov't|last=Haleem|first=Abdul |author2=Lin Jing |date=7 July 2008|publisher=news.xinhuanet.com|access-date=7 July 2008}}</ref> The bombing killed 58 people<ref name="ref1" /> and wounded 141.<ref name="IFS officer, Brig among Indians killed in blast" /> The [[suicide attack|suicide car bombing]] took place near the gates of the embassy during morning hours when officials enter the embassy.<ref name="TYNT">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/08/world/asia/08afghanistan.html?bl&ex=1215662400&en=ad01f9406367688f&ei=5087%0A|title=Suicide Car Blast Kills 41 in Afghan Capital|last=Wafa|first=Abdul Waheed|author2=Alan Cowell|work=The New York Times |access-date=3 August 2008 |date=8 July 2008<!--DASHBot-->}}</ref><ref name="hindustantimes news">{{Cite news |date=7 July 2008 |title=hindustantimes news |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |agency=Agence France-Presse |location=India |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/world-news/Afghanistan/India-s-embassy-in-Kabul-bombed/Article1-322306.aspx |url-status=dead |access-date=7 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508120224/http://www.hindustantimes.com/world-news/Afghanistan/India-s-embassy-in-Kabul-bombed/Article1-322306.aspx |archive-date=2013-05-08}}</ref><ref name="Indian embassy in Afghanistan reopens for business">{{cite news|url=http://www.radioaustralia.net.au/news/stories/200807/s2302548.htm?tab=asia|title=Indian embassy in Afghanistan reopens for business|date=14 July 2008|publisher=radioaustralia.net.au|access-date=14 July 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080812080648/http://www.radioaustralia.net.au/news/stories/200807/s2302548.htm?tab=asia |archive-date=12 August 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref>{{Campaignbox Afghan War}}Unnamed U.S. [[CIA]] officials suggested to ''[[The New York Times]]'' that [[Pakistan]]'s [[Inter-Services Intelligence|ISI]] had planned the attack.<ref name="nyt">{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/01/world/asia/01pstan.html |title=Pakistanis Aided Attack in Kabul, U.S. Officials Say |author=Mark Mazzetti and Eric Schmitt |date=1 August 2008 |work=New York Times |access-date=1 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090416182042/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/01/world/asia/01pstan.html |archive-date=16 April 2009 |url-status=live |df=dmy}}</ref> Pakistan denied this claim.<ref name="nyt" /><ref name="The Guardian">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/aug/01/pakistan.usa|title=Pakistan condemns New York Times claims|date=1 August 2008|work=The Guardian |location=London|first=Mark |last=Tran |access-date=22 April 2010}}</ref> <br />
<br />
According to British journalist [[Christina Lamb]], United States President [[George W. Bush]] confronted [[Pakistani Prime Minister|Pakistani prime minister]] [[Yusuf Raza Gilani]] and stated that in the case of another such attack he would have to take "serious action".<ref name="timesonline">{{cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article4449330.ece|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081006102655/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article4449330.ece|url-status=dead|archive-date=6 October 2008|title=Rogue Pakistan spies aid Taliban in Afghanistan|author=Christina Lamb<br />
|work=The Times |location=London|date=3 August 2008|access-date=2 August 2008 <!--DASHBot-->}}</ref> Gilani promised to investigate the attack.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Baruah |first=Amit |title=Pak agrees to probe attack on Indian embassy |work=Hindustan Times |location=India |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/srilanka/Pakistan-to-probe-Indian-embassy-attack-in-Kabul/Article1-328402.aspx |access-date=4 August 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605192429/http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/srilanka/Pakistan-to-probe-Indian-embassy-attack-in-Kabul/Article1-328402.aspx |archive-date=2011-06-05}}</ref><ref>[http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5jij3CUWOld4-yBla5SQyQCDXYiGQD92A9L081 The Associated Press: Pakistan to probe Indian embassy bombing in Kabul] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080806004115/http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5jij3CUWOld4-yBla5SQyQCDXYiGQD92A9L081 |date=6 August 2008}}</ref> Subsequently, Pakistani foreign ministry spokesman [[Mohammed Sadiq (diplomat)|Mohammed Sadiq]] described ''The New York Times'' report as "total rubbish" and said there was no evidence of ISI involvement.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pakistan condemns US claims of involvement in Kabul Indian embassy bombing |date=2008-08-01 |website=[[The Guardian]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230624080645/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/aug/01/pakistan.usa |archive-date=2023-06-24 |url-status=live |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/aug/01/pakistan.usa}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Background==<br />
{{Main|Indo-Afghan relations}}<br />
During the United States-led [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|invasion of Afghanistan]] in 2001, India offered [[Intelligence (information gathering)|intelligence]] and other forms of support to the [[ISAF|coalition forces]]. After the overthrow of the [[Taliban]], India established diplomatic relations with the newly elected democratic government, provided aid and participated in Afghanistan's reconstruction efforts through the construction of roads, railways, electricity transmission lines, schools and hospitals.<ref name="CFR">{{cite web |url=http://www.cfr.org/publication/14969/ |title=India's Northern Exposure|access-date=3 June 2008 |publisher=[[Council on Foreign Relations]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080303135744/http://www.cfr.org/publication/14969/ |archive-date=3 March 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref> Indo-Afghan relations strengthened in the wake of Afghanistan's persisting tensions and problems with [[Pakistan]], which is widely believed to shelter and support the Taliban.<ref name="CFR" /><ref name="IP" /> Both India and Afghanistan also developed strategic and military cooperation against the insurgency.<ref name="IP">{{cite news |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/1067690.html |title=Kabul's India ties worry Pakistan|newspaper=Radiofreeeurope/Radioliberty |access-date=3 June 2008 |publisher=[[Radio Free Europe]], [[Radio Liberty]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080611105916/http://www.rferl.org/featuresarticle/2006/04/b5bfe0be-ed5d-43de-a768-99a6ab1e6c5c.html|archive-date=11 June 2008 |url-status=live|last1=Tarzi |first1=Amin }}</ref> India pursued a policy of close cooperation with Afghanistan in order to gain friendly influence in Central Asia as well as to keep a check on [[Terrorism in Kashmir|Kashmiri militants]] that it claims are operating from the Afghanistan-Pakistan region.<ref name="CFR" /> India also provides training to [[Afghan National Army]] officers and military personnel at its training institutions, including the [[National Defence Academy (India)|National Defence Academy]] and the School of Artillery at [[Devlali]].<ref name="Brigadier targeted for role in training Afghan army">{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Brigadier-targeted-for-role-in-training-Afghan-army/articleshow/3208668.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021053655/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-07-08/india/27908445_1_afghan-army-afghan-defence-minister-abdul-rahim-wardak|url-status=live|archive-date=21 October 2012|title=Brigadier targeted for role in training Afghan army|last=Pandit|first=Rajat |date=8 July 2008|work=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=8 July 2008}}</ref> India has also helped Afghanistan in "capacity-building" by training Afghan pilots and technicians in operating Russian-origin [[Mi-35]] helicopter gunships. India is also a supplier of military parts for Soviet-era Afghan tanks and aircraft.<ref name="Brigadier targeted for role in training Afghan army" /><br />
<br />
By 2007, India had pledged US$850&nbsp;million to Afghan reconstruction efforts, the largest amount from any country without a military presence in Afghanistan, and later scaled up the aid to more than US$1&nbsp;billion.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1820716,00.html |title=Afghan Bombing Fuels Regional Furore – TIME |access-date=8 July 2008 |date=7 July 2008 |first=Jyoti |last=Thottam |magazine=Time |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080708152838/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0%2C8599%2C1820716%2C00.html |archive-date=8 July 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> India is currently the largest regional donor of humanitarian aid and reconstruction efforts in post-Taliban Afghanistan.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/1067690.html |title=[Afghanistan: Kabul's India Ties Worry Pakistan&#93; – [Radio Free Europe / Radio Liberty 2008&#93;|access-date=8 July 2008 |date=16 April 2006 |author=Amin Tarzi |newspaper=Radiofreeeurope/Radioliberty |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080803080012/http://www.rferl.org/content/article/1067690.html| archive-date=3 August 2008|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cfr.org/publication/14969/ |title=India's Northern Exposure – Council on Foreign Relations |access-date=10 July 2008 |author=Jayshree Bajoria|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080303135744/http://www.cfr.org/publication/14969/ |archive-date=3 March 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref> About 3,000 Indians are estimated to be working on various reconstruction and developmental projects in Afghanistan, and they have often been subjected to attacks by Taliban insurgents.<ref name="Sify news.">{{cite journal|title=India condemns attack on its embassy in Kabul|url=http://sify.com/news/fullstory.php?id=14710158|date=7 July 2008|website=Sify News|access-date=7 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080707211211/http://sify.com/news/fullstory.php?id=14710158|archive-date=7 July 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> In November 2005, after an incident in which an Indian national was kidnapped and murdered, India deployed 200 soldiers of the elite [[Indo-Tibetan Border Police]] (ITBP) to provide security for Indian nationals and the projects supported by India.<ref name="CFR" /> By 2008, ITBP's presence in Afghanistan was steadily increased to over 400 personnel.<ref name="Advisory had warned ITBP jawans of attack">{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Advisory-had-warned-ITBP-jawans-of-attack/articleshow/3208667.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024115815/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-07-08/india/27937927_1_highway-project-embassy-bombing-taliban|url-status=live|archive-date=24 October 2012|title=Advisory had warned ITBP jawans of attack|last=Mohan|first=Vishwa|date=7 August 2008|work=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=8 July 2008}}</ref><br />
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India's growing influence in Afghanistan upset Pakistan and other pro-Taliban elements.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2006/05/02/stories/2006050203550800.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110824032943/http://www.hindu.com/2006/05/02/stories/2006050203550800.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 August 2011 |title=Opinion / Editorials : India's troubles in Afghanistan |access-date=8 July 2008 |location=Chennai, India |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=2 May 2006}}</ref> ''[[The Times]]'' said in an editorial that with the United States and other [[NATO]] members unwilling to sustain long-term commitments to Afghanistan, the Taliban saw India as the only regional enemy capable of resisting them.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/columnists/guest_contributors/article4295636.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081007052658/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/columnists/guest_contributors/article4295636.ece |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 October 2008 |title=A vicious attack on India's crucial role in Afghanistan |access-date=10 July 2008 |author=<!-- Print Author name from By Line associated with the article --> Amir Taheri |location=London |work=The Times |date=9 July 2008}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Other attacks on Indian interests===<br />
According to ''[[The New York Times]]'', India's external ministry officials had been raising the issue of security of Indian personnel in Afghanistan for the past several months.<ref name=TYNT /> The Indian consulate in [[Jalalabad]] was attacked twice by [[hand grenades]] in 2007.<ref name="atimes1">{{cite web|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/JG09Df02.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080830080917/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/JG09Df02.html |url-status=unfit |archive-date=30 August 2008 |title=Asia Times Online :: South Asia news, business and economy from India and Pakistan |access-date=8 July 2008}}</ref> One soldier of the [[Indo-Tibetan Border Police]] (ITBP) was killed and four others injured in an attack by the Taliban on 5 June 2008.<ref name="Advisory had warned ITBP jawans of attack" /> In the aftermath of the attack, [[Ministry of Home Affairs (India)|India's Home Ministry]] cautioned its ITBP personnel to take necessary precautionary measures and also to remain at guard against ''[[fidayeen]]'' (suicide bomber) attacks. It also noted that the security being provided by the Afghan Police was "not up to the mark".<ref name="Advisory had warned ITBP jawans of attack" /> In spite of these efforts, the embassy bombing of 2008 was later followed up by the [[2009 Kabul Indian embassy attack]] and the [[February 2010 Kabul attack]] on Indian citizens and interests in Afghanistan.<br />
<br />
==The bombing==<br />
The car bomb detonated at approximately 8:30&nbsp;a.m. local time on 7 July 2008. The Indian embassy, which is in the center of Kabul, is located across the street from the office of the Interior Ministry of the [[Government of Afghanistan]] and is close to several other government buildings. The bombing occurred on a busy, tree-lined street where people usually line up at the embassy gates to apply for visas to India.<ref name="Suicide blast kills 258 in Kabul">{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/07/07/afghanistan.explosion/index.html|title=Suicide blast kills 28 in Kabul|date=7 July 2008|publisher=CNN |access-date=7 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080710065105/http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/07/07/afghanistan.explosion/index.html|archive-date=10 July 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="many">[http://english.aljazeera.net/news/asia/2008/07/20087753022997637.html Many killed in Kabul suicide blast]. Al Jazeera. 7 July 2008.</ref> An explosive-packed [[Toyota Camry]], driven by the suicide bomber, rammed into two Indian diplomatic vehicles entering the embassy and detonated.<ref name="3-Suicide car bomb hits India Embassy in Afghanistan">{{cite news|url=http://in.reuters.com/article/companyNews/idINISL16402520080707|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130201093851/http://in.reuters.com/article/companyNews/idINISL16402520080707|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 February 2013|title=3-Suicide car bomb hits India Embassy in Afghanistan|date=7 July 2008|work=Reuters|access-date=7 July 2008}}</ref> The gates to the embassy were blown off and the walls of some buildings in its compound were damaged.<ref name="Suicide bomber flattens India's embassy in Kabul">{{cite news|url=http://www.theage.com.au/world/suicide-bomber-flattens-indias-embassy-in-kabul-20080707-34ar.html|title=Suicide bomber flattens India's embassy in Kabul|last=Wade|first=Matt |date=7 August 2008|work=The Age|access-date=7 July 2008|location=Melbourne, Australia |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080711182429/http://www.theage.com.au/world/suicide-bomber-flattens-indias-embassy-in-kabul-20080707-34ar.html|archive-date=11 July 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref> A plume of smoke and dust was seen rising from the center of Kabul city, and the explosion was heard several miles away.<ref name="40 killed in Afghan Indian embassy attack">{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/rest-of-world/Defence-attache-killed-in-Kabul-mission-blast/articleshow/3204993.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120428133231/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-07-07/rest-of-world/27903897_1_ajai-pathania-gates-and-outer-structure-counsellor-venkateswara-rao|url-status=live|archive-date=28 April 2012|title=40 killed in Afghan Indian embassy attack|date=7 July 2008|work=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=7 July 2008}}</ref> Several nearby shopkeepers also became immediate victims of the attack,<ref name="28 killed in blast near Indian Embassy in Kabul">{{cite news|url=http://www.ibnlive.com/news/28-killed-in-suicide-blast-near-indian-embassy/68441-2.html?xml|title=28 killed in blast near Indian Embassy in Kabul|date=7 July 2008|agency=Associated Press|publisher=ibnlive.com|access-date=7 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080804110620/http://www.ibnlive.com/news/28-killed-in-suicide-blast-near-indian-embassy/68441-2.html?xml|archive-date=4 August 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref> and the nearby Indonesian embassy also suffered damage.<ref name="Militants mounting pressure to destabilise Afghan gov't" /> Kabul Police immediately sealed off the area.<ref name="40 killed in Afghan Indian embassy attack" /><br />
<br />
A statement released by the Afghan interior ministry said, "The initial findings of the ministry show that the main target of this attack has not been security forces like in most attacks but has been particularly planned to target the Indian embassy".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Afghanistan-hints-at-ISIs-involvement-in-attack/articleshow/3208851.cms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021115243/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-07-08/india/27916496_1_afghanistan-hints-indian-embassy-afghan-interior-ministry |url-status=live |archive-date=21 October 2012 |title=Afghanistan hints at ISI's involvement in attack |access-date=8 July 2008 |location=India |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=8 July 2008}}</ref> There was immediate confusion and panic in the Indian embassy after the bomb blasts. According to a [[CNN]] reporter, a man who answered the phone at the Indian embassy abruptly hung up, saying, "We are not fine. All communications have been cut off".<ref name="Suicide blast kills 258 in Kabul" /> The [[Ministry of External Affairs (India)|Ministry of External Affairs of Government of India]] was reported to be in touch with India's ambassador to Afghanistan, [[Jayant Prasad]]. The Indian ambassador and his deputy were inside the building complex at the time of the explosion but were not hurt.<ref name="28 killed in blast near Indian Embassy in Kabul" /> Indian External Affairs Minister, [[Pranab Mukherjee]], called for an emergency meeting of officials in [[Delhi]] after the bomb attack to review security arrangements.<ref name="28 killed in blast near Indian Embassy in Kabul" /> An anonymous person reported that rumours said the Indian embassy had previously received bomb threats.<ref name="Militants mounting pressure to destabilise Afghan gov't" /><br />
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==Casualties==<br />
Most of the 58 dead were locals and included two top Indian officials. [[Indian Army]] Brigadier [[Ravi Datt Mehta]] was entering the embassy gates in a car along with V. Venkateswara Rao when the attack took place. Both were killed in the blast.<br />
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===Indian casualties===<br />
* [[Brigadier]] Ravi Datt Mehta had been assigned a key role as [[military attaché|defence attaché]], serving as part of India's military training and logistical help to Afghanistan, and was posted in Kabul for six months. He was said to have a "good relationship" with Afghan defence minister [[Abdul Rahim Wardak]]. During his tenure in the Indian Army, which he commenced with the class of June 1976, he had gained experience in counter-insurgency operations in both [[Jammu and Kashmir (state)|Jammu and Kashmir]] and [[North-East India]]. An Indian media report claimed that the main reason for Mehta's targeting by the terrorists was his key role in training the Afghan military and in closely tracking links between the Taliban and Pakistan's Inter-Service Intelligence.<ref name="Brigadier targeted for role in training Afghan army" /><br />
* V. Venkateswara Rao was an [[Indian Foreign Service]] officer of the class of 1990 and was working as an Indian press counselor in the Afghan mission.<ref name="IFS officer, Brig among Indians killed in blast">{{cite news|url=http://www.ibnlive.com/news/ifs-officer-brig-among-indians-killed-in-blast/68453-2.html|title=IFS officer, Brig among Indians killed in blast|date=7 July 2008|work=IBN|publisher=ibnlive.com|access-date=7 July 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080710060457/http://www.ibnlive.com/news/ifs-officer-brig-among-indians-killed-in-blast/68453-2.html| archive-date=10 July 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref><br />
* Two Indian officers of the [[Indo-Tibetan Border Police]], Ajai Pathania and Roop Singh, were also killed in the blast.<ref name="Indian Embassy was warned of an attack: Reports">{{cite news|url=http://www.ndtv.com/convergence/ndtv/story.aspx?id=NEWEN20080056014&ch=7%20July%202008%202:15:00%20PM |title=Indian Embassy was warned of an attack: Reports |date=7 July 2008 |work=NDTV Correspondent |publisher=ndtv.com |access-date=7 July 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080710074429/http://www.ndtv.com/convergence/ndtv/story.aspx?id=NEWEN20080056014 |archive-date=10 July 2008}}</ref><br />
An [[Indian Air Force]] [[IL-76]] aircraft was sent to Kabul to retrieve the four bodies.<ref name="Militants mounting pressure to destabilise Afghan gov't" /><br />
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===Casualties from other states===<br />
Six Afghan police [[constables]] were killed and five others sustained injuries.<ref name="Militants mounting pressure to destabilise Afghan gov't" /> An Afghan Indian Embassy employee by the name of Niamutullah was also killed in the blast.<ref name="Rediff news" /> The five Afghan guards outside the Indonesian Embassy were killed, and two Indonesian diplomats were injured in the attack.<ref name="Two Indonesian diplomats injured in Afghanistan blast">{{cite news|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-07/07/content_8506441.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120217013952/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-07/07/content_8506441.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 February 2012|title=Two Indonesian diplomats injured in Afghanistan blast|date=7 July 2008|work=chinaview.cn |publisher=news.xinhuanet.com|access-date=7 July 2008}}</ref><br />
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==Investigations==<br />
Afghanistan's intelligence agency [[Riyast-i-Amniyat-i-Milli]], India's [[Research and Analysis Wing]] and the United States' [[CIA]] are reported to be scanning vast volumes of intercepted communications and questioning informants to find some clues.<ref name=" Jihadist polemic holds clues to mission bombing">{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2008/07/09/stories/2008070961251700.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080713023847/http://www.hindu.com/2008/07/09/stories/2008070961251700.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=13 July 2008|title=Jihadist polemic holds clues to mission bombing|last=Swami |first=Praveen|date=9 July 2008|access-date=9 July 2008|work=[[The Hindu]]|location=Chennai, India}}</ref> According to ''[[CNN-IBN]]'', Indian and Afghan agencies believe that the [[Pakistani Army]]'s 324 Military Intelligence Battalion based in [[Peshawar]] had planned the attack on the Indian embassy and executed it in collaboration with either the Taliban or [[al-Qaida]].<ref name="ISI, al Qaeda planned Kabul blast: Sources">{{cite news|url=http://www.ibnlive.com/news/isi-al-qaeda-planned-kabul-blast-sources/68541-2.html?xml|title=ISI, al Qaeda planned Kabul blast: Sources|first=V.K. |last=Shashikumar |date=9 July 2008|publisher=ibnlive.com|access-date=9 July 2008| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080804111059/http://www.ibnlive.com/news/isi-al-qaeda-planned-kabul-blast-sources/68541-2.html?xml| archive-date=4 August 2008 | url-status=live}}</ref> Afghanistan's Interior Minister has stated that the suicide bombers were trained in Pakistan.<ref name="Afghanistan says embassy bombers trained in Pakistan">{{cite news|url=http://africa.reuters.com/world/news/usnL09291061.html|title=Afghanistan says embassy bombers trained in Pakistan|date=7 September 2008|work=Reuters|access-date=9 July 2008|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130201061141/http://africa.reuters.com/world/news/usnL09291061.html|archive-date=1 February 2013|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref><br />
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India's ambassador to Afghanistan, Jayant Prasad, stated that, after reviewing the scene, the main target of the attack was believed to be the Indian embassy building. He also added that, considering the huge amount of explosives used in the attack, it was clear that target was not top Indian diplomatic officials but the embassy itself. Bomb scene review further revealed that the embassy guard killed in the attack had his hand on the closed gates. The ambassador stated that it is likely that the guard did not open the gate because he saw a suspicious car driving behind an embassy vehicle. The suicide attacker then might have decided to explode his device near the gate rather than inside the embassy's compound. According to investigating officials, much of the impact was taken up by the sand filled [[separation barrier|blast barriers]]. These barriers, which were built across the embassy for added protection just one week before the blast, saved it from structural damage.<ref name=" AP Interview: Indian Embassy bomber hoped to destroy Kabul embassy, ambassador says">{{cite news|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2008/07/09/news/Afghan-Explosion.php|title=AP Interview: Indian Embassy bomber hoped to destroy Kabul embassy, ambassador says|date=7 September 2008|agency=Associated Press|work=International Herald Tribune|access-date=9 July 2008}}</ref><br />
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An investigative report in the ''[[Times of India]]'' identified the attacker as "22-year-old Hamza Shakoor from [[Gujranwala]] district in [[Pakistan]]," citing unnamed sources. It also claimed that "intelligence about an imminent attack was remarkably precise, giving an indication about the centres of planning and execution."<ref>{{cite news|title=Kabul Embassy Suicide Bomber Hamza Is From Pak|date=8 April 2008|work=Times of India |location=India}}</ref> [[United States Secretary of Defense|US Secretary of Defense]] [[Robert Gates]] added that the US was offering help to Afghan and Indian governments to investigate further.<ref name="No foreign hand in Kabul blast: Robert Gates">{{cite news|url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2008/jul/10kabul2.htm|title=No foreign hand in Kabul blast: Robert Gates|date=10 July 2008 |work=PTI|publisher=rediff.com|access-date=8 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080713101407/http://www.rediff.com/news/2008/jul/10kabul2.htm| archive-date=13 July 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref> Soon American officials came to believe that the attack was conducted by the [[Haqqani network]], a [[Taliban]] group led by [[Maulavi Jalaluddin Haqqani]] from [[Pakistan]].<ref name="nyt" /><br />
<br />
===Pakistani involvement===<br />
On 13 July India stated their suspicions about the [[Inter-Services Intelligence|ISI's]] involvement in the attack. India's [[National Security Advisor (India)|National Security Advisor]] [[M.K. Narayanan]] said, "We have no doubt that the ISI is behind this."<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.gulfnews.com/world/India/10228506.html |title=Gulfnews: India blames Pakistan for Kabul embassy attack |access-date=16 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080715160825/http://www.gulfnews.com/world/India/10228506.html |archive-date=15 July 2008 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref><br />
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On 1 August 2008, United States intelligence officials said that the Pakistani intelligence services helped the Haqqani network plan the attack.<ref name="nyt" /> Their conclusions were based on intercepted communications between Pakistani intelligence officers and the perpetrators before the attack. [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] deputy director [[Stephen R. Kappes]] had visited [[Islamabad]] before the attack to confront senior Pakistani officials with information about support provided by members of the ISI to militant groups. The officials said that the ISI officers involved had not been renegades, indicating that their actions might have been authorised by superiors in the [[Pakistan Army]]. It confirmed suspicions that were long held, an 'aha moment'.<ref name="nyt" /><br />
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US officials also called into question the reliability of Pakistan as an ally in the American [[war on terror]].<ref name="nyt" /> According to an article by British journalist [[Christina Lamb]], President [[George W. Bush]] confronted [[Pakistani prime minister]] [[Yusuf Raza Gillani]] in Washington D.C., with evidence of ISI's involvement in the Kabul attack and warned that in case of another attack he would have to take "serious action".<ref name="timesonline" /><br />
<br />
===Motivations===<br />
During the [[Taliban]] regime in Afghanistan, which was backed by Pakistan,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB227/index.htm |title=Pakistan: "The Taliban's Godfather"? |access-date=8 July 2008| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080708224453/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB227/index.htm| archive-date=8 July 2008 | url-status=live}}</ref> India had supported the [[United Islamic Front for the Salvation of Afghanistan|Northern Alliance]] that opposed the Taliban.<ref name="Afghan Bombing Fuels Regional Furor">{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1820716,00.html |title=Afghan Bombing Fuels Regional Furor |last=Thottam |first=Jyoti |date=7 July 2008 |magazine=Time |access-date=7 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080708152838/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0%2C8599%2C1820716%2C00.html |archive-date=8 July 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> After the fall of the Taliban in 2001, India opened four consulates in [[Herat]], [[Mazari Sharif]], [[Kandahar]] and [[Jalalabad]] and backed [[Hamid Karzai]]'s national government as well as the US-led [[ISAF]] against the Taliban insurgency. India is Afghanistan's fifth-largest bilateral donor<ref>{{Cite news |last=Baruah |first=Amit |title=Why Indians were targeted? |publisher=[[Hindustan Times]] |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/india/Why-Indians-were-targeted/Article1-322484.aspx |access-date=8 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605191549/http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/india/Why-Indians-were-targeted/Article1-322484.aspx |archive-date=2011-06-05}}</ref> and its growing presence in post-war Afghanistan has caused much concern to the Taliban and Pakistan as it views Indian measures as a threat to its influence in the region.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.csmonitor.com/2003/0912/p07s01-wosc.html |title=India-Pakistan rivalry reaches into Afghanistan |access-date=8 July 2008 |date=12 September 2003 |author=Scott Baldauf|work=The Christian Science Monitor}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2006/oct/10inter.htm |title='India is Pak's fundamental concern' |access-date=8 July 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080705225447/http://www.rediff.com/news/2006/oct/10inter.htm| archive-date=5 July 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.csis.org/media/csis/pubs/sam117.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=7 July 2008 |archive-date=10 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080710083737/http://www.csis.org/media/csis/pubs/sam117.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[President of Pakistan]], [[Pervez Musharraf]], had accused Afghan President Hamid Karzai of "favouring" India.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/7492982.stm |title=India: Afghanistan's influential ally |access-date=8 July 2008 |date=7 July 2008 |author=Soutik Biswas |work=BBC News}}</ref> Islamabad had also reportedly accused Indian consulates in Kandahar and Jalalabad of providing support to insurgents in Pakistan's troubled [[Balochistan]] region,<ref name=" India – Afghanistan's influential ally">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/7492982.stm|title=India – Afghanistan's influential ally|last=Biswas |first=Soutik |date=7 July 2008|work=BBC News|access-date=7 July 2008}}</ref> a claim repeated by Urdu newspapers to conservative and hardline Islamic constituents in the Afghanistan-Pakistan region. Coupled with Pakistan's old and documented animosity towards India, analysts claim Pakistan had strong motives to target Indian nationals and their economic projects in Afghanistan.<ref name="Why the Indian embassy in Kabul was attacked">{{cite web|url=http://in.rediff.com/news/2008/jul/07raman.htm|title=Why the Indian embassy in Kabul was attacked|first=B. |last=Raman|date=7 July 2008|publisher=in.rediff.com|access-date=30 November 2014}}</ref><br />
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The statement by Afghan President Hamid Karzai noted that "enemies of Afghan–India ties were behind attack" without clearly specifying which enemies.<ref name="'Enemies' of Afghan-India ties behind attack: Karzai">{{cite news|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/PoliticsNation/Foes_of_Afghan-Indo_ties_behind_attack/articleshow/3206518.cms|title='Enemies' of Afghan-India ties behind attack: Karzai|date=7 July 2008|agency=IST, Agencies|work=India Times|access-date=7 July 2008}}</ref> On 7 July 2008, Afghanistan's Interior Ministry claimed that the attack was carried in collaboration with "a regional intelligence service"<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/asiaCrisis/idUSISL154807 |title=Afghans say foreign agents behind embassy attack |work=Reuters |access-date=8 July 2008 |date=7 July 2008}}</ref> and added that the bombers received training in Pakistan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stv.tv/articles/reuters/world/Afghanistan_says_embassy_bombers_trained_in_Pakistan_125456|title=Afghanistan says embassy bombers trained in Pakistan|access-date=10 July 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080804002338/http://www.stv.tv/articles/reuters/world/Afghanistan_says_embassy_bombers_trained_in_Pakistan_125456|archive-date=4 August 2008|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Afghanistan has in the past blamed its neighbour Pakistan and its intelligence service ISI for various terror incidents on its soil.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ctvnews.ca/afghanistan-blames-pakistan-for-attempt-to-kill-karzai-1.304585 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090116041526/http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20080625/NATO_helmand_08025 |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 January 2009 |publisher=CTV.ca |access-date=8 July 2008 |date=25 June 2008|title=Afghanistan blames Pakistan for attempt to kill Karzai}}</ref><br />
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Denying its involvement in the attacks, a Taliban spokesman said in a statement, "they (India) send secret military experts to Afghanistan and they train the Afghan army. Had we carried out the attack, we would have claimed responsibility for it with pride since we have good reasons for it." The spokesman also implicated Pakistan instead and further stated that the attack had its roots in the regional India–Pakistan rivalry.<ref name="Taliban deny Indian embassy blast, blame regional rivalry ">{{cite news|url=http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/breakingnews/world/view/20080708-147195/Taliban-deny-Indian-embassy-blast-blame-regional-rivalry|title=Taliban deny Indian embassy blast, blame regional rivalry|date=7 August 2008|agency=Agence France-Presse|publisher=newsinfo.inquirer.net|access-date=8 July 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080804170523/http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/breakingnews/world/view/20080708-147195/Taliban-deny-Indian-embassy-blast-blame-regional-rivalry|archive-date=4 August 2008|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> On 8 July, Afghanistan stated that it had no doubts that the attack was carried out in collaboration with "foreign intelligence agencies", again an implicit reference to Pakistan's ISI.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/JG09Df02.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080830080917/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/JG09Df02.html |url-status=unfit |archive-date=30 August 2008 |title=Asia Times Online :: South Asia news, business and economy from India and Pakistan |access-date=10 July 2008}}</ref> Pakistani prime minister [[Yusuf Raza Gilani|Yusaf Raza Gilani]] denied any involvement of ISI in the attack and also remarked that his country had no interest in destabilising Afghanistan.<ref name="Pakistan denies involvement in Kabul embassy blast">{{cite news|url=http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5grEnnk3HvrDUwzFcMLoAW8iUOR0gD91PJ1980|title=Pakistan denies involvement in Kabul embassy blast|last=SHAH|first=AMIR |date=7 August 2008|access-date=8 July 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080711052437/http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5grEnnk3HvrDUwzFcMLoAW8iUOR0gD91PJ1980 |archive-date=11 July 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref> Subsequently, there have been reports of Afghan officials blaming Pakistan directly and explicitly for the attack on the Indian embassy.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.argentinanews.net/story/379630 |title=Afghanistan blames Pakistan for embassy bombing |access-date=8 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080803021246/http://www.argentinanews.net/story/379630 |archive-date=3 August 2008 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ft.com/content/c122796c-4c88-11dd-96bb-000077b07658 |title=Kabul blames spy agency for suicide blast at India embassy |access-date=30 November 2014 |date=8 July 2008| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080718173845/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/c122796c-4c88-11dd-96bb-000077b07658.html| archive-date=18 July 2008|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Is-ISI-behind-Kabul-embassy-blast/articleshow/3207662.cms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021115304/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-07-07/india/27920448_1_indian-embassy-defence-attache-ajai-pathania |url-status=live |archive-date=21 October 2012 |title=Is ISI behind Kabul embassy blast?-India |access-date=10 July 2008 |location=India |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=7 July 2008}}</ref> Indian security analysts at the Institute of Conflict Management have claimed that "the ISI-backed Taliban will not allow any Indian consolidation in Afghanistan, nor will they allow any stability in Kabul."<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Pak-Taliban-want-India-out-of-Afghanistan/articleshow/3208579.cms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021115357/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-07-08/india/27916557_1_afghanistan-pakistan-and-taliban-karzai |url-status=live |archive-date=21 October 2012 |title=Pak, Taliban want India out of Afghanistan-India |access-date=8 July 2008 |location=India |first1=Indrani |last1=Bagchi |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=8 July 2008}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Denials by Pakistan===<br />
Immediately after the report in ''[[The New York Times]]'',<ref name="nyt" /> Pakistani foreign ministry spokesman Mohammed Sadiq described it as "total rubbish" and said there was no evidence of ISI involvement. "The foreign newspapers keep writing such things against ISI, and we reject these allegations."<ref name="The Guardian" /> On 15 October, in an India-Pakistan bilateral meeting to address [[cross-border terrorism]] and ceasefire violations, Islamabad denied any role of the ISI in the 7 July bombings. Pakistan's [[National Security Advisor (Pakistan)|National Security Advisor]] [[Mahmud Ali Durrani]] denied involvement when asked to comment on reports alleging that ISI masterminded the Kabul blasts. It was also clarified that the Kabul bombings will be discussed in detail at the meeting of the joint anti-terror mechanism later the same month.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2008-10-15 |title=Pak denies ISI role in Kabul blast |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/pakistan/Pak-denies-ISI-role-in-Kabul-blast/Article1-344788.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605223748/http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/pakistan/Pak-denies-ISI-role-in-Kabul-blast/Article1-344788.aspx |archive-date=2011-06-05}}</ref><br />
<br />
On 23 October, it was reported that India had shared sensitive information with Pakistan that pointed towards the ISI's alleged complicity in the embassy bombing as both countries ended a special meeting of their joint-terror mechanism on a "positive" note.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/holnus/000200810241925.htm |location=Chennai, India |work=The Hindu |title=India shares evidence with Pak. on ISI 'link' to Kabul attack |date=24 October 2008 |access-date=25 October 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110818123638/http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/holnus/000200810241925.htm |archive-date=18 August 2011 }}</ref><br />
<br />
==Further threats to Indian nationals==<br />
A bomb was found on a bus transporting 12 Indian road construction workers of [[Border Roads Organization]] to Afghanistan on 8 July 2008 in [[Zaranj]], [[Nimruz]], a day after the attack on Indian embassy in Kabul. The engineers and workers on board reported having noticed a "suspicious package" after boarding the bus on the day, but it was only after further investigation that it was revealed that a remote-operated bomb had been placed on board. Provincial governor Ghulam Dastgir Azad placed the blame for the attempted bombing of the workers on Taliban militants, who have been responsible for more than a dozen worker deaths in the area over the last few years.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/World/Rest_of_World/Bomb_found_on_Afghan_bus_carrying_Indians/articleshow/3213725.cms |title=Bomb found on Afghan bus carrying Indians |work=The Times of India |location=India |access-date=3 August 2008 |date=9 July 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090112225959/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/World/Rest_of_World/Bomb_found_on_Afghan_bus_carrying_Indians/articleshow/3213725.cms |archive-date=12 January 2009}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Calls for Indian military intervention==<br />
After this attack, some defence analysts called for India to increase its military presence in Afghanistan not only to protect Indian projects and nationals there, but also to aid the coalition forces to improve the overall security situation in the war-torn country. Gurmeet Kanwal, head of the Center for Land Warfare Studies, said, "I would say the time has come to live up to our responsibility. If it involves military intervention, so be it."<ref name="nytimes1">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/09/world/asia/09india.html |title=Afghan Bombing Sends Stark Message to India |access-date=10 July 2008 |date=9 July 2008 |author=Somini Sengupta |work=The New York Times |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211012639/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/09/world/asia/09india.html|archive-date=11 December 2008|url-status=live}}</ref> C. Raja Mohan, an Indian foreign policy analyst, urged India's government to increase military presence in Afghanistan and also added "Afghanistan needs to be stabilised. Pakistan needs to be stabilised. This requires more drastic remedies."<ref name="nytimes1" /> In April 2008 Afghanistan's [[defense minister]] formally requested India's help in counter-insurgency operations during his visit to New Delhi.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/uncategorized/india-rules-out-military-involvement-in-afghanistan_10035771.html |title=» India rules out military involvement in Afghanistan – Thaindian News |access-date=8 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080829201827/http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/uncategorized/india-rules-out-military-involvement-in-afghanistan_10035771.html |archive-date=29 August 2008 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref> India has already provided large-scale military equipment to the Afghan National Army<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.defenselink.mil/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=31244 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070413185548/http://www.defenselink.mil/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=31244 |url-status=dead |archive-date=13 April 2007 |title=DefenseLink News Article: India Delivers 50 New Trucks to Afghan National Army |access-date=8 July 2008}}</ref> and has also given crucial intelligence inputs to the United States-led coalition forces.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.janes.com/security/international_security/news/jir/jir010315_1_n.shtml |title=India joins anti-Taliban coalition – Jane's Security News |access-date=30 November 2014 |date=15 March 2001|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090416171107/http://www.janes.com/security/international_security/news/jir/jir010315_1_n.shtml |archive-date=16 April 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Several members of the Afghan army have undergone anti-terrorist training in India<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/world-news/india-to-train-afghan-army-in-counterinsurgency-stratfor_10037791.html |title=» India to train Afghan army in counterinsurgency: Stratfor – Thaindian News |access-date=10 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080803232740/http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/world-news/india-to-train-afghan-army-in-counterinsurgency-stratfor_10037791.html|archive-date=3 August 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref> and in April 2007, the Indian Army also sent a delegation to set up an army training school in Afghanistan and [[Uzbekistan]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ndtv.com/convergence/ndtv/story.aspx?id=NEWEN20070009786 |title=NDTV.com: India's 'Great Game' in Afghanistan |access-date=8 July 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070914113438/http://www.ndtv.com/convergence/ndtv/story.aspx?id=NEWEN20070009786 |archive-date=14 September 2007 }}</ref> In September 2007, India held a joint military exercise with the United Kingdom to train British forces in counter-insurgency operations, particularly those in Afghanistan. India also has an operational air force command at the [[Farkhor Air Base]] in neighbouring [[Tajikistan]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://in.reuters.com/article/southAsiaNews/idINIndia-34425920080708 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080906154453/http://in.reuters.com/article/southAsiaNews/idINIndia-34425920080708 |url-status=dead |archive-date=6 September 2008 |title=Kabul bomb shows dangers India faces in Afghanistan |work=Reuters |access-date=8 July 2008 |date=8 July 2008}}</ref> ''[[Indian Express]]'' said in an editorial, "after the Kabul bombing, India must come to terms with an important question that it has avoided debating so far. New Delhi cannot continue to expand its economic and diplomatic activity in Afghanistan, while avoiding a commensurate increase in its military presence there. For too long, New Delhi has deferred to Pakistani and American sensitivities about raising India's strategic profile in Afghanistan."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/story/332675.html |title=After Kabul |date=8 July 2008 |access-date=8 July 2008|publisher=IndianExpress.com}}</ref> However, some analysts have feared that if India joins the United States-led coalition forces in Afghanistan, it would harm the [[soft power]] it has gradually built in the region as a result of the widespread popularity of [[Bollywood]] films and [[Indian soap opera|Indian television soaps]] among Afghans.<ref name="atimes1" /><br />
<br />
==Reactions==<br />
<br />
===India===<br />
The primary response of Indian government at that time was strong condemnations of the incidence. [[Pranab Mukherjee]], India's External Affairs Minister, condemned the "cowardly terrorists' attack" and added that "such acts of terror will not deter us from fulfilling our commitments to the government and people of Afghanistan."<ref name=" Bomb rocks India embassy in Kabul">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7492601.stm|title=Bomb rocks India embassy in Kabul|date=7 July 2008|work=BBC News|access-date=7 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081123002341/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7492601.stm |archive-date=23 November 2008|url-status=live}}</ref> India also rushed a high-level emergency team of experts to review the situation.<ref name="Rediff news">{{cite news|url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2008/jul/07kabul.htm|title=Kabul blast: 4 Indians among 41 killed|date=7 July 2008|work=rediff.com|access-date=7 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080710045259/http://www.rediff.com/news/2008/jul/07kabul.htm|archive-date=10 July 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref><br />
<br />
Indian Prime Minister [[Manmohan Singh]] said, "the target is clearly the innocent citizens. Efforts to spread chaos and disturb peace will not be allowed to succeed at any cost. The government is determined to defeat nefarious designs of terrorist elements. The perpetrators of these heinous acts will be dealt with firmly. The security agencies are already working in this regard. All sections of society are required to remain calm and extend fullest co-operation to them."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.indianembassy.org/press_release/2005/Oct/34.htm |title=Prime Minister condemns serial blasts in Delhi |access-date=10 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081121132342/http://indianembassy.org/press_release/2005/Oct/34.htm |archive-date=21 November 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref><br />
<br />
===Afghanistan===<br />
Afghan Foreign Minister [[Rangeen Dadfar Spanta]] visited the embassy soon after the attack to show his support. His ministry's spokesman, Sultan Ahmad Baheen, said, "the enemies of [[Afghanistan-India relations|Afghanistan and India's relationship]] cannot hamper our relationship by conducting such attacks".<ref name="28 killed in suicide attack at India's Afghanistan embassy">{{cite news|url=http://news.theage.com.au/world/28-killed-in-suicide-attack-at-indias-afghanistan-embassy-20080707-3331.html|title=28 killed in suicide attack at India's Afghanistan embassy|date=7 July 2008|work=The Age|access-date=7 July 2008|location=Melbourne|first=Sardar|last=Ahmad}}</ref> He added, "India and Afghanistan have a deep relationship between each other. Such attacks of the enemy will not harm our relations."<ref name="28 killed in blast near Indian Embassy in Kabul" /><br />
<br />
A statement released by the Afghan foreign ministry said, "the government of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan strongly condemns today's terrorist attack on the embassy of the friendly and brother country of India".<ref name="Afghan gov't, UN condemn terrorist attack against Indian embassy in Kabul">{{cite news|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-07/07/content_8506156.htm|title=Afghan gov't, UN condemn terrorist attack against Indian embassy in Kabul|date=7 July 2008|work=chinaview.cn |publisher=news.xinhuanet.com|access-date=7 July 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080802192200/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-07/07/content_8506156.htm|archive-date=2 August 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Afghan President [[Hamid Karzai]] later called [[Prime Minister of India]] [[Manmohan Singh]] and expressed his condolences.<ref name="Afghan president calls Indian PM to express condolences">{{cite news|url=http://www.radioaustralia.net.au/news/stories/200807/s2297095.htm?tab=latest|title=Afghan president calls Indian PM to express condolences|date=7 July 2008|publisher=radioaustralia.net.au|access-date=7 July 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080804063808/http://www.radioaustralia.net.au/news/stories/200807/s2297095.htm?tab=latest |archive-date=4 August 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref> On 14 July Karzai declared whom he believed to be the foreign state behind the attack, stating, "Now this has become clear. And we have told the government of Pakistan that the killings of people in Afghanistan, the destruction of bridges in Afghanistan ... are carried out by Pakistan's intelligence and Pakistan's military departments."<ref>{{cite news|url=http://in.reuters.com/article/topNews/idINIndia-34507520080714 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120710040028/http://in.reuters.com/article/topNews/idINIndia-34507520080714 |url-status=dead |archive-date=10 July 2012 |work=Reuters |title=Karzai says Pakistan behind Indian embassy bomb |date=14 July 2008|access-date=14 July 2008 <!--DASHBot-->}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Pakistan===<br />
In a statement, Foreign Minister [[Shah Mehmood Qureshi]] condemned the bombing at the Indian embassy in Kabul, stating that "Pakistan condemns terrorism in all its forms and manifestations as this menace negates the very essence of human values". A spokesman for Pakistan's foreign ministry also dismissed claims of Pakistan's involvement in the attack as "total rubbish".<ref name="The Guardian" /><br />
<br />
===International===<br />
On behalf of states around the world, their respective representatives commented on both the attack and the resulting casualties:<br />
* {{Flagu|Armenia}} – The Armenian Foreign Ministry said, "with deep indignation we learned about the terrorist act near the Indian embassy in Kabul which took lives of tens of peaceful people. Among the innocent victims are our partners working in the Indian embassy."<ref>[http://www.panorama.am/en/politics/2008/07/08/agn/ Foreign Ministry Condemns Kabul Events]</ref><br />
*{{flagu|Australia}} – Foreign Minister [[Stephen Smith (Australian politician)|Stephen Smith]] said the Australian government "condemns the car bomb attack ... and extends its deep sympathies to the Afghan government and people and to the Indian government and people." He went on to add "This attack further demonstrates their determination to kill, maim and intimidate the Afghan people and to undermine international efforts to bring peace and stability to Afghanistan."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-07/08/content_8512041.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021061219/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-07/08/content_8512041.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=21 October 2012 |title=Australia condemns Indian embassy attack in Kabul English Xinhua |access-date=10 July 2008}}</ref><br />
* {{Flagu|Bulgaria}} – Bulgarian President [[Georgi Parvanov]] said, "Bulgaria categorically condemns this cruel act of terrorism." He went on to say that he hoped the attack "will not dissuade India from actively supporting the reconstruction of Afghanistan, a process in which Bulgaria is also closely involved."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.focus-fen.net/index.php?id=n145396 |title=FOCUS Information Agency |access-date=10 July 2008 |archive-date=13 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120213211139/http://www.focus-fen.net/index.php?id=n145396 |url-status=dead }}</ref><br />
* {{Flagu|Canada}} – David Emerson, Minister of Foreign Affairs, condemned the attack, saying, "Previous attacks have not broken the will of Afghans or of the international community. We are heartened by India’s determined response to continue meeting its substantial commitment to Afghanistan."<br />
* {{Flagu|Nepal}} – Foreign Affairs Ministry said, "the Nepal Government strongly condemns the heinous act of terrorism."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gorkhapatra.org.np/detail.php?article_id=3029&cat_id=4 |title=Gorkhapatra |access-date=10 July 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110527210355/http://www.gorkhapatra.org.np/detail.php?article_id=3029&cat_id=4 |archive-date=27 May 2011 }}</ref><br />
* {{Flagu|China}} – Before the [[34th G8 summit|2008 G8 summit]], Chinese [[Paramount Leader|Premier]] [[Hu Jintao]] told Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh, "We strongly denounce the terrorist attack on the Indian embassy. I sincerely express my heartfelt condolences to the families of those killed in the bombing in Afghanistan."<ref name="PM seeks Chinese support on N-deal: Reports">{{cite news|url=http://www.ibnlive.com/news/pm-seeks-chinese-support-on-ndeal-reports/68495-3-1.html|title=PM seeks Chinese support on N-deal: Reports|date=7 August 2008|publisher=ibnlive.com|access-date=8 July 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080804153337/http://www.ibnlive.com/news/pm-seeks-chinese-support-on-ndeal-reports/68495-3-1.html|archive-date=4 August 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref><br />
* {{Flagu|Russia}} – Russian Foreign Ministry spokesman Andrei Nesterenko said, "Our hearts go out to the victims' families and relatives, and we express our support to those injured in this inhuman act. We grieve over the death of our colleagues, Indian diplomats. We resolutely condemn the terrorists' savage attacks and we are convinced that they will be given a worthy rebuff."<br />
* {{Flagu|Singapore}} – The Foreign Ministry said, "we condemn this act of terror and pledge our full support to India in your fight against this scourge."<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/world-news/singapore-condemns-attack-on-indian-embassy-in-kabul_10069710.html |title=» Singapore condemns attack on Indian embassy in Kabul – Thaindian News |access-date=9 July 2008 |archive-date=1 August 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080801152304/http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/world-news/singapore-condemns-attack-on-indian-embassy-in-kabul_10069710.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><br />
* {{Flagu|United Kingdom}} – British foreign secretary [[David Miliband]] said he "was appalled to hear the news". Adding that these were "cowardly actions carried out by those with no regard for human life" and that such acts "are designed to undermine the efforts of democratic governments and the international community to bring peace and stability to the region".<ref name="UK, EU condemn attack on Indian embassy">{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/uk/UK-EU-condemn-attack-on-Indian-embassy/articleshow/3208024.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021115252/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-07-07/uk/27942364_1_indian-embassy-taliban-militants-efforts-of-democratic-governments|url-status=live|archive-date=21 October 2012|title=UK, EU condemn attack on Indian embassy|last=Roshan |first=Rashmee|date=7 July 2008|work=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=7 July 2008}}</ref><br />
* {{Flagu|United States of America}} – [[US State Department]] spokesman [[Sean McCormack]] described the bombing as "terrible news" and said, "we have offered any assistance, not only to Afghan but also to Indian authorities, in terms of follow-up, determining who's responsible for these attacks." [[White House]] spokesman [[Gordon Johndroe]] said in a statement, "the US stands with the people of Afghanistan as well as India, as we face this common enemy."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/PoliticsNation/US_lawmaker_condemns_attack_on_Indian_embassy_in_Kabul/articleshow/3209227.cms |archive-url=https://archive.today/20110518123649/http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/PoliticsNation/US_lawmaker_condemns_attack_on_Indian_embassy_in_Kabul/articleshow/3209227.cms |url-status=dead |archive-date=18 May 2011 |title=US lawmaker condemns attack on Indian embassy in Kabul- Politics/Nation-News-The Economic Times |access-date=10 July 2008 |work=The Times of India |location=India |date=8 July 2008}}</ref><br />
* {{Flagu|Vietnam}} – Foreign Ministry spokesman Le Dung said, "Vietnam strongly condemns the brutal terrorist attack on the Indian Embassy in Kabul, Afghanistan on 7 July, killing many civilians. We would like to extend our profound condolences to the victims' families."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nhandan.com.vn/english/news/090708/domestic_v.htm |title=Nhan Dan – News |access-date=10 July 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090113163229/http://www.nhandan.com.vn/english/news/090708/domestic_v.htm |archive-date=13 January 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref><br />
<br />
==== Organisations ====<br />
* {{Flagu|European Union}} – The European Union described the bombing as a "terrorist attack targeting innocent civilians".<ref name=" Bomb rocks India embassy in Kabul" /> EU foreign policy chief [[Javier Solana]] added that "Such actions, which are clearly intended to undermine the process of stabilisation and reconstruction in Afghanistan, will achieve nothing."<br />
* {{flagu|NATO}} – NATO Secretary General [[Jaap de Hoop Scheffer]] said in a statement, "On behalf of NATO, I wholeheartedly condemn the bombing at the Indian Embassy. The loss of life and injuries to so many is a tragedy, and a clear attempt to undermine regional relations."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-07/08/content_8507052.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021061212/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-07/08/content_8507052.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=21 October 2012 |title=NATO condemns Kabul bombing_English_Xinhua |access-date=8 July 2008}}</ref><br />
* {{Flagu|United Nations}} – [[Kai Eide]], the special envoy of UN Secretary General to Afghanistan said, "I condemn it in the strongest possible terms. In no culture, no country, and no religion is there any excuse or justification for such acts. The total disregard for innocent lives is staggering and those behind this must be held responsible."<ref name="Afghan gov't, UN condemn terrorist attack against Indian embassy in Kabul" /> [[UN Secretary General]] [[Ban Ki-moon]] also condemned the attack "in the strongest terms." The [[Security Council]] also described the attack as a "reprehensible act of terrorism."<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7494655.stm |title=UN condemns India embassy attack |access-date=10 July 2008|work=BBC News |date=8 July 2008}}</ref><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
{{Portal|India|Afghanistan}}<br />
* [[Foreign relations of Afghanistan]]<br />
* [[List of massacres in Afghanistan]]<br />
<br />
{{Clear}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist|30em}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* [http://www.ibnlive.com/photogallery/876.html Images from after the blast from CNN IBN] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081204101338/http://www.ibnlive.com/photogallery/876.html |date=4 December 2008 }}<br />
<br />
{{Afghanistan War}}<br />
{{Foreign relations of India}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Indian Embassy Bombing in Kabul}}<br />
[[Category:2008 murders in Afghanistan]]<br />
[[Category:Attacks on diplomatic missions in Afghanistan]]<br />
[[Category:Attacks on diplomatic missions of India|Kabul Indian embassy]]<br />
[[Category:Suicide car and truck bombings in Afghanistan]]<br />
[[Category:Massacres committed by the Taliban]]<br />
[[Category:Taliban attacks in Kabul]]<br />
[[Category:Terrorist incidents in Afghanistan in 2008]]<br />
[[Category:2008 mass murders]]<br />
[[Category:Mass murders in Kabul]]<br />
[[Category:2008 massacres in the War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)]]<br />
[[Category:2008 in international relations|Indian Embassy Bombing in Kabul, 2008]]<br />
[[Category:Afghanistan–India relations]]<br />
[[Category:Anti-Indian sentiment in Asia]]<br />
[[Category:July 2008 crimes in Asia]]<br />
[[Category:2008 in Kabul]]<br />
[[Category:Building bombings in Kabul]]<br />
[[Category:Suicide bombings in Kabul]]<br />
[[Category:July 2008 in Afghanistan]]<br />
[[Category:2008 building bombings]]<br />
[[Category:Car and truck bombings in 2008]]<br />
[[Category:Suicide bombings in 2008]]<br />
[[Category:2000s crimes in Kabul]]</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shadnagar_Assembly_constituency&diff=534201Shadnagar Assembly constituency2026-04-15T02:14:18Z<p>AmitNeogi: started a pg - done</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Constituency of the Telangana legislative assembly in India}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2021}}<br />
{{Infobox Indian constituency<br />
| name = Shadnagar<br />
| map_image = Legislative Assembly constituencies of Telangana (84-Shadnagar highlighted).png<br />
| map_caption = Location of Shadnagar Assembly constituency within Telangana<br />
| mla = K. Shankaraiah<br />
| party = [[Indian National Congress]]<br />
| latest_election_year = [[2023 Telangana Legislative Assembly election|2023]]<br />
| established = 1951<br />
| state = [[Telangana]]<br />
| loksabha_cons = [[Mahabubnagar Lok Sabha constituency|Mahabubnagar]]<br />
| district = [[Ranga Reddy]]<br />
| electors = 1,89,299<br />
| type = SLA<br />
| reservation = None<br />
| constituency_no = 84<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Shadnagar Assembly constituency''' is a constituency in [[Ranga Reddy district]] of [[Telangana]] that elects representatives to the [[Telangana Legislative Assembly]] in [[India]]. It is one of the seven assembly segments of [[Mahabubnagar Lok Sabha constituency]].<br />
<br />
K. Shankaraiah of [[Indian National Congress]] is currently representing this constituency.<br />
<br />
==Mandals==<br />
The Assembly Constituency presently comprises the following Mandals:<br />
{{srn}}<br />
{|class="wikitable sortable static-row-numbers static-row-header-hash"<br />
!Mandal<br />
|-<br />
| [[Farooqnagar]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Kondurg]] <br />
|-<br />
| [[Kothur]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Keshampeta]]<br />
|-<br />
| Nandigam<br />
|-<br />
| [[Chowderguda]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Members of Legislative Assembly ==<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
! Year of election<br />
! MLA<br />
! colspan="2" | Political party<br />
|-<br />
| 1952<br />
| [[Burgula Ramakrishna Rao]]<br />
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=7}}<br />
|-<br />
| 1957<br />
| Shahjahan Begum<br />
|-<br />
| 1962<br />
| Damodara Reddy<br />
|-<br />
| 1967 <br />
| K. Naganna<br />
|-<br />
| 1972 <br />
| N. V. Jagannadham<br />
|-<br />
| 1978 <br />
| Kistaiah Bheeshva<br />
|-<br />
| 1983 <br />
| P. Shankar Rao<br />
|-<br />
| 1985 <br />
| [[M. Indira]]<br />
| {{Full party name with color|Telugu Desam Party}}<br />
|-<br />
| 1989 <br />
| P. Shankar Rao<br />
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
|-<br />
| 1994 <br />
| [[Bakkani Narasimhulu]]<br />
| {{Full party name with color|Telugu Desam Party}}<br />
|-<br />
| 1999 <br />
|rowspan=2|P. Shankar Rao<br />
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=3}}<br />
|-<br />
| 2004<br />
|-<br />
| 2009<br />
| [[Chowlapally Pratap Reddy]]<br />
|-<br />
| 2014<br />
|rowspan=2|[[Anjaiah Yadav Yelganamoni]]<br />
| {{Full party name with color|Telangana Rashtra Samithi|rowspan=2}}<br />
|-<br />
| 2018<br />
|-<br />
| 2023<br />
| K. Shankaraiah<br />
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Election results==<br />
=== 2023 ===<br />
{{Election box begin | title=[[2023 Telangana Legislative Assembly election]]: Shadnagar<ref name="Telangana Assembly Election Results 2023: Shadnagar">{{cite news |last1=Election Commission of India |title=Telangana Assembly Election Results 2023: Shadnagar |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/AcResultGenDecNew2023/candidateswise-S2984.htm |access-date=9 December 2024 |date=3 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241209075526/https://results.eci.gov.in/AcResultGenDecNew2023/candidateswise-S2984.htm |archive-date=9 December 2024}}</ref>}}<br />
{{Election box winning candidate with party link<br />
|party=Indian National Congress<br />
|candidate=Veerlaplly Shankar |votes=77,817|percentage=39.79%|change=}}<br />
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Bharat Rashtra Samithi|candidate=[[Anjaiah Yelganamoni]]|votes=70,689|percentage=36.15%|change=}}<br />
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=All India Forward Bloc|candidate=Palamur Vishnuvardhan Reddy|votes=31,651|percentage=16.19%|change=}}<br />
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Bharatiya Janata Party|candidate=Ande Babaiah|votes=8,164|percentage=4.17%|change=}}<br />
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=None of the above|candidate=[[None of the Above]]|votes=1,389|percentage=0.71%|change=}}<br />
{{Election box majority|votes=7,128|percentage=3.64%|change=}}<br />
{{Election box turnout|votes=1,95,555|percentage=|change=}}<br />
{{Election box gain with party link<br />
| winner = Indian National Congress <br />
|loser = Bharat Rashtra Samithi<br />
|swing = <br />
}}<br />
{{Election box end}}<br />
<br />
=== 2018 ===<br />
{{Election box begin | title=[[2018 Telangana Legislative Assembly election]]: Shadnagar<ref>{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20160304041851/http://www.empoweringindia.org/new/constituency.aspx?eid=997&cid=84 Shadnagar Results]}}</ref>}}<br />
{{Election box winning candidate with party link<br />
|party=Telangana Rashtra Samithi<br />
|candidate=[[Anjaiah Yelganamoni]]<br />
|votes=72,315<br />
|percentage=43.43<br />
|change=}}<br />
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Indian National Congress|candidate=[[Chowlapally Pratap Reddy]]|votes=51,890|percentage=31.16|change=}}<br />
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Bahujan Samaj Party|candidate=K Shankaraiah|votes=27,814|percentage=16.70|change=}}<br />
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Bharatiya Janata Party|candidate=Nelli Sreevardan Reddy|votes=5,162|percentage=3.10%|change=}}<br />
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=None of the above|candidate=[[None of the Above]]|votes=1,909|percentage=1.15%|change=}}<br />
<br />
{{Election box majority|votes=20,425|percentage=|change=}}<br />
{{Election box turnout|votes=1,66,527|percentage=88.07|change=}}<br />
<br />
{{Election box hold with party link<br />
| winner = Telangana Rashtra Samithi<br />
|loser = Indian National Congress<br />
|swing = <br />
}}<br />
{{Election box end}}<br />
<br />
===Telangana Legislative Assembly election, 2014 ===<br />
{{Election box begin | title=[[2014 Telangana Legislative Assembly election|Telangana Assembly Elections, 2014]]: Shadnagar}}<ref>{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20160304041851/http://www.empoweringindia.org/new/constituency.aspx?eid=997&cid=84 Shadnagar Results]}}</ref><br />
{{Election box candidate with party link<br />
| party = Telangana Rashtra Samithi<br />
| candidate = [[Anjaiah Yadav Yelganamoni]] <br />
| votes = 70,315<br />
| percentage = 45.37%<br />
| change = <br />
}}<br />
{{Election box candidate with party link<br />
| party = Indian National Congress<br />
| candidate = [[Chowlapally Pratap Reddy]] <br />
| votes = 52,987<br />
| percentage = 34.19%<br />
| change = <br />
}}<br />
{{Election box candidate with party link<br />
| party = Bharatiya Janata Party<br />
| candidate = Nelli Sreevardan Reddy <br />
| votes = 20,425<br />
| percentage = 13.18%<br />
| change = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Election box majority<br />
| votes = 17,328<br />
| percentage = <br />
| change = <br />
}}<br />
{{Election box turnout<br />
| votes = 1,54,985 <br />
| percentage = 81.87% <br />
| change = <br />
}}<br />
{{Election box gain with party link<br />
| winner = Telangana Rashtra Samithi<br />
|loser = Indian National Congress<br />
| swing = <br />
}}<br />
{{Election box end}}<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[List of constituencies of Telangana Legislative Assembly]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{Assembly constituencies of Telangana}}<br />
{{coord|17.07|78.21|display=title}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Telangana]]<br />
[[Category:Mahbubnagar district]]<br />
[[Category:Politics of Telangana]]<br />
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1951]]</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lalnilawma&diff=511803Lalnilawma2026-04-10T08:52:27Z<p>AmitNeogi: created pg</p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|Indian politician}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2024}}<br />
{{Infobox officeholder<br />
| honorific_prefix =<br />
| name = Prof. Lalnilawma<br />
| honorific_suffix = <br />
| image = Nitea.jpg<br />
| alt = <br />
| caption = <br />
| assembly = Mizoram Legislative<br />
| constituency_AM = [[Tawi Assembly constituency|Tawi]]<br />
| term_start = December 2023<br />
| term_end = <br />
| predecessor = [[R Lalzirliana]]<br />
| successor = <br />
| assembly1 = <br />
| constituency_AM1 = <br />
| term_start1 = <br />
| term_end1 = <br />
| predecessor1 = <br />
| successor1 = <br />
| prior_term = <br />
| pronunciation = <br />
| birth_name = <br />
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1968|11|15|df=y}}<br />
| birth_place = <br />
| death_date = <br />
| death_place = <br />
| resting_place = <br />
| resting_place_coordinates = <br />
| party = [[Zoram People's Movement]] <small>(since 2017)</small><br />
| other_party = <br />
| height = <!-- "X cm", "X m" or "X ft Y in" plus optional reference (conversions are automatic) --><br />
| spouse = <br />
| relations = <br />
| children = 3<br />
| mother = <br />
| father = Thankhuma<br />
| relatives = <br />
| education = PhD Rural Development<br />
| alma_mater = [[Central Luzon State University]]<br />
| occupation = <br />
| profession = <br />
| known_for = <br />
| salary = <br />
| cabinet = <br />
| committees = <br />
| portfolio = <br />
| awards = <!-- For civilian awards - appears as "Awards" if |mawards= is not set --><br />
| blank1 = <br />
| data1 = <br />
| blank2 = <br />
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| module = <br />
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| module4 = <br />
| module5 = <br />
| footnotes = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Professor Lalnilawma''' is an academic and politician from [[Mizoram]], [[India]]. He is currently the Minister of State for Rural Development,<ref>{{cite web |title=ZPM cabinet sworn in Mizoram at Raj Bhavan complex |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/india/zpm-cabinet-sworn-in-mizoram-at-raj-bhavan-complex/articleshow/105836124.cms |website=economictimes.com |access-date=23 December 2023}}</ref> Horticulture and Public Health Engineering.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mizoram ministers list 2023: Full list of ministers and their portfolios in Lalduhoma cabinet |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/india-news/mizoram-ministers-list-2023-full-list-of-ministers-and-their-portfolios-in-lalduhoma-cabinet/3333266/ |website=financialexpress.com |access-date=23 December 2023}}</ref> He is the professor of Rural Development at [[Mizoram University]]. He was elected to the [[Mizoram Legislative Assembly]] from Tawi constituency in the 2023 general election as [[Zoram People's Movement]] candidate.<ref>{{cite web |title=Tawi Assembly Election Results 2023 Highlights: ZPM's Prof. Lalnilawma wins Tawi |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/elections/story/tawi-assembly-election-results-2023-live-2471369-2023-12-04 |website=indiatoday.in |access-date=23 December 2023}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Education==<br />
Lalnilawma earned his Doctor of Philosophy in 1998 from Central [[Central Luzon State University]] in the [[Philippines]]. Prior to this, he completed his master's degree in Science and bachelor's degree in arts, both at [[Central Luzon State University]] and [[Spicer Adventist University]] respectively.<ref>{{cite web |title=Department of Extension Education and Rural Development |url=https://mzu.edu.in/extenison-education-and-rural-development/ |website=mzu.edu.in |access-date=23 December 2023}}</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
{{Council of Ministers of Mizoram|state=collapsed}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Politicians from Mizoram]]<br />
[[Category:People from Aizawl district]]<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Mizo people]]<br />
[[Category:Zoram People's Movement politicians]]<br />
[[Category:1968 births]]<br />
[[Category:Mizoram MLAs 2023–2028]]<br />
<br />
{{Mizoram-politician-stub}}</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kalkaji_Mandir&diff=507710Kalkaji Mandir2026-04-05T17:40:23Z<p>AmitNeogi: put up a article from scratch...</p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|Temple in South Delhi, India}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2019}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2019}}<br />
{{Infobox Hindu temple<br />
| name = Shri Kalkaji Mandir<br />
| image = kalkaji-shrine.jpg<br />
| alt = Kalkaji Mandir<br />
| caption = Idol of goddess [[Kali]] at the Kalkaji Mandir<br />
| map_type = India New Delhi<br />
| map_caption = Location in Delhi<br />
| coordinates = {{coord|28.5498|77.2607|format=dms|type:landmark_region:IN|display=inline,title}}<br />
| country = {{IND}}<br />
| state = [[Delhi]]<br />
| district = [[South Delhi|South]]<br />
| location = Kalkaji, South Delhi<br />
| elevation_m = <br />
| deity = [[Kali]]- काली, Kalka - कालका<br />
| festivals= [[Navratri]] नवरात्रि महोत्सव<br />
| architecture = [[Hindu temple architecture]]<br />
| temple_quantity = 1<br />
| monument_quantity = <br />
| inscriptions = <br />
| year_completed = [[Satya Yuga]] (सत्य युग) <br />
| website = [http://www.shrikalkajimandir.in www.shrikalkajimandir.in]<br />
}}<br />
'''Kalkaji Mandir''' is a [[Hindu temple]] dedicated to [[Kali]], a [[Hindu goddess]]. It is in [[south Delhi|southern Delhi]], in Kalkaji, a place whose name derives from the temple. The temple is located opposite to the [[Nehru Place]] and near the [[Okhla]] railway station.<ref>[http://www.durga-puja.org/kalkaji-mandir.html Kalka ji Mandir] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090221012903/http://www.durga-puja.org/kalkaji-mandir.html |date=21 February 2009 }} www.durga-puja.org.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Rc0-AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA98#PPA98,M1 Kalkaji Mandir] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230827172650/https://books.google.com/books?id=Rc0-AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA98#PPA98,M1 |date=27 August 2023 }} ''The Handbook for Delhi: With Index and Two Maps, Illustrating the Historic Remains of Old Delhi, and the Position of the British Army Before the Assault in 1857, &c. &c.'', by Frederic Henry Cooper. Published by Re-printed by T.C. McCarthly, 1865.Page 98.</ref><ref>''The archaeology and monumental remains of Delhi'' by Carr Stephen. Published by Aryan Books International, 2002. {{ISBN|81-7305-222-0}}. ''Page 16- Kalkaji''.</ref><br />
<br />
== History ==<br />
Though the temple is thought to be much older, the oldest portions of its present building are believed to have been constructed not earlier than the 1764 CE by the [[Maratha Empire|Marathas]], with additions in 1816 by Mirza Raja Kidar Nath, the [[Peshkar]] of [[Akbar II]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/mp/2004/01/26/stories/2004012600750200.htm |title=Fascinating tale of the Kalkaji Temple |date=26 January 2004 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=5 January 2019}}{{dead link|date=April 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref><ref name="Sutton">{{cite journal |last=Sutton |first=Deborah |date=2022-09-20 |title=Sacred architectures as monuments: a study of the Kalkaji Mandir, Delhi |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/arq-architectural-research-quarterly/article/sacred-architectures-as-monuments-a-study-of-the-kalkaji-mandir-delhi/AC870DEB108A62C5C2356479CCD1B8BE |journal=ARQ: Architectural Research Quarterly |volume=26 |issue=1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=47-56 |doi=10.1017/S1359135522000380 |access-date=2025-08-20 |doi-access=free}}</ref><br />
<br />
According to a Hindu legend, Kalika Devi was born at the site where the temple is situated.<ref>{{cite book |title=A Gazetteer of Delhi, 1912 |date=2011 |publisher=Aryan Books International |location=[[New Delhi]] |isbn=9788173054167 |page=409 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jv21AAAAIAAJ |access-date=18 November 2020 |archive-date=27 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230827172651/https://books.google.com/books?id=Jv21AAAAIAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
<br />
==Rituals==<br />
During the twice-yearly nine-day Hindu festival of [[Navratri]], in spring and autumn, a large fair is organized in which devotees sing hymns to the Hindu goddess [[Durga]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Grand 'aarti' performed at Delhi's Jhandewalan temple on 'Durga Ashtami' |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/grand-aarti-performed-at-delhis-jhandewalan-temple-on-durga-ashtami/articleshow/78839009.cms |access-date=18 November 2020 |work=The Times of India |language=en |archive-date=3 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201103234402/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/grand-aarti-performed-at-delhis-jhandewalan-temple-on-durga-ashtami/articleshow/78839009.cms |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Kalka Cave Temple]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* [https://skmpsc.org/ Official website]<br />
* [https://www.google.com/maps/place/Kalkaji+mandir/@28.5498204,77.2581356,17z/data=!4m6!3m5!1s0x390ce3c2fe2bd79b:0x95af156342417767!8m2!3d28.5498204!4d77.2607105!16s%2Fm%2F03qfr0q?entry=ttu&g_ep=EgoyMDI2MDQwMS4wIKXMDSoASAFQAw%3D%3D Kalkaji Mandir, Delhi] [[Google Maps]]<br />
<br />
{{Hindu temples in Delhi}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Hindu temples in Delhi]]<br />
[[Category:Kali temples]]<br />
[[Category:South Delhi district]]</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=National_Film_Award_for_Best_Actor_in_a_Leading_Role&diff=520839National Film Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role2026-04-04T15:14:32Z<p>AmitNeogi: created new post</p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|State-instituted annual film awards in India}}<br />
{{featured list}}<br />
{{Use British English|date=April 2012}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2020}}<br />
{{Infobox award<br />
| name = National Film Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role<br />
| image = {{Photomontage <br />
| photo1a = Shah Rukh Khan graces the launch of the new Santro.jpg<br />
| alt1a = Shah Rukh Khan<br />
| photo1b = Vikrant Massey in the closing ceremony of IFFI 2025 (cropped).jpg<br />
| alt1b = Vikrant Massey<br />
| spacing = 2<br />
| position = centre<br />
| size = 230<br />
| border = 0<br />
| color = #FFFFFF<br />
| foot_montage =<br />
}}<br />
| caption = The 2025 recipients: [[Shah Rukh Khan]] and [[Vikrant Massey]]<br />
| awarded_for = Best performance by an actor in a leading role<br />
| sponsor = [[National Film Development Corporation of India]]<br />
| firstawarded = 1967<br />
| reward = {{ubl|Rajat Kamal (Silver Lotus)|{{INR|2,00,000}}}}<br />
| former name = Bharat Award (1968–1974)<br/>National Film Award for Best Actor (1975–2021)<br />
| holder_label = Most recent winner<br />
| holder = {{ubl|[[Shah Rukh Khan]], ''[[Jawan (film)|Jawan]]'' and |[[Vikrant Massey]], ''[[12th Fail]]''}} (2023)<br />
| most_wins = [[Amitabh Bachchan]] (4)<br />
}}<br />
The '''National Film Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role''' is an honour presented annually at the [[National Film Awards]] of India instituted since 1967 to actors who have delivered the best performance in a leading role within the [[Cinema of India|Indian film industry]].<ref name="nfa">{{cite web|url=http://dff.nic.in/nfa.asp |title=About National Film Awards |publisher=[[Directorate of Film Festivals]] |access-date=31 July 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111025223102/http://dff.nic.in/nfa.asp |archive-date=25 October 2011 }}</ref> Called the "State Awards for Films" when established in 1954, the National Film Awards ceremony is older than the [[Directorate of Film Festivals]]. The State Awards instituted the individual award in 1968 as the "Bharat Award for the Best Actor"; in 1975, it was renamed as the "Rajat Kamal Award for the Best Actor".<ref name="nfa" /><ref name="1974award">{{cite web |url=http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm21stNFAAward.aspx?PdfName=21NFA.pdf |title=21st National Awards For Films (1974) |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals |access-date=30 July 2011 |page=16|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928071446/http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm21stNFAAward.aspx?PdfName=21NFA.pdf |archive-date=28 September 2011 }}</ref><ref name="1975award" /> As of 2024, accounting for ties and repeat winners, the Government of India has presented a total of 64 "Best Actor" awards to 49 actors. Until 1974, winners of the National Film Award received a [[figurine]] and certificate; since 1975, they have been awarded with a "Rajat Kamal" (silver [[Nelumbo nucifera|lotus]]), certificate and a cash prize.{{efn|Until [[69th National Film Awards]] (2021), the cash prize is {{INR|50,000}}.<ref name="60thaward">{{cite press release|title=60th National Film Awards Announced|url=http://pib.nic.in/archieve/others/2013/mar/d2013031801.pdf|publisher=Press Information Bureau (PIB), India|access-date=18 March 2013}}</ref>}}<ref name="1974award" /> Since the 70th National Film Awards, the name was changed to "National Film Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role".<ref>{{cite web |author= |date=14 December 2023 |title=Report on Rationalization of Awards Conferred by the Ministry of Information |url=https://mib.gov.in/filmsdocuments/report-rationalization-awards-conferred-ministry-information-broadcasting |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240827225301/https://mib.gov.in/sites/default/files/Report%20on%20Rationalization%20of%20Awards%20Conferred%20by%20the%20Ministry%20of%20Information%20%26%20Broadcasting.pdf |archive-date=27 August 2024 |access-date=25 August 2024 |publisher=[[Ministry of Information and Broadcasting (India)|Ministry of Information and Broadcasting]] |language=en |publication-date=14 December 2023}}</ref><br />
<br />
Although the Indian film industry produces films in around 20 [[Languages of India|languages and dialects]],<ref name="nfa" /> the actors whose performances have won awards have worked in eight major languages: [[Hindi]] (twenty-seven awards), [[Malayalam]] (thirteen awards), [[Tamil language|Tamil]] (nine awards), [[Bengali language|Bengali]] (five awards), [[Kannada]] (four awards), [[Marathi language|Marathi]] (three awards), English (two awards), and [[Telugu language|Telugu]] (one award).<br />
<br />
The first recipient was [[Uttam Kumar]] from [[Cinema of West Bengal|Bengali cinema]], who was honoured at the [[15th National Film Awards]] in 1967 for his performances in ''[[Antony Firingee (film)|Anthony Firingee]]'' and ''[[Chiriyakhana]]''.<ref name="firstaward">{{cite web |url=http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm15thNFAAward.aspx?PdfName=15NFA.pdf |title=National Awards for Films: Uttam Kumar (1967) |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals |date=25 November 1968 |access-date=31 July 2011 |page=29 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928071652/http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm15thNFAAward.aspx?PdfName=15NFA.pdf |archive-date=28 September 2011 }}</ref> He was also the first actor who won this award for two different films in the same year. As of 2023 edition, [[Amitabh Bachchan]] is the most honoured actor with four awards. [[Kamal Haasan]], [[Mammootty]] and [[Ajay Devgn]] with three awards, while six actors—[[Mohanlal]], [[Mithun Chakraborty]], [[Sanjeev Kumar]], [[Om Puri]], [[Naseeruddin Shah]] and [[Dhanush]]—have won the award two times. Two actors have achieved the honour for performing in two languages{{mdash}}Mithun Chakraborty (Hindi and Bengali) and Mammootty (Malayalam and English).<ref name="1999Award" /> The most recent recipients were [[Shah Rukh Khan]] and [[Vikrant Massey]] who were honoured at the [[71st National Film Awards]] for their performances in [[Jawan (film)|''Jawan'']] and ''[[12th Fail]]'' respectively.<br />
<br />
==Key==<br />
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" border="1"<br />
|-<br />
! scope="col" style="width:50px" | Symbol<br />
! scope="col" style="width:350px" | Meaning<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align:center;" |Year<br />
|Indicates the year in which the film was [[Censorship in India#Censorship by medium|censored]] by the [[Central Board of Film Certification]] (CBFC)<br />
|-<br />
|align=center style="background-color:#ADD8E6"|{{dagger}}<br />
|Indicates a joint award for that year<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align:center; background:#ffecc8;"|{{double-dagger}}<br />
|Indicates that the winner won the award for two performances in that year<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Superlatives==<br />
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"<br />
! Win <br />
! Recipients<br />
|-<br />
| 4<br />
| [[Amitabh Bachchan]]<br />
|-<br />
|3<br />
|[[Kamal Haasan]], [[Mammootty]], [[Ajay Devgn]]<br />
|-<br />
| 2 <br />
|[[Om Puri]], [[Naseeruddin Shah]], [[Mithun Chakraborty]], [[Sanjeev Kumar]], [[Mohanlal]], [[Dhanush]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Recipients==<br />
<br />
[[File:Uttam Kumar 2009 stamp of India.jpg|thumbnail|upright|[[Uttam Kumar]]<br>(The first-ever recipient of the Best Actor Award for his performances in ''[[Antony Firingee (film)|Antony Firingee]]'' and ''[[Chiriyakhana]]'' in 1967.)]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Amitabh Bachchan 2014.jpg|thumbnail|upright|alt=Amitabh Bachchan is looking at the camera.|[[Amitabh Bachchan]] is a four time winner.]]<br />
<br />
[[File:MG_Ramachandran_2017_stamp_of_India.jpg|thumbnail|upright|[[M. G. Ramachandran]], former [[chief minister of Tamil Nadu]] won the award for his performance in ''[[Rickshawkaran]]'' in 1971.]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Mitun-chakraborty (cropped).jpg|thumbnail|upright|[[Mithun Chakraborty]] was awarded for his debut film.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-07-10/news-interviews/28275376_1_uttam-kumar-movies-three-national-awards | archive-url=https://archive.today/20130818155555/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-07-10/news-interviews/28275376_1_uttam-kumar-movies-three-national-awards | url-status=dead | archive-date=18 August 2013 | title=Mithun: Sexy at sixty | work=[[The Times of India]]| date=10 July 2010 | access-date=18 August 2013 | author=Ghosh, Avijit}}</ref>]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Kamal Haasan.jpg|thumbnail|upright| [[Kamal Haasan]]<br>(win the honour thrice)]]<br />
<br />
[[File:SOP Mammootty2016.jpg|thumbnail|upright| [[Mammootty]]<br>(win the honour thrice)]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Ajay Devgn grace the 21 years of 'Aap Ki Adalat' celebration.jpg|thumbnail|upright| [[Ajay Devgn]]<br>(win the honour thrice)]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Riddhi Sen in May 2018.jpg|thumbnail|upright| [[Riddhi Sen]]<br>(youngest winner)]]<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"<br />
|+List of award recipients, showing the year, role(s), film(s) and language(s)<br />
! scope="col" |Year{{efn|Denotes The year in which the film was [[Censorship in India#Censorship by medium|censored]] by the [[Central Board of Film Certification]].}}<br />
! scope="col" |Recipient(s)<br />
! scope="col" |Role(s)<br />
! scope="col" |Work(s)<br />
! scope="col" |Language(s)<br />
! scope="col" |{{Tooltip|Refs.|Reference}}" <br />
|-<br />
| style="background:#ffecc8;" rowspan="2|[[15th National Film Awards|1967<br />{{small|(15th)}}]] {{double-dagger}}<br />
! rowspan="2" scope="row"| [[Uttam Kumar]]<br />
| [[Anthony Firingee]]<br />
| ''[[Antony Firingee (film)|Antony Firingee]]'' <br />
|rowspan="2"| [[Bengali language|Bengali]]<br />
|rowspan="2"|<ref name="1967award">{{cite web |url=http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm15thNFAAward.aspx?PdfName=15NFA.pdf |title=14th National Film Awards For Films (1968) |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals |date=25 November 1968 |access-date=30 July 2011 |pages=4|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928071652/http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm15thNFAAward.aspx?PdfName=15NFA.pdf |archive-date=28 September 2011 }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| [[Byomkesh Bakshi]]<br />
| ''[[Chiriyakhana]]''<br />
|-<br />
| [[16th National Film Awards|1968<br />{{small|(16th)}}]]<br />
! scope="row" | [[Ashok Kumar]]<br />
| Shivnath "Joggi Thakur" Choudhary<br />
| ''[[Aashirwad (film)|Aashirwad]]''<br />
| [[Hindi]]<br />
|<ref name="1969award">{{cite web |url=http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm16thNFAAward.aspx?PdfName=16NFA.pdf |title=16th National Awards For Films (1969) |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals |date=13 February 1970 |access-date=30 July 2011 |page=4|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721170733/http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm16thNFAAward.aspx?PdfName=16NFA.pdf |archive-date=21 July 2011 }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| [[17th National Film Awards|1969<br />{{small|(17th)}}]]<br />
! scope="row" | [[Utpal Dutt]]<br />
| Bhuvan Shome<br />
| ''[[Bhuvan Shome]]''<br />
| [[Hindi]]<br />
|<ref name="1970award">{{cite book | title=Indian popular cinema: a narrative of cultural change | publisher=Trentham Books |author1=Gokulsing, K. |author2=Dissanayake, Wimal |name-list-style=amp | year=2004 | page=97 | isbn=1-85856-329-1}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| [[18th National Film Awards|1970<br />{{small|(18th)}}]]<br />
! scope="row" | [[Sanjeev Kumar]]<br />
| Hamid Ahmed<br />
| ''[[Dastak (1970 film)|Dastak]]''<br />
| [[Hindi]]<br />
|<ref name="1973award">{{cite web |url=http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm20thNFAAward.aspx?PdfName=20NFA.pdf |title=20th National Awards For Films (1971) |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals |access-date=30 July 2011 |page=41|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721170649/http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm20thNFAAward.aspx?PdfName=20NFA.pdf |archive-date=21 July 2011 }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| [[19th National Film Awards|1971<br />{{small|(19th)}}]]<br />
! scope="row" | [[M. G. Ramachandran]]<br />
| Selvam<br />
| ''[[Rickshawkaran]]''<br />
| [[Tamil language|Tamil]]<br />
|<ref name="mgrhome">{{cite web|url=http://www.mgrhome.org/mgr.html |title=About MGR&nbsp;– Dr. M. G. Ramachandran |publisher=mgrhome.org. MGR Memorial Charitable Trust |access-date=2 August 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110821211923/http://mgrhome.org/mgr.html |archive-date=21 August 2011 }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| [[20th National Film Awards|1972<br />{{small|(20th)}}]]<br />
! scope="row" | [[Sanjeev Kumar]]<br />
| Hari Charan Mathur<br />
| ''[[Koshish]]''<br />
| [[Hindi]]<br />
|<ref name="1973award" /><br />
|-<br />
| [[21st National Film Awards|1973<br />{{small|(21st)}}]]<br />
! scope="row" | [[P. J. Antony]]<br />
| Velichapad<br />
| ''[[Nirmalyam]]''<br />
| [[Malayalam]]<br />
|<ref name="1974award" /><br />
|-<br />
| [[22nd National Film Awards|1974<br />{{small|(22nd)}}]]<br />
! scope="row" | [[Sadhu Meher]]<br />
| Kishtayya<br />
| ''[[Ankur (film)|Ankur]]''<br />
| [[Hindi]]<br />
|<ref name="1975award">{{cite web |url=http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm22ndNFAAward.aspx?PdfName=22NFA.pdf |title=22nd National Film Festival (1975) |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals |access-date=30 July 2011 |page=14|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928072522/http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm22ndNFAAward.aspx?PdfName=22NFA.pdf |archive-date=28 September 2011 }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| [[23rd National Film Awards|1975<br />{{small|(23rd)}}]]<br />
! scope="row" | [[M. V. Vasudeva Rao]]<br />
| Choma<br />
| ''[[Chomana Dudi]]''<br />
| [[Kannada]]<br />
|<ref name="1976awards ">{{cite web |url=http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm23rdNFAAward.aspx?PdfName=23NFA.pdf |title=23rd National Film Festival (1976) |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals |access-date=30 July 2011 |page=6|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110526091043/http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm23rdNFAAward.aspx?PdfName=23NFA.pdf |archive-date=26 May 2011 }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| [[24th National Film Awards|1976<br />{{small|(24th)}}]]<br />
! scope="row" | [[Mithun Chakraborty]]<br />
| Ghinua<br />
| ''[[Mrigayaa]]''<br />
| [[Hindi language|Hindi]]<br />
|<ref name="1993award" /><br />
|-<br />
| [[25th National Film Awards|1977<br />{{small|(25th)}}]]<br />
! scope="row" | [[Bharath Gopi]]<br />
| Shankaran Kutty<br />
| ''[[Kodiyettam]]''<br />
| [[Malayalam]]<br />
|<ref name="1978awards ">{{cite web |url=http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm25thNFAAward.aspx?PdfName=27NFA.pdf |title=25th National Film Festival (1978) |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals |access-date=30 July 2011 |page=7|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721170417/http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm25thNFAAward.aspx?PdfName=27NFA.pdf |archive-date=21 July 2011 }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| [[26th National Film Awards|1978<br />{{small|(26th)}}]]<br />
! scope="row" | Arun Mukherjee<br />
| Parasuram<br />
| ''[[Parasuram (1979 film)|Parasuram]]''<br />
| [[Bengali language|Bengali]]<br />
|<ref name="toibook">{{cite book | title=The Times of India directory & yearbook, including who's who | publisher=Times of India Press. [[HathiTrust]] | year=1980 | url=http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?u=1&num=305&seq=44&view=image&size=100&id=uc1.b4299693}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| [[27th National Film Awards|1979<br />{{small|(27th)}}]]<br />
! scope="row" | [[Naseeruddin Shah]]<br />
| Anirudh Parmar<br />
| ''[[Sparsh (film)|Sparsh]]''<br />
| [[Hindi]]<br />
|<ref name="1985award"/><br />
|-<br />
| [[28th National Film Awards|1980<br />{{small|(28th)}}]]<br />
! scope="row" | [[Balan K. Nair]]<br />
| Govindan<br />
| ''[[Oppol]]''<br />
| [[Malayalam]]<br />
|<ref name="1981award">{{cite web |url=http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm28thNFAAward.aspx?PdfName=28NFA.pdf |title=28th National Film Festival (1981) |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals |access-date=30 July 2011 |page=12|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721170352/http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm28thNFAAward.aspx?PdfName=28NFA.pdf |archive-date=21 July 2011 }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| [[29th National Film Awards|1981<br />{{small|(29th)}}]]<br />
! scope="row" | [[Om Puri]]<br />
| Hari Mondal<br />
| ''[[Arohan (film)|Arohan]]''<br />
| [[Hindi]]<br />
|<ref name="1982award">{{cite web |url=http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm29thNFAAward.aspx?PdfName=29NFA.pdf |title=29th National Film Festival (1982) |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals |access-date=30 July 2011 |page=10|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721170327/http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm29thNFAAward.aspx?PdfName=29NFA.pdf |archive-date=21 July 2011 }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| [[30th National Film Awards|1982<br />{{small|(30th)}}]]<br />
! scope="row" | [[Kamal Haasan]]<br />
| R. Srinivas {{small|(Cheenu)}}<br />
| ''[[Moondram Pirai]]''<br />
| [[Tamil language|Tamil]]<br />
|<ref name="1983award">{{cite web |url=http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm30thNFAAward.aspx?PdfName=30NFA.pdf |title=30th National Film Festival (1983) |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals |access-date=30 July 2011 |page=12|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216074858/http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm30thNFAAward.aspx?PdfName=30NFA.pdf |archive-date=16 December 2014 }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| [[31st National Film Awards|1983<br />{{small|(31st)}}]]<br />
! scope="row" | [[Om Puri]]<br />
| Anant Velankar<br />
| ''[[Ardh Satya]]''<br />
| [[Hindi]]<br />
|<ref name="1984award">{{cite web |url=http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm31stNFAAward.aspx?PdfName=31NFA.pdf |title=31st National Film Festival June 1984 |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals |access-date=30 July 2011 |page=12|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721170213/http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm31stNFAAward.aspx?PdfName=31NFA.pdf |archive-date=21 July 2011 }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| [[32nd National Film Awards|1984<br />{{small|(32nd)}}]]<br />
! scope="row" | [[Naseeruddin Shah]]<br />
| Naurangia<br />
| ''[[Paar (film)|Paar]]''<br />
| [[Hindi]]<br />
|<ref name="1985award">{{cite web |url=http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm32ndNFAAward.aspx?PdfName=32NFA.pdf |title=32nd National Film Festival (1985) |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals |access-date=30 July 2011 |page=12|language=hi |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928072238/http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm32ndNFAAward.aspx?PdfName=32NFA.pdf |archive-date=28 September 2011 }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| [[33rd National Film Awards|1985<br />{{small|(33rd)}}]]<br />
! scope="row" | [[Shashi Kapoor]]<br />
| Vikas Pande<br />
| ''[[New Delhi Times (film)|New Delhi Times]]''<br />
| [[Hindi]]<br />
|<ref name="Encyclopaedia of Hindi cinema">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Kapoor, Shashi (b. 1938) | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Hindi Cinema | publisher=Popular Prakashan |author1=Chatterjee, Saibal |author2=Nihalani, Govind & Guljar | year=2003 | location=Delhi | pages=568 | isbn=81-7991-066-0}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| [[34th National Film Awards|1986<br />{{small|(34th)}}]]<br />
! scope="row" | [[Charuhasan]]<br />
| Tabara Shetty<br />
| ''[[Tabarana Kathe]]''<br />
| [[Kannada]]<br />
|<ref>{{cite web |title=34th National Film Awards 1987 |url=http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm34ndNFAAward.aspx |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals |access-date=16 August 2013 |page=24 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170205060141/http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm34ndNFAAward.aspx |archive-date=5 February 2017 }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| [[35th National Film Awards|1987<br />{{small|(35th)}}]]<br />
! scope="row" | [[Kamal Haasan]]<br />
| Sakthivelu Nayakar{{efn|The character played by Kamal Haasan was loosely based on the Mumbai-based [[Tamil people|Tamil]] gangster [[Varadarajan Mudaliar]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Of course Velu Nayakan doesn't dance |url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/of-course-velu-nayakan-doesnt-dance/article4008896.ece |access-date=16 August 2013 |newspaper=The Hindu |date=18 January 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130618014621/http://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/of-course-velu-nayakan-doesnt-dance/article4008896.ece |archive-date=18 June 2013 }}</ref>}}<br />
| ''[[Nayakan]]''<br />
| [[Tamil language|Tamil]]<br />
|<ref name="1988award">{{cite web |url=http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm35thNFAAward.aspx?PdfName=35NFA.pdf |title=Award for the Best Actor |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals |access-date=30 July 2011 |page=26|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721170111/http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm35thNFAAward.aspx?PdfName=35NFA.pdf |archive-date=21 July 2011 }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| [[36th National Film Awards|1988<br />{{small|(36th)}}]]<br />
! scope="row" | [[Premji]]<br />
| Raghava Chakyar<br />
| ''[[Piravi]]''<br />
| [[Malayalam]]<br />
|<ref name="hindu">{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/arts/cinema/article677749.ece |title=Smooth sailing |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |date=17 September 2010 |access-date=2 August 2011 |author=Nagarajan, Saraswathy |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100921073358/http://www.thehindu.com/arts/cinema/article677749.ece |archive-date=21 September 2010 }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| style="background:#ffecc8;" rowspan="2|[[37th National Film Awards|1989<br />{{small|(37th)}}]] {{double-dagger}}<br />
! rowspan="2" scope="row"| [[Mammootty]]<br />
| [[Vaikom Muhammad Basheer]]{{efn|Mammootty played the real-life character of [[Vaikom Muhammad Basheer]] in the film that was based on an [[autobiographical novel]] of the [[Mathilukal|same name]] by Basheer himself .<ref>{{cite news|title=Mammootty as Basheer's Majid|url=http://www.bangaloremirror.com/article/25/2013072120130721201558262f02bebdb/Mammootty-as-Basheer%E2%80%99s-Majid.html|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130816071015/http://www.bangaloremirror.com/article/25/2013072120130721201558262f02bebdb/Mammootty-as-Basheer%E2%80%99s-Majid.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=16 August 2013|access-date=16 August 2013|newspaper=[[Bangalore Mirror]]|date=21 July 2013}}</ref>}} <br /><br />
| ''[[Mathilukal (film)|Mathilukal]]'' <br />
|rowspan="2"| [[Malayalam]]<br />
|rowspan="2"|<ref name="1994award" /><br />
|-<br />
| [[Chandu Chekavar]]<br />
| ''[[Oru Vadakkan Veeragatha]]''<br />
|-<br />
| [[38th National Film Awards|1990<br />{{small|(38th)}}]]<br />
! scope="row" | [[Amitabh Bachchan]]<br />
| Vijay Deenanath Chauhan<br />
| ''[[Agneepath (1990 film)|Agneepath]]''<br />
| [[Hindi]]<br />
|<ref name="1991award">{{cite web |url=http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm38thNFAAward.aspx?PdfName=38NFA.pdf |title=Award for the Best Actor |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals |access-date=30 July 2011 |page=26|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120326034004/http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm38thNFAAward.aspx?PdfName=38NFA.pdf |archive-date=26 March 2012 }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| [[39th National Film Awards|1991<br />{{small|(39th)}}]]<br />
! scope="row" | [[Mohanlal]]<br />
| Kalliyur Gopinathan<br />
| ''[[Bharatham]]''<br />
| [[Malayalam]]<br />
|<ref name="1992award">{{cite web |url=http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm39thNFAAward.aspx?PdfName=39NFA.pdf |title=Award for the Best Actor |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals |access-date=30 July 2011 |page=36|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721170014/http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm39thNFAAward.aspx?PdfName=39NFA.pdf |archive-date=21 July 2011 }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| [[40th National Film Awards|1992<br />{{small|(40th)}}]]<br />
! scope="row" | [[Mithun Chakraborty]]<br />
| Shibnath<br />
| ''[[Tahader Katha]]''<br />
| [[Bengali language|Bengali]]<br />
|<ref name="1993award">{{cite web|url=http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm40thNFAAward.aspx?PdfName=40NFA.pdf |title=40th National Film Festival |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals |access-date=30 July 2011 |pages=38–39|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151008114601/http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm40thNFAAward.aspx?PdfName=40NFA.pdf |archive-date=8 October 2015 }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| style="background:#ffecc8;" rowspan="2|[[41st National Film Awards|1993<br />{{small|(41st)}}]] {{double-dagger}}<br />
