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Euphoria (2026 film)

2026-05-03T20:49:26Z

Alimirza: Creating Page

{{Short description|2026 Indian Telugu film by Gunasekhar}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2026}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2026}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Euphoria
| image = Euphoria (2026 film).jpg
| alt =
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[Gunasekhar]]
| story =
| producer = {{plain list|
* Neelima Guna
* Yuktha Guna
}}
| writer = Gunasekhar
| screenplay =
| starring = {{plain list|
* [[Bhumika Chawla]]
* [[Sara Arjun]]
* Vignesh Gavireddy
}}
| music = [[Kaala Bhairava]]
| cinematography = Praveen K Pothan
| editing = [[Prawin Pudi]]
| studio = Guna Handmade Films
| distributor = [[Sri Thenandal Films]] [[Mythri Movie Makers]]
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2026|2|6}}
| runtime = 150 minutes
| language = Telugu
| country = India
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''Euphoria''''' is a 2026 Indian [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-language [[Social dramaturgy|social]] [[Drama (film and television)|drama]] film written and directed by [[Gunasekhar]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Mahesh Babu Calls Gunasekhar’s Euphoria A 'Must-Watch Film', Congratulates Team |url=https://www.news18.com/movies/telugu-cinema/mahesh-babu-calls-gunasekhars-euphoria-a-must-watch-film-congratulates-team-ws-l-9897748.html |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20260212140627/https://www.news18.com/movies/telugu-cinema/mahesh-babu-calls-gunasekhars-euphoria-a-must-watch-film-congratulates-team-ws-l-9897748.html |archive-date=2026-02-12 |access-date=2026-02-19 |work=News18 |language=en-US}}</ref> The film features [[Bhumika Chawla]], [[Sara Arjun]] and Vignesh Gavireddy in lead roles, while [[Gautham Vasudev Menon]] and [[Nassar (actor)|Nassar]] play supporting roles.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2026-01-12 |title=Sara Arjun on her debut Telugu film: 'Signed Gunashekar's 'Euphoria' before 'Dhurandhar' was even on my horizon' - Exclusive! |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/sara-arjun-on-her-debut-telugu-film-signed-gunashekars-euphoria-before-dhurandhar-was-even-on-my-horizon-exclusive/articleshow/126483772.cms |access-date=2026-02-19 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> The music was composed by [[Kaala Bhairava]] with cinematography by Praveen K Pothan and editing by [[Prawin Pudi]]. The film was released on 6 February 2026.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Acharya |first=T. Maruthi |date=2025-12-01 |title=Bhumika Chawla leads Gunasekhar’s Euphoria, check release date here |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/bhumika-chawla-leads-gunasekhars-euphoria-check-release-date-here-2828857-2025-12-01 |access-date=2026-02-19 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref>

== Plot ==

The plot draws from a 2022 incident in Jubilee Hills, where five minors from influential families sexually assaulted a 17-year-old girl. After leaving a non-alcoholic party, she unsuspectingly entered a vehicle, leading to a brutal sexual assault by the five minors, that sparked nationwide outrage. True to the toxic social climate surrounding such cases, an inevitable wave of victim-blaming followed. When a minor girl is assaulted, it raises pertinent questions that the authorities and society cannot look away from.
In Euphoria, Chaitra (Sara Arjun) portrays a fictional character inspired by the 17-year-old survivor. She pointedly asks the judge during the POCSO trial if it is a crime for girls to enter a pub, questioning why she should live in shame when she was not at fault and had stayed within her boundaries. Though she feels grief and anger, she never flinches from asking these questions.
The parents of the minors who assaulted Chaitra try to destroy the evidence of the assault using their influence except Vindhya Vemulapalli (Bhumika), the mother of male protagonist, Vikas (Vignesh Gavireddy). With the help of video recording the four boys have taken during the incident, a POCSO case is booked and they are sent to serve juvenile time. Vindhya righteously gets her son punished for his brutal crime. But then, she is also a mother. Hence she gets her son, Vikas out on parole, and tries to prepare him for BITSAT. But since juvenile system changed him, and angry at his mother, he calls his friends and gets into drugs by running away mid-traffic from his mother. Vindhya searches for him, finds him and brings him home. When he fails to listen, in anguish, Vindhya starts drinking. Unable to see his mother in such a condition, Vikas starts preparing for BITSAT and Vindhya prepares him. But the night before exam, his friends tell him of Vindhya handing over the phone he disposed in his toilet containing the evidence of him and his friends raping Chaitra to the police commissioner, Jayadev Nair (Gautam Menon). Due to this, he does not come for the exam on time. When he asks why he should do all this, Jayadev questions whether he even regrets what he did, and if he regrets it, why hasn't Vikas cried even once since the trial? Vikas then gives the exam, but since he is a criminal, he needs to be cleared by appearing in front of IAS officer as judge. And that officer is none other than Chaitra. Though she remembers all that Vikas and his friends did, she remains professional and interviews Vikas. As he answers all questions correctly, she grants him permission. It is then that Vikas goes to his mother Vindhya and cries in remorse and grief, while Chaitra observes from afar, gets into her Govt. provided vehicle and goes away. Mother and son bond over a new beginning, experiencing real euphoria of life's ups and downs, not the artificial euphoria Vikas and his friends experienced through substance abuse. Vindhya files a lawsuit against herself, holding herself responsible for how her son, Vikas turned out. After hearing her argument, the judge (Nassar) judges that Vindhya has already attained her punishment, and contributed to trying hard and reforming her spoilt son.

== Cast ==
{{Cast listing|
* [[Bhumika Chawla]] as Vindhya Vemulapalli
* Vignesh Gavireddy as Vikas Vemulapalli, Vindhya's son
* [[Sara Arjun]] as Chaitra
* Prithvi Raj Addala as "Psycho" Saahil
* [[Gautham Vasudev Menon]] as [[Commissioner of Police|Commissioner]] Jayadev Nair [[Indian Police Service|IPS]], later Director Of [[Telangana]] [[Anti-Narcotics Bureau]]
* [[Nassar (actor)|Nassar]] as Justice Surya Narayana Murthy
* [[Rohit (actor)|Rohit]]
* Likhita Yalamanchali
* Addala Prudhviraj
* [[Kalpa Latha]]
* Sai Srinika Reddy
* Ashrita Vemuganti
* Mathew Varghese
* [[Aadarsh Balakrishna]]
* [[Ravi Prakash]]
* Naveena Reddy
* Likith Naidu
}}

== Music ==
The background score and songs were composed by [[Kaala Bhairava]] in his first collaboration with Gunasekhar.

{{Track listing
| headline = Track listing
| total_length =
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Fly High
| extra1 = Kaala Bhairava, Prudhvi Chandra, Gayathri Natarajan
| length1 = 4:08
| lyrics1 = Kittu Visapragada
| title2 = Lokame
| extra2 = Kaala Bhairava, Sony Komanduri
| length2 = 4:29
| lyrics2 = Kittu Visapragada
| title3 = Rama Rama
| length3 = 4:08
| lyrics3 = Chaitanya Prasad
| extra3 = Vasa Pavani, Aditya Iyengar, Harsha BV, Rishil
| title4 = Enno Vaasanthaalu
| length4 = 4:06
| lyrics4 = Kittu Visapragada
| extra4 = BV Harsha, Sindhuja Rajesh
}}

==Release and reception==
''Euphoria'' was released on 6 February 2026.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kavirayani |first=Suresh |date=2026-02-05 |title=Gunasekhar’s Euphoria releases along half a dozen films |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/telugu/news/2026/Feb/05/gunasekhars-euphoria-releases-along-half-a-dozen-films |access-date=2026-02-19 |website=Cinema Express |language=en}}</ref> Apart from [[Telugu-language|Telugu]], the film was dubbed and released in Tamil under the same title.{{cn|date=February 2026}}

Yashaswini Sri of ''[[The Indian Express]]'' rated the film 4 out of 5, appreciating Gunasekhar's direction, Kaala Bhairava's score, and the lead cast performances.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-02-06 |title=Euphoria movie review: A gut-punch of a film that refuses to look away |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/movie-review/euphoria-movie-review-a-gut-punch-of-a-film-that-refuses-to-look-away-10517068/ |access-date=2026-02-19 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> Sangeetha Devi Dundoo of ''[[The Hindu]]'' too praised Gunasekhar's work writing that "Gunasekhar delivers a sharp fictional drama rooted in a harrowing true story".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Dundoo |first=Sangeetha Devi |date=2026-02-06 |title=‘Euphoria’ movie review: Gunasekhar’s part gritty social drama raises relevant questions |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/euphoria-movie-review-gunasekhars-telugu-film-stars-bhumika-chawla-sara-arjun-and-gautham-vasudev-menon/article70595059.ece |access-date=2026-02-19 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> In contrast, Suresh Kavirayani of ''[[The New Indian Express]]'' opined that despite a strong premise, the film loses grip due to flawed narration and inconsistent storytelling.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kavirayani |first=Suresh |date=2026-02-09 |title=Euphoria Movie Review: Right intent let down by flawed execution |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/telugu/2026/Feb/09/telugureview2026feb06euphoria-movie-review-right-intent-let-down-by-flawed-execution |access-date=2026-02-19 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|33737583|Euphoria}}

[[Category:2026 films]]
[[Category:2026 Telugu-language films]]
[[Category:2026 Indian films]]
[[Category:2026 drama films]]
[[Category:Indian drama films]]
[[Category:Telugu-language drama films]]
[[Category:Films set in Hyderabad, India]]
[[Category:Films shot in Hyderabad, India]]
[[Category:Films scored by Kaala Bhairava]]
[[Category:Films directed by Gunasekhar]]

Hanamkonda Lok Sabha constituency

2026-04-30T02:17:42Z

Alimirza: Made A Article

{{Short description|Former constituency of the Indian parliament in Telangana}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2020}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Hanamkonda
| type = LS
| map_image =
| map_caption =
| map_alt =
| state = Andhra Pradesh
| established = 1977
| abolished = 2008
| assembly_cons = [[Kamalapur, Andhra Pradesh Assembly constituency|Kamalapur]] [[Cheriyal Assembly constituency|Cheriyal]] [[Jangaon Assembly constituency|Jangaon]] [[Ghanpur Station Assembly constituency|Ghanpur Station]] [[Hanamkonda Assembly constituency|Hanamkonda]] Shyampet [[Parkal Assembly constituency|Parkal]]
| reservation = None
}}
'''Hanamkonda''' was a [[Lok Sabha]] (parliamentary) constituency<ref name=delimitation1976>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3939-dpaco-1976/ |title=The Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 1976 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |date=1 December 1976 |access-date=13 October 2021}}</ref> in [[Telangana]] state (then Andhra Pradesh) in southern [[India]] until 2008.
The former Prime Minister, P V Narasimha Rao, won two elections from here.

==Sasana Sabha segments==
Hanamkonda Lok Sabha constituency comprised the following Legislative Assembly segments:
{|class="wikitable"
!width="50px" style="font-size:75%"|Constituency number
!width="200px"|Name
!width="100px" style="font-size:75%"|Reserved for ([[Dalit|SC]]/[[Adivasi|ST]]/None)
!width="200px"|District
|-
|252
|Kamalapur
|None
|Karimnagar
|-
|261
|[[Cheriyal Assembly constituency|Cheriyal]]
|None
|Warangal
|-
|262
|[[Jangaon Assembly constituency|Jangaon]]
|None
|Warangal
|-
|268
|Ghanpur
|SC
|Warangal
|-
|270
|[[Hanamkonda Assembly constituency|Hanamkonda]]
|None
|Warangal
|-
|271
|Shyampet
|None
|Warangal
|-
|272
|[[Parkal Assembly constituency|Parkal]]
|SC
|Warangal
|}

==Members of Lok Sabha==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Member
! colspan="2" |Party
|-
| [[1977 Indian general election|1977]]
| rowspan="2" |[[P. V. Narasimha Rao]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[1980 Indian general election|1980]]
|-
|[[1984 Indian general election|1984]]
|[[Chendupatla Janga Reddy]]
| {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
|[[1989 Indian general election|1989]]
| rowspan="3" |[[Kamaluddin Ahmed (politician)|Kamaluddin Ahmed]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=3}}
|-
|[[1991 Indian general election|1991]]
|-
|[[1996 Indian general election|1996]]
|-
|[[1998 Indian general election|1998]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Chada Suresh Reddy]]
|{{Full party name with color|Telugu Desam Party|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[1999 Indian general election|1999]]
|-
|[[2004 Indian general election|2004]]
|[[B. Vinod Kumar]]
|{{Full party name with color|Telangana Rashtra Samithi}}
|-
| colspan="4" |Constituency Abolished in 2008 after [[Delimitation Commission of India]] Report. Most of the area was brought under [[Warangal Lok Sabha constituency]] from 2009.
|}

==Election results==

===1980===
* P. V. Narsimha Rao (Indira Congress) : 257,961 votes <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.elections.in/parliamentary-constituencies/1980-election-results.html|title = 1980 India General (7th Lok Sabha) Elections Results}}</ref>
* Janardhan Reddy (Congress-Urs) : 95,012

===1984===

{{Election box begin | title=[[1984 Indian general election|General Election, 1984]]: Hanamkonda}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
| party = Bharatiya Janata Party
| candidate = [[Chendupatla Janga Reddy]]
| votes = 263,762
| percentage = 51.0
| change = new
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Indian National Congress
| candidate = [[P. V. Narasimha Rao]]
| votes = 209,564
| percentage = 40.5
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Aagaiah Pogula
| votes = 17,641
| percentage = 3.4
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Ringili Jayapal Reddy
| votes = 6,538
| percentage = 1.3
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Karunakar Boddu
| votes = 3,972
| percentage = 0.8
| change =
}}{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = C.R. Reddy
| votes = 1,913
| percentage = 0.4
| change =
}}{{Election box majority
| votes = 54,198
| percentage = 10.5
| change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
| votes = 5,17,559
| percentage = 67.7
| change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
| winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
| loser = Indian National Congress
| swing = +51.0
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2004===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2004 Indian general elections]]: Hanamkonda}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
| party = Telangana Rashtra Samithi
| candidate = [[Boianapalli Vinod Kumar]]
| votes = 496,048
| percentage = 59.63
| change = +59.63
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Telugu Desam Party
| candidate = [[Suresh Chada Reddy]]
| votes = 278,981
| percentage = 33.54
| change = -18.02
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Pakala Devadanam
| votes = 16,587
| percentage = 1.99
| change = +1.67
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Bahujan Samaj Party
| candidate = Dr Kaitha Venkati
| votes = 16,094
| percentage = 1.93
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Janata Party
| candidate = Polepally Narotham Reddy
| votes = 12,582
| percentage = 1.51
| change =
}}{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Dr Rajaram Sampath Dharampur Yadav
| votes = 11,634
| percentage = 1.40
| change = +0.87
}}{{Election box majority
| votes = 217,067
| percentage = 26.09
| change = +77.65
}}
{{Election box turnout
| votes = 831,926
| percentage = 68.92
| change = +1.29
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
| winner = Telangana Rashtra Samithi
| loser = Telugu Desam Party
| swing = +59.63
}}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
* [[Warangal district]]
* [[List of constituencies of the Lok Sabha]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Lok Sabha constituencies of Telangana}}
{{coords|18.01|79.54|display=title}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hanamkonda Lok Sabha constituency}}
[[Category:Hanamkonda district]]
[[Category:Former constituencies of the Lok Sabha]]
[[Category:2008 disestablishments in India]]
[[Category:Constituencies disestablished in 2008]]
[[Category:Former Lok Sabha constituencies of Andhra Pradesh]]

Bogadi, Mysore

2026-04-22T20:54:01Z

Alimirza: Creating New Post...

{{Short description|Census town in Mysore, Karnataka, India}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{Confusing|date=January 2021}}
{{Unfocused|date=January 2021}}
}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2019}}


'''Bogadi''' is a neighborhood in [[Mysore]] city in [[India]]. The town is located the limits of the [[Mysore Urban Development Authority]], and [[Mysuru Local Planning Area|Mysuru metropolitan area]] in [[Mysore district]], [[Karnataka]].<ref name="auto1">{{Cite web|date=2020-11-26|title=Hootagalli CMC and four Town Panchayats formed: Govt. issues Gazette notification|url=https://starofmysore.com/hootagalli-cmc-and-four-town-panchayats-formed-govt-issues-gazette-notification/|access-date=2020-12-06|website=Star of Mysore|language=en-US}}</ref> [[Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham]] University's campus is located in this town.

{{Infobox settlement
| name = Bogadi
| population_demonym =
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 = 32.35
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 710
| population_total = 23410
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_footnotes = <ref name="auto">{{Cite web |date=2011 |title=DISTRICT CENSUS HANDBOOK |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/2923_PART_A_DCHB_MYSORE.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220304072859/https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/2923_PART_A_DCHB_MYSORE.pdf |archive-date=March 4, 2022}}</ref>
| governing_body = Bogadi town panchayat
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[English language|Kannada]], [[English language|English]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = 
| postal_code = 570026
| registration_plate = KA09, KA55 and KA45.
| website =
| footnotes =
| unit_pref = Metric
| government_type = Town Panchayat <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://starofmysore.com/hootagalli-cmc-to-be-formed/|title = Hootagalli CMC to be formed|date = 13 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/mysuru-city-corporation-limits-expanded-137578|title=Mysuru City Corporation limits expanded|date=13 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://citytoday.news/cm-yediyurappa-okays-development-of-5-ulbs-in-mysuru/|title=CM Yediyurappa okays development of 5 ULBs in Mysuru – Mysuru Today}}{{Dead link|date=August 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
| native_name =
| pushpin_map_alt =
| native_name_lang =
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = Town<ref name="auto" />
| image_skyline = Sharada Public School, Mysore.jpg
| image_alt =
| image_caption = Sharada School Bogadi with Skyline
| pushpin_map = Karnataka
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_map_caption = Bogadi, Mysuru, Karnataka, India
| named_for =
| coordinates = {{coord|12.3|N|76.6|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Karnataka]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Mysore district|Mysore]]
| established_title
Taluk Panchayat =
| established_date = 1962 with Railway Layout
| founder =
| official_name =
| pushpin_image =
| map_caption =
| pushpin_mapsize =
}}

==Geography==
Bogadi is located on the western edge of [[Mysore|Greater Mysuru]], 15 kilometers from the foothills of the [[Chamundi hills]], beyond the first ring road surrounding Mysore. Bogadi covers a total area of 32.35 square kilometers.<ref name="auto1"/> According to the 2011 census, the combined greater Bogadi area had a total population of 23,410.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Census 2011 Handbook Mysore|url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/2923_PART_A_DCHB_MYSORE.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161114053042/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/2923_PART_A_DCHB_MYSORE.pdf |archive-date=14 November 2016 |access-date=|website=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Gazette Notification|url=https://erajyapatra.karnataka.gov.in/WriteReadData/2020/1259.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201206123816/https://erajyapatra.karnataka.gov.in/WriteReadData/2020/1259.pdf |archive-date=6 December 2020 |access-date=|website=}}</ref>

==Transportation==
[[File:Christ public school stop.jpg|thumb|Bus Stop Near Christ School]]
There are 5 city bus lines which connect Bogadi to [[Mysore]]{{citation needed|date=January 2021}}; they are 68, 69G, 69J, 91G and 245, and stop at Christ School, Bogadi town.

==Demographics==
According to the 2011 Indian [[census]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20040616075334/http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archivedate=2004-06-16|title= Census of India 2001: Data from the 2001 Census, including cities, villages and towns (Provisional)|accessdate=2008-11-01|publisher= Census Commission of India}}</ref> Bogadi had a population of 9,041. The surrounding villages of Madagalli consisted of 2,617 people, Hemmanahalli consisted of 1,207 people, Maratikyathanahalli had 5,122 people, Jattihundi had 1,322 people, Kergalli had 4,068 people and Kemmanapura had 37 people bringing the total population to 23,407. Males constitute 53% of the population and females 47%. Bogadi has an average literacy rate of 64%, higher than the national average of 59.5%, with male literacy of 70% and female literacy of 57%. 11% of the population is under 6 years of age.

==See also==
* [[Bogadi Road]]
* [[Raja Rajeshwari Nagar, Mysore]]

[[File:Amritakripa Hospital Mysore.jpg|thumb|Amritakripa Hospital]]

==Image Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Sharada Public School, Mysore.jpg|Sharada Public School
File:Bogadi Hari Vidyalaya.jpg|Hari Vidyalaya
File:Bogadi Temple.jpg|Temple in Bogadi
File:Bogadi Ringroad Junction.jpg|Ringroad
File:Bogadi Park.jpg
File:Christ Public School.jpg
File:Bhogeshwara Temple.jpg
File:Jetty Hundi.jpg
</gallery>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Cities and towns in Mysore district]]

{{Mysore-geo-stub}}

South Kanara (North) Lok Sabha constituency

2026-04-18T07:26:40Z

Alimirza: started new data...

{{Short description|Former constituency of the Indian parliament in Madras State}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2019}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = South Kanara (North)
| type = LS
| map_image =
| map_caption =
| map_alt =
| state = [[Karnataka]]
| union_territory =
| established = 1952
| abolished = 1956
| assembly_cons =
| latest_election_year =
| reservation = None
| mp =
| party =
| electors =
| preceded_by =
}}
'''South Kanara (North) Lok Sabha constituency''' was a former [[Lok Sabha]] constituency in [[Madras State]]. This seat came into existence in 1951. With the implementation of [[States Reorganisation Act, 1956]], it ceased to exist.

==Assembly segments==
South Kanara (North) Lok Sabha constituency comprised the following five Legislative Assembly segments:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/STATISTICALREPORTS_51_MADRAS.pdf|title=Statistical Report on Madras elections, 1951 to the 1st Assembly|publisher=Election Commission of India website|pages=289–292, 294–295|accessdate=18 October 2017}}</ref>
# Udipi (Udupi)
# Brahmavar
# Coondapur (Kundapur)
# Karkal
# Mulky (Mulki)

After [[South Canara]] District of erstwhile [[Madras State]] got merged with [[Mysore State]] in 1956, this seat ceased to exist and was replaced by [[Udupi Lok Sabha constituency|Udipi Lok Sabha constituency]].

Later in 1978, the Legislative Assembly segments of Baindur, Kundapur, Brahmavar, Udupi, and Kaup were in [[Udupi district]], and the Legislative Assembly constituencies of Moodabidri, Surathkal and Bantwal were in [[Dakshina Kannada district]]. After delimitation in 2008, Baindur became part of [[Shimoga Lok Sabha constituency|Shimoga constituency]] and Brahmavar ceased to exist.<ref name="hindu">{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2007/07/19/stories/2007071954120400.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120122100402/http://www.hindu.com/2007/07/19/stories/2007071954120400.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=22 January 2012|title=Udupi Lok Sabha seat loses its coastal character |last=Prabhu |first=Ganesh|date=19 July 2007|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|accessdate=1 April 2010}}</ref>

== Members of Parliament ==

*Madras State: (as South Kanara (North))
**1952: [[Ullal Srinivas Mallya]], [[Indian National Congress]]<ref name="First">{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1951/VOL_1_51_LS.PDF|title=STATISTICAL REPORT ON GENERAL ELECTIONS, 1951 TO THE FIRST LOK SABHA|publisher=The Election Commission of India|page=92}}</ref>
** With the implementation of States Reorganisation Act, 1956, it ceased to exist.
** For information after 1956, see : [[Udupi Lok Sabha constituency|Udupi Lok Sabha]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==See also==
* [[Dakshina Kannada district]]
* [[Kasaragod Lok Sabha constituency]]
* [[List of former constituencies of the Lok Sabha]]
* [[South Kanara (South) Lok Sabha constituency]]
* [[Udupi Lok Sabha constituency]]
* [[Udupi Chikmagalur Lok Sabha constituency]]
* [[Udupi district]]

{{Lok Sabha constituencies of Karnataka}}

{{coord|13.1|75.1|display=title}}

[[Category:Udupi district]]
[[Category:Dakshina Kannada district]]
[[Category:Politics of Kasaragod district]]
[[Category:Former constituencies of the Lok Sabha]]
[[Category:1956 disestablishments in India]]
[[Category:Constituencies disestablished in 1956]]
[[Category:South Canara]]
[[Category:Former Lok Sabha constituencies of Karnataka]]

Shebin Benson

2026-04-08T17:19:53Z

Alimirza: started new data...

{{short description|Indian actor}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2025}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Shebin Benson
| image =
| caption = With [[Mammootty]] at [[Bheeshma Parvam]] Shooting Location.
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1995|11|27|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Nilambur]], [[Kerala]], India
| alma_mater = [[SRM Institute of Science and Technology]]
| occupation = Actor
| yearsactive = 2013–present
| relatives = [[Nebish Benson]] (brother)
| parents ={{ubl|Chandy Benson|Mariamma Benson}}
}}

'''Shebin Benson''' (born 27 November 1995) is an Indian actor who works predominantly in [[Malayalam films]].

Shebin made his debut in [[Aashiq Abu]] film ''[[Idukki Gold (film)|Idukki Gold]]'' in 2013, Later, he appeared in [[Mammootty]] starrer [[Varsham (2014 film)|''Varsham'']]. His first film as a male lead was in [[Kaly (film)|''Kaly'']] alongside many youngsters.<ref name="auto">{{cite web|last1=AbdulKader|first1=Fathima|title=In conversation With the Young Talent Shebin Benson|url=http://www.wtzupcity.com/kochi/features/in-conversation-with-the-young-talent-shebin-benson|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160824204328/http://www.wtzupcity.com/kochi/features/in-conversation-with-the-young-talent-shebin-benson|url-status=usurped|archive-date=24 August 2016|website=WtzupCity.com|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/mollywood/041016/a-mature-young-actor-shebin-benson.html|title=A mature young actor: Shebin Benson|date=4 October 2016|website=Deccanchronicle.com|access-date=31 December 2017}}</ref>

==Early life==
Benson was born into a family in [[Nilambur]] as the elder son of Chandy Benson and Sherly Benson. He has a younger brother, [[Nebish Benson]] who is also an actor in the [[Malayalam cinema]]. Shebin completed his secondary level education at Fatimagiri High School, Nilambur and Marthoma Higher Secondary School, Nilambur. He is a graduate in [[Bachelor of Science|B.Sc]]. Visual Communication from The [[SRM Institute of Science and Technology]], [[Chennai]], [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cinetrooth.in/2016/02/29/shebin-benson-actor-profile-and-biography/|title=Shebin Benson Actor Profile and Biography|website=Cinetrooth.in|accessdate=31 December 2017}}</ref>

==Career==
Shebin applied for the audition of ''[[Idukki Gold (film)|Idukki Gold]]'' and was included in the 25 shortlisted actors and got his debut role to play the younger version of [[Maniyanpilla Raju]]. Shebin appeared as Ameer alongside [[Mammootty]], [[Mamta Mohandas]] and [[Asha Sarath]] in the [[Ranjith Sankar]] movie ''[[Varsham (2014 film)|Varsham]]'' which gained him better recognition among the [[Malayali]] audience.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cochintalkies.com/celebrity/shebin-benson.html|title=Shebin Benson (Actor) – Profile|website=Cochintalkies.com|accessdate=31 December 2017}}</ref> Shebin played the role of teenaged [[Fahadh Faasil]] in [[Amal Neerad]]'s ''[[Iyobinte Pusthakam]]''<ref>{{cite web|last1=V.P|first1=Nicy|title=Fahadh Faasil's 'Iyobinte Pusthakam' to Hit Theatres on 7 November|url=http://www.ibtimes.co.in/fahadh-faasils-iyobinte-pusthakam-hit-theatres-7-november-613032|website=International Business Times, India Edition|date=4 November 2014 |language=en}}</ref> along with his brother Nebish Benson which released on 7 November 2014.Later in Santhosh Viswanath's ''[[Chirakodinja Kinavukal]]'', Shebin portrayed the childhood of Thayyalkaran played by [[Kunchacko Boban]]. He appeared in a music video "Maya" from the band album ''Blank Planet'' in 2015. He played the younger Dawood in ''[[Inspector Dawood Ibrahim]]'' directed by [[Sajid Yahiya]] in which [[Jayasurya]] played the lead.<ref name="auto"/> Shebin played a lead role in [[Don Max (film editor)|Don Max]]'s debut directorial movie ''[[10 Kalpanakal]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cinemascoop.net/celebrity/2269-shebin-benson |title=Shebin Benson Actor |accessdate=2017-04-13 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170413234647/http://www.cinemascoop.net/celebrity/2269-shebin-benson |archivedate=2017-04-13 }}</ref> Shebin was later seen with [[Asif Ali (actor)]] in [[Kaattu]]. He debuted as a male lead in [[Kaly (film)|Kaly]] along with a group of young actors. Thereafter he was seen as one of the lead actors in [[Mr. & Ms. Rowdy]] directed by [[Jeethu Joseph]] along with [[Kalidas Jayaram]] and [[Aparna Balamurali]] and in Paviyettante Madhurachooral along with [[Sreenivasan]] and [[Lena (actress)|Lena]]. His debut as an individual hero was in Onnonnara pranayakadha which was directed by Shibu Balan and had Zaya David, Indy Palissery, [[Vinay Forrt]], [[Sudheer Karamana]], [[Surabhi Lakshmi]] in lead roles. He also played a key role in [[Aashiq Abu]] directed multistarred movie [[virus (2019 film)]]. His role as "Yahiya" in the movie was widely appreciated. His character as Leen Zacaria in his latest release [[Evidey]] directed by [[KK Rajeev]] gained him wider recognition among Malayalam audiences and received wide appreciation. He played one of the lead roles along with [[Manoj K Jayan]] and [[Asha Sharath]].His upcoming movies are "2 stroke" directed by [[Roshni Dinaker]] in which he plays one of the leads along with [[Sreenath Bhasi]] and [[Amith Chakalakkal]] and [[Bheeshma Parvam]], directed by [[Amal Neerad]] along with [[Mammootty]], [[Soubin Shahir]] and [[Sreenath Bhasi]].{{fact|date=June 2025}}

==Filmography==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Title !! Role !! class=unsortable| Notes
|-
| 2013 || ''[[Idukki Gold (film)|Idukki Gold]]'' || Younger Madhan || <ref name="Idukki">{{Cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/mollywood/130218/its-raining-films-for-shebin.html|title=It's raining films for Shebin|date=13 February 2018|website=Deccan Chronicle}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=2 | 2014 || ''[[Iyobinte Pusthakam]]'' || Younger Aloshy || <ref name="Iyob">{{Cite web|url=https://www.madhyamam.com/movies/movie-interviews/cine-actor-shebin-benson-movies-news/626934|title=മികച്ച കഥാപാത്രങ്ങൾക്കായ്‌ കാത്തിരിക്കുന്നു - ഷെബിൻ ബെൻസൺ|date=27 July 2019|website=Madhyamam}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Varsham (2014 film)|Varsham]]'' || Ameer || <ref name="Iyob" />
|-
| 2015 || ''[[Chirakodinja Kinavukal]]'' || Younger Thayyalkaran || <ref name="Iyob" />
|-
| rowspan=2 | 2016 || ''[[Inspector Dawood Ibrahim]]'' || Younger Dawood || <ref name="Iyob" />
|-
| ''[[10 Kalpanakal]]'' || John || <ref name="Jana" />
|-
| 2017 || ''[[Kaattu]]'' || Afsal || <ref name="Pavi" />
|-
| rowspan=3 | 2018 || ''[[Kaly (film)|Kaly]]'' || Sameer || <ref name="Idukki" />
|-
| ''[[Mohanlal (film)|Mohanlal]]'' || Younger Sethu Madhavan || <ref name="Pavi" />
|-
| ''Paviyettante Madhurachooral'' || Anandu || <ref name="Pavi">{{Cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/mollywood/010917/learning-the-ropes.html|title=Learning the ropes|date=1 September 2017|website=Deccan Chronicle}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="5" |2019 || ''[[Mr. & Ms. Rowdy]]'' || Pathrose || <ref name="Iyob" />
|-
| ''Oronnonnara PranayaKadha'' || Ramanan || <ref name="Iyob" />
|-
| ''[[Virus (2019 film)|Virus]]'' ||Yahiya || <ref name="Iyob" />
|-
| ''[[Evidey]]''|| Leen Zachariah || <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/review/2019/jul/06/evidey-movie-review-a-mystery-overshadowed-by-its-actors-1999963.html|title='Evidey' movie review: A mystery overshadowed by its actors|date=6 July 2019|website=The New Indian Express}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Janamaithri]]''|| Abhimanyu || Cameo appearance<ref name="Jana">{{Cite web|url=https://www.rottentomatoes.com/celebrity/shebin_benson|title=Shebin Benson|website=Rotten Tomatoes}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="3" |2022 || ''[[Sumesh and Ramesh]]'' || || Cameo appearance<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movie-details/sumesh-and-ramesh/movieshow/71150912.cms|title=Sumesh & Ramesh|website=The Times of India}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Bheeshma Parvam]]''|| Able || <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.instagram.com/p/CK_U9iqhBvB/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/instagram/shebinbenson/2503812107880111041_2503812103794888911 |archive-date=2021-12-25 |url-access=registration|title=Shebin Benson on Instagram: The Book of Bheeshma Next|date=7 February 2021|website=Instagram}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
|-
| ''2 Stroke''|| || <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/amith-chakalakkal-sreenath-bhasi-in-roshni-dinakers-2-stroke/articleshow/71661855.cms|title=Amith Chakalakkal, Sreenath Bhasi in Roshni Dinaker's 2 Stroke|date=19 October 2019|website=The Times of India}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=8 | 2023 || ''[[Iratta]]'' || Bobby ||<ref>{{Cite web |title=Iratta trailer out, Joju George unleashes himself in a dual role |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2023/jan/21/iratta-trailer-out-joju-george-unleashes-himself-in-a-dual-role-39072.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[Cinema Express]] |date=21 January 2023 |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Ntikkakkakkoru Premondarnn]]'' || Jemshad || <ref>{{Cite news |title=First look poster of Bhavana and Sharafudheen's 'Ntikkakkakoru Premandaarnnu' is all things bright and beautiful |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/first-look-poster-of-bhavana-and-sharafudheens-ntikkakkakoru-premandaarnnu-is-all-things-bright-and-beautiful/articleshow/93831524.cms |access-date=2023-02-08 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Sulaikha Manzil]]'' || Ashik Maaliyekkal ||Cameo appearance<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-05-26 |title=Lukman Avaran starrer 'Sulaikha Manzil' gets an OTT release |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/lukman-avaran-starrer-sulaikha-manzil-gets-an-ott-release/articleshow/100528292.cms |access-date=2023-05-30 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Pookkaalam]]'' || K.C.Unnikrishnan ||Cameo appearance<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-03-09 |title='Pookkaalam' to arrive this summer! |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/pookkaalam-to-arrive-this-summer/articleshow/98517140.cms |access-date=2023-09-27 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[2018 (film)|2018]]'' || Nahas ||<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-11-05 |title=Jude Anthony Joseph Unveils Title of his Upcoming Film Based on 2018 Kerala Floods |url=https://www.news18.com/news/movies/jude-anthony-joseph-unveils-title-of-his-upcoming-film-based-on-2018-kerala-floods-6319135.html |access-date=2023-01-17 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Charles Enterprises]]'' || ||<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-04-09 |title=Urvashi starrer 'Charles Enterprises' gets a release date |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/urvashi-starrer-charles-enterprises-gets-a-release-date/articleshow/99352685.cms |access-date=2023-09-27 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Kolla (2023 film)|Kolla]]'' || Basil ||<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-06-09 |title='Kolla' movie review: Rajisha Vijayan, Priya Varrier lead an underwhelming thriller |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/kolla-movie-review-rajisha-vijayan-priya-varrier-lead-an-underwhelming-thriller/article66950594.ece |access-date=2023-07-09 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Kannur Squad]]'' || Ramzan Wahab ||<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-03-08 |title=Mammootty's 'Kannur Squad' Mumbai shooting schedule wraps up; see pic |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/mammoottys-kannur-squad-mumbai-shooting-schedule-wraps-up-see-pic/articleshow/98493732.cms |access-date=2023-09-27 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=4 | 2024 || ''[[Manjummel Boys]]'' || Mejo ||Cameo appearance<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-02-18 |title=The Kerala Film Producers' Association takes a stand against theaters and threatens non-cooperation over the 'Manjummel Boys' screening dispute |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/kerala-film-producers-association-vs-theaters-non-cooperation-threat-over-manjummel-boys-screening-dispute/articleshow/107793289.cms |access-date=2024-02-29 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Ullozhukku]]'' || Juman ||Cameo appearance <ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-11-05 |title=Parvathy Thiruvothu - Urvashi starrer 'Ullozhukku' wraps up the shoot |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/parvathy-thiruvothu-urvashi-starrer-ullozhukku-wraps-up-the-shoot/articleshow/92915615.cms |access-date=2023-01-28 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| ''Big Ben'' || Ajin ||<ref>{{Cite web |last=Santhosh |first=Vivek |date=2024-06-09 |title=Anu Mohan and Aditi Ravi's Big Ben gets a release date |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2024/Jun/09/anu-mohan-and-aditi-ravis-big-ben-gets-a-release-date |access-date=2024-06-10 |website=Cinema Express |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Kishkindha Kaandam]]'' || Prasobh ||<ref>{{Cite web |last=Features |first=C. E. |date=2024-08-22 |title=Asif Ali-starrer Kishkindha Kaandam gets a release date |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2024/Aug/22/asif-ali-starrer-kishkindha-kaandam-gets-a-release-date |access-date=2024-08-23 |website=Cinema Express |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| 2025 || ''[[Thalavara]]'' || Praveen||<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mullappilly |first=Sreejith |date=2025-07-26 |title=Arjun Ashokan's Thalavara gets first look, release date |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2025/Jul/26/arjun-ashokans-thalavara-gets-first-look-release-date |access-date=2025-07-28 |website=Cinema Express |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| 2026 || ''[[Anomie (film)|Anomie]]'' || Ziyaan Philip||<ref>{{Cite web |last=Features |first=C. E. |date=2025-02-16 |title=Bhavana-starrer Anomie gets a release window, first look out |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2025/Feb/16/bhavana-starrer-anomie-gets-a-release-window-first-look-out |access-date=2026-02-05 |website=Cinema Express |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb name|6643390}}
* {{facebook|ShebinBensonOfficial|Shebin Benson}}
* {{instagram|ShebinBenson|Shebin Benson}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Benson, Shebin}}
[[Category:1995 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian male film actors]]
[[Category:Male actors in Malayalam cinema]]

Sharvavarman

2026-04-06T04:24:07Z

Alimirza:

{{Short description|Maharajadhiraja of Kanyakubja from 560 to 575}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2024}}
{{Infobox royalty
| succession = Maharajadhiraja of Kanyakubja
| image = Nalanda Clay Seals of Sharvavarman.jpg
| image_size = 300px
| caption = [[Nalanda]] clay seals of Sharvavarman
| title = [[King of Kings|Maharajadhiraja]]
| reign = {{circa|560-575 CE}}
| predecessor = [[Ishanavarman]]
| successor = Avantivarman
| father = [[Ishanavarman]]
| mother = Lakshamivati
| spouse =
| issue = Avantivarman
| dynasty = [[Maukhari]]
| signature =
}}
{{Location map+
|South Asia
|float = right
|width = 220
|caption = [[Find spot]]s of seals belonging to Sharvavarman
|nodiv = 1
|mini = 1
|relief = yes
|places =
{{location map~ |South Asia |lat=25.136667|N |long=85.443889|E |label=[[Nalanda]]|position=top |label_size=70 }}
{{location map~ |South Asia |lat=21.471|N |long=76.2937|E |label=[[Asirgarh]] |position=top |label_size=70}}
}}
[[File:Name Sharvavarman in the Asirgarh seal.jpg|thumb|"Lord Sharvavarman" in the [[:File:6th century Asirgarh seal inscription, Sarvavarman, Hindu Maukhari dynasty, Sanskrit.jpg|Asirgarh seal]]: "Śrī Śa-rvva-va-rmmā"]]
'''Sharvavarman''' ([[Brahmi script]]: 𑀰𑀭𑁆𑀯𑁆𑀯𑀯𑀭𑁆𑀫𑁆𑀫𑀸 , [[Gupta script]]: [[File:Sharvavarman in the Asirgarh seal.jpg|50px]] ''Śa-rvva-va-rmmā'', complete form: ''Śarvavarman Indra Bhattarika'') was the [[Maukhari dynasty|Maukhari]] ruler of the Kingdom of Kanyakubja from 560 to 575 CE.<ref name="IH"/>

Sharvavarman may have been the greatest of the Maukhari emperors, invading [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]] circa 575 CE and defeating the [[Later Guptas]] kings Damodaragupta and Mahasenagupta, which made him ruler of the entire [[Uttar Pradesh]].<ref name="BPS">{{cite book |last1=Sinha |first1=Bindeshwari Prasad |title=Dynastic History of Magadha, Cir. 450-1200 A.D. |date=1977 |publisher=Abhinav Publications |pages=119–120 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V3KDaZY85wYC&pg=PA119 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Mookerji |first1=Radha Kumud |title=Harsha: Calcutta University Readership Lectures 1925 |date=1 January 2016 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0862-1 |page=55 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q30zEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA55 |language=en}}</ref>

==Asirgarh and Nalanda seals==
Sharvavarman was the son of [[Ishanavarman]]. He and the chronology of his family are rather well known, because of a copper seal he created: the [[Asirgarh Fort|Asirgarh]] seal.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vats |first1=Madho Sarup |title=Sohnag Terracotta Seal of Avantivarman |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |date=1946 |volume=9 |pages=74–77 |jstor=44137039 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44137039 |issn=2249-1937}}</ref><ref name="BPS"/> The seal reads:

{{blockquote|[[File:6th century Asirgarh seal inscription, Sarvavarman, Hindu Maukhari dynasty, Sanskrit.jpg|left|thumb|Asirgarh seal inscription of Sharvavarman]](There was) the illustrious [[Maharaja|Maharājā]] [[Harivarman]], whose fame stretched out beyond the four oceans; who had other kings brought into subjection by (his) prowess and by affection (for him); who was like (the god) Chakradhara, in employing (his) sovereignty for regulating the different castes and stages of religious life; (and) who was the remover of the afflictions of (his) subjects. His son, who meditated on his feet, (was) the illustrious Mahârâja Âdityavarman, begotten on the Bhaṭṭârikâ and DêvîJayasvâminî. His son, who meditated on his feet, (was) the illustrious Mahârâja Îśvaravarman, begotten on the Bhaṭṭârikâ and Dêvî Harshaguptâ. His son, who meditated on his feet, (was) Mahârâjâdhirâja, the glorious [[Ishanavarman|Îśvaravarman]], begotten on the Bhaṭṭârikâ and Dêvî Upaguptâ. His son, who meditates on his feet, (is) the most devout worshipper of (the god) [[Mahesvara|Mahēśvara]], the Mahârâjâdhirâja Śarvavarman, the Maukhari, begotten on the Bhaṭṭârikâ and Mahâdêvî Lakshamîvatî.|Fleet, John Faithful. Inscriptions of the Early Gupta Kings and Their Successors. Calcutta: Superintendent of Govt. Printing, 1888.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fleet |first1=John Faithfull |title=Inscriptions Of The Early Gupta Kings And Their Successors |date=1960 |pages=219–221 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.463254/page/n474/mode/1up}}</ref>}}

Several other nearly identical seals of Sharvavarman were also discovered in [[Nalanda]].<ref name="HS">{{cite book |last1=Sastri |first1=Hirananda |title=Epigraphia Indica Vol.21 |date=1931 |pages=72–75 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.56981/page/n103/mode/1up}}</ref> The content of the seals is identical, but small variations indicate that they come from different molds.<ref name="HS"/>

==Reign==
[[File:King Khosrow sits before the chessboard, while his vizir and the envoy of Qannuj are playing chess. Shahnameh, 10th century CE.jpg|thumb|[[Sasanian Empire]] King [[Khosrow I]] sits before the chessboard, while his vizir and the Indian envoy of [[Kannauj]] are playing chess. ''[[Shahnama]]'', 10th century CE.<ref name="ME"/>]]
Sharvarman was an important rival of the [[Late Guptas]] king Mahasenagupta (r. c. 562-601 CE) during the period 575-585 CE.<ref name="KJS">{{cite book |last1=Schmidt |first1=Karl J. |title=An Atlas and Survey of South Asian History |date=20 May 2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-47680-1 |page=77 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vKZzCQAAQBAJ&pg=PT77 |language=en}}</ref>

With the end of [[Alchon Huns|Hunnic]] power in India, new contacts were established between India and the [[Sasanian Empire]]. Intellectual games such as [[chess]] and [[backgammon]] demonstrated and celebrated the diplomatic relationship between [[Khosrow I]] and a "great king of India." The [[vizier]] of the Indian king invented chess as a cheerful, playful challenge to King Khosrow. It seems that the Indian ruler who sent the game of chess to Khosrow may have been Śarvavarman, between the beginning of Śarvavarman's reign in 560/565 and the end of Khosrow's reign in 579,<ref name="ME">{{cite book |last1=Eder |first1=Manfred A. J. |title=South Asian Archaeology 2007 Proceedings of the 19th Meeting of the European Association of South Asian Archaeology in Ravenna, Italy, July 2007, Volume II |date=2010 |publisher=Archaeopress Archaeology |isbn=978-1-4073-0674-2 |page=69 |url=http://history.chess.free.fr/papers/Eder%202007-2.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bakker |first1=Hans T. |author-link=Hans T. Bakker|title=The Huns in Central and South Asia. How Two Centuries of War against Nomadic Invaders from the Steps are Concluded by a Game of Chess between the Kings of India and Iran |date=2017 |url=https://www.academia.edu/34156496}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Cazaux |first1=Jean-Louis |last2=Knowlton |first2=Rick |title=A World of Chess: Its Development and Variations through Centuries and Civilizations |date=19 September 2017 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-1-4766-2901-8 |page=342 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1u02DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA342 |language=en}}</ref> When the game was sent to Iran it came with a letter which read: "As your name is the King of Kings, all your emperorship over us connotes that your wise men should be wiser than ours. Either you send us an explanation of this game of chess or send revenue and tribute us."<ref name="canepa">Canepa 2009, p. 181</ref> Khosrow's grand vizier successfully solved the riddle and figured out how to play chess. In response the wise vizier created the game backgammon and sent it to the Indian court with the same message. The Indian king was not able to solve the riddle and was forced to pay tribute.<ref name="canepa" />

Sharvavarman was succeeded by his son Avantivarman, as indicated by the "Sohanag seal of Avantivarman".<ref name="BPS"/><ref name="IH">{{cite book |title=Indian History |date=1988 |publisher=Allied Publishers |isbn=978-81-8424-568-4 |page=413 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MazdaWXQFuQC&pg=PA413 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kuppuswamy (Prof.) |first1=T. V. |title=History of Tamilakam. Darkness at Horizon |date=1995 |publisher=Shri Bhagavan Vedavyasa Itihasa Samshodhana Mandira |page=256 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lBhuAAAAMAAJ |language=en|quote="In the Sohanag seal of Avantivarman , Sharvavarman is shown as his father."}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Works==
=== Modern works ===
* {{ODLA|last1=Canepa|first1=Matthew|title=Weh-andīōg-husraw (Rūmagān)|url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001/acref-9780198662778-e-5066}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ishanavarman}}
[[Category:6th-century Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:Kings of Kannauj]]
[[Category:Maukhari dynasty]]

2023 Indian Parliament breach

2026-03-29T22:57:03Z

Alimirza: added basic info initial version - done

{{Short description|none}}
{{distinguish|2001 Indian Parliament attack}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2023}}{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2023}}
{{Infobox civilian attack
| title = 2023 Indian Parliament breach
| location = {{Coord|28.6176|77.2098|region:IN_type:event|display=it}}
| date = 13 December 2023
| image =
| time = Around 1 PM
| timezone = UTC+5:30
| weapon = [[Smoke bomb]]
| numparts = 6
| dfens = [[Hanuman Beniwal]] and fellow MPs
| motive =
}}

On 13 December 2023, two intruders named Sagar Sharma and Manoranjan D, entered the [[Lok Sabha]] chamber of the Indian Parliament from the public gallery. One of the individuals jumped onto the tables where the [[Member of Parliament (India)|Members of Parliament]] (MPs) were seated and released a yellow-coloured [[smoke canister]]. The other individuals named Amol Shinde and Neelam Devi chanted slogans. This caused chaos and panic within the House, leading to the immediate adjournment of the session. Outside the building, two other individuals named Vishal Sharma and Lalit Jha were arrested for doing similar activities.<ref>{{cite news
| last = Brar
| first = Kamaldeep Singh
| title = Parliament security breach: A Punjabi never runs away from danger, says Amritsar MP who snatched smoke canister from attacker
| newspaper = The Indian Express
| location = Amritsar
| pages =
| language =
| publisher = Express Publications
| date = 14 December 2023
| url = https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/chandigarh/parliament-security-breach-amritsar-mp-gurjeet-singh-aujla-9067143/
| access-date = 21 December 2023}}</ref>

During this incident around hundred leaders including [[Leader of the Opposition in Lok Sabha|Leader of Opposition]] [[Rahul Gandhi]] and [[Minister of Defence (India)|Defence Minister]] [[Rajnath Singh]] were present in the House.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-12-13 |title=Security breach on Parliament attack's 22nd anniversary |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/security-breach-on-parliament-attacks-22nd-anniversary/articleshow/105970324.cms?from=mdr# |access-date=2024-03-30 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref>

[[Rashtriya Loktantrik Party]] founder and MP [[Hanuman Beniwal]] along with some other MPs caught and overpowered the intruders.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Would have caught him even if he had gun: MP who thrashed Lok Sabha intruder |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/lok-sabha-security-breach-yellow-smoke-hanuman-beniwal-would-have-caught-intruders-even-with-gun-2475600-2023-12-13 |access-date=2024-03-30 |website=India Today |date=13 December 2023 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Parliament Security Breach: राजस्थान के 'हनुमान' बने संसद के 'संकट मोचक', घुसपैठियों को सबसे पहले दबोचा, वायरल हो रहा वीडियो |url=https://rajasthan.ndtv.in/india/parliament-security-breach-rajasthan-mp-hanuman-beniwal-became-parliaments-troubleshooter-caught-intruders-video-going-viral-4668067 |access-date=2024-03-30 |website=rajasthan.ndtv.in |language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title='देश इमरजेंसी की तरफ जा रहा है' संसद सुरक्षा चूक के दौरान ' हीरो' बने हनुमान बेनीवाल का BJP पर बड़ा हमला |url=https://navbharattimes.indiatimes.com/state/rajasthan/jaipur/mp-suspension-issue-parliament-security-breach-hero-hanuman-beniwal-attacked-on-bjp/articleshow/106190007.cms |access-date=2024-03-30 |website=Navbharat Times |language=hi}}</ref> Beniwal told the media soon after - “''Herogiri unki utar di, [<nowiki/>[[Translation|trans]]. curbed their [self-assumed] heroism]”.''<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-13 |title=Hanuman Beniwal thrashes Lok Sabha intruder: 5 things you need to know about the Nagaur MP |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-politics/hanuman-beniwal-lok-sabha-intruder-thrashed-mp-9067247/ |access-date=2024-03-30 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> Beniwal soon after incident questioned BJP government on national security and called it a ‘big security lapse’ and demanded a thorough investigation. He also highlighted the timing, coinciding with the 22nd anniversary of the [[2001 Indian Parliament attack]].<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=व्यास |first=मनीष |date=2023-12-13 |title=लोकसभा में घुसे युवक की हनुमान बेनीवाल ने की पिटाई: बोले- सांसद घबरा गए थे, कहीं कोई हथियार तो नहीं; मैंने और कुछ MP ने दबोचा - Rajasthan News |url=https://www.bhaskar.com/local/rajasthan/news/hanuman-beniwal-beats-up-young-man-who-jumped-into-lok-sabha-132281406.html |access-date=2024-03-30 |website=Dainik Bhaskar |language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Modak |first=Susmita |date=2023-12-13 |title=Rashtriya Loktantrik Party MP Hanuman Beniwal Takes On Lok Sabha Intruder |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/news/national/rashtriya-loktantrik-party-mp-hanuman-beniwal-takes-on-lok-sabha-intruder-844106 |access-date=2024-03-30 |website=www.thehansindia.com |language=en}}</ref>

The breach later led to the suspension of 146 opposition parliament members on claims of causing disorder, 95 from the Lok Sabha, and 46 from the [[Rajya Sabha]]. The suspensions were later condemned by [[Human Rights Watch]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mogul |first=Rhea |date=2023-12-20 |title=India suspends 141 lawmakers as ruling BJP accused of stifling opposition |url=https://www.cnn.com/2023/12/19/india/india-opposition-lawmakers-suspended-record-number-intl-hnk/index.html |access-date=2023-12-20 |website=CNN |language=en}}</ref>

== Background ==
The incident occurred at about 1 PM in the Lok Sabha, the lower house of the Indian Parliament, in the [[New Parliament House, New Delhi|New Parliament House]]. It happened on the 22nd anniversary of the [[2001 Indian Parliament attack]]. Following the incident, four individuals were arrested. Two were detained from the Parliament complex, while the other two were apprehended near Transport Bhavan, which is adjacent to the Parliament. Investigations revealed that the smoke released by the individuals was not harmful and was intended to cause a sensation.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />

[[Indian National Congress|Congress]] MP [[Gurjeet Singh Aujla]] from [[Amritsar Lok Sabha constituency|Amritsar]] snatched the smoke canister from one of the intruders and ran to the exit of the parliament to throw it away. He told ''[[The Indian Express]]'' that at the time, he believed the canister was a bomb. During the interview, he also told ''The Indian Express'' that: "A [[Punjabi people|Punjabi]] never runs away from danger."<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-13 |title=Parliament security breach: A Punjabi never runs away from danger, says Amritsar MP who snatched smoke canister from attacker |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/chandigarh/parliament-security-breach-amritsar-mp-gurjeet-singh-aujla-9067143/ |access-date=2023-12-15 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

The incident sparked widespread condemnation and raised serious questions about the security of the Parliament complex. [[Speaker of the Lok Sabha|Lok Sabha speaker]] [[Om Birla]] organised a meeting with the MPs to review the security arrangements and implement stricter measures to prevent such incidents from happening again.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2023-12-13 |title=What are colour gas canisters, used during Lok Sabha security breach? |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/what-are-colour-gas-canisters-used-during-lok-sabha-security-breach-101702461525521.html |access-date=2023-12-13 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite news |last=Rajesh |first=YP |date=2023-12-13 |title=Man jumps into Indian parliament, sets off smoke can in major security breach |work=[[Reuters]] |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/india/security-breach-indian-parliament-man-jumps-into-lawmakerss-area-2023-12-13/ |access-date=2023-12-14}}</ref>