! rowspan="2" scope="row"| [[Mammootty]]<br />
| Ponthan Mada<br />
| ''[[Ponthan Mada]]'' <br />
|rowspan="2"| [[Malayalam]]<br />
|rowspan="2"|<ref name="1994award">{{cite web |url=http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm41thNFAAward.aspx?PdfName=41NFA.pdf |title=Award for the Best Actor |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals |access-date=30 July 2011 |pages=34–35|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928072259/http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm41thNFAAward.aspx?PdfName=41NFA.pdf |archive-date=28 September 2011 }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| Bhaskara Patelar<br />
| ''[[Vidheyan]]''<br />
|-<br />
| [[42nd National Film Awards|1994<br />{{small|(42nd)}}]]<br />
! scope="row" | [[Nana Patekar]]<br />
| Pratap Narayan Tilak<br />
| ''[[Krantiveer]]''<br />
| [[Hindi]]<br />
|<ref name="1995award">{{cite web |url=http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm42thNFAAward.aspx?PdfName=42NFA.pdf |title=Award for the Best Actor |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals |access-date=30 July 2011 |page=24|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121012140929/http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm42thNFAAward.aspx?PdfName=42NFA.pdf |archive-date=12 October 2012 }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| [[43rd National Film Awards|1995<br />{{small|(43rd)}}]]<br />
! scope="row" | [[Rajit Kapur]]<br />
| [[Mahatma Gandhi]]<br />
| ''[[The Making of the Mahatma]]''<br />
| [[Indian English|English]]<br />
|<ref name="1996award">{{cite web |url=http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm43thNFAAward.aspx?PdfName=43NFA.pdf |title=Award for the Best Actor |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals |access-date=30 July 2011 |page=24|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721165908/http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm43thNFAAward.aspx?PdfName=43NFA.pdf |archive-date=21 July 2011 }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| [[44th National Film Awards|1996<br />{{small|(44th)}}]]<br />
! scope="row" | [[Kamal Haasan]]<br />
| Senapathy {{small|(Indian)}}, Chandrabose {{small|(Chandru)}}<br />
| ''[[Indian (1996 film)|Indian]]''<br />
| [[Tamil language|Tamil]]<br />
|<ref name="1997award">{{cite web |url=http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm44thNFAAward.aspx?PdfName=44NFA.pdf |title=Award for the Best Actor |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals |access-date=30 July 2011 |page=22|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928072421/http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm44thNFAAward.aspx?PdfName=44NFA.pdf |archive-date=28 September 2011 }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
|style="background:#ADD8E6" rowspan="2| [[45th National Film Awards|1997<br />{{small|(45th)}}]] {{dagger}}<br />
! scope="row" | [[Balachandra Menon]]<br />
| Ismail<br />
| ''[[Samaantharangal]]''<br />
| [[Malayalam]]<br />
| rowspan="2|<ref name="1998award">{{cite web |url=http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm45thNFAAward.aspx?PdfName=45NFA.pdf |title=Award for the Best Actor |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals |access-date=30 July 2011 |page=24|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928072336/http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm45thNFAAward.aspx?PdfName=45NFA.pdf |archive-date=28 September 2011 }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
! scope="row" | [[Suresh Gopi]]<br />
| Kannan Perumalayan<br />
| ''[[Kaliyattam]]''<br />
| [[Malayalam]]<br />
|-<br />
|style="background:#ADD8E6" rowspan="2| [[46th National Film Awards|1998<br />{{small|(46th)}}]] {{dagger}}<br />
! scope="row" | [[Ajay Devgn]]<br />
| Ajay R. Desai<br />
| ''[[Zakhm]]''<br />
| [[Hindi]]<br />
| rowspan="2| <ref name="1999Award">{{cite web |url=http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm46NFAAward.aspx?PdfName=46NFA.pdf |title=Award for the Best Actor |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals |access-date=30 July 2011 |page=24|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130130000622/http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm46NFAAward.aspx?PdfName=46NFA.pdf |archive-date=30 January 2013 }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
! scope="row"| [[Mammootty]]<br />
| [[B. R. Ambedkar]]<br />
| ''[[Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar (film)|Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar]]''<br />
| [[Indian English|English]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[47th National Film Awards|1999<br />{{small|(47th)}}]]<br />
! scope="row" | [[Mohanlal]]<br />
| Kunjikuttan<br />
| ''[[Vanaprastham]]''<br />
| [[Malayalam]]<br />
|<ref name="2000Award">{{cite web |url=http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm47NFAAward.aspx?PdfName=47NFA.pdf |title=Award for the Best Actor |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals |access-date=30 July 2011 |page=24|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928072346/http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm47NFAAward.aspx?PdfName=47NFA.pdf |archive-date=28 September 2011 }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| [[48th National Film Awards|2000<br />{{small|(48th)}}]]<br />
! scope="row" | [[Anil Kapoor]]<br />
| Major Jaidev Rajvansh<br />
| ''[[Pukar (2000 film)|Pukar]]''<br />
| [[Hindi]]<br />
|<ref name="2001Award">{{cite web |url=http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm48NFAAward.aspx?PdfName=48NFA.pdf |title=Award for the Best Actor |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals |access-date=30 July 2011 |page=40|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016222029/http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm48NFAAward.aspx?PdfName=48NFA.pdf |archive-date=16 October 2012 }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| [[49th National Film Awards|2001<br />{{small|(49th)}}]]<br />
! scope="row" | [[Murali (Malayalam actor)|Murali]]<br />
| Appa Mestry<br />
| ''[[Neythukaran]]''<br />
| [[Malayalam]]<br />
|<ref name="2002Award">{{cite web |url=http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm49NFAAward.aspx?PdfName=46NFA.pdf |title=Award for the Best Actor |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals |access-date=30 July 2011 |page=30|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928072715/http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm49NFAAward.aspx?PdfName=46NFA.pdf |archive-date=28 September 2011 }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| [[50th National Film Awards|2002<br />{{small|(50th)}}]]<br />
! scope="row" | [[Ajay Devgn]]<br />
| [[Bhagat Singh]]<br />
| ''[[The Legend of Bhagat Singh]]''<br />
| [[Hindi]]<br />
|<ref name="tribune">{{cite news|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2003/20031230/main7.htm |title=Standing ovation for Dev Anand |work=The Tribune |date=30 December 2003 |place=[[Chandigarh]] |agency=Tribune News Service |access-date=30 July 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121102045644/http://www.tribuneindia.com/2003/20031230/main7.htm |archive-date=2 November 2012 }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| [[51st National Film Awards|2003<br />{{small|(51st)}}]]<br />
! scope="row" | [[Vikram (actor)|Vikram]]<br />
| Chithan<br />
| ''[[Pithamagan]]''<br />
| [[Tamil language|Tamil]]<br />
|<ref name="2004Award">{{cite web |url=http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm51NFAAward.aspx?PdfName=51NFA.pdf |title=Award for the Best Actor |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals |access-date=30 July 2011 |page=28|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928072742/http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm51NFAAward.aspx?PdfName=51NFA.pdf |archive-date=28 September 2011 }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| [[52nd National Film Awards|2004<br />{{small|(52nd)}}]]<br />
! scope="row" | [[Saif Ali Khan]]<br />
| Karan Kapoor<br />
| ''[[Hum Tum (film)|Hum Tum]]''<br />
| [[Hindi]]<br />
|<ref name="2005Award">{{cite web |url=http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm52NFAAward.aspx?PdfName=52NFA.pdf |title=Award for the Best Actor |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals |access-date=30 July 2011 |page=28|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928072807/http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm52NFAAward.aspx?PdfName=52NFA.pdf |archive-date=28 September 2011 }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| [[53rd National Film Awards|2005<br />{{small|(53rd)}}]]<br />
! scope="row" | [[Amitabh Bachchan]]<br />
| Debraj Sahai<br />
| ''[[Black (2005 film)|Black]]''<br />
| [[Hindi]]<br />
|<ref name="2006Award">{{cite web |url=http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm53NFAAward.aspx?PdfName=53NFA.pdf |title=Award for the Best Actor |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals |access-date=30 July 2011 |page=28|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928072908/http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm53NFAAward.aspx?PdfName=53NFA.pdf |archive-date=28 September 2011 }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| [[54th National Film Awards|2006<br />{{small|(54th)}}]]<br />
! scope="row" | [[Soumitra Chatterjee]]<br />
| Shashanka Palit<br />
| ''[[Podokkhep]]''<br />
| [[Bengali language|Bengali]]<br />
|<ref name="2007Award">{{cite web |url=http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm54NFAAward.aspx?PdfName=54NFA.pdf |title=Award for the Best Actor |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals |access-date=30 July 2011 |page=26|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928072942/http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm54NFAAward.aspx?PdfName=54NFA.pdf |archive-date=28 September 2011 }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| [[55th National Film Awards|2007<br />{{small|(55th)}}]]<br />
! scope="row" | [[Prakash Raj]]<br />
| Vengadam<br />
| ''[[Kanchivaram]]''<br />
| [[Tamil language|Tamil]]<br />
|<ref name="2008Award">{{cite web |url=http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm55NFAAward.aspx?PdfName=55NFA.pdf |title=Award for the Best Actor |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals |access-date=30 July 2011 |page=32|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928073005/http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm55NFAAward.aspx?PdfName=55NFA.pdf |archive-date=28 September 2011 }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| [[56th National Film Awards|2008<br />{{small|(56th)}}]]<br />
! scope="row" | [[Upendra Limaye]]<br />
| Tayappa<br />
| ''[[Jogwa]]''<br />
| [[Marathi language|Marathi]]<br />
|<ref name="2009Award">{{cite web |url=http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm56NFAAward.aspx?PdfName=56NFA.pdf |title=Award for the Best Actor |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals |access-date=30 July 2011 |page=34|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130130000605/http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm56NFAAward.aspx?PdfName=56NFA.pdf |archive-date=30 January 2013 }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| [[57th National Film Awards|2009<br />{{small|(57th)}}]]<br />
! scope="row" | [[Amitabh Bachchan]]<br />
| Auro<br />
| ''[[Paa (film)|Paa]]''<br />
| [[Hindi]]<br />
|<ref name="2010Award">{{cite web |url=http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm57NFAAward.aspx?PdfName=57NFA.pdf |title=Award for the Best Actor |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals |access-date=30 July 2011 |page=64|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110729193829/http://www.iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm57NFAAward.aspx?PdfName=57NFA.pdf |archive-date=29 July 2011 }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
|style="background:#ADD8E6" rowspan="2| [[58th National Film Awards|2010<br />{{small|(58th)}}]] {{dagger}}<br />
! scope="row" | [[Dhanush]]<br />
| K. P. Karuppu<br />
| ''[[Aadukalam]]''<br />
| [[Tamil language|Tamil]]<br />
| rowspan="2|<ref name="2011Award">{{cite web|url=http://dff.nic.in/Press%20Release%20-%2058th%20National%20Film%20Awards%20Winners%202010.pdf |title=Award for the Best Actor |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals |access-date=30 July 2011 |page=3|url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708120534/http://dff.nic.in/Press%20Release%20-%2058th%20National%20Film%20Awards%20Winners%202010.pdf |archive-date=8 July 2011 }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
! scope="row"|[[Salim Kumar]]<br />
| Abu<br />
| ''[[Adaminte Makan Abu]]''<br />
| [[Malayalam]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[59th National Film Awards|2011<br />{{small|(59th)}}]]<br />
! scope="row" | [[Girish Kulkarni]]<br />
| Keshya<br />
| ''[[Deool]]''<br />
| [[Marathi language|Marathi]]<br />
|<ref name="2012Award">{{cite web|title=59th National Film Awards for 2011&nbsp;– Feature Films |url=http://dff.nic.in/Pagesfrom59thNFAPressRelease-featured.pdf |publisher=[[Directorate of Film Festivals]] |access-date=2 April 2012|url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105181840/http://dff.nic.in/Pagesfrom59thNFAPressRelease-featured.pdf |archive-date=5 November 2013 }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| style="background:#ADD8E6" rowspan="2| [[60th National Film Awards|2012<br />{{small|(60th)}}]] {{dagger}}<br />
! scope="row" | [[Irrfan Khan]]<br />
| [[Paan Singh Tomar]]<br />
| ''[[Paan Singh Tomar (film)|Paan Singh Tomar]]''<br />
| [[Hindi]]<br />
| rowspan="2| <ref name="60thaward" /><br />
|-<br />
! scope="row" | [[Vikram Gokhale]]<br />
| Ratnakar<br />
| ''[[Anumati (film)|Anumati]]''<br />
| [[Marathi language|Marathi]]<br />
|-<br />
|style="background:#ADD8E6" rowspan="2| [[61st National Film Awards|2013<br />{{small|(61st)}}]] {{dagger}}<br />
! scope="row" | [[Rajkummar Rao]]<br />
| [[Shahid Azmi]]<br />
| ''[[Shahid (film)|Shahid]]''<br />
| [[Hindi]]<br />
| rowspan="2|<ref name=61stNFA>{{cite press release|title=61st National Film Awards Announced|url=http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=104863|publisher=Press Information Bureau (PIB), India|date=16 April 2014|access-date=16 April 2014}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
! scope="row" | [[Suraj Venjaramoodu]]<br />
| Father{{efn|The character remained unnamed throughout the film.}}<br />
| ''[[Perariyathavar]]''<br />
| [[Malayalam]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[62nd National Film Awards|2014<br />{{small|(62nd)}}]]<br />
! scope="row" | [[Sanchari Vijay]]<br />
| Madesha {{small|(Vidya)}}{{efn|Vijay played the character of a transgender.}}<br />
| ''[[Naanu Avanalla...Avalu]]''<br />
| [[Kannada]]<br />
|<ref name="62ndNFA">{{cite web|title=62nd National Awards: Kangana Ranaut wins Best Actress for 'Queen', Vijay wins Best Actor for 'Nanu Avanalla Avalu' |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/62nd-National-Awards-Kangana-Ranaut-wins-Best-Actress-for-Queen-Vijay-wins-Best-Actor-for-Nanu-Avanalla-Avalu/articleshow/46675893.cms |work=[[The Times of India]]|date=24 March 2015 |access-date=24 March 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150324182140/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/62nd-National-Awards-Kangana-Ranaut-wins-Best-Actress-for-Queen-Vijay-wins-Best-Actor-for-Nanu-Avanalla-Avalu/articleshow/46675893.cms |archive-date=24 March 2015 }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| [[63rd National Film Awards|2015<br />{{small|(63rd)}}]]<br />
! scope="row" | [[Amitabh Bachchan]]<br />
| Bhashkor Banerjee<br />
| ''[[Piku]]''<br />
| [[Hindi]]<br />
|<ref>{{cite news |title=63rd National Film Awards: List of winners |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/63rd-National-Film-Awards-List-of-winners/articleshow/51580133.cms |work=The Times of India|date=28 March 2013 |access-date=28 March 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160331075309/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/63rd-National-Film-Awards-List-of-winners/articleshow/51580133.cms |archive-date=31 March 2016 }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| [[64th National Film Awards|2016<br />{{small|(64th)}}]]<br />
! scope="row" | [[Akshay Kumar]]<br />
| Commander Rustom Pavri<br />
| ''[[Rustom (film)|Rustom]]''{{efn|In interviews with ''[[The Quint]]'' and ''[[Hindustan Times]]'', the then-jury chairman [[Priyadarshan]] stated that Kumar won the award for ''Rustom'' and ''[[Airlift (film)|Airlift]]'', but for technical reasons only one film was mentioned in the list of winners.<ref>{{cite news|last=Jha|first=Subhash K.|title=Akshay Won National Award For 'Rustom' & 'Airlift': Priyadarshan|url=https://www.thequint.com/entertainment/bollywood/akshay-kumar-won-national-award-for-both-rustom-and-airlift-says-priyadarshan|access-date=11 March 2019|work=[[The Quint]]|date=7 April 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Priyadarshan on Akshay's National Award: Why honour Aamir when he doesn't accept it|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/bollywood/priyadarshan-on-akshay-s-national-award-why-give-it-to-aamir-when-he-doesn-t-attend-award-functions/story-qaqyrIKV2XcFb0xM9C2krL.html|access-date=11 March 2019|work=[[Hindustan Times]]|date=8 April 2017}}</ref>}}<br />
| [[Hindi]]<br />
|<ref>{{cite press release|title=64 th National Film Awards, 2016|publisher=[[Directorate of Film Festivals]]|url=http://164.100.60.104/Attachments/Documents/35_64th_NFA_2016_Catalogue.pdf#|page=89|date=4 April 2018|access-date=4 April 2018|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170606051143/http://dff.nic.in/writereaddata/NFA64PressNote2016.pdf|archive-date=6 June 2017}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| [[65th National Film Awards|2017<br />{{small|(65th)}}]]<br />
! scope="row" | [[Riddhi Sen]]<br />
| Parimal {{small|(Puti)}}{{efn|Sen played the character of a transgender.}}<br />
| ''[[Nagarkirtan]]''<br />
| [[Bengali language|Bengali]]<br />
|<ref>{{cite press release |title=65th National Film Awards |url=http://www.dff.nic.in/writereaddata/NFA64PressNote2016.pdf|page=21 |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals |access-date=13 July 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170606051143/http://dff.nic.in/writereaddata/NFA64PressNote2016.pdf |archive-date=6 June 2017}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
|style="background:#ADD8E6" rowspan="2| [[66th National Film Awards|2018<br />{{small|(66th)}}]] {{dagger}}<br />
! scope="row" | [[Ayushmann Khurrana]]<br />
| Akash<br />
| ''[[Andhadhun]]''<br />
| [[Hindi]]<br />
| rowspan="2|<br />
|-<br />
! scope="row"|[[Vicky Kaushal]]<br />
| Major Vihaan Singh Shergill <br />
| ''[[Uri: The Surgical Strike]]''<br />
| [[Hindi]]<br />
|-<br />
|style="background:#ADD8E6" rowspan="2| [[67th National Film Awards|2019<br />{{small|(67th)}}]] {{dagger}}<br />
! scope="row" | [[Manoj Bajpayee]]<br />
| Ganpath Bhonsle<br />
| ''[[Bhonsle (film)|Bhonsle]]''<br />
| [[Hindi]]<br />
| rowspan="2|<ref>{{Cite news|author=The Hindu Net Desk|date=2021-03-22|title=67th National Film Awards: Complete list of winners|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/67th-national-film-awards-complete-list-updating/article34131921.ece|access-date=2021-03-22|issn=0971-751X}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
! scope="row"|[[Dhanush]]<br />
| Sivasaami<br />
| ''[[Asuran (2019 film)|Asuran]]''<br />
| [[Tamil language|Tamil]]<br />
|-<br />
|style="background:#ADD8E6" rowspan="2| [[68th National Film Awards|2020<br />{{small|(68th)}}]] {{dagger}}<br />
! scope="row"| [[Suriya]]<br />
| Nedumaaran Rajangam {{small|(Maara)}}<br />
|''[[Soorarai Pottru]]''<br />
| [[Tamil language|Tamil]]<br />
| rowspan="2"|<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-07-22 |title=68th National Film Awards {{!}} Soorarai Pottru wins Best Film award |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/soorarai-pottru-dominates-68th-national-film-awards/article65671204.ece |access-date=2022-07-23 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
! scope="row"| [[Ajay Devgn]]<br />
| [[Tanaji Malusare]]<br />
|''[[Tanhaji: The Unsung Warrior]]''<br />
|[[Hindi]]<br />
|-<br />
|[[69th National Film Awards|2021<br />{{small|(69th)}}]]<br />
! scope="row" | [[Allu Arjun]]<br />
| Pushpa Raj<br />
| ''[[Pushpa: The Rise]]''<br />
| [[Telugu language|Telugu]]<br />
|<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/69th-national-film-awards-2023-winners-list-8907028/|title=69th National Film Awards 2023 complete winners list: Rocketry, Alia Bhatt, Kriti Sanon, Allu Arjun, RRR, Gangubai Kathiawadi win big|date=24 August 2023}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
|[[70th National Film Awards|2022<br />{{small|(70th)}}]]<br />
! scope="row" | [[Rishab Shetty]]<br />
| Shiva<br />
| ''[[Kantara (film)|Kantara]]''<br />
| [[Kannada language|Kannada]]<br />
|<ref>{{Cite web |last=Desk |first=DH Web |title=National Film Awards Live: Kannada cinema shines bright as KGF 2, Kantara bag wins, Rishab Shetty gets best actor prize |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/entertainment/national-film-awards-live-updates-entertainment-news-kantara-12th-fail-vikrant-massey-mammootty-rishab-shetty-3152662 |access-date=2024-08-16 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
|style="background:#ADD8E6" rowspan="2|[[71st National Film Awards|2023<br />{{small|(71st)}}]] {{dagger}}<br />
! scope="row" | [[Vikrant Massey]]<br />
| [[Manoj Kumar Sharma]]<br />
| ''[[12th Fail]]''<br />
| [[Hindi]]<br />
| rowspan="2|<ref name="71st National Film Awards complete winners list: Shah Rukh Khan, Vikrant Massey share 'Best Actor', Rani Mukerji wins best actress, 'Katthal' wins best Hindi film">{{cite news |date=1 August 2025 |title=71st National Film Awards complete winners list: Shah Rukh Khan, Vikrant Massey share 'Best Actor', Rani Mukerji wins best actress, 'Katthal' wins best Hindi film |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/71st-national-film-awards-complete-winners-list-shah-rukh-khan-vikrant-massey-share-best-actor-katthal-wins-best-hindi-film-vash-is-best-gujarati-film/articleshow/123044344.cms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250801133927/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/71st-national-film-awards-complete-winners-list-shah-rukh-khan-vikrant-massey-share-best-actor-katthal-wins-best-hindi-film-vash-is-best-gujarati-film/articleshow/123044344.cms |archive-date=1 August 2025 |access-date=1 August 2025 |work=The Times of India}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
! scope="row"|[[Shah Rukh Khan]]<br />
| Azad Rathore, Captain Vikram Rathore<br />
| ''[[Jawan (film)|Jawan]]''<br />
| [[Hindi]]<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Footnotes==<br />
{{notelist}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist|30em}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* [http://dff.nic.in Official Page for Directorate of Film Festivals, India]<br />
* [http://dff.nic.in/NFA_archive.asp National Film Awards Archives]<br />
<br />
{{NationalFilmAwardBestActor}}<br />
{{National Film Awards}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:National Film Awards (India)|Actors]]<br />
[[Category:Film awards for lead actor]]</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Krisha_Kurup&diff=510751Krisha Kurup2026-04-03T03:15:09Z<p>AmitNeogi: put up new pg w/ infobox</p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|Indian actress}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2024}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2022}}<br />
{{Infobox person<br />
| name = Krisha Kurup<br />
| image =<br />
| caption =<br />
| birth_name = Krisha Kurup<br />
| birth_date = <br />
| birth_place = [[Mumbai]]<br />
| other_names = <br />
| occupation = Actress, model<br />
| years_active = 2013–present<br />
| parents = <br />
| imagesize =<br />
| homepage = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Krisha Kurup''' is an Indian actress who has appeared in Tamil, Telugu and Malayalam films including ''[[Azhagu Kutti Chellam]]'' (2016) and ''[[Goli Soda 2]]'' (2018).<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2022/feb/08/a-lesson-in-love-2416540.html |title=A lesson in love |website=The New Indian Express}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Career==<br />
Krisha Kurup was born into a Malayali family settled in Mumbai. After attending Swami Vivekanand International School, she chose to work on films.<br />
<br />
Krisha's role in Anthony Charles's ''[[Azhagu Kutti Chellam]]'' (2016) won her further opportunities in Tamil cinema during 2017, with the actress quickly signing on to be a part of Anthony's next film ''Saalai'' (2017), ''Koottali'' (2018), [[Vijay Milton]]'s ''[[Goli Soda 2]]'' and [[Suseenthiran]]'s delayed ''Angelina'', where she portrayed the title role.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/kollywood/081117/krisha-kurup-riding-high.html |title=Krisha Kurup riding high |first=Kirubhakar |last=Purushothaman |date=8 November 2017 |website=Deccan Chronicle}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/kollywood/121016/krisha-kurup-bags-a-key-role-in-a-thriller.html |title=Krisha Kurup bags a key role in a thriller |first=Kirubhakar |last=Purushothaman |date=12 October 2016 |website=Deccan Chronicle}}</ref><br />
<br />
In 2022, she was seen in the bilingual sports drama ''[[Clap (film)|Clap]]'' and the drama ''[[Jothi (2022 film)|Jothi]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://cinema.dinamalar.com/tamil-news/109756/cinema/Kollywood/Krisha-Kurup-next-movie-crime-thriller.htm |title=கிரைம் த்ரில்லர் படத்தில் கிரிஷா க்ரூப் &#124; Krisha Kurup next movie crime thriller |date=7 December 2022 |website=தினமலர் - சினிமா}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movie-reviews/jothi/movie-review/93190961.cms |title=Jothi Movie Review: An amateurish investigative thriller |work=The Times of India}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Filmography==<br />
=== Films ===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
! Year !! Title !! Role !! Language !! class="unsortable" | Notes<br />
|-<br />
| 2013 || ''Karuman Kasappan'' || Nila || [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]] || Debut film <br />
|-<br />
| 2016 || ''[[Azhagu Kutti Chellam]]'' || Nila || rowspan=5 | [[Tamil language|Tamil]] || Tamil Debut <br />
|-<br />
| 2017 || ''Saalai'' || ||<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan=2 | 2018 || ''Koottali'' || ||<br />
|-<br />
| ''[[Goli Soda 2]]'' || Mathi ||<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan=4 | 2022 || ''[[Clap (film)|Clap]]'' || rowspan=2 | Bhagyalakshmi/Durga || rowspan=2 | Bilingual film; Telugu Debut <br />
|-<br />
| ''[[Clap (film)|Clap]]'' || [[Telugu language|Telugu]]<br />
|-<br />
| ''[[Jothi (2022 film)|Jothi]]'' || Janaki || rowspan=2 | Tamil || <br />
|-<br />
| ''Yuddha Kandam'' || Mithila || <br />
|-<br />
| 2023 || ''[[B 32 Muthal 44 Vare]]'' || Rachel || Malayalam ||<ref>{{Cite web |title=B 32 Muthal 44 Vare trailer promises a riveting tale of six women |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2023/apr/05/b-32-muthal-44-vare-trailer-promises-a-riveting-tale-of-six-women-41984.html |access-date=6 April 2023 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| 2024 || ''Seeran'' || Childhood Yazhini || Tamil ||<ref>{{Cite web |last=Features |first=C. E. |date=2024-09-30 |title=Seeran trailer: An oppressed man returns to his native to defeat oppressors |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2024/Sep/30/seeran-trailer-an-oppressed-man-returns-to-his-native-to-defeat-oppressors |access-date=2026-02-06 |website=Cinema Express |language=en}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan=2 | 2025 || ''[[Kuberaa]]'' || Deva's mother || Telugu<br /> Tamil || Uncredited role<br />
|-<br />
| ''[[Ronth]]'' || Anu || Malayalam ||<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-05-15 |title=Roshan Mathew and Dileesh Pothan's Ronth gets a release date |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2025/May/15/roshan-mathew-and-dileesh-pothans-ronth-gets-a-release-date |access-date=2025-05-17 |website=Cinema Express |language=en}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan=2 | 2026 || ''[[Mylanji (2026 film)|Mylanji]]'' || Charu || Tamil ||<ref>{{Cite web |last=Features |first=C. E. |date=2023-11-28 |title=Dubbing for Ajayan Bala's Mylanji begins |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2023/Nov/28/dubbing-for-ajayan-balas-mylanji-begins-49934.html |access-date=2026-02-15 |website=Cinema Express |language=en}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| {{Pending film| Dose}} || {{TableTBA}} || Malayalam ||<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-04-01 |title=Siju Wilson-starrer Dose gets a release date, second look unveiled |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2026/Apr/01/siju-wilson-starrer-dose-gets-a-release-date-second-look-unveiled |access-date=2026-04-03 |website=Cinema Express |language=en}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Web series ===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
! Year !! Webseries !! Role !! Language !! Network !! Notes !! Ref<br />
|-<br />
|2024<br />
| ''[[Aindham Vedham]]'' <br />
|Radhika/[[Artificial intelligence|AI]] Radhika <br />
|Tamil <br />
| ZEE5 <br />
|Web Debut; Dual role <br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist|2}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* {{IMDb name|8703923}}<br />
{{authority control}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Kurup, Krisha}}<br />
[[Category:Indian film actresses]]<br />
[[Category:Tamil actresses]]<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Actresses in Tamil cinema]]<br />
[[Category:21st-century Indian actresses]]<br />
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Basirhat&diff=476294Basirhat2026-03-29T21:52:48Z<p>AmitNeogi: added references</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|City in West Bengal, India}}<br />
{{Other uses}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2018}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2018}}<br />
<!-- See [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Indian cities]] for details -->{{Infobox settlement<br />
| name = Basirhat<br />
| other_name = <br />
| settlement_type = City<br />
| nickname = <br />
| image_skyline = Basirhat Rabindra Saikat Park.jpg<br />
| image_alt = <br />
| image_caption = Rabindra Saikat Park, located in the banks of Ichamati river, Basirhat City<br />
| pushpin_map = India West Bengal#India<br />
| pushpin_label_position = right<br />
| pushpin_map_alt = <br />
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in West Bengal, India<br />
| coordinates = {{coord|22|39|40|N|88|51|58|E|display=inline,title}}<br />
| subdivision_type = Country<br />
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}<br />
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]<br />
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]<br />
| subdivision_name1 = [[West Bengal]]<br />
| subdivision_name2 = [[North 24 Parganas district|North 24 Parganas]]<br />
| established_title = <!-- Established --><br />
| established_date = <br />
| founder = [[East India Company]]<br />
| named_for = <br />
| government_type = [[Municipal Corporations in India|Municipality]]<br />
| governing_body = Basirhat Municipality<br />
| leader_title = Municipality Chairman<br />
| leader_name = Aditi Roychowdhury Mitra<ref name="Basirhatmunicipaladministration">{{cite web<br />
| title = Contact Us – Basirhat Municipality<br />
| url = https://basirhatmunicipality.in/contact-us/<br />
| publisher = Basirhat Municipality<br />
| access-date = 10 June 2025<br />
}}</ref><br />
| unit_pref = Metric<br />
| area_footnotes = <ref>{{cite web|title=Basirhat Municipality|url=http://www.basirhatmunicipality.in/chairperson_desk.php?id=8|access-date=25 November 2020|archive-date=21 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230421062503/http://www.basirhatmunicipality.in/chairperson_desk.php?id=8|url-status=dead}}</ref><br />
| area_total_km2 = 22.50<br />
| area_rank = <br />
| elevation_footnotes = <br />
| elevation_m = 6<br />
| population_total = 125254<ref>{{cite web |title=Basirhat Urban Agglomeration Population Census 2011-2024 |url=https://www.census2011.co.in/census/metropolitan/204-basirhat.html |publisher=Census2011.co.in |access-date=14 March 2025}}</ref><br />
| population_as_of = 2011<br />
| population_footnotes = <br />
| population_density_km2 = auto<br />
| population_rank = <br />
| population_demonym = <br />
| demographics_type1 = Languages<br />
| demographics1_title1 = Official<br />
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]<br />
| utc_offset1 = +5:30<br />
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]<br />
| postal_code = 743411,<ref>{{cite web |title=Basirhat Post Office, North 24 Parganas, West Bengal - 743411 |url=https://pincode.india-server.com/postoffice/basirhat-743411/ |website=India Server |access-date=23 February 2025}}</ref> 743412,<ref>{{cite web |title=Basirhat RS Post Office, North 24 Parganas, West Bengal - 743412 |url=https://pincode.india-server.com/postoffice/basirhat-rs-743412/ |website=India Server |access-date=23 February 2025}}</ref> 743422<ref>{{cite web |title=Bhabla Post Office, North 24 Parganas, West Bengal - 743422 |url=https://pincode.india-server.com/postoffice/bhabla-743422/ |website=India Server |access-date=23 February 2025}}</ref><br />
| area_code = 3217<ref>{{cite web |title=North 24 Parganas Area Codes |url=https://ind.areacodebase.com/taxonomy/term/1639?page=1 |website=Area Code Base |access-date=23 February 2025}}</ref><br />
| registration_plate = WB-21<br />
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[Lok Sabha]] constituency<br />
| blank1_info_sec1 = [[Basirhat (Lok Sabha constituency)|Basirhat]]<br />
| footnotes = <br />
| demographics1_info1 = [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[English language|English]]<br />
| blank2_name_sec1 = [[Vidhan Sabha]] constituency<br />
| blank2_info_sec1 = [[Basirhat Dakshin (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Basirhat Dakshin]], [[Basirhat Uttar (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Basirhat Uttar]]<br />
| website = https://basirhatmunicipality.in<br />
}}<br />
'''Basirhat''' is a city and a [[Urban Agglomeration|Greater Municipal Urban Agglomeration]] region of [[North 24 Parganas district]] in the [[India]]n [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[West Bengal]].<ref name="Cen2011-Basirhat"><br />
{{cite web<br />
| title = Basirhat City Population 2025<br />
| url = https://www.census2011.co.in/census/city/212-basirhat.html<br />
| website = Census2011.co.in<br />
| access-date = 27 August 2025<br />
}}<br />
</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=West Bengal Urban Development & Municipal Affairs Department |url=https://www.wburbanservices.gov.in/ |publisher=Government of West Bengal |access-date=14 March 2025}}</ref> It serves as the headquarters of the [[Basirhat subdivision]] and is the largest city in the eastern part of North 24 Parganas. Established on April 1, 1869, Basirhat is one of the oldest municipal boards in West Bengal.<ref name="BasirhatMunicipality">[https://basirhatmunicipality.in/history/ Basirhat Municipality - History]. Basirhat Municipality official website. Retrieved May 2025.</ref> There's a proposal to carve out a new [[Basirhat district]] from the existing North 24 Parganas district. The district headquarters is planned to be in the city of Basirhat.<ref>{{cite news |title=Sunderbans, Basirhat; two new districts on anvil |url=https://www.thestatesman.com/bengal/sunderbans-basirhat-two-new-districts-anvil-1502842769.html |publisher=The Statesman |date=8 January 2020 |access-date=14 March 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200108000000/https://www.thestatesman.com/bengal/sunderbans-basirhat-two-new-districts-anvil-1502842769.html |archive-date=8 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Mamata Banerjee To Announce 2 New Districts In West Bengal: Report |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/mamata-banerjee-to-announce-2-new-districts-in-west-bengal-report-3559700 |publisher=NDTV |date=28 November 2022 |access-date=14 March 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221128000000/https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/mamata-banerjee-to-announce-2-new-districts-in-west-bengal-report-3559700 |archive-date=28 November 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Mamata Banerjee Likely To Officially Announce 2 New Districts On Tuesday |url=https://m.economictimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/mamata-banerjee-likely-to-officially-announce-2-new-districts-on-tuesday/articleshow/95821821.cms |publisher=The Economic Times |date=28 November 2022 |access-date=14 March 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221128000000/https://m.economictimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/mamata-banerjee-likely-to-officially-announce-2-new-districts-on-tuesday/articleshow/95821821.cms |archive-date=28 November 2022}}</ref> The city is famous for [[Durga Puja]] and home of more than 100 durga puja committees.<ref name="DurgaPuja2024">{{cite news |title=Durga Puja 2024: পরিদর্শনকারীরা QR কোড স্ক্যান ও GPS-র মাধ্যমে দেখতে পারবেন দুর্গাপুজো |url=https://bengali.news18.com/news/south-bengal/visitors-can-see-the-durga-puja-2024-by-scanning-qr-code-and-through-gps-l18-rdp-local18-1887044.html |work=News18 বাংলা |language=bn |date=June 10, 2024 |access-date=June 13, 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Basirhat Durga Puja guide map 2025 |url=https://basirhatpddurgapuja.in/?item=Basirhat&search= |website=Basirhat Police Durga Puja Guide|access-date=26 October 2025}}</ref><br />
<br />
Basirhat ranks among the cleanest cities of India, in terms of waste management, according to a survey held by the [[Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs]] of [[Central Government of India]].<ref>{{cite news |title=বাংলার মুকুটে নতুন পালক, স্বচ্ছতায় সেরা বসিরহাটকে আবর্জনামুক্ত শহরের সম্মান দিল কেন্দ্র |url=https://www.sangbadpratidin.in/bengal/basirhat-which-is-best-in-cleanliness-receives-the-honor-of-garbage-free-city-from-the-center/ |work=সংবাদ প্রতিদিন |date=31 August 2025 |access-date=26 October 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=বসিরহাটের মুকুটে জুড়ল বিরাট পালক...! কী সম্মান পেল জানেন? স্থানীয়রা সকলেই মহাখুশি |url=https://bengali.news18.com/photogallery/south-bengal/basirhat-got-a-prestigious-award-because-of-best-in-cleanliness-a-huge-achievement-for-local-authority-l18-sdg-2321769.html |work=News18 বাংলা |date=30 August 2025 |access-date=27 October 2025}}</ref> Basirhat is the first city of West Bengal to launch QR code based geo tagging system for real time monitoring of waste management.<ref>{{cite news <br />
|title=West Bengal to launch QR codes, geo-tagging in 128 corporations for real-time monitoring of solid waste management<br />
|url=https://apacnewsnetwork.com/2025/05/west-bengal-to-launch-qr-codes-geo-tagging-in-128-corporations-for-real-time-monitoring-of-solid-waste-management/?utm_source=chatgpt.com<br />
|work=APAC News Network<br />
|date=May 2025<br />
|access-date=26 October 2025<br />
}}</ref>{{AI-retrieved source|date=March 2026|checked=no}}<br />
<br />
==Etymology==<br />
According to Dr. [[Sukumar Sen (linguist)]], Basirhat is named after a person named ‘Basi’. Referring to Bengali Dictionary, the word Basi means-Indriya Basban ''(ইন্দ্রিয় বসবান)'', Jitendriya ''(জিতেন্দ্রিয়)'', Apradhin ''(অপরাজেয়)'', Sadhin ''(স্বাধীন)'', and Swatantra ''(স্বতন্ত্র)''. From this it may be concluded that Basirhat was an independent tax-free business centre. Like present day’s Free Business Centres. <br />
<br />
The sources which are considered till now behind the naming of Basirhat are as follows:<br />
<br />
•''Basurhat'' – market for various items.<br />
<br />
•''Banserhat'' – market for buying and selling bamboos.<br />
<br />
•''Bastirhat'' – low land market.<br />
<br />
There is a lot of controversy and debate regarding the naming of “Basirhat”. But all explanations are satisfying and are causally related in some or other way.<ref>{{cite web<br />
|title=History<br />
|website=Basirhat Municipality<br />
|url=https://basirhatmunicipality.in/history/<br />
|date=2018-03-01<br />
|access-date=2025-02-21<br />
|language=en<br />
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web<br />
|title=বসিরহাট নামকরণের ইতিহাস জানুন<br />
|website=News18 Bengali<br />
|url=https://bengali.news18.com/news/south-bengal/know-the-naming-history-of-basirhat-city-sup-l18-1696321.html<br />
|date=2024-06-06<br />
|access-date=2025-02-21<br />
|language=bn<br />
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web<br />
|title=জানেন কি উত্তর ২৪ পরগনা জেলার এই শহরের নাম বসিরহাট কেন? রয়েছে এক অদ্ভুত কারণ<br />
|website=News18 Bengali<br />
|url=https://bengali.news18.com/news/south-bengal/bangla-news-history-of-basirhat-name-of-north-24-parganas-l18-rc-1258515.html<br />
|date=2023-08-30<br />
|access-date=2025-02-21<br />
|language=bn<br />
}}</ref><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
According to different historians, there are various sources of the name of Basirhat. At the time of formation of the sub-division, the place of administrative work was Bagundi village in present Soladana on the banks of Ichamati river. Bagundi was chosen by the [[East India Company]] as the center of the salt trade and the 'Salt Superintendent' office was established there. Salt was made from the saline water of Ichamati. Because of that, during the British period, salt balls were made in different villages of Basirhat along the Ichamati river. Basirhat city was a trading center for salt. In 1822, Prince [[Dwarkanath Tagore]] became the 'Nimki Dewan' or Serestadar. Dwarkanath used to come to Bagundi from [[Baranagar]] Ghat in Calcutta by way of Ichamati River. Taki's zamindar Munshi Kalinath Roychowdhury had his accommodation. Another product of trade here was indigo. Indigo cultivation started in Basirhat in 1810. Neelkuthi is built on both sides of Ichamati. [[British people|British]] ran the business of salt and indigo cultivation centered on Basirhat. Hat on the banks of the Ichamati river in 1840 and the old bazaar of Basirhat was established 60 years later in 1900. Basirhat New Market was established in 1922. Rivers were the means of communication at will. Goods were brought by the river and sold in the market.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.anandabazar.com/district/2.917/%E0%A6%AC-%E0%A6%95-%E0%A6%95-%E0%A6%A8-%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AE-%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%AC-%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B8-%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%B9-%E0%A6%9F-%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%B2-%E0%A6%86-%E0%A6%A7-%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%A4-1.53633 |title=Basirhat’s History of Commerce Amid Light and Shadow |last=Basu |first=Nirmal |date=25 July 2014 |website=Anandabazar Patrika |publisher=ABP Group |access-date=27 March 2017 |language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Geography==<br />
{{OSM Location map<br />
| width=370| height=600| zoom=10<br />
| coord={{coord|22|32|0|N|88|49|0|E}}| float=left|caption='''Cities, towns and locations in Basirhat subdivision, North 24 Parganas district'''<br/> M: municipal city/ town, CT: census town, R: rural/ urban centre<br/>Owing to space constraints in the small map, the actual locations in a larger map may vary slightly<br />
|mark-coord1= {{coord|22|26|48|N|88|59|0|E}}|label-pos1=bottom|label1= Bankra | numbered1=CT| mark-title1=[[Bankra, North 24 Parganas]] (CT)|label-color1=#800000 |label-size1=11| mark-size1=12|shape1=l-circle|shape-color1= #A40000|shape-outline1=white|label-offset-x1=2<br />
|mark-coord2={{coord|22|30|44|N|88|45|5|E}} | label-pos2=top|label2= Balihati| numbered2=CT| mark-title2=[[Balihati]] (CT)<br />
|mark-coord3={{coord|22|38|25|N|88|53|39|E}} | label-pos3=right|label3= Dandirhat| numbered3=CT| mark-title3=[[Dandirhat]] (CT)<br />
|mark-coord4={{coord|22|50|29|N|88|45|56|E}} | label-pos4=top|label4= Dakshin Chatra| numbered4=CT| mark-title4=[[Dakshin Chatra]] (CT)<br />
|mark-coord5={{coord|22|52|52|N|88|46|32|E}} | label-pos5=top|label5= Deora| numbered5=CT| mark-title5=[[Deora, North 24 Parganas]] (CT)<br />
|mark-coord6={{coord|22|42|30|N|88|45|26|E}} | label-pos6=left|label6= Dhanyakuria| numbered6=CT| mark-title6=[[Dhanyakuria]] (CT)<br />
|mark-coord7={{coord|22|28|14|N|88|59|0|E}} | label-pos7=left|label7= Hingalganj| numbered7=CT| mark-title7=[[Hingalganj, North 24 Parganas]] (CT)<br />
|mark-coord8={{coord|22|40|30|N|88|54|54|E}} | label-pos8=left|label8= Itinda| numbered8=CT| mark-title8=[[Itinda]] (CT)<br />
|mark-coord9={{coord|22|30|18|N|88|43|52|E}} | label-pos9=bottom|label9= Minakhan| numbered9=CT| mark-title9=[[Minakhan, North 24 Parganas]] (CT)<br />
|mark-coord10={{coord|22|41|15|N|88|48|53|E}} | label-pos10=left|label10= Mathurapur| numbered10=CT| mark-title10=[[Mathurapur, North 24 Parganas]] (CT)<br />
|mark-coord11={{coord|22|41|35|N|88|50|0|E}} | label-pos11=right|label11= Raghunathpur| numbered11=CT| mark-title11=[[Raghunathpur, North 24 Parganas]] (CT)<br />
|mark-coord12={{coord|22|32|54|N|88|49|7|E}} | label-pos12=left|label12= Sadigachhi| numbered12=CT| mark-title12=[[Sadigachhi]] (CT)<br />
|mark-coord13={{coord|22|38|28|N|88|52|10|E}} | label-pos13=left|label13= Uttar Bagundi| numbered13=CT| mark-title13=[[Uttar Bagundi]] (CT)<br />
|mark-coord14={{coord|22|44|24|N|88|47|45|E}} | label-pos14=right|label14= Baduria| numbered14=M| mark-title14=[[Baduria]] (M) | shape-color14= #800000<br />
|mark-coord15={{coord|22|40|25|N|88|51|15|E}} | label-pos15=left|label15= Basirhat| numbered15=M| mark-title15=Basirhat (M) |shape-color15=black| label-size15=13|label-color15=black <!-- make the subject of the article stand out with black colors --><br />
|mark-coord16={{coord|22|35|24|N|88|54|36|E}} | label-pos16=left|label16= Taki| numbered16=M| mark-title16=[[Taki (India)]] (M) | shape-color16= #800000<br />
|mark-coord17={{coord|22|49|27|N|88|51|22|E}} | label-pos17=left|label17= Swarupnagar| numbered17=R| mark-title17= [[Swarupnagar, North 24 Parganas]] (R) |shape-color17=#C40000<br />
|mark-coord18={{coord|22|30|10|N|88|41|55|E}} | label-pos18=left|label18= Bamanpukuria| numbered18=R| mark-title18= [[Bamanpukuria]] (R) |shape-color18=#C40000<br />
|mark-coord19={{coord|22|40|23|N|88|56|46|E}} | label-pos19=right|label19= Ghojadanga| labela19=check post| numbered19=R| mark-title19= [[Ghojadanga]] (R) |shape-color19=#C40000<br />
|mark-coord20={{coord|22|36|37|N|88|40|38|E}} | label-pos20=left|label20= Haroa| numbered20=R| mark-title20= [[Haroa, North 24 Parganas]] (R) |shape-color20=#C40000<br />
|mark-coord21={{coord|22|34|30|N|88|55|2|E}} | label-pos21=right|label21= Hasnabad| numbered21=R| mark-title21= [[Hasnabad]] (R) |shape-color21=#C40000<br />
|mark-coord22={{coord|22|12|58|N|88|58|53|E}} | label-pos22=top|label22= Hemnagar| numbered22=R| mark-title22= [[Hemnagar, North 24 Parganas]] (R) |shape-color22=#C40000<br />
|mark-coord23={{coord|22|44|12|N|88|46|20|E}} | label-pos23=left|label23= Iswarigachha| numbered23=R| mark-title23= [[Iswarigachha]] (R) |shape-color23=#C40000<br />
|mark-coord24={{coord|22|25|18|N|88|52|10|E}} | label-pos24=left|label24= Kalinagar| numbered24=R| mark-title24= [[Kalinagar, North 24 Parganas]] (R) |shape-color24=#C40000<br />
|mark-coord25={{coord|22|30|29|N|88|46|7|E}} | label-pos25=right|label25= Malancha| numbered25=R| mark-title25= [[Malancha, Basirhat]] (R) |shape-color25=#C40000<br />
|mark-coord26={{coord|22|42|10|N|88|46|15|E}} | label-pos26=right|label26= Matia| numbered26=R| mark-title26= [[Matia, North 24 Parganas]] (R) |shape-color26=#C40000<br />
|mark-coord27={{coord|22|34|25|N|88|50|30|E}} | label-pos27=left|label27= Murarisha| numbered27=R| mark-title27= [[Murarisha]] (R) |shape-color27=#C40000<br />
|mark-coord28={{coord|22|26|37|N|88|50|32|E}} | label-pos28=left|label28= Nazat| numbered28=R| mark-title28= [[Nazat]] (R) |shape-color28=#C40000<br />
|mark-coord29={{coord|22|26|48|N|88|57|19|E}} | label-pos29=left|label29= Sandelerbil| numbered29=R| mark-title29= [[Sandelerbil]] (R) |shape-color29=#C40000<br />
|mark-coord30={{coord|22|21|59|N|88|52|15|E}} | label-pos30=right|label30= Sandeshkhali| numbered30=R| mark-title30= [[Sandeshkhali]] (R) |shape-color30=#C40000<br />
|mark-coord31={{coord|22|50|18|N|88|52|3|E}} | label-pos31=left|label31= Sarapul| numbered31=R| mark-title31= [[Sarapul, North 24 Parganas]] (R) |shape-color31=#C40000<br />
|mark-coord32={{coord|22|32|0|N|88|57|0|E}} | label32= Ichhamati |labela32= River| label-color32 = #77A1CB| label-angle32= 80| label-pos32=right| label-size32=10| mark-size32=0| mark-title32 =none<br />
|mark-coord33={{coord|22|33|0|N|88|53|40|E}} | label33= Raimangal River| label-color33 = #77A1CB| label-angle33= 95| label-pos33=right| label-size33=10| mark-size33=0| mark-title33 =none<br />
|mark-coord34={{coord|22|23|30|N|88|49|40|E}} | label34= Burokalabati |labela34 =River| label-color34 = #77A1CB| label-angle34= 50| label-pos34=right| label-size34=10| mark-size34=0| mark-title34 =none<br />
|mark-coord35={{coord|22|36|0|N|88|40|0|E}} | label35= Bidyadhari |labela35 =River| label-color35 = #77A1CB| label-angle35= 90| label-pos35=right| label-size35=10| mark-size35=0| mark-title35 =none<br />
|arc-coordA={{coord|22|33|0|N|89|0|0|E}}|arc-textA= BANGLADESH| arc-text-colorA=hard grey| arc-angleA=50| arc-gapA=5.5| arc-radiusA=0.35}}<br />
<br />
===Location===<br />
Basirhat is located at {{coord|22|39|40|N|88|51|59|E|display=inline}}.<br />
<br />
===Area overview===<br />
The area shown in the map is a part of the Ichhamati-Raimangal Plain, located in the lower [[Ganges Delta]]. It contains soil of mature black or brownish [[loam]] to recent [[alluvium]]. Numerous rivers, creeks and ''khals'' criss-cross the area. The tip of the [[Sundarbans National Park]] is visible in the lower part of the map (shown in green but not marked). The larger full screen map shows the full forest area.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_A/19/1911_PART_A_DCHB_NORTH%20TWENTY%20FOUR%20PARGANAS.pdf |title = District Census Handbook North Twenty Four Parganas, Census of India 2011, Series 20, Part XII A |work = Page 13 | publisher= Directorate of Census Operations, West Bengal| access-date = 16 April 2018}}</ref> A large section of the area is a part of the [[Sundarbans settlements]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://wbplan.gov.in/HumanDev/DHDR/24%20pgsSouth/s24prg_main.htm | title = District Human Development Report: South 24 Parganas | work = Chapter 9: Sundarbans and the Remote Islanders, p 290-311 | publisher = Development & Planning Department, Government of West Bengal, 2009 | access-date = 3 November 2019 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161005044029/http://wbplan.gov.in/HumanDev/DHDR/24%20pgsSouth/s24prg_main.htm | archive-date = 5 October 2016 | url-status = dead}}</ref> The densely populated area is an overwhelmingly rural area. Only 12.96% of the population lives in the urban areas like Basirhat and 87.04% of the population in rural areas.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://wbpspm.gov.in/publications/District%20Statistical%20Handbook |title = District Statistical Handbook |work = North 24 Parganas 2013, Tables 2.1, 2.2, 2.4b |publisher = Department of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of West Bengal |access-date = 2 May 2018 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190121045803/http://www.wbpspm.gov.in/publications/District%20Statistical%20Handbook |archive-date = 2019-01-21 |url-status = dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = http://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_A/19/1911_PART_A_DCHB_NORTH%20TWENTY%20FOUR%20PARGANAS.pdf |title = District Census Handbook North Twenty Four Parganas, Census of India 2011, Series 20, Part XII A |work = Map of North Twenty Four Parganas with CD Block HQs and Police Stations (on the fifth page) | publisher= Directorate of Census Operations, West Bengal| access-date = 2 May 2018}}</ref><br />
<br />
<small>Note: The map alongside presents some of the notable locations in the subdivision. All places marked in the map are linked in the larger full-screen map.</small><br />
<br />
[[File:Earth from Space- Kolkata, India ESA24701909.jpeg|thumb| A map of [[Kolkata Metropolitan Area]] including Basirhat- [[The Sunderbans]], and other parts of South-Eastern Gangetic West Bengal and South-Western Bangladesh]]<br />
<br />
===Urban structure===<br />
Basirhat experienced moderate level of urbanization during the years 2001-2011 along with moderate [[Population Growth|population growth rate]] in those same years. Currently urbanization rate of this city is increasing rapidly.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rahaman |first=Mashihur |title=Urban Population Growth in the Municipalities of North 24 Parganas: A Spatio-Temporal Analysis |journal=World Wide Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development |date=March 2018 |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages= |url=https://wwjmrd.com/archive/2018/3/860/urban-population-growth-in-the-municipalities-of-north-24-parganas-a-spatio-temporal-analysis |access-date=5 April 2025 |format=PDF}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Paul |first1=Suman |last2=Chatterjee |first2=Kanan |title=Urbanisation and Consistency Measurement: A Study on District of North 24 Parganas, West Bengal, India |journal=Archives of Applied Science Research |volume=4 |issue=5 |year=2012 |pages=2052–2067 |url=https://www.scholarsresearchlibrary.com/articles/urbanisation-and-consistency-measurement-a-study-on-district-of-north-24-parganas-west-bengal-india.pdf |access-date=5 April 2025 |format=PDF}}</ref><br />
[[File:Basirhat aerial view.jpg|thumb|An aerial tableau of Basirhat, West Bengal, intricating the urban morphology of the city.]]<br />
====Neighborhoods====<br />
[[Lake Terrace, Basirhat|Lake Terrace]], Tannery Garden, BowBazar, Chowmatha, [[Itinda Road, Basirhat|Itinda Road]], [[Sarat Biswas Road, Basirhat|Sarat Biswas Road]], Kacchari Para, Park Avenue, Ganapatipur, Sainpala, [[Prantik Square, Basirhat|Prantik Square (College Para)]], Maitra Bagan, Munsi Bagan, [[Bhyabla Halt railway station|Bhyabla]].<br />
<br />
===Climate===<br />
Basirhat is subject to a tropical savanna climate that is designated [[Aw climate]] under the [[Köppen climate classification]].<ref>[https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Climatic-zone-map-of-India-as-per-Koppens-classification_fig1_334480504 "Climatic zone map of India as per Köppen's classification"] (Figure). ''ResearchGate''. Archived from the [https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Climatic-zone-map-of-India-as-per-Koppens-classification_fig1_334480504 original] on 21 February 2025. Retrieved 21 February 2025.</ref> According to a [[United Nations Development Programme]] report, its wind and [[cyclone]] zone is "very high damage risk".<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20060519100611/http://www.undp.org.in/dmweb/hazardprofile.pdf "Hazard profiles of Indian districts"] (PDF). ''National Capacity Building Project in Disaster Management''. [[UNDP]]. Archived from the [https://web.archive.org/web/20060519100611/http://www.undp.org.in/dmweb/hazardprofile.pdf original] (PDF) on 19 May 2006. Retrieved 21 February 2025.</ref> This municipal region is usually the hottest region of Basirhat subdivision due to its urbanized characteristics.<ref>{{cite web |title=West Bengal Weather Report: Record Temperature and Extreme Heat in Bengali New Year |url=https://bengali.news18.com/news/kolkata/west-bengal-weather-report-record-temperature-extreme-hot-in-bengali-new-year-rc-1057964.html |website=News18 Bengali |language=bn |access-date=24 February 2025}}</ref><br />
<br />
'''Special weather phenomena -''' Often, in April–June, the region is struck by heavy rains or dusty squalls that are followed by thunderstorms or hailstorms, bringing cooling relief from the prevailing humidity. These thunderstorms are [[Convection rain|convective]] in nature, and are known locally as ''[[Kalbaisakhi]]'' (কালবৈশাখী), or 'norwesters' in English.<ref>{{cite journal<br />
| last1 = Sen Gupta<br />
| first1 = Prabhat Kumar<br />
| title = Kalbaishakhis (Thundersqualls) of Bengal<br />
| journal = Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society<br />
| volume = 24<br />
| issue = 3<br />
| pages = 96–104<br />
| year = 1943<br />
| url = https://journals.ametsoc.org/downloadpdf/journals/bams/24/3/1520-0477-24_3_96.pdf<br />
}}</ref><br />
<br />
{{Weather box<br />
|location = Basirhat City<br />
|metric first = yes<br />
|single line = yes<br />
<br />
|Jan record high C = 34.2 |Feb record high C = 38.5 |Mar record high C = 44.2 |Apr record high C = 46.1 <br />
|May record high C = 43.3 |Jun record high C = 36 |Jul record high C = 35.7 |Aug record high C = 39.8 <br />
|Sep record high C = 36.6 |Oct record high C = 36.1 |Nov record high C = 35.2 |Dec record high C = 33.5 <br />
|year record high C = 46.1<br />
<br />
|Jan high C = 28.0 |Feb high C = 31.9 |Mar high C = 36.1 |Apr high C = 38.7 <br />
|May high C = 38.2 |Jun high C = 36.2 |Jul high C = 33.4 |Aug high C = 32.9 <br />
|Sep high C = 32.6 |Oct high C = 31.9 |Nov high C = 30.9 |Dec high C = 28.3 <br />
|year high C = 33.3 <br />
<br />
|Jan low C = 14.6 |Feb low C = 18.6 |Mar low C = 21.9 |Apr low C = 25.9 <br />
|May low C = 28.6 |Jun low C = 28.9 |Jul low C = 27.6 |Aug low C = 27.1 <br />
|Sep low C = 26.4 |Oct low C = 22.7 |Nov low C = 18.0 |Dec low C = 14.8 <br />
|year low C = 24.4 <br />
<br />
|Jan record low C = 6.4 |Feb record low C = 7.1 |Mar record low C = 13.6 |Apr record low C = 17.2 <br />
|May record low C = 21.6 |Jun record low C = 20.1 |Jul record low C = 19.5 |Aug record low C = 22 <br />
|Sep record low C = 19.3 |Oct record low C = 17.8 |Nov record low C = 15 |Dec record low C = 5.2 <br />
|year record low C = 5.2 <br />
<br />
|rain colour = green <br />
|Jan rain mm = 3.2 |Feb rain mm = 11.3 |Mar rain mm = 19.8 |Apr rain mm = 40.9 <br />
|May rain mm = 71.3 |Jun rain mm = 176.3 |Jul rain mm = 251.1 |Aug rain mm = 247.0 <br />
|Sep rain mm = 181.4 |Oct rain mm = 104.2 |Nov rain mm = 38.4 |Dec rain mm = 6.8 <br />
|year rain mm = 96.0 <br />
<br />
|Jan rain days = 0.6 |Feb rain days = 2.0 |Mar rain days = 4.3 |Apr rain days = 7.8 <br />
|May rain days = 12.8 |Jun rain days = 21.9 |Jul rain days = 28.3 |Aug rain days = 29.1 <br />
|Sep rain days = 24.4 |Oct rain days = 14.2 |Nov rain days = 2.6 |Dec rain days = 1.1 <br />
|year rain days = 12.4 <br />
<br />
|Jan humidity = 43.8 |Feb humidity = 41.6 |Mar humidity = 47.8 |Apr humidity = 57.2 <br />
|May humidity = 62.7 |Jun humidity = 68.1 |Jul humidity = 76.8 |Aug humidity = 79.9 <br />
|Sep humidity = 81.1 |Oct humidity = 74.9 |Nov humidity = 58.9 |Dec humidity = 48.6 <br />
|year humidity = 61.8 <br />
<br />
|source 1 = Weather & Climate<ref>{{cite web<br />
| title = Climate and average monthly weather in Basirhat, India<br />
| url = https://weatherandclimate.com/india/west-bengal/basirhat<br />
| website = Weather & Climate<br />
| access-date = 28 February 2025<br />
}}</ref><br />
}}<br />
<br />
===Natural disasters===<br />
====Tropical Cyclones====<br />
On May 2009, [[Cyclone Aila]] brought heavy rainfall and strong winds, causing damage to weak structures.<ref>{{cite web<br />
|title=Flood Management Scheme in Aila-affected areas<br />
|website=Irrigation & Waterways Department, Government of West Bengal<br />
|url=https://wbiwd.gov.in/index.php/applications/aila<br />
|access-date=2025-02-21<br />
|language=en<br />
}}</ref><br />
<br />
On May 2020, [[Cyclone Amphan]] affected the area with maximum sustained wind speed of 150&nbsp;km/h. This severe cyclone caused major damage to houses and crops in the area.<ref>{{cite web<br />
|title=ঘূর্ণিঝড় আমফানের তাণ্ডবে বিধ্বস্ত বসিরহাট, সর্বত্র ধ্বংসের চিহ্ন<br />
|website=সংবাদ প্রতিদিন<br />
|url=https://www.sangbadpratidin.in/cyclone-amphan-hits-hard-at-basirhat-destruction-everywhere/<br />
|date=2020-05-21<br />
|access-date=2025-02-21<br />
|language=bn<br />
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web<br />
|title=Amphan leaves a trail of ruined houses and lives in Basirhat<br />
|website=The Times of India<br />
|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/amphan-leaves-a-trail-of-ruined-houses-and-lives-in-basirhat/articleshow/75906582.cms<br />
|date=2020-05-23<br />
|access-date=2025-02-21<br />
|language=en<br />
}}</ref> Prime minister [[Narendra Modi]] was received at the airport by governor [[Jagdeep Dhankhar]] and chief minister [[Mamata Banerjee]] who accompanied him on the aerial survey of some of the worst-affected parts of the state before landing in [[Basirhat College]], 50 km from [[Kolkata airport]]. After holding a conference in Basirhat, Modi announced Rs 1,000 cr immediate relief for cyclone hit areas.<ref>{{cite web<br />
|title=PM Modi announces Rs 1,000 cr immediate relief for Cyclone Amphan-hit Bengal<br />
|website=Hindustan Times<br />
|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/pm-modi-announces-rs-1-000-cr-immediate-relief-for-cyclone-amphan-hit-bengal/story-kmshOClDcFNqLUjubNxUVJ.html<br />
|date=2020-05-22<br />
|access-date=2025-02-21<br />
|language=en<br />
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web<br />
|title=Bengal: Modi, Mamata Banerjee reach Basirhat after survey of Amphan-hit areas<br />
|website=India Blooms<br />
|url=https://www.indiablooms.com/news/bengal-modi-mamata-banerjee-reach-basirhat-after-survey-of-amphan-hit-areas/details<br />
|date=2020-05-22<br />
|access-date=2025-02-21<br />
|language=en<br />
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web<br />
|title=Cyclone Amphan leaves 74 dead, millions without power in West Bengal; Narendra Modi leaves for Kolkata<br />
|website=Firstpost<br />
|url=https://www.firstpost.com/india/cyclone-amphan-leaves-74-dead-millions-without-power-in-west-bengal-narendra-modi-leaves-for-kolkata-8395021.html<br />
|date=2020-05-22<br />
|access-date=2025-02-21<br />
|language=en<br />
}}</ref><br />
<br />
====Earthquake====<br />
On 27 February 2026, an earthquake of about 5.3 on the Richter scale, as reported by the United States Geological Survey (USGS), struck near the India–Bangladesh border, with its epicentre located roughly 26 km southeast of [[Taki, India|Taki]] in West Bengal at a shallow depth of approximately 9.8 km.<ref>{{cite web<br />
|title=M 5.3 - 26 km SE of Tāki, India<br />
|url=https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/us7000s0pc/dyfi/intensity<br />
|website=USGS Earthquake Hazards Program<br />
|publisher=United States Geological Survey<br />
|access-date=27 February 2026<br />
}}</ref> Tremors from the quake were felt in Basirhat city region and other parts of North 24 Parganas, causing panic among residents and prompting many to evacuate homes, offices, and schools in Basirhat. Only minor structural cracks in buildings were reported in the urban region.<ref>{{cite news<br />
|title=Areas close to B’desh epicentre bear brunt<br />
|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/areas-close-to-bdesh-epicentre-bear-brunt/articleshow/128861120.cms<br />
|newspaper=The Times of India<br />
|date=27 February 2026<br />
|access-date=28 February 2026<br />
}}</ref><ref>{{cite news<br />
|title=Earth shakes in Bangladesh, south Bengal districts feel tremors; buildings develop cracks in North 24‑Parganas, students run out of classrooms<br />
|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/earth-shakes-in-bangladesh-south-bengal-districts-feel-tremors-buildings-develop-cracks-in-north-24-parganas-students-run-out-of-classrooms-prnt/cid/2149244<br />
|newspaper=The Telegraph (Kolkata)<br />
|date=28 February 2026<br />
|access-date=28 February 2026<br />
}}</ref><ref>{{cite news<br />
|title=ইছামতীতে বড় ঢেউ, ফাটল বহু বাড়িতে<br />
|url=https://www.anandabazar.com/west-bengal/24-parganas/roof-collapsed-houses-cracked-due-to-tremors-at-basirhat-and-bangaon-prnt/cid/1670922<br />
|newspaper=Anandabazar Patrika<br />
|date=28 February 2026<br />
|access-date=28 February 2026<br />
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web<br />
|title=ভূমিকম্পে কাঁপল বসিরহাট, বসতবাড়ি থেকে স্কুল একাধিক জায়গায় ফাটল, আতঙ্কে বাসিন্দারা<br />
|url=https://bengali.news18.com/news/west-bengal/earthquake-today-shakes-west-bengal-including-basirhat-cracks-in-houses-and-schools-people-are-worried-l18-sdg-local18-2560967.html<br />
|website=News18 বাংলা<br />
|publisher=Network18 Media & Investments Ltd.<br />
|date=27 February 2026<br />
|language=bn<br />
|access-date=27 February 2026<br />
}}</ref> The seismic event occurred within the seismically active [[Bengal Basin]] region, where the [[Indian Plate|Indian Plate’s]] northward movement against the [[Eurasian Plate]] generates occasional moderate earthquakes.<ref>{{cite web<br />
|title=বড় কম্পন টাকি, বসিরহাটে, কলকাতা ছাড়া আজ কোন কোন জেলায় ভূমিকম্প অনুভূত হল? উপকেন্দ্র কোথায়<br />
|url=https://bangla.aajtak.in/west-bengal/story/apart-from-kolkata-which-districs-are-felt-earthquake-today-epicenter-arg-1352474-2026-02-27<br />
|website=Bangla Aaj Tak<br />
|publisher=TV Today Network<br />
|date=27 February 2026<br />
|language=bn<br />
|access-date=27 February 2026<br />
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web<br />
|title=থরথরিয়ে কাঁপল কলকাতা, ভূমিকম্পে ৪৫ সেকেন্ড ধরে দুলল বাংলা<br />
|url=https://tv9bangla.com/kolkata/earthquake-in-kolkata-1286188.html<br />
|website=TV9 Bangla<br />
|publisher=Associated Broadcasting Company<br />
|date=27 February 2026<br />
|language=bn<br />
|access-date=27 February 2026<br />
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web <br />
|title=Earthquake proximity raises concerns for India <br />
|url=https://www.aaroananda.com/story/latest-news/breaking-news/earthquake-proximity-raises-concerns-for-india/10989642 <br />
|website=AaroAnanda <br />
|publisher=AaroAnanda <br />
|access-date=27 February 2026 <br />
}}</ref><br />
<br />
====Tornado====<br />
On April 1983, [[April 1983 Basirhat-Bongaon tornado outbreak|Basirhat-Bongaon tornado]] occurred in the area with maximum sustained wind speed of 200&nbsp;km/h caused widespread damage and more than 30 fatalities across the area.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/40-years-ago/april-14-1983-forty-years-ago-calcutta-tornado-8555221/ |title=April 14, 1983, Forty Years Ago: Calcutta Tornado |publisher=The Indian Express |accessdate=2025-09-23}}</ref><br />
<br />
====Hailstorm====<br />
In February 19, 2025, a series of severe [[Hailstorm]] and Convective [[thunderstorms]] occurred in the Basirhat subdivision, including the municipal region, causing minor damages to weak structures and agriculture.<ref>{{cite web<br />
|title=হঠাৎ শিলাবৃষ্টিতে লন্ডভন্ড উত্তর ২৪ পরগনার বসিরহাট সহ বিস্তীর্ণ এলাকা, বিরাট ক্ষতি চাষে!<br />
|website=Oneindia Bengali<br />
|url=https://bengali.oneindia.com/videos/hailstorm-started-in-large-areas-including-basirhat-in-north-24-parganas-4222498.html<br />
|date=2025-02-19<br />
|access-date=2025-02-21<br />
|language=bn<br />
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web<br />
|title=শিলাবৃষ্টিতে বিপর্যস্ত বসিরহাট ও সুন্দরবনের বিস্তীর্ণ এলাকা<br />
|website=News18 বাংলা<br />
|url=https://bengali.news18.com/photogallery/south-bengal/hailstorm-upsets-areas-around-basirhat-and-sunderban-l18-sank-local18-2063720.html<br />
|date=2025-02-19<br />
|access-date=2025-02-21<br />
|language=bn<br />
}}</ref><br />
<br />
A similar incident occurred on March 22, 2014, when a 20 minutes hailstorm event caused damage to approximately 2,500 homes in parts of North 24 Parganas, including [[Barasat]], Basirhat, [[Barrackpore]] and [[Bongaon]].<ref>{{cite news<br />
| title = Hailstorm hits North 24-Parganas<br />
| work = The Times of India<br />
| date = March 24, 2014<br />
| url = https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/hailstorm-hits-north-24-parganas/articleshow/32571726.cms<br />
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140324025200/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/hailstorm-hits-north-24-parganas/articleshow/32571726.cms<br />
| archive-date = March 24, 2014<br />
| access-date = February 21, 2025<br />
}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Demographics ==<br />
<br />
{{bar box<br />
|title=Religion in Basirhat municipality (2011)<ref>{{Cite web |date=2011 |title=Table C-01 Population by Religion: West Bengal |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/11396/download/14509/DDW19C-01%20MDDS.XLS |website=censusindia.gov.in |publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}}</ref><br />
|titlebar=#Fcd116<br />
|left1=Religion<br />
|right1=Percent<br />
|float=left<br />
|width=<br />
|bars=<br />
{{bar percent|[[Hinduism in West Bengal|Hinduism]]|darkorange|77.60}}<br />
{{bar percent|[[Islam in West Bengal|Islam]]|green|22.21}}<br />
{{bar percent|Others|black|0.19}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
According to the [[2011 census of India]], Basirhat Municipality had a population of 125,254. Basirhat had a sex ratio of 981 females per 1000 males and a literacy rate of 87.35%. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes make up 18.94% and 0.41% of the population respectively.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2011 |title=District Census Handbook: North 24 Parganas |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/1348/download/4406/DH_2011_1911_PART_A_DCHB_NORTH_TWENTY_FOUR_PARGANAS.pdf |website=censusindia.gov.in |publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}}</ref><br />
<br />
Basirhat is an [[urban agglomeration]] consisting of four different neighborhoods; Basirhat City (M), Uttar Bagundi (CT), Raghunathpur (CT) and Dandirhat (CT).<ref name="Census2011Basirhat">{{Cite web |title=Basirhat City Population Census 2011 - West Bengal |url=https://www.census2011.co.in/census/city/212-basirhat.html |website=Census2011.co.in |access-date=20 April 2025}}</ref><br />
<br />
Projection based on past growth rates estimate that as of 2026, the population of Basirhat city is around 180000 to 190000. While the broader UA region is estimated to have an population of approximately 212000. The current literacy rate of Basirhat is projected around more than 97.5%.<ref name="Census2011Basirhat" /><br />
<br />
Bengali is the predominant language, spoken by 99.77% of the population.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Table C-16 Population by Mother Tongue: West Bengal |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/10226/download/13338/DDW-C16-STMT-MDDS-1900.XLSX |website=www.censusindia.gov.in |publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Greater Basirhat Urban Agglomeration===<br />
<br />
The Greater Basirhat Urban Agglomeration comprises the municipal urban agglomeration of Basirhat city along with two additional municipal towns, Taki and Baduria.<br />
According to the 2011 Census of India, the Basirhat Municipality recorded a population of around 125,000, while Taki and Baduria municipalities had populations of about 38,000 and 52,000 respectively. With the inclusion of nearby census towns and peri-urban settlements, the Greater Basirhat Urban Agglomeration is estimated to have a population of approximately one million, thereby qualifying as a greater urban agglomeration under Indian census definitions. It forms the second major urban cluster in North 24 Parganas after Barasat-Barrackpore-Baranagar belt.<br />
<ref name="DC-BasirhatAdminPop"><br />
{{cite web<br />
| title = Population of administrative areas in Basirhat subdivision<br />
| url = https://datacommons.org/ranking/Count_Person/AdministrativeArea/wikidataId/Q4867564?h=wikidataId/Q7416180<br />
| website = Data Commons<br />
| access-date = 27 August 2025<br />
}}<br />
</ref><ref name="Census2011Basirhat" /><br />
<br />
== Art and Culture ==<br />
<br />
=== Durga puja ===<br />
{{See also|Durga Puja in West Bengal}}<br />
{{multiple image<br />
| perrow = 2/2<br />
| total_width = 290<br />
| caption_align = center<br />
| align = right<br />
| image1 = Durga Puja of Gheepukur Dhar, Basirhat.jpg<br />
| image2 = Ballav Rajbari's durga idol.jpg<br />
| image3 = Basirhat Kishalaya Sangha (Bosepara Lane).webp<br />
| image4 = Sobuj Sangha, a vibrant puja committee in Basirhat.jpg<br />
| footer = From top left to bottom right (a) Ghee Pukur Dhar Durga Puja committee, Basirhat representing ''Chapakhana'' in their pandel; (b) Ballav Rajbari, ''[[Dhanyakuria]]'', Basirhat's traditional durga idol showcasing the idol making process; (c) Kishalaya Sangha, Basirhat reflecting the theme of Kashi Bose Lane, Kolkata; (d) Sobuj Sangha, a vibrant puja committee in Basirhat city.<br />
}}<br />
<br />
==== Celebrations ====<br />
[[Durga puja]] is the biggest festival of Basirhat. With more than 100 installations in the city, Basirhat is regarded as one of the major centers of Durga Puja celebrations in West Bengal, reportedly hosting the fourth highest number of puja pandals in the state after Kolkata, [[Asansol]]-[[Durgapur]] and [[Siliguri]].<ref>{{cite web |title=বসিরহাট শহর ও মহকুমা এলাকায় থিম দুর্গাপুজোতে মাইলফলক |url=https://bengali.news18.com/news/north-24-parganas/theme-durga-puja-in-basirhat-subdivision-area-creates-milestone-l18-1329297.html |website=News18 বাংলা |publisher=Network18 |language=bn |access-date=19 February 2025}}</ref><ref name="DurgaPuja2024">{{cite news |title=Durga Puja 2024: পরিদর্শনকারীরা QR কোড স্ক্যান ও GPS-র মাধ্যমে দেখতে পারবেন দুর্গাপুজো |url=https://bengali.news18.com/news/south-bengal/visitors-can-see-the-durga-puja-2024-by-scanning-qr-code-and-through-gps-l18-rdp-local18-1887044.html |work=News18 বাংলা |language=bn |date=June 10, 2024 |access-date=June 13, 2025}}</ref> The City of Basirhat experiences a festive and vibrant atmosphere during Durga Puja, with majestic themed pandals like Kolkata, illuminated streets, and an energetic urban crowd that reflects the cultural enthusiasm. The city attracts significant crowd every year.<ref>{{cite web<br />
|title=বসিরহাটের দুর্গাপূজায় উপচে পড়া ভিড়<br />
|url=https://bengali.news18.com/news/north-24-parganas/durga-puja-2024-basirhat-nabaran-sangha-club-durga-puja-theme-l18-rm-local18-1896654.html<br />
|website=News18 বাংলা<br />
|publisher=Network18 Group<br />
|date=15 June 2024<br />
|access-date=22 June 2025<br />
|language=bn<br />
}}</ref> Bengali media outlets including ''[[Anandabazar Patrika]]'', ''[[News18 Bangla]]'', and ''[[Zee 24 Ghanta]]'' have reported Basirhat as a prominent centre of Durga Puja in North 24 Parganas, often referring to it as a cultural gem for its elaborate and thematic celebrations.<ref>{{cite web |title=নুসরত জাহান বসিরহাটে পুজো উদ্বোধন করলেন, সঙ্গে ফুচকা খাওয়া |url=https://www.anandabazar.com/video/nusrat-jahan-inaugurates-durga-puja-at-basirhat-dgtl/cid/1374215 |website=Anandabazar Patrika |publisher=ABP Group |date=October 2022 |access-date=22 June 2025 |language=bn}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=পদ্মফুলের ধাঁচে মণ্ডপ-আলোকসজ্জা এ বার নজর কাড়ছে বসিরহাটের পুজোয় |url=https://www.anandabazar.com/west-bengal/24-parganas/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A6-%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%AB-%E0%A6%B2-%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%A7-%E0%A6%9A-%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3-%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%AA-%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%B2-%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%9C-%E0%A6%9C-%E0%A6%8F-%E0%A6%AC-%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%95-%E0%A7%9C%E0%A6%9B-%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B8-%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%B9-%E0%A6%9F-%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%AA-%E0%A6%9C-%E0%A7%9F-1.73982 |work=Anandabazar Patrika |date=30 September 2014 |access-date=22 June 2025 |language=bn}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Durga Puja 2023: উৎসবের পরও উৎসবের মেজাজ বসিরহাটে, মুখ্যমন্ত্রীর নির্দেশে কার্নিভাল |url=https://zeenews.india.com/bengali/videos/durga-puja-2023-basirhat_492705.html |website=Zee 24 Ghanta |publisher=Zee Media Corporation |date=October 2023 |access-date=22 June 2025 |language=bn}}</ref><br />
[[Prantik Square, Basirhat|Prantik Square Sorbojonin]] is the biggest puja committee of Basirhat, often resembling Kolkata's Maddox Square puja committee because of its atmosphere. This place becomes a meeting point of all ages during the puja days.<ref>{{Cite web<br />
|title=বসিরহাট প্রান্তিকের দুর্গাপুজো<br />
|url=https://bengali.news18.com/news/north-24-parganas/adi-yogi-theme-in-durga-puja-at-basirhat-prantik-l18-1333566.html<br />
|website=News18 বাংলা<br />
|author=সম্পাদকীয় দল<br />
|date=2023-10-17<br />
|access-date=2025-02-23<br />
|language=bn<br />
}}</ref><br />
<br />
==== Traditions ====<br />
For more than 150 years, the Durga idol has been immersed on boats in this city. On the day of [[Vijayadashami]], people usually come in Basirhat to see the immersion festival. The idols and installations have changed in the modern era, but the immersion continues to be done in the [[Ichamati River]] by boat according to the ancient tradition. A fair is held on both banks of the river centering on the immersion. The special attraction of this fair is wooden furniture and various wooden items.<ref>{{cite web<br />
|title=Immersion by Boat in Ichamati at Basirhat: Crowds of Hundreds of Thousands on Both Riverbanks<br />
|url=https://zeenews.india.com/bengali/videos/durga-puja-2023-in-basirhat-ichamati-the-boat-is-abandoned-the-two-banks-of-the-river-are-crowded-with-millions-of-people_492704.html<br />
|website=Zee News Bengali<br />
|publisher=Zee Media Corporation<br />
|date=2023-10-24<br />
|access-date=2025-02-23<br />
|language=Bengali<br />
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web<br />
|title=ইছামতী নদীতে দুর্গা প্রতিমা বিসর্জন<br />
|url=https://banglalive.com/photo-story-on-durga-idol-immesion-in-basirhat/<br />
|website=BanglaLive<br />
|author=শুভদীপ ঘোষ<br />
|date=2024-10-12<br />
|access-date=2025-02-23<br />
|language=bn<br />
}}</ref> After Vijayadashami, local government organise a puja carnival with the idols of top 10 puja pandel.<ref>{{cite web<br />
|title=Basirhat Durga Puja Carnival<br />
|url=https://kolkatatv.org/video/basirhat-durga-puja-carnival-%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%87-%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%81-%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8B-%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE/<br />
|website=Kolkata TV<br />
|publisher=Kolkata TV<br />
|access-date=22 June 2025<br />
}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Kali Puja and Diwali===<br />
Basirhat also celebrates [[Kali Puja]] and [[Diwali]] vibrantly as many club communities also organise this festival properly. [[Basirhat Dakshina Kali Temple]] is famous for its unique rituals. This temple's origin dates back more than 300 years back as [[Raja Krishnachandra]] established this temple.<ref>{{cite web |title=বসিরহাট: এঁচোড়-চিংড়ি দিয়ে ভোগ হয় সংগ্রামপুরের দক্ষিণা কালী পুজোয়<br />
|url=https://eisamay.com/west-bengal-news/24pargana-news/basirhat-sangrampur-dakshina-kali-puja-with-echor-chingri/articleshow/105067259.cms |website=Ei Samay |date=2023-09-28 |access-date=2025-10-11}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=সংগ্রামপুরের প্রাচীন কালী মন্দিরে সঙ্গে জড়িয়ে আছে বহু ইতিহাস |url=https://bengali.news18.com/news/south-bengal/historical-kali-temple-of-sangrampur-is-associated-with-lot-of-history-l18-1583513.html |website=News18 বাংলা |date=2025-09-16 |access-date=2025-10-12}}</ref><br />
<br />
[[File:Decoration of Diwali in Basirhat streets..jpg|thumb|Basirhat is decked up during Dhanteras and Diwali festival.]]<br />
<br />
===Cultural centers===<br />
Basirhat has got plenty of cultural and community centers for promoting the art and culture of the city, Rabindra Bhaban is one of them. Located near the Lake Terrace area, many concerts, performances, drama and art events are usually happen during the festive time or on the weekend. In 2017, Basirhat municipality allocated 4 Cr rupees for the further development of Rabindra Bhaban.<ref>{{cite web |title=The repair and renovation work of Rabindra Bhawan is underway |url=https://www.anandabazar.com/west-bengal/24-parganas/the-repair-and-renovation-work-of-rabindra-bhawan-is-underway-1.817482 |website=Anandabazar Patrika |language=bn |access-date=23 February 2025}}</ref><br />
[[File:Rabindra Bhaban, Basirhat city.jpg|thumb|Rabindra Bhaban, a cultural centre of Basirhat city]]<br />
<br />
===Literature===<br />
Basirhat is locally known as the hub of little magazines. Many publication agencies publish their books and little magazines every year on the day of ''Mahalaya'', which is known as the first day of durga puja. Every book features local and national articles, literature and art, which usually focus on bengali literature. Dated back to a thousand years ago, Basirhat is one of the oldest hub of little magazines in India. Currently Basirhat and surrounding areas has more than 100 publications.<ref>{{Cite news|author=Basu, Nirmal|title=সম্ভার সাজিয়ে বসিরহাটের পত্রিকাগুলি|work=Anandabazar Patrika|date=2017-11-06|url=https://www.anandabazar.com/west-bengal/24-parganas/patrikas-and-magazines-which-are-published-from-basirhat-1.702477|access-date=2025-05-06}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Cuisine==<br />
Basirhat is famous for its [[Sandesh (confectionery)]] or Kachagolla, with many sweet vendors of the local area demanding a [[Geographical Indication]] or GI tag for it. This famous Kachagolla is prepared by making curd from cow's milk and mixing it with sugar during other times of the year and jaggery during winter. Historically, it can be seen that the culture of making this Kachagolla in Basirhat is about 400 years old.<ref>{{cite news |title=বসিরহাটের কাঁচাগোল্লার জন্য জিআই ট্যাগের দাবি, সরব মিষ্টি ব্যবসায়ীরা |url=https://bengali.news18.com/news/south-bengal/sweet-sellers-of-basirhat-demands-gi-tag-for-basirhats-kanchagolla-l18-ank-local18-1970436.html |publisher=News18 Bengali |date=2 December 2024 |access-date=14 March 2025 |language=bn |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240303000000/https://bengali.news18.com/news/south-bengal/sweet-sellers-of-basirhat-demands-gi-tag-for-basirhats-kanchagolla-l18-ank-local18-1970436.html |archive-date=3 March 2024}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Transport==<br />
===Road===<br />
{{jct|NH|312|country=IND}}<ref>{{cite web <br />
|title=National Highways Wing <br />
|url=https://pwd.wb.gov.in/wings?Id=8b830a08-4f5f-44e0-a46f-c4983d5e9682 <br />
|website=West Bengal Public Works Department <br />
|publisher=Government of West Bengal <br />
|access-date=2025-03-14<br />
}}</ref> and {{jct|SH|2|state=WB|country=IND}}<ref>{{cite web <br />
|title=State Highway 2 <br />
|url=https://www.wbhdcl.gov.in/home/sh2 <br />
|website=West Bengal Highway Development Corporation Limited <br />
|publisher=Government of West Bengal <br />
|access-date=2025-03-14<br />
}}</ref> passes through the city. Basirhat is well connected with Barasat, Bongaon, [[Barrackpore]], Kolkata, [[Kalyani, West Bengal|Kalyani]], [[Krishnanagar, Nadia|Krishnanagar]] and other cities of West Bengal by road.<br />
<br />
A ring road is planned around Kolkata to reduce traffic and improve connectivity in the [[Kolkata metropolitan region|metropolitan]] area. The eastern part of this road will pass through Basirhat, helping the city become better connected to the rest of the region.<ref>{{cite web |title=কলকাতা ও শহরতলিতে রিং রোড! যানজট কমাতে বড় পরিকল্পনা রাজ্যের |url=https://bengali.news18.com/news/kolkata/kolkata-transport-ring-roads-can-be-seen-in-kolkata-and-outskirts-to-reduce-traffic-in-near-future-ss-1018838.html |website=News18 Bengali |language=bn |date=16 March 2024 |access-date=5 April 2025}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Railway===<br />
[[Basirhat railway station]] is the most busiest railway station after [[Barasat Junction railway station]] in Barasat-Hasnabad Suburban railway line of [[Sealdah railway division]].<ref>{{cite web<br />
|title=Basirhat (BSHT) Railway Station<br />
|url=https://www.ndtv.com/indian-railway/basirhat-bsht-station<br />
|website=NDTV Indian Railway<br />
|publisher=NDTV<br />
|access-date=2025-03-14<br />
}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Infrastructure==<br />
===Parks===<br />
Basirhat has got plenty of green spaces such as Rabindra Saikat Park, Lake Terrace (SurjaKanta Park), Bow Bazar Park, Hari Narayan Ghosh Park, Dinesh Majumder Park, Alok Jharna Park.<ref name="BasirhatMunicipality" /><br />
{{multiple image|perrow=3/3/total_width=300|caption_align=center|align=right|image1=Basirhat Surjakanta Lake View Park.jpg|image2=A neighborhood of Basirhat City, West Bengal.jpg|footer=From top to bottom: (a) Lake Terrace, Basirhat City; (b) A neighborhood portraying the environment of Basirhat, West Bengal, India}}<br />
<br />
===Shopping and Amenities===<br />
Basirhat is famous for its shopping street area, extended from city's boatghat area to Bowbazar area via Itinda Road. Recently many National and Multinational brands are opening their stores in Basirhat. Several new shopping malls have been built along the Itinda Road area of Basirhat in recent years.<ref>{{cite news |title=ছাড়ের হাতছানিতেও প্রায় ফাঁকা শপিং মল |trans-title=Shopping malls remain nearly empty despite big discounts |url=https://www.anandabazar.com/west-bengal/24-parganas/shopping-mall-are-empty-despite-high-discount-at-basirhat/cid/1545849 |work=Anandabazar Patrika |date=15 September 2024 |language=bn |access-date=22 April 2025}}</ref><br />
<br />
Another important commercial hub of Basirhat is located in Maitra Bagan area. Many reputable retail stores like [[Trent Limited|Zudio]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Zudio – Maitra Bagan, Basirhat |url=https://www.zudio.com/apps/s/zudio/storelocat/gift-voucher/westbengal/kolkata/zudio-maitra-bagan-basirhat-1211 |website=Zudio Official Store Locator |access-date=25 February 2026}}</ref> and [[Smart Bazaar|Reliance Smart Bazaar]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Contact Us – Reliance SMART Bazaar, Taki Road, North 24 Parganas |url=https://stores.reliancesmartbazaar.com/reliance-smart-bazaar-hypermarket-taki-road-north-24-parganas-345175/Contact-Us |website=Reliance SMART Bazaar Store Locator |access-date=25 February 2026}}</ref> are operating their stores in this area.<br />
<br />
==Civic administration==<br />
===Municipality===<br />
Civic administration is the responsibility of the Basirhat Municipality which is the seventh oldest in West Bengal<ref name="BasirhatMunicipality" /> after that of [[Kolkata]],<ref>{{cite web |title=History of Kolkata Municipal Corporation |url=https://www.kmcgov.in/KMCPortal/jsp/MunicipalHistoryHome.jsp |website=Kolkata Municipal Corporation |access-date=30 March 2025}}</ref> [[Uttarpara]],<ref>{{cite web |title=History of Uttarpara – Uttarpara Municipality |url=https://www.uttarparamunicipality.in/history-of-uttarpara.html |website=Uttarpara Municipality |access-date=30 March 2025}}</ref> [[Shantipur]],<ref>{{cite web |title=About Us – Shantipur Municipality |url=https://www.santipurmunicipality.org/about.php#:~:text=Santipur%20Municipality%20is%20the%20second,Vice%2DChairman%20of%20the%20Municipality. |website=Shantipur Municipality |access-date=30 March 2025}}</ref> [[Howrah]],<ref>{{cite web |title=About Howrah Municipal Corporation |url=https://www.myhmc.in/about-hmc/ |website=Howrah Municipal Corporation |access-date=30 March 2025}}</ref> [[Krishnanagar, Nadia|Krishnanagar]],<ref>{{cite web |title=About Us – Krishnanagar Municipality |url=https://krishnanagarmunicipality.com/public/about-us |website=Krishnanagar Municipality |access-date=30 March 2025}}</ref> and [[Burdwan]].<ref>{{cite web |title=History of Burdwan Municipality |url=https://www.burdwanmunicipality.gov.in/about.php?subject=History%20of%20Burdwan%20Municipality |website=Burdwan Municipality |access-date=30 March 2025}}</ref> Basirhat Municipality covers an area of {{cvt|22.01|km2}}. It has jurisdiction over the entire city of Basirhat. It is divided into 23 administrative wards.<ref name="BasirhatMunicipality" /><br />
<br />
===Police station===<br />
Basirhat police station covers an area of 267&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> and serves a population of 637,538. Basirhat PS has under it Basirhat town outpost and two other outposts at Panitor and Boatghat. The police district has a 22&nbsp;km border, out which 14&nbsp;km is land border and 8&nbsp;km is riverine border. 11&nbsp;km of the border remains unfenced. Basirhat PS has jurisdiction over Basirhat municipal area and [[Basirhat I]] CD Block.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://n24pgspolice.in/home/police-station.php?search_key=17 | title = Know your police station | work = Basirhat PS | publisher = North 24 Parganas district police | access-date = 15 May 2018 | archive-date = 15 May 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180515185205/http://n24pgspolice.in/home/police-station.php?search_key=17 | url-status = dead }}</ref><br />
<br />
Around half of the 4,095&nbsp;km long India-Bangladesh border has been fenced and vigil along the border has been tightened up. As of 2017, Cattle smuggling across the border was unofficially estimated to be a Rs. 4,000 crore business, half of it across the Basirhat border and the balance through [[Malda, West Bengal|Malda]] and [[Murshidabad]].<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.firstpost.com/india/riots-in-basirhat-has-nothing-to-do-with-religion-its-a-hindu-muslim-fight-over-controlling-cow-smuggling-3805135.html | title = Riots in Basirhat had nothing to do with religion, it's a Hindu-Muslim fight over controlling cow smuggling |first = Shantanu| last= Guha Roy |date = 12 July 2017 | publisher = Firstpost, 13 July 2013 |access-date = 15 May 2018}}</ref><br />
<br />
In 2017, ''[[The Sunday Guardian]]'' reported, “The crackdown by the [[Border Security Force]] (BSF) on the illegal, but lucrative, business of cow smuggling along the India-Bangladesh border in West Bengal’s North 24 Parganas district, resulted in immense resentment among a section of the area’s minority community. This culminated in the communal flare-up in the state’s Basirhat sub-division earlier this month. A source close to the state’s ruling [[Trinamool Congress]] told The Sunday Guardian over phone, “Cow smuggling to Bangladesh, through the riverine border in Basirhat, [[Taki, India|Taki]] and other adjoining areas, has taken a hit as the BSF has become very strict and is maintaining a constant vigil. This has hurt the locals, who were earning crores from these illegal activities. Rendered jobless, they blamed the situation on the majority community.”<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.sundayguardianlive.com/news/10167-crackdown-cow-smuggling-triggered-basirhat-violence |title = Crack down on cow smuggling triggered Basirhat violence | work= Dibyendu Mondal |date = 15 July 2017 |publisher= The Sunday Guardian, 16 July 2017 | access-date = 20 December 2018}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Communal Incidents===<br />
{{Main|2017 Baduria riots}}<br />
2017 Baduria riots, a massive riot broke down in Basirhat, [[Baduria]] and adjoining areas in July, 2017 because of a [[Facebook]] post.<ref>{{Cite news |title=A dangerous turn: the violence in Basirhat |url=https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/editorial/a-dangerous-turn/article19245698.ece/ |work=The Hindu |date=10 July 2017 |access-date=1 April 2025}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Basirhat burns |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/states/story/20170724-basirhat-west-bengal-communal-riots-mamata-banerjee-1024013-2017-07-13 |work=India Today |date=13 July 2017 |access-date=1 April 2025}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Basirhat ground report: Residents of violence-torn region negotiate new communal faultlines |url=https://www.firstpost.com/india/basirhat-ground-report-residents-of-violence-torn-region-negotiate-new-communal-faultlines-3799785.html |work=Firstpost |date=10 July 2017 |access-date=1 April 2025}}</ref> It’s a divide that has opened up, after that Facebook post showing “objectionable images’’ which was widely circulated, following which a mob vandalised shops and homes, and set fire to vehicles, triggering retaliatory violence.<ref>{{Cite news |title=West Bengal violence: Rage, fear on either side of Basirhat divide |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/west-bengal-violence-rage-fear-on-either-side-of-basirhat-divide-4739496/ |work=The Indian Express |date=9 July 2017 |access-date=1 April 2025}}</ref> Several temples got attacked in the region.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Hindu temple being desecrated by mob at Dandirhat Aamtala during Basirhat riot |url=https://hindupost.in/news/video-hindu-temple-being-desecrated-by-mob-at-dandirhat-aamtala-during-basirhatriot/ |work=Hindu Post |date=6 July 2017 |access-date=1 April 2025}}</ref> Police got attacked with stones, which were thrown by the mobs.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Basirhat violence: Violent mob pelts stones at police trying to control the situation |url=https://news.abplive.com/videos/basirhat-violence-violent-mob-pelt-stones-at-police-trying-to-control-the-situation-549113 |work=ABP Live |date=6 July 2017 |access-date=1 April 2025}}</ref>[[Central Armed Police Forces|Central troops]] were deployed in the area, when the clashes got violent.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Central Troops Patrol West Bengal's Basirhat, Hit By Communal Riots |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/central-troops-patrol-west-bengals-basirhat-hit-by-communal-riots-1721078 |work=NDTV |date=6 July 2017 |access-date=1 April 2025}}</ref> Muslim mobs set upon shops and houses belonging to Hindus in Basirhat, Baduria, [[Swarupnagar (community development block)|Swarupnagar]], and Taki.<ref>{{cite news|title=Violence in Bengal over FB post; Mamata alleges Governor threat<br />
|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/kolkata/mob-goes-on-rampage-in-bengal-over-blasphemous-fb-post-mamata-alleges-governor-threat/story-iLlMCJgdwcbHycmlwRJS0O.html|work=Hindustan Times}}</ref> [[Rath Yatra]]s at several places were attacked.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Bengal violence: Basirhat’s Muslim leaders tried to pacify the rioting mob, but couldn’t |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/bengal-violence-basirhat-s-muslim-leaders-tried-to-pacify-the-rioting-mob-but-couldn-t/story-8O6XTqN3yhsvKlfYSDK2aK_amp.html |work=Hindustan Times |date=7 July 2017 |access-date=1 April 2025}}</ref> Violent clashes were triggered between the two communities of Basirhat city area.<ref>{{cite news|title=Violence in Bengal over FB post; Mamata alleges Governor threat|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/baduria-clashes-rajnath-singh-apprised-of-situation-seeks-reports-from-west-bengal-govt-4736586/|work=Indian Express}}</ref> The [[Government of India|Union government]] deployed four Border Security Force (BSF) companies containing a total of 400 personnel to check the violence in the region. [[Unlawful assembly#India|Section 144]] was imposed while the internet services were suspended.<ref>{{cite news|title=WB: Section 144 imposed in Basirhat post violent clashes over Facebook post|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/current-affairs/050717/wb-section-144-imposed-in-basirhat-post-violent-clashes-over-facebook-post.html|work=Deccan Chronicle}}</ref> In retaliatory attacks on 6 July, Hindu mobs attacked a [[dargah]] and vandalised shops and houses in addition to clashing with the police. The office of a local TMC leader also comes under attack. On July 7, several Hindu temples were attacked by a Muslim mob of about 70-90 people. They also allegedly attacked and harassed Hindu families.<ref>{{cite news|title=Baduria communal clashes: Rajnath Singh seeks report from West Bengal govt|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/bengal-violence-over-fb-post-basirhat-peaceful-blockades-lifted-after-meeting-between-police-locals/story-c4xyOMzHMYZIWMxGMlvd9H.html|work=Hindustan Times}}</ref> The ''[[BBC|British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC News)]]'' published in a article about the Basirhat violence. In that article, BBC tried to postulated all causes which caused the riot.<ref>{{Cite news |date=10 July 2017 |title=What is behind the religious violence in India's West Bengal? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-40553993 |access-date=1 April 2025 |work=BBC News}}</ref><br />
<br />
===CD block HQ===<br />
The headquarters of [[Basirhat I]] CD block are located at Basihat.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_A/19/1911_PART_A_DCHB_NORTH%20TWENTY%20FOUR%20PARGANAS.pdf |title = District Census Handbook North Twenty Four Parganas, Census of India 2011, Series 20, Part XII A |work = Map of North Twenty Four Parganas with CD Block HQs and Police Stations (on the fifth page) | publisher= Directorate of Census Operations, West Bengal| access-date = 15 May 2018}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Education ==<br />
===Colleges===<br />
* [[Basirhat College]] was established in 1947. Affiliated with the [[West Bengal State University]], it offers honours courses in Bengali, English, Sanskrit, philosophy, political science, history, geography, education, accountancy, mathematics, physics, chemistry, botany, zoology, physiology and economics. It also offers general courses in arts, science and commerce, and a post-graduate course in Bengali.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://basirhatcollege.org/ | title =Basirhat College | publisher =BC |access-date =15 May 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.collegeadmission.in/BasirhatCollege/Basirhat_College.shtml | title = Basirhat College | publisher = College Admission | access-date = 15 May 2018 | archive-date = 10 May 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180510051151/http://www.collegeadmission.in/BasirhatCollege/Basirhat_College.shtml | url-status = dead }}</ref><br />
* [https://bmce.net.in/ Basirhat Mahabodhi College of Education]<br />
* [https://polytechnic.wbtetsd.gov.in/basirhatgovpoly Sir Rajendra Nath Mukherjee Government Polytechnic, Basirhat]<br />
<br />
===Schools===<br />
Basirhat municipal area has a total of 130 educational institutions across different levels. These include 11 pre-primary schools, 59 primary schools, 1 junior high school, 8 secondary schools, and 9 higher secondary schools.<ref>{{cite web |title=About Basirhat Municipality |website=Basirhat Municipality |url=https://basirhatmunicipality.in/ |access-date=20 April 2025}}</ref><br />
<br />
====English Medium Schools====<br />
Basirhat has a significant number of English-medium schools offering modern education to students across various levels. Some of those reputated institutions are,<br />
* [https://www.narayanaschools.in/west-bengal/basirhat Narayana School, Basirhat - CBSE]<br />
* [https://www.disbasirhat.co.in/ Doon International School, Basirhat - ICSE]<br />
* [https://misbasirhat.com/mis_home Mary Immaculate School, Basirhat - ICSE]<br />
[[File:The main gate of Bhabla Tantra Sir Rajendra High School.jpg|thumbnail|The Front Gate of Bhabla Tantra Sir Rajendra High School]]<br />
<br />
====Bengali Medium Schools====<br />
Basirhat has a lot of Bengali Medium Schools offering good education to students.<br />
*[[Basirhat High School]]<br />
*[[Basirhat Hari Mohan Dalal Girls' High School]]<br />
In the year of 1929, [[Basirhat High School]] was visited by [[Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose]], one of India’s most prominent freedom fighters. His visit inspired students and teachers to participate in the freedom movement and spread awareness about national unity and self-reliance.<ref>{{cite web |title=When Subhas Chandra Bose Arrived at Basirhat High School in Horse-Drawn Carriage |url=https://www.news18.com/education-career/netaji-jayanti-when-subhas-chandra-bose-arrived-at-basirhat-high-school-in-horse-drawn-carriage-8751792.html |website=News18 |publisher=Network18 |date=23 January 2024 |access-date=11 October 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose came at Basirhat school ‒ memories by students on Independence Day 2023 |url=https://eisamay.com/west-bengal-news/24pargana-news/netaji-subhash-chandra-bose-came-at-basirhat-school-memorises-by-students-on-independence-day-2023/articleshow/102750704.cms |website=Ei Samay |access-date=11 October 2025}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Healthcare ==<br />
The Basirhat District & Super Specialty Hospital under The Health & Family Welfare Department of the State Government of West Bengal has been given the responsibility of conserving and emerging the health care facility within Basirhat sub-division & its surrounding catchment area since 1965, Basirhat District Hospital & Super Specialty Hospital caters health services amongst 22.7 lakhs populations covering {{Units|1777|u={{km2}}}}. In the year 2013, the 250 bedded Basirhat Sub-Division Hospital augmented to 300 Bedded District Hospital and later on, in the year 2017 the District Hospital increased with additional 300 beds with introduction of Super Specialty Hospital, now Basirhat District Hospital & Super Specialty Hospital with 600 beds.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.wbhealth.gov.in/ | title = Health & Family Welfare Department | work = Health Statistics | publisher = Government of West Bengal | access-date = 15 May 2018 | archive-date = 28 October 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211028134305/https://qphs.fs.quoracdn.net/main-qimg-99a499ee367f0c1530476c81086270c8 | url-status = dead}}</ref><br />
<br />
In 2024, a government medical college was approved for Basirhat which will be known as Basirhat Medical College. According to the Chief Medical Health Officer, construction work is expected to begin by 2026, aiming to improve healthcare and medical education in the region.<ref>{{cite news |title=বসিরহাটে মেডিক্যাল কলেজ প্রকল্পে গতি! |url=https://bengali.news18.com/news/south-bengal/basiraht-medical-college-update-north-24-parganas-cmho-guesses-work-may-start-next-year-l18-local18-2235305.html |publisher=News18 Bengali |language=bn |date=5 July 2025 |access-date=7 July 2025}}</ref><br />
<br />
Basirhat is one of the areas where ground water is affected by [[Arsenic contamination of groundwater|arsenic contamination]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.soesju.org/arsenic/wb2.htm | title = Groundwater Arsenic contamination in West Bengal-India (19 years study ) | access-date = 2007-08-24 | work = Groundwater arsenic contamination status of North 24-Parganas district, one of the nine arsenic affected districts of West Bengal-India | publisher = SOES | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070927002938/http://www.soesju.org/arsenic/wb2.htm | archive-date = 27 September 2007 | url-status = dead}}</ref><ref name="Bhu-Jal">{{cite journal |title=Bhu-Jal News Quarterly Journal Arsenic in Ground Water in India |journal=Bhu-Jal News Quarterly Journal Arsenic in Ground Water in India |date=2009 |volume=24 |url=https://cgwb.gov.in/old_website/documents/Bhujal_News_24_2.pdf}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Notable people==<br />
* [[Bibhutibhushan Bandyopadhyay]]<br />
* [[Rajendra Nath Mookerjee]]<br />
* [[Dipendu Biswas]]<br />
* [[Nusrat Jahan]]<br />
* [[Saptarshi Banerjee]] <br />
* [[Tapan Bandyopadhyay]]<br />
* [[Rafikul Islam Mondal]]<br />
* [[Monami Ghosh]]<br />
* [[Manoj Mitra]]<br />
* [[Mihir Bose (footballer)]]<br />
* [[Biswanath Basu]]<br />
* [[Manoranjan Sur]]<br />
* [[Samik Bhattacharya]]<br />
* [[Renu Chakravartty]]<br />
* [[Amar Mitra (writer)]]<br />
* [[Titumir]]<br />
* [[:bn:দীনেশচন্দ্র_মজুমদার|Dinesh Chandra Majumder]]<br />
* [[Muhammad Shahidullah]]<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Lake Terrace, Basirhat]]<br />
* [[Basirhat district]]<br />
* [[North 24 Parganas]]<br />
* [[Durga Puja]]<br />
* [[Cities and towns in West Bengal]]<br />
* [[Barasat]]<br />
* [[Barrackpore]]<br />
<br />
==External links ==<br />
* {{Commons-inline}}<br />
* [http://www.basirhatmunicipality.in Basirhat Municipality Website]<br />
{{external media<br />
| float=right<br />
| video1= [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kFQlV7V-eV4 Fencing of India-Bangladesh border]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{reflist|30em}}<br />
<br />
{{North 24 Parganas District}}<br />
{{North 24 Parganas topics}}<br />
{{Municipalities of West Bengal}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Basirhat| ]]<br />
[[Category:Cities and towns in North 24 Parganas district]]<br />
[[Category:Cities in West Bengal]]</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=California&diff=466775California2026-03-24T20:05:06Z<p>AmitNeogi: update formatting and improved wording</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|U.S. state}}<br />
{{about|the U.S. state}}<br />
{{protection padlock|small=yes}}<br />
{{Use American English|date=February 2025}}<br />
{{Use mdy dates|date=September 2025}}<br />
{{Infobox U.S. state<br />
| native_name = <br />
| image_flag = Flag of California.svg<br />
| flag_alt = The flag shows a red stripe on the bottom in a white field, with a red star on the top left in the canton. In the center, a grizzly bear is on top of a mound of green grass on over the white field. Below it, text reads "CALIFORNIA REPUBLIC" in a Seal color.<br />
| name = California<br />
| image_seal = Great Seal of the State of California Colored.svg<br />
| flag_link = Flag of California<br />
| nickname = The Golden State<ref name="America's story California">{{Cite web |title=California |url=http://www.americaslibrary.gov/es/ca/es_ca_subj.html |access-date=July 3, 2020 |website=americaslibrary.gov}}</ref><br />
| motto = "[[Eureka (word)#California|Eureka]]"<ref name="motto-symbols">{{Cite web |title=Chapter 2 of Division 2 of Title 1 of the California Government Code |url=http://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/codes_displayText.xhtml?lawCode=GOV&division=2.&title=1.&part=&chapter=2.&article= |access-date=February 23, 2019 |website=[[California Office of Legislative Counsel]]}}</ref><br />
| anthem = "[[I Love You, California]]"{{break}}{{center|[[File:"I Love You, California" - Regional anthem of California.ogg]]}}<br />
| image_map = California in United States.svg<br />
| OfficialLang = [[Template:Official languages of U.S. states and territories|English]]<br />
| Languages = {{ubl|[[California English|English]] (only): 56.1%|[[Spanish language in California|Spanish]]: 28.3%|[[Languages of California|Others]]: 15.6%<ref name="Language">{{Cite web|title=Languages Spoken at Home|url= https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?text=Language&t=Language%20Spoken%20at%20Home&g=0400000US06&y=2020&tid=ACSST5Y2020.S1601|access-date=June 5, 2022|publisher= United States Census Bureau}}</ref>}}<br />
| population_demonym = {{ubl|Californian|[[Californio]] (archaic Spanish)|Californiano (Spanish)}}<br />
| LargestCity = [[Los Angeles]]<br />
| LargestCounty = [[Los Angeles County|Los Angeles]]<br />
| LargestMetro = [[Greater Los Angeles]]<br />
| area_rank = 3rd<br />
| area_total_sq_mi = 163,696<br />
| area_total_km2 = 423,970<br />
| width_mi = 250<br />
| width_km = 400<br />
| length_mi = 760<br />
| length_km = 1,220<br />
| area_water_percent = 4.7<br />
| Latitude = 32°32′ N to 42° N<br />
| Longitude = 114°8′ W to 124°26′ W<br />
| population_rank = 1st<br />
| population_as_of = 2025<br />
| 2020Pop = {{DecreaseNeutral}} 39,355,309 <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/CA/PST045224|accessdate=January 5, 2025|title= United States Census Quick Facts California}}</ref><br />
| MedianHouseholdIncome = {{Increase}} ${{round|95521|-2}} (2<span>0</span>23)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www2.census.gov/library/publications/2024/demo/acsbr-023.pdf|title=Household Income in States and Metropolitan Areas: 2023|accessdate=February 3, 2026}}</ref><br />
| 2020DensityUS = 251.3<br />
| 2020Density = 97<br />
| population_density_rank = 11th<br />
| IncomeRank = [[List of U.S. states and territories by income#States and territories ranked by median household income|5th]]<br />
| elevation_max_point = [[Mount Whitney]]<ref name=Mount_Whitney/><ref name=USGS/>{{refn|group=note|name=NAVD88}}{{refn|group=note|The summit of [[Mount Whitney]] is the highest point in the [[Contiguous United States]].}}<br />
| elevation_max_ft = 14,505<br />
| elevation_max_m = 4,421.0<br />
| elevation_ft = 2,900<br />
| elevation_m = 880<br />
| elevation_min_point = [[Badwater Basin]]<ref name=NED/><br />
| elevation_min_m = −85.0<br />
| elevation_min_ft = −279<br />
| Former = {{ubl|[[Mexican Cession]]|[[Interim government of California|Unorganized territory]]}}<br />
| AdmittanceDate = [[An Act for the Admission of the State of California|{{Start date and age|1850|09|09}}]]<br />
| AdmittanceOrder = 31st<br />
| Governor = {{nowrap|[[Gavin Newsom]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|D]])}}<br />
| Lieutenant Governor = {{nowrap|[[Eleni Kounalakis]] (D)}}<br />
| Legislature = [[California State Legislature|State Legislature]]<br />
| Upperhouse = [[California State Senate|State Senate]]<br />
| Lowerhouse = [[California State Assembly|State Assembly]]<br />
| Judiciary = [[Supreme Court of California]]<br />
| Senators = {{ubl|[[Alex Padilla]] (D)|[[Adam Schiff]] (D)}}<br />
| Representative = {{ubl|43 [[California Democratic Party|Democrats]]|7 [[California Republican Party|Republicans]]|1 [[Independent politician|Independent]]|1 vacant}}<br />
| timezone1 = [[Pacific Standard Time|PST]]<br />
| utc_offset1 = −08:00<br />
| timezone1_DST = [[Pacific Daylight Time|PDT]]<br />
| utc_offset1_DST = −07:00<br />
| iso_code = US-CA<br />
| postal_code = CA<br />
| TradAbbreviation = Calif., Cal., Cali.<br />