In a separate incident two protestors deployed smoke bombs and chanted slogans while being taken away from area near the parliament by [[Delhi Police]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Livemint |date=2023-12-13 |title=Lok Sabha security breach: Men leap across tables, spray smoke {{!}} 10 points |url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/lok-sabha-security-breach-men-leap-across-tables-spray-smoke-shout-tanashahi-nahi-chalegi-2001-parliament-attack-11702457715086.html |access-date=2023-12-13 |website=mint |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Haldiya |first1=Vanshika |title=Security breach in the Parliament on 22nd Attack Anniversary |url=https://www.brutimes.com/news/parliament/security-breach-in-the-parliament-on-22nd-attack-anniversary |website=BruTimes |language=en}}</ref>

== Aftermath ==
Both the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha were adjourned initially, but proceedings were resumed after a while. The speaker of the Lok Sabha banned the issuance of visitor passes and ordered a high-level probe into the incident with the assistance of Delhi Police. [[Central Industrial Security Force]] (CISF), the paramilitary agency responsible for the security of the parliament, has also started a separate investigation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=In Parliament Security Breach, Colour Gas Canisters Used: What Are They? |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/in-parliament-security-breach-colour-gas-canisters-used-what-are-they-4665940 |access-date=2023-12-13 |website=NDTV.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Livemint |date=2023-12-13 |title=Delhi Police detains protesters using colour smoke in front of Transport Bhawan |url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/lok-sabha-incident-delhi-police-detains-protesters-using-colour-smoke-in-front-of-transport-bhawan-watch-11702456209903.html |access-date=2023-12-13 |website=mint |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Parliament Security Breach Highlights: Lok Sabha Secretary General Writes To Home Ministry, Seeks High-Level Probe |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/parliament-winter-session-2023-live-updates-huge-parliament-security-breach-on-13-december-4664343 |access-date=2023-12-13 |website=NDTV.com}}</ref>

=== Interrogation ===
During an interrogation, the mastermind of the breach, Lalit Jha admitted that he was supposed to hide in [[Rajasthan]] after the breach. He also said that co-accused Mahesh had even made arrangements for Jha at a guest house in Rajasthan using his own identity card. The attack was apparently being planned for months before its execution.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Livemint |date=2023-12-16 |title=What if accused could not enter the Parliament? There was 'Plan B' {{!}} Read here |url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/parliament-security-breach-what-if-accused-could-not-enter-the-lok-sabha-there-was-plan-b-read-here-11702691314767.html |access-date=2023-12-17 |website=mint |language=en}}</ref> The five accused alleged that they were given electric shocks, tortured, and made to confess to association with opposition parties. They also claimed that they were made to sign 70 blank papers and were also forced to give biometrics and passwords of their phones and social media accounts.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-01-31 |title=Parliament breach accused allege torture to admit to 'crimes', Opposition links |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/being-tortured-to-accept-association-with-a-political-party-five-parliament-security-breach-case-accused-tell-court/article67796241.ece |access-date=2024-02-01 |website=The Hindu |language=en}}</ref>
=== Suspension of MPs over protests ===
On 14 December, 15 opposition MPs, 14 from the Lok Sabha (including S. R. Parthiban, whose suspension was later revoked) and 1 from Rajya Sabha<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2023-12-18 |title=92 MPs suspended from Parliament amid protests over security breach |url=https://www.siasat.com/81-mps-suspended-from-parliament-amid-protests-over-security-breach-2936630/ |access-date=2023-12-18 |website=The Siasat Daily |language=en-US}}</ref> were suspended from the parliament session by [[Vice President of India|Vice President]] [[Jagdeep Dhankhar|Jagdeep Dhankar]] for 'unruly conduct' after they chanted slogans demanding a statement from the [[Minister of Home Affairs (India)|Home Minister]] [[Amit Shah]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-12-14 |title=Parliament security breach: 15 India opposition MPs suspended for protests |language=en-GB |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-67712325 |access-date=2023-12-15}}</ref>

The opposition MPs were demanding a statement by Home Minister [[Amit Shah]] in both the houses of parliament on the breach in security, and a detailed discussion on the same.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-18 |title=Parliament: 45 MPs suspended from Rajya Sabha, 33 from Lok Sabha amid Congress's 'Opposition-less' Parliament charge |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/winter-session-of-parliament-45-mps-suspended-from-rs-33-from-ls-amid-congresss-opposition-less-charge-101702901111215.html |access-date=2023-12-19 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref>

One of the suspended MPs, [[S. R. Parthiban]] from the [[Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam]] (DMK), was not present in the house at the time of the session. His suspension was later revoked, and [[Ministry of Parliamentary Affairs (India)|Parliamentary Affairs minister]] [[Pralhad Joshi]] said that the suspension of Parthiban was the result of a mistake on the part of the staff in identifying the member.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-14 |title=DMK MP not present in House, LS withdraws his suspension after govt letter |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/dmk-parthiban-lok-sabha-suspension-mistaken-identity-9068681/ |access-date=2023-12-15 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> Joshi also said that the other 14 MPs were suspended for violating a new parliament rule that disallows placards.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-14 |title=Minister Pralhad Joshi explains expulsion of 13 MPs, says violated 'new Parliament' rule |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/minister-pralhad-joshi-explains-expulsion-of-13-mps-says-violated-new-parliament-rule-101702560530842.html |access-date=2023-12-15 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref> Former finance minister and [[Indian National Congress]] MP [[P. Chidambaram]] dubbed the suspension of Parthiban as "comedy".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Staff |first=T. N. M. |date=2023-12-14 |title=DMK MP suspended from Parliament despite being absent calls it 'huge insult' |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/tamil-nadu/dmk-mp-suspended-from-parliament-despite-being-absent-calls-it-huge-insult |access-date=2023-12-15 |website=The News Minute |language=en}}</ref> The Congress termed the suspension of opposition MPs as the "murder of democracy" and accused the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP) government of reducing parliament to a rubber stamp.<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 December 2023 |title="Murder Of Democracy": Congress After 14 Opposition MPs Suspended |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/murder-of-democracy-congress-after-14-opposition-mps-suspended-4673809 |access-date=2023-12-17 |website=NDTV.com}}</ref> Former Congress president [[Rahul Gandhi]] also said that the breach was a direct fallout of unemployment and inflation.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 December 2023 |title=Parliament security breach a direct fallout of unemployment, inflation: Rahul Gandhi |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/current-affairs/161223/parliament-security-breach-a-direct-fallout-of-unemployment-inflation.html |access-date=17 December 2023 |website=[[Deccan Chronicle]]}}</ref>

On 18 December, another 78 MPs (33 from the Lok Sabha and 45 from the Rajya Sabha) were suspended, taking the total tally of suspended MPs to 92 (46 from the Lok Sabha and 46 from the Rajya Sabha).<ref name=":2" />

Amid the new wave of suspensions on 18 December, Congress floor leader in the Lok Sabha, [[Adhir Ranjan Chowdhury]], who was also suspended, remarked that: "Today it is MPs, tomorrow it will be [the] common people’s turn".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-18 |title=Adhir Ranjan Chowdhury: 'Today it is MPs, tomorrow it will be common people's turn' |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/political-pulse/adhir-ranjan-chowdhury-parliament-mp-suspension-lok-sabha-pm-modi-9073533/ |access-date=2023-12-18 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

A further 49 MPs from Lok Sabha were suspended on 19 December, two on 20 December, and three on 21 December. taking the final count to 146, from which 100 are from the Lok Sabha, and 46 from the Rajya Sabha.{{fact|date=January 2024}}

Congress leader [[Jairam Ramesh]] claimed that the "complete purge" was being executed to pass "draconian bills" without any meaningful debate and let BJP MP Pratap Simha, who facilitated the intruders into the Lok Sabha, go scot-free.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-19 |title=49 more Oppn MPs suspended from Lok Sabha; Congress says 'Namocracy in all its tyranny' |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/shashi-tharoor-supriya-sule-among-50-more-mps-suspended-from-lok-sabha-101702970302246.html |access-date=2023-12-19 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref>

The opposition accused the BJP government of "attacking democracy", Congress MP [[P. Chidambaram]] said that parliament "is going to resemble the [[Supreme People's Assembly|North Korean assembly]]".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ellis-Petersen |first=Hannah |date=2023-12-19 |title=Indian government accused of attack on democracy as 141 MPs suspended |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/dec/19/indian-government-accused-attack-democracy-mps-suspended-modi-bjp |access-date=2023-12-20 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-12-19 |title=Parliament winter session: India opposition fury as 141 MPs suspended |language=en-GB |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-67724698 |access-date=2023-12-20}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+Suspension of opposition MPs over protests following the breach
!Date
!Lok Sabha
!Rajya Sabha
!Total
|-
!14 December
|13{{Efn|name=fn1|Does not include one MP whose suspension was revoked}}
|1
|14{{Efn|name=fn1}}
|-
!18 December
|33
|45
|78
|-
!19 December
|49
|—
|49
|-
!20 December
|2
|—
|2
|-
!21 December
|3
|—
|3
|-
!
!100
!46
!146
|}

=== Pratap Simha's role ===
The opposition demanded strict action against [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]] MP from [[Mysore Lok Sabha constituency|Mysore]], [[Pratap Simha]], after reports surfaced that Simha issued visitors' passes to the intruders who breached the security in Lok Sabha. They compared it to the suspension of former [[Trinamool Congress]] MP [[Mahua Moitra]], who lost her membership of parliament after her parliament login credentials were used by a [[Dubai]]-based businessman. Congress workers in [[Mysore|Mysuru]] also staged protests outside Simha's office there, as [[Karnataka]] [[Chief minister of Karnataka|Chief Minister]] [[Siddaramaiah]] demanded a fair investigation into the incident.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-13 |title=Opposition tightens the screws on BJP MP Pratap Simha for Lok Sabha trespass |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/opposition-tightens-the-screws-on-bjp-mp-pratap-simha-for-lok-sabha-trespass-101702486084155.html |access-date=2023-12-15 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref>

=== Probe findings ===
A preliminary inquiry into the breach revealed that the position of [[Joint secretary to the Government of India|Joint Secretary (Security)]], has been vacant for more than 45 days. It also revealed that there was a 40% shortage in staff, with only 230 personnel currently being employed. It was also noted that when the gas canisters were released in the Lok Sabha, the smoke alarms did not activate. A reduction of around ₹300,000,000 ([[United States dollar|US$]]3.6 million) in the annual budget allocated to the parliament compound was also observed.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=Parliament breach: Security head's post vacant for over 45 days, 40% staff shortage at other levels |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/parliament-breach-security-heads-post-vacant-for-over-45-days-40-staff-shortage-at-other-levels-2814588 |access-date=2023-12-17 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|India}}
* [[2001 Indian Parliament attack]]
* [[2001 Jammu and Kashmir legislative assembly car bombing]]
* [[2014 shootings at Parliament Hill, Ottawa|2014 shootings at Parliament Hill]], a similar attack that occurred in Ottawa, Canada
* [[2017 storming of the Macedonian Parliament]]
* [[2017 Tehran attacks]], which included an attack on the Iranian Parliament by gunmen and suicide bombers.
* [[2021 storming of the United States Capitol]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Attacks on legislatures}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Indian Parliament breach, 2023}}
[[Category:Attacks on legislatures in India]]
[[Category:Lok Sabha]]
[[Category:2020s in Delhi]]
[[Category:December 2023 in India]]
[[Category:Protests in India]]
[[Category:2023 protests]]
[[Category:2023 in Indian politics]]
[[Category:2023 controversies]]
[[Category:Attacks on buildings and structures in 2023]]
[[Category:Attacks on legislatures in Asia]]

Nabanna (drama)

2026-03-29T18:55:05Z

Alimirza: put up post

{{Short description|1944 Bengali drama by Bijon Bhattacharya}}
{{italic title}}
{{Other use|Nabanna (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2025}}
[[File:Nabanna Bengali theatre scene.png|thumb|A scene from the drama.]]

'''''Nabanna''''' is a [[Bengali-language]] drama written by [[Bijon Bhattacharya]] in 1944 and staged by the [[Indian People's Theatre Association]] (IPTA) the same year under the joint direction of [[Sombhu Mitra]] and Bijon Bhattacharya, and in 1948, by [[Bohurupee]] under the direction of Sombhu Mitra.<ref name="Dharwadker2005">{{cite book|author=Aparna Bhargava Dharwadker|title=Theatres of Independence: Drama, Theory, and Urban Performance in India since 1947|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mLQaz-12Eo8C&pg=PA407|access-date=23 August 2012|date=1 November 2005|publisher=University of Iowa Press|isbn=978-0-87745-961-3|pages=407–}}</ref> The play is about the [[Bengal famine of 1943]]. The Bengal IPTA took the play to many parts of India as a part of its festival, Voice of Bengal, and it became a major success and collected [[lakh]]s of rupees for famine relief in rural Bengal.<ref name="LoweLloyd1997">{{cite book|author1=Lisa Lowe|author2=David Lloyd|title=The Politics of Culture in the Shadow of Capital|url=https://archive.org/details/politicsofcultur00lowe|url-access=registration|access-date=23 August 2012|date=27 October 1997|publisher=Duke University Press|isbn=978-0-8223-2046-3|pages=[https://archive.org/details/politicsofcultur00lowe/page/438 438]–}}</ref><ref name="Ritwik Ghatak notes">{{cite web|title=Ritwik Ghatak notes|url=http://www.ejumpcut.org/archive/jc47.2005/ghatak/notes.html|publisher=ejumpcut.org|access-date=22 August 2012}}</ref>

== Plot ==
The drama is about the Bengal famine of 1943 in which more than 2 million people died of starvation, malnutrition and disease. The main character is Pradhan Samaddar, a peasant in Bengal. The play presents the intensity of famine through the starvation of Pradhan Samaddar's family. Samaddar's family face a range of disasters during the food crisis.<ref name=LoweLloyd1997 /><ref name="Downing2010">{{cite book|author=John D. H. Downing|title=Encyclopedia of Social Movement Media|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OSkKAOoaSGIC&pg=PA247|access-date=23 August 2012|date=28 October 2010|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=978-0-7619-2688-7|pages=247–}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Bengali theatre}}
{{Bengal famine of 1943}}
{{Famine in India}}

[[Category:Bengali-language plays]]
[[Category:Bengali theatre]]
[[Category:1944 plays]]
[[Category:Indian plays]]
[[Category:Plays set in India]]

Arshdeep Singh (footballer, born 1997)

2026-03-29T12:21:59Z

Alimirza: improved intro additionally and corrected details after review

{{short description|Indian professional Footballer}}
{{other people|Arshdeep Singh}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2017}}
{{Infobox football biography
| name = Arshdeep Singh
| image =
| image_size =
| caption =
| fullname = Arshdeep Singh Saini
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1997|10|6|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Chandigarh]], India
| height = 1.81 m
| currentclub = [[Punjab FC|Punjab]]
| clubnumber = 13
| position = [[Goalkeeper (association football)|Goalkeeper]]
| youthyears1 =
| youthclubs1 = Chandigarh Football Academy
| youthyears2 =
| youthclubs2 = [[AIFF Elite Academy]]
| years1 = 2015–2019
| clubs1 = [[Punjab FC|Minerva Punjab]]
| caps1 = 26
| goals1 = 0
| years2 = 2019–2022
| clubs2 = [[Odisha FC|Odisha]]
| caps2 = 33
| goals2 = 0
| years3 = 2022–2024
| clubs3 = [[FC Goa|Goa]]
| caps3 = 17
| goals3 = 0
| years4 = 2024–2025
| clubs4 = [[Hyderabad FC|Hyderabad]]
| caps4 = 16
| goals4 = 0
| years5 = 2025–
| clubs5 = [[Punjab FC|Punjab]]
| caps5 = 0
| goals5 = 0
| nationalyears1 =
| nationalteam1 =
| nationalcaps1 =
| nationalgoals1 =
| club-update = 16:30, 12 March 2025 (UTC)
| ntupdate =
}}

'''Arshdeep Singh Saini''' (born 6 October 1997) is an Indian professional [[Association football|footballer]] who plays as a [[Goalkeeper (association football)|goalkeeper]] for [[Indian Super League]] club [[Punjab FC|Punjab]].

==Club career==
===Minerva Academy===
====2015—16: Professional Debut====
Singh began his career with the [[AIFF Elite Academy]], playing in various competitions.<ref>{{cite news|title=Malsawmzuala's blockbuster grabs three points for AIFF Academy|url=https://www.the-aiff.com/news-center-details.htm?id=6407|accessdate=30 January 2017|work=The All India Football Federation|date=21 April 2015|archive-date=2 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202195711/https://www.the-aiff.com/news-center-details.htm?id=6407|url-status=live}}</ref> On 1 November 2015, He joined [[Minerva Academy FC]] who were about to participate in [[I-League 2|I-League 2nd Division]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sportswire4u.blogspot.com/2015/11/minerva-academy-make-their-debut-with.html?m=1|date=20 November 2015|title=Minerva Academy make their debut with a win in I-League 2nd Division|access-date=5 October 2023|archive-date=7 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231007064208/http://sportswire4u.blogspot.com/2015/11/minerva-academy-make-their-debut-with.html?m=1|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/features/minerva-begin-campaign-on-winning-note-161809|date=22 November 2015|title=Minerva begin campaign on winning note|website=tribuneindia.com|publisher=The Tribune India|agency=Tribune News Service|location=Chandigarh|access-date=5 October 2023|archive-date=25 February 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240225101516/https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/features/minerva-begin-campaign-on-winning-note-161809}}</ref> On 11 December 2015, he made his professional debut against [[PIFA Sports FC]] in a western conference game. He kept his first professional cleansheet as the match ended in a 3–0 win.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiafooty.com/2015/12/12/2nd-division-league-minerva-afc-thrash-pifa-sports-3-0-maintain-winning-run/|date=12 December 2015|title=2nd Division League: Minerva AFC thrash PIFA Sports 3-0; maintain winning run|access-date=10 October 2023|archive-date=17 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231017142441/https://www.indiafooty.com/2015/12/12/2nd-division-league-minerva-afc-thrash-pifa-sports-3-0-maintain-winning-run/|url-status=live}}</ref>
He started in all [[2015–16 I-League 2nd Division final round|final round]] games and kept three cleansheets as Minerva finished second after a 3–1 loss to [[Dempo SC]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sportskeeda.com/indian-football/dempo-return-to-i-league-with-3-1-win-against-minerva|date=29 May 2016|title=Dempo return to I-League with 3-1 win against Minerva|access-date=5 October 2023|archive-date=7 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231007064208/https://www.sportskeeda.com/amp/indian-football/dempo-return-to-i-league-with-3-1-win-against-minerva|url-status=live}}</ref>

====2016—18: Durand Cup and I-League Debut====
He made his [[Durand Cup]] debut on 30 August 2016 where despite a 2–0 loss to [[Gangtok Himalayan SC]] he managed to impress.<ref>{{cite news|title=Gangtok Himalayan makes a flying start|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-sports/Gangtok-Himalayan-makes-a-flying-start/article14599550.ece|access-date=30 January 2017|location=New Delhi|work=The Hindu|date=31 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109062855/https://www.thehindu.com/sport/football/Gangtok-Himalayan-makes-a-flying-start/article14598252.ece|archive-date=9 November 2020}}</ref> He also played the next game which ended in a 3–0 loss to [[Indian Navy]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://khelnow.com/football/indian-navy-thrashed-minerva-academy-fc-in-the-durand-cup-clash|date=1 September 2016|title=Indian Navy thrashed Minerva Academy FC in the Durand Cup clash|access-date=12 October 2023|archive-date=17 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231017153953/https://khelnow.com/football/indian-navy-thrashed-minerva-academy-fc-in-the-durand-cup-clash|url-status=live}}</ref> He missed next three games due to a sudden illness.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiafooty.com/2016/09/03/durand-cup-minerva-academy-hold-army-green-2-2/|date=3 September 2016|title=Durand Cup: Minerva Academy hold Army Green 2-2|access-date=12 October 2023|archive-date=17 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231017142442/https://www.indiafooty.com/2016/09/03/durand-cup-minerva-academy-hold-army-green-2-2/|url-status=live}}</ref> Despite finishing second in I-League 2 Minerva were promoted to [[I-League]] after [[Dempo SC]] withdrew.
<ref>{{cite web|url=https://xtratime.in/dempo-sc-confirms-withdrawal-from-i-league/|date=7 December 2016|title=Dempo SC confirms withdrawal from I-League|access-date=12 October 2023|archive-date=17 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231017142441/https://xtratime.in/dempo-sc-confirms-withdrawal-from-i-league/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://m.goal.com/s/en-india/news/1064/i-league/2016/12/11/30379992/i-league-update-chennai-city-fc-and-minerva-punjab-fc-to-play-in-|date=11 December 2016|title=I-LEAGUE UPDATE: CHENNAI CITY FC AND MINERVA PUNJAB FC TO PLAY IN THE UPCOMING SEASON|access-date=12 October 2023|archive-date=13 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113163430/http://m.goal.com/s/en-india/news/1064/i-league/2016/12/11/30379992/i-league-update-chennai-city-fc-and-minerva-punjab-fc-to-play-in-|url-status=bot: unknown}}</ref>
On 21 January 2017, Singh made his [[I-League]] debut against [[Shillong Lajong F.C.|Shillong Lajong]]. He started and played the full match as Minerva lost 2–1.<ref>{{cite web|title=Shillong Lajong 2–1 Minerva Punjab|url=https://int.soccerway.com/matches/2017/01/21/india/i-league/lajong-sc/india-minerva-fc/2383750/|website=Soccerway|access-date=21 February 2018|archive-date=24 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181124165232/https://int.soccerway.com/matches/2017/01/21/india/i-league/lajong-sc/india-minerva-fc/2383750/|url-status=live}}</ref> He started only in four games conceding six goals with no cleansheets.

In [[2017–18 I-League]] season, he was again a backup keeper making only three starts but helped Minerva win their first ever I-League title.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.firstpost.com/sports/i-league-2017-18-minerva-punjab-fc-clinch-maiden-title-courtesy-william-opokus-goal-on-thrilling-last-day-of-season-4382363.html|date=8 March 2018|title=I-League 2017-18: Minerva Punjab FC clinch maiden title courtesy William Opoku's goal on thrilling last day of season|access-date=12 October 2023|archive-date=17 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231017142440/https://www.firstpost.com/sports/i-league-2017-18-minerva-punjab-fc-clinch-maiden-title-courtesy-william-opokus-goal-on-thrilling-last-day-of-season-4382363.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/sports/football/story/2017-18-i-league-minerva-punjab-fc-crowned-champions-1184720-2018-03-08|date=8 March 2018|title=2017-18 I-League: Minerva Punjab FC crowned champions|access-date=12 October 2023|archive-date=27 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200627195608/https://www.indiatoday.in/sports/football/story/2017-18-i-league-minerva-punjab-fc-crowned-champions-1184720-2018-03-08|url-status=live}}</ref> This was young Arshdeep and Minerva Punjab's first ever major trophy
<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indianexpress.com/article/sports/football/minerva-punjab-fc-the-mavericks-and-i-league-champions-5093480/lite/|date=11 March 2018|title=Minerva Punjab FC: The Mavericks and new I-League Champions|access-date=12 October 2023|archive-date=17 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231017143945/https://indianexpress.com/article/sports/football/minerva-punjab-fc-the-mavericks-and-i-league-champions-5093480/lite/|url-status=live}}</ref>

====2018—19: AFC Cup and Departure====
On 22 September 2018, he extended his contract for another season.<ref>{{cite web|title=MrSafe Hands arshsainistays to guard the woodwork for yet another season|url=https://www.twitter.com/minervapunjabfc/status/1043481427843665921|work=twitter.com|accessdate=22 September 2018|archive-date=18 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231018193213/https://twitter.com/minervapunjabfc/status/1043481427843665921|url-status=live}}</ref> He started the season in a 2–2 draw against [[Shillong Lajong]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/sports/football/story/i-league-shillong-lajong-minerva-punjab-draw-1395020-2018-11-23|date=23 November 2018|title=I-League: Shillong Lajong, Minerva Punjab played out a 2-2 draw|access-date=14 October 2023|archive-date=17 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231017143943/https://www.indiatoday.in/amp/sports/football/story/i-league-shillong-lajong-minerva-punjab-draw-1395020-2018-11-23|url-status=live}}</ref> He started in eight games keeping two cleansheets with Minerva finishing ninth in the league. Since, Minerva were winners of previous I-League season they qualified for [[2019 AFC Champions League qualifying play-offs]]. However, he was on the bench in the 4–0 loss to Iranian club [[Saipa FC]] in preliminary round 2.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.goal.com/en-sg/match/saipa-v-punjab-fc/report/4p32dgpsfkfkndqwsmw33a7ai|title=AFC Champions League 2019 qualifier: SAIPA FC thrash Minerva Punjab 4-0|website=Goal.com|access-date=23 March 2021|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709193217/https://www.goal.com/en-sg/match/saipa-v-punjab-fc/report/4p32dgpsfkfkndqwsmw33a7ai|url-status=live}}</ref>

As a result, Minerva qualified to play in [[2019 AFC Cup|AFC Cup]] group stage. On 3 April 2019, he made his continental debut in the first game against [[Chennaiyin FC]] which ended in a 0–0 stalemate.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiansuperleague.com/press-releases/chennaiyin-minerva-play-out-goalless-draw-in-afc-cup-2019-group-stage-opener|date=4 April 2019|title=CHENNAIYIN, MINERVA PLAY OUT GOALLESS DRAW IN AFC CUP 2019 GROUP STAGE OPENER|access-date=14 October 2023|archive-date=17 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231017142441/https://www.indiansuperleague.com/press-releases/chennaiyin-minerva-play-out-goalless-draw-in-afc-cup-2019-group-stage-opener|url-status=live}}</ref> After being benched for next game, he played in next two games against [[Manang Marshyangdi Club]] which both ended in a draw.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.the-afc.com/en/club/afc_cup/news/group_e_minerva_punjab_2-2_manang_marshyangdi_club.html|date=2 May 2019|title=Group E: Minerva Punjab 2-2 Manang Marshyangdi Club|access-date=17 October 2023|archive-date=22 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231122045906/https://www.the-afc.com/en/club/afc_cup/news/group_e_minerva_punjab_2-2_manang_marshyangdi_club.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://kathmandupost.com/football/2019/05/16/manang-minerva-punjab-settle-for-a-draw-in-afc-cup|date=16 May 2019|title=Manang, Minerva Punjab settle for a draw in AFC Cup|access-date=17 October 2023|archive-date=22 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231122045904/https://kathmandupost.com/football/2019/05/16/manang-minerva-punjab-settle-for-a-draw-in-afc-cup|url-status=live}}</ref> He suffered a nose injury in the next game against Chennaiyin after colliding with [[C. K. Vineeth]] which made him being substituted off in the 11th minute in an eventual 1–1 draw.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/sport/football/afc-cup-minerva-dents-chennaiyin-fc-s-knockout-hopes/article28077682.ece/|date=19 June 2019|title=AFC Cup: Minerva dents Chennaiyin FC ’s knockout hopes|access-date=17 October 2023|archive-date=22 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231122045904/https://www.thehindu.com/sport/football/afc-cup-minerva-dents-chennaiyin-fc-s-knockout-hopes/article28077682.ece/amp/|url-status=live}}</ref> Hence, he missed the last game against [[Abahani Limited Dhaka]], the same game where he was benched.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.arunfoot.com/abahani-limited-dhaka-score-late-winner-at-minerva-punjab-fc/|date=26 June 2019|title=Abahani Limited Dhaka score late winner at Minerva Punjab FC!|access-date=19 October 2023|archive-date=22 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231122045909/https://www.arunfoot.com/abahani-limited-dhaka-score-late-winner-at-minerva-punjab-fc/amp/|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Odisha FC===
On 19 July 2019, he joined newly rebranded [[Odisha FC]] on a 3-year deal.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiansuperleague.com/news/arshdeep-singh-signs-as-delhi-continue-investing-in-youth|date=19 July 2019|title=ARSHDEEP SINGH SIGNS AS DELHI CONTINUE INVESTING IN YOUTH|access-date=5 October 2023|archive-date=13 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813174358/https://www.indiansuperleague.com/news/arshdeep-singh-signs-as-delhi-continue-investing-in-youth|url-status=live}}</ref> He made his debut on 26 October 2019 in a 2–1 loss to [[NorthEast United FC]] which was also his [[Indian Super League|ISL]] debut.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/website/story/sports-news-indian-super-league-2019-20-live-football-score-live-updates-of-northeast-united-vs-odisha-fc/341154/amp|date=26 October 2019|title=ISL 2019-20 Highlights: Asamoah Gyan Scores His First Goal As NorthEast United Beat Ten-Man Odisha FC 2-1|access-date=6 October 2023|archive-date=7 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231007064208/https://www.outlookindia.com/website/story/sports-news-indian-super-league-2019-20-live-football-score-live-updates-of-northeast-united-vs-odisha-fc/341154/amp|url-status=live}}</ref> He made thirty three appearances for Odisha during his three seasons all coming in league but managing to keep only five cleansheets and Odisha even finished last in [[2020–21 Indian Super League|2020-21 ISL season]] when he was the first choice keeper.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.news18.com/news/sports/isl-2020-21-odisha-fc-team-review-season-to-forget-but-one-to-look-back-on-3496907.html|date=4 March 2021|title=ISL 2020-21 Odisha FC Team Review: Season to Forget But One to Look Back On|access-date=6 October 2023|archive-date=7 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231007064208/https://www.news18.com/amp/news/sports/isl-2020-21-odisha-fc-team-review-season-to-forget-but-one-to-look-back-on-3496907.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

===FC Goa===
====2022—23: Super Cup Debut====
On 30 June 2022, [[FC Goa]] completed the signing of Arshdeep Singh on a two-year deal.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://khelnow.com/football/isl-2022-23-fc-goa-sign-goalkeeper-arshdeep-singh|title=Goalkeeper Arshdeep Singh signs for FC Goa on two-year deal|publisher=Khel Now|date=23 June 2022|access-date=24 June 2022|archive-date=24 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220624110622/https://khelnow.com/football/isl-2022-23-fc-goa-sign-goalkeeper-arshdeep-singh|url-status=live}}</ref> On 21 October 2022, he made his debut for Goa coming as a fifty-ninth-minute substitute for [[Dheeraj Singh]] who suffered a head injury in a 2–0 win over [[Chennaiyin FC]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.transfermarkt.co.in/dheeraj-stands-tall-sadaoui-sparkles-as-fc-goa-beat-chennaiyin-fc/view/news/412777|date=21 October 2022|title=Dheeraj stands tall, Sadaoui sparkles as FC Goa beat Chennaiyin FC|access-date=6 October 2023|archive-date=2 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230802085519/https://www.transfermarkt.co.in/dheeraj-stands-tall-sadaoui-sparkles-as-fc-goa-beat-chennaiyin-fc/view/news/412777|url-status=live}}</ref> He started in the next game against [[Hyderabad FC]] which ended in a 1–0 loss.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sportstar.thehindu.com/football/isl/isl-2022-23-siverio-goal-gives-hyderabad-win-over-goa-moves-top/article66070510.ece/amp/|date=29 October 2022|title=ISL 2022-23: Siverio goal gives Hyderabad win over Goa to move top|access-date=6 October 2023|archive-date=25 February 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240225084137/https://sportstar.thehindu.com/|url-status=live}}</ref> He made his [[Super Cup (India)|Super Cup]] debut on 10 April 2023 in a 5–3 loss to [[Jamshedpur FC]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fcjamshedpur.com/news/jamshedpur-fc-beat-defending-champions-fc-goa-5-3-in-hero-super-cup-opener|date=10 April 2023|title=Jamshedpur FC beat defending champions FC Goa 5-3 in Hero Super Cup opener|access-date=6 October 2023|archive-date=17 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231017142442/https://www.fcjamshedpur.com/amp/news/jamshedpur-fc-beat-defending-champions-fc-goa-5-3-in-hero-super-cup-opener|url-status=live}}</ref> But managed to keep cleansheets in next two games against [[Gokulam Kerala FC|Gokulam Kerala]] and [[Mohun Bagan]] which both ended in a 1–0 win.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sportstar.thehindu.com/football/suoer-cup-2023-fc-goa-beats-gokulam-kerala-guarrotxena-jamshedpur-fc-vs-atk-mohun-bagan-group-c/article66738523.ece/amp/|date=14 April 2023|title=Super Cup 2023: FC Goa’s Guarrotxena strikes late to sink Gokulam|access-date=6 October 2023|archive-date=25 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230525223935/https://sportstar.thehindu.com/football/suoer-cup-2023-fc-goa-beats-gokulam-kerala-guarrotxena-jamshedpur-fc-vs-atk-mohun-bagan-group-c/article66738523.ece/amp/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://fcgoa.in/media/match-reports/fc-goa-finish-super-cup-campaign-with-win-over-atk-mohun-bagan|date=25 April 2023|title=FC Goa finish Super Cup campaign with win over ATK Mohun Bagan|access-date=6 October 2023|archive-date=17 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231017142444/https://fcgoa.in/media/match-reports/fc-goa-finish-super-cup-campaign-with-win-over-atk-mohun-bagan|url-status=live}}</ref>

====2023—24====
He started the next season with a cleansheet in 6–0 hammering over [[Shillong Lajong]] in [[2023 Durand Cup|Durand Cup]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.prudentmedia.in/sports/fc-goa-start-season-with-60-win-over-shillong-lajong-in-durand-cup-opener/26504.html|date=8 August 2023|title=FC GOA START SEASON WITH 6-0 WIN OVER SHILLONG LAJONG IN DURAND CUP OPENER|access-date=6 October 2023|archive-date=17 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231017142443/https://www.prudentmedia.in/sports/fc-goa-start-season-with-60-win-over-shillong-lajong-in-durand-cup-opener/26504.html|url-status=live}}</ref> He also started in the first game of [[2023–24 Indian Super League|2023—24 ISL]] against his former club and newly promoted [[Punjab FC]] and managed another cleansheet in a 1–0 win.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fcgoa.in/media/match-reports/isl-2023-24-fc-goa-punjab-fc-match-report|date=4 October 2023|title=FC Goa begin Indian Super League 2023-24 campaign with victory over Punjab FC|access-date=6 October 2023|archive-date=17 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231017142443/https://fcgoa.in/media/match-reports/isl-2023-24-fc-goa-punjab-fc-match-report|url-status=live}}</ref>

====2024—25====
On 26 June, Arshdeep extended his contract till the end of the 2025—26 season.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fcgoa.in/media/news/isl-2024-25-fc-goa-extend-arshdeep-singh|date=26 June 2024|title=FC Goa extend goalkeeper Arshdeep Singh’s contract through 2025-26 season}}</ref> He started the season with a cleansheet against [[A-League]] side [[Brisbane Roar]] in a 1-0 victory at [[2024 Bandodkar Trophy]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/fc-goa-hand-10-man-brisbane-roar-narrow-defeat/articleshow/112846405.cms|date=28 August 2024|title=FC Goa hand 10-man Brisbane Roar narrow defeat}}</ref>

== Career statistics ==
=== Club ===
{{updated|21 October 2024}}<ref>{{soccerway|arshdeep-singh/471328}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
!rowspan="2"|Club
!rowspan="2"|Season
!colspan="3"|League
!colspan="2"|Cup
!colspan="2"|[[Asian Football Confederation|AFC]]
!colspan="2"|Total
|-
!Division!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goals
|-
| rowspan="5" |[[RoundGlass Punjab FC|Minerva Punjab]]
|[[2015–16 I-League 2nd Division|2015–16]]
|[[I-League 2]]
|11||0||0||0|| colspan="2" |—||11||0
|-
|[[2016–17 I-League|2016–17]]
| rowspan="3" |[[I-League]]
|4||0||2{{efn|name=DurandCup|Appearance(s) in [[Durand Cup]]}}||0|| colspan="2" |—||6||0
|-
|[[2017–18 I-League|2017–18]]
|3||0||0||0|| colspan="2" |—||3||0
|-
|[[2018–19 Minerva Punjab FC season|2018–19]]
|8||0||0||0||4{{efn|name=statsAFCC|Appearance(s) in [[AFC Cup]]}}||0||12||0
|-
! colspan="2"|Total
!26!!0!!2!!0!!4!!0!!32!!0
|-
| rowspan="4" |[[Odisha FC|Odisha]]
|[[2019–20 Indian Super League|2019–20]]
| rowspan="3" |[[Indian Super League]]
|9||0||0||0|| colspan="2" |—||9||0
|-
|[[2020–21 Indian Super League|2020–21]]
|16||0||0||0|| colspan="2" |—||16||0
|-
|[[2021–22 Indian Super League|2021–22]]
|8||0||0||0|| colspan="2" |—||8||0
|-
! colspan="2"|Total
!33!!0!!0!!0!!0!!0!!33!!0
|-
| rowspan="3" |[[FC Goa|Goa]]
|{{nowrap|[[2022–23 Indian Super League|2022–23]]}}
| rowspan="2" |Indian Super League
|2||0||3{{efn|name=SuperCup|Appearance(s) in [[Super Cup (India)|Super Cup]]}}||0|| colspan="2" |—||5||0
|-
|[[2023–24 Indian Super League|2023–24]]
|15||0||1{{efn|name=DurandCup}}||0|| colspan="2" |—||16||0
|-
! colspan="2"|Total
!17!!0!!4!!0!!0!!0!!21!!0
|-
| rowspan="1" |[[Hyderabad FC|Hyderabad]]
|[[2024–25 Indian Super League|2024–25]]
| rowspan="1" |Indian Super League
|4||0||0||0|| colspan="2" |—||4||0
|-
! colspan="3" |Career total
!80!!0!!6!!0!!4!!0!!90!!0
|}
{{notelist}}

==Honours==
'''Minerva Punjab'''
*[[I-League]]: [[2017–18 I-League|2017–18]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Odisha FC squad}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Singh, Arshdeep}}
[[Category:1997 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian men's footballers]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian sportsmen]]
[[Category:Footballers from Chandigarh]]
[[Category:AIFF Academy players]]
[[Category:Minerva Academy FC players]]
[[Category:Men's association football goalkeepers]]
[[Category:I-League 2 players]]
[[Category:I-League players]]
[[Category:Indian Super League players]]
[[Category:Odisha FC players]]

Kasarwadi metro station

2026-03-29T05:51:23Z

Alimirza:

{{short description|Pune Metro's Purple Line metro station in Pimpri-Chinchwad, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2023}}
{{Infobox station
| name = Kasarwadi
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| symbol_location =
| symbol =
| type = {{Pune Metro Infobox station line|line = Purple}}
| style = Pune Metro
| image = Kasarwadi metro station.jpg
| alt =
| caption =
| address = Old Mumbai - Pune Hwy, Seva Nagar, [[Kasarwadi]], [[Pimpri Chinchwad]], Maharashtra 411034
| borough =
| country =
| coordinates = {{coord|18.5997|73.8273|region:IN|display=inline,title}}
| owned = [[Maharashtra Metro Rail Corporation Limited]] (MAHA-METRO)
| operator = [[Pune Metro]]
| line = {{rcb|Pune Metro|Purple|croute}}
| distance =
| platforms = [[Side platform]] Platform-1 → [[Swargate metro station|Swargate]] Platform-2 → [[PCMC Bhavan metro station|PCMC Bhavan]]
| tracks = 2
| train_operators =
| connections = [[File:Indian_Railways_Suburban_Railway_Logo.svg|link=Pune_Suburban_Railway|20x20px|up]] [[Kasarwadi railway station|Kasarwadi]]
| structure = [[Elevated]], [[Double-track railway|Double track]]
| levels = 2
| parking =
| bicycle =
| architectural_style =
| accessible = Yes {{access icon}}
| code = KWA
| zone =
| website =
| opened = {{Start date and age|df=yes|2022|03|6}}
| closed = 
| electrified = {{25 kV 50 Hz}} [[Overhead line|overhead catenary]]
| passengers =
| pass_year =
| pass_rank =
| services = {{Adjacent stations|system=Pune Metro|line=Purple|left=Nashik Phata|right=Phugewadi|to-right=Swargate}}
| route_map = {{Pune Metro Purple Line Route}}
| map_state = collapsed
| mapframe = yes
| mapframe-marker = rail
| mapframe-marker-color = #{{rail color|Pune Metro|Purple}}
| mapframe-zoom = 14
}}

'''Kasarwadi''' is an elevated metro station on the North-South corridor of the [[Purple Line (Pune Metro)|Purple Line]] of [[Pune Metro]] in [[Pimpri Chinchwad]], India. The station was opened on 6 March 2022 as an inauguration of Pune Metro.<ref>{{cite web |title=PM Modi inaugurates Pune Metro line; check routes and ticket prices here
|url=https://zeenews.india.com/railways/breaking-pm-narendra-modi-inaugurates-pune-metro-line-check-routes-ticket-prices-and-other-details-2442614.html|website=Zee News|access-date=8 March 2022}}</ref> From March 2022 to July 2023, the Purple Line operated between PCMC Bhavan and [[Phugewadi metro station|Phugewadi]],<ref>{{cite news |last1=Pandya |first1=Naomi |date=6 March 2022 |title=Passenger operations on 12 km routes of Pune Metro launched know all about |work=Urban Transport News |url=https://www.urbantransportnews.com/news/passenger-operations-on-12-km-routes-of-pune-metro-launched-know-all-about |access-date=8 March 2022}}</ref> but from 1 August 2023 the section between Phugewadi and [[Civil Court metro station]] came into use, so trains ran from PCMC Bhavan to Civil Court.<ref>{{Cite news |title=It’s official, PM to open Pune Metro service on two sections on Aug 1 |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/pune-news/prime-minister-modi-to-inaugurate-pune-metro-stretches-on-august-1-including-crucial-civil-court-interchange-station-101690481441750.html |last=Gadkari |first=Siddharth |date=2023-07-27 |access-date=2023-08-03 |work=[[Hindustan Times]]}}</ref> On 29 September 2024, the launch of Pune Metro Phase I was completed and the Purple Line was fully operational from PCMC to Swargate.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-09-28 |title=PM to inaugurate Pune Metro section of District Court to Swargate |url=https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2059884 |access-date=2024-09-29 |work=pib.gov.in}}</ref>

==Station layout==
{{stack|{{Routemap
| title = Kasarwadi track layout
| title-bg = #{{rail color|Pune Metro|Purple}}
| legend = track
| collapsible = no
| map = vCONTgfa
cPLT\vSTR\cPLT ~~ ~~ ~~ to {{stl|Pune Metro|Nashik Phata}}
*'''P2'''\cPLT\vSTR\cPLT\*'''P1'''
cPLT\vSTR\cPLT ~~ ~~ ~~ to {{stl|Pune Metro|Phugewadi}}
vCONTgfe
| bottom = <div style="width:23.5em;text-align:center">Station with two tracks and two side platforms</div>
}}}}
{|table border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=3
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px grey;border-top:solid 1px grey;" width=50 valign=top|'''G'''
|style="border-top:solid 1px grey;border-bottom:solid 1px grey;" width=100 valign=top|Street level
|style="border-top:solid 1px grey;border-bottom:solid 1px grey;" width=500 valign=top|Exit/Entrance
|-
|valign=top|'''L1'''
|valign=top|Mezzanine
|valign=top|Fare control, station agent, Metro Card vending machines, crossover 
|-
|style="border-top:solid 1px grey;border-bottom:solid 1px grey;" width=50 rowspan=4 valign=top|'''L2'''
|style="border-top:solid 1px grey;border-right:solid 2px black;border-left:solid 2px black;border-bottom:solid 2px black;text-align:center;" colspan=2|[[Side platform]] | Doors will open on the left {{access icon}}
|-
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px grey;" width=100|'''Platform 1''' '''Southbound'''
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px grey;" width=500|Towards → [[Swargate metro station|Swargate]] '''Next Station:''' [[Phugewadi metro station|Phugewadi]]
|-
|'''Platform 2''' '''Northbound'''
|Towards ← [[PCMC Bhavan metro station|PCMC Bhavan]] '''Next Station:''' [[Nashik Phata metro station|Nashik Phata]]
|-
|style="border-top:solid 2px black;border-right:solid 2px black;border-left:solid 2px black;border-bottom:solid 1px grey;" colspan=2 align=center|[[Side platform]] | Doors will open on the left {{access icon}}
|-
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px grey;" width=50 rowspan=2 valign=top|'''L2'''
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px grey;" width=100|
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px grey;" width=500|
|-
|}

==See also==
* [[Pune]]
* [[Maharashtra]]
* [[Urban rail transit in India#Rapid transit|Rapid Transit in India]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==

* {{Official website|https://www.punemetrorail.org/station/kasarwadi/}}
{{Pune Metro}}

[[Category:Pune Metro stations]]
[[Category:Railway stations in India opened in 2022]]

Olakkannesvara Temple

2026-03-28T23:53:59Z

Alimirza: Stub

{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2018}}
{{Infobox Hindu temple
| name = Olakkannesvara Temple
| image = Olakkanesvara Temple.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Olakkannesvara Temple
| map_type = Tamil Nadu
| map_caption =
| coordinates = {{coord|12.6167|80.1917|type:landmark_region:IN|display=inline,title}}
| country = India
| state = Tamil Nadu
| district = Kancheepuram district
| location = Mamallapuram
| elevation_m =
| deity = [[Shiva]]
| primary_deity_Godess =
| utsava_deity_God =
| utsava_deity_Godess=
| Direction_posture =
| Pushakarani =
| Vimanam =
| festivals=
| architecture = [[Dravidian Architecture]]
| temple_quantity = 1
| monument_quantity=
| inscriptions =
| year_completed = Early 8th century
| creator = [[Pallava Kingdom]]
| website =
}}
The '''Olakkannesvara Temple''' ("flame eye";<ref name="Sivaramamurti1978">{{cite book|last=Sivaramamurti|first=C.|title=Mahābalipuram|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=818dAAAAMAAJ|access-date=18 March 2013|year=1978|publisher=Director General, Archaeological Survey of India|page=18}}</ref> commonly '''Olakkanatha'''; also known as, "the Old Lighthouse")<ref name=byu.edu /> is in [[Mahabalipuram]] town, overlooking the [[Coromandel Coast]] of the [[Bay of Bengal]] in [[Kancheepuram District]] in [[Tamil Nadu]], India. Like the [[Shore Temple]], the Olakkannesvara Temple is a structural temple.<ref>{{cite web|title=Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram|url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:UGpx4rvtvhgJ:unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0005/000582/058298EB.pdf+&hl=en&gl=us&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESiclT43K4pYesu2RTwN8K-W3pBjgRG8Z3gTVT32lrcwyrPefQ08QYQTFpWVa2d5kejg13B3fMvNQ1AjyrQS5EsSwNv0uwc1RcSrvrbULm72YEL3t8KEt3DQ7PtpT2bmhuUEihIB&sig=AHIEtbT56F8JyYBsbx9WXcS6n6TNxwRlrw|publisher=UNESCO|page=3|date=15 October 1982}}</ref> Built in the 8th century,<ref name=byu.edu>{{cite web|title=Olakkannesvara Temple|url=http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/cdm/singleitem/collection/Saskia/id/9633|publisher=Brigham Young University}}</ref> it is situated directly above the [[Mahishasuramardini mandapa]] on a hillock which provides scenic views of the town. As the area is within a high security zone because of a nuclear power station a few kilometres to its south, photography is prohibited.<ref name="SinghKarafin2009">{{cite book|last1=Singh|first1=Sarina|last2=Karafin|first2=Amy|last3=Mahapatra|first3=Anirban|title=South India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8KnLFpjEHpUC&pg=PA411|access-date=18 March 2013|date=1 September 2009|publisher=Lonely Planet|isbn=978-1-74179-155-6|pages=411–}}</ref> The Olakkannesvara Temple is sometimes mistakenly referred to as a Mahishasura temple. It is dedicated to an incarnation of [[Shiva]].<ref name="Ward1991">{{cite book|last=Ward|first=Philip|title=South India: Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Goa : a travel guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9NJAAAAAMAAJ|access-date=18 March 2013|year=1991|publisher=Oleander|isbn=978-0-900891-31-1|page=37}}</ref> It is one of the [[Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram]] that were designated as a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]] since 1984.<ref name="Unesco">{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/249/|title=Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram|publisher=UNESCO|access-date=2007-03-03
}}</ref>

==Etymology==
[[File:Durga temple or Olakkanneshvara Temple above the Mahshasuramardhhini Cave temple.jpg|left|thumb|Durga temple or Olakkanneshvara Temple above the [[Mahishasuramardhhini mantapa|Mahishasuramardhhini Cave temple]], [[Mahabalipuram]].]]
Commonly, the building has been known as the "Olakkanatha Temple". Its original name, however, was Olakkannesvara, a corruption of "Ulaikkannisvaram" (meaning: the temple of Siva whose forehead contains the crescent moon or eye of wisdom).<ref name="Mārg̲1969">{{cite book|title=Mārg̲|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A1jrAAAAMAAJ|access-date=18 March 2013|year=1969|publisher=Marg Publications|page=77}}</ref> Olakkannesvara is mistakenly called a Mahishasura temple as it is situated above the Mahishasuramardini mandapa (cave temple).

==Geography==
Olakkannesvara Temple is located in Mahabalipuram town. Facing east, the temple is accessed only be a series of cut steps on exposed rock. It is situated on the top of a hill, above the [[Mahishasuramardini mandapa]] near the modern lighthouse. It is approximately {{convert|58|km}} from Chennai city (previously, Madras) and about {{convert|20|miles}} from [[Chengalpet]].<ref name="Ayyar1982">{{cite book|first=P. V. Jagadisa |last=Ayyar|title=South Indian Shrines: Illustrated|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NLSGFW1uZboC&pg=PA157|access-date=7 February 2013|year=1982|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-0151-2|pages=157–}}</ref><ref name=Olak>{{Cite web|url=http://puratattva.in/2010/09/14/mahabalipuram-the-workshop-of-pallavas-part-v-41.html|title=Mahabalipuram – The Workshop of Pallavas – Part V – Structural Temples|work=Olakkanneshvara Temple|access-date=23 February 2013|publisher=Puratattva.in|date=4 August 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140123031909/http://puratattva.in/2010/09/14/mahabalipuram-the-workshop-of-pallavas-part-v-41.html|archive-date=23 January 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> The area is a high security zone as there is a nuclear power station about a few kilometers to its south.<ref name=SinghKarafin2009 />

==History==
Like the Shore Temple, the Olakkannesvara Temple was built during the reign of the [[Pallava dynasty]] king Rajasimha during the early 8th century.<ref>{{cite book|title=Cave temples of India|year=2019|last1=Sharma|first1=Dr. K.K.|first2=Dr. Amit Rai|last2=Jain|isbn=978-93-85754-64-7|publisher=Kitabwale|location=New Delhi|page=122-3}}</ref> Archaeologist [[Albert Longhurst]] observed that prior to the construction of the present lighthouse at this site in 1900, the roof of the Olakkannesvara Temple served as the lighthouse with perhaps a wooden shed structure on the roof.<ref name=Olak/><ref name=Mahishi>{{Cite web|url=http://puratattva.in/2010/08/04/mahabalipuram-the-workshop-of-pallavas-part-ii-44.html|title=Mahabalipuram – The Workshop of Pallavas – Part II|work=Olakkanneshvara Temple|access-date=23 February 2013|date=4 August 2010|publisher=Puratattva.in|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421061449/http://puratattva.in/2010/08/04/mahabalipuram-the-workshop-of-pallavas-part-ii-44.html|archive-date=21 April 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> Worship was offered in this temple till the nineteenth century.<ref name=Olak/><ref name=Mahishi/>

==Features==
[[File:Mahishamardini Rock Cut Mandapa.jpg|left|thumb|Olakkannesvara Temple]]
The structure is built of grey-white granite.<ref name="Tömöry1982">{{cite book|last=Tömöry|first=Edith|title=A history of fine arts in India and the West|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7RTqAAAAMAAJ|access-date=18 March 2013|date=1 June 1982|publisher=Orient Longman|isbn=9780861313211 }}</ref> The ''[[Sikhara|shikhara]]'' or tower of the temple is interpreted to have been built originally to the same style as the Shore Temple tower in [[Dravidian Architecture|Dravidian Architectural style]] but is now non-existent. A small ''ardha-mandapa'' (half hall) leads into a rectangular shrine. An unusual feature is that of the carving of ''dvarpalas'' (guards) of the main shrine, which are in half-profile though the space available could have used to make a full-face profile as per traditional practice of the front facing style. This is typical of Mahabalipuram Pallava style and a similar profile of ''dvarpalas'' is noted in the [[Trimurti Cave Temple]]. This is interpreted as a transition from the Mahendra style of architecture to the Rajasimha style; the transformation was from a full front facing to three-fourths and then to half profile facing each other. However, the guardians carved on the back wall of the temple are in full frontal profile.<ref name=Olak/><ref name=Mahishi/> The building was formerly lined with brick masonry.<ref name="Morris1881">{{cite book|author=Madras literary society|editor=J.C. Morris|title=The Journal [afterw.] The Madras journal of literature and science|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PfkEAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA120|access-date=18 March 2013|edition=Public domain|year=1881|page=120}}</ref>

On the exterior walls, there are two sculpted images in the niches of the ''ardha-mandapa''. Enclosed within pilasters, these images of Shiva as [[Kalantaka]] killing "Kaala" ([[Yama]]) are later additions, not attributable to the Pallavas. On external walls of the main shrine, there are other niches or ''devkoshtas''; on the south wall the sculpture is of Shiva as [[Dakshinamurti]] under a tree in seated posture, on the west face an image of [[Ravananugraha|Shiva and Parvati seated on Kailash Mountain with Ravana trying to shake the mountain]], and an image on the north wall is of Shiva in the posture of [[Nataraja]]. The sculptures are much ruined, and were plastered and painted over hence the originality is much less visible. There are a large number of lion pilasters on the walls. There are no images of any deity inside the temple.<ref name=Olak/><ref name=Mahishi/>

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram}}

[[Category:Hindu temples in Mahabalipuram]]
[[Category:Indian architectural history]]
[[Category:Historic sites in Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:7th-century establishments in India]]
[[Category:7th-century Hindu temples]]
[[Category:Dravidian architecture]]
[[Category:Pallava architecture]]

Association football

2026-03-28T23:42:03Z

Alimirza: update citations after review and updated info per sources

{{Short description|Team sport played with a ball}}
{{Redirect|Soccer|other uses|Soccer (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{Use British English|date=January 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2024}}
{{Infobox sport
| name = Association football
| image = football iu 1996.jpg
| imagesize = 300px
| caption = The attacking player (No. 10) attempts to score a goal by kicking the ball into the net behind the opposing team's [[Goalkeeper (association football)|goalkeeper]].
| union = [[FIFA]]
| nickname = {{Plainlist|
*[[The beautiful game]]
*The World's Game<ref>{{cite web |title=In a globalised world, the football World Cup is a force for good |url=http://theconversation.com/in-a-globalised-world-the-football-world-cup-is-a-force-for-good-28727 |publisher=[[The Conversation (website)|The Conversation]] |date=10 July 2014|access-date=11 July 2014|archive-date=8 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808121728/http://theconversation.com/in-a-globalised-world-the-football-world-cup-is-a-force-for-good-28727|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=MLS as a Sports Product—The Prominence of the World's Game in the U.S. - Working Paper – Faculty & Research |url=https://www.hbs.edu/faculty/Pages/item.aspx?num=60069 |access-date=29 January 2023 |website=Harvard Business School |archive-date=29 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230129171145/https://www.hbs.edu/faculty/Pages/item.aspx?num=60069 |url-status=live}}</ref>
}}
| first = December, 1863<ref name="HoF">{{cite web |url=https://historiana.eu/partners/european-association-of-history-educators/a-little-history-of-football-the-beginnings|title=The birth of Association Football|publisher=Historiana}}</ref>
| country/region = Worldwide
| registered =
| team = 11 per side: [[Goalkeeper (association football)|Goalkeeper]] [[Defender (association football)|Defenders]] [[Midfielder]]s [[Forward (association football)|Forward]]s
| mgender = No, separate competitions
| category = {{hlist|[[Team sport]]|[[ball game]]}}
| equipment = [[Ball (association football)|Football]] (or soccer ball) [[Football boot]]s [[Shin guard]]s [[Kit (association football)|Kits]] Gloves (for goalkeepers)
| venue = [[Football pitch]] (also known as football field, football ground, soccer field, or soccer pitch)
| glossary = [[Glossary of association football terms|Glossary of association football]]
| olympic = Men's since the [[1900 Summer Olympics|1900 Olympics]] and women's since the [[1996 Summer Olympics|1996 Olympics]]
| paralympic = [[Blind football|5-a-side]] since [[2004 Summer Paralympics|2004]] and [[CP football|7-a-side]] from [[1984 Summer Paralympics|1984]] to [[2016 Summer Paralympics|2016]]
| contact = Yes
}}
'''Association football''', more commonly known as just '''football''' or '''soccer,''' {{efn|For further information, see [[names for association football]].}} is a [[team sport]] played between two teams of 11 [[Football player|players]] who almost exclusively use their feet to propel a [[Ball (association football)|ball]] around a [[Football pitch|pitch]].

The objective of the game is to [[Scoring in association football|score]] more goals than the opposing team by moving the ball beyond the goal line into a rectangular-framed [[Goal (sport)|goal]] defended by the opponent. Traditionally, the game has been played over two 45-minute halves, for a total match time of 90 minutes. With an estimated 250 million players active in over 200 countries and territories, it is the world's most popular sport.

Association football is played in accordance with the [[Laws of the Game (association football)|Laws of the Game]], a set of rules that has been in effect since 1863 and maintained by the [[International Football Association Board]] (IFAB) since 1886. The game is played with a football that is {{convert|68|–|70|cm|in|abbr=on}} in [[circumference]]. When the ball is in play, the players mainly use their feet, but may also use any other part of their body, except for their hands or arms, to control, strike, or pass the ball; the head, chest, and thighs are commonly used. Only the [[Goalkeeper (association football)|goalkeepers]] may use their hands and arms, but only within their own [[penalty area]]. Depending on the format of the competition, an equal number of goals scored may result in a [[Tie (draw)#Association football|draw]] being declared with 1 point awarded to each team, or the game may go into [[Overtime (sports)#Association football|extra time]] or a [[Penalty shoot-out (association football)|penalty shoot-out]].<ref name="laws51-52" />

Internationally, association football is governed by [[FIFA]]. Under FIFA, there are six continental confederations: [[Asian Football Confederation|AFC]], [[Confederation of African Football|CAF]], [[CONCACAF]], [[CONMEBOL]], [[Oceania Football Confederation|OFC]], and [[UEFA]]. National associations (e.g. [[The Football Association|the FA]] in England, [[U.S. Soccer]] in the United States, etc.) are responsible for managing the game in their own countries both professionally and at an amateur level, and coordinating competitions in accordance with the Laws of the Game. The most prestigious senior international competition is the [[FIFA World Cup]]. The men's World Cup is the most-viewed sporting event in the world, surpassing the [[Olympic Games]].<ref>{{cite web |date=5 December 2006 |title=2002 FIFA World Cup TV Coverage |url=https://www.fifa.com/en/marketing/newmedia/index/0,3509,10,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050314003412/http://www.fifa.com/en/marketing/newmedia/index/0%2C3509%2C10%2C00.html |archive-date=14 March 2005 |access-date=6 January 2008 |publisher=FIFA}}</ref> The most prestigious competition in European club football is the [[UEFA Champions League]], which attracts an extensive television audience worldwide. The final of the men's Champions League is the most-watched annual sporting event in the world.<ref>{{cite news |date=31 January 2010 |title=Champions League final tops Super Bowl for TV market |work=BBC Sport |publisher=British Broadcasting Corporation |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/europe/8490351.stm |url-status=live |access-date=25 February 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160112095536/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/europe/8490351.stm |archive-date=12 January 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=1 June 2024|title=Champions League final vs Super Bowl: which is the most watched sporting event? |url=https://en.as.com/soccer/super-bowl-vs-champions-league-final-which-is-the-most-watched-sporting-event-n/ |website=AS.com |access-date=27 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250207050434/https://en.as.com/soccer/super-bowl-vs-champions-league-final-which-is-the-most-watched-sporting-event-n/ |archive-date=7 February 2025 |url-status=live}}</ref>

== Name{{anchor|Etymology|Names}} ==
{{Main|Names for association football}}

Association football is part of a family of [[football]] codes that emerged from various [[ball games]] played worldwide since antiquity. The word "association" in this term refers to [[the Football Association]] (the FA), founded in [[London]] in 1863, which published the first set of rules for the sport that same year.<ref name="BLibrary">{{cite news |title=Football Association 1863 Minute Book |url=https://blogs.bl.uk/socialscience/2013/08/football-association-1863-minute-book.html |access-date=13 April 2025 |publisher=British Library |archive-date=13 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240913154542/https://blogs.bl.uk/socialscience/2013/08/football-association-1863-minute-book.html |url-status=live}}</ref> The term was coined to distinguish the type of football played in accordance with the FA rules from other types that were gaining popularity at the time, particularly [[rugby football]].<ref name="Etym">{{cite web |title=Etymology of "soccer" by etymonline |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/soccer |website=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=13 April 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250406093624/https://www.etymonline.com/word/soccer |archive-date=6 April 2025 |language=en |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:The Sportsman 1910-11-25 Football.png|thumb|Heading from ''[[The Sportsman (1865 newspaper)|The Sportsman]]'' front page of 25 November 1910, illustrating the continued use of the word "football" to encompass both rugby and association football.]]

The term ''soccer'' comes from [[Oxford "-er"]] slang, which was prevalent at the [[University of Oxford]] in England from about 1875, and is thought to have been borrowed from the slang of [[Rugby School]]. Initially spelt ''assoccer'' (a shortening of "association"), it was later reduced to the modern spelling.<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Perrigo |first1=Billy |title=Why Do Americans Call It Soccer Instead of Football? Blame England |url=https://time.com/5335799/soccer-word-origin-england/ |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=11 July 2018 |publisher=Time Magazine |access-date=11 January 2024 |archive-date=11 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240111114755/https://time.com/5335799/soccer-word-origin-england/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Clarke |first=Donald |date=3 July 2021 |title=There is no easier way to annoy a British soccer fan than referring to soccer as 'soccer' |language=en |newspaper=The Irish Times |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/there-is-no-easier-way-to-annoy-a-british-soccer-fan-than-referring-to-soccer-as-soccer-1.4608849 |url-status=live |access-date=30 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221130021358/https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/there-is-no-easier-way-to-annoy-a-british-soccer-fan-than-referring-to-soccer-as-soccer-1.4608849 |archive-date=30 November 2022}}</ref> Early alternative spellings included ''socca'' and ''socker''.<ref name="Etym" /> This form of slang also gave rise to ''rugger'' for rugby football, ''fiver'' and ''tenner'' for [[Five pound note|five pound]] and [[Bank of England £10 note|ten pound notes]], and the now-archaic ''footer'' that was also a name for association football.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What's The Origin of the Word "Soccer"? |url=https://www.lexico.com/explore/whats-the-origin-of-the-word-soccer |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210502083021/https://www.lexico.com/explore/whats-the-origin-of-the-word-soccer |archive-date=2 May 2021 |access-date=22 March 2021 |website=Lexico Dictionaries | English}}</ref>

Within the English-speaking world, association football is now usually called simply "football" in Great Britain and most of [[Ulster]] in the north of Ireland,<ref>{{Cite web |title=The History of Football in England |url=https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/inspire-me/the-history-of-football-in-england/ |access-date=2024-10-22 |website=English Heritage |archive-url=https://archive.today/20250411230501/https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/inspire-me/the-history-of-football-in-england/ |archive-date=11 April 2025 |url-status=live}}</ref> whereas people usually call it "soccer" in regions and countries where other codes of football are prevalent, such as Australia,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Manfred |first1=Tony |date=14 June 2014 |title=The real reason Americans call it 'soccer' is all England's fault |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/why-americans-call-it-soccer-2014-6 |url-access=registration |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427180816/https://www.businessinsider.com.au/why-americans-call-it-soccer-2014-6 |archive-date=27 April 2021 |access-date=27 April 2021 |website=Business Insider Australia}}</ref> Canada, South Africa, most of Ireland (excluding Ulster),<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cunningham |first=John M. |title=Why Do Some People Call Football "Soccer"? |url=https://www.britannica.com/story/why-do-some-people-call-football-soccer |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220131223612/https://www.britannica.com/story/why-do-some-people-call-football-soccer |archive-date=31 January 2022 |access-date=23 December 2021 |website=Britannica |language=en}}</ref> and the United States. A notable exception is New Zealand, where in the first two decades of the 21st century, under the influence of international television, "football" has been gaining prevalence, despite the dominance of other codes of football, namely [[rugby union]] and [[rugby league]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Editorial: Soccer – or should we say football – must change |url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/sport/editorial-soccer-or-should-we-say-football-must-change/3KFDIVF4JRQPOAUG23DW2ARKBU/ |website=New Zealand Herald |access-date=27 April 2021 |date=11 June 2014 |archive-date=27 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427180813/https://www.nzherald.co.nz/sport/editorial-soccer-or-should-we-say-football-must-change/3KFDIVF4JRQPOAUG23DW2ARKBU/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

== History ==
{{Main|History of association football}}

{{For timeline|Timeline of association football}}
Association football in itself does not have a classical history.<ref name="bangkokpost" /> Notwithstanding any similarities to other ball games played around the world, FIFA has described that no historical connection exists with any game played in antiquity outside Europe.<ref name="HoF" /> The [[history of football in England]] dates back to at least the eighth century.<ref>{{cite web |title=History of Football – Britain, the home of Football |url=https://www.fifa.com/classicfootball/history/game/historygame2.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070701210540/http://www.fifa.com/classicfootball/history/game/historygame2.html |archive-date=1 July 2007 |access-date=20 November 2006 |publisher=FIFA}}</ref> The modern rules of association football are based on the mid-19th century efforts to standardise the widely [[English public school football games|varying forms of football]] played in the [[Public school (United Kingdom)|public schools]] of England.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bailey |first=Steven |year=1995 |title=Living Sports History: Football at Winchester, Eton and Harrow |journal=The Sports Historian |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=34–53 |doi=10.1080/17460269508551675}}</ref>

=== Ancient precursors ===
{{multiple image
| direction = horizontal
| total_width = 320
| header =
| image1 = Ancient Greek Football Player.jpg
| caption1 =
| image2 = One Hundred Children in the Long Spring.jpg
| caption2 =
| footer = On the left, an {{Transliteration|el|[[episkyros]]}} player on an ancient [[stone carving]], {{Circa|375–400 BCE}}, exhibited at the [[National Archaeological Museum, Athens]];<ref name="NAMA">Item [http://www.namuseum.gr/collections/sculpture/classical/classic12-en.html (NAMA) 873] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160722061112/http://www.namuseum.gr/collections/sculpture/classical/classic12-en.html |date=22 July 2016}} displayed at the [[National Archaeological Museum, Athens]]</ref> on the right, children playing {{Transliteration|zh|[[cuju]]}} in [[Song dynasty]] China, 12th century
}}

Kicking ball games arose independently multiple times across multiple cultures.{{efn|See [[Football#Early history]] for more information.}} The Chinese competitive game ''{{Transliteration|zh|[[cuju]]}}'' ({{lang|zh|蹴鞠}}, literally "kickball"; also known as ''tsu chu'') resembles modern association football as well as a mix of [[basketball]] and [[volleyball]].<ref name="www.fifamuseum.com">{{Cite web |title=Origins of Cuju in China |url=https://www.fifamuseum.com/en/blog-stories/editorial/origins-cuju-in-china/ |website=www.fifamuseum.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230113165551/https://www.fifamuseum.com/en/blog-stories/editorial/origins-cuju-in-china/ |archive-date=13 January 2023 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Sports |url=https://www.britannica.com/sports/sports|access-date=20 April 2021 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en|archive-date=17 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417001059/https://www.britannica.com/sports/sports|url-status=live}}</ref> This is the earliest form of a kicking game for which there is historical evidence. The game was first recorded as in exercise in the [[Zhan Guo Ce]], a military history from the [[Han dynasty]].<ref name="fifa.com" /> ''{{Transliteration|zh|Cuju}}'' players would pass the ball around, having to avoid it touching the ground at any point. It was then passed to a designated player, who attempted to kick it through the ''fengliu yan'', a circular goal atop 10–11 meter poles.<ref name="www.fifamuseum.com"/> During the [[Han dynasty]] (206 BCE – 220 CE), ''{{Transliteration|zh|cuju}}'' games were standardised and rules were established.<ref name="abd">{{cite book |last=Murray |first=Scott |title=Football For Dummies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7DPCNO4qIz4C&pg=PT33 |year=2010 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-66440-7 |pages=33–|access-date=20 April 2021|archive-date=20 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420121408/https://books.google.com/books?id=7DPCNO4qIz4C&pg=PT33|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Silk Road]] facilitated the transmission of ''cuju'' outside of China, especially the form of the game popular in the [[Tang dynasty]], the period when the [[inflatable]] ball was invented and replaced the stuffed ball.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Lin |title=Chinese Ju and World Football |journal=Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research |date=2018 |volume=120 |pages=276–281}}</ref> Other East Asian games include ''{{Transliteration|ja|hepburn|[[kemari]]}}'' in Japan and ''{{Transliteration|ko|chuk-guk}}'' in Korea, both influenced by ''cuju''.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fifa.com/about-fifa/who-we-are/the-game/index.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150803040639/http://www.fifa.com/about-fifa/who-we-are/the-game/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=3 August 2015 |title=History of Football – The Origins |publisher=FIFA |access-date=15 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Chadwick |editor1-first=Simon |editor2-last=Hamil |editor2-first=Sean |title=Managing Football: An International Perspective |publisher=Routledge |year=2010 |location=London |page=458 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aTYtBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA458 |isbn=978-1-136-43763-2 |access-date=30 May 2018 |archive-date=20 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181120044852/https://books.google.com/books?id=aTYtBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA458 |url-status=live}}</ref> ''{{Transliteration|ja|hepburn|Kemari}}'' originated after the year 600 during the [[Asuka period]]. It was a ceremonial rather than a competitive game, and involved the kicking of a ''mari'', a ball made of animal skin.<ref name="histbleacher">{{cite web |title=History of Football, Part 2: The Aztec and The Oriental Version of the Game |url=https://bleacherreport.com/articles/117189-history-of-football-part-2-the-aztec-and-the-oriental-version-of-the-game |date=29 January 2009 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230219230403/https://bleacherreport.com/articles/117189-history-of-football-part-2-the-aztec-and-the-oriental-version-of-the-game |archive-date=19 February 2023 |work=[[Bleacher Report]] |last= |first=}}</ref> In North America, {{lang|alg|[[pasuckuakohowog]]}} was a ball game played by the [[Algonquians]]; it was described as "almost identical to the kind of folk football being played in Europe at the same time, in which the ball was kicked through goals".<ref name="roberts">{{Cite book |first=Mike |last=Roberts |title=The same old game: the true story of the ancient origins of football |isbn=978-1-4610-9319-0 |location=Barcelona |publisher=RobertsBCN Publications |chapter=Little Brothers of War Ball games in Pre-Colombian North America |date=13 April 2011 |oclc=1022073321 }}</ref>

''{{Transliteration|el|Phaininda}}'' and ''{{Transliteration|el|[[episkyros]]}}'' were [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] ball games.<ref name="fifa.com">{{cite web |url=https://www.fifa.com/classicfootball/history/the-game/origins.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121225025856/http://www.fifa.com/classicfootball/history/the-game/origins.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=25 December 2012 |title=Classic Football History of the Game |publisher=FIFA |access-date=17 September 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=A gripping Greek derby |url=https://www.fifa.com/news/gripping-greek-derby-2026693-x1038 |date=8 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201102061040/https://www.fifa.com/news/gripping-greek-derby-2026693-x1038|url-status=dead|archive-date=2 November 2020|access-date=30 October 2020 |website=FIFA}}</ref> An image of an ''{{Transliteration|el|episkyros}}'' player depicted in low [[relief]] on a [[stele]] of {{Circa|375–400 BCE}} in the [[National Archaeological Museum of Athens]]<ref name="NAMA" /> appears on the [[UEFA European Championship]] trophy.<ref name="bangkokpost">{{cite news |url=http://www.bangkokpost.com/print/413747/ |title=Fury as FIFA finds a field of dreams in China |date=5 June 2014 |newspaper=Bangkok Post|access-date=19 June 2014|archive-date=18 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230318182156/https://www.bangkokpost.com/ajax/_getLikeUnlike.php|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Athenaeus]], writing in 228 CE, mentions the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] ball game ''{{lang|la|[[harpastum]]}}''. ''{{Transliteration|el|Phaininda, episkyros}}'' and ''{{lang|la|harpastum}}'' were played involving hands and violence. They all appear to have resembled [[rugby football]], [[wrestling]], and volleyball more than what is recognisable as modern football.<ref name="abd" /><ref>Nigel Wilson, ''Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece'', Routledge, 2005, p. 310</ref><ref>Nigel M. Kennell, ''The Gymnasium of Virtue: Education and Culture in Ancient Sparta (Studies in the History of Greece and Rome)'', The University of North Carolina Press, 1995, on [https://books.google.com/books?id=u_eAP7wN5XUC&q=episkuros+rugby&pg=PA61 Google Books] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161205233056/https://books.google.com/books?id=u_eAP7wN5XUC&pg=PA61&cd=16#v=onepage&q=episkuros%20rugby |date=5 December 2016}}</ref><ref>Steve Craig, ''Sports and Games of the Ancients: (Sports and Games Through History)'', Greenwood, 2002, on [https://books.google.com/books?id=KKlSSRq-P2QC&q=phaininda+rugby&pg=PA104 Google Books] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161206085821/https://books.google.com/books?id=KKlSSRq-P2QC&pg=PA104&cd=2#v=onepage&q=phaininda%20rugby |date=6 December 2016}}</ref><ref>Don Nardo, ''Greek and Roman Sport'', Greenhaven Press, 1999, p. 83</ref><ref>Sally E. D. Wilkins, ''Sports and games of medieval cultures'', Greenwood, 2002, on [https://books.google.com/books?id=IyFHvy-SCIYC&q=episkuros+rugby&pg=PA214 Google books] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161206054412/https://books.google.com/books?id=IyFHvy-SCIYC&pg=PA214&cd=2#v=onepage&q=episkuros%20rugby |date=6 December 2016}}</ref>

=== Medieval precursors ===
[[File:Giovanni-Stradano-Gioco-del-calcio-in-piazza-Santa-Maria-Novella-1561-62-1024x721.jpg|thumb|''Calcio'' match in [[Piazza Santa Maria Novella]], in Florence, Italy. Painting by [[Stradanus|Jan Van der Straet]].]]
In the [[Middle Ages]], one notable game with similarities to modern football was ''[[calcio storico fiorentino]]'', which originated in [[Florence]], Italy.<ref name="HistFA">{{cite web|title=Calcio e historia del Fútbol|url=http://expertfootball.com/es/historia_calcio.php|publisher=ExpertFootball.com|language=es|access-date=7 March 2025|archive-date=29 June 2012|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120629074228/http://expertfootball.com/es/historia_calcio.php|url-status=dead}}</ref> Another medieval sport that can be considered a form of early football is ''[[la soule]]'' (or ''choule''), played in France from the 12th century,<ref>[[Jean Jules Jusserand|Jusserand, Jean-Jules]]. (1901). ''Le sport et les jeux d'exercice dans l'ancienne France.'' Retrieved 11 January 2008, from http://agora.qc.ca/reftext.nsf/Documents/Football--Le_sport_et_les_jeux_dexercice_dans_lancienne_France__La_soule_par_Jean-Jules_Jusserand {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080207055012/http://agora.qc.ca/reftext.nsf/Documents/Football--Le_sport_et_les_jeux_dexercice_dans_lancienne_France__La_soule_par_Jean-Jules_Jusserand |date=7 February 2008}} {{in lang|fr}}</ref> in which the ball was propelled by hands, feet, and sticks.<ref>{{cite book | last=Ruff | first=Julius | title=Violence in Early Modern Europe 1500–1800 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2001 | page=[https://archive.org/details/violenceinearlym0000ruff/page/170 170] | isbn=978-0-521-59894-1 | url=https://archive.org/details/violenceinearlym0000ruff/page/170}}</ref> As with pre-codified [[Medieval football|mob football]], the antecedent of all [[Football|modern football codes]], these medieval games involved more handling of the ball than kicking it.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rugbyfootballhistory.com/originsofrugby.htm |title=Rugby Football History |publisher=Rugby Football History |access-date=19 June 2014 |archive-date=25 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525155221/http://www.rugbyfootballhistory.com/originsofrugby.htm |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="HoF" />

=== Modern era ===
{{Further|English public school football games}}[[File:Original laws of the game 1863.jpg|right|thumb|An early draft of the original hand-written "Laws of the Game", drawn up on behalf of the Football Association by [[Ebenezer Cobb Morley]] in 1863, on display at the [[National Football Museum]] in [[Manchester]].]]The [[Cambridge rules]], first drawn up at the [[University of Cambridge]] in 1848, were particularly influential in the development of subsequent codes, including association football. The Cambridge rules were written at [[Trinity College, Cambridge]], at a meeting attended by representatives from [[Eton College|Eton]], [[Harrow School|Harrow]], [[Rugby School|Rugby]], [[Winchester College|Winchester]] and [[Shrewsbury School|Shrewsbury]] schools. They were not universally adopted. During the 1850s, many clubs unconnected to schools or universities were formed throughout the English-speaking world to play various forms of football. Some came up with their own distinct codes of rules, most notably the [[Sheffield Football Club]], formed by former public school pupils in 1857,<ref>{{cite book |last=Harvey |first=Adrian |title=Football, the first hundred years |publisher=Routledge |page=126 |year=2005 |location=London |isbn=978-0-415-35018-1}}</ref> which led to the formation of a [[Sheffield FA]] in 1867. In 1862, [[John Charles Thring]] of [[Uppingham School]] also devised an influential set of rules.<ref>{{cite news |first=David |last=Winner |date=28 March 2005 |title=The hands-off approach to a man's game |newspaper=The Times |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,27-1544006,00.html |access-date=7 October 2007 |location=London |archive-date=23 January 2014 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140123053942/http://web.archive.org/web/20100605085610/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/sport/football/article438583.ece |url-status=dead}}</ref>

These ongoing efforts contributed to the formation of [[the Football Association]] (the FA) in 1863, which first met on the morning of 26 October 1863 at the [[Freemasons' Tavern]] in [[Great Queen Street]], London.<ref name="FAhistory">{{cite web |title=History of the FA |publisher=The Football Association |url=http://www.thefa.com/about-football-association/history |access-date=9 October 2007 |archive-date=25 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130125012322/http://www.thefa.com/about-football-association/history |url-status=live}}</ref> The only school to be represented on this occasion was [[Charterhouse School|Charterhouse]]. The Freemasons' Tavern was the setting for five more meetings of the FA between October and December 1863; the English FA eventually issued the first comprehensive set of rules named [[Laws of the Game (association football)|Laws of the Game]], forming modern football.<ref name="BLibrary" /> The laws included bans on running with the ball in hand and [[Hacking (rugby)|hacking]] (kicking an opponent in the shins), tripping and holding.<ref name="nov_24">{{cite news |title=The Football Association |work=Bell's Life in London |date=28 November 1863 |page=6 |url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Football_Association_(Bells_Life_in_London)_1863-11-28.png |access-date=18 September 2023 |archive-date=20 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230920175802/https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Football_Association_(Bells_Life_in_London)_1863-11-28.png |url-status=live}}</ref> Eleven clubs, under the charge of FA secretary [[Ebenezer Cobb Morley]], ratified the original thirteen laws of the game.<ref name="FAhistory" /> The sticking point was hacking, which a twelfth club at the meeting, [[Blackheath FC]], had wanted to keep, resulting in their withdrawal from the FA.<ref name="FAhistory" /> Other [[History of rugby union|English rugby clubs followed this lead]] and did not join the FA, and instead in 1871, along with Blackheath, formed the [[Rugby Football Union]]. The 1863 FA rules included handling of the ball by "[[Mark (Australian rules football)#Origins of the mark|marks]]" and the lack of a crossbar, making the game remarkably similar to [[Victorian rules football]], which was being developed around the same time in Australia. The Sheffield FA played by its own rules until the 1870s, with the FA absorbing some of its rules until there was little difference between the games.<ref name="Merger">{{cite book |last=Young |first=Percy M. |year=1964 |title=Football in Sheffield |pages=28–29 |publisher=S. Paul}}</ref>

[[File:AstonVilla1896-97.jpg|thumb|The [[Aston Villa F.C.|Aston Villa]] team in 1897, after winning both the [[FA Cup]] and the [[English Football League]]]]
The world's oldest football competition is the [[FA Cup]], which was founded by the footballer and cricketer [[Charles W. Alcock]], and has been contested by English teams since 1872. The [[1872 Scotland v England football match|first official international football match]] also took place in 1872, between Scotland and England in [[Glasgow]], again at the instigation of Alcock. England is also home to the world's first [[The Football League|football league]], which was founded in [[Birmingham]] in 1888 by [[Aston Villa F.C.|Aston Villa]] director [[William McGregor (football)|William McGregor]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The History of the Football League |publisher=The Football League |url=http://www.football-league.co.uk/page/History/HistoryDetail/0,,10794~1357277,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501121005/http://www.football-league.co.uk/page/History/HistoryDetail/0%2C%2C10794~1357277%2C00.html |archive-date=1 May 2011 |date=22 September 2010 |access-date=4 March 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The original format contained 12 clubs from the [[Midlands]] and [[Northern England]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Parrish |first1=Charles |last2=Nauright |first2=John |title=Soccer around the World: A Cultural Guide to the World's Favorite Sport |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2014 |location=Santa Barbara, CA |page=78 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N6qSAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA78 |isbn=978-1-61069-302-8 |access-date=8 December 2018 |archive-date=26 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191026170504/https://books.google.com/books?id=N6qSAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA78 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The Laws of the Game are determined by the [[International Football Association Board]] (IFAB).<ref>{{cite web |title=IFAB |url=https://www.fifa.com/aboutfifa/organisation/ifab/aboutifab.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111008092538/http://www.fifa.com/aboutfifa/organisation/ifab/aboutifab.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=8 October 2011 |publisher=FIFA |access-date=10 December 2011}}</ref> The board was formed in 1886<ref>{{cite web |title=The International FA Board |publisher=FIFA |url=http://access.fifa.com/en/history/history/0,3504,3,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070422035010/http://access.fifa.com/en/history/history/0%2C3504%2C3%2C00.html |archive-date=22 April 2007 |access-date=2 September 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref> after a meeting in [[Manchester]] of the Football Association, the [[Scottish Football Association]], the [[Football Association of Wales]], and the [[Irish Football Association]]. [[FIFA]], the international football body, was formed in Paris in 1904 and declared that they would adhere to the Laws of the Game of the Football Association.<ref name=Wherebegan /> The growing popularity of the international game led to the admittance of FIFA representatives to the IFAB in 1913. The board consists of four representatives from FIFA and one representative from each of the four British associations.<ref name="FIFA">{{Cite web |title=The IFAB: How it works |url=https://www.fifa.com/who-we-are/news/the-ifab-how-works-1177401 |date=4 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129205955/https://www.fifa.com/who-we-are/news/the-ifab-how-works-1177401|url-status=dead|archive-date=29 January 2021|access-date=30 October 2020 |website=FIFA}}</ref>

=== Contemporary era ===
For most of the 20th century, [[Football in Europe|Europe]] and [[Football in South America|South America]] were the dominant regions in association football. The [[FIFA World Cup]], inaugurated in [[1930 FIFA World Cup|1930]], became the main stage for players of both continents to show their worth and the strength of their national teams.<ref name="Townsend-2015">{{Cite web |last=Townsend |first=Jon |date=30 May 2015 |title=The continental kings of Europe and South America |url=https://thesefootballtimes.co/2015/05/30/the-continental-kings-europe-and-south-america/ |access-date=24 February 2023 |website=These Football Times |language=en |archive-date=6 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221006231607/https://thesefootballtimes.co/2015/05/30/the-continental-kings-europe-and-south-america/ |url-status=live}}</ref> In the second half of the century, the [[European Cup]] and the [[Copa Libertadores]] were created, and the champions of these two club competitions would contest the [[Intercontinental Cup (1960–2004)|Intercontinental Cup]] to prove which team was the best in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FIFA Council approves key organisational elements of the FIFA World Cup |url=https://www.fifa.com/about-fifa/organisation/fifa-council/media-releases/fifa-council-approves-key-organisational-elements-of-the-fifa-world-cu-2917722 |access-date=25 February 2023 |website=FIFA |date=27 October 2017 |language=en |archive-date=24 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221224023446/https://www.fifa.com/about-fifa/organisation/fifa-council/media-releases/fifa-council-approves-key-organisational-elements-of-the-fifa-world-cu-2917722 |url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:Götze kicks the match winning goal.jpg|thumb|Game-winning German goal in [[2014 FIFA World Cup final]]]]
In the 21st century, South America has continued to produce some of the best footballers in the world,<ref name="Sarkar-2022">{{Cite web |date=8 December 2022 |title=Why Europe and South America dominate World Cup |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/sports/football/why-europe-and-south-america-dominate-world-cup-101670523150549.html |first1=Dhiman |last1=Sarkar |access-date=24 February 2023 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en |archive-date=28 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221228152150/https://www.hindustantimes.com/sports/football/why-europe-and-south-america-dominate-world-cup-101670523150549.html |url-status=live}}</ref> but its clubs have fallen behind the still dominant European clubs, which often sign the best players from [[Latin America]] and elsewhere.<ref name="Townsend-2015" /><ref name="Sarkar-2022" /> Meanwhile, football has improved in [[Football in Africa|Africa]], [[Football in Asia|Asia]] and [[Sports in North America#Association football (soccer)|North America]],<ref name="Sarkar-2022" /> and nowadays, these regions are at least on equal grounds with South America in club football.<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 February 2023 |title=The reasons why South American teams are now struggling at the Club World Cup |url=https://www.marca.com/en/football/2023/02/10/63e637ceca4741f4498b4573.html |first1=Alberto |last1=Rubio |last2=Sam |access-date=25 February 2023 |website=MARCA |language=en |archive-date=12 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230212064824/https://www.marca.com/en/football/2023/02/10/63e637ceca4741f4498b4573.html |url-status=live}}</ref> When it comes to national teams, countries in the [[Sport in the Caribbean|Caribbean]] and [[Sport in Oceania#Association football|Oceania]] regions (excluding [[Soccer in Australia|Australia]]) have yet to make a mark in international football,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Robinson |first=Mark |date=31 August 2018 |title=Can Caribbean football make an impact at international level? |url=https://www.caribbean-beat.com/can-caribbean-football-make-an-impact-at-international-level |access-date=25 February 2023 |website=Caribbean Beat Magazine |language=en |archive-date=1 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211201034806/https://www.caribbean-beat.com/can-caribbean-football-make-an-impact-at-international-level |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=16 August 2003 |title=How Oceania fell off the FIFA map |url=https://www.smh.com.au/sport/soccer/how-oceania-fell-off-the-fifa-map-20030816-gdh9bx.html |access-date=25 February 2023 |website=The Sydney Morning Herald |language=en |archive-date=25 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230225032213/https://www.smh.com.au/sport/soccer/how-oceania-fell-off-the-fifa-map-20030816-gdh9bx.html |url-status=live}}</ref> while Europeans and South Americans continue to dominate the men's FIFA World Cup, as no team from any other region has managed to even reach the final.<ref name="Townsend-2015" /><ref name="Sarkar-2022"/>

Football is played at a professional level all over the world. Millions of people regularly go to football stadiums to follow their favourite teams,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/football/2003/oct/09/theknowledge.sport |title=Baseball or Football: which sport gets the higher attendance? |last1=Ingle |first1=Sean |last2=Glendenning |first2=Barry |date=9 October 2003 |location=UK |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=5 June 2006 |archive-date=11 April 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080411002757/http://football.guardian.co.uk/news/theknowledge/0,9204,1059366,00.html |url-status=live}}</ref> while billions more watch the game on television or on the internet.<ref name="billions">{{cite web |title=TV Data |publisher=FIFA |url=https://www.fifa.com/aboutfifa/marketingtv/factsfigures/tvdata.html |access-date=2 September 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070922225713/http://fifa.com/aboutfifa/marketingtv/factsfigures/tvdata.html |archive-date=22 September 2007}}</ref><ref name="billions2">{{cite web |title=2014 FIFA World Cup reached 3.2 billion viewers, one billion watched final |publisher=FIFA |url=https://www.fifa.com/worldcup/news/y=2015/m=12/news=2014-fifa-world-cuptm-reached-3-2-billion-viewers-one-billion-watched--2745519.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151219010501/http://www.fifa.com/worldcup/news/y=2015/m=12/news=2014-fifa-world-cuptm-reached-3-2-billion-viewers-one-billion-watched--2745519.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=19 December 2015 |access-date=17 March 2017 |date=16 December 2015}}</ref> A very large number of people also play football at an amateur level. According to a survey conducted by FIFA published in 2001, over 240 million people from more than 200 countries regularly play football.<ref>{{cite web |title=FIFA Survey: approximately 250 million footballers worldwide |publisher=FIFA |url=http://access.fifa.com/infoplus/IP-199_01E_big-count.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060915133001/http://access.fifa.com/infoplus/IP-199_01E_big-count.pdf |archive-date=15 September 2006 |url-status=dead |access-date=15 September 2006}}</ref> Football has the highest global television audience in sport.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fifa.com/aboutfifa/organisation/marketing/news/newsid=111247/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111225008/http://www.fifa.com/aboutfifa/organisation/marketing/news/newsid=111247/|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 January 2012 |title=2006 FIFA World Cup broadcast wider, longer and farther than ever before |publisher=FIFA |date=6 February 2007|access-date=11 October 2009}}</ref>

In many parts of the world, football evokes great passions and plays an important role in the life of individual [[Fan (aficionado)|fans]], local communities, and even nations. [[Ryszard Kapuściński]] says that Europeans who are polite, modest, or humble fall easily into rage when playing or watching football games.<ref name="soccer war">{{cite book |title=The Soccer War |last=Kapuscinski |first=Ryszard |year=2007}}</ref> The [[Ivory Coast national football team]] helped secure a truce to the nation's [[First Ivorian Civil War|civil war]] in 2006<ref>{{cite web |title=More than a game |work=Common Ground News Service |url=http://www.commongroundnews.org/article.php?sid=1&id=2079 |last=Stormer |first=Neil |date=20 June 2006 |access-date=2 March 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100626030739/http://www.commongroundnews.org/article.php?sid=1&id=2079 |archive-date=26 June 2010}}</ref> and it helped further reduce tensions between government and rebel forces in 2007 by playing a match in the rebel capital of [[Bouaké]], an occasion that brought both armies together peacefully for the first time.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Best Feet Forward |magazine=Vanity Fair |url=http://www.vanityfair.com/culture/features/2007/07/ivorycoast200707 |first=Merrill |last=Austin |date=10 July 2007 |access-date=2 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100228162619/http://www.vanityfair.com/culture/features/2007/07/ivorycoast200707 |archive-date=28 February 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> By contrast, football is widely considered to have been the final proximate cause for the [[Football War]] in June 1969 between [[El Salvador]] and [[Honduras]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Has football ever started a war? |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/football/2007/feb/21/theknowledge.sport |last1=Dart |first1=James |last2=Bandini |first2=Paolo |date=21 February 2007 |access-date=24 September 2007 |location=London |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071029181328/http://football.guardian.co.uk/theknowledge/story/0%2C%2C2017161%2C00.html |archive-date=29 October 2007 |url-status=live}}</ref> The sport also exacerbated tensions at the beginning of the [[Croatian War of Independence]] of the 1990s, when a match between [[Dinamo Zagreb]] and [[Red Star Belgrade]] degenerated into [[Dinamo–Red Star riot|rioting]] in May 1990.<ref>{{cite news |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |title=The Soccer Wars |last=Drezner |first=Daniel |author-link=Daniel W. Drezner |date=4 June 2006 |page=B01 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/06/02/AR2006060201401.html |access-date=21 May 2008 |archive-date=3 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181003150914/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/06/02/AR2006060201401.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

The popularity of association football has been connected to [[identity fusion]] with replacement [[fandom]] [[collective identity|collective identities]].<ref name="w050">{{cite journal | last1=Bortolini | first1=Tiago | last2=Newson | first2=Martha | last3=Natividade | first3=Jean Carlos | last4=Vázquez | first4=Alexandra | last5=Gómez | first5=Ángel | title=Identity fusion predicts endorsement of pro‐group behaviours targeting nationality, religion, or football in Brazilian samples | journal=British Journal of Social Psychology | volume=57 | issue=2 | date=2018 | issn=0144-6665 | doi=10.1111/bjso.12235 | pages=346–366 | url=https://bpspsychub.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bjso.12235 | access-date=2026-03-22| url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Women's association football ===
{{Main|Women's association football}}

Women's association football has historically seen opposition, with national associations severely curbing its development and several [[Bans of women's association football|outlawing it]] completely.<ref name="Drum19">{{cite web |title=The Offside Museum highlights when women were banned from playing soccer |url=https://www.thedrum.com/news/2019/05/30/the-offside-museum-highlights-when-women-were-banned-playing-soccer |website=The Drum |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190609032144/https://www.thedrum.com/news/2019/05/30/the-offside-museum-highlights-when-women-were-banned-playing-soccer |archive-date=9 June 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> Nevertheless, women have been playing football and similar games for as long as such games have existed. Frescoes from the [[Han dynasty#Eastern Han|Han dynasty]] (25–220 CE) depict female figures playing the ancient Chinese game ''[[cuju]]''.<ref name="globalgame">{{cite web |title=Genesis of 'The Global Game' |url=http://www.theglobalgame.com/aboutus.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060521234151/http://www.theglobalgame.com/aboutus.html |archive-date=21 May 2006 |access-date=22 May 2006 |work=The Global Game}}</ref><ref name="footballnetwork">{{cite web |title=The Chinese and Tsu Chu |work=The Football Network |url=http://www.footballnetwork.org/dev/historyoffootball/history1.asp |access-date=1 May 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121106061612/http://www.footballnetwork.org/dev/historyoffootball/history1.asp |archive-date=6 November 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> There are also reports of annual football matches played by women in [[Midlothian (historic)|Midlothian]], Scotland, during the 1790s.<ref name="SFA">{{cite web |title=A Brief History of Women's Football |url=http://www.scottishfa.co.uk/scottish_football.cfm?curpageid=409 |publisher=Scottish Football Association|access-date=18 November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050308172042/http://www.scottishfa.co.uk/scottish_football.cfm?curpageid=409|archive-date=8 March 2005}}</ref><ref name="Herald">{{cite web |url=http://www.heraldscotland.com/news/12080678.display/ |title=A game of two sexes |work=The Herald |location=Glasgow |date=8 February 1997|access-date=18 June 2017|archive-date=7 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107012935/http://www.heraldscotland.com/news/12080678.display/|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Origins and restrictions ====
[[File:British Ladies Football Club.jpg|thumb|North team of the [[British Ladies' Football Club|British Ladies']], the first organised women's football team, here pictured in March 1895]]
There is documented evidence of women's early involvement in association football.<ref name="Herald" /><ref name="FA" /> Informal matches between Scotland and England are reported to have taken place in 1881, but are not officially recognised by the respective football associations.<ref>{{cite web |title=Plaque to the First Women Football Internationalists 1881 |url=http://womenofscotland.org.uk/memorials/plaque-first-women-football-internationalists-1881 |website=Women of Scotland |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927081323/http://womenofscotland.org.uk/memorials/plaque-first-women-football-internationalists-1881 |archive-date=27 September 2020 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Donmouth1881">{{cite web |author1=Patrick Brennan |title=England v Scotland - 1881 |url=http://www.donmouth.co.uk/womens_football/1881.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220306005235/http://www.donmouth.co.uk/womens_football/1881.html |archive-date=6 March 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> The first women's match recorded by the [[Scottish Football Association]] took place in 1892 in [[Glasgow]].<ref name="SFA" /> In England, the first recorded game of football between women took place in 1895.<ref name="FA">{{cite web |url=http://www.thefa.com/Womens/EnglandSenior/History/ |title=Women's Football History |publisher=The Football Association|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325030003/http://www.thefa.com/Womens/EnglandSenior/History/|archive-date=25 March 2009}}</ref>

The best-documented early European team was founded by activist [[Nettie Honeyball]] in England in 1894: the [[British Ladies' Football Club]]. Honeyball considered women's involvement in football as part of the [[Women's rights|emancipation]] movement.<ref name="Nettie Honeyball">{{cite web |last=Ladda |first=Shawn |title=Women's involvement with soccer was part of the emancipation process. |url=http://www.soccertimes.com/oped/1999/jul20.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061116204454/http://www.soccertimes.com/oped/1999/jul20.htm |archive-date=16 November 2006 |access-date=4 May 2006 |work=SoccerTimes}}</ref> She and others like her paved the way for women's football.<ref>{{cite news |date=2013-09-25 |title=The Honeyballers: Women who fought to play football |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-highlands-islands-24176354 |access-date=2021-12-05 |archive-date=4 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211204130733/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-highlands-islands-24176354 |url-status=live}}</ref> However, the women's game was frowned upon by the British football associations and continued without their support. It has been suggested that this was motivated by a perceived threat to the "masculinity" of the game.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mårtensson |first=Stefan |title=Branding women's football in a field of hegemonic masculinity |journal=Entertainment and Sports Law Journal |date=June 2010 |volume=8 |issue=1 |page=5 |doi=10.16997/eslj.44|doi-access=free| issn=1748-944X}}</ref>

Women's football became popular on a large scale at the time of the [[First World War]], when female employment in heavy industry spurred the growth of the game, much as it had done for men decades earlier.<ref name="SFA" /> The most successful team of the era was [[Dick, Kerr Ladies F.C.]] of [[Preston, Lancashire|Preston, England]]. They played in one of the first women's international matches against a French XI team in 1920,<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Dick, Kerr Ladies' FC |url=http://www.donmouth.co.uk/womens_football/dick_kerr.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220521192224/http://www.donmouth.co.uk/womens_football/dick_kerr.html |archive-date=21 May 2022 |access-date=16 February 2023 |website=Donmouth}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC Radio 4 – Home Front – The Forgotten First International Women's Football Match |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/articles/5nsXCQcNm7wggTxvS0y1BnF/the-forgotten-first-international-women-s-football-match |access-date=16 February 2023 |website=BBC |language=en |archive-date=12 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220812061017/https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/articles/5nsXCQcNm7wggTxvS0y1BnF/the-forgotten-first-international-women-s-football-match |url-status=live}}</ref> and also made up most of the England team against a [[Women's football in Scotland|Scottish Ladies]] XI in the same year, winning 22–0.<ref name="SFA" /> In the early 20th century, women's football in the United Kingdom was mostly associated with charity matches.<ref name="SFA" /><ref name="BBC-Gregory">{{cite news |last=Gregory |first=Patricia |date=3 June 2005 |title=How women's football battled for survival |work=BBC Sport |publisher= |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/women/4607171.stm |url-status=live |access-date=19 February 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171202110455/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/women/4607171.stm |archive-date=2 December 2017}}</ref>

Despite being more popular than some men's football events, with one match seeing a 53,000 strong crowd in 1920,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Leighton |first1=Tony |title=FA apologies for 1921 ban |url=https://www.theguardian.com/football/2008/feb/11/newsstory.womensfootball |newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=6 August 2014 |date=10 February 2008|archive-date=10 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140810174231/http://www.theguardian.com/football/2008/feb/11/newsstory.womensfootball|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="BBC-Alexander">{{cite news |last=Alexander |first=Shelley |date=3 June 2005 |title=Trail-blazers who pioneered women's football |work=BBC Sport |publisher= |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/women/4603149.stm |url-status=live |access-date=19 February 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171202114818/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/women/4603149.stm |archive-date=2 December 2017}}</ref> [[women's football in England]] suffered a blow in 1921 when [[the Football Association]] outlawed the playing of the game on association members' pitches,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Witzig |first1=Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H2T0ZD5S86QC&pg=PA65 |title=The Global Art of Soccer |publisher=CusiBoy Publishing |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-9776688-0-9 |page=65 |access-date=6 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210601233310/https://books.google.com/books?id=H2T0ZD5S86QC&q=1921+fa+ban&pg=PA65 |archive-date=1 June 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> stating that "the game of football is quite unsuitable for females and should not be encouraged".<ref name="BBC-Wrack">{{Cite news |last=Wrack |first=Suzanne |date=13 June 2022 |title=How the FA banned women's football in 1921 and tried to justify it |language=en |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/football/2022/jun/13/how-the-fa-banned-womens-football-in-1921-and-tried-to-justify-it |access-date=16 February 2023 |issn=0261-3077 |archive-date=14 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230214145355/https://www.theguardian.com/football/2022/jun/13/how-the-fa-banned-womens-football-in-1921-and-tried-to-justify-it |url-status=live}}</ref> Players and football writers have argued that this ban was, in fact, due to envy of the large crowds that women's matches attracted,<ref name="BBC-Alexander" /> and because the FA had no control over the money made from the women's game.<ref name="BBC-Wrack" /> The FA ban led to the formation of the short-lived [[English Ladies Football Association]] and play moved to [[rugby football|rugby]] grounds.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Newsham |first1=Gail |title=In a League of Their Own. The Dick, Kerr Ladies 1917–1965 |year=2014 |publisher=Paragon Publishing}}</ref> Women's football also faced bans in several other countries, notably in [[Women's football in Brazil|Brazil]] from 1941 to 1979,<ref>{{Cite news |date=28 February 2018 |title=Women footballers: Born with talent, held back by prejudice |language=en |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-43198651 |access-date=16 February 2023 |archive-date=7 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221107174048/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-43198651 |url-status=live}}</ref> in [[Women's football in France|France]] from 1941 to 1970,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lasserre |first=Victoria |date=7 July 2022 |title=5 dates clefs sur l'histoire du football féminin |url=https://www.cosmopolitan.fr/histoire-du-football-feminin,2057854.asp |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220926162514/https://www.cosmopolitan.fr/histoire-du-football-feminin,2057854.asp |archive-date=26 September 2022 |access-date=16 February 2023 |website=Cosmopolitan.fr |language=fr}}</ref> and in [[Women's football in Germany|West Germany]] from 1955 to 1970.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wünsch |first=Silke |date=20 June 2011 |title=Female footballers |url=https://www.dw.com/en/the-elusive-popularity-of-womens-football/a-15172167 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220724105057/https://www.dw.com/en/the-elusive-popularity-of-womens-football/a-15172167 |archive-date=24 July 2022 |access-date=16 February 2023 |publisher=[[Deutsche Welle]] |language=en}}</ref>

==== Revival and ongoing growth ====
[[File:Tytöt-04 Piteåssa.JPG|thumb|right|A young Finnish girls' football team in Sweden]]
In spite of the resistance from governing bodies, British women continued to play football.<ref name="BBC-Gregory" /><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.heraldscotland.com/sport/football/no-longer-the-game-of-two-halves.19185657 |title=No longer the game of two-halves |work=The Herald |publisher=Herald & Times Group |date=19 October 2012 |access-date=9 March 2014 |first=Alan |last=Campbell |archive-date=29 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140329014321/http://www.heraldscotland.com/sport/football/no-longer-the-game-of-two-halves.19185657 |url-status=live}}</ref> Restrictions against female participation in the sport began to be reduced in the late 1960s and the 1970s. The [[Serie A (women's football)|Italian women's football league]] was established in 1968.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nssmag.com/en/sports/16658/calcio-femminile-italia |title=The reinassance of women's football in Italy |first=Giulio |last=Pecci |work=NSS Magazine |date=5 November 2018 | access-date=22 October 2023 | archive-date=12 December 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231212062410/https://www.nssmag.com/en/sports/16658/calcio-femminile-italia | url-status=live}}</ref> In December 1969, the [[Women's Football Association]] was formed in England,<ref name="BBC-Gregory" /><ref name="Hist">{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=History of women's football |url=http://www.thefa.com/womens-girls-football/history |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200224043854/http://www.thefa.com/womens-girls-football/history |archive-date=24 February 2020 |access-date=16 February 2023 |website=The Football Association |language=en}}</ref> with the sport eventually becoming the most prominent [[team sport]] for women in the United Kingdom.<ref name="BBC-Gregory" /> Two unofficial women's World Cups were organised by the [[FIEFF]] in [[1970 Women's World Cup|1970]] and in [[1971 Women's World Cup|1971]]. Also in 1971, [[UEFA]] members voted to officially recognise women's football,<ref name="BBC-Gregory" /> while the Football Association rescinded the ban that prohibited women from playing on association members' pitches in England.<ref name="Hist" /> The first [[AFC Women's Asian Cup|Asian Women's Championship]] happened in [[1975 AFC Women's Championship|1975]], initially without the approval of the [[Asian Football Confederation|AFC]], but later recognised by them.<ref>{{cite web |title=Asian Women's Championship |url=https://www.rsssf.org/tablesa/aswomen.html |website=www.rsssf.org |access-date=31 May 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241207024802/https://www.rsssf.org/tablesa/aswomen.html |archive-date=7 December 2024 |language=en |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=AFC Women's Asian Cup™ History Book unveiled |url=https://www.the-afc.com/en/national/afc_womens_asian_cup/news/afc_women%E2%80%99s_asian_cup%E2%84%A2_history_book_unveiled.html |website=The AFC |access-date=31 May 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241210102351/https://www.the-afc.com/en/national/afc_womens_asian_cup/news/afc_women%E2%80%99s_asian_cup%E2%84%A2_history_book_unveiled.html |archive-date=10 December 2024 |language=en |url-status=live}}</ref>

Women's football still faces many struggles, but its worldwide growth<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kleen |first=Brendon |date=21 December 2022 |title=Women's Football Is Growing in the Middle East and North Africa |url=https://globalsportmatters.com/culture/2022/12/21/beyond-qatar-world-cup-womens-football-growing-middle-east-north-africa/ |access-date=25 February 2023 |website=Global Sport Matters |language=en |archive-date=29 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230129023329/https://globalsportmatters.com/culture/2022/12/21/beyond-qatar-world-cup-womens-football-growing-middle-east-north-africa/ |url-status=live}}</ref> has seen major competitions being launched at both the [[Women's football around the world|national]] and [[international competitions in women's football|international]] levels, mirroring the men's competitions. The [[FIFA Women's World Cup]] was inaugurated in 1991: [[1991 FIFA Women's World Cup|the first tournament]] was held in China, featuring 12 teams from the six confederations. The World Cup has been held every four years since;<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fifa.com/tournaments/archive/tournament=103/awards/index.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430044344/http://www.fifa.com/tournaments/archive/tournament%3D103/awards/index.html |archive-date=30 April 2011 |title=Tournaments: Women's World Cup |publisher=FIFA |access-date=11 March 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> by [[2019 FIFA Women's World Cup|2019]], it had expanded to 24 national teams, and 1.12 billion viewers watched the competition.<ref name="forbes_2019wwc">{{cite news |last1=Glass |first1=Alana |date=21 October 2019 |title=FIFA Women's World Cup Breaks Viewership Records |work=Forbes |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/alanaglass/2019/10/21/fifa-womens-world-cup-breaks-viewership-records/ |url-status=live |access-date=24 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210424203645/https://www.forbes.com/sites/alanaglass/2019/10/21/fifa-womens-world-cup-breaks-viewership-records/ |archive-date=24 April 2021}}</ref> [[2023 FIFA Women's World Cup|Four years later]], FIFA targeted the 32-team 2023 Women's World Cup at an audience of 2 billion,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-04-11 |title=With 100 days to Women's World Cup, calls for gender equity grow |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/sports/2023/4/11/womens-world-cup-australia-new-zealand-gender-equity |website=Al Jazeera |access-date=27 October 2024 |archive-date=18 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230518130954/https://www.aljazeera.com/sports/2023/4/11/womens-world-cup-australia-new-zealand-gender-equity |url-status=live}}</ref> while more than 1.5 million tickets were sold, setting a Women's World Cup record.<ref>{{cite news|date=19 July 2023 |title=Women's World Cup ticket sales break record with close to 1.4m sold on eve of 2023 tournament |url=https://www.theguardian.com/football/2023/jul/19/womens-world-cup-2023-record-breaking-ticket-sales-australia-new-zealand |work=The Guardian |access-date=27 October 2024 |archive-date=19 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230719222710/https://www.theguardian.com/football/2023/jul/19/womens-world-cup-2023-record-breaking-ticket-sales-australia-new-zealand |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Pender |first1=Kieran |title='Creating history': Women's World Cup ticket sales reach 1.5m milestone |url=https://www.theguardian.com/football/2023/jul/25/womens-world-cup-2023-ticket-sales-australia-new-zealand-records |website=The Guardian |access-date=31 May 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240223223322/https://www.theguardian.com/football/2023/jul/25/womens-world-cup-2023-ticket-sales-australia-new-zealand-records |archive-date=23 February 2024 |language=en |date=25 July 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> Women's football has been an Olympic event since [[football at the 1996 Summer Olympics – Women's tournament|1996]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Moore |first=Kevin |editor-last1=Hassan |editor-first1=David |editor-last2=Mitra |editor-first2=Shakya |chapter=Football and the Olympics and Paralympics |title=The Olympic Games: Meeting New Global Challenges |publisher=Routledge |year=2015 |location=London |page=68 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e6nDCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA68 |isbn=978-0-415-74176-7 |access-date=8 January 2019 |archive-date=26 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191026173434/https://books.google.com/books?id=e6nDCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA68 |url-status=live}}</ref>