| website = {{url|https://ca.gov/}}<br />
| area_land_km2 = 403,932<br />
| area_land_sq_mi = 155,959<br />
| area_water_km2 = 20,047<br />
| area_water_sq_mi = 7,737<br />
| Capital = [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]]<br />
| Representatives = <br />
}}<br />
{{Infobox region symbols|country=United States<br />
<!--before modifying these state symbols please verify your changes against official California Government Code sections 420-429.8,<br />
http://www.leginfo.ca.gov/cgi-bin/displaycode?section=gov&group=00001-01000&file=420-429.8--><br />
| state = California<br />
| image_flag = <br />
| image_seal = <br />
| mammal = {{ubl|'''Land:''' [[California grizzly bear]] (state animal)<ref name="motto-symbols" />|'''Marine:''' [[Gray whale]]}}<br />
| amphibian = [[California red-legged frog]]<br />
| bird = [[California quail]]<br />
| colors = [[Blue]] & [[Gold (color)|Gold]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=California Government Code § 424 |url=http://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/codes_displaySection.xhtml?lawCode=GOV&sectionNum=424. |access-date=February 23, 2019 |website=[[California Office of Legislative Counsel]]}}</ref>{{force plural}}<br />
| dance = [[West Coast Swing]]<br />
| fish = {{ubl|'''Fresh water:''' [[Golden trout]]|'''Marine:''' [[Garibaldi (fish)|Garibaldi]]}}<br />
| flower = [[Eschscholzia californica|California poppy]]<br />
| folk_dance = [[Square dance]]<br />
| fossil = [[Smilodon|Sabre-toothed cat]]<br />
| gemstone = [[Benitoite]]<br />
| grass = [[Nassella pulchra|Purple needlegrass]]<br />
| insect = [[Zerene eurydice|California dogface butterfly]]<br />
| mineral = [[Gold|Native gold]]<br />
| image_quarter = 2005 CA Proof.png<br />
| quarter_release_date = 2005<br />
| reptile = [[Desert tortoise]]<br />
| tree = {{ubl|[[Sequoia sempervirens|Coast redwood]]|[[Sequoiadendron giganteum|Giant sequoia]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=California Government Code § 422 |url=http://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/codes_displaySection.xhtml?lawCode=GOV&sectionNum=422. |access-date=February 23, 2019 |website=[[California Office of Legislative Counsel]]}}</ref>}}<br />
| rock = [[Serpentine group|Serpentine]]<br />
| soil = [[San Joaquin (soil)|San Joaquin]]<br />
| sport = [[Surfing]]<br />
| tartan = [[California state tartan]]<br />
| image_route = California 1.svg<br />
| butterfly = <br />
| fruit = [[Avocado]]<br />
| vegetable = [[Artichoke]]<br />
| dinosaur = [[Augustynolophus]]<br />
| color = [[Blue]] & [[Gold (color)|Gold]]<br />
| ship = [[Californian (schooner)|''Californian'']]<br />
| mushroom = [[Cantharellus californicus|California Golden Chanterelle]]<br />
| crustacean = [[Dungeness crab]]}}<br />
<br />
'''California''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|k|æ|l|ɪ|ˈ|f|ɔːr|n|i|ə}}) is a [[U.S. state|state]] in the [[Western United States]] that lies on the [[West Coast of the United States|Pacific Coast]]. It borders [[Oregon]] to the north, [[Nevada]] and [[Arizona]] to the east, and shares [[Mexico–United States border|an international border]] with the [[Mexico|Mexican]] state of [[Baja California]] to the south. With almost 40{{spaces}}million residents across an area of {{convert|163696|sqmi|km2}}, it is the [[List of states and territories of the United States by population|largest state by population]], [[List of U.S. states and territories by area|third-largest state by area]] and the [[List of U.S. states and territories by GDP|largest state economy]] in the U.S., with a GDP of approximately $4.3 trillion.<br />
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Prior to [[European colonization of the Americas|European colonization]], California was one of the most culturally and linguistically diverse areas in [[pre-Columbian North America]]. European exploration in the 16th and 17th centuries led to the colonization by the [[Spanish Empire]]. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821, as a result of [[Mexican War of Independence|its successful war for independence]]. Following the [[Conquest of California|U.S. conquest of California]], part of the [[Mexican-American War]], California was [[Mexican Cession|ceded to the United States]] in 1848. The [[California gold rush]] started in 1848 and led to social and demographic changes, including the [[California genocide]]. It organized itself and was [[California Statehood Act|admitted as the 31st state in 1850]] as a [[Slave states and free states|free state]], following the [[Compromise of 1850]].<br />
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Despite declining populations since 2020, the [[Greater Los Angeles]], [[Inland Empire]], and [[San Francisco Bay Area|San Francisco Bay]] areas are the nation's second, twelfth, and thirteenth most populous [[Metropolitan statistical area|metropolitan areas]], with Los Angeles over 12 million residents, and the Inland Empire and Bay Area, each having 4 million residents.<ref>{{Cite web |title=American FactFinder—Results |url=https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180124024658/https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml |archive-date=January 24, 2018 |access-date=October 24, 2017 |website=factfinder.census.gov |publisher=U.S. Census Bureau}}</ref> [[Los Angeles]] is [[List of largest California cities by population|the state's most populous city]] and [[List of United States cities by population|is ranked second in population in the nation]]. California's [[List of capitals in the United States|capital]] is [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]]. Part of [[the Californias]] region of North America, [[Geography of California|the state's diverse geography]] ranges from the [[Coastal California|Pacific Coast]] and metropolitan areas in the west to the [[Sierra Nevada]] mountains in the east, and from the [[Sequoia sempervirens|redwood]] and [[Douglas fir]] forests in the northwest to the [[Mojave Desert]] in the southeast. Two-thirds of the nation's [[List of earthquakes in California|earthquake]] risk lies in California.<ref name=CaliforniaEarthquakesHumanRisk>{{cite web|url=https://www.earthquakeauthority.com/California-Earthquake-Risk|title=What is the Earthquake Risk in California?|publisher=California Earthquake Authority|access-date=March 12, 2023|quote=CALIFORNIA IS HOME TO TWO-THIRDS OF OUR NATION'S EARTHQUAKE RISK.}}</ref> The [[Central Valley (California)|Central Valley]], a [[Soil fertility|fertile]] agricultural area, dominates the state's center. The large size of the state results in [[Climate of California|climates]] that vary from moist [[temperate rainforest]] in the north to arid [[Desert climate|desert]] in the interior, as well as snowy [[alpine climate|alpine]] in the [[List of mountain ranges of California|mountains]]. [[Droughts in California|Droughts]] and [[List of California wildfires|wildfires]] are an ongoing issue,<ref name="Elassar-2022">{{Cite web |last=Elassar |first=Alaa |date=April 3, 2022 |title=California once prohibited Native American fire practices. Now, it's asking tribes to use them to help prevent wildfires |url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/04/03/us/california-native-american-fire-practitioners-wildfires-climate/index.html |access-date=January 4, 2023 |website=CNN |language=en}}</ref> while [[atmospheric river|atmospheric rivers]] have become increasingly prevalent, leading to intense flooding events—especially in the winter.<br />
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The [[economy of California]] is the largest of any U.S. state, with an estimated 2025 [[gross state product]] of $4.296 trillion as of Q3 2025.<ref name="SQGDP1 State quarterly gross domestic product (GDP) summary">{{cite web |title=Regional Data|url=https://apps.bea.gov/itable/?ReqID=70&step=1&_gl=1*12vunek*_ga*MTg3Nzk1NTM0MS4xNzY5NDk3NjM1*_ga_J4698JNNFT*czE3Njk3NTUwODYkbzIkZzEkdDE3Njk3NTU1MzQkajQkbDAkaDA.#eyJhcHBpZCI6NzAsInN0ZXBzIjpbMSwyOSwyNSwzMSwyNiwyNywzMF0sImRhdGEiOltbIlRhYmxlSWQiLCI1MzIiXSxbIk1ham9yX0FyZWEiLCIwIl0sWyJTdGF0ZSIsWyIwIl1dLFsiQXJlYSIsWyIwNjAwMCJdXSxbIlN0YXRpc3RpYyIsWyItMSJdXSxbIlVuaXRfb2ZfbWVhc3VyZSIsIkxldmVscyJdLFsiWWVhciIsWyIyMDI1Il1dLFsiWWVhckJlZ2luIiwiLTEiXSxbIlllYXJfRW5kIiwiLTEiXV19|publisher=Bureau of Economic Analysis |access-date=January 30, 2026}}</ref> It is the world's [[List of country subdivisions by GDP over 200 billion US dollars|largest sub-national economy]] and, [[List of U.S. states and territories by GDP#US states by GDP if they were sovereign states|if it were an independent country]], would be the fourth-largest economy in the world (behind Germany and ahead of Japan, as of 2025) [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|by nominal GDP]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Burke |first=Molly |date=April 23, 2025 |title=California is now 4th-largest economy in world, surpassing Japan |url=https://www.sfchronicle.com/california/article/california-now-4th-largest-economy-world-20291440.php |access-date=April 23, 2025 |website=San Francisco Chronicle |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title= California's Economy |url=https://www.ppic.org/publication/californias-economy/|access-date=January 5, 2024 |website= Public Policy Institute of California|language=en}}</ref> [[Agriculture in California|The state's agricultural industry]] leads the nation in output,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Palmer |first=Brian |date=July 10, 2013 |title=The C-Free Diet |url=http://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/explainer/2013/07/california_grows_all_of_our_fruits_and_vegetables_what_would_we_eat_without.html |website=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=CDFA—Statistics |url=https://www.cdfa.ca.gov/statistics/ |publisher=California Department of Food and Agriculture}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=July 27, 2017 |title=California farms produce a lot of food—but what and how much might surprise you |work=[[Orange County Register]] |url=https://www.ocregister.com/2017/07/27/california-farms-produce-a-lot-of-food-but-what-and-how-much-might-surprise-you/}}</ref> fueled by its production of [[California dairy industry|dairy]], [[Almond cultivation in California|almonds]], and [[Grape cultivation in California|grapes]].<ref name="Jason Gibson-2012">{{Cite web |last1=Vic Tolomeo |last2=Kelly Krug |last3=Doug Flohr |last4=Jason Gibson |date=October 31, 2012 |title=California Agricultural Statistics: 2011 Crop Year |url=http://www.nass.usda.gov/Statistics_by_State/California/Publications/California_Ag_Statistics/Reports/2011cas-all.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224123521/http://www.nass.usda.gov/Statistics_by_State/California/Publications/California_Ag_Statistics/Reports/2011cas-all.pdf |archive-date=December 24, 2013 |access-date=July 1, 2013 |website=National Agricultural Statistics Service |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture}}</ref> With the busiest port in the country ([[Port of Los Angeles|Los Angeles]]), California plays a pivotal role in the global supply chain, hauling in about 40% of goods imported to the US.<ref name="Karlamangla">{{cite web |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2021/10/18/us/port-of-los-angeles-supply-chain.html |title=The Busiest Port in the U.S. |last=Karlamangla |first=Soumya |date= November 4, 2021|website= [[The New York Times]]|access-date=August 16, 2023 |quote= But despite its glitzy image, L.A. is home to the busiest port in the Western Hemisphere. It plays a major role in the global supply chain}}</ref> Notable contributions to [[Culture of California|popular culture]], ranging from [[Media in Los Angeles|entertainment]], [[Sports in California|sports]], [[Music of California|music]], and [[fashion]], have their origins in California. Despite an exodus of filmmaking from California, [[Hollywood, Los Angeles|Hollywood]] continues to be an important center of the [[Cinema of the United States|U.S. film]] industry, one of the oldest and largest film industries in the world; profoundly influencing global entertainment since the 1920s. The San Francisco Bay Area's [[Silicon Valley]] is the center of the global technology industry.<ref name="BEA">{{Cite web |title=California Gross domestic product (GDP) (millions of current dollars) |url=https://www.bea.gov/iTable/iTable.cfm?reqid=70&step=1&isuri=1&acrdn=1#reqid=70&step=10&isuri=1&7007=2014&7093=levels&7003=200&7035=-1&7036=-1&7001=1200&7002=1&7090=70&7004=naics&7005=-1&7006=06000 |access-date=July 19, 2015 |publisher=U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis |archive-date=August 6, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160806012919/https://www.bea.gov/iTable/iTable.cfm?reqid=70&step=1&isuri=1&acrdn=1#reqid=70&step=10&isuri=1&7007=2014&7093=levels&7003=200&7035=-1&7036=-1&7001=1200&7002=1&7090=70&7004=naics&7005=-1&7006=06000 }}</ref>{{toclimit|3}}<br />
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==Etymology==<br />
{{Main|Etymology of California|Island of California}}<br />
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The Spaniards gave the name {{lang|es|Las Californias}} to the [[Baja California peninsula|peninsula of Baja California]] (in modern-day Mexico). As Spanish explorers and settlers moved north and inland, the region known as "California", or "Las Californias", grew in both area and population. Eventually it included lands north of the peninsula, [[Alta California]], part of which became the present-day U.S. state of California.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://dornsife.usc.edu/magazine/how-california-got-its-name/#:~:text=The%20Spaniards%20gave%20the%20name,and%20Alta%20(Upper)%20California.|title=How California (Probably) Got Its Name|date=December 20, 2024 }}</ref><br />
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A 2017 state legislative document stated, "Numerous theories exist as to the origin and meaning of the word 'California,{{'"}} and that all anyone knows is the name was added to a map by 1541 "presumably by a Spanish navigator."<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/04/16/us/why-is-california-called-california.html|title=Why Is California Called California?|last=Karlamangla|first= Soumya|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=April 16, 2024|access-date=April 17, 2024}}</ref><ref>Damian Bacich, "How Did California Get its Name? You Might be Surprised," ''California Frontier Project'' (2020) [https://www.californiafrontier.net/name-california/ online]</ref><br />
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The name is most likely derived from the mythical island of California in the fictional story of [[Calafia|Queen Calafia]], as recorded in a 1510 work ''[[Las sergas de Esplandián|The Adventures of Esplandián]]'' by [[Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo]].<ref name="Gudde-2010">{{Cite book |last1=Gudde |first1=Erwin G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ibMwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR9 |title=California Place Names: The Origin and Etymology of Current Geographical Names |last2=Bright |first2=William |date=2010 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-26619-3 |pages=59–60 |orig-date=2004}}</ref> Queen Calafia's kingdom was said to be a remote land rich in gold and pearls, inhabited by beautiful dark-skinned women who wore gold armor and lived like [[Amazons]], and bred [[griffin]]s for war.<ref name="Gudde-2010" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Putnam |first=Ruth |title=California: The name |date=1917 |publisher=University of California |editor-last=Priestley |editor-first=Herbert Ingram |location=Berkeley |pages=356–361 |chapter=Appendix A: Etymology of the Word 'California': Surmises and Usage |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924008278347}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Vogeley |first=Nancy |date=April 20, 2001 |title=How Chivalry Formed the Myth of California |journal=Modern Language Quarterly |volume=62 |issue=2 |pages=165–188 |doi=10.1215/00267929-62-2-165 |s2cid=163100071 |issn = 0026-7929}}</ref><br />
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Abbreviations of the state's name include [[List of U.S. state abbreviations|CA, Cal, Cali, Calif]], and [[ISO 3166|US-CA]].<br />
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==History==<br />
{{Further|History of California before 1900}}<br />
[[File:California tribes & languages at contact.png|thumb|left|upright=1|A map of [[Indigenous Californians|Indigenous Californian]] tribes and languages at the time of European contact.]]<br />
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===Indigenous tribes===<br />
{{Main|Indigenous peoples of California}}<br />
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California was one of the most culturally and linguistically diverse areas in [[pre-Columbian North America]].<ref>Klein, Barry T. Reference Encyclopedia of the American Indian. 7th ed. West Nyack, NY: Todd Publications, 1995</ref> Historians generally agree that there were at least 300,000 people living in California prior to European colonization.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Eargle |first=Dolan H. Jr. |title=Native California guide: an introduction to the original peoples from earliest to modern times |date=2008 |publisher=Trees Co. Press |others=Fred Dodsworth |isbn=978-0-937401-11-8 |edition=Ed. 2008 |location=San Francisco |oclc=212858363 |quote=Estimates of the Native population in 1776 range from 300,000 to one million.}}</ref> The [[Indigenous peoples of California]] included more than [[Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas#California|70 distinct ethnic groups]], inhabiting environments ranging from mountains and deserts to islands and redwood forests.<ref>{{Cite web |title=California Indian History – California Native American Heritage Commission |url=https://nahc.ca.gov/resources/california-indian-history/ |access-date=November 25, 2022 |website=nahc.ca.gov}}</ref><br />
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Living in these diverse geographic areas, the indigenous peoples developed complex forms of ecosystem management, including [[forest gardening]] to ensure the regular availability of food and [[medicinal plants]].<ref name=":17">{{cite book |title=Before the Wilderness: Environmental Management by Native Californians |publisher=Ballena Press |year=1993 |isbn=0-87919-126-0 |editor=Blackburn, Thomas C. and Kat Anderson |location=Menlo Park, California}}</ref><ref name="Cunningham2010">{{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Laura |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nuYuYGHwCygC&pg=PA135 |title=State of Change: Forgotten Landscapes of California |publisher=Heyday |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-59714-136-9 |location=Berkeley, California |pages=135, 173–202 |access-date=March 3, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160427074202/https://books.google.com/books?id=nuYuYGHwCygC&pg=PA135 |archive-date=April 27, 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> This was a form of [[sustainable agriculture]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Anderson |first=M. Kat |url=https://archive.org/details/tendingwildnativ0000ande |title=Tending the Wild: Native American Knowledge And the Management of California's Natural Resources |publisher=University of California Press |year=2006 |isbn=0-520-24851-1 |url-access=registration}}</ref> To mitigate destructive large wildfires from ravaging the natural environment, indigenous peoples developed a practice of [[controlled burn]]ing.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/firecaliforniase00sugi |title=Fire in California's Ecosystems |publisher=University of California Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-520-24605-8 |editor-first1=Neil G. |editor-last1=Sugihara |pages=[https://archive.org/details/firecaliforniase00sugi/page/n433 417] |chapter=17 |editor2=Jan W. Van Wagtendonk |editor-first3=Kevin E. |editor-last3=Shaffer |editor-first4=Joann |editor-last4=Fites-Kaufman |editor-first5=Andrea E. |editor-last5=Thode |url-access=limited}}</ref> This practice was recognized for its benefits by the California government in 2022.<ref name="Elassar-2022"/><br />
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These groups were also diverse in their political organization, with bands, tribes, villages, and, on the resource-rich coasts, large [[chiefdom]]s, such as the [[Chumash people|Chumash]], [[Pomo people|Pomo]] and [[Salinan]]. Trade, intermarriage, craft specialists, and military alliances fostered social and economic relationships between many groups. Although nations would sometimes war, most armed conflicts were between groups of men for [[Revenge|vengeance]]. Acquiring territory was not usually the purpose of these small-scale battles.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sutton |first=Mark Q. |title=An introduction to native North America |date=2021 |isbn=978-0-367-54046-3 |edition=6th |location=New York |chapter=A Broad Portrait of California Native Societies |type=eBook |oclc=1204267735 |quote=Though actual battles with numerous combatants were sometimes fought, most armed conflict concerned small groups of men bent on revenge. Acquiring territory was not usually the goal of warfare.}}</ref><br />
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Men and women generally had different [[Gender role|roles]] in society. Women were often responsible for weaving, harvesting, processing, and preparing food, while men for hunting and other forms of physical labor. Most societies also had roles for people whom the Spanish referred to as ''joyas'',<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kroeber |first=Alfred Louis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4pcKAQAAIAAJ |title=Phonetic Constituents of the Native Languages of California |publisher=University Press |year=1912 |page=164 |language=en |quote=The institution of berdaches or women-men is one of frequent occurrence among the California natives... Among the coastal stocks south of San Francisco the custom flourished, and the individuals, termed 'joyas' by the Spanish...}}</ref> who they saw as "men who dressed as women".<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Miranda |first=Deborah A. |date=April 1, 2010 |title=Extermination of the Joyas: Gendercide in Spanish California |url=https://read.dukeupress.edu/glq/article/16/1-2/253/34704/EXTERMINATION-OF-THE-JOYASGendercide-in-Spanish |journal=GLQ: A Journal of Lesbian and Gay Studies |language=en |volume=16 |issue=1–2 |pages=253–284 |doi=10.1215/10642684-2009-022 |s2cid=145480469 |issn=1064-2684|url-access=subscription }}</ref> ''Joyas'' were responsible for [[Death rituals|death]], [[burial]], and [[mourning rituals]], and they performed women's social roles.<ref name=":6" /> Indigenous societies had terms such as [[two-spirit]] to refer to them. The Chumash referred to them as ''<nowiki/>'aqi.<ref name=":6" />'' The early Spanish settlers detested and sought to eliminate them.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Contemporary archaeology in theory: the new pragmatism |date=2010 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |editor1-first=Robert W. |editor1-last=Preucel |editor2-first=Stephen A. |editor2-last=Mrozowski |isbn=978-1-4051-5832-9 |edition=2nd |location=Chichester, U.K. |oclc=495597287 |quote=In 1775, Alta California Governor Pedro Fages observed that there were two to three joyas in each village, and that all Indians were consequently addicted to 'this abominable vice.'}}</ref><br />
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===Spanish period===<br />
{{Main|Province of Las Californias|Spanish missions in California}}<br />
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[[File:The landing of Cabrillo on California (detail from mural by Daniel Sayre Groesbeck at the Santa Barbara County Courthouse).jpg|thumb|left|Portuguese explorer [[Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo]] claiming California for the [[Spanish Empire]] in 1542]]<br />
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The first Europeans to explore the [[coast of California]] were the members of a [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] maritime expedition led by Portuguese captain [[Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo]] in 1542. Cabrillo was commissioned by [[Antonio de Mendoza]], the [[Viceroy of New Spain]], to lead an expedition up the Pacific coast in search of trade opportunities; they entered [[San Diego Bay]] on September 28, 1542, and reached at least as far north as [[San Miguel Island]].{{sfn|Rolle|1998|pp=20–21}} Privateer and explorer [[Francis Drake]] explored and claimed an undefined portion of the California coast in 1579, landing north of the future city of [[San Francisco]]. The first Asians to set foot on what would be the United States occurred in 1587, when [[Overseas Filipino|Filipino]] sailors arrived in Spanish ships at [[Morro Bay, California|Morro Bay]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Tillman |first1=Linda C. |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=vSKAAAAAQBAJ|page=202}} |title=The Handbook of Research on Educational Leadership for Equity and Diversity |last2=Scheurich |first2=James Joseph |date=August 21, 2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-12843-2 |page=202}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Huping Ling |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=K-DdvbJM_gQC|page=109}} |title=Asian America: Forming New Communities, Expanding Boundaries |date=April 29, 2009 |publisher=Rutgers University Press |isbn=978-0-8135-4867-8 |page=109}}</ref> Descendants of the Islamic Caliph Hasan ibn Ali, who had been living in formerly Muslim [[Manila]],<ref name="Majul1973">{{cite book |author=Majul, César Adib |title=Muslims in the Philippines |publisher=University of the Philippines Asian Center |year=1973 |location=Diliman}}</ref><ref name="Santiago1990">{{cite journal |last=Santiago |first=Luciano P.R. |date=1990 |title=The Houses of Lakandula, Matanda, and Soliman [1571–1898]: Genealogy and Group Identity |journal=Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society |volume=18}}</ref> transited through California while traveling to Guerrero, Mexico. These individuals, who had converted to Christianity while retaining some Islamic traditions, later played a role in [[Philippine military activities in the Americas|Mexico's wars of independence]].{{sfn|Rolle|1998|p=24}} [[Sebastián Vizcaíno]] explored and mapped the coast of California in 1602 for [[New Spain]], putting ashore in [[Monterey, California|Monterey]].{{sfn|Rolle|1998|p=26}} Despite the on-the-ground explorations of California in the 16th century, Rodríguez's [[island of California|idea of California as an island]] persisted. Such depictions appeared on many European maps well into the 18th century.<ref>{{Cite web |title=California as an Island in Maps—Online Exhibits |url=https://exhibits.stanford.edu/california-as-an-island |access-date=June 15, 2016 |website=Stanford University Libraries |date=December 7, 2015 |archive-date=August 12, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160812042020/https://exhibits.stanford.edu/california-as-an-island |url-status=dead }}</ref><br />
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The [[Portolá expedition]] of 1769–70 was a pivotal event in the Spanish colonization of California, resulting in the establishment of numerous missions, [[presidio]]s, and [[pueblos]]. The military and civil contingent of the expedition was led by [[Gaspar de Portolá]], who traveled over land from [[Sonora]] into California, while the religious component was headed by [[Junípero Serra]], who came by sea from [[Baja California]]. In 1769, Portolá and Serra established [[Mission San Diego de Alcalá]] and the [[Presidio of San Diego]], the first religious and military settlements founded by the Spanish in California. By the end of the expedition in 1770, they would establish the [[Presidio of Monterey]] and [[Mission San Carlos Borromeo de Carmelo]] on Monterey Bay.<br />
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[[File:Father Serra Celebrates Mass at Monterey by Léon Trousset.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|left|[[Junípero Serra]] conducting the first [[Mass in the Catholic Church|Mass]] in [[Monterey Bay]] in 1770]]<br />
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After the Portolà expedition, Spanish [[missionary|missionaries]] led by Father-President Serra set out to establish 21 [[Spanish missions of California]] along [[El Camino Real (California)|El Camino Real]] ("The Royal Road") and along the California coast, 16 sites of which having been chosen during the Portolá expedition. Numerous major cities in California grew out of missions, including [[San Francisco]] ([[Mission San Francisco de Asís]]), [[San Diego]] ([[Mission San Diego de Alcalá]]), [[Ventura, California|Ventura]] ([[Mission San Buenaventura]]), and [[Santa Barbara, California|Santa Barbara]] ([[Mission Santa Barbara]]), among others.<br />
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[[Juan Bautista de Anza]] led a similarly important expedition throughout California in 1775–76, which would extend deeper into the interior and north of California. The Anza expedition selected numerous sites for missions, presidios, and pueblos, which subsequently would be established by settlers. [[Gabriel Moraga]], a member of the expedition, would also christen many of California's prominent rivers with their names in 1775–1776, such as the [[Sacramento River]] and the [[San Joaquin River]]. After the expedition, Gabriel's son, [[José Joaquín Moraga]], would found the pueblo of [[San Jose, California|San Jose]] in 1777, making it the first civilian-established city in California.<br />
[[File:San_Juan_Capistrano,_California_(c._1806).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The Spanish founded [[Mission San Juan Capistrano]] in 1776, the third to be established of [[Spanish missions in California|California's missions]].]]<br />
During this same period, sailors from the [[Russian Empire]] explored along the northern coast of California. In 1812, the [[Russian-American Company]] established a trading post and small fortification at [[Fort Ross]] on the [[North Coast (California)|North Coast]].<ref name="Historical Atlas of California">Historical Atlas of California</ref>{{sfn|Rolle|1998|pp=51–52}} Fort Ross was primarily used to supply [[Russian America|Russia's Alaskan colonies]] with food supplies. The settlement did not meet much success, failing to attract settlers or establish long term trade viability, and was abandoned by 1841.<br />
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During the [[War of Mexican Independence]], Alta California was largely unaffected and uninvolved in the revolution,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mexican California: The Heyday of the Ranchos |url=https://www.csun.edu/~sg4002/courses/417/readings/mexican.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160222030913/http://www.csun.edu/~sg4002/courses/417/readings/mexican.pdf |archive-date=February 22, 2016 |website=California State University, Northridge}}</ref> though many [[Californio]]s supported independence from [[Spain]], which many believed had neglected California and limited its development.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.loc.gov/collections/california-first-person-narratives/articles-and-essays/early-california-history/mexican-california/|title=Mexican California &#124; Early California History: An Overview &#124; Articles and Essays &#124; California as I Saw It: First-Person Narratives of California's Early Years, 1849-1900 &#124; Digital Collections &#124; Library of Congress|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> Spain's trade monopoly on California had limited local trade prospects. Following Mexican independence, California ports were freely able to trade with foreign merchants. Governor [[Pablo Vicente de Solá]] presided over the transition from [[New Spain|Spanish colonial rule]] to independent Mexican rule.<br />
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===Mexican period===<br />
{{Main|Alta California|Ranchos of California}}<br />
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[[File:1836 alvarado flag.webp|thumb|left|The flag used by [[Californio]] leader [[Juan Bautista Alvarado]]'s 1836 [[California independence]] movement]]<br />
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In 1821, the [[Mexican War of Independence]] gave the [[Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire|Mexican Empire]] (which included California) independence from Spain. In 1822, the California's first legislature was formed, known as the [[Diputación de Alta California]]. The [[Missions of California|California mission system]], which controlled much of the best land in Alta California, was [[secularized]] by 1834 and became the property of the Mexican government.<ref name=nps/> The governor granted many square leagues of land to others with political influence. These huge ''[[Ranchos of California|ranchos]]'' or cattle ranches emerged as the dominant institutions of Mexican California. The ranchos developed under ownership by [[Californio]]s (Hispanics native of California) who traded cowhides and tallow with Boston merchants. Beef did not become a commodity until the 1849 [[California Gold Rush]].<br />
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From the 1820s, trappers and settlers from the U.S. and Canada began to arrive in Northern California. These new arrivals used the [[Siskiyou Trail]], [[California Trail]], [[Oregon Trail]] and [[Old Spanish Trail (trade route)|Old Spanish Trail]] to cross the rugged mountains and harsh deserts in and surrounding California. The early government of the newly independent Mexico was highly unstable, and in a reflection of this, from 1831 onwards, California also experienced a series of armed disputes, both internal and with the central Mexican government.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Altman |first=Linda Jacobs |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=rAgL-tgWOecC|page=117}} |title=California |date=2005 |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |isbn=978-0-7614-1737-8 |page=117 |access-date=March 16, 2013}}{{break}}{{cite book |title=Testimonios: Early California Through the Eyes of Women, 1815–1848 |url= {{google books |plainurl=y |id=DuvFpaRwJlgC||page=425}} |access-date=March 16, 2013 |date=2006 |publisher=Heyday |isbn=978-1-59714-033-1 |page=425}}</ref> During this tumultuous political period [[Juan Bautista Alvarado]] was able to secure the governorship during 1836–1842.<ref>{{harvnb|Starr|2007|p=17}}{{break}}{{Cite book |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=AYMPR6xAj50C||page=316}} |title=Historic Spots in California |date=2002 |publisher=Historic Spots in California |isbn=978-0-8047-7817-6 |editor-last=Hoover |editor-first=Mildred Brooke |page=316 |access-date=March 16, 2013 |editor-last2=Kyle |editor-first2=Douglas E.}}{{break}}{{cite book |last=Conway |first=J. D. |title=Monterey: Presidio, Pueblo, and Port |series=The Making of America Series |url= {{google books |plainurl=y |id=vz1jyn7Ti3oC|page=53}} |access-date=March 16, 2013 |date=2003 |publisher=Arcadia Publishing |isbn=978-0-7385-2423-8 |pages=53–55}}</ref> The military action which first brought Alvarado to power had momentarily declared California to be an independent state, and had been aided by [[Anglo-Americans|Anglo-American]] residents of California,<ref name="Graham1840">{{Cite book |last1=Billington |first1=Ray Allen |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=YoV-k7VcyZ0C|page=203}} |title=Westward Expansion: A History of the American Frontier |last2=Ridge |first2=Martin |date=2001 |publisher=University of New Mexico Press |isbn=978-0-8263-1981-4 |page=203 |author-link2=Martin Ridge (historian) |access-date=February 16, 2013}}</ref> including [[Isaac Graham]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hart |first=James David |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=teJCPQtWfOMC315|page=315}} |title=A Companion to California |date=1987 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-05544-5 |page=315 |access-date=March 16, 2013}}{{break}}{{cite book |last=Harlow |first=Neal |title=California Conquered: The Annexation of a Mexican Province, 1846–1850 |url= {{google books |plainurl=y |id=pApgP6lBVbMC|page=27}} |access-date=March 16, 2013 |date=1989 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-06605-2 |page=27}}</ref> In 1840, one hundred of those residents who did not have passports were arrested, leading to the [[Isaac Graham|Graham Affair]], which was resolved in part with the intercession of [[Royal Navy]] officials.<ref name="Graham1840" /><br />
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[[File:"General Vallejo Reviewing His Troops in Sonoma, 1846".jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|General [[Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo|Mariano G. Vallejo]] reviewing his troops in the [[Sonoma Plaza]], 1846]]<br />
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One of the largest ranchers in California was [[John Marsh (pioneer)|John Marsh]]. After failing to obtain justice against squatters on his land from the Mexican courts, he determined that California should become part of the United States. Marsh conducted a letter-writing campaign espousing the California climate, the soil, and other reasons to settle there, as well as the best route to follow, which became known as "Marsh's route". His letters were read, reread, passed around, and printed in newspapers throughout the country, and started the first wagon trains rolling to California.<ref>Lyman, George D. ''John Marsh, Pioneer: The Life Story of a Trail-Blazer on Six Frontiers'', pp. 237–39, The Chautauqua Press, Chautauqua, New York, 1931.</ref> After ushering in the period of organized emigration to California, Marsh became involved in a military battle between the much-hated Mexican general, [[Manuel Micheltorena]] and the California governor he had replaced, Juan Bautista Alvarado. At the [[Battle of Providencia]] near Los Angeles, he convinced each side that they had no reason to be fighting each other. As a result of Marsh's actions, they abandoned the fight, Micheltorena was defeated, and California-born [[Pio Pico]] was returned to the governorship. This paved the way to California's ultimate acquisition by the U.S.<ref>Lyman, 1931, pp. 250–62.</ref><ref>{{cite book | last=Stone | first=Irving | title=Men to Match My Mountains | publisher=Berkley | publication-place=New York | date=1956 | isbn=0-425-10544-X | pages=70–72}}</ref><ref>Winkley, John W. ''Dr. John Marsh, Wilderness Scout,'' pp. 67–69, The Parthenon Press, Nashville, Tennessee, 1962.</ref><ref>{{cite book | last=Stone | first=Irving | title=From Mud-flat Cove to Gold to Statehood | publisher=RSM Press | date=1999 | isbn=1-884995-17-9 | pages=66–68}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last=Salomon | first=Carlos Manuel | title=Pío Pico: The Last Governor of Mexican California | publisher=Univ. of Oklahoma Press | publication-place=Norman | date=2010 | isbn=978-0-8061-4090-2 | pages=68–76}}</ref><br />
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===U.S. conquest and the California Republic===<br />
{{Main|Conquest of California|Bear Flag Revolt}}<br />
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[[File:Fremont Raising the Bear Flag (engraved, c. 1860).jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.2|The 1846 [[Bear Flag Revolt]] declared the [[California Republic]] and prefaced the [[Conquest of California|American conquest of California]].]]<br />
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In 1846, a group of American settlers in and around [[Sonoma, California|Sonoma]] rebelled against Mexican rule during the [[Bear Flag Revolt]]. Afterward, rebels raised the [[Bear Flag]] (featuring a bear, a star, a red stripe and the words "California Republic") at Sonoma. The Republic's only president was [[William B. Ide]],<ref name="William B. Ide Adobe SHP">{{Cite web |title=William B. Ide Adobe SHP |url=http://www.parks.ca.gov/?page_id=458 |access-date=December 25, 2009 |publisher=California State Parks}}</ref> who played a pivotal role during the Bear Flag Revolt. This revolt by American settlers served as a prelude to the later American military invasion of California and was closely coordinated with nearby American military commanders.<br />
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The California Republic was short-lived;<ref>{{Cite web |last=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=1998 |title=The United States and California |url=http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/cbhtml/cbstates.html |access-date=June 5, 2015 |publisher=Library of Congress |newspaper=The Library of Congress}}</ref> the same year marked the outbreak of the [[Mexican–American War]] (1846–1848).<ref>{{Cite web |last=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=1999 |title=The U.S. Mexican War |url=https://www.pbs.org/kpbs/theborder/history/timeline/5.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010110094600/http://www.pbs.org/kpbs/theborder/history/timeline/5.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=January 10, 2001 |access-date=June 5, 2015 |website=The Border |publisher=KPBS}}{{break}}{{Cite book |last1=Matthew Kachur |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=1g2ReKdEZfIC|page=25}} |title=The Mexican-American War |last2=Jon Sterngass |date=July 1, 2006 |publisher=World Almanac Library |isbn=978-0-8368-7290-3 |pages=25–26}}{{break}}{{Cite book |last=Thomas M. Leonard |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=NQugPgduF0kC|page=141}} |title=James K. Polk: A Clear and Unquestionable Destiny |date=2001 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-8420-2647-5 |pages=141–143}}</ref><br />
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Commodore [[John D. Sloat]] of the [[U.S. Navy]] sailed into [[Monterey Bay]] in 1846 and began the [[Conquest of California|U.S. military invasion of California]], with Northern California capitulating in less than a month to the U.S. forces.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Spencer Tucker (Militärhistoriker) |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=FZVQcZpic-8C|page=55}} |title=The Encyclopedia of the Mexican-American War: A Political, Social, and Military History |date=2013 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-853-8 |pages=55–56}}</ref> In Southern California, Californios continued to resist American forces. Notable military engagements of the conquest include the [[Battle of San Pasqual]] and the [[Battle of Dominguez Rancho]] in Southern California, as well as the [[Battle of Olómpali]] and the [[Battle of Santa Clara (1847)|Battle of Santa Clara]] in Northern California. After a series of defensive battles in the south, the [[Treaty of Cahuenga]] was signed by the [[Californios]] on January 13, 1847, securing a censure and establishing [[de facto]] American control in California.<ref>{{Cite book |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=3cE1AAAAIAAJ|page=199}} |title=The Quarterly |date=1907 |publisher=Historical Society of Southern California |pages=199–201}}{{break}}{{cite book|first1=Hunt|last1=Janin|first2=Ursula|last2=Carlson|title=The California Campaigns of the U.S.-Mexican War, 1846–1848|url= {{google books |plainurl=y |id=_ImhCAAAQBAJ|page=149}}|date=April 20, 2015|publisher=McFarland|isbn=978-1-4766-2093-0|pages=149–151}}</ref><br />
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===Early American period===<br />
{{See also|California gold rush|Interim government of California}}<br />
[[File:Treaty of Cahuenga.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The [[Treaty of Cahuenga]], signed in 1847 by Californio [[Andrés Pico]] and American [[John C. Frémont]], was a ceasefire that ended the U.S. [[conquest of California]].]]<br />
Following the [[Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo]] (February 2, 1848) that ended the war, the westernmost portion of the annexed Mexican territory of Alta California soon became the American state of California, and the remainder of the old territory was then subdivided into the new American Territories of Arizona, Nevada, [[Colorado]] and [[Utah]]. The even more lightly populated and arid lower region of old Baja California remained as a part of Mexico. In 1846, the total settler population of the western part of the old Alta California had been estimated to be no more than 8,000, plus about 100,000 Native Americans, down from about 300,000 before Hispanic settlement in 1769.<ref name="Osborne2012">{{Cite book |last=Osborne |first=Thomas J. |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=FvA3jL4CFCMC}} |title=Pacific Eldorado: A History of Greater California |date=November 29, 2012 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-1-118-29217-4}}</ref><br />
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In 1848, only one week before the official American annexation of the area, gold was discovered in California, this being an event which was to forever alter both the state's demographics and its finances. Soon afterward, a massive influx of immigration into the area resulted, as prospectors and miners arrived by the thousands. The population burgeoned with U.S. citizens, Europeans, Middle Easterns, Chinese and other immigrants during the great [[California gold rush]]. By the time of California's application for statehood in 1850, the settler population of California had multiplied to 100,000. By 1854, more than 300,000 settlers had come.<ref>{{Cite web |title=California Gold Rush, 1848–1864 |url=http://www.learncalifornia.org/doc.asp?id=118 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727033216/http://www.learncalifornia.org/doc.asp?id=118 |archive-date=July 27, 2011 |access-date=July 22, 2008 |website=Learn California.org, a site designed for the [[California Secretary of State]]}}</ref> Between 1847 and 1870, the population of San Francisco increased from 500 to 150,000.<ref>{{Cite web |title=1870 Fast Facts |url=https://www.census.gov/history/www/through_the_decades/fast_facts/1870_fast_facts.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190305053406/https://www.census.gov/history/www/through_the_decades/fast_facts/1870_fast_facts.html |archive-date=March 5, 2019 |access-date=March 5, 2019 |website=United States Census Bureau}}</ref> <br />
{{multiple image<br />
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| header = [[California Gold Rush]]<br />
| image1 = California Clipper 500.jpg<br />
| caption1 = An ad to sail to California, {{circa|1850}}<br />
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| caption2 = [[San Francisco]] harbor, {{circa|1850–51}}<br />
| image3 = Mining_on_the_American_River_near_Sacramento,_circa_1852.jpg<br />
| caption3 = Mining near [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]], {{circa|1852}}<br />
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The seat of government for California under Spanish and later Mexican rule had been located in [[Monterey, California|Monterey]] from 1777 until 1845.<ref name="nps">{{Cite web |title=Introduction |url=http://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/ca/intro.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070823164224/http://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/ca/intro.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=August 23, 2007 |access-date=August 26, 2012 |website=Early History of the California Coast |publisher=National Park Service}}</ref> Pio Pico, the last Mexican governor of Alta California, had briefly moved the capital to Los Angeles in 1845. The U.S. [[consulate]] had also been located in Monterey, under consul [[Thomas O. Larkin]].<br />
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In 1849, a state Constitutional Convention was first held in Monterey. Among the first tasks of the convention was a decision on a location for the new state capital. The first full legislative sessions were held in San Jose (1850–1851). Subsequent locations included [[Vallejo, California|Vallejo]] (1852–1853), and nearby [[Benicia, California|Benicia]] (1853–1854); these locations eventually proved to be inadequate as well. The capital has been located in [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]] since 1854<ref name="Wilson 2006">{{Cite book |last1=Wilson |first1=Dotson |url=http://www.leginfo.ca.gov/pdf/caleg11.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.leginfo.ca.gov/pdf/caleg11.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live |title=California's Legislature |last2=Ebbert |first2=Brian S. |date=2006 |publisher=California State Assembly |edition=2006 |location=Sacramento |oclc=70700867}}</ref> with only a short break in 1862 when legislative sessions were held in San Francisco due to [[Great Flood of 1862|flooding in Sacramento]]. Once the state's Constitutional Convention had finalized its state constitution, it applied to the U.S. Congress for [[Admission to the Union|admission to statehood]]. On September 9, 1850, as part of the [[Compromise of 1850]], California became a [[Slave states and free states|free state]] and September{{spaces}}9 a [[California Admission Day|state holiday]].<br />
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During the [[American Civil War]] (1861–1865), California sent gold shipments eastward to Washington [[California in the American Civil War|in support of the Union]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.civilwar.org/learn/articles/10-facts-california-during-civil-war |title=10 Facts: California during the Civil War |work=American Battlefield Trust |date=August 13, 2013 |access-date=September 9, 2017}}</ref> However, due to the existence of a large contingent of pro-South sympathizers within the state, the state was not able to muster any full military regiments to send eastwards to officially serve in the Union war effort. Still, several smaller military units within the Union army, such as the [[2nd Regiment of Cavalry, Massachusetts Volunteers|"California 100 Company"]], were unofficially associated with the state of California due to a majority of their members being from California.<br />
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At the time of California's admission into the Union, travel between California and the rest of the continental U.S. had been a time-consuming and dangerous feat. Nineteen years later, and seven years after it was greenlighted by President Lincoln, the [[first transcontinental railroad]] was completed in 1869. California was then reachable from the eastern States in a week's time.<br />
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Much of the state was extremely well suited to fruit cultivation and agriculture in general. Vast expanses of wheat, other cereal crops, vegetable crops, cotton, and nut and fruit trees were grown (including oranges in Southern California), and the foundation was laid for the state's prodigious agricultural production in the Central Valley and elsewhere.<br />
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In the nineteenth century, a large number of migrants from China traveled to the state as part of the gold rush or to seek work.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Chinese Experience in 19th Century America |url=http://teachingresources.atlas.illinois.edu/chinese_exp/introduction04.html |website=teachingresources.atlas.illinois.edu}}</ref> Even though the Chinese proved indispensable in building the transcontinental railroad from California to Utah, perceived job competition with the Chinese led to anti-Chinese riots in the state, and eventually the U.S. ended migration from China partially as a response to pressure from California with the 1882 [[Chinese Exclusion Act]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Immigration to the United States, 1851-1900 {{!}} Rise of Industrial America, 1876-1900 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress |url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/rise-of-industrial-america-1876-1900/immigration-to-united-states-1851-1900/ |website=Library of Congress}}</ref><br />
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====California genocide====<br />
{{Main|California genocide}}<br />
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[[File:"Protecting The Settlers" Illustration by JR Browne for his work "The Indians Of California" 1864 (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|Between 1846 and 1873, U.S. government agents and private settlers perpetrated many massacres against [[Indigenous Californians]], known as the [[California genocide]]. At least 9,456 were killed with estimates as high as 100,000 deaths.<ref name=Madley/>]]<br />
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Under earlier Spanish and Mexican rule, California's original native population had precipitously declined, above all, from Eurasian diseases to which the [[Indigenous peoples of California|Indigenous people of California]] had not yet developed a natural immunity.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Destruction of the California Indians |url=http://www.learncalifornia.org/doc.asp?id=1617 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111207115225/http://www.learncalifornia.org/doc.asp?id=1617 |archive-date=December 7, 2011 |access-date=April 15, 2012 |publisher=[[California Secretary of State]]}}</ref> Under its new American administration, California's first governor [[Peter Hardeman Burnett]] instituted policies that have been described as a state-sanctioned policy of elimination of California's indigenous people.<ref name=":15">{{Cite book |last=Risling Baldy |first=Cutcha |title=We are dancing for you: native feminisms and the revitalization of women's coming-of-age ceremonies |date=2018 |isbn=978-0-295-74345-5 |location=Seattle |pages=61–63 |oclc=1032289446}}</ref> Burnett announced in 1851 in his Second Annual Message to the Legislature: "That a war of extermination will continue to be waged between the races until the Indian race becomes extinct must be expected. While we cannot anticipate the result with but painful regret, the inevitable destiny of the race is beyond the power and wisdom of man to avert."<ref name=":14">{{Cite book |last=Senate |first=California Legislature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XV1BAQAAMAAJ |title=The Journal of the Senate ... of the Legislature of the State of California ... |date=1851 |publisher=Sup't State Printing |page=792 |language=en}}</ref><br />
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As in other American states, indigenous peoples were forcibly removed from their lands by American [[settler]]s, like miners, ranchers, and farmers. Although California had entered the American union as a free state, the "loitering or orphaned Indians", were ''[[de facto]]'' enslaved by their new Anglo-American masters under the 1850 ''[[Act for the Government and Protection of Indians]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Act for the Government and Protection of Indians {{!}} American Experience |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/goldrush-act-for-government-and-protection-of-indians/ |access-date=March 3, 2021 |website=www.pbs.org}}</ref> One of these ''de facto'' [[Slave-auction|slave auctions]] was approved by the [[Los Angeles City Council]] and occurred for nearly twenty years.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |date=September 2, 2016 |title=Los Angeles' 1850s Slave Market Is Now the Site of a Federal Courthouse |url=https://www.kcet.org/shows/lost-la/los-angeles-1850s-slave-market-is-now-the-site-of-a-federal-courthouse |access-date=December 28, 2022 |website=KCET |language=en}}</ref> There were many massacres in which hundreds of indigenous people were killed by settlers for their land.<ref name="Baumgardner 2005 171">{{Cite book |last=Baumgardner |first=Frank H. |title=Killing for Land in Early California: Indian Blood at Round Valley: Founding the Nome Cult Indian Farm |date=2005 |publisher=Algora |isbn=978-0-87586-803-5 |location=New York |page=171 |oclc=693780699}}</ref><br />
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Between 1850 and 1860, the California state government paid around 1.5{{spaces}}million dollars (some 250,000 of which was reimbursed by the federal government)<ref>{{Cite web |title=California Militia and Expeditions Against the Indians, 1850–1859 |url=http://www.militarymuseum.org/MilitiaandIndians.html |access-date=March 21, 2012 |publisher=Militarymuseum.org}}</ref> to hire militias with the stated purpose of protecting settlers, however these militias perpetrated numerous massacres of indigenous people.<ref name="Baumgardner 2005 171"/> Indigenous people were also forcibly moved to reservations and rancherias, which were often small and isolated and without enough natural resources or funding from the government to adequately sustain the populations living on them. As a result, [[settler colonialism]] was a calamity for indigenous people. Several scholars and Native American activists, including Benjamin Madley and [[Ed Castillo]], have described the actions of the California government [[California Genocide|as a genocide]],<ref name=Madley>{{cite book|last=Madley |first=Benjamin |title=An American Genocide, The United States and the California Catastrophe, 1846–1873 |publisher= Yale University Press|year=2016|isbn=978-0-300-18136-4|pages=11, 351}}</ref> as well as the 40th governor of California [[Gavin Newsom]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=August 13, 2021 |title=California governor calls Native American treatment genocide |url=https://apnews.com/article/california-native-americans-982b507a846a4ad6bc184b3e7f99ec70 |access-date=December 29, 2022 |website=AP NEWS |language=en}}</ref> Benjamin Madley estimates that from 1846 to 1873, between 9,492 and 16,092 indigenous people were killed, including between 1,680 and 3,741 killed by the U.S. Army.<ref name=Madley/><br />
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===1900–present===<br />
{{Main|History of California (1900–present)}}<br />
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[[File:Post-and-Grant-Avenue-Look (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|left|View of the destruction from the [[1906 San Francisco earthquake]]]]<br />
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In the 20th century, thousands of Japanese people migrated to California. The state in 1913 passed the [[California Alien Land Law of 1913|Alien Land Act]], excluding Asian immigrants from owning land.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The U.S. Mainland: Growth and Resistance |url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/immigration/japanese/the-us-mainland-growth-and-resistance/ |website=Library of Congress}}</ref> During World War II, [[Internment of Japanese Americans|Japanese Americans in California were interned]] in concentration camps;<ref>{{Cite web |title=Behind the Wire: Japanese Immigration and Relocation in U.S. History |url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/immigration/japanese/behind-the-wire/ |access-date=February 8, 2021 |website=Library of Congress}}</ref> in 2020, California apologized.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dil |first=Cuneyt |date=February 20, 2020 |title=California apologizes for Japanese American internment |url=https://apnews.com/article/4b9234383de4814974f81e78a1edaa95 |access-date=February 8, 2021 |website=AP NEWS}}</ref><br />
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Migration to California accelerated during the early 20th century with the completion of transcontinental highways like the [[U.S. Route 66 (California)|Route 66]]. From 1900 to 1965, the population grew from fewer than one million to the greatest in the Union. In 1940, the [[U.S. Census Bureau]] reported California's population as 6% Hispanic, 2.4% Asian, and 90% non-Hispanic white.<ref>{{Cite web |title=California—Race and Hispanic Origin: 1850 to 1990 |url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0056/twps0056.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141224151538/http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0056/twps0056.html |archive-date=December 24, 2014 |publisher=U.S. Census Bureau}}</ref><br />
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To meet the population's needs, engineering feats like the [[California Aqueduct|California]] and [[Los Angeles Aqueduct]]s; the [[Oroville Dam|Oroville]] and [[Shasta Dam]]s; and the [[San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge|Bay]] and [[Golden Gate Bridge|Golden Gate]] Bridges were built. The state government adopted the [[California Master Plan for Higher Education]] in 1960 to develop an efficient system of public education.<br />
[[File:Paramount Pictures studio gate, c. 1940 (cropped).jpg|thumb|In the early 20th century, [[Major film studios|Hollywood studios]], like [[Paramount Pictures]], helped transform [[Hollywood, Los Angeles|Hollywood]] into the world capital of film and helped solidify [[Los Angeles]] as a global economic hub.]]<br />
Meanwhile, attracted to the mild Mediterranean climate, cheap land, and the state's variety of geography, filmmakers established the [[studio system]] in Hollywood in the 1920s. California manufactured 9% of U.S. armaments produced [[California during World War II|during World War II]], ranking third behind [[New York (state)|New York]] and [[Michigan]].<ref>[[Whiz Kids (Department of Defense)|Peck, Merton J.]] & [[Frederic M. Scherer|Scherer, Frederic M.]] ''The Weapons Acquisition Process: An Economic Analysis'' (1962) [[Harvard Business School]] p. 111</ref> California easily ranked first in production of military ships at drydock facilities in San Diego, Los Angeles, and the San Francisco Bay Area.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Shipbuilding Essay—World War II in the San Francisco Bay Area: A National Register of Historic Places Travel Itinerary |url=https://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/wwiibayarea/shipbuilding.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070630093056/http://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/wwIIbayarea/shipbuilding.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 30, 2007 |website=Nps.gov}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Richmond Shipyard Number Three: World War II in the San Francisco Bay Area: A National Register of Historic Places Travel Itinerary |url=https://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/wwIIbayarea/ric.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070626070052/http://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/wwIIbayarea/ric.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 26, 2007 |website=Nps.gov}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Rosie the Riveter National Historical Park, Kaiser Shipyards |url=https://cdn.loc.gov/master/pnp/habshaer/ca/ca3300/ca3393/data/ca3393data.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://cdn.loc.gov/master/pnp/habshaer/ca/ca3300/ca3393/data/ca3393data.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live |website=Csn.loc.gov}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=August 11, 2010 |title=Saving the Bay—The Greatest Shipbuilding Center in the World |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UhCiGY75wVw |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171203135248/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UhCiGY75wVw |archive-date=December 3, 2017 |work=[[KQED Inc.|KQED]] |via=[[YouTube]] |access-date=July 10, 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> Due to the hiring opportunities California offered during the conflict, the population multiplied from the immigration it received due to the work in its war factories, military bases, and training facilities.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/2010census/data/apportionment-pop-text.php|title=Resident Population Data – 2010 Census|website=Census.gov|access-date=October 7, 2017}}</ref> After World War II, California's economy expanded due to strong [[Aerospace manufacturer|aerospace]] and [[Defense industry|defense]] industries,<ref name="BWatkins2012">{{cite news |title=How California Lost its Mojo |first=Bill |last=Watkins |url= http://www.foxandhoundsdaily.com/2012/10/how-california-lost-its-mojo/ |newspaper=Fox and Hound Daily |date=October 10, 2012 |access-date=June 25, 2013}}{{break}}{{Cite book |last1=Nancy Kleniewski |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=dWuQ70MtnIQC|page=91}} |title=Cities, Change, and Conflict: A Political Economy of Urban Life |last2=Alexander R. Thomas |date=March 1, 2010 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-0-495-81222-7 |pages=91–92 |access-date=June 26, 2013}}</ref> whose size decreased following the end of the [[Cold War]].<ref name="BWatkins2012" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Moller |first=Rosa Maria |date=May 2008 |title=Aerospace States' Incentives to Attract The Industry |url=http://www.library.ca.gov/crb/08/08-005.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140824080139/http://www.library.ca.gov/crb/08/08-005.pdf |archive-date=August 24, 2014 |access-date=June 25, 2013 |website=library.ca.gov |publisher=California Research Bureau |pages=24–25}}{{break}}{{cite web |last1=Kleinhenz |first1=Robert A. |last2=Ritter-Martinez |first2=Kimberly |last3=De Anda |first3=Rafael |last4=Avila |first4=Elizabeth |date=August 2012 |title=The Aerospace Industry in Southern California |url=http://laedc.org/reports/AerospaceinSoCal_0812.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512204822/http://laedc.org/reports/AerospaceinSoCal_0812.pdf |archive-date=May 12, 2013 |access-date=June 25, 2013 |publisher=laedc.org |page=10 |quote=In 1987, California accounted for one in four aerospace jobs nationally, and in Los Angeles County, the share was one in ten. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War, the Department of Defense (DOD) sharply curtailed procurement spending. In 1995, DOD spending fell below $50{{spaces}}billion for the first time since 1982. Nowhere in the country were the changes in Pentagon outlays more apparent than in Southern California.}}{{break}}{{cite book |last1=Heikkila |first1=Eric John |url={{google books |plainurl=y|id=upaN7waaW7AC|page=18}} |title=Southern California and the World |last2=Pizarro |first2=Rafael |date=January 1, 2002 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-275-97112-0 |page=18 |access-date=June 25, 2013}}{{break}}{{cite book |last=Flanigan |first=James |url={{google books |plainurl=y|id=T-_FMngVdI4C|page=25}} |title=Smile Southern California, You're the Center of the Universe: The Economy and People of a Global Region |date=2009 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-5625-9 |page=25 |access-date=June 25, 2013}}</ref> [[Stanford University]] began encouraging faculty and graduates to stay instead of leaving the state, and develop a high-tech region, now known as [[Silicon Valley]].<ref name="Markoff">{{Cite news |last=Markoff |first=John |date=April 17, 2009 |title=Searching for Silicon Valley |work=The New York Times |url=http://travel.nytimes.com/2009/04/17/travel/escapes/17Amer.html |access-date=February 26, 2011}}</ref> As a result of this, California is a world center of the entertainment and music industries, of technology, engineering, and the aerospace industry, and as the U.S. center of agricultural production.{{sfn|Cohen|2003|pages=115–116}} Just before the [[Dot-com bubble|Dot Com Bust]], California had the fifth-largest economy in the world.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Davis |first1=Clark |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=6QxvAAAAQBAJ|page=11}} |title=The Human Tradition in California |last2=Igler |first2=David |date=August 1, 2002 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |isbn=978-1-4616-4431-6 |page=11}}{{break}}{{cite news |last=Treanor |first=Jill |date=July 17, 2001 |title=Pink slip season in Silicon Valley |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2001/jul/17/internetnews.business |access-date=April 22, 2015 |newspaper=The Guardian |location=United Kingdom |quote=This micro-economy—the world's fifth largest economy in its own right—started to feel the pain of the new technology meltdown first.}}</ref><br />
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In the mid and late twentieth century, race-related incidents occurred. Tensions between police and African Americans, combined with unemployment and poverty in inner cities, led to riots, such as the 1992 [[1992 Los Angeles riots|Rodney King riots.]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=June 12, 2017 |title=Watts Rebellion (Los Angeles) |url=https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/encyclopedia/watts-rebellion-los-angeles |access-date=February 7, 2021 |website=The Martin Luther King, Jr., Research and Education Institute |publisher=Stanford University}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Sastry |first1=Anjuli |last2=Grisby Bates |first2=Karen |title=When LA Erupted In Anger: A Look Back At The Rodney King Riots |url=https://www.npr.org/2017/04/26/524744989/when-la-erupted-in-anger-a-look-back-at-the-rodney-king-riots |access-date=February 7, 2021 |website=NPR|date=April 26, 2017 }}</ref> California was the hub of the [[Black Panther Party]], known for arming African Americans to defend against racial injustice.<ref>{{Cite web |date=July 23, 2019 |title=The Black Panther Party: Challenging Police and Promoting Social Change |url=https://nmaahc.si.edu/blog-post/black-panther-party-challenging-police-and-promoting-social-change |access-date=February 7, 2021 |website=National Museum of African American History and Culture}}</ref> Mexican, Filipino, and other migrant farm workers rallied in the state around [[Cesar Chavez]] for better pay in the 1960s and 70s.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pao |first=Maureen |title=Cesar Chavez: The Life Behind A Legacy Of Farm Labor Rights |url=https://www.npr.org/2016/08/02/488428577/cesar-chavez-the-life-behind-a-legacy-of-farm-labor-rights |access-date=February 7, 2021 |website=NPR|date=August 12, 2016 }}</ref><br />
[[File:Cesar Chavez and Brown Berets at peace rally.jpg|thumb|left|Civil rights activist [[Cesar Chavez]], flanked by [[Brown Berets]], at a 1971 rally during the [[Chicano movement]]]]<br />
During the 20th century, two great disasters happened: the [[1906 San Francisco earthquake]] and 1928 [[St. Francis Dam]] flood remain the deadliest in U.S. history.<ref name="IIIMcNeill2004">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dmky95hwKr0C&pg=PA540 |title=Encyclopedia of World Environmental History, Volume 3: O–Z |date=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-93735-1 |editor-last=Krech |editor-first=Shepard III |pages=540– |access-date=November 23, 2012 |editor-last2=Merchant |editor-first2=Carolyn |editor-last3=McNeill |editor-first3=John Robert}}</ref><br />
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Although air pollution has been reduced, health problems associated with pollution continue. Brown haze known as "[[smog]]" has been substantially abated after federal and state restrictions on automobile exhaust.<ref>William Deverell, and Greg Hise, eds. ''Land of Sunshine: An Environmental History of Metropolitan Los Angeles'' (2005).</ref><ref>James E. Krier, and Edmund Ursin, ''Pollution and Policy: A Case Essay on California and Federal Experience with Motor Vehicle Air Pollution, 1940–1975'' (1978).</ref> An [[2000–2001 California electricity crisis|energy crisis in 2001]] led to [[rolling blackout]]s, soaring power rates, and the importation of electricity from neighboring states. [[Southern California Edison]] and [[Pacific Gas and Electric Company]] came under heavy criticism.<ref>Severin Borenstein, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2696582 "The Trouble With Electricity Markets: Understanding California's Restructuring Disaster"], ''Journal of Economic Perspectives'', Winter 2002, Vol. 16 Issue 1, pp. 191–211 (in JSTOR).</ref><br />
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Housing prices in urban areas continued to increase; a modest home which in the 1960s cost $25,000 would cost half a million dollars or more in urban areas by 2005. More people commuted longer hours to afford a home in more rural areas while earning larger salaries in the urban areas. Speculators bought houses, expecting to make a huge profit in months, then rolling it over by buying more properties. [[Mortgage]] companies were compliant, as people assumed prices would keep rising. The [[subprime mortgage crisis|bubble burst]] in 2007–2008 as prices began to crash. Hundreds of billions in property values vanished and foreclosures soared, as financial institutions and investors were badly hurt.<ref>Robert M. Hardaway, ''The Great American Housing Bubble: The Road to Collapse'' (2011), p. 22.</ref><ref>Stephen D. Cummings and Patrick B. Reddy, ''California after Arnold'' (2009), p. 102.</ref><br />
[[File:Steve Jobs presents iPhone (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|The 2007 launch of the [[IPhone (1st generation)|iPhone]] by [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] founder [[Steve Jobs]] in [[Silicon Valley]], the largest [[Technopole|tech hub]] in the world]]<br />
In the 21st century, droughts and frequent wildfires attributed to climate change have occurred.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Wilson |first=Scott |date=December 5, 2019 |title=Fires, floods and free parking: California's unending fight against climate change |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2019/national/climate-environment/climate-change-california/ |access-date=February 8, 2021 |newspaper=Washington Post}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Flavelle |first=Christopher |date=September 20, 2020 |title=How California Became Ground Zero for Climate Disasters |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/20/climate/california-climate-change-fires.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920201702/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/20/climate/california-climate-change-fires.html |archive-date=September 20, 2020 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=February 8, 2021 |website=The New York Times}}</ref> From 2011 to 2017, a [[2011–2017 California drought|persistent drought]] was the worst in its recorded history.<ref>{{Cite web |title=California Facing Worst Drought on Record |url=https://www.climate.gov/news-features/event-tracker/california-facing-worst-drought-record |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140302015456/http://www.climate.gov/news-features/event-tracker/california-facing-worst-drought-record |url-status=dead |archive-date=March 2, 2014 |access-date=February 8, 2021 |website=www.climate.gov}}</ref> The 2018 wildfire season was the state's deadliest and most destructive.<ref>{{Cite web |title=2018 California Wildfires |url=https://www.census.gov/topics/preparedness/events/wildfires/2018-ca-wildfires.html |access-date=February 8, 2021 |newspaper=Census.gov}}</ref><br />
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One of the first confirmed [[COVID-19]] cases in the U.S. occurred in California on January 26, 2020.<ref name="Wheeler2">{{cite news|last=Wheeler|first=Ian|date=February 4, 2020|title=Orange County coronavirus patient released, in good condition, health officials say|work=Orange County Register|url=https://www.ocregister.com/2020/02/04/risk-of-catching-coronavirus-in-so-cal-is-low-health-officials-say/|url-status=live|access-date=February 21, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200205195530/https://www.ocregister.com/2020/02/04/risk-of-catching-coronavirus-in-so-cal-is-low-health-officials-say/|archive-date=February 5, 2020}}</ref><ref name="uk.reuters.com2">{{cite web|date=February 2, 2020|title=Ninth case of fast-moving coronavirus confirmed in U.S.|url=https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-china-health-usa-california-idUKKBN1ZX01P|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200203011127/https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-china-health-usa-california-idUKKBN1ZX01P|archive-date=February 3, 2020|access-date=February 3, 2020|work=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> A [[State of emergency#United States|state of emergency]] was declared in the state on March 4, 2020, and remained in effect until Governor [[Gavin Newsom]] ended it in February 2023.<ref>{{cite news|date=March 21, 2023|title=California Ends COVID-19 State of Emergency|work=State Center Community College District|url=https://www.scccd.edu/news/2023/california-ends-covid-19-state-of-emergency.html}}</ref> A mandatory statewide [[stay-at-home order]] was issued on March 19, 2020, which was ended in January 2021.<ref>{{Cite web|date=January 26, 2021|title=California Governor Gavin Newsom lifts virus stay-at-home orders|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/california-covid-stay-at-home-order-lifted/|url-status=live|access-date=February 24, 2021|website=CBS News|language=en-US|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126123803/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/california-covid-stay-at-home-order-lifted/ |archive-date=January 26, 2021 }}</ref><br />
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Cultural and [[language revitalization]] efforts among indigenous Californians have progressed among tribes as of 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |date=November 28, 2022 |title=What Does It Take To Reawaken a Native Language? |url=https://www.kcet.org/news-community/what-does-it-take-to-reawaken-a-native-language |access-date=January 2, 2023 |website=KCET |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Whitebear |first=Luhui |title=Unsettled Records and the Restoration of Cultural Memories in Indigenous California |chapter=Drifting across Lines in the Sand: Unsettled Records and the Restoration of Cultural Memories in Indigenous California |date=June 19, 2022 |chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781351174282-5/drifting-across-lines-sand-luhui-whitebear |publisher=The Routledge Companion to Gender and the American West |doi=10.4324/9781351174282-5 |isbn=978-1-351-17428-2 |access-date=January 7, 2023}}</ref> Some [[Land Back|land returns]] to indigenous stewardship have occurred.<ref>{{Cite web |last=agencies |first=Dani Anguiano and |date=January 25, 2022 |title=Native American tribes reclaim California redwood land for preservation |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2022/jan/25/native-american-tribes-california-redwood-preservation |access-date=January 4, 2023 |website=the Guardian |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=November 22, 2022 |title=Native American land return movement makes gains, faces obstacles |url=https://andthewest.stanford.edu/2022/native-american-land-return-movement-makes-gains-faces-obstacles/ |access-date=January 7, 2023 |website=& the West |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ahtone |first=Tristan |date=April 5, 2022 |title=California offers $100 million for tribes to buy back their land. It won't go far. |url=https://grist.org/indigenous/california-offers-100-million-for-tribes-to-buy-back-their-land-it-wont-go-far/ |access-date=January 4, 2023 |website=Grist |language=en-us}}</ref> In 2022, the largest [[dam removal]] and river restoration project in U.S. history was announced for the [[Klamath River]], as a win for California tribes.<ref>{{Citation |title=California Tribes Hail Dam Removal Plan After 20-Year Fight |date=December 16, 2022 |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/california-tribes-hail-dam-removal-plan-after-20-year-fight/6877208.html |language=en |access-date=January 7, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=December 8, 2022 |title=Largest River Restoration Project in American History Set to Begin |url=https://www.gov.ca.gov/2022/12/08/75829/ |access-date=January 7, 2023 |website=California Governor |language=en}}</ref><br />
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==Geography==<br />
{{Main|Geography of California}}<br />
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{{Further|Northern California|Southern California}}<br />
[[File:California Topography and Geomorphic.gif|thumb|upright=1.2|left|[[Topographic map]] of California]]<br />
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Covering an area of {{convert|163,696|sqmi|km2|abbr=on}}, California is the [[List of U.S. states and territories by area|third-largest state in the U.S.]] in area, after [[Alaska]] and [[Texas]].<ref name="2000 population and housing">{{Cite web |date=April 2004 |title=2000 Census of Population and Housing |url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2000/phc3-us-pt1.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2000/phc3-us-pt1.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live |access-date=December 25, 2009 |publisher=[[US Census Bureau]] |page=29}}</ref> California is one of the most geographically diverse states in the union and is often geographically bisected into two regions, Southern California, comprising the ten southernmost counties,<ref>{{Cite journal |date=March 1916 |title=Figures Show California's Motoring Supremacy |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=p04zAQAAMAAJ|page=1}} |journal=Touring Topics |volume=8 |pages=38–9 |number=2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Cooley |first=Timothy J. |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=EXdAAQAAQBAJ|page=46}} |title=Surfing about Music |date=2014 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-95721-3 |page=46}}</ref> and Northern California, comprising the 48 northernmost counties.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Morgan |first=Neil |date=April 19, 1963 |title=Westward Tilt: Northern California |work=Lodi News-Sentinel |location=Lodi, California |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=2245&dat=19630419&id=Rd8zAAAAIBAJ&pg=2786,2022902 |access-date=September 7, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=Kr8rAQAAMAAJ|page=6}} |title=Kent Guide Manual (Harrison Narcotic Law) and Professional Registry |date=1917 |publisher=The Service Press |editor-last=Kent |editor-first=John E. |location=San Francisco, California |page=6}}</ref> It is bordered by [[Oregon]] to the north, [[Nevada]] to the east and northeast, [[Arizona]] to the southeast, the [[Pacific Ocean]] to the west and shares an international border with the [[Mexico|Mexican]] state of [[Baja California]] to the south (with which it makes up part of [[The Californias]] region of North America, alongside [[Baja California Sur]]).<br />
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In the middle of the state lies the [[California Central Valley]], bounded by the Sierra Nevada in the east, the [[Pacific Coast Ranges|coastal mountain ranges]] in the west, the [[Cascade Range]] to the north and by the [[Tehachapi Mountains]] in the south. The Central Valley is California's productive agricultural heartland.<br />
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Divided in two by the [[Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta]], the northern portion, the [[Sacramento Valley]] serves as the watershed of the [[Sacramento River]], while the southern portion, the [[San Joaquin Valley]] is the watershed for the [[San Joaquin River]]. Both valleys derive their names from the rivers that flow through them. With dredging, the Sacramento and the San Joaquin Rivers have remained deep enough for several inland cities to be [[seaport]]s.<br />
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{{multiple image<br />
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| image1 = Big Sur June 2008.jpg<br />
| caption1 = [[Big Sur]], on the [[Central Coast (California)|Central Coast]]<br />
| image2 = 1 yosemite valley tunnel view 2010.JPG<br />
| caption2 = [[Yosemite]], in the [[Sierra Nevada]]<br />
}}<br />
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The Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta is a critical water supply hub for the state. Water is diverted from the delta and through an extensive network of [[pump (Water)|pumps]] and canals that traverse nearly the length of the state, to the Central Valley and the State Water Projects and other needs. Water from the Delta provides drinking water for nearly 23{{spaces}}million people, almost two-thirds of the state's population as well as water for farmers on the west side of the San Joaquin Valley.<br />
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[[Suisun Bay]] lies at the confluence of the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers. The water is drained by the [[Carquinez Strait]], which flows into [[San Pablo Bay]], a northern extension of [[San Francisco Bay]], which then connects to the [[Pacific Ocean]] via the [[Golden Gate]] strait.<br />
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The [[Channel Islands of California|Channel Islands]] are located off the [[South Coast (California)|Southern coast]], while the [[Farallon Islands]] lie west of San Francisco.<br />
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The Sierra Nevada (Spanish for "snowy range") includes the highest peak in the [[contiguous United States|contiguous 48 states]], [[Mount Whitney]], at {{convert|14505|ft|m}}.<ref name="Mount_Whitney">{{cite ngs |id=GT1811|designation=Whitney|access-date=October 20, 2011}}</ref><ref name="USGS">{{Cite web |date=2001 |title=Elevations and Distances in the United States |url=http://egsc.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/booklets/elvadist/elvadist.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111015012701/http://egsc.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/booklets/elvadist/elvadist.html |archive-date=October 15, 2011 |access-date=October 21, 2011 |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|name="NAVD88"|Elevation adjusted to [[North American Vertical Datum of 1988]]}} The range embraces [[Yosemite Valley]], famous for its glacially carved domes, and [[Sequoia National Park]], home to the [[Sequoiadendron giganteum|giant sequoia]] trees, the largest living organisms on Earth, and the deep freshwater lake, [[Lake Tahoe]], the largest lake in the state by volume.<br />
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To the east of the Sierra Nevada are [[Owens Valley]] and [[Mono Lake]], an essential [[bird migration|migratory bird]] habitat. In the western part of the state is [[Clear Lake (California)|Clear Lake]], the largest freshwater lake by area entirely in California. Although Lake Tahoe is larger, it is divided by the California/Nevada border. The Sierra Nevada falls to Arctic temperatures in winter and has several dozen small glaciers, including [[Palisade Glacier]], the southernmost glacier in the U.S.<br />
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{{multiple image<br />
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| caption1 = [[Death Valley]], in the [[Mojave Desert]]<br />
| image2 = San-miguel-cuyler-hike (cropped).jpg<br />
| caption2 = [[San Miguel Island|San Miguel]], in the [[Channel Islands (California)|Channel Islands]]<br />
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The [[Tulare Lake]] was the largest freshwater lake west of the Mississippi River. A remnant of [[Pleistocene]]-era [[Lake Corcoran]], Tulare Lake dried up by the early 20th century after its tributary rivers were diverted for agricultural irrigation and municipal water uses.<ref>{{Cite news |date=April 26, 2017 |title=The Dried-Up Heart of California's Water Dilemma |work=Bloomberg |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2017-04-26/the-dried-up-heart-of-california-s-water-dilemma}}</ref><br />
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About 45% of the state's total surface area is covered by forests,<ref name="Forestry 2003">{{Cite book |last1=Laaksonen-Craig |first1=Susanna |url=http://anrcatalog.ucdavis.edu/pdf/8070.pdf |title=Forestry, Forest Products, and Forest Products Consumption in California |last2=Goldman |first2=George |last3=McKillop |first3=William |date=2003 |publisher=University of California—Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources |isbn=978-1-60107-248-1 |location=Davis, California |page=1 |access-date=December 12, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110221195646/http://anrcatalog.ucdavis.edu/pdf/8070.pdf |archive-date=February 21, 2011 }}</ref> and California's diversity of pine species is unmatched by any other state. California contains more forestland than any other state except Alaska. Many of the trees in the [[White Mountains (California)|California White Mountains]] are the oldest in the world; an individual [[bristlecone pine]] is over 5,000 years old.<ref name="Lanner">{{Cite book |last=Lanner |first=R. M. |title=The Bristlecone Book |date=2007 |publisher=Mountain Press |isbn=978-0-87842-538-9 |page=14}}</ref><ref name="oldest">{{Cite web |title=Oldlist |url=http://www.rmtrr.org/oldlist.htm |access-date=January 8, 2013 |publisher=Rocky Mountain Tree Ring Research}}</ref><br />
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In the south is a large inland salt lake, the [[Salton Sea]]. The south-central desert is called the [[Mojave Desert|Mojave]]; to the northeast of the Mojave lies [[Death Valley]], which contains the lowest and hottest place in North America, the [[Badwater Basin]] at {{convert|−279|ft|m}}.<ref name="NED">{{Cite web |date=September 21, 2015 |title=USGS National Elevation Dataset (NED) 1 meter Downloadable Data Collection from The National Map 3D Elevation Program (3DEP)—National Geospatial Data Asset (NGDA) National Elevation Data Set (NED) |url=https://catalog.data.gov/dataset/usgs-national-elevation-dataset-ned-1-meter-downloadable-data-collection-from-the-national-map- |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190325085854/https://catalog.data.gov/dataset/usgs-national-elevation-dataset-ned-1-meter-downloadable-data-collection-from-the-national-map- |archive-date=March 25, 2019 |access-date=September 22, 2015 |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]}}</ref> The horizontal distance from the bottom of Death Valley to the top of Mount Whitney is less than {{convert|90|mi|km}}. Indeed, almost all of southeastern California is arid, hot desert, with routine extreme high temperatures during the summer. The southeastern border of California with Arizona is entirely formed by the [[Colorado River]], from which the southern part of the state gets about half of its water.<br />
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A majority of California's cities are located in either the [[San Francisco Bay Area]] or the [[Sacramento metropolitan area]] in [[Northern California]]; or the [[Los Angeles metropolitan area|Los Angeles area]], the [[Inland Empire]], or the [[San Diego metropolitan area]] in [[Southern California]]. The Los Angeles Area, the Bay Area, and the San Diego metropolitan area are among several major metropolitan areas along the California coast.<br />
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As part of the [[Pacific Ring of Fire|Ring of Fire]], California is subject to [[tsunami]]s, [[Floods in California|floods]], [[Droughts in California|droughts]], [[Santa Ana winds]], [[List of California wildfires|wildfires]], and [[landslide]]s on steep terrain; California also has several [[volcano]]es. It has many [[List of earthquakes in California|earthquakes]] due to several faults running through the state, the largest being the [[San Andreas Fault]]. About 37,000 [[earthquake]]s are recorded each year; most are too small to be felt.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions |url=http://seismo.berkeley.edu/faq/rate_of_seism.html |access-date=April 22, 2011 |publisher=Seismo.berkeley.edu}}</ref> Among Americans at risk of serious harm from a major earthquake, two-thirds of that population are residents of California.<ref name=CaliforniaEarthquakesHumanRisk/>[[File:Köppen Climate Types California.png|thumb|upright=1.8|[[Köppen climate classification|Köppen climate]] types]]<br />
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===Climate===<br />
{{Main|Climate of California}}<br />
<br />
{{Further|Climate change in California}}Most of the state has a [[Mediterranean climate]]. The cool [[California Current]] offshore often creates summer [[fog]] near the coast. Farther inland, there are colder winters and hotter summers. The maritime moderation results in the shoreline summertime temperatures of Los Angeles and [[San Francisco]] being the coolest of all major metropolitan areas of the U.S. and uniquely cool compared to areas on the same latitude in the interior and on the east coast of the North American continent. Even the [[San Diego]] shoreline bordering Mexico is cooler in summer than most areas in the contiguous U.S. Just a few miles inland, summer temperature extremes are significantly higher, with downtown Los Angeles being several degrees [[Climate of the Los Angeles Basin|warmer]] than at the coast. The same [[microclimate]] phenomenon is seen in the [[San Francisco Bay Area#Climate|climate of the Bay Area]], where areas sheltered from the ocean experience significantly hotter summers and colder winters in contrast with nearby areas closer to the ocean.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://wrcc.dri.edu/|title=Western Regional Climate Center|website=wrcc.dri.edu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=California – Climate &#124; Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/California-state/Climate |website=www.britannica.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.differencebetween.net/science/difference-between-coastal-and-inland-climates/|title=Difference Between Coastal and Inland Climates|date=October 26, 2020}}</ref><br />
[[File:AERONET La Jolla.2007295.terra.250m.jpg|thumb|left|[[List of California wildfires|California wildfires]] affect the state yearly. The [[Santa Ana winds]] often expand fires and spread smoke over hundreds of miles.]]<br />
Northern parts of the state have more rain than the south. California's mountain ranges also influence the climate: some of the rainiest parts of the state are west-facing mountain slopes. Coastal northwestern California has a [[temperate climate]], and the Central Valley has a Mediterranean climate but with greater temperature extremes than the coast. The high mountains, including the Sierra Nevada, have an [[alpine climate]] with snow in winter and mild to moderate heat in summer.<br />
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California's mountains produce [[rain shadow]]s on the eastern side, creating extensive [[desert]]s. The higher elevation deserts of [[eastern California]] have hot summers and cold winters, while the low deserts east of the Southern California mountains have hot summers and nearly frostless mild winters. [[Death Valley]], a desert with large expanses below sea level, is considered the hottest location in the world; the highest temperature in the world,<ref name="newRecord">{{Cite journal |last=El Fadli |first=K. I. |display-authors=etal |date=September 2012 |title=World Meteorological Organization Assessment of the Purported World Record 58{{spaces}}°C Temperature Extreme at El Azizia, Libya (September 13, 1922) |journal=Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society |volume=94 |issue=2 |page=199 |bibcode=2013BAMS...94..199E |doi=10.1175/BAMS-D-12-00093.1 |doi-access=free}} (The 136.4{{spaces}}°F (58{{spaces}}°C), claimed by [['Aziziya]], [[Libya]], on September 13, 1922, has been officially deemed invalid by the [[World Meteorological Organization]].)</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=World Meteorological Organization World Weather / Climate Extremes Archive |url=http://wmo.asu.edu/world-highest-temperature |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130104143844/http://wmo.asu.edu/world-highest-temperature |archive-date=January 4, 2013 |access-date=January 10, 2013}}</ref> {{convert|134|°F|°C|1}}, was recorded there on July 10, 1913. The lowest temperature in California was {{convert|−45|°F}} on January 20, 1937, in [[Boca, California|Boca]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Weather Data: California, Boca, 1937, January |url=https://geographic.org/global_weather/weather_data.php?month=01&year=1937&id=USC00040931&path=weather_stations/usc0000000_usc0045999/USC00040931.dly&name=Boca&country=California |access-date=June 26, 2020}}</ref><br />
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The table below lists average temperatures for January and August in a selection of places throughout the state; some highly populated and some not. This includes the relatively cool summers of the [[Humboldt Bay]] region around [[Eureka, California|Eureka]], the extreme heat of [[Death Valley]], and the mountain climate of [[Mammoth Lakes, California|Mammoth]] in the Sierra Nevada.<br />
{{Clear left}}<br />
{|class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|+Average temperatures and precipitation for selected communities in California<ref name="California climate averages">{{Cite web |title=California climate averages |url=http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/city.php3?c=US&s=CA&statename=California-United-States-of-America |access-date=January 26, 2018 |publisher=Weatherbase}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
!Location<br />
! August{{break}}(°F)<br />
! August{{break}}(°C)<br />
! January{{break}}(°F)<br />
! January{{break}}(°C)<br />
! Annual{{break}}precipitation{{break}}(mm/in)<br />
|-<br />
|[[Los Angeles]] ||83/64 ||29/18 ||66/48 ||20/8 ||377/15<br />
|-<br />
|[[Los Angeles International Airport|LAX/LA Beaches]] ||75/64 ||23/18 ||65/49 ||18/9 ||326/13<br />
|-<br />
|[[San Diego, California|San Diego]] ||76/67 ||24/19 ||65/49 ||18/9 ||262/10<br />
|-<br />
|[[San Jose, California|San Jose]] ||82/58 ||27/14 ||58/42 ||14/5 ||401/16<br />
|-<br />
|[[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]] ||67/54 ||20/12 ||56/46 ||14/8 ||538/21<br />
|-<br />
|[[Fresno, California|Fresno]] ||97/66 ||34/19 ||55/38 ||12/3 ||292/11<br />
|-<br />
|[[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]] ||91/58 ||33/14 ||54/39 ||12/3 ||469/18<br />
|-<br />
|[[Oakland, California|Oakland]] ||73/58 ||23/14 ||58/44 ||14/7 ||588/23<br />
|-<br />
|[[Bakersfield, California|Bakersfield]] ||96/69 ||36/21 ||56/39 ||13/3 ||165/7<br />
|-<br />
|[[Riverside, California|Riverside]] ||94/60 ||35/18 ||67/39 ||19/4 ||260/10<br />
|-<br />
|[[Eureka, California|Eureka]] ||62/53 ||16/11 ||54/41 ||12/5 ||960/38<br />
|-<br />
|[[Death Valley]] ||115/86 ||46/30 ||67/40 ||19/4 ||60/2<br />
|-<br />
|[[Mammoth Lakes, California|Mammoth Lakes]] ||77/45 ||25/7 ||40/15 ||4/ −9 ||583/23<br />
|}<br />
The wide range of climates leads to a high demand for water. Over time, [[Droughts in California|droughts]] have been increasing [[Climate change in California|due to climate change]] and [[Water extraction|overextraction]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2022/02/14/western-drought-fueled-by-climate-change-is-the-worst-in-1200-years.html|title=Western drought fueled by climate change is the worst in 1,200 years, scientists say|first=Emma|last=Newburger|publisher=[[CNBC]]|date=February 14, 2022|access-date=February 18, 2022}}</ref> becoming less seasonal and more year-round, further straining California's [[electricity supply]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://abcnews.go.com/US/california-blackouts-power-grid/story?id=89460998|title=Why California has blackouts: A look at the power grid|first=Meredith|last=Deliso|publisher=ABC News|date=September 9, 2022|access-date=September 11, 2022}}</ref> and [[water security]]<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Boxall |first1=Bettina |last2=St. John |first2=Paige |date=November 10, 2018 |title=California's most destructive wildfire should not have come as a surprise |work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |url=https://latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-camp-fire-science-20181110-story.html |access-date=November 11, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Advancing Drought Science and Preparedness across the Nation |url=https://www.drought.gov/drought/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181111042024/https://www.drought.gov/drought/ |archive-date=November 11, 2018 |access-date=November 11, 2018 |publisher=National Integrated Drought Information System}}</ref> and having an impact on California business, industry, and agriculture.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.kvpr.org/business-economy/2022-03-14/drought-has-already-cost-close-to-2-billion-and-14-000-jobs-and-its-likely-not-over-yet |title= Drought has already cost close to $2 billion and 14,000 jobs, and it's likely not over yet|website=www.kvpr.org |date= March 14, 2022|access-date=July 13, 2022}}{{title missing|date=July 2022}}</ref><br />
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In 2022, a new state program was created in collaboration with [[indigenous peoples of California]] to revive the practice of [[controlled burn]]s as a way of clearing excessive forest debris and making landscapes more resilient to wildfires. [[Native American use of fire in ecosystems|Native American use of fire in ecosystem]] management was outlawed in 1911, yet has now been recognized.<ref name="Elassar-2022"/><br />
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===Ecology===<br />
{{Main|Ecology of California|Environment of California}}<br />
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[[File:Mount Whitney 2003-03-25.jpg|thumb|right|[[Mount Whitney]], in the Sierra Nevada, is the highest mountain in the [[contiguous U.S.]]]]<br />
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California is one of the ecologically richest and most diverse parts of the world, and includes some of the most endangered ecological communities. California is part of the [[Nearctic realm]] and spans a number of terrestrial [[ecoregion]]s.<ref name="The California Invasive Species List">{{Cite web |date=April 21, 2010 |title=The California Invasive Species List |url=http://www.iscc.ca.gov/docs/CaliforniaInvasiveSpeciesList.pdf |access-date=October 5, 2010 |publisher=iscc.ca.gov (California Invasive Species Advisory Committee)}}</ref><br />
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California's large number of [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] species includes [[Relict (biology)|relict]] species, which have died out elsewhere, such as the Catalina ironwood (''[[Lyonothamnus floribundus]]''). Many other endemics originated through differentiation or [[adaptive radiation]], whereby multiple species develop from a common ancestor to take advantage of diverse ecological conditions such as the California lilac (''[[Ceanothus]]'').{{citation needed|date=May 2024}} Many California endemics have become endangered, as urbanization, logging, [[overgrazing]], and the introduction of [[exotic species]] have encroached on their habitat.<br />
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===Flora and fauna===<br />
{{Main|Fauna of California|California Floristic Province}}<br />
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{{see also|List of California native plants}}<br />
<br />
{{multiple image<br />
| align = left<br />
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| header = <br />
| image1 = Grizzly Giant Mariposa Grove.jpg<br />
| caption1 = Yosemite's [[Grizzly Giant]], a 209' tall giant sequoia, Earth's [[List of tallest trees|largest tree species]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/seki/learn/nature/largest-trees-in-world.htm|title=The Largest Trees in the World|publisher=U.S. Department of the Interior: National Park Service|year=2025|location=Three Rivers, California}}</ref> Listed as endangered by the [[IUCN]], most [[List of giant sequoia groves|sequoia groves]] have been granted protected status.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://research.fs.usda.gov/silvics/giant-sequoia|title=Silvics of North America Project ''(Your guide to silviculture in North America)'': Giant Sequoia - Sequoiadendron giganteum (Lindl.) Buchholz Taxodiaceae—Redwood family|publisher=USDA Forest Service, Canadian Forest Service, and Comisión Nacional Forestal|year=2025}}</ref><br />
| image2 = JoshuaTree 20150911.jpg<br />
| caption2 = Originally utilized by [[Indigenous peoples of California|Indigenous peoples]] as a source of food and fiber for textiles, the western Joshua Tree (''[[Yucca brevifolia]]'') is a recognizable native plant of Californian deserts and protected under the State's ''Western Joshua Tree Conservation Act'' of 2023.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/jotr/learn/nature/jtrees.htm|title=Joshua Trees|publisher=U.S. Department of the Interior: National Park Service|year=2025|location=Twentynine Palms, California}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/programs/public_lands/pdfs/Western_Joshua_Tree_Status_Review_2022-04-13.pdf|title=Report to the Fish and Game Commission Status Review of Western Joshua Tree (Yucca brevifolia)|publisher=State of California Natural Resources Agency: Department of Fish and Wildlife|date=March 2022|location=Sacramento, California}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billTextClient.xhtml?bill_id=202320240SB122|title=SB-122 Public resources trailer bill.|publisher=California State Legislature|date=10 July 2023|location=Sacramento, California}}</ref><br />
}}<br />
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California boasts several superlatives in its collection of flora: the [[giant sequoia|largest trees]], the [[coast redwood|tallest trees]], and the [[pinus longaeva|oldest trees]]. California's native grasses are [[perennial plant]]s,<ref name="Restoring Native Grasses">{{Cite journal |last=Elstein |first=David |date=May 2004 |title=Restoring California's Native Grasses |url=https://agresearchmag.ars.usda.gov/2004/may/grass |journal=Agricultural Research Magazine |volume=52 |issue=5 |page=17 |access-date=December 25, 2009}}</ref> and there are close to hundred succulent species native to the state.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Native Plant of the Month: California Native Bunchgrasses |url=https://www.grassrootsecology.org/from-the-field/2023/8/14/native-plant-of-the-month-bunchgrasses#:~:text=By%20contrast,%20most%20California%20native%20grass%20species,in%20between%20for%20other%20plants%20to%20grow. |access-date=November 27, 2024 |website=Grassroots Ecology |language=en-US}}</ref> After European contact, these were generally replaced by [[invasive species]] of European annual grasses; and, in modern times, California's hills turn a characteristic golden-brown in summer.<ref name="The California Invasive Species List"/><br />
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Because California has the greatest diversity of climate and terrain, the state has six life zones which are the lower [[Sonoran Desert]]; upper Sonoran (foothill regions and some coastal lands), transition (coastal areas and moist northeastern counties); and the Canadian, Hudsonian, and Arctic Zones, comprising the state's highest elevations.<ref name="California: flora and fauna">{{Cite web |date=2010 |title=California: flora and fauna |url=http://www.city-data.com/states/California-Flora-and-fauna.html |access-date=September 7, 2010 |publisher=city-data.com}}</ref><br />
<br />
Plant life in the dry climate of the lower Sonoran zone contains a diversity of native cactus, mesquite, and paloverde. The [[Yucca brevifolia|Joshua tree]] is found in the Mojave Desert. Flowering plants include the dwarf desert poppy and a variety of [[aster (genus)|asters]]. [[Fremont cottonwood]] and [[valley oak]] thrive in the Central Valley. The upper Sonoran zone includes the chaparral belt, characterized by forests of small shrubs, stunted trees, and herbaceous plants. ''[[Nemophila]]'', [[Lamiaceae|mint]], ''[[Phacelia]]'', ''[[viola (plant)|Viola]]'', and the California poppy (''[[Eschscholzia californica]]'', the state flower) also flourish in this zone, along with the lupine, more species of which occur here than anywhere else in the world.<ref name="California: flora and fauna" /><br />
<br />
The transition zone includes most of California's forests with the redwood (''[[Sequoia sempervirens]]'') and the "big tree" or giant sequoia (''[[Sequoiadendron giganteum]]''), among the oldest living things on earth (some are said to have lived at least 4,000 years). [[Tanbark oak]], [[California laurel]], [[sugar pine]], [[Arbutus|madrona]], [[Acer macrophyllum|broad-leaved maple]], and [[Douglas-fir]] also grow here. Forest floors are covered with [[Polystichum|swordfern]], alumnroot, [[barrenwort]], and [[trillium]], and there are thickets of [[huckleberry]], [[azalea]], elder, and wild currant. Characteristic wild flowers include varieties of mariposa, [[tulip]], and [[Lilium columbianum|tiger]] and [[Lilium pardalinum|leopard]] lilies.<ref name="Sequoia sempervirens (D. Don) Endl.">{{Cite web |title=Sequoia sempervirens (D. Don) Endl |url=http://www.na.fs.fed.us/pubs/silvics_manual/volume_1/sequoia/sempervirens.htm |access-date=October 7, 2010 |publisher=fed.us (U.S. Forest Service) |archive-date=December 16, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101216063912/http://www.na.fs.fed.us/pubs/silvics_manual/volume_1/sequoia/sempervirens.htm }}</ref><br />
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{{multiple image<br />
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| image1 = California sea lion in La Jolla (70568).jpg<br />
| caption1 = A [[California sea lion]] in [[La Jolla]]<br />
| image2 = Tule Elk - Merced National Wildlife Refuge Bill Leikam 12-03-2010.jpg<br />
| caption2 = A [[Tule Elk]] in the [[San Joaquin Valley]]<br />
}}<br />
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The high elevations of the Canadian zone allow the [[Jeffrey pine]], [[red fir]], and [[lodgepole pine]] to thrive. Brushy areas are abundant with dwarf [[manzanita]] and ceanothus; the unique [[Calvatia sculpta|Sierra puffball]] is also found here. Right below the timberline, in the Hudsonian zone, the whitebark, foxtail, and silver pines grow. At about {{convert|10500|ft|m}}, begins the Arctic zone, a treeless region whose flora include a number of wildflowers, including [[Primula suffrutescens|Sierra primrose]], [[Aquilegia flavescens|yellow columbine]], [[Ranunculus|alpine buttercup]], and [[Dodecatheon alpinum|alpine shooting star]].<ref name="California: flora and fauna" /><ref name="Life Zones of the Central Sierra Nevada">{{Cite web |title=Life Zones of the Central Sierra Nevada |url=http://www.sierrahistorical.org/archives/lifezones.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301063716/http://www.sierrahistorical.org/archives/lifezones.html |archive-date=March 1, 2012 |access-date=October 5, 2010 |publisher=sierrahistorical.org}}</ref><br />