North America is the dominant region in women's football, with the [[United States women's national soccer team|United States]] winning the most FIFA Women's World Cups<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nbcsports.com/soccer/news/uswnt-womens-world-cup-results |title=Women's World Cup: USWNT results at each tournament |date=6 August 2023 | access-date=22 April 2024 | archive-date=22 April 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240422014149/https://www.nbcsports.com/soccer/news/uswnt-womens-world-cup-results | url-status=live}}</ref> and Olympic tournaments. Europe and Asia come second and third in terms of international success,<ref>{{Cite web |title=FIFA Women's World Cup History – Past World Cup Winners, Hosts, Most Goals and more |url=https://www.foxsports.com/soccer/2023-fifa-womens-world-cup/history |access-date=25 February 2023 |website=FOX Sports |language=en |archive-date=6 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221206123613/https://www.foxsports.com/soccer/2023-fifa-womens-world-cup/history |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Kelly |first=Ryan |date=8 August 2021 |title=Which country has won the most Olympic gold medals in football? |url=https://www.goal.com/en/news/which-country-has-won-most-olympic-gold-medals-football/1o1jkyn3l7wlm1vxfqzy09h6e0 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221110224304/https://www.goal.com/en/news/which-country-has-won-most-olympic-gold-medals-football/1o1jkyn3l7wlm1vxfqzy09h6e0 |archive-date=10 November 2022 |access-date=25 February 2023 |website=Goal.com}}</ref> and the women's game has been improving in South America.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rey |first=Debora |date=7 July 2022 |title=South American women's soccer improving but some way to go |url=https://apnews.com/article/womens-soccer-sports-south-america-chile-bb6e9ae71b8ec5d05dfb5b246855d88d |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221128065120/https://apnews.com/article/womens-soccer-sports-south-america-chile-bb6e9ae71b8ec5d05dfb5b246855d88d |archive-date=28 November 2022 |access-date=25 February 2023 |website=AP NEWS |language=en}}</ref>

== Gameplay ==

[[File:2. SNL - 27. krog - Nafta 1903 0-0 (0-0) Roltek Dob - 1. polčas.webm|thumb|One half of a professional football match (45 minutes) between Slovenian clubs [[NK Nafta 1903]] and [[NK Dob]]. The score after the half is 0–0.]]
Association football is played in accordance with a set of rules known as the [[Laws of the Game (association football)|Laws of the Game]]. The game is played using a spherical ball of {{convert|68|–|70|cm|in|abbr=on}} circumference,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Circumference |url=http://quality.fifa.com/en/Footballs/Become-a-licensee/Tests/Circumference/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161119053959/http://quality.fifa.com/en/Footballs/Become-a-licensee/Tests/Circumference/ |archive-date=19 November 2016 |website=FIFA Quality Programme}}</ref> known as the ''[[Ball (association football)|football]]'' (or ''soccer ball''). Two teams of eleven players each compete to get the ball into the other team's goal (between the posts and under the bar), thereby scoring a goal. There are situations where a goal can be disallowed, such as an [[Offside (association football)|offside]] call or a [[Fouls and misconduct (association football)|foul]] in the build-up to the goal. The team that has scored more goals at the end of the game is the winner; if both teams have scored an equal number of goals then the game is a draw. Each team is led by a [[Captain (association football)|captain]] who has only one official responsibility as mandated by the Laws of the Game: to represent their team in the coin toss before kick-off or [[Penalty kick (association football)|penalty kicks]].<ref name="laws51-52" />

The primary law is that players other than [[Goalkeeper (association football)|goalkeepers]] may not deliberately handle the ball with their hands or arms during play, though they must use both their hands during a [[throw-in]] restart. Although players usually use their feet to move the ball around, they may use any part of their body (notably, "[[Header (association football)|heading]]" with the forehead)<ref>{{cite web |title=How to head a football |url=http://expertfootball.com/wp/heading/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20110403141804/http://expertfootball.com/training/heading.php |archive-date=3 April 2011 |access-date=3 January 2011}}</ref> other than their hands or arms.<ref name="fouls">{{cite web |url=https://www.fifa.com/flash/lotg/football/en/Laws12_02.htm |publisher=FIFA |title=Laws of the game (Law 12) |access-date=24 September 2007|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011115718/http://fifa.com/flash/lotg/football/en/Laws12_02.htm|archive-date=11 October 2007}}</ref> Within normal play, all players are free to play the ball in any direction and move throughout the pitch, though players may not pass to teammates who are in an offside position.<ref name="offsidelaw">{{cite book |title=Laws of the Game 2010/2011 |chapter=Law 11 – Offside |chapter-url=https://www.fifa.com/mm/document/affederation/generic/81/42/36/lawsofthegame_2010_11_e.pdf |publisher=FIFA |access-date=4 March 2011 |page=31 |archive-date=4 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100704211500/https://www.fifa.com/mm/document/affederation/generic/81/42/36/lawsofthegame_2010_11_e.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref>

During gameplay, players attempt to create goal-scoring opportunities through individual control of the ball, such as by [[dribbling]], passing the ball to a teammate, and by taking shots at the goal, which is guarded by the opposing goalkeeper. Opposing players may try to regain control of the ball by intercepting a pass or through [[Tackle (football move)#Association football|tackling]] the opponent in possession of the ball; however, physical contact between opponents is restricted. Football is generally a free-flowing game, with play stopping only when the ball has left the field of play or when play is stopped by the [[Referee (association football)|referee]] for an infringement of the rules. After a stoppage, play recommences with a specified restart.<ref name="restart">{{cite web |url=https://www.fifa.com/flash/lotg/football/en/Laws8_01.htm |publisher=FIFA |title=Laws of the game (Law 8) |access-date=24 September 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070913142456/http://fifa.com/flash/lotg/football/en/Laws8_01.htm |archive-date=13 September 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[File:Slidetackle.JPG|alt=|thumb|A player executing a slide [[Tackle (football move)|tackle]] to dispossess an opponent]]
At a professional level, most matches produce only a few goals. For example, the [[2022–23 Premier League|2022–23 season]] of the English [[Premier League]] produced an average of 2.85 goals per match.<ref>{{cite news |title=Seven graphs that explain the Premier League's goal glut |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/football/2023/12/05/premier-league-more-goals-ever-five-reasons-data-tactics/ |newspaper=The Telegraph |date=5 December 2023 |access-date=21 January 2024 |last1=Ducker |first1=James |archive-date=16 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231216022320/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/football/2023/12/05/premier-league-more-goals-ever-five-reasons-data-tactics/ |url-status=live}}</ref> The Laws of the Game do not specify any player positions other than goalkeeper,<ref name=LAW301>{{cite web |url=https://www.fifa.com/flash/lotg/football/en/Laws3_01.htm |publisher=FIFA |title=Laws of the game (Law 3–Number of Players) |access-date=24 September 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070913142527/http://fifa.com/flash/lotg/football/en/Laws3_01.htm |archive-date=13 September 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref> but a number of [[association football positions|specialised roles]] have evolved.<ref>{{cite web |title=Soccer positions explained: names, numbers and what they do |publisher=Bundesliga |url=https://www.bundesliga.com/en/news/Bundesliga/soccer-positions-explained-names-numbers-what-they-do-2579-786 |access-date=3 February 2021 |archive-date=28 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210228222507/https://www.bundesliga.com/en/bundesliga/news/soccer-positions-explained-names-numbers-what-they-do-2579-786 |url-status=live}}</ref> Broadly, these include three main categories: [[Striker (association football)|strikers]], or forwards, whose main task is to score goals; [[Defender (association football)|defenders]], who specialise in preventing their opponents from scoring; and [[midfielder]]s, who dispossess the opposition and keep possession of the ball to pass it to the forwards on their team. Players in these positions are referred to as outfield players, to distinguish them from the goalkeeper.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Winter |first1=Henry |title=Schmeichel: I watch Federer to improve my game |url=https://www.thetimes.com/sport/football/article/federers-my-idol-i-watch-him-play-tennis-to-improve-as-a-goalkeeper-2ngtfltl9?region=global |website=The Times |access-date=7 April 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250411213300/https://www.thetimes.com/sport/football/article/federers-my-idol-i-watch-him-play-tennis-to-improve-as-a-goalkeeper-2ngtfltl9 |archive-date=11 April 2025 |date=2 April 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>

These positions are further subdivided according to the area of the field in which the player spends the most time. For example, there are central defenders and left and right midfielders. The ten outfield players may be arranged in any combination. The number of players in each position determines the style of the team's play; more forwards and fewer defenders creates a more aggressive and offensive-minded game, while the reverse creates a slower, more defensive style of play. While players typically spend most of the game in a specific position, there are few restrictions on player movement, and players can switch positions at any time.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/rules_and_equipment/4196830.stm |title=Positions guide, Who is in a team? |work=BBC Sport |access-date=24 September 2007 |date=1 September 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061105213730/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/rules_and_equipment/4196830.stm|archive-date=5 November 2006|url-status=live}}</ref> The layout of a team's players is known as a ''[[Formation (association football)|formation]]''. Defining the team's formation and tactics is usually the prerogative of the team's [[Manager (association football)|manager]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/rules_and_equipment/4197420.stm |title=Formations |work=BBC Sport |access-date=24 September 2007 |date=1 September 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070825133301/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/rules_and_equipment/4197420.stm|archive-date=25 August 2007|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Laws ==
{{redirect|Rules of football|the rules of other football games|Football}}
{{Further|Laws of the Game (association football)}}

There are 17 laws in the official Laws of the Game, each containing a collection of stipulations and guidelines. The same laws are designed to apply to all levels of football for both sexes, although certain modifications for groups such as juniors, seniors and people with physical disabilities are permitted.{{efn|name=Variants|See [[List of types of football#Games descended from the FA rules]] for a list of association football variations.}} The laws are often framed in broad terms, which allow flexibility in their application depending on the nature of the game. The Laws of the Game are published by FIFA, but are maintained by the IFAB.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fifa.com/worldfootball/lawsofthegame.html |title=Laws of the Game |publisher=FIFA |access-date=2 September 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070901044035/http://fifa.com/worldfootball/lawsofthegame.html|archive-date=1 September 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref> In addition to the seventeen laws, numerous IFAB decisions and other directives contribute to the regulation of association football.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/sport/football/51689916 |title=Offside and handball laws under Ifab review along with concussion substitutions |work=BBC Sport |date=29 February 2020|access-date=3 December 2020|archive-date=31 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210131194121/https://www.bbc.com/sport/football/51689916|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Reilly|editor1-first=Thomas|editor2-last=Williams|editor2-first=A. Mark |title=Science and Soccer |edition=Second |publisher=Routledge |location=London |year=2005 |page=235 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ax4GBYlonK0C&pg=PA235 |isbn=978-0-415-26231-6|access-date=3 December 2020|archive-date=12 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220212044126/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Science_and_Soccer/ax4GBYlonK0C?gbpv=1&pg=PA235|url-status=live}}</ref> Within the United States, [[Major League Soccer]] used a distinct ruleset during the 1990s,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Maurer |first=Pablo |title=How U.S. soccer experimented with 10 changes to the game before launching MLS |work=The New York Times |date=28 April 2020 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/athletic/1780920/2020/04/28/how-u-s-soccer-experimented-with-10-changes-to-the-game-before-launching-mls/ |access-date=8 November 2021 |language=en |archive-date=11 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221011183356/https://theathletic.com/1780920/2020/04/28/how-u-s-soccer-experimented-with-10-changes-to-the-game-before-launching-mls/ |url-status=live}}</ref> and the [[National Federation of State High School Associations|NFHS]] and [[National Collegiate Athletic Association|NCAA]] still use rulesets that are comparable to, but different from, the IFAB Laws.<ref>{{cite web |title=Comparative Study of Rules of Laws (2024) |url=https://www.nfhs.org/media/7213076/2024-25-soccer-guide-final.pdf |website=NFHS |access-date=8 April 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240919113142/https://www.nfhs.org/media/7213076/2024-25-soccer-guide-final.pdf |archive-date=19 September 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Players, equipment, and officials ===
{{See also|Association football positions|Formation (association football)|Substitute (association football)|Kit (association football)}}
[[File:Howard Webb3.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|The [[referee (association football)|referee]] officiates in a football match|alt=]]
Each team consists of a maximum of eleven players (excluding [[substitute (association football)|substitutes]]), one of whom must be the [[goalkeeper (football)|goalkeeper]]. Competition rules may state a minimum number of players required to constitute a team, which is usually seven. Goalkeepers are the only players allowed to play the ball with their hands or arms, provided they do so within the [[penalty area]] in front of their own goal. Though there are a variety of [[association football positions|positions]] in which the outfield (non-goalkeeper) players are [[sports strategy|strategically]] placed by a coach, these positions are not defined or required by the Laws.<ref name=LAW301 />

The basic equipment or ''[[Kit (association football)|kit]]'' players are required to wear includes a shirt, shorts,{{efn|All outfield players must wear shorts, while goalkeepers are permitted to wear tracksuit bottoms.}} socks, footwear and adequate [[shin guard]]s. Wearing an [[jockstrap|athletic supporter]] with protective cup is recommended for male players by medical experts and professionals.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://strikingeagles.tripod.com/health_advice_for_boys.htm |title=Health Advice for Boys |publisher=Strikingeagles.tripod.com |access-date=24 September 2013 |archive-date=27 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927075108/http://strikingeagles.tripod.com/health_advice_for_boys.htm |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://files.leagueathletics.com/Images/Club/6097/The%20Prevention%20of%20injuries.pdf |title=Soccer Position Paper |access-date=24 September 2013 |archive-date=28 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928003421/http://files.leagueathletics.com/Images/Club/6097/The%20Prevention%20of%20injuries.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Association football headgear|Headgear]] is not a required piece of equipment, but players may choose to wear it to protect themselves from head injury.<ref>{{cite news |title=Football's biggest headache |url=http://www.marca.com/en/football/international-football/2017/03/12/58c54bab268e3e64368b45a8.html|access-date=17 May 2018 |work=Marca |location=Spain |date=12 March 2017|archive-date=17 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180517223832/http://www.marca.com/en/football/international-football/2017/03/12/58c54bab268e3e64368b45a8.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Players are forbidden to wear or use anything that is dangerous to themselves or another player, such as jewellery or watches. The goalkeeper must wear clothing that is easily distinguishable from that worn by the other players and the match officials.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fifa.com/flash/lotg/football/en/Laws4_01.htm |publisher=FIFA |title=Laws of the game (Law 4–Players' Equipment) |access-date=24 September 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070913141601/http://fifa.com/flash/lotg/football/en/Laws4_01.htm |archive-date=13 September 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

A number of players may be replaced by substitutes during the course of the game. The maximum number of substitutions permitted in most competitive international and domestic league games is five in 90 minutes,<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 June 2022 |title=Five substitutions permitted in all top-level competitions from 2022/23 |url=https://www.90min.com/posts/five-substitutions-permitted-in-all-top-level-competitions-from-2022-23 |access-date=13 January 2023 |website=90min.com |language=en |archive-date=13 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230113223015/https://www.90min.com/posts/five-substitutions-permitted-in-all-top-level-competitions-from-2022-23 |url-status=live}}</ref> with each team being allowed one more if the game should go into extra-time; the permitted number may vary in other competitions or in [[friendly matches]]. Common reasons for a substitution include injury, tiredness, ineffectiveness, a tactical switch, or [[timewasting]] at the end of a finely poised game. In standard adult matches, a player who has been substituted may not take further part in a match.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fifa.com/flash/lotg/football/en/Laws3_02.htm |publisher=FIFA |title=Laws of the game (Law 3–Substitution procedure) |access-date=24 September 2007|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011144947/http://fifa.com/flash/lotg/football/en/Laws3_02.htm|archive-date=11 October 2007}}</ref> IFAB recommends "that a match should not continue if there are fewer than seven players in either team". Any decision regarding points awarded for abandoned games is left to the individual football associations.<ref>{{cite book |title=Laws of the Game 2010/2011 |chapter=Law 3 – The Number of Players |chapter-url=https://www.fifa.com/mm/document/affederation/generic/81/42/36/lawsofthegame_2010_11_e.pdf |publisher=FIFA |access-date=4 March 2011 |page=62 |archive-date=4 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100704211500/https://www.fifa.com/mm/document/affederation/generic/81/42/36/lawsofthegame_2010_11_e.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref>

{{anchor|Match officials}}
A game is officiated by a [[referee (association football)|referee]], who has "full authority to enforce the Laws of the Game in connection with the match to which he has been appointed" (Law 5), and whose decisions are final. The referee is assisted by two [[Assistant referee (association football)|assistant referees]]. In many high-level games there is also a [[fourth official]] who assists the referee and may replace another official should the need arise.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fifa.com/flash/lotg/football/en/Laws5_01.htm |publisher=FIFA |title=Laws of the game (Law 5 – The referee) |access-date=24 September 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070913141909/http://fifa.com/flash/lotg/football/en/Laws5_01.htm |archive-date=13 September 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[Goal line technology]] is used to measure if the whole ball has crossed the goal-line thereby determining whether a goal has been scored or not; this was brought in to prevent controversy. [[Video assistant referee]]s (VAR) have also been increasingly introduced in high-level matches to assist officials through video replays to correct clear and obvious mistakes. There are four types of calls that can be reviewed: mistaken identity in awarding a red or yellow card, goals and whether there was a violation during the build-up, direct red card decisions, and penalty decisions.<ref name="protocol">{{cite web |url=http://www.knvb.nl/downloads/bestand/9844/var-handbook-summary |title=Video Assistant Referees (VARs) Experiment – Protocol (Summary) |publisher=International Football Association Board |date=26 April 2017 |access-date=26 April 2017 |format=PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170427192145/http://www.knvb.nl/downloads/bestand/9844/var-handbook-summary |archive-date=27 April 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Ball ===
{{Main|Ball (association football)}}

[[File:2022-04-24 Fußball, Männer, 3. Liga, 1. FC Magdeburg - FSV Zwickau IMG 4343 by Stepro.jpg|right|thumb|A typical ball]]
The ball is spherical with a circumference of between {{cvt|68|and|70|cm|in}}, a weight in the range of {{cvt|410|to|450|g|oz}}, and a pressure between {{convert|8.5|and|15.6|psi|atm|1|order=flip|lk=on|abbr=off}} at sea level. In the past the ball was made up of leather panels sewn together, with a latex bladder for pressurisation, but modern balls at all levels of the game are now synthetic.<ref>{{cite web |title=Laws of the Game 2013/2014 |url=https://www.fifa.com/mm/document/footballdevelopment/refereeing/81/42/36/log2013en%5fneutral.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130717074432/http://www.fifa.com/mm/document/footballdevelopment/refereeing/81/42/36/log2013en_neutral.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 July 2013 |publisher=FIFA}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://quality.fifa.com/en/Footballs/Football-facts/Football-manufacturing/ |title=Football manufacturing |work=FIFA quality program |publisher=[[FIFA]]|access-date=3 July 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160904193101/http://quality.fifa.com/en/Footballs/Football-facts/Football-manufacturing|archive-date=4 September 2016}}</ref>

=== Pitch ===
{{Main|Football pitch}}

[[File:Association Football field diagram -en.svg|thumb|Standard pitch measurements]]
[[File:Fotbollsmål - football goal - Ystad-2025.jpg|thumb|Goals in different sizes.]]
[[File:Linjeringsmaskin - Ystad - 2025.jpg|thumb|Previously, the lines were chalked by hand with a simple chalk machine, nowadays a programmable robot is used that draws all the lines on its own with spray paint.]]
As the Laws were formulated in England, and were initially administered solely by the four British football associations within [[IFAB]], the standard dimensions of a football pitch were originally expressed in [[imperial units]]. The Laws now express dimensions with approximate [[SI|metric]] equivalents (followed by traditional units in brackets), though use of imperial units remains popular in English-speaking countries with a relatively recent history of [[metrication]] (or only partial metrication), such as Britain.<ref>{{cite news |title=Will we ever go completely metric? |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/3934353.stm |date=2 September 2004 |last=Summers |first=Chris |access-date=7 October 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071010064850/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/3934353.stm|archive-date=10 October 2007 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The length of the pitch, or field, for international adult matches is in the range of {{cvt|100|-|110|m|yd}} and the width is in the range of {{cvt|64|-|75|m|yd|-1}}. Fields for non-international matches may be {{cvt|90|-|120|m|yd|round=5}} in length and {{cvt|45|-|90|m|yd|round=5}} in width, provided the pitch does not become square. In 2008, the IFAB initially approved a fixed size of {{cvt|105|m|yd}} long and {{cvt|68|m|yd}} wide as a standard pitch dimension for international matches;<ref>{{cite web |date=8 March 2008 |title=Goal-line technology put on ice |url=https://www.fifa.com/aboutfifa/organisation/ifab/media/news/newsid=707751/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190322135616/https://www.fifa.com/about-fifa/who-we-are/news/goal-line-technology-put-ice-707751|archive-date=22 March 2019|access-date=19 June 2010|url-status=dead |publisher=FIFA}}</ref> however, this decision was later put on hold and was never actually implemented.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fifa.com/mm/document/affederation/administration/77/82/55/circularno.1145-amendmentstothelawsofthegame-2008.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430044356/http://www.fifa.com/mm/document/affederation/administration/77/82/55/circularno.1145-amendmentstothelawsofthegame-2008.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=30 April 2011 |title=FIFA Amendments to the Laws of the Game, 2008 |publisher=FIFA |access-date=4 March 2011}}</ref>

The longer boundary lines are ''touchlines'', while the shorter boundaries (on which the goals are placed) are ''goal lines''. A rectangular goal is positioned on each goal line, midway between the two touchlines.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fifa.com/flash/lotg/football/en/Laws1_01.htm |publisher=FIFA |title=Laws of the game (Law 1.1 – The field of play) |access-date=24 September 2007|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070913142202/http://fifa.com/flash/lotg/football/en/Laws1_01.htm|archive-date=13 September 2007}}</ref> The inner edges of the vertical goal posts must be {{cvt|24|ft|m|2|abbr=in|order=flip}} apart, and the lower edge of the horizontal crossbar supported by the goal posts must be {{cvt|8|ft|m|2|abbr=in|order=flip}} above the ground. Nets are usually placed behind the goal, but are not required by the Laws.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fifa.com/flash/lotg/football/en/Laws1_04.htm |publisher=FIFA |title=Laws of the game (Law 1.4 – The Field of play) |access-date=24 September 2007|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011144942/http://fifa.com/flash/lotg/football/en/Laws1_04.htm|archive-date=11 October 2007}}</ref>

In front of the goal is the penalty area. This area is marked by the goal line, two lines starting on the goal line {{cvt|16.5|m|yd|0}} from the goalposts and extending {{cvt|16.5|m|yd|0}} into the pitch perpendicular to the goal line, and a line joining them. This area has a number of functions, the most prominent being to mark where the goalkeeper may handle the ball and where a penalty foul by a member of the defending team becomes punishable by a penalty kick. Other markings define the position of the ball or players at [[Kick-off (association football)|kick-offs]], goal kicks, penalty kicks and corner kicks.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fifa.com/flash/lotg/football/en/Laws1_03.htm |publisher=FIFA |title=Laws of the game (Law 1.3 – The field of play) |access-date=24 September 2007|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011084145/http://fifa.com/flash/lotg/football/en/Laws1_03.htm|archive-date=11 October 2007}}</ref>

=== Duration and tie-breaking methods ===

==== 90-minute ordinary time ====
A standard adult football match consists of two halves of 45 minutes each. Each half runs continuously, meaning that the clock is not stopped when the ball is out of play. There is usually a 15-minute half-time break between halves. The end of the match is known as full-time.<ref name="rule7.2" /> The referee is the official timekeeper for the match, and may make an allowance for time lost through substitutions, injured players requiring attention, or other stoppages. This added time is called "additional time" in FIFA documents,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fifa.com/mm/document/worldfootball/clubfootball/01/37/04/23/interpretation_law07_en.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120721055324/http://www.fifa.com/mm/document/worldfootball/clubfootball/01/37/04/23/interpretation_law07_en.pdf|archive-date=21 July 2012 |title=Interpretation of the Laws of the Game – Law 07|url-status=dead |publisher=FIFA}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fifa.com/mm/document/afdeveloping/refereeing/law_7_the_duration_of_the_match_en_47401.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110304214713/http://www.fifa.com/mm/document/afdeveloping/refereeing/law_7_the_duration_of_the_match_en_47401.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 March 2011 |title=Law 7 – The Duration of the Match |publisher=FIFA}}</ref> but is most commonly referred to as ''stoppage time'' or ''injury time'', while ''lost time'' can also be used as a synonym. The duration of stoppage time is at the sole discretion of the referee. Stoppage time does not fully compensate for the time in which the ball is [[Ball in and out of play|out of play]], and a 90-minute game typically involves about an hour of "effective playing time".<ref>{{cite news |title=Football reforms: Scrapping 45-minute half to be debated at Ifab |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/40311889|access-date=7 March 2018 |work=BBC Sport |date=18 June 2017|archive-date=22 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180322022354/http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/40311889|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>[https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/world-cup-stoppage-time-is-wildly-inaccurate/amp/ We Timed Every Game. World Cup Stoppage Time Is Wildly Inaccurate] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112201239/https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/world-cup-stoppage-time-is-wildly-inaccurate/amp/ |date=12 November 2020}}, David Bunnell, FiveThirtyEight, 27 June 2018</ref> The referee alone signals the end of the match. In matches where a fourth official is appointed, towards the end of the half, the referee signals how many minutes of stoppage time they intend to add. The fourth official then informs the players and spectators by holding up a board showing this number. The signalled stoppage time may be further extended by the referee.<ref name="rule7.2">{{cite web |url=https://www.fifa.com/flash/lotg/football/en/Laws7_02.htm |publisher=FIFA |title=Laws of the game (Law 7.2 – The duration of the match) |access-date=24 September 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011144952/http://fifa.com/flash/lotg/football/en/Laws7_02.htm |archive-date=11 October 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Added time was introduced because of an incident in 1891 during a match between [[Stoke City F.C.|Stoke]] and [[Aston Villa]]. Trailing 1–0 with two minutes remaining, Stoke were awarded a penalty kick. Villa's goalkeeper deliberately kicked the ball far out of play; by the time it was recovered, the clock had run out and the game was over, leaving Stoke unable to attempt the penalty.<ref>[[The Sunday Times]] ''Illustrated History of Football'' Reed International Books Limited 1996. p. 11 {{ISBN|1-85613-341-9}}</ref> The same law also states that the duration of either half is extended until a penalty kick to be taken or retaken is completed; thus, no game can end with an uncompleted penalty.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fifa.com/flash/lotg/football/en/Laws7_03.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071019042952/http://www.fifa.com/flash/lotg/football/en/Laws7_03.htm |archive-date=19 October 2007 |publisher=FIFA |title=Laws of the game (Law 7.3 – The duration of the match) |access-date=3 March 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Due to the relatively high ambient temperatures in some regions of the planet, cooling breaks for the players were introduced.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.insideworldfootball.com/fifa/13379-fifa-approves-extra-breaks-to-help-players-keep-their-cool |title=FIFA approves extra breaks to help players keep their cool |publisher=Inside World Football |date=7 October 2013 |access-date=18 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140708072148/http://www.insideworldfootball.com/fifa/13379-fifa-approves-extra-breaks-to-help-players-keep-their-cool |archive-date=8 July 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> Breaks could take place at the referee's discretion after the 30th minute of each half if the [[Wet Bulb Globe Temperature]] exceeded {{convert|32|C}}; the breaks would last 3 minutes, with this time made up by an extended period of stoppage time at the end of the half.

==== Tie-breaking ====
{{Main|Determining the Outcome of a Match (association football)}}

[[File:Didier Drogba Manuel Neuer last penalty kick Champions League Final 2012.jpg|alt=|thumb|Most knockout competitions use a [[Penalty shoot-out (football)|penalty shoot-out]] to decide the winner if a match ends as a draw]]
In league competitions, games may end in a draw. In knockout competitions where a winner is required, various methods may be employed to break such a deadlock; some competitions may invoke [[Replay (sports)|replays]].<ref>For example, in the [[FA Cup]] prior to the semi-finals.</ref> A game tied at the end of regulation time may go into [[extra time]], which consists of two further 15-minute periods. If the score is still tied after extra time, some competitions allow the use of [[Penalty shoot-out (association football)|penalty shoot-outs]] (previously known in the Laws of the Game as "kicks from the penalty mark")<ref>{{cite web |title=Laws of the Game 2023/24 |url=https://www.theifab.com/downloads/laws-of-the-game-2023-24?l=en |website=Documents {{!}} IFAB |publisher=IFAB |access-date=9 April 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240418164636/https://downloads.theifab.com/downloads/laws-of-the-game-2023-24?l=en |archive-date=18 April 2024 |page=151 |language=en |url-status=live}}</ref> to determine which team will progress to the next stage of the tournament or be the champion. Goals scored during extra time periods count towards the final score of the game, but kicks from the penalty mark are only used to decide the team that progresses to the next part of the tournament, with goals scored in a penalty shoot-out not making up part of the final score.<ref name="laws51-52">{{cite book |title=Laws of the Game 2010/2011 |publisher=FIFA |pages=51–52 |chapter=Procedures to determine the winner of a match or home-and-away |access-date=4 March 2011 |chapter-url=https://www.fifa.com/mm/document/affederation/generic/81/42/36/lawsofthegame_2010_11_e.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110313194624/https://www.fifa.com/mm/document/affederation/generic/81/42/36/lawsofthegame_2010_11_e.pdf |archive-date=13 March 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

In competitions using [[two-legged match]]es, each team competes at home once, with an aggregate score from the two matches deciding which team progresses. Where aggregates are equal, the [[away goals rule]] may be used to determine the winners, in which case the winner is the team that scored the most goals in the leg they played away from home. If the result is still equal, extra time and potentially a penalty shoot-out are required.<ref name="laws51-52" />

=== Ball in and out of play ===
{{Main|Ball in and out of play}}

[[File:Shunsuke1 20080622.jpg|thumb|A player takes a free kick, while the opposition form a "wall" to try to block the ball|alt=]]
Under the Laws, the two basic states of play during a game are ''ball in play'' and ''ball out of play''. From the beginning of each [[playing period]] with a kick-off until the end of the playing period, the ball is in play at all times, except when either the ball leaves the field of play, or play is stopped by the referee. When the ball becomes out of play, play is restarted by one of eight restart methods depending on how it went out of play:

* [[Kick-off (association football)|Kick-off]]: following a goal by the opposing team, or to begin each period of play.<ref name="restart" />
* [[Throw-in]]: when the ball has crossed the touchline; awarded to the opposing team to that which last touched the ball.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fifa.com/flash/lotg/football/en/Laws15_01.htm |publisher=FIFA |title=Laws of the game (Law 15 – The Throw-in) |access-date=14 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070913142556/http://fifa.com/flash/lotg/football/en/Laws15_01.htm |archive-date=13 September 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
* [[Goal kick]]: when the ball has wholly crossed the goal line without a goal having been scored and having last been touched by a player of the attacking team; awarded to defending team.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fifa.com/flash/lotg/football/en/Laws16_01.htm |publisher=FIFA |title=Laws of the game (Law 16 – The Goal Kick) |access-date=14 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070913141725/http://fifa.com/flash/lotg/football/en/Laws16_01.htm |archive-date=13 September 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
* [[Corner kick]]: when the ball has wholly crossed the goal line without a goal having been scored and having last been touched by a player of the defending team; awarded to attacking team.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fifa.com/flash/lotg/football/en/Laws17_01.htm |publisher=FIFA |title=Laws of the game (Law 17 – The Corner Kick) |access-date=14 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070913142324/http://fifa.com/flash/lotg/football/en/Laws17_01.htm |archive-date=13 September 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
* [[Indirect free kick]]: awarded to the opposing team following "non-penal" fouls, certain technical infringements, or when play is stopped to caution or dismiss an opponent without a specific foul having occurred. A goal may not be scored directly (without the ball first touching another player) from an indirect free kick.<ref name="freekick">{{cite web |url=https://www.fifa.com/flash/lotg/football/en/Laws13_01.htm |publisher=FIFA |title=Laws of the game (Law 13 – Free Kicks) |access-date=14 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070913142645/http://fifa.com/flash/lotg/football/en/Laws13_01.htm |archive-date=13 September 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
* [[Direct free kick]]: awarded to fouled team following certain listed "penal" fouls.<ref name="freekick" /> A goal may be scored directly from a direct free kick.
* [[Penalty kick (association football)|Penalty kick]]: awarded to the fouled team following a foul usually punishable by a direct free kick but that has occurred within their opponent's penalty area.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fifa.com/flash/lotg/football/en/Laws14_01.htm |publisher=FIFA |title=Laws of the game (Law 14 – The Penalty Kick) |access-date=14 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070913142717/http://fifa.com/flash/lotg/football/en/Laws14_01.htm |archive-date=13 September 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
* [[Dropped-ball]]: occurs when the referee has stopped play for any other reason, such as a serious injury to a player, interference by an external party, or a ball becoming defective.<ref name="restart" />

=== Misconduct ===
{{Main|Foul (association football)}}

==== On-field ====
{{multiple image
| align = right
| image1 = Yellow card.svg
| width1 = 100
| alt1 =
| caption1 =
| image2 = Red card.svg
| width2 = 100
| alt2 =
| caption2 =
| footer = Players are cautioned with a yellow card, and dismissed from the game with a red card. These colours were first introduced at the [[1970 FIFA World Cup]] and used consistently since.
}}

A [[foul (football)|foul]] occurs when a player commits an offence listed in the Laws of the Game while the ball is in play. The offences that constitute a foul are listed in Law 12. Handling the ball deliberately, tripping an opponent, or pushing an opponent, are examples of "penal fouls", punishable by a [[direct free kick]] or penalty kick depending on where the offence occurred. Other fouls are punishable by an [[indirect free kick]].<ref name="fouls" />

The referee may punish a player's or substitute's [[misconduct (football)|misconduct]] by a caution ([[Penalty card|yellow card]]) or dismissal ([[Penalty card|red card]]). A second yellow card in the same game leads to a red card, which results in a dismissal. A player given a yellow card is said to have been "booked", the referee writing the player's name in their official notebook. If a player has been dismissed, no substitute can be brought on in their place and the player may not participate in further play. Misconduct may occur at any time, and while the offences that constitute misconduct are listed, the definitions are broad. In particular, the offence of "unsporting behaviour" may be used to deal with most events that violate the spirit of the game, even if they are not listed as specific offences. A referee can show a yellow or red card to a player, substitute, substituted player, and to non-players such as managers and support staff.<ref name="fouls" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=13 May 2020 |title=How cards for managers has improved behaviour in the technical area |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/football/premier-league/managers-yellow-red-cards-behaviour-technical-area-a9512561.html |access-date=13 January 2023 |website=The Independent |language=en |archive-date=13 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230113223013/https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/football/premier-league/managers-yellow-red-cards-behaviour-technical-area-a9512561.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

Rather than stopping play, the referee may allow play to continue if doing so will benefit the team against which an offence has been committed. This is known as "playing an advantage".<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/rules_and_equipment/4188646.stm |title=Referee's signals: advantage |work=BBC Sport |access-date=4 March 2011 |date=14 September 2005 |archive-date=12 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160112055936/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/rules_and_equipment/4188646.stm |url-status=live}}</ref> The referee may "call back" play and penalise the original offence if the anticipated advantage does not ensue within "a few seconds". Even if an offence is not penalised due to advantage being played, the offender may still be sanctioned for misconduct at the next stoppage of play.<ref>{{cite book |title=Laws of the Game 2010/2011 |chapter=Law 5: The Referee: Advantage |chapter-url=https://www.fifa.com/mm/document/affederation/generic/81/42/36/lawsofthegame_2010_11_e.pdf |publisher=FIFA |access-date=4 March 2011 |page=66 |archive-date=4 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100704211500/https://www.fifa.com/mm/document/affederation/generic/81/42/36/lawsofthegame_2010_11_e.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref>

The referee's decision in all on-pitch matters is considered final. The score of a match cannot be altered after the game, even if later evidence shows that decisions (including whether a goal was awarded or not) were incorrect.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Laws of the Game |chapter=Law 5: The Referee |chapter-url=https://www.fifa.com/mm/document/affederation/generic/81/42/36/lawsofthegame_2011_12_en.pdf |publisher=FIFA |access-date=5 May 2012 |page=24 |archive-date=6 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130806182803/http://www.fifa.com/mm/document/affederation/generic/81/42/36/lawsofthegame_2011_12_en.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref>

==== Off-field ====
{{See also|Foul (association football)#Post-match}}
Along with the general administration of the sport, football associations and competition organisers also enforce good conduct in wider aspects of the game, dealing with issues such as comments to the press, clubs' financial management, [[Doping in sport|doping]], [[Age fraud in association football|age fraud]] and [[match fixing]]. Most competitions enforce mandatory suspensions for players who are sent off in a game.<ref name=FAsuspensions>For example, see [[the Football Association]]'s rules regarding player suspensions in FA competitions: {{cite web |title=Disciplinary procedures |url=http://www.thefa.com/~/media/files/thefaportal/governance-docs/rules-of-the-association/2015-16/031g_memorandum-of-disciplinary-procedures-_section-d.ashx |publisher=The Football Association|access-date=1 February 2016|archive-date=6 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161106181545/http://www.thefa.com/~/media/files/thefaportal/governance-docs/rules-of-the-association/2015-16/031g_memorandum-of-disciplinary-procedures-_section-d.ashx|url-status=live}}</ref> Some on-field incidents, if considered very serious (such as allegations of racial abuse), may result in competitions deciding to impose heavier sanctions than those normally associated with a red card.{{efn|For example, the [[English Premier League]] fined and levied an 8-match suspension on [[Luis Suárez]] for [[Luis Suárez#Racial abuse incident|racially abusing]] [[Patrice Evra]].}} Some associations allow for appeals against player suspensions incurred on-field if clubs feel a referee was incorrect or unduly harsh.<ref name=FAsuspensions />

Sanctions for such infractions may be levied on individuals or on clubs as a whole. Penalties may include fines, point deductions (in league competitions) or even expulsion from competitions. For example, the [[English Football League]] deduct 12 points from any team that enters [[Administration (British football)|financial administration]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Football League administration penalty raised to 12 points |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/33027933|access-date=17 May 2018 |work=BBC Sport |date=5 June 2015|archive-date=4 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180804233939/https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/33027933|url-status=live}}</ref> Among other administrative sanctions are penalties against game forfeiture. Teams that forfeit a game or are forfeited against are awarded a technical loss or win.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fifa.com/mm/document/affederation/administration/50/02/75/discoinhalte.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111109174734/http://www.fifa.com/mm/document/affederation/administration/50/02/75/discoinhalte.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=9 November 2011|title=FIFA Disciplinary Code|date=2011|website=FIFA|page=21|access-date=2016-08-09}}</ref>

== Governing bodies ==
{{See also|Association football around the world}}
[[File:FIFA-Headquarter.jpg|alt=|thumb|[[FIFA headquarters|Headquarters]] of [[FIFA]], the world governing body of football]]
The recognised international governing body of football (and associated games, such as [[futsal]] and [[beach soccer]]){{efn|name=Variants}} is [[FIFA]]. The FIFA headquarters are located in [[Zürich]], Switzerland. Six regional confederations are associated with FIFA; these are:<ref name="confeds">{{cite web |title=Member Associations |url=https://www.fifa.com/about-fifa/associations |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230220105319/https://www.fifa.com/about-fifa/associations |archive-date=20 February 2023 |access-date=20 February 2023 |publisher=FIFA}}</ref>
* [[Asia]]: [[Asian Football Confederation]] (AFC)
* [[Africa]]: [[Confederation of African Football]] (CAF)
* [[Europe]]: [[Union of European Football Associations]] (UEFA)
* [[North America|North]]/[[Central America]] & [[Caribbean]]: [[Confederation of North, Central American and Caribbean Association Football]] (CONCACAF)
* [[Oceania]]: [[Oceania Football Confederation]] (OFC)
* [[South America]]: [[Confederación Sudamericana de Fútbol]] (South American Football Confederation; CONMEBOL)

National associations (or national federations) oversee football within individual countries. 211 national associations are affiliated both with FIFA and with their respective continental confederations.<ref name="confeds" /> Other national associations may be members of continental confederations but otherwise [[Non-FIFA international football|not participate in FIFA competitions]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Vázquez |first1=Luis Guillermo |last2=Hall |first2=Andy |title=Which CONCACAF teams are not recognized by FIFA? |url=https://en.as.com/soccer/which-concacaf-teams-are-not-recognized-by-fifa-n/ |website=AS USA |access-date=11 April 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241110143536/https://en.as.com/soccer/which-concacaf-teams-are-not-recognized-by-fifa-n/ |archive-date=10 November 2024 |language=en |date=9 October 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref>

While FIFA is responsible for organising international competitions and enforcing most international regulations, the [[Laws of the Game (association football)|Laws of the Game]] are set by the [[International Football Association Board|IFAB]], where each of the four UK associations holds one vote and FIFA collectively holds four votes.<ref name="FIFA" />

{{anchor|Internationalcompetitions}}

== International competitions ==
{{Main|List of association football competitions}}

[[File:Ousmane Dembélé World Cup Trophy.jpg|alt=|thumb|upright=0.70|The [[FIFA World Cup]] is the largest international competition in football and the world's most viewed sporting event|left]]
International competitions in association football principally consist of two varieties: competitions involving representative national teams or those involving clubs based in multiple nations and national leagues. ''International football'', without qualification, most often refers to the former.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Whitmore |first1=Jonny |title=5 Key Differences Between International and Club Football |url=https://theanalyst.com/2021/07/five-differences-between-international-and-club-football |website=Opta Analyst |access-date=8 April 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250324100604/https://theanalyst.com/2021/07/five-differences-between-international-and-club-football |archive-date=24 Mar 2025 |language=en |date=22 July 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> In the case of international club competition, it is the country of origin of the clubs involved, not the nationalities of their players, that renders the competition international in nature.<ref>{{cite web |title=2020 Concacaf Champions League Draw Preview |url=https://www.newyorkcityfc.com/news/2020-concacaf-champions-league-draw-preview |website=New York City FC |access-date=8 April 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250411215224/https://www.newyorkcityfc.com/news/2020-concacaf-champions-league-draw-preview |archive-date=11 April 2025 |language=en |date=6 December 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The major international competition in football and the most prestigious is the [[FIFA World Cup|World Cup]], organised by FIFA. This competition has taken place every four years since [[1930 FIFA World Cup|1930]], with the exception of the 1942 and 1946 tournaments, which were cancelled because of [[World War II]]. As of 2022, over 200 national teams compete in qualifying tournaments within the scope of continental confederations for a place in the finals.<ref>{{cite news |title=FIFA World Cup 2022: Brazil, Germany, England among confirmed teams for Qatar |url=https://olympics.com/en/news/fifa-world-cup-2022-qualified-football-teams-list |access-date=18 September 2023 |publisher=Olympics |date=14 June 2022 |first1=Aarish |last1=Ansari |archive-date=27 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220927232418/https://olympics.com/en/news/fifa-world-cup-2022-qualified-football-teams-list |url-status=live}}</ref> The finals tournament involved 32 national teams (expanding to 48 teams for the [[2026 FIFA World Cup|2026 tournament]]) competing over a four-week period.<ref>{{cite news |last=Mayorquin |first=Orlando |date=19 November 2022 |title=How does the World Cup work? The ultimate soccer showcase, explained |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/soccer/2022/11/19/2022-qatar-world-cup-group-knockout-stage-explained/8083358001/ |work=[[USA Today]] |accessdate=1 September 2023 |archive-date=2 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230902031535/https://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/soccer/2022/11/19/2022-qatar-world-cup-group-knockout-stage-explained/8083358001/ |url-status=live}}</ref>{{efn|name=teams number|The number of competing teams has varied over the history of the competition.}} The World Cup is the world's most widely viewed and most followed sporting event, with the [[2022 FIFA World Cup|2022 tournament]] estimated to be watched by 5 billion people, more than 60% of the global population.<ref>{{cite web |date=25 May 2022 |title=Qatar 2022 to be watched by 5bn people, says Gianni Infantino |url=https://www.sportspromedia.com/news/fifa-2022-world-cup-qatar-tv-audience-viewers-gianni-infantino/ |access-date=27 October 2024|website=SportsPro |archive-date=14 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221114151049/https://www.sportspromedia.com/news/fifa-2022-world-cup-qatar-tv-audience-viewers-gianni-infantino/ |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[1958 FIFA World Cup|1958 World Cup]] saw the emergence of [[Pelé]] as a global sporting star, a period that coincided with "the explosive spread of television, which massively amplified his presence everywhere".<ref>{{cite news |last=Goldblatt |first=David |title=Pelé set the standards by which footballing greatness is judged |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2022/dec/29/pele-football-greatness-brazil-global-star |access-date=18 September 2023 |work=The Guardian |date=29 December 2022 |archive-date=5 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005082607/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2022/dec/29/pele-football-greatness-brazil-global-star |url-status=live}}</ref> The current champions are [[Argentina national football team|Argentina]], who won their third title at the 2022 tournament in Qatar.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Mcnulty |first1=Phil |date=18 December 2022 |title=Argentina win dramatic World Cup final on penalties |url=https://www.bbc.com/sport/football/63932622 |access-date=19 December 2022 |work=BBC Sport |publisher=BBC |archive-date=18 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221218210506/https://www.bbc.com/sport/football/63932622 |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[FIFA Women's World Cup]] has been held every four years since [[1991 FIFA Women's World Cup|1991]]. Under the tournament's current format that was expanded in 2023, national teams vie for 31 slots in a three-year [[FIFA Women's World Cup qualification|qualification phase]], while the host nation's team enters automatically as the 32nd slot.<ref>{{cite news |last=Lewis |first=Russell |date=23 July 2023 |title=The Women's World Cup expanded to 32 teams this year. Has the quality suffered? |url=https://www.npr.org/2023/07/23/1189634000/fifa-womens-world-cup-expanded-to-32-teams-new-zealand-australia |publisher=[[NPR]] |accessdate=31 August 2023 |archive-date=31 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230831005059/https://www.npr.org/2023/07/23/1189634000/fifa-womens-world-cup-expanded-to-32-teams-new-zealand-australia |url-status=live}}</ref> The current champions are [[Spain women's national football team|Spain]], after winning their first title in the [[2023 FIFA Women's World Cup|2023 tournament]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Peterson |first=Anne M. |date=20 August 2023 |title=From turmoil to triumph, Spain earns its first Women's World Cup title with a 1-0 win over England |url=https://apnews.com/article/womens-world-cup-final-spain-england-match-summary-232025b71703e9acde0ae39addb16c10 |publisher=[[Associated Press]] |accessdate=31 August 2023 |archive-date=23 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230823000117/https://apnews.com/article/womens-world-cup-final-spain-england-match-summary-232025b71703e9acde0ae39addb16c10 |url-status=live}}</ref>

There has been a [[Football at the Summer Olympics|football tournament]] at every [[Summer Olympic Games]] since [[1900 Summer Olympics|1900]], except at the [[1932 Summer Olympics|1932]] games in [[Los Angeles]] when FIFA and the [[International Olympic Committee]] (IOC) had disagreed over the status of amateur players.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/summer/1936/FTB/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200417041849/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/summer/1936/FTB/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=17 April 2020 |title=Football at the 1936 Berlin Summer Games |work=Sports Reference |access-date=6 December 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.olympic.org/football-equipment-and-history?tab=1 |title=Football Equipment and History |publisher=International Olympic Committee (IOC) |access-date=4 March 2011 |archive-date=6 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140706130625/http://www.olympic.org/football-equipment-and-history?tab=1 |url-status=live}}</ref> Before the inception of the World Cup, the Olympics (especially during the 1920s) were the most prestigious international event. Originally, the tournament was for amateurs only.<ref name=Wherebegan>{{cite web |url=http://access.fifa.com/en/history/history/0,3504,4,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070608215029/http://access.fifa.com/en/history/history/0%2C3504%2C4%2C00.html |archive-date=8 June 2007 |title=Where it all began |publisher=FIFA |access-date=8 June 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref> As professionalism spread around the world, the gap in quality between the World Cup and the Olympics widened. The countries that benefited most were the [[Soviet Bloc]] countries of [[Eastern Europe]], where top athletes were state-sponsored while retaining their status as amateurs. Between [[1948 Summer Olympics|1948]] and [[1980 Summer Olympics|1980]], 23 out of 27 Olympic medals were won by Eastern Europe, with only [[Sweden men's national football team|Sweden]] (gold in 1948 and bronze in 1952), [[Denmark national football team|Denmark]] (bronze in 1948 and silver in 1960) and [[Japan national football team|Japan]] (bronze in 1968) breaking their dominance. For the [[1984 Summer Olympics|1984 Los Angeles Games]], the IOC allowed professional players to compete. Since [[1992 Summer Olympics|1992]], male competitors must be under 23 years old, although since [[1996 Summer Olympics|1996]], three players over the age of 23 have been allowed per squad.<ref>{{cite news |title=Football: Five superstars who have won gold in the Olympics |url=https://olympics.com/en/news/football-five-superstars-who-have-won-gold-in-the-olympics |access-date=18 September 2023 |publisher=Olympics.com |archive-date=6 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230606085636/https://olympics.com/en/news/football-five-superstars-who-have-won-gold-in-the-olympics |url-status=live}}</ref> A women's tournament was added in 1996; in contrast to the men's event, full international sides without age restrictions play the women's Olympic tournament.<ref>{{cite news |last=Borg |first=Simon |date=7 August 2021 |title=Olympic soccer rules, explained: How men's and women's football tournaments work in Tokyo |url=https://www.sportingnews.com/us/soccer/news/olympic-soccer-rules-men-women-tournament-tokyo/154emrauwrgxc1na5nmszrrqdf |work=[[The Sporting News]] |accessdate=1 September 2023 |archive-date=2 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230902031536/https://www.sportingnews.com/us/soccer/news/olympic-soccer-rules-men-women-tournament-tokyo/154emrauwrgxc1na5nmszrrqdf |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Torres, Mata and Ramos Euro 2012 trophy 01.jpg|alt=|thumb|[[Spain national football team|Spanish]] footballers [[Fernando Torres]], [[Juan Mata]], and [[Sergio Ramos]] celebrating winning the [[UEFA European Championship]] in [[UEFA Euro 2012|2012]]]]
After the World Cup, the most important international football competitions are the continental championships, which are organised by each continental confederation and contested between national teams. These are the [[UEFA European Championship|European Championship]] (UEFA), the [[Copa América]] (CONMEBOL), the [[Africa Cup of Nations]] (CAF), the [[AFC Asian Cup|Asian Cup]] (AFC), the [[CONCACAF Gold Cup|Gold Cup]] (CONCACAF) and the [[OFC Men's Nations Cup|Nations Cup]] (OFC).<ref name="CBC-Continentals" /> These competitions are not strictly limited to members of the continental confederations, with guest teams from other continents sometimes invited to compete.<ref>{{cite news |last=Williams |first=Aidan |date=12 June 2019 |title=Japan, Qatar and the history of guest teams at the Copa América |url=https://www.theguardian.com/football/these-football-times/2019/jun/12/copa-america-japan-qatar-strange-history-guest-teams |work=The Guardian |accessdate=1 September 2023 |archive-date=2 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230902031535/https://www.theguardian.com/football/these-football-times/2019/jun/12/copa-america-japan-qatar-strange-history-guest-teams |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[FIFA Confederations Cup]] was contested by the winners of all six continental championships, the current FIFA World Cup champions, and the country which was hosting the next World Cup. This was generally regarded as a warm-up tournament for the upcoming FIFA World Cup and did not carry the same prestige as the World Cup itself.<ref name="CBC-Continentals">{{cite news |last=Molinaro |first=John F. |date=22 May 2009 |title=Continental champions collide at the Confederations Cup |url=https://www.cbc.ca/sports/soccer/continental-champions-collide-at-the-confederations-cup-1.812024 |publisher=[[CBC Sports]] |accessdate=1 September 2023 |archive-date=2 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230902031535/https://www.cbc.ca/sports/soccer/continental-champions-collide-at-the-confederations-cup-1.812024 |url-status=live}}</ref> The tournament was discontinued following the [[2017 FIFA Confederations Cup|2017 edition]], with its calendar slot replaced by an expanded [[FIFA Club World Cup]].<ref>{{cite news |date=4 December 2020 |title=2021 FIFA Club World Cup to remain a seven-team tournament |url=https://www.nytimes.com/athletic/4229851/2020/12/04/2021-fifa-club-world-cup-to-remain-a-seven-team-tournament/ |work=[[The Athletic]] |url-access=subscription |access-date=1 September 2023 |archive-date=2 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230902031535/https://theathletic.com/4229851/2020/12/04/2021-fifa-club-world-cup-to-remain-a-seven-team-tournament/ |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Finalissima]] was revived in 2022, and is contested between the Copa América and European Championship winners.<ref>{{cite web |title=European and South American champions meet in 'Finalissima' Wembley showdown |url=https://www.uefa.com/news-media/news/0273-14b9d1db749d-1b03dce602c9-1000/ |website=UEFA.com |access-date=9 April 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250328085534/https://www.uefa.com/news-media/news/0273-14b9d1db749d-1b03dce602c9-1000/ |archive-date=28 March 2025 |language=en |date=22 March 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[UEFA Nations League]] and the [[CONCACAF Nations League]] were introduced in the late 2010s to replace international [[exhibition match|friendlies]] during the two-year cycle between major tournaments.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Straus |first=Brian |date=17 November 2017 |title=How CONCACAF League of Nations Alters Competitive Landscape for USA, Region |url=https://www.si.com/soccer/2017/11/17/concacaf-league-nations-friendlies-usa-mexico |magazine=[[Sports Illustrated]] |accessdate=31 August 2023 |archive-date=1 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230901044244/https://www.si.com/soccer/2017/11/17/concacaf-league-nations-friendlies-usa-mexico |url-status=live}}</ref>