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[[Palm trees]] are a well-known feature of California, particularly in [[Southern California]] and [[Los Angeles]]; many species have been imported, though the ''Washington filifera'' (commonly known as the ''California fan palm'') is native to the state, mainly growing in the [[Colorado Desert]] oases.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.kcet.org/shows/lost-la/a-brief-history-of-palm-trees-in-southern-california |title= A Brief History of Palm Trees in Southern California |last= Masters|first= Nathan |date=December 7, 2011 |website= kcet.org |publisher= Public Media Group of Southern California/[[KCET]]/[[PBS]] |access-date= August 16, 2023}}</ref> Other common plants that have been introduced to the state include the [[eucalyptus]], [[acacia]], [[Schinus|pepper tree]], geranium, and [[Scotch broom]]. The species that are federally classified as endangered are the [[Erysimum capitatum|Contra Costa wallflower]], [[Oenothera deltoides subsp. howellii|Antioch Dunes evening primrose]], [[Tuctoria mucronata|Solano grass]], [[Delphinium variegatum|San Clemente Island larkspur]], [[Cordylanthus maritimus|salt marsh bird's beak]], [[Arabis blepharophylla|McDonald's rock-cress]], and [[Dudleya traskiae|Santa Barbara Island liveforever]]. {{As of|1997|12}}, 85 plant species were listed as threatened or endangered.<ref name="California: flora and fauna" /><br />
<br />
In the deserts of the lower Sonoran zone, the mammals include the [[jackrabbit]], [[kangaroo rat]], squirrel, and opossum. Common birds include the [[owl]], [[roadrunner]], [[cactus wren]], and various species of hawk. The area's reptilian life include the [[Crotalus cerastes|sidewinder viper]], [[desert tortoise]], and [[horned toad]]. The upper Sonoran zone boasts mammals such as the [[Pronghorn|antelope]], [[Dusky-footed woodrat|brown-footed woodrat]], and [[ring-tailed cat]]. Birds unique to this zone are the [[California thrasher]], [[Psaltriparus minimus|bushtit]], and [[California condor]].<ref name="California: flora and fauna" /><ref name="California Condor">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=California Condor |url=http://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/California_Condor/id |access-date=October 3, 2010 |publisher=The Cornell Lab of Ornithology}}</ref><ref name="CalPhotos: Browse Mammal Common Names">{{Cite web |date=October 2, 2010 |title=CalPhotos: Browse Mammal Common Names |url=http://calphotos.berkeley.edu/fauna/com-Mammal.html |access-date=October 3, 2010 |publisher=calphotos.berkeley.edu (BSCIT University of California, Berkeley)}}</ref><ref name="Quail Ridge Reserve: UC Davis Natural Reserve System">{{Cite web |date=April 5, 2007 |title=Quail Ridge Reserve: UC Davis Natural Reserve System |url=http://nrs.ucdavis.edu/quail/natural/birds_bushtit.htm |access-date=October 5, 2010 |publisher=nrs.ucdavis.edu (University of California at Davis: Natural Reserve System) |archive-date=June 10, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100610063556/http://nrs.ucdavis.edu/quail/Natural/Birds_bushtit.htm }}</ref><br />
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In the transition zone, there are Colombian [[black-tailed deer]], [[American black bear|black bears]], [[gray fox]]es, [[cougar]]s, [[bobcat]]s, and [[Roosevelt elk]]. Reptiles such as the garter snakes and rattlesnakes inhabit the zone. In addition, amphibians such as the [[Proteidae|water puppy]] and [[Batrachoseps attenuatus|redwood salamander]] are common too. Birds such as the [[kingfisher]], chickadee, [[towhee]], and hummingbird thrive here as well.<ref name="California: flora and fauna" /><ref name="Black-tailed Deer of California">{{Cite web |date=2000 |title=Black-tailed Deer of California |url=http://www.westernhunter.com/Pages/Vol02Issue24/blacktail.html |access-date=October 7, 2010 |publisher=westernhunter.com}}</ref><br />
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The Canadian zone mammals include the [[mountain weasel]], [[snowshoe hare]], and several species of chipmunks. Conspicuous birds include the [[Steller's jay|blue-fronted jay]], [[mountain chickadee]], [[hermit thrush]], [[American dipper]], and [[Townsend's solitaire]]. As one ascends into the Hudsonian zone, birds become scarcer. While the [[gray-crowned rosy finch]] is the only bird native to the high Arctic region, other bird species such as [[Anna's hummingbird]] and [[Clark's nutcracker]]. Principal mammals found in this region include the Sierra coney, [[white-tailed jackrabbit]], and the [[bighorn sheep]]. {{As of|2003|04}}, the bighorn sheep was listed as endangered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. The fauna found throughout several zones are the [[mule deer]], [[coyote]], [[mountain lion]], [[northern flicker]], and several species of hawk and sparrow.<ref name="California: flora and fauna" /><br />
[[File:Methuselah Walk USA Ca.jpg|thumb|[[Methuselah (pine tree)|Methuselah]] is the [[List of oldest trees|oldest tree in the world]], found in the [[Ancient Bristlecone Pine Forest]] of [[Inyo National Forest]].]]<br />
Aquatic life in California thrives, from the state's mountain lakes and streams to the rocky Pacific coastline. Numerous trout species are found, among them [[Rainbow trout|rainbow]], [[Golden trout|golden]], and [[Cutthroat trout|cutthroat]]. Migratory species of salmon are common as well. Deep-sea life forms include [[White seabass|sea bass]], [[yellowfin tuna]], [[barracuda]], and several types of whale. Native to the cliffs of northern California are seals, sea lions, and many types of shorebirds, including migratory species.<ref name="California: flora and fauna" /><br />
<br />
{{as of|2003|April}}, 118 California animals were on the federal endangered list; 181 plants were listed as endangered or threatened. Endangered animals include the [[Vulpes macrotis|San Joaquin kitfox]], [[Aplodontia rufa nigra|Point Arena mountain beaver]], [[Pacific pocket mouse]], [[salt marsh harvest mouse]], [[Morro Bay kangaroo rat]] (and five other species of kangaroo rat), [[California vole#Subspecies|Amargosa vole]], [[California least tern]], [[California condor]], [[loggerhead shrike]], [[Bell's sparrow|San Clemente sage sparrow]], [[San Francisco garter snake]], five species of salamander, three species of chub, and two species of pupfish. Eleven butterflies are also endangered<ref>{{Cite web |title=California's Endangered Insects—Formally Listed Insects |url=http://essig.berkeley.edu/endins/listed.htm |access-date=August 25, 2015 |website=berkeley.edu}}</ref> and two that are threatened are on the federal list.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Threatened and Endangered Invertebrates |url=http://www.dfg.ca.gov/wildlife/nongame/t_e_spp/invertebrates.html |access-date=May 8, 2017 |website=DFG.CA.gov |publisher=California Department of Fish and Wildlife |archive-date=May 24, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170524215006/http://www.dfg.ca.gov/wildlife/nongame/t_e_spp/invertebrates.html }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Species Search Results |url=https://ecos.fws.gov/ecp0/pub/SpeciesReport.do?groups=I&listingType=L&mapstatus=1 |access-date=May 8, 2017 |website=Environmental Conservation Online System |publisher=U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service}}</ref> Among threatened animals are the coastal [[California gnatcatcher]], [[Paiute cutthroat trout]], [[Sea otter#Subspecies|southern sea otter]], and [[northern spotted owl]]. California has a total of {{convert|290821|acre|km2}} of National Wildlife Refuges.<ref name="California: flora and fauna" /> {{As of|2010|09}}, 123 California animals were listed as either endangered or threatened on the [[US Fish & Wildlife Service|federal list]].<ref name="U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service: Species Reports: Listings and occurrences for California">{{Cite web |date=September 7, 2010 |title=U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service: Species Reports: Listings and occurrences for California |url=http://ecos.fws.gov/tess_public/pub/stateListingAndOccurrenceIndividual.jsp?state=CA&s8fid=112761032792&s8fid=112762573902&s8fid=24012838822503 |access-date=September 7, 2010 |publisher=ecos.fws.gov}}</ref> Also, {{as of|2010|alt=as of the same year}}, 178 species of California plants were listed either as endangered or threatened on this federal list.<ref name="U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service: Species Reports: Listings and occurrences for California" /><br />
<br />
===Rivers===<br />
{{main|List of rivers of California}}<br />
<br />
[[File:View of the Bay Area and the Californian Delta.jpg|thumb|left|[[San Francisco Bay]] (center left) and the [[Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta|California Delta]] (top right)]]<br />
The most prominent river system within California is formed by the Sacramento River and [[San Joaquin River]], which are fed mostly by snowmelt from the west slope of the Sierra Nevada, and respectively drain the north and south halves of the Central Valley. The two rivers join in the [[Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta]], flowing into the Pacific Ocean through [[San Francisco Bay]]. Many major tributaries feed into the Sacramento–San Joaquin system, including the [[Pit River]], [[Feather River]] and [[Tuolumne River]].<br />
<br />
The [[Klamath River|Klamath]] and [[Trinity River (California)|Trinity Rivers]] drain a large area in far northwestern California. The [[Eel River (California)|Eel River]] and [[Salinas River (California)|Salinas River]] each drain portions of the California coast, north and south of San Francisco Bay, respectively. The [[Mojave River]] is the primary watercourse in the Mojave Desert, and the [[Santa Ana River]] drains much of the [[Transverse Ranges]] as it bisects Southern California. The [[Colorado River]] forms the state's southeast border with Arizona.<br />
<br />
Most of California's major rivers are dammed as part of two massive water projects: the [[Central Valley Project]], providing water for agriculture in the Central Valley, and the [[California State Water Project]] diverting water from Northern to Southern California. The state's coasts, rivers, and other bodies of water are regulated by the [[California Coastal Commission]].<br />
<br />
===Regions===<br />
{{Main|List of regions of California}}<br />
<br />
{{see also|List of places in California}}<br />
[[File:Ca-regions.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|Map of the [[List of regions of California|regions of California]]]]<br />
[[File:Southern California counties in red noshade.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Map showing the division between [[Northern California]] (top white) and [[Southern California]] (bottom red)]]<br />
California is traditionally separated into [[Northern California]] and [[Southern California]], divided by a straight border which runs across the state, separating the northern 48 counties from the southern 10 counties. Despite the persistence of the northern-southern divide, California is more precisely divided into many regions, multiple of which stretch across the northern-southern divide.<br />
<br />
; Major divisions<br />
* '''[[Northern California]]'''<br />
* '''[[Southern California]]'''<br />
<br />
; Regions<br />
{{div col|colwidth=20em|content=<br />
* '''[[Shasta Cascade]]'''<br />
** [[Klamath Basin]]<br />
** [[Modoc Plateau]]<br />
* '''[[North Coast (California)|North Coast]]'''<br />
** [[Lost Coast]]<br />
* '''[[San Francisco Bay Area|Bay Area]]'''<br />
** [[North Bay (San Francisco Bay Area)|North Bay]]<br />
** [[San Francisco Peninsula]]<br />
** [[Santa Clara Valley|South Bay (Santa Clara Valley)]]<br />
** [[East Bay (San Francisco Bay Area)|East Bay]]<br />
* '''[[Central Valley (California)|Central Valley]]'''<br />
** [[Sacramento Valley]]<br />
*** [[Sacramento metropolitan area|Greater Sacramento]]<br />
** [[San Joaquin Valley]]<br />
*** [[Metropolitan Fresno]]<br />
** [[Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta|California Delta]]<br />
*'''[[Sierra Nevada]]'''<br />
**[[Gold Country]]<br />
**[[Eastern Sierra]]<br />
* '''[[Central Coast (California)|Central Coast]]'''<br />
** [[Monterey Bay Area]]<br />
** [[Big Sur]]<br />
** [[Gaviota Coast]]<br />
* '''[[Southern California]]'''<br />
** [[Los Angeles metropolitan area|Greater Los Angeles]]<br />
*** [[Antelope Valley]]<br />
*** [[Los Angeles Basin]]<br />
*** [[San Fernando Valley]]<br />
*** [[San Gabriel Valley]]<br />
*** [[Santa Clarita Valley]]<br />
** [[Channel Islands (California)|Channel Islands]]<br />
** [[Orange Coast]]<br />
** [[Inland Empire]]<br />
** [[San Diego–Tijuana]]<br />
*'''[[Deserts of California|California Deserts]]'''<br />
**[[Mojave Desert]]<br />
**[[Great Basin Desert]]<br />
**[[Colorado Desert]] ([[Sonoran Desert]])<br />
***[[Calexico–Mexicali]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
=== Cities and towns ===<br />
{{see also|List of cities and towns in California|List of largest California cities by population}}<br />
<br />
The state has 483 [[Municipal corporation|incorporated]] cities and towns,<ref name="483rd city"/> of which 461 are cities and 22 are towns. Under California law, the terms "city" and "town" are explicitly interchangeable; the name of an incorporated [[municipality]] in the state can either be "City of (Name)" or "Town of (Name)".<ref name="Cal Gov Code 34502">{{Cite web |title=CA Codes (gov:34500-34504) |url=http://info.sen.ca.gov/cgi-bin/displaycode?section=gov&group=34001-35000&file=34500-34504 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090827062453/http://info.sen.ca.gov/cgi-bin/displaycode?section=gov&group=34001-35000&file=34500-34504 |archive-date=August 27, 2009 |access-date=January 29, 2010 |publisher=California State Senate}}</ref><br />
<br />
[[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]] became California's first incorporated city on February 27, 1850.<ref name="Sacramento Charter">{{Cite web |title=Instant City: Sacramento |url=http://www.library.ca.gov/goldrush/sec08.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100128231357/http://www.library.ca.gov/goldrush/sec08.html |archive-date=January 28, 2010 |access-date=January 29, 2010 |publisher=[[California State Library]]}}</ref> [[San Jose, California|San Jose]], [[San Diego]], and [[Benicia, California|Benicia]] tied for California's second incorporated city, each receiving incorporation on March 27, 1850.<ref name="San Jose Inc">{{Cite web |title=San Jose at a Glance |url=http://www.sanjoseca.gov/about.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100208201852/http://www.sanjoseca.gov/about.asp |archive-date=February 8, 2010 |access-date=January 29, 2010 |publisher=City of San Jose}}</ref><ref name="History of San Diego">{{Cite web |title=A History of San Diego Government |url=http://www.sandiego.gov/city-clerk/geninfo/history.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528081607/http://www.sandiego.gov/city-clerk/geninfo/history.shtml |archive-date=May 28, 2010 |access-date=January 29, 2010 |publisher=City of San Diego}}</ref><ref name="Benicia Inc">{{Cite web |date=May 23, 2007 |title=California State Parks: 1846 to 1854 |url=http://www.parks.ca.gov/?page_id=1096 |access-date=January 29, 2010 |publisher=California State Parks}}</ref> [[Mountain House, California|Mountain House]] became the state's most recent and 483rd incorporated municipality on July 1, 2024.<ref name="483rd city">{{Cite web |date=July 1, 2024 |title=Mountain House officially becomes California's 483rd city |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/sacramento/news/mountain-house-officially-becomes-california-city/ |access-date=July 4, 2024 |publisher=CBS News}}</ref><br />
The majority of these cities and towns are within one of five [[metropolitan area]]s: the [[Los Angeles Metropolitan Area]], the [[San Francisco Bay Area]], the [[Riverside-San Bernardino Area]], the [[San Diego metropolitan area]], or the [[Sacramento metropolitan area]].<br />
<br />
{{Largest cities<br />
|country=California<br />
|stat_ref=Source:<ref name="2020Census" /><br />
|list_by_pop=<br />
|div_name=<br />
|div_link=Counties of California{{!}}County<br />
|city_1=Los Angeles<br />
|div_1=Los Angeles County, California{{!}}Los Angeles<br />
|pop_1=3,898,747<br />
|city_2=San Diego<br />
|div_2=San Diego County, California{{!}}San Diego<br />
|pop_2=1,386,932<br />
|city_3=San Jose, California{{!}}San Jose<br />
|div_3=Santa Clara County, California{{!}}Santa Clara<br />
|pop_3=1,013,240<br />
|city_4=San Francisco<br />
|div_4=San Francisco<br />
|pop_4=873,965<br />
|city_5=Fresno, California{{!}}Fresno<br />
|div_5=Fresno County, California{{!}}Fresno<br />
|pop_5=542,107<br />
|city_6=Sacramento, California{{!}}Sacramento<br />
|div_6=Sacramento County, California{{!}}Sacramento<br />
|pop_6=524,943<br />
|city_7=Long Beach, California{{!}}Long Beach<br />
|div_7=Los Angeles County, California{{!}}Los Angeles<br />
|pop_7=466,742<br />
|city_8=Oakland, California{{!}}Oakland<br />
|div_8=Alameda County, California{{!}}Alameda<br />
|pop_8=440,646<br />
|city_9=Bakersfield, California{{!}}Bakersfield<br />
|div_9=Kern County, California{{!}}Kern<br />
|pop_9=403,455<br />
|city_10=Anaheim, California{{!}}Anaheim<br />
|div_10=Orange County, California{{!}}Orange<br />
|pop_10=346,824<br />
|city_11=Stockton, California{{!}}Stockton<br />
|div_11=San Joaquin County, California{{!}}San Joaquin<br />
|pop_11=320,804<br />
|city_12=Riverside, California{{!}}Riverside<br />
|div_12=Riverside County, California{{!}}Riverside<br />
|pop_12=314,998<br />
|city_13=Santa Ana, California{{!}}Santa Ana<br />
|div_13=Orange County, California{{!}}Orange<br />
|pop_13=310,227<br />
|city_14=Irvine, California{{!}}Irvine<br />
|div_14=Orange County, California{{!}}Orange<br />
|pop_14=307,670<br />
|city_15=Chula Vista, California{{!}}Chula Vista<br />
|div_15=San Diego County, California{{!}}San Diego<br />
|pop_15=275,487<br />
|city_16=Fremont, California{{!}}Fremont<br />
|div_16=Alameda County, California{{!}}Alameda<br />
|pop_16=230,504<br />
|city_17=Santa Clarita, California{{!}}Santa Clarita<br />
|div_17=Los Angeles County, California{{!}}Los Angeles<br />
|pop_17=228,673<br />
|city_18=San Bernardino, California{{!}}San Bernardino<br />
|div_18=San Bernardino County, California{{!}}San Bernardino<br />
|pop_18=222,101<br />
|city_19=Modesto, California{{!}}Modesto<br />
|div_19=Stanislaus County, California{{!}}Stanislaus<br />
|pop_19=218,464<br />
|city_20=Moreno Valley, California{{!}}Moreno Valley<br />
|div_20=Riverside County, California{{!}}Riverside<br />
|pop_20=208,634<br />
<br />
}}<br />
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible"<br />
|+ Largest metropolitan statistical areas in California<br />
|-<br />
| CA rank<br />
| U.S. rank<br />
![[List of metropolitan statistical areas|Metropolitan statistical area]]<ref name="OMB_17-01">{{Cite web |date=August 15, 2017 |title=OMB Bulletin No. 17-01: Revised Delineations of Metropolitan Statistical Areas, Micropolitan Statistical Areas, and Combined Statistical Areas, and Guidance on Uses of the Delineations of These Areas |url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/whitehouse.gov/files/omb/bulletins/2017/b-17-01.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/whitehouse.gov/files/omb/bulletins/2017/b-17-01.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=dead |access-date=March 6, 2018 |publisher=[[United States Office of Management and Budget]]}}</ref><br />
!2020 census<ref name="2020Census">{{Cite web |title=Census QuickFacts: California |url=https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/CA/PST045219 |access-date=September 24, 2021 |publisher=U.S. Census Bureau}}</ref><br />
!2010 census<ref name="2020Census" /><br />
!Change<br />
!Counties<ref name="OMB_17-01" /><br />
|-<br />
| align="center" |{{nts|1}}<br />
| align="center" |{{nts|2}}<br />
|[[Los Angeles-Long Beach-Anaheim, CA MSA]]<br />
|{{change|invert=on|13200998|12828837}}<br />
|[[Los Angeles County, California|Los Angeles]], [[Orange County, California|Orange]]<br />
|-<br />
| align="center" |{{nts|2}}<br />
| align="center" |{{nts|12}}<br />
|[[San Francisco-Oakland-Hayward, CA MSA]]<br />
|{{change|invert=on|4749008|4335391}}<br />
|[[Alameda County|Alameda]], [[Contra Costa County|Contra Costa]], [[Marin County|Marin]], [[San Francisco]], [[San Mateo County|San Mateo]]<br />
|-<br />
| align="center" |{{nts|3}}<br />
| align="center" |{{nts|13}}<br />
|[[Riverside-San Bernardino-Ontario, CA MSA]]<br />
|{{change|invert=on|4599839|4224851}}<br />
|[[Riverside County, California|Riverside]], [[San Bernardino County, California|San Bernardino]]<br />
|-<br />
| align="center" |{{nts|4}}<br />
| align="center" |{{nts|17}}<br />
|[[San Diego-Carlsbad, CA MSA]]<br />
|{{change|invert=on|3298634|3095313}}<br />
|[[San Diego County, California|San Diego]]<br />
|-<br />
| align="center" |{{nts|5}}<br />
| align="center" |{{nts|26}}<br />
|[[Sacramento–Roseville–Arden-Arcade, CA MSA]]<br />
|{{change|invert=on|2397382|2149127}}<br />
|[[El Dorado County, California|El Dorado]], [[Placer County, California|Placer]], [[Sacramento County, California|Sacramento]], [[Yolo County, California|Yolo]]<br />
|-<br />
| align="center" |{{nts|6}}<br />
| align="center" |{{nts|35}}<br />
|[[San Jose-Sunnyvale-Santa Clara, CA MSA]]<br />
|{{change|invert=on|2000468|1836911}}<br />
|[[San Benito County, California|San Benito]], [[Santa Clara County, California|Santa Clara]]<br />
|-<br />
| align="center" |{{nts|7}}<br />
| align="center" |{{nts|56}}<br />
|[[Fresno, CA MSA]]<br />
|{{change|invert=on|1008654|930450}}<br />
|[[Fresno County, California|Fresno]]<br />
|-<br />
| align="center" |{{nts|8}}<br />
| align="center" |{{nts|62}}<br />
|[[Bakersfield, CA MSA]]<br />
|{{change|invert=on|909235|839631}}<br />
|[[Kern County, California|Kern]]<br />
|-<br />
| align="center" |{{nts|9}}<br />
| align="center" |{{nts|70}}<br />
|[[Oxnard-Thousand Oaks-Ventura, CA MSA]]<br />
|{{change|invert=on|843843|823318}}<br />
|[[Ventura County, California|Ventura]]<br />
|-<br />
| align="center" |{{nts|10}}<br />
| align="center" |{{nts|75}}<br />
|[[Stockton-Lodi, CA MSA]]<br />
|{{change|invert=on|779233|685306}}<br />
|[[San Joaquin County, California|San Joaquin]]<br />
|}<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible"<br />
|+ Largest combined statistical areas in California<br />
|-<br />
| CA rank<br />
| U.S. rank<br />
![[List of Combined Statistical Areas|Combined statistical area]]<ref name="2020Census" /><br />
!2020 census<ref name="2020Census" /><br />
!2010 census<ref name="2020Census" /><br />
!Change<br />
!Counties<ref name="OMB_17-01" /><br />
|-<br />
| align="center" |{{nts|1}}<br />
| align="center" |{{nts|2}}<br />
|[[Los Angeles-Long Beach, CA Combined Statistical Area]]<br />
|{{change|invert=on|18644680|17877006}}<br />
|[[Los Angeles County, California|Los Angeles]], [[Orange County, California|Orange]], [[Riverside County, California|Riverside]], [[San Bernardino County, California|San Bernardino]], [[Ventura County, California|Ventura]]<br />
|-<br />
| align="center" |{{nts|2}}<br />
| align="center" |{{nts|4}}<br />
|[[San Jose-San Francisco-Oakland, CA Combined Statistical Area]]<br />
|{{change|invert=on|9714023|8923942}}<br />
|[[Alameda County, California|Alameda]], [[Contra Costa County, California|Contra Costa]], [[Marin County, California|Marin]], [[Merced County, California|Merced]], [[Napa County, California|Napa]], [[San Benito County, California|San Benito]], [[San Francisco]], [[San Joaquin County, California|San Joaquin]], [[San Mateo County, California|San Mateo]], [[Santa Clara County, California|Santa Clara]], [[Santa Cruz County, California|Santa Cruz]], [[Solano County, California|Solano]], [[Sonoma County, California|Sonoma]], [[Stanislaus County, California|Stanislaus]]<br />
|-<br />
| align="center" |{{nts|3}}<br />
| align="center" |{{nts|23}}<br />
|[[Sacramento-Roseville, CA Combined Statistical Area]]<br />
|{{change|invert=on|2680831|2414783}}<br />
|[[El Dorado County, California|El Dorado]], [[Nevada County, California|Nevada]], [[Placer County, California|Placer]], [[Sacramento County, California|Sacramento]], [[Sutter County, California|Sutter]], [[Yolo County, California|Yolo]], [[Yuba County, California|Yuba]]<br />
|-<br />
| align="center" |{{nts|4}}<br />
| align="center" |{{nts|45}}<br />
|[[Fresno-Madera, CA Combined Statistical Area]]<br />
|{{change|invert=on|1317395|1234297}}<br />
|[[Fresno County, California|Fresno]], [[Kings County, California|Kings]], [[Madera County, California|Madera]]<br />
|-<br />
| align="center" |{{nts|5}}<br />
| align="center" |{{nts|125}}<br />
|[[Redding-Red Bluff, CA Combined Statistical Area]]<br />
|{{change|invert=on|247984|240686}}<br />
|[[Shasta County, California|Shasta]], [[Tehama County, California|Tehama]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Demographics ==<br />
{{Main|Demographics of California}}<br />
<br />
===Population===<br />
{{US Census population<br />
| 1850 = 92597<br />
| 1860 = 379994<br />
| 1870 = 560247<br />
| 1880 = 864694<br />
| 1890 = 1213398<br />
| 1900 = 1485053<br />
| 1910 = 2377549<br />
| 1920 = 3426861<br />
| 1930 = 5677251<br />
| 1940 = 6907387<br />
| 1950 = 10586223<br />
| 1960 = 15717204<br />
| 1970 = 19953134<br />
| 1980 = 23667902<br />
| 1990 = 29760021<br />
| 2000 = 33871648<br />
| 2010 = 37253956<br />
| 2020 = 39538223<br />
| estyear = 2025<br />
| estimate = 39355309<br />
| footnote = Sources: 1790–1990, 2000, 2010, 2020, 2024<ref name="dof.ca.gov">{{Cite web |title=California Grew By 356,000 Residents in 2013 |url=http://www.dof.ca.gov/research/demographic/reports/estimates/e-1/documents/E-1_2014_Press_Release.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140502002520/http://www.dof.ca.gov/research/demographic/reports/estimates/e-1/documents/E-1_2014_Press_Release.pdf |archive-date=May 2, 2014 |access-date=September 26, 2016}}</ref><ref name="census_1790_1990">{{Cite web |date=August 20, 1993 |title=1990 Census of Population and Housing, Unit Counts, United States, 1990 CPH-2-1 |url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen1990/cph2/cph-2-1-1.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.census.gov/prod/cen1990/cph2/cph-2-1-1.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live |access-date=January 1, 2012 |website=Population and Housing Unit Counts, Population Estimates 1790–1990, pages 26–27 |publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]], U.S. Department of Commerce Economics and Statistics Administration}}</ref><ref name=Census2020/><ref>{{Cite web |title=QuickFacts: California |url=https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/CA | website=Census.gov | publisher=United States Census Bureau |access-date=December 20, 2024}}</ref>{{break}}Chart does not include indigenous population figures.{{break}}Studies indicate that the Native American{{break}}population in California in 1850 was close to 150,000{{break}}before declining to 15,000 by 1900.<ref name="americanindiantah1">{{Cite web |title=American Indian Civics Project: Indians of Northern California: A Case Study of Federal, State, and Vigilante Intervention, 1850–1860 |url=http://americanindiantah.com/lesson_plans/ml_indians_in_northern_california.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120317041607/http://americanindiantah.com/lesson_plans/ml_indians_in_northern_california.html |archive-date=March 17, 2012 |access-date=March 21, 2012 |publisher=Americanindiantah.com}}</ref><br />
}}<br />
<br />
Presently, close to one out of every nine U.S. residents live in California.<ref name="PPIC">{{cite web |last1=Johnson |last2=Mejia |last3=McGhee |first1=Hans |first2=Marisol |first3=Eric |title=California's Population |url=https://www.ppic.org/publication/californias-population/ |website=Public Policy Institute of California |access-date=March 14, 2024}}</ref><ref name=40Mill>{{Cite news |url=https://calmatters.org/explainers/california-population-migration-census-demographics-immigration/ |first1=Judy |last1=Lin |first2=Adria |last2=Watson |title=Explainer: California migration: The story of 40 million |date=June 24, 2022 }}</ref> According to the [[2020 U.S. census]], the population of California was 39.54 million on April 1, 2020, a 6.13% increase since [[2010 United States census|2010]].<ref name="Census2020">{{Cite web |title=Population, Population Change, and Estimated Components of Population Change: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2020 (NST-EST2020-alldata) |url=http://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/popest/technical-documentation/research/evaluation-estimates.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201222173239/https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/popest/technical-documentation/research/evaluation-estimates.html |archive-date=December 22, 2020 |access-date=April 26, 2021 |website=census.gov |publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]}}</ref> During that decade, the state's population grew more slowly than the rest of the nation, resulting in the loss of one seat on the U.S. House of Representatives, the first loss in its entire history.<ref name=PPIC/> The estimated state population in 2023 was 38.94 million.<ref name=40Mill/> For well over a century (1900&ndash;2020), California experienced steady population growth. Even while the rate of growth began to slow by the 1990s, some growth progressed into the first two decades of the 21st century; California added an average of around 400,000 people per year to its population during the period 1940–2020.<ref>{{Cite news|first1=Eric |last1=McGhee |first2=Marisol Cuellar |last2=Mejia |first3=Hans|last3=Johnson|url=https://www.ppic.org/blog/californias-stalled-population-growth/|title=California's Stalled Population Growth|date=April 26, 2021|publisher=[[Public Policy Institute of California]]}}</ref><ref name=Byler>{{Cite news|first=David|last=Byler|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2021/03/31/why-californias-population-boom-has-stalled/|title=Why California's population boom has stalled|newspaper=Washington Post|date=March 31, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=California's shrinking population has big impacts|first=Dan|last=Walters|url=https://calmatters.org/commentary/2022/04/california-population-decline/|work=CalMatters|date=April 10, 2022}}</ref> Then in 2020, the state began to experience population declines continuing every year, attributable mostly to moves out of state but also due to declining [[birth rate]]s, [[COVID-19 pandemic deaths]], and less internal migration from other states to California.<ref name = PPIC/><ref>{{Cite news|author=Staff and agencies|url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2022/may/02/california-population-decline-trend-covid|title=California's population shrinks for second year in a row|newspaper=The Guardian|date=May 2, 2022}}</ref> According to the U.S. Census Bureau, between 2021 and 2022, 818,000 California residents moved out of state<ref>{{Cite news |author=Rodriguez |first1=Angela |last2=Reese |first2=Phillip |date=November 2, 2023 |title=Again, more people are leaving California than moving in, data shows. Where are they going? |url=https://www.uniondemocrat.com/lifestyle/article_8e11bc68-79a4-11ee-998f-c71cde977c08.html |access-date=November 4, 2023 |newspaper=The Union Democrat |language=en}}</ref> with emigrants listing high cost of living, [[California housing shortage]]<ref>{{Cite news |title=Nearly half of California residents are considering leaving the state, a poll finds. Many cite the cost of living as the main reason. |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2023/06/28/california-population-decline-costs-of-living-state/70363036007/ |first1=Itzel |last1=Luna |date=Jun 28, 2023 |access-date=November 5, 2023 |newspaper=USA TODAY |language=en-US}}</ref> rise of remote work,<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Blake |last2=Suzanne |date=November 25, 2024 |title=Californians who left for remote work have shown 'signs of returning' |url=https://www.newsweek.com/california-sees-surge-people-moving-state-1986685 |access-date=May 20, 2025 |website=Newsweek |language=en}}</ref> high taxes, and a difficult business environment as the motivation.{{Citation needed|date=May 2025}} The net loss of population in California between July 2020 and July 2023 was 433,000.<ref name=PPIC/> As of the 2020 Census, California had a [[population density]] of 250/mi<sup>2</sup> and a [[population-weighted density]] of 7954/mi<sup>2</sup>.{{refn|Mean of density in 1mi radii circles around each person|group="note"}}<ref>{{cite web |title=California |url=https://urbanstats.org/article.html?longname=California%2C+USA |website=Urban Stats |access-date=2025-12-30}}</ref><br />
<br />
[[File:California population density 2020.png|thumb|upright=1.4|left|California's population density, 2020]]<br />
<br />
The [[Greater Los Angeles Area]] is the second-largest [[metropolitan area]] in the U.S., while Los Angeles is the [[List of United States cities by population|second-largest city in the U.S.]] [[Los Angeles County]] has held the title of most populous U.S. county for decades and it alone is more populous than 42 U.S. states.<ref name="LA County DPSS">{{Cite web |date=December 2005 |title=About DPSS |url=https://dpss.lacounty.gov/dpss/about_dpss/dpss_overview.cfm |access-date=December 26, 2009 |publisher=Los Angeles County Department of Public Social Services |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071009151113/https://dpss.lacounty.gov/dpss/about_dpss/dpss_overview.cfm |archive-date= Oct 9, 2007 }}</ref><ref name="Baby Slump In L.A. County">{{Cite news |last=Barrett |first=Beth |date=September 19, 2003 |title=Baby Slump in L.A. County |pages=N4 |work=Los Angeles Daily News |publisher=Los Angeles Newspaper Group |url=http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/7215/baby_slump_in_la_county/index.html |via=redOrbit |access-date=December 26, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100715060356/http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/7215/baby_slump_in_la_county/index.html |archive-date=July 15, 2010}}</ref> San Francisco is the most densely populated city in California and [[List of United States cities by population density|one of the most densely populated cities in the U.S.]]. Four of the [[List of United States cities by population|top 20 most populous cities in the U.S.]] are in California: Los Angeles (2nd), [[San Diego]] (8th), [[San Jose, California|San Jose]] (13th), and San Francisco (17th). The [[center of population]] of California is located four miles west-southwest of the city of [[Shafter, California|Shafter]], [[Kern County, California|Kern County]].{{refn|The coordinates of the center of population are at {{Coord|35.491035|-119.347852|display=inline}}.<ref name="popCentersByState">{{Cite web |date=November 17, 2021 |title=Centers of Population for the 2020 Census |url=https://www2.census.gov/geo/docs/reference/cenpop2020/CenPop2020_Mean_ST.txt |publisher=United States Census Bureau |website=United States Census}}</ref><br />
|group="note"}}<br />
<br />
As of 2020, California ranked [[List of U.S. states and territories by life expectancy|fourth among states by life expectancy]], with a life expectancy of 79.0 years.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr71/nvsr71-02.pdf |access-date=January 2, 2025 |title=U.S. State Life Tables, 2020|first1=Elizabeth |last1=Arias |first2=Jiaquan |last2=Xu |first3=Betzaida |last3=Tejada-Vera |first4=Sherry |last4=Murphy |first5=Brigham|last5=Bastian|publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|journal=National Vital Statistics Reports|volume=71|number=2|date=August 23, 2022|pages=1–18 |pmid=36043888 }}</ref><br />
<br />
Starting in 2010, for the first time since the [[California Gold Rush]], California-born residents made up the majority of the state's population.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Watanabe |first1=Teresa |last2=Becerra |first2=Hector |date=April 1, 2010 |title=Native-born Californians regain majority status |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2010-apr-01-la-me-homegrown1-2010apr01-story.html |access-date=January 19, 2013 |work=Los Angeles Times}}</ref> Along with the rest of the U.S., California's immigration pattern has also shifted over the course of the late 2000s to early 2010s.<ref name="Pew Mexican Immigration">{{Cite web |title=Net Migration from Mexico Falls to Zero—and Perhaps Less |url=http://www.pewhispanic.org/files/2012/04/PHC-04-23-Mexican-Migration.pdf |access-date=July 19, 2015 |publisher=Pew Hispanic Center |archive-date=September 24, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924072108/http://www.pewhispanic.org/files/2012/04/PHC-04-23-Mexican-Migration.pdf }}</ref> Immigration from [[Latin America]]n countries has dropped significantly with most immigrants now coming from Asia.<ref name="SacBee17JAN2013" /> In total for 2011, there were 277,304 immigrants; 57% came from Asian countries versus 22% from Latin American countries.<ref name="SacBee17JAN2013">{{Cite news |last1=Magagnini |first1=Stephen |last2=Reese |first2=Phillip |date=January 17, 2013 |title=Census shows Asians eclipse Latino arrivals to California |url=http://www.sacbee.com/2013/01/17/5120459/asian-immigrants-to-california.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130118232108/http://www.sacbee.com/2013/01/17/5120459/asian-immigrants-to-california.html |archive-date=January 18, 2013 |access-date=January 19, 2013 |work=Sacramento Bee}}</ref> [[Net immigration]] from Mexico, previously the most common country of origin for new immigrants, has dropped to zero / less than zero since more Mexican nationals are departing for their home country than immigrating.<ref name="Pew Mexican Immigration" /><br />
<br />
The state's population of [[undocumented immigrants]] has been shrinking in recent years, due to increased enforcement and decreased job opportunities for lower-skilled workers.<ref>{{Cite web |date=December 6, 2012 |title=Unauthorized Immigrants: 11.1 Million in 2011 |url=http://www.pewhispanic.org/2012/12/06/unauthorized-immigrants-11-1-million-in-2011/ |access-date=August 25, 2015 |website=Pew Research Center's Hispanic Trends Project}}</ref> The number of migrants arrested attempting to cross the Mexican border in the Southwest decreased from a high of 1.1{{spaces}}million in 2005 to 367,000 in 2011.<ref name="BusinessWeek">{{cite web |url=http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2012-05-03/californias-illegal-immigrant-shortage |title=California's Illegal Immigrant Shortage |website=Bloomberg BusinessWeek |date=May 3, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120510045259/http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2012-05-03/californias-illegal-immigrant-shortage |archive-date=May 10, 2012 }}</ref> Despite these recent trends, undocumented immigrants constituted an estimated 7.3% of the state's population, the third highest percentage of any state in the [[Illegal immigrant population of the United States|country]],<ref>{{Cite news |last=Slevin |first=Peter |date=April 30, 2010 |title=New Arizona law puts police in 'tenuous' spot |pages=A4 |newspaper=The Washington Post |location=Washington, DC |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/graphic/2010/04/29/GR2010042904397.html}}</ref><ref group="note">Behind [[Nevada]] and [[Arizona]]</ref> totaling nearly 2.6{{spaces}}million.<ref name="SDUT19042011">{{Cite news |last=Gardner |first=Michael |date=April 19, 2011 |title=Cutting services to illegal immigrants isn't easy |url=http://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/sdut-cutting-services-to-illegal-immigrants-isnt-easy-2011apr19-htmlstory.html |access-date=August 8, 2017 |work=[[The San Diego Union-Tribune]]}}</ref> In particular, illegal immigrants tended to be concentrated in [[Los Angeles County, California|Los Angeles]], [[Monterey County, California|Monterey]], [[San Benito County, California|San Benito]], [[Imperial County, California|Imperial]], and [[Napa County, California|Napa Counties]]—the latter four of which have significant agricultural industries that depend on manual labor.<ref name="PPIC2011II">{{Cite web |last1=Johnson |first1=Hans |last2=Hill |first2=Laura |date=July 2011 |title=Illegal Immigration |url=http://www.ppic.org/content/pubs/atissue/AI_711HJAI.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.ppic.org/content/pubs/atissue/AI_711HJAI.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live |access-date=January 15, 2013 |website=Publications |publisher=[[Public Policy Institute of California]]}}</ref> More than half of illegal immigrants originate from Mexico.<ref name="SDUT19042011" /> The state of California and some California cities, including [[Los Angeles]], [[Oakland]], and [[San Francisco]],<ref>{{Cite news |date=April 15, 2019 |title=Officials in Sanctuary Cities Condemn Trump's Proposal To Move Immigrant Detainees |url=https://www.npr.org/2019/04/15/713616857/officials-in-sanctuary-cities-condemn-trumps-proposal-to-move-immigrant-detainee?t=1567429578598}}</ref> have adopted [[Sanctuary city|sanctuary policies]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cities, States Resist—and Assist—Immigration Crackdown in New Ways |url=https://pew.org/2O8sa9I |website=pew.org|date=August 3, 2018 }}</ref><br />
<br />
According to [[United States Department of Housing and Urban Development|HUD]]'s 2022 [[Annual Homeless Assessment Report to Congress|Annual Homeless Assessment Report]], there were an estimated 171,521 [[Homelessness|homeless]] people [[Homelessness in California|in California]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=2007-2022 PIT Counts by State |url=https://view.officeapps.live.com/op/view.aspx?src=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.huduser.gov%2Fportal%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fxls%2F2007-2022-PIT-Counts-by-State.xlsx&wdOrigin=BROWSELINK}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.huduser.gov/portal/sites/default/files/pdf/2022-AHAR-Part-1.pdf|title=The 2022 Annual Homelessness Assessment Report (AHAR) to Congress}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Race and ethnicity===<br />
<br />
[[File:Ethnicity in California (2020).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Map of counties in California by racial and ethnic plurality, per the 2020 U.S. census]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Map of Californian Counties by Percentage of Hispanics or Latinos.png|thumb|[[Hispanics and Latinos in California|Hispanic and Latino Californians]] make up the state's largest ethnic group. The map displays California's counties by percentage of Hispanics and Latinos in the [[2020 United States census|2020 census]]:<br />{{legend|#26619C|50% or more}}{{legend|#0087BD|25–49%}}{{legend|#6699CC|15–24%}}{{legend|#9EB9D4|5–15%}}]]<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable collapsible"; text-align:right;"<br />
|+ Racial and ethnic composition as of the [[2020 United States census|2020 census]]<br />
|-<br />
! class="unsortable"|Race and ethnicity<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/library/visualizations/interactive/race-and-ethnicity-in-the-united-state-2010-and-2020-census.html |title=Race and Ethnicity in the United States: 2010 Census and 2020 Census |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=August 12, 2021 |website=census.gov |publisher=United States Census Bureau |access-date=September 26, 2021}}</ref><br />
! colspan="2" data-sort-type=number |Alone<br />
! colspan="2" data-sort-type=number |Total<br />
|-<br />
| [[Hispanics and Latinos in California|Hispanic or Latino]]<ref group="note">Persons of Hispanic or Latino origin are not distinguished between total and partial ancestry.</ref><br />
|align=right| {{bartable}}<br />
|align=right| {{bartable|39.4|%|2||background:green}}<br />
|-<br />
<br />
| [[White Americans in California|White (non-Hispanic)]]<br />
|align=right| {{bartable|34.7|%|2||background:gray}}<br />
|align=right| {{bartable|38.3|%|2||background:gray}}<br />
|-<br />
| [[Asian Americans in California|Asian (non-Hispanic)]]<br />
|align=right| {{bartable|15.1|%|2||background:purple}}<br />
|align=right| {{bartable|17.0|%|2||background:purple}}<br />
|-<br />
| [[African Americans in California|African American (non-Hispanic)]]<br />
|align=right| {{bartable|5.4|%|2||background:mediumblue}}<br />
|align=right| {{bartable|6.4|%|2||background:mediumblue}}<br />
|-<br />
| [[Native Americans in California|Native American (non-Hispanic)]]<br />
|align=right| {{bartable|0.4|%|2||background:gold}}<br />
|align=right| {{bartable|1.3|%|2||background:gold}}<br />
|-<br />
| [[Pacific Islander Americans|Pacific Islander (non-Hispanic)]]<br />
|align=right| {{bartable|0.3|%|2||background:pink}}<br />
|align=right| {{bartable|0.7|%|2||background:pink}}<br />
|-<br />
| Other (non-Hispanic)<br />
|align=right| {{bartable|0.6|%|2||background:brown}}<br />
|align=right| {{bartable|1.3|%|2||background:brown}}<br />
|}<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible"<br />
|+ California Racial Breakdown of Population<ref>{{Cite web |title=Population by Race |url=https://censusscope.org/us/s6/chart_race.html |access-date=May 2, 2025 |website=censusscope.org}}</ref><br />
!class="unsortable"|Racial composition<br />
!1950<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=California – Race and Hispanic Origin: 1850 to 1990 |url=http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0056/tab19.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100327163812/http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0056/tab19.pdf |archive-date=March 27, 2010 |website=US Census Bureau}}</ref><br />
!1960<ref name=":0" /><br />
!1970<ref name=":0" /><br />
!1980<ref name=":0" /><br />
!1990<ref name=":0" /><br />
!2000<ref>{{Cite web |publisher=United States Census Bureau |title=Decennial Census (2020, 2010, 2000) |url=https://www.census.gov/data/developers/data-sets/decennial-census.html |access-date=June 28, 2024 |website=Census.gov}}</ref><br />
!2010<ref>{{Cite web |title=2010 Census: California State Profile |url=https://www2.census.gov/geo/maps/dc10_thematic/2010_Profile/2010_Profile_Map_California.pdf |website=US Census Bureau}}</ref><br />
!2020<ref>{{Cite web |title=Explore Census Data |url=https://data.census.gov/table?g=040XX00US06&y=2020&d=DEC%20Redistricting%20Data%20(PL%2094-171) |access-date=June 28, 2024 |website=data.census.gov}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
|[[White American|White]]<br />
|93.7%<br />
|92%<br />
|89%<br />
|76.2%<br />
|69%<br />
|59.6%<br />
|57.6%<br />
|41.2%<br />
|-<br />
|[[African American|Black]]<br />
|4.4%<br />
|5.6%<br />
|7%<br />
|7.7%<br />
|7.4%<br />
|6.7%<br />
|6.2%<br />
|5.6%<br />
|-<br />
|[[Asian American|Asian]]<br />
|1.7%<br />
|2%<br />
|2.8%<br />
|5.3%<br />
|9.6%<br />
|10.9%<br />
|13%<br />
|15.4%<br />
|-<br />
|[[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]<br />
|0.2%<br />
|0.2%<br />
|0.5%<br />
|0.9%<br />
|0.8%<br />
|1%<br />
|1%<br />
|1.6%<br />
|-<br />
|[[Pacific Islander Americans|Pacific Islander]]<br />
|—<br />
|—<br />
|—<br />
|—<br />
|—<br />
|0.4%<br />
|0.4%<br />
|0.4%<br />
|-<br />
|[[Race and ethnicity in the United States Census|'Some other race']]<br />
|—<br />
|0.1%<br />
|0.7%<br />
|10%<br />
|13.2%<br />
|16.8%<br />
|17%<br />
|21.2%<br />
|-<br />
|[[Multiracial American|Two or more races]]<br />
|—<br />
|—<br />
|—<br />
|—<br />
|—<br />
|4.8%<br />
|4.9%<br />
|14.6%<br />
|-<br />
|[[Hispanic and Latino Americans|'''Hispanic or Latino''']] '''(Any race)'''<br />
|'''7.2%<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Population Characteristics of Selected Ethnic Groups in the Five Southwestern States |url=https://www2.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1960/pc-s1-supplementary-reports/pc-s1-55.pdf |website=US Census Bureau}}</ref>'''<br />
|'''9.1%<ref name=":2" />'''<br />
|'''13.7%'''<br />
|'''19.2%'''<br />
|'''25.8%'''<br />
|'''32.4%'''<br />
|'''37.6%'''<br />
|'''39.4%'''<br />
|-<br />
|[[Non-Hispanic whites|''Non-Hispanic White'']]<br />
|86.5%<ref name=":2" /><br />
|82.9%<ref name=":2" /><br />
|''76.3%''<br />
|''66.6%''<br />
|''57.2%''<br />
|''46.7%''<br />
|''40.2%''<br />
|''34.7%''<br />
|-<br />
|''Non-Hispanic Black''<br />
|''—''<br />
|''—''<br />
|''—''<br />
|''7.5%''<br />
|''7.0%''<br />
|''6.4%''<br />
|''5.8%''<br />
|''5.4%''<br />
|-<br />
|''Non-Hispanic Asian''<br />
|''—''<br />
|''—''<br />
|''—''<br />
|''5.3%''<br />
|''9.1%''<br />
|''10.8%''<br />
|''12.8%''<br />
|''15.1%''<br />
|-<br />
|''Non-Hispanic Native American''<br />
|''—''<br />
|''—''<br />
|''—''<br />
|''0.9%''<br />
|''0.6%''<br />
|''0.5%''<br />
|''0.4%''<br />
|''0.4%''<br />
|-<br />
|''Non-Hispanic Pacific Islander''<br />
|''—''<br />
|''—''<br />
|''—''<br />
|''—''<br />
|''—''<br />
|''0.3%''<br />
|''0.3%''<br />
|''0.3%''<br />
|-<br />
|''Non-Hispanic 'some other race'''<br />
|''—''<br />
|''—''<br />
|''—''<br />
|''0.5%''<br />
|''0.2%''<br />
|''0.2%''<br />
|''0.2%''<br />
|''0.6%''<br />
|-<br />
|''Non-Hispanic two or more races''<br />
|''—''<br />
|''—''<br />
|''—''<br />
|''—''<br />
|''—''<br />
|''2.7%''<br />
|''2.4%''<br />
|''4.1%''<br />
|}<br />
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, in 2022 the population self-identified as (alone or in combination): 56.5% [[White Americans|White]] (including [[Hispanic White Americans|Hispanic Whites]]),<ref>{{Cite web |title=Grid View: Table B02008 |url=https://censusreporter.org/data/table/?table=B02008&geo_ids=04000US06&primary_geo_id=04000US06 |access-date=June 28, 2024 |website=censusreporter.org}}</ref> 33.7% [[non-Hispanic whites|non-Hispanic white]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Grid View: Table B03002 |url=https://censusreporter.org/data/table/?table=B03002&geo_ids=04000US06&primary_geo_id=04000US06 |access-date=June 28, 2024 |website=censusreporter.org}}</ref> 18.1% [[Asian American|Asian]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Grid View: Table B02011 |url=https://censusreporter.org/data/table/?table=B02011&geo_ids=04000US06&primary_geo_id=04000US06 |access-date=June 28, 2024 |website=censusreporter.org}}</ref> 7.3% Black or [[African American]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Grid View: Table B02009 |url=https://censusreporter.org/data/table/?table=B02009&geo_ids=04000US06&primary_geo_id=04000US06 |access-date=June 28, 2024 |website=censusreporter.org}}</ref> 3.2% [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] and [[Alaska Native]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Grid View: Table B02010 |url=https://censusreporter.org/data/table/?table=B02010&geo_ids=04000US06&primary_geo_id=04000US06 |access-date=June 28, 2024 |website=censusreporter.org}}</ref> 0.9% [[Native Hawaiian]] or [[Pacific Islander American|Pacific Islander]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Grid View: Table B02012 |url=https://censusreporter.org/data/table/?table=B02012&geo_ids=04000US06&primary_geo_id=04000US06 |access-date=June 28, 2024 |website=censusreporter.org}}</ref> and 34.3% [[Some Other Race|some other race]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Grid View: Table B02013 |url=https://censusreporter.org/data/table/?table=B02013&geo_ids=04000US06&primary_geo_id=04000US06 |access-date=June 28, 2024 |website=censusreporter.org}}</ref> These numbers add up to more than 100% because respondents can select multiple racial identities. 19% of Californians identified as two or more races in 2022, although excluding respondents who selected "some other race", only 5% identified as two or more races.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Grid View: Table B02001 |url=https://censusreporter.org/data/table/?table=B02001&geo_ids=04000US06&primary_geo_id=04000US06#valueType%7Cpercentage |access-date=June 28, 2024 |website=censusreporter.org}}</ref><br />
<br />
By ethnicity, in 2018 the population was 60.7% non-Hispanic (of any race) and 39.3% [[Hispanics and Latinos in California|Hispanic or Latino]] (of any race). Hispanics are the largest single ethnic group in California.<ref name="2018CensusDemo">[https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/table/RHI125215/06 2018 U.S. Census QuickFacts], [[United States Census Bureau]], 2018.</ref> [[Non-Hispanic whites]] constituted 36.8% of the state's population.<ref name=2018CensusDemo/> ''[[Californio]]s'' are the [[Hispanic]] residents native to California, who make up the [[Spanish language in California|Spanish-speaking]] community that has existed in California since 1542, of varying [[Mexican American]]/[[Chicano]], [[Criollo people|Criollo Spaniard]], and Mestizo origin.<ref>as quoted in Clark, Donald T. (2008). ''Santa Cruz County Place Names'' p.442, Scotts Valley, California, Kestrel Press.</ref> However, they make up only a small part of California's Hispanic population today, estimated at 500,000. California has the largest Mexican, [[Salvadoran Americans|Salvadoran]], and [[Guatemalan Americans|Guatemalan]] populations in the U.S., together making up over 90% of the state's Latino population.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/library/stories/2023/09/2020-census-dhc-a-hispanic-population.html|title=Colombian and Honduran Populations Surpassed a Million for First Time; Venezuelan Population Grew the Fastest of all Hispanic Groups Since 2010 |publisher=US Census Bureau}}</ref><br />
<br />
According to 2022 estimates from the [[American Community Survey]], 32.4% of the population had [[Mexican Americans|Mexican]] ancestry, 6.6% had [[German Americans|German]] ancestry, 6.1% had [[English Americans|English]] ancestry, 5.6% had [[Irish people|Irish]] ancestry, 4.9% had [[Chinese Americans|Chinese]] ancestry, 4.3% had [[Filipino Americans|Filipino]] ancestry, 4% had [[Central America]]n ancestry (Mostly [[Salvadoran Americans|Salvadoran]] and [[Guatemalan Americans|Guatemalan]]), 3.4% had [[Italian Americans|Italian]] ancestry, 2.8% listed themselves as [[American ancestry|American]], and 2.5% had [[Indian Americans|Indian]] ancestry.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Grid View: Table B04006 |url=https://censusreporter.org/data/table/?table=B04006&geo_ids=04000US06&primary_geo_id=04000US06#valueType%7Cestimate |access-date=June 28, 2024 |website=censusreporter.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Grid View: Table B03001 |url=https://censusreporter.org/data/table/?table=B03001&geo_ids=04000US06&primary_geo_id=04000US06 |access-date=June 28, 2024 |website=censusreporter.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Grid View: Table B02018 |url=https://censusreporter.org/data/table/?table=B02018&geo_ids=04000US06&primary_geo_id=04000US06 |access-date=June 28, 2024 |website=censusreporter.org}}</ref><br />
<br />
[[File:Ethnic Origins in California.png|thumb|upright=2|Ethnic origins in California]]<br />
<br />
{{as of|2011}}, 75.1% of California's population younger than age 1 were minorities, meaning they had at least one parent who was not non-Hispanic white (white Hispanics are counted as minorities).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Exner |first=Rich |date=June 3, 2012 |title=Americans under age 1 now mostly minorities, but not in Ohio: Statistical Snapshot |url=http://www.cleveland.com/datacentral/index.ssf/2012/06/americas_under_age_1_populatio.html |access-date=September 20, 2016 |website=cleveland.com |publisher=Advance Ohio}}</ref><br />
<br />
In terms of total numbers, California has the largest population of White Americans in the U.S., an estimated 22,200,000 residents including people identifying as white in combination with any other race. The state has the 5th largest population of African Americans in the U.S., an estimated 2,250,000 residents. California's Asian American population is estimated at 7.1{{spaces}}million, constituting a third of the nation's total. California's Native American population of 504,000 is the most of any state, with 103,030 identifying as Non-Hispanic and belonging mostly to the [[Indigenous peoples of California]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Grid View: Table B03002 |url=https://censusreporter.org/data/table/?table=B03002&geo_ids=04000US06&primary_geo_id=04000US06#valueType%7Cestimate |access-date=June 28, 2024 |website=censusreporter.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Grid View: Table B02001 |url=https://censusreporter.org/data/table/?table=B02001&geo_ids=04000US06&primary_geo_id=04000US06#valueType%7Cestimate |access-date=June 28, 2024 |website=censusreporter.org}}</ref> Most of the state's Native American population identifies as Hispanic and belongs to Indigenous Mexican or Central American ethnic groups, including 185,200 identifying as [[Indigenous peoples of Mexico|Mexican American Indian]] and 67,904 identifying as [[Central american indians|Central American Indian]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Grid View: Table B02014 |url=https://censusreporter.org/data/table/?table=B02014&geo_ids=04000US06&primary_geo_id=04000US06#valueType%7Cestimate |access-date=June 28, 2024 |website=censusreporter.org}}</ref><br />
<br />
According to estimates from 2011, California has the largest [[Majority-minority state|minority population]] in the U.S. by numbers, making up 60% of the state population.<ref name="CensusQuickFacts">{{Cite web |title=California QuickFacts from the US Census Bureau |url=http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/06000.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091228054319/http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/06000.html |archive-date=December 28, 2009 |access-date=December 26, 2009 |publisher=US Census Bureau}}</ref> Over the past 25 years, the population of [[non-Hispanic whites]] has declined, while [[Hispanic and Latino American|Hispanic]] and [[Asian American|Asian]] populations have grown. Between 1970 and 2011, non-Hispanic whites declined from 80% of the state's population to 40%, while [[Hispanic and Latino American|Hispanics]] grew from 32% in 2000 to 38% in 2011.<ref>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20100607034629/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=%2Fc%2Fa%2F2010%2F06%2F05%2FMNSG1DQ1BL.DTL Whites in state 'below the replacement' level]". [[San Francisco Chronicle]]. June 5, 2010.</ref> It is currently projected that Hispanics will rise to 49% of the population by 2060, primarily due to domestic births rather than immigration.<ref name="Economist CA Hispanics">{{Cite news |date=June 20, 2015 |title=Latino mojo |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/news/united-states/21654583-latino-mojo}}</ref> With the decline of immigration from Latin America, Asian Americans now constitute the fastest growing racial/ethnic group in California; this growth is primarily driven by immigration from [[China]], [[India]], and the [[Philippines]], respectively.<ref name="Asians CA">{{Cite web |last=Wendell Cox |title=Asians: America's Fastest Growing Minority |url=http://www.newgeography.com/content/004825-asians-americas-fastest-growing-minority |access-date=July 19, 2015 |publisher=NewsGeography}}</ref><br />
<br />
The majority of California's immigrants were born in Latin America (49%) or Asia (41%). Most of California's immigrant population were born in Mexico (3.8 million), the Philippines (821,136), China (795,450), India (574,498), and Vietnam (525,455) and more than half (55%) of California's immigrants were naturalized US citizens in 2023 which has increased consistently since 1990, when only 31% of immigrants were naturalized.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Immigrants in California |url=https://www.ppic.org/publication/immigrants-in-california/#:~:text=The%20vast%20majority%20of%20California's,)%20and%20Vietnam%20(502,600) |access-date=May 20, 2025 |website=Public Policy Institute of California |language=en-US}}</ref><br />
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<br />
===Languages===<br />
{{main|Languages of California}}<br />
<br />
{{see also|California English|Spanish language in California}}<br />
{|class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-open" style="margin-left:1em; float:right"<br />
|+ '''Languages spoken in California by more than 100,000 persons'''<br />
|-<br />
! Language !! Population{{break}}<small>({{as of|2021|lc=y}})</small><ref name="Language2021">{{Cite web |title=American Community Survey: LANGUAGE SPOKEN AT HOME BY ABILITY TO SPEAK ENGLISH FOR THE POPULATION 5 YEARS AND OVER|url=https://data.census.gov/table?q=punjabi&g=040XX00US06&tid=ACSDT1Y2021.B16001&moe=false|access-date=July 23, 2023|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]}}</ref> !! [[Percentage|%]]<br />
|-<br />
|[[California English|English]]<br />
|20,763,638<br />
|{{Percentage|20,763,638|37,027,601|2}}<br />
|-<br />
|[[Spanish language in California|Spanish]]<br />
|10,434,308<br />
|{{Percentage|10,434,308|37,027,601|2}}<br />
|-<br />
|[[Chinese language in the United States|Chinese]]<br />
|1,244,445<br />
|{{Percentage|1,244,445|37,027,601|2}}<br />
|-<br />
|[[Tagalog language in the United States|Tagalog]]<br />
|757,488<br />
|{{Percentage|757,488|37,027,601|2}}<br />
|-<br />
|[[Vietnamese language in the United States|Vietnamese]]<br />
|544,046<br />
|{{Percentage|544,046|37,027,601|2}}<br />
|-<br />
|[[Korean Americans|Korean]]<br />
|356,901<br />
|{{Percentage|356,901|37,027,601|2}}<br />
|-<br />
|[[Arabic language in the United States|Arabic]]<br />
|231,612<br />
|{{Percentage|231,612|37,027,601|2}}<br />
|-<br />
|[[Persian language in the United States|Persian]]<br />
|221,650<br />
|{{Percentage|221,650|37,027,601|2}}<br />
|-<br />
|[[Armenian language in the United States|Armenian]]<br />
|211,614<br />
|{{Percentage|211,614|37,027,601|2}}<br />
|-<br />
|[[Hindi]]<br />
|208,148<br />
|{{Percentage|208,148|37,027,601|2}}<br />
|-<br />
|[[Russian language in the United States|Russian]]<br />
|178,176<br />
|{{Percentage|178,176|37,027,601|2}}<br />
|-<br />
|[[Punjabi American|Punjabi]]<br />
|156,763<br />
|{{Percentage|156,763|37,027,601|2}}<br />
|-<br />
|[[Japanese American|Japanese]]<br />
|135,992<br />
|{{Percentage|135,992|37,027,601|2}}<br />
|-<br />
|[[French language in the United States|French]]<br />
|126,371<br />
|{{Percentage|126,371|37,027,601|2}}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
[[California English|English]] serves as California's [[de jure]] and [[de facto]] [[official language]]. According to the 2021 [[American Community Survey]] conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau, 56.08% (20,763,638) of California residents age{{spaces}}5 and older spoke only [[English language|English]] at home, while 43.92% spoke another language at home. Some 60.35% of California residents who speak a language other than English at home are able to speak English "well" or "very well", with this figure varying significantly across the different linguistic groups.<ref name="Language2021"/> Like most U.S. states (32 out of 50), California law enshrines English as its [[official language]], and has done so since the passage of [[1986 California Proposition 63|Proposition 63]] by California voters in 1986. Various government agencies do, and are often required to, furnish documents in the various languages needed to reach their intended audiences.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Driver's License or ID Card Renewal |url=http://www.dmv.ca.gov/dl/dl_info.htm#languages |publisher=California Department of Motor Vehicles}}</ref><ref name="AB 800 Analysis">{{Cite web |last=Wesson |first=Herb |author-link=Herb Wesson |date=July 17, 2001 |title=AB 800 Assembly Bill—Bill Analysis |url=http://info.sen.ca.gov/pub/01-02/bill/asm/ab_0751-0800/ab_800_cfa_20020116_162757_sen_comm.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101123142018/http://info.sen.ca.gov/pub/01-02/bill/asm/ab_0751-0800/ab_800_cfa_20020116_162757_sen_comm.html |archive-date=November 23, 2010 |access-date=December 27, 2009 |publisher=California State Assembly |page=3 |quote=In 1986, California voters amended the state constitution to provide that the Legislature and officials of the State of California shall take all steps necessary to insure that the role of English as the common language of the State of California is preserved and enhanced. The Legislature shall make no law which diminishes or ignores the role of English as the common language of California.}}</ref><ref name="Hull English already official">{{Cite news |last=Hull |first=Dana |date=May 20, 2006 |title=English already is 'official' in California |work=[[San Jose Mercury News]]}}</ref><br />
<br />
[[Spanish language in California|Spanish]] is the most commonly spoken language in California behind English, spoken by 28.18% (10,434,308) of the state's population in 2021.<ref name="Language2021"/> The Spanish language has been spoken in California since 1542 and is deeply intertwined with California's cultural landscape and history.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Gifford | first1=Bernard R. | last2=Valdés | first2=Guadalupe | title=The Linguistic Isolation of Hispanic Students in California's Public Schools: The Challenge of Reintegration | journal=Teachers College Record: The Voice of Scholarship in Education | volume=108 | issue=14 | date=2006 | issn=0161-4681 | doi=10.1177/016146810610801408 | pages=125–154 |url=https://www.ousd.org/cms/lib07/CA01001176/Centricity/Domain/3542/Linguistic%20Isolation%20gifford%20valdes.pdf| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211015233107/https://www.ousd.org/cms/lib07/CA01001176/Centricity/Domain/3542/Linguistic%20Isolation%20gifford%20valdes.pdf | archive-date=October 15, 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.zocalopublicsquare.org/2016/12/15/california-losing-ability-hablar-espanol/ideas/connecting-california/|title=Is California Losing Its Ability to Hablar Español? &#124; Connecting California|first=Joe|last=Mathews |date=December 15, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|quote=Spanish is deeply intertwined in our society | last=Good | first=Greta | title=10.4 million people speak Spanish in California–here's how you can learn, too | website=SFGATE | date=March 31, 2021 | url=https://www.sfgate.com/shopping/article/10-4-million-people-speak-Spanish-in-16067234.php}}</ref> Spanish was the official administrative language of California through the Spanish and Mexican eras, until 1848. Following the U.S. [[Conquest of California]] and the [[Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo]], the U.S. federal government guaranteed the rights of Spanish-speaking Californians. The first [[Constitution of California]] was written in both languages at the [[California Constitutional Conventions|Monterey Constitutional Convention of 1849]] and protected the rights of Spanish speakers to use their language in government proceedings and mandating that all government documents be published in both English and Spanish.<ref>{{cite web | last=Edwards | first=Andrew | title=English, Spanish share long history in California | website=Los Angeles Daily News | date=July 18, 2010 | url=https://www.dailynews.com/2010/07/18/english-spanish-share-long-history-in-california/}}</ref><br />
{{multiple image<br />
| align = left<br />
| width = 250<br />
| image1 = California Constitution 1849 title page.jpg<br />
| image2 = Proclama al Pueblo de California (1849) (cropped).jpg<br />
| footer = The [[Constitution of California]] was written in both [[California English|English]] (left) and [[Spanish language in California|Spanish]] (right) by both American and [[Californio]] delegates.<br />
}}<br />
Despite the initial recognition of Spanish by early American governments in California, the revised 1879 state constitution stripped the rights of Spanish speakers and the official status of Spanish.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.languagepolicy.net/archives/1879con.htm|title=Spanish Language Rights in California: Debates over the 1879 Constitution|website=languagepolicy.net}}</ref> The growth of the [[English-only movement]] by the mid-20th century led to the passage of [[1986 California Proposition 63]], which enshrined English as the only official language in California and ended Spanish as a language of instruction in public schools.<ref name="Time Bilingual">{{Cite magazine|url=https://time.com/4041224/history-california-bilingual-education/|title=The Complicated History Behind California's Vote on Bilingual Education|date=November 2, 2016|magazine=Time}}</ref> [[2016 California Proposition 58]] reversed the prohibition on [[bilingual education]], though there are still many barriers to the proliferation of Spanish bilingual education, including a shortage of teachers and lack of funding.<ref>{{cite web | last=Garcia | first=Karen | title=How second- and third-generation Latinos are reclaiming the Spanish language | website=Los Angeles Times | date=January 31, 2023 | url=https://www.latimes.com/lifestyle/story/2023-01-31/how-language-affects-identity-for-latinos }}</ref><ref name="Time Bilingual"/><ref>{{cite web | last=Sanchez | first=Claudio | title=After Nearly 2 Decades, Californians Revisit Ban On Bilingual Education | website=NPR | date=October 29, 2016 | url=https://www.npr.org/sections/ed/2016/10/29/499867678/the-debate-over-bilingual-education-in-california }}</ref> The [[government of California]] has since made efforts to promote Spanish language access and bilingual education,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ksbw.com/article/dollar178-million-grant-uplifts-california-spanish-speaking-students/41236323|title=$1.78 million grant uplifts California Spanish-speaking students|first=Christian|last=Balderas|date=September 16, 2022|website=KSBW}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last=Kelley | first=Cindy | title=California wants most students to be bilingual by 2040. Here's why. | website=San Diego Union-Tribune | date=March 10, 2022 | url=https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/2022/03/10/california-wants-most-students-to-be-bilingual-by-2040-heres-why/ }}</ref> as have private educational institutions in California.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vcstar.com/story/news/2021/03/10/el-eco-leads-more-spanish-language-courses-california-lutheran/4551110001/|title=California Lutheran University staff create more Spanish-language options|first=Shivani|last=Patel|website=Ventura County Star}}</ref> Many businesses in California promote Spanish language skills for their employees, to better serve both California's Hispanic population and the larger [[Hispanophone|Spanish-speaking world]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.smdailyjournal.com/sponsored/will-spanish-overtake-english-as-the-most-spoken-language-of-california/article_0a193d8e-88f9-11ec-b067-bbf4bca11bba.html|title=Will Spanish Overtake English as the Most Spoken Language of California?|date=February 8, 2022|website=San Mateo Daily Journal}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://janerosenthal.com/live-in-california-learn-spanish/|title=Should You Lean Spanish If You Live in California? &#124; Jane Rosenthal Author|first=Janes|last=Team|date=January 17, 2023|website=Jane Rosenthal}}</ref><br />
<br />
California has historically been one of the most linguistically diverse areas in the world, with more than 70 indigenous languages derived from 64 root languages in six language families.<ref name="Native Languages 1770">{{Cite map |publisher=Coyote Press |title=Native Tribes, Groups, Language Families and Dialects of California in 1770 |url=http://www.californiaprehistory.com/tribmap.html |edition=1966 |access-date=December 27, 2009 |archive-date=April 30, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430112732/http://www.californiaprehistory.com/tribmap.html }}</ref><ref name="Indian Root Languages 1994">{{Cite map |publisher=California State Parks |title=California Indians Root Languages and Tribal Groups |url=http://www.parks.ca.gov/?page_id=23545 |edition=1994 |access-date=December 27, 2009}}</ref> A survey conducted between 2007 and 2009 identified 23 different indigenous languages among California farmworkers.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013 |title=Indigenous Farmworker Study—Indigenous Mexicans in California Agriculture. Section V. Language and Culture |url=http://indigenousfarmworkers.org/final_report_section_v.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://indigenousfarmworkers.org/final_report_section_v.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live |access-date=July 1, 2013}}</ref> All of California's indigenous languages are [[endangered language|endangered]], although there are now efforts toward [[language revitalization]].<ref group="note">The following are a list of the indigenous languages: Root languages of California: Athabaskan Family: Hupa, Mattole, Lassik, Wailaki, Sinkyone, Cahto, Tolowa, Nongatl, Wiyot, Chilula; Hokan Family: Pomo, Shasta, Karok, Chimiriko; Algonquian Family: Whilkut, Yurok; Yukian Family: Wappo; Penutian Family: Modok, Wintu, Nomlaki, Konkow, Maidu, Patwin, Nisenan, Miwok, Coast Miwok, Lake Miwok, Ohlone, Northern Valley Yokuts, Southern Valley Yokuts, Foothill Yokuts; Hokan Family: Esselen, Salinan, Chumash, Ipai, Tipai, Yuma, Halchichoma, Mohave; Uto-Aztecan Family: Mono Paiute, Monache, Owens Valley Paiute, Tubatulabal, Panamint Shoshone, Kawaisu, Kitanemuk, Tataviam, Gabrielino, Juaneno, Luiseno, Cuipeno, Cahuilla, Serrano, Chemehuevi</ref> California has the highest concentration nationwide of [[Chinese language in the United States|Chinese]], [[Vietnamese language in the United States|Vietnamese]] and [[Punjabi American|Punjabi]] speakers.<br />
<br />
As a result of the state's increasing diversity and migration from other areas across the country and around the globe, linguists began noticing a noteworthy set of emerging characteristics of spoken [[American English]] in California since the late 20th century. This variety, known as [[California English]], has a [[vowel shift]] and several other phonological processes that are different from varieties of American English used in other regions of the U.S.<ref name="Bucholtz">{{Cite journal |last1=Bucholtz |first1=Mary |display-authors=etal |date=December 2007 |title=Hella Nor Cal or Totally So Cal?: The Perceptual Dialectology of California |journal=Journal of English Linguistics |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=325–352 |citeseerx=10.1.1.516.3682 |doi=10.1177/0075424207307780 |s2cid=64542514}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Religion ===<br />
{{Main|Religion in California}}<br />
<br />
{{see also|List of cathedrals in California}}{{Update section|date=January 2026}}{{Pie chart<br />
| thumb = right<br />
| caption = Religious self-identification, per [[Public Religion Research Institute]]'s 2021 ''American Values Survey''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Staff |date=February 24, 2023 |title=American Values Atlas: Religious Tradition in California|url=https://ava.prri.org/#religious/2021/States/religion/m/US-CA|access-date=April 4, 2023 |website=[[Public Religion Research Institute]]}}</ref><br />
| label1 = [[Catholic Church in the United States|Catholicism]]<br />
| value1 = 34<br />
| color1 = Purple<br />
| label2 = [[Protestantism in the United States|Protestantism]]<br />
| value2 = 27<br />
| color2 = Blue<br />
| label3 = [[Jehovah's Witnesses|Jehovah's Witness]]<br />
| value3 = 1<br />
| color3 = Teal<br />
| label4 = [[Mormonism]]<br />
| value4 = 1<br />
| color4 = Lightblue<br />
| label5 = [[Irreligion in the United States|Unaffiliated]]<br />
| value5 = 28<br />
| color5 = White<br />
| label6 = [[Buddhism in the United States|Buddhism]]<br />
| value6 = 2<br />
| color6 = Yellow<br />
| label7 = [[American Jews|Judaism]]<br />
| value7 = 1<br />
| color7 = Pink<br />
| label8 = [[Hinduism in the United States|Hinduism]]<br />
| value8 = 1<br />
| color8 = Orange<br />
| label9 = Other<br />
| value9 = 5<br />
| color9 = Black<br />
}}<br />
The largest [[religious denomination]]s by number of adherents as a percentage of California's population in 2014 were the Catholic Church with 28%, Evangelical Protestants with 20%, and Mainline Protestants with 10%. Together, all kinds of Protestants accounted for 32%. Those unaffiliated with any religion represented 27% of the population. The breakdown of other religions is 1% Muslim, 2% Hindu and 2% Buddhist.<ref name="pew2014">{{Cite web |last=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=May 12, 2015 |title=America's Changing Religious Landscape, ''Appendix D: Detailed Tables'' |url=http://www.pewforum.org/files/2015/05/Appendix-D-Detailed-Tables.pdf |access-date=June 5, 2015 |publisher=Pew Research Center |archive-date=May 28, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150528123026/http://www.pewforum.org/files/2015/05/Appendix-D-Detailed-Tables.pdf }}</ref> This is a change from 2008, when the population identified their religion with the Catholic Church with 31%; Evangelical Protestants with 18%; and Mainline Protestants with 14%. In 2008, those unaffiliated with any religion represented 21% of the population. The breakdown of other religions in 2008 was 0.5% Muslim, 1% Hindu and 2% Buddhist.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Religious Affiliation by State in the U.S |url=http://religions.pewforum.org/pdf/report-religious-landscape-study-full.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://religions.pewforum.org/pdf/report-religious-landscape-study-full.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live |access-date=June 24, 2010 |website=U.S. Religious Landscape Study |publisher=[[Pew Research Center]] |page=103}}</ref> The ''[[American Jewish Year Book]]'' placed the total [[American Jews|Jewish]] population of California at about 1,194,190 in 2006.<ref>Ira M. Sheskin and Arnold Dashefsky, "Jewish Population of the United States, 2006", ''[[American_Jewish_Year_Book]] 2006'', Volume 106 [https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/US-Israel/usjewpop.html].</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=January 2026|certain=yes}} According to the [[Association of Religion Data Archives]] (ARDA) the largest denominations by adherents in 2010 were the [[Catholic Church]] with 10,233,334; [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in California|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] with 763,818; and the [[Southern Baptist Convention]] with 489,953.<ref name="www.thearda.com">{{Cite web |title=The Association of Religion Data Archives &#124; State Membership Report |url=http://www.thearda.com/rcms2010/r/s/06/rcms2010_06_state_adh_2010.asp |access-date=December 16, 2013 |publisher=thearda.com |archive-date=December 17, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131217000142/http://www.thearda.com/rcms2010/r/s/06/rcms2010_06_state_adh_2010.asp }}</ref>{{Update inline|date=January 2026}}<br />
[[File:Cathedral of San Carlos Borromeo (cropped2).jpg|thumb|The [[Cathedral of San Carlos Borromeo (Monterey, California)|Cathedral of San Carlos Borromeo]] in Monterey, built 1791–94, is the oldest [[parish]] in California.<ref>Clark, Donald T., Monterey County Place Names: A Geographical Dictionary (Kestrel Press, Carmel Valley, CA, 1991).</ref>|left]]<br />
California has a large Catholic population due to the large numbers of Mexicans and Central Americans living within its borders. California has twelve dioceses and two archdioceses, the [[Archdiocese of Los Angeles]] and the [[Archdiocese of San Francisco]], the former being the largest archdiocese in the U.S.<br />
<br />
A [[Pew Research Center]] survey revealed that California is somewhat less religious than the rest of the states: 62% of Californians say they are "absolutely certain" of their belief in God, while in the nation 71% say so. The survey also revealed 48% of Californians say religion is "very important", compared to 56% nationally.<ref name="Helfland 2008">{{Cite news |last=Helfand |first=Duke |date=June 24, 2008 |title=State has a relaxed view on religion—Survey finds Californians are less certain about the existence of God than others in the U.S |work=Los Angeles Times |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2008-jun-24-me-faith24-story.html |access-date=December 27, 2009}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Culture==<br />
{{Main|Culture of California}}<br />
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{{see also|Cuisine of California}}<br />
[[File: Hollywood Sign (Zuschnitt).jpg|thumb|right|The [[Hollywood Sign]] in [[Los Angeles]]]]<br />
The culture of California is a [[Western culture]] and has its modern roots in [[U.S. culture]], but also, historically, many [[Hispanic]] [[Californio]] and [[Culture of Mexico|Mexican]] influences. As a border and coastal state, California culture has been greatly influenced by several large immigrant populations, especially those from Latin America and Asia.<ref name="World of Opportunity">{{Cite web |last=Park |first=Bborie |date=December 2003 |title=A World of Opportunity—Which New Languages Davis Students Would Like to Study and Why |url=http://www.sariweb.ucdavis.edu/downloads/311AWorldOfOpportunity.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100611013350/http://www.sariweb.ucdavis.edu/downloads/311AWorldOfOpportunity.pdf |archive-date=June 11, 2010 |access-date=December 27, 2009 |publisher=[[UC Davis]] Student Affairs Research and Information}}</ref><br />
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California has long been a subject of interest in the public mind and has often been promoted by its boosters as a kind of paradise. In the early 20th century, fueled by the efforts of state, the building projects during the [[Great Depression]] and local boosters, many Americans saw the Golden State as an ideal resort destination, sunny and dry all year round with easy access to the ocean and mountains. In the 1960s, popular music groups such as [[the Beach Boys]] promoted the image of Californians as laid-back, tanned beach-goers.<br />
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===Media and entertainment===<br />
{{further|Media in Los Angeles|Media in the San Francisco Bay Area|Music in California}}<br />
{{see also|List of amusement parks in the Americas#California|List of newspapers in California|List of radio stations in California}}<br />
[[File:Walt_Disney_Studios_Alameda_Entrance.jpg|thumb|left|[[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]], headquartered in [[Burbank, California|Burbank]], is one of the world's largest media and entertainment companies.]]<br />
[[Hollywood, Los Angeles|Hollywood]] and the rest of the Los Angeles area is a major global center for entertainment, with the [[cinema in the United States|U.S. film industry]]'s [[Major film studio|"Big Five" major film studios]] ([[Columbia Pictures|Columbia]], [[Walt Disney Pictures|Disney]], [[Paramount Pictures|Paramount]], [[Universal Pictures|Universal]], and [[Warner Bros. Pictures|Warner Bros.]]) as well as many minor film studios being based in or around the area. Many [[animation]] studios are also headquartered in the state. The four major American television commercial broadcast networks ([[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]], [[CBS]], [[NBC]], and [[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox]]) as well as other networks all have production facilities and offices in the state. All the four major commercial broadcast networks, plus the two major Spanish-language networks ([[Telemundo]] and [[Univision]]) each have at least three [[Owned-and-operated television stations in the United States|owned-and-operated TV stations]] in California, including at least one in Los Angeles and at least one in San Francisco.{{refn|group="note"|[[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] has the least amount of owned-and-operated TV stations with three: [[KABC-TV]] in Los Angeles, [[KGO-TV]] in San Francisco, and [[KFSN-TV]] in Fresno.}}<br />
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{{multiple image<br />
| align = right<br />
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| header = <br />
| image1 = Googleplex HQ (cropped).jpg<br />
| caption1 = [[Google]], headquartered in [[Mountain View, California|Mountain View]], is one of the largest [[technology companies]] in the world.<br />
| image2 = State Fair 2014.jpg<br />
| caption2 = The [[California State Fair]] is held annually during the summer at [[Cal Expo]] in northeastern [[Sacramento]].<br />
}}<br />
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One of the oldest radio stations in the U.S. still in existence, [[KCBS (AM)]] in the [[Media in the San Francisco Bay Area|San Francisco Bay Area]], was founded in 1909. [[Universal Music Group]], one of the "[[Music market|Big Four]]" record labels, is based in [[Santa Monica, California|Santa Monica]], while [[Warner Records]] is based in [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]]. Many independent record labels, such as [[Mind of a Genius Records]], are also headquartered in the state. California is also the birthplace of several international music genres, including the [[Bakersfield sound]], [[Bay Area thrash metal]], [[alternative rock]], [[g-funk]], [[nu metal]], [[glam metal]], [[thrash metal]], [[psychedelic rock]], [[stoner rock]], [[punk rock]], [[hardcore punk]], [[metalcore]], [[pop punk]], [[surf music]], [[third wave ska]], [[west coast hip hop]], [[west coast jazz]], [[jazz rap]], and many other genres. Other genres such as [[pop rock]], [[indie rock]], [[hard rock]], [[hip hop]], [[pop music|pop]], [[rock music|rock]], [[rockabilly]], [[country music|country]], [[Heavy metal music|heavy metal]], [[grunge]], [[New wave music|new wave]] and [[disco]] were popularized in the state. In addition, many British bands, such as [[Led Zeppelin]], [[Deep Purple]], [[Black Sabbath]], and [[the Rolling Stones]] settled in the state after becoming internationally famous.<br />
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As the home of [[Silicon Valley]], the Bay Area is the headquarters of several prominent [[internet media]], [[social media]], and other technology companies. Three of the [[Big Tech|"Big Five" technology companies]] ([[Apple Inc.|Apple]], [[Meta Platforms|Meta]], and [[Google]]) are based in the area as well as other services such as [[Netflix]], [[Pandora Radio]], [[Twitter]], [[Yahoo!]], and [[YouTube]]. Other prominent companies that are headquartered here include [[HP inc.]] and [[Intel]]. [[Microsoft]] and [[Amazon (company)|Amazon]] also have offices in the area.<br />
<br />
California, particularly [[Southern California]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.speedhunters.com/2022/03/car-culture-southern-california/ |title=Car Culture: Does Anywhere Do It Better Than Southern California? |last=Ryan|first=Sara|date=March 18, 2022|website= speedhunters.com|publisher=[[Electronic Arts Inc.]] |access-date= August 17, 2023|quote=Ask anyone who's involved in the automotive hobby where they'd suggest heading for some really thick car culture, and Southern California would surely be mentioned.}}</ref> is considered the birthplace of modern [[car culture]].<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.2307/25591577 | jstor=25591577 | last1=Lutz | first1=R. C. | title=On the Road to Nowhere? California's Car Culture | journal=California History | date=August 28, 2023 | volume=79 | issue=1 | pages=50–55 }}</ref><br />
<br />
Several [[fast food]], [[fast casual restaurant|fast casual]], and [[List of casual dining restaurant chains|casual dining]] chains were also founded California, including some that have since expanded internationally like [[California Pizza Kitchen]], [[Denny's]], [[IHOP]], [[McDonald's]], [[Panda Express]], and [[Taco Bell]].<br />
<br />
===Sports===<br />
{{Main|Sports in California}}<br />
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{{see also|List of professional sports teams in California}}<br />
<br />
{{multiple image<br />
| align = left<br />
| perrow = 1<br />
| total_width = 220<br />
| header = <br />
| image1 = Pebble-Beach-CA.jpg<br />
| caption1 = [[Pebble Beach Golf Links]], one of the best ranked [[golf course]]s in the world<br />
| image2 = LBGP05.jpg<br />
| caption2 = The [[Grand Prix of Long Beach]] is the longest running major [[street race]] in North America.<br />
}}<br />
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California has 18 [[major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada|major professional sports league]] franchises, far more than any other state. The [[San Francisco Bay Area]] has five major league teams, while the [[Greater Los Angeles Area]] is home to ten. San Diego has two major league teams and Sacramento has one. The NFL [[Super Bowl]] has been hosted in California 12 times at five different stadiums: [[Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum]], the Rose Bowl, Stanford Stadium, [[Levi's Stadium]], and [[San Diego Stadium]]. A thirteenth, [[Super Bowl LVI]], was held at [[SoFi Stadium]] in [[Inglewood, California|Inglewood]] on February 13, 2022.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Naranjo |first=Candice |date=March 28, 2014 |title=The Super Bowl is Coming to Levi's Stadium in 2016 |url=http://news.kron4.com/news/the-super-bowl-is-coming-to-levis-stadium-in-2016/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140329080701/http://news.kron4.com/news/the-super-bowl-is-coming-to-levis-stadium-in-2016/ |archive-date=March 29, 2014 |access-date=March 28, 2014 |newspaper=Kron4 – San Francisco Bay Area News |publisher=KRON 4}}</ref><br />
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California has long had many respected collegiate sports programs. California is home to the oldest college bowl game, the annual [[Rose Bowl Game|Rose Bowl]], among others.<br />
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The [[National Football League|NFL]] has three teams in the state: the [[Los Angeles Rams]], [[Los Angeles Chargers]], and [[San Francisco 49ers]].<br />
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[[Major League Baseball|MLB]] has four teams in the state: the [[San Francisco Giants]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers]], [[Los Angeles Angels]], and [[San Diego Padres]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.loscerritosnews.net/2021/06/14/how-many-mlb-teams-are-in-california/ |title=How many MLB teams are in California? |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=June 14, 2021 |website=loscerritosnews.net |publisher=Hews Media Group, [[Cerritos Community News]] |access-date=August 17, 2023 |quote=There are a total of five different MLB franchises that are currently located on the west coast, with the Los Angeles Dodgers, Los Angeles Angels, Oakland Athletics, San Diego Padres and the San Francisco Giants.}}</ref><br />
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The [[National Basketball Association|NBA]] has four teams in the state: the [[Golden State Warriors]], [[Los Angeles Clippers]], [[Los Angeles Lakers]], and [[Sacramento Kings]]. Additionally, the [[Women's National Basketball Association|WNBA]] also has two teams in the state: the [[Los Angeles Sparks]] and [[Golden State Valkyries]].<br />
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The [[National Hockey League|NHL]] has three teams in the state: the [[Anaheim Ducks]], [[Los Angeles Kings]], and [[San Jose Sharks]].<br />
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[[Major League Soccer|MLS]] has four teams in the state: the [[Los Angeles Galaxy]], [[San Jose Earthquakes]], [[Los Angeles FC]], and [[San Diego FC]].<br />
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[[Major League Rugby|MLR]] has one team in the state: the [[San Diego Legion]].<br />
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California is the only U.S. state to have hosted both the [[Summer Olympic Games|Summer]] and [[Winter Olympic Games|Winter]] Olympics. The [[1932 Summer Olympics|1932]] and [[1984 Summer Olympics|1984]] summer games were held in [[Los Angeles]]. Squaw Valley Ski Resort (now [[Palisades Tahoe]]) in the Lake Tahoe region hosted the [[1960 Winter Olympics]]. Los Angeles will host the [[2028 Summer Olympics]], marking the fourth time that California will have hosted the Olympic Games.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Nagourney |first1=Adam |author-link=Adam Nagourney |last2=Longman |first2=Jeré |date=July 31, 2017 |title=Los Angeles Makes Deal to Host the 2028 Summer Olympics |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/07/31/sports/olympics/los-angeles-2028-summer-olympics.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802233825/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/07/31/sports/olympics/los-angeles-2028-summer-olympics.html |archive-date=August 2, 2017}}</ref> <br />
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Multiple games during the [[1994 FIFA World Cup]] took place in California, with the [[Rose Bowl Stadium|Rose Bowl]] hosting eight matches (including the [[1994 FIFA World Cup Final|final]]), while [[Stanford Stadium]] hosted six matches. <br />
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The [[2026 FIFA World Cup|2026 World Cup]] is scheduled to return in 2026, from June 11 to July 19. [[SoFi Stadium]] in Los Angeles will host eight matches, including three group stage fixtures, two Round of 32 clashes, and a highly anticipated Quarter-Final.<ref>{{cite web |title=Guide: Los Angeles blends sport, culture, and celebration for the 2026 FIFA World Cup |url=https://tourisports.com/2025/12/25/guide-los-angeles-blends-sport-culture-and-celebration-for-the-2026-fifa-world-cup/ |website=Tourisports |date=December 25, 2025 |access-date=25 December 2025}}</ref><br />
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In addition to the Olympic games, California also hosts the [[California State Games]].<br />
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Many sports, such as [[surfing]], [[snowboarding]], and [[skateboarding]], were invented in California, while others like [[volleyball]], [[beach soccer]], and [[skiing]] were popularized in the state.<br />
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Other sports that are big in the state include [[golf]], [[rodeo]], [[tennis]], [[mountain climbing]], [[Marathon|marathon running]], [[horse racing]], [[bowling]], [[mixed martial arts]], [[boxing]], and [[motorsports]], especially [[NASCAR]] and [[Formula One]].<br />
[[File:The "Olympic Gateway" arch and male and female statues at the entrance to the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, Los Angeles, California LCCN2013631630.tif|right|thumb|[[Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum]] hosted the [[Summer Olympics]] in [[1932 Summer Olympics|1932]] and [[1984 Summer Olympics|1984]], and will also host in [[2028 Summer Olympics|2028]].]]<br />
{|class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible"<br />
|-<br />
! Team<br />
! Sport<br />
! League<br />
|-<br />
|[[Los Angeles Rams]]<br />
|[[American football]]<br />
|[[National Football League]] (NFL)<br />
|-<br />
|[[Los Angeles Chargers]]<br />
|American football<br />
|National Football League<br />
|-<br />
|[[San Francisco 49ers]]<br />
|American football<br />
|National Football League<br />
|-<br />
|[[Los Angeles Dodgers]]<br />
|[[Baseball]]<br />
|[[Major League Baseball]] (MLB)<br />
|-<br />
|[[Los Angeles Angels]]<br />
|Baseball<br />
|Major League Baseball<br />
|-<br />
|[[San Diego Padres]]<br />
|Baseball<br />
|Major League Baseball<br />
|-<br />
|[[San Francisco Giants]]<br />
|Baseball<br />
|Major League Baseball<br />
|-<br />
|[[Golden State Warriors]]<br />
|[[Basketball]]<br />
|[[National Basketball Association]] (NBA)<br />
|-<br />
|[[Los Angeles Clippers]]<br />
|Basketball<br />
|National Basketball Association<br />
|-<br />
|[[Los Angeles Lakers]]<br />
|Basketball<br />
|National Basketball Association<br />
|-<br />
|[[Sacramento Kings]]<br />
|Basketball<br />
|National Basketball Association<br />
|-<br />
|[[Golden State Valkyries]]<br />
|Basketball<br />
|[[Women's National Basketball Association]] (WNBA)<br />
|-<br />
|[[Los Angeles Sparks]]<br />
|Basketball<br />
|[[Women's National Basketball Association]]<br />
|-<br />
|[[Anaheim Ducks]]<br />
|[[Ice hockey]]<br />
|[[National Hockey League]] (NHL)<br />
|-<br />
|[[Los Angeles Kings]]<br />
|Ice hockey<br />
|National Hockey League<br />
|-<br />
|[[San Jose Sharks]]<br />
|Ice hockey<br />
|National Hockey League<br />
|-<br />
|[[Los Angeles Galaxy]]<br />
|[[Association football|Soccer]]<br />
|[[Major League Soccer]] (MLS)<br />
|-<br />
|[[San Jose Earthquakes]]<br />
|Soccer<br />
|Major League Soccer<br />
|-<br />
|[[Los Angeles FC]]<br />
|Soccer<br />
|Major League Soccer<br />
|-<br />
|[[San Diego FC]]<br />
|Soccer<br />
|Major League Soccer<br />
|-<br />
|[[Angel City FC]]<br />
|Soccer<br />
|[[National Women's Soccer League]] (NWSL)<br />
|-<br />
|[[San Diego Wave FC]]<br />
|Soccer<br />
|National Women's Soccer League<br />
|-<br />
|[[San Diego Legion]]<br />
|Rugby union<br />
|Major League Rugby<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Education==<br />
{{Main|Education in California}}<br />
<br />
{{see also|Spanish bilingual education in California}}<br />
[[File:Santa Barbara Senior High School (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|[[Santa Barbara High School]], one of the oldest high schools in continuous use in Southern California]]<br />
California has the most school students in the country, with over 6.2 million in the 2005–06 school year, giving California more students in school than 36 states have in total population and one of the highest projected enrollments in the country.<ref>{{CongRec|2000|S2337|April 6, 2000}}</ref><br />
Public [[Secondary education in the United States|secondary education]] consists of [[High schools in California|high schools]] that teach elective courses in trades, languages, and liberal arts with tracks for gifted, college-bound and industrial arts students. California's public educational system is supported by a [[California Proposition 98 (1988)|unique constitutional amendment]] that requires a minimum annual funding level for grades K–12 and [[List of California Community Colleges|community colleges]] that grows with the economy and student enrollment figures.<ref name="Prop 98">{{Cite web |date=February 2005 |title=Proposition 98 Primer |url=http://www.lao.ca.gov/2005/prop_98_primer/prop_98_primer_020805.htm |access-date=January 29, 2010 |website=LAO.ca.gov |publisher=California Legislative Analyst's Office}}</ref><br />
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In 2016, California's K–12 public school per-pupil spending was ranked 22nd in the nation ($11,500 per student vs. $11,800 for the U.S. average).<ref name="Governing_State_Ed_data">{{Cite magazine |date=June 1, 2018 |title=Education Spending Per Student by State |url=http://www.governing.com/gov-data/education-data/state-education-spending-per-pupil-data.html |url-status=live |magazine=[[Governing (magazine)|Governing]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180702004654/http://www.governing.com/gov-data/education-data/state-education-spending-per-pupil-data.html |archive-date=July 2, 2018 |access-date=July 18, 2018 |quote=NOTE: Adult education, community services and other nonelementary-secondary program expenditures are excluded.}}</ref><br />
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For 2012, California's K–12 public schools ranked 48th in the number of employees per student, at 0.102 (the U.S. average was 0.137), while paying the 7th most per employee, $49,000 (the U.S. average was $39,000).<ref name="Urban_study">{{Cite web |last1=Gordon |first1=Tracy |last2=Iselin |first2=John |date=January 1, 2017 |title=What Everyone Should Know about Their State's Budget |url=http://apps.urban.org/features/what-drives-state-spending/ |access-date=July 16, 2018 |publisher=[[Urban Institute]] |quote=This chart includes two places, District of Columbia, and the U.S. average, so the number rankings rank 52 total entities; this needs to be understood when viewing these rankings.}}</ref><ref name="Urban_study_notes">{{Cite web |last1=Gordon |first1=Tracy |last2=Iselin |first2=John |date=January 1, 2017 |title=What Everyone Should Know about Their State's Budget |url=http://apps.urban.org/features/what-drives-state-spending/spending-drivers-documentation.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202025027/http://apps.urban.org/features/what-drives-state-spending/spending-drivers-documentation.pdf |archive-date=February 2, 2017 |access-date=July 16, 2018 |publisher=[[Urban Institute]] |page=7 |quote=For state and local government spending, we rely primarily on the U.S. Census Bureau's Census of Governments Annual Survey of State and Local Government Finances for fiscal year 2012, as revised and released on October 23, 2015.1 For state and local government employment and payroll, we draw from the U.S. Census Bureau's Census of Governments Government Employment and Payroll survey for full-time equivalent employees in March 2012.}}</ref><ref name="MN_state_comparison">{{Cite news |last=Woolfolk |first=John |date=January 15, 2018 |title=Why do Californians pay more state and local taxes than Texans? |work=[[The Mercury News|San Jose Mercury News]] |url=https://www.mercurynews.com/2018/01/13/why-do-californians-pay-more-state-and-local-taxes-than-texans/ |url-status=live |access-date=July 16, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180208202805/https://www.mercurynews.com/2018/01/13/why-do-californians-pay-more-state-and-local-taxes-than-texans/ |archive-date=February 8, 2018 |quote=California spending per resident on K-12 schools was about average among the states, but while teacher pay was among the highest, the state trailed others in teachers and support staff per student.}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Higher education===<br />
{{main|List of colleges and universities in California}}<br />
<br />
{{multiple image<br />
| align = right<br />
| perrow = 1<br />
| total_width = 220<br />
| header = <br />
| image1 = Berkeley glade afternoon.jpg<br />
| caption1 = [[University of California, Berkeley|UC Berkeley]] is the oldest campus of the [[University of California]], and the state's flagship public university.<br />
| image2 = Stanford University Main Quad - 7 June 2009.jpg<br />
| caption2 = [[Stanford University]] is a private university that is one of the top-ranked universities in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |title=QS World University Rankings 2023: Top Global Universities |url=https://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/2023 |access-date=November 28, 2022 |website=Top Universities |language=en}}</ref><br />
}}<br />
<br />
California public [[postsecondary education]] is organized into three separate systems:<br />
* The state's [[Public university|public]] [[research university]] [[State university system|system]] is the [[University of California]] (UC). As of fall 2011, the University of California had a combined [[student]] body of 234,464 students.<ref name="About">{{Cite web |title=Log In—Confluence |url=https://confluence.ucop.edu/login.action?os_destination=%2Fpages%2Fviewpage.action%3FspaceKey%3DUC101%26title%3DAbout%2Bthe%2BUniversity%2Bof%2BCalifornia&permissionViolation=true |website=confluence.ucop.edu}}</ref> There are ten UC campuses; nine are general campuses offering both undergraduate and graduate programs which culminate in the award of bachelor's degrees, master's degrees, and doctorates; there is one specialized campus, [[UC San Francisco]], which is entirely dedicated to graduate education in [[Health care in California|health care]], and is home to the [[UCSF Medical Center]], the highest-ranked [[Hospitals in California|hospital in California]].<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=July 15, 2007 |title=America's Best Hospitals 2007 |url=http://health.usnews.com/usnews/health/best-hospitals/honorroll.htm |magazine=[[U.S. News & World Report]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070711023109/http://health.usnews.com/usnews/health/best-hospitals/honorroll.htm |archive-date=July 11, 2007 |access-date=July 15, 2007}}</ref> The system was originally intended to accept the top one-eighth of California high school students, but several of the campuses have become even more selective.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gilmore |first=Janet |date=December 19, 2016 |title=85,000 students seek admission to Berkeley's 2017–18 freshman class |url=http://news.berkeley.edu/2016/12/19/85000-students-seek-admission-to-berkeleys-2017-18-freshman-class/ |access-date=May 8, 2017 |website=Berkeley News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Kendall |first=Rebecca |title=UCLA breaks several records with 2017 freshman applications |url=http://newsroom.ucla.edu/releases/ucla-breaks-several-records-with-2017-freshman-applications |access-date=May 8, 2017 |website=UCLA Newsroom}}</ref><ref name="Powell">Powell, Farran. "California Students Face Competition for College Options". ''U.S. News & World Report''. N.p., February 6, 2017. Web. May 7, 2017.</ref> The UC system historically held exclusive authority to award the doctorate, but this has since changed and CSU now has limited statutory authorization to award a handful of types of doctoral degrees independently of UC.<br />
* The [[California State University]] (CSU) system has almost 430,000 students. The CSU (which takes the definite article in its abbreviated form, while UC does not) was originally intended to accept the top one-third of California high school students, but several of the campuses have become much more selective.<ref name="Powell" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Rising number of rejections raises fears that Long Beach is becoming 'elite' university |url=https://edsource.org/2016/rising-number-of-rejections-raise-fears-that-long-beach-is-becoming-elite-university/95431 |access-date=May 8, 2017 |website=EdSource}}</ref> The CSU was originally authorized to award only bachelor's and master's degrees, and could award the doctorate only as part of joint programs with UC or private universities. Since then, CSU has been granted the authority to independently award several doctoral degrees (in specific academic fields that do not intrude upon UC's traditional jurisdiction).<br />
* The [[California Community Colleges]] system provides lower-division coursework culminating in the associate degree, as well as basic skills and workforce training culminating in various kinds of certificates. (Fifteen California community colleges now award four-year bachelor's degrees in disciplines which are in high demand in their geographical area.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Baccalaureate Degree Program {{!}} California Community Colleges Chancellor's Office |url=https://www.cccco.edu/About-Us/Chancellors-Office/Divisions/Educational-Services-and-Support/What-we-do/Curriculum-and-Instruction-Unit/Curriculum/Baccalaureate-Degree-Program |access-date=October 8, 2022 |website=www.cccco.edu}}</ref>) It is the largest network of higher education in the U.S., composed of 112 colleges serving a student population of over 2.6{{spaces}}million.<br />
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California is also home to notable private universities such as [[Stanford University]], the [[California Institute of Technology]] (Caltech), the [[University of Southern California]], the [[Claremont Colleges]], [[Santa Clara University]], [[Loyola Marymount University]], the [[University of San Diego]], the [[University of San Francisco]], [[Chapman University]], [[Pepperdine University]], [[Occidental College]], and [[University of the Pacific (United States)|University of the Pacific]], among numerous other private colleges and universities, including many religious and special-purpose institutions. California has a particularly high density of arts colleges, including the [[California College of the Arts]], [[California Institute of the Arts]], [[San Francisco Art Institute]], [[Art Center College of Design]], and [[Academy of Art University]], among others.<br />
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==Economy==<br />
{{Main|Economy of California}}<br />
<br />
[[File:SJ skyline at night horizontal.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Silicon Valley]] is the largest [[List of technology centers|tech hub]] in the world and home to [[Big Tech]] companies like [[Apple Inc.|Apple]], [[Alphabet Inc.|Alphabet]], [[Meta Platforms, Inc.|Meta]], [[Nvidia Corporation|Nvidia]], [[Intel Corporation|Intel]], [[HP Inc.|HP]], [[Netflix, Inc.]], [[Uber Technologies, Inc.|Uber]], and many more.]]<br />
California's economy ranks among the largest in the world. {{as of|2024}}, the [[gross state product]] (GSP) is $4.172{{spaces}}[[1000000000000 (number)|trillion]] ($102,500 per capita), the [[List of U.S. states and territories by GDP|largest of any U.S. state]].<ref name="GDPByState">{{cite web |title=GDP by State |url=https://www.bea.gov/data/gdp/gdp-state |website=GDP by State &#124; U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) |publisher=Bureau of Economic Analysis |access-date=April 10, 2022}}</ref> California is responsible for one seventh of the nation's gross domestic product (GDP).<ref name="gdp">{{Cite web |title=GDP by State |website=Bureau of Economic Analysis |url=https://bea.gov/newsreleases/regional/gdp_state/qgdpstate_newsrelease.htm |access-date=May 18, 2018}}</ref> {{as of|2025}}, California's nominal GDP is larger than all but four countries.<ref name=":1" /> In terms of [[purchasing power parity]] (PPP),<ref name="8large">{{Cite web |date=December 2, 2010 |title=Calif. retains economy that would be 8th largest |url=http://www.businessweek.com/ap/financialnews/D9JS1MLO0.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101206151318/http://www.businessweek.com/ap/financialnews/D9JS1MLO0.htm |archive-date=December 6, 2010 |access-date=September 2, 2012 |website=Bloomberg BusinessWeek}}</ref> it is larger than all but eight countries.<ref name="worldbank2012">{{Cite web |title=GDP, PPP (current international $) |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.PP.CD?order=wbapi_data_value_2012+wbapi_data_value+wbapi_data_value-last&sort=desc |access-date=June 14, 2014 |publisher=World Bank, International Comparison Program database}}</ref> California's economy is larger than [[Economy of Africa|Africa's]] and [[Economy of Australia|Australia's]] and is almost as large as [[Economy of South America|South America's]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=October 2019 |title=GDP, current prices |url=https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/NGDPD@WEO/OEMDC/ADVEC/WEOWORLD |access-date=January 22, 2020 |website=World Economic Outlook |publisher=International Monetary Fund}}</ref> The state recorded total, non-farm employment of 16,677,800<ref name="bls.gov">{{Cite web |title=California Economy at a Glance |url=https://www.bls.gov/regions/west/california.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141121114732/http://www.bls.gov/regions/west/california.htm |archive-date=November 21, 2014 |access-date=December 6, 2021 |website=bls.gov}}</ref> {{As of|2021|09|lc=y}} among 966,224 employer establishments.<ref>{{Cite web|title=U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts: California|url=https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/CA|url-status=live|access-date=December 6, 2021|website=www.census.gov|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201115306/https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/CA |archive-date=December 1, 2017 }}.</ref> As of 2024, California is home to 57 of the [[Fortune 500|''Fortune'' 500]] companies, the [[List of U.S. states by number of Fortune 500 companies|highest number of any U.S. state]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Burleigh |first=Emma |date=June 4, 2024 |title=California beats out Texas and New York as home to the most Fortune 500 companies |url=https://fortune.com/2024/06/04/fortune-500-california-most-companies/ |access-date=February 17, 2025 |website=Fortune |language=en}}</ref> In 2025, 465,101 businesses formed in California, the second highest in the country behind Florida.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-01-23 |title=Report: Florida leads nation in new business creation |url=https://www.businessobserverfl.com/news/2026/jan/23/florida-new-business-creation/ |access-date=2026-02-04 |website=Business Observer |language=en}}</ref> As of 2025, 4.3 million [[Small business|small businesses]] were in the state, making up 99.8% of businesses, and employing 47.4% of the state's work force.<ref>{{Cite web |title=2025 Small Business Profile - California |url=https://advocacy.sba.gov/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/California_2025-State-Profile.pdf |access-date=February 4, 2025 |website=U.S. Small Business Administration Office of Advocacy}}</ref> <br />
[[File:The port of Long Beach 2 by Don Ramey Logan.jpg|thumb|left|The combined [[Port of Los Angeles]]-[[Port of Long Beach]] is the largest port in the U.S. by import volume and one of the [[List of busiest container ports|busiest ports in the world]].]]<br />
As the largest and second-largest U.S. ports respectively, the [[Port of Los Angeles]] and the [[Port of Long Beach]] in Southern California collectively play a pivotal role in the global supply chain, together hauling in about 40% of all imports to the U.S. by [[Twenty-foot equivalent units|TEU]] volume.<ref name="Karlamangla"/> The [[Port of Oakland]] and [[Port of Hueneme]] are the 10th and 26th largest seaports in the U.S., respectively, by number of TEUs handled.<ref name=Burnson>Patrick Burnson, [https://www.logisticsmgmt.com/article/top_30_u.s._ports_trade_tensions_determine_where_cargo_goes_next Top 30 U.S. Ports 2019: Trade tensions determine where cargo goes next], ''Logistics Management'' (May 10, 2019).</ref><br />
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The five largest sectors of employment in California are trade, transportation, and utilities; government; professional and business services; education and health services; and leisure and hospitality. In output, the five largest sectors are financial services, followed by trade, transportation, and utilities; education and health services; government; and manufacturing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=2011 CalFacts |url=http://www.lao.ca.gov/reports/2011/calfacts/calfacts_010511.aspx |access-date=April 22, 2011 |publisher=Lao.ca.gov}}</ref> California has an [[California unemployment statistics|unemployment]] rate of 5.3% {{as of|2025|May|lc=y}}.<ref>{{Cite web |last=staff |first=CNBC com |date=2025-07-10 |title=22. California |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2025/07/10/california-top-states-for-business-ranking.html |access-date=2026-01-09 |website=CNBC |language=en}}</ref><br />
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California's economy is dependent on trade and international related commerce accounts for about one-quarter of the state's economy, and representing 7% of their GDP; California's biggest trade partner is Mexico. In 2008, California exported $144{{spaces}}billion worth of goods, up from $134{{spaces}}billion in 2007 and $127{{spaces}}billion in 2006.<ref name="Cal Trade Statistics 2008">{{Cite web |title=Trade Statistics |url=http://www.calchamber.com/international/trade/pages/tradestatistics.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100209095504/http://www.calchamber.com/international/trade/pages/tradestatistics.aspx |archive-date=February 9, 2010 |access-date=January 29, 2010 |publisher=California Chamber of Commerce}}</ref> Vehicles, computers and electronic products are California's top exports, accounting for 42% of all the state's exports in 2008; over 50 car companies operate in California, such as [[Tesla, Inc.|Tesla]] and [[Mazda]].<ref name="Cal Trade Statistics 2008" /><br />
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=== Agriculture ===<br />
{{main|Agriculture in California}}<br />
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{{further|Strawberry cultivation in California|Production of peaches in California|Walnuts in California}}<br />
{{see also|California nut crimes}}<br />
[[File:Autumn in Napa Valley vineyards.jpg|right|thumb|[[California wine|California vineyards]] in [[Wine Country]]. The [[Agriculture in California|agricultural industry in California]] is the largest [[Agriculture in the United States|in the U.S.]]]]<br />
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Agriculture is an important sector in California's economy. According to the [[U.S. Department of Agriculture]], in 2011, the three largest California agricultural products by value were [[California dairy industry|milk and cream]], shelled [[Almond cultivation in California|almonds]], and [[Grape cultivation in California|grapes]].<ref name="Jason Gibson-2012"/> Farming-related sales more than quadrupled over the past three decades, from $7.3{{spaces}}billion in 1974 to nearly $31{{spaces}}billion in 2004.<ref name="Cal Facts 2006 State Economy">{{Cite web |date=August 6, 2007 |title=Cal Facts 2006 State Economy |url=http://www.lao.ca.gov/2006/cal_facts/2006_calfacts_econ.htm |access-date=January 29, 2010 |publisher=Legislative Analyst's Office of California}}</ref> This increase has occurred despite a 15% decline in acreage devoted to farming during the period, and water supply suffering from chronic instability. Factors contributing to the growth in sales-per-acre include more intensive use of active farmlands and technological improvements in crop production.<ref name="Cal Facts 2006 State Economy" /> In 2008, California's 81,500 farms and ranches generated $36.2{{spaces}}billion products revenue.<ref name="California Agricultural Production Statistics">{{Cite web |date=2010 |title=California Agricultural Production Statistics 2009–2010 |url=http://www.cdfa.ca.gov/statistics/ |access-date=October 5, 2010 |publisher=cdfa.ca.gov (California Department of Food and Agriculture)}}</ref> In 2011, that number grew to $43.5{{spaces}}billion products revenue.<ref name="California Agricultural Production Statistics"/> The agriculture sector accounts for 2% of the state's GDP and employs around 3% of its total workforce.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Venton |first=Danielle |date=June 5, 2015 |title=A Better Way for California to Water Its Farms |magazine=Wired |url=https://www.wired.com/2015/06/farming-and-drought/ |access-date=June 5, 2015}}</ref><br />
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=== Income ===<br />
{{See also|California locations by per capita income}}<br />
[[File:Sleeping Beauty Castle 2019.jpg|thumb|left|California is the most visited state in the country.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/the-most-popular-us-states-for-tourism-2014-10|title=A Detailed Look At How Americans Travel Within The US|first=Jennifer|last=Polland|website=Business Insider}}</ref> [[Disneyland]] in [[Anaheim]] is a major tourist destination, with 16.9 million annual visits in 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |url = https://aecom.com/wp-content/uploads/documents/reports/AECOM-Theme-Index-2022.pdf |title = TEA/AECOM 2022 Global Attractions Attendance Report |date = 2023 |access-date = August 16, 2023 }}</ref>]]<br />
[[List of U.S. states by GDP per capita|Per capita GDP]] in 2021 was $85,546, ranking fourth in the nation. [[California locations by per capita income|Per capita income]] varies widely by geographic region and profession.<ref name="BEA State Personal Income 2006">{{Cite press release |title=State Personal Income 2006 |date=March 27, 2007 |publisher=[[Bureau of Economic Analysis]] |url=https://www.bea.gov/newsreleases/regional/spi/2007/spi0307.htm |access-date=January 29, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070704133957/http://www.bea.gov/newsreleases/regional/spi/2007/spi0307.htm |archive-date=July 4, 2007}}</ref> The Central Valley is the most impoverished, with [[migrant worker|migrant farm workers]] making less than [[minimum wage]]. According to a 2005 report by the [[Congressional Research Service]], the [[San Joaquin Valley]] was characterized as one of the most economically depressed regions in the U.S., on par with the region of [[Appalachia]].<ref name="CRS San Joaquin Valley">{{Cite web |last=Cowan |first=Tadlock |date=December 12, 2005 |title=California's San Joaquin Valley: A Region in Transition |url=http://www.centralvalleybusinesstimes.com/links/CRS%20San%20Joaquin%20Valley%20Report.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090324221541/http://www.centralvalleybusinesstimes.com/links/CRS%20San%20Joaquin%20Valley%20Report.pdf |archive-date=March 24, 2009 |access-date=January 29, 2010 |publisher=Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress |page=2}}</ref><br />
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Using the supplemental poverty measure, California has a [[Poverty in the United States|poverty rate]] of 23.5%, the highest of any state in the country.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Berlinger |first=Joshua |date=November 12, 2012 |title=A New Poverty Calculation Yields Some Surprising Results |work=[[Business Insider]] |url=http://www.businessinsider.com/new-census-data-on-poverty-rates-yields-some-pretty-shocking-results-2012-11 |access-date=October 7, 2013}}</ref> However, using the official measure the poverty rate was only 13.3% as of 2017.<ref>{{Cite web |title=U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts: United States |url=https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/US |access-date=August 2, 2019 |website=www.census.gov}}</ref> Many coastal cities include some of the wealthiest per-capita areas in the U.S. The high-technology sectors in Northern California, specifically [[Silicon Valley]], in [[Santa Clara County, California|Santa Clara]] and [[San Mateo County, California|San Mateo counties]], have emerged from the economic downturn caused by the [[dot-com bubble|dot-com bust]].<br />
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In 2019, there were 1,042,027 millionaire households in the state, more than any other state in the nation.<ref>{{Cite web |last=May |first=Patrick |title=How many millionaires do we have in California? Hint: It's a big number |url=https://www.chicoer.com/2019/02/05/how-many-millionaires-do-we-have-in-california-hint-its-a-big-number/ |access-date=May 3, 2020 |website=Enterprise Record|date=February 5, 2019 }}</ref> In 2010, California residents were ranked first among the states with the best average credit score of 754.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bukszpan |first=Daniel |date=March 29, 2012 |title=States With the Best Credit Scores |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2012/03/29/States-With-the-Best-Credit-Scores.html |website=Cnbc.com}}</ref><br />
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<gallery mode="packed" heights="250"><br />
File:USA-World Nominal GDP.PNG|If California was an independent country, its gross domestic product (nominal) would rank [[List of U.S. states and territories by GDP|fifth in the world]] (2022).<ref>{{Cite web |title=5. Report for Selected Countries and Subjects |url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2016/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=69&pr.y=15&sy=2018&ey=2018&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=512%2C672%2C914%2C946%2C612%2C137%2C614%2C546%2C311%2C962%2C213%2C674%2C911%2C676%2C193%2C548%2C122%2C556%2C912%2C678%2C313%2C181%2C419%2C867%2C513%2C682%2C316%2C684%2C913%2C273%2C124%2C868%2C339%2C921%2C638%2C948%2C514%2C943%2C218%2C686%2C963%2C688%2C616%2C518%2C223%2C728%2C516%2C558%2C918%2C138%2C748%2C196%2C618%2C278%2C624%2C692%2C522%2C694%2C622%2C142%2C156%2C449%2C626%2C564%2C628%2C565%2C228%2C283%2C924%2C853%2C233%2C288%2C632%2C293%2C636%2C566%2C634%2C964%2C238%2C182%2C662%2C359%2C960%2C453%2C423%2C968%2C935%2C922%2C128%2C714%2C611%2C862%2C321%2C135%2C243%2C716%2C248%2C456%2C469%2C722%2C253%2C942%2C642%2C718%2C643%2C724%2C939%2C576%2C644%2C936%2C819%2C961%2C172%2C813%2C132%2C199%2C646%2C733%2C648%2C184%2C915%2C524%2C134%2C361%2C652%2C362%2C174%2C364%2C328%2C732%2C258%2C366%2C656%2C734%2C654%2C144%2C336%2C146%2C263%2C463%2C268%2C528%2C532%2C923%2C944%2C738%2C176%2C578%2C534%2C537%2C536%2C742%2C429%2C866%2C433%2C369%2C178%2C744%2C436%2C186%2C136%2C925%2C343%2C869%2C158%2C746%2C439%2C926%2C916%2C466%2C664%2C112%2C826%2C111%2C542%2C298%2C967%2C927%2C443%2C846%2C917%2C299%2C544%2C582%2C941%2C474%2C446%2C754%2C666%2C698%2C668&s=NGDPD&grp=0&a= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190323111307/https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2016/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=69&pr.y=15&sy=2018&ey=2018&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=512%2C672%2C914%2C946%2C612%2C137%2C614%2C546%2C311%2C962%2C213%2C674%2C911%2C676%2C193%2C548%2C122%2C556%2C912%2C678%2C313%2C181%2C419%2C867%2C513%2C682%2C316%2C684%2C913%2C273%2C124%2C868%2C339%2C921%2C638%2C948%2C514%2C943%2C218%2C686%2C963%2C688%2C616%2C518%2C223%2C728%2C516%2C558%2C918%2C138%2C748%2C196%2C618%2C278%2C624%2C692%2C522%2C694%2C622%2C142%2C156%2C449%2C626%2C564%2C628%2C565%2C228%2C283%2C924%2C853%2C233%2C288%2C632%2C293%2C636%2C566%2C634%2C964%2C238%2C182%2C662%2C359%2C960%2C453%2C423%2C968%2C935%2C922%2C128%2C714%2C611%2C862%2C321%2C135%2C243%2C716%2C248%2C456%2C469%2C722%2C253%2C942%2C642%2C718%2C643%2C724%2C939%2C576%2C644%2C936%2C819%2C961%2C172%2C813%2C132%2C199%2C646%2C733%2C648%2C184%2C915%2C524%2C134%2C361%2C652%2C362%2C174%2C364%2C328%2C732%2C258%2C366%2C656%2C734%2C654%2C144%2C336%2C146%2C263%2C463%2C268%2C528%2C532%2C923%2C944%2C738%2C176%2C578%2C534%2C537%2C536%2C742%2C429%2C866%2C433%2C369%2C178%2C744%2C436%2C186%2C136%2C925%2C343%2C869%2C158%2C746%2C439%2C926%2C916%2C466%2C664%2C112%2C826%2C111%2C542%2C298%2C967%2C927%2C443%2C846%2C917%2C299%2C544%2C582%2C941%2C474%2C446%2C754%2C666%2C698%2C668&s=NGDPD&grp=0&a= |archive-date=March 23, 2019 |access-date=December 15, 2018}}</ref><br />
File:California counties by GDP 2021.png|California counties by GDP (2021)<ref>{{Cite web|title=GDP by county in 2021|url=https://www.bea.gov/sites/default/files/2022-12/lagdp1222.pdf}}</ref><br />
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===State finances===<br />
{{Main|California state finances|2008–12 California budget crisis}}<br />
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[[File:California economic regions map (labeled and colored).svg|thumb|upright=1.4|[[economic regions of California|California economic regions]]]]<br />
State spending increased from $56{{spaces}}billion in 1998 to $127{{spaces}}billion in 2011.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Nunes |first=Devin |date=January 10, 2009 |title=California's Gold Rush Has Been Reversed |page=A9 |work=The Wall Street Journal |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB123154816733469917 |access-date=January 29, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-california-budget-idUSTRE7095FB20110110 |title=California's Brown proposes "painful" budget cuts |last=Christie |first=Jim |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015211702/http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/01/10/us-california-budget-idUSTRE7095FB20110110 |archive-date=October 15, 2015 |url-status=live |website=Reuters |date=January 10, 2011}}</ref> California has the third highest per capita spending on welfare among the states, as well as the highest spending on welfare at $6.67{{spaces}}billion.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Gardner |first=Michael |date=July 28, 2012 |title=Is California the welfare capital?: Delving into why California has such a disproportionate share of the nation's recipients |url=http://www.utsandiego.com/news/2012/jul/28/welfare-capital-of-the-us/?page=1#article |access-date=August 6, 2012 |work=U-T San Diego}}</ref> In January 2011, California's total debt was at least $265{{spaces}}billion.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sfgate.com/opinion/openforum/article/How-much-does-California-owe-2478624.php |title=How much does California owe? |last=Nation |first=Joe |website=[[Sfgate.com]] |date=January 19, 2011}}</ref> On June 27, 2013, Governor Jerry Brown signed a balanced budget (no deficit) for the state, its first in decades; however, the state's debt remains at $132{{spaces}}billion.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sfgate.com/news/article/Gov-Brown-proudly-signs-balanced-state-budget-4628307.php |title=Gov. Brown proudly signs balanced state budget |last=Buchanan |first=Wyatt |website=[[Sfgate.com]] |date=June 27, 2013 |access-date=July 29, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=California's current debt load: $132 billion |url=http://www.bizjournals.com/sacramento/news/2013/09/06/californias-current-debt-load-132.html}}</ref><br />
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With the passage of [[California Proposition 30 (2012)|Proposition 30 in 2012]] and [[2016 California Proposition 55|Proposition 55 in 2016]], California now levies a 13.3% maximum marginal [[income tax]] rate with ten [[tax bracket]]s, ranging from 1% at the bottom tax bracket of $0 annual individual income to 13.3% for annual individual income over $1,000,000 (though the top brackets are only temporary until Proposition 55 expires at the end of 2030). While Proposition 30 also enacted a minimum [[sales taxes in the United States#California|state sales tax]] of 7.5%, this sales tax increase was not extended by Proposition 55 and reverted to a previous minimum state sales tax rate of 7.25% in 2017. Local governments can and do levy additional sales taxes in addition to this minimum rate.<ref>{{Cite web |title=California Proposition 30, Sales and Income Tax Increase (2012) |url=http://ballotpedia.org/wiki/index.php/California_Proposition_30,_Sales_and_Income_Tax_Increase_(2012)#cite_note-taxfoundation_states-6 |access-date=January 16, 2013 |publisher=Ballotpedia}}</ref><br />
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All [[real property]] is taxable annually. Property tax increases are capped at 2% annually or the rate of inflation (whichever is lower), per [[California Proposition 13 (1978)|Proposition 13]].<br />
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===Energy===<br />
{{Main|Energy in California}}<br />
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{{further|Solar power in California|Wind power in California}}<br />
{{see also|History of oil in California through 1930|Plug-in electric vehicles in California}}<br />
[[File:Moss Landing Power Plant p1270026.jpg|thumb|left|[[Moss Landing Power Plant]], located on the coast of [[Monterey Bay]]]]<br />
Because it is the most populous state in the U.S., California is one of the country's largest users of energy. The state has extensive hydro-electric energy generation facilities, however, moving water is the single largest energy use in the state. Also, due to high energy rates, conservation mandates, mild weather in the largest population centers and strong [[environmental movement]], its ''per capita'' energy use is one of the smallest of any state in the U.S.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mufson |first=Steven |date=February 17, 2007 |title=In Energy Conservation, Calif. Sees Light |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/02/16/AR2007021602274.html |access-date=February 28, 2010}}</ref> Due to the high electricity demand, California imports more electricity than any other state, primarily hydroelectric power from states in the Pacific Northwest (via [[Path 15]] and [[Path 66]]) and coal- and natural gas-fired production from the desert Southwest via [[Path 46]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=October 20, 2011 |title=California—U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) |url=http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/state/state_energy_profiles.cfm?sid=CA |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101229175513/http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/state/state_energy_profiles.cfm?sid=CA |archive-date=December 29, 2010 |access-date=October 28, 2011 |publisher=Tonto.eia.doe.gov}}</ref><br />
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The [[California oil and gas industry|state's crude oil and natural gas deposits]] are located in the Central Valley and [[Offshore oil and gas in California|along the coast]], including the large [[Midway-Sunset Oil Field]]. Natural gas-fired [[List of power stations in California|power plants]] typically account for more than one-half of state electricity generation.<br />
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[[File:Ho 000155 170593 515241 4578 (35974057893) (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Ivanpah Solar Power Facility]], located in the [[Mojave Desert]]]]<br />
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As a result of the state's strong environmental movement, California has some of the most aggressive [[Renewable energy in California|renewable energy]] goals in the U.S. The Clean Energy, Jobs and Affordability Act of 2022 commits the state to running its operations on clean, renewable energy resources by 2035, and SB 1203 also requires the state to achieve net-zero operations for all agencies. Currently, several [[Solar power in California|solar power plants]] such as the [[Solar Energy Generating Systems]] facility are located in the [[Mojave Desert]]. [[Wind power in California|California's wind farms]] include [[Altamont Pass Wind Farm|Altamont Pass]], [[San Gorgonio Pass Wind Farm|San Gorgonio Pass]], and [[Tehachapi Pass Wind Farm|Tehachapi Pass]]. The Tehachapi area is also where the [[Tehachapi Energy Storage Project]] is located.<ref name="International2">{{Cite web |last=Edison International |title=SCE Unveils Largest Battery Energy Storage Project in North America |url=https://newsroom.edison.com/releases/sce-unveils-largest-battery-energy-storage-project-in-north-america |access-date=May 10, 2020 |website=Edison International}}</ref> Several dams across the state provide [[Hydroelectricity|hydro-electric power]]. It would be possible to convert the total supply to 100% renewable energy, including heating, cooling and mobility, by 2050.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Jacobson | first1=Mark Z. |authorlink1=Mark Z. Jacobson | last2=Delucchi | first2=Mark A. | last3=Ingraffea | first3=Anthony R. | last4=Howarth | first4=Robert W. | last5=Bazouin | first5=Guillaume | last6=Bridgeland | first6=Brett | last7=Burkart | first7=Karl | last8=Chang | first8=Martin | last9=Chowdhury | first9=Navid | last10=Cook | first10=Roy | last11=Escher | first11=Giulia | last12=Galka | first12=Mike | last13=Han | first13=Liyang | last14=Heavey | first14=Christa | last15=Hernandez | first15=Angelica | last16=Jacobson | first16=Daniel F. | last17=Jacobson | first17=Dionna S. | last18=Miranda | first18=Brian | last19=Novotny | first19=Gavin | last20=Pellat | first20=Marie | last21=Quach | first21=Patrick | last22=Romano | first22=Andrea | last23=Stewart | first23=Daniel | last24=Vogel | first24=Laura | last25=Wang | first25=Sherry | last26=Wang | first26=Hara | last27=Willman | first27=Lindsay | last28=Yeskoo | first28=Tim | title=A roadmap for repowering California for all purposes with wind, water, and sunlight | journal=Energy | volume=73 | date=2014 | doi=10.1016/j.energy.2014.06.099 | pages=875–889| bibcode=2014Ene....73..875J |display-authors=1}}</ref><br />
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California has one major [[nuclear power]] plant ([[Diablo Canyon Power Plant|Diablo Canyon]]) in operation. The [[San Onofre Nuclear Generating Station|San Onofre nuclear plant]] was shut down in 2013. More than 1,700{{spaces}}tons of [[radioactive waste]] are stored at San Onofre,<ref>{{Cite news |date=August 28, 2018 |title=How a nuclear stalemate left radioactive waste stranded on a California beach |work=The Verge |url=https://www.theverge.com/2018/8/28/17765538/san-onofre-nuclear-generating-station-radioactive-spent-fuel-waste-yucca-mountain}}</ref> and sit on the coast where there is a record of past [[tsunami]]s.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Brown |first=Kate |date=November 19, 2019 |title=Opinion: California's San Onofre nuclear plant is a Chernobyl waiting to happen |work=Los Angeles Times |url=https://www.latimes.com/opinion/story/2019-11-19/san-onofre-nuclear-plant-waste-radioactive}}</ref> Voters [[Anti-nuclear movement in California|banned the approval of new nuclear power plants]] since the late 1970s because of concerns over [[High-level radioactive waste management|radioactive waste disposal]].<ref name="Doyle 2009">{{Cite news |last=Doyle |first=Jim |date=March 9, 2009 |title=Nuclear power industry sees opening for revival |page=A-1 |work=San Francisco Chronicle |url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2009/03/08/MN3H16ANEN.DTL |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090311041848/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2009/03/08/MN3H16ANEN.DTL |url-status=dead |archive-date=March 11, 2009 |access-date=January 29, 2010}}</ref>{{refn|Minnesota also has a moratorium on construction of nuclear power plants, which has been in place since 1994.<ref name="Minnesota Nuclear Moratorium">{{cite news |last1=Richert |first1=Catharine |last2=Brown |first2=Gretchen |title=Why nuclear energy is a political minefield in Minnesota |url=https://www.mprnews.org/episode/2023/11/13/why-nuclear-energy-is-a-political-minefield-in-minnesota |access-date=March 26, 2024 |work=MPR News |date=November 13, 2023}}</ref>|group="note"}} Several cities such as Oakland, [[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]] and [[Davis, California|Davis]] have declared themselves as [[nuclear-free zone]]s.<br />
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===Transportation===<br />
{{Main|Transportation in California}}<br />
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{{see also|History of rail transportation in California}}<br />
[[File:GoldenGateBridge-001.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Golden Gate Bridge]] in the [[San Francisco Bay Area]], is one of the most famous bridges in the world.]]<br />
<br />
====Highways====<br />
California's vast terrain is connected by [[California Freeway and Expressway System|an extensive system]] of [[controlled-access highways]] ('freeways'), [[limited-access road]]s ('expressways'), and [[State highways in California|highways]]. California is known for its [[car culture]], giving California's cities a reputation for severe [[traffic congestion]]. Construction and maintenance of state roads and statewide transportation planning are primarily the responsibility of the [[California Department of Transportation]], nicknamed "Caltrans". The rapidly growing population of the state is straining all of its transportation networks, and California has some of the worst roads in the U.S.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mieszkowski |first=Katharine |date=September 2, 2010 |title=California Is Tops in Worst Roads—Pulse of the Bay |url=http://www.baycitizen.org/blogs/pulse-of-the-bay/read-while-you-are-waiting-traffic-clear |access-date=April 22, 2011 |publisher=The Bay Citizen |archive-date=July 22, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722041103/http://www.baycitizen.org/blogs/pulse-of-the-bay/read-while-you-are-waiting-traffic-clear/ }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=August 9, 2007 |title=A bridge too far gone |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/united-states/2007/08/09/a-bridge-too-far-gone}}</ref> The [[Reason Foundation]]'s 19th Annual Report on the Performance of State Highway Systems ranked California's highways the third-worst of any state, with Alaska second, and Rhode Island first.<ref>{{Cite web |title=19th Annual Report on the Performance of State Highway Systems (1984–2008) |url=http://reason.org/files/19th_annual_highway_report.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://reason.org/files/19th_annual_highway_report.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live |website=Reason.org}}</ref><br />
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[[File:San Francisco Bay Ferry Hydrus May 2017 (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|[[San Francisco Bay Ferry]] is a public [[water taxi]] system in the [[Bay Area]].]]<br />
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The state has been a pioneer in road construction. One of the state's more visible landmarks, the [[Golden Gate Bridge]], was the [[List of longest suspension bridge spans|longest suspension bridge main span]] in the world at {{convert|4200|ft|m}} between 1937 (when it opened) and 1964. With its orange paint and panoramic views of the bay, this highway bridge is a popular tourist attraction and also accommodates pedestrians and bicyclists. The [[San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge]] (often abbreviated the "Bay Bridge"), completed in 1936, transports about 280,000 vehicles per day on two-decks. Its two sections meet at [[Yerba Buena Island]] through the world's largest diameter transportation bore tunnel, at {{convert|76|ft}} wide by {{convert|58|ft}} high.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The San Francisco—Oakland Bay Bridge Facts at a glance |url=http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/esc/tollbridge/SFOBB/Sfobbfacts.html |access-date=April 5, 2012 |publisher=[[California Department of Transportation]]}}</ref> The [[Arroyo Seco Parkway]], connecting Los Angeles and [[Pasadena, California|Pasadena]], opened in 1940 as the first freeway in the Western U.S.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Pool |first=Bob |date=June 25, 2010 |title=Pasadena Freeway getting a new look and a new name |work=Los Angeles Times |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2010-jun-25-la-me-parkway-20100625-story.html |access-date=April 5, 2012}}</ref> It was later extended south to the [[Four Level Interchange]] in downtown Los Angeles, regarded as the first [[stack interchange]] ever built.<ref>{{Cite web |date=September 22, 2011 |title=L.A.'s Famous Four-Level Freeway Interchange, 'The Stack', Turns 58 |url=http://www.kcet.org/updaily/socal_focus/history/la-as-subject/navigating-the-stack-the-four-level-turns-58.html |access-date=April 5, 2012 |publisher=[[KCET]]}}</ref><br />
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The [[California Highway Patrol]] is the largest statewide police agency in the U.S. in employment with more than 10,000 employees. They are responsible for providing any police-sanctioned service to anyone on California's state-maintained highways and on state property.<br />
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By the end of 2021, 30,610,058 people in California held a [[California Department of Motor Vehicles]]-issued [[driver's license]]s or [[Identity documents in the United States|state identification card]], and there were 36,229,205 [[Vehicle registration|registered vehicles]], including 25,643,076 automobiles, 853,368 motorcycles, 8,981,787 trucks and trailers, and 121,716 miscellaneous vehicles (including historical vehicles and farm equipment).<ref>{{Cite web |publisher=State of California—Department of Motor Vehicles|title=Statistics for Publication, January through December 2021|url=https://www.dmv.ca.gov/portal/file/department-of-motor-vehicles-statistics-pdf/}}</ref><br />
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====Air travel====<br />
[[File:TheThemeBuildingLosAngeles (cropped2).jpg|thumb|left|[[Los Angeles International Airport|Los Angeles Intl. Airport]] (LAX) is the [[World's busiest airports by passenger traffic|4th busiest airport in the world]].]]<br />
[[Los Angeles International Airport]] (LAX), [[World's busiest airports by passenger traffic|the 4th busiest airport in the world in 2018]], and [[San Francisco International Airport]] (SFO), [[World's busiest airports by passenger traffic|the 25th busiest airport in the world in 2018]], are major hubs for trans-Pacific and transcontinental traffic. There are about a dozen important commercial airports and many more [[general aviation]] [[List of airports in California|airports]] throughout the state.<br />
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====Railroads====<br />
[[File:Pacific Surfliner @ San Clemente CA..jpg|thumb|right|[[Amtrak California]]'s ''[[Pacific Surfliner]]'' in [[San Clemente, California|San Clemente]], on the [[Orange Coast]]]]<br />
[[Inter-city rail]] travel is provided by [[Amtrak California]]; the three routes, the ''[[Capitol Corridor]]'', ''[[Pacific Surfliner]]'', and ''[[Gold Runner]]'', are funded by Caltrans. These services are the busiest intercity rail lines in the U.S. outside the [[Northeast Corridor]] and ridership is continuing to set records. The routes are becoming increasingly popular over flying, especially on the LAX-SFO route.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Cabanatuan |first=Michael |date=January 8, 2011 |title=Calif. Amtrak ridership rising on state trains |work=The San Francisco Chronicle |url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2011/01/05/BAMU1GU16Q.DTL|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121105164013/http://www.sfgate.com/bayarea/article/Calif-Amtrak-ridership-rising-on-state-trains-2479851.php|url-status=dead|archive-date=November 5, 2012}}</ref> Integrated [[Rapid transit|subway]] and [[light rail]] networks are found in Los Angeles ([[Los Angeles Metro Rail]]) and San Francisco ([[Muni Metro]]). Light rail systems are also found in San Jose ([[VTA light rail]]), San Diego ([[San Diego Trolley]]), Sacramento ([[SacRT light rail]]), and Northern San Diego County ([[Sprinter (rail service)|Sprinter]]). Furthermore, [[commuter rail]] networks serve the San Francisco Bay Area ([[Altamont Corridor Express]], [[Bay Area Rapid Transit]], [[Caltrain]], [[Sonoma–Marin Area Rail Transit]]), Greater Los Angeles ([[Metrolink (California)|Metrolink]]), and San Diego County ([[Coaster (rail service)|Coaster]]).<br />
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The [[California High-Speed Rail Authority]] was authorized in 1996 by the state legislature to plan a [[California High-Speed Rail]] system to put before the voters. The plan they devised, [[2008 California Proposition 1A]], connecting all the major population centers in the state, was approved by the voters at the November 2008 general election.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Cabanatuan |first=Michael |date=August 17, 2010 |title=Plan for high-speed rail system released |work=The San Francisco Chronicle |url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2008/11/08/BAV6140IK5.DTL|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081112040908/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2008/11/08/BAV6140IK5.DTL|url-status=dead|archive-date=November 12, 2008}}</ref> The first phase of construction was begun in 2015, and the first segment {{convert|171|mi}} long, is planned to be put into operation by the end of 2030. Planning and work on the rest of the system is continuing, with funding for completing it is an ongoing issue.<ref>{{cite web |title=2023 Project Update Report |url=https://hsr.ca.gov/about/project-update-reports/2023-project-update-report/ |publisher=California High-Speed Rail Authority |access-date=September 6, 2023}}</ref> California's 2023 integrated passenger rail master plan includes a high speed rail system.<ref>[https://dot.ca.gov/-/media/dot-media/programs/rail-mass-transportation/documents/california-state-rail-plan/20230309-casrp-public-dor-guidance.pdf"California State Rail Modernization Plan 2023 Draft"]''Caltrans'' March 2023</ref><br />
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====Busses====<br />
Nearly all counties operate [[bus]] lines, and many cities operate their own city bus lines as well. Intercity bus travel is provided by [[Greyhound Lines|Greyhound]], [[Megabus (North America)|Megabus]], and [[Amtrak Thruway]].<br />
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===Water===<br />
{{Main|Water in California}}<br />
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[[File:Aerial view of Shasta Dam and Shasta Lake (2019).jpg|thumb|left|[[Lake Shasta]], in the [[Shasta Cascade]] region, is California's largest reservoir.]]<br />
California's interconnected water system is the world's largest, managing over {{convert|40000000|acre.ft|km3|lk=in}} of water per year, centered on six main systems of aqueducts and infrastructure projects.<ref>Hundley, N. (2001). The great thirst: Californians and water. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press.</ref> Water use and conservation in California is a politically divisive issue, as the state experiences periodic droughts and has to balance the demands of its large agricultural and urban sectors, especially in the arid southern portion of the state. The state's widespread redistribution of water also invites the frequent scorn of environmentalists.<br />
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The [[California Water Wars]], a conflict between Los Angeles and the Owens Valley over water rights, is one of the most well-known examples of the struggle to secure adequate water supplies.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Reisner, Marc |title=Cadillac Desert: The American West and its Disappearing Water |date=1993 |publisher=Penguin}}</ref> Former California Governor [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]] said: {{blockquote|We've been in crisis for quite some time because we're now 38{{spaces}}million people and not anymore 18{{spaces}}million people like we were in the late 60s. So it developed into a battle between environmentalists and farmers and between the south and the north and between rural and urban. And everyone has been fighting for the last four decades about water.<ref>"[https://www.cbsnews.com/news/why-california-is-running-dry/ Why California Is Running Dry]". CBS News. December 27, 2009.</ref>}}<br />
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==Government and politics==<br />
[[File:Sacramento, California State Capitol.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|The [[California Capitol]] in [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]], seat of the [[Government of California|California government]], hosts the [[California Legislature]] and the [[Governor of California]].]]<br />
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===State government===<br />
{{Main|Government of California}}<br />
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The capital city of California is [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=§ 2 of Article III of the California Constitution |url=http://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/codes_displaySection.xhtml?lawCode=CONS&sectionNum=SEC.%202.&article=III |access-date=March 5, 2019 |website=[[California Office of Legislative Counsel]]}}</ref> The state is organized into three branches of government: the [[executive branch]] consisting of the [[Governor of California|governor]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=§ 1 of Article V of the California Constitution |url=http://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/codes_displaySection.xhtml?lawCode=CONS&sectionNum=SECTION%201.&article=V |access-date=March 5, 2019 |website=[[California Office of Legislative Counsel]]}}</ref> and the other independently elected constitutional officers; the [[legislative branch]] consisting of the [[California State Assembly|Assembly]] and [[California State Senate|Senate]];<ref>{{Cite web |title=§ 1 of Article IV of the California Constitution |url=http://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/codes_displaySection.xhtml?lawCode=CONS&sectionNum=SEC.%201.&article=IV |access-date=March 5, 2019 |website=[[California Office of Legislative Counsel]]}}</ref> and the [[judicial branch]] consisting of the [[Supreme Court of California]] and lower courts.<ref>{{Cite web |title=§ 1 of Article VI of the California Constitution |url=http://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/codes_displaySection.xhtml?lawCode=CONS&sectionNum=SEC.%201.&article=VI |access-date=March 5, 2019 |website=[[California Office of Legislative Counsel]]}}</ref> The state also allows [[California ballot proposition|ballot propositions]]: direct participation of the electorate by [[Popular initiative|initiative]], [[referendum]], [[recall election|recall]], and [[ratification]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Article II of the California Constitution |url=http://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/codes_displayText.xhtml?lawCode=CONS&division=&title=&part=&chapter=&article=II |access-date=March 5, 2019 |website=[[California Office of Legislative Counsel]]}}</ref> Before the passage of [[California Proposition 14 (2010)|Proposition 14 in 2010]], California allowed each political party to choose whether to have a [[closed primary]] or a primary where only party members and [[independent (politics)|independents]] vote. After June 8, 2010, when Proposition 14 was approved, excepting only the U.S. president and county central committee offices,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bowen |first=Debra |title=Voter-Nominated Offices Information |url=http://www.sos.ca.gov/elections/statewide-elections/2012-primary/new-open-primary-info.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224014308/http://www.sos.ca.gov/elections/statewide-elections/2012-primary/new-open-primary-info.pdf |archive-date=December 24, 2013 |access-date=March 16, 2014 |publisher=California Secretary of State}}</ref> all candidates in the primary elections are listed on the ballot with their preferred party affiliation, but they are not the official nominee of that party.<ref name="DB2">{{Cite web |last=Bowen |first=Debra |title=Voter-Nominated Offices Information |url=http://www.sos.ca.gov/elections/voter-nominated-offices.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140626162020/http://www.sos.ca.gov/elections/voter-nominated-offices.htm |archive-date=June 26, 2014 |access-date=March 16, 2014 |publisher=California Secretary of State}}</ref> At the primary election, the two candidates with the top votes will advance to the general election regardless of party affiliation.<ref name="DB2" /> This is known as a [[nonpartisan blanket primary]]. If at a special primary election, one candidate receives more than 50% of all the votes cast, they are elected to fill the vacancy and no special general election will be held.<ref name="DB2" /><br />
<br />
====Executive branch====<br />
{{main|California executive branch|Governor of California|List of California state agencies}}<br />
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[[File:Stanford Mansion - Sacramento, California (6007570640) (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|The [[Leland Stanford Mansion|Stanford Mansion]] is the official reception center for the California government, as well as one of the workplaces of the governor.]]<br />
The California executive branch consists of the governor and seven other elected constitutional officers: [[Lieutenant Governor of California|lieutenant governor]], [[California Attorney General|attorney general]], [[Secretary of State of California|secretary of state]], [[California State Controller|state controller]], [[California State Treasurer|state treasurer]], [[California Insurance Commissioner|insurance commissioner]], and [[California State Superintendent of Public Instruction|state superintendent of public instruction]]. They serve four-year terms and may be re-elected only once.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Article V of the California Constitution |url=http://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/codes_displayText.xhtml?lawCode=CONS&division=&title=&part=&chapter=&article=V |access-date=March 6, 2019 |website=[[California Office of Legislative Counsel]]}}</ref><br />
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The many California state agencies that are under the governor's cabinet are grouped together to form cabinet-level entities that are referred to by government officials as "superagencies". Those departments that are directly under the other independently elected officers work separately from these superagencies.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Van Vechten |first1=Renée B. |title=California Politics: A Primer |date=2011 |publisher=SAGE |location=Los Angeles |isbn=978-1-4522-0306-5 |page=63 |edition=2nd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tatzWQscKmcC&pg=PA63 |access-date=February 25, 2019}}</ref><ref name="Lawrence">{{cite book |last1=Lawrence |first1=David G. |last2=Cummins |first2=Jeffrey |title=California: The Politics of Diversity |date=2019 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |location=Lanham |isbn=978-1-5381-2930-2|page=167 |edition=10th |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FwmkDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA167}}</ref><br />
<br />
====Legislative branch====<br />
{{main|California State Legislature}}<br />
<br />
The California State Legislature consists of a 40-member Senate and 80-member Assembly.<ref name="leg_members_and_term_limits_first_m_dec">{{Cite web|url=https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/codes_displaySection.xhtml?lawCode=CONS&sectionNum=SEC.%202.&article=IV|title=California Constitution Article IV § 2|work=[[California Office of Legislative Counsel]]|access-date=February 23, 2019|archive-date=February 24, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190224062408/https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/codes_displaySection.xhtml?lawCode=CONS&sectionNum=SEC.|url-status=live}}</ref> Senators serve four-year terms and Assembly members two. Members of the Assembly are subject to [[term limit]]s of six terms, and members of the Senate are subject to term limits of three terms.<br />
<br />
====Judicial branch====<br />
{{main|Judiciary of California}}<br />
<br />
[[File:Supremecourtofcaliforniamaincourthouse (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|The [[Supreme Court of California]] primarily convenes at the [[Earl Warren Building]] in San Francisco (pictured), but also holds session in Sacramento and Los Angeles.]]<br />
California's legal system is explicitly based upon English [[common law]]<ref name="Cal Civil Code 22.2">{{Cite web |title=California Civil Code § 22.2 |url=https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/codes_displaySection.xhtml?lawCode=CIV&sectionNum=22.2. |access-date=March 6, 2019 |website=[[California Office of Legislative Counsel]]}}</ref> but carries many features from Spanish [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]], such as [[community property]]. California's prison population grew from 25,000 in 1980 to over 170,000 in 2007.<ref name="Thompson 2007">{{Cite news |last=Thompson |first=Don |date=December 8, 2007 |title=Calif. Struggles with sentencing reform |work=USA Today |url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2007-12-08-2244622424_x.htm |access-date=January 29, 2010}}</ref> [[Capital punishment in California|Capital punishment]] is a legal form of punishment and the state has the largest "[[Death Row]]" population in the country (though Oklahoma and Texas are far more active in carrying out executions).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Death Row Inmates by State and Size of Death Row by Year {{!}} Death Penalty Information Center |url=https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/death-row-inmates-state-and-size-death-row-year |access-date=May 8, 2017 |website=deathpenaltyinfo.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=State Execution Rates {{!}} Death Penalty Information Center |url=https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/state-execution-rates |access-date=May 8, 2017 |website=deathpenaltyinfo.org}}</ref> California has performed [[List of people executed in California|13 executions]] since 1976, with the last being in 2006.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Inmates Executed 1978 to Present |url=https://www.cdcr.ca.gov/capital-punishment/inmates-executed-1978-to-present/ |access-date=May 7, 2022 |website=Capital Punishment |language=en-US}}</ref><br />
<br />
California's judiciary system is the largest in the U.S. with a total of 1,600 judges (the federal system has only about 840). At the apex is the seven-member Supreme Court of California, while the [[California Courts of Appeal]] serve as the primary [[appellate court]]s and the [[California Superior Courts]] serve as the primary [[trial court]]s. [[List of justices of the Supreme Court of California|Justices of the Supreme Court]] and Courts of Appeal are appointed by the governor, but are subject to retention by the electorate every 12 years.<br />
<br />
The administration of the state's court system is controlled by the [[Judicial Council of California|Judicial Council]], composed of the chief justice of the California Supreme Court, 14 judicial officers, four representatives from the [[State Bar of California]], and one member from each house of the state legislature.<br />
<br />
In fiscal year 2020–2021, the state judiciary's 2,000 judicial officers and 18,000 judicial branch employees processed approximately 4.4 million cases.<ref name="2022CourtStatisticsReport">{{cite book |last1=Judicial Council of California |title=2022 Court Statistics Report: Statewide Caseload Trends, 2011–12 Through 2020–21 |date=2022 |publisher=Judicial Council of California |location=San Francisco |page=1 |url=https://www.courts.ca.gov/documents/2022-Court-Statistics-Report.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220704050343/https://www.courts.ca.gov/documents/2022-Court-Statistics-Report.pdf |archive-date=July 4, 2022 |url-status=live |access-date=August 19, 2022}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Local government===<br />
{{Main|Local government in California}}<br />
<br />
[[File:San Francisco City Hall September 2013 panorama 3.jpg|left|thumb|[[San Francisco City Hall]] is the seat of government of the consolidated [[Government of San Francisco|City and County of San Francisco]].]]<br />
California has an extensive system of local government that manages public functions throughout the state. Like most states, California is divided into [[County (United States)|counties]], of which there are 58 (including [[San Francisco]]) covering the entire state. Most urbanized areas are incorporated as [[city|cities]]. [[List of school districts in California|School districts]], which are independent of cities and counties, handle public education. Many other functions, such as fire protection and water supply, especially in [[unincorporated area]]s, are handled by [[Special-purpose district|special district]]s.<br />
<br />
====Counties====<br />
{{See also|List of counties in California}}<br />
[[File:California municipalities.svg|thumb|upright|[[List of counties in California|California Counties]] and [[List of municipalities in California|municipalities]]]]<br />
California is divided into [[List of counties in California|58 counties]]. Per Article 11, Section 1, of the [[Constitution of California]], they are the legal subdivisions of the state. The county government provides countywide services such as [[Law enforcement in California|law enforcement]], [[List of California county jails|jails]], elections and voter registration, vital records, property assessment and records, tax collection, public health, health care, social services, libraries, flood control, fire protection, animal control, agricultural regulations, building inspections, ambulance services, and education departments in charge of maintaining statewide standards.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Baldassare |first=Mark |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=sDs4WZV0SRsC|page=67}} |title=When Government Fails: The Orange County Bankruptcy |date=1998 |publisher=[[Public Policy Institute of California]]/[[University of California Press]] |isbn=978-0-520-21486-6 |pages=67–68 |lccn=97032806}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Janiskee |first1=Brian P. |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=23Y3Nxs0qWgC|page=105}} |title=Democracy in California: Politics and Government in the Golden State |last2=Masugi |first2=Ken |date=2011 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |isbn=978-1-4422-0338-9 |edition=3rd |page=105 |lccn=2011007585}}</ref> In addition, the county serves as the local government for all [[unincorporated area]]s. Each county is governed by an elected [[board of supervisors]].{{sfn|Baldassare|1998|p=50}}<br />
<br />
====City and town governments====<br />
{{see also|List of municipalities in California}}<br />
[[File:Los Angeles City Hall 01 (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|[[Los Angeles City Hall]], seat of the [[Government of Los Angeles]]]]<br />
Incorporated cities and towns in California are either [[Charter city|charter]] or general-law municipalities.<ref name="Cal Gov Code 34502" /> General-law municipalities owe their existence to state law and are consequently governed by it; charter municipalities are governed by their own city or town charters. Municipalities incorporated in the 19th century tend to be charter municipalities. All ten of the state's most populous cities are charter cities. Most small cities have a [[Council–manager government|council–manager]] form of government, where the elected city council appoints a city manager to supervise the operations of the city. Some larger cities have a directly elected mayor who oversees the city government. In many council-manager cities, the city council selects one of its members as a mayor, sometimes rotating through the council membership—but this type of mayoral position is primarily ceremonial. The [[Government of San Francisco]] is the only [[consolidated city-county]] in California, where both the city and county governments have been merged into one unified jurisdiction.<br />
<br />
====School districts and special districts====<br />
{{See also|List of school districts in California}}<br />
[[File:LAUSD HQ Bldg.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Los Angeles Unified School District]] is the [[List of the largest school districts in the United States by enrollment|second largest in the U.S. by enrollment]].]]<br />
About 1,102 [[school district]]s, independent of cities and counties, handle California's [[public education]].<ref name="census2012p25" /> California school districts may be organized as elementary districts, high school districts, unified school districts combining elementary and high school grades, or community college districts.<ref name="census2012p25">{{Citation |title=Individual State Descriptions: 2007 |date=November 2012 |url=http://www2.census.gov/govs/cog/isd_book.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www2.census.gov/govs/cog/isd_book.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live |pages=25–26 |series=2007 Census of Governments |publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]] |ref={{harvid|Census|2007}}}}</ref><br />
<br />
There are about 3,400 [[Special district (United States)|special districts]] in California.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Mizany |first1=Kimia |url=http://www.waterplan.water.ca.gov/docs/cwpu2005/vol4/vol4-background-whatssospecialaboutspecialdistricts.pdf |title=What's So Special About Special Districts? A Citizen's Guide to Special Districts in California |last2=Manatt |first2=April |publisher=California Senate Local Government Committee |edition=3 |access-date=March 11, 2014 |archive-date=July 4, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110704180433/http://www.waterplan.water.ca.gov/docs/cwpu2005/vol4/vol4-background-whatssospecialaboutspecialdistricts.pdf }}</ref> A special district, defined by California Government Code § 16271(d) as "any agency of the state for the local performance of governmental or proprietary functions within limited boundaries", provides a limited range of services within a defined geographic area. The geographic area of a special district can spread across multiple cities or counties, or could consist of only a portion of one. Most of California's special districts are ''single-purpose districts'', and provide one service.<br />
<br />
===Federal representation===<br />
{{main|California's congressional delegations}}<br />
<br />
{{See also|California's congressional districts}}<br />
[[File:California Congressional Delegation honoring Pete Stark.jpg|thumb|right|Members of the [[California's congressional delegations|California congressional delegation]] in 2020]]<br />
The state of California sends [[California's congressional districts|52]] members to the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Directory of Representatives |url=http://www.house.gov/representatives/#state_ca |access-date=March 25, 2014 |publisher=House.gov}}</ref> the nation's largest congressional state delegation. Consequently, California also has the largest number of [[Electoral College (United States)|electoral votes]] in national presidential elections, with 54. The former [[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives|speaker of the House of Representatives]] is the representative of California's 20th district, [[Kevin McCarthy]].<ref name="govtrack.us">{{Cite web |title=California Senators, Representatives, and Congressional District Maps |url=https://www.govtrack.us/congress/members/CA |access-date=January 15, 2019 |website=GovTrack.us}}</ref><br />
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California is represented in the [[U.S. Senate]] by [[Alex Padilla]] and [[Adam Schiff]].<br />
<br />
In response to the [[2025 Texas redistricting]], Governor Newsom secured legislative approval of [[2025 California Proposition 50|California Proposition 50]] in August 2025, which would redraw the state's congressional districts. The proposition was approved by 64.4% of voters, adding as many as five seats for the Democratic Party for the [[2026 United States elections|2026 midterms]].<ref>Melody Gutierrez and Laura J. Nelson, "Love it or hate it? Poll shows how Californians feel about Newsom’s redistricting fight with Trump", ''Los Angeles Times,'' August 22, 2025, [https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2025-08-22/la-times-berkeley-poll-on-redistricting online].</ref><ref>Laura J. Nelson et al. "State's voters to decide on new House districts: California lawmakers back a November special election to boost Democrats", ''Los Angeles Times,'' August 22, 2025.</ref><ref>Laurel Rosenhall, "Newsom Signs California Redistricting Plan to Counter Texas Republicans", ''New York Times,'' August 21, 2025, [https://www.nytimes.com/2025/08/21/us/politics/california-newsom-redistricting-texas.html?searchResultPosition=2 online].</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Marzorati |first=Guy |date=November 4, 2025 |title=California voters OK new congressional lines, boosting Democrats ahead of midterms |url=https://www.npr.org/2025/11/04/nx-s1-5587742/election-results-california-proposition-50-redistricting |access-date=December 19, 2025 |work=[[NPR]]}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Armed forces===<br />
{{See also|California during World War II}}<br />
[[File:USS Carl Vinson (CVN-70), USS Ronald Reagan (CVN-76) and USS John C. Stennis (CVN-74) at NAS North Island in June 2015 (cropped).JPG|thumb|left|View of [[Naval Air Station North Island|NAS North Island]] at [[Naval Base Coronado]] in [[San Diego]]]]<br />
In California, {{as of|lc=y|2009}}, the [[U.S. Department of Defense]] had a total of 117,806 [[active duty]] servicemembers of which 88,370 were [[United States Navy|Sailors]] or [[United States Marine Corps|Marines]], 18,339 were [[United States Air Force|Airmen]], and 11,097 were [[United States Army|Soldiers]], with 61,365 Department of Defense civilian employees. Additionally, there were a total of 57,792 [[Reserve components of the United States Armed Forces|Reservists and Guardsman]] in California.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2012 |title=Table 508. Military and Civilian Personnel in Installations: 2009 |url=https://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2012/tables/12s0509.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111017094716/http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2012/tables/12s0509.pdf |archive-date=October 17, 2011 |access-date=June 15, 2013 |website=United States Census Bureau |publisher=United States Department of Commerce}}</ref><br />
<br />
In 2010, [[Los Angeles County]] was the largest origin of military recruits in the U.S. by county, with 1,437 individuals enlisting in the military.<ref>{{Cite web |last=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=June 30, 2011 |title=Military recruitment 2010 |url=http://nationalpriorities.org/analysis/2011/military-recruitment-2010/ |access-date=June 15, 2013 |publisher=National Priorities Project}}<br />
</ref> However, {{as of|2002|lc=y}}, Californians were relatively under-represented in the military as a proportion to its population.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Segal |first1=David R. |last2=Segal |first2=Mady Wechsler |date=2004 |title=America's Military Population |url=http://www.prb.org/Source/ACF1396.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.prb.org/Source/ACF1396.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live |journal=Population Bulletin |volume=59 |issue=4 |page=10 |issn=0032-468X |access-date=June 15, 2013}}</ref><br />
<br />
In 2000, California, had 2,569,340 veterans of U.S. [[military service]].<ref name="City Data CA Armed Forces">{{Cite web |title=California—Armed forces |url=http://www.city-data.com/states/California-Armed-forces.html |access-date=December 26, 2009 |website=city-data.com}}</ref> {{as of|2010}}, there were 1,942,775 veterans living in California, of which 1,457,875 served during a period of armed conflict, and just over four thousand served [[Interwar period|before World War{{spaces}}II]] (the largest population of this group of any state).<ref>{{Cite web |last=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=September 30, 2010 |title=Table 7L: VETPOP2011 Living Veterans By State, Period of Service, Gender, 2010–2040 |url=http://www.va.gov/VETDATA/docs/Demographics/New_Vetpop_Model/7lVetPop11_POS_State.xlsx |access-date=June 15, 2013 |website=Veteran Population |publisher=Department of Veterans Affairs}}</ref><br />
<br />
California's military forces consist of the [[California National Guard|Army and Air National Guard]], the [[California State Military Reserve|naval and state military reserve]] (militia), and the [[California Cadet Corps]].<br />
<br />
{{clear}}<br />
<br />
===Politics===<br />
{{Main|Politics of California|Elections in California}}<br />
<br />
{{see also|Politics of California before 1900|Political party strength in California}}<br />
{|class="wikitable floatright mw-collapsible"<br />
|+California registered voters {{as of|2025|12|30|lc=y|df=US}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=pdf Report of Registration as of December 30, 2026 Registration by County |url=https://elections.cdn.sos.ca.gov/ror/154day-primary-2026/county.pdf|access-date=February 10, 2026}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
! colspan=2 |Party<br />
! Number of voters<br />
! Percentage<br />
|rowspan="10" style="font-size:small" |[[File:California party registration by county.svg|300px]]<br />
Party registration by county{{break}}(October 2022):<br />
{{legend|#d3e7ff|Democrat ≥ 30%}}<br />
{{legend|#b9d7ff|Democrat ≥ 40%}}<br />
{{legend|#86b6f2|Democrat ≥ 50%}}<br />
{{legend|#ffccd0|Republican ≥ 30%}}<br />
{{legend|#f2b3be|Republican ≥ 40%}}<br />
{{legend|#e27f90|Republican ≥ 50%}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{party color cell|Democratic Party (United States)}}<br />
|[[California Democratic Party|Democratic]]<br />
|style="text-align:center;" |10,381,340 <br />
|style="text-align:center;" |44.96%<br />
|-<br />
| {{party color cell|Republican Party (United States)}}<br />
|[[California Republican Party|Republican]]<br />
|style="text-align:center;" |5,804,699 <br />
|style="text-align:center;" |25.14%<br />
|-<br />
| {{party color cell|Independent (United States)}}<br />
|[[Independent politician (United States)|No Party Preference]]<br />
|style="text-align:center;" |5,231,189 <br />
|style="text-align:center;" |22.65%<br />
|-<br />
| {{party color cell|American Independent Party}}<br />
|[[American Independent Party|American Independent]]<br />
|style="text-align:center;" |946,165 <br />
|style="text-align:center;" |4.10%<br />
|-<br />
| {{party color cell|Libertarian Party (United States)}}<br />
|[[Libertarian Party of California|Libertarian]]<br />
|style="text-align:center;" |231,683<br />
|style="text-align:center;" |1.00%<br />
|-<br />
| {{party color cell|Peace and Freedom Party}}<br />
|[[Peace and Freedom Party|Peace and Freedom]]<br />
|style="text-align:center;" |149,397<br />
|style="text-align:center;" |0.65%<br />
|-<br />
| {{party color cell|Green Party (United States)}}<br />
|[[Green Party of California|Green]]<br />
|style="text-align:center;" |112,704 <br />
|style="text-align:center;" |0.49%<br />
|-<br />
|colspan="2" style="text-align:left;" |Other<br />
|style="text-align:center;" |234.921<br />
|style="text-align:center;" |1.02%<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=2 |Total<br />
! style="text-align:center;" |23,092,098<br />
! style="text-align:center;" |100%<br />
|}<br />
<br />
California has an idiosyncratic political culture compared to the rest of the country, and is sometimes regarded as a trendsetter.<ref>{{Cite news |date=October 30, 2006 |title=California Is a Political Trendsetter |work=CBS News |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/california-is-a-political-trendsetter/ |access-date=February 22, 2011}}</ref> In socio-cultural mores and national politics, Californians are perceived as more [[Modern liberalism in the United States|liberal]] than other Americans, especially those who live in the inland states. In the [[2016 U.S. presidential election]], California had the third highest percentage of Democratic votes behind the [[District of Columbia]] and [[Hawaii]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/national.php?year=2016&off=0&elect=0&f=0|title=2016 Presidential General Election Results|first=David|last=Leip|website=uselectionatlas.org}}</ref> In the [[2020 U.S. presidential election]], it had the 6th highest behind D.C., [[Vermont]], [[Massachusetts]], [[Maryland]], and Hawaii. According to the Cook Political Report, California contains five of the 15 most Democratic congressional districts in the U.S.<br />
<br />
California was the second state [[California gubernatorial recall election, 2003|to recall their state governor]], the second state to legalize abortion, and the only state to ban marriage for gay couples twice by vote (including [[California Proposition 8|Proposition{{spaces}}8]] in 2008). Voters also passed [[California Proposition 71 (2004)|Proposition 71 in 2004]] to fund [[stem cell]] research, making California the [[Stem cell laws and policy in the United States#Legalization and funding|second state to legalize stem cell research]], and [[California Proposition 14 (2010)|Proposition 14 in 2010]] to completely change the state's [[Partisan primary|primary election]] process. California has also experienced [[California Water Wars|disputes over water rights]]; and a [[tax revolt]], culminating with the passage of [[California Proposition 13 (1978)|Proposition 13 in 1978]], limiting state [[property tax]]es. California voters have rejected [[affirmative action]] on multiple occasions, most recently in November 2020.<br />
<br />
The state's trend towards the [[California Democratic Party|Democratic Party]] and away from the [[California Republican Party|Republican Party]] can be seen in state elections. From 1899 to 1939, California had exclusively Republican governors. Since 1990, California has generally elected Democratic candidates to federal, state and local offices, including current Governor [[Gavin Newsom]]; however, the state has elected Republican Governors, though many of its Republican Governors, such as Arnold Schwarzenegger, tend to be considered moderate Republicans and more [[Centrism|centrist]] than the national party.<br />
<br />
[[File:Code Pink and pro-Marine protesters.jpg|thumb|left|[[Anti-war movement|Anti-war]] protesters and pro-military counterprotesters in [[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]] (2008)]]<br />
Several political movements have advocated for [[Partition and secession in California|California independence]]. The [[California National Party]] and the [[California Freedom Coalition]] both advocate for California independence along the lines of [[Progressivism in the United States|progressivism]] and [[civic nationalism]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jim Miller |title=California could see new political party with independence goal |url=https://www.sacbee.com/news/politics-government/capitol-alert/article54004530.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308223549/http://www.sacbee.com/news/politics-government/capitol-alert/article54004530.html |archive-date=March 8, 2016 |access-date=March 19, 2016 |website=[[Sacramento Bee]]}}</ref> The [[Yes California]] movement attempted to organize an independence referendum via [[ballot initiative]] for 2019, which was then postponed.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tech Insider |date=November 9, 2016 |title=What is 'Calexit' and how can California secede from the US? |url=http://www.businessinsider.com/calexit-explainer-california-plans-to-secede-2016-11 |access-date=March 31, 2017 |website=Business Insider}}</ref><br />
<br />
The Democrats also hold a supermajority in both houses of the state legislature. There are 62 Democrats and 18 Republicans in the Assembly; and 32 Democrats and eight Republicans in the Senate.<br />
<br />
From [[1952 United States presidential election|1952]] through [[1988 United States presidential election|1988]], California was a Republican-leaning state, as the party carried the state's electoral votes in nine of ten elections, with [[1964 United States presidential election|1964]] as the sole exception. Southern California Republicans [[Richard Nixon]] and [[Ronald Reagan]] were both elected twice as the 37th and 40th U.S. Presidents, respectively. However, Democrats have won all of California's electoral votes for the last eight elections,<!--8 thru 2020--> starting in [[1992 United States presidential election|1992]].<br />
<br />
In the U.S. House, the Democrats held a 34–19 edge in the California delegation of the [[110th U.S. Congress]] in 2007. As the result of [[gerrymandering]], the districts in California were usually dominated by one or the other party, and few districts were considered competitive. In 2008, Californians passed Proposition 20 to empower a 14-member independent citizen commission to redraw districts for both local politicians and Congress. After the 2012 elections, when the new system took effect, Democrats gained four seats and held a 38–15 majority in the delegation. Following the [[2018 United States House of Representatives elections|2018 midterm House elections]], Democrats won 46 out of 53 congressional house seats in California, leaving Republicans with seven.<br />
[[File:Protest at Los Angeles City Hall (6248466227).jpg|thumb|right|[[Occupy Los Angeles]] movement (2011)]]<br />
In general, Democratic strength is centered in the populous [[Coastal California|coastal regions]] of the [[Los Angeles metropolitan area]] and the [[San Francisco Bay Area]]. Republican strength is still greatest in eastern parts of the state. [[Orange County, California|Orange County]] had remained largely Republican until the 2016 and 2018 elections, in which a majority of the county's votes were cast for Democratic candidates.<ref>{{Cite web |title=2016 Presidential General Election |url=http://www.ocvote.com/fileadmin/live/gen2016/results.htm |access-date=November 10, 2016 |website=Ocvote.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Thornton |first=Paul |date=November 10, 2018 |title=RIP Republican Orange County |work=Los Angeles Times |url=https://latimes.com/la-ol-opinion-newsletter-midterm-election-20181110-htmlstory.html}}</ref> One study ranked [[Berkeley California|Berkeley]], [[Oakland, California|Oakland]], [[Inglewood, California|Inglewood]] and [[San Francisco]] in the top 20 most liberal American cities; and [[Bakersfield, California|Bakersfield]], [[Orange, California|Orange]], [[Escondido, California|Escondido]], [[Garden Grove, California|Garden Grove]], and [[Simi Valley, California|Simi Valley]] in the top 20 most conservative cities.<ref>{{Cite web |date=August 16, 2005 |title=Study Ranks America's Most Liberal and Conservative Cities |url=http://govpro.com/content/gov_imp_31439/index.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501140306/http://govpro.com/content/gov_imp_31439/index.html |archive-date=May 1, 2011 |access-date=February 20, 2011 |publisher=Bay Area Center for Voting Research}}</ref><br />
<br />
In October 2022, out of the 26,876,800 people eligible to vote, 21,940,274 people were registered to vote.<ref name="SoS2022GenVotRegStats">{{Cite web |date=October 24, 2022 |title=Voter Registration by County |url=https://www.sos.ca.gov/elections/report-registration/15day-general-2022 |access-date=February 15, 2023 |website=Elections |publisher=California Secretary of State}}</ref> Of the people registered, the three largest registered groups were Democrats (10,283,258), Republicans (5,232,094), and [[Independent voter|No Party Preference]] (4,943,696).<ref name="SoS2022GenVotRegStats" /><br />
<br />
California retains the [[Death penalty in California|death penalty]], though it has not been used since 2006.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.npr.org/2023/01/13/1148846720/california-says-it-will-dismantle-death-row-the-move-brings-cheers-and-anger#:~:text=Technically%2C%20the%20death%20penalty%20still,the%20state%20in%2017%20years. | title = California says it will dismantle death row. The move brings cheers and anger | last = Westervelt | first = Eric | date = January 13, 2023 | website = npr.org | publisher = [[National Public Radio]] | access-date = August 5, 2023 }}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Foreign relations ===<br />
{{main|Foreign relations of California}}<br />
<br />
California is a member of the [[Commission of the Californias]], a tri-lateral forum for cooperation between the U.S. state of California and the Mexican states of [[Baja California]] and [[Baja California Sur]].<ref name="Memorandum">{{Cite web|url=https://www.energy.ca.gov/sites/default/files/2019-12/Commisions_CAL_MOU_Signed_12-4-2019_ADA.pdf|title=Memorandum of Understanding Between the Government of the State of California of the United States of America and the Government of the State of Baja California and the Government of the State of Baja California Sur of the United Mexican States for the Establishment of the Commission of the Californias}}</ref><br />
<br />
;Twinned regions<br />
California has [[City twinning|region twinning arrangements]] with:<br />
*{{flagicon|Catalonia}} [[Catalonia]], autonomous community of {{flagicon|Spain}} [[Spain]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 71 |url=http://soir.senate.ca.gov/scr71 |publisher=Senate Office of International Relations}}</ref><br />
*{{flagicon|Alberta}} [[Alberta]], province of {{flagicon|Canada}} [[Canada]]<ref name="Soir.senate.ca.gov">{{Cite web |title=California's Sister State Relationships &#124; Senate Office of International Relations |url=https://soir.senate.ca.gov/sisterstates |access-date=September 30, 2018 |publisher=Soir.senate.ca.gov}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=California-Alberta Relations |url=http://economic.alberta.ca/documents/California-AB.pdf?0.8097911507356912 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180929233318/http://economic.alberta.ca/documents/California-AB.pdf?0.8097911507356912 |archive-date=September 29, 2018 |access-date=September 29, 2018}}</ref><br />
*{{flagicon|Jeju Province}} [[Jeju Province]] of {{flagicon|Republic of Korea}} [[South Korea]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=ACR 42 Assembly Concurrent Resolution – CHAPTERED |url=http://www.leginfo.ca.gov/pub/05-06/bill/asm/ab_0001-0050/acr_42_bill_20050718_chaptered.html |access-date=March 2, 2023 |website=www.leginfo.ca.gov}}</ref><br />
*{{flagicon|China}} [[Guangdong]], province of {{flagicon|China}} [[China]]<ref>{{cite web |title=State of California and Guangdong Province Sister State Agreement |url=https://soir.senate.ca.gov/content/state-california-and-guangdong-province-sister-state-agreement |website=Senate Office of International Relations |access-date=October 27, 2023}}</ref><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Index of California-related articles]]<br />
* [[Outline of California]]<br />
* [[List of people from California]]<br />
{{Clear}}<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{NoteFoot}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
===Citations===<br />
<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
===Works cited===<br />
* {{Cite book |last=Cohen |first=Saul Bernard |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=QkMD8HKRlgoC|page=115}} |title=Geopolitics of the World System |date=2003 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-8476-9907-0}}<br />
* {{Cite book |last=Rolle |first=Andrew |url=https://archive.org/details/californiahisto000roll |title=California: A History |publisher=Harlan Davidson |year=1998 |isbn=0-88295-938-7 |edition=5th |location=Wheeling, IL |orig-date=1963}}<br />
* {{Cite book |last=Starr |first=Kevin |title=California: A History |date=2007 |publisher=Random House Digital, Inc. |isbn=978-0-8129-7753-0 |series=Modern Library Chronicles |volume=23 |author-link=Kevin Starr}}<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
{{See also|Bibliography of California history}}<br />
* {{Cite book |last1=Chartkoff |first1=Joseph L. |url=https://archive.org/details/archaeologyofcal00char |title=The archaeology of California |last2=Chartkoff |first2=Kerry Kona |date=1984 |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8047-1157-9 |location=Stanford, California |oclc=11351549}}<br />
* {{Cite book |last=Fagan |first=Brian |title=Before California: An archaeologist looks at our earliest inhabitants |date=2003 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield Publishers]] |isbn=978-0-7425-2794-2 |location=Lanham, Maryland |oclc=226025645}}<br />
* Hart, James D. ''A Companion to California'' (2nd ed. U of California Press, 1987), 610pp; excellent encyclopedic coverage of 3000 topics; not online.<br />
* Matthews, Glenna. ''The Golden State in the Civil War: Thomas Starr King, the Republican Party, and the Birth of Modern California''. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012.<br />
* {{Cite book |last1=Moratto |first1=Michael J. |title=California archaeology |last2=Fredrickson, David A. |date=1984 |publisher=[[Academic Press]] |isbn=978-0-12-506182-7 |location=Orlando |oclc=228668979}}<br />
* {{Cite book |last=Newmark |first=Harris |url=https://archive.org/stream/sixtyyearsinsout00newmrich#page/n7/mode/2up |title=Sixty Years in Southern California 1853-1913 |date=1916 |publisher=The Knickerbacker Press |location=New York}}<br />
* Pitt, Leonard. ''Los Angeles A to Z: An Encyclopedia of the City and County.'' (University of California Press, 1997) 625 pp.; excellent encyclopedic coverage of 2000 topics; not online.<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{Sister project links|auto=1|commonscat=yes|wikt=California|s=Portal:California|b=y|v=y}}<br />
* [http://www.ca.gov/ State of California]<br />
* [https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/states/california/index.html California State Guide, from the Library of Congress]<br />
* {{OSM relation|165475}}<br />
* [http://data.ca.gov/ data.ca.gov: open data portal from California state agencies]<br />
* [http://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/state-fact-sheets/state-data.aspx?StateFIPS=06&StateName=California California State Facts from USDA] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161017081404/http://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/state-fact-sheets/state-data.aspx?StateFIPS=06&StateName=California |date=October 17, 2016 }}<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150422235318/http://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/in-the-news/california-drought-farm-and-food-impacts.aspx California Drought: Farm and Food Impacts from USDA, Economic Research Service]<br />
* [http://diva.sfsu.edu/collections/sfbatv/bundles/188919 1973 documentary featuring aerial views of the California coastline from Mt. Shasta to Los Angeles]<br />
* [http://waterandpower.org/museum/Early_City_Views%20(1800s)_Page_1.html/ Early City Views (Los Angeles)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201013171441/https://waterandpower.org/museum/Early_City_Views%20%281800s%29_Page_1.html |date=October 13, 2020 }}<br />
<br />
{{S-start}}<br />
{{S-bef|before=[[Wisconsin]]}}<br />
{{S-ttl|title=[[List of U.S. states by date of statehood]]|years=Admitted on September 9, 1850 (31st)}}<br />
{{S-aft|after=[[Minnesota]]}}<br />
{{S-end}}<br />
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[[Category:States and territories established in 1850]]<br />
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[[Category:Contiguous United States]]</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=B._Rajam_Iyer&diff=488672B. Rajam Iyer2026-03-24T14:12:51Z<p>AmitNeogi: new details.</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description |Indian carnatic singer (1922 – 2009)}}<br />
{{Indian patronymic|Rajam Iyer|Balasubramaniam}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2018}}<br />
{{infobox person<br />
|name = B. Rajam Iyer<br />
|caption = B. Rajam Iyer<br />
|citizenship = India<br />
|birth_name = Balasubramaniam Rajam Iyer<br />
|birth_place = Karaikudi, Ramnad district, Tamilnadu<br />
|birth_date = 15 July 1922<br />
|death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|2009|5|3|1922|7|15}}<br />
|occupation = vocalist<br />
}}<br />
'''Balasubramaniam Rajam Iyer''' (15 July 1922 – 3 May 2009) was a [[List of Carnatic singers|carnatic singer]] from [[South India]]. He was awarded the [[Madras Music Academy]]'s [[Sangeetha Kalanidhi]] in 1987.<br />
<br />
==Family==<br />
Rajam Iyer was born in Karaikudi,<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130423114506/http://www.hindu.com/fr/2009/05/08/stories/2009050851560400.htm Dikshitar was his mainstay]</ref> in [[Ramanathapuram district|Ramnad district]],<ref group="N">Now Karaikudi is in [[Sivaganga]] district</ref> to Balasubramania Iyer and Lakshmi Ammal.<ref name=bri>[http://www.indian-heritage.org/music/garlandr.htm Indian Heritage - Profile of Artistes]</ref><br />
<br />
==Training in music==<br />
He began his training in [[Carnatic music]] under Thirukokarnam<ref>[[Kokarneswarar Temple, Thirukokarnam]]</ref> Subbiah Bhagaathar and then under Ganapathy Iyer of Kunnakudi. The latter is a [[Gottuvadyam]] and [[Jalatarangam]] player. This initial training lasted for about five years.<br /><br />
He went for advanced training as the disciple of [[Ariyakudi Ramanuja Iyengar]]. This training was undertaken in the traditional Gurukula (residing in the master's residence and serving him) style and lasted for about 10&nbsp;years.<br /><br />
Rajam Iyer grew up as the leading disciple of Ramanuja Iyengar and became an exponent of his style of singing.<br /><br />
His long association with Ramanuja Iyengar helped him to enrich his repertoire. In addition, he learnt [[Muthuswami Dikshitar]] [[krithi]]s from [[T. L. Venkatarama Iyer]], a recipient of the Prestigious Sangeetha Kalanidhi award.<ref name=bri/><br />
<br />
==As a musicologist==<br />
He published these and many other songs to which he set music.<br /><br />
He was a tutor to the [[Travancore royal family]] members for 4&nbsp;years since 1943.<br />
He served as a member of the selection panels of Madras and Delhi universities. He was a member of the expert committee of the [[Madras Music Academy]]<br /><br />
Perhaps his greatest achievement was bringing out the Tamil edition of ''Sangita Sampradaya Pradarshini'' written by [[Subbarama Dikshitar]]. This was done for the Madras Music Academy.<ref name=bri/><br />
<br />
==Concerts==<br />
His first concert was during the [[Thyagaraja Aradhana]] at [[Thiruvaiyaru]] in 1942. He gave his first performance in [[Chennai]] (it was called Madras, then) in 1956 with a concert in the Jagannadha Sabha in [[Egmore]]. He renders the compositions with sincerity and devotion. His concerts are noted for the sustained interest they acquire from the tana [[Varna (Hinduism)|varna]] to the lighter pieces bringing out the excellence in composition and musical content.<ref name=bri/><br /><br />
He had also served as the "Top Grade Artiste" of [[All India Radio]].<ref>[http://news.webindia123.com/news/articles/India/20090503/1244260.html Rajam Iyer dead]</ref><br />
<br />
==Publishing of notations of Sri Muthuswami Dikshitar in Swadesamitran==<br />
Sangita Kalanidhi Sri B. Rajam Iyer was a living authority in rendering Shri Muthuswami Dikshitar's kritis. &nbsp;He had the benefit of learning these kritis under the tutelage of Shri T.L.Venkatarama Iyer, who himself had the privilege of learning them from Shri Ambi Dikshitar. &nbsp;Shri Rajam Iyer wrote [[swara]] notations to several Dikshitar's compositions and these were published in Swadesamitran, Tamil weekly in 1956. &nbsp;He was fired by a grand ambition&nbsp;— to share and propagate the glories of the Dikshitar heritage. &nbsp;The swara knowledge fostered by his first Guru Sri Kunnakudi Ganapathi Iyer, a Gottuvadyam and a Jalatharangam artiste was a blessing as Dikshitar's compositions demanded meticulous expertise in the notation process, as evident in Rajam Iyer's “Selected Compositions of Sri Muttusvami Dikshitar” (2004) published in Roman and Devanagari scripts, or in his contributions as co-editor of Subbarama Dikshitar's “Sampradaya Pradarsini.”The original Pataantaram (repertoire) of the great composers’ kritis were reflected in the notations.<br />
<br />
He once visited Arsha Vidya Gurukulam, Saylorsburg, Pennysylvana, in August 2003, to conduct a weeklong camp on Dikshitar Kritis in the presence of Pujya Swamiji Dayananda Saraswathi. &nbsp;One of his students Subbalakshmi Chandrasekaran was fortunate to learn a few kritis taught by Shri B. Rajam Iyer and was inspired by the method by which very difficult kritis were taught with ease. &nbsp;She undertook the project of translating the original notations of the kritis in English, for the benefit of the music students all over the world who may not be able to read Tamil. The notations were in English and the sahitya were written following the international scheme of Transliteration. &nbsp;The kritis were written in Devanagiri as well as in Romanised English fonts. &nbsp;The book was published in the year October 2004.<br />
<br />
==Awards and honours==<br />
*[[Kalaimamani]], 1981 by [[Tamil Nadu State]] Government<ref name=bri/><br />
*Swar Vilas, 1981 by Sur singer Samsad, Mumbai<br />
*Certificate of Merit and T.T.K. Memorial Award, 1984, the Music Academy<br />
*Government of India Senior Fellowship, 1984-86<ref name="bri" /><br />
*The T.T.K Trust Award for Meritorious Musicians, 1985, The Music Academy, Chennai, FiftyEighth Conference<br />
*Dr. Raja Sir Annamalai Chettiar Memorial Award for Talented Musicians, 1986, The Music Academy, Chennai, Fiftyninth Conference<br />
*[[Sangeetha Kalasikhamani]], 1985 by The Indian Fine Arts Society<ref>[[Sangeetha Kalasikhamani]]</ref><br />
*[[Sangeet Natak Akademi Award]] in 1986 by [[Sangeet Natak Akademi]]<ref>[http://sangeetnatak.gov.in/sna/awardeeslist.htm#CarnaticVocal SNA Awardees List] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160331060603/http://www.sangeetnatak.gov.in/sna/awardeeslist.htm |date=31 March 2016 }}</ref><br />
*[[Sangeetha Kalanidhi]], 1987 by Music Academy, Chennai<ref>[http://www.musicacademymadras.in/fotemplate05.php?temp=ac1c9891-da71-11e2-b2c0-00167688e545&tc=acb9c3bc-f620-11e2-8d59-00304891133e&shid=acb9f4b8-f620-11e2-8d59-00304891133e Recipients of Sangita Kalanidhi] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304101059/http://www.musicacademymadras.in/fotemplate05.php?temp=ac1c9891-da71-11e2-b2c0-00167688e545&tc=acb9c3bc-f620-11e2-8d59-00304891133e&shid=acb9f4b8-f620-11e2-8d59-00304891133e |date=4 March 2016 }}</ref><br />
*Guruguhanjali Award, 1997, Guruguhanjali Trust of Dr.V.V. Srivatsa<br />
*Kala Ratna, 2000, Rasikaranjani Sabha, Chennai<br />
*Sangeetha Kala Sironmani, 2000, Nungambakkam Cultural Academy, Chennai<br />
*Sangeetha Acharya, 2001, Narada Gana Sabha<br />
*Gayakaratnam, 2002, Sri Swati Tirunal Sangita Sabha, Trivandrum<br />
*[[Padma Bhushan]], 2003 by the Government of India<ref>[[List of Padma Bhushan award recipients (2000–09)]]</ref><br />
*Kalai Chudar, 2003, Palani Tamil Sangam Sabha<br />
*Sangeetha Kala Sagara, 2004, Thyagaraja Festival of Cleveland, USA<br />
*Honorary Doctorate, 2004, University of Madras<br />
*Nadha yogi, 2004, Sri Parthasarathy Swamy Sabha, Chennai<br />
*Contributions to Sangita Sampradaya Pradarshini, 2005, Music Academy, Chennai at the 78th Annual Conference on 4 January 2005<br />
*Gayaka Sikhamani, 2006, Sanskrit College Chennai<br />
*Veteran Award, 2006, Bharat Kalachar<br />
*Sangeetha Seva Nirata, 2006, Sri Thyagaraja Sangeetha Vidwath Samajam<br />
*Arsha Kala Bhushanam, 2008, Dayananda Swamiji<br />
<br />
==Personal life==<br />
He had 5 daughters. His fifth daughter Gowri Venkataraman learnt music from him and accompanied him for concerts. His second son-in-law Sri V.Subramanian and grand daughter Dr.S.Seethalakshmi learnt music from him and accompanied him for concerts in India and abroad.<br />
<br />
==Prominent students==<br />
Smt. Vaijayanthi Mala Bali, Hon’ble Chief Minister Dr.J. Jayalalitha, Mallika Sivasailam (TAFE group), N Veera Raghavan, Padmavathy (IAS), Dr. [[Prameela Gurumurthy]], Jayanthi Ravi (IAS), Chandrika Rajaraman, Namagiri Ramesh, Rajini Hariharan, Kalki group Smt. Anandhi, Prakash, Dr. Gowri Ramanarayan, his (Rajam Iyer's) fifth daughter Gowri Venkataraman, TVS group Sheela Balaji, Mallika Srinivasan, Gayathri Mahesh, Jayalakshmi Santhanam, Padma Sandilyan, Rama Ravi, Sirigudi Sisters, Prof. Unnikrishnan, V.K.Manimaran, Rajini Hariharan, Namagiri Ramesh, Kasthuri Shiv kumar Bhat and Dr.Shiv kumar Bhat<br />
<br />
===Foreign Students===<br />
Prof. David Reck, Prof. Skelton, Sri Swaminathan Natarajan, Smt. Sivasakthi Sivanesan (London) and Sri Y.Yadavan (London).<br />
<br />
==Death==<br />
B. Rajam Iyer died on Sunday 3 May 2009 (aged 86) after a brief illness.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090507172855/http://www.hindu.com/2009/05/04/stories/2009050450480200.htm Scholar-musician Rajam Iyer dead]</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{reflist|group=N}}<br />
<br />
{{PadmaBhushanAwardRecipients 2000–09|state=collapsed}}<br />
<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Iyer, B. Rajam}}<br />
[[Category:2009 deaths]]<br />
[[Category:1922 births]]<br />
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Bhushan in arts]]<br />
[[Category:Male Carnatic singers]]<br />
[[Category:Carnatic singers]]<br />
[[Category:20th-century Indian male classical singers]]<br />
[[Category:Recipients of the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award]]</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Annan_Thampi&diff=486813Annan Thampi2026-03-23T17:43:13Z<p>AmitNeogi: new a article.</p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|2008 Indian Malayalam-language film by Anwar Rasheed}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2023}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2023}}<br />
{{Infobox film<br />
| name = Annan Thampi<br />
| image = Annan Thambi.jpg<br />
<br />
| alt = <br />
| caption = Film Poster<br />
| director = [[Anwar Rasheed]]<br />
| producer = {{ubl|[[Anto Joseph]]|Shahul Hameed Marikar}}<br />
| writer = [[Benny P. Nayarambalam]]<br />
| narrator = <br />
| starring = {{ubl|[[Mammootty]]|[[Lakshmi Rai]]|[[Gopika]]||[[Janardhanan (actor)|Janardhanan]]|[[Suraj Venjaramoodu]]|[[Harisree Ashokan]]|[[Salim Kumar]]}}<br />
| music = '''Original songs:'''<br/>[[Rahul Raj]]<br/>'''Background score:'''<br/>[[Alex Paul]]<br />
| cinematography = [[Loganathan Srinivasan]]<br />
| editing = Don Max <br />
| studio = Marikar Films<br />
| distributor = Marikar Release<br />
| released = {{Film date|2008|04|17|df=yes}}<br />
| runtime = <br />
| country = India<br />
| language = Malayalam<br />
| budget = ₹3.78 [[crore]]<ref name=budget/><br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''''Annan Thampi''''' is a [[List of Malayalam films of 2008|2008]] Indian [[Malayalam]]-language [[action comedy film]] directed by [[Anwar Rasheed]]. The film stars [[Mammootty]] in dual role, along with an [[ensemble cast]] of [[Lakshmi Rai]], [[Gopika]], [[Janardhanan (actor)|Janardhanan]], [[Siddique (actor)|Siddique]], [[Rajan P. Dev]], [[Suraj Venjaramoodu|Suraj Venjaramood]], [[Salim Kumar]], [[Harisree Ashokan]], [[Bose Venkat]], [[Urmila Unni]], [[Maniyanpilla Raju]], [[Shivani Bhai]], [[K. P. A. C. Lalitha]], [[Joju George]], [[Anil Murali]] and [[Jayan Cherthala]]. The film was a box office success.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sify.com/movies/boxoffice.php?id=14667989&cid=14625530|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140618102739/http://www.sify.com/movies/boxoffice.php?id=14667989&cid=14625530|url-status=dead|archive-date=18 June 2014|title=Chennai Box Office - sify.com (1970)|website=[[Sify]]|access-date=30 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=George |first1=Vijay |title=Battling for the box office |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-fridayreview/Battling-for-the-box-office/article15398224.ece |access-date=30 December 2019 |work=The Hindu |date=10 April 2008 |language=en-IN}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Plot==<br />
''Annan Thampi'' is the story of twin brothers, Appu and Achu. Appu is a bully who always finds himself in trouble whereas Achu is a naïve speech impaired. Their father Ravunni, a ballet artist, separates them due to sibling rivalry and Appu is sent to live with relatives in [[Pollachi]]. The astrologer Madhava Panicker says that the twins are going to be rivals for life and only way to avoid their fighting is to separate them. He says that Appu, should be sent to Pollachi. But when Appu refuses, Madhavan threatens to beat him. This drives Appu frustruated and he tries to kill the Madhavan by dropping a rock on his head. Madhavan is seriously injured and dies but when Appu gets caught by Madhavan's brother-in-law, he acts as Achu, which leads to him to be arrested for the crime even though he is innocent.<br />
<br />
30 years later, Appu grows up to be a lovable gangster who falls for Thenmozhi, while Achu marries Lakshmi. Achu does not have kids. But soon major misunderstandings created by their enemies crop up and the brothers are baying for each other's blood. One day, Thenmozhi gets killed by someone and Achu gets framed and arrested, by a false complaint given by Achu's rival and enemy Bharathan. After getting released, Madhavan's sister reveals to Achu that Madhavan was actually killed by his brother-in-law as he tried to expose his wrongdoing to the police and Thenmozhi was actually killed by Appu's friend Govindan, who was Madhavan's son and while tring to rape her, he killed her by accident. She also revealed Govindan teamed up their enemies and made the problems as he thought Appu and Achu killed Madhavan. Eventually, Appu realises Govindan's true face while hitting Achu, thinking that he killed Thenmozhi. They team afterwards and defeats Govindan. Govindan gets arrested by Shyamalan and Appu and Achu goes back to their house. Appu goes back to Pollachi and he gives his son to Achu and Lakshmi to bring him as their son.<br />
<br />
==Cast==<br />
{{div col}}<br />
* [[Mammootty]] in a dual role as:<br />
** Appu<br />
*** Sonu as young Appu<br />
** Achu <br />
*** Monu as young Achu <br />
** ([[Body doubling]] by [[Tini Tom]])<br />
* [[Lakshmi Rai]] as Thenmozhi, Appu's wife <br />
* [[Gopika]] as Lakshmi, Achu's wife<br />
* [[Janardhanan (actor)|Janardhanan]] as Ravunni, Achu's and Appu's father<br />
* [[Siddique (actor)|Siddique]] as Govindan<br />
** [[Harimurali]] as young Govindan<br />
* [[Harisree Ashokan]] as Chandran, Achu's friend<br />
* [[Suraj Venjarammoodu]] as Peethambaran, Achu's friend<br />
* [[Salim Kumar]] as [[Sub-inspector|SI]] Shyamalan <br />
* [[Rajan P. Dev]] as Dharmarajan, Thenmozhi's uncle<br />
* [[Bose Venkat]] as [[Pollachi]] [[Circle Inspector]] Anbuarasan<br />
* [[Maniyanpilla Raju]] as Rajashekharan, Appu's and Achu's uncle at Pollachi<br />
* [[Urmila Unni]] as Padmavathy, Achu's and Appu's mother<br />
* [[Shivani Bhai]] as Ammu, Achu's and Appu's sister<br />
* [[Jayan Cherthala]] as Madhava Panicker, Govindan's father<br />
* [[Mohan Jose]] as Vijayan, Madhavan's brother-in-law and Govindan's uncle<br />
* [[K. P. A. C. Lalitha]] as Bhadra, Madhavan's sister and Govindan's aunt<br />
* [[Anil Murali]] as Bharathan, Govindan's friend and co-conspirator<br />
* [[Joju George]] as Prakashan, right hand of Bharathan<br />
* Kiran Raj as Shiva<br />
* [[Bijukuttan]] as Santhosh, dance teacher<br />
* [[Lakshmi Priya]] as a drama artist<br />
* [[Kainakary Thankaraj]] as Panchayath President<br />
* [[Pauly Valsan]] as Peethambaran's aunt<br />
* [[Kalabhavan Shajohn]] as Kannappan, the village drunkard<br />
{{div end}}<br />
<br />
==Release==<br />
The film was released in 75 screens across Kerala. It was made on a budget of {{INR}}3.78 crore.<ref name=budget>{{cite web|url=http://www.sify.com/movies/annan-thambi-a-blockbuster-news-malayalam-kkft52ighgasi.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161116021347/http://www.sify.com/movies/annan-thambi-a-blockbuster-news-malayalam-kkft52ighgasi.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=16 November 2016|title=Annan Thambi - A blockbuster?|work=[[Sify]]|date=13 May 2008}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Box office===<br />
The film was a commercial success.it went on to become 2nd highest grosser of the year behind twenty20.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/malayalam/article430005.ece|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130613171554/http://newindianexpress.com/entertainment/malayalam/article430005.ece|url-status=dead|archive-date=13 June 2013|title=Multistarrer era comes to Mollywood|date=5 June 2011|work=[[The New Indian Express]]|access-date=16 May 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://specials.rediff.com/movies/2008/oct/15slide4.htm|title=From Chocolate to Lollipop|access-date=16 May 2022|work=[[Rediff.com]]|date=15 October 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/mollywood-more-flops-than-hits-in-2008/article1404160.ece|title=Mollywood: more flops than hits in 2008|access-date=16 May 2022|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=30 December 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180809091120/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/mollywood-more-flops-than-hits-in-2008/article1404160.ece|archive-date=9 August 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://m.rediff.com/movies/2008/jul/01sl1.htm|title=2008: Top five Malayalam films so far|access-date=16 May 2022|work=[[Rediff.com]]|date=3 July 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=George |first=Meghna |title=Mammootty's Chattambinadu|url=http://movies.rediff.com/report/2009/dec/01/south-malayalam-first-look-mammoottys-chattambinadu.htm |access-date=16 May 2022 |work=[[Rediff.com]] |date=1 December 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://m.rediff.com/movies/slide-show/slide-show-1-south-malayalam-news/20111129.htm|title=Mammootty's son in Anwar Rasheed's film|access-date=16 May 2022|work=[[Rediff.com]]|date=29 November 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Sidhardhan |first1=Sanjith |title=Anwar Rasheed to direct Mammootty again? |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/anwar-rasheed-to-direct-mammootty-again/articleshow/53414810.cms |access-date=16 May 2022 |work=The Times of India |date=27 January 2017 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Happy Birthday Anwar Rasheed: Five movies of the director that you should watch right now! |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/happy-birthday-anwar-rasheed-five-movies-of-the-director-that-you-should-watch-right-now/photostory/74703854.cms |access-date=16 May 2022 |work=The Times of India |date=19 March 2020 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Mammootty ends 2008 on a happy note |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/regional-movies/mammootty-ends-2008-on-a-happy-note/story-SAtmFVBjShqUkm5MGLOEoM.html |access-date=16 May 2022 |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |date=15 December 2008 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/newswire/story/malayalam-films-have-few-takers-in-kerala/580626|title=Malayalam films have few takers in Kerala|date=15 June 2008|magazine=[[Outlook (Indian magazine)|Outlook India]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210713193549/https://www.outlookindia.com/newswire/story/malayalam-films-have-few-takers-in-kerala/580626|archive-date=13 July 2021}}</ref> The film collected ₹2 crore from 4 days at the Kerala box office.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://movies.bizhat.com/news/annan_thampi_breaks_record.php|title=Annan Thampi breaks record|work=Bizhat|date=22 April 2008|access-date=16 May 2022}}</ref> In two weeks the film had a record distributors share of ₹3.12 crore from 75 screens and gross collection of ₹9.36 crore.<ref>{{Cite web|date=18 June 2014|title=Kerala Box Office (May 2-4, 2008) - Sify.com|website=[[Sify]] |url=http://www.sify.com/movies/boxoffice.php?id=14667989&cid=14625530|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140618102739/http://www.sify.com/movies/boxoffice.php?id=14667989&cid=14625530|url-status=dead|archive-date=18 June 2014|access-date=28 June 2021}}</ref> It grossed Rs. 30 million in 17 days.<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 June 2008 |title=Mammootty continues box office reign with 'Annan Thampi' |url=http://nowrunning.com/news/news.aspx?it=15349 |access-date=15 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080607221026/http://nowrunning.com/news/news.aspx?it=15349 |archive-date=7 June 2008 }}</ref> It grossed ₹12.75 crore from five weeks.<ref name="Glitz">{{Cite web|date=17 May 2008|title=Chiru's future plans - Telugu News|url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/balakrishna-to-do-an-annan-thampi-telugu-news-38620|access-date=28 June 2021|website=IndiaGlitz.com}}</ref><br />
<br />
MG's from B & C stations - Rs 4. 22 crore, Overseas and Indian domestic - Rs 45 lakhs, Television Rights - Rs 95 lakhs, Telugu Remake Rights - Rs 35 lakhs × Total from all rights = Rs 5 . 97 crore # Profit in 25 days = Rs 2.19 crore.<ref name=budget/><br />
<br />
==Music==<br />
{{Infobox album<br />
| name = Annan Thambi<br />
| type = [[Soundtrack]]<br />
| artist = [[Rahul Raj (composer)|Rahul Raj]]<br />
| cover =<br />
| alt =<br />
| released = 15 July 2009<br />
| recorded = Sound Of Music, Chennai, India<br />
| venue =<br />
| studio =<br />
| genre = [[Soundtrack]]<br />
| length = 19:16<br />
| label = Satyam Audios<br />
| producer = [[Rahul Raj (composer)|Rahul Raj]]<br />
| prev_title = [[Time (2007 film)|Time]]<br />
| prev_year = 2009<br />
| next_title = [[Malabar Wedding]]<br />
| next_year = 2010<br />
}}<br />
<br />
All songs were composed by [[Rahulraj|Rahul Raj]].<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable tracklist" style="font-size:95%;"<br />
! Song title !! Singers <br />
|-<br />
| "Chemban Kaale" || [[Jassie Gift]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Ra Chaakanu Pekaali" || [[Afsal]], [[Pradeep Palluruthy]], Jyotsna, Smitha Nishant <br />
|-<br />
| "Kanmaniye Punyam Nee" ||[[Vineeth Sreenivasan]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Kaikkudanna Pakarnnoru"<br />
|[[Madhu Balakrishnan]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* {{IMDb title|1305879|Annan Thambi}}<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080404094605/http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/malayalam/preview/9878.html ''Annan Thambi'' preview] at Indiaglitz.com<br />
{{Anwar Rasheed}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:2008 Malayalam-language films]]<br />
[[Category:2008 action comedy films]]<br />
[[Category:2008 films]]<br />
[[Category:Indian action comedy films]]<br />
[[Category:Twins in Indian films]]<br />
[[Category:Films shot in Coimbatore]]<br />
[[Category:Films shot in Pollachi]]<br />
[[Category:Films shot in Palakkad]]<br />
[[Category:Films directed by Anwar Rasheed]]<br />
[[Category:Films scored by Rahul Raj]]</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chavda_(Koli_clan)&diff=493735Chavda (Koli clan)2026-03-21T17:13:40Z<p>AmitNeogi: Started</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Clan of Koli caste in Gujarat}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2024}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2023}}<br />
<br />
{{Infobox tribe|local name=ચાવડા કોળી|name=Chavda Koli|type=Clan (gotra) of Koli caste|ethnicity=[[Koli people|Koli]]|location=*[[Gujarat]]<br />
*[[Daman and Diu]]|varna= [[Shudra]]|language=*[[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]<br />
*[[Kachi Koli language|Koli]]<br />
|religion=[[Hinduism|Hindu]]|parent_tribe=<br />
[[Kolis|Koli Hindu]]}}<br />
<br />
The '''Chavda Koli'''<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last1=Williams |first1=Raymond Brady |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rs5JDwAAQBAJ |title=Swaminarayan Hinduism: Tradition, Adaptation, and Identity |last2=Trivedi |first2=Yogi |date=2016-05-12 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-908959-8 |location=New Delhi, India, Asia |pages=Clans of Chunvalia Kolis are the Baria, '''Chavda''', Chohan, Chadasama, Dabhi, Gobel, Jadav, Jethwa, Jhala, Kachela, Kamalia, Kinara, Khasia, Malvana, Mangukia, Mer, Parmar, Rathod, and Sarvaya}}</ref> (also spelled as '''Chavada Koli''', '''Chawada Koli''' or '''Chawda Koli''')<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Roy |first=Dr. Shibani |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o4RJAAAAMAAJ |title=Koli Culture: A Profile of the Culture of Talpad Vistar |date=1983 |publisher=Cosmo Publications |location=[[New Delhi]], [[India]], [[Asia]] |pages=98|quote=Clans of Koli caste in Gujarat are '''Chawda''' (Chavda), Chuda, Chudasma, Chakhad, Japadia, Yadav, Jograjia, Jada, Jinjoria, Jamod, Jatadra, Jambukia, Khambnani, Jidia, Khorawa, Gabu, Jolapra, Jambucha, Gohel, Gobani, Jarawaria, Jethwa, Ganandia, Jhodia, Godia, Jinjhunwadia, Aniyadiya, Kansagra}}</ref> is a [[clan]] of Hindu [[Koli people|Koli]] community living in the [[States and union territories of India|Indian state]] of [[Gujarat]] and [[union territory]] of [[Daman and Diu]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lobo |first=Lancy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1DBuAAAAMAAJ |title=The Thakors of North Gujarat: A Caste in the Village and the Region |date=1995 |publisher=Hindustan Publishing Corporation |isbn=978-81-7075-035-2 |pages=104, 124|quote=clan names among the Kolis of Surendranagar and its adjoining districts . A few examples are Karelia, Kambad, '''Chavda''', Solanki, Parmar, Dabhi, Macwana, Dodhia and Jadav.}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
Chavda Koli families are mostly found in Gujarat, [[Kathiawar|Kathiawar region]] and even in some regions of [[Maharashtra]]. They are stretched out in the eastern and northern regions of Gujarat bordering Maharashtra along with other locally known Koli clans.<ref name=":1" /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Koli, Chavda}}<br />
[[Category:Koli clans]]<br />
[[Category:Gotras]]<br />
[[Category:Hindu dynasties]]<br />
[[Category:Social history of India]]<br />
[[Category:History of India by caste]]<br />
[[Category:Dynasties of India]]<br />