The most prestigious competitions in club football are the respective continental championships, which are generally contested between national champions, for example, the [[UEFA Champions League]] in Europe and the [[Copa Libertadores]] in South America. The winners of each continental competition contest the [[FIFA Intercontinental Cup]], held annually, and the [[FIFA Club World Cup]], held once every four years.<ref>{{cite web |title=Organising Committee strengthens FIFA Club World Cup format |publisher=FIFA |url=https://www.fifa.com/tournaments/archive/clubworldcup/japan2007/releases/newsid=570740.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080531094715/http://www.fifa.com/tournaments/archive/clubworldcup/japan2007/releases/newsid%3D570740.html |archive-date=31 May 2008 |date=14 August 2007 |access-date=7 October 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

== Domestic competitions ==
{{Main|Geography of association football|Geography of women's association football}}

[[File:Forcejeo Real Madrid - FC Barcelona.jpg|thumb|A 2009 Spanish [[La Liga]] match between [[Real Madrid CF|Real Madrid]] and [[FC Barcelona|Barcelona]]. The fixture, known as ''[[El Clásico]]'', is one of the most renowned in sport.<ref>{{cite news |last=Philip |first=Tom |date=19 November 2015 |title=What the Hell is El Clásico? |url=https://www.gq.com/story/el-clasico-real-madrid-barcelona-ronaldo-messi |work=[[GQ]] |accessdate=8 September 2023 |archive-date=10 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231010150231/https://www.gq.com/story/el-clasico-real-madrid-barcelona-ronaldo-messi |url-status=live}}</ref>]]

In each country, football clubs are usually federated in associations or leagues that organise official tournaments among themselves, from which the champion of each country and the teams that will participate in international club tournaments emerge. There is no single system of competitions, and each national league organises them according to its own traditions.<ref>{{cite web |title=How is European soccer structured with leagues and cup competitions? |url=https://www.bundesliga.com/en/faq/what-are-the-rules-and-regulations-of-soccer/how-is-european-soccer-structured-with-leagues-and-cup-competitions-10568 |website=www.bundesliga.com |access-date=8 April 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250223035347/https://www.bundesliga.com/en/faq/what-are-the-rules-and-regulations-of-soccer/how-is-european-soccer-structured-with-leagues-and-cup-competitions-10568 |archive-date=23 February 2025 |language=en |url-status=live}}</ref>

The governing bodies in each country operate [[league system]]s in a [[Domestic association football season|domestic season]], normally comprising several [[division (sport)|divisions]], in which the teams gain points throughout the season depending on results, usually [[three points for a win]], one for a draw and zero for a defeat. Teams are put into [[Table (information)|tables]], placed in order according to points accrued. In the [[Old World]] (Africa, Asia and Europe), it is common for each team to play every other team in its league at home and away in each season, in a [[round-robin tournament]]. At the end of a season, which typically runs from August to May, the top team is declared the champion. The top few teams may be [[promotion and relegation|promoted]] to a higher division, and one or more of the teams finishing at the bottom are [[promotion and relegation|relegated]] to a lower division.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Fort |first=Rodney |title=European and North American Sports Differences(?) |journal=Scottish Journal of Political Economy |date=September 2000 |volume=47 |issue=4 |pages=431–55 |doi=10.1111/1467-9485.00172}}</ref>

Some exceptions to this system occur in the [[New World]] (Americas) and Australia:

* The majority of the Latin American leagues (including [[Liga MX]] from Mexico and [[Argentine Primera División|Liga Profesional de Fútbol]] from Argentina) divide football championships into two sections named [[Apertura and Clausura]] (Spanish for ''Opening'' and ''Closing''), awarding a champion for each.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://msn.foxsports.com/foxsoccer/latinamerica/story/Estudiantes-win-Argentina-Apertura-title |title=Estudiantes win Argentina Apertura title |date=13 December 2010 |work=Fox Sports |agency=Associated Press |quote=Under the system used in Argentina and most of Latin America, two season titles are awarded each year – the Apertura and Clausura. |access-date=4 March 2011 |archive-date=23 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130623075034/http://msn.foxsports.com/foxsoccer/latinamerica/story/Estudiantes-win-Argentina-Apertura-title |url-status=live}}</ref> After a first phase using points in a round-robin tournament, these leagues usually have a knockout phase, with a final deciding the champion of each Apertura and Clausura tournament. In some countries, such as Uruguay,<ref>{{cite web |title=En Uruguay, Liverpool hizo historia con un ex Boca |url=https://www.ole.com.ar/futbol-internacional/america/liverpool-campeon-uruguayo-2023-uruguay-final-penarol_0_FMaGvJeFmQ.html |website=Olé |access-date=8 April 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240921033848/https://www.ole.com.ar/futbol-internacional/america/liverpool-campeon-uruguayo-2023-uruguay-final-penarol_0_FMaGvJeFmQ.html |archive-date=21 September 2024 |language=es |date=17 December 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> the winners of the Apertura and Clausura play each other in a play-off for the season title.
* The [[Campeonato Brasileiro Série A|Brazilian Série A]] ("Brasileirão") uses a single-season double round-robin format to determine the champion, similar to most European leagues, although it is played from April or May to December.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Oliveira |first1=Letícia |title=Como funciona o Campeonato Brasileiro? Veja tudo sobre a competição |url=https://ge.globo.com/futebol/reportagem/2024/04/10/c-como-funciona-o-campeonato-brasileiro-veja-tudo-sobre-a-competicao.ghtml |website=ge |access-date=8 April 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250120163547/https://ge.globo.com/futebol/reportagem/2024/04/10/c-como-funciona-o-campeonato-brasileiro-veja-tudo-sobre-a-competicao.ghtml |archive-date=20 January 2025 |location=Rio de Janeiro |language=pt |date=10 April 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref> Brazilian clubs also participate in [[State football leagues in Brazil|state leagues]] from January to April, and at least one state league, the [[Campeonato Carioca]] in [[Rio de Janeiro (state)|Rio de Janeiro]], had a [[split season]] format until 2020.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Priori |first1=Jorge |title=Uma solução para os campeonatos estaduais |url=https://monitormercantil.com.br/uma-solucao-para-os-campeonatos-estaduais/ |website=Monitor Mercantil |access-date=8 April 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250118002005/https://monitormercantil.com.br/uma-solucao-para-os-campeonatos-estaduais/ |archive-date=18 January 2025 |language=pt |date=14 January 2025 |url-status=live}}</ref> However, Brazil has never used an Apertura and Clausura system in its national tournament, instead employing various formats with play-offs until 2002.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Parrela |first1=Leonardo |title=A história do Campeonato Brasileiro: formatos e campeões |url=https://www.cnnbrasil.com.br/esportes/futebol/a-historia-do-campeonato-brasileiro-formatos-e-campeoes/ |website=CNN Brasil |access-date=8 April 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241207212750/https://www.cnnbrasil.com.br/esportes/futebol/a-historia-do-campeonato-brasileiro-formatos-e-campeoes/ |archive-date=7 December 2024 |language=pt |date=12 April 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Major League Soccer]] in the United States and Canada uses a closed league system (without promotion and relegation) and a conference system, similar to that used in other sports leagues in both countries. In each conference, clubs play a round-robin schedule during the regular season, and those with the most points qualify for the play-offs, which conclude with a final to determine the champion.<ref>{{cite web |title=Competition Guidelines |url=https://www.mlssoccer.com/about/competition-guidelines |website=MLS soccer |access-date=8 April 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250401063727/https://www.mlssoccer.com/about/competition-guidelines |archive-date=1 April 2025 |language=en |url-status=live}}</ref>
* The [[A-League Men|A-League]] in Australia also uses a closed league system. At the end of a regular season played in a round-robin format, the clubs with the most points compete in play-offs to determine the league champion.<ref>{{cite web |title=Official Documents and Rules |url=https://aleagues.com.au/more/official-documents/ |website=A-Leagues |access-date=8 April 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250314113938/https://aleagues.com.au/more/official-documents/ |archive-date=14 March 2025 |language=en |url-status=live}}</ref>

The teams finishing at the top of a country's league may also be eligible to play in [[List of association football competitions|international club competitions]] in the following season. Most countries supplement the league system with one or more "cup" competitions organised on a [[single elimination tournament|knock-out]] basis. These include the [[domestic cup]], which may be open to all eligible teams in a country's league system—both professional and amateur—and is organised by the national federation.<ref>{{cite news |last=Rueter |first=Jeff |date=22 August 2023 |title=What is the U.S. Open Cup? Soccer tournament history, how to watch and Messi's path to another trophy |url=https://www.nytimes.com/athletic/4795121/2023/08/22/us-open-cup-history-broadcast-messi/ |work=[[The Athletic]] |url-access=subscription |access-date=8 September 2023 |archive-date=24 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230824030057/https://theathletic.com/4795121/2023/08/22/us-open-cup-history-broadcast-messi/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

Some countries' top divisions feature highly-paid star players; in smaller countries, lower divisions, and many women's clubs, players may be part-timers with a second job, or amateurs. The top five European leagues – [[Premier League]] (England),<ref>{{cite news |last=Hughes |first=Ian |date=31 March 2008 |title=Premier League conquering Europe |work=BBC Sport |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/europe/7321408.stm |url-status=live |access-date=27 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181118013022/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/europe/7321408.stm |archive-date=18 November 2018}}</ref> [[Bundesliga]] (Germany), [[La Liga]] (Spain), [[Serie A]] (Italy), and [[Ligue 1]] (France) – attract most of the world's best players and, during the 2006–07 season, each of these leagues had a total wage cost in excess of [[Euro|€]]600 million.<ref>{{cite news |last=Taylor |first=Louise |date=29 May 2008 |title=Leading clubs losing out as players and agents cash in |newspaper=The Guardian |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/football/2008/may/29/premierleague |url-status=live |access-date=28 November 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130407130029/http://www.guardian.co.uk/football/2008/may/29/premierleague |archive-date=7 April 2013}}</ref> These leagues also generated a combined €17.2 billion in revenue in the 2021–22 season from television contracts, matchday tickets, sponsorships, and other sources.<ref>{{cite news |last=Buckingham |first=Philip |date=14 June 2023 |title=Premier League generated £5.5bn in 2021–22 – more than La Liga and Bundesliga combined |url=https://www.nytimes.com/athletic/4610513/2023/06/14/premier-league-revenue-football-finance/ |work=The Athletic |url-access=subscription |access-date=1 September 2023 |archive-date=2 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230902032903/https://theathletic.com/4610513/2023/06/14/premier-league-revenue-football-finance/ |url-status=live}}</ref> In the 2022–23 season, clubs in Europe's "[[Big Five (association football)|big five]]" leagues had an aggregate wage cost of €13 billion, with each league spending more than €1.8 billion in wages. In contrast, the combined revenue of these leagues was €19.6 billion.<ref>{{cite web |title=Annual Review of Football Finance: Europe's Premier Leagues {{!}} Deloitte UK |url=https://www.deloitte.com/uk/en/services/financial-advisory/research/annual-review-of-football-finance-europe-premier-league.html |website=www.deloitte.com |access-date=8 April 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250108132111/https://www.deloitte.com/uk/en/services/financial-advisory/research/annual-review-of-football-finance-europe-premier-league.html |archive-date=8 January 2025 |language=en |date=25 June 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref>

== Variants and casual play ==
{{See also|List of types of football|Comparison of association football and futsal}}
[[File:Street soccer in Lagos.jpg|thumb|Street play in [[Lagos]], Nigeria]]
Variants of association football have been codified for teams of reduced size, such as [[five-a-side football]]; for non-traditional playing environments, including [[beach soccer]], [[futsal]] and [[indoor soccer]]; and for athletes with disabilities ([[Paralympic football]]).

[[Street football (association football)|Street football]] can be played with only minimal equipment – a basic game can be played on almost any open area of reasonable size with just a ball made from almost any material and items to mark the positions of the goalposts.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Berlin|first1=Jeremy|last2=Hilltout|first2=Jessica|date=2013-02-01|title=Joy Is Round|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2013/02/soccer-joy/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201026112120/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2013/02/soccer-joy/|url-status=dead|archive-date=October 26, 2020|access-date=2020-10-23|website=National Geographic Magazine|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Forget jumpers... these are the best makeshift goalposts |url=https://www.bbc.com/sport/football/29862121 |website=BBC Sport |access-date=8 April 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220701171546/https://www.bbc.com/sport/football/29862121 |archive-date=1 July 2022 |language=en |date=1 November 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> Such informal games can have team sizes that vary from eleven-a-side, can use a limited or modified subset of the official rules, and can be self-officiated by the players.<ref>{{cite web |title=How street football shapes elite talent |url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/how-street-football-shapes-elite-talent-a2.1107250 |website=Times of Malta |access-date=8 April 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250331050941/https://timesofmalta.com/article/how-street-football-shapes-elite-talent-a2.1107250 |archive-date=31 March 2025 |language=en |date=27 March 2025 |url-status=live}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Association football|Women's association football|Sports}}
* [[List of association football films]]
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Tatra (company)

2026-03-28T00:33:16Z

Alimirza: add article and added references per standard format

{{short description|Czech vehicle manufacturer based in Kopřivnice}}
{{Redirect|TATRA||Tatra (disambiguation)}}
{{Distinguish|Tata Motors|ČKD (company){{!}}ČKD Tatra}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2022|cs1-dates=yy}}
{{Infobox company
| name = TATRA TRUCKS a.s.
| logo = Tatra (Automobil) logo.svg
| caption =
| type = Private
| industry = [[Automotive industry]]
| foundation = {{unbulleted list
| 1850 (original)
| 1897 (as a car manufacturer)
}}
| founder = [[Ignaz Schustala]]
| area_served = Worldwide (except Japan, and North America){{citation needed|date=July 2022}}
| location = [[Kopřivnice]], [[Moravian-Silesian Region]], [[Czech Republic]]
| key_people = {{unbulleted list
| Hugo Fischer von Roeslerstamm (designer)
| [[Hans Ledwinka]] (designer)
| [[Julius Mackerle]] (designer)
| Lukáš Andrýsek (CEO)
}}
| products = [[Automobile]]s, [[wagon]]s, [[carriage]]s, [[truck]]s
| revenue = {{profit}} [[Czech koruna|CZK]] 5.4 [[1000000000 (number)|billion]] (2016)
| operating_income =
| net_income = {{profit}} [[Czech koruna|CZK]] 482 [[1000000 (number)|million]] (2016)
| num_employees = 1,658 (2016)
| owner = {{unbulleted list
| {{nowrap|[[Czechoslovak Group]] (65%)}}
| [[Promet Group]] (35%)
}}
| subsid =
| homepage = {{URL|tatratrucks.com}}
}}
[[File:Znak města Kopřivnice.svg|thumb|upright=0.5|Tatra [[Präsident]] on the Kopřivnice coat of arms]]

'''Tatra''' is a Czech [[vehicle manufacturer]] from [[Kopřivnice]]. Owned by the '''TATRA TRUCKS a.s.''' company, it is the third oldest company in the world producing motor vehicles with an unbroken history.{{efn|After [[Benz & Cie.]] and [[Peugeot]]}}<ref>{{cite web|title=About the Company|url=http://www.tatratrucks.com/about-the-company/|website=Tatratrucks|language=en}}</ref> The company was founded in 1850 as ''Ignatz Schustala & Cie''. In 1890, it became a [[joint-stock company]] and was renamed the ''Nesselsdorfer Wagenbau-Fabriksgesellschaft''. In 1897, it produced the [[Präsident]], which was the first factory-produced automobile with a petrol engine to be made in Central and Eastern Europe. The [[NW First Truck|First Truck]] was made a year later, in 1898. In 1918, the company was renamed ''Kopřivnická vozovka a.s.'', and in 1919 it changed from the Nesselsdorfer marque to the ''Tatra'' badge,<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Margolius, Ivan|author2=Henry, John G.|name-list-style=amp | title=Tatra - The Legacy of Hans Ledwinka | location=Dorchester | publisher=Veloce Publishing | year=2015 | isbn=978-1-845847-99-9}}</ref> named after the nearby [[Tatra Mountains]] on the [[Czechoslovakia|Czechoslovak]]-[[Poland|Polish]] border (now on the Polish-[[Slovakia|Slovak]] border).

In the interwar period, Tatra came to international prominence with its line of affordable cars based on [[Backbone chassis|backbone tube chassis]] and [[air-cooled engine]]s, starting with [[Tatra 11]] (1923). The company also became the pioneer of automotive aerodynamics, starting with [[Tatra 77]] (1934). Following the [[Sudetendeutsches Freikorps#Undeclared German–Czechoslovak War|1938 German-Czechoslovak war]] and [[Munich Agreement]], the town of Kopřivnice was [[Occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938–1945)|occupied by Nazi Germany]] and Tatra's manufacturing capacity was directed towards military production. Trucks like [[Tatra 111]] (1942) became instrumental both for the German Nazi war effort as well as post-war reconstruction in Central Europe and [[Soviet Union]].

Today, Tatra's production focuses on heavy, off-road trucks based on its century-long development of backbone chassis, swinging half-axles, and air-cooled engines. The core of its production consists of the [[Tatra 817]], intended primarily for military operators,<ref>{{cite news |last=Lopatka |first=Jan |title=Czech defence group CSG wins $1 billion Asian truck deal, opens Slovak ammunition line |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/aerospace-defense/czech-defence-group-csg-wins-1-billion-truck-deal-opens-slovak-ammunition-line-2025-12-16/ |work=Reuters |date=2025-12-16 |access-date=2026-01-19}}</ref> and the [[Tatra 158 Phoenix|Tatra Phoenix]] (Tatra chassis with [[DAF Trucks|DAF]] cabin and [[Paccar]] water-cooled engine), aimed primarily for the civilian market. In 2023, the company plans to produce over 2,000 trucks.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.czdefence.cz/clanek/navstivili-jsme-spolecnosti-tatra-trucks-a-tatra-defence-vehicle | title=Navštívili jsme společnosti Tatra Trucks a Tatra Defence Vehicle }}</ref>

==Early years==
[[File:Nesselsdorfer_logo.jpg|right|thumb|Nesselsdorfer Automobile logo]]
[[File:Ignac Sustala memorial plaque.jpg|left|thumb|[[Ignaz Schustala]], founder of the company]]
[[File:PresidentFirstCar.jpg|thumb|right|[[Präsident]], the first factory made car in [[Central and Eastern Europe]] in 1897]]
[[File:NW Rennzweier 1.jpg|thumb|right|[[NW Rennzweier|Rennzweier]], the first race car made by the company in 1900]]
In 1850, [[Ignaz Schustala]] founded "''Ignatz Schustala & Cie''" in [[Kopřivnice]], and the company entered the business of manufacturing [[horse-drawn vehicle]]s.

In the 1880s, the company began manufacturing [[railroad car]]s.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Beginnings of Tatra: From Wagons to Automobiles — |url=https://www.auto-histories.org/tatra-featured-car/tatra-the-beginning |access-date=2026-03-05 |website=For the Love of Car |language=en-CA}}</ref>

In 1890, the company became a [[joint-stock company]], and was renamed the ''Nesselsdorfer Wagenbau-Fabriksgesellschaft''. Also that year, Hugo Fischer von Röslerstamm became the company's technical director. After Schustala died in 1891, von Röslerstamm took over the management of the business.

In 1897, the company began the creation of an automobile with an internal combustion engine.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-05-19 |title=First long-distance journey in Tatra car 125 years ago |url=https://english.radio.cz/first-long-distance-journey-tatra-car-125-years-ago-8783582 |access-date=2023-10-23 |website=Radio Prague International |language=en}}</ref> Using a [[Benz & Cie.|Benz automobile]] purchased by von Röslerstamm as inspiration, the company built its first car, the [[Präsident]], under the direction of engineers [[Hans Ledwinka]] and [[Edmund Rumpler]]. The Präsident was exhibited in Vienna later that year.<ref>Wise, David Burgess. "Rumpler: One Aeroplane which Never Flew", in Northey, Tom, ed. ''World of Automobiles'' (London: Orbis, 1974), Vol. 17, p.1964.</ref> The company began taking orders for cars, and between 1897 and 1900, nine improved cars based on the Präsident were made.<ref>{{cite news|title=NW Präsident - Jak to všechno začalo|url=http://www.autozine.cz/nw-prasident-jak-to-vsechno-zacalo/|work=AutoZine.cz|date=1 March 2015|language=cs}}</ref>

The first car to be completely designed by Ledwinka was the {{ill|Nesselsdorf A|de}}, which was produced in 1900. The Nesselsdorf A was equipped with a rear-mounted {{Val | 1=2714 | ul=cc}} engine, and had a top speed of {{Cvt|40|km/h|mph}}. 22 units were built.

The Nesselsdorf A was followed in 1902 by the [[NW B|Type B]], which featured a central engine.

Ledwinka then left the company to concentrate on steam engine development. He returned in 1905 and designed a completely new car, the [[NW S|Type S]], which was equipped with a {{Val | 1=3308 | ul=cc}} 4-cylinder engine.

In 1912, production was badly affected by a strike that lasted 23 weeks, and von Röslerstamm left the company. In 1916, Ledwinka left the company again, this time to work for one of its competitors, [[Steyr-Daimler-Puch#History|Steyr-Werke]] in [[Graz]].<ref name="Hans Ledwinka 2018">{{Cite web|url=https://www.tatratrucks.com/about-the-company/press-and-media/news/hans-ledwinka-1/|title=Hans Ledwinka :: Tatratrucks.com|website=www.tatratrucks.com}}</ref>

==Tatra concept==
[[File:T-11.JPG|thumb|right|[[Tatra 11]] of 1924]]
{{Main|Backbone chassis}}
In 1919, the company began using the Tatra brand for its cars.

In 1921, the company was renamed "''Kopřivnická vozovka''". That year, the company's director, Leopold Pasching, convinced Ledwinka to return to the company to run its new car plant.<ref name="Hans Ledwinka 2018" />

Ledwinka's next design, the [[Tatra 11]], which was released in 1923, featured a rigid backbone tube with swinging semi-axles at the rear, giving independent suspension. The Tatra 11 was fitted with a front-mounted, air-cooled {{Val | 1=1056 | ul=cc}} two-cylinder engine.

In 1924, the company was renamed "''Závody Tatra''".

The [[Tatra 17]], released in 1925, featured a {{Val | 1=1930 |ul=cc}} water-cooled six-cylinder engine, and fully independent suspension.

In 1926, the Tatra 11 was succeeded by the [[Tatra 12]], which was similar to the Tatra 11, but was equipped with four-wheel brakes.

In 1927, the company was renamed "''Ringhoffer-Tatra''".

[[File:Tatra 87 (Foto Hilarmont).JPG|thumb|right|'''Streamlined Tatras''' {{bulleted list
|'''[[Tatra V570]]''' ''1931, 1933''
|'''[[Tatra 77]]''' ''1934–1938''
|'''[[Tatra 87]]''' ''1936–1950''
|'''[[Tatra 97]]''' ''1936–1939''
|'''[[Tatra 600 Tatraplan]]''' ''1946–1952''
|'''[[Tatra 603]]''' ''1956–1975''
}}
]]

==Prewar streamliners==
[[File:Tatra 77.jpg|thumb|right|[[Tatra 77]], 1933, the world's first production [[aerodynamics|aerodynamic]] car]]
[[File:TatraT97-front.jpg|thumb|[[Tatra 97]], which was later copied by the [[Volkswagen Beetle|VW Beetle]]]]
Tatra's specialty was luxury cars using the most recent technology, going from [[air cooling|air-cooled]] [[flat-twin engine|flat-twin]]s to fours and sixes, culminating (briefly) with the [[Overhead camshaft|OHC]] 6-litre [[V12 engine|V12]] in 1931.<ref>[[G.N. Georgano]] ''Cars: Early and Vintage, 1886–1930''. (London: Grange-Universal, 1985)</ref> In the 1930s, under the supervision of Austrian engineer [[Hans Ledwinka]], his son Erich and German engineer [[Erich Übelacker]], and protected by high tariffs and absence of foreign assemblers,<ref name="Margolius, Ivan and Henry, John G. 1990">{{Cite book|author1=Margolius, Ivan|author2=Henry, John G.|name-list-style=amp | title=Tatra - The Legacy of Hans Ledwinka | location=Harrow | publisher=SAF | year=1990 | isbn=0-946719-06-3}}</ref><ref>[[G.N. Georgano]].</ref> Tatra began building advanced, streamlined cars after obtaining licences from [[Paul Jaray]], which started in 1934 with the large [[Tatra 77]], the world's first production [[aerodynamics|aerodynamic]] car.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{Cite web |url= http://www.tatra.demon.nl/cars_history_T77_T77A.htm |title= Cars & history: Tatra T77 & T77A (1933–1938) |access-date= 2018-08-21 |work= Tatra |publisher= Demon |place= [[Netherlands|NL]] |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20061012221605/http://www.tatra.demon.nl/cars_history_T77_T77A.htm |archive-date= 2006-10-12 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ross |first=Robert |date=2023-01-23 |title=Car of the Week: The 1934 Tatra T77 Is a Czech Wonder. Now a Fully Restored Model Is up for Grabs. |url=https://robbreport.com/motors/cars/1934-tatra-t77-rm-sothebys-2023-amelia-island-auction-1234798368/ |access-date=2023-10-23 |website=Robb Report |language=en-US}}</ref> The average drag coefficient of a 1:5 model of the fastback Tatra 77 was recorded as 0.2455.<ref>Bohumír Mimra, 'Vývojové směry moderního automobilismu', SIA 1936, Technická práce na Ostravsku 1926 – 1936, Moravská Ostrava 1936, p. 593.</ref> It featured (as did almost all subsequent big Tatras) a [[rear-engine design|rear-mounted]], air-cooled [[V8 engine]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-03-03 |title=The Remarkably Futuristic Tatra T77 From 1934 |url=https://silodrome.com/tatra-t77-car/ |access-date=2023-10-23 |website=Silodrome |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Tatra and the conception of the Volkswagen Beetle==
Both [[Adolf Hitler]] and [[Ferdinand Porsche]] were influenced by the Tatras.<ref name="willson">Willson, Quentin ''The Ultimate Classic Car Book''. New Your, New York: DK Publishing Inc., 1995. {{ISBN|0-7894-0159-2}}. Pages 214-215</ref> Hitler was a keen automotive enthusiast, and had ridden in Tatras during political tours of Czechoslovakia.<ref name="Margolius, Ivan and Henry, John G. 1990"/><ref name="willson"/> He had also dined numerous times with Ledwinka.<ref name="willson"/> After one of these dinners Hitler remarked to Porsche, "This is the car for my roads".<ref name="Margolius, Ivan and Henry, John G. 1990"/><ref name="willson"/><ref name="mantle">Car Wars, Jonathan Mantle, Arcade Publishing, 1997</ref> From 1933 onwards, Ledwinka and Porsche met regularly to discuss their designs,<ref name="ukcar">{{cite web|title=Brief History of Tatra|url=http://www.ukcar.com/history/Tatra/index.html|work=UKCAR|access-date=27 January 2011}}</ref> and Porsche admitted "Well, sometimes I looked over his shoulder and sometimes he looked over mine" while designing the [[Volkswagen]].<ref name="willson"/><ref name="mantle" /> There is no doubt that the Beetle bore a striking resemblance to the Tatras, particularly the [[Tatra V570]].<ref name="willson"/> Like the Beetle, the [[Tatra 97]] of 1936 had a rear-located, rear-wheel drive, air-cooled four-cylinder [[boxer engine]] accommodating four passengers and providing luggage storage under the front bonnet and behind the rear seat. Another similarity between this Tatra and the Beetle is the central structural tunnel. Tatra launched a lawsuit against Volkswagen for patent infringement, but this was stopped when [[Nazi occupation of Czechoslovakia|Germany invaded Czechoslovakia]]. At the same time, Tatra was forced to stop producing the T97. The matter was reopened after World War II, and in 1965 Volkswagen paid the Ringhoffer family {{currency|1,000,000|DM}} in an out-of-court settlement.<ref name=schmarbeck>{{cite book|last=Schmarbeck|first=Wolfgang|title=Hans Ledwinka: Seine Autos - Sein Leben|year=1997|publisher=H. Weishaupt Verlag|location=Graz|language=de|page=174|isbn=3-900310-56-4}}</ref>

Tatra and Volkswagen's body design were preceded by similar designs of Hungarian automotive engineer [[Béla Barényi]], whose sketches resembling the Volkswagen Beetle date back to 1925.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://apnews.com/53243665f30f4d97a2a292e3c7e76a41|title=From Nazis to hippies: End of the road for Volkswagen Beetle|last=McHUGH|first=DAVID|date=2019-07-09|website=AP NEWS|access-date=2019-07-09}}</ref>

==War years==
After the 1938 invasion of Czechoslovakia by [[Nazi Germany]], Tatras were kept in production, largely because Germans liked the cars. Many German officers died in car accidents caused by driving the heavy, [[Rear-engine design|rear-engined]] Tatras faster around corners than they could [[Car handling|handle]]. At the time, as an anecdote, Tatra became known as the 'Czech Secret Weapon' for the scores of officers who died behind the wheel; at one point official orders were issued forbidding German officers from driving Tatras.<ref name="Margolius, Ivan and Henry, John G. 1990"/><ref name="time.com">{{Cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/specials/2007/article/0%2C28804%2C1658545_1658498_1657833%2C00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071015040821/http://www.time.com/time/specials/2007/article/0,28804,1658545_1658498_1657833,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=October 15, 2007|title=1961 Corvair/Rear-engine cars|access-date=2008-06-10|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] | date=2007-09-07}}</ref>

[[File:Tatra T600 Tatraplan.jpg|thumb|right|Tatra 600 Tatraplan]]
Tatra was instrumental in the production of trucks and tank engines for the German war effort.{{Citation needed|date=January 2022}}

==Postwar management==
The factory was nationalised in 1945, almost three years before the [[Communist Party of Czechoslovakia|Communist Party]] [[1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état|came to power]], and in January 1946 was renamed "{{Lang|cs|Tatra Národní Podnik}}". Although production of prewar models continued, a new model, the Tatra 600 [[Tatraplan]] was designed—the name celebrating the new Communist [[planned economy]] and the aeroplane inspiration (Colloq. Czech: aeroplán). It went into production in 1948. In 1951, the state planning department decided that the Tatraplan should henceforth be built at the [[Škoda Auto|Škoda]] plant in [[Mladá Boleslav]], leaving Tatra free to concentrate on trucks, buses, and railway equipment.

==The Tatra 603==
{{Unreferenced section|date=March 2023}}
{{Main|Tatra 603}}
[[File:Tatra T603.jpg|thumb|[[Tatra 603]] (1956–1962)]]
In 1953, amid much dissatisfaction among Communist party leaders with the poor-quality official cars imported from Russia, Tatra was again permitted to produce a luxury car, the [[Tatra 603]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=savoy |date=2023-08-24 |title=1958 Tatra T-603 Saloon {{!}} Savoy Automobile Museum |url=https://savoymuseum.org/1958-tatra-t-603-saloon/ |access-date=2026-01-04 |language=en-US}}</ref> Much like Tatra's prewar cars, it was driven by a rear-mounted, air-cooled V8 and had the company's trademark aerodynamic styling. The Tatra 603 initially featured three headlights, and the first prototypes had a central rear stabilising fin, though this feature was lost on production vehicles. It was also fitted with almost [[Passenger vehicles in the United States|American-style]] thick [[Chrome plating|chrome]] [[Bumper (automobile)|bumpers]] with bullets (a.k.a. [[Dagmar bumpers]]). Almost entirely hand-built, Tatras were not available for normal citizens as they were not permitted to buy them.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}} The cars were reserved for the Communist Party elite and industrial officials,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Anderson |first=Brad |date=1 February 2023 |title=The Tatra 603-2 Is A Premium Sedan That You've Never Heard Of |work=Carscoops |url=https://www.carscoops.com/2023/02/the-tatra-603-2-is-a-premium-sedan-that-youve-never-heard-of/ |access-date=23 October 2023}}</ref> as well as being exported to most other communist nations as official state cars. Notably, Cuban President [[Fidel Castro]] had a white Tatra 603, custom-fitted with air conditioning.

Tatra 603s were built until 1975, a twenty-year reign as one of communism's finest cars. Numerous improvements were made during its production run, although not all vehicles built were actually new but rather reconditioned. In exchange for a newer model year car, the older vehicle was returned to the factory. There, it was upgraded to current model year specifications, refinished, and sent out again as a putatively new vehicle to replace another older T603. This makes it difficult to trace the history of surviving vehicles.<ref>{{cite web |title=Tatra 603 – Historic Vehicle Overview |url=https://historicvehicles.com.au/historic-car-brands/tatra/ |publisher=Historic Vehicles |location=Australia |access-date=2026-03-24}}</ref>

==1970s makeover—the Tatra 613==
{{Main|Tatra 613}}
[[File:1976TatraT-613.jpg|thumb|right|Tatra 613 (1976)]]
In 1968, a replacement was developed: the [[Tatra 613]]. It was styled by the Italian styling house of [[Vignale]] and was a more modern, less rounded shape. It was not until 1973 that the car went into production, and volume production did not begin until the following year. Although the layout remained the same, the body was all new, as was the engine, which was equipped with four overhead camshafts, a higher capacity motor (3495 cc) and an output close to {{convert|165|bhp|kW PS|0|abbr=on}}. In addition, it had been moved somewhat forward for improved balance. These cars were built in five series and went through several modifications until production ceased in 1996. Over 11,000 cars were built, and sales slowed to a trickle of just a few dozen per year towards the end of production as Tatras began to seem more and more outdated.

==1990s Tatra 700==
{{Main|Tatra 700}}
[[File:Lešany, Vojenské muzeum, Tatra 700 (jiná přední maska).JPG|thumb|Tatra 700 at a museum]]
The Tatra 700 was a large luxury car released in 1996 by Tatra. It was essentially a heavily restyled version of the Tatra 613 model it replaced, with updated body panels and detailing. The T700 was offered as both a saloon and coupé with either a 3.5 or 4.4 litre 90° air-cooled V8 petrol engine.
The model was neither successful nor produced in large numbers, with a total of 69–72 cars manufactured. The T700 was the last passenger car made by Tatra, with production halting in 1999. At this point, Tatra abandoned automobile manufacturing to concentrate on truck design and manufacture.

==1990s Tatra MTX V8==
[[File:Tatra MTX.JPG|thumb|180px|Tatra MTX V8]]
The [[MTX Tatra V8|Tatra MTX V8]] was the fastest Czech car of all time. Production started in 1991 in [[Kopřivnice]]. It has a Tatra 623 V8 engine with inlet manifold injection producing 225 kW at 6500 rpm. It accelerates from 0–{{convert|100|km/h|abbr=on}} in 5.6 seconds. The top speed is {{convert|265|km/h}}. The Czech designer Václav Král designed this vehicle, with only five ever produced.

==2000s==
[[File:1923TatraT-11.jpg|thumb|right|[[Tatra 11]] at the [[Lane Motor Museum]] in Nashville]]

In February 2008, Tatra announced the world's first and only air-cooled engine meeting the then forthcoming [[Euro 5]] emissions standards. The press release claims 7.5 times lower emissions of [[Atmospheric particulate matter|particulates]] and 3.5 times lower emissions of [[nitrogen oxides]] compared to the previous engine. Further, production of air-cooled engines should significantly reduce the production of greenhouse gases due to the absence of liquid cooling systems. All Tatra vehicles from February 2008 onwards should use the new engine.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.tatra.cz/en/zajimavosti/Press%20ReleaseEURO5.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081029202436/http://www.tatra.cz/en/zajimavosti/Press%20ReleaseEURO5.pdf|url-status=dead|title=Tatra.cz|archivedate=29 October 2008}}</ref> A month later, Tatra CEO Ronald Adams told ''The Prague Post'' Tatra could return to producing passenger cars, saying: "We would not come back to compete with the large automobile mass producers such as Volkswagen, Škoda, Toyota etc. But we might come back with a replica of the old Tatra cars using a current undercarriage and driveline from one of the major automotive producers."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.praguepost.com/|title=Prague Post|website=Prague Post|access-date=26 December 2018}}</ref> The company has launched a feasibility study, hoping to produce one thousand replicas of their legendary Tatraplan and 603 cars in 2010.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://english.radio.cz/tatra-plans-renew-production-its-legendary-models-8597498|title=Tatra plans to renew production of its legendary models |publisher=Radio Prague International |date=3 April 2008 |access-date=16 September 2010}}</ref>

In July 2008, pictures of a fuel cell concept car designed by Mike Jelinek, the Tatra 903, were shown.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.carscoops.com/2008/07/tatra-903-fuel-cell-concept.html |title=Tatra 903 Fuel Cell Concept - Carscoops |publisher=Carscoops |date=1 July 2008 |access-date=6 November 2020}}</ref>

A Tatra 87 is on exhibit at the [[Minneapolis Institute of Arts]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.artsmia.org/blogs/blog/2013/03/03/tatra-t87-four-door-sedan/|title=Tatra T87 four-door sedan|access-date=26 December 2018}}</ref>
{{Clear}}

==Trucks==
===1898–1914 beginning===
[[File:NW 1st lorry2.jpg|thumb|100px|[[NW First Truck]] (1900, replica)]]
[[NW First Truck|The first truck]] manufactured at Kopřivnice in 1898<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.tatra.cz/en/oldhistory_en.asp|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100819101443/http://www.tatra.cz/en/oldhistory_en.asp|url-status=dead|title=Tatra history milestones|archivedate=19 August 2010}}</ref> was a flatbed<ref>{{cite web|last=Prospector |first=Gold |url=https://www.flickr.com/photos/smitty1948/2447261277/ |title=Picture of replica first Tatra truck |publisher=Flickr.com |date=2008-04-27 |access-date=2010-09-16}}</ref> with two liquid-cooled side-by-side-mounted two-cylinder Benz engines each at 2.7 L capacity with total power output of 8.8 kW (12 hp) placed after the rear axle and cargo capacity of 2.5 ton. The unique feature of the engine setup was that the engines could be operated sequentially depending on the load requirements. No. 1 engine was started via a cranking handle and had a flywheel attached, and No. 2 engine, without the flywheel, was connected via a gear clutch and started by the first engine already running.

The second truck manufactured was once again a flatbed R type of 2.5 ton cargo capacity built in 1909. Powered by a liquid-cooled petrol four-cylinder engine of 4.1 L capacity and power output of 18.4 kW (25 hp) with the engine placed above the front axle, which is the conventional design to this day. The vehicle featured solid rubber tyres and semi-elliptic leaf spring suspension. In 1910, Tatra manufactured its first bus, the Omnibus type SO, with a total production of five units.

===1914–1922 serial production===
[[File:NW TL-4 2.jpg|thumb|NW TL-4 (1916)]]
The first true serial truck production at Tatra was instigated by the beginning of [[World War I]]. In the year 1914, there were only two trucks made, type '''T 14/40''' HP; however, by 1915's end, the production jumped to a total of 105 '''TL-2''' units, and the following year, 1916, the numbers rose to a total of 196 TL-2 and 30 '''TL-4'''. Production peaked in 1917 with 19 TL-2 and 303 TL-4 models, but then production declined, and a similar number of vehicles of one type manufactured in a year was not achieved or surpassed until 1936 with the T 27 model.

Technically, models TL-2 and TL-4 were almost identically designed; in fact, TL-4 evolved from TL-2, where both had liquid-cooled [[Overhead camshaft engine|OHC]] engines of max power output of {{convert|25.7|kW|PS hp|0|abbr=on}}. The TL-2 had a [[Gross vehicle mass|GVM]] {{convert|2100|kg|lb|0|abbr=on}} and {{convert|4000|kg|lb|0|abbr=on}} [[Gross Combination Mass|GCM]], TL-4 had {{convert|2700|kg|lb|0|abbr=on}} GVM and {{convert|6700|kg|lb|0|abbr=on}} GCM respectively. Both types remained in production in small series until 1927. The TL-4 is considered the first truck to come out of NW (Nesselsdorfer Wagenbau) to carry the name Tatra in 1919.<ref>Moderní užitkové automobily Tatra kolektiv vývojove konstrukce N.P. Tatra Kopřivnice 1979 Naše Vojsko Praha, 1. vydání ''Modern Utility Automobiles Tatra by design team of N.P. Tatra Kopřivnice'', 1979, Naśe Vojsko, Prague, 1st edition</ref>

===1923–1938 Tatra concept===
[[File:T93.JPG|thumb|6x6 Tatra 93 (1938)]]
After the introduction of Tatra 11 and Tatra 12 cars with their distinctive backbone tube design and swing axles, Tatra introduced its first truck on the same basis,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.global-defence.com/2001/LSpart5.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090925055735/http://www.global-defence.com/2001/LSpart5.html|url-status=dead|title=Tatra swings into action 78 years on|archivedate=25 September 2009}}</ref> the light utility Tatra 13 powered by 2-cylinder air-cooled petrol engine with power output 8.8 kW (12 hp) and {{convert|1000|kg|lb|0|abbr=on}} cargo capacity. Further models followed, and in 1926, '''T23''' and '''T24''' were introduced, nicknamed "bulldogs", which could be considered Tatra's precursors to [[Cab Over Engine|COE]] designed trucks. Improved version '''T13''' was introduced as '''T26''' with a more powerful 4-cylinder flat air-cooled engine and in six-wheeler chassis created capable offroad light utility truck which later evolved into '''T72''' model which was heavily used by the [[Czechoslovak Army]] at the time and was also manufactured under license by the French company Lorraine-Dietrich. In 1933, Tatra built a limited series of '''T25''' heavy artillery tractors with 4 and 6-cylinder petrol engines. The most popular Tatra truck before [[World War II]] was type '''T27''' powered by 4-cylinder petrol or diesel engines, which remained in production for nearly 17 years (1930–1947) with total production of 7,620 units.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tatraportal.sk/index.php?ukaz=popisky/t27_en&lang=en |title=Tatra 27 vehicle description. Retrieved 2008-11-29 |publisher=Tatraportal.sk |access-date=2010-09-16}}</ref> By adding an extra axle to the rear, the type '''T28''' was created; however, it was not successful and only limited production resulted in a mainly bus chassis. In the period from 1931 to 1938, Tatra also built a small utility truck based on the chassis from T30 named Tatra '''T43''' which remained popular with small business owners. '''T72''' model successfully continued the line to '''[[Tatra 82|T82]]''' built mainly for military in cargo and personnel transport between 1935 and 1938 and further to '''T92''' and '''T93''' built for the Romanian army from 1938 to 1941 which were identical except T93 had also a driven front axle.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tatraportal.sk/?ukaz=popisky/t92_en&lang=en |title=Tatra 92 technical specifications. Retrieved 2008-11-29 |publisher=Tatraportal.sk |access-date=2010-09-16}}</ref>

===1939–1956 World War II and beyond===
{{Main|Tatra 111}}
[[File:Vojenská Tatra.jpg|thumb|6x6 Tatra 111 (1942)]]
Following the [[Nazi]] occupation of Czechoslovakia, the production at Kopřivnice was annexed by the Germans for the supply of trucks needed by the [[Wehrmacht]]. Apart from the existing line-up of T27, T92/92, a new heavy truck, the '''T81''', commenced production featuring a liquid-cooled 12.5 L V8 diesel engine with a power output of {{convert|118|kW|PS hp|0|abbr=on}}, in 6×4 axle configuration. This vehicle evolved in 1942 into the '''T111''' which continued in production until 1962, with a total of 33,690 units made.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tatraportal.sk/?ukaz=popisky/t111_en&lang=en |title=Tatra 111 specifications. Retrieved 2008-11-29 |publisher=Tatraportal.sk |access-date=2010-09-16}}</ref> The T111 also featured Tatra's first air-cooled diesel engine, a massive V12 originally designed for the armoured [[Sd.Kfz. 234]] Puma. In the latter stages of World War II, Tatra was instrumental in the development of air-cooled diesel engines for German tanks. In late 1944, General [[Heinz Guderian]] ordered that production of the Type 38(t) [[Hetzer]] tank be modified to incorporate a Tatra Type 928 V-8 air-cooled diesel engine, though this order was delayed so production could continue uninterrupted. After the war, the T111 contributed heavily to the rebuilding effort in [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Eastern Europe]], and a memorial was built at [[Magadan]], [[Siberia]], for its exploits in the [[Far Eastern Federal District|Far East]] of the [[USSR]].<ref>[http://www.tatratech.wz.cz/historie/t111.htm Tatratech.wz.cz] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718192209/http://www.tatratech.wz.cz/historie/t111.htm |date=2011-07-18 }} Tatra 111 history, {{in lang|cs}} Retrieved 2008-11-29</ref>

===1957–1982 moving forward===
{{Main|Tatra 138|Tatra 148|Tatra 813}}
[[File:T 813 8x8 Armee.jpg|thumb|8x8 Tatra 813 'KOLOS' (1967)]]
The decision to replace the reliable but ageing T111 was taken in 1952 based on [[Central planning|central planning economy]] of [[socialist]] government where directive was made to Tatra N.P. that it should concentrate on the manufacture of 7 to 10 ton capacity commercial vehicles and in 1956 first '''T137''' and '''T138''' trucks were exhibited at the Czechoslovak machinery [[trade fair|expo]] in [[Brno]]. Production of the T111 continued alongside the T138 series until 1962. The T138 itself continued in production until 1969 when it was replaced by the '''T148''', which provided an increase in power output, reliability, and product improvements.

In 1967, Tatra began production of the '''T813''' off-road truck using its modular construction technology; the model incorporated the latest trends in commercial vehicle design, such as cab-over-engine (COE) and wide profile tyres. It featured a new V12 engine, and all military versions had a central tyre inflation/deflation system as standard equipment. The T813 was designed to tow loads up to 100 tons [[Gross Combination Mass|GCM]], and it was a familiar sight on the roads in Czechoslovakia hauling large, often oversized loads.

===1982–2008 T815 and beyond===
{{Main|Tatra 815|Tatra 163|Tatra 810}}
[[File:Tatra1021.jpg|thumb|[[Tatra 815]] (1983), multiple winning car of [[Dakar Rally]]]]
[[File:Brno, Autotec 2008, Nákladní automobil Tatra.jpg|thumb|Tatra 815 "TerrNo1" (1998)]]
The Tatra 815 was designed for extreme off-road conditions, and its road versions are derived from the off-road original. After the 53rd session of the [[Comecon|Council for Mutual Economic Assistance]], a directive was issued that Tatra N.P. would be the sole supplier of off-road commercial vehicles of <12 ton capacity for Eastern Bloc countries, leading to a modernization of the company and its production models. Following extensive testing at different sites, including Siberia, the type T815 was introduced in 1982, with production starting in 1983. The T815 was made of 142 main assembly components as opposed to the 219 main assembly components of its predecessor.<ref>The Automobil revue, issue 10'82, the technical monthly of the Czechoslovak Federal Ministry of General Engineering, current ISSN 1211-9555</ref> The engine's power output was increased by up to 45% and a new COE tiltable cabin was introduced. Modular engine designs resulted in offerings of V8, V10, or V12 engines with or without a turbocharger.

T815 was upgraded to T815-2 with minor cosmetic changes and improved ergonomics and safety – the biggest change was the engine emissions accordance with the "Euro0" limits and to [[Euro I]] limits in 1993 (turbocharged V8 engine only since this time for the full legislation; the [[Deutz AG|Deutz]] 513 air-cooled V8 engine was offered as an alternative). The TerrNo1, introduced in 1997,<ref>{{cite web|title=Tatra 815 description|url=http://www.tatra-page.kx.cz/Description/T-815.htm|access-date=2008-11-29|language=cs|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100605034950/http://www.tatra-page.kx.cz/Description/T-815.htm|archive-date=2010-06-05}}</ref> featured a redesigned cabin as well as better sound and heat insulation than the previous models. The TerrNo1 was based on the same frame as the previous models, so its cabin could be retrofitted to all type T815s built since 1993.<ref>{{cite web|title=TerrNo1 cabin|url=http://www.tatra-page.kx.cz/Description/T-815.htm|access-date=2008-11-29|language=cs|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100605034950/http://www.tatra-page.kx.cz/Description/T-815.htm|archive-date=2010-06-05}}</ref> In 2000, the TerrNo1 cabin was again redesigned, and for the first time, there was an option to fit liquid-cooled engines.

The TerrNo1 model introduced the 'KingFrame rear axle suspension setup. Another step in evolution for the T3B engine came with the [[Euro II]] emission limits. Following further improvements in 2003, the T815 had the new [[Euro III]] T3C V8 engine mated to all new 14-speed range+split gearbox as well as an option for engines from other suppliers such as [[Caterpillar Inc|Caterpillar]], [[Cummins]], [[Detroit Diesel]], [[Deutz AG|Deutz]] and [[MTU Friedrichshafen|MTU]] to be fitted. In September 2006, Tatra introduced its [[Euro IV]] compliant turbocharged T3D engine with the [[Selective catalytic reduction|SCR]] exhaust technology, and in February 2008, the company introduced the world's first [[Euro V]]-compliant air-cooled diesel engine based on the T3D engine.<ref>{{cite web|title=Tatra On Air the only aircooled Euro V engine in the world |url=http://www.tatra.cz/en/zajimavosti/Press%20ReleaseEURO5.pdf |access-date=2008-11-29 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081029202436/http://www.tatra.cz/en/zajimavosti/Press%20ReleaseEURO5.pdf |archive-date=October 29, 2008 }}</ref>

The T816 (T815-6) Armax<ref>{{cite web|title=Tatra Armax|url=http://www.tatra.cz/en/down/armax_en.pdf|access-date= 2008-11-29 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061009044753/http://www.tatra.cz/en/down/armax_en.pdf |archive-date = October 9, 2006}}</ref> and Force<ref>{{cite web|title=Tatra Force|url= http://www.tatra.cz/en/down/force_EN.pdf|access-date= 2008-11-29 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061009044346/http://www.tatra.cz/en/down/force_EN.pdf |archive-date = October 9, 2006}}</ref> series, derivatives of Tatra 815, were introduced in 1993 after Tatra participated in the tender process to supply heavy duty off-road trucks to the [[United Arab Emirates Armed Forces|UAE armed forces]]. After two years of bidding, the company secured a contract worth $180 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=T816 history|url=http://www.tatra-page.kx.cz/Description/T-816.htm|language=cs|access-date=2008-11-29|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090207071907/http://www.tatra-page.kx.cz/Description/T-816.htm|archive-date=2009-02-07}}</ref>
[[File:Brno, Autotec, Nákladní automobil Tatra Jamal.jpg|thumb|[[Tatra 163|Tatra 163 (1999)]]]]
The resulting model became known as T816 "LIWA" ([[Arabic language|Arabic]] for "desert").<ref>{{cite web|title=Tatra military specials T816|url=http://www.tatra.cz/en/vojenska_en.asp|access-date= 2008-11-29 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080822135416/http://www.tatra.cz/en/vojenska_en.asp |archive-date = August 22, 2008}}</ref> The 2008 model intended for military customers is the T817 (T815-7),<ref>{{cite web|title=Tatra military trucks|url=http://www.army-technology.com/contractors/vehicles/tatra/|access-date= 2008-11-29 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080822004045/http://www.army-technology.com/contractors/vehicles/tatra/ |archive-date = August 22, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Tatra 817|url=http://www.tatra.cz/en/down/sedmicka_en.pdf|access-date= 2008-11-29 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061107072512/http://www.tatra.cz/en/down/sedmicka_en.pdf |archive-date = November 7, 2006}}</ref> marketed primarily toward the armed services of [[NATO]] member countries as a high-mobility heavy-duty tactical truck with a low profile cabin for [[C-130]] Hercules transportability.

During the 1990s, Tatra decided to produce a bonneted CBE heavy-duty off-road truck to continue the successful line started with the T111. This resulted in the [[Tatra 163|T163 Jamal]], which was put into full production in 1999<ref>{{cite web|title=Tatra 163 Jamal|url=http://www.tatra.cz/en/down/jamal_EN.pdf|access-date= 2008-11-19 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061009044850/http://www.tatra.cz/en/down/jamal_EN.pdf |archive-date = October 9, 2006}}</ref> after the first prototypes were built in 1997 and following extensive testing. The T163 was purpose-built to be a heavy-duty dump truck due to demand, and was based on Tatra's signature backbone tube chassis construction with its cabin being designed by Jiří Španihel.<ref>{{cite web|title=Jiří Španihel|url=http://www.spanihel.cz/en/|access-date= 2008-11-29}}</ref> The truck is used mainly on construction sites and in quarries.

Tatra was also a successful bidder for the [[Military of the Czech Republic|Czech Army]] replacement of aging Praga V3S (with the Tatra I6 air-cooled engine – one half of the T111 V12 one) medium off-road truck with [[Tatra 810|T810]] which technically is not a "genuine" Tatra as its origin goes back to when former Czech company ROSS, in partnership with Renault Trucks, obtained a contract to supply the army with medium size off-road trucks, the "ROSS R210 6×6". The company, however, went bankrupt in 1998, and Tatra bought full rights to the design, then modernized and reintroduced it as T810 while continuing cooperation with Renault.<ref>{{cite web|title=Tatra T810|url=http://www.janes.com/extracts/extract/jmvl/jmvla039.html|access-date= 2008-11-29}}</ref> Under the deal Renault supplies the cabins and the engines and [[Praga Hostivar|Praga]] supplied axles and transmissions for the prototypes; however, the whole project has been dogged by controversy due to the way Tatra had obtained the contract, its relationship with supplier Praga and the subsequent court case brought against it by Praga.<ref>{{cite web|title=Praga loses its court bid against Tatra|url=http://www.tatra.cz/en/zajimavosti/zamitnuti_zaloby_Pragy_en.htm|access-date=2008-11-29|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090215014626/http://www.tatra.cz/en/zajimavosti/zamitnuti_zaloby_Pragy_en.htm|archive-date=2009-02-15}}</ref>

The serial T810 vehicles are equipped with the new design Tatra rigid axles with the [[Westinghouse Air Brake Company|WABCO]] disc brakes, with the [[ZF Friedrichshafen|ZF]] Ecolite transmission and [[Steyr]] drop box.