[[Category:Surnames of Indian origin]]<br />
[[Category:Surnames of Hindu origin]]<br />
[[Category:Social groups of Gujarat]]<br />
[[Category:Indian feudalism]]<br />
[[Category:Gujarati-language surnames]]<br />
<br />
<br />
{{India-ethno-stub}}</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dudhsagar_Dairy_plant&diff=497772Dudhsagar Dairy plant2026-03-18T05:34:23Z<p>AmitNeogi: Article</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Dairy plant in Mehsana, Gujarat, India}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2023}}<br />
{{Infobox building<br />
| name = Dudhsagar Dairy plant<br />
| native_name =<br />
| native_name_lang =<br />
| logo =<br />
| logo_size =<br />
| logo_alt =<br />
| logo_caption =<br />
| image = Dudhsagar dairy building in Mehsana Gujarat India 3.jpg<br />
| image_size =<br />
| image_alt = <!-- or | alt = --><br />
| image_caption = Plant building<br />
| pushpin_relief =<br />
| former_names =<br />
| alternate_names = Mehsana dairy plant<br />
| etymology = <br />
| status =<br />
| cancelled =<br />
| topped_out =<br />
| building_type = Dairy plant<br />
| architectural_style = [[Brutalist architecture]]<br />
| classification =<br />
<br />
| address = Ahmedabad-Palanpur Highway<br />
| location_city = [[Mehsana]]<br />
| location_country = [[India]]<br />
| coordinates = {{coord|display=inline, title}}<br />
| altitude =<br />
| current_tenants =<br />
| namesake =<br />
| groundbreaking_date =<br />
| construction_start_date = 1970<br />
| construction_stop_date =<br />
| est_completion = <br />
| topped_out_date =<br />
| completion_date = 1973<br />
| opened_date =<br />
| inauguration_date =<br />
| relocated_date =<br />
| renovation_date = <br />
| closing_date =<br />
| demolished_date = <br />
| cost =<br />
| ren_cost = <br />
| client = [[Dudhsagar Dairy]]<br />
| owner = [[Dudhsagar Dairy]]<br />
| landlord =<br />
| affiliation =<br />
| height =<br />
| architectural = <br />
| tip =<br />
| roof =<br />
| top_floor =<br />
| observatory =<br />
| diameter =<br />
| circumference =<br />
| weight =<br />
| other_dimensions =<br />
| structural_system =<br />
| material = Concrete<br />
| size =<br />
| floor_count = <br />
| floor_area =<br />
| elevator_count =<br />
| grounds_area =<br />
| architect = [[Achyut Kanvinde]]<br />
| architecture_firm = Kanvinde, Rai & Chowdhury <br />
| developer =<br />
| engineer =<br />
| structural_engineer = <br />
| services_engineer =<br />
| civil_engineer =<br />
| other_designers =<br />
| quantity_surveyor =<br />
| main_contractor =<br />
| awards =<br />
| designations =<br />
| known_for =<br />
| ren_architect = <br />
| ren_firm =<br />
| ren_engineer =<br />
| ren_str_engineer = <br />
| ren_serv_engineer =<br />
| ren_civ_engineer =<br />
| ren_oth_designers =<br />
| ren_qty_surveyor =<br />
| ren_contractor =<br />
| ren_awards =<br />
| number_of_rooms = <br />
| parking =<br />
| website = <!-- {{URL|example.com}} --><br />
| embed =<br />
| embedded =<br />
| references =<br />
| footnotes =<br />
}}<br />
<br />
The '''Dudhsagar Dairy plant''' is a milk processing plant located in [[Mehsana]], [[Gujarat]], India. Owned and operated by [[Dudhsagar Dairy]], a [[cooperative]], it is a [[Postmodern architecture|postmodern]] [[brutalist]] building designed by [[Achyut Kanvinde]]. Commissioned in 1970, it was completed in 1973.<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
Architect Achyut Kanvinde was introduced to [[Verghese Kurien]], a dairy technocrat, in 1962 when he invited by him to design cattle feed plant in [[Anand, Gujarat]]. In 1970, he was commissioned to design a milk processing complex in Mehsana. He studied dairy plants in [[Delhi]] and [[Mumbai]] to make himself familiar with the dairy plants. He had found those plants utilitarian and arbitrary. He focused on functional needs of the dairy. The effective layout and good ventilation were a primary focus of his design. He analysed needs of milk processing plant requirements with help of dairy engineers.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Sane|first=Prajakta|url=https://www.sahanz.net/wp-content/uploads/S07_01_Sane_Dudhsagar-Dairy-at-Mehsana.pdf|title=Proceedings of the Society of Architectural Historians, Australia and New Zealand: 30, Open|date=2013|publisher=Society of Architectural Historians, Australia and New Zealand (SAHANZ)|isbn=0-9876055-0-X|editor1-last=Brown|editor1-first=Alexandra|volume=1|location=Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia|pages=355–364|chapter=Dudhsagar Dairy at Mehsana, India (1970-73): Achyut Kanvinde and the Architecture of White Revolution|oclc=884961021|editor2-last=Leach|editor2-first=Andrew}}</ref> Kanvinde has called it "one of the most challenging assignment". He was assisted by V. H. Shah, a dairy specialist.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kanvinde|first=Achyut|last2=Ganju|first2=MN Ashish|last3=Shetty|first3=Prasad|last4=Gulati|first4=Manish|last5=Kuriakose|first5=Biju|last6=Pandit|first6=Madhu|last7=Dasgupta|first7=Arunav|last8=Shivkumar|first8=Rohan|last9=Suresh|first9=Sabareesh|last10=Rewal|first10=Raj|last11=Raj|first11=Mahendra|date=1986|title=Achyut P. Kanvinde - an interview with M.N. Ashish Ganju, The Festival of India|url=https://architexturez.net/doc/az-cf-123619|journal=Vistāra - The Architecture of India, Catalogue of the Exhibition|language=en|pages=228–231}}</ref><br />
<br />
The construction was completed in 1973. With similar architectural style, two more processing plants were built in 1983, followed by an office building with seven floors and an auditorium in 1985.<ref name=":0" /><br />
<br />
==Architecture==<br />
[[File:Dudhsagar dairy building in Mehsana Gujarat India.jpg|thumb|The plant from northeast corner]]<br />
The plant is a [[Postmodern architecture|postmodern]] [[brutalist]] building designed by Achyut Kanvinde.<ref name=":12">{{cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Mehsana|url=http://www.gujarattourism.com/destination/details/12/52|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170223211951/http://www.gujarattourism.com/destination/details/12/52|archivedate=2017-02-23|accessdate=2017-02-23|website=Gujarat Tourism}}</ref><ref name=":0" /><br />
<br />
The plan separates the milk reception building and the processing plant which resulted in a simplicity in design. The plan also uses the slope of the site to create the multi-level building to take advantage of gravity instead of the use of pumping system. It results in energy and cost savings. The milk received via trucks is collected at the concrete decks at the highest level. Then milk is transferred to the pasteurization level followed by the condensation and powder plants respectively at lower levels.<ref name=":0" /><br />
<br />
The plan uses seven metre-long square concrete grids to form various orthogonal spaces. The walls are built by bricks and the plant machinery stays framed within these grids. The different levels of these machinery is reached by bridges, walkways and stairs. Instead of exhaust fans to evacuate heat, the ventilation ducts are built around the milk reception building and the processing plants linking all spaces. These ventilation ducts rise as the shafts from the roof at various levels and have angular caps on the top. The slit windows in the walls bring in natural light and air while the spaces with machinery are artificially lighted to maintain hygiene.<ref name=":0" /><br />
<br />
==Interpretations==<br />
The building is studied as the representation of the emerging building style in India as well as a late-modern building of the industrializing India. It is considered as an example of the merging of the top-down and bottom-up economic development models promoted by [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] and [[Mahatma Gandhi]] respectively. It also represents the intermixing of the traditional Indian and modern as well as elite and subaltern architectural categories.<ref name=":0" /><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
<br />
* [[Rajmahal, Mehsana]]<br />
* [[Para Lake]]<br />
* [[Boter Kothani Vav]]<br />
* [[Biladi Baug]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
{{commons category}}<br />
{{authority control}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:1973 establishments in India]]<br />
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Mehsana district]]<br />
[[Category:Mehsana]]<br />
[[Category:Brutalist architecture in India]]<br />
[[Category:Dairy buildings]]<br />
[[Category:Postmodern architecture in India]]<br />
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Gujarat]]<br />
[[Category:Commercial buildings completed in 1973]]<br />
[[Category:20th-century architecture in India]]</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ciby_Bhuvana_Chandran&diff=494598Ciby Bhuvana Chandran2026-03-17T19:02:53Z<p>AmitNeogi: New</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Tamil actor (born 1991)}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2023}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2023}}<br />
{{Infobox person<br />
| name = Ciby Bhuvana Chandran<br />
| image = <br />
| caption = Chandran in 2021<br />
<br />
| birth_place = [[Tenkasi]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]]<ref name="Tamil">{{Cite web|url=https://tamil.samayam.com/tv/bigg-boss-tamil/bigg-boss-5-tamil-contestant-ciby-life-story/articleshow/86974894.cms?story=1|title=பிக் பாஸ் சிபி-யின் கதை: சில்லுனு ஒரு காதல் சூர்யா கதை மாதிரி இருக்கே [The story of Big Boss Ciby: story is like Silinu Oru Kaadhal Suriya]|last=Parthiban|first=A.|work=Times of India Samyam|language=ta}}</ref><br />
| occupation = Actor<br />
| education = <br />
| other_names = <br />
| spouse = Shloka<br />
| years_active = 2018{{ndash}}present<br />
}}<br />
'''Ciby Bhuvana Chandran''' (born 5 August) is an Indian actor who works predominantly in [[Tamil cinema]]. He made his lead debut as the protagonist in ''[[Vanjagar Ulagam]]'' (2018). He also participated in the reality show ''[[Bigg Boss (Tamil season 5)|Bigg Boss Tamil Season 5]]'' as a contestant.<br />
<br />
==Early and personal life ==<br />
Ciby was born in [[Tenkasi]], [[Tamil Nadu]] and later moved to [[Salem, Tamil Nadu|Salem]], [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref name="Tamil"/> After this, he moved to Chennai.<ref name="Tamil"/> His father is a doctor.<ref name="Tamil"/> While in college, he starred in short films. He married Shloka whom he met after returning from the [[United Kingdom]] on 14 November.<ref name="Tamil"/><br />
<br />
==Career ==<br />
Ciby acted in the film ''[[O Kadhal Kanmani]]'' (2015), where he played a friend of [[Dulquer Salmaan]] in a minor role. His debut role was when he played one of the lead protagonists in the film ''[[Vanjagar Ulagam]]'' (2018).<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|title=Vanjagar Ulagam|url=https://theannapurnaexpress.com/news/vanjagar-ulagam-fun-movie-fantastic-music-2981|access-date=2022-02-23|website=The Annapurna Express|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210119133043/https://theannapurnaexpress.com/news/vanjagar-ulagam-fun-movie-fantastic-music-2981/|archive-date=19 January 2021|language=en}}</ref> This earned him some fame, which led him to another breakthrough performance in the 2021 movie ''[[Master (2021 film)|Master]]''. He starred opposite [[Vijay (actor)|Vijay]], where he played a student of his, and also appeared in the song "[[Vaathi Coming]]". Ciby appeared as a henchman of the antagonist [[Vinay Rai]] in the 2022 film ''[[Etharkkum Thunindhavan]]''.{{fact|date=December 2023}}<br />
<br />
Ciby participated in Season 5 of the Tamil reality television series ''[[Bigg Boss (Tamil season 5)|Bigg Boss]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bigg Boss 5 contestant Cibi Chandran garners attention among the lot!|url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/master-actor-cibi-chandran-bigg-boss-tamil-season-5-contestant-vanjagar-ulagam-superstar-rajinikanth-son-in-law-debut-life-story-tamil-news-296299|access-date=2021-01-07|website=www.indiaglitz.com|date=7 October 2021|language=en}}</ref> He walked out of the show on Day 95 with a cash prize of 12 lakhs..<ref>{{Cite web|title= On Bigg Boss Tamil, 'Master' Fame Ciby Chandran Looks to Capitalise on his Popularity|url=https://www.news18.com/news/education-career/on-bigg-boss-tamil-master-fame-ciby-chandran-looks-to-capitalise-on-his-popularity-4299737.html|access-date=2021-12-03|website=www.news18.com|date=8 October 2021|language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Filmography ==<br />
===Film===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
! Year<br />
! Film<br />
! Role<br />
!Notes<br />
|-<br />
| 2015 || ''[[O Kadhal Kanmani]]'' || Aditya's co-worker <br />
|Uncredited role<br />
|-<br />
|2018 || ''[[Vanjagar Ulagam]]'' || Shanmugam / Shyam || Debut as a lead<br />
|-<br />
| 2021 || ''[[Master (2021 film)|Master]]'' || Sri ||<br />
|-<br />
| 2022 || ''[[Etharkkum Thunindhavan]]''|| Aaron || <br />
|-<br />
|2023<br />
|''[[Thunivu]]''||Ravi||<br />
|-<br />
|2024||''[[Idi Minnal Kadhal]]''||Haran||<br />
|-<br />
| 2026 || ''[[Oh Butterfly]]'' || Suriya || <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/review/2026/Mar/06/oh-butterfly-movie-review-a-claustrophobic-drama-about-choices-and-consequences|title=Oh Butterfly Movie Review: A claustrophobic drama about choices and consequences|first=Jayabhuvaneshwari|last=B|date=6 March 2026|website=Cinema Express}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Short films ===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+<br />
!Year<br />
!Short film<br />
!Role<br />
|-<br />
|2014<br />
|''SPL Biryani'' <br />
|The Guy<br />
|-<br />
|2015<br />
|''29 - Love Story ''<br />
|Varun Sharma<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Music video ===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+<br />
!Year<br />
!Song<br />
!Label<br />
!Music director<br />
|-<br />
|2014<br />
|''Feel My Love'' <br />
|rowspan="3"|VRS MUSIC PRODUCTION<br />
|rowspan="3"|Vijay Raja Selvan<br />
|-<br />
|2015<br />
|''Melody Of Love''<br />
|-<br />
|2017<br />
|''Heart to Heart'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Television ===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
! Year<br />
! Title<br />
! Role<br />
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Channel<br />
!Notes<br />
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | {{Tooltip|Ref.|Reference(s)}}<br />
|-<br />
| 2021-22||''[[Bigg Boss (Tamil season 5)|Bigg Boss Tamil Season 5]]'' || Contestant || rowspan="3" |[[Star Vijay]]||Walked out on Day 95 with a cash prize of 12 lakhs|Walked Out on Day 95 with Cash Prize of' 12 Lakhs<br />
|<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ciby reveals why he accepted the special cash offer to walk out of Bigg Boss!|url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/bigg-boss-tamil-season-5-ciby-reveal-why-he-took-money-box-suitcase-wallet-offer-leave-the-house-tamil-news-305455|access-date=2022-01-07|website=www.indiaglitz.com|date=6 January 2022|language=en}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" |2022<br />
|''Bigg Boss Season 5 Kondattam''<br />
|Himself / Guest<br />
|Celebration of Bigg Boss Season 5<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|''Star Music Season 3''<br />
|Himself / Participant<br />
|Bigg Boss Season 5 Special<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
*{{IMDb name|5248473}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Chandran, Ciby Bhuvana}}<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Tamil male television actors]]<br />
[[Category:Male actors in Tamil cinema]]<br />
[[Category:Actors from Tamil Nadu]]<br />
[[Category:1991 births]]</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bear&diff=456609Bear2026-03-17T12:27:20Z<p>AmitNeogi: added info</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Family of carnivoran mammals}}<br />
{{other uses}}<br />
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{{Good article}}<br />
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<br />
{{Automatic taxobox<br />
| taxon = Ursidae<br />
| name = Bears<br />
| fossil_range = {{Geological range|38|0}}Late [[Eocene]] – Recent<br />
| image = Ours brun parcanimalierpyrenees 1.jpg<br />
| image_caption = [[Brown bear]] (''Ursus arctos'')<br />
| authority = [[Gotthelf Fischer von Waldheim|G. Fischer de Waldheim]], 1817<br />
| type_genus = ''[[Ursus (mammal)|Ursus]]''<br />
| type_genus_authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758<br />
| subdivision_ranks = Subfamilies<br />
| subdivision = <br />
* {{dagger}}[[Hemicyoninae]]<br />
* {{dagger}}[[Ursavini|Ursavinae]]<br />
* [[Ailuropodinae]] ([[Giant Panda|pandas]])<br />
* [[Tremarctinae]] (short-faced bears)<br />
* [[Ursinae]] (all other bear species)<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Bears''' are [[carnivora]]n [[mammal]]s of the [[family (biology)|family]] '''Ursidae''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɜɹ|.|s|ɪ|.|d|iː|,_|-|.|d|aɪ}}). They are classified as [[caniforms]], or doglike carnivorans. Although only eight species of bears are extant, they are widespread, appearing in a wide variety of [[habitat]]s throughout most of the Northern Hemisphere and partially in the Southern Hemisphere. Bears are found on the continents of North America, South America, and Eurasia. Common characteristics of modern bears include large bodies with stocky legs, long snouts, small rounded ears, shaggy hair, [[plantigrade]] paws with five nonretractile claws, and short tails.<br />
<br />
While the [[polar bear]] is mostly [[carnivorous]], and the [[giant panda]] is mostly [[herbivorous]], the remaining six species are [[omnivorous]] with varying diets. With the exception of [[courtship display|courting]] individuals and mothers with their young, bears are typically [[solitary animals]]. They may be [[diurnality|diurnal]] or [[nocturnal]], and they have an excellent [[sense of smell]]. Despite their heavy build and awkward gait, they are adept runners, climbers, and swimmers. Bears use shelters, such as caves and logs, as their dens; most species occupy their dens during the winter for a long period of [[hibernation]], up to 100 days.<br />
<br />
Bears have been hunted since [[prehistoric]] times for [[bear meat|their meat]] and fur. They have also been used for [[bear-baiting]] and other forms of entertainment, such as being [[tame bear|made to dance]]. With their powerful physical presence, they play a prominent role in the arts, mythology, and other cultural aspects of various human societies. In modern times, bears have come under pressure through encroachment on their habitats and illegal trade in bear parts, including the Asian [[bile bear]] market. The [[IUCN]] lists six bear species as [[vulnerable species|vulnerable]] or [[endangered species|endangered]], and even [[least concern]] species, such as the [[brown bear]], are at risk of [[extirpation]] in certain countries. The [[poaching]] and international trade of these most threatened populations are prohibited, but still ongoing.<br />
<br />
==Etymology==<br />
The English word "bear" comes from Old English ''{{lang|ang|bera}}'' and belongs to a family of names for the bear in Germanic languages, such as Swedish ''{{lang|sv|[[bjorn|björn]]}}'', also used as a first name. This form is conventionally said to be related to a [[Proto-Indo-European]] word for "brown", so that "bear" would mean "the brown one".<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Mallory |first1=J. P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iNUSDAAAQBAJ&q=indo%20european&pg=PA333 |title=The Oxford Iintroduction to Proto Indo European and the Proto Indo European World |last2=Adams |first2=Douglas Q. |date=2006 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-1-4294-7104-6 |location=New York |page=333 |oclc=139999117}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Fortson |first=Benjamin W. |title=Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction. |date=2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-5968-8 |edition=2nd |location=Hoboken |page=31 |oclc=778339290}}</ref> However, [[Donald Ringe|Ringe]] notes that while this etymology is semantically plausible, a word meaning "brown" of this form cannot be found in Proto-Indo-European. He suggests instead that "bear" is from the Proto-Indo-European word ''*ǵʰwḗr- ~ *ǵʰwér'' "wild animal".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ringe |first=Don |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NlExDwAAQBAJ&q=Don%20ringe&pg=PA128 |title=From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-19-251118-8 |edition=2nd |series=A Linguistic History of English |volume=1 |location=Oxford |page=128}}</ref> This terminology for the animal originated as a [[Avoidance speech|taboo avoidance]] term: proto-Germanic tribes replaced their original word for bear—''arkto''—with this euphemistic expression out of fear that speaking the animal's true name might cause it to appear.<!--<ref name="indo-european1959">{{cite book |last=Pokorny |first=Julius |author-link=Julius Pokorny |url=http://www.win.tue.nl/~aeb/natlang/ie/pokorny.html |title=Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch |date=1959 |publisher=Francke}}</ref>--><ref>{{cite dictionary |title=bear (n.) |dictionary=Online Etymology Dictionary |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=bear |access-date=22 January 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202020051/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=bear |archive-date=2 February 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Postma |first1=Laura |title=The word for "bear" |url=http://www.pitt.edu/~votruba/qsonhist/bearetymologyslovakenglishwelsh.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171122151051/http://www.pitt.edu/~votruba/qsonhist/bearetymologyslovakenglishwelsh.html |archive-date=22 November 2017 |access-date=21 March 2018 |website=University of Pittsburgh Slovak Studies Program}}</ref> According to author [[Ralph Keyes (author)|Ralph Keyes]], this is the oldest known [[euphemism]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Silver |first1=Alexandra |date=10 January 2011 |title=Hooking Up and Using the John: Why Do We Use So Many Euphemisms? |url=http://content.time.com/time/arts/article/0,8599,2041313,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190406014817/http://content.time.com/time/arts/article/0,8599,2041313,00.html |archive-date=6 April 2019 |access-date=4 April 2019 |magazine=Time}}</ref><br />
<br />
Bear taxon names such as [[Arctoidea]] and ''[[Helarctos]]'' come from the ancient Greek ἄρκτος (''arktos''), meaning bear,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Arktos |encyclopedia=A Greek-English Lexicon |publisher=Perseus Digital Library |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2315199 |last1=Liddell |first1=Henry George |last2=Scott |first2=Robert}}</ref> as do the names "[[arctic]]" and "[[antarctic]]", via the name of the [[constellation]] [[Ursa Major]], the "Great Bear", prominent in the northern sky.<ref name="UrsaMajor">{{cite web |title=The Great Bear Constellation Ursa Major |url=http://www.souledout.org/nightsky/ursamandm/ursamajorandminor.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101130031637/http://souledout.org/nightsky/ursamandm/ursamajorandminor.html |archive-date=30 November 2010 |access-date=12 January 2017}}</ref><br />
<br />
Bear taxon names such as Ursidae and ''Ursus'' come from Latin ''Ursus/Ursa'', he-bear/she-bear.<ref name=UrsaMajor/> The female first name "[[Ursula (given name)|Ursula]]", originally derived from a Christian [[St. Ursula|saint]]'s name, means "little she-bear" (diminutive of Latin ''ursa''). In Switzerland, the male first name "Urs" is especially popular, while the name of the canton and city of Bern is by legend derived from ''Bär'', German for bear. The Germanic name [[Bernard]] (including Bernhardt and similar forms) means "bear-brave", "bear-hardy", or "bold bear".<ref>{{cite web |title=Ursa Major – the Greater Bear |url=http://www.constellationsofwords.com/Constellations/UrsaMajor.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150314234800/http://constellationsofwords.com/Constellations/UrsaMajor.html |archive-date=14 March 2015 |access-date=11 March 2015 |publisher=constellationsofwords.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Bernhard Family History |url=http://www.ancestry.com/name-origin?surname=bernhard |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402201212/http://www.ancestry.com/name-origin?surname=bernhard |archive-date=2 April 2015 |access-date=11 March 2015 |publisher=ancestry.com}}</ref> The Old English name [[Beowulf]] is a [[kenning]], "bee-wolf", for bear, in turn meaning a brave warrior.<ref>Sweet, Henry (1884) [https://archive.org/details/anglosaxonreader00sweerich ''Anglo-Saxon Reader in Prose and Verse'']. The Clarendon Press, p. 202.</ref><br />
<br />
== Evolution ==<br />
<br />
=== Fossil history ===<br />
<br />
[[File:Plithocyon armagnacensis.JPG|thumb|left|''[[Plithocyon|Plithocyon armagnacensis]]'' skull, a member of the extinct subfamily Hemicyoninae from the [[Miocene]]]]<br />
<br />
The earliest members of Ursidae belong to the extinct subfamily Amphicynodontinae, including ''[[Parictis]]'' (late [[Eocene]] to early middle [[Miocene]], 38–18&nbsp;[[Mya (unit)|Mya]]) and the slightly younger ''Allocyon'' (early [[Oligocene]], 34–30&nbsp;Mya), both from North America. These animals looked very different from today's bears, being small and [[raccoon]]-like in overall appearance, with diets perhaps more similar to that of a badger.<ref name="Kemp">{{cite book |last=Kemp |first=T.S. |url=https://archive.org/details/originevolutionm00kemp |title=The Origin and Evolution of Mammals |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-19-850760-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/originevolutionm00kemp/page/n270 260] |url-access=limited}}</ref> It is unclear whether late-Eocene ursids were also present in Eurasia, although faunal exchange across the [[Bering land bridge]] may have been possible during a major sea level low stand as early as the late Eocene (about 37&nbsp;Mya) and continuing into the early Oligocene.<ref name="Wang2">{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Banyue |last2=Qiu |first2=Zhanxiang |year=2005 |title=Notes on Early Oligocene Ursids (Carnivora, Mammalia) from Saint Jacques, Nei Mongol, China |url=http://digitallibrary.amnh.org/dspace/bitstream/2246/447/22/B279a05.pdf |url-status=live |journal=[[Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History]] |volume=279 |issue=279 |pages=116–124 |doi=10.1206/0003-0090(2003)279<0116:C>2.0.CO;2 |s2cid=26636569 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326201348/http://digitallibrary.amnh.org/dspace/bitstream/2246/447/22/B279a05.pdf |archive-date=26 March 2009}}</ref> European genera morphologically very similar to ''Allocyon'', and to the much younger American ''[[Kolponomos]]'' (about 18 Mya),<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tedford |first1=R.H. |author-link=Richard H. Tedford |last2=Barnes |first2=L.G. |last3=Ray |first3=C.E. |year=1994 |title=The early Miocene littoral ursoid carnivoran ''Kolponomos'': Systematics and mode of life |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/pdf1/000389400021705.pdf |journal=Proceedings of the San Diego Society of Natural History |volume=29 |pages=11–32 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120922142556/http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/pdf1/000389400021705.pdf |archive-date=22 September 2012}}</ref> are known from the Oligocene, including ''[[Amphicticeps]]'' and ''[[Amphicynodon]]''.<ref name=Wang2/> There has been various morphological evidence linking amphicynodontines with [[pinniped]]s, as both groups were semi-aquatic, otter-like mammals.<ref name="Tedfordetal">{{Cite journal |last1=Tedford |first1=R.H. |author-link=Richard H. Tedford |last2=Barnes |first2=L.G. |last3=Ray |first3=C.E. |year=1994 |title=The early Miocene littoral ursoid carnivoran ''Kolponomos'': Systematics and mode of life |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/pdf1/000389400021705.pdf |journal=Proceedings of the San Diego Society of Natural History |volume=29 |pages=11–32 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120922142556/http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/pdf1/000389400021705.pdf |archive-date=22 September 2012 |access-date=24 July 2010}}</ref><ref name="Rybczynski07">{{cite journal |last1=Rybczynski |first1=N. |last2=Dawson |first2=M.R. |last3=Tedford |first3=R.H. |year=2009 |title=A semi-aquatic Arctic mammalian carnivore from the Miocene epoch and origin of Pinnipedia |journal=Nature |volume=458 |issue=7241 |pages=1021–1024 |bibcode=2009Natur.458.1021R |doi=10.1038/nature07985 |pmid=19396145 |s2cid=4371413}}</ref><ref name="Berta2018">{{cite journal |last1=Berta |first1=A. |last2=Morgan |first2=C. |last3=Boessenecker |first3=R.W. |year=2018 |title=The Origin and Evolutionary Biology of Pinnipeds: Seals, Sea Lions, and Walruses |journal=[[Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences]] |volume=46 |pages=203–228 |bibcode=2018AREPS..46..203B |doi=10.1146/annurev-earth-082517-010009 |s2cid=135439365 |doi-access=free}}</ref> In addition to the support of the pinniped–amphicynodontine clade, other morphological and some molecular evidence supports bears being the closest living relatives to pinnipeds.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hunt |first1=R.M. Jr. |last2=Barnes |first2=L.G. |year=1994 |title=Basicranial evidence for ursid affinity of the oldest pinnipeds |url=https://archive.org/details/cbarchive_36692_basicranialevidenceforursidaff1990 |format=PDF |journal=Proceedings of the San Diego Society of Natural History |volume=29 |pages=57–67}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lento |first1=G.M. |last2=Hickson |first2=R.E. |last3=Chambers |first3=G.K. |last4=Penny |first4=D. |year=1995 |title=Use of spectral analysis to test hypotheses on the origin of pinnipeds |journal=[[Molecular Biology and Evolution]] |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=28–52 |doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a040189 |pmid=7877495 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="wangetal2005">{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=X. |last2=McKenna |first2=M.C. |last3=Dashzeveg |first3=D. |year=2005 |title=''Amphicticeps'' and ''Amphicynodon'' (Arctoidea, Carnivora) from Hsanda Gol Formation, central Mongolia and phylogeny of basal arctoids with comments on zoogeography. |url=https://zenodo.org/record/4735171 |journal=[[American Museum Novitates]] |issue=3483 |pages=1–58 |doi=10.1206/0003-0082(2005)483[0001:AAAACF]2.0.CO;2 |hdl=2246/5674 |s2cid=59126616}}</ref><ref name=Rybczynski07/><ref name="Higdon 2007">{{Cite journal |last1=Higdon |first1=J.W. |last2=Bininda-Emonds |first2=O.R. |last3=Beck |first3=R.M. |last4=Ferguson |first4=S.H. |year=2007 |title=Phylogeny and divergence of the pinnipeds (Carnivora: Mammalia) assessed using a multigene dataset |journal=[[BMC Evolutionary Biology]] |volume=7 |issue=1 |page=216 |bibcode=2007BMCEE...7..216H |doi=10.1186/1471-2148-7-216 |pmc=2245807 |pmid=17996107 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=Berta2018/><br />
[[File:Arctotherium.jpg|thumb|right|Life restoration of ''Arctotherium bonariense'']]<br />
The raccoon-sized, dog-like ''[[Cephalogale]]'' is the oldest-known member of the subfamily [[Hemicyoninae]], which first appeared during the middle Oligocene in Eurasia about 30&nbsp;Mya.<ref name=Wang2/> The subfamily includes the younger genera ''[[Phoberocyon]]'' (20–15&nbsp;Mya), and ''[[Plithocyon]]'' (15–7&nbsp;Mya). A ''Cephalogale''-like species gave rise to the genus ''[[Ursavus]]'' during the early Oligocene (30–28&nbsp;Mya); this genus proliferated into many species in Asia and is ancestral to all living bears. Species of ''Ursavus'' subsequently entered North America, together with ''Amphicynodon'' and ''Cephalogale'', during the early Miocene (21–18&nbsp;Mya). Members of the living lineages of bears diverged from ''Ursavus'' between 15 and 20&nbsp;Mya,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Waits |first1=Lisette |date=1999 |title=Rapid radiation events in the family Ursidae indicated by likelihood phylogenetic estimation from multiple fragments of mtDNA |url=http://dobzhanskycenter.bio.spbu.ru/pdf/sjop/MS298_Waits_MolPhylogenetEvol.pdf |journal=[[Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution]] |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=82–92 |bibcode=1999MolPE..13...82W |doi=10.1006/mpev.1999.0637 |pmid=10508542 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903211855/http://dobzhanskycenter.bio.spbu.ru/pdf/sjop/MS298_Waits_MolPhylogenetEvol.pdf |archive-date=3 September 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pàges |first1=Marie |date=2008 |title=Combined analysis of fourteen nuclear genes refines the Ursidae phylogeny |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=73–83 |bibcode=2008MolPE..47...73P |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2007.10.019 |pmid=18328735}}</ref> likely via the species ''Ursavus elmensis''. Based on genetic and morphological data, the Ailuropodinae (pandas) were the first to diverge from other living bears about 19&nbsp;Mya, although no fossils of this group have been found before about 11 Mya.<ref name="krause2008">{{Cite journal |last1=Krause |first1=J. |last2=Unger |first2=T. |last3=Noçon |first3=A. |last4=Malaspinas |first4=A. |last5=Kolokotronis |first5=S. |last6=Stiller |first6=M. |last7=Soibelzon |first7=L. |last8=Spriggs |first8=H. |last9=Dear |first9=P. H. |last10=Briggs |first10=A. W. |last11=Bray |first11=S.C.E. |last12=O'Brien |first12=S.J. |last13=Rabeder |first13=G. |last14=Matheus |first14=P. |last15=Cooper |first15=A. |year=2008 |title=Mitochondrial genomes reveal an explosive radiation of extinct and extant bears near the Miocene-Pliocene boundary |journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology |volume=8 |issue=220 |page=220 |bibcode=2008BMCEE...8..220K |doi=10.1186/1471-2148-8-220 |pmc=2518930 |pmid=18662376 |doi-access=free |last16=Slatkin |first16=M. |last17=Pääbo |first17=S. |last18=Hofreiter |first18=M.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Abella |first1=Juan |last2=Alba |first2=David M. |last3=Robles |first3=Josep M. |last4=Valenciano |first4=Alberto |last5=Rotgers |first5=Cheyenn |last6=Carmona |first6=Raül |last7=Montoya |first7=Plinio |last8=Morales |first8=JorgeZ |year=2012 |title=Kretzoiarctos gen. nov., the Oldest Member of the Giant Panda Clade |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=7 |issue=11 |bibcode=2012PLoSO...748985A |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0048985 |pmc=3498366 |pmid=23155439 |doi-access=free |article-number=e48985}}</ref><br />
<br />
The New World short-faced bears (Tremarctinae) differentiated from Ursinae following a dispersal event into North America during the mid-Miocene (about 13&nbsp;Mya).<ref name=krause2008/> They [[Great American Interchange|invaded South America]] (≈2.5 or 1.2&nbsp;Ma) following formation of the [[Isthmus of Panama]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Soibelzon |first1=L. H. |last2=Tonni |first2=E.P. |last3=Bond |first3=M. |year=2005 |title=The fossil record of South American short-faced bears (Ursidae, Tremarctinae) |url=http://sedici.unlp.edu.ar/bitstream/handle/10915/5366/Documento_completo.pdf?sequence=1 |journal=[[Journal of South American Earth Sciences]] |volume=20 |issue=1–2 |pages=105–113 |bibcode=2005JSAES..20..105S |doi=10.1016/j.jsames.2005.07.005 |hdl=10915/5366}}</ref> Their earliest fossil representative is ''[[Plionarctos]]'' in North America (c.&nbsp;10–2&nbsp;Ma). This genus is probably the direct ancestor to the [[Arctodus|North American short-faced bears]] (genus ''Arctodus''), the [[Arctotherium|South American short-faced bears]] (''Arctotherium''), and the spectacled bears, ''Tremarctos'', represented by both an extinct North American species (''[[Tremarctos floridanus|T. floridanus]]''), and the lone surviving representative of the Tremarctinae, the South American [[spectacled bear]] (''T. ornatus'').<ref name=Wang2/> Ursids did not diversify as much when colonising South America as they did when colonising the Holarctic, however.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Faurby |first1=Søren |last2=Werdelin |first2=Lars |last3=Antonelli |first3=Alex |date=1 January 2026 |title=Good Colonizers Diversify Faster |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/full/10.1086/738413 |journal=[[The American Naturalist]] |language=en |volume=207 |issue=1 |pages=30–43 |doi=10.1086/738413 |issn=0003-0147 |access-date=14 March 2026 |via=The University of Chicago Press Journals}}</ref><br />
<br />
[[File:Teufelshöhle-Höhlenbär-Dreiviertelprofil.jpg|thumb|Fossil of the [[cave bear]] (''Ursus spelaeus''), a relative of the brown bear and polar bear from the [[Pleistocene]] [[Epoch (geology)|epoch]] in Europe]]<br />
<br />
The subfamily Ursinae experienced a dramatic proliferation of taxa about 5.3–4.5&nbsp;Mya, coincident with major environmental changes; the first members of the genus ''[[Ursus (genus)|Ursus]]'' appeared around this time. The [[sloth bear]] is a modern survivor of one of the earliest lineages to diverge during this radiation event (5.3&nbsp;Mya); it took on its peculiar morphology, related to its diet of termites and ants, no later than by the early Pleistocene. By 3–4&nbsp;Mya, the species ''Ursus minimus'' appears in the fossil record of Europe; apart from its size, it was nearly identical to today's [[Asian black bear]]. It is likely ancestral to all bears within Ursinae, perhaps aside from the sloth bear. Two lineages evolved from ''U.&nbsp;minimus'': the black bears (including the [[sun bear]], the Asian black bear, and the [[American black bear]]); and the brown bears (which includes the [[polar bear]]). Modern [[brown bear]]s evolved from ''U.&nbsp;minimus'' via ''[[Ursus etruscus]]'', which itself is ancestral to the extinct [[Pleistocene]] [[cave bear]].<ref name=krause2008/> Species of Ursinae have migrated repeatedly into North America from Eurasia as early as 4 Mya during the early Pliocene.<ref name="Qiu">{{cite journal |author=Qiu Zhanxiang |year=2003 |title=Dispersals of Neogene Carnivorans between Asia and North America |url=http://digitallibrary.amnh.org/dspace/bitstream/2246/447/25/B279a02.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History |volume=279 |issue=279 |pages=18–31 |doi=10.1206/0003-0090(2003)279<0018:C>2.0.CO;2 |s2cid=88183435 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326201351/http://digitallibrary.amnh.org/dspace/bitstream/2246/447/25/B279a02.pdf |archive-date=26 March 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Ward|Kynaston|1995|pp=74–77}}</ref> The polar bear is the most recently evolved species and descended from a population of brown bears that became isolated in northern latitudes by glaciation 400,000&nbsp;years ago.<ref name="Liu et al 2014">{{cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Shiping |last2=Lorenzen |first2=Eline D. |last3=Fumagalli |first3=Matteo |last4=Li |first4=Bo |last5=Harris |first5=Kelley |last6=Xiong |first6=Zijun |last7=Zhou |first7=Long |last8=Korneliussen |first8=Thorfinn Sand |last9=Somel |first9=Mehmet |last10=Babbitt |first10=Courtney |last11=Wray |first11=Greg |last12=Li |first12=Jianwen |last13=He |first13=Weiming |last14=Wang |first14=Zhuo |last15=Fu |first15=Wenjing |date=2014 |title=Population genomics reveal recent speciation and rapid evolutionary adaptation in Polar Bears |journal=[[Cell (journal)|Cell]] |volume=157 |issue=4 |pages=785–794 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2014.03.054 |pmc=4089990 |pmid=24813606 |last16=Xiang |first16=Xueyan |last17=Morgan |first17=Claire C. |last18=Doherty |first18=Aoife |last19=O'Connell |first19=Mary J. |last20=McInerney |first20=James O. |last21=Born |first21=Erik W. |last22=Dalén |first22=Love |last23=Dietz |first23=Rune |last24=Orlando |first24=Ludovic |last25=Sonne |first25=Christian |last26=Zhang |first26=Guojie |last27=Nielsen |first27=Rasmus |last28=Willerslev |first28=Eske |last29=Wang |first29=Jun}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== External phylogeny ===<br />
<br />
The relationship of the bear family with other carnivorans is shown in the following [[cladogram|phylogenetic tree]], which is based on the [[molecular phylogeny|molecular phylogenetic analysis]] of six genes in Flynn (2005)<ref name="Flynn2005">{{Cite journal |last1=Flynn |first1=J.J. |last2=Finarelli |first2=J.A. |last3=Zehr |first3=S. |last4=Hsu |first4=J. |last5=Nedbal |first5=M.A. |year=2005 |title=Molecular phylogeny of the Carnivora (Mammalia): Assessing the impact of increased sampling on resolving enigmatic relationships |journal=Systematic Biology |volume=54 |issue=2 |pages=317–337 |doi=10.1080/10635150590923326 |pmid=16012099 |doi-access=free}}</ref> with the musteloids updated following the multigene analysis of Law et al. (2018).<ref name="Law-2018">{{cite journal |last1=Law |first1=Chris J. |last2=Slater |first2=Graham J. |last3=Mehta |first3=Rita S. |date=1 January 2018 |title=Lineage Diversity and Size Disparity in Musteloidea: Testing Patterns of Adaptive Radiation Using Molecular and Fossil-Based Methods |journal=Systematic Biology |volume=67 |issue=1 |pages=127–144 |doi=10.1093/sysbio/syx047 |pmid=28472434 |doi-access=free}}</ref><br />
{{clade<br />
|label1=[[Carnivora]]<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|1=[[Feliformia]] [[File:Lydekker - Ocelot (white background).JPG|60px|Ocelot]]<br />
|label2=[[Caniformia]]<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=[[Canidae]] [[File:Dogs, jackals, wolves, and foxes (Plate XI).jpg|60px|African golden wolf]]<br />
|label2=[[Arctoidea]]<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|label1=<br />
|1='''Ursidae''' [[File:Ursus arctos - 1700-1880 - Print - Iconographia Zoologica - Special Collections University of Amsterdam - (white background).jpg|70px|Brown bear]]<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=[[Pinnipedia]] [[File:Faroe stamp 227 grey seal (Phoca vitulina) white background.jpg|60px|Common seal]]<br />
|label2=[[Musteloidea]]<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=[[Mephitidae]] [[File:Die Säugthiere in Abbildungen nach der Natur, mit Beschreibungen (Plate CXXI-) (white background).jpg|50px|Striped skunk]]<br />
|2=[[Ailuridae]] [[File:Ailurus fulgens - 1700-1880 - Print - Iconographia Zoologica - Special Collections University of Amsterdam -(white background).jpg|60px|Red panda]]<br />
|3={{clade<br />
|1=[[Procyonidae]] [[File:Wild animals of North America, intimate studies of big and little creatures of the mammal kingdom (Page 410) (white background).jpg|60 px|Common raccoon]]<br />
|2=[[Mustelidae]] [[File:Mustela eversmanii (white background).png|60px|Steppe polecat]]<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
Note that although they are called "bears" in some languages, [[red panda]]s and [[Procyonidae|raccoons and their close relatives]] are not bears, but rather [[Musteloidea|musteloids]].<ref name=Flynn2005/><br />
<br />
=== Internal phylogeny ===<br />
<br />
{{Phylogeny/Ursidae}}<br />
<br />
===Taxonomy===<br />
<br />
{{further|List of ursids|Ursid hybrid|Subspecies of brown bear}}<br />
<br />
McLellan and colleagues (1992) classified the bears into seven subfamilies: [[Amphicynodontinae]], [[Hemicyoninae]], [[Ursavinae]], [[Agriotheriinae]], [[Ailuropodinae]], [[Tremarctinae]], and [[Ursinae]].<ref name="mcLellanreiner1992">{{cite journal |last1=McLellan |first1=B. |last2=Reiner |first2=D.C. |year=1992 |title=A review of bear evolution |journal=International Association for Bear Research and Management |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=85–96 |doi=10.2307/3872687 |jstor=3872687 |s2cid=91124592}}</ref><ref name="aginsburgi">{{cite journal |author=de&nbsp;Bonis, L. |year=2011 |title=A new species of ''Adelpharctos'' (Mammalia, Carnivora, Ursidae) from the late Oligocene of the "Phosphorites du Quercy" (France) |journal=Estudios Geológicos |volume=67 |issue=2 |pages=179–186 |doi=10.3989/egeol.40553.181 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Cyonarctos">{{Cite journal |author=Louis De Bonis |year=2013 |title=Ursidae (Mammalia, Carnivora) from the Late Oligocene of the "Phosphorites du Quercy" (France) and a reappraisal of the genus ''Cephalogale'' Geoffroy, 1862 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/4538147 |journal=Geodiversitas |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=787–814 |bibcode=2013Geodv..35..787B |doi=10.5252/g2013n4a4 |s2cid=131561629}}</ref><ref name="qiuetal2014">{{cite journal |author=Qiu, Zhan-Xiang |display-authors=etal |date=2014 |title=A Late Miocene ''Ursavus'' skull from Guanghe, Gansu, China |journal=Vertebrata PalAsiatica |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=265–302}}</ref> <br />
McKenna et al. (1997) instead classified the bear species into the superfamily '''Ursoidea''', with Hemicyoninae and Agriotheriinae being classified in the family "Hemicyonidae".<ref name="mckennabell1997">{{cite book |last1=McKenna |first1=M.C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zS7FZkzIw-cC&pg=PA247 |title=Classification of nammals above the species level |last2=Bell |first2=S. |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-231-52853-5 |place=New York}}</ref> Amphicynodontinae under this classification were classified as stem-[[pinnipeds]] in the superfamily [[Pinnipedia|Phocoidea]].<ref name="mckennabell1997"/> In the McKenna and Bell classification, both bears and pinnipeds are in a parvorder of [[carnivora]]n mammals known as [[Ursida]], along with the extinct bear dogs of the family [[Amphicyonidae]].<ref name="mckennabell1997"/><br />
<br />
Wesley-Hunt and Flynn (2005) classify the Ursidae as one of nine families in the suborder [[Caniformia]], or "doglike" carnivorans, within the [[Order (biology)|order]] [[Carnivora]]. Bears' closest living relatives are the [[pinniped]]s, [[Canidae|canids]], and [[musteloidea|musteloid]]s.<ref name="Hunt2005">{{cite journal |last1=Wesley-Hunt |first1=G. D. |last2=Flynn |first2=J. J. |year=2005 |title=Phylogeny of the Carnivora: Basal relationships among the Carnivoramorphans, and assessment of the position of 'Miacoidea' relative to Carnivora |journal=Journal of Systematic Palaeontology |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=1–28 |bibcode=2005JSPal...3....1W |doi=10.1017/S1477201904001518 |s2cid=86755875}}</ref> Modern bears comprise eight species in three subfamilies: [[Ailuropodinae]] (monotypic with the [[giant panda]]), [[Tremarctinae]] (monotypic with the [[spectacled bear]]), and [[Ursinae]] (containing six species divided into one to three genera, depending on the authority). Nuclear chromosome analysis show that the [[karyotype]] of the six ursine bears is nearly identical, each having 74 [[chromosome]]s (''see'' [[Ursid hybrid]]), whereas the giant panda has 42 chromosomes and the spectacled bear 52. These smaller numbers can be explained by the fusing of some chromosomes, and the banding patterns on these match those of the ursine species, but differ from those of procyonids, which supports the inclusion of these two species in Ursidae rather than in [[Procyonidae]], where they had been placed by some earlier authorities.<ref name="Servheen1999" /><br />
<br />
<br />
==Physical characteristics==<br />
===Size===<br />
{{multiple image<br />
| direction = horizontal<br />
| width = 200<br />
| align = right<br />
| image1 = Polar Bear AdF.jpg<br />
| image2 = Sepilok Sabah BSBCC-photos-by-Wong-Siew-Te-06.jpg<br />
| footer = Polar bear (left) and sun bear, the largest and smallest species on average<br />
}}<br />
The bear family includes the most massive extant terrestrial members of the order Carnivora.{{efn|Treating [[pinniped]]s<ref name="Illiger1811">{{Cite book |last=Illiger |first=J. K. W. |url=https://archive.org/stream/caroliilligerida00illi#page/138/mode/2up |title=Prodromus Systematis Mammalium et Avium |publisher=Sumptibus C.&nbsp;Salfeld |year=1811 |pages=138–39 |language=la}}</ref> as [[marine mammal]]s.}} The polar bear is considered to be the largest extant species,<ref>{{Harvnb|Ward|Kynaston|1995|p=61}}</ref> with adult males weighing {{cvt|350|-|700|kg}} and measuring {{cvt|2.4|-|3|m}} in total length.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hemstock |first=Annie |url=https://archive.org/details/polarbear0000hems/page/4 |title=The Polar Bear |publisher=Capstone Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-7368-0031-0 |location=Manakato, MN |page=[https://archive.org/details/polarbear0000hems/page/4 4] |ref=Hemstock}}</ref> The smallest species is the sun bear, which ranges {{cvt|25|–|65|kg}} in weight and {{cvt|100|–|140|cm}} in length.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fitzgerald |first1=C. S. |last2=Krausman |first2=P. S. |year=2002 |title=Helarctos malayanus |journal=Mammalian Species |issue=696 |pages=1–5 |doi=10.1644/1545-1410(2002)696<0001:HM>2.0.CO;2 |s2cid=198969265}}</ref> Prehistoric [[Arctodus|North]] and [[South American short-faced bear]]s were the largest species known to have lived. The latter estimated to have weighed {{cvt|1,600|kg}} and stood {{cvt|3.4|m}} tall.<ref name="Dell'Amore2011">{{citation |last=Dell'Amore |first=C. |title=Biggest Bear Ever Found |date=3 February 2011 |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2011/02/110203-biggest-bear-largest-giant-short-faced-animals-science/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171017130448/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2011/02/110203-biggest-bear-largest-giant-short-faced-animals-science/ |archive-date=17 October 2017 |publisher=[[National Geographic Society|National Geographic]] News}}</ref><ref name="Soibelzon2">{{Cite journal |last1=Soibelzon |first1=L. H. |last2=Schubert |first2=B. W. |date=January 2011 |title=The Largest Known Bear, ''Arctotherium angustidens'', from the Early Pleistocene Pampean Region of Argentina: With a Discussion of Size and Diet Trends in Bears |url=http://jpaleontol.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/abstract/85/1/69 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Paleontology]] |volume=85 |issue=1 |pages=69–75 |doi=10.1666/10-037.1 |hdl=11336/104215 |s2cid=129585554 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110310053427/http://jpaleontol.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/abstract/85/1/69 |archive-date=10 March 2011 |access-date=1 June 2011 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Body weight varies throughout the year in bears of temperate and arctic climates, as they build up fat reserves in the summer and autumn and lose weight during the winter.<ref name="Marshall Cavendish"/><br />
<br />
===Morphology===<br />
<br />
[[File:Bear foot.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.2|Unlike most other [[carnivora]]ns, bears have [[plantigrade]] feet. Drawing by [[Richard Owen]], 1866.]]<br />
<br />
Bears are generally bulky and robust animals with short tails. They are [[sexual dimorphism|sexually dimorphic]] with regard to size, with males typically being larger.<ref name="Derocheretal86">{{cite journal |last1=Derocher |first1=Andrew E. |last2=Andersen |first2=Magnus |last3=Wiig |first3=Øystein |year=2005 |title=Sexual dimorphism of polar bears |journal=Journal of Mammalogy |volume=86 |issue=5 |pages=895–901 |doi=10.1644/1545-1542(2005)86[895:SDOPB]2.0.CO;2 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Hunt98">{{Cite book |author=Hunt, R. M. Jr. |title=Evolution of Tertiary Mammals of North America, volume 1: Terrestrial carnivores, ungulates, and ungulatelike mammals |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-521-35519-3 |editor1=Janis, Christine M. |location=Cambridge, England |pages=174–195 |chapter=Ursidae |editor2=Scott, Kathleen M. |editor3=Jacobs, Louis L.}}</ref> Larger species tend to show increased levels of sexual dimorphism in comparison to smaller species.<ref name=Hunt98/> Relying as they do on strength rather than speed, bears have relatively short limbs with thick bones to support their bulk. The [[Scapula|shoulder blades]] and the [[pelvis]] are correspondingly massive. The limbs are much straighter than those of the [[big cat]]s as there is no need for them to flex in the same way due to the differences in their gait. The strong forelimbs are used to catch prey, excavate dens, dig out burrowing animals, turn over rocks and logs to locate prey, and club large creatures.<ref name="Marshall Cavendish"/><br />
<br />
[[File:Black bear large.jpg|thumb|upright|Despite being [[quadruped]]s, bears can stand and sit as humans do, as demonstrated by this [[American black bear]].]]<br />
<br />
Unlike most other land carnivorans, bears are [[plantigrade]]. They distribute their weight toward the hind feet, which makes them look lumbering when they walk. They are capable of bursts of speed but soon tire, and as a result mostly rely on ambush rather than the chase. Bears can stand on their hind feet and sit up straight with remarkable balance. Their front paws are flexible enough to grasp fruit and leaves. Bears' non-retractable claws are used for digging, climbing, tearing, and catching prey. The claws on the front feet are larger than those on the back and may be a hindrance when climbing trees; black bears are the most arboreal of the bears, and have the shortest claws. Pandas are unique in having a bony extension on the wrist of the front feet which acts as a thumb, and is used for gripping bamboo shoots as the animals feed.<ref name="Marshall Cavendish"/><br />
<br />
Most mammals have [[Agouti (coloration)|agouti]] hair, with each individual hair shaft having bands of color corresponding to two different types of [[melanin]] pigment. Bears however have a single type of melanin and the hairs have a single color throughout their length, apart from the tip which is sometimes a different shade. The coat consists of long guard hairs, which form a protective shaggy covering, and short dense hairs which form an insulating layer trapping air close to the skin. The shaggy coat helps maintain body heat during winter hibernation and is shed in the spring leaving a shorter summer coat. Polar bears have hollow, translucent guard hairs which gain heat from the sun and conduct it to the dark-colored skin below. They have a thick layer of blubber for extra insulation, and the soles of their feet are furry,<ref name="Marshall Cavendish"/> except for the pads.<ref name="Orndorf 2022">{{cite journal |last1=Orndorf |first1=Nathaniel |last2=Garner |first2=Austin M. |last3=Dhinojwala |first3=Ali |title=Polar bear paw pad surface roughness and its relevance to contact mechanics on snow |journal=Journal of The Royal Society Interface |volume=19 |issue=196 |date=2022 |pmid=36321372 |pmc=9627446 |doi=10.1098/rsif.2022.046}}</ref> While bears tend to be uniform in color, some species may have markings on the chest or face and the giant panda has a bold black-and-white pelage.<ref name="Ward124"/><br />
<br />
Bears have small rounded ears so as to minimize heat loss, but neither their hearing nor sight are particularly acute. Unlike many other carnivorans they have [[color vision]], perhaps to help them distinguish ripe nuts and fruits. They are unique among carnivorans in not having touch-sensitive [[whiskers]] on the muzzle; however, they have an excellent [[olfaction|sense of smell]], better than that of the dog, or possibly any other mammal. They use smell for signalling to each other (either to warn off rivals or detect mates) and for finding food. Smell is the principal sense used by bears to locate most of their food, and they have excellent memories which helps them to relocate places where they have found food before.<ref name="Marshall Cavendish"/><br />
<br />
[[File:Ursus arctos 01 MWNH 145 (cropped).JPG|thumb|left|Brown bear skull]]<br />
<br />
The skulls of bears are massive, providing anchorage for the powerful [[Masseter muscle|masseter]] and [[temporal muscle|temporal]] jaw muscles. The [[canine tooth|canine teeth]] are large but mostly used for display, and the [[molar (tooth)|molar]] teeth flat and crushing. Unlike most other members of the Carnivora, bears have relatively undeveloped [[carnassial]] teeth, and their teeth are adapted for a diet that includes a significant amount of vegetable matter.<ref name="Marshall Cavendish">{{cite book |author=Anon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mTPI_d9fyLAC&pg=PA104 |title=Mammal Anatomy: An Illustrated Guide |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-7614-7882-9 |pages=104–123}}</ref> Considerable variation occurs in [[dentition|dental formula]] even within a given species. This may indicate bears are still in the process of evolving from a mainly meat-eating diet to a predominantly herbivorous one. Polar bears appear to have secondarily re-evolved carnassial-like cheek teeth, as their diets have switched back towards carnivory.<ref name="EoM">{{cite book |author=Bunnell, Fred |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofma00mals_0/page/87 |title=The Encyclopedia of Mammals |publisher=Facts on File |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-87196-871-5 |editor=Macdonald, D. |page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofma00mals_0/page/87 87]}}</ref> Sloth bears lack lower central incisors and use their protrusible lips for sucking up the termites on which they feed.<ref name="Marshall Cavendish"/> The general dental formula for living bears is: {{DentalFormula|upper=3.1.2–4.2|lower=3.1.2–4.3}}.<ref name="Marshall Cavendish"/> The structure of the [[larynx]] of bears appears to be the most [[Basal (phylogenetics)|basal]] of the caniforms.<ref name="Ward117"/> They possess air pouches connected to the [[pharynx]] which may [[vocal resonance|amplify]] their vocalizations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Weissengruber |first1=G. E. |last2=Forstenpointner |first2=G. |last3=Kübber-Heiss |first3=A. |last4=Riedelberger |first4=K. |last5=Schwammer |first5=H. |last6=Ganzberger |first6=K. |year=2001 |title=Occurrence and structure of epipharyngeal pouches in bears (Ursidae) |journal=Journal of Anatomy |volume=198 |issue=3 |pages=309–314 |doi=10.1046/j.1469-7580.2001.19830309.x |pmc=1468220 |pmid=11322723}}</ref><br />
<br />
Bears have a fairly simple digestive system typical for carnivorans, with a single stomach, short undifferentiated intestines and no [[cecum]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schwartz |first1=C. C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-xQalfqP7BcC |title=Wild Mammals of North America; biology, management, and conservation |last2=Miller |first2=S. D. |last3=Haroldson |first3=M. A. |date=19 November 2003 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |isbn=978-0-8018-7416-1 |editor-last1=Feldhamer |editor-first1=G. |page=562 |chapter=Grizzly Bear |editor-last2=Thompson |editor-first2=B. |editor-last3=Chapman |editor-first3=J.}}</ref><ref name="nps"/> Even the herbivorous giant panda still has the digestive system of a carnivore, as well as carnivore-specific genes. Its ability to digest [[cellulose]] is ascribed to the microbes in its gut.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ruiqiang Li |last2=Fan |first2=Wei |last3=Tian |first3=Geng |last4=Zhu |first4=Hongmei |last5=He |first5=Lin |last6=Cai |first6=Jing |last7=Huang |first7=Quanfei |last8=Cai |first8=Qingle |last9=Li |first9=Bo |last10=Bai |first10=Yinqi |last11=Zhang |first11=Zhihe |last12=Zhang |first12=Yaping |last13=Wang |first13=Wen |last14=Li |first14=Jun |last15=Wei |first15=Fuwen |year=2010 |title=The sequence and de novo assembly of the giant panda genome |journal=Nature |volume=463 |issue=21 |pages=311–317 |bibcode=2010Natur.463..311L |doi=10.1038/nature08696 |pmc=3951497 |pmid=20010809 |last16=Li |first16=Heng |last17=Jian |first17=Min |last18=Li |first18=Jianwen |last19=Zhang |first19=Zhaolei |last20=Nielsen |first20=Rasmus |last21=Li |first21=Dawei |last22=Gu |first22=Wanjun |last23=Yang |first23=Zhentao |last24=Xuan |first24=Zhaoling |last25=Ryder |first25=Oliver A. |last26=Leung |first26=Frederick Chi-Ching |last27=Zhou |first27=Yan |last28=Cao |first28=Jianjun |last29=Sun |first29=Xiao |last30=Fu |first30=Yonggui |display-authors=1 }}</ref> Bears must spend much of their time feeding in order to gain enough nutrition from foliage. The panda, in particular, spends 12–15 hours a day feeding.<ref name="Ward83"/><br />
<br />
==Distribution and habitat==<br />
<br />
{{Further|List of carnivorans by population}}<br />
<br />
[[File:Bear distribution map.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|Bear distribution map]]<br />
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Extant bears are found in sixty countries primarily in the Northern Hemisphere and are concentrated in Asia, North America, and Europe. An exception is the [[spectacled bear]]; native to South America, it inhabits the [[Andes|Andean region]].<ref name="ServheenForeword"/> The [[sun bear]]'s range extends below the equator in Southeast Asia.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ward|Kynaston|1995|p=52}}</ref> The [[Atlas bear]], a subspecies of the brown bear was distributed in North Africa from Morocco to Libya, but it became extinct around the 1870s.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hamdine |first1=Watik |last2=Thévenot |first2=Michel |last3=Michaux |first3=Jacques |year=1998 |title=Histoire récente de l'ours brun au Maghreb |journal=Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences |language=fr |volume=321 |issue=7 |pages=565–570 |bibcode=1998CRASG.321..565H |doi=10.1016/S0764-4469(98)80458-7 |pmid=10877599}}</ref><br />
<br />
The most widespread species is the [[brown bear]], which occurs from Western Europe eastwards through Asia to the western areas of North America (where the local subspecies is the [[grizzly bear]]).<ref name="ServheenForeword"/> The [[American black bear]] is restricted to North America, and the [[polar bear]] is restricted to the Arctic Ocean. All the remaining species of bear are Asian.<ref name="ServheenForeword">{{cite book |last1=Servheen |first1=C. |last2=Herrero |first2=S. |last3=Peyton |first3=B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XXQ03uVmCAIC&pg=PR5 |title=Bears: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan |publisher=IUCN |year=1999 |isbn=978-2-8317-0462-3 |pages=5–10 |quote=They are opportunistic omnivores whose diet varies from plant foliage, roots, and fruits; insect adults, larvae, and eggs; animal matter from carrion; animal matter from predation; and fish. Their dentition and digestive system reflects this varied diet.}}</ref> They occur in a range of habitats which include tropical lowland rainforest, both coniferous and broadleaf forests, prairies, steppes, montane grassland, alpine scree slopes, Arctic tundra and in the case of the polar bear, [[Drift ice|ice floes]].<ref name="ServheenForeword"/><ref name=Walker/> Bears may dig their dens in hillsides or use caves, hollow logs and dense vegetation for shelter.<ref name=Walker/><br />
<br />
==Behavior and ecology==<br />
[[File:Bear tracks (5062843250).jpg|thumb|right|[[American black bear]] tracks at [[Superior National Forest]], [[Minnesota]], U.S.]]<br />
<br />
Brown and American black bears are generally [[diurnality|diurnal]], meaning that they are active for the most part during the day, though they may forage substantially by night.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Klinka |first1=D. R. |last2=Reimchen |first2=T. E. |date=2002 |title=Nocturnal and diurnal foraging behaviour of brown bears ( Ursus arctos ) on a salmon stream in coastal British Columbia |url=http://web.uvic.ca/~reimlab/noctdibrbear.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology |volume=80 |issue=8 |pages=1317–1322 |bibcode=2002CaJZ...80.1317K |doi=10.1139/Z02-123 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170812163506/http://web.uvic.ca/~reimlab/noctdibrbear.pdf |archive-date=12 August 2017 |access-date=7 January 2017}}</ref> Other species may be [[nocturnal]], active at night, though female sloth bears with cubs may feed more at daytime to avoid competition from conspecifics and nocturnal predators.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ward|Kynaston|1995|p=99}}</ref> Bears are overwhelmingly solitary and are considered to be the most asocial of all the Carnivora. The only times bears are encountered in groups are mothers with young or occasional seasonal bounties of rich food (such as salmon runs).<ref>{{cite book |author=Sandell, M. |title=Carnivore behavior, ecology, and evolution |publisher=Springer |year=1989 |isbn=978-1-4613-0855-3 |pages=164–182 |chapter=The mating tactics and spacing patterns of solitary carnivores |doi=10.1007/978-1-4613-0855-3_7}}</ref><ref name="Stonorov"/> Fights between males can occur and older individuals may have extensive scarring, which suggests that maintaining dominance can be intense.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ward|Kynaston|1995|p=130}}</ref> With their acute sense of smell, bears can locate carcasses from several kilometres away. They use [[olfaction]] to locate other foods, encounter mates, avoid rivals and recognize their cubs.<ref name="Marshall Cavendish"/><br />
<br />
===Feeding===<br />
[[File:Giant Panda Tai Shan.JPG|thumb|left|[[Giant panda]] feeding on [[bamboo]] at [[Smithsonian National Zoological Park]], [[Washington, D. C.]] This species is almost entirely [[herbivorous]].]]<br />
<br />
Most bears are opportunistic [[omnivore]]s and consume more plant than animal matter, and appear to have evolved from an ancestor which was a low-protein macronutrient omnivore.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Robbins |first1=Charles T. |last2=Christian |first2=Amelia L. |last3=Vineyard |first3=Travis G. |last4=Thompson |first4=Debbie |last5=Knott |first5=Katrina K. |last6=Tollefson |first6=Troy N. |last7=Fidgett |first7=Andrea L. |last8=Wickersham |first8=Tryon A. |year=2022 |title=Ursids evolved early and continuously to be low-protein macronutrient omnivores |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=12 |issue=1 |page=15251 |bibcode=2022NatSR..1215251R |doi=10.1038/s41598-022-19742-z |pmc=9463165 |pmid=36085304}}</ref> They eat anything from leaves, roots, and berries to insects, carrion, fresh meat, and fish, and have digestive systems and teeth adapted to such a diet.<ref name="ServheenForeword"/> At the extremes are the almost entirely herbivorous giant panda and the mostly carnivorous polar bear. However, all bears feed on any food source that becomes seasonally available.<ref name="Ward83">{{Harvnb|Ward|Kynaston|1995|p=83}}</ref> For example, Asiatic black bears in [[Taiwan]] consume large numbers of acorns when these are most common, and switch to [[ungulate]]s at other times of the year.<ref name="asiablackdiet">{{cite journal |last=Hwang |first=Mei-Hsiu |year=2002 |title=Diets of Asiatic black bears in Taiwan, with Methodological and Geographical Comparisons |url=http://www.bearbiology.com/fileadmin/tpl/Downloads/URSUS/Vol_13/Hwang_13.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ursus |volume=13 |pages=111–125 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723060824/http://www.bearbiology.com/fileadmin/tpl/Downloads/URSUS/Vol_13/Hwang_13.pdf |archive-date=23 July 2013 |access-date=22 December 2012}}</ref><br />
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When foraging for plants, bears choose to eat them at the stage when they are at their most nutritious and digestible, typically avoiding older grasses, sedges and leaves.<ref name="nps">{{cite web |title=Food Habits of Grizzly Bears and Black Bears in the Yellowstone Ecosystem |url=https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/nature/bearfoods.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170128071843/https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/nature/bearfoods.htm |archive-date=28 January 2017 |access-date=18 January 2017 |publisher=National Park Service}}</ref><ref name="Ward83"/> Hence, in more northern temperate areas, browsing and grazing is more common early in spring and later becomes more restricted.<ref name="Mattson"/> Knowing when plants are ripe for eating is a learned behavior.<ref name="Ward83"/> Berries may be foraged in bushes or at the tops of trees, and bears try to maximize the number of berries consumed versus foliage.<ref name="Mattson"/> In autumn, some bear species forage large amounts of naturally [[fermentation|fermented]] fruits, which affects their behavior.<ref name="Rue1981">{{cite book |author=Rue, Leonard Lee |url=https://archive.org/details/furbearinganimal0000ruel |title=Furbearing Animals of North America |publisher=Crown Publishers |year=1981 |isbn=978-0-517-53942-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/furbearinganimal0000ruel/page/129 129] |url-access=registration}}</ref> Smaller bears climb trees to obtain [[mast (botany)|mast]] (edible reproductive parts, such as acorns).<ref name="diet">{{cite journal |last=Mattson |first=David J. |year=1998 |title=Diet and Morphology of Extant and Recently Extinct Northern Bears |journal=Ursus |volume=10 |pages=479–496 |jstor=3873160}}</ref> Such masts can be very important to the diets of these species, and mast failures may result in long-range movements by bears looking for alternative food sources.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ryan |first1=Christopher |last2=Pack |first2=James C. |last3=Igo |first3=William K. |last4=Billings |first4=Anthony |year=2007 |title=Influence of mast production on black bear non-hunting mortalities in West Virginia |journal=Ursus |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=46–53 |doi=10.2192/1537-6176(2007)18[46:IOMPOB]2.0.CO;2 |s2cid=59040812}}</ref> Brown bears, with their powerful digging abilities, commonly eat roots.<ref name="Mattson"/> The panda's diet is over 99% bamboo,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lumpkin |first1=Susan |url=https://archive.org/details/giantpandas0000seid/page/63 |title=Giant Pandas |last2=Seidensticker |first2=John |publisher=Collins |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-06-120578-1 |page=[https://archive.org/details/giantpandas0000seid/page/63 63]}}</ref> of 30 different species. Its strong jaws are adapted for crushing the tough stems of these plants, though they prefer to eat the more nutritious leaves.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ward|Kynaston|1995|pp=89–92}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Dolberg |first=Frands |date=1 August 1992 |title=Progress in the utilization of urea-ammonia treated crop residues: biological and socio-economic aspects of animal production and application of the technology on small farms |url=http://lrrd.cipav.org.co/lrrd4/2/dolberg.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707053325/http://lrrd.cipav.org.co/lrrd4/2/dolberg.htm |archive-date=7 July 2011 |access-date=10 August 2010 |publisher=University of Arhus}}</ref> [[Bromeliad]]s can make up to 50% of the diet of the spectacled bear, which also has strong jaws to bite them open.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ward|Kynaston|1995|p=87}}</ref><br />
<br />
[[File:Polar bear (Ursus maritimus) with its prey.jpg|thumb|right|Polar bear feeding on a seal on an ice floe north of [[Svalbard]], Norway. It is the most carnivorous species.]]<br />
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The sloth bear is not as specialized as polar bears and the panda, has lost several front teeth usually seen in bears, and developed a long, suctioning tongue to feed on the ants, termites, and other burrowing insects. At certain times of the year, these insects can make up 90% of their diets.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Joshi |first1=Anup |last2=Garshelis |first2=David L. |last3=Smith |first3=James L. D. |year=1997 |title=Seasonal and Habitat-Related Diets of Sloth Bears in Nepal |journal=Journal of Mammalogy |volume=1978 |issue=2 |pages=584–597 |bibcode=1997JMamm..78..584J |doi=10.2307/1382910 |jstor=1382910 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Some individuals become addicted to sweets in garbage inside towns where tourism-related waste is generated throughout the year.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Prajapati |first1=Utkarsh |last2=Koli |first2=Vijay K. |last3=Sundar |first3=K.S. Gopi |date=2021 |title=Vulnerable sloth bears are attracted to human food waste: a novel situation in Mount Abu town, India |journal=Oryx |volume=55 |issue=5 |pages=699–707 |doi=10.1017/S0030605320000216 |s2cid=233677898 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Some species may raid the nests of [[wasp]]s and bees for the honey and immature insects, in spite of stinging from the adults.<ref>{{cite web |title=What do bears like to eat in a beehive? |url=https://www.bear.org/website/bear-pages/black-bear/foraging-a-foods/206-what-do-bears-like-to-eat-in-a-beehive.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170406110920/https://www.bear.org/website/bear-pages/black-bear/foraging-a-foods/206-what-do-bears-like-to-eat-in-a-beehive.html |archive-date=6 April 2017 |access-date=5 April 2017 |publisher=North American Bear Center}}</ref> Sun bears use their long tongues to lick up both insects and honey.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ward|Kynaston|1995|p=89}}</ref> Fish are an important source of food for some species, and brown bears in particular gather in large numbers at [[salmon run]]s. Typically, a bear plunges into the water and seizes a fish with its jaws or front paws. The preferred parts to eat are the brain and eggs. Small burrowing mammals like [[rodent]]s may be dug out and eaten.<ref name="Ward193"/><ref name="Mattson"/><br />
<br />
The brown/grizzly bear and both species of black bears sometimes take large ungulates, such as deer and [[bovid]]s, mostly the young and weak.<ref name="asiablackdiet"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zager |first1=Peter |last2=Beecham |first2=John |year=2006 |title=The role of American black bears and brown bears as predators on ungulates in North America |journal=Ursus |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=95–108 |doi=10.2192/1537-6176(2006)17[95:TROABB]2.0.CO;2 |s2cid=85857613}}</ref><ref name="Ward193">{{Harvnb|Ward|Kynaston|1995|pp=93–98}}</ref> These animals may be taken by a short rush and ambush, though hiding young may be sniffed out and pounced on.<ref name="Mattson">{{cite web |author=Mattson, David |title=Foraging Behavior of North American Bears |url=http://sbsc.wr.usgs.gov/cprs/research/projects/grizzly/pdf/FORAGINGBEHAVIOROFNORTHAMERICANBEARS.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070711074612/http://sbsc.wr.usgs.gov/cprs/research/projects/grizzly/pdf/FORAGINGBEHAVIOROFNORTHAMERICANBEARS.pdf |archive-date=11 July 2007 |publisher=Southwest Biological Science Center}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Animal Protein |url=https://www.bear.org/website/bear-pages/black-bear/foraging-a-foods/84-animal-protein.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170323142720/https://www.bear.org/website/bear-pages/black-bear/foraging-a-foods/84-animal-protein.html |archive-date=23 March 2017 |access-date=22 March 2017 |publisher=North American bear Center}}</ref> The polar bear mainly preys on seals, stalking them from the ice or breaking into their dens. They primarily eat the highly digestible blubber.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ward|Kynaston|1995|p=92}}</ref><ref name="Ward193"/> Large mammalian prey is typically killed with raw strength, including bites and paw swipes, and bears do not display the specialized killing methods of felids and canids.<ref name="Sacco2004">{{cite journal |last1=Sacco |first1=T |last2=Van Valkenburgh |first2=B |year=2004 |title=Ecomorphological indicators of feeding behaviour in the bears (Carnivora: Ursidae) |journal=Journal of Zoology |volume=263 |issue=1 |pages=41–54 |doi=10.1017/S0952836904004856}}</ref> Predatory behavior in bears is typically taught to the young by the mother.<ref name="Ward193"/><br />
<br />
Bears are prolific [[scavenger]]s and [[kleptoparasite]]s, stealing food caches from rodents, and carcasses from other predators.<ref name="nps"/><ref>{{cite web |author=COSEWIC. Canadian Wildlife Service |year=2002 |title=Assessment and Update Status Report on the Grizzly Bear (''Ursus arctos'') |url=http://dsp-psd.pwgsc.gc.ca/Collection/CW69-14-166-2002E.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://dsp-psd.pwgsc.gc.ca/Collection/CW69-14-166-2002E.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |access-date=8 April 2007 |publisher=[[Environment Canada]]}}</ref> For hibernating species, weight gain is important as it provides nourishment during winter dormancy. A brown bear can eat {{cvt|41|kg}} of food and gain {{cvt|2|–|3|kg}} of fat a day prior to entering its den.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ward|Kynaston|1995|p=104}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Communication===<br />
[[File:Ursus thibetanus 01.JPG|thumb|left|[[Captive animal|Captive]] [[Asian black bear]]s during an aggressive encounter]]<br />
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Bears produce a number of vocal and non-vocal sounds. Tongue-clicking, grunting or chuffing may be made in cordial situations, such as between mothers and cubs or courting couples, while moaning, huffing, snorting or blowing air is made when an individual is stressed. Barking is produced during times of alarm, excitement or to give away the animal's position. Warning sounds include jaw-clicking and lip-popping, while teeth-chatters, bellows, growls, roars and pulsing sounds are made in aggressive encounters. Cubs may squeal, bawl, bleat or scream when in distress and make motor-like humming when comfortable or nursing.<ref name="Ward117">{{Harvnb|Ward|Kynaston|1995|pp=117–121}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Naughton, D. |title=The Natural History of Canadian Mammals: Opossums and Carnivores |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-4426-4483-0 |pages=218–219, 236, 251–252}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Vocalizations and Body Language |url=https://www.bear.org/website/bear-pages/black-bear/communication/29-vocalizations-a-body-language.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161223132123/https://www.bear.org/website/bear-pages/black-bear/communication/29-vocalizations-a-body-language.html |archive-date=23 December 2016 |access-date=7 January 2017 |publisher=North American Bear Center}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Masterson, Linda |title=Living With Bears Handbook: Expanded 2nd Edition |publisher=PixyJack Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-936555-61-1 |pages=215–16}}</ref><ref name="Petersetal2007">{{cite journal |last1=Peters |first1=G. |last2=Owen |first2=M. |last3=Rogers |first3=L. |year=2007 |title=Humming in bears: a peculiar sustained mammalian vocalization |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227146528 |url-status=live |journal=Acta Theriologica |volume=52 |issue=4 |pages=379–389 |doi=10.1007/BF03194236 |s2cid=24886480 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203154521/http://www.researchgate.net/publication/227146528_Humming_in_bears_a_peculiar_sustained_mammalian_vocalization/file/3deec5187efc99c3fc.pdf |archive-date=3 February 2014 |access-date=8 September 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Laurie |first1=A. |last2=Seidensticker |first2=J. |year=1977 |title=Behavioural ecology of the Sloth bear (''Melursus ursinus'') |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229976355 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Zoology |volume=182 |issue=2 |pages=187–204 |bibcode=1977JZoo..182..187L |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1977.tb04155.x |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170327170117/https://www.researchgate.net/profile/John_Seidensticker/publication/229976355_Behavioural_ecology_of_the_Sloth_bear_Melursus_ursinus/links/53db8a9e0cf2a76fb667a2d1.pdf |archive-date=27 March 2017 |access-date=26 March 2017}}</ref><br />
<br />
[[File:Standing Sloth Bear.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Sloth bear]] rubbing against a tree at [[Nagarhole Tiger Reserve]], India]]<br />
<br />
Bears sometimes communicate with visual displays such as standing upright, which exaggerates the individual's size. The chest markings of some species may add to this intimidating display. Staring is an aggressive act and the facial markings of spectacled bears and giant pandas may help draw attention to the eyes during [[Agonistic behavior|agonistic]] encounters.<ref name="Ward124">{{Harvnb|Ward|Kynaston|1995|pp=124–125}}</ref> Individuals may approach each other by stiff-legged walking with the head lowered. Dominance between bears is asserted by making a frontal orientation, showing the [[canine teeth]], muzzle twisting and neck stretching. A subordinate may respond with a lateral orientation, by turning away and dropping the head and by sitting or lying down.<ref name="Stonorov">{{cite journal |last1=Stonorov |first1=D. |last2=Stokes |first2=A. W. |year=1972 |title=Social behavior of the Alaska brown bear |url=http://www.bearbiology.com/fileadmin/tpl/Downloads/URSUS/Vol_2/Stonorov_Stokes.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Bears: Their Biology and Management |volume=2 |pages=232–242 |doi=10.2307/3872587 |jstor=3872587 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130722184419/http://www.bearbiology.com/fileadmin/tpl/Downloads/URSUS/Vol_2/Stonorov_Stokes.pdf |archive-date=22 July 2013 |access-date=11 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Jordan, R. H. |year=1976 |title=Threat behavior of the black bear (''Ursus americanus'') |journal=Bears: Their Biology and Management |volume=40 |pages=57–63 |doi=10.2307/3872754 |jstor=3872754 |s2cid=89660730}}</ref><br />
<br />
Bears also communicate with their scent by urinating on<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Elbroch |first1=Mark |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NGHgFgtJDQYC&dq=urine+rubbing&pg=PA194 |title=Field Guide to Animal Tracks and Scat of California |last2=Kresky |first2=Michael |last3=Evans |first3=Jonah Wy |date=11 February 2012 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-25378-0 |language=en}}</ref> or rubbing against trees and other objects.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Clapham |first1=M |last2=Nevin |first2=O. T. |last3=Ramsey |first3=A. D. |last4=Rossell |first4=F |year=2014 |title=Scent-marking investment and motor patterns are affected by the age and sex of wild brown bears |journal=Animal Behaviour |volume=94 |pages=107–116 |bibcode=2014AnBeh..94..107C |doi=10.1016/j.anbehav.2014.05.017 |s2cid=54371123}}</ref> This is usually accompanied by clawing and biting the object. Bark may be spread around to draw attention to the marking post.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ward|Kynaston|1995|p=122}}</ref> Pandas establish territories by marking objects with urine and a waxy substance from their anal glands.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nie |first1=Y. |last2=Swaisgood |first2=R. R. |last3=Zhang |first3=Z. |last4=Hu |first4=Y. |last5=Ma |first5=Y. |last6=Wei |first6=F. |year=2012 |title=Giant panda scent-marking strategies in the wild: role of season, sex and marking surface |journal=Animal Behaviour |volume=84 |issue=1 |pages=39–44 |bibcode=2012AnBeh..84...39N |doi=10.1016/j.anbehav.2012.03.026 |s2cid=53256022}}</ref> Polar bears leave behind their scent in their tracks which allow individuals to keep track of one another in the vast Arctic wilderness.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Owen |first1=M. A. |last2=Swaisgood |first2=R. R. |last3=Slocomb |first3=C. |last4=Amstrup |first4=S. C. |last5=Durner |first5=G. M. |last6=Simac |first6=K. |last7=Pessier |first7=A. P. |year=2014 |title=An experimental investigation of chemical communication in the polar bear |journal=Journal of Zoology |volume=295 |issue=1 |pages=36–43 |doi=10.1111/jzo.12181}}</ref><br />
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===Reproduction and development{{anchor|Breeding}}===<br />
{{Redirect|Bear cub|the 2004 film|Bear Cub}}<br />
[[File:Black Bears mating.jpg|thumb|left|American black bears mating at the [[North American Bear Center]]]]<br />
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The mating system of bears has variously been described as a form of [[Polygyny in animals|polygyny]], [[Promiscuity#Other animals|promiscuity]] and [[serial monogamy]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Eide |first1=S. |last2=Miller |first2=S. |title=Brown Bear |url=https://www.adfg.alaska.gov/static/education/wns/brown_bear.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130303124834/http://www.adfg.alaska.gov/static/education/wns/brown_bear.pdf |archive-date=3 March 2013 |access-date=14 January 2016 |publisher=Alaska Department of Fish and Game}}</ref><ref name="Ward138">{{Harvnb|Ward|Kynaston|1995|pp=138–141}}</ref><ref name="mammalian">{{cite journal |author=Lariviere, S. |year=2001 |title=Ursus americanus |url=http://www.science.smith.edu/msi/pdf/647_Ursus_americanus.pdf |journal=Mammalian Species |issue=647 |pages=1–11 |doi=10.1644/1545-1410(2001)647<0001:ua>2.0.co;2 |s2cid=198968922 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316025524/http://www.science.smith.edu/msi/pdf/647_Ursus_americanus.pdf |archive-date=16 March 2016}}</ref> During the breeding season, males take notice of females in their vicinity and females become more tolerant of males. A male bear may visit a female continuously over a period of several days or weeks, depending on the species, to test her reproductive state. During this time period, males try to prevent rivals from interacting with their mate. Courtship may be brief, although in some Asian species, courting pairs may engage in wrestling, hugging, mock fighting and vocalizing. [[Induced ovulation (animals)|Ovulation is induced by mating]], which can last up to 30 minutes depending on the species.<ref name="Ward138"/><br />
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[[File:Cub polar bear is nursing 2.OGG|thumb|[[Polar bear]] mother nursing her cub]]<br />
[[Gestation]] typically lasts six to nine months, including [[delayed implantation]], and litter size numbers up to four cubs.<ref name="Ward144">{{Harvnb|Ward|Kynaston|1995|pp=144–148}}</ref> Giant pandas may give birth to twins but they can only suckle one young and the other is left to die.<ref name="Panda Facts">{{cite web |title=Panda Facts |url=http://www.pandasinternational.org/wptemp/education-2/panda-facts/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924063658/http://www.pandasinternational.org/wptemp/education-2/panda-facts/ |archive-date=24 September 2015 |access-date=26 August 2015 |publisher=Pandas International}}</ref> In northern living species, birth takes place during winter dormancy. Cubs are born blind and helpless with at most a thin layer of hair, relying on their mother for warmth. The milk of the female bear is rich in fat and antibodies and cubs may suckle for up to a year after they are born. By two to three months, cubs can follow their mother outside the den. They usually follow her on foot, but sloth bear cubs may ride on their mother's back.<ref name="Ward144"/><ref name="Walker">{{cite book |author=Nowak, R. M. |url=https://archive.org/details/walkerscarnivore0000nowa/page/114 |title=Walker's Carnivores of the World |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-8018-8032-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/walkerscarnivore0000nowa/page/114 114]}}</ref> Male bears play no role in raising young. [[Infanticide (zoology)|Infanticide]], where an adult male kills the cubs of another, has been recorded in polar bears, brown bears and American black bears but not in other species.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ward|Kynaston|1995|p=132}}</ref> Males kill young to bring the female into [[estrus]].<ref name="Bellemain">{{cite journal |last1=Bellemain |first1=Eva |last2=Swenson |first2=Jon E. |last3=Taberlet |first3=Pierre |year=2006 |title=Mating Strategies in Relation to Sexually Selected Infanticide in a Non-Social Carnivore: The Brown Bear |url=http://bearproject.info/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/2006-A060-Bellemain-Mating-Strategies-in-relation-to-SSI.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ethology |volume=112 |issue=3 |pages=238–246 |bibcode=2006Ethol.112..238B |doi=10.1111/j.1439-0310.2006.01152.x |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221015155/http://bearproject.info/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/2006-A060-Bellemain-Mating-Strategies-in-relation-to-SSI.pdf |archive-date=21 December 2016 |access-date=2 May 2017}}</ref> Cubs may flee and the mother defends them even at the cost of her life.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bellemain |first1=E. |last2=Zedrosser |first2=A. |last3=Manel |first3=S. |last4=Waits |first4=L. P. |last5=Taberlet |first5=P. |last6=Swenson |first6=J. E. |year=2005 |title=The dilemma of female mate selection in the brown bear, a species with sexually selected infanticide |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences |volume=273 |issue=1584 |pages=283–291 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2005.3331 |pmc=1560043 |pmid=16543170}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Swenson |first1=J. E. |last2=Dahle |first2=B. |last3=Sandegren |first3=F. |year=2001 |title=Intraspecific predation in Scandinavian brown bears older than cubs-of-the-year |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237374836 |url-status=live |journal=Ursus |volume=12 |pages=81–91 |jstor=3873233 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171116185901/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237374836_Intraspecific_predation_in_Scandinavian_brown_bears_older_than_cubs-of-year |archive-date=16 November 2017 |access-date=14 January 2017}}</ref><ref name="Mörner">{{cite journal |last1=Mörner |first1=T. |last2=Eriksson |first2=H. |last3=Bröjer |first3=C. |last4=Nilsson |first4=K. |last5=Uhlhorn |first5=H. |last6=E. |last7=af Segerstad |first7=C.H. |last8=Jansson |first8=D.S. |last9=Gavier-Widén |first9=D. |year=2005 |title=Diseases and mortality in free-ranging brown bear (''Ursus arctos''), gray wolf (''Canis lupus''), and wolverine (''Gulo gulo'') in Sweden |journal=Journal of Wildlife Diseases |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=298–303 |doi=10.7589/0090-3558-41.2.298 |pmid=16107663 |doi-access=free}}</ref><br />
<br />
In some species, offspring may become independent around the next spring, though some may stay until the female successfully mates again. Bears reach [[sexual maturity]] shortly after they disperse; at around three to six years depending on the species. Male Alaskan brown bears and polar bears may continue to grow until they are 11 years old.<ref name="Ward144"/> Lifespan may also vary between species. The brown bear can live an average of 25 years.<ref>{{cite web |date=10 September 2010 |title=Grizzly Bear |url=http://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/g/grizzly-bear/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170421214527/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/g/grizzly-bear/ |archive-date=21 April 2017 |access-date=29 April 2017 |publisher=National Geographic.com}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Hibernation{{anchor|Winter_dormancy}}===<br />
{{main|Hibernation}}<br />
<br />
Bears of northern regions, including the [[American black bear#Hibernation|American black bear]] and the much larger [[Grizzly bear#Hibernation|grizzly bear]], hibernate in the winter.<ref name="Science2011">{{cite journal |author=Gerhard Heldmeier |year=2011 |title=Life on low flame in hibernation |journal=Science |volume=331 |issue=6019 |pages=866–867 |bibcode=2011Sci...331..866H |doi=10.1126/science.1203192 |pmid=21330523 |s2cid=31514297}}</ref><ref name="Shimozuru2013">{{cite journal |author=Shimozuru, M. |display-authors=etal |year=2013 |title=Pregnancy during hibernation in Japanese black bears: effects on body temperature and blood biochemical profiles |journal=Journal of Mammalogy |volume=94 |issue=3 |pages=618–627 |doi=10.1644/12-MAMM-A-246.1 |s2cid=86174817 |doi-access=free}}</ref> During hibernation, the bear's metabolism slows down, its body temperature decreases by {{convert|4|-|7|C-change}},<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Perry |first1=Blair W. |last2=Jansen |first2=Heiko T. |last3=Enstrom |first3=Alexis N. |last4=Kelley |first4=Joanna L. |date=25 November 2025 |title=Genomic Insights into Bear Hibernation |journal=Annual Review of Genetics |language=en |volume=59 |issue=<!--none--> |pages=147–164 |doi=10.1146/annurev-genet-011725-092458 |pmid=40614081 |issn=0066-4197|doi-access=free }}</ref> and its heart rate slows from a normal value of 55 to as low as 9 beats per minute.<ref name="Toien2011">{{cite journal |author=Tøien, Ø. |display-authors=etal |year=2011 |title=Hibernation in Black Bears: Independence of Metabolic Suppression from Body Temperature |journal=Science |volume=331 |issue=6019 |pages=906–909 |bibcode=2011Sci...331..906T |doi=10.1126/science.1199435 |pmid=21330544 |s2cid=20829847}}</ref> In order for their heart rate to slow down to this level during hibernation, a protein found in striated muscle, like the heart, called myosin must enter a super-relaxed state. In the super-relaxed state, the consumption of ATP is kept very low, allowing the bear to make it through the winter without losing all of its energy due to the basic functions such as pumping blood through the body.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Van der Pijl |first1=Robbert J. |last2=Ma |first2=Weikang |last3=Lewis |first3=Christopher T. A. |last4=Haar |first4=Line |last5=Buhl |first5=Amalie |last6=Farman |first6=Gerrie P. |last7=Rhodehamel |first7=Marcus |last8=Jani |first8=Vivek P. |last9=Nelson |first9=O Lynne |last10=Zhang |first10=Chengxin |last11=Granzier |first11=Henk |last12=Ochala |first12=Julien |date=1 February 2025 |title=Increased cardiac myosin super-relaxation as an energy saving mechanism in hibernating grizzly bears |journal=Molecular Metabolism |volume=92 |doi=10.1016/j.molmet.2024.102084 |issn=2212-8778 |pmc=11732570 |pmid=39694092 |article-number=102084}}</ref> Bears normally do not wake during their hibernation, and can go the entire period without eating, drinking, urinating, or defecating.<ref name="Marshall Cavendish"/> A [[fecal plug]] is formed in the colon, and is expelled when the bear wakes in the spring.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Biel |first1=M |last2=Gunther |first2=K |title=Denning and Hibernation Behavior |url=https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/nature/denning.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161118101716/https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/nature/denning.htm |archive-date=18 November 2016 |access-date=18 November 2016 |website=Yellowstone National Park |publisher=National Park Service}}</ref> If they have stored enough body fat, their muscles remain in good condition, and their protein maintenance requirements are met from recycling waste [[urea]].<ref name="Marshall Cavendish"/> While larger bears have a larger supply of body fat to keep them alive through hibernation, researchers found that smaller bears were able to hibernate longer than their larger counterparts due to them being able to sustain a lower body temperature, which translates to less energy being spent on keeping their bodies warm.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Evans |first1=Alina L. |last2=Fuchs |first2=Boris |last3=Singh |first3=Navinder J. |last4=Thiel |first4=Alexandra |last5=Giroud |first5=Sylvain |last6=Blanc |first6=Stephane |last7=Laske |first7=Timothy G. |last8=Frobert |first8=Ole |last9=Friebe |first9=Andrea |last10=Swenson |first10=Jon E. |last11=Arnemo |first11=Jon M. |date=17 August 2023 |title=Body mass is associated with hibernation length, body temperature, and heart rate in free-ranging brown bears |journal=Frontiers in Zoology |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=27 |doi=10.1186/s12983-023-00501-3 |issn=1742-9994 |pmc=10433566 |pmid=37587452 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Female bears give birth during the hibernation period, and are roused when doing so.<ref name="Shimozuru2013"/><br />
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===Mortality===<br />
[[File:Björnjakt i Dalarna - Nordiska Museet - NMA.0052736.jpg|thumb|right|Hunters with shot bear, Sweden, early 20th century. This photograph is in the [[Nordic Museum]].]]<br />
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Bears do not have many predators. The most important are humans, and as they started cultivating crops, they increasingly came in conflict with the bears that raided them. Since the invention of firearms, people have been able to kill bears with greater ease.<ref>{{cite journal |author=McTaggart Cowan, I. |year=1972 |title=The Status and Conservation of Bears (Ursidae) of the World: 1970 |journal=Bears: Their Biology and Management |volume=2 |pages=343–367 |citeseerx=10.1.1.483.1402 |doi=10.2307/3872596 |jstor=3872596}}</ref> [[Felid]]s like the tiger may also prey on bears,<ref name="Seryodkin_PhD">{{cite book |author=Seryodkin, Ivan |url=http://uml.wl.dvgu.ru/rscv.php?id=74 |title=The ecology, behavior, management and conservation status of brown bears in Sikhote-Alin |publisher=Far Eastern National University, Vladivostok, Russia |year=2006 |pages=1–252 |language=ru |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224090426/http://uml.wl.dvgu.ru/rscv.php?id=74 |archive-date=24 December 2013}}</ref><ref name="Denning">{{cite journal |author=Seryodkin |display-authors=etal |year=2003 |title=Denning ecology of brown bears and Asiatic black bears in the Russian Far East |url=http://www.wcsrussia.org/DesktopModules/Bring2mind/DMX/Download.aspx?EntryId=3313&PortalId=32&DownloadMethod=attachment |url-status=live |journal=Ursus |volume=14 |issue=2 |page=159 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110817151324/http://www.wcsrussia.org/DesktopModules/Bring2mind/DMX/Download.aspx?EntryId=3313&PortalId=32&DownloadMethod=attachment |archive-date=17 August 2011 |access-date=5 October 2014}}</ref> particularly cubs, which may also be threatened by canids.<ref name=Servheen1999/><ref name=mammalian/><br />
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Bears are parasitized by eighty species of parasites, including single-celled protozoans and gastro-intestinal worms, and nematodes and flukes in their heart, liver, lungs and bloodstream. Externally, they have ticks, fleas and lice. A study of American black bears found seventeen species of endoparasite including the protozoan ''[[Sarcocystis]]'', the parasitic worm ''[[Diphyllobothrium mansonoides]]'', and the nematodes ''[[Dirofilaria immitis]]'', ''[[Capillaria aerophila]]'', ''[[Physaloptera]]'' sp., ''[[Strongyloides]]'' sp. and others. Of these, ''D. mansonoides'' and adult ''C. aerophila'' were causing pathological symptoms.<ref name="Crum">{{cite journal |last1=Crum |first1=James M. |last2=Nettles |first2=Victor F. |last3=Davidson |first3=William R. |year=1978 |title=Studies on endoparasites of the black bear (''Ursus americanus'') in the southeastern United States |journal=Journal of Wildlife Diseases |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=178–186 |doi=10.7589/0090-3558-14.2.178 |pmid=418189 |doi-access=free}}</ref> By contrast, polar bears have few parasites; many parasitic species need a secondary, usually terrestrial, host, and the polar bear's life style is such that few alternative hosts exist in their environment. The protozoan ''[[Toxoplasma gondii]]'' has been found in polar bears, and the nematode ''[[Trichinella nativa]]'' can cause a serious infection and decline in older polar bears.<ref name="Derocher">{{cite book |author=Derocher, Andrew E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aouJPNt1P4gC&pg=PT212 |title=Polar Bears: A Complete Guide to Their Biology and Behavior |publisher=JHU Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-4214-0305-2 |page=212}}</ref> Bears in North America are sometimes infected by a ''[[Morbillivirus]]'' similar to the [[Canine distemper|canine distemper virus]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U1lIR14667cC&pg=PA167 |title=Emergence and Control of Zoonotic Ortho- and Paramyxovirus Diseases |publisher=John Libbey Eurotext |year=2001 |isbn=978-2-7420-0392-1 |page=167}}</ref> They are susceptible to [[infectious canine hepatitis]] (CAV-1), with free-living black bears dying rapidly of encephalitis and hepatitis.<ref name="Williams">{{cite book |last1=Williams |first1=Elizabeth S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HJDsAU-NWiYC&pg=PA203 |title=Infectious Diseases of Wild Mammals |last2=Barker |first2=Ian K. |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-470-34481-1 |page=203}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Relationship with humans==<br />
<br />
===Conservation===<br />
<br />
{{main|Bear conservation}}<br />
<br />
{{multiple image |align=right |direction=vertical |<br />
|image1=Chengdu-pandas-d10.jpg|caption1=Giant pandas at the [[Sichuan Giant Panda Sanctuaries]] <br />
|image2=Bear trap GTNP1.jpg|caption2=A barrel trap in [[Grand Teton National Park]], [[Wyoming]], used to relocate bears away from where they might [[bear attack|attack humans]].<br />
}}<br />
<br />
In modern times, bears have come under pressure through encroachment on their habitats<ref name="WWFbrownbear">{{cite web |title=Brown Bear – Threats Grizzlies: Found in 2% of their former range |url=http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/species/profiles/mammals/brown_bear2/brownbear_threats/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221195824/http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/species/profiles/mammals/brown_bear2/brownbear_threats/ |archive-date=21 December 2016 |access-date=16 January 2017 |publisher=WWF}}</ref> and illegal trade in bear parts, including the Asian [[bile bear]] market, though hunting is now banned, largely replaced by farming.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bacon |first1=Heather |date=12 May 2008 |title=Implications of bear bile farming |url=https://www.vettimes.co.uk/article/implications-of-bear-bile-farming/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118031507/https://www.vettimes.co.uk/article/implications-of-bear-bile-farming/ |archive-date=18 January 2017 |access-date=16 January 2017 |publisher=Vet Times}}</ref> The [[World Conservation Union|IUCN]] lists six bear species as [[vulnerable species|vulnerable]];<ref name="IUCN">{{Cite web |title=The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species |url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/search?taxonomies=101398&searchType=species |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240404010539/https://www.iucnredlist.org/search?taxonomies=101398&searchType=species |archive-date=4 April 2024 |access-date=1 January 2025 |website=IUCN Red List of Threatened Species}}</ref> even the two [[least concern]] species, the brown bear and the American black bear,<ref name="IUCN" /> are at risk of [[Local extinction|extirpation]] in certain areas. In general, these two species inhabit remote areas with little interaction with humans, and the main non-natural causes of mortality are hunting, trapping, road-kill and depredation.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pelton |first1=Michael R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XXQ03uVmCAIC&pg=PR144 |title=Chapter 8. American Black Bear Conservation Action Plan |last2=Coley |first2=Alex B. |last3=Eason |first3=Thomas H. |last4=Doan Martinez |first4=Diana L. |last5=Pederson |first5=Joel A. |last6=van Manen |first6=Frank T. |last7=Weaver |first7=Keith M. |publisher=IUCN |year=1999 |isbn=978-2-8317-0462-3 |pages=144–156}}</ref><br />
<br />
Laws have been passed in many areas of the world to protect bears from [[habitat destruction]]. Public perception of bears is often positive, as people identify with bears due to their omnivorous diets, their ability to stand on two legs, and their symbolic importance.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kellert |first=Stephen |year=1994 |title=Public Attitudes toward Bears and Their Conservation |journal=Bears: Their Biology and Management |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=43–50 |doi=10.2307/3872683 |jstor=3872683 |s2cid=39632061}}</ref> Support for bear protection is widespread, at least in more affluent societies.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Andersone |first1=Žanete |last2=Ozolinš |first2=Jānis |year=2004 |title=Public perception of large carnivores in Latvia |journal=Ursus |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=181–187 |doi=10.2192/1537-6176(2004)015<0181:PPOLCI>2.0.CO;2 |s2cid=58919830}}</ref> The giant panda has become a worldwide symbol of conservation. The [[Sichuan Giant Panda Sanctuaries]], which are home to around 30% of the wild panda population, gained a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]] designation in 2006.<ref>{{cite news |date=12 July 2006 |title=Pandas gain world heritage status |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/5174854.stm |access-date=22 August 2019 |publisher=[[BBC News]]}}</ref> Where bears raid crops or attack livestock, they may come into conflict with humans.<ref name="livestock">{{cite journal |last1=Goldstein |first1=Isaac |last2=Paisley |first2=Susanna |last3=Wallace |first3=Robert |last4=Jorgenson |first4=Jeffrey P. |last5=Cuesta |first5=Francisc |last6=Castellanos |first6=Armando |year=2006 |title=Andean bear–livestock conflicts: a review |journal=Ursus |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=8–15 |doi=10.2192/1537-6176(2006)17[8:ABCAR]2.0.CO;2 |s2cid=55185188}}</ref><ref name="crops">{{cite journal |last=Fredriksson |first=Gabriella |year=2005 |title=Human–sun bear conflicts in East Kalimantan, Indonesian Borneo |journal=Ursus |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=130–137 |doi=10.2192/1537-6176(2005)016[0130:HBCIEK]2.0.CO;2 |s2cid=26961091}}</ref> In poorer rural regions, attitudes may be more shaped by the dangers posed by bears, and the economic costs they cause to farmers and ranchers.<ref name="livestock"/><br />
<br />
===Attacks===<br />
<br />
{{Main|Bear attack}}<br />
<br />
Several bear species are [[bear danger|dangerous to humans]], especially in areas where they have become used to people; elsewhere, they generally avoid humans. [[Bear attack|Injuries caused by bears]] are rare, but are widely reported.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Clark |first=Douglas |year=2003 |title=Polar Bear–Human Interactions in Canadian National Parks, 1986–2000 |url=http://www.bearbiology.com/fileadmin/tpl/Downloads/URSUS/Vol_14_1/Clark_Douglas_14_1.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ursus |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=65–71 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130722191859/http://www.bearbiology.com/fileadmin/tpl/Downloads/URSUS/Vol_14_1/Clark_Douglas_14_1.pdf |archive-date=22 July 2013 |access-date=22 December 2012}}</ref> Bears such as [[Grizzly bear|grizzlies]] may attack humans in response to being startled, in defense of young or food, or even for predatory reasons.<ref>{{cite web |last=Than |first=K. |date=2013 |title=Maulings by Bears: What's Behind the Recent Attacks? |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/maulings-by-bears--what-s-behind-the-recent-attacks-/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170128084840/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/maulings-by-bears--what-s-behind-the-recent-attacks-/ |archive-date=28 January 2017 |access-date=16 January 2017 |publisher=National Geographic.com}}</ref><br />
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===Entertainment, hunting, food and folk medicine===<br />
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Bears in captivity have for centuries been used for entertainment. They have been trained to [[dancing bear|dance]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Findeizen |first=Nikolai |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SZexDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT201 |title=History of Music in Russia from Antiquity to 1800, Vol. 1: From Antiquity to the Beginning of the Eighteenth Century |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-253-02637-8 |page=201}}</ref> and were kept for [[Bear-baiting|baiting]] in Europe from at least the 16th century. There were five bear-baiting gardens in [[Southwark]], London, at that time; archaeological remains of three of these have survived.<ref>{{cite web |date=26 September 2016 |title=Elizabethan Playhouses and Bear Baiting Arenas Given Protection |url=https://historicengland.org.uk/whats-new/news/elizabethan-playhouses-and-bear-baiting-arenas-given-protection |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170104234622/https://historicengland.org.uk/whats-new/news/elizabethan-playhouses-and-bear-baiting-arenas-given-protection |archive-date=4 January 2017 |access-date=4 January 2017 |publisher=Historic England}}</ref> Across Europe, [[nomad]]ic [[Romani people|Romani]] bear handlers called [[Ursari]] lived by busking with their bears from the 12th century.<ref name="Fraser">{{cite book |author=Fraser, Angus M. |url=https://archive.org/details/gypsies0000fras |title=The Gypsies |publisher=Blackwell |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-631-19605-1 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/gypsies0000fras/page/45 45]–48, 226 |url-access=registration}}</ref><br />
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[[Bear hunting|Bears have been hunted]] for sport, food, and folk medicine. Their meat is dark and stringy, like a tough cut of beef. In [[Cantonese cuisine]], bear paws are considered a delicacy. Bear meat should be cooked thoroughly, as it can be infected with the parasite ''[[Trichinella spiralis]]''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Trichinellosis Associated with Bear Meat |url=https://www.cdc.gov/MMWR/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5327a2.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060930201027/http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5327a2.htm |archive-date=30 September 2006 |access-date=4 October 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=21 December 1997 |title=Bear meat poisoning in Siberia |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/41529.stm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211191933/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/41529.stm |archive-date=11 December 2008 |access-date=4 October 2006 |publisher=[[BBC News]]}}</ref><br />