===Navistar and Tatra===
Tatra and [[Navistar]] Defence introduced at [[Eurosatory]] Exposition in Paris, France (Jun 14–18, 2010), the results of their strategic alliance since October 2009, the models ATX6 (universal container carrier) and ATX8 (troop carrier).<ref>{{cite web|title=Navistar, Tatra unveil two tactical vehicles at Eurosatory|url=http://www.defenseworld.net/go/defensenews.jsp?n=Navistar,%20Tatra%20unveil%20two%20tactical%20vehicles%20at%20Eurosatory&id=4632|access-date=27 June 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101218230915/http://defenseworld.net/go/defensenews.jsp?n=Navistar,%20Tatra%20unveil%20two%20tactical%20vehicles%20at%20Eurosatory&id=4632|archive-date=18 December 2010}}</ref> The vehicles appear to be based on Tatra 815-7 (T817) 6×6, 8×8 chassis,<ref>{{cite web|title= Navistar-Tatra-ATX8-8×8-truck-system|url=http://www.deagel.com/library/Navistar-Tatra-ATX8-8×8-truck-system_m02010061500047.aspx|access-date=27 June 2010}}</ref> suspension and cabins while using Navistar engines and other components.<ref>{{cite web|title= Navistar Defense and Tatra's ATX6 at Eurosatory|url= http://www.tatraworld.nl/2010/06/27/navistar-defense-and-tatras-atx6-at-eurosatory/|access-date= 27 June 2010|url-status= dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100916183323/http://www.tatraworld.nl/2010/06/27/navistar-defense-and-tatras-atx6-at-eurosatory/|archive-date= 16 September 2010}}</ref> Under the deal Navistar Defence and Tatra A.S. will market the vehicles in North America, which includes sales to the United States military and foreign military sales financed by the United States government. Tatra will source parts and components through Navistar's global parts and support network for Tatra trucks delivered in markets outside of North America, as well as market Navistar-Tatra vehicles around the world in their primary markets.{{citation needed|date=May 2015}}

==Ownership==
The [[Terex Corporation]], an American company, acquired the majority ownership (71%) of Tatra in late 2003.<ref>Terex sells its 80 percent share of Tatra. here [https://all-tatra.blogspot.com/2006/10/terex-corporation-sells-stake-in-czech.html] and Here [https://all-tatra.blogspot.com/2006/10/terex-announces-divestiture-of-its.html].</ref> As of late 2006, however, majority ownership (80.51%) was in the hands of Tatra Holdings s.r.o., an international consortium comprising Vectra Limited of the UK, Sam Eyde of the U.S., KBC Private Equity of Belgium, Meadowhill s.r.o. of the Czech Republic, and Ronald Adams of the U.S. On 15 December 2006, a contract was signed between Tatra and the Czech Republic for 556 trucks at roughly $130 million, or 2.6 billion [[Czech crown]]s. This contract was signed instead of the replacement of older military vehicles.

In April 2007, Tatra announced that it had already matched its production in 2006 and produced 1,600 vehicles. In 2007, Tatra planned to produce between 2,300 and 2,500 vehicles. In contrast to previous years, Tatra has increased employment by the hundreds within the past two quarters, has reversed previous errors, and was growing again.{{citation needed|date=May 2015}}

In August 2011, [[DAF Trucks]] announced it had built up a 19% stake in Tatra to tighten up cooperation between the companies.<ref>{{cite news |title=Paccar's DAF to gain stake in Czech Tatra |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/markets/us/paccars-daf-to-gain-stake-in-czech-tatra-idUSL6E7J22MS/ |work=Reuters |date=2011-08-02 |access-date=2026-01-19}}</ref> DAF's cabs and [[Paccar]] engines became the mainstay of the civilian [[Tatra 158 Phoenix]], while DAF dealerships started selling Tatra trucks.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.roadtransport.com/blogs/big-lorry-blog/2011/08/daf-trucks-grabs-19-stake-in-t.html|access-date=2011-08-03|title=DAF Trucks grabs 19% stake in TATRA and supplies engines and cabs for new range! Biglorryblog has the story...|date=2011-08-03|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110828074547/http://www.roadtransport.com/blogs/big-lorry-blog/2011/08/daf-trucks-grabs-19-stake-in-t.html|archive-date=2011-08-28}}</ref>

In early 2013, Tatra was facing mounting financial problems. Even though the company had sufficient orders for new trucks, manufacturing was halted as banks refused to provide further loans, and the company was facing imminent bankruptcy. In March 2013, the majority stake in Tatra was acquired by major Czech defense contractor [[Czechoslovak Group]] and Czech metallurgy company [[Promet Group]], which provided the company with necessary financial stability. With new owners, Tatra focused its production primarily towards building specialist vehicles tailored to buyers' custom orders. While in 2013 sales amounted to 722 units, in 2023 the company plans to sell over 2,000 trucks, with future increases in sales requiring enlarging of manufacturing capacity.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.idnes.cz/ekonomika/podniky/tatra-auto-strnad-radomir-smolka.A230314_121146_ekoakcie_ven | title=Tatry teď stíháme vyrábět jen taktak, říká šéf výzkumu a vývoje automobilky | date=15 March 2023 }}</ref>

== Current models ==
Tatra is known as a heavy-truck maker.<ref>{{cite news |last=Lopatka |first=Jan |title=CSG scouting for more acquisitions after Italian ammo maker Fiocchi |url=https://www.reuters.com/legal/transactional/csg-scouting-more-acquisitions-after-italian-ammo-maker-fiocchi-2022-12-05/ |work=Reuters |date=2022-12-05 |access-date=2026-01-19}}</ref> It mostly supplies individual, highly specialized custom-made vehicles and also sells just the backbone chassis for use in other manufacturers' trucks or specialized vehicles.<ref>{{cite news|title=České výrobce užitkových vozidel láká západní Evropa|url=https://zpravy.e15.cz/byznys/prumysl-a-energetika/ceske-vyrobce-uzitkovych-vozidel-laka-zapadni-evropa-1339953|work=E15.cz|date=20 November 2017|language=cs}}</ref> The current serial production models are:

* '''[[Tatra 810]] ''Tactic''''' – medium off-road truck based on [[Vehicle frame#Ladder frame|conventional frame]], portal axles, and equipped with a Renault water-cooled engine and cabin. Primarily intended for military operators, also offered on the civilian market.

<gallery>
File:Brno, Autotec 2008, armádní Tatra.jpg
File:Autotec 2010 - 95.JPG
Crane AD10 on TATRA 810.jpg
</gallery>

* '''[[Tatra 817]] ''Force''''' – heavy off-road truck based on Tatra backbone chassis, Tatra air-cooled engines (other engines also possible) and Tatra cabin. Primarily intended for military operators, also offered on the civilian market.

<gallery>
File:Tatra T 815-7.jpg
File:Dowerin Field Days, 2021 (10).jpg
File:Neptune complex, Kyiv 2021, 10.jpg
</gallery>

* '''[[Tatra 158 Phoenix|Tatra 158]] ''Phoenix''''' – heavy off-road truck based on Tatra backbone chassis and equipped with DAF cabin and ZF water-cooled engines. Primarily intended for civilian operators, also offered on the military market.

<gallery>
File:Tatra-158-Phoenix-H-INTES Líšný-CIMG2392.jpg
File:Tatra Phoenix (40915784892).jpg
File:Tatra-158-Phoenix-Euro6 MIZERA-CIMG2204.jpg
</gallery>

== Worldwide distribution ==
[[File:Tatra 815 1.jpg|thumb|Tatra 815 of THW [[Staßfurt]] in 2006]]

=== Germany ===
Several fire brigades and [[Technisches Hilfswerk|civil protection (THW)]], mostly in eastern Germany, are traditionally using Tatra trucks. Tatra's own conversion company, THT, builds vehicles for fire brigades and civil protection. Popular in Germany is a large Water tender and pumper based on the Tatra 815.{{citation needed|date=January 2023}} The vehicle's water tank has a volume of 4,000 liters or more and a separate tank for [[Foam|foam agent]]. The 4×4 transmission and a gear wading depth of 1.20m make it suitable for rough terrain. In German use, the vehicle is called "TLF4000" (Tanklöschfahrzeug 4000) and is primarily used at [[airport]]s and to fight forest fires.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Löb |first=Rico |date=2017-05-04 |title=FFW Großschönau: TLF 4000 auf Tatra 815-7 |url=https://blaulicht-magazin.net/tlf-4000-auf-tatra-815-7/ |access-date=2022-07-28 |website=Blaulicht-Magazin.net |language=de-DE}}</ref>

In 2021 the [[Bundeswehr fire brigade]] ordered 76 Tatra firefighting vehicles to fight forest fires (ordered by BwFuhrparkService GmbH). They are based upon the Tatra T 815-7 4×4 chassis, with equipment by [[Austria]]n [[Rosenbauer|Rosenbauer Group]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fahrzeugbeschaffungen – Erste Auftragserteilung durch BwFuhrparkService GmbH |date=23 August 2021 |url=https://bundeswehrfeuerwehr.de/fahrzeugbeschaffungen-erste-auftragserteilung-durch-bwfuhrparkservice-gmbh/ |access-date=2022-07-28 |language=de-DE}}</ref>

=== India ===
Tatra had a truck-building joint venture in India called Tatra Vectra Motors Ltd, formerly called Tatra Trucks India Ltd. It is a joint venture between Tatra and the Vectra Group from England.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tatraindia.com/Files/Introduction.htm |title=Introduction to Tatra Vectra Motors Limited |publisher=Tatraindia.com |access-date=2011-01-24 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111004122730/http://www.tatraindia.com/Files/Introduction.htm |archive-date=2011-10-04 }}</ref> In 2002, the company received a 1,070-truck order from the [[Government of India]].<ref>{{cite web|date=2002-05-09|title=SDC Announces Large Indian Order for its Tatra Truck Unit; Tatra Backlog Up Significantly Over Last Year. (09-MAY-02) Business Wire|url=http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-25327790_ITM|access-date=2009-05-07|publisher=Accessmylibrary.com}}</ref> Tatra's growing involvement in India's defense industry has been cited as an example of growing relations between the Czech Republic and India.<ref>{{cite web|date=2003-01-06|title=The Czechs' Indian Gambit|url=http://www.globalpolitician.com/22889-czech|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090215052155/http://www.globalpolitician.com/22889-czech|archive-date=2009-02-15|access-date=2009-05-07|publisher=Global Politician}}</ref>

In 2009, [[Vectra Group|Vectra]] announced a new joint venture with Russia's [[Kamaz]] to form Kamaz Vectra Motors Limited to manufacture Kamaz trucks in India.<ref name="vectragroup.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.vectragroup.com/gc_kamazvectra.asp |title=Vectra Group - Group Companies - Kamaz Vectra Motors Ltd |access-date=2011-10-13 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111121115733/http://www.vectragroup.com/gc_kamazvectra.asp |archive-date=2011-11-21 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://machinist.in/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=2058&Itemid=2|title=MACHINIST|website=machinist.in|access-date=26 December 2018}}</ref> This joint venture replaced the former Tatra Vectra venture.<ref name="vectragroup.com" /> The manufacturing plant is located in Hosur, Tamil Nadu. The fully integrated manufacturing facility includes an engine assembly and testing plant, a cabin welding shop, a frame fabrication shop, and a test track. Most Tatra trucks for sale in India are manufactured in collaboration with [[Bharat Earth Movers Limited]] (BEML).<ref>[http://www.cbw.cz/en/india-rising/3112.html CBW.cz] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090218123939/http://www.cbw.cz/en/india-rising/3112.html |date=February 18, 2009 }}</ref>

Tatra was part of a [[Tatra Truck scam|2012 investigation]] in what has been described a "procurement scam" involving former [[BEML Limited|BEML]] chief VRS Natarajan.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Pioneer|first=The|title=Tatra truck scam: CBI gears up to finalise chargesheet|url=https://www.dailypioneer.com/2014/sunday-edition/tatra-truck-scam-cbi-gears-up-to-finalise-chargesheet.html|access-date=2021-06-21|website=The Pioneer|language=en}}</ref>

<gallery>
File:Know Your Army Jalandhar 2009-83.jpg|Tatra Recovery Vehicle of the Indian Army
File:Tatra truck.jpg|A Tatra Truck at [[India Gate]], New Delhi, on India Republic Day on 26 January
File:Smerch 30MM hemant rawat (11).jpg|Indian Army Tatra truck carrying [[BM-30 Smerch]] rocket
</gallery>

=== Israel ===
[[File:SPYDER.jpg|thumb|SPYDER anti-aircraft missile system developed by the Israeli company [[Rafael Advanced Defense Systems|Rafael]], fitted atop a TATRA truck]]
Reportedly, following one of the Israeli-Arab conflicts, Israel tested some Tatras captured from the Egyptian armed forces. The [[Israel Defense Forces]]' command was apparently quite impressed with their performance, independent air cooling, and their capabilities as military trucks in long-range raiding operations in desert terrain, and became interested in including these trucks in their arsenal. As direct purchase from Czechoslovakia was impossible due to its alignment with Israeli foes, the lore has it that Israelis used the well-paid services of [[Nicolae Ceauşescu]]-led Romania, in cooperation with an American Company called ATC (American Truck Company) to purchase military trucks, including desert-equipped Tatras, leading to jokes that "Romania has a new desert". Current photos of various Israeli weapon systems, including [[SPYDER]] slated for India, show new Tatras as the carrier vehicles.{{Citation needed|date=April 2011}}

A number of Tatra trucks entered service in the Israeli Army's various sectors, with the brand mark of "American Truck Company", under which Tatras were sold from the U.S. market and exported to Israel.

=== United States ===
''American Truck Company'' was a quasi-independent company set up by Terex, when they controlled Tatra, to import Tatra vehicles in both knock down kits or fully built and carry out assembly operations, repair and service, body building on chassis in the United States.<ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/NvtckL1XG40 Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20160826220711/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NvtckL1XG40 Wayback Machine]{{cbignore}}: {{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NvtckL1XG40|title=Military Vehicles [Czech/USA]: ATC 6x6 14-Tonne Tactical Truck (Tatra/Terex)|last=DanieruShidebuteru|date=21 November 2010 |access-date=26 December 2018|via=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="mtc">{{Cite web|url=http://www.military-today.com/trucks/atc_6x6.htm|title=ATC 6x6 - Heavy utility truck|access-date=26 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226133756if_/http://www.military-today.com/trucks/atc_6x6.htm|archive-date=26 December 2018|url-status=usurped}}</ref> These trucks were offered to the military and other government organizations and were badged and sold in the United States under the ATC brand.<ref name="mtc"/> ATC badged Tatras were fitted with American Cummins turbodiesel engines in place of the Tatra's air-cooled diesel.<ref name="mtc"/>

==Tatra aircraft==
[[File:T131.jpg|thumb|Tatra T.131, a licence-built Bücker Bü 131 Jungmann]]
[[File:Tatra 101.2.JPG|thumb|Tatra T.101 two-seater touring aircraft]]
The Ringhoffer-Tatra Works Ltd. produced several aircraft and aero-engines in the 1930s and 1940s before annexation by Germany, and after under the orders of the [[Ministry of Aviation (Germany)|RLM]]. Among the aircraft produced were the following:<ref>* Grey, C.G. & Bridgman, Leonard. Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1938. Sampson Low, Marston & company, ltd.. London. 1938</ref>-

===Built under licence===
* [[Avro 626|Tatra T.126]] (Avro 626 Avian)
* [[Bücker Bü 131|Tatra T.131]] (Bücker Bü 131 Jungmann)

===Tatra designed and built===
* [[Tatra T.001]]
* [[Tatra T.002]]
* [[Tatra T.003]]
* [[Tatra T.101]]
* [[Tatra T.201]]
* [[Tatra T.301]]
** [[Tatra T.401]]

==Historic models==
===Passenger cars===
====Before the company was renamed to Tatra====
* [[Präsident|NW Präsident]] (1897)
* [[NW Präsident II]] (1898)
* [[NW Elektromobil]] (1900)
* [[NW A]] (1900–1902)
* [[NW B]] (1902–1904)
* [[NW C]] (1902–1905)
* [[NW D]] (1902–1905)
* [[NW E]] (1904–1906)
* [[NW F]] (1906)
* [[NW J]] (1906–1911)
* [[NW L]] (1906–1911)
* [[NW S]] (1906–1911)
* [[Tatra 20|NW T]] (1914–1919)
* [[Tatra 10|NW U]] (1915–1919)

====After the name Tatra was adopted====
* [[Tatra 10]] (1919–1927, renamed from NW U)
* [[Tatra 11]] (1923–1927)
* [[Tatra 12]] (1926–1934)
* [[Tatra 17]] (1925–1929)
* [[Tatra 20]] (1919–1926, renamed from NW T)
* [[Tatra 30]] (1926–1931)
* {{ill|Tatra 31|cs}} (1928–1930, based on the T17)
* [[Tatra 52]] (1931–1939)
* [[Tatra 54]] (1931–1934)
* [[Tatra 57]] (1931–1948)
* [[Tatra 70]] (1931–1936)
* [[Tatra 75]] (1934–1942)
* [[Tatra 77]] (1934–1938)
* [[Tatra 80]] (1930–1937, based on the T70)
* [[Tatra 87]] (1937–1950)
* [[Tatra 97]] (1937–1939)
* [[Tatra 600|Tatra 107]] (1946; initial designation for the T600)
* [[Tatra 600|Tatra 600 Tatraplan]] (1948–1952)
* [[Tatra 603]] (1956–1975)
* [[Tatra 613]] (1974–1996)
* [[Tatra 623]] (1980–1998)
* [[Tatra 700]] (1996–1999)

===Trucks===
[[File:T805 hasiči.JPG|thumb|"baby" Tatra T805]]
[[File:T813 army2.JPG|thumb|[[RM-70 multiple rocket launcher]]]]
[[File:OT-64 SKOT.jpg|thumb|[[OT-64 SKOT]]]]
* [[NW First Truck]] (1898)
* [[NW O]] (1907–1909)
* [[NW R]] (1908)
* [[NW K]] (1909–1911)
* [[NW M]] (1909–1911)
* [[NW SO]] (1910–1914)
* [[NW TL-2]] (1915–1924)
* [[NW TL-4]] (1916–1924)
* [[NW TO]] (1920–1928)
* [[Tatra 13]] (1925–1933)
* {{ill|Tatra 22|cs}} (1934–1935, derived from the T27)
* {{ill|Tatra 23|cs}} (1927–1933, first Tatra truck with a backbone frame)
* {{ill|Tatra 24|cs}} (1929–1939, three-axle version of T23)
* {{ill|Tatra 25|cs}} (1928, 1933–1934)
* [[Tatra 26]] (1926–1933)
* {{ill|Tatra 27|cs}} (1930–1947)
* [[Tatra 27|Tatra 28]] (1932, three-axle version of T27)
* {{ill|Tatra 43|cs}} (1929–1938)
* [[Tatra 49]] (1929–1930)
* [[Tatra 72]] (1933–1937)
* [[Tatra 74]]
* [[Tatra 79]]
* [[Tatra 81]] (1939–1942, predecessor of T111)
* [[Tatra 82]] (1935–1937)
* {{ill|Tatra 85|cs}} (1936–1941)
* [[Tatra 92]] (1938–1940, developed from T82)
* [[Tatra 92|Tatra 93]] (1937–1941)
* [[Tatra 98]]
* [[Tatra 111]] (1942–1962)
* {{ill|Tatra 114|cs|Tatra 114/115}} (1947–1948, developed from the T27)
* {{ill|Tatra 115|cs|Tatra 114/115}} (1948–1949, T114 development)
* {{ill|Tatra 128|cs}} (1951–1952, T111 derivative)
* [[Tatra 138]] (1959–1971)
** [[OT-64 SKOT]] Tatra engine powered [[Eight-wheel drive|8×8]] armored personnel carrier
* {{ill|Tatra 141|cs}} (1957–1970, tractor based on T111)
* {{ill|Tatra 147|cs}} (1957–1961, dump truck based on T111)
* [[Tatra 148]] (1972–1982, improved T138)
* [[Tatra 158|Tatra 158 ''Phoenix'']] (2011–present)
* [[Tatra 163|Tatra 163 ''Jamal'']] (1999–2014)
* {{ill|Tatra 805|cs}} (1953–1960)
* {{ill|Tatra 809|cs}} (1953)
* [[Tatra 810|Tatra 810 ''ANTS'']] (2008–present)
* [[Tatra 813]] (1967–1982)
** [[RM-70]] [[Eight-wheel drive|8×8]] armored multiple rocket launcher based on Tatra 813
* [[Tatra 815|Tatra 815, 815-2 and ''TerrNo1'']] (1983–2025)
** [[Tatrapan]] [[six-wheel drive|6×6]] Armored vehicle based on the Tatra 815 chassis.
* [[Tatra 816]] (1996–present)
** '''Armax''' Trucks [[four-wheel drive|4×4]], [[six-wheel drive|6×6]] and [[eight-wheel drive|8×8]] with air-cooled Tatra engines and transmissions by Tatra
* [[Tatra 817]] (2008–present, developed from the T815)

===Buses===
* {{ill|Tatra 500 HB|cs}} (1950–1957)

===Trolleybuses===
[[File:Trol Tatra T 400 Brno.jpg|thumb|Tatra 400 trolleybus]]
* Tatra 86 (1936–38)<ref name="murray">{{cite book|last=Murray|first=Alan|title=World Trolleybus Encyclopaedia|year=2000|pages=99, 148|publisher=Trolleybooks|location=Yateley, Hampshire, UK|isbn=0-904235-18-1}}</ref>
* Tatra 400 (1948–1955)<ref name="murray"/>
* Tatra 401 (1958; only one built)<ref name="murray"/>

===Railcars===
* Tatra 14 (1925–1968, self-propelled freight trolley)
* Tatra 15 (1927–1932, railcar with T57 body)
* Tatra 16 (1926, small freight railcar with van body)
* Tatra 18 (1925–1926, armored version of T14)
* Tatra 19

===Prototypes and racing cars===
* [[NW Rennzweier]] (1900)
* [[NW Second Truck]] (1909)
* [[NW T14/40]] (1914)
* [[Tatra 12|Tatra 12 Targa Florio]] (1925)
* [[Tatra 30|Tatra 30 Sport]] (1926)
* [[Tatra 34]] (prototype armored car based on T31)
* [[Tatra 84]] (1935, first all-wheel-drive Tatra)
* [[Tatra 90]] (1935)
* [[Tatra 111|Tatra 112]] (original designation of T111)
* [[Tatra 111|Tatra 113]] (proposed 6x4 version of T111)
* [[Tatra 116|Tatra 116/117/120]] (1948-1952, prototype conventional frame truck; cancelled as less capable to the original backbone design)
* [[Tatra 118|Tatra 118/119/122]] (1948-1952, three-axle version of T116; cancelled as less capable to the original backbone design)
* [[Tatra 128|Tatra 130]] (1951, three-axle version of T128)
* [[Tatra 128|Tatra 131]] (1951, T128 with dual rear wheels)
* [[Tatra 138|Tatra 137]] (1956, two-axle version of T138, produced as the T138 4x4)
* [[Tatra 815#History|Tatra 157]] (1972; intended to replace the T148 but became the T815)
* [[Tatra 162]] (1987)
* [[Tatra 163|Tatra 163 Jamal Evo]] (2003)
* [[Tatra 600|Tatra 201]] (1947)
* [[Tatra 600|Tatra 600 Diesel]] (1952)
* [[Tatra 601|Tatra 601 Convertible]] (1951)
* [[Tatra 601|Tatra 601 Monte Carlo]] (1949)
* [[Tatra 602|Tatra 602 Tatraplan Sport]] (1949)
* [[Tatra 603|Tatra 603 A]] (1964)
* [[Tatra 603|Tatra 603 B5]] (1966)
* [[Tatra 603|Tatra 603 B6]] (1967)
* [[Tatra 603|Tatra 603 MB]] (1961)
* [[Tatra 603|Tatra 603 Monte Carlo]]
* [[Tatra 603|Tatra 603 X]] (1966)
* [[Tatra 604]] (1954)
* [[Tatra 605]] (1957)
* [[Tatra 607 Monopost]] (1950–1954)
* {{ill|Tatra 607-2|cs|Tatra 607 Monopost}} (1954–1958)
* [[Tatra 801]] (1949)
* [[Tatra 803]] (1950)
* [[Tatra 804]] (1951, lightweight T803)
* [[Tatra 805|Tatra 806]] (1951, based on T803)
* [[Tatra Baghira]] (1973)
* {{ill|Tatra Delfín|cs}} (1963)
* [[Tatra JK 2500]] (1956)
* [[Tatra T-III]] (1936 prototype tank)
* [[Tatra 700|Tatra Prezident]] (1994)
* [[MTX Tatra V8]] (1991)
* [[Tatra V570]] (1931)
* [[Tatra V740]] (1937)
* [[Tatra V750]] (1935)
* [[Tatra V799]] (1938)
* [[Tatra V809]] (1940)
* {{ill|Tatra V855|cs|Tatra V 855}} (1942)

==See also==
* [[František Kardaus]]
* [[Austro-Tatra]]
* [[Avia Motors|Avia]]
* [[List of Czech automobiles]]
* [[List of automobile manufacturers]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090219124527/http://www.tatra.cz/en/down/profil_EN.pdf Tatra company profile, Retrieved 2008-11-29]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20091123005210/http://www.tatra.cz/web_en/brozury/vojaci_EN.pdf Present Tatra military trucks (T810, T815, T816, T817)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080324222615/http://www.tatraworld.nl/tatraworld-historypage.htm Tatra history at Tatra World]
* Grey, C.G. & Bridgman, Leonard. Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1938. Sampson Low, Marston & company, ltd.. London. 1938
* Willson, Quentin ''The Ultimate Classic Car Book''. New Your, New York: DK Publishing Inc., 1995. {{ISBN|0-7894-0159-2}}. Pages 214-215

==Further reading==
* {{Cite book|author1=Margolius, Ivan|author2=Henry, John G.|name-list-style=amp | title=Tatra - The Legacy of Hans Ledwinka | location=Harrow | publisher=SAF | year=1990 | isbn=0-946719-06-3}}
* {{Cite book|author1=Margolius, Ivan|author2=Henry, John G.|name-list-style=amp | title=Tatra - The Legacy of Hans Ledwinka, new edition | location=Dorchester | publisher=Veloce Publishing | year=2015 | isbn=978-1-845847-99-9}}
* ''Tatra Automobiles - Luxury Cars from Koprivnice 1920–1940'' by Miroslav Gomola, AGM publisher Czech Republic
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080306143814/http://www.tatraworld.nl/Tatra_World_literature.htm List of Literature and Magazines articles related to Tatra]

==External links==
{{Commons category|Tatra (company)}}
* [http://www.tatra.cz/ Tatra Official site]
* [https://tatra-lkw.de/ TATRA GERMANY]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080711024842/http://www.tatraindia.com/ Tatra India]
* [http://www.tatraplan.co.uk/ Tatra and Tatraplan cars site]
* [http://www.sos-tatra.prodejce.cz/ Tatra Cars Services]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071009200548/http://www.tatra.demon.nl/ International Streamlined Tatra Site]
* [http://www.aviators.cz/ Tatra Aircraft History] {{in lang|cs}}
* [http://www.tatramuseum.cz/ Tatra Museum]
* [http://wheels.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/07/20/tatras-long-twilight-is-explored-at-a-tennessee-museum/?hpw "Tatra’s Long Twilight Is Explored at a Tennessee Museum"] at NY Times, July 20, 2011
* [http://autohistories.org/tatra/index.html the unofficial Tatra Automobile pages] - history and pictures (English)
* [http://autohistories.org/tatra_trucks/index.html the unofficial Tatra Truck History pages] - history and pictures (English)

{{Tatra models}}
{{Automotive industry in the Czech Republic}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Tatra (Company)}}
[[Category:Tatra (company)| ]]
[[Category:Czech brands]]
[[Category:Rear-engined vehicles]]
[[Category:Luxury motor vehicle manufacturers]]
[[Category:Motor vehicle manufacturers of Czechoslovakia]]
[[Category:Aircraft manufacturers of the Czech Republic and Czechoslovakia]]
[[Category:Aircraft engine manufacturers of the Czech Republic]]
[[Category:Truck manufacturers of the Czech Republic]]
[[Category:Trolleybus manufacturers]]
[[Category:Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1850]]
[[Category:Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1897]]
[[Category:Defence companies of the Czech Republic]]
[[Category:Bus manufacturers of the Czech Republic]]
[[Category:Diesel engine manufacturers]]
[[Category:1897 establishments in Austria-Hungary]]

Celsa Pinto

2026-03-26T08:56:33Z

Alimirza: Creating A Entry...

{{Short description|Indian historian, educator and author}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2025}}
{{Infobox writer
| name = Celsa Pinto
| honorific_suffix =
| image = Historian Dr Celsa Pinto 2017 at Panjim.jpg
| alt = 
| caption = Pinto (right) in 2017
| birth_name =
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| education = 
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| period =
| genre = 
| subject = History of Goa
| movement =
| notable_works = ''Concise History of Goa''
| spouse =
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}}
'''Celsa Pinto''' is an Indian historian, educator and author. She was the former Director of Education for the [[Government of Goa]]. She has published textbooks and curricular guides, and authored several books on the history of Goa for both academic and popular audiences. She is thus noted for her contributions to Goa's educational framework and historiography.<ref name="NavhindPassion">{{Cite web |last=Fernandes |first=Maria |date=2020-09-28 |title=Of passion and perseverance |url=https://www.navhindtimes.in/kuriocity/2020/09/28/of-passion-and-perseverence/ |access-date=2025-04-18 |website=The Navhind Times}}</ref>

==Early life and education==
Celsa Pinto was born in [[Karachi]] between 1950 and 1952. At the age of 13 in 1964–1965, she and her family relocated to Goa.<ref name="HeraldKarachi22">{{Cite web |date=2022-08-13 |title=The Karachi connection:75 Years of being Goan in Pakistan |url=https://www.heraldgoa.in/cafe/the-karachi-connection75-years-of-being-goan-in-pakistan/192857 |access-date=2025-05-07 |website=Herald Goa |language=en}}</ref> Pinto completed her [[Master of Arts]] in History at the [[University of Bombay]] in 1975, becoming the first Goan to earn a first-class honours in the subject. She later obtained a [[PhD]] in Goan history under the supervision of [[Teotónio de Souza]].<ref name="NavhindPassion"/>

==Career==
Pinto taught history for 22 years before joining the Directorate of Education, Government of Goa in 1994. Despite early legal challenges, she steadily progressed in her career to become the deputy director and eventually served as Director of Education until her retirement in 2011.<ref name="NavhindPassion"/>

===Curricular development===
In 2024, Pinto authored ''Building the Base: Preschool Curriculum for Teachers and Parents'', a guide published by [[Goa 1556]] that outlines developmental objectives and play-based methodologies for pre-primary educators and parents.<ref name="GomantakBase">{{Cite web |last=Gomes |first=Iris |date=2024-12-02 |title=Why 'Building the Base' could transform education in Goa |url=https://www.gomantaktimes.com/news/goa/why-building-the-base-could-transform-education-in-goa |access-date=2025-04-18 |website=Gomantak Times}}</ref>

Pinto also led the committee that prepared Goa's Class IX history syllabus for the [[Goa Board of Secondary and Higher Secondary Education]].<ref name="TOIHistory">{{Cite news |date=2022-07-28 |title=Goa history content for Class IX not yet ready for implementation in 2022-23 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/goa-history-content-for-class-ix-not-yet-ready-for-implementation-in-2022-23/articleshow/93171400.cms |access-date=2025-05-05 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

===Authorship and research===
Pinto's publications include her concise histories and curricular texts. She has examined Goa's evolution from pre-colonial times through liberation and statehood in annotated volumes.<ref name="HeraldEncap">{{Cite web |last=Fernandes |first=Renata |date=2024-02-15 |title=Encapsulating history of Goa's generations and eras in a book |url=https://www.heraldgoa.in/Cafe/Encapsulating-history-of-Goa%E2%80%99s-generations-and-eras-in-a-book/202842 |access-date=2025-04-18 |website=Herald Goa}}</ref>

In a 2019 academic paper titled ''Profiling Karachi Goanness (1840s–1970s): Monuments to Goan Emigration and Identity'', Pinto examined patterns of Goan migration to [[Karachi]]. She contextualized this movement within broader developments in the 19th and early 20th centuries, including the annexation of Sindh in 1842, the establishment of the Indian Flotilla in 1850, the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, and the construction of the [[Lloyd Barrage]]. Pinto argued that these events contributed to Karachi's emergence as a key port city and created economic opportunities that attracted Goan migrants.<ref name="HeraldKarachi22" />

==Publications==
* ''Concise History of Goa'' (Goa University Press, 2002)
* ''Encapsulating History of Goa’s Generations and Eras'' (seven-volume series, 2019–2023)
* ''Building the Base: Preschool Curriculum for Teachers and Parents'' (Goa 1556, 2024)

==Awards and recognition==
In 2019 Pinto received the Goa State Award for her services to education and culture.<ref name="NavhindPassion"/>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Commons category-inline}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pinto, Celsa}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Women writers from Goa]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian historians]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

State terrorism

2026-03-26T03:19:53Z

Alimirza: rework citations and cleaned formatting for accuracy

{{Short description|Acts of terrorism conducted by a state}}
{{terrorism}}

'''State terrorism''' is [[terrorism]] conducted by a [[State (polity)|state]] against its own [[citizen]]s or another state's citizens.<ref>{{cite book|author=Aust, Anthony|title=Handbook of International Law|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2010|edition=2nd|isbn=978-0-521-13349-4|page=265|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=74Zmct-7hGIC&pg=PA265|access-date=2016-01-05|archive-date=2024-03-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329132050/https://books.google.com/books?id=74Zmct-7hGIC&pg=PA265#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="britannica" /><ref>Selden & So, 2003: [https://books.google.com/books?id=D0icvm2EQLIC&pg=PA4 p. 4.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329132058/https://books.google.com/books?id=D0icvm2EQLIC&pg=PA4#v=onepage&q&f=false |date=2024-03-29}}</ref><ref name="Martin">{{harvnb|Martin|2006|p=111}}</ref>
It contrasts with ''[[state-sponsored terrorism]]'', in which a [[violent non-state actor]] commits acts of terrorism under the sponsorship of a state.

[[Government]]s that are accused of using state terrorism may justify their actions as efforts to combat internal dissent, suppress [[Insurgency|insurgencies]], or maintain national security, often framing their actions within the context of [[counterterrorism]] or [[counterinsurgency]]. Accused actions of state terrorism are normally also criticised as severe violations of human rights and international law.

Historically, governments have been accused of using state terrorism in [[#By country|various settings]]. The exact definition and scope of state terrorism remain controversial, as some scholars and governments argue that terrorism is a tool used exclusively by non-state actors, while others maintain that state-directed violence intended to terrorize civilian populations should also be classified as terrorism.<ref name="chenoweth-oxford" /><ref name="williamson-afghanistan" />

==Definition==

{{See also|Definition of terrorism|Terrorism}}

There is neither an academic nor an international legal consensus regarding the proper definition of the word ''terrorism''.<ref>{{cite book|last=Williamson |first=Myra|title=Terrorism, war and international law: the legality of the use of force against Afghanistan in 2001|publisher=Ashgate |year=2009|isbn=978-0-7546-7403-0|page=38|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wH3eCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA38|access-date=2016-05-04|archive-date=2024-03-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329132046/https://books.google.com/books?id=wH3eCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA38#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Schmid |first=Alex P.|chapter=The Definition of Terrorism|title=The Routledge Handbook of Terrorism Research|publisher=Routledge|year=2011|isbn=978-0-203-82873-1|page=39|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_PXpFxKRsHgC&pg=PA39|access-date=2016-01-05|archive-date=2024-03-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329132100/https://books.google.com/books?id=_PXpFxKRsHgC&pg=PA39#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> Some scholars believe the actions of governments can be labelled "terrorism".<ref>{{Cite book | last1= Nairn | first1= Tom | last2= James | first2= Paul | author-link= Paul James (academic) | title= Global Matrix: Nationalism, Globalism and State-Terrorism | url= https://www.academia.edu/1642325 | year= 2005 | publisher= Pluto Press | location= London and New York | access-date= 2017-11-02 | archive-date= 2021-08-18 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210818025820/https://www.academia.edu/1642325 | url-status= live }}</ref> Using the term 'terrorism' to mean violent action used with the predominant intention of causing terror, [[Paul James (academic)|Paul James]] and [[Jonathan Friedman]] distinguish between state terrorism against [[non-combatant]]s and state terrorism against [[combatant]]s, including "[[shock and awe]]" tactics:

{{blockquote|"Shock and Awe" as a subcategory of "rapid dominance" is the name given to massive intervention designed to strike terror into the minds of the enemy. It is a form of state-terrorism. The concept was however developed long before the Second Gulf War by [[Harlan Ullman]] as chair of a forum of retired military personnel.<ref>{{Cite book | year= 2006 | last1= James | first1= Paul | author-link= Paul James (academic) | last2= Friedman | first2= Jonathan | title= Globalization and Violence |volume=3: Globalizing War and Intervention | url= https://www.academia.edu/3587732 | publisher= Sage Publications | location= London | page= xxx | access-date= 2017-11-02 | archive-date= 2020-01-11 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200111045525/https://www.academia.edu/3587732/Globalization_and_Violence_Vol._3_Globalizing_War_and_Intervention_2006_ | url-status= live }}</ref>}}

However, others, including governments, international organisations, private institutions and scholars, believe the term ''terrorism'' is applicable only to the actions of [[violent non-state actor]]s. This approach is termed as an ''actor-centric'' definition which emphasizes the characteristics of the groups or individuals who use terrorism; whilst act-centric definitions emphasize the unique aspects of terrorism from other acts of violence.<ref name="chenoweth-oxford">{{cite book |last1=Chenoweth |first1=Erica |last2=English |first2=Richard |last3=Gofas |first3=Andrew |last4=Kalyvas |first4=Stathis |title=The Oxford Handbook of Terrorism |date=2019 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, United Kingdom |isbn=9780198732914 |page=153 |edition=First |url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-oxford-handbook-of-terrorism-9780198732914?cc=us&lang=en& |access-date=2023-01-11 |archive-date=2023-01-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230111134219/https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-oxford-handbook-of-terrorism-9780198732914?cc=us&lang=en& |url-status=live }}</ref> Historically, the term terrorism was used to refer to actions taken by governments against their own citizens whereas now it is more often perceived as targeting of non-combatants as part of a strategy directed ''against'' governments.<ref name="williamson-afghanistan">{{cite book|last=Williamson |first=Myra|title=Terrorism, war and international law: the legality of the use of force against Afghanistan in 2001|publisher=Ashgate |year=2009|isbn=978-0-7546-7403-0|page=40|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wH3eCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA40|access-date=2016-05-04|archive-date=2024-03-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329132051/https://books.google.com/books?id=wH3eCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA40#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>

Historian [[Henry Steele Commager]] wrote that "Even when definitions of terrorism allow for 'state terrorism', state actions in this area tend to be seen through the prism of war or national self-defense, not terror."<ref>{{cite book|last=Hor |first=Michael Yew Meng|title=Global anti-terrorism law and policy|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0-521-10870-6|page=20|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nzQOAR5rqvcC&pg=PA20|access-date=2016-11-12|archive-date=2019-03-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190303234424/https://books.google.com/books?id=nzQOAR5rqvcC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA20|url-status=dead}}</ref> Most states use the term ''terrorism'' for non-state actors only.<ref name="Schmid">{{cite book|first=Alex P. |last=Schmid|title=Routledge Handbook of Terrorism Research|publisher=Routledge|year=2011|isbn=978-0-415-41157-8|page=48|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_PXpFxKRsHgC|access-date=2016-01-05|archive-date=2024-03-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329132101/https://books.google.com/books?id=_PXpFxKRsHgC|url-status=live}}</ref>

The ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]'' defines terrorism generally as "the systematic use of violence to create a general climate of fear in a population and thereby to bring about a particular political objective", and states that "terrorism is not legally defined in all jurisdictions". The encyclopedia adds that "[e]stablishment terrorism, often called state or state-sponsored terrorism, is employed by governments—or more often by factions within governments—against that government's citizens, against factions within the government, or against foreign governments or groups."<ref name="britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/terrorism/Types-of-terrorism|title=Terrorism|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|access-date=2020-01-11|archive-date=2020-01-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200111164739/https://www.britannica.com/topic/terrorism/Types-of-terrorism|url-status=live}}</ref>

While the most common modern usage of the word ''terrorism'' refers to [[political violence]] by [[Insurgency|insurgent]]s or conspirators,<ref>{{cite book |chapter=Dealing with Terrorism |first=Helen |last=Purkitt |title=Conflict in World Society |year=1984 |page=162 |editor-first=Michael |editor-last=Banks |location=Brighton, East Sussex |publisher=Wheatsheaf }}</ref> several scholars make a broader interpretation of the nature of terrorism that encompasses the concepts of state terrorism and state-sponsored terrorism.<ref>{{harvnb|Stohl|p=14}}{{verify source|reason=
Several sources by this author are cited, which one is it?|date=January 2025}}</ref> [[Michael Stohl]] argues, "The use of terror tactics is common in international relations and the state has been and remains a more likely employer of terrorism within the international system than insurgents."{{check quotation|date=January 2025}}<ref>{{cite conference |title=The Superpowers and International Terror |first=Michael |last=Stohl |conference=Annual Meeting of the International Studies Association |location=Atlanta |date=March 27 – April 1, 1984}}</ref> Stohl clarifies, however, that "[n]ot all acts of state violence are terrorism. It is important to understand that in terrorism the violence threatened or perpetrated, has purposes broader than simple physical harm to a victim. The audience of the act or threat of violence is more important than the immediate victim."<ref>{{cite book |last=Stohl |first=Michael |chapter=National Interests and State Terrorism |title=The Politics of Terrorism |publisher=Marcel Dekker |year=1988 |page=275}}</ref>

Scholar [[C. Augustus Martin|Gus Martin]] describes state terrorism as terrorism "committed by governments and quasi-governmental agencies and personnel against perceived threats", which can be directed against both domestic and foreign targets.<ref name="Martin" /> [[Noam Chomsky]] defines state terrorism as "terrorism practised by states (or governments) and their agents and allies".<ref>{{cite journal|last=Chomsky |first=Noam |author-link=Noam Chomsky |title=What Anthropologists Should Know about the Concept of Terrorism|journal=Anthropology Today|date=April 2002|volume=18|issue=2}}</ref>

Simon Taylor provides a definition of state terrorism as "state agents using threats or acts of violence against civilians, marked by a callous indifference to human life, to instill fear in a community beyond the initial victim for the purpose of preventing a change or challenge to the status quo."<ref name="auto">{{cite journal |last1=Taylor |first1=Simon |title=Status Quo Terrorism: State-Terrorism in South Africa during Apartheid |journal=Terrorism and Political Violence |date=3 May 2021 |volume=35 |issue=2 |page=2 |doi=10.1080/09546553.2021.1916478|s2cid=235534871 }}</ref> These acts of violence can include both the types of state violence that some argue ought to be considered terrorism, such as: [[genocide]], [[mass murders]], [[ethnic cleansing]], [[Forced disappearance|disappearances]], [[detention without trial]], and [[torture]]; and more widely accepted methods of terror including [[bombings]] and [[targeted killings]].

Stohl and [[George A. Lopez]] have designated three categories of state terrorism, based on the openness or secrecy with which the acts are performed, and whether states directly perform the acts, support them, or acquiesce to them.<ref>{{harvnb|Stohl|Lopez|1988|pp=207–208}}.</ref>

==History==
[[File:NantesChateauMuséeNoyades.jpg|thumb|The [[Drownings at Nantes]] were a series of mass executions by drowning during the Reign of Terror in France.]]
[[Aristotle]] wrote critically of [[Fear|terror]] employed by [[tyrant]]s against their subjects.<ref>Harvey C. Mansfield (November 28, 2001). [http://www.claremont.org/publications/crb/id.762/article_detail.asp "Those Hell-Hounds Called Terrorists"]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130404072423/http://www.claremont.org/publications/crb/id.762/article_detail.asp |date=2013-04-04 }}. The Claremont Institute.</ref> The earliest use of the word ''terrorism'' identified by the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' is a 1795 reference to tyrannical state behavior, the "[[Reign of Terror|reign of terrorism]]" in France.<ref>''Oxford English Dictionary'' (2nd CD-ROM ed.), 2002, Oxford University Press.</ref>{{page needed|reason=which entry?|date=January 2025}} In that same year, [[Edmund Burke]] decried the "thousands of those hell-hounds called terrorists" who he believed threatened Europe.<ref name="Laqueur 2007"/> During the Reign of Terror, the [[Jacobin Club|Jacobin]] government and other factions of the [[French Revolution]] used the apparatus of the state to kill and intimidate political opponents, and the Oxford English Dictionary includes as one definition of terrorism "Government by intimidation carried out by the party in power in France between 1789–1794".<ref name="teichman">{{cite journal|title=How to define terrorism|last=Teichman |first=Jenny|journal=Philosophy|volume=64|issue=250|date=October 1989|pages=505–517|doi=10.1017/S0031819100044260|s2cid=144723359 }}</ref> The original general meaning of terrorism was of terrorism by the state, as reflected in the 1798 supplement of the Dictionnaire of the {{lang|fr|[[Académie française]]|italic=no}}, which described terrorism as {{lang|fr|systeme}}, {{lang|fr|regime de la terreur}}.<ref name="Laqueur 2007">{{cite book |title=A History of Terrorism |first=Walter |last=Laqueur |publisher=Transaction |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-7658-0799-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RlqQHKpLfL8C |page=6}}</ref> Myra Williamson wrote:

{{blockquote|The meaning of "terrorism" has undergone a transformation. During the Reign of Terror, a regime or system of terrorism was used as an instrument of governance, wielded by a recently established revolutionary ''state'' against the enemies of the people. Now the term "terrorism" is commonly used to describe terrorist acts committed by ''non-state or sub-national entities'' against a state. [italics in original]<ref>{{cite book|last=Williamson |first=Myra|title=Terrorism, war and international law: the legality of the use of force against Afghanistan in 2001|publisher=Ashgate |year=2009|isbn=978-0-7546-7403-0|page=43|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wH3eCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA43|access-date=2016-05-04|archive-date=2024-03-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329132102/https://books.google.com/books?id=wH3eCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA43#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>}}

Later examples of state terrorism include the [[police state]] measures employed by the Soviet Union beginning in the 1930s, and by Germany's [[Nazi Germany|Nazi regime]] in the 1930s and 1940s.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Primoratz |first=Igor |year=2007 |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/terrorism/ |title=Terrorism |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180611162009/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/terrorism/ |archive-date=2018-06-11 |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy}}</ref> According to Igor Primoratz, "Both [the Nazis and the Soviets] sought to impose total political control on society. Such a radical aim could be pursued only by a similarly radical method: by terrorism directed by an extremely powerful political police at an atomized and defenseless population. Its success was due largely to its arbitrary character—to the unpredictability of its choice of victims. In both countries, the regime first suppressed all opposition; when it no longer had any opposition to speak of, political police took to persecuting 'potential' and 'objective opponents'. In the Soviet Union, it was eventually unleashed on victims chosen at random."<ref>{{harvnb|Primoratz|2007}}.</ref>

Military actions primarily directed against non-combatant targets have also been referred to as state terrorism. For example, the [[bombing of Guernica]] has been called an act of terrorism.<ref>{{cite book |title=What's wrong with terrorism? |first=Robert E. |last=Goodin |publisher=Wiley |year=2006 |isbn=0-7456-3497-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pV0oUUmuNfIC |page=62}}</ref> Other examples of state terrorism may include the World War II bombings of [[attack on Pearl Harbor|Pearl Harbor]], [[The Blitz|London]], [[Bombing of Dresden|Dresden]], [[Bombing of Chongqing|Chongqing]], and [[Atomic Bombing of Hiroshima|Hiroshima]].<ref>{{harvnb|Stohl|1984}}</ref>

An act of sabotage, sometimes regarded as an act of terrorism, was the peacetime [[sinking of the Rainbow Warrior]], a ship owned by [[Greenpeace]], which occurred while in port at [[Auckland]], [[New Zealand]] on July 10, 1985. The bomb detonation killed [[Fernando Pereira]], a Dutch photographer. The organisation who committed the attack, the [[Directorate-General for External Security]] (DSGE), is a branch of [[List of intelligence agencies of France|France's intelligence services]]. The agents responsible pleaded guilty to [[manslaughter]] as part of a plea deal and were sentenced to ten years in prison, but were secretly released early to France under an agreement between the two countries' governments.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=July 9, 2020 |title=Russell-Einstein Manifesto, ICJ case and Rainbow Warrior bombing: Remembering humanity |journal=Down to Earth}}</ref>{{volume needed|date=January 2025}}

[[File:Cambodia 2011 monuments 10.jpg|thumb|Rooms of the [[Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum]] contain thousands of photos taken by the [[Khmer Rouge]] of their victims.]]

{{anchor|The Troubles}}During [[the Troubles]], an ethno-nationalist conflict in [[Northern Ireland]] from the 1960s to the 1990s, the [[Military Reaction Force]] (MRF), a [[counterinsurgency]] unit of the British [[Intelligence Corps (United Kingdom)|Intelligence Corps]], was tasked with tracking down members of the [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|Irish Republican Army]] (IRA). During the period when it was active, the MRF was involved in the killings of Catholic civilians in Northern Ireland.<ref name="BBC1">{{cite news|title=Undercover soldiers 'killed unarmed civilians in Belfast'|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-24987465|access-date=28 November 2014|work=[[BBC News]]|date=21 November 2014|archive-date=3 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103162930/http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-24987465|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Moloney2003">{{cite book |first=Ed |last=Moloney|title=A Secret History of the IRA|url=https://archive.org/details/secrethistoryofi00edmo|url-access=registration|access-date=7 February 2011 |date=November 2003 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0-393-32502-7|pages=[https://archive.org/details/secrethistoryofi00edmo/page/119 119]–122/123}}</ref>

In November 2013, a BBC ''Panorama'' documentary was aired about the MRF. It drew on information from seven former members, as well as a number of other sources. Soldier H said: "We operated initially with them thinking that we were the [[Ulster Volunteer Force|UVF]]." Soldier F added: "We wanted to cause confusion."<ref name=ware>{{cite web |last=Ware |first=John |url=http://republican-news.org/current/news/2013/11/britains_secret_terror_force.html |title=Britain's Secret Terror Force |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150623044129/http://republican-news.org/current/news/2013/11/britains_secret_terror_force.html |archive-date=2015-06-23 |work=Irish Republican News |date=23 November 2013 |access-date=23 November 2013}}</ref> In June 1972, he{{Who|date=July 2017}} was succeeded as commander by Captain James 'Hamish' McGregor.<ref name=panorama>{{Cite episode |title=Britain's Secret Terror Force |series=[[Panorama (TV series)|Panorama]] |people=Telling, Leo (director) |network=[[BBC]] |date=21 November 2013}}</ref>

In June 2014, in the wake of the Panorama programme, the [[Police Service of Northern Ireland]] (PSNI) opened an investigation into the matter.<ref>{{cite news |author= |title=Police investigate Military Reaction Force allegations |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-northern-ireland-27785433 |newspaper=[[BBC]] |date=10 June 2014 |access-date=1 March 2015 |archive-date=13 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140613060439/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-northern-ireland-27785433 |url-status=live }}</ref> In an earlier review of the programme, the position of the PSNI was that none of the statements by soldiers in the programme could be taken as an admission of criminality.<ref>{{cite news|author=|title=Panorama MRF programme: Soldiers 'admitted no crimes'|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-northern-ireland-27389349|newspaper=BBC|date=13 May 2014|access-date=1 March 2015|archive-date=27 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140627130710/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-northern-ireland-27389349|url-status=live}}</ref>

==By country==
===Argentina===
{{Main|Dirty War}}
{{See also|Operation Condor}}
The [[Dirty War]] is the name used for the period of state terrorism in Argentina between 1974 and 1983.<ref>{{cite book|last=Blakeley|first=Ruth|date=2009|title=State Terrorism and Neoliberalism: The North in the South|url=http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415462402/|publisher=[[Routledge]]|pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rft8AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA96 96–97]|isbn=978-0-415-68617-4|access-date=2015-06-12|archive-date=2015-06-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150614055306/http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415462402/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Borger|first=Julian|year=2004|title=Kissinger backed dirty war against left in Argentina|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/aug/28/argentina.julianborger|work=[[The Guardian]]|access-date=2022-08-13|archive-date=2019-08-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190829141341/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/aug/28/argentina.julianborger|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Belarus===
{{See also|Ryanair Flight 4978|Vitaly Shishov}}

===Brazil===
{{See also|Human rights abuses of the military dictatorship in Brazil (1964–1985)}}

===Chile===
{{See also|Human rights violations in Pinochet's Chile}}
[[File:Casa de detención clandestina en José Domingo Cañas 01.JPG|thumb|The torture center of Chile's secret police [[Dirección de Inteligencia Nacional|DINA]] at José Domingo Cañas 1367]]
Chile during [[Augusto Pinochet]]'s rule was accused of state terror against political opponents.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Wright |first1=Thomas C. |title=State Terrorism in Latin America |url=https://rowman.com/ISBN/9781461642800/State-Terrorism-in-Latin-America-Chile-Argentina-and-International-Human-Rights |access-date=2022-08-13 |archive-date=2022-05-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220529105151/https://rowman.com/ISBN/9781461642800/State-Terrorism-in-Latin-America-Chile-Argentina-and-International-Human-Rights |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Terrorism and State Terror in Latin America |url=https://www.kent.ac.uk/courses/modules/module/HISP5630 |work=University of Kent |access-date=2022-08-13 |archive-date=2022-07-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220706231330/https://www.kent.ac.uk/courses/modules/module/HISP5630 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===China===
{{See also|Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries|Mass killings of landlords under Mao Zedong|Cultural Revolution|Persecution of Uyghurs in China}}

The [[Uyghur American Association]] has claimed that Beijing's approach to terrorism in Xinjiang constitutes state terrorism.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/36718304.pdf|title=Constituting the Uyghur in U.S.–China Relations: The Geopolitics of Identity Formation in the War on Terrorism|date=2 September 2002|journal=[[Strategic Insights]]|volume=1|issue=7|author=Gaye Christoffersen|access-date=9 May 2020|page=7|archive-date=9 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201009011541/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/36718304.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2006, a Spanish court opened an investigation into claims that the Chinese state was committing acts of state terrorism in [[Tibet]]. However, the investigation was dropped in 2014.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2006-06-07|title=China rejects Spain's 'genocide' claims|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/china-rejects-spains-genocide-claims-481351.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220524/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/china-rejects-spains-genocide-claims-481351.html |archive-date=2022-05-24 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=2020-09-04|website=The Independent|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2014-06-24 |title=Spain drops 'genocide' case against China's Tibet leaders |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-28000937 |access-date=2023-05-14 |archive-date=2023-05-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230514155833/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-28000937 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===France===
During the ''[[Ère des attentats]]'' ('Era of Attacks'), a period of conflict between [[Anarchism in France|anarchists]] and the [[French Third Republic|French state]], the latter committed false flags attacks to legitimize repression on anarchists; one of those attacks being probably the [[Foyot bombing]].{{Sfn|Oriol|1993|p=12-30}}

French [[DGSE]] agents Captain [[Dominique Prieur]] and Commander [[Alain Mafart]] sank the [[Sinking of the Rainbow Warrior|''Rainbow Warrior'']], the flagship of the [[Greenpeace]] Organisation, in [[Auckland Harbour]] on July 10, 1985. The attack was aimed at stopping it from interfering in [[French nuclear testing in the South Pacific]]. The attack resulted in the death of Greenpeace photographer [[Fernando Pereira]] and led to a huge uproar over the first ever attack on New Zealand's sovereignty as a modern nation.{{cn|date=May 2025}} In July 1986, a [[United Nations]]-sponsored mediation effort between New Zealand and France resulted in the transfer of the two prisoners to the French Polynesian island of [[Hao (French Polynesia)|Hao]], so they could serve three years there, as well as an apology and an NZ$13 million payment from France to New Zealand.<ref name="UN">{{Cite journal |date=30 April 1990 |title=Case concerning the difference between New Zealand and France concerning the interpretation or application of two agreements, concluded on 9 July 1986 between the two states and which related to the problems arising from the ''Rainbow Warrior'' Affair |url=http://legal.un.org/riaa/cases/vol_XX/215-284.pdf |journal=Reports of International Arbitral Awards |volume=XX |pages=215–284, especially p. 275 |access-date=15 December 2022 |archive-date=27 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160527193734/http://legal.un.org/riaa/cases/vol_XX/215-284.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

===India===
{{Main|India and state-sponsored terrorism}}

===Iran===
{{Main|Iran and state-sponsored terrorism}}

===Israel===
{{Main|Israel and state-sponsored terrorism}}
[[File:Stop the Genocide Now! Save the Children of Gaza! Demonstration (53292782914).jpg|thumb|Protest in support of [[Palestine]] in Helsinki, Finland, 28 October 2023]]
In November 2023, Turkish President [[Recep Tayyip Erdoğan]] accused Israel of being "a terrorist state" committing [[War crimes in the Gaza war|war crimes]] and violating international law in the [[Gaza Strip]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Turkey's Erdogan labels Israel a 'terror state', slams its backers in West |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/turkeys-erdogan-calls-israel-terror-state-slams-west-2023-11-15/ |work=Reuters |date=15 November 2023 |access-date=2024-03-17 |archive-date=2023-12-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231201225600/http://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/turkeys-erdogan-calls-israel-terror-state-slams-west-2023-11-15/ |url-status=live }}</ref> He said [[Israeli settler violence|Israeli settlers]] in the occupied Palestinian territories should be recognized as "terrorists".<ref>{{cite news |title=Turkey's Erdogan calls Israel a 'terror state', criticises the West |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/11/15/turkeys-erdogan-calls-israel-a-terror-state-criticises-the-west |work=Al Jazeera |date=15 November 2023 |access-date=17 March 2024 |archive-date=25 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240325154856/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/11/15/turkeys-erdogan-calls-israel-a-terror-state-criticises-the-west |url-status=live }}</ref>

In December 2023, [[First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba]] [[Miguel Díaz-Canel]] condemned the [[Allegations of genocide in the 2023 Israeli attack on Gaza| genocide of Palestinians]] in Gaza and called Israel a "terrorist state".<ref>{{cite news |title=Cuba condemns 'genocide' committed by 'terrorist state of Israel' |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/americas/cuba-condemns-genocide-committed-by-terrorist-state-of-israel/3093296 |work=[[Anadolu Agency]] |date=27 December 2023 |access-date=17 March 2024 |archive-date=10 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240310115051/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/americas/cuba-condemns-genocide-committed-by-terrorist-state-of-israel/3093296 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[2024 Lebanon pager explosions]], which killed 39 people and wounded nearly 3,500, have been widely attributed to Israel. [[Iran]] referred to the attacks as "Israeli terrorism".<ref>{{Cite news |date=17 September 2024 |title=Iran says pager explosions are 'Israeli terrorism', offers assistance to victims |url=https://www.cnn.com/world/live-news/lebanon-pagers-attack-hezbollah#h_a18fa0a6ebe61a86c96dc9bc56bac02b |website=CNN |first=Hamdi |last=Alkhshali}}</ref> [[Leon Panetta]], the former-[[CIA]] director, also termed the attack terrorism.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Magid |first1=Jacob |title=Former CIA chief Panetta calls mass detonation of Hezbollah pagers 'a form of terrorism' |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/liveblog_entry/former-cia-chief-panetta-calls-mass-detonation-of-hezbollah-pagers-a-form-of-terrorism/ |website=The Times of Israel |access-date=6 October 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Olmsted |first1=Edith |title=Even Leon Panetta Says Israel's Pager Attack Is 'Terrorism' |url=https://newrepublic.com/post/186244/leon-panetta-israel-lebanon-pagers-terrorism |magazine=The New Republic |access-date=6 October 2024}}</ref>

=== Italy ===
{{See also|Strategy of tension|Operation Gladio}}

===Libya===
{{See also|Libya and state-sponsored terrorism}}
In the 1980s, Libya under [[Muammar Gaddafi]] was accused of state terrorism following attacks abroad such as the [[Lockerbie bombing]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jureńczyk|first=Łukasz|date=2018|title=Great Britain Against Libya's state Terrorism in the 1980s|url=https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=668142|journal=Historia i Polityka|language=en|volume=31|issue=24|pages=61–71|doi=10.12775/HiP.2018.011|issn=1899-5160|doi-access=free|access-date=2020-05-21|archive-date=2022-11-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221123032229/https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=668142|url-status=live}}</ref> Between 9 July and 15 August 1984 seventeen merchant vessels were damaged in the [[Gulf of Suez]] and [[Bab al-Mandeb]] straits by underwater explosions. Terrorist group Al Jihad (thought to be a pro-[[Iran]]ian [[Shiite]] group connected to the [[Palestine Liberation Organisation]]) issued a claim of responsibility for the mining, but circumstantial evidence indicated that Libya was responsible.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.vernonlink.uk/red-sea| title = The Red Sea 1984 |website=The Vernon Link | access-date = 2021-02-09| archive-date = 2022-11-23| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20221123032229/https://www.vernonlink.uk/red-sea| url-status = live}}</ref>

===Myanmar===
{{See also|Rohingya genocide }}
[[Myanmar]] has been accused of state terrorism in the [[Internal conflict in Myanmar|internal conflict]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-09-17|title=The Rohingya are the victims of state terrorism; it must be stopped|url=https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20170917-the-rohingya-are-the-victims-of-state-terrorism-it-must-be-stopped/|access-date=2020-09-04|website=Middle East Monitor|language=en-GB|archive-date=2020-11-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201130074915/https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20170917-the-rohingya-are-the-victims-of-state-terrorism-it-must-be-stopped/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.lakeheadu.ca/sites/default/files/uploads/92/Dr.%20Islam.pdf | title=The Evolution of State Terrorism in Myanmar | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221123032238/https://www.lakeheadu.ca/sites/default/files/uploads/92/Dr.%20Islam.pdf | archive-date=2022-11-23 }}</ref>

===North Korea===
North Korea has been accused of state terrorism on several occasions, such as in 1969 in the [[1969 Korean Air Lines YS-11 hijacking|hijacking of a Korean Airlines plane]], in 1983 in the [[Rangoon bombing]], the [[Gimpo International Airport bombing]], and in 1987 when North Korean agents detonated a bomb on [[Korean Air Flight 858]], killing everybody aboard.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/45313.pdf| title=Country Reports on Terrorism 2004 |date=April 2005 |publisher = United States Department of State| access-date = 2019-05-23| archive-date = 2017-04-02| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170402204109/https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/45313.pdf| url-status = live}}</ref>

===Pakistan===
{{Main|Pakistan and state-sponsored terrorism}}

===Qatar===
{{Main|Qatar and state-sponsored terrorism}}

===Russia===
{{Main|Terrorism in Russia}}During the ''[[Ère des attentats]]'', a period of conflict between [[Anarchism|anarchists]] and the French state, the [[Foyot bombing]] was either done by the French police or by the Russian Empire's secret police, the [[Okhrana]], which would have sought to provoke troubles in France.{{Sfn|Oriol|1993|p=12-30}}[[File:Vladimir Putin and Sergey Shoigu - Saint-Petersburg 2017-07-30 (1).jpg|thumb|Russian President [[Vladimir Putin]] and his long-time confidant Defence Minister [[Sergei Shoigu]]<ref>{{cite news |last=Kirby |first=Paul |date=2 March 2022 |title=Ukraine conflict: Who's in Putin's inner circle and running the war? |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-60573261 |access-date=4 March 2022 |archive-date=3 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220303144610/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-60573261 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
[[File:Ukrainian diaspora in Brussels protests the Russian invasion (51908400935).jpg|thumb|Protest against the [[Russian invasion of Ukraine]] in Brussels, Belgium, 27 February 2022]]
Following the February [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]] and the initial investigations into war crimes committed by Russian soldiers, there were calls for Russia to be designated a terrorist state. On May 10, 2022, [[Lithuania|Lithuania's]] parliament designated Russia a terrorist state and its [[Claims of genocide of Ukrainians in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine|actions in Ukraine]] a genocide.<ref name="Treisman">{{Cite news |last=Treisman |first=Rachel |date=2022-05-10 |title=Lithuania designates Russia as a terrorist country, a global first |language=en |work=NPR |url=https://www.npr.org/2022/05/10/1097911440/lithuania-russia-terrorism-genocide-ukraine |access-date=2022-05-10 |archive-date=2022-08-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220809140842/https://www.npr.org/2022/05/10/1097911440/lithuania-russia-terrorism-genocide-ukraine |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[US Senate]] unanimously passed a resolution to this effect on July 27, 2022,<ref name="Medina">{{Cite news |last=Medina |first=Eduardo |date=2022-07-28 |title=The U.S. Senate passes a resolution seeking to label Russia as a sponsor of terrorism |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/07/27/world/europe/the-us-senate-passes-a-resolution-seeking-to-label-russia-as-a-sponsor-of-terrorism.html |access-date=2022-08-02 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=2022-08-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220811155232/https://www.nytimes.com/2022/07/27/world/europe/the-us-senate-passes-a-resolution-seeking-to-label-russia-as-a-sponsor-of-terrorism.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and the [[US House of Representatives]] is to consider such legislation.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Ward |first1=Alexander |last2=Desiderio |first2=Andrew |last3=Forgey |first3=Quint |date=2022-07-28 |title=House group moves to label Russia as terrorist state |url=https://politi.co/3oEgGPg |access-date=2022-08-02 |website=Politico |language=en |archive-date=2022-08-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220812185052/https://www.politico.com/newsletters/national-security-daily/2022/07/28/house-group-moves-to-label-russia-as-terrorist-state-00048266 |url-status=live }}</ref> On August 11, [[Saeima|Latvia's parliament]] designated Russia a state sponsor of terrorism.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/latvia-designates-russia-state-sponsor-terrorism-over-ukraine-war-2022-08-11/ |title=Latvia designates Russia a 'state sponsor of terrorism' over Ukraine war |work=[[Reuters]] |date=11 August 2022 |access-date=11 August 2022 |archive-date=12 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220812072058/https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/latvia-designates-russia-state-sponsor-terrorism-over-ukraine-war-2022-08-11/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Ukraine]]'s [[Verkhovna Rada]] on 20 August 2022 also designated Russia as a terrorist state.<ref>{{cite web |title=Rada recognizes Russia as 'terrorist state', calls on world to follow suit |date=19 August 2022 |url=https://www.ukrinform.net/rubric-polytics/3553758-rada-recognizes-russia-as-terrorist-state-calls-on-world-to-follow-suit.html |access-date=19 August 2022 |archive-date=21 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221121204900/https://www.ukrinform.net/rubric-polytics/3553758-rada-recognizes-russia-as-terrorist-state-calls-on-world-to-follow-suit.html |url-status=live }}</ref> On October 17, the [[European Parliament]] approved a request to debate and vote on a resolution recognizing Russia as a terrorist state,<ref>{{Cite web |title=European Parliament to vote on recognising Russia a state sponsor of terror |url=https://news.yahoo.com/european-parliament-vote-recognising-russia-204205645.html |access-date=2022-10-18 |website=Yahoo! News |date=17 October 2022 |language=en-US |archive-date=2022-10-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221018043024/https://news.yahoo.com/european-parliament-vote-recognising-russia-204205645.html |url-status=live }}</ref> which it did on November 23.<ref name="europarl.europa.eu">{{Cite web |date=2022-11-23 |title=European Parliament declares Russia to be a state sponsor of terrorism |url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20221118IPR55707/european-parliament-declares-russia-to-be-a-state-sponsor-of-terrorism |access-date=2022-11-24 |website=News (European Parliament) |language=en |archive-date=2022-11-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221129180228/https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20221118IPR55707/european-parliament-declares-russia-to-be-a-state-sponsor-of-terrorism |url-status=live }}</ref>

As of October 2023, the following states and organizations have designated Russia as terrorist or a sponsor of terrorism:

* {{Flag|Czechia}} (16 November 2022)<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-11-16 |title=Lower House of Czech Parliament Recognises Russian Regime as Terrorist |url=https://www.eurointegration.com.ua/eng/news/2022/11/16/7150750/ |access-date=2022-11-16 |website=European Pravda |language=en}}</ref>
* {{Flag|Estonia}} (18 October 2022)<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-10-18 |title=Estonian parliament declares Russia a terrorist state |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/as-the-third-country-to-estonia-declares-russia-a-terrorist-state/ |access-date=2022-10-18 |website=Politico |language=en-US |archive-date=2022-11-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221119101230/https://www.politico.eu/article/as-the-third-country-to-estonia-declares-russia-a-terrorist-state/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* {{Flagdeco|European Union}} [[European Parliament]] (23 November 2022)<ref name="europarl.europa.eu"/>
* {{Flag|Latvia}} (11 August 2022)<ref>{{cite web |date=11 August 2022 |title=Saeima Krieviju atzīst par terorismu atbalstošu valsti |trans-title=The Saeima recognizes Russia as a country supporting terrorism |url=https://www.diena.lv/raksts/latvija/zinas/saeima-krieviju-atzist-par-terorismu-atbalstosu-valsti-14284320 |website=Diena |language=lv |access-date=6 October 2023 |archive-date=11 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220811091341/https://www.diena.lv/raksts/latvija/zinas/saeima-krieviju-atzist-par-terorismu-atbalstosu-valsti-14284320 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* {{Flag|Lithuania}} (10 May 2022)<ref name="Treisman"/><ref>{{Cite news |title=Lithuania Adopts Resolution Calling Russia 'Terrorist State,' Accuses Moscow Of 'Genocide' |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/lithuania-resolution-russia-genocide/31842970.html |access-date=2022-08-08 |website=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |language=en |archive-date=2022-07-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220701090745/https://www.rferl.org/a/lithuania-resolution-russia-genocide/31842970.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
* {{Flag|NATO|name=NATO Parliamentary Assembly}} (21 November 2022)<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-11-21 |title=NATO Parliamentary Assembly declares Russia to be a 'terrorist state' |url=https://english.nv.ua/nation/nato-parliamentary-assembly-declares-russia-to-be-a-terrorist-state-50285635.html |access-date=2022-11-23 |website=The New Voice of Ukraine |language=en |archive-date=2022-11-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221123103758/https://english.nv.ua/nation/nato-parliamentary-assembly-declares-russia-to-be-a-terrorist-state-50285635.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-11-23 |title=NATO PA recognizes Russia as terrorist state |url=https://www.ukrinform.net/rubric-polytics/3619035-nato-pa-recognizes-russia-as-terrorist-state.html |access-date=2022-11-23 |website=Ukrinform |language=en |archive-date=2022-11-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221122070611/https://www.ukrinform.net/rubric-polytics/3619035-nato-pa-recognizes-russia-as-terrorist-state.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
* {{Flag|Netherlands}} (24 November 2022)<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-11-25 |title=Dutch Parliament declares Russia state sponsor of terrorism |url=https://english.nv.ua/nation/dutch-parliament-declares-russia-state-sponsor-of-terrorism-50286671.html |access-date=2022-11-26 |website=The New Voice of Ukraine |language= |archive-date=2022-11-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221126000143/https://english.nv.ua/nation/dutch-parliament-declares-russia-state-sponsor-of-terrorism-50286671.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
* {{Flag|Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|name=OSCE Parliamentary Assembly}} (4 July 2023)<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-04 |title=OSCE Parliamentary Assembly recognizes Russia as state sponsor of terrorism |url=https://kyivindependent.com/ukrainian-delegation-osce-parliamentary-assembly-recognizes-russia-as-state-sponsor-of-terrorism/ |access-date=2023-07-04 |website=The Kyiv Independent |language=en |archive-date=2023-10-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231016142453/https://kyivindependent.com/ukrainian-delegation-osce-parliamentary-assembly-recognizes-russia-as-state-sponsor-of-terrorism/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* {{Flagdeco|Council of Europe}} [[Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe]] (13 October 2022)<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-10-13 |title=PACE adopts resolution declaring Russian regime as terrorist one |url=https://english.nv.ua/nation/pace-adopts-resolution-declaring-russian-regime-as-terrorist-50276526.html |access-date=2022-10-13 |website=The New Voice of Ukraine |language=en |archive-date=2022-10-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221013131739/https://english.nv.ua/nation/pace-adopts-resolution-declaring-russian-regime-as-terrorist-50276526.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-10-13 |title=Further escalation in the Russian Federation's aggression against Ukraine (Resolution 2463) |url=https://pace.coe.int/en/files/31390/html |access-date=2022-10-13 |website=Parliamentary Assembly (Council of Europe) |archive-date=2022-10-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221013154400/https://pace.coe.int/en/files/31390/html |url-status=live }}</ref>
* {{Flag|Poland}} (14 December 2022)<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-12-14 |title=Sejm uznał Rosję za państwo sponsorujące terroryzm |trans-title=The Sejm recognized Russia as a state sponsoring terrorism |url=https://wiadomosci.onet.pl/kraj/sejm-uznal-rosje-za-panstwo-sponsorujace-terroryzm/z106pfg |access-date=2022-12-15 |website=Onet Wiadomości |language=pl |archive-date=2022-12-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221214221536/https://wiadomosci.onet.pl/kraj/sejm-uznal-rosje-za-panstwo-sponsorujace-terroryzm/z106pfg |url-status=live }}</ref>
* {{Flag|Slovakia}} (16 February 2023)<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-02-16 |title=Slovak parliament recognises Russian regime as terrorist and Russia as terrorism sponsor |url=https://www.pravda.com.ua/eng/news/2023/02/16/7389647/ |access-date=2023-02-16 |website=Ukrainska Pravda |language=en |archive-date=2023-02-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230216165916/https://www.pravda.com.ua/eng/news/2023/02/16/7389647/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* {{Flag|Ukraine}} (14 April 2022)<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-14 |title=VR recognizes Russia as terrorist state, bans military symbols Z and V |url=https://www.ukrinform.net/rubric-polytics/3457746-vr-recognizes-russia-as-terrorist-state-bans-military-symbols-z-and-v.html |access-date=2022-08-02 |website=Ukrinform |language=en |archive-date=2022-04-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220418021850/https://www.ukrinform.net/rubric-polytics/3457746-vr-recognizes-russia-as-terrorist-state-bans-military-symbols-z-and-v.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
* {{Flag|United States Senate}} (27 July 2022)<ref name="Medina"/>

===Saudi Arabia===
{{See also|Blockade of Yemen|Saudi Arabia and state-sponsored terrorism|Alleged Saudi government role in the September 11 attacks}}

===South Africa===
{{See also|1982 bombing of the African National Congress headquarters in London}}

Between 1979 and 1990, the [[Apartheid]] government in South Africa operated a branch of the [[South African Police]] known as [[Vlakplaas]] who routinely used methods of terrorism to support the state in maintaining Apartheid.<ref name="auto"/> These methods included the bombing of civilian buildings ([[COSATU House]] and [[Khotso House]]), and the targeted-killing and [[assassinations]] of [[Internal resistance to apartheid|anti-Apartheid]] activists.

In the [[Truth and Reconciliation Commission (South Africa)|Truth and Reconciliation Commission]] hearings, the former Major-General and Commander of Vlakplaas, Sarel “Sakkie” du Plessis Crafford gave the following three reasons for the Apartheid state's policy of [[extra-judicial]] killings:

#"It scared off other supporters and potential supporters; it made people reluctant to offer open support; it created distrust and demoralization amongst cadres.
# "It gave white voters confidence that the security forces were in control and winning the fight against Communism and terrorism.
# "The information gleaned during the interrogation needed to be protected against disclosure."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Taylor |first1=Simon |title=Status Quo Terrorism: State-Terrorism in South Africa during Apartheid |journal=Terrorism and Political Violence |date=3 May 2021 |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=4–5 |doi=10.1080/09546553.2021.1916478|s2cid=235534871 }}</ref>

The most notorious of the Vlakplaas operatives were [[Eugene de Kock]] and the [[askari]] [[Joe Mamasela]], who were linked to several high-profile extra-judicial killings, including that of [[Griffiths Mxenge]]. Following South Africa's transition to [[democracy]], de Kock was later tried and convicted on eighty-nine charges and sentenced to 212 years in prison.

=== Soviet Union ===
{{Main|Red Terror|Soviet Union and state-sponsored terrorism}}

===Spain===
{{See also|GAL (paramilitary group)}}

===Sri Lanka===
{{Main|Sri Lanka and state terrorism}}

===Syria===
{{Main|State terrorism by Syria}}

===Turkey===
{{Main|Turkey and state-sponsored terrorism}}

===United Kingdom===
During World War II, the United Kingdom created the [[Special Operations Executive]] (SOE) which, in the words of Prime Minister [[Winston Churchill]], was to "set Europe ablaze"
with sabotage and subversion in countries occupied by the [[Axis powers]], especially [[Nazi Germany]].<ref name="Cookridge">{{cite book |last1=Cookridge |first1=E. H. |title=Set Europe Ablaze |date=1966 |publisher=Thomas Y. Cromwell Company |location=New York |pages=1–6}}</ref> The British military historian [[John Keegan]] later wrote, "We must recognise that our response to the scourge of [[terrorism]] is compromised by what we did through SOE. The justification ... That we had no other means of striking back at the enemy ... is exactly the argument used by the [[Red Brigades]], the [[Red Army Faction|Baader-Meinhoff gang]], the [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine|PFLP]], the [[Irish Republican Army|IRA]] and every other half-articulate [[List of designated terrorist groups|terrorist organisation]] on Earth. Futile to argue that we were a democracy and Hitler a tyrant. Means besmirch ends. SOE besmirched Britain."<ref name="Geraghty">{{cite book |last1=Geraghty |first1=Tony |title=The Irish War: The Hidden Conflict between the IRA and British Intelligence |date=2000 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |location=Baltimore |isbn=9780801864568 |page=346}}</ref>

[[British Foreign Office]] documents declassified in 2021 revealed that during the [[Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66]], British propagandists secretly incited anti-communists including army generals to eliminate the [[Communist Party of Indonesia|PKI]], and used [[black propaganda]], due to [[Indonesian President]] [[Sukarno]]'s hostility to the formation of former British colonies into the [[Federation of Malaya|Malayan federation]] from 1963.<ref name=lashmar>{{Cite news |title=Revealed: how UK spies incited mass murder of Indonesia's communists |last1=Lashmar |first1=Paul |last2=Gilby |first2=Nicholas |last3=Oliver |first3=James |newspaper=The Observer |date=17 October 2021 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/oct/17/revealed-how-uk-spies-incited-mass-of-indonesias-communists |access-date=25 December 2022 |archive-date=22 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211122005131/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/oct/17/revealed-how-uk-spies-incited-mass-of-indonesias-communists |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Lashmar2021">{{cite news |last1=Lashmar |first1=Paul |last2=Gilby |first2=Nicholas |last3=Oliver |first3=James |date=October 17, 2021 |title=Slaughter in Indonesia: Britain's secret propaganda war |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/oct/17/slaughter-in-indonesia-britains-secret-propaganda-war |work=The Observer |access-date=December 25, 2022 |archive-date=December 27, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211227084505/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/oct/17/slaughter-in-indonesia-britains-secret-propaganda-war |url-status=live }}</ref> British Prime Minister [[Harold Wilson]]'s government had instructed propaganda specialists from the Foreign Office to send hundreds of inflammatory pamphlets to leading anti-communists in Indonesia, inciting them to kill the foreign minister, [[Subandrio]], and claiming that ethnic Chinese Indonesians deserved the violence meted out to them.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jan/23/uks-propaganda-leaflets-inspired-1960s-massacre-of-indonesian-communists|title=UK's propaganda leaflets inspired 1960s massacre of Indonesian communists|last1=Lashmar|first1=Paul|last2=Gilby|first2=Nicholas|last3=Oliver|first3=James|date=23 January 2022|work=The Observer|access-date=23 January 2022|archive-date=23 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220123091915/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jan/23/uks-propaganda-leaflets-inspired-1960s-massacre-of-indonesian-communists|url-status=live}}</ref>

Britain has been accused of involvement in state terrorism during [[the Troubles]], an ethno-nationalist conflict in [[Northern Ireland]] from the 1960s to the 1990s by covertly assisting [[Ulster loyalism#Paramilitary and vigilante groups|loyalist paramilitaries]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/issues/collusion/chron.htm |title=Issues: Collusion – Chronology of Events in the Stevens Inquiries |website=CAIN Archive |publisher=Ulster University |access-date=2016-01-28 |archive-date=2008-04-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080411215319/http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/issues/collusion/chron.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Martin |last=Melaugh |url=http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/issues/collusion/stevens3/stevens3summary.htm |title=Issues: Violence: Stevens Enquiry (3) Overview and Recommendations, 17 April 2003 |website=CAIN Archive |publisher=Ulster University |access-date=2016-01-28 |archive-date=2019-01-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190102141059/http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/issues/collusion/stevens3/stevens3summary.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.patfinucanecentre.org/sarmagh/collusion.pdf|title=Report of the Independent International Panel on Alleged Collusion in Sectarian Killings in Northern Ireland|publisher=Pat Finucane Centre|access-date=2016-01-28|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610155220/http://www.patfinucanecentre.org/sarmagh/collusion.pdf|archive-date=2011-06-10}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.village.ie/Ireland/Feature/'I'm_lucky_to_be_above_the_ground'/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071120061944/http://www.village.ie/Ireland/Feature/'I'm_lucky_to_be_above_the_ground'/ |archive-date=2007-11-20 |first=Frank |last=Connolly |date=16 November 2006 |title='I'm lucky to be above the ground' |website=Village |access-date=2016-01-28}}</ref>

===United States===
{{Main|United States and state terrorism}}
{{See also|Operation Condor|Central American crisis}}
[[File:Día por la Memoria, la Verdad y la Justicia 24-03-2019 (13).jpg|thumb|Argentines commemorate the [[Dirty War|victims]] of the U.S.-backed [[National Reorganization Process|military junta]] on 24 March 2019.]]
Ruth J. Blakeley, Professor of Politics and International Relations at the [[University of Sheffield]], accuses the [[United States]] of sponsoring and deploying state terrorism, which she defines as "the illegal targeting of individuals that the state has a duty to protect in order to instill fear in a target audience beyond the direct victim", on an "enormous scale" during the [[Cold War]]. The United States government justified this policy by saying it needed to contain the spread of [[Communism]], but Blakeley says the United States government also used it as a means to buttress and promote the interests of U.S. elites and multinational corporations. The U.S. supported governments who employed [[death squad]]s throughout Latin America and counterinsurgency training of [[Right-wing politics|right-wing]] military forces included advocating the interrogation and torture of suspected insurgents.<ref>{{cite book |last=Blakeley |first=Ruth |year=2009 |url=http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415462402/ |title=State Terrorism and Neoliberalism: The North in the South |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150614055306/http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415462402/ |archive-date=2015-06-14 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |pages=21–23, [https://books.google.com/books?id=rft8AgAAQBAJ&lpg=PA92&pg=PA85#v=onepage&q&f=false 85–96]|isbn=978-0415686174}}</ref> [[J. Patrice McSherry]], a professor of political science at [[Long Island University]], says "hundreds of thousands of [[Latin America]]ns were tortured, abducted or killed by right-wing military regimes as part of the U.S.-led anti-communist crusade", which included U.S. support for [[Operation Condor]] and the Guatemalan military during the [[Guatemalan Civil War]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=McSherry|first1=J. Patrice|author-link1=J. Patrice McSherry|editor1-last=Esparza |editor1-first=Marcia|editor2-first=Henry R. |editor2-last=Huttenbach|editor3-first=Daniel |editor3-last=Feierstein|title=State Violence and Genocide in Latin America: The Cold War Years |series=Critical Terrorism Studies |chapter=Chapter 5: 'Industrial repression' and Operation Condor in Latin America|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=acGNAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA107 107]|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2011|isbn=978-0415664578|chapter-url=https://www.routledge.com/State-Violence-and-Genocide-in-Latin-America-The-Cold-War-Years/Esparza-Huttenbach-Feierstein/p/book/9780415496377|access-date=2018-05-21|archive-date=2018-07-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719232658/https://www.routledge.com/State-Violence-and-Genocide-in-Latin-America-The-Cold-War-Years/Esparza-Huttenbach-Feierstein/p/book/9780415496377|url-status=live}}</ref> [[John Henry Coatsworth]], citing evidence provided by [[Freedom House]], asserts that more people were repressed and killed throughout Latin America in the last three decades of the Cold War than in the [[Soviet Union]] and the [[Eastern Bloc]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Coatsworth|first1=John Henry|author-link=John Henry Coatsworth |chapter= The Cold War in Central America, 1975–1991 | editor1-last=Leffler|editor1-first=Melvyn P.|editor1-link=Melvyn P. Leffler|editor2-last=Westad|editor2-first=Odd Arne|editor2-link=Odd Arne Westad|date=2012 |title=The Cambridge History of the Cold War |volume=3 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xjTVBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT230|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=230 |isbn=978-1107602311}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bevins |first1=Vincent|author-link=Vincent Bevins |title= [[The Jakarta Method|The Jakarta Method: Washington's Anticommunist Crusade and the Mass Murder Program that Shaped Our World]]|date=2020 |publisher= [[PublicAffairs]]|page=228 |isbn= 978-1541742406|quote=Using numbers compiled by the US-funded Freedom House Organization, historian John Coatsworth concluded that from 1960 to 1990, the number of victims of US-backed violence in Latin America "vastly exceeded" the number of people killed in the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc over the same period of time.}}</ref>

[[File:UK Anti Bush visit protest (retouched).jpg|thumb|upright|Protest against the [[Iraq War]] in London, 2008]]
Declassified documents from the U.S. Embassy in [[Jakarta]] in 2017 confirm that U.S. officials directly facilitated and encouraged the [[Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66|mass murder of hundreds of thousands of suspected Communists in Indonesia during the mid-1960s]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://indonesiaatmelbourne.unimelb.edu.au/telegrams-confirm-scale-of-us-complicity-in-1965-genocide/|title=Telegrams confirm scale of US complicity in 1965 genocide|last=Melvin|first=Jess|date=20 October 2017|website=Indonesia at Melbourne|publisher=[[University of Melbourne]]|access-date=May 21, 2018|archive-date=8 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211208113040/https://indonesiaatmelbourne.unimelb.edu.au/telegrams-confirm-scale-of-us-complicity-in-1965-genocide/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Scott|first=Margaret|date=October 26, 2017|title=Uncovering Indonesia's Act of Killing|url=https://www.nybooks.com/daily/2017/10/20/uncovering-indonesias-act-of-killing/|work=[[The New York Review of Books]]|access-date=May 21, 2018|archive-date=June 25, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180625161434/https://www.nybooks.com/daily/2017/10/20/uncovering-indonesias-act-of-killing/|url-status=live}}</ref> Bradley Simpson, Director of the Indonesia/East Timor Documentation Project at the [[National Security Archive]], says "Washington did everything in its power to encourage and facilitate the army-led massacre of alleged PKI members, and U.S. officials worried only that the killing of the party's unarmed supporters might not go far enough, permitting Sukarno to return to power and frustrate the [Johnson] Administration's emerging plans for a post-Sukarno Indonesia."<ref>{{cite book |last=Simpson |first=Bradley |url=http://www.sup.org/books/title/?id=7853 |title=Economists with Guns: Authoritarian Development and U.S.–Indonesia Relations, 1960–1968 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201106160221/https://www.sup.org/books/title/?id=7853 |archive-date=2020-11-06 |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |year=2010 |page=193 |isbn=978-0804771825}}</ref> According to Simpson, the terror in Indonesia was an "essential building block of the quasi [[neo-liberal]] policies the West would attempt to impose on Indonesia in the years to come".<ref>{{cite web |first=Brad |last=Simpson |year=2009 |url=http://www.insideindonesia.org/accomplices-in-atrocity |title=Accomplices in atrocity |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211104151252/https://www.insideindonesia.org/accomplices-in-atrocity |archive-date=2021-11-04 |website=[[Inside Indonesia]] |access-date=May 21, 2018}}</ref> Historian John Roosa, who commented on documents which were released by the U.S. embassy in Jakarta in 2017, said they confirmed that "the U.S. was part and parcel of the operation, strategizing with the Indonesian army and encouraging them to go after the PKI."<ref>{{cite news|last=Bevins|first=Vincent|authorlink=Vincent Bevins|date=20 October 2017|title=What the United States Did in Indonesia|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2017/10/the-indonesia-documents-and-the-us-agenda/543534/|work=The Atlantic|access-date=May 21, 2018|archive-date=28 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428190633/https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2017/10/the-indonesia-documents-and-the-us-agenda/543534/|url-status=live}}</ref> Geoffrey B. Robinson, a historian at UCLA, argues that without the support of the U.S. and other powerful Western states, the Indonesian Army's program of mass killings would not have happened.<ref>{{cite book|last=Robinson|first=Geoffrey B.|date=2018|title=The Killing Season: A History of the Indonesian Massacres, 1965–66|url=https://press.princeton.edu/titles/11135.html|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|pages=22–23, 177|isbn=9781400888863|access-date=2018-06-27|archive-date=2019-04-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190419011656/https://press.princeton.edu/titles/11135.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

During the [[Second presidency of Donald Trump|second presidency]] of [[Donald Trump]], media sources, politicians, and others have described [[United States Immigration and Customs Enforcement|US Immigration and Customs Enforcement]] (ICE) activities, particularly during [[Operation Metro Surge]], as [[Terrorism|terror]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Singh |first=Maanvi |date=2026-01-24 |title=ICE raids turn life into a daily terror for Minneapolis schoolkids: ‘This is a generational trauma’ |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2026/jan/24/minnesota-ice-raids-children-trauma |access-date=2026-01-26 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-01-26 |title='It's not even policing': ICE agents unleash "terror in communities they pass through' |url=https://www.france24.com/en/it-s-not-even-policing-ice-agents-unleash-terror-in-communities-they-pass-through |access-date=2026-01-26 |website=France 24 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2026-01-23 |title='We're being terrorized.' What Mainers are seeing as ICE launches operation in the state |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/nation/were-being-terrorized-what-mainers-are-seeing-as-ice-launches-operation-in-the-state |access-date=2026-01-26 |website=PBS News |language=en-us}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Helmore |first=Edward |date=2026-01-24 |title=‘Heartbroken, horrified’: Democrats outraged over Minneapolis shooting |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2026/jan/24/democrats-minneapolis-shooting-reaction |access-date=2026-01-26 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Gessen |first=M. |date=January 24, 2026 |title=State Terror Has Arrived |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2026/01/24/opinion/state-terror-has-arrived.html |website=The New York Times}}</ref>

===Uzbekistan===
{{Main|State terrorism by Uzbekistan}}

=== Venezuela ===
An [[Organization of American States]] report on [[human rights in Venezuela|human rights violations in Venezuela]] stated that {{lang|es|[[Colectivo (Venezuela)|colectivos]]}}, armed groups that support [[Nicolás Maduro]] and the ruling [[United Socialist Party of Venezuela]] (PSUV) party, murdered at least 131 individuals between 2014 and 2017 during [[Venezuelan protests (2014–present)|anti-government protests]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=OAS says to present evidence of Venezuela rights violations to The Hague |language=en-US |work=[[Reuters]] |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-venezuela-rights-icct/oas-says-to-present-evidence-of-venezuela-rights-violations-to-the-hague-idUSKCN1IV066 |access-date=30 May 2018 |archive-date=30 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180530094134/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-venezuela-rights-icct/oas-says-to-present-evidence-of-venezuela-rights-violations-to-the-hague-idUSKCN1IV066 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[National Assembly (Venezuela)|National Assembly of Venezuela]] designated the {{lang|es|colectivos}} as [[List of designated terrorist groups|terrorist groups]] due to their "violence, paramilitary actions, intimidation, murders and other crimes", declaring their acts as state-sponsored terrorism.<ref name="NATerrorist">{{Cite press release |title=AN declaró como terroristas a los colectivos |trans-title=NA declares colectivos terrorists |url=http://www.asambleanacional.gob.ve/noticias/_an-declaro-como-terroristas |date=2 April 2019 |access-date=9 April 2019 |work=Prensa AN |publisher=[[National Assembly (Venezuela)|National Assembly of Venezuela]] |language=es |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190404014738/http://www.asambleanacional.gob.ve/ |archive-date=April 4, 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

== Casualties ==
State terrorism, with its institutionalized instrumentation of terrorist atrocities through [[massacre]]s, [[genocide]]s, [[forced disappearances]], [[carpet bombing]]s, [[torture]] and sponsorship of death squads, is a deadlier form of terrorism than non-state terrorism.<ref>{{cite book |last=Martin |first=Gus |title=Understanding Terrorism |publisher=SAGE Publications |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-4129-7059-4 |edition=third |pages=98–139}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Blakeley |first=R. |title=State Terrorism and Neoliberalism: The North in the South |publisher=Routledge |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-415-68617-4}}</ref><ref name="One-Sided Violence Against Civilian">{{cite journal |last1=Eck |first1=K. |last2=Hultman |first2=L. |year=2007 |title=One-Sided Violence Against Civilians in War |journal=Journal of Peace Research |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=233–246 |doi=10.1177/0022343307075124}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=White |first=M. |title=Atrocities: The 100 Deadliest Episodes in Human History |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |year=2013 |isbn=9780393345230}}</ref> State terrorism has been far deadlier than non-state terrorism historically. According to [[R. J. Rummel]], governments killed over 260 million people in the 20th century alone.<ref>{{cite book |last=Rummel |first=R. J. |title=Death by Government |publisher=Transaction Publishers |year=1994 |isbn=978-1-56000-927-6}}</ref> On the other hand, non-state terrorism caused fewer than 1 million deaths in the same period.<ref>{{cite web |year=2023 |title=Global Terrorism Database |url=https://www.start.umd.edu/gtd/}}</ref> Studies show that state forces are 3–5 times more lethal against civilians than insurgents.<ref name="One-Sided Violence Against Civilian"/>

==Criticism of the concept==

The chairman of the United Nations Counter-Terrorism Committee has said the twelve previous international conventions on terrorism had never referred to state terrorism, which was not an international legal concept, and when states abuse their powers they should be judged against international conventions which deal with [[war crimes]], [[international human rights law]], and [[international humanitarian law]], rather than international anti-terrorism statutes.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2002/SC7276.doc.htm |title=Addressing Security Council, Secretary-General Calls On Counter-Terrorism Committee To Develop Long-Term Strategy To Defeat Terror |access-date=2009-03-25 |work=United Nations |archive-date=2009-03-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090305023524/http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2002/SC7276.doc.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> In a similar vein, [[Kofi Annan]], at the time the [[United Nations Secretary-General]], said it is "time to set aside debates on so-called 'state terrorism'. The [[Use of force in international law|use of force by states]] is already regulated under international law".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://newamerica.net/publications/articles/2005/the_legal_debate_is_over_terrorism_is_a_war_crime |title=The Legal Debate is Over: Terrorism is a War Crime |access-date=2009-03-25 |first=Michael |last=Lind |publisher=[[New America Foundation]] |archive-date=2009-02-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090221153711/http://newamerica.net/publications/articles/2005/the_legal_debate_is_over_terrorism_is_a_war_crime |url-status=dead }}</ref> Annan added, "regardless of the differences between governments on the question of the definition of terrorism, what is clear and what we can all agree on is any deliberate attack on innocent civilians [or non-combatants], regardless of one's cause, is unacceptable and fits into the definition of terrorism."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/News/dh/latest/afghan/sg-teheran26.htm |title=Press conference with Kofi Annan and Foreign Minister Kamal Kharrazi |access-date=2009-03-25 |work=[[United Nations]] |archive-date=2009-03-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090321112534/http://www.un.org/News/dh/latest/afghan/sg-teheran26.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Bruce Hoffman|Dr. Bruce Hoffman]] has argued that failing to differentiate between state and non-state [[violence]] ignores the fact that there is a "fundamental qualitative difference between the two types of violence". Hoffman argues that even in [[war]], there are rules and accepted norms of behaviour that prohibit certain types of weapons and tactics and outlaw attacks on specific categories of targets. For instance, rules which are codified in the [[Geneva Conventions|Geneva]] and [[Hague Conventions (1899 and 1907)|Hague Conventions]] on warfare prohibit taking [[civilians]] as [[hostage]]s, outlaw [[reprisals]] against either civilians or [[POWs]], recognise [[neutral territory]], etc. Hoffman says "even the most cursory review of terrorist tactics and targets over the past quarter century reveals that terrorists have violated all these rules." Hoffman also says that when states transgress these rules of war "the term '[[war crime]]' is used to describe such acts".<ref name="Hoffman">{{cite book|first=Bruce |last=Hoffman|title=Inside Terrorism|publisher=Columbia University Press |date=April 15, 1998 |isbn=978-0-231-11468-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/insideterrorism00hoff/page/34 34]–35|url=https://archive.org/details/insideterrorism00hoff|url-access=registration}}</ref>

[[Walter Laqueur]] has said those who argue that state terrorism should be included in studies of terrorism ignore the fact that "The very existence of a [[sovereign state|state]] is based on its [[Monopoly on force|monopoly of power]]. If it were different, states would not have the right, nor would they be in a position, to maintain that minimum of order on which all civilized life rests."<ref name="Blakeley">{{cite book|first=Ruth |last=Blakeley|title=State terrorism and neoliberalism|publisher=Routledge|year=2009|isbn=978-0-415-46240-2|page=27|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FoxuDCMmlqoC}}</ref> Calling the concept a "[[red herring]]", he stated: "This argument has been used by the terrorists themselves, arguing that there is no difference between their activities and those by governments and states. It has also been employed by some sympathizers, and it rests on the deliberate obfuscation between all kinds of violence{{nbsp}}..."<ref name="Laqueur">{{cite book|first=Walter |last=Laqueur|title=No end to war: terrorism in the twenty-first century|publisher=Continuum |year=2003|isbn=978-0-8264-1435-9|page=[https://archive.org/details/noendtowarterror00laqu/page/237 237]|url=https://archive.org/details/noendtowarterror00laqu|url-access=registration}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[History of terrorism]]
* [[Political repression]]
* [[State violence]]
* [[State sponsors of terrorism]]
* [[War crime]]
{{div col end}}

==References==

{{Reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==

* {{cite journal|last=Barsamian |first=David|year =2001|title =The United States is a Leading Terrorist State|journal=[[Monthly Review]]|url=http://www.monthlyreview.org/1101chomsky.htm}}
* {{cite journal | year = 2007 | title = The Political Economy Of State Terror | journal = Defence and Peace Economics|volume=18|issue=5|pages=405–414|url=http://www.informaworld.com/index/781318312.pdf|doi=10.1080/10242690701455433 |last1=Kisangani |first1=E. |last2=Nafziger |first2=E. Wayne |name-list-style=amp | citeseerx = 10.1.1.579.1472 | s2cid = 155020309 }}
* {{cite book|last=Martin |first=Gus|title=Understanding terrorism: challenges, perspectives, and issues|publisher=SAGE|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4129-2722-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XdXpn6NH2GcC}}
* {{Cite book | last1= Nairn | first1= Tom | last2= James | first2= Paul | author-link= Paul James (academic) | title= Global Matrix: Nationalism, Globalism and State-Terrorism | url= https://www.academia.edu/1642325 | year= 2005 | publisher= Pluto Press | location= London and New York}}
* {{cite book|last=Primoratz |first=Igor|chapter=State Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism|title=Terrorism: The Philosophical Issues|editor-last=Primoratz |editor-first=Igor|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2004|isbn=978-1-4039-1817-8|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r3NqQgAACAAJ}}
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Selden |editor1-first=Mark |editor2-last=So |editor2-first=Alvin Y.|title=War and state terrorism: the United States, Japan, and the Asia–Pacific in the long twentieth century|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|year=2004|isbn=978-0-7425-2391-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D0icvm2EQLIC}}
* {{cite book|last=Sluka |first=Jeffrey A.|title=Death Squad: The Anthropology of State Terror|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|year=2000|isbn=978-0-8122-1711-7|url=https://archive.org/details/deathsquadanthro00sluk|url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book|title=Terrible beyond Endurance?: The Foreign Policy of State Terrorism|publisher=Greenwood Press|year=1988|isbn=978-0-313-25297-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dFzlAAAAIAAJ|last1=Stohl |first1=Michael |last2=Lopez |first2=George A. |name-list-style=amp }}
* {{cite journal|last=Taylor |first= Simon David|year =2021|title =Status Quo Terrorism: State-Terrorism in South Africa during Apartheid|journal=[[Terrorism & Political Violence]]|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09546553.2021.1916478}}

==Further reading==

* {{cite book|title=State Terrorism and Neoliberalism: the North in the South|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2009|isbn=978-0415686174|url=http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415462402/|first=Ruth |last=Blakeley}}
* {{cite book|title=The Washington Connection and Third World Fascism: The Political Economy of Human Rights |volume=1|publisher=[[South End Press]]|year=1979|isbn=978-0-89608-090-4|url=https://archive.org/details/washingtonconnec0000chom|last1=Chomsky |first1=Noam|last2=Herman |first2=Edward S.|name-list-style=amp|url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book|last=Chomsky|first=Noam|title=The Culture of Terrorism|publisher=[[South End Press]]|year=1988|isbn=978-0-89608-334-9|url=https://archive.org/details/cultureofterrori00chom|url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book|last=Curtis |first=Mark|title=Unpeople: Britain's Secret Human Rights Abuses |publisher=Vintage|year=2004 |isbn=978-0-09-946972-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5PwUAQAAIAAJ}}
* {{Cite book|last=George |first=Alexander|title=Western State Terrorism|publisher=Polity Press|year=1991|isbn=978-0-7456-0931-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5ENiQgAACAAJ}}
* {{cite book|last=Glover |first=Jonathan|chapter=State terrorism|editor-last=Frey |editor-first=Raymond Gillespie|title=Violence, terrorism, and Justice|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1991|isbn=978-0-521-40950-6|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oB77mNaj1aYC}}
* {{cite book|last=Hayner |first=Priscilla B.|title=Unspeakable truths: confronting state terror and atrocities|publisher=Psychology Press|year=2000|isbn=978-0-415-92477-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BdRUbBu-lAAC}}
* {{cite book|last=Herbst |first=Philip|title=Talking terrorism: a dictionary of the loaded language of political violence|publisher=Greenwood |year=2003|isbn=978-0-313-32486-4|url=https://archive.org/details/talkingterrorism0000herb|url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book|last=Herman |first=Edward S.|title=The Real Terror Network: Terrorism in Fact and Propaganda|publisher=[[South End Press]]|year=1982|isbn=978-0896081345|url=https://archive.org/details/realterrornetwor00herm|url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book |last=Kushner |first=Harvey W. |editor-link=Harvey Kushner |title=Encyclopedia of Terrorism |chapter=State terrorism |publisher=SAGE |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-7619-2408-1 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOfkAoDb_2IC |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780761924081}}
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Lerner |editor1-first=Brenda Wilmoth |editor2-first=K. Lee |editor2-last=Lerner|title=Terrorism: essential primary sources |publisher=Thomson Gale|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4144-0621-3|url=https://archive.org/details/terrorismessenti00klee}}
* {{Cite book | last1= Nairn | first1= Tom | last2= James | first2= Paul | author-link= Paul James (academic) | title= Global Matrix: Nationalism, Globalism and State-Terrorism | url= https://www.academia.edu/1642325 | year= 2005 | publisher= Pluto Press | location= London and New York}}
* {{cite book|last=Oliverio |first=Annamarie|title=The state of terror|publisher=SUNY Press|year=1998|isbn=978-0-7914-3708-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e6CWPXGTjtMC}}
* {{Cite book |last=Oriol |first=Philippe |title=À propos de l'attentat Foyot [à Paris] : quelques questions et quelques tentatives de réponse |date=1993 |publisher=Au Fourneau |isbn=978-2-86288-400-4 |location=Paris |language=fr |trans-title=About the Foyot bombing [in Paris]: some questions and some attempts at answers}}

==External links==
'''Prevention of terrorism'''
* [http://www.tkb.org/Home.jsp The National Memorial Institute for the Prevention of Terrorism]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080512021205/https://eprints.unimelb.edu.au/archive/00000137/01/Primorat.pdf State Terrorism and Counterterrorism]

{{Terrorism topics}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:State terrorism| ]]
[[Category:Terrorism committed by country| ]]
[[Category:Dirty wars]]
[[Category:Political repression]]
[[Category:Political violence]]
[[Category:Reprisals]]

Ornit Shani

2026-03-15T03:10:56Z

Alimirza: Article

{{Short description|Israeli academic and author}}
{{use dmy dates|date=November 2021}}

{{Infobox person
| name = Ornit Shani
| image =
| caption =
| notable_works = ''How India Became Democratic''
}}

'''Ornit Shani''' ({{Langx|he|אורנית שני}}) is an Israeli academic, author and professor at the Department of [[Asian Studies]] at the [[University of Haifa]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2013-09-17|title=ORNIT SHANI - JLF London|url=https://asia.haifa.ac.il/index.php/en/faculty-reception-hours|access-date=2021-11-05|website=haifa.ac.il/|language=en}}</ref> She won the [[Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay NIF Book Prize]] in 2018 for her book ''How India Became Democratic.''<ref>{{Cite web|title=New India Foundation|url=https://www.newindiafoundation.org/book-prize|access-date=2021-11-05|website=New India Foundation|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-09-16|title=NIF announces Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay NIF Book Prize 2021 longlist|url=https://www.firstpost.com/art-and-culture/nif-announces-kamaladevi-chattopadhyay-nif-book-prize-2021-longlist-9970481.html|access-date=2021-11-05|website=Firstpost|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Shani|first=Ornit|title=Ornit Shani’s ‘How India Became Democratic’ wins the Rs 15-lakh New India Foundation Book prize|url=https://scroll.in/article/943192/ornit-shanis-how-india-became-democratic-wins-the-rs-15-lakh-new-india-foundation-book-prize|access-date=2021-11-28|website=Scroll.in|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Ornit Shani – How India Became Democratic {{!}} Watson Institute|url=https://watson.brown.edu/events/2018/ornit-shani-how-india-became-democratic|access-date=2021-11-28|website=Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs|language=en}}</ref> Her previous book is ''Communalism, Caste, and Hindu Nationalism: The Violence in Gujarat'' which covers identity and caste politics, the rise of [[Hindu nationalism]], Indian citizenship, democracy and the history of elections.