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The peoples of eastern Asia use bears' body parts and secretions (notably their gallbladders and bile) as part of [[traditional Chinese medicine]]. More than 12,000 bears are thought to be kept on farms in China, Vietnam, and South Korea for the production of bile. Trade in bear products is prohibited under [[CITES]], but bear bile has been detected in shampoos, wine and herbal medicines sold in Canada, the United States and Australia.<ref name="BBC">{{cite news |last=Black |first=Richard |date=11 June 2007 |title=BBC Test kit targets cruel bear trade |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6742671.stm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090115175324/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6742671.stm |archive-date=15 January 2009 |access-date=1 January 2010 |publisher=[[BBC News]]}}</ref><br />
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<gallery widths="200px" heights="160px"><br />
File:The dancing bear by William Frederick Witherington.jpg|''The Dancing Bear'' by [[William Frederick Witherington]], 1822<br />
File:Theodor Aman - Ursarul.jpg|A nomadic ''[[ursar]]'', a [[Romani people|Romani]] bear-busker. Drawing by [[Theodor Aman]], 1888<br />
</gallery><br />
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===Cultural depictions===<br />
<br />
<!-- Please do not add any more examples to this section. This subject already has its own article --><br />
{{Main|Cultural depictions of bears}}<br />
{{See also|Bear in heraldry}}<br />
<br />
Bears have been popular subjects in art, literature, folklore and mythology. The image of the mother bear was prevalent throughout societies in North America and Eurasia, based on the female's devotion and protection of her cubs.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ward|Kynaston|1995|pp=12–13}}</ref> In many [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] cultures, the bear is a symbol of rebirth because of its hibernation and re-emergence.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ward|Kynaston|1995|p=17}}</ref> A widespread belief among cultures of North America and northern Asia associated bears with [[shaman]]; this may be based on the solitary nature of both. Bears have thus been thought to predict the future and shaman were believed to have been capable of transforming into bears.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ward|Kynaston|1995|pp=20–21}}</ref><br />
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There is evidence of prehistoric [[bear worship]], though this is disputed by archaeologists.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Wunn |first=Ina |year=2000 |title=Beginning of Religion |journal=[[Numen (journal)|Numen]] |volume=47 |pages=417–452 |doi=10.1163/156852700511612 |s2cid=53595088 |number=4}}</ref> It is possible that bear worship existed in early Chinese and [[Ainu religion|Ainu culture]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kindaichi |first1=Kyōsuke |last2=Yoshida |first2=Minori |date=Winter 1949 |title=The Concepts behind the Ainu Bear Festival (Kumamatsuri) |journal=Southwestern Journal of Anthropology |volume=5 |pages=345–350 |doi=10.1086/soutjanth.5.4.3628594 |jstor=3628594 |s2cid=155380619 |number=4}}</ref> The prehistoric Finns,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bonser, Wilfrid |year=1928 |title=The mythology of the Kalevala, with notes on bear-worship among the Finns |journal=Folklore |volume=39 |issue=4 |pages=344–358 |doi=10.1080/0015587x.1928.9716794 |jstor=1255969}}</ref> Siberian peoples<ref>{{cite book |last=Chaussonnet |first=Valerie |title=Native Cultures of Alaska and Siberia |publisher=Arctic Studies Center |year=1995 |isbn=978-1-56098-661-4 |location=Washington, D.C. |page=112}}</ref> and more recently Koreans considered the bear as the spirit of their forefathers.<ref>{{cite book |author=Lee, Jung Young |title=Korean Shamanistic Rituals |date=1981 |publisher=Mouton De Gruyter |isbn=978-90-279-3378-2 |pages=14, 20}}</ref> [[Artio]] (''Dea Artio'' in the [[Gallo-Roman religion]]) was a Celtic bear goddess. Evidence of her worship has notably been found at [[Bern]], itself named for the bear. Her name is derived from the Celtic word for "bear", ''artos''.<ref>{{cite book |author=Room, Adrian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M1JIPAN-eJ4C |title=Placenames of the World: Origins and Meanings of the Names for 6,600 Countries, Cities, Territories, Natural Features, and Historic Sites |date=2006 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-0-7864-2248-7 |page=57}}</ref> In ancient Greece, the archaic cult of [[Artemis]] in bear form survived into Classical times at [[Brauron]], where young Athenian girls passed an initiation rite as ''arktoi'' "she bears".<ref>Burkert, Walter, ''Greek Religion'', 1985:263.</ref><br />
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The constellations of Ursa Major and [[Ursa Minor]], the great and little bears, are named for their supposed resemblance to bears, from the time of [[Ptolemy]].{{Efn|Ptolemy named the constellations in Greek: {{lang|grc|Ἄρκτος μεγάλη}} ({{Transliteration|grc|Arktos Megale}}) and {{lang|grc|Ἄρκτος μικρά}} ({{Transliteration|grc|Arktos Mikra}}), the great and little bears.<ref name="Ridpath">{{cite web |last1=Ridpath |first1=Ian |author-link=Ian Ridpath |title=Ptolemy's Almagest First printed edition, 1515 |url=http://www.ianridpath.com/startales/almagest.htm |access-date=13 January 2017}}</ref>}}<ref name=UrsaMajor/> The nearby star [[Arcturus]] means "guardian of the bear", as if it were watching the two constellations.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Liddell |first1=Henry George |last2=Scott |first2=Robert |title=Ἀρκτοῦρος |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D*%29arktou%3Dros |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170307140100/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D*%29arktou%3Dros |archive-date=7 March 2017 |access-date=23 January 2017 |work=A Greek-English Lexicon |publisher=Perseus}}</ref> Ursa Major has been associated with a bear for as much as 13,000 years since [[Paleolithic]] times, in the widespread [[Cosmic Hunt]] myths. These are found on both sides of the [[Beringia|Bering land bridge]], which was lost to the sea some 11,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Schaefer |first=Bradley E. |date=November 2006 |title=The Origin of the Greek Constellations: Was the Great Bear constellation named before hunter nomads first reached the Americas more than 13,000 years ago? |magazine=[[Scientific American]] |postscript=,}} reviewed at {{cite web|last=Brown|first=Miland|url=http://www.worldhistoryblog.com/2006/10/origin-of-greek-constellations.html|title=The Origin of the Greek Constellations|work=World History Blog|date=30 October 2006|access-date=9 April 2017|postscript=;|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170401164801/http://www.worldhistoryblog.com/2006/10/origin-of-greek-constellations.html|archive-date=1 April 2017|url-status=live}} {{cite journal|last=Berezkin|first=Yuri|title=The cosmic hunt: variants of a Siberian – North-American myth|journal=Folklore|volume=31|year=2005|pages=79–100|doi=10.7592/FEJF2005.31.berezkin|doi-access=free}}</ref><br />
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Bears are popular in children's stories, including [[Winnie the Pooh]],<ref>{{cite web |date=24 December 2005 |title=Pooh celebrates his 80th birthday |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/4552940.stm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060425143300/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/4552940.stm |archive-date=25 April 2006 |access-date=23 January 2017 |publisher=[[BBC News]]}}</ref> [[Paddington Bear]],<ref>{{cite web |title=About |url=http://www.paddington.com/global/about/timeline/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817131744/http://paddington.com/global/about/timeline/ |archive-date=17 August 2016 |access-date=19 January 2017 |website=Paddington.com}}</ref> [[Gentle Ben]]<ref>{{cite web |date=14 January 1992 |title=Walt Morey, 84; Author of 'Gentle Ben' |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1992-01-14-mn-245-story.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161023134546/http://articles.latimes.com/1992-01-14/news/mn-245_1_gentle-ben |archive-date=23 October 2016 |access-date=6 April 2017 |website=[[Los Angeles Times]] |agency=Associated Press}}</ref> and "[[The Brown Bear of Norway]]".<ref>{{cite book |title=Legendary Fictions of the Irish Celts |date=1866 |publisher=Macmillan |editor-last=Kennedy |editor-first=Patrick |pages=57–67 |chapter=The Brown Bear of Norway |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jfdLAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA57}}</ref> An early version of "[[Goldilocks and the Three Bears]]",<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Elms, Alan C. |date=July–September 1977 |title="The Three Bears": Four Interpretations |journal=[[The Journal of American Folklore]] |volume=90 |issue=357 |pages=257–273 |doi=10.2307/539519 |jstor=539519}}</ref> was published as "The Three Bears" in 1837 by [[Robert Southey]], many times retold, and illustrated in 1918 by [[Arthur Rackham]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Ashliman |first=D. L. |author-link=D. L. Ashliman |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s_WyX-DD43YC&pg=PA114 |title=Folk and Fairy Tales: A Handbook |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-313-32810-7 |pages=114–115}}</ref> The [[Hanna-Barbera]] character [[Yogi Bear]] has appeared in numerous comic books, animated television shows and films.<ref>{{cite book |author=Mallory, Michael |title=Hanna-Barbera Cartoons |date=1998 |publisher=Hugh Lauter Levin |isbn=978-0-88363-108-9 |page=44}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Browne |first1=Ray B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U3rJxPYT32MC&pg=PA944 |title=The Guide to United States Popular Culture |last2=Browne |first2=Pat |publisher=Popular Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-87972-821-2 |page=944}}</ref> The [[Care Bears]] began as greeting cards in 1982, and were featured as toys, on clothing and in film.<ref>{{cite news |author=Holmes, Elizabeth |date=9 February 2007 |title=Care Bears Receive a (Gentle) Makeover |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB117097911465002983 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180118182314/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB117097911465002983 |archive-date=18 January 2018 |access-date=27 January 2017 |newspaper=[[The Wall Street Journal]]}}</ref> Around the world, many children—and some adults—have [[teddy bear]]s, stuffed toys in the form of bears, named after the American statesman [[Theodore Roosevelt]] when in 1902 he had refused to shoot an American black bear tied to a tree.<ref>{{cite web |author=Cannadine, David |author-link=David Cannadine |date=1 February 2013 |title=A Point of View: The grownups with teddy bears |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-21265701 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170425025929/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-21265701 |archive-date=25 April 2017 |access-date=21 January 2017 |publisher=BBC}}</ref><br />
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Bears, like other animals, may symbolize nations. The [[Russian Bear]] has been a common national personification for Russia from the 16th century onward.<ref>{{cite news |date=23 April 2009 |title=What the West thinks about Russia is not necessarily true |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sponsored/rbth/5207026/What-the-West-thinks-about-Russia-is-not-necessarily-true.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151206043929/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sponsored/rbth/5207026/What-the-West-thinks-about-Russia-is-not-necessarily-true.html |archive-date=6 December 2015 |access-date=3 January 2017 |newspaper=Telegraph}}</ref> [[Smokey Bear]] has become a part of American culture since his introduction in 1944, with his message "Only you can prevent forest fires".<ref>{{cite web |date=9 August 1944 |title=Forest Fire Prevention – Smokey Bear (1944–Present) |url=http://www.adcouncil.org/default.aspx?id=129 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101202162355/http://www.adcouncil.org/default.aspx?id=129 |archive-date=2 December 2010 |access-date=16 October 2010 |publisher=Ad Council}}</ref><br />
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<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px"><br />
File:The Three Bears - Project Gutenberg eText 17034.jpg|"The Three Bears", [[Arthur Rackham]]'s illustration to ''English Fairy Tales'', by [[Flora Annie Steel]], 1918<br />
File:Sidney Hall - Urania's Mirror - Ursa Major.jpg|The [[constellation]] of [[Ursa Major]] as depicted in [[Urania's Mirror]], c. 1825<br />
</gallery><br />
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===Organizations===<br />
[[File:Baby Pandas.JPG|thumb|right|Juvenile pandas at the [[Chengdu]] Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding]]<br />
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The International Association for Bear Research & Management, also known as the [[International Bear Association]], and the [[Bear Specialist Group]] of the Species Survival Commission, a part of the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] focus on the natural history, management, and conservation of bears. Bear Trust International works for wild bears and other wildlife through four core program initiatives, namely Conservation Education, Wild Bear Research, Wild Bear Management, and Habitat Conservation.<ref>{{cite web |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=2002–2012 |title=Vision and Mission |url=http://beartrust.org/vision-and-mission |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140226195504/http://beartrust.org/vision-and-mission |archive-date=26 February 2014 |access-date=8 March 2014 |website=Bear Trust International}}</ref><br />
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Specialty organizations for each of the eight species of bears worldwide include:<br />
* Vital Ground, for the brown bear<ref>{{cite web |title=Vital Ground |url=http://www.vitalground.org |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190120033225/https://www.vitalground.org/ |archive-date=20 January 2019 |access-date=5 February 2019}}</ref><br />
* Moon Bears, for the Asiatic black bear<ref>{{cite web |title=Moon Bears |url=http://www.moonbears.org/index.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140309053102/http://www.moonbears.org/index.html |archive-date=9 March 2014 |access-date=9 March 2014}}</ref><br />
* Black Bear Conservation Coalition, for the North American black bear<ref>{{cite web |title=Black Bear Conservation Coalition |url=http://www.bbcc.org/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103020114/http://www.bbcc.org/ |archive-date=3 January 2014 |access-date=9 March 2014}}</ref><br />
* Polar Bears International, for the polar bear<ref>{{cite web |title=Polar Bears International |url=http://www.polarbearsinternational.org/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140308234451/http://www.polarbearsinternational.org/ |archive-date=8 March 2014 |access-date=9 March 2014}}</ref><br />
* Bornean Sun Bear Conservation Centre, for the sun bear<ref>{{cite web |title=Bornean Sun Bear Conservation Centre |url=http://sunbears.wildlifedirect.org/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140218113140/http://sunbears.wildlifedirect.org/ |archive-date=18 February 2014}}</ref><br />
* Wildlife SOS, for the sloth bear<ref>{{Cite web |title=Wildlife SOS - Saving India's Wildlife |url=http://www.wildlifesos.org/ |website=Wildlife SOS}}</ref><br />
* Andean Bear Conservation Project, for the Andean bear<ref>{{cite web |title=Andean Bear Conservation Project |url=http://www.andeanbear.org/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140218004303/http://www.andeanbear.org/ |archive-date=18 February 2014 |access-date=9 March 2014}}</ref><br />
* Chengdu Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding, for the giant panda<ref>{{cite web |title=Chengdu Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding |url=http://www.panda.org.cn/english/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140315221701/http://www.panda.org.cn/english/ |archive-date=15 March 2014 |access-date=9 March 2014}}</ref><br />
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== See also ==<br />
<br />
* {{Annotated link |List of fictional bears}}<br />
* {{Annotated link |List of individual bears}}<br />
* {{Annotated link |Ursid hybrid}}<br />
* {{Annotated link |Subspecies of brown bear}}<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{notelist}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist|30em}}<br />
<br />
===Sources===<br />
* {{Cite book |last1=Ward |first1=Paul |url={{GBurl|3dJ9QgAACAAJ}} |title=Wild Bears of the World |last2=Kynaston |first2=Suzanne |publisher=Facts on File |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-8160-3245-7 |location=New York |oclc=443610490 |url-access=registration}}<br />
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==Further reading==<br />
<br />
* {{Cite book |last=Brunner |first=Bernd |title=Bears: A Brief History |date=2007 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-12299-2 |ref=none}}<br />
* {{Cite book |last1=Domico |first1=Terry |title=Bears of the World |last2=Newman |first2=Mark |publisher=Facts on File |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-8160-1536-8 |ref=none}}<br />
* {{Cite book |last=Faulkner |first=William |author-link=William Faulkner |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=sites&srcid=ZGVmYXVsdGRvbWFpbnx0aGV2aXJ0dWFsZW5nbGlzaG5vdGVib29rfGd4OjFiYjYyNDA4NTQwZDkyMjc |title=The Bear |publisher=Curley Publishing |year=1942 |isbn=978-0-7927-0537-6 |ref=none}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
<br />
* [http://www.medvede.sk/index1.php The Bears Project – brown bears in Slovakia]<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140308192159/http://beartrust.org/the-bear-book-and-curriculum-guide-to-the-bear-book The Bear Book and Curriculum Guide – stories about all eight species of bears, with STEM lessons rooted in bear research, ecology, and conservation]<br />
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{{Carnivora|Ca.}}<br />
{{Subject bar |auto=1 |q-search=Bears |wikt=y |d=y |portal1=Mammals |portal2=Animals}} <br />
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{{Authority control}}<br />
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[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]<br />
[[Category:Bears| ]]<br />
[[Category:Extant Eocene first appearances]]<br />
[[Category:Predatory animals]]<br />
[[Category:Taxa named by Gotthelf Fischer von Waldheim]]<br />
[[Category:Ursoidea]]</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Murshidabad&diff=446486Murshidabad2026-03-13T22:57:34Z<p>AmitNeogi: small fix</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|City in West Bengal}}<br />
<br />
{{About|the town in West Bengal, India |its namesake|Murshidabad District}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2018}}<br />
{{Infobox settlement<br />
| name = Murshidabad<br />
| native_name = <br />
| native_name_lang = <br />
| other_name = Makhsudabad<ref>{{Cite web |title=Murshidabad {{!}} India, Map, & Population {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Murshidabad |access-date=2025-04-19 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> <br/> Lal Bagh<br />
| settlement_type = [[Town]]<br />
| image_skyline = {{multiple image<br />
| border = infobox<br />
| total_width = 300<br />
| image_style =<br />
| perrow = 2/2/2/2 <br />
| caption_align = center<br />
| image1 = Nizamat Imambara 2, Murshidabad.jpg<br />
| caption1 = [[Nizamat Imambara]]<br />
| image2 = Wasif Manzil, Murshidabad.jpg<br />
| caption2 = [[Wasif Manzil]]<br />
| image3 = Jahankosha Kaman Murshidabad.jpg<br />
| caption3 = [[Jahan Kosha Cannon]]<br />
}}<br />
| image_caption = <br />
| image_map = <br />
| pushpin_map = India West Bengal#India3<br />
| pushpin_label_position = right<br />
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in West Bengal, India<br />
| coordinates = {{coord|24.18|88.27|display=inline,title}}<br />
| subdivision_type = Country<br />
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}<br />
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]<br />
| subdivision_name1 = [[West Bengal]]<br />
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]<br />
| subdivision_name2 = [[Murshidabad District|Murshidabad]]<br />
| established_title = <!-- Established --><br />
| established_date =<br />
| founder =<br />
| government_type = [[Municipal council (India)|Municipality]]<br />
| governing_body = Murshidabad Municipality<br />
| leader_title = Chairperson<br />
| leader_name = Lalita Das Nandi<br />
| leader_party = [[Trinamool Congress|AITC]]<br />
| leader_title2 = [[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha|Lok Sabha MP]]<br />
| leader_name2 = [[Abu Taher Khan]] ([[Trinamool Congress|AITC]])<br />
| leader_title3 = [[West Bengal Legislative Assembly|MLA]]<br />
| leader_name3 = [[Gouri Shankar Ghosh]] ([[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]])<br />
| unit_pref = Metric<br />
| area_footnotes = <ref>{{cite web|title=Welcome to Murshidabad Municipality|url=http://www.murshidabadmunicipality.org/|access-date=25 November 2020}}</ref><br />
| area_total_km2 = 17.25<br />
| area_rank =<br />
| elevation_footnotes = <ref name="Census2011Gov"/><br />
| elevation_m = 10<br />
| population_total = 44,019<br />
| population_as_of = 2011<br />
| population_rank =<br />
| population_density_km2 = auto<br />
| population_demonym =<br />
| demographics_type1 = Languages<br />
| demographics1_title1 = Official<br />
| demographics1_info1 = [[Bengali language|Bengali]]<ref name="wblangoff">{{cite web|title=Fact and Figures|url=https://wb.gov.in/portal/web/guest/facts-and-figures;jsessionid=JzdD9RHb7aMY5esZPtcsIVLy|website=Wb.gov.in|access-date=23 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=52nd Report of the Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities in India|url=http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM52ndReport.pdf|website=Nclm.nic.in|publisher=[[Ministry of Minority Affairs]]|access-date=23 May 2019|page=85|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525141614/http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM52ndReport.pdf|archive-date=25 May 2017}}</ref><br />
| demographics1_title2 = Additional&nbsp;official<br />
| demographics1_info2 = [[English language|English]]<ref name="wblangoff"/><br />
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]<br />
| utc_offset1 = +5:30<br />
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]<br />
| postal_code = 742149<br />
| area_code_type = Telephone code<br />
| area_code = 91-3482-2xxxxx<br />
| registration_plate = WB-57, WB-58<br />
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[Lok Sabha]] constituency<br />
| blank1_info_sec1 = [[Murshidabad (Lok Sabha constituency)|Murshidabad]]<br />
| blank2_name_sec1 = [[Vidhan Sabha]] constituency<br />
| blank2_info_sec1 = [[Murshidabad (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Murshidabad]]<br />
| website = {{URL|http://murshidabad.nic.in/}}<br />
| named_for = [[Murshid Quli Khan]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Murshidabad''' ({{IPA|bn|murʃidabad}}) is a town in the [[India]]n [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[West Bengal]]. This town is the headquarters of [[Lalbag subdivision]] of [[Murshidabad district]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Subdivision and Blocks {{!}} District Murshidabad {{!}} India |url=https://murshidabad.gov.in/subdivision-blocks/ |access-date=2025-04-22 |language=en-US}}</ref> It is located on the eastern bank of the [[Hooghly river|Bhagirathi River]]. During the 18th century, Murshidabad was a prosperous and cosmopolitan town.<ref name="Dalrymple2019">{{cite book|author=William Dalrymple|title=The Anarchy: The East India Company, Corporate Violence, and the Pillage of an Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=42aYvgEACAAJ|date=10 September 2019|publisher=Bloomsbury USA|isbn=978-1-63557-395-4}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/op-ed/politics/which-india-claiming-have-been-colonised-119284|title = Which India is claiming to have been colonised?|date = 31 July 2015}}</ref> Murshidabad was the capital of the [[Bengal Subah]] for seventy years. This town was the home of wealthy banking and merchant families from different parts of the [[Indian subcontinent]] and wider [[Eurasia]]. European companies, including the [[British East India Company]], the [[French Indies Company|French East India Company]], the [[Dutch East India Company]] and the [[Danish East India Company]], conducted business and operated factories around the city. The town was also a centre of art and culture.<ref>{{Citation |title=Darbar of Alivardi Khan at Murshidabad's Court |date=c. 1753 |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/781858 |access-date=2025-04-19}}</ref><br />
<br />
The city's decline began with the defeat of the last independent Nawab of Bengal [[Siraj-ud-Daulah]] at the [[Battle of Plassey]] in 1757. The Nawab was demoted to the status of a [[zamindar]] known as the [[Nawab of Murshidabad]]. The British shifted the treasury, courts and revenue office to [[Calcutta]]. In the 19th century, the population was estimated to be 46,000. Murshidabad became a district headquarters of the [[Bengal Presidency]]. It was declared as a municipality in 1869.<br />
<br />
==Etymology==<br />
Murshidabad was named after its founder, Nawab [[Murshid Quli Khan]]. ''[[Murshid]]'' is an Arabic term for a teacher or guide with integrity, sensibility, and maturity. The suffix ''[[-abad]]'' is derived from the Persian word ''abad'', which referred to a cultivated place.<br />
<br />
==Geography==<br />
{{OSM Location map<br />
| width=350| height=400| zoom=13<br />
| coord={{coord|24|11|10|N|88|16|40|E}}| float=left|caption='''Murshidabad'''<br />F: facility, H: historical site <br />Owing to space constraints in the small map, the actual locations in a larger map may vary slightly<br />
|mark-coord1={{coord|24|11|11|N|88|16|9|E}} | label-pos1=left|label1= Hazarduari Palace| numbered1=H | mark-title1=[[Hazarduari Palace]] (H)|label-color1= #800000 |label-size1=12| mark-size1=13|shape1=l-circle|shape-color1=#AA6666|shape-outline1=white|label-offset-x1=2<br />
|mark-coord2={{coord|24|11|30|N|88|16|7|E}} | label-pos2=right|label2=Nizamat Imambara | mark-title2= [[Nizamat Imambara]] (H)| numbered2=H| shape-color2=#AA6666|label-offset-y2=-2<br />
|mark-coord3={{coord|24|11|24|N|88|16|10|E}} | label-pos3=right|label3= Clock Tower | mark-title3= [[Clock Tower of Murshidabad]] (H)| numbered3=H<br />
|mark-coord4={{coord|24|11|24|N|88|16|4|E}} | label-pos4=left|label4= Madina Mosque | mark-title4= [[Madina Mosque (Bengal)]] (H)| numbered4=H<br />
|mark-coord5={{coord|24|10|55|N|88|16|10|E}} | label-pos5=right|label5= Wasif Manzil | mark-title5= [[Wasif Manzil]] (H)| numbered5=H<br />
|mark-coord6={{coord|24|12|4|N|88|16|0|E}} | label-pos6=right|label6= Jafaganj Cemetery | mark-title6= [[Jafarganj Cemetery]] (H)| numbered6=H<br />
|mark-coord7={{coord|24|11|0|N|88|17|17|E}} | label-pos7=right|label7= Katra Masjid | mark-title7= [[Katra Masjid]] (H)| numbered7=H<br />
|mark-coord8={{coord|24|11|5|N|88|16|10|E}} | label-pos8=left|label8= Chawk Masjid | mark-title8= [[Chawk Masjid]] (H)| numbered8=H<br />
|mark-coord9={{coord|24|9|43|N|88|16|32|E}} | label-pos9=left|label9= Jama Masjid, Motijheel | mark-title9= [[Jama Masjid, Motijheel]] (H)| numbered9=H<br />
|mark-coord10={{coord|24|11|9|N|88|16|49|E}} | label-pos10=top|label10= Fauti Mosque | mark-title10= [[Fauti Mosque]] (H)| numbered10=H<br />
|mark-coord11={{coord|24|12|23|N|88|16|20|E}} | label-pos11=right|label11= Kathgola Palace | mark-title11= [[Kathgola Palace]] (H)| numbered11=H<br />
|mark-coord12={{coord|24|12|12|N|88|15|50|E}} | label-pos12=right|label12= Mir Jafar's Palace | mark-title12= [[Namak Haram Deorhi]] (H)| numbered12=H<br />
|mark-coord13={{coord|24|12|23|N|88|16|0|E}} | label-pos13=left|label13= Nashipur Rajbari| mark-title13= [[Nashipur]] (H)| numbered13=H<br />
|mark-coord14={{coord|24|10|34|N|88|16|58|E}} | label-pos14=right|label14= Murshidabad |labela14= railway station| numbered14=F| mark-title14= [[Murshidabad railway station]] (F) |shape-color14=#967117<br />
|mark-coord15={{coord|24|12|5|N|88|15|25|E}} | label15= Bhagirathi River| label-color15 = #77A1CB| label-angle15=59| label-pos15=right| label-size15=10| mark-size15=0| mark-title15 =none<br />
|mark-coord16={{coord|24|11|17|N|88|16|5|E}} | label-pos16=left|label16= Yellow Mosque | mark-title16= [[Yellow Mosque]] (H)| numbered16=H<br />
|mark-coord17={{coord|24|12|32|N|88|16|0|E}} | label-pos17=right|label17= House of Jagat Seth | mark-title17= [[House of Jagat Seth]] (H)| numbered17=H<br />
|mark-coord18={{coord|24|11|53|N|88|15|54|E}} | label-pos18=right|label18= Tomb of Azimunnisa Begum | mark-title18= [[Tomb of Azimunissa Begum]] (H)| numbered18=H<br />
|mark-coord19={{coord|24|12|51|N|88|15|50|E}} | label-pos19=right|label19= Nashipur |labela19= railway bridge| numbered19=F| mark-title19= [[Nashipur Rail Bridge]] (F) |shape-color19=#967117<br />
|mark-coord20={{coord|24|11|8|N|88|16|15|E}} | label-pos20=right|label20= Tripolia |labela20= Gate | mark-title20= Tripolia Gate <br/> Sorry, no page link (H)| numbered21=H}}<br />
<br />
===Location===<br />
Murshidabad is located at {{coord|24.18|88.27|display=inline}}.<br />
<br />
[[Hazarduari Palace]] and its associated sites in the Kila Nizamat area (forming the central area in the map alongside) is the centre of attraction in Murshidabad. Just a little away are [[Katra Masjid]], [[Fauti Mosque]], [[Jama Masjid, Motijheel|Jama Masjid]], and the [[Motijhil]] area. There is a group of attractions in the northern part of the town (as can be seen in the map alongside). Some attractions such as [[Khushbagh]], [[Rosnaiganj]], [[Baranagar, Murshidabad|Baranagar]], [[Kiriteswari Temple]], [[Karnasuvarna]] and others are on the other side of the river and there are attractions in the neighbouring [[Berhampore]] area also (not shown in the map).<ref>{{cite web | url = https://offbeatweekend.com/mushidabad/ | title = Offbeat Weekend in Murshidabad | work = Outskirts of Killa Nizamat (Northern part) | publisher = Offbeat Weekend | accessdate = 20 July 2021}}</ref><br />
<br />
<small>Note: The map alongside presents some of the notable locations in Murshidabad city. Most of the places marked in the map are linked in the larger full screen map. A few, without pages yet, remain unmarked. The map has a scale. It will help viewers to find out the distances.</small><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
[[File:Moti Jheel Palace 2.jpg|thumb|right|Painting of the garden, mosque and prince's pavilions in [[Motijhil]] (pearl lake)]] <br />
[[File:'ALIVARDI KHAN AND A COURTIER.jpg|thumb|upright|Nawab [[Alivardi Khan]] with a courtier, painted in the [[Company style|Company Style]], where it first emerged in Murshidabad<ref>{{Cite web |title=Company school {{!}} Indian art {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/art/Company-school |access-date=2022-08-29 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>]]<br />
[[File:Katgola Palace at night 2.jpg|thumb|Illuminated Katgola Palace at night]]<br />
[[File:The Nawab of Murshidabad's boats on the Ganga (6125141004).jpg|thumb|left|The Nawab's boats on a river]]<br />
[[File:JAGATSETH HOUSE TEMPLE - panoramio.jpg|thumb|left|A [[Jain]] temple in the mansion of [[Jagat Seth]], a historically prominent banking family of Murshidabad]]<br />
The area was part of the [[Gauda Kingdom]] and [[Vanga Kingdom]] in [[ancient Bengal]]. The ''[[Riyaz-us-Salatin]]'' credited the initial development of the town to a merchant named Makhsus Khan. The merchant's role is also mentioned in the ''[[Ain-i-Akbari]]''.<ref name="Banglapedia">{{cite web |title=Murshidabad - Banglapedia |url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Murshidabad |website=[[Banglapedia]] |access-date=26 August 2019}}</ref><br />
<br />
During the 17th-century, the area was well known for [[sericulture]]. In 1621, English agents reported that large quantities of silk were available in the area. During the 1660s, it became a [[pargana]] of the Mughal administration, with jurisdiction over European companies in [[Cossimbazar]].<ref name="Banglapedia"/><br />
<br />
In the early 18th-century, [[Murshid Quli Khan]], the prime minister of Bengal Subah, had a bitter rivalry with Prince [[Azim-ush-Shan]], the viceroy of Bengal. The latter even attempted to have Khan killed.<ref name="Banglapedia"/> The Mughal court in [[Delhi]] was also rapidly losing authority in much of the subcontinent. Amid the decline of the central government, the [[Mughal Emperor]] [[Farrukhsiyar]] promoted Khan to the status of a princely [[Nawab]]. As Nawab, Khan was given the opportunity to create a princely dynasty as part of the Mughal aristocracy.<br />
<br />
Murshid Quli Khan shifted the capital of Bengal from [[Dhaka]], which lost its strategic importance after the expulsion of the [[Arakan]]ese and [[Portuguese Chittagong|Portuguese]] from [[Chittagong]].<ref name="Banglapedia"/> He founded the city of Murshidabad and named the city after himself. It became the centre of political, economic and cultural life in Bengal. The jurisdiction of the Nawab included not only Bengal, but also Bihar and Orissa.<ref name="Scroll">{{cite news |last1=Silliman |first1=Jael |title=Murshidabad can teach the rest of India how to restore heritage and market the past |url=https://scroll.in/magazine/862281/murshidabad-can-teach-the-rest-of-india-a-lot-on-how-to-restore-heritage-and-market-the-past |access-date=26 August 2019 |work=[[Scroll.in]] |date=28 December 2017}}</ref> Murshidabad was also located centrally in the expanded jurisdiction of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.<br />
<br />
The presence of the princely court, the [[Mughal Army]], [[artisan]]s and multiethnic merchants increased the wealth of Murshidabad. Wealthy families and companies established their head offices in the city. The Murshidabad [[Mint (facility)|mint]] became the largest in Bengal, with a value amounting to two percent of the minted currency. The city witnessed the construction of administrative buildings, gardens, palaces, mosques, temples and mansions. European companies operated factories in the city's outskirts. The city was full of brokers, workers, peons, naibs, wakils, and ordinary traders.<ref name="Banglapedia"/><br />
<br />
Murshid Quli Khan transformed Murshidabad into a [[capital city]] with an efficient administrative machinery for his successors. He built a palace and a [[caravanserai]] with a grand mosque, known as the [[Katra Masjid]]. The main military base was located near the mosque and formed the city's eastern gateway. The third Nawab [[Shuja-ud-Din Muhammad Khan]] patronized the construction of another palace and military base, a new gateway, the revenue office, a public audience hall ([[durbar (court)|durbar]]), a private chamber, the treasury and a mosque in an extensive compound called Farrabagh (Garden of Joy) which included canals, [[fountain]]s, flowers, and fruit trees.<ref name="Banglapedia"/><br />
<br />
Nawab Siraj-ud-Daulah established a palace near the [[Motijhil]] (Pearl Lake). The [[Nizamat Imambara]] was built for [[Shia Muslims]]. The palace complex was fortified and known as the Nizamat Fort. The main entrances of the Nizamat Fort had musicians' galleries. The gates were high, imposing and tall enough for an elephant to pass through. The Khoshbagh garden was the burial place of the Nawabs.<ref name="Banglapedia"/> The city had a [[Bengali people|Bengali]] majority population, including [[Bengali Muslims]] and [[Bengali Hindus]]. There was an influential [[Jain]] community involved in trade and commerce.<ref name="Scroll"/> An [[Armenians|Armenian]] community also settled and became financiers for the Nawab. The [[Jagat Seth]] family was one of the prominent banking families of Murshidabad. They controlled [[money lending]] activities and served as financiers for administrators, merchants, traders, the Nawabs, the Zamindars, as well as the British, French, Armenians and Dutch. The merchants built many mansions, including the Azimganj Rajbati, [[Kathgola]] house and [[Nashipur]] house.<br />
<br />
The Nawabs of Bengal entered into agreements with numerous European trading companies allowing them to establish bases in the region. The French East India Company operated factories in Murshidabad and Dhaka. The British East India Company was based in [[Fort William, India|Fort William]]. Murshidabad was a part of the [[Dutch Bengal]] Department. The [[Ostend Company]] of [[Austria]] established a base near Murshidabad. The Danish East India Company also set up trading posts in the Bengal Subah.<br />
<br />
The last independent Nawab, Siraj-ud-Daulah was defeated in the [[Battle of Plassey]] in 1757. Despite receiving assurances of French support, the Nawab was betrayed by his commander [[Mir Jafar]]. The British installed Mir Jafar's family as a puppet dynasty and eventually reduced the Nawab to the status of a landlord (zamindar). The British continued to collect revenue from the area's factories. The merchant families continued to prosper under [[company rule in India]].<ref name="Scroll"/> In 1858, the British government gained direct control of India's administration.<br />
<br />
Murshidabad was very badly affected by the [[Great Bengal famine of 1770|Bengal Famine of 1770]].<ref name="Dalrymple2019" /> <br />
<br />
Murshidabad was a district city of the [[Bengal Presidency]]. [[Warren Hastings]] removed the supreme civil and criminal courts to [[Calcutta]] in 1772, but in 1775 the latter courts were brought back to Murshidabad again. In 1790, under [[Lord Cornwallis]], the entire revenue and judicial staffs were moved to Calcutta. The city was still the residence of the Nawab, who ranked as the first nobleman of the province with the style of [[Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad]], instead of [[Nawab of Bengal|Nawab Nazim of Bengal]]. The [[Hazarduari Palace]] was built in 1837 as a residence for both the Nawab and British civil servants. Murshidabad became a [[municipality]] in 1869. The population in 1901 was 15,168. The silk industry was revived with assistance from the government. The area also became notable for [[mango]] and [[litchi]] production.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/entertainment/mango-people-of-murshidabad/cid/1399401|title=Mango people of murshidabad|newspaper=The Telegraph | date=18 June 2015 | location=India|language=en|access-date=22 October 2018}}</ref><br />
<br />
See also - [[Nawabs of Bengal and Murshidabad]]<br />
<gallery mode="packed" caption="Art of Murshidabad" style="font-size:88%; line-height:130%; border-bottom:1px #aaa solid;" heights="160"><br />
File:Bazrupmati.jpg|Two horsemen, Murshidabad style of painting<br />
Gujjari Ragini.jpg|Woman playing the [[sitar]], Murshidabad style of painting<br />
Royal Peacock Barge LACMA M.82.154.jpg|Ivory sculpture of a royal barge<br />
Ivory carving in the Indian Museum, Kolkata 03.jpg|Ivory sculpture of a royal barge<br />
Nahabat Khana - Nashipur Palace - Murshidabad 2017-03-28 6239.JPG|An elevated musicians' gallery where drums, flutes and Indian classical music would be played.<br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
==Economy==<br />
[[File:One of the four Char Bangla Temple at Baronagar in Murshidabad District 01.jpg|thumb|Murshidabad District has several terracotta Bengali Hindu temples]]<br />
[[File:Silver Rupee struck during the tenure of Bengal Nawab Alivardi Khan in Murshidabad mint, in the name of Mughal emperor Ahmad Shah Bahadur, photographed in West Bengal, India, September 18, 2024.jp.jpg|thumb|Silver Rupee struck during the tenure of Bengal Nawab [[Alivardi Khan]] in Murshidabad mint, in the name of Mughal emperor [[Ahmad Shah Bahadur]], with his regnal year 3 in Persian, AD 1751.]]<br />
<br />
The city today is a centre for agriculture, handicrafts and [[sericulture]]. The famous [[Murshidabad silk]], much in demand for making [[sari]]s and scarves, is produced here.{{citation needed|date=November 2013}}<br />
<br />
==Demographics==<br />
As of [[2011 Indian Census]], Murshidabad had a total population of 44,019, of which 22,177 were males and 21,842 were females. Population within the age group of 0 to 6 years was 4,414. The total number of literates in Murshidabad was 32,451, which constituted 73.7% of the population with male literacy of 77.3% and female literacy of 70.1%. The effective literacy rate of 7+ population of Murshidabad was 81.9%, of which male literacy rate was 86.0% and female literacy rate was 77.9%. The [[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes]] population was 13,762 and 302 respectively. Murshidabad had 9829 households in 2011.According to 2011 census the religious make-up of Murshidabd city was: Hindus (75.09%), Muslims (23.86%) and others(1.05%)<ref name="Census2011Gov">{{cite web |title=Census of India: Murshidabad |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/pca/SearchDetails.aspx?Id=355736 |website=www.censusindia.gov.in |access-date=20 November 2019}}</ref> However, during the [[Murshidabad violence]], many Hindus, including women and children, were displaced from the affected areas and took shelter in neighboring [[Malda district]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-04-15 |title=Bengal communal violence: ‘We have become refugees in our own land… We may never return’ |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/kolkata/bengal-murshidabad-communal-violence-we-have-become-refugees-in-our-own-land-we-may-never-return-9944482/ |access-date=2025-04-15 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Educational institutes ==<br />
<!--ONLY ADD THOSE INSTRUCTIONS WHICH HAVE ARTICLES ON Bharatpedia--><br />
===Schools===<br />
<!---♦♦♦ Only add a school to this list if it already has its own article on the English Bharatpedia ♦♦♦---><br />
<!---♦♦♦ Please keep the list in alphabetical order ♦♦♦---><br />
* [[Raghunathganj High School (10+2)]]<br />
* [[Sargachi Ramakrishna Mission High School]]<br />
* [[Srikantabati P.S.S. Sikshaniketan]]<br />
<br />
===Colleges===<br />
<!---♦♦♦ Only add a college to this list if it already has its own article on the English Bharatpedia ♦♦♦---><br />
<!---♦♦♦ Please keep the list in alphabetical order ♦♦♦---><br />
[[File:Main gate 15.jpg|thumb|[[Government College of Engineering & Textile Technology, Berhampore]] ]]<br />
* [[Berhampore College]]<br />
* [[Berhampore Girls' College]]<br />
* [[Bimal Chandra College of Law]]<br />
* [[Dukhulal Nibaran Chandra College]]<br />
* [[Dumkal Institute of Engineering & Technology]]<br />
* [[Government College of Engineering & Textile Technology, Berhampore]] <br />
* [[Jakir Hossain Institute of Polytechnic]], [[Hafania]], [[Suti II]]<br />
* [[Jangipur College]]<br />
* [[Kandi Raj College]]<br />
* [[Krishnath College]] <br />
* [[Management Development Institute Murshidabad]]<br />
* [[Murshidabad College of Engineering & Technology]]<br />
* [[Murshidabad Institute of Technology]]<br />
* [[Murshidabad Medical College and Hospital]]<br />
* [[Nur Mohammad Smriti Mahavidyalaya]]<br />
* [[Prof. Syed Nurul Hasan College]]<br />
* [[Rani Dhanya Kumari College]]<br />
* [[Sripat Singh College]]<br />
* [[Subhas Chandra Bose Centenary College]]<br />
<br />
===Universities===<br />
<!---♦♦♦ Only add a college to this list if it already has its own article on the English Bharatpedia ♦♦♦---><br />
<!---♦♦♦ Please keep the list in alphabetical order ♦♦♦---><br />
*[[Aligarh Muslim University|Aligarh Muslim University Murshidabad Centre]]<br />
*[[Murshidabad University]], [[Berhampore]]<br />
<br />
==Murshidabad Heritage Festival==<br />
[[File:Murshidabad Day 2 Dance 2.jpg|thumb|Dance performance in [[Kathgola Palace|Kathgola]] gardens during the Murshidabad Heritage Festival]]<br />
The Murshidabad Heritage Festival aims at reviving the tangible and intangible heritage of Murshidabad along with those nearby heritage towns of Azimganj, Jiaganj and Cossimbazar. The festival aims at preserving the past and integrating it with the present and to bring Murshidabad back in the tourism, cultural and heritage map of India. It is an initiative of Murshidabad Heritage Development Society (MHDS). The festival began in 2011 and has been celebrated ever since. There are no fixed days for the festival but it is celebrated during the winter season, especially during January or February. The festival is complete with cultural performances, heritage walks, cruise along the Bagirati River and exotic food. The Food served during the festival is purely vegetarian, with special emphasis on Sheherwali cuisine.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Datta |first1=Rangan |title=Murshidabad Heritage Festival 2023: A journey back to the days of the nawabs in Bengal |agency=The Telegraph |issue=My Kolkata |date=15 February 2023}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Notable residents==<br />
<!-- ONLY ADD A PERSON TO THIS LIST IF THEY ALREADY HAVE AN ARTICLE IN THE ENGLISH Bharatpedia-->{{Div col|colwidth=30em|content=* [[Abdul Alim (folk singer)|Abdul Alim]]<br />
* [[Abul Barkat]]<br />
* [[Abul Hayat]]<br />
* [[Abul Bashar]]<br />
* [[Abul Hasan Quraishi]]<br />
* [[Amiya Kumar Bagchi]]<br />
* [[Arijit Singh]]<br />
* [[Arup Chandra]]<br />
* [[Atiul islam]]<br />
* [[Babar Ali (teacher)|Babar Ali]]<br />
* [[Badshah Moitra]]<br />
* [[Basu Bhattacharya]]<br />
* [[Farida Yasmin (singer)|Farida Yasmin]]<br />
* [[Govindadasa]]<br />
* [[Iskander Mirza]]<br />
* [[Karuna Bhattacharya]]<br />
* [[Mahasweta Devi]]<br />
* [[Manish Ghatak]]<br />
* [[Mir Afsar Ali]]<br />
* [[Murshid Kuli Khan]]<br />
* [[Nabarun Bhattacharya]]<br />
* [[Nirupama Devi]]<br />
* [[Rakhaldas Bandyopadhyay]]<br />
* [[Ramendra Sundar Tribedi]]<br />
* [[Sarat Chandra Pandit]]<br />
* [[Shreya Ghoshal]]<br />
* [[Siraj ud-Daulah]]<br />
* [[Syed Mustafa Siraj]]<br />
* [[Nalini Bagchi]]<br />
* [[Tapan Sinha]]}}<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{notelist}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
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* {{Wikivoyage-inline|Murshidabad}}<br />
* [http://murshidabad.nic.in/ District website]<br />
<br />
{{Murshidabad District}}<br />
{{Murshidabad topics}}<br />
{{Municipalities of West Bengal}}<br />
{{Tourist attractions in Murshidabad}}<br />
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<br />
{{West Bengal}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Cities and towns in Murshidabad district]]<br />
[[Category:Former capitals in India]]<br />
[[Category:Capitals of Bengal]]<br />
[[Category:Murshidabad| ]]<br />
[[Category:Cities in West Bengal]]</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bhilai&diff=474045Bhilai2026-03-11T14:29:48Z<p>AmitNeogi: small update lead for clarity further and fixed typos based on references</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Metropolis in Chhattisgarh}}<br />
{{Distinguish|Bidadi}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2026}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2026}}<br />
{{Infobox settlement<br />
| name = Bhilai<br />
| native_name = <!-- Please do not add any Indic script in this infobox, per WP:NOINDICSCRIPT policy. --><br />
| other_name = <br />
| settlement_type = [[Metropolis]]<br />
| image_skyline = {{multiple image<br />
| border = infobox<br />
| total_width = 290<br />
| image_style = <br />
| perrow = 1/2/2/2<br />
| image1 = Kumaragupta (Library and ITIS).jpg<br />
| caption1 = [[IIT Bhilai|Indian Institute of Technology, Bhilai]]<br />
| image2 = बीआईटी प्रशासनिक भवन.jpg<br />
| caption2 = [[Bhilai Institute of Technology]]<br />
| image3 = Csvtu.jpg<br />
| caption3 = [[Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University]]<br />
| image4 =<br />
| caption4 = Surya treasure Island Mall<br />
| image5 =<br />
| caption5 = SAIL office Bhilai<br />
| image6 = The Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi dedicates the Modernised and Expanded Bhilai Steel Plant to the Nation, in Chhattisgarh on June 14, 2018. The Union Minister for Steel, Shri Chaudhary Birender Singh is also seen.JPG<br />
| caption6 = [[Bhilai Steel Plant]]<br />
| image7 =<br />
| caption7 = Bhilai power house<br />
}}<br />
| image_alt = <br />
| image_caption = <br />
| nickname = Steel City of India<br />
| image_map = <br />
| map_alt = <br />
| map_caption = <br />
| pushpin_map = India Chhattisgarh#India<br />
| pushpin_label_position = <br />
| pushpin_map_alt = <br />
| pushpin_map_caption = <br />
| coordinates = {{coord|21.21|N|81.38|E|display=inline,title}}<br />
| subdivision_type = Country<br />
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}<br />
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]<br />
| subdivision_name1 = [[Chhattisgarh]]<br />
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]<br />
| subdivision_name2 = [[Durg]]<br />
| established_title = <!-- Established --><br />
| established_date = <br />
| founder = <br />
| government_type = [[Municipal corporation]]<br />
| governing_body = <br />
| leader_title = [[Mayor]]<br />
| leader_name = Neeraj Pal<br />
| unit_pref = Metric<br />
| area_footnotes = <ref>{{cite web|title=Bhilai City|url=http://www.bhilainagarnigam.com/PB.pdf}}</ref><br />
| area_total_km2 = 357<br />
| area_rank = 1st in state<br />
| elevation_footnotes = <br />
| elevation_m = 297<br />
| population_total = 624700<br />
| population_as_of = 2011<br />
| population_footnotes = <ref>{{cite web|title=Bhilai City Population|date=21 October 2020 |url=https://www.findeasy.in/population-of-bhilai/}}</ref><ref name=population/><br />
| population_metro = 1064222<br />
| population_metro_footnotes = <ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/India2/Table_3_PR_UA_Citiees_1Lakh_and_Above.pdf | title = Urban Agglomerations/Cities having population 1 lakh and above |work= Provisional Population Totals, Census of India 2011 |access-date = 16 April 2012 }}</ref><br />
| population_density_km2 = auto<br />
| population_rank = 2nd in state, 50th in India<br />
| population_blank1_title = Metro rank<br />
| population_blank1 = [[List of million-plus agglomerations in India|50th]]<br />
| population_demonym = <br />
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]<br />
| utc_offset1 = +5:30<br />
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]<br />
| postal_code = 490XXX<br />
| registration_plate = CG-07<br />
| website = [http://www.bhilainagarnigam.com/ www.bhilainagarnigam.com]<br />
| footnotes = <br />
| named_for = [[Bhil]]s<br />
}}<br />
'''Bhilai''' is a city in [[Durg district]] of the [[States and union territories of India|Indian state]] of [[Chhattisgarh]], in eastern central India. Along with its twin-city [[Durg]], the urban agglomeration of Durg-Bhilai Nagar has a population of more than a million, making it the [[List of urban agglomerations in India|second most populous urban area in Chhattisgarh]] after [[Raipur]]. The Bhilai metropolis contains three municipal corporations: Bhilai Municipal Corporation, [[Bhilai Charoda]] Municipal Corporation and Risali Municipal Corporation.<ref name=population>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070607194126/http://www.censusindia.net/results/data/chh_uatowns.PDF Census van 1 maart 2001 (via archive.org)]</ref><br />
<br />
Bhilai is a major industrial and educational hub of central India. The city is home to several industries like [[Bhilai Steel Plant]], [[Jaypee Group|Jaypee Cement]], [[CK Birla Group|Orient Cement]], [[NSPCL Bhilai Power Plant]], [[Steel Authority of India]], FSNL and [[ACC (company)|ACC Cement]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Industries in Bhilai, Industrial Development in Bhilai |url=https://www.bhilaionline.in/city-guide/industries-in-bhilai |website=www.bhilaionline.in |access-date=5 December 2023}}</ref> The city is home to the [[IIT Bhilai|Indian Institute of Technology Bhilai]], as well as the [[Bhilai Institute of Technology]]. Risali is an emerging hub with its own municipal corporation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Risali municipal corporation notification|url=https://www.bhaskar.com/chhattisgarh/bhilaidurg/news/notification-issued-risali-municipal-corporation-bhilai-corporation-now-number-4-in-state-01691863.html|website=www.bhaskar.com |access-date= 2 August 2025}}</ref><br />
The city also has the state's oldest zoo, [[Maitri Bagh]].<br />
<br />
== Etymology ==<br />
The term ''Bhilai'' is derived from the [[Bhil people|Bhil]] tribe which originally inhabited this region and continues to dwell in the nearby forests until today.<ref name="bhilaionline1">{{cite web|title = History of Bhilai, Historical Aspects of Bhilai, Origin of Bhilai|url = http://www.bhilaionline.in/city-guide/history-of-bhilai|website = www.bhilaionline.in|access-date = 22 December 2015}}</ref><br />
<br />
== History ==<br />
Bhilai was a small village and a part of the [[Haihaiyavansi Kingdom]] until 1740 when it was conquered by the [[Maratha Empire|Marathas]].<br />
<br />
The foundation of the modern city of Bhilai was laid in 1955 when the Indian government signed a historic agreement with the [[Soviet Union]] in [[Magnitogorsk]] to establish a steel plant near the village. The first blast furnace of the plant was commissioned in 1959 by the first president of India, [[Rajendra Prasad|Dr. Rajendra Prasad]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rbth.com/economics/2014/08/22/bhilai_steel_plant_chhattisgarhs_icon_of_indo-russian_cooperation_37741|title=Bhilai Steel Plant: Chhattisgarh's icon of Indo-Russian cooperation|last1=Katz|first1=Alexandra|last2=RIR|first2=specially for|date=22 August 2014|website=www.rbth.com|language=en-US|access-date=13 May 2019}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Urban administration and governance ===<br />
'''Pre-1973:'''<br />
<br />
Before the establishment of the Special Area Development Authority in 1973, civic administration and urban services in Bhilai were largely associated with the [[Bhilai Steel Plant|Bhilai Steel Plant (BSP)]], which developed and maintained the township as an industrial town. Independent municipal governance structures were not formally constituted during this period.<br />
<br />
'''1973–1998 (SADA period):'''<br />
<br />
In 1973, the Special Area Development Authority (SADA) was established to separate urban governance from the administrative control of BSP. An agreement concluded in 1977 defined the jurisdictional boundaries and taxation powers of SADA. Subsequently, in 1978, BSP transferred approximately 1,920 acres of land to SADA to facilitate municipal administration and planned urban development.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bhilai Steel Plant, Bhilai vs Special Area Development Authority, Bhilai and Others |url=https://www.the-laws.com/Encyclopedia/Browse/Case?caseId=411991040000&title=bhilai-steel-plant-bhilai-vs-special-area-development-authority-bhilai}}</ref><br />
<br />
'''1998–present (Municipal Corporation):'''<br />
<br />
In 1998, Bhilai was constituted as a Municipal Corporation in accordance with the provisions of the 74th Constitutional Amendment to the Constitution of India. All administrative functions, assets, and responsibilities of SADA were transferred to an elected urban local body. This marked a significant transition from company-managed administration to democratic municipal governance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bhilai Municipal Corporation |url=https://www.bhilaionline.in/guide/administration-in-bhilai}}</ref><br />
<br />
As per the [[Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs]], the Bhilai Municipal Corporation reported a revenue of ₹237 crore (US$28 million) and an expenditure of ₹162 crore (US$19 million) in 2022–23. Taxes contributed to 25.7% of the revenue, while the corporation received ₹70 crore in grants during the year.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bhilai Municipal Corporation city finance |url=https://www.cityfinance.in/municipal-data/city/bhilai<br />
|work=Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, Government of India |access-date=11 March 2026}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Demographics ==<br />
<br />
=== Population ===<br />
In the 2011 census, [[Durg]]-Bhilainagar Urban Agglomeration had a population of 1,064,222, of which 545,916 are males and 518,306 are females. Bhilai has an average literacy rate of 86.63%, with male literacy at 92.22% and female literacy at 80.71%.<ref>{{cite web| url =http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/India2/Table_3_PR_UA_Citiees_1Lakh_and_Above.pdf | title = Urban Agglomerations/Cities having population 100,000 and above |work= Provisional Population Totals, Census of India 2011 |access-date = 16 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201122151653/https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/India2/Table_3_PR_UA_Citiees_1Lakh_and_Above.pdf |archive-date=22 November 2020}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Geography ==<br />
Bhilai lies at 21.21°N 81.38°E in [[Central India]] at an elevation of 297m above [[sea level]] on the banks of the [[Shivnath River|Shivnath river]], a tributary of the river [[Mahanadi]]. It covers an area of 341&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> (132 sq mi).<br />
<br />
According to the [[Bureau of Indian Standards]], the town falls under [[Earthquake zones of India|seismic zone 2]], in a scale of 2 to 5 (in order of increasing value of vulnerability to earthquakes).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://pib.nic.in/newsite/mbErel.aspx?relid=168661|title=Seismic Zones|website=pib.nic.in|access-date=13 May 2019}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Climate ==<br />
Owing to its proximity to the [[Tropic of Cancer]], Bhilai has a tropical climate. There are three main seasons: summer, monsoon, and winter. The average annual temperature in Bhilai is 26.6&nbsp;°C and the city receives an average rainfall of 1188&nbsp;mm in a year. Summers usually last from May to June, followed by monsoons in July and August. The town receives the bulk of rainfall in July, with an average rainfall of 352mm. There is little rainfall during the winters, with November being the driest month of the year.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.climate-data.org/asia/india/chhattisgarh/bhilai-993488/|title=Bhilai climate: Average Temperature, weather by month, Bhilai weather averages - Climate-Data.org|website=en.climate-data.org|access-date=13 May 2019}}</ref><br />
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Durg Bhilai has been ranked 29th best “National Clean Air City” (under Category 1 >10L Population cities) in India.<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 September 2024 |title=Swachh Vayu Sarvekshan 2024 |url=https://prana.cpcb.gov.in/ncapServices/robust/fetchFilesFromDrive/Swachh_Vayu_Survekshan_2024_Result.pdf |website=Swachh Vayu Sarvekshan 2024}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Economy==<br />
Bhilai is home to the [[Bhilai Steel Plant]], the first and largest Indian plant to produce steel rails. The inauguration of the first blast furnace of Bhilai Steel Plant was done by then president of India Dr. Rajendra Prasad, which was established with help from the [[Soviet Union]] in 1955.<ref name="zee">{{cite news |publisher=[[Zee News]] |url=http://zeenews.india.com/india/after-road-show-pm-narendra-modi-inaugurates-modernized-and-expanded-bhilai-steel-plant-2116501.html |title=After roadshow, PM Narendra Modi inaugurates modernized and expanded Bhilai Steel Plant |date=14 June 2018}}</ref><br />
<br />
Iron ore from Rawghat, limestone from Nandini, coal from Jharia, manganese from Balaghat, electric power from the Korba thermal power plant, and water from the Tandula Canal, all nearby, are used in the Bhilai Steel Plant to manufacture rails and structural steel. Pig iron and billets are supplied to foundries and rolling mills located at Kumhari and other sites in central India.<br />
<br />
The number of steel rails produced by the facility till 2007 can go around the circumference of the earth 7.5 times. This is depicted on the monument at the globe square in the heart of the city. The facility underwent modernisation and expansion and is amongst the leading manufacturers of iron and steel in Asia.<ref name="zee"/><br />
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== Education ==<br />
<!---♦♦♦ Only add an institute to this list if it already has its own article on the English Wikipedia ♦♦♦---> <br />
The city serves as an educational hub in the region, with a total of 59 universities and colleges, like [[Indian Institute of Technology Bhilai|Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Bhilai]], [[Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University]], [[Bhilai Institute of Technology]], [[Shri Shankaracharya Institute of Medical Sciences]], [[CCM Medical College, Durg|Chandulal Chandrakar Memorial Government Medical College]], [[Rungta College Bhilai]], and [[Shri Shankaracharya Technical Campus]], [[Chhattisgarh Kamdhenu Vishwavidyalaya|Dau Shri Vasudev Chandrakar Kamdhenu Vishwavidyalaya Durg]], [[Hemchand Yadav Vishwavidyalaya]].<br />
<br />
Schools in Bhilai are run either by municipal corporations or privately by entities, trusts, and corporations. The majority of schools are affiliated with the [[Chhattisgarh Board of Secondary Education]] and the [[Central Board of Secondary Education]].<br />
<br />
==Transport==<br />
===Roadways===<br />
The twin city of Durg-Bhilai is well connected with a network of national and state highways. Some major highways passing through the city are [[National Highway 53 (India)|National Highway 53]] (NH-53), SH-7 till [[Bemetara]] and SH-22 till [[Abhanpur]]. The proposed [[Durg–Raipur–Arang Expressway]] will start from Durg and will pass near the outskirts of Bhilai till [[Arang]], which after completion, will enhance connectivity and commute in the state.<br />
<br />
===Rail===<br />
There are total 15 railway stations in the twin city that includes railway stations serving adjacent and minor neighbourhoods within the city. The main stations are [[Bhilai Power House railway station]] and [[Durg Junction railway station]], which are major railway stations, with Durg being the biggest and the busiest, lying on the [[Howrah–Nagpur–Mumbai line]].<br />
<br />
===Bus transport===<br />
The Durg Bus Station is a hub with buses plying to any place in and around Chhattisgarh as well as other parts of the country, with daily bus services operated by private and government buses to all cities within the state and outside the state, like [[Bhubaneswar]], [[Nagpur]], [[Jharsuguda]], [[Varanasi]], [[Prayagraj]], [[Kolkata]], [[Patna]], [[Ranchi]], [[Hyderabad]], [[Jabalpur]], [[Visakhapatnam]], among others.<br />
<br />
===Metro===<br />
A [[light rail]], Metrolite or Lite Metro (as referred in India), has been proposed by the [[Government of Chhattisgarh]], which will pass from [[Naya Raipur]] to Durg via [[Raipur]] and Bhilai.<ref>{{cite news|title=Monthly Allowance To Unemployed Youth, Focus On Metro, Sports & Infra: CM Baghel Tabels Chhattisgarh Budget|url=https://news.abplive.com/states/chhattisgarh-budget-2023-announcement-for-health-education-agriculture-budget-highlights-cm-bhupesh-baghel-1586508|work=[[ABP News]]|date=6 March 2023|access-date=9 March 2023|language=en}}</ref><br />
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===Air===<br />
The nearest major airport is [[Swami Vivekananda International Airport]] at Raipur, located {{cvt|50|km}} east from Bhilai. The airport at [[Bhilai Airport|Bhilai]] is currently a private airport operated by the [[Bhilai Steel Plant]], located {{cvt|15|km}} north of the city. In recent years, it has been considered for the airport to be developed to handle commercial operations, and make it a domestic airport.<br />
<br />
==Notable people==<br />
<!---♦♦♦ Only add a person to this list if they already have their own article on the English Wikipedia ♦♦♦---><br />
<!---♦♦♦ Please keep the list in alphabetical order by LAST NAME ♦♦♦---><br />
* [[Teejan Bai]], Pandvani singer<br />
* [[Anurag Basu]], Bollywood director<br />
* [[Anupama Bhagwat]], sitar player<br />
* [[Rajesh Chauhan]], a former cricketer in the Indian cricket team<br />
* [[Budhaditya Mukherjee]], [[sitar]] player<br />
* [[Amit Sana]], runner-up in ''Indian Idol 1''<br />
* [[Tejal Shah]] (born 1979), visual artist, curator<br />
* [[Shashank Singh]], Indian cricketer<br />
* [[Krishnamurthy Subramanian]], 17th Chief Economic Adviser to the Government of India<br />
* [[Devendra Yadav]], MLA Bhilai Nagar and former mayor of Bhilai<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
* [[List of cities in Chhattisgarh by population]]<br />
* [[Chhattisgarh]]<br />
* [[Largest Indian cities by GDP]]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
{{Commons category}}<br />
<br />
{{Chhattisgarh}}<br />
{{Durg district}}<br />
{{Million-plus cities in India}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Bhilai| ]]<br />
[[Category:Metropolitan cities in India]]<br />
[[Category:Company towns in India]]<br />
[[Category:Planned communities in India]]</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yaman_(raga)&diff=458168Yaman (raga)2026-03-05T07:50:26Z<p>AmitNeogi: adjusted information for consistency and updated info</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Hindustani raga}}<br />
{{cleanup lang|date=July 2022}}<br />
{{Infobox raga<br />
| name = Yaman<br />
| image_name = Kalyan.png<br />
| time of day (gayan samaye)= 1st part of the night<br />
| arohana = Ni R Ga {{overline|Ma}} Dha Ni Sa'<br />
| avarohana = Sa' Ni Dha Pa {{overline|Ma}} Ga Re Sa<br />
| vadi = Ga<br />
| samavadi = Ni<br />
| pakad = ni-Re-Ga-/Re-Ga/ni-Re-Sa/Pa-{{overline|Ma}}-Ga-Re/ni-Re-Sa' (Ma is teevr)<br />
| equivalent = {{ubl|[[Kalyani (raga)|Kalyani]] | [[Lydian mode]]}}<br />
| similar = [[Yaman Kalyan]], [[Kalyani (raga)|Kalyani]]<br />
}}<br />
{{Hindustani Classical Music}}<br />
'''Yaman''' (also known as '''Kalyaan''', '''Iman''', '''Aiman''', '''Eman''', '''[[Kalyani (raga)|Kalyani]]''' in [[Carnatic classical music]]) is a [[heptatonic]] ([[Sampurna raga|sampurna]]) [[Hindustani classical music|Indian classical]] [[raga]] of [[Kalyan (thaat)|Kalyan]] [[Thaat]].<br />
<br />
The specific sequence of notes (pakad) that uniquely identifies raga Yaman is ni-Re-Ga-/Re-Ga/ni-Re-Sa/Pa-{{overline|Ma}}-Ga-Re/ni-Re-Sa' (Ma is sharp, or teevra). <br />
<br />
The tonal movements of the notes mostly reflect zigzag motion, skipping one or several notes and usually preferring a reverse order, such as: DNS' mDN GmD RGm N,GR or MDNS' GmDN RGmD N,RGm D,N,GR etc. Ideally, Yaman should not use a PR combination. Instead, it can use P~R, showing the 'colour' of m or G while gliding from P to R, as PR is one of the specific identification of raga Kalyaan.<br />
{{Listen<br />
| filename = Sitar sample yaman.ogg<br />
| title = Sample music in Sitar<br />
| description = A 1 min 43-second sample of Sitar sound, playing Yaman<br />
| format = [[Ogg]]<br />
| pos = right<br />
}}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Yaman emerged from the parent musical scale of [[Kalyan (thaat)|Kalyan]]. Considered to be one of the most fundamental and basic ragas in [[Hindustani classical music|Hindustani]] tradition, it is thus often one of the first ragas taught to students.<br />
<br />
=== Mechanics ===<br />
Yaman's Jati is a Sampurna raga (ideally, yaman is audav sampoorna raag because of the structure- N,RGmDNR'S' NDPmGRS) and in some cases Shadav; the ascending Aaroha scale and the descending style of the [[Avrohana|avroha]] includes all seven notes in the octave (When it is audav, the Aroha goes like N,RGmDNS', where the fifth note is omitted; Pa but the Avaroha is the same complete octave). All the scale notes (called [[swaras]]) in the raga are Shuddha, the exception being Teevra [[Madhyama (music)|Madhyam]] or prati madhyamam (sharp fourth). The notes of the raga are considered analogous to the western [[Lydian mode]].<br />
<br />
None of the three great treatises of music, accept the existence of {{lang|hi-Latn|tivra}} ma,[text missing]<br />
<br />
Not to be mistaken, Raag Yaman is slightly different from [[Raag Yaman Kalyan]]. Both have almost the same base, but they are sung differently. The Aroha and Avaroha of Yaman Kalyan goes like this:<br />
SRGmPDNS'<br />
S'NDPm GMGRN, RS<br />
<br />
{{clarify|date=April 2021}}<br />
<br />
=== Vadi and samavadi ===<br />
[[Vadi (music)|Vadi]] is ga, [[Samvadi]] is ni.<br />
<br />
=== Pakad ===<br />
It is wrong to say that Kalyan has no specific phrases or particular features, many musicians avoid Sa and Pa in ascend or treat them very weakly in Yaman. One often applies N<sup>0</sup> R G M<sup>+</sup> D N S' in ascent and S' N D M<sup>+</sup> G R S in descend<ref>Kaufmann(1968)</ref>).<br />
<br />
=== Organization and relationships ===<br />
There is some discussion as to whether Yaman and Kalyan are just different names for the same raga, or that they are actually two distinct ragas. Joep Bor says "Kalyan (today usually referred to as Yaman)".<ref name="Bor 1997">Bor 1997</ref> Kaufmann<ref>Kaufmann 1968</ref> says that Yaman and Kalyan are just different names, but insists that rāga Yaman-Kalyan is different as natural Ma is occasionally inserted between two Ga, like Ga Ma Ga Re Sa, while in all other instances {{Transliteration|hi|italic=no|tivra Ma}} (Ma<sup>+</sup> is used as in Kalyan). S. Bagchee<ref>Bagchee 1998</ref> agrees with Kaufmann.<br />
As Bor, Kaufmann and Bagchee are not practising, professional and traditional musicians and artistes with training from qualified musicians, their opinions and observations must be accepted with a pinch of salt. An analysis of the raag leads some musicians to believe that the names of the raags Yaman and Kalyan are different, so their tonal movements shall be different (Kalyan is more akin to shuddha Kalyan, not Yaman). People erratically believe that if natural Ma is occasionally added in a concluding figure leading to Sa, the raga is known as Yaman-Kalyan.<ref name="Bor 1997" /><br />
Practically, yaman has a raganga very different from Kalyan raganga, resembling colours of Shuddha Kalyan. The use of shuddha ma must be restricted as a Vivadi swara (limited use) or grace note for Yaman Kalyan otherwise there is a chance of it becoming Yamani, Yamani Bilawal, Jaimini Kalyan. Moreover, neither of Kalyan or Yaman has Shuddha Ma in its main body thus use of shuddha Ma does not create Yaman Kalyan. Ideally there is no raga at all in Indian music that is recognized as any type of Kalyan because of shuddha Ma, thus raga Yaman Kalyan becomes a misnomer because of Shuddha Ma in the tonal structure of raga Yaman.<br /><br />
Kalyan is mixed with several ragas that has either of Kalyan ang or Yaman ang:<br />
* Adbhut Kalyan<br />
* Anandi Kalyan<br />
* Bhog Kalyan<br />
* Bhoop Kalyan<br />
* Bilas khani Kalyan<br />
* Chandra Kalyan<br />
* Chhaya Kalyan<br />
* Deepak Kalyan<br />
* Gaud Kalyan<br />
* [[Gorakh Kalyan]]<br />
* Hameer Kalyan<br />
* Hem Kalyan<br />
* Hindol Kalyan<br />
* Husseini Kalyan<br />
* Jaimini Kalyan<br />
* Jait Kalyan<br />
* Kamod Kalyan<br />
* Kedar Kalyan<br />
* Kesari Kalyan<br />
* Khem Kalyan<br />
* Kohri Kalyan<br />
* Laxmi Kalyan<br />
* Maru Kalyan<br />
* Miyaan ki Kalyan<br />
* Nand Kalyan<br />
* Nat Kalyan<br />
* Panch Kalyan<br />
* Poorva Kalyan<br />
* Puriya Kalyan<br />
* Pyaar Kalyan<br />
* Raam Kalyan<br />
* Raini Kalyan<br />
* Ravi Kalyan<br />
* Saraswati Kalyan<br />
* Shankar Kalyan<br />
* Shankaraa Kalyan<br />
* Shiv Kalyan<br />
* Shree Kalyan<br />
* Shuddha Kalyan<br />
* Shyam Kalyan<br />
* Sohni Kalyan<br />
* Yaman Kalyan<br />
<br />
Yaman raga mixing in other ragas:<br />
* Kalavati Yaman<br />
* Yaman Bhopali<br />
* Yamani<br />
* Yamani Basant<br />
* Yamani Bilawal<br />
* Yamani Hindol<br />
* Yaman Chhaya<br />
<br />
[[Thaat]]: Kalyan is type raga of [[Kalyan (thaat)|Kalyan thaat]]. In thaat Kalyan, all notes are shuddha (natural) except {{Transliteration|hi|italic=no|teevra}} (sharp) Ma.<br />
<br />
=== Behaviour ===<br />
Yaman is regarded one of the grandest and most fundamental ragas in the hindustani tradition. It is one of the first ragas taught to students but it also has great scope for improvisation. Raag elaboration can focus more on mandra and madhya saptak, thus the key note chosen for yaman is preferred to be a higher tone.<br />
<br />
=== Samay (time) ===<br />
Ragas in the Kalyan thaat, including Yaman, should be performed during the first quarter of the night.<br />
<br />
=== Rasa ===<br />
Kalyan is described by [[Meshakarna]] (1570) as "lord in white garments and pearl necklace on a splendid lion-throne, under a royal umbrella, fanned with whisk, chewing betel"<ref name="Bor 1997" /><br />
<br />
This raga promotes romanticism, It sounds romantic, we can see in Bollywood many romantic songs are based on this raga.<br />
<br />
== Historical information ==<br />
{{importance section|date=July 2022}}<br />
<br />
=== Yaman or Kalyan: An Ancient Indian Raag ===<br />
It is hypothesized that Yaman or Kalyan is an older Indian raaga that underwent an evolution attributed to Ameer Khusro (1253–1325), who also renamed it from Kalyan to Yaman. Yaman raag finds its roots in the Kalyaan Thaat, which would categorize it as an aasreya raag within the Kalyaan Thaat.<br />
<br />
=== Origins of Yaman ===<br />
Hindustani vocalist, scholar, and researcher Ramkrishna Das Nadrang suggests that some musicians believe Yaman's origin traces back to Yemen, a country in the Middle East situated at the southern end of the Arabian Peninsula. However, there exists no historical evidence or record of Yemeni natives practicing the Yaman melody within the context of Hindustani music in India. Consequently, Yemen seems to lack any substantive connection to the raag Yaman.<br />
<br />
Within the traditional confines of the Gwalior gharana and certain olden Hindustani music schools, music masters assert that a learner must imbue faith (IMAAN) in their teacher-mentor's words to progress in music. Consequently, they emphasize the importance of "imaan laao (submitting to the aphorism)," making Yaman the starting point for music instruction. As a result, the term "yaman" became synonymous with "iman," aligning it closely with the term "imaan."<br />
<br />
Ramkrishna Das posits an alternative hypothesis suggesting that the word "yaman" may be linked to Sanskrit "Yavan" (Muslim). This theory posits that the raag Yaman evolved from Kalyaan, as puritan Hindu musicians began referring to the melody as "kalyaan of the Muslim artistes" or "yavanon kaa kalyaan." Over time, this term transformed into "yavan kalyaan," then "yaman kalyan," and finally, "yaman."<br />
<br />
In South Indian Carnatic music, a similar melody is referred to as "yamuna kalyaani," while the Gwalior Paluskar tradition introduced a raag named "Jaimini Kalyaan," which potentially aligns with the Carnatic name. This transformation into "Yaman" was, in a sense, a derogatory term, as it altered the sanctity of Kalyaan due to its intricate tonal movements, characterized by excessive zigzag patterns and internal skips or gaps between notes.<br />
<br />
Yaman accentuates notes ni, ga, and ma, with limited use of saa and pa during the ascent. In contrast, Kalyaan emphasizes saa, pa, re, ga, with minimal reliance on ma and ni. Raag Kalyaan also exhibits frequent downward movements, similar to the model of raag shuddha kalyaan.<br />
<br />
=== Attributions to Ameer Khusro and Variations ===<br />
Some proponents attribute the creation of Yaman to Ameer Khusro (1253–1325), a Sufi saint, poet, singer, and courtier to several Indian rulers. "Raag Vyaakaran" (1975, page 468-470) by Bimalakaanta Roychoudhury presents four varieties of Yaman, among which Khusro's Yaman lacks ni and tivra ma during the ascent, except for magama. This particular melody is penta-hexatonic (SRGPDS'| S'DPGmGRS), with vaadi ga-samvaadi dha. The tonal movements are detailed on page 469 as follows (, = lower octave, ' = upper octave): SRGRS D,S RG PGmG RGRS GRS PDS' G'R'S' DP GmGRG PGRS. This reveals that the contemporary Yaman differs significantly from the 14th-century version.<br />
<br />
=== Evolution and Connection to Yamani ===<br />
According to Ramkrishna Das, contemporary Yaman is a derivative of an older raag called "yamani," which developed along the banks of the Yamuna River near Mathura-Vrindavan or in the Chaiti dhun of Varanasi. Precisely, Yaman appears to be a part of Yamani due to the name "Yamuna" being associated with it. Notably, the folk melody of the song 'Sautan ghar na jaa/ na jaa more saiyaan (SR SN,S D,N,R--N,RGR G~S--)' features the unique and spontaneous tonal movement "niresaa," an essential element of Yaman, not commonly found in other folk melodies.<br />
<br />
The oldest available chaiti song is "Piyaa se milan ham jaayeb ho raamaa piyaa se milana," composed by saint Kabir (1398–1518) of Varanasi. This song exhibits the following tonal structures: N,P,N,N,N,SS SS SR SN.S D,N,R-- N,R GMG- G~S--. Both of these tonal structures mirror essential movements of contemporary raag Yaman, sans the tivra madhyam (sharp fourth). However, the antaraa of the chaiti incorporates tivra ma as an essential part of the melody. Chaitis are popularly recognized as "maanjh khamaaj" (thanks to Pandit Ravishankar, Ali Akbar Khan, Vilayat Khan, Nikhil Banerjee). Otherwise, musicians in Varanasi referred to them as "yamani."<br />
<br />
=== The Influence of Tivra Madhyam ===<br />
Spontaneous use of tivra madhyam is evident in the tune of raag "janglaa," prevalent in the rasiya singing of Braj-Vrindavan (mPGMPmP NDNS' DNP- nDP GMPmP). However, in Indian folk melodies, tivra ma is rarely and spontaneously employed. Since tivra ma, komal re, and komal dha were not acknowledged in the Naatya Shaastra, Brihaddeshi, and Sangeet Ratnaakar (1245 AD), raag Kalyaan did not exist in the pre-Muqaam or pre-Melakarta system of raags.<br />
<br />
It is conceivable that the frequent use of tivra ma was propagated by followers of Khusro, qawwali singers, and folk musicians, leading to the evolution of Yamani into Yaman while retaining the core tonal movements. Additionally, the advent of the melakarta system in Carnatic schools attributed to Venkatamakhi (~1630), further popularized the raag Kalyaan. Perhaps the name "kalyaan" drew inspiration from the popular tunes of Sanskrit verses recited during evening prayers.<br />
<br />
Yaman, or the commonly referred to term "kalyan," accommodates almost all tonal combinations. Renowned sitar maestro Abdul Halim Jaffer Khan used to affirm, "Ye man jo chaahe wahi yaman hai," emphasizing the vast umbrella of possibilities for tonal combinations within Yaman.<br />
<br />
=== Important recordings ===<br />
* [[Amir Khan (singer)|Amir Khan]] – Shuddh Kalyan, Yaman, and Yaman Kalyan<br />
* Ghulam Abbas Khan Vilambit and Drut 'Dharohar' by Mystica Music<br />
* [[Imrat Khan]] "Nordindische Ragas, Live"<br />
* [[Rashid Khan (musician)|Rashid Khan]] – [[bandish]] in [[vilambit]] [[ektal]] (India Archive Music IAM CD 1003)<br />
* [[Ravi Shankar]] in [[matya|matta]] [[tala (music)|tal]]: "The Genius of Pandit Ravi Shankar", Oriental Records Inc, New York AAMS CD108<br />
* [[Zia Mohiuddin Dagar]] on [[Nimbus Records]], LS5871 / NI7047/8<br />
<br />
== Film songs ==<br />
<br />
=== Hindi ===<br />
<br />
Following is the list of film songs based on Yaman.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! Song<br />
! Movie<br />
! Composer<br />
! Singer<br />
|-<br />
| "Is Mod Se Jaate Hai"<br />
| ''[[Aandhi]]''<br />
| [[R.D.Burman]]<br />
| [[Lata Mangeshkar]], [[Kishore Kumar]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Jiya Le Gayo Ji Mora"<br />
| ''[[Anpadh]]''<br />
| [[Madan Mohan]]<br />
| [[Lata Mangeshkar]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Naam Gum Jaayega"<br />
| '' [[Kinara (film)|Kinara]]''<br />
| [[R.D.Burman]]<br />
| [[Lata Mangeshkar]], [[Bhupinder Singh (musician)|Bhupinder Singh]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Rasik Balma"<br />
| ''[[Chori Chori (1956 film)|Chori Chori]]''<br />
| [[Shankar–Jaikishan]]<br />
| [[Lata Mangeshkar]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Chandan Sa Badan"<br />
| '' [[Saraswatichandra (film)|Saraswatichandra]]''<br />
| [[Kalyanji–Anandji]]<br />
| [[Lata Mangeshkar]], [[Mukesh (singer)|Mukesh]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Zindagi Bhar Nahi Bhulegi"<br />
| ''[[Barsaat Ki Raat]]''<br />
| | [[Roshan (music director)|Roshan]]<br />
| [[Lata Mangeshkar]], [[Mohammed Rafi]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Jab Deep Jale Aana"<br />
| ''[[Chitchor]]''<br />
| [[Ravindra Jain]]<br />
| [[Hemlata (singer)]], [[K. J. Yesudas]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Ek Pyar Ka Nagma Hai"<br />
| ''[[Shor (film)]]''<br />
| [[Laxmikant–Pyarelal]]<br />
| [[Lata Mangeshkar]], [[Mukesh (singer)|Mukesh]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Ehsan Tera Hoga Mujhpar"<br />
| '' [[Junglee (1961 film)|Junglee]]''<br />
| [[Shankar–Jaikishan]]<br />
| [[Lata Mangeshkar]], [[Mohammed Rafi]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Zaraasi Aahat Hoti Hai"<br />
| '' [[Haqeeqat (1964 film)|Haqeeqat]]''<br />
| [[Madan Mohan]]<br />
| [[Lata Mangeshkar]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Kabhi Kabhi Mere Dil Mein"<br />
| ''[[Kabhi Kabhie]]''<br />
| [[Mohammed Zahur Khayyam|Khayyam]]<br />
| [[Lata Mangeshkar]], [[Mukesh (singer)|Mukesh]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Beeti Na Beetayi Raina"<br />
| '' [[Parichay (film)|Parichay]]''<br />
| [[R.D.Burman]]<br />
| [[Lata Mangeshkar]], [[Bhupinder Singh (musician)|Bhupinder Singh]]<br />
|-<br />
| " [[Aayat (song)|Aayat]]"<br />
| ''[[Bajirao Mastani]]''<br />
| [[Sanjay Leela Bhansali]]<br />
| [[Arijit Singh]], Mujtaba Aziz Naza, [[Shadab Faridi]], [[Altamash Faridi]], [[Farhan Sabri]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Laal Ishq"<br />
| ''[[Goliyon Ki Raasleela Ram-Leela]]''<br />
| [[Sanjay Leela Bhansali]]<br />
| [[Arijit Singh]], [[Osman Mir]], [[Altamash Faridi]]<br />
|-<br />
| "[[Chaleya]]" <br />
(loosely based)<br />
| ''[[Jawan (film)|Jawan]]''<br />
| [[Anirudh Ravichander]]<br />
| [[Arijit Singh]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Aap Ke Anurodh Pe"<br />
| ''[[Anurodh]]''<br />
| [[Laxmikant–Pyarelal]]<br />
| [[Kishore Kumar]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Nigahen Milaane ko Jee Chahta Hai"<br />
| '' [[Dil Hi To Hai (1963 film)|Dil Hi To Hai]]''<br />
| [[Roshan (music director)|Roshan]]<br />
| [[Asha Bhosle]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Ghar Se Nikalte Hi"<br />
| ''[[Papa Kehte Hai]]''<br />
| [[Rajesh Roshan]]<br />
| [[Udit Narayan]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Aaye Ho Meri Zindagi Mein"<br />
| ''[[Raja Hindustani]]''<br />
| [[Nadeem–Shravan]]<br />
| [[Alka Yagnik]], [[Udit Narayan]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Hamesha Tumko Chaha"<br />
| '' [[Devdas (2002 Hindi film)|Devdas]]''<br />
| [[Ismail Darbar]]<br />
| [[Kavita Krishnamurti]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Aaj Ibaadat"<br />
| ''[[Bajirao Mastani]]''<br />
| [[Sanjay Leela Bhansali]]<br />
| [[Javed Bashir]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Hothon Se Chulo Tum"<br />
| ''[[Prem Geet (1981 film)|Prem Geet]]''<br />
| [[Jagjit Singh]]<br />
| [[Jagjit Singh]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Ek Dil Ek Jaan "<br />
| ''[[Padmaavat]]''<br />
| [[Sanjay Leela Bhansali]]<br />
| [[Shivam Pathak]], Mujtaba Aziz Naza<br />
|-<br />
| "Woh Sham Kuch Ajeeb Thi"<br />
| ''[[Khamoshi (1970 film)|Khamoshi]]''<br />
| [[Hemant Kumar]]<br />
| [[Kishore Kumar]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Ey Hairathe"<br />
| ''[[Guru (2007 film)|Guru]]''<br />
| [[A. R. Rahman]]<br />
| [[Alka Yagnik]], [[Hariharan (singer)|Hariharan]], [[A. R. Rahman]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Salaam-E-Ishq Meri Jaan"<br />
| ''[[Muqaddar Ka Sikandar]]''<br />
| [[Kalyanji-Anandji]]<br />
| [[Lata Mangeshkar]], [[Kishore Kumar]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Inhi logon ne"<br />
| ''[[Pakeezah]]''<br />
| [[Naushad]]<br />
| [[Lata Mangeshkar]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Ja Re, Badra Bairi Ja"<br />
| ''[[Bahana (1960 film)|Bahana]]''<br />
| [[Madan Mohan]]<br />
| [[Lata Mangeshkar]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Tere Husn Ki Kya Tareef Karun"<br />
| ''[[Leader (1964 film)|Leader]]''<br />
| [[Naushad]]<br />
| [[Lata Mangeshkar]], [[Mohammed Rafi]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Bhooli Hui Yaadon Mujhe Itna"<br />
| ''[[Sanjog (1961 film)|Sanjog]]''<br />
| [[Madan Mohan]]<br />
| [[Mukesh (singer)|Mukesh]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Woh Jab Yaad Aaye"<br />
| ''[[Parasmani]]''<br />
| [[Laxmikant–Pyarelal]]<br />
| [[Lata Mangeshkar]], [[Mohammed Rafi]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Dil-E-Betaab Ko Seene Se Lagana Hoga"<br />
| ''[[Palki (1967 film)|Palki]]''<br />
| [[Naushad]]<br />
| [[Suman Kalyanpur]], [[Mohammed Rafi]] <br />
|-<br />
| "Yun Shabnam"<br />
| ''[[Saawariya]]''<br />
| [[Monty Sharma]]<br />
| [[Parthiv Gohil]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Phir Na Kije Meri Gustakh Nigah Ka Gila"<br />
| ''[[Phir Subah Hogi]]''<br />
| [[Mohammed Zahur Khayyam|Khayyam]]<br />
| [[Asha Bhosle]], [[Mukesh (singer)|Mukesh]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Tum Bin Jeevan Kaise Beeta"<br />
| ''[[Anita (1967 film)|Anita]]''<br />
| [[Laxmikant-Pyarelal]]<br />
| [[Mukesh (singer)|Mukesh]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Kay Sera Sera"<br />
| ''[[Pukar (2000 film)|Pukar]]''<br />
| [[A. R. Rahman]]<br />
| [[Kavita Krishnamurthy]], [[Shankar Mahadevan]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Moh Moh Ke Dhaage"<br />
| ''[[Dum Laga Ke Haisha]]''<br />
| [[Anu Malik]]<br />
| [[Papon (singer)|Papon]], [[Monali Thakur]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Sochenge Tumhe Pyaar Karen ke Nahi"<br />
| ''[[Deewana (1992 film)|Deewana]]''<br />
| [[Nadeem–Shravan]]<br />
| [[Kumar Sanu]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Abhi Na Jao Chhodakar"<br />
| ''[[Hum Dono (1961 film)|Hum Dono]]''<br />
| [[Jaidev]]<br />
| [[Asha Bhosle]], [[Mohammed Rafi]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Pyar Mein Hota Hai Kya Jadu"<br />
| ''[[Papa Kehte Hai]]''<br />
| [[Rajesh Roshan]]<br />
| [[Alka Yagnik]], [[Kumar Sanu]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Yeh Safar Bahut Hai Kathi"<br />
| ''[[1942: A Love Story]]''<br />
| [[R.D.Burman]]<br />
| [[Shibaji Chatterjee]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Huzur Is Kadar"<br />
| ''[[Masoom (1983 film)|Masoom]]''<br />
| [[R D Burman]]<br />
| [[Bhupinder Singh (musician)|Bhupinder Singh]], [[Suresh Wadkar]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Do Naina Aur Ek Kahani"<br />
| ''[[Masoom (1983 film)|Masoom]]''<br />
| [[R D Burman]]<br />
| [[Aarti Mukherjee]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Tum Gagan Ke Chandrama Ho"<br />
| ''Sati Savitri (1964)''<br />
| [[Laxmikant Pyarelal]]<br />
| [[Lata Mangeshkar]], [[Manna Dey]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Chupa Lo Yun Dil Mein Pyar Mera"<br />
| ''[[Mamta (1966 film)|Mamta]]''<br />
| [[Roshan (music director)|Roshan]]<br />
| [[Lata Mangeshkar]], [[Hemant Kumar]]<br />
|-<br />
| "aansu bhari hai jeevan ki rahen"<br />
| ''[[Parvarish (1958 film)|Parvarish]]''<br />
| [[Dattaram Wadkar]]<br />
| [[Mukesh (singer)|Mukesh]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Mausam Hai Aashiqana"<br />
| ''[[Pakeezah]]''<br />
| [[Ghulam Mohammed (composer)|Ghulam Mohammed]]<br />
| [[Lata Mangeshkar]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Portal|India|Music}}<br />
{{reflist|30em}}<br />
<br />
== Literature ==<br />
{{Citation |last=Bor |first=Joep |title=[[The Raga Guide]] |publisher=Nimbus Records |place=Charlottesville,Virginia |year=1997}}<br /><br />
{{Citation |last=Kaufmann |first=Walter |title=The Ragas of North India |publisher=Oxford and IBH Publishing Company |place=Calcutta |year=1968}}.<br /><br />
{{Citation |last=Bagchee |first=Sandeep |title=Nād, Understanding Rāga Music |publisher=Eshwar (Business Publications Inc.) |place=Mumbai |year=1998}}.<br /><br />
{{Citation |last=Bhatt |first=Balvantray |title=Bhāvaranga |publisher=Motilal Barnasidas |place=Varanasi |year=1964–1974}}.<br /><br />
{{Citation |last=Gandharva |first=Kumar |title=Anūparāgavilāsa |publisher=Mauj Prakashan |place=Bombay |year=1965}}.<br /><br />
{{Citation |last=Patwardhan |first=Vinayak Rao |title=Rāga Vijñāna |publisher=Sangeet Gaurav Granthamala |place=Poona |year=1961–74}}.<br /><br />
{{Citation |last=Srivastava |first=Harichandra |title=Rāga Paricaya |publisher=SangeetSadan Prakashan |place=Allahabad |year=1973–79}}.<br /><br />
{{Citation |last1=Telang |first1=Gokulanand |last2=Bhartendu |first2=Banwari Lal |title=Sangīta Rāga Aṣṭachāpa |publisher=Sangeet Karyalaya |place=Hathras |year=1962}}.<br /><br />
{{Citation |last=Thakar |first=Vasant Vaman |title=Sangīta Rāga Darśana |publisher=Gandharva Mahavidyalaya Mandal Prakashan |place=Prayag}}.<br /><br />
{{Citation |last=Rao |first=B. Subba |title=Raganidhi |publisher=Music Academy |place=Madras |year=1964–66}}.<br /><br />
{{Citation |last=Bhatt |first=Jivanlal |title=Sangeet Parichay |publisher=Atmaram & Sons |place=Delhi |year=1950}}.<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* [http://chandrakantha.com/raga_raag/film_song_raga.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220113105750/https://chandrakantha.com/raga_raag/film_song_raga.html |date=2022-01-13 }}<br />
* [http://oceanofragas.com/ocean_htmlpages/yaman.html More details about raag Yaman]<br />
* {{Citation |last=Moutal |first=Patrick |title=Hindustāni Rāga-s Index |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt Ltd |place=New Delhi |year=1991 |id={{Listed Invalid ISBN|81-215-0525-7}}}}<br />
* [http://www.itcsra.org/sra_raga/sra_raga_that/sra_raga_that_index.html SRA on Ragas and Thaats]<br />
* [http://www.itcsra.org/sra_others_samay_index.html SRA on Samay and Ragas]<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20091021023749/http://geocities.com/SoHo/Suite/4564/yamantechnical.html Technical Aspects]<br />
<br />
{{Rāgas as per Performance Time}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Hindustani ragas]]<br />
[[Category:Ragas in the Guru Granth Sahib]]</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kanakachilanka&diff=508067Kanakachilanka2026-03-04T09:24:35Z<p>AmitNeogi: put up basic details added tags...</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Indian film by M. Krishnan Nair}}<br />
{{No plot|date=July 2020}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2015}}<br />
{{Infobox film<br />
| name = Kanakachilanga<br />
| image = <br />
| caption =<br />
| director = M. Krishnan Nair<br />
| producer = Sundarlal Nahatha<br />
| writer = Thoppil Bhasi <br />
| narrator =<br />
| starring = Prem Nazir<br />Sheela<br />Muthayya<br />Adoor Bhasi<br />
| music = M. S. Baburaj<br />
| cinematography = <br />
| editing =<br />
| distributor = <br />
| released = {{Film date|1966}}<br />
| runtime =<br />
| country = India<br />
| language = [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]]<br />
| budget =<br />
| gross =<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''''Kanakachilanga''''' is a 1966 [[Malayalam language]] film. It is an adaptation of the Bollywood movie ''[[Kismet (1943 film)|Kismet]]'', starring Ashok Kumar and Mumtaz Shanti. It is the first Malayalam film that included an additional scene after the release.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/kanakachilanka-1966/article2153269.ece|title=Kanakachilanka (1966)|first=B.|last=Vijayakumar|date=3 July 2011|access-date=24 November 2021|website=The Hindu}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Cast==<br />
* [[Prem Nazir]]<br />
* [[Sheela]]<br />
* Muthayya<br />
* [[Adoor Bhasi]]<br />
* [[Manavalan Joseph]]<br />
* [[T. K. Balachandran]]<br />
* [[Thikkurissy Sukumaran Nair]]<br />
* [[Pankajavalli]]<br />
* Pathmini<br />
* [[Sukumari]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:1966 films]]<br />
[[Category:1966 Malayalam-language films]]<br />
[[Category:Films directed by M. Krishnan Nair]]<br />
[[Category:1966 Indian films]]<br />
<br />
<br />
{{1960s-Malayalam-film-stub}}</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Idiot_(2012_film)&diff=464491Idiot (2012 film)2026-03-04T00:21:57Z<p>AmitNeogi: brief enhance structure for accuracy additionally and corrected details</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|2012 Bengali language action film directed by Rajiv Kumar Biswas}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2015}}{{Infobox film<br />
| name = Idiot<br />
| image = Idiot (2012) poster.jpg<br />
| caption = Theatrical poster<br />
| director = [[Rajiv Kumar Biswas]]<br />
| writer = Pele Bhattacharya<br />
| story = [[Boopathy Pandian]]<br />
| producer = Ashok Dhanuka<br />
| studio = [[Eskay Movies]]<br />
| starring = [[Ankush Hazra]]<br />[[Srabanti Chatterjee]]<br />[[Aditya Pancholi]]<br />
| music = Shree Pritam & Ajoy<br />
| cinematography = Murali Y Krishna<br />
| editing = [[Md. Kalam]]<br />
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2012|11|14}}<br />
| runtime = 2 hours 50 minutes<br />
| country = India<br />
| language = [[Bengali language|Bengali]]<br />
| budget = {{INR|2.4 crore}}{{cn|date=April 2025}}<br />
| gross = {{INR|2 crore}}{{cn|date=April 2025}}<br />
}}<br />
'''''Idiot''''' is a 2012 [[Cinema of West Bengal|Bengali language]] [[Masala film|action masala]] film directed by [[Rajiv Kumar Biswas]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Idiot (2012) |url=http://archive.org/details/idiot-2012 |access-date=2024-06-26}}</ref> Produced by [[Ashok Dhanuka]], under the banner of [[Eskay Movies]], it stars [[Ankush Hazra]], [[Srabanti Chatterjee]] and [[Aditya Pancholi]] in lead roles.<ref>{{Cite news |title=IdiotUA |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movie-details/idiot/movieshow/61240368.cms |access-date=2024-06-26 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> This film marked [[Aditya Pancholi]]'s debut in [[Bengali cinema (India)|Bengali cinema]]. It is a remake of the 2006 [[Tamil language|Tamil]] comedy film ''[[Thiruvilaiyaadal Aarambam]]''.<br />
<br />
==Plot==<br />
Samrat falls in love with Anjali and their love life gets on track. It is smooth sailing until the Anjali's ruthless brother gets into the picture and he does not accept Samrat. So Samrat tricks him and becomes a bigger [[business magnate]] and as a result, is accepted by everyone.<br />
<br />
==Cast==<br />
* [[Ankush Hazra]] as Samrat<br />
* [[Srabanti Chatterjee]] as Anjali, Samrat's girlfriend<br />
* [[Aditya Pancholi]] as Anjali's elder brother Ranavijay Sinha<br />
* Debjani Chattopadhyay as Anjali's sister-in-law<br />
* [[Rajkumar Patra]] as Sujay Ghatak<ref>{{cite web|title=Rajkumar Uncredited Scene Bengali movie Idiot 2012|url=http://www.dailymotion.com/video/x4wpyzl|website=Dailymotion|date=9 October 2016}}</ref><br />
* Pradip Dhar<br />
<br />
==Soundtrack==<br />
* "Sajna Paas Aa Tu Jara" – [[Shaan (singer)|Shaan]] and [[Mahalakshmi Iyer]]<br />
* "Pagli Toke Rakhbo Boro Adore" – [[Zubeen Garg]] and [[Akriti Kakkar]]<br />
* "Hori Din To Gelo" – Zubeen Garg<br />
* "Havvy Lagche" – Zubeen Garg<br />
* "Jhor Othe Mone" – Zubeen Garg and Mahalakshmi Iyer<br />
* "Toke Hebbi Lagche" – Zubeen Garg<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* {{IMDb title|3054472}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Idiot 2012 Film}}<br />
[[Category:2012 films]]<br />
[[Category:Bengali-language Indian films]]<br />
[[Category:2012 Bengali-language films]]<br />
[[Category:Films scored by Shree Pritam]]<br />
[[Category:Bengali-language action comedy films]]<br />
[[Category:Films directed by Rajiv Kumar Biswas]]<br />
[[Category:Bengali remakes of Tamil films]]<br />
<br />
<br />
{{2010s-Bengali-film-stub}}<br />
[[Category:Bengali language films scored by Zubeen Garg]]</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Veera_Kannadiga&diff=464578Veera Kannadiga2026-03-03T21:48:47Z<p>AmitNeogi: minor cleaned up section per standard format and added references</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2025}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}<br />
{{Infobox film<br />
| name = Veera Kannadiga<br />
| image = Veera Kannadiga.jpg<br />
| caption = DVD cover<br />
| director = [[Meher Ramesh]]<br />
| writer = [[Puri Jagannadh]]<br /> M S Ramesh (dialogue)<br />
| producer = [[K.S. Rama Rao]] <br /> K. A. Vallabha<br />
| starring = [[Puneeth Rajkumar]]<br />[[Anita Hassanandani]]<br />
| music = [[Chakri (composer)|Chakri]] <br />
| studio = [[Creative Commercials]]<br />
| language = Kannada<br />
| country = India<br />
| cinematography = <br />
| editing = Udayakumar<br />
| distributor = <br />
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2004|01|01}}<br />
| budget = <!--Must cite a reliable published source with a reputation for fact-checking. No blogs, no IMDb. no fan-sites.--><br />
| gross = <!--Must cite a reliable published source with a reputation for fact-checking. No blogs, no IMDb. no fan-sites.--><br />
| runtime = <br />
}}<br />
'''''Veera Kannadiga''''' ({{translation|The Brave [[Kannada people|Kannadiga]]}}) is a 2004 Indian [[Kannada]]-language [[masala film]] directed by debutant [[Meher Ramesh]] from a story written by [[Puri Jagannadh]] who simultaneously shot the film in Telugu as ''[[Andhrawala]]'' starring [[N. T. Rama Rao Jr.|Jr. NTR]]. The film stars [[Puneeth Rajkumar]] and [[Anita Hassanandani]] in the lead roles.<br />
<br />
''Veera Kannadiga'' was released on 1 January 2004, where it became a commercial success at the box office whereas the Telugu version [[Box-office bomb|bombed at the box office]].<ref name=":0">{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movies/news/Meticulous-planning-in-Sandalwood-amazes-Anita-Hassanandani/articleshow/38013776.cms|title=Meticulous planning in Sandalwood amazes Anita Hassanandani|website=The Times of India|access-date=2019-03-10 |last1=Suresh |first1=Sunayana }}</ref><br />
<br />
== Plot ==<br />
Munna is a slum dweller in Bangalore who learns from a person named Vishwa that his father is Shankar, a labourer who fought against a gangster named Bade Mia for the rights of [[Kannada people|Kannadigas]] in Mumbai. Shankar and Bade Mia's enmity rapidly developed due to Shankar and his men accidentally killing his son. During the naming ceremony of Munna, Bade Mia assassinated Shankar and his wife, but Shankar's subordinate Vishwa managed to escape with Munna where he placed Munna on a footpath beside a beggar. Learning about this, Munna wages a war against Bade Mia, where he finally finishes Bade Mia and his empire, thus avenging Shankar's death.<br />
<br />
== Cast ==<br />
{{Cast listing|<br />
*[[Puneeth Rajkumar]] as Munna and Shankar (dual role)<br />
*[[Anita Hassanandani]] as Chitra<ref name=":0" /><br />
*[[Kausalya (actress)|Kaushalya]] as Shankar's wife<br />
*[[Laya (actress)|Laya]] as Lakshmi <br />
*[[Sayaji Shinde]] as Bade Mia<br />
*[[Avinash Yelandur|Avinash]] as Vishwa<br />
*[[Riyaz Khan]] as Dhanraj<br />
*[[Kazan Khan]]<br />
*[[Bullet Prakash]]<br />
*Karthik Sharma<br />
*[[Besant Ravi]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
== Production ==<br />
[[Meher Ramesh]] who assisted [[Puri Jagannadh]], made his directorial debut with this film. The film was started on 22 August 2003 (alongside its [[Andhrawala|Telugu counterpart]], which was directed by Jagannadh himself) and was completed by 25 December 2003.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.idlebrain.com/celeb/interview/meherramesh.html|title=Meher Ramesh – Telugu Cinema interview – Telugu film director}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Soundtrack ==<br />
The music was composed by [[Chakri (composer)|Chakri]] who also composed for the Telugu version [[Andhrawala]]. The soundtrack was released by Akash Audio. The track "Naire Naire" was reused from ''Andhrawala''.<br />
{{Infobox album<br />
| name = Veera Kannadiga<br />
| type = Soundtrack<br />
| artist = [[Chakri (composer)|Chakri]]<br />
| cover =<br />
| alt =<br />
| released = January 2004<br />
| recorded =<br />
| venue =<br />
| studio = <br />
| genre = [[Film soundtrack|Feature film soundtrack]]<br />
| length = 28:48<br />
| label = Akash Audio<br />
| language = [[Kannada]]<br />
| producer = [[Chakri (composer)|Chakri]]<br />
| prev_title = [[Andhrawala]]<br />
| prev_year = 2003<br />
| next_title = [[143 (2004 film)|143]] <br />
| next_year = 2004<br />
| misc = {{External media<br />
<br />
| audio1 = {{YouTube|6i_fRZcoyJY|Official Audio Jukebox}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Track listing<br />
| extra_column = Singer(s)<br />
| title1 = Addadalli Kingu Naanu<br />
| extra1 = [[Shankar Mahadevan]], [[Kousalya (singer)|Kousalya]]<br />
| length1 = 5:00<br />
| lyrics1 = [[V. Nagendra Prasad]]<br />
| title2 = Jeeva Kannada Deha Kannada<br />
| extra2 = [[Shankar Mahadevan]]<br />
| lyrics2 = [[Hamsalekha]]<br />
| length2 = 4:36<br />
| title3 = Mastu Hudugiye<br />
| extra3 = [[Chakri (music director)|Chakri]], Kausalya<br />
| length3 = 5:29<br />
| lyrics3 = [[K. Kalyan]]<br />
| title4 = Naire Naire Nai Naire<br />
| extra4 = [[Puneeth Rajkumar]]<br />
| lyrics4 = Bangiranga<br />
| length4 = 4:44<br />
| title5 = Sai Sai Monaleesa<br />
| lyrics5 = [[V. Nagendra Prasad]]<br />
| extra5 = Ravivarma, Kausalya<br />
| length5 = 4:31<br />
| title6 = Sikku Sikku Sundari<br />
| extra6 = Chakri, Kausalya<br />
| length6 = 4:45<br />
| lyrics6 = [[K. Kalyan]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
== Reception ==<br />
''Viggy'' wrote "Veera Kannadiga looks luxurious but for Kannadigas, is nothing but an Andhra Meal!".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.viggy.com/english/review_veera_kannadiga.asp|title = 'Veera Kannadiga' – Puri Jagannath's film starring Puneet Rajkumar}}</ref> ''[[Deccan Herald]]'' wrote "Puneeth Rajkumar in a double role as father and son puts up a convincing show." He concluding writing, "The film’s main focus is on the gallantry of Kannadigas. Music by Chakri will appeal to the youngsters but there are too many songs. The movie will be an enjoyable fare for the lovers of comedy."<ref>{{cite web |last1=Prasad |first1=Sujyothi N. |title=Veera Kannadiga – Kannada (Nanda, Nartaki, Balaji) |url=http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/jan042004/mr3.asp |website=Deccan Herald |access-date=23 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040629071249/http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/jan042004/mr3.asp |archive-date=29 June 2004 |date=4 January 2004}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Box office ===<br />
''Veera Kannadiga'' completed 100 days at the theatres and became a commercial success at the box office.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.chitraloka.com/flash-back/3152-2004-year-round-up.html |title=2004 Year Round Up |publisher=chitraloka.com |accessdate=2022-08-23 |archive-date=9 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409175729/https://www.chitraloka.com/flash-back/3152-2004-year-round-up.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* {{IMDb title|tt4586350}}<br />
{{Meher Ramesh}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:2004 films]]<br />
[[Category:2004 action drama films]]<br />
[[Category:2004 Kannada-language films]]<br />
[[Category:Films set in Mumbai]]<br />
[[Category:Films shot in Mumbai]]<br />
[[Category:Indian films about revenge]]<br />
[[Category:Indian multilingual films]]<br />
[[Category:2000s masala films]]<br />
[[Category:Indian action drama films]]<br />
[[Category:Films scored by Chakri]]<br />
[[Category:Indian gangster films]]<br />
[[Category:Films set in 2003]]<br />
[[Category:Films set in the 1970s]]<br />
[[Category:2004 multilingual films]]<br />
[[Category:Films directed by Meher Ramesh]]<br />
[[Category:Films set in slums]]<br />
<br />
<br />
{{2000s-Kannada-film-stub}}</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mysuru%E2%80%93Dharwad_Express&diff=519452Mysuru–Dharwad Express2026-03-01T15:10:28Z<p>AmitNeogi: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Express train in India}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2019}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2019}}<br />
{{Infobox rail service<br />
| name = Mysore–Dharwad Express<br />
| image = <br />
| image_width = <br />
| caption = <br />
| type = [[Express trains in India|Express]]<br />
| locale = <br />
| first = {{start date and age|df=yes|2004|9|1}}<br />
| last =<br />
| operator = [[South Western Railway zone]]<br />
| ridership =<br />
| start = {{stnlnk|Mysore Junction}} (MYS) <br />
| stops = 15<br />
| end = {{stnlnk|Dharwad}} (DWR)<br />
| distance = {{convert|492|km|0|abbr=on}}<br />
| journeytime = 16h 20m <br />
| frequency = Daily<br />
| class = AC II Tier, AC III Tier, Sleeper class, General Unreserved<br />
| seating =Yes<br />
| sleeping = Yes<br />
| autorack = <br />
| catering = Yes<br />
| observation = [[ICF coach]]<br />
| entertainment = No<br />
| baggage = No<br />
| other facilities= Below the seats<br />
| stock = 2<br />
| gauge = {{track gauge|1676mm|al=on|allk=on}}<br />
| electrification = In progress<br />
| trainnumber = 17301/17302<br />
| speed = {{convert|50|km/h|0|abbr=on}}<br />
| map = <br />
| map_state =<br />
}}<br />
The '''Mysuru–Dharwad Express''' is an [[Express trains in India|Express]] train belonging to [[South Western Railway zone]] that runs between [[Dharwad railway station]] and {{stnlnk|Mysore Junction}} in India. It is currently being operated with 17301/17302 train numbers on daily basis.<br />
<br />
== Route ==<br />
<br />
The train travels through Mysore Junction, {{stnlnk|Krishnarajanagara}}, {{stnlnk|Hassan Junction}}, {{stnlnk|Arsikere Junction}}, {{stnlnk|Davangere}}, {{stnlnk|Harihar}}, {{stnlnk|Byadgi}}, {{stnlnk|Haveri}}, {{stnlnk|Yalvigi}}, {{stnlnk|Hubli Junction}}, Dharwad.<br />
<br />
== Schedule ==<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Train number !! Station code !! Departure station !! Departure time !! Arrival station !! Arrival time <br />
|-<br />
| 17301 || MYS || Mysore Junction || 09:00 PM || || {{stnlnk|Miraj}} || 13:20 PM next day<br />
|-<br />
| 17302 || MRJ || Miraj || 15:10 PM || Mysore Junction || 7:05 AM next day<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Traction==<br />
it was hauled by [[Krishnarajapuram]]-based [[WDP-4B]] or [[WDM-3D]] end to end<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
<br />
* [[Mysore Junction railway station]]<br />
* [[Dharwad railway station]]<br />
* [[Vishwamanava Express]]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
<br />
* [http://indiarailinfo.com/train/mysuru-dharwad-express-17301/1982/1430/290 17301/Mysuru–Dharwad Express]<br />
* [http://indiarailinfo.com/train/dharwad-mysuru-express-17302/1983/290/1430 17302/Dharwad–Mysuru Express]<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Mysore-Dharwad Express}}<br />
[[Category:Transport in Mysore]]<br />
[[Category:Transport in Hubli-Dharwad]]<br />
[[Category:Rail transport in Hubli-Dharwad]]<br />
[[Category:Express trains in India]]<br />
[[Category:Rail transport in Karnataka]]<br />
[[Category:Railway services introduced in 2004]]<br />
<br />
{{India-express-train-stub}}</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Holy_Family_High_School_(Mumbai)&diff=455387Holy Family High School (Mumbai)2026-02-21T07:37:54Z<p>AmitNeogi: adjusted lead and added references</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Primary sources|date=July 2023}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2018}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2018}}<br />
{{Infobox school<br />
| name = Holy Family High School<br />
| native_name =<br />
| logo = HFHS Mumbai Logo.png<br />
| image = HolyFamMumbai.png<br />
| image_size = 250px<br />
| alt = <br />
| caption = <br />
| motto = Loyalty through service<!-- or | mottoes = --><br />
| motto_translation = <br />
| location = Mahakali Caves Road, [[Andheri|East Andheri]], [[Mumbai]]<br />
| state = [[Maharashtra]]<br />
| country = India<br />
| postal_code = 400093<br />
| coordinates = {{coord|19.116999|72.861843|type:edu_region:IN-MH|display=title,inline|format=dms}}<!-- {{Coord|LAT|LON|display=inline,title}} --><br />
| other_name = <!-- or | other_names = --><br />
| former_name = <!-- or | former_names = --><br />
| type = [[Private school|Private]] primary and secondary school<br />
| religious_affiliation = [[Catholic church|Catholicism]]<br />
| denomination = [[Jesuit]]s<br />
| established = {{Start date and age|1945}}<!-- {{Start date|YYYY|MM|DD|df=yes}} --><br />
| founder = <!-- or | founders = --><br />
| closed = <!-- {{End date|YYYY|MM|DD|df=yes}} --><br />
| school_board = <br />
| district = <br />
| authority = <!-- or | educational_authority = or | local_authority = --><br />
| oversight = <!-- use | oversight_label = to override the default label --><br />
| principal = Fr. Malcolm Nato, S.J.<!-- use | principal_label = to override the default label --><br />
| head = <!-- use | head_label = to override the default label --><br />
| staff = <br />
| faculty = <br />
| grades = [[K-12 (education)|K-12]]<!-- use | grades_label = to override the default label --><br />
| gender = [[Single-sex education|Boys]]<!-- use | gender_label = to override the default label --><br />
| age_range = <!-- or | lower_age = and | upper_age = --><br />
| enrollment = 2,600<!-- or | enrolment = or | enrollment = or | enrollment = or | enrollment = --><br />
| language = {{ubl|[[English language|English]]|[[Marathi language|Marathi]]}}<br />
| campus_size = <br />
| campus_type = <br />
| colors = <!-- or | colours = --><br />
| accreditation = <!-- or | accreditations = --><br />
| test_name = [[Secondary School Certificate]]<br />
| publication = <br />
| newspaper = <br />
| yearbook = <br />
| affiliation = <!-- or | affiliations = --><br />
| website = {{URL|http://www.holyfamilyandheri.org}}<!-- {{URL|school.url}} or {{URL|1=school.url}} if the url contains an equals sign --><br />
| footnotes = <br />
}}<br />
The '''Holy Family High School''' is a [[Private school|private]] [[Catholic school|Catholic]] primary and secondary school for boys located in the suburb of [[Andheri|East Andheri]] in [[Mumbai]], in the state of [[Maharashtra]], [[India]]. While the school is primarily [[English language|English]]-[[Medium of instruction|medium]], there is also a smaller [[Marathi language|Marathi]]-medium section that runs in parallel from the fifth to the tenth standard.<ref>{{Citation|last=Stanislites Bandra|title=Holy Family High School|date=2006-12-24|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-A11wmSf1yw |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211219/-A11wmSf1yw |archive-date=2021-12-19 |url-status=live|accessdate=2017-08-27}}{{cbignore}}</ref> The school now also has a junior college named Holy Family Junior College for 11th and 12th grade HSC students. The school is located near MIDC, Andheri East, Mumbai - 400093, Opposite MIDC building.<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<!-- Deleted image removed: [[File:HFHS Mumbai First.jpg|thumb|right|First structure (1945)]] --><br />
[[File:HFHS Mumbai Logo Old.png|thumb|right|70px|Old logo]]<br />
Holy Family High School was founded in 1944 as a parish institution in an old, single-storied structure by Fr. Denzil Keating, S.J. The school's first [[headmistress]] was Maud D'Costa.<br />
<br />
In 1963, another school building was constructed adjoining Holy Family Church. It was improved and extended with the help of student efforts such as donations, raffles, and school [[fête]]s. A new hall and classrooms were constructed. This building lacked facilities such as filtered drinking water and a [[cafeteria]]. It had an inadequate playground and poor sports facilities, requiring the use of the Vinayalaya Jesuit seminary grounds, behind the school and church buildings. The building was extended in the 1970s to have multiple stories, with additional classrooms and a school hall. The school had female students for a few years. Some were admitted for year 11 science and commerce streams. Earlier in the school's history females were accepted at lower levels as well. A mini-stadium was built on the old school ground using funds donated by Jitendra Shah. A few years later, the building became too small to cater to the growing number of parishioners and the building was sold.<br />
<br />
A more spacious building was constructed, with its own playground on a nearby plot of land. On 22 October 1985, Fr. Lisbert D'Souza, S.J., (Provincial Superior of the Bombay Jesuits) blessed the foundation stone and on 16 July 1988 Bishop Ferdinand Fonseca blessed the new building. On 7 January 1989, under the tenure of Jesuit Frs. Tony J. D'Souza as [[vicar]] and Francis Gonsalves as principal, the new school building was formally inaugurated by Simon Cardinal Pimenta, the [[archbishop]] of Bombay.<br />
<br />
In 2005, the school added an [[amphitheatre]] and in 2009 a semi-olympic size swimming pool, both at the initiative of the school PTA.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://holyfamilyandheri.org/facilities/|title=Facilities |publisher=Holy Family High School & Jr. College |website=holyfamilyandheri.org|language=en-US|access-date=2017-08-27}}</ref> Craft and painting courses are offered. Class picnics are held once a year.<br />
<br />
A Parent-Teacher Association (PTA) was established in 1964.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://holyfamilyandheri.org/pta/|title=P.T.A. |publisher=Holy Family High School & Jr. College |website=holyfamilyandheri.org|language=en-US|access-date=2017-08-27}}</ref><br />
<br />
===50th anniversary===<br />
<br />
In 1995, the school celebrated its 50th anniversary with a grand celebration including a fireworks display. In the large crowd attending were several of the school's former principals. A [[time capsule]] containing fifty years of school information was buried at the foot of the Holy Family statue to be reopened in the year 2045.<br />
<br />
===60th anniversary===<br />
<br />
In 2005 the school celebrated its 60th anniversary. Under the initiative of the principal, Fr. Francis Swamy, S.J., and the school's PTA, a five-night [[fête]] was held on the school grounds. Celebrities were present for the occasion which was broadcast live on cable TV.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://holyfamilyandheri.org/about-us/history/|title=History |publisher=Holy Family High School & Jr. College |website=holyfamilyandheri.org|language=en-US|access-date=2017-08-27}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Principals ==<br />
{{unreferenced section|date=April 2021}}<br />
The following individuals have served as principal of the school:<br />
{| {{Table|sort}}<br />
|-<br />
! Ordinal !! Officeholder !! Term start !! Term end !! Time in office<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|{{nts|1}} || Fr. Denzil Keating, S.J. ||align=center|1944 ||align=center|1949 ||align=right|{{age in years|1944|1949}} years<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|{{nts|2}} || Fr. Julius Gomes, S.J. ||align=center|1949 ||align=center|1951 ||align=right|{{age in years|1949|1951}} years<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|{{nts|3}} || Fr. Fred Britto, S.J. ||align=center|1951 ||align=center|1952 ||align=right|{{age in years|1951|1952}} years<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|{{nts|4}} || Fr. H Jiminez, S.J. ||align=center|1952 ||align=center|1960 ||align=right|{{age in years|1952|1960}} years<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|{{nts|5}} || Fr. Basil Fernandes, S.J. ||align=center|1960 ||align=center|1966 ||align=right|{{age in years|1960|1966}} years<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|{{nts|6}} || Fr. Joe D'Abreo, S.J. ||align=center|1966 ||align=center|1968 ||align=right|{{age in years|1966|1968}} years<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|{{nts|7}} || Fr. Henry D'Cruz, S.J. ||align=center|1968 ||align=center|1970 ||align=right|{{age in years|1968|1970}} years<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|{{nts|8}} || Fr. Percy D'Souza, S.J. ||align=center|1970 ||align=center|1971 ||align=right|{{age in years|1970|1971}} years<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|{{nts|9}} || Fr. Valero Aleu, S.J. ||align=center|1971 ||align=center|1974 ||align=right|{{age in years|1971|1974}} years<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|({{nts|6}}) || Fr. Joe D'Abreo, S.J. ||align=center|1974 ||align=center|1977 ||align=right|{{age in years|1974|1977}} years<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|{{nts|10}} || Fr. Joaquim Mascarenhas, S.J. ||align=center|1977 ||align=center|1980 ||align=right|{{age in years|1977|1980}} years<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|{{nts|11}} || Fr. Sebastian Fernandes, S.J. ||align=center|1980 ||align=center|1982 ||align=right|{{age in years|1980|1982}} years<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|({{nts|10}}) || Fr. Joaquim Mascarenhas, S.J. ||align=center|1982 ||align=center|1986 ||align=right|{{age in years|1982|1986}} years<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|{{nts|12}} || Fr. Edmund Carrasco, S.J. ||align=center|1986 ||align=center|1988 ||align=right|{{age in years|1986|1988}} years<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|{{nts|13}} || Fr. Francis Gonsalves, S.J. ||align=center|1988 ||align=center|1990 ||align=right|{{age in years|1988|1990}} years<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|{{nts|14}} || Fr. Tony Fonseca, S.J. ||align=center|1990 ||align=center|1995 ||align=right|{{age in years|1990|1995}} years<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|({{nts|10}}) || Fr. Joaquim Mascarenhas, S.J. ||align=center|1995 ||align=center|1998 ||align=right|{{age in years|1995|1998}} years<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|{{nts|15}} || Dr. Fr. Francis Swamy, S.J. ||align=center|1998 ||align=center|2013 ||align=right|'''{{age in years|1998|2013}} years'''<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|{{nts|16}} || Dr. Br. Thomas Vaz, S.J. ||align=center|2013 ||align=center|''incumbent'' ||align=right|{{age in years|2013}} years<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
{{stack|{{portal|Schools|Catholicism|India}}}}<br />
* [[List of Jesuit educational institutions#Schools|List of Jesuit schools]]<br />
* [[List of schools in Mumbai]]<br />
* [[Violence against Christians in India]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://www.holyfamilyandheri.org/ Holy Family High School]<br />
* [http://holyfamily72.tripod.com/hfhs.html Holy Family High School] (informal)<br />
* [http://www.holyfamilypta.com/ Holy Family High School Parent-Teacher Association]<br />
*[http://holyfamilychurchchakala.com/ Holy Family Church]<br />
* [https://maps.google.com/maps?f=q&hl=en&geocode=&ie=UTF8&ll=19.117364,72.862058&t=h&z=18 Satellite view of Holy Family High School by Google Maps]<br />
<br />
{{Mumbai topics|state=autocollapse}}<br />
{{Jesuit Schools of India|state=collapsed}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Jesuit secondary schools in India]]<br />
[[Category:Jesuit primary schools in India]]<br />
[[Category:Boys' schools in India]]<br />
[[Category:Christian schools in Maharashtra]]<br />
[[Category:High schools and secondary schools in Mumbai]]<br />
[[Category:Educational institutions established in 1945]]<br />
[[Category:1945 establishments in India]]<br />
[[Category:Andheri]]</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kaliaganj&diff=465255Kaliaganj2026-01-25T02:41:33Z<p>AmitNeogi: update lead and cleaned formatting</p>
<hr />
<div>{{About|the municipal town in West Bengal, India|its namesake community development block|Kaliaganj (community development block)|its namesake assembly constituency|Kaliaganj Assembly constituency}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2024}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2018}}<br />
{{Infobox settlement<br />
| name = Kaliaganj<br />
| other_name = Kaliaganj<br />
| nickname = <br />
| settlement_type = [[Town]]<br />
| image_skyline = <br />
| image_alt = <br />
| image_caption = <br />
| pushpin_map = India West Bengal#India3<br />
| pushpin_label_position = <br />
| pushpin_map_alt = <br />
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in West Bengal, India<br />
| coordinates = {{coord|25.63|N|88.32|E|display=inline,title}}<br />
| subdivision_type = Country<br />
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}<br />
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]<br />
| subdivision_name1 = [[West Bengal]]<br />
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]<br />
| subdivision_name2 = [[North Dinajpur]]<br />
| established_title = <!-- Established --><br />
| established_date = <br />
| founder = <br />
| named_for = <br />
| government_type = [[Municipal Corporations in India|Municipality]]<br />
| governing_body = [[Kaliaganj Municipality]]<br />
| leader_title1 = [[Chairman]]<br />
| leader_name1 = Ram Nibas Saha<br />
| leader_title2 = [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]]<br />
| leader_name2 = [[Soumen Roy]] ([[Trinamool Congress|TMC]])<br />
| unit_pref = Metric<br />
| area_footnotes = <ref>{{cite web |title=Kaliyaganj City |url=http://www.kaliyaganjmunicipality.org/}}</ref><br />
| area_rank = <br />
| area_total_km2 = 11.67<br />
| elevation_footnotes = <br />
| elevation_m = 40<br />
| population_total = 53,530<br />
| population_as_of = 2011<br />
| population_rank = <br />
| population_density_km2 = auto<br />
| population_demonym = <br />
| population_footnotes = <br />
| demographics_type1 = Languages<br />
| demographics1_title1 = Official<br />
| demographics1_info1 = [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[English language|English]]<br />
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]<br />
| utc_offset1 = +5:30<br />
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]<br />
| postal_code = 733129<br />
| area_code_type = Telephone code<br />
| area_code = 03523<br />
| registration_plate = <br />
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[Lok Sabha]] constituency<br />
| blank1_info_sec1 = [[Raiganj (Lok Sabha constituency)|Raiganj]]<br />
| blank2_name_sec1 = [[Vidhan Sabha]] constituency<br />
| blank2_info_sec1 = [[Kaliaganj (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Kaliaganj]]<br />
| footnotes = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Kaliaganj''' is a town and a [[municipality]] in [[Uttar Dinajpur district|North Dinajpur district]] in the Indian state of [[West Bengal]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mapsofindia.com/maps/westbengal/railways/uttardinajpur.htm |title=Uttar Dinajpur Rail Network Map |access-date=2 February 2008 |publisher=Maps of India}}</ref> Kaliaganj is a growing business and commerce region in North Dinajpur district, with rapid urbanisation and improved roadways.<br />
<br />
== Etymology ==<br />
The word "Kaliyaganj" is derived from "Kali" + "Ganj", meaning the City of Ma "[[Kali]]", and it hosts the famous temple of "Boira Kali Maa". It is a successor city to "Hat Kaliyaganj", a village near Kaliyaganj.<br />
<br />
== Geography ==<br />
{{OSM Location map<br />
| width=350 | height=400| zoom=9<br />
| coord={{coord|25|55|33|N|88|11|50|E}}| float=left|caption='''Cities and towns in the Uttar Dinajpur district'''<br />M: municipal city/ town, CT: census town, R: rural/ urban centre, T: tourist centre <br />Owing to space constraints in the small map, the actual locations in a larger map may vary slightly<br />
| mark-coord1={{coord|25|37|25|N|88|7|12|E}} | label-pos1=right|label1=Raiganj | numbered1=M| mark-title1= [[Raiganj]] (M)|label-color1=#800000 |label-size1=13| mark-size1=13|shape1=l-circle|shape-color1=#800000|shape-outline1=white|label-offset-x1=2<br />
| mark-coord2={{coord|26|13|12|N|88|11|0|E}} | label-pos2=right|label2=Islampur| numbered2=M| mark-title2= [[Islampur, Uttar Dinajpur]] (M)<br />
| mark-coord3={{coord|25|37|48|N|88|19|12|E}} | label-pos3=bottom|label3=Kaliyaganj| numbered3=M| mark-title3= Kaliaganj (M)|shape-color3=black| label-size3=13|label-color3=black <!-- make the subject of the article stand out with black colors --><br />
| mark-coord4={{coord|25|53|33|N|87|50|20|E}} | label-pos4=right|label4=Dalkhola| numbered4=M| mark-title4= [[Dalkhola]] (M)<br />
| mark-coord5={{coord|26|22|23|N|88|18|27|E}} | label-pos5=right|label5=Chopra | numbered5=CT| mark-title5= [[Chopra, Uttar Dinajpur]] (CT)|shape-color5=#A40000<br />
| mark-coord6={{coord|26|8|57|N|88|2|12|E}} | label-pos6=right|label6=Hanskunda | numbered6=CT| mark-title6= [[Hanskunda]] (CT)|shape-color6=#A40000<br />
| mark-coord7={{coord|26|6|30|N|88|8|33|E}} | label-pos7=right|label7=Goalpokhar| numbered7=R| mark-title7= [[Goalpokhar]] (R)| shape-color7=#C42222<br />
| mark-coord8={{coord|26|1|16|N|87|57|9|E}} | label-pos8=right|label8=Chakulia| numbered8=R| mark-title8= [[Chakulia, Uttar Dinajpur]] (R)| shape-color8=#C42222<br />
| mark-coord9={{coord|25|50|3|N|87|55|6|E}} | label-pos9=right|label9=Karandighi| numbered9=R| mark-title9= [[Karandighi, Uttar Dinajpur]] (R)| shape-color9=#C42222<br />
| mark-coord10={{coord|25|39|56|N|88|13|14|E}} | label-pos10=right|label10=Hemtabad| numbered10=R| mark-title10= [[Hemtabad, Uttar Dinajpur]] (R)| shape-color10=#C42222<br />
| mark-coord11={{coord|25|35|56|N|88|6|0|E}} | label-pos11=left|label11=Nachhratpur|labela11= Katabari | numbered11=CT| mark-title11= [[Nachhratpur Katabari]] (CT)|shape-color11=#A40000<br />
| mark-coord12={{coord|25|34|8|N|88|6|43|E}} | label-pos12=bottom|label12=Kasba | numbered12=CT| mark-title12= [[Kasba, Uttar Dinajpur]] (CT)|shape-color12=#A40000<br />
| mark-coord13={{coord|25|27|31|N|88|10|20|E}} | label-pos13=right|label13=Itahar | numbered13=CT| mark-title13= [[Itahar, Uttar Dinajpur]] (CT)|shape-color13=#A40000<br />
| mark-coord14={{coord|25|38|38|N|88|26|22|E}} | label-pos14=right|label14=Radhikapur|labela14=checkpoint| numbered14=R| mark-title14= [[Radhikapur]] (R)| shape-color14=#C42222<br />
| mark-coord15={{coord|25|39|13|N|88|6|15|E}} | label-pos15=top|label15=Raiganj|labela15=Wildlife Sanctuary| numbered15=T|shape-color15=green| mark-title15= [[Raiganj Wildlife Sanctuary]] (T)<br />
| mark-coord16={{coord|25.9613|88.0524}}| label16=India| label-color16 = black| label-angle16=-70| label-pos16=bottom| label-size16=10| mark-size16=0| mark-title16 =none<br />
| mark-coord17={{coord|25.9513|88.1224}}| label17=Bangladesh| label-color17 = black| label-angle17=-70| label-pos17=bottom| label-size17=10| mark-size17=0| mark-title17 =none<br />
| mark-coord18={{coord|25.7273|87.9392}}| label18=Bihar| label-color18 = black| label-angle18=40| label-pos18=bottom| label-size18=10| mark-size18=0| mark-title18 =none<br />
| mark-coord19={{coord|25.7773|88.0162}}| label19=West | labela19= Bengal| label-color19 = black| label-angle19=40| label-pos19=bottom| label-size19=10| mark-size19=0| mark-title19 =none<br />
| mark-coord20={{coord|26.2554|88.0234}}| label20=Mahananda River| label-color20 = #77A1CB| label-angle20=-40| label-pos20=top| label-size20=10| mark-size20=0| mark-title20 =none<br />
}}<br />
<br />
=== Police station ===<br />
Kaliaganj police station under West Bengal police has jurisdiction over Kaliaganj town and [[Kaliaganj (community development block)|Kaliaganj]] CD block. It is 22&nbsp;km from the district headquarters and covers an area of 301.9&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>. There is a Town Outpost under this PS.<ref name=handbook2014>{{cite web |url=http://wbpspm.gov.in/publications/District%20Statistical%20Handbook |title=District Statistical Handbook 2013 Uttar Dinajpur |work=Table 2.1 |publisher=Department of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of West Bengal |access-date=5 January 2019 |archive-date=21 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190121045803/http://www.wbpspm.gov.in/publications/District%20Statistical%20Handbook |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite web |url=https://uttardinajpurpolice.co.in/kaliyaganj-police-station/ |title=Uttar Dinajpur District Police |work=Kaliyaganj Police Station |publisher=District Police |access-date=5 January 2019}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== CD block HQ ===<br />
The headquarters of [[Kaliaganj (community development block)|Kaliaganj CD block]] is at Kaliyaganj town.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_A/19/1904_PART_A_DCHB_UTTAR%20DINAJPUR.pdf |title=District Census Handbook Uttar Dinajpur, Series 20, Part XII A |work=Map of Uttar Dinajpur district on the fifth page |publisher=Directorate of Census Operations, West Bengal |access-date=5 January 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wbpublibnet.gov.in/node/2100 |title=BDO Offices under Uttar Dinajpur District |work=Department of Mass Education Extension & Library Services, Government of West Bengal |publisher=West Bengal Public Library Network |access-date=5 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190119063429/http://wbpublibnet.gov.in/node/2100 |archive-date=19 January 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref><br />
<br />
<small>In the map alongside, all places marked on the map are linked in the full screen version.</small><br />
<br />
== Demographics ==<br />
As per the [[2011 Census of India]], Kaliyaganj had a total population of 53,530, of which 27,321 (51%) were males and 26,209 (49%) were females. Population below 6 years was 5,105. The total number of literates in Kaliyaganj was 41,622 (85.95% of the population over 6 years).<ref name=census3-2011>{{cite web |url=http://censusindia.gov.in/pca/pcadata/Houselisting-housing-WB.html |title=2011 Census – Primary Census Abstract Data Tables |work=West Bengal – District-wise |publisher=Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India |access-date=6 January 2019}}</ref><br />
{{Pie chart<br />
| thumb = right<br />
| caption = Religious Demography in Kaliyaganj Town (2011)<br />
| label1= [[Hinduism]]<br />
| value1 = 95.30<br />
| color1 =orange<br />
| label2 = [[Islam]]<br />
| value2 =4.43<br />
| color2 =green<br />
| label3= Others<br />
| value3= 0.27<br />
| color3 = black<br />
}}<br />
{{Pie chart<br />
| thumb = right<br />
| caption = Languages spoken in Kaliyaganj Town (2011)<br />
| label1= [[Bengali language| Bengali]]<br />
| value1= 85.19<br />
| color1 =red<br />
| label2= [[Hindi language| Hindi]]<br />
| value2 = 11.84<br />
| color2 =orange<br />
| label3 = [[Bhojpuri language| Bhojpuri ]]<br />
| value3 =2.01<br />
| color3 =blue<br />
| label4 = [[Santali language| Santali]]<br />
| value4 = 0.33<br />
| color4 =blue<br />
| label5= Others<br />
| value5= 0.63<br />
| color5 = black<br />
}}<br />
<br />
== Transport ==<br />
Kaliyaganj has a station on the [[Barsoi-Radhikapur branch line]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://indiarailinfo.com/train/timetable/all/14172/442/2689 |title=55729 Katihar-Radhikapur Passenger |work=Time Table |publisher=indiarailinfo |access-date=2 January 2019}}</ref><br />
<br />
New broad gauge line from Kaliyaganj to [[Buniadpur]] (33.10&nbsp;km) was included in the budget 2010-11. 157.938 ha of land is to be acquired. As of August 2018, project work by [[Northeast Frontier Railway]] is held up mainly because of paucity of funds.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://nfrlyconstruction.org/Uploads/File/project-details/ProjectDetails_August.pdf |title=Brief of all projects (as of 31st August 2018) |work=Page 15: New BG line from Kaliaganj to Buniadpur (33.10&nbsp;km) |publisher=Northeast Frontier Railway (Construction) |access-date=2 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181202202616/https://nfrlyconstruction.org/Uploads/File/project-details/ProjectDetails_August.pdf |archive-date=2 December 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref><br />
<br />
State Highway No. 10A, running from [[Buniadpur]] to [[Raiganj]] passes through Kaliyaganj town.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://wbtrafficpolice.com/state-highways.php |title=List of State Highways in West Bengal |publisher=West Bengal Traffic Police |access-date=2 January 2019}}</ref><br />
<br />
Kaliyaganj is connected to major cities like [[Kolkata]], [[Siliguri]],[[Maharaja Hat]] etc. via trains and buses as public transportation.<br />
<br />
== Economy ==<br />
Although Kaliyaganj is an urban centre, the economy depends greatly on agriculture. There is no specific heavy industry in Kaliyaganj, although there are some smaller ones, especially oil mills.<br />
<br />
Vivekananda More (Vivekananda Lane) is the main commercial, shopping and business hub of Kaliagnj. It is located directly near the Kaliyaganj Railway Station as well as the Kaliyaganj bus terminus.<br />
It is also located close to Tara Bazar, one of the two main agricultural markets in Kaliyaganj. The other important market is located at Mahendraganj. Mahendraganj was once visited by former [[Chief Minister of West Bengal]], [[Jyoti Basu]].<br />
<br />
== Education ==<br />
* [[Kaliyaganj College]] was established in 1968. Affiliated to the [[University of Gour Banga]], it offers honours courses in Bengali, English, Hindi, Sanskrit, political science, history, philosophy, economics, physics, chemistry, mathematics, computer science and accounting, and general courses in arts, science and commerce.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kaliyaganjcollege.ac.in/ |title=Kaliyaganj College |publisher=KC |access-date=7 January 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.collegeadmission.in/KaliyaganjCollege/Kaliyaganj_College.shtml |title=Kaliyaganj College |publisher=College Admission |access-date=7 January 2019}}</ref><br />
* Kaliyaganj College of Education at Krishnabati, Kaliyaganj, offers BEd and D.El.Ed. courses.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kdce.org.in/ |title=Kaliyaganj College of Education |publisher=KCE |access-date=7 January 2019}}</ref><br />
* Kaliyaganj Parbati Sundari High School is a co-educational higher secondary school at Schoolpara, Kaliyaganj. Established in 1931, it has arrangements for teaching from class V to XII.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://targetstudy.com/school/50995/kaliyaganj-parbati-sundari-high-school/ |title=Kaliyaganj Parbati Sundari High School |publisher=Target Study |access-date=7 January 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://freetutorial.in/schools/1343297 |title=Kaliyaganj Parbati Sundari High School |publisher=Free Tutorial.in |access-date=7 January 2019 }}{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><br />
* Kaliyaganj Milanmayee Girls’ High School is a girls only higher secondary school at Schoolpara, Kaliyaganj. Established in 1949, it has arrangements for teaching from class VI to XII.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://milanmoyeehs.in/ |title=Kaliyaganj Milanmayee Girls' High School |publisher=KMGHS |access-date=7 January 2019 |archive-date=8 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190108202306/http://milanmoyeehs.in/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><br />
* Kaliyaganj Sarala Sundari High School.<ref>Kaliyaganj Sarala Sundari High School, Pabna colony, Mahadebpur, Kaliyaganj, West Bengal 733129, Established in 1961, it has arrangements for teaching from class V to XII.</ref><br />
* Kaliyaganj Manomohan Girls' High School is a girls' school situated at Roy Colony, Kaliyaganj. It is a higher secondary school and was established by Shri Makhanlal Saha in 1968.<br />
* Puria Maheshpur High School.<br />
* Dalimgaon High school (H.S.)<br />
* Pranamananda Vidyapith, associated with [[Vidya Bharati]].<br />
* Nivedita Academy, affiliated to [[Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations|ICSE]].<br />
<br />
== Healthcare ==<br />
Kaliyaganj State General Hospital, with 60 beds is a major medical facility at Kaliyaganj.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.wbhealth.gov.in/ |title=Health & Family Welfare Department |work=Health Statistics |publisher=Government of West Bengal |access-date=12 January 2019 |archive-date=28 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028134305/https://qphs.fs.quoracdn.net/main-qimg-99a499ee367f0c1530476c81086270c8 |url-status=dead }}</ref><br />
<br />
== Kaliyaganj Municipality ==<br />
{{Infobox legislature<br />
| name = Kaliyaganj Municipality<br />
| native_name = <br />
| native_name_lang = <br />
| coa_pic = <br />
| coa_res = <br />
| coa_alt = <br />
| coa_caption = <br />
| house_type = [[Municipality (India)|Municipality]]<br />
| foundation = 1987<br />
| disbanded = <br />
| preceded_by = <br />
| succeeded_by = <br />
| leader1_type = [[Chairman]]<br />
| leader1 = Ram Niwas Saha<br />
| party1 = [[All India Trinamool Congress|AITC]]<br />
| seats = 17<br />
| structure1 = <br />
| structure1_res = <br />
| political_groups1 =<br />
* '''Government (10)'''<br />
{{legend|#20C646|[[All India Trinamool Congress|AITC]]: 10}}<br />
* '''Opposition (7)'''<br />
{{legend|#FF9900|[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]: 6}}<br />
{{legend|#DCDCDC|[[Independent politician|IND]]: 1}}<br />
| session_room = <br />
| session_res = <br />
| meeting_place = [[Headquarters]] of the Kaliyaganj Municipality<br />
| last_election1 = 2022<br />
| next_election1 = 2027<br />
| motto = <br />
| website = {{URL|www.kaliyaganjmunicipality.org}}<br />
| footnotes = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
Kaliaganj Municipality (abb. KM)<ref>{{cite web | url=http://kaliyaganjmunicipality.org/index.php | title=Kaliyaganj Municipality }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.wburbanservices.gov.in/index.php?/Main/urban_local_bodies | title=Department of Urban Development & Municipal Affairs }}</ref> is the civic body responsible for the development and administration of the town of Kaliaganj.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.census2011.co.in/data/town/801652-kaliaganj-west-bengal.html | title=Kaliaganj Municipality City Population Census 2011-2023 &#124; West Bengal }}</ref> It consists of 17 [[ward (electoral subdivision)|municipal wards]].<br />
<br />
=== History ===<br />
Kaliyaganj Municipality was founded in the year 1987, comprising Akhanagar, Chirail Para, Chak majlispur, Majlispur, Dhankoil, Rasidpur, Rasidpur, Hariharpur, Mahadevpur, Ratan, Bhander and Shergram, taking only nine wards, when the total population was 26,000.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://kaliyaganjmunicipality.org/custom/History/5/ | title=Kaliyaganj Municipality &#124; History }}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Departments ===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
!Sl.No.<br />
!Department<ref>{{cite web | url=http://kaliyaganjmunicipality.org/departments.php | title=Kaliyaganj Municipality &#124; Services }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
|1<br />
|Accounts<br />
|-<br />
|2<br />
|BCDS Bus terminus<br />
|-<br />
|3<br />
|Birth and Death<br />
|-<br />
|4<br />
|Cash<br />
|-<br />
|5<br />
|Conservancy<br />
|-<br />
|6<br />
|Disaster Management<br />
|-<br />
|6<br />
|Electricity<br />
|-<br />
|7<br />
|Establishment<br />
|-<br />
|8<br />
|Garage<br />
|-<br />
|9<br />
|Guest house<br />
|-<br />
|10<br />
|Health<br />
|-<br />
|11<br />
|License<br />
|-<br />
|12<br />
|Market<br />
|-<br />
|13<br />
|Mid Day Meal<br />
|-<br />
|14<br />
|NSAP<br />
|-<br />
|15<br />
|Pension<br />
|-<br />
|16<br />
|Planning<br />
|-<br />
|17<br />
|Provident fund<br />
|-<br />
|18<br />
|PWD<br />
|-<br />
|19<br />
|Sanitation<br />
|-<br />
|20<br />
|Stores<br />
|-<br />
|21<br />
|Tax<br />
|-<br />
|22<br />
|Water Supply<br />
|-<br />
|23<br />
|U.P.E.<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Administration ===<br />
There are 17 [[ward (electoral subdivision)|wards]] in the Kaliyaganj Municipality. As per the 2022 West Bengal municipal elections, the [[All India Trinamool Congress]] has the majority with 10 wards, while in the opposition, the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] has 6 wards and there is one [[independent politician|independent]] [[councillor]] too.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://portal.wbme.org/|title=Home &#124; West Bengal State Election Commission|website=portal.wbme.org|accessdate=24 June 2025}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.oneindia.com/west-bengal-municipality-elections/|title=West Bengal Municipality Election Results 2022: District Wise Municipality Results, Vote Share - Oneindia|website=www.oneindia.com|accessdate=24 June 2025}}</ref> Ram Niwas Saha is the incumbent [[chairman]].<br />
<br />
== Tourist spots ==<br />
* Vivekananda More<br />
* Loknath Mandir<br />
* Boira Kali Temple<br />
* [[Radhikapur]]<br />
* Kaliyaganj municipal park<br />
<br />
== Notable people ==<br />
* [[Priya Ranjan Dasmunsi]] – Former [[Union Cabinet of India|Union Minister]], [[Government of India]].<br />
* [[Pramatha Nath Ray]] – Former Cabinet Minister in [[First Banerjee ministry|First Mamata Banerjee ministry]], [[Government of West Bengal]].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist|3}}<br />
<br />
{{Uttar Dinajpur District}}<br />
{{Uttar Dinajpur topics}}<br />
{{Municipalities of West Bengal}}<br />
[[Category:Cities and towns in Uttar Dinajpur district]]<br />
[[Category:Cities in West Bengal]]</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apharwat_Peak&diff=461966Apharwat Peak2025-12-27T07:10:22Z<p>AmitNeogi: cleaned up intro and fixed typos</p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|Summit in Gulmarg, India}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2019}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2018}}<br />
{{Infobox mountain<br />
| name = Apharwat Peak<br />
| photo = Apharwat_Peak.JPG<br />
| photo_caption = Apharwat Peak as seen from Kongdori.<br />
| photo_alt = A large, snow-clad mountain ridge<br />
| elevation_m = 4390<br />
| elevation_ref = <ref name="elevation"/><br />
| prominence_m = 542<br />
| prominence_ref=<br />
| parent_peak = <br />
| range = [[Pir Panjal Range]]<br />
| location = [[Gulmarg]], [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]], [[India]]<br />
| map = India Jammu and Kashmir<br />
| map_caption = Location in Jammu and Kashmir<br />
| label_position = right<br />
| map_size = 250<br />
| coordinates = {{coord|33.9995402|N|74.325517|E|type:mountain_scale:100000|format=dms|display=inline,title}}<br />
| type = <br />
| easiest_route = Cable car<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Apharwat Peak''' is a [[summit]], situated at a height of {{convert|4390|m|ft|0}} above the [[sea level]],<ref name="elevation" /> in [[Gulmarg]], India. It receives heavy snowfall and remains covered with [[snow]] for much of the year. The [[Line of Control]] (LOC) is barely a few kilometres away from here. Lying in the second phase of the [[Aerial lift|cable car]] ride from Gulmarg, reaching this spot is highly dependent on the weather conditions.<br />
<br />
Gulmarg has more than three acres of ski and snowboarding terrain. The beginner's slopes start at about 7000 feet, while more serious runs of Phase 1 are at 10,000 feet. A chairlift can take ski and snowboard enthusiasts up to 11,500 feet, while Phase 2 is the highest run at 14,000 feet.<ref>{{Cite web|title=5 of the best snowboarding destinations in India|url=https://www.redbull.com/in-en/snowboarding-destinations-india|access-date=2020-09-23|website=Red Bull|language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
The gondola on Apharwat Peak, one of the Asia's largest and highest cable car ringed by pine forests and snow capped Himalayan mountain peaks, takes skiers and snowboarders to the height of 3900 metres to 4100 metres on the mountain.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-02-22|title=Gulmarg preps for national winter games, Kashmir hopes for tourism boost|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/gulmarg-preps-for-national-winter-games-kashmir-hopes-for-tourism-boost/story-3ddHDh2Q9AIusZ4k6P2h4I.html|access-date=2020-09-23|website=Hindustan Times|language=en}}</ref> Nearest Airport is Sheikh Ul Alam International airport Srinagar.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references><br />
<br />
<ref name="elevation"><br />
{{cite web<br />
|url=http://www.greaterkashmir.com/news/2011/Sep/18/gulmarg-gets-state-of-the-art-chairlifts-4.asp <br />
|title=Gulmarg gets state-of-the-art chairlifts <br />
|date=18 September 2011 <br />
|publisher=greaterkashmir.com <br />
|accessdate=2015-02-16 <br />
|url-status=dead <br />
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150205204451/http://www.greaterkashmir.com/news/2011/Sep/18/gulmarg-gets-state-of-the-art-chairlifts-4.asp <br />
|archivedate=5 February 2015 <br />
}}</ref><br />
<br />
</references><br />
<br />
[[Category:Mountains of Jammu and Kashmir]]<br />
[[Category:Four-thousanders of the Himalayas]]<br />
[[Category:Baramulla district]]<br />
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Baramulla district]]<br />
<br />
<br />
{{JammuKashmir-geo-stub}}</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rajapalayam_dog&diff=445868Rajapalayam dog2025-12-20T09:15:08Z<p>AmitNeogi: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Cleanup rewrite|date=August 2023}}<br />
{{Infobox Dogbreed <br />
| image = Rajapaalayam Dog.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Rajapalayam Hound, Indian [[sighthound]].<br />
| country= [[India]]<br />
| name= Rajapalayam Hound<br />
| maleheight = 24 to 29 inch <ref name=Deshpande2020>{{cite book|last1=Deshpande|first1=Abhijeet Madhukar|title=Indian Dogs Pedigree Chart-The List of Indian Pedigree Dogs|publisher=|volume=|edition=|year=2020|chapter=|pages=4|isbn=|url={{Google books|plainurl=yes|id=CyfsDwAAQBAJ|page=4}}}}</ref><br />
| femaleheight = 24 to 28 inch<ref name=Deshpande2020/> <br />
| weight = <br />
| maleweight = up to 40kg<br />
| femaleweight = 20 to 30kg<ref name=Deshpande2020/><br />
| coat = single coat both are short<br />
| colour = Milky White only<br />
| litter_size = <br />
| life_span =<br />
| note = <br />
<!-----Kennel club standards-----><br />
| kc_name = [[Kennel Club of India]]<br />
| kc_std = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
The '''Rajapalayam Hound''', also known as the '''Polygar Hound''' or '''Indian Ghost Hound''', is a southern [[Indian dog breeds|Indian dog breed]].<ref>[http://14.139.56.90/displaybitstream?handle=1/5810010022 Raja et al "Phenotypic characterization of Rajapalayam dog of Southern India" ''Indian Journal of Animal Sciences'' 87 (4): 447–451, April 2017]</ref><ref>[http://www.arccjournals.com/uploads/Final-article-attachemnt-with-doi-B-3369.pdf Raja, K. N., et al. "Cytogenetic Profile of Rajapalayam Dog Breed of Southern India." ''Indian Journal of Animal Research'' OF (2017).]</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Y. B.Rajeshwari|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=59as4kF7D4gC&pg=PA93|title=Handbook on Care and Management of Laboratory and Pet Animals|date=9 June 2009 |page=13|publisher=New India Publishing|isbn=9788189422981 }}</ref> The breed is named after [[Rajapalayam]], a town in the [[Virudhunagar]], [[Tamil Nadu]].<br />
<br />
Four commemorative [[postage stamps]] were issued on 9 January 2005 by [[India Post]] for four breeds: [[Himalayan Sheepdog]], [[Rampur Hound]], [[Mudhol Hound]] (Face value {{INR}} 5 each) and Rajapalayam Hound (Face value {{INR}} 15). The Rajapalayam Hound is known to live up to 12 years of age.<br />
[[File:The Rajapaalayam Breead 3.png|thumb]]<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
[[File:The Rajapaalayam Breead 2.png|thumb]]<br />
In the 18th century, there are records of about 50 different dog breeds being recognized in the [[Indian subcontinent]]. One of them was this breed of dog known as Rajapalayam.<ref name="fkk"/> Historical observers believe that it was first raised during the [[Nayak dynasty]], the main royal family of [[Tamil Nadu]]. Not only are they great watchdogs but fiercely loyal, they are also very handsome to look at. It cannot be forgotten that the villagers of the region used them in ancient times to guard the agricultural crops, livestock and agricultural produce and today it has become one of the most popular dog breeds in India.<ref name="fkk"/> It is recorded in history that during the Poligarh wars of [[Karnataka]] and [[Tipu Sultan]] from 1799 to 1805, it was used as a royal encampment and played a very important role in the battle by biting and killing horses.<ref name="fkk"/> It is also said that Tipu made a large collection of them in his hands. Today, the [[Indian army]] has realized the greatness and ability of these dogs and has trained them in the force.<ref name="fkk">{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/relationships/pets/royal-rajapalayam/articleshow/71439869.cms | title=Royal Rajapalayam | newspaper=The Times of India }}</ref><br />
<br />
==Appearance==<br />
It is a large dog, usually measuring about 65–75&nbsp;cm (25–30 [[inch]]es) at the [[withers]] and weighs 30 – 45&nbsp;kg. Mostly found in the centre of Tamil Nadu, the Rajapalayam was bred to be the complete hunter and estate guardian with features that allow it to excel.<ref name=Deshpande2020/> Primarily used to hunt [[wild boar]] independent of the handler, the Rajapalayam is unique in two ways. First, it fulfills the functions of a bay dog as well as a [[catch dog]]; secondly the Rajapalayam can hunt by [[sighthound|sight]] as well as [[Tracking (dog)|track]] by [[scent hound|scent]]. While hunting they can be relentless pursuers that are not intimidated by complex terrain or bodies of water. After finding their prey, the dogs take it down and bring it back to the handler. If the dog is unable to bring down its prey, it injures and corners the target till the handler can get to it. This dog can hunt alone, in pairs, in a pack, or with its owner.<ref name=Deshpande2020/><br />
<br />
Rajapalayams tend to be more muscular and heavier boned than most sighthounds, but they share the deep chest and basic body structure that exudes speed and physical ability. Its facial structure is considerably different from that of a [[Mudhol Hound|Caravan Hound]], with a slightly larger head and more powerful jaws. It has a slightly curled tail.<ref name=Deshpande2020/><br />
<br />
An extremely handsome and graceful dog, the Rajapalayam has a double suspension gait, similar to the trotting of a thoroughbred horse. The staple colour is milk white, although faint brown markings are quite common, and the pink nose is standard.<br />
<br />
Eye color can range from golden to brown and green. Puppies born with whitish or blue eyes are usually deaf and should not be bred. The coat is single, short, and fine; these dogs don't do well in very cold climates, but excel in the heat of South India or tropics.<br />
<br />
While many Rajapalayam dogs suffer from [[mange]], it rarely is serious, as mange is actually caused by [[mites]], so it is basically a matter of preventing mites rather than a breed issue. Otherwise, the breed is robust and low-maintenance.<br />
<br />
Rajapalayam dogs have a pink nose, button ears, whiptail and golden eyes. They have a gait similar to that of a horse and were also used during the [[Carnatic Wars]] and [[Polygar war]] against the [[British cavalry]]. They aren't fast runners, but are tireless and steady over long distances. There were reports that the [[Indian Army]] in [[Kashmir]] had them as [[guard dog]]s.<ref name="Dogwithblog">{{cite web |last1=Joshi |first1=Abhishek |title=Rajapalayam Dog Breed |date=17 July 2020 |url=https://dogwithblog.in/indian-dog-breeds/|publisher=Dogwithblog |access-date=17 July 2020 |language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Future of the breed==<br />
The pure Rajapalayam used to only be found in isolated pockets around southern [[Tamil Nadu]]. A dog breeding unit was established at [[Saidapet]], [[Chennai]], during 1980–81. This unit primarily rears native breeds such as the Rajapalayam dog, [[Combai|Combai dog]], [[kanni]], and [[Chippiparai]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindujobs.com/thehindu/mp/2007/02/12/stories/2007021201310300.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090304030800/http://www.thehindujobs.com/thehindu/mp/2007/02/12/stories/2007021201310300.htm |url-status=usurped |archive-date=March 4, 2009 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |title=Every Dog has His Day |date=February 12, 2007 |access-date=November 16, 2014}}</ref> To create awareness and encourage dog lovers to rear native breeds, the Animal Husbandry Department of the Government of Tamil Nadu participates in [[Conformation show|dog shows]]. Localities have established a cooperative, and interested families receive female dogs and the expertise that is required for large-scale breeding. The Indian Postal Department has brought out [[postage stamp]]s on the Rajapalayam dog breed,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.123rf.com/photo_15438412_india--circa-2005-stamp-printed-by-india-shows-dog-rajapalayam-circa-2005.html |title=INDIA - CIRCA 2005: stamp printed by India, shows dog Rajapalayam, circa 2005 |year=2005 |access-date=29 April 2014}}</ref> as well as the [[Mudhol Hound]], [[Rampur Hound]], and the [[Himalayan Sheepdog]]. The [[Kennel Club of India]] has taken up the cause of the Rajapalayam. With the club's cooperation, the "Save the Rajapalayam Project" has been launched. These initiatives have successfully brought the breed back from the brink of extinction.<br />
<br />
==Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px"><br />
File:The Rajapaalayam Breed 4.png<br />
File:The Rajapalayam Dog Breed.png|Traditional White Rajapalayam dog <br />
File:The Raajapalayam Dog.jpg|Rajapalayam Show Standard<br />
File:The Raajapalayam Breed.jpg|one male<br />
File:Rajappalayam Dog.jpg|front face<br />
File:The Rajapaalayam Breead 1.png|Two White rajapalayam dogs baby<br />
<br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Portal:Dogs|Dogs portal]]<br />
* [[List of dog breeds]]<br />
* [[List of dog breeds from India]]<br />
* [[Pampas Deerhound]]<br />
* [[Ramanadhapuram Mandai]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
<br />
{{Commons category|Rajapalayam Hound|Rajapalayam (dog)}}<br />
<br />
{{Indian dogs}}<br />
{{hounds}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Dog breeds originating in India]]<br />
[[Category:Sighthounds]]</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Agnibaan_launches&diff=512247List of Agnibaan launches2025-12-18T05:25:37Z<p>AmitNeogi: Made redirect</p>
<hr />
<div>#REDIRECT[[Agnibaan#Launch_history]]</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gurbux_Singh&diff=459289Gurbux Singh2025-11-28T16:18:03Z<p>AmitNeogi: improved information and corrected details</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Gurbux Singh''' may refer to:<br />
<br />
* [[Gurbux Singh (field hockey)]]<br />
* [[Gurbux Singh (Indian Army officer)]]<br />
<br />
{{hndis|Singh, Gurbux}}</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Main_Banoongi_Miss_India&diff=515151Main Banoongi Miss India2025-11-25T06:42:59Z<p>AmitNeogi: created a details</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}<br />
{{Infobox television<br />
| image = Miss india tv seires.jpg<br />
| genre = [[Entertainment]]<br />
| writer = Iqbal Munshi<br />
| director = Rupesh D Gohil<br />
| language = Hindi<br/>English<br />
| num_episodes = 157<br />
| producer = Rupesh D Gohil<br />
| camera = Multi Camera<br />
| company = RDG Productions<br />
| network = [[DD National]]<br />
| first_aired = {{Start date|2004|05|19|df=y}}<br />
| last_aired = {{End date|df=y|2007|05|16}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Miss India''' is an Indian television drama series that aired on [[DD National]] from 19 May 2004 to 16 May 2007 on Wednesdays.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiantelevision.com/headlines/y2k4/may/may147.htm|title=DD's gets bold with 'Miss India'}}</ref> The series, starring [[Pakhi Hegde]], [[Shilpa Shinde]], [[Seema Kapoor (TV actress)|Seema Kapoor]], [[Dalip Tahil]], [[Prithvi Zutshi]] and [[Vinod Kambli]], was directed and produced by Rupesh D Gohil. The story of the serial revolves around a small town girl and her struggle to live a life with dignity. Her journey of life eventually brings her to the glamorous world of modelling.<br />
<br />
==Plot==<br />
Suhani Sahay is a small-town girl living in a Mumbai chawl with her mother Savitri and a brother who is married to a rich business woman, Sanjana Gujral. Sanjana, along with her father, runs a media company, 'Queen's International'. She dislikes her in-laws' family for their middle-class status and wants her husband to stay at her house. She and her father use him for their mean purposes. She also starts misbehaving and torturing them emotionally and sometimes physically, but Suhani tries to ignore and forget for the sake of her brother. Later, he discovers his wife and her father's motives and decides to intervene. When confronted, Sanjana gets into fight with him and she and her father decide to kill him, and they do, leaving Suhani and her mother devastated. They decide to leave the city and go to their hometown, but not before Suhani gathers courage and assures her mother about revenge and to fulfill her brother's unaccomplished wishes.<br />
<br />
Meanwhile, she starts working in a firm to earn living, while her struggle with Sanjana continues. One day, Suhani comes across another rich and self-made business woman, Devyani Chauhan, who happens to be Sanjana's step-sister. She was left by her father as a child along with her mother and now wants to take revenge from her father. She runs a firm, 'Sandhya Advertising Media'. She learns about Suhani and her ordeal and decides to help her in her fight against Sanjana and her father. Devyani confides in Suhani. She wants Suhani to become a new face of her media company and consistently follows up with her for the same. Initially hesitating, Suhani gives in to Devyani's demands and becomes the new ambassador for the firm. As her journey of fashion world starts leaping high, Devyani enters Suhani for the Miss India contest. In the journey, she faces many hurdles because of Sanjana. After all the odds and evens, Suhani is crowned Miss India.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.indiantelevision.com/old-html/Guestbook/headlines/y2k4/may/may147.htm|title=DD's gets bold with 'Miss India'- Indiantelevision.com's Breaking News|website=www.indiantelevision.com|access-date=2016-09-13}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/television/what-s-hot/story/five-reasons-why-we-will-miss-shilpa-shinde-on-bhabi-ji-ghar-par-hai-313729-2016-03-17|title=Five reasons why we will miss Shilpa Shinde on Bhabi Ji Ghar Par Hai|access-date=2016-09-13}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Cast ==<br />
* [[Pakhi Hegde]] as Suhani Sahay<br />
* [[Shilpa Shinde]] as Sanjana Gujral / Sanjana Rajeev Sahay<br />
* Sunila Karambelkar as Sanjana Gujral (after plastic surgery)<br />
* [[Amit Sadh]]<br />
* Rahul Nanda as Rajeev Sahay (Suhani's elder brother; Sanjana's husband) / Babu<br />
* [[Farida Dadi]] as Savitri Sahay (Suhani and Rajeev's mother)<br />
* [[Prithvi Zutshi]] as Kamalkant Gujral (Devyani and Sanjana's father)<br />
* [[Shweta Kawatra]] as Roopa<br />
* [[Dalip Tahil]] as Digvijay Singh Chandel<br />
* [[Vinod Kambli]]<br />
* [[Seema Kapoor (TV actress)|Seema Kapoor]] as Devyani Chauhan<br />
* Kapil Soni as Karan Dhanrajgir<br />
* [[Melissa Pais]] as Kamya<br />
* Raj Hussain <br />
* Bharati Sharma <br />
* Jeetendra Trehan <br />
* [[Meghna Malik]] <br />
* Dinesh Ojha<br />
* Ruma Bhaduri <br />
* Daljeet Soundh<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* [http://www.rdgproduction.com/miss-india/ Official Website of Miss India]<br />
<br />
[[Category:DD National original programming]]<br />
[[Category:Indian television series]]<br />
[[Category:Indian television series related to plastic surgery]]</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aparajitaprccha&diff=487108Aparajitaprccha2025-10-29T20:45:00Z<p>AmitNeogi: new a entry</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Historic text on Indian architecture and arts}}<br />
{{italic title}}<br />
The '''''Aparajitaprccha''''' (''lit.'' "the questions of Aparajit") is a 12th-century [[Sanskrit]] text of Bhuvanadeva with major sections on architecture (''[[Vastu Shastra]]'') and arts (''Kala''). Predominantly a Hindu text, it largely reflects the north and western Indian traditions. The text also includes chapters on Jain architecture and arts. The text is notable for its sections on temple architecture (''vastu''), sculpture (''shilpa''), painting (''[[Chitra (art)|chitra]]'') and classical music and dance (''sangita'', ''nritya'').<ref name="Nardi2007">{{cite book|author=Isabella Nardi|title=The Theory of Citrasutras in Indian Painting: A Critical Re-evaluation of Their Uses and Interpretations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9cl8AgAAQBAJ |year=2007|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-16524-7 |page=7}}</ref><br />
<br />
Several incomplete manuscripts of ''Aparajitaprccha'' were discovered in Gujarat in early 20th-century (particularly Baroda), and others later in central and north India. It has at least 239 ''[[sutra]]s'', each ''sutra'' followed by many verses. This collection is called ''sutrasantana'', and thus extends into over 7500 verses. The first edition and translation of the text was published by Popatbhai Mankad in 1950, while Lal Mani Dubey published another critical study with translation and ''bhasya'' (commentary) on the text in 1987.<ref name="Nardi2007"/><ref name="Bhuvanadeva1950">{{cite book|author=Bhuvanadeva |translator=Popatbhai Mankad | title= Aparajitaprccha of Bhuvanadeva| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KiipGQAACAAJ |year=1950|publisher=Oriental Institute|pages=i–iv, Introduction, Chapters 1–3}}</ref><br />
<br />
The exact date of its composition is unclear. The generally accepted range is sometime between 1000 and 1200 CE based on its language, internal evidence such as those it cites and iconography it recommends, as well as matching its specific teachings with actual temples built and which can be dated with confidence.<ref name=VohraDhaky/> However, peculiar details such as subtle measurements for moldings specified in it, as well as its specifications for deity Vayu and Yama suggests that the final edition of the ''Aparajitaprccha'' was likely completed in the 12th-century.<ref name=VohraDhaky/> The ''Aparajitaprccha'' shows significant influences from ''[[Samarangana Sutradhara]]'', another major Hindu ''vastu and shilpa sastra'' text that has survived into the modern age.<ref>M.A. Dhaky (1961), ''The influence of the Samaranganasutradhara on Aparajitaprccha'', Journal of the Oriental Institute, Volume 10, Number 3, pages 226-234</ref> It acknowledges this influence and elaborates the principles. The different manuscripts of ''Aparajitaprccha'' show variations, likely errors created as the manuscript was interpolated and copied over the centuries.<ref name="Bhuvanadeva1950"/><br />
<br />
;Significance<br />
[[File:Taranga Temple 2017.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|The Ajitanatha Jain temple at Taranga follows specifications in the ''Aparajitaprccha'' text, as do Hindu temples in Siddhapur and Prabhasa-Patana.<ref name=VohraDhaky/>]]<br />
Though incomplete and with errors, the ''Aparajitaprccha'' is one of the six best known, influential and most complete Hindu treatises on architecture and iconography that have survived.<ref name="Chakrabarti">{{cite book | last=Chakrabarti | first=Vibhuti | title=Indian Architectural Theory and Practice | publisher=Routledge | date=2013-01-11 | isbn=978-1-136-77883-4 | doi=10.4324/9780203824368}}</ref> The text lists and discusses the various designs of temples, housing, water infrastructure, sculpture, pillars, domes, arrangement of architectural space (''chanda'') and such topics.<ref name="Bhuvanadeva1950"/><ref>G Gupta (2017), ''Rulers, Merchants and the Growth of Rural Economy in Early Medieval Western India'', Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. Vol. 78, pp. 169-176, {{JSTOR|26906082}}</ref> Some sections present the theory behind Hindu and Jain temples in north and western parts of India, useful in appreciating the Maru-Gurjara style of intricately carved architecture found in the temples of Rajasthan and Gujarat.<ref name="Dubey1987">{{cite book|author=Lal Mani Dubey|title=Aparājitapṛcchā, a Critical Study: Encyclopaedic Manual on Art and Architecture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Et0jAAAAMAAJ |year=1987|publisher=Lakshmi Publications|pages=1–9}}</ref><br />
<br />
According to Vohra and Dhaky, known for publications and a multi-volume encyclopedia on Indian architecture, the ''Aparajitaprccha'' is one of the "few and most valuable texts on the Nagara school of architecture".<ref name=VohraDhaky/> The text includes sections that digress into Hindu puranic summaries that has little to do with architecture, it also has many sections where there are "cogent and perfectly detailed statements about the canons of architecture", state Vohra and Dhaky. Its discussion on complex large Nagara-style temples is one of the oldest and most complete, particularly in the context of historic temples of western regions of India. Its canonical guidelines are followed in highly ornate Hindu and Jain marble-stone temples built after the 11th-century, and sections of the text are found in traditional ''shilpin'' families in Gujarat, Rajasthan and nearby regions.<ref name=VohraDhaky>P. Vohra and M.A. Dhaky (1960), ''The Date of the Aparājitapṛcchā'', Journal of the Oriental Institute, Volume 9, Number 4, pages 424–431</ref><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Manasollasa]]<br />
*[[Manasara]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Hindu texts]]<br />
[[Category:Hindu architecture]]<br />
[[Category:Indian architectural history]]<br />
[[Category:Indian iconography]]<br />
[[Category:Architectural treatises]]</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=National_Action_Plan_(Pakistan)&diff=471976National Action Plan (Pakistan)2025-10-20T11:14:33Z<p>AmitNeogi: enhance formatting per standard format as per guidelines</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Action plan to combat terrorism}}<br />
{{Prose|date=March 2025}}<br />
{{EngvarB|date=July 2016}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2016}}<br />
{{Nawaz Sharif sidebar}}<br />
The '''National Action Plan''' is an [[action plan]] that was established by the [[Government of Pakistan]] in December 2014 to crack down on [[Terrorism in Pakistan|terrorism]] and to supplement the ongoing [[Operation Zarb-e-Azb|anti-terrorist offensive]] in [[Federally Administered Tribal Areas]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=National Action Plan, 2014 – NACTA – National Counter Terrorism Authority NACTA Pakistan |url=https://nacta.gov.pk/nap-2014/ |access-date=2022-12-14 |language=en-US}}</ref> It is considered as a major coordinated state retaliation following the deadly [[2014 Peshawar school massacre|2014 Peshawar school attack]].<ref name="Dawn News, 2014" /><ref name="Washington Times, 2014" /><ref name="Dawn, Haider" /><ref name="Dawn News, Mateen Haider report" /> Following the national outrage over the targeted killing of schoolchildren in Peshawar by six Afghan and other foreign terrorists, the plan received unprecedented levels of support and co-operation across the country's political spectrum, inclusive of the federal and [[List of provincial governments of Pakistan|provincial governments]].<br />
<br />
It combines foreign and domestic policy initiatives aimed to crack down on and eventually eliminate [[:Category:Rebel groups in Pakistan|proscribed organisations]] across the country. The plan was provided as the framework for the [[Twenty-first Amendment to the Constitution of Pakistan]] which established speedy trial military courts for offences relating to terrorism. It has also led to the resumption of capital punishment and mandatory re-verification through [[fingerprint recognition]] of all subscribers on [[mobile telephony]].<ref name="BBC" /><br />
<br />
The National Action Plan authorises the [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Pakistan)|Foreign]], [[Ministry of Finance (Pakistan)|Finance]], and other ministerial departments to reach out to the friendly Muslim countries to clamp down on financiers of [[Sectarianism in Pakistan|sectarian]] and [[Terrorism in Pakistan|terrorist networks]] operating against [[Pakistan]].<ref name="Express Tribune, 2015" /><br />
<br />
==Background==<br />
[[File:Army Public School.jpg|thumbnail|[[Army Public School Peshawar]]]]<br />
On 16 December 2014, six gunmen affiliated with the [[Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan]] (TTP) conducted a terrorist attack on the [[Army Public School Peshawar|Army Public School]] in the northwestern Pakistani city of [[Peshawar]]. The militants, all of whom were foreign nationals, included one [[Chechen people|Chechen]], three [[Arab people|Arabs]] and two [[Afghanistan|Afghans]]. They entered the school and opened fire on school staff and children,<ref name="BBC"/><ref name="DNA India" /> killing 145 people, including 132 schoolchildren, ranging between eight and eighteen years of age.<ref name="CNN" /><ref name="The New York Times" /> A rescue operation was launched by the [[Pakistan Army]]'s [[Special Services Group]] (SSG) special forces, who killed all six terrorists and rescued 960 people.<ref name="BBC" /><ref name="The Express Tribune" /><br />
<br />
==Establishment of the plan==<br />
On 24 December 2014 political parties conference chaired by the then [[Prime Minister of Pakistan]] reached consensus over the issue of setting up military courts for tackling terrorism cases in the country, along with a wider plan to tackle terrorism.<ref name="Washington Times, 2014" /><br />
<br />
{{quote|text=We have to act fast and whatever is agreed we have to implement it immediately...this agreement is a defining moment for Pakistan and we will eliminate terrorists from this country.|sign=Prime Minister Pakistan|source=<ref name="dawn" />}}<br />
<br />
On 24 December the Prime Minister (PM) in a televised address to the nation announced the 'National Action Plan' (NAP) to deal with terrorism. According to the Interior Minister, the plan was prepared in the light of the decisions taken by All Parties Conference. For this purpose the PM established the National Action Committee, consisting of members from all the political parties and decisions were taken in the light of the recommendations of this committee. The PM's address gave the following outline of the National Action Plan, the points of which were decided in the APC.<br />
<br />
The [[Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaaf]] (PTI) called off the protests and participated in the APC. However, it abstained from voting the bill and amendment. [[Jamiat Ulema-e Islam (F)]] (JUI F) and [[Jamaat-e-Islami]] (JI) also abstained from voting. JI proposed that the word religion should be omitted from the text of the bill. JUI insisted that the word sect is objectionable. The [[Pakistan Peoples Party]] (PPP) and [[Awami National Party]] (ANP) voted in favour of the bill and amendment.<ref name="LA Times" /><ref name="DNA India" /><br />
<br />
==The plan==<br />
* After the Peshawar incident, government decided to proceed with the execution of extremists convicted in terror related cases. The Government has already started implementation.<br />
* Special courts, headed by the officers of the armed forces, will be established for the speedy trial of terrorists. These courts will be established for a term of two years.<br />
* Formation of armed militia will not be allowed in the country.<br />
* [[National Counter Terrorism Authority]] will be revived and made effective<br />
* There will be a crackdown on hate-speech, and action will be taken against newspapers, magazines contributing to the spread of such speech.<br />
* Financial sources of terrorists and terror organisation will be cut.<br />
* Banned outfits will not be allowed to operate under different names.<br />
* Special anti-terrorism force will be raised.<br />
* Measures will be taken to stop religious extremism and to protect minorities.<br />
* Madrassas will be regularised and reformed.<br />
* Print and electronic media will not be allowed to give any space to terrorists.<br />
* Keeping the rehabilitation of IDPs as the top-most priority, administrative and development reforms in [[FATA]] will be expedited.<br />
* Communication systems of terrorist organisations will be destroyed.<br />
* Social media and the Internet will not be allowed to be used by terrorists to spread propaganda and hate speech, though exact process for that will be finalised.<br />
* Like the rest of the country, no space will be given to extremism in any part of the Punjab.<br />
* Operation against terrorists in Karachi will be taken to its logical conclusion.<br />
* In the interest of political reconciliation, Baluchistan government will be given complete authority by all stakeholders.<br />
* Elements spreading sectarian violence will be prosecuted.<br />
* Comprehensive policy will be formed for registration and deportation of Afghan refugees.<br />
* To give provincial intelligence agencies access to communication of terrorists and to strengthen anti-terror agencies through basic reforms in the criminal justice system. Constitutional amendments and legislation will be carried out for this purpose.<br />
<br />
==Implementation==<br />
* [[Twenty-first Amendment to the Constitution of Pakistan]] passed on 7 January 2015.<br />
* Over 50 cases of hardcore terrorists for prosecution in military courts send till 25 March 2015.<br />
* 55,000 Afghan refugees expelled by between January and 23 March 2015.<ref name="Tribune" /><br />
* Lifted a seven-year-old moratorium on the executions of prisoners sentenced to death.<br />
* Executions of 128 prisoners till{{clarify|date=March 2015}} March 2015.<ref name="Decca Chronicle" /><br />
* By March 2015, civilian and intelligence agencies had arrested 150 people, half of them clerics, in violation of laws.<ref name="Tribunbe 2" /><br />
* On 25 March 2015, Pakistan froze a number of accounts used to funnel Rs 10.2&nbsp;billion in cash to terror suspects.<br />
* Boundary walls of all schools up to {{Convert|8|ft}} and topping them with {{Convert|2|ft}} high razor wire.<br />
* By 15 March 2015, Pakistan Telecommunication Authority (PTA), has verified more than 70&nbsp;million SIM's and 11&nbsp;million were blocked due to not having re-verification.<ref name="The News Teller" /><br />
* From 24 December 2014 to 25 March 2015, law enforcement agencies arrested 32,347 people on different charges in 28,826 operations.<ref name="Tribune 3" /><br />
* On 3 April 2015, at least 76 suspects including two Afghan nationals were arrested in [[Peshawar]].<ref>[http://tribune.com.pk/story/863641/security-forces-arrest-76-suspects-in-peshawar-raid/ Security forces arrest 76 suspects in Peshawar raid]</ref><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist|refs=<br />
<ref name="LA Times">{{Cite news|title=Taliban kills at least 104 people in attack on Pakistan military school|url=http://www.latimes.com/world/afghanistan-pakistan/la-fg-pakistan-taliban-attack-20141216-story.html|accessdate=16 December 2014|work= Los Angeles Times|date=16 December 2014}}</ref><br />
<ref name="Tribunbe 2">[http://tribune.com.pk/story/858555/national-action-plan-over-rs-10-billion-in-foreign-terror-funds-frozen/ National Action Plan: Over Rs 10 billion in foreign terror funds frozen]</ref><br />
<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-30491435|title=Pakistan Taliban kill scores in Peshawar school massacre| publisher=BBC News | date=16 December 2014 | accessdate=16 December 2014 }}</ref><br />
<ref name="The New York Times">{{Cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/17/world/asia/taliban-attack-pakistani-school.html |title=Taliban Besiege Pakistan School, Leaving 145 Dead |date=16 December 2014 |work=The New York Times |accessdate=18 December 2014}}</ref><br />
<ref name="The News Teller">[http://www.thenewsteller.com/pakistan/70-million-sims-re-verified-11-million-blocked-says-pta/10345/ 70 million SIM’s re-verified, 11 million blocked, says PTA]</ref><br />
<ref name="Dawn News, 2014">{{Cite news|last1=Haider|first1=Mateen|title=Nawaz constitutes special committee to implement National Action Plan|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1153290|accessdate=14 January 2015|work=Special report by Mateen Haider|agency=Dawn News|publisher=Dawn News, 2014|date=26 December 2014}}</ref><br />
<ref name="Tribune">[http://tribune.com.pk/story/857705/55000-afghan-refugees-have-returned-home-since-beginning-of-2015/ 55,000 Afghan refugees have returned home since beginning of 2015]</ref><br />
<ref name="Tribune 3">[http://tribune.com.pk/story/860426/32347-arrested-28826-operations-conducted-under-nap-report/ 32,347 arrested, 28,826 operations conducted under NAP: report]</ref><br />
<ref name="DNA India">{{Cite web | url=http://www.dnaindia.com/world/report-live-pakistan-school-siege-terrorists-hold-at-least-500-students-hostage-3-dead-28-injured-2044341 | title=Peshawar school attack: Over 100 killed in Pakistani Taliban attack, hundreds of students hostage | publisher=DNA India | date=16 December 2014 | accessdate=16 December 2014}}</ref><br />
<ref name="dawn">{{cite news|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1152909/political-leaders-reach-consensus-on-military-courts|title=Political leaders reach consensus on military courts|newspaper=Dawn|date=24 December 2014}}</ref><br />
<ref name="Decca Chronicle">[https://www.deccanchronicle.com/150325/world-neighbours/article/pakistan-executes-4-more-convicts-death-row Pakistan executes 4 more convicts on death row]</ref><br />
<ref name="Washington Times, 2014">{{Cite news|last1=Kaphle|first1=Anil|title=Pakistan announces a national plan to fight terrorism, says terrorists' days are numbered|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/wp/2014/12/24/pakistan-announces-a-national-plan-to-fight-terrorism-says-terrorists-days-are-numbered/|accessdate=14 January 2015|agency=Washington Times|publisher=Washington Times, 2014|date=24 December 2014}}</ref><br />
<ref name="Dawn, Haider">{{Cite news|last1=Haider|first1=Materr|title=Military courts part of National Action Plan: PM Nawaz|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1154046|accessdate=14 January 2015|agency=Dawn|publisher=Dawn, Haider|date=30 December 2014}}</ref><br />
<ref name="Express Tribune, 2015">{{Cite news|last1=Gishkori |first1=Zaheed |title=National Action Plan: Pakistan in fresh push to choke terror funding |url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/819528/national-action-plan-pakistan-in-fresh-push-to-choke-terror-funding/ |accessdate=14 January 2015 |agency=Express Tribune |publisher=Express Tribune, 2015 |date=10 January 2015 |url-status=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150113000145/http://tribune.com.pk/story/819528/national-action-plan-pakistan-in-fresh-push-to-choke-terror-funding/ |archivedate=13 January 2015 }}</ref><br />
<ref name="Dawn News, Mateen Haider report">{{Cite news|last1=Haider|first1=Mateen|title=Govt extends scope of military courts to Gilgit-Baltistan, AJK|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1156747/meeting-to-review-national-action-plan-under-way|accessdate=14 January 2015|agency=Dawn News|publisher=Dawn News, Mateen Haider report|date=14 January 2015}}</ref><br />
<ref name="CNN">{{Cite web |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2014/12/16/world/asia/pakistan-peshawar-school-attack/ |title=In Pakistan school attack, Taliban terrorists kill 145, mostly children |date=17 December 2014 |publisher=CNN |access-date=18 December 2014}}</ref><br />
<ref name="The Express Tribune">{{Cite web | url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/807564/gunmen-target-school-in-peshawar/ | title=Peshawar school attack: Pakistan authorities claim all Taliban attackers are dead | date=16 December 2014 | publisher=The Express Tribune | accessdate=16 December 2014}}</ref><br />
|30em}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* [https://nacta.gov.pk/nap-2014/ National Action Plan]<br />
<br />
{{2014 Peshawar school massacre}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Policies of Pakistan]]<br />
[[Category:2015 in law]]<br />
[[Category:History of the foreign relations of Pakistan]]<br />
[[Category:Telecommunications law]]<br />
[[Category:2015 in international relations]]<br />
[[Category:Nawaz Sharif administration]]<br />
[[Category:Terrorism laws]]<br />
[[Category:Terrorism in Pakistan]]<br />
[[Category:Counterterrorism in Pakistan]]<br />
[[Category:2014 Peshawar school massacre]]</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lists_of_ambassadors_of_India&diff=513338Lists of ambassadors of India2025-09-06T09:41:52Z<p>AmitNeogi: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|None}}<br />
'''List of ambassadors of India''' may refer to:<br />
<br />
*[[List of ambassadors of India to Algeria]]<br />
*[[List of ambassadors of India to Angola]]<br />
*[[List of ambassadors of India to Bhutan]]<br />
*[[List of ambassadors of India to Brazil]]<br />
*[[List of ambassadors of India to China]]<br />
*[[List of ambassadors of India to the Czech Republic]]<br />
*[[List of ambassadors of India to Egypt]]<br />
*[[List of ambassadors of India to Finland]]<br />
*[[List of ambassadors of India to France]]<br />
*[[List of ambassadors of India to Germany]]<br />
*[[List of ambassadors of India to Greece]]<br />
*[[List of ambassadors of India to Iran]]<br />
*[[List of ambassadors of India to Israel]]<br />
*[[List of ambassadors of India to Japan]]<br />
*[[List of ambassadors of India to Madagascar]]<br />
*[[List of ambassadors of India to Peru]]<br />
*[[List of ambassadors of India to Romania]]<br />
*[[List of ambassadors of India to Russia]]<br />
*[[List of ambassadors of India to Sudan]]<br />
*[[List of ambassadors of India to Switzerland]]<br />
*[[List of ambassadors of India to the United Arab Emirates]]<br />
*[[List of ambassadors of India to the United States]]<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[List of ambassadors and high commissioners to India]]<br />
*[[Indian embassy (disambiguation)]]<br />
<br />
{{list of lists |officeholders |listcat=Lists of ambassadors of India}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:India, ambassadors of}}</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tanveer_Ghazi&diff=539605Tanveer Ghazi2025-08-30T20:35:30Z<p>AmitNeogi: started stub - done</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Indian lyricist}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2022}}<br />
{{Infobox person<br />
| name = Tanveer Ghazi<br />
| occupation = [[Lyricist]], [[poet]], [[writer|author]]<br />
| notable_works = ''[[Pink (2016 film)|Pink]]'', ''[[October (2018 film)|October]]'', ''[[Hate Story 2]]'', ''[[18.11: A Code of Secrecy]]'', ''[[Ek Tha Hero]]'', ''[[Kadak Singh]]''<br />
}}<br />
'''Tanveer Ghazi''' is an Indian lyricist,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://scroll.in/reel/824015/bollywood-in-2016-five-lyricists-who-pushed-for-poetry-in-their-film-songs|title=Bollywood in 2016: Five lyricists who pushed for poetry in their film songs|first=Manish|last=Gaekwad|website=Scroll.in}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indulgexpress.com/culture/books/2021/jan/22/lyricist-tanveer-ghazis-anthology-of-poems-explore-love-31111.html|title=Lyricist Tanveer Ghazi's anthology of poems explore love|website=www.indulgexpress.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.amarujala.com/gorakhpur/poet-and-singer-tanveer-ghazi-live-performed-in-gorakhpur-literary-festival|title=गुफ्तगू में बोले गीतकार व कवि तनवीर गाजी- दिल के अल्फाजों को बयां करती है मेरी शायरी|website=Amar Ujala|language=hi}}</ref> poet and author<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.radioandmusic.com/entertainment/editorial/news/210119-bollywood-lyricist-tanveer-ghazi-elated-the|title=Bollywood Lyricist Tanveer Ghazi elated with the success of his book 'Ishq Musaafir'|website=www.radioandmusic.com}}</ref> known for his work predominantly in [[Bollywood]] films like [[Pink (2016 film)|''Pink'' (2016 film)]], [[October (2018 film)|''October'' (2018 film)]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cinestaan.com/articles/2018/mar/28/12101/october-song-tab-bhi-tu-tanveer-ghazi-s-fine-lyrics-let-down-by-anupam-roy-s-average-music|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002044323/https://www.cinestaan.com/articles/2018/mar/28/12101/october-song-tab-bhi-tu-tanveer-ghazi-s-fine-lyrics-let-down-by-anupam-roy-s-average-music|url-status=live|archive-date=2 October 2022|title=October song 'Tab Bhi Tu': Tanveer Ghazi's fine lyrics let down by Anupam Roy's average music|first=Mayur|last=Lookhar|website=Cinestaan}}</ref> ''[[Hate Story 2]]'', ''[[Yeh Saali Aashiqui]]'', ''[[18.11: A Code of Secrecy]]'' and ''[[Ek Tha Hero]]''.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://boxofficeindia.com/actor.php?actorid=6593&role=28 | title=Tanveer Ghazi Filmography }}</ref><br />
Tanveer Ghazi has participated in several TV programs including Sahitya Aajtak.<br />
<br />
His latest notable work is in [[Kadak Singh]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kadak Singh {{!}} Song - Tu Jo Hai {{!}} Hindi Video Songs - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/videos/entertainment/music/hindi/kadak-singh-song-tu-jo-hai/videoshow/105601711.cms |access-date=2024-03-05 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{authority control}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Ghazi, Tanveer}}<br />
[[Category:Indian lyricists]]<br />
[[Category:21st-century Indian poets]]<br />
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
<br />
{{India-poet-stub}}</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kadipur_Assembly_constituency&diff=507338Kadipur Assembly constituency2025-08-08T05:08:41Z<p>AmitNeogi: put up new info more to come</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Constituency of the Uttar Pradesh legislative assembly in India}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2019}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2019}}<br />
{{Infobox Indian constituency<br />
| name = Kadipur<br />
| map_image = 191-Kadipur.svg<br />
| mla = [[Rajesh Gautam]]<br />
| party = [[Bharatiya Janta Party]]<br />
| latest_election_year = 2022<br />
| state = [[Uttar Pradesh]]<br />
| district = [[Sultanpur district|Sultanpur]]<br />
| reservation = SC<br />
| type = SLA<br />
| electors = 3,79,507<br />
| constituency_no = 191<br />
}}<br />
'''Kadipur''' is a constituency of the [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]] covering the city of Kadipur in the [[Sultanpur district]] of Uttar Pradesh, India.<ref name=delimitation2008>{{cite web |url=https://upload.indiacode.nic.in/showfile?actid=AC_CEN_3_20_00030_200233_1517807324510&type=order&filename=Delimitation%20Order,2008.pdf |title=Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 2008 |date=26 November 2008 |access-date= 24 June 2021}}</ref><br />
<br />
Kadipur is one of five assembly constituencies in the [[Sultanpur Lok Sabha constituency]]. Since 2008, this assembly constituency is numbered 191 amongst 403 constituencies.<br />
<br />
== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
!Election<br />
!Name<br />
!colspan=2|Party<br />
|-<br />
|[[2017 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2017]]<ref name=election2017/><br />
|rowspan=2| [[Rajesh Gautam]]<br />
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=2}}<br />
|-<br />
|[[2022 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2022]]<ref name=election2022/><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Election results==<br />
<br />
=== 2022 ===<br />
{{Election box begin | title=[[2022 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Kadipur<ref name="election2022">{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/14185-uttar-pradesh-general-legislative-election-2022/ |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |title=State Election, 2022 to the Legislative Assembly Of Uttar Pradesh |website=eci.gov.in |accessdate=4 March 2023}}</ref>}}<br />
{{Election box winning candidate with party link<br />
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party<br />
|candidate = Rajesh Kumar Gautam<br />
|votes = {{formatnum:96405}}<br />
|percentage = 43.44<br />
|change = {{increase}}1.95<br />
}}<br />
{{Election box candidate with party link<br />
|party = Samajwadi Party<br />
|candidate = Bhagelu Ram<br />
|votes = {{formatnum:70682}}<br />
|percentage = 31.85<br />
|change = <br />
}}<br />
{{Election box candidate with party link<br />
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party<br />
|candidate = Heera Lal<br />
|votes = {{formatnum:46388}}<br />
|percentage = 20.9<br />
|change = {{decrease}}7.95<br />
}}<br />
{{Election box candidate with party link<br />
|party = Indian National Congress<br />
|candidate = Niklesh Saroj<br />
|votes = {{formatnum:3248}}<br />
|percentage = 1.46<br />
|change = {{decrease}}13.76<br />
}}<br />
{{Election box candidate with party link<br />
|party = None of the above<br />
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]<br />
|votes = {{formatnum:1635}}<br />
|percentage = 0.74<br />
|change = {{decrease}}0.57<br />
}}<br />
{{Election box majority<br />
|votes = {{formatnum:25723}}<br />
|percentage = 11.59<br />
|change = {{decrease}}1.05<br />
}}<br />
{{Election box turnout<br />
|votes = {{formatnum:221945}}<br />
|percentage = 58.48<br />
|change = {{decrease}}0.29<br />
}}<br />
{{Election box hold with party link<br />
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party<br />
|loser = <br />
|swing = <br />
}}<br />
{{Election box end}}<br />
<br />
<br />
=== 2017 ===<br />
[[Bharatiya Janta Party]] candidate Rajesh Gautam won in [[2017 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2017 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Elections]] defeating [[Bahujan Samaj Party]] candidate '''Bhageluram''' by a margin of 26,604 votes.<ref name="election2017">{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3471-uttar-pradesh-general-legislative-election-2017/ |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |title=State Election, 2017 to the Legislative Assembly Of Uttar Pradesh |website=eci.gov.in |accessdate=26 March 2022}}</ref><br />
{{Election box begin|title = [[2017 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly Election]]: Kadipu<ref name="election2017"/>}}<br />
{{Election box winning candidate with party link<br />
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party<br />
|candidate = Rajesh Gautam<br />
|votes = {{formatnum:87353}}<br />
|percentage = 41.49<br />
|change = <br />
}}<br />
{{Election box candidate with party link<br />
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party<br />
|candidate = Bhageluram<br />
|votes = {{formatnum:60749}}<br />
|percentage = 28.85<br />
|change = <br />
}}<br />
{{Election box candidate with party link<br />
|party = Indian National Congress<br />
|candidate = Angad Kumar<br />
|votes = {{formatnum:32042}}<br />
|percentage = 15.22<br />
|change = <br />
}}<br />
{{Election box candidate with party link<br />
|party = NISHAD Party<br />
|candidate = Shitala Prasad<br />
|votes = {{formatnum:17266}}<br />
|percentage = 8.2<br />
|change = <br />
}}<br />
{{Election box candidate with party link<br />
|party = Independent<br />
|candidate = Hansraj Ravi<br />
|votes = {{formatnum:3057}}<br />
|percentage = 1.45<br />
|change = <br />
}}<br />
{{Election box candidate with party link<br />
|party = None of the above<br />
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]<br />
|votes = {{formatnum:2718}}<br />
|percentage = 1.31<br />
|change = <br />
}}<br />
{{Election box majority<br />
|votes = {{formatnum:26604}}<br />
|percentage = 12.64<br />
|change = <br />
}}<br />
{{Election box turnout<br />
|votes = {{formatnum:210538}}<br />
|percentage = 58.77<br />
|change = <br />
}}<br />
{{Election box end}}<br />
<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Sultanpur district]]<br />
*[[List of constituencies of the Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* {{cite web |title=Results of Uttar Pradesh Assembly Elections |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/category/92-uttar-pradesh/ |website=eci.gov.in |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=15 March 2022}}<br />
<br />
{{Assembly constituencies of Uttar Pradesh}}<br />
{{coord|26.17|82.37|display=title}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Uttar Pradesh]]<br />
[[Category:Sultanpur district]]<br />
[[Category:Politics of Uttar Pradesh]]</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sawale&diff=533711Sawale2025-07-29T18:53:25Z<p>AmitNeogi: started stub</p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|Village in Maharashtra}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2018}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2018}}<br />
{{Infobox settlement<br />
| name =Sawale<br />
| other_name =Sawala<br />
| settlement_type = Village<br />
| pushpin_map = India Maharashtra#India<br />
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Maharashtra, India<br />
| coordinates = {{coord|18.9467897|N|73.4145519|E|display=inline,title}}<br />
| subdivision_type = Country<br />
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}<br />
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]<br />
| subdivision_name1 = [[Maharashtra, India|Maharashtra]]<br />
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]<br />
| subdivision_name2 = [[Pune district|Pune]]<br />
| subdivision_type3 = [[Tehsil]]<br />
| subdivision_name3 = [[Mawal taluka|Mawal]]<br />
| unit_pref = Metric<br />
<!-- ALL fields with measurements have automatic unit conversion --><br />
<!-- for references: use <ref>tags --><br />
| elevation_m = <br />
| area_total_ha = 1301<br />
| population_as_of = 2011<br />
| population_footnotes = <br />
| population_total = 1002 <br />
| population_density_km2 = auto<br />
| population_note = [[Human sex ratio|Sex ratio]] 501 /501 [[male|♂]]/[[female|♀]] <br />
| population_demonym =<br />
| demographics_type1 = Languages<br />
| demographics1_title1 = Official<br />
| demographics1_info1 = [[Marathi language|Marathi]]<br />
| demographics1_title2 = Other spoken<br />
| demographics1_info2 = [[Hindi language|Hindi]]<br />
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]<br />
| utc_offset1 = +5:30<br />
| postal_code_type = <br />
| postal_code = <br />
| area_code_type = [[Telephone code]]<br />
| area_code = 02114 <br />
| registration_plate =[[List of RTO districts in India#MH.E2.80.94Maharashtra|MH]]-14 <br />
| iso_code = [[ISO 3166-2:IN|IN-MH]]<br />
| blank1_name_sec2 = <br />
| blank1_info_sec2 = <br />
| governing_body = [[Gram panchayat]]<br />
| government_type = [[Panchayati raj (India)|Panchayati Raj]]<br />
| website = {{URL|pune.nic.in}} <br />
| footnotes =<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Sawale''' is a village and [[gram panchayat]] in India, situated in the [[Mawal taluka]] of [[Pune district]] in the state of [[Maharashtra]]. It encompasses an area of {{cvt|1301|ha}}.<ref name="census2011"/><br />
<br />
==Administration==<br />
The village is administrated by a [[sarpanch]], an elected representative who leads a gram panchayat. At the time of the [[2011 Census of India]], the village was a self-contained gram panchayat, meaning that there were no other constituent villages governed by the body.<ref>{{cite web |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190411165725/http://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_A/27/2725_PART_A_DCHB_PUNE.pdf |archivedate=2019-04-11 |url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_A/27/2725_PART_A_DCHB_PUNE.pdf |page=1201 |title=Census of India 2011: Maharashtra: District Census Handbook Part A: Pune |publisher=Directorate of Census Operations |accessdate=2019-05-23}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Demographics==<br />
At the 2011 census, the village comprised 223 households. The population of 1002 was split between 501 males and 501 females.<ref name="census2011">{{cite web |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160311054952/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/2725_PART_B_DCHB_PUNE.pdf |archivedate=2016-03-11 |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/2725_PART_B_DCHB_PUNE.pdf |page=402 |title=Census of India 2011: Maharashtra: District Census Handbook Part B: Pune |publisher=Directorate of Census Operations |accessdate=2019-05-19}}</ref><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[List of villages in Mawal taluka]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{Talukas in Pune district}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Villages in Mawal taluka]]<br />
[[Category:Gram Panchayats in Pune district]]<br />
<br />
<br />
{{Pune-geo-stub}}</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abdul_Basith_(volleyball)&diff=460044Abdul Basith (volleyball)2025-06-26T03:48:36Z<p>AmitNeogi: updated section as per guidelines and corrected details</p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|Indian volleyball player}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2018}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2018}}<br />
'''Abdul Basith Siddiqui''' was a captain of the [[India men's national volleyball team]]. He was a member of the team that won the bronze medal in the 1986 Seoul Asian games, beating Japan.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Venkat |first1=Rahul |title=Indian volleyball team: star names and Asian Games success |url=https://olympics.com/en/featured-news/indian-volleyball-team-asian-games-medals-success-history |website=Olympics.com |access-date=16 November 2021}}</ref> He also represented India in Asian games of 1978 and 1982.<br />
<br />
Abdul Basith was born in [[Hyderabad]] in 1959 and then died in 1991. He was awarded the [[Arjuna Award]] in 1989.{{citation needed|date=November 2021}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Abdul Basith}}<br />
[[Category:Indian men's volleyball players]]<br />
[[Category:Recipients of the Arjuna Award]]<br />
[[Category:Accidental deaths by electrocution]]<br />
[[Category:Year of birth missing]]<br />
[[Category:1991 deaths]]<br />
[[Category:Accidental deaths in India]]<br />
[[Category:Volleyball players at the 1986 Asian Games]]<br />
[[Category:Volleyball players from Hyderabad, India]]<br />
[[Category:Medalists at the 1986 Asian Games]]<br />
[[Category:Asian Games bronze medalists for India]]<br />
[[Category:Asian Games volleyball players for India]]<br />
[[Category:Asian Games bronze medalists in volleyball]]<br />
<br />
{{India-volleyball-bio-stub}}</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flipkart_Video&diff=499216Flipkart Video2025-06-18T00:08:55Z<p>AmitNeogi: Redirect page</p>
<hr />
<div>#Redirect [[Flipkart#Flipkart Video]]</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=National_Highway_41_(India)&diff=465266National Highway 41 (India)2025-05-14T13:57:27Z<p>AmitNeogi: adjust article</p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|National highway in Gujarat, India}}<br />
{{For|the old National Highway 41|National Highway 116 (India)}}<br />
{{Redirect|NH-41|the state highway in New Hampshire|New Hampshire Route 41}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2025}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2017}}<br />
{{infobox road<br />
| country = IND<br />
| type = NH<br />
| route = 41<br />
| length_km = 290<br />
| image =<br />
| map = {{Maplink|frame=yes|plain=yes|frame-width=290|frame-height=300|frame-align=center|type=line<br />
| id=Q25352383| stroke-width=3|title=National Highway 41}}<br />
| map_custom = yes<br />
| map_notes = Map of the National Highway in red <br />
| direction_a = East<br />
| direction_b = West<br />
| terminus_a = [[Samakhiyali]]<br />
| terminus_b = [[Narayan Sarovar]]<br />
| junction = <br />
| previous_type = NH<br />
| next_type = NH<br />
| previous_route = 27 <!-- Route start junction --><br />
| next_route = 27 <!-- Route end junction --><br />
| states = [[Gujarat]]<br />
| destinations = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''National Highway 41''' ('''NH 41''') is a primary [[National Highway (India)|national highway]] in India. This highway runs entirely in the state of [[Gujarat]] starting from [[Samakhiyali]] and terminating at [[Narayan Sarovar]].<ref name="renumber">{{cite web|url=http://dorth.gov.in/writereaddata/sublinkimages/finaldoc6143316640.pdf|title=Rationalisation of Numbering Systems of National Highways|publisher=[[Department of Road Transport and Highways]]|access-date=3 April 2012|location=New Delhi|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120331002823/http://www.morth.nic.in/writereaddata/sublinkimages/finaldoc6143316640.pdf|archive-date=31 March 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> This national highway is {{convert|290|km|mi|abbr=on}} long.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://morth.nic.in/sites/default/files/Details-of-National-Highways-as-on-31.03.pdf|title=The List of National Highways in India|website=[[Ministry of Road Transport and Highways]]|access-date=30 December 2019}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Route ==<br />
[[File:Renumbered National Highways map of India (Schematic).jpg|thumb|Schematic map of National Highways in India]]<br />
NH-41 connects Samakhiyali, [[Gandhidham]], [[Mandvi]], [[Naliya]] and terminates at Narayan Sarovar in the state of Gujarat.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://morth.nic.in/showfile.asp?lid=2924|title=State-wise length of National Highways (NH) in India as on 30.11.2018|website=[[Ministry of Road Transport and Highways]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190604032801/https://morth.nic.in/showfile.asp?lid=2924|archive-date=4 June 2019|access-date=30 December 2019}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Junctions == <br />
{{Exit list|date=November 2021}} <br />
: {{jct|NH|27|country=IND}} Terminal near Samakhiyali.<br />
: {{jct|NH|341|country=IND}} near Bhimsar<br />
: {{jct|NH|141|country=IND}} near Gandhidham<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
* [[List of national highways in India]]<br />
* [[List of national highways in India by state]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* [http://openstreetmap.org/browse/relation/10387001 NH 41 on OpenStreetMap]<br />
{{maplink|text=Route map|type=line|display=title}}<br />
<br />
{{Indian Highways Network}}<br />
{{IND NH41 sr}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:National highways of India]]<br />
[[Category:National highways in Gujarat]]</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Puliyattam&diff=453389Puliyattam2025-02-18T22:35:44Z<p>AmitNeogi: updated details</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Use Indian English|date = August 2019}}<br />
<br />
{{More citations needed|date=August 2019}}<br />
[[File:Puliyattam.png|thumb|Puliyattam playing]]<br />
<br />
'''Puliyattam''' (means tiger Dance) is an old folk art dance of [[Tamil people|Tamil]]<ref>[http://www.carnatica.net/special/folkdances.htm Tamil Folk Dances<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Nadu.<ref>{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20150814040440/http://discovertamilnadu.net/tamilnadu%20dances.html Dance forms of Tamilnadu<!-- Bot generated title -->]}}</ref> A highly exuberant and cultural festival, this dance form usually comprises a troupe of 6 performers aping the movements of the majestic, predatory tigers. Their bodies are painted by the painstaking efforts of local artists in vibrant yellow and black to resemble an exact replica of a tiger.<ref>[http://hotelstamilnadu.com/dances.htm Dances in Tamil Nadu]</ref> The paintings include the ferocious looking fangs and convincing headgear replete with ears, paws with claws, and a long tail that conjures an accurate picture of the savage beast’s graceful movements. <br />
<br />
The thunderous roars of drums beating wildly along with several local instruments reproduce the snarls of the regal predators and complete the picture. Sometimes to incorporate a touch of reality, a vulnerable goat is tied and the dancers pretend to seize upon the helpless creature and thereby kill it. Apart from the tiger, the dancers are often adorned in the beautiful spots of a leopard or the eerie dark shades of a black panther. <br />
<br />
The art nowadays is very rarely performed in Tamil Nadu but is still performed in Kerala (Pulikali/Puliyattam), Andhra Pradesh (Pulivesham) and Karnataka (Hulivesha).<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Dance forms of Tamil Nadu]]<br />
*[[History of Tamil Nadu]]<br />
*[[Ancient Tamil music]]<br />
*[[Carnatic music]]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E4HOxPOY7E8 A sample of Puliyattam]<br />
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6etMhV_pkDw Pulikali in Kerala]<br />
{{India-dance-stub}}{{Dance in India}}<br />
[[Category:Folk dances of Tamil Nadu]]<br />
[[Category:Ritual animal disguise]]</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hazira_Manufacturing_Division&diff=460699Hazira Manufacturing Division2024-08-14T00:42:15Z<p>AmitNeogi: correct intro for consistency</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2022}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2022}}<br />
{{Infobox factory<br />
| name = Hazira Manufacturing Division<br />
| image = <br />
| alt = <br />
| caption = <br />
| location_map = India<br />
| location_map_width = <br />
| location_map_text = <br />
| location_map_alt = <br />
| coordinates = {{Coord|21.169938|72.673938|region:CA_type:landmark|display=inline<!--,title-->}}<br />
| built = 1991-92<br />
| operated = <!-- {{Start date|YYYY|MM|DD|df=y}}-<br />{{End date|YYYY|MM|DD|df=y}}--><br />
| location = [[Hazira]], [[Gujarat]], India<br />
| industry =Petrochemical <br />
| products =*[[petrochemicals]] - [[Ethylene]], [[Propylene]], [[Benzene]], [[Xylene]]<br />
*[[polymers]] - [[Vinyl chloride|VCM]]-[[PVC]], [[Polyethylene]], [[Polypropylene]]<br />
*[[polyesters]] - POY(Partially oriented yarn), PSF(Polyester-staple fiber), [[Polyethylene terephthalate|PET]], [[Polyester Fiberfill]], Polyester Filament Yarn (PFY)<br />
*[[Synthetic rubber]] - [[Styrene-butadiene|SBR]], [[Polybutadiene|PBR]]<br />
*polyester intermediates - [[Terephthalic acid|Purified Terephthalic Acid]], [[Mono Ethylene Glycol]]<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web|title=Ministry of Environment Forest and Climate Change Government of India|url=http://environmentclearance.nic.in/writereaddata/Online/TOR/0_0_04_Feb_2015_1713112231Pre-FeasibilityReport.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200628134437/http://environmentclearance.nic.in/writereaddata/Online/TOR/0_0_04_Feb_2015_1713112231Pre-FeasibilityReport.pdf |archive-date=2020-06-28|access-date=2020-05-15}}</ref><br />
| employees = <br />
| architect = <br />
| style = <br />
| buildings = <br />
| area = 700 acres<ref name=":0" /><br />
| volume = <br />
| address = <br />
| owner = [[Reliance Industries Limited]] <br />
| defunct = <!-- {{End date|YYYY|MM|DD}} --><br />
}}<br />
'''Hazira Manufacturing Division (HMD)''' is the [[manufactory]] of [[Reliance Industries Limited]] (RIL) located at [[Hazira]], [[Gujarat]], [[India]] in [[Surat]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Tata Energy Research Institute|first=R. K. Narang|title=Cleaner is Cheaper: Case Studies of Corporate Environmental Excellence, Volume 5|publisher=The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI)|year=2007|isbn=9788179931189|pages=49}}</ref> It was commissioned in 1991–92.<ref name="HDFCH">{{cite web|title=Reliance Industries Ltd|url=http://www.hdfcsec.com/Market/Information.aspx?CoCode=476&RptType=History|publisher=HDFC Securities|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140110093244/http://www.hdfcsec.com/Market/Information.aspx?CoCode=476&RptType=History|archive-date=10 January 2014|access-date=26 August 2013}}</ref> It is a multi-product, fully integrated complex, manufacturing a wide range of [[petrochemical]]s, [[polymer]]s, [[polyester]]s and polyester intermediates.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ministry of Environment Forest and Climate Change Government of India |url=http://environmentclearance.nic.in/writereaddata/Online/TOR/0_0_05_Mar_2015_1522244771Pre-FeasibilityReport.pdf |access-date=2020-05-04}}</ref> [[Naphtha]] is the main raw material of this manufactory, A Naphtha cracker facility [[Cracking (chemistry)|crackes]] the Naphtha and feeds the downstream fiber intermediates, plastics and polyester plants.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Reliance Industries: Reports, Company History, Directors Report, Chairman's Speech, Auditors Report of Reliance Industries - NDTVProfit.com|url=https://www.ndtv.com/business/stock/reliance-industries-ltd_reliance/reports|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200628134429/https://www.ndtv.com/business/stock/reliance-industries-ltd_reliance/reports|archive-date=2020-06-28|access-date=2020-05-03|website=www.ndtv.com}}</ref> The manufactory consists integrated utilities system which includes raw water, [[cooling water]], [[demineralized water]], fire water, [[compressed air]], [[nitrogen]], [[steam]]/[[Condensation|condensate]] and a [[Coal-fired power station|Coal based]] [[Captive power plant]].<br />
<br />
== History ==<br />
It was the third by main manufacturing complex established by RIL, First at Naroda, Second at Patalganga and third at Hazira.<ref>{{Cite web|title=RIL Annual Report 1991-1992|url=https://www.ril.com/getattachment/a4561a95-9def-46d3-81c0-08ae61e00ef2/AnnualReport_1991-92.aspx|access-date=2020-05-17}}</ref> The MEG plant was commissioned in 1991 in technical collaboration with Lummus Crest BV (Netherlands). In 1991-92 Reliance Industries established a petrochemical manufacturing plants to produce [[PVC]]-[[Vinyl chloride|VCM]] and [[Polyethylene]] in technical collaboration with BF Goodich and [[DuPont]] respectively.<ref name="HDFCH" /> A new Coal based Captive power plant was commissioned in 2016 having capacity of 4*93 MW,<ref>{{Cite news|agency=Press Trust of India|date=2016-11-23|title=BHEL commissions 93 MW unit at RIL's Hazira power plant|work=Business Standard India|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/bhel-commissions-93-mw-unit-at-ril-s-hazira-power-plant-116112300518_1.html|access-date=2020-05-15}}</ref> The 5 [[Circulating fluidized bed|CFBC]] [[Boiler]]s each having capacity of 500 TPH and [[Electrostatic precipitator|ESP]] were constructed by [[Thermax]]<ref>{{Citation|last=Global|first=Thermax|title=Engineering solutions for heating, boilers, cooling, water & waste management, specialty chemicals, air pollution control|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BJ8hiBoDf6c|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-15}}</ref> and 4 [[Steam turbine]]s each of 93 MW capacity were commissioned by [[Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited|BHEL]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=BHEL commissions 93 MW unit at RIL's Hazira power plant|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/business/companies/231116/bhel-commissions-93-mw-unit-at-rils-hazira-power-plant.html|date=2016-11-23|website=Deccan Chronicle|language=en|access-date=2020-05-15}}</ref><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
* [[Jamnagar Refinery|Jamnagar Refinary]]<br />
* [[Reliance Industries|Reliance Vadodara Manufacturing Division (VMD)]]<br />
* [[Reliance Dahej Manufacturing Division|Reliance Dahej Manufacturing Division (DMD)]]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Reliance Industries]]<br />
[[Category:Surat district]]<br />
[[Category:Economy of Gujarat]]<br />
[[Category:Manufacturing plants in India]]<br />
[[Category:Manufacturing plants of Reliance Industries]]<br />
[[Category:1991 establishments in Gujarat]]<br />
[[Category:Industrial buildings completed in 1991]]<br />
[[Category:20th-century architecture in India]]</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Devali&diff=496405Devali2024-07-08T19:01:15Z<p>AmitNeogi: New</p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|Village in Maharashtra}}<br />
{{for|the Indian festival of lights|Diwali}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2017}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2017}}<br />
{{Infobox settlement<br />
| name = Devli<br />
| native_name =<br />
| native_name_lang =<br />
| settlement_type = village<br />
| image_skyline =<br />
| image_alt =<br />
| image_caption =<br />
| etymology =<br />
| pushpin_map = India Maharashtra#India<br />
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Maharashtra, India<br />
| coordinates = {{coord|19.6895076|N|73.1497121|E|display=inline,title}}<br />
| coordinates_footnotes =<br />
| subdivision_type = Country<br />
| subdivision_name = [[India]]<br />
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]<br />
| subdivision_name1 = [[Maharashtra]]<br />
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]<br />
| subdivision_name2 = [[Thane district|Thane]]<br />
| subdivision_type3 = [[Taluka]]<br />
| subdivision_name3 = [[Bhiwandi]]<br />
| established_title =<br />
| established_date =<br />
| founder =<br />
| seat_type = [[Panchayat]]<br />
| seat =<br />
| leader_party =<br />
| leader_title =<br />
| leader_name =<br />
| unit_pref = Metric<br />
| area_total_km2 =<br />
| elevation_m = 62<br />
| population_as_of = 2011<br />
| population_total = 565<br />
| population_density_km2 = auto<br />
| population_demonym =<br />
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]<br />
| utc_offset1 = +5:30<br />
| postal_code_type = <!-- [[Postal Index Number|PIN]] --><br />
| postal_code =<br />
| area_code_type = <!-- [[Telephone numbers in India|STD Code]] --><br />
| area_code =<br />
| blank_name_sec1 = [[2011 Census of India|2011 census]] code<br />
| blank_info_sec1 = 552612<br />
| footnotes =<br />
}}<br />
'''Devali''' is a village in the [[Thane district]] of [[Maharashtra]], [[India]]. It is located in the [[Bhiwandi]] [[taluka]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dolr.nic.in/dolr/mpr/revenuevillagedirectorypdf/Maharashtra.pdf |title=Maharashtra villages |publisher=Land Records Information Systems Division, NIC |accessdate=2015-08-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304095320/http://dolr.nic.in/dolr/mpr/revenuevillagedirectorypdf/Maharashtra.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref> It lies on the Wada-Malwada Road.<br />
<br />
== Demographics ==<br />
<br />
According to the [[2011 census of India]], Devali has 108 households. The effective literacy rate (i.e. the literacy rate of population excluding children aged 6 and below) is 78.83%.<ref name="census_2011"/><br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|+ Demographics (2011 Census)<ref name="census_2011">{{cite web|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/pca/cdb_pca_census/PCA%20CDB-2721-F-Census.xlsx |title=District census data |work=[[2011 Census of India]] |publisher=Directorate of Census Operations |accessdate=2015-08-17 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151002001310/http://censusindia.gov.in/pca/cdb_pca_census/PCA%20CDB-2721-F-Census.xlsx |archivedate=2015-10-02 }}</ref><br />
! !! Total !! Male !! Female<br />
|-<br />
| Population || 565 || 281 || 284<br />
|-<br />
| Children aged below 6 years || 121 || 61 || 60<br />
|-<br />
| [[Scheduled caste]] || 9 || 4 || 5<br />
|-<br />
| [[Scheduled tribe]] || 17 || 7 || 10<br />
|-<br />
| Literates || 350 || 187 || 163<br />
|-<br />
| Workers (all) || 161 || 133 || 28<br />
|-<br />
| Main workers (total) || 157 || 131 || 26<br />
|-<br />
| Main workers: Cultivators || 24 || 24 || 0<br />
|-<br />
| Main workers: Agricultural labourers || 41 || 33 || 8<br />
|-<br />
| Main workers: Household industry workers || 2 || 1 || 1<br />
|-<br />
| Main workers: Other || 90 || 73 || 17<br />
|-<br />
| Marginal workers (total) || 4 || 2 || 2<br />
|-<br />
| Marginal workers: Cultivators || 0 || 0 || 0<br />
|-<br />
| Marginal workers: Agricultural labourers || 2 || 1 || 1<br />
|-<br />
| Marginal workers: Household industry workers || 1 || 0 || 1<br />
|-<br />
| Marginal workers: Others || 1 || 1 || 0<br />
|-<br />
| Non-workers || 404 || 148 || 256<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{Bhiwandi taluka}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Villages in Bhiwandi taluka]]</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Andrews_Library&diff=486496Andrews Library2024-04-18T23:30:06Z<p>AmitNeogi: new a stub.</p>
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<div>{{Short description|Library in Surat, India}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2024}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2018}}<br />
{{Infobox library<br />
| library_name = Andrews Library<br />
| library_logo = <br />
| image =<br />
| caption = <br />
| location = [[Surat]], [[Gujarat]]<br />
| established = 1 July 1850<ref name="surat history">{{Cite web|url=https://www.suratmunicipal.gov.in/TheCity/History|title = History}}</ref><br />
| num_branches = <br />
| collection_size = 18,000 <ref name="andrews digital"/><br />
| annual_circulation = <br />
| pop_served = <br />
| budget = <br />
| director = Surat Nanpura Parsi Anjuman Trust<br />
| num_employees =<br />
| website =<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Andrews Library''' is the oldest library in [[Surat]], Gujarat, India, established in 1850.<ref name="andrews digital">{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/surat/Andrews-Library-to-soon-go-digital/articleshow/53218765.cms | title=Andrews Library to soon go digital | first=Melvyn Reggie | last=Thomas | date=15 July 2016 | newspaper=The Times of India | accessdate=20 June 2018 }}</ref><br />
<br />
== History ==<br />
It was established in 1850. The library was named after Andrews, a retired magistrate, and co-established by Rao Bahadur Naginchand Jhaveri, a wealthy pearl dealer who often contributed to the development of the city.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cityshor.com/surat/andrews-library-the-testimony-of-surats-legacy/|title = Andrews Library: The testimony of Surat's legacy}}</ref><ref name="S.2015">{{cite book|author=Thanuskodi, S.|title=Handbook of Research on Inventive Digital Tools for Collection Management and Development in Modern Libraries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9LIyCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA288|date=17 July 2015|publisher=IGI Global|isbn=978-1-4666-8179-8|pages=288–}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Collections ==<br />
The library holds some rare works in arts and history, this literary realm also caters to students from the science, commerce, engineering and medical fields, and provides newspapers and magazines in many languages for the locals. In 2006, floods had destroyed about 25,000 of the libraries' book collection.<ref name="andrews digital" /><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[List of tourist attractions in Surat]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{coord missing|Gujarat}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Libraries in Surat]]<br />
[[Category:1850 establishments in India]]<br />
[[Category:Libraries established in 1850]]<br />
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Surat]]</div>AmitNeogihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pakistani&diff=455888Pakistani2024-04-12T23:10:47Z<p>AmitNeogi: typo fix</p>
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<div>#REDIRECT [[Pakistanis]]<br />
<br />
{{Rcat shell|<br />
{{R to plural}}<br />
{{R unprintworthy}}<br />
}}<br />
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[[Category:Demonyms]]</div>AmitNeogi