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Shani, Ornit}}
[[Category:Israeli women academics]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:21st-century Israeli women writers]]
[[Category:Place of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Fellows of St John's College, Cambridge]]

{{Israel-academic-bio-stub}}

Laininghal Naoriya Phulo

2026-03-14T17:25:48Z

Alimirza: Made A Post

{{Infobox person
| honorific_prefix = Meitei prophet
| name = Laininghan Naoriya Phulo
| native_name = Phundrei
| native_name_lang = Meitei
| birth_date = 28 August 1888
| birth_place = Laishram Khul Mayai Leikai, [[Assam]]
| death_date = 1941
| occupation = Philosopher and religious reformer<ref name="Manipur, Past and Present: The Heritage and Ordeals of a Civilization - Google Books">{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-CzSQKVmveUC&q=naoriya+phulo+Meitei+Guru+religious+reformer&pg=PA285 | title=Manipur, Past and Present: The Heritage and Ordeals of a Civilization | isbn=9788170998532 | last1=Sanajaoba | first1=Naorem | year=1988 }}</ref>
| organization = Founded the [[Apokpa Marup]] in 1930, Cachar<ref name="The Lois of Manipur: Andro, Khurkhul, Phayeng and Sekmai - Lairenlakpam Bino Devi - Google Books">{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tIBymmBWqgsC&q=apokpa+marup+1930+naoriya+Phullo&pg=PA46 | title=The Lois of Manipur: Andro, Khurkhul, Phayeng and Sekmai | isbn=9788170998495 | last1=Devi | first1=Lairenlakpam Bino | year=2002 }}</ref>
| known_for = Revivalism of the antique paganism [[Sanamahism]] ([[Meitei religion]]) of the [[Meitei ethnicity]]<ref name="Elections and political dynamics - A. Prafullokumar Singh - Google Books">{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b3TwS0WRn5kC&q=naoriya+phulo+1930+Meitei+revivalist+leadership&pg=PA35 | title=Elections and political dynamics | isbn=9788183242790 | last1=Prafullokumar Singh | first1=A. | year=2009 }}</ref>
| notable_works = Apokpa Mapu Gi Tungnapham
| title = Laininghan
| family = [[Naorem]]
}}

'''Laininghan Naoriya Phulo''' (born 28 August 1888) was a [[Meitei people|Meitei]] religious, social and political leader and the founder of the antique [[Sanamahism|Meitei religion]] revivalist school of [[Apokpa Marup]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Moirangthem Kirti |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LVpuAAAAMAAJ&q=apokpa+marup+naoriya+phulo+founder+originator+ |title=Recent Researches in Oriental Indological Studies: Including Meiteilogy |date=1998 |publisher=Parimal Publications |language=en}}</ref> According to Meitei doctrines, he was regarded as a [[prophet]] who was born to preserve and revive the suppressed ancient paganism of the [[Meitei people|Meitei ethnicity]]. He is seen as an example for all Meiteis to follow. He invented a modern script (different from the present [[Meitei script|Meitei Mayek]]) to write [[Meitei language]] and its numerals taking help from the old script which he discovered from the [[Shakok Salai Thiren]], based on the cosmic evolution of the [[Meitei mythology]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Moirangthem Kirti |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LVpuAAAAMAAJ&q=apokpa+marup+naoriya+phulo+invented+numerals+divine+gift |title=Recent Researches in Oriental Indological Studies: Including Meiteilogy |date=1998 |publisher=Parimal Publications |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Moirangthem Kirti |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=doQeAAAAMAAJ&q=naoriya+phulo+Sagok+Salai+Thiren+cosmic+evolution |title=Religion and Culture of Manipur |date=1988 |publisher=Manas Publications |isbn=978-81-7049-021-0 |language=en}}</ref>
Still today, people celebrate his birthday on the month of Thawan (August) according to [[Meitei calendar]] both in [[Assam]] and [[Manipur]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sanajaoba |first=Naorem |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-CzSQKVmveUC&q=laininghan+naoriya+phulo+birth+day+thawan+August&pg=PA285 |title=Manipur, Past and Present: The Heritage and Ordeals of a Civilization |date=1988 |publisher=Mittal Publications |isbn=978-81-7099-853-2 |language=en}}</ref>

== Related pages ==

* [[George Washington]]
* [[Swami Vivekananda]]
* [[Malcolm X]]
* [[Moses]]
* [[Muhammad]]
* [[Theodor Herzl]]

== Bibliography ==

* https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.310092
* https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.465301
* https://books.google.com/books?id=aAuKAAAAMAAJ&q=naoriya+phulo

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* http://www.e-pao.net/epSubPageExtractor.asp?src=reviews.books.Laininghan_Naoria_Phulo_The_Prophet_Extracts_From_Sakok_Thiren
* http://www.manipur.org/news/tag/laininghan-naoriya-phulo-charitable-trust/
* https://www.thesangaiexpress.com/Encyc/2019/8/23/Bpr-Tbl-Aug-23-The-131st-birth-anniversary-of-Laininghal-Naoriya-Phulo-was-celebrated-followed-by-an-award-distribution-ceremony-for-successful-students-of-class-X-and-XII-from-Bishnupur-district-a.html
* http://e-pao.net/GP.asp?src=28..270813.aug13
* https://www.sentinelassam.com/north-east-india-news/assam-news/enlightening-discussion-on-manipuri-litterateur-naoria-phulo/
* https://www.imphaltimes.com/news/item/4199-recitation-competition-on-naoria-phulo-s-poem

[[Category:Articles with hCards]]
[[Category:Meitei people]]
[[Category:Pages with unreviewed translations]]
[[Category:1888 births]]
[[Category:1941 deaths]]

Heraldry

2026-03-11T04:04:50Z

Alimirza: added formatting and improved wording per sources

{{Short description|Discipline of the design and study of coats of arms}}
{{Use British English|date=February 2026}}
[[File:Hyghalmen Roll Late 1400s.jpg|thumb|The German ''[[Hyghalmen Roll]]'' was made in the late 15th century and illustrates the German practice of repeating themes from the arms in the crest. (See [[Roll of arms]]).]]

'''Heraldry''' (also known as '''armory''') is a [[Discipline (academia)|discipline]] relating to the design, display, study and transmission of armorial bearings. A full [[heraldic achievement]] may include a [[coat of arms]] on a [[escutcheon (heraldry)|shield]], [[helmet (heraldry)|helmet]] and [[Crest (heraldry)|crest]], together with accompanying devices, such as [[supporter]]s, [[Heraldic badge|badges]], [[Heraldic flag|heraldic banners]] and [[motto]]es.<ref>{{harvp|Fox-Davies|1909|pp=1, 57–59}}</ref> Heraldic achievements are formally described in a [[blazon]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title= Heraldry - Symbols, Blazon, Armorial |url= https://www.britannica.com/topic/heraldry/The-nature-and-origins-of-heraldic-terminology |access-date= 2025-07-23 |encyclopedia= Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref>

Although the use of various devices to signify individuals and groups goes back to [[Ancient history|antiquity]], both the form and use of such devices varied widely, as the concept of regular, hereditary designs, constituting the distinguishing feature of heraldry, did not develop until the [[High Middle Ages]].<ref name="CGH 1–18">{{harvp|Fox-Davies|1909|pp=1–18}}</ref> It is often claimed that the use of helmets with face guards during this period made it difficult to recognise one's commanders in the field when large armies gathered together for extended periods, necessitating the development of heraldry as a symbolic language, but there is little support for this view.<ref name="CGH 1–18"/>{{sfnp|Brooke-Little|1973|p=2}}

The perceived beauty and pageantry of heraldic designs allowed them to survive the gradual abandonment of armour on the battlefield during the seventeenth century. Heraldry has been described poetically as "the handmaid of history",<ref>{{harvp|Boutell|1890|p=5}}</ref> "the shorthand of history",<ref>{{harvp|Fox-Davies|1909|p= v}}</ref> and "the floral border in the garden of history".{{sfnp|Moncreiffe|Pottinger|1953}}{{Page needed|date=March 2026}} In modern times, individuals, public and private organizations, corporations, cities, towns, regions, and other entities use heraldry and its conventions to symbolise their heritage, achievements, and aspirations.<ref>{{harvp|Fox-Davies|1909|pp=19–26}}</ref>

Related disciplines include [[vexillology]] (the study of flags), [[genealogy]], and the studies of [[ceremony]] and [[Imperial, royal and noble ranks|rank]].<ref>{{harvp|Fox-Davies|1909|p=1}}; {{harvp|Friar|1987|p=183}}</ref><ref>''[[Webster's 3rd new international|Webster's Third New International Dictionary]]'', [[Merriam-Webster|C. & G. Merriam Company]], Cambridge, Massachusetts (1960).</ref>

==History==
{{main|History of heraldry}}
{{see also|List of oldest heraldry|Origin of the coat of arms|Equestrian seal}}

===Precursors===
Various symbols have been used to represent individuals or groups for thousands of years. The earliest representations of distinct persons and regions in [[ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] art show the use of standards topped with the images or symbols of various gods, and the names of kings appear upon emblems known as [[serekh]]s, representing the king's palace, and usually topped with a falcon representing the god [[Horus]], of whom the king was regarded as the earthly incarnation. Similar emblems and devices are found in ancient [[Mesopotamia]]n art of the same period, and the precursors of heraldic beasts such as the [[griffin]] can also be found.<ref name="CGH 1–18"/> In the [[Bible]], the ''[[Book of Numbers]]'' refers to the standards and ensigns of the [[Israelites|children of Israel]], who were commanded to gather beneath these emblems and declare their pedigrees.<ref>[[Book of Numbers|Numbers]], i. 2, 18, 52; ii. 2, 34; quoted by William Sloane Sloane-Evans, in ''A Grammar of British Heraldry'' (London, 1854), p. ix; quoted by {{harvp|Fox-Davies|1909|pp=6}}.</ref> The Greek and Latin writers frequently describe the shields and symbols of various heroes,<ref>{{harvp|Fox-Davies|1909|pp=6–10}}</ref> and units of the Roman army were sometimes identified by distinctive markings on their shields.<ref>''Notitia Dignitatum'', Bodleian Library</ref> At least one pre-historic European object, the [[Nebra sky disc]], is also thought to serve as a heraldic precursor.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Eiland |first=Murray |date=2003 |title=Pre-heraldry on the Sangerhausen Disc |url=https://www.academia.edu/43158757 |journal=The Armiger's News |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=1, 9 |via=academia.edu}}</ref>

Until the nineteenth century, it was common for heraldic writers to cite examples such as these, and metaphorical symbols such as the "Lion of Judah" or "Eagle of the Caesars", as evidence of the antiquity of heraldry itself; and to infer that the great figures of ancient history bore arms representing their noble status and descent. The ''[[Book of Saint Albans]]'', compiled in 1486, declares that [[Jesus|Christ]] himself was a gentleman of coat armour.<ref>{{harvp|Fox-Davies|1909|p=6}}</ref> These claims are now regarded as the fantasy of medieval heralds, as there is no evidence of a distinctive symbolic language akin to that of heraldry during this early period; nor do many of the shields described in antiquity bear a close resemblance to those of medieval heraldry; nor is there any evidence that specific symbols or designs were passed down from one generation to the next, representing a particular person or line of descent.<ref>{{harvp|Fox-Davies|1909|pp=11–16}}</ref>

The medieval heralds also [[attributed arms|devised arms]] for various knights and lords from history and literature. Notable examples are the toads attributed to [[Pharamond]], the cross and [[martlet]]s of [[Edward the Confessor]], and the various arms attributed to the [[Nine Worthies]] and the Knights of the [[Round Table]]. These too are readily dismissed as fanciful inventions, rather than evidence of the antiquity of heraldry.

<gallery class="center">
File:Narmer Palette serpopard side.jpg|Reverse of the [[Narmer Palette]], ''circa'' 3100 BC. The top row depicts four men carrying standards. Directly above them is a serekh containing the name of the king, [[Narmer]].
File:NAMA Mycènes bouclier 2.jpg|Fresco depicting a shield of a type common in Mycenaean Greece.
File:Hoplitodromos Staatliche Antikensammlungen 1471.jpg|Vase with Greek soldiers in armor, ''circa'' 550 BC.
File:RMW - Legionärsschild.jpg|A reconstruction of a shield that would have been carried by a Roman [[Legionary]].
File:Bodl Canon.Misc.378 roll159B frame28.jpg|alt=Shields from the "Magister Militum Praesentalis II". From the Notitia Dignitatum, a medieval copy of a Late Roman register of military commands.|Shields from the "Magister Militum Praesentalis II". From the {{Lang|la|[[Notitia Dignitatum]]}}, a medieval copy of a Late Roman register of military commands. However, it is likely the art on the shields are made to fit the time/age and not from the original.{{fact|date=October 2024}}
File:Harold dead bayeux tapestry.png|The death of [[Harold Godwinson|King Harold]], from the [[Bayeux Tapestry]]. The shields look heraldic, but do not seem to have been personal or hereditary emblems.
</gallery>

===Origins of modern heraldry===

{{see also|List of oldest heraldry}}

[[File:Geoffrey of Anjou Monument.jpg|thumb|upright=0.6|Enamel from the tomb of [[Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou]], one of the earliest depictions of modern heraldry.]]

The development of the modern heraldic language cannot be attributed to a single individual, time, or place. Although certain designs that are now considered heraldic were evidently in use during the eleventh century, most accounts and depictions of shields up to the beginning of the twelfth century contain little or no evidence of their heraldic character. For example, the [[Bayeux Tapestry]], illustrating the [[Norman conquest of England|Norman invasion]] of England in 1066, and probably commissioned about 1077, when the cathedral of Bayeux was rebuilt,{{efn-lr|This was undertaken by Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, and half-brother of William I, whose conquest of England is commemorated by the tapestry.}} depicts a number of shields of various shapes and designs, many of which are plain, while others are decorated with dragons, crosses, or other typically heraldic figures. Yet no individual is depicted twice bearing the same arms, nor are any of the descendants of the various persons depicted known to have borne devices resembling those in the tapestry.<ref>{{harvp|Woodward|Burnett|1892|pp=29–31}}</ref><ref name="CGH 14–16">{{harvp|Fox-Davies|1909|pp=14–16}}</ref>

Similarly, an account of the French knights at the court of the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] emperor [[Alexios I Komnenos|Alexius I]] at the beginning of the twelfth century describes their shields of polished metal, devoid of heraldic design. A Spanish manuscript from 1109 describes both plain and decorated shields, none of which appears to have been heraldic.<ref name="ToH 26">{{harvp|Woodward|Burnett|1892|p=26}}</ref> The [[Basilica of St Denis|Abbey of St. Denis]] contained a window commemorating the knights who embarked on the [[Second Crusade]] in 1147, and was probably made soon after the event; but [[Bernard de Montfaucon|Montfaucon's]] illustration of the window before it was destroyed shows no heraldic design on any of the shields.<ref name="CGH 14–16"/><ref>{{harvp|Woodward|Burnett|1892|p=31}}</ref>

In England, from the time of the Norman conquest, official documents had to be sealed. Beginning in the twelfth century, seals assumed a distinctly heraldic character; a number of seals dating from between 1135 and 1155 appear to show the adoption of heraldic devices in England, France, Germany, Spain, and Italy.<ref>{{harvp|Woodcock|Robinson|1988|p=1}}</ref> A notable example of an early armorial seal is attached to a charter granted by [[Philip I, Count of Flanders]], in 1164. Seals from the latter part of the eleventh and early twelfth centuries show no evidence of heraldic symbolism, but by the end of the twelfth century, seals are uniformly heraldic in nature.<ref name="ToH 26"/><ref>{{harvp|Wagner|1946|p=8}}</ref>

One of the earliest known examples of armory as it subsequently came to be practiced can be seen on the tomb of [[Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou]], who died in 1151.<ref>{{harvp|Fox-Davies|1909|pp=62}}</ref> An enamel, probably commissioned by Geoffrey's widow between 1155 and 1160, depicts him carrying a blue shield decorated with six golden [[Lion (heraldry)|lions rampant]].{{efn-lr|Only four lions are visible in this depiction, in which the shield is shown in profile, but judging from their position, there must have been six; the tomb of Geoffrey's grandson, William Longspée, shows him bearing an apparently identical shield, but on this all six lions are at least partly visible.}} He wears a blue helmet adorned with another lion, and his cloak is lined in [[vair]]. A medieval chronicle states that Geoffrey was given a shield of this description when he was knighted by his father-in-law, [[Henry I of England|Henry I]], in 1128; but this account probably dates to about 1175.<ref>C. A. Stothard, ''Monumental Effigies of Great Britain'' (1817) pl. 2, illus. in {{harvp|Wagner|1946|loc=pl. I}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Pastoureau|1997|p=[https://books.google.com/books/about/Discoveries_Heraldry.html?id=hmZ5QgAACAAJ 18]}}</ref>

The earlier heraldic writers attributed the lions of England to [[William the Conqueror]], but the earliest evidence of the association of lions with the English crown is a seal bearing two lions passant, used by the future [[John, King of England|King John]] during the lifetime of his father, [[Henry II of England|Henry II]], who died in 1189.<ref>{{harvp|Woodward|Burnett|1892|p=32}}</ref><ref name="CGH 173–174">{{harvp|Fox-Davies|1909|pp=173–174}}</ref> Since Henry was the son of Geoffrey Plantagenet, it seems reasonable to suppose that the adoption of lions as an heraldic emblem by Henry or his sons might have been inspired by Geoffrey's shield. John's elder brother, [[Richard I of England|Richard the Lionheart]], who succeeded his father on the throne, is believed to have been the first to have borne the arms of three lions passant-guardant, still the arms of England, having earlier used two lions rampant combatant, which arms may also have belonged to his father.<ref>{{harvp|Pastoureau|1997|p=59}}</ref> Richard is also credited with having originated the English crest of a lion statant (now statant-guardant).<ref name="CGH 173–174"/><ref>{{harvp|Woodward|Burnett|1892|p=37}}</ref>

The origins of heraldry are sometimes associated with the [[Crusades]], a series of military campaigns undertaken by Christian armies from 1096 to 1487, with the goal of reconquering Jerusalem and other former Byzantine territories captured by Muslim forces during the seventh century. While there is no evidence that heraldic art originated in the course of the Crusades, there is no reason to doubt that the gathering of large armies, drawn from across Europe for a united cause, would have encouraged the adoption of armorial bearings as a means of identifying one's commanders in the field, or that it helped disseminate the principles of armory across Europe. At least two distinctive features of heraldry are generally accepted as products of the crusaders: the [[surcoat]], an outer garment worn over the armour to protect the wearer from the heat of the sun, was often decorated with the same devices that appeared on a knight's shield. It is from this garment that the phrase "coat of arms" is derived.<ref>{{harvp|Fox-Davies|1909|pp=17–18}}</ref> Also the lambrequin, or mantling, that depends from the helmet and frames the shield in modern heraldry, began as a practical covering for the helmet and the back of the neck during the Crusades, serving much the same function as the surcoat. Its slashed or scalloped edge, today rendered as billowing flourishes, is thought to have originated from hard wearing in the field, or as a means of deadening a sword blow and perhaps entangling the attacker's weapon.<ref>{{harvp|Fox-Davies|1909|pp=17–18, 383}}</ref>

===Heralds and heraldic authorities===
The spread of armorial bearings across Europe gave rise to a new occupation: the [[herald]], originally a type of messenger employed by noblemen, assumed the responsibility of learning and knowing the rank, pedigree, and heraldic devices of various knights and lords, as well as the rules governing the design and description, or ''blazoning'' of arms, and the precedence of their bearers.{{sfnp|Fox-Davies|1909|pp=27–29}} As early as the late thirteenth century, certain heralds in the employ of monarchs were given the title "King of Heralds", which eventually became "[[King of Arms]]."{{sfnp|Fox-Davies|1909|pp=27–29}}

[[File:Pursuivant.JPG|thumb|upright|Two [[pursuivant]]s wearing [[tabard]]s at the [[Order of the Garter|Garter Service]], [[Windsor Castle]], 2006: Peter O'Donoghue, [[Bluemantle Pursuivant]] (left), and Alastair Bruce of Crionaich, [[Fitzalan Pursuivant Extraordinary]] (right)]]

In the earliest period, arms were assumed by their bearers without any need for heraldic authority. However, by the middle of the fourteenth century, the principle that only a single individual was entitled to bear a particular coat of arms was generally accepted, and disputes over the ownership of arms seems to have led to gradual establishment of heraldic authorities to regulate their use. The earliest known work of [[Law of Arms|heraldic jurisprudence]], ''De Insigniis et Armis'', was written about 1350 by [[Bartolus de Saxoferrato]], a professor of law at the [[University of Padua]].<ref>[http://www.heraldica.org/topics/bartolo.htm ''De Insigniis et Armis'']</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last= Squibb |first= George |date= Spring 1953 |title= The Law of Arms in England |journal= The Coat of Arms |series= NS II |number= 15 |page= 244}}</ref> The most celebrated armorial dispute in English heraldry is that of ''[[Scrope v Grosvenor]]'' (1390), in which two different men claimed the right to bear ''azure, a bend or''.{{sfnp|Fox-Davies|1909|pp= 21–22}} The continued proliferation of arms, and the number of disputes arising from different men assuming the same arms, led [[Henry V of England|Henry V]] to issue a proclamation in 1419, forbidding all those who had not borne arms at the [[Battle of Agincourt]] from assuming arms, except by inheritance or a grant from the crown.{{sfnmp|1a1=Fox-Davies|1y=1909|1pp= 21–22|2a1=Woodward|2a2=Burnett|2y=1892|2pp=35–36}}

Beginning in the reign of [[Henry VIII]] of England, the English Kings of Arms were commanded to make ''[[heraldic visitation|visitations]]'', in which they travelled about the country, recording arms borne under proper authority, and requiring those who bore arms without authority either to obtain authority for them, or cease their use. Arms borne improperly were to be taken down and defaced. The first such visitation began in 1530, and the last was carried out in 1700, although no new commissions to carry out visitations were made after the accession of [[William III of England|William III]] in 1689.{{sfnmp|1a1=Fox-Davies|1y=1909|1pp= 21–22|2a1=Franklyn|2y=1960|2p=386}} There is little evidence that Scottish heralds ever went on visitations.

In 1484, during the reign of [[Richard III of England|Richard III]], the various heralds employed by the crown were incorporated into England's [[College of Arms]], through which all new grants of arms would eventually be issued.<ref>{{harvp|Fox-Davies|1909|p=38}}</ref><ref name="Pastoureau 39–41">{{harvp|Pastoureau|1997|pp=39–41}}</ref> The college currently consists of three Kings of Arms, assisted by six Heralds, and four [[Pursuivants]], or junior officers of arms, all under the authority of the [[Earl Marshal]]; but all of the arms granted by the college are granted by the authority of the crown.<ref name="CoA Official Site">[http://www.college-of-arms.gov.uk/about-us/heralds-officers College of Arms official website], accessed 3 March 2016.</ref> In Scotland Court of the Lord Lyon King of Arms oversees the heraldry, and holds court sessions which are an official part of Scotland's court system.
Similar bodies regulate the granting of arms in other monarchies and several members of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], but in most other countries there is no [[heraldic authority]], and no law preventing anyone from assuming whatever arms they please, provided that they do not infringe upon the arms of another.<ref name="Pastoureau 39–41"/>

===Later uses and developments===
Although heraldry originated from military necessity, it soon found itself at home in the pageantry of the [[tournament (medieval)|medieval tournament]]. The opportunity for knights and lords to display their heraldic bearings in a competitive medium led to further refinements, such as the development of elaborate tournament helms, and further popularised the art of heraldry throughout Europe. Prominent [[Burgher (social class)|burgher]]s and corporations, including many cities and towns, assumed or obtained grants of arms, with only nominal military associations.<ref>{{harvp|Gwynn-Jones|1998|pp=18–20}}</ref> Heraldic devices were depicted in various contexts, such as religious and funerary art, and in using a wide variety of media, including stonework, carved wood, [[vitreous enamel|enamel]], [[stained glass]], and [[embroidery]].<ref>{{harvp|Neubecker|1976|pp=253–258}}</ref>

As the rise of firearms rendered the mounted knight increasingly irrelevant during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and the tournament faded into history, the military character of heraldry gave way to its use as a decorative art. Freed from the limitations of actual shields and the need for arms to be easily distinguished in combat, heraldic artists designed increasingly elaborate achievements, culminating in the development of "landscape heraldry", incorporating realistic depictions of landscapes, during the latter part of the eighteenth and early part of the nineteenth century. These fell out of fashion during the mid-nineteenth century, when a renewed interest in the history of armory led to the re-evaluation of earlier designs, and a new appreciation for the medieval origins of the art.<ref>{{harvp|Fox-Davies|1909|pp=87–88}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Gwynn-Jones|1998|pp=110–112}}</ref> In particular, a late use of heraldic imagery has been in [[Patriotism|patriotic]] commemorations and [[Nationalism|nationalistic]] [[propaganda]] during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.<ref>{{multiref
|1= {{Cite journal |ref=none |last= Eiland |first= Murray |date= 2010 |title= Heraldry on German Notgeld |journal= The Armiger's News |volume= 23 |issue= 3 |pages= 1–3, 12 |url= https://www.academia.edu/8125755 |via= academia.edu |archive-date= 2023-08-18 |access-date= 2022-12-26 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230818141533/https://www.academia.edu/8125755 |url-status= dead }}
|2= {{Cite journal |author-mask= 3 |ref=none |last= Eiland |first= Murray |date= 2018 |title= Heraldry on American Patriotic Postcards |journal= The Armiger's News |volume= 41 |issue= 1 |pages= 1–3 |url= https://www.academia.edu/38516772 |via= academia.edu }}
|3= {{Cite journal |author-mask= 3 |ref=none |last= Eiland |first= Murray |date= 2019 |title= Heraldry on German Patriotic Postcards |journal= The Armiger's News |volume= 41 |issue= 2 |pages= 1–5 |url= https://www.academia.edu/38797971 |via= academia.edu }}
}}</ref> Since the late nineteenth century, heraldry has focused on the use of varied lines of partition and little-used ordinaries to produce new and unique designs.<ref>{{harvp|Gwynn-Jones|1998|pp=113–121}}</ref>

==Heraldic achievement==
{{Main|Achievement (heraldry)}}

===Elements of an achievement===
{{COA elements}}
A heraldic achievement consists of a [[escutcheon (heraldry)|shield of arms]], the coat of arms, or simply coat, together with all of its accompanying elements, such as a [[crest (heraldry)|crest]], [[supporter]]s, and other heraldic embellishments. The term "[[coat of arms]]" technically refers to the shield of arms itself, but the phrase is commonly used to refer to the entire achievement. The one indispensable element of a coat of arms is the shield; many ancient coats of arms consist of nothing else, but no achievement or armorial bearings exists without a coat of arms.<ref name="CGH 57–59">{{harvp|Fox-Davies|1909|pp=57–59}}</ref>

From a very early date, illustrations of arms were frequently embellished with [[helmet (heraldry)|helmets]] placed above the shields. These in turn came to be decorated with fan-shaped or sculptural crests, often incorporating elements from the shield of arms; as well as a wreath or [[torse]], or sometimes a [[coronet]], from which depended the lambrequin or [[mantling]]. To these elements, modern heraldry often adds a [[motto]] displayed on a ribbon, typically below the shield. The helmet is borne of right, and forms no part of a grant of arms; it may be assumed without authority by anyone entitled to bear arms, together with mantling and whatever motto the armiger may desire. The crest, however, together with the torse or coronet from which it arises, must be granted or confirmed by the relevant heraldic authority.<ref name="CGH 57–59"/>

If the bearer is entitled to the ribbon, collar, or badge of a knightly order, it may encircle or depend from the shield. Some arms, particularly those of the nobility, are further embellished with supporters, heraldic figures standing alongside or behind the shield; often these stand on a [[compartment (heraldry)|compartment]], typically a mound of earth and grass, on which other [[heraldic badge|badges]], symbols, or [[heraldic flag|heraldic banners]] may be displayed. The most elaborate achievements sometimes display the entire coat of arms beneath a pavilion, an embellished tent or canopy of the type associated with the medieval tournament,<ref name="CGH 57–59"/> though this is only very rarely found in English or Scots achievements.

====Shield====
{{main|Escutcheon (heraldry)}}
The primary element of a heraldic achievement is the shield, or escutcheon, upon which the coat of arms is depicted.{{efn-lr|The term "coat of arms" is sometimes used to refer to the entire achievement, of which the shield is the central part.}} All of the other elements of an achievement are designed to decorate and complement these arms, but only the shield of arms is required.{{sfnmp |1a1=Fox-Davies |1y=1909 |1pp=57, 60–61 |2a1=Boutell |2y=1890 |2p=6 |3a1=Whitmore |3y=1968 |3p=9}} The shape of the shield, like many other details, is normally left to the discretion of the heraldic artist,{{efn-lr|There are exceptions to this rule, in which the shape of the escutcheon is specified in the blazon; for example, the [[coat of arms of Nunavut|arms of Nunavut]],<ref>{{cite web |website=Government of Nunavut |title=About the Flag and Coat of Arms |access-date=October 19, 2006 |url=http://www.gov.nu.ca/Nunavut/English/about/symbols.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060427062906/http://www.gov.nu.ca/Nunavut/English/about/symbols.shtml |archive-date=2006-04-27 }}</ref> and the former [[Bophuthatswana|Republic of Bophuthatswana]];<ref>Hartemink R. 1996. South African Civic Heraldry-Bophuthatswana. Ralf Hartemink, The Netherlands. Accessed October 19, 2006. Available at [http://www.ngw.nl/int/zaf/prov/bophutsw.htm NGW.nl]</ref> in the United States, the [[coat of arms of North Dakota|arms of North Dakota]] use an escutcheon in the shape of a stone arrowhead,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://usheraldicregistry.com/pmwiki.php?n=Registrations.20060825L |title=US Heraldic Registry |publisher=US Heraldic Registry |access-date=2012-06-19}}</ref> while the arms of [[Connecticut]] require a [[rococo]] shield;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://americanheraldry.org/pages/index.php?n=State.Connecticut |title=American Heraldry Society - Arms of Connecticut |publisher=Americanheraldry.org |access-date=2012-06-19 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120722165125/http://www.americanheraldry.org/pages/index.php?n=State.Connecticut |archive-date=2012-07-22 }}</ref> the Scottish Public Register specifies an oval escutcheon for the Lanarkshire Master Plumbers' and Domestic Engineers' Association, and a square shield for the Anglo Leasing organisation.}} and many different shapes have prevailed during different periods of heraldic design, and in different parts of Europe.{{sfnmp |1a1=Fox-Davies |1y=1909 |1pp=57, 60–61 |2a1=Woodward |2a2=Burnett |2y=1892 |2pp=54–58}}{{sfnmp |1a1=Boutell |1y=1890 |1pp=6–7 |2a1=Neubecker |2y=1976 |2pp=72–77}}

One shape alone is normally reserved for a specific purpose: the [[Escutcheon (heraldry)#Lozenge|lozenge]], a diamond-shaped escutcheon, was traditionally used to display the arms of women, on the grounds that shields, as implements of war, were inappropriate for this purpose.{{sfnmp|1a1=Fox-Davies|1y=1909|1pp=57, 60–61|2a1=Boutell|2y=1890|2p=9|3a1=Slater|3y=2003|3p=56}} This distinction was not always strictly adhered to, and a general exception was usually made for sovereigns, whose arms represented an entire nation. Sometimes an oval shield, or cartouche, was substituted for the lozenge; this shape was also widely used for the arms of clerics in French, Spanish, and Italian heraldry, although it was never reserved for their use.{{sfnmp|1a1=Fox-Davies|1y=1909|1pp=57, 60–61|2a1=Woodward|2a2=Burnett|2y=1892|2pp=54–58}} In recent years, the use of the cartouche for women's arms has become general in Scottish heraldry, while both Scottish and Irish authorities have permitted a traditional shield under certain circumstances, and in Canadian heraldry the shield is now regularly granted.<ref>{{harvp|Slater|2003|p=231}}</ref>

The whole surface of the escutcheon is termed the [[field (heraldry)|field]], which may be plain, consisting of a single tincture, or divided into multiple sections of differing tinctures by various lines of partition; and any part of the field may be ''semé'', or powdered with small charges.<ref>{{harvp|Fox-Davies|1909|pp=89, 96–98}}</ref> The edges and adjacent parts of the escutcheon are used to identify the placement of various heraldic charges; the upper edge, and the corresponding upper third of the shield, are referred to as the chief; the lower part is the base. The sides of the shield are known as the dexter and sinister flanks, although these terms are based on the point of view of the bearer of the shield, who would be standing behind it; to the observer, and in all heraldic illustration, the dexter is on the left side, and the sinister on the right.<ref name="B8 WW59-60">{{harvp|Boutell|1890|p=8}}; {{harvp|Woodward|Burnett|1892|p=59–60}}.</ref><ref name="CGH 104–105">{{harvp|Fox-Davies|1909|pp=104–105}}</ref>

The placement of various charges may also refer to a number of specific points: nine in number according to some authorities, but eleven according to others. The three most important are ''fess point'', located in the visual centre of the shield;{{efn-lr|Because most shields are widest at the chief, and narrow to a point at the base, fess point is usually slightly higher than the midpoint.}} the ''honour point'', located midway between fess point and the chief; and the ''nombril point'', located midway between fess point and the base.<ref name="B8 WW59-60"/><ref name="CGH 104–105"/> The other points include ''dexter chief'', ''centre chief'', and ''sinister chief'', running along the upper part of the shield from left to right, above the honour point; ''dexter flank'' and ''sinister flank'', on the sides approximately level with fess point; and ''dexter base'', ''middle base'', and ''sinister base'' along the lower part of the shield, below the nombril point.<ref name="B8 WW59-60"/>

====Tinctures====
{{Main|Tincture (heraldry)}}
[[File:tinctures.svg|thumb|Table of the tinctures and furs]]
One of the most distinctive qualities of heraldry is the use of a limited palette of colours and patterns, usually referred to as [[tincture (heraldry)|tinctures]]. These are divided into three categories, known as ''metals'', ''colours'', and ''furs''.{{efn-lr|Technically, the word ''tincture'' applies specifically to the colours, rather than to the metals or the furs; but for lack of another term including all three, it is regularly used in this extended sense.}}<ref>{{harvp|Fox-Davies|1909|p=70}}</ref>

The metals are ''or'' and ''argent'', representing gold and silver, respectively, although in practice they are usually depicted as yellow and white. Five colours are universally recognised: ''gules'', or red; ''sable'', or black; ''azure'', or blue; ''vert'', or green; and ''purpure'', or purple; and most heraldic authorities also admit two additional colours, known as ''sanguine'' or ''murrey'', a dark red or mulberry colour between gules and purpure, and ''tenné'', an orange or dark yellow to brown colour. These last two are quite rare, and are often referred to as ''stains'', from the belief that they were used to represent some dishonourable act, although in fact there is no evidence that this use existed outside of fanciful heraldic writers.<ref>{{harvp|Fox-Davies|1909|pp=70–74}}</ref> Perhaps owing to the realization that there is really no such thing as a ''stain'' in genuine heraldry, as well as the desire to create new and unique designs, the use of these colours for general purposes has become accepted in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries.{{efn-lr|For instance, the arms of Lewes Old Grammar School, granted October 25, 2012: "Murrey within an Orle of eight Crosses crosslet Argent a Lion rampant Or holding in the forepaws a Book bound Azure the spine and the edges of the pages Gold" and those of Woolf, granted October 2, 2015: "Murrey a Snow Wolf's Head erased proper on a Chief Argent a Boar's Head coped at the neck between two Fleurs de Lys Azure."}}<ref name="CoA Official Site"/> Occasionally one meets with other colours, particularly in continental heraldry, although they are not generally regarded among the standard heraldic colours. Among these are ''cendrée'', or ash-colour; ''brunâtre'', or brown; ''bleu-céleste'' or ''bleu de ciel'', sky blue; ''amaranth'' or ''columbine'', a bright violet-red or pink colour; and ''carnation'', commonly used to represent flesh in French heraldry.<ref>{{harvp|Woodward|Burnett|1892|p=61–62}}; {{harvp|Fox-Davies|1909|pp=74}}.</ref> A more recent addition is the use of ''copper'' as a metal in one or two Canadian coats of arms.

There are two basic types of heraldic fur, known as [[Ermine (heraldry)|ermine]] and [[vair]], but over the course of centuries each has developed a number of variations. Ermine represents the fur of the [[stoat]], a type of weasel, in its white winter coat, when it is called an ermine. It consists of a white, or occasionally silver field, powdered with black figures known as ''ermine spots'', representing the black tip of the animal's tail. Ermine was traditionally used to line the cloaks and caps of the nobility. The shape of the heraldic ermine spot has varied considerably over time, and nowadays is typically drawn as an arrowhead surmounted by three small dots, but older forms may be employed at the artist's discretion. When the field is sable and the ermine spots argent, the same pattern is termed ''ermines''; when the field is ''or'' rather than argent, the fur is termed ''erminois''; and when the field is sable and the ermine spots ''or'', it is termed ''pean''.<ref>{{harvp|Woodward|Burnett|1892|p= 63}}; {{harvp|Fox-Davies|1909|pp=77–79}}.</ref>

Vair represents the winter coat of the [[red squirrel]], which is blue-grey on top and white underneath. To form the linings of cloaks, the pelts were sewn together, forming an undulating, bell-shaped pattern, with interlocking light and dark rows. The heraldic fur is depicted with interlocking rows of argent and azure, although the shape of the pelts, usually referred to as "vair bells", is usually left to the artist's discretion. In the modern form, the bells are depicted with straight lines and sharp angles, and meet only at points; in the older, undulating pattern, now known as ''vair ondé'' or ''vair ancien'', the bells of each tincture are curved and joined at the base. There is no fixed rule as to whether the argent bells should be at the top or the bottom of each row. At one time vair commonly came in three sizes, and this distinction is sometimes encountered in continental heraldry; if the field contains fewer than four rows, the fur is termed ''gros vair'' or ''beffroi''; if of six or more, it is ''menu-vair'', or miniver.{{sfnmp|1a1=Fox-Davies|1y=1909|1pp=79–83|2a1=Innes|2y=1978|2p=28}}

A common variation is ''counter-vair'', in which alternating rows are reversed, so that the bases of the vair bells of each tincture are joined to those of the same tincture in the row above or below. When the rows are arranged so that the bells of each tincture form vertical columns, it is termed ''vair in pale''; in continental heraldry one may encounter ''vair in bend'', which is similar to vair in pale, but diagonal. When alternating rows are reversed as in counter-vair, and then displaced by half the width of one bell, it is termed ''vair in point'', or wave-vair. A form peculiar to German heraldry is ''alternate vair'', in which each vair bell is divided in half vertically, with half argent and half azure.{{sfnp|Fox-Davies|1909|pp=79–83}} All of these variations can also be depicted in the form known as ''potent'', in which the shape of the vair bell is replaced by a ''T''-shaped figure, known as a potent from its resemblance to a crutch. Although it is really just a variation of vair, it is frequently treated as a separate fur.<ref>{{harvp|Fox-Davies|1909|pp=84–85}}</ref>

When the same patterns are composed of tinctures other than argent and azure, they are termed ''vairé'' or ''vairy'' of those tinctures, rather than ''vair''; ''potenté'' of other colours may also be found. Usually vairé will consist of one metal and one colour, but ermine or one of its variations may also be used, and vairé of four tinctures, usually two metals and two colours, is sometimes found.<ref>{{harvp|Fox-Davies|1909|pp=80–85}}</ref>

Three additional furs are sometimes encountered in continental heraldry; in French and Italian heraldry one meets with ''plumeté'' or ''plumetty'', in which the field appears to be covered with feathers, and ''papelonné'', in which it is decorated with scales. In German heraldry one may encounter ''kursch'', or vair bellies, depicted as brown and furry; all of these probably originated as variations of vair.<ref>{{harvp|Fox-Davies|1909|pp=83–85}}</ref>

Considerable latitude is given to the heraldic artist in depicting the heraldic tinctures; there is no fixed shade or hue to any of them.{{efn-lr|"There are no fixed shades for heraldic colours. If the official description of a coat of arms gives its tinctures as Gules (red), Azure (blue) and Argent (white or silver) then, as long as the blue is not too light and the red not too orange, purple or pink, it is up to the artist to decide which particular shades they think are appropriate."<ref name="CoA Official Site"/>}}

Whenever an object is depicted as it appears in nature, rather than in one or more of the heraldic tinctures, it is termed ''proper'', or the colour of nature. This does not seem to have been done in the earliest heraldry, but examples are known from at least the seventeenth century. While there can be no objection to the occasional depiction of objects in this manner, the overuse of charges in their natural colours is often cited as indicative of bad heraldic practice. The practice of landscape heraldry, which flourished in the latter part of the eighteenth and early part of the nineteenth century, made extensive use of non-heraldic colours.<ref>{{harvp|Fox-Davies|1909|pp=75, 87–88}}</ref>

One of the most important conventions of heraldry is the so-called "[[rule of tincture]]". To provide for contrast and visibility, metals should never be placed on metals, and colours should never be placed on colours. This rule does not apply to charges which cross a division of the field, which is partly metal and partly colour; nor, strictly speaking, does it prevent a field from consisting of two metals or two colours, although this is unusual. Furs are considered amphibious, and neither metal nor colour; but in practice ermine and erminois are usually treated as metals, while ermines and pean are treated as colours. This rule is strictly adhered to in British armory, with only rare exceptions; although generally observed in continental heraldry, it is not adhered to quite as strictly. Arms which violate this rule are sometimes known as "puzzle arms", of which the most famous example is the arms of the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]], consisting of gold crosses on a silver field.<ref>{{harvp|Fox-Davies|1909|pp=85–87}}</ref>{{sfnp|Heim|1994}}{{page needed|date=March 2026}}

====Variations of the field====
{{Main|Variation of the field}}
The [[Field (heraldry)|field]] of a shield, or less often a charge or crest, is sometimes made up of a pattern of colours, or ''variation''. A pattern of horizontal (barwise) stripes, for example, is called ''barry'', while a pattern of vertical (palewise) stripes is called ''paly''. A pattern of diagonal stripes may be called ''bendy'' or ''bendy sinister'', depending on the direction of the stripes. Other variations include ''chevrony'', ''gyronny'' and ''chequy''. Wave shaped stripes are termed ''undy''. For further variations, these are sometimes combined to produce patterns of ''barry-bendy'', ''paly-bendy'', ''lozengy'' and ''fusilly''. Semés, or patterns of repeated charges, are also considered variations of the field.<ref>{{harvp|Fox-Davies|1909|pp=101}}</ref> The [[Rule of tincture]] applies to all semés and variations of the field.

====Divisions of the field====

{{Main|Division of the field}}

[[File:Varpaisjärvi.vaakuna.svg|thumb|upright|A shield parted per pale and per fir twig fess. Coat of arms of former [[Municipalities of Finland|Finnish municipality]] of [[Varpaisjärvi]]]]

The [[Field (heraldry)|field]] of a [[shield]] in heraldry can be divided into more than one [[Tincture (heraldry)|tincture]], as can the various [[Charge (heraldry)|heraldic charge]]s. Many coats of arms consist simply of a division of the field into two contrasting tinctures. These are considered divisions of a shield, so the rule of tincture can be ignored. For example, a shield divided azure and gules would be perfectly acceptable. A line of partition may be straight or it may be varied. The variations of partition lines can be wavy, indented, embattled, engrailed, [[nebuly]], or made into myriad other forms; see [[Line (heraldry)]].{{sfnp|Friar|Ferguson|1993|p=148}}

====Ordinaries====
{{Main|Ordinary (heraldry)}}
In the early days of heraldry, very simple bold rectilinear shapes were painted on shields. These could be easily recognised at a long distance and could be easily remembered. They therefore served the main purpose of heraldry: identification.{{sfnp|Volborth|1981|p=18}} As more complicated shields came into use, these bold shapes were set apart in a separate class as the "honourable ordinaries". They act as charges and are always written first in [[blazon]]. Unless otherwise specified they extend to the edges of the field. Though ordinaries are not easily defined, they are generally described as including the [[cross]], the [[fess]], the [[pale (heraldry)|pale]], the [[bend (heraldry)|bend]], the [[chevron (insignia)|chevron]], the [[saltire]], and the [[Pall (heraldry)|pall]].<ref>{{harvp|Friar|1987|p=259}}</ref>

There is a separate class of charges called sub-ordinaries which are of a geometrical shape subordinate to the ordinary. According to Friar, they are distinguished by their order in blazon. The sub-ordinaries include the [[inescutcheon]], the [[Orle (heraldry)|orle]], the tressure, the double tressure, the [[bordure]], the [[chief (heraldry)|chief]], the [[Canton (heraldry)|canton]], the [[label (heraldry)|label]], and [[flaunch]]es.<ref>{{harvp|Friar|1987|p=330}}</ref>

Ordinaries may appear in parallel series, in which case blazons in English give them different names such as pallets, bars, bendlets, and chevronels. French blazon makes no such distinction between these diminutives and the ordinaries when borne singly. Unless otherwise specified an ordinary is drawn with straight lines, but each may be indented, embattled, wavy, engrailed, or otherwise have their lines varied.<ref>{{harvp|Woodcock|Robinson|1988|p=60}}</ref>

====Charges====
{{Main|Charge (heraldry)}}
A charge is any object or figure placed on a heraldic shield or on any other object of an armorial composition.<ref>{{harvp|Boutell|1890|p=311}}</ref> Any object found in nature or technology may appear as a heraldic charge in armory. Charges can be animals, objects, or geometric shapes. Apart from the ordinaries, the most frequent charges are the [[cross]] – with its hundreds of variations – and the [[Lion (heraldry)|lion]] and [[Eagle (heraldry)|eagle]]. Other common animals are [[Bear in heraldry|bears]], [[Deer|stags]], [[wild boar]]s, [[martlet]]s, [[Wolves in heraldry|wolves]] and [[fish]]. [[European dragon|Dragons]], [[bat#The bat in heraldry|bats]], [[unicorn]]s, [[griffin]]s, and other monsters appear as charges and as [[supporters]].

Animals are found in various stereotyped positions or ''[[Attitude (heraldry)|attitudes]]''. [[Quadruped]]s can often be found rampant (standing on the left hind foot). Another frequent position is [[Passant guardant|passant]], or walking, like the lions of the [[coat of arms of England]]. Eagles are almost always shown with their wings spread, or displayed. A pair of wings conjoined is called a [[vol (heraldry)|vol]].

In [[English heraldry]] the [[crescent]], [[mullet (heraldry)|mullet]], [[martlet]], [[annulet (heraldry)|annulet]], [[fleur-de-lis]], and [[rose (heraldry)|rose]] may be added to a shield to distinguish [[cadency|cadet]] branches of a family from the senior line. These cadency marks are usually shown smaller than normal charges, but it still does not follow that a shield containing such a charge belongs to a cadet branch. All of these charges occur frequently in basic undifferenced coats of arms.{{sfnp|Moncreiffe|Pottinger|1953|p=20}}

====Marshalling====
[[File:Stowe Armorial.jpg|thumb|upright|An extravagant example of marshalling: the 719 quarterings of the [[George Nugent-Temple-Grenville, 1st Marquess of Buckingham|Grenville]] [[Roll of arms|Armorial]] at [[Stowe House]]]]

To ''marshal'' two or more coats of arms is to combine them in one shield, to express inheritance, claims to property, or the occupation of an office. This can be done in a number of ways, of which the simplest is [[Impalement (heraldry)|impalement]]: [[division of the field|dividing the field]] ''per pale'' and putting one whole coat in each half. Impalement replaced the earlier [[dimidiation]] – combining the dexter half of one coat with the sinister half of another – because dimidiation can create ambiguity between, for example, a [[bend (heraldry)|bend]] and a [[Chevron (insignia)|chevron]]. "Dexter" (from Latin ''dextra'', "right") means to the right from the viewpoint of the bearer of the arms and "sinister" (from Latin ''sinistra'', "left") means to the bearer's left. The dexter side is considered the side of greatest [[honour]] (see also [[dexter and sinister]]).

A more versatile method is [[Quartering (heraldry)|quartering]], division of the field by both vertical and horizontal lines. This practice originated in Spain ([[Coat of arms of Castile and León|Castile and León]]) after the 13th century.<ref>{{harvp|Woodcock|Robinson|1988|p=14}}</ref> As the name implies, the usual number of divisions is four, but the principle has been extended to very large numbers of "quarters".

Quarters are numbered from the dexter chief (the corner nearest to the right shoulder of a man standing behind the shield), proceeding across the top row, and then across the next row and so on. When three coats are quartered, the first is repeated as the fourth; when only two coats are quartered, the second is also repeated as the third. The quarters of a personal coat of arms correspond to the ancestors from whom the bearer has inherited arms, normally in the same sequence as if the pedigree were laid out with the father's father's ... father (to as many generations as necessary) on the extreme left and the mother's mother's ... mother on the extreme right. A few lineages have accumulated hundreds of quarters, though such a number is usually displayed only in documentary contexts.{{sfnp|Rimša|2005|p=38}} The Scottish and Spanish traditions resist allowing more than four quarters, preferring to subdivide one or more "grand quarters" into sub-quarters as needed.

The third common mode of marshalling is with an [[inescutcheon]], a small shield placed in front of the main shield. In Britain this is most often an "escutcheon of pretence" indicating, in the arms of a married couple, that the wife is an heraldic heiress (i.e., she inherits a coat of arms because she has no brothers). In continental Europe an inescutcheon (sometimes called a "heart shield") usually carries the ancestral arms of a monarch or noble whose domains are represented by the quarters of the main shield.

In [[German heraldry]], animate [[charge (heraldry)|charge]]s in combined coats usually turn to face the centre of the composition.
<gallery>
Dimidiation demo.svg|Dimidiation
Dimidiation, worse case demo.svg|Dimidiation (worst case)
Impalement demo.svg|Impalement
Impalement demo 2.svg|Impalement (worst case)
Escutcheon of pretence demo.svg|Escutcheon of pretence
Quartering demo.svg|Quartering
</gallery>

===Helm and crest===
{{Main|Helmet (heraldry)|Crest (heraldry)}}
[[File:Wappen Deutsches Reich - Herzogtum Sachsen-Altenburg (Grosses).png|thumb|German heraldry has examples of shields with numerous crests, as this arms of [[Saxe-Altenburg]] featuring a total of seven crests. Some [[thaler]] coins display as many as fifteen.]]
In [[English language|English]] the word "crest" is commonly (but erroneously) used to refer to an entire heraldic achievement of armorial bearings. The technical use of the heraldic term [[crest (heraldry)|crest]] refers to just one component of a complete achievement. The crest rests on top of a [[Helmet (heraldry)|helmet]] which itself rests on the most important part of the achievement: the shield.

The modern crest has grown out of the three-dimensional figure placed on the top of the mounted knights' helms as a further means of identification. In most heraldic traditions, a woman does not display a crest, though this tradition is being relaxed in some heraldic jurisdictions, and the stall plate of Lady Marion Fraser in the Thistle Chapel in St Giles, Edinburgh, shows her coat on a lozenge but with helmet, crest, and motto.

The crest is usually found on a [[torse|wreath]] of twisted cloth and sometimes within a [[coronet]]. Crest-coronets are generally simpler than coronets of rank, but several specialised forms exist; for example, in [[Canada]], descendants of the [[United Empire Loyalist]]s are entitled to use a [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|Loyalist]] military coronet (for descendants of members of Loyalist regiments) or Loyalist civil coronet (for others).

When the helm and crest are shown, they are usually accompanied by a [[mantling]]. This was originally a cloth worn over the back of the helmet as partial protection against heating by sunlight. Today it takes the form of a stylised cloak hanging from the helmet.<ref>{{harvp|Gwynn-Jones|1998|p=124}}</ref> Typically in British heraldry, the outer surface of the mantling is of the principal colour in the shield and the inner surface is of the principal metal, though peers in the United Kingdom use standard colourings (Gules doubled Argent - Red/White) regardless of rank or the colourings of their arms. The mantling is sometimes conventionally depicted with a ragged edge, as if damaged in combat, though the edges of most are simply decorated at the emblazoner's discretion.

Clergy often refrain from displaying a helm or crest in their [[Ecclesiastical heraldry|heraldic achievements]]. Members of the clergy may display appropriate headwear. This often takes the form of a small crowned, wide brimmed hat called a [[galero]] with the colours and tassels denoting rank; or, in the case of [[Papal coats of arms]] until the inauguration of [[Pope Benedict XVI]] in 2005, an elaborate triple crown known as a [[tiara]]. Benedict broke with tradition to substitute a [[mitre]] in [[Coat of arms of Pope Benedict XVI|his arms]]. Orthodox and Presbyterian clergy do sometimes adopt other forms of headgear to ensign their shields. In the [[Anglicanism|Anglican]] tradition, clergy members may pass crests on to their offspring, but rarely display them on their own shields.

===Mottoes===
An armorial [[motto]] is a phrase or collection of words intended to describe the motivation or intention of the armigerous person or corporation. This can form a pun on the family name as in [[Thomas Nevile]]'s motto ''Ne vile velis''. Mottoes are generally changed at will and do not make up an integral part of the armorial achievement. Mottoes can typically be found on a scroll under the shield. In [[Scottish heraldry]], where the motto is granted as part of the [[blazon]], it is usually shown on a scroll above the crest, and may not be changed at will. A motto may be in any language.

===Supporters and other insignia===
[[File:Coat of Arms of Baldomero Espartero, Prince of Vergara.svg|thumb|Flags as supporters and orders in the armory of the [[Baldomero Espartero, Prince of Vergara|Prince of Vergara]].]]
[[Supporters]] are human or animal figures or, very rarely, inanimate objects, usually placed on either side of a coat of arms as though supporting it. In many traditions, these have acquired strict guidelines for use by certain social classes. On the [[Continental Europe|European continent]], there are often fewer restrictions on the use of supporters.<ref>{{harvp|Neubecker|1976|pp=186}}</ref> In the United Kingdom, only [[Peer of the realm|peers of the realm]], a few baronets, senior members of orders of knighthood, and some corporate bodies are granted supporters. Often, these can have local significance or a historical link to the armiger.

If the armiger has the title of [[baron]], hereditary [[knight]], or higher, he may display a coronet of rank above the shield. In the United Kingdom, this is shown between the shield and helmet, though it is often above the crest in Continental heraldry.

Another addition that can be made to a coat of arms is the insignia of a baronet or of an order of knighthood. This is usually represented by a collar or similar band surrounding the shield. When the arms of a knight and his wife are shown in one achievement, the insignia of knighthood surround the husband's arms only, and the wife's arms are customarily surrounded by an ornamental garland of leaves for visual balance.{{sfnp|Franklyn|1960|p=358}}

===Differencing and cadency===
{{Main|Cadency}}
Since arms pass from parents to offspring, and there is frequently more than one child per couple, it is necessary to distinguish the arms of siblings and extended family members from the original arms as passed on from eldest son to eldest son. Over time several schemes have been used.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.baronage.co.uk/jag-ht/jag008.html |title= Differencing ''a.k.a.'' Cadency |work= Journalists' & Authors' Guide to Heraldry and Titles |publisher=Baronage.co.uk |access-date=2012-06-19 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120805201033/http://www.baronage.co.uk/jag-ht/jag008.html |archive-date= Aug 5, 2012 }}</ref>

===Blazon===
{{Main|Blazon}}
To "blazon" arms means to describe them using the formal language of heraldry. This language has its own vocabulary and [[syntax]], or rules governing word order, which becomes essential for comprehension when blazoning a complex coat of arms. The verb comes from the [[Middle English]] ''blasoun'', itself a derivative of the French ''blason'' meaning "shield". The system of [[blazon]]ing arms used in [[English language|English-speaking]] countries today was developed by heraldic officers in the [[Middle Ages]]. The blazon includes a description of the arms contained within the [[Escutcheon (heraldry)|escutcheon]] or shield, the [[Crest (heraldry)|crest]], [[supporters (heraldry)|supporters]] where present, [[motto]] and other insignia. Complex rules, such as the [[rule of tincture]], apply to the physical and artistic form of newly created arms, and a thorough understanding of these rules is essential to the art of heraldry. Though heraldic forms initially were broadly similar across Europe, several national styles had developed by the end of the [[Middle Ages]], and artistic and blazoning styles today range from the very simple to extraordinarily complex.

==National styles==
Heraldry emerged across [[western Europe]] almost simultaneously in the various countries. Originally, heraldic style was very similar from country to country.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Davies |first= T. R. |date= Spring 1976 |title= Did National Heraldry Exist? |journal= The Coat of Arms |series= NS II |number= 97 |page= 16 |editor-last= Brooke-Little |editor-first= John |editor-link= John Brooke-Little}}</ref> Over time, heraldic tradition diverged into four broad styles: German-Nordic, Gallo-British, Latin, and Eastern.{{sfnp|Warnstedt|1970|p=128}} In addition, it can be argued that newer national heraldic traditions, such as [[South African heraldry|South African]] and [[Canadian heraldry]], have emerged in the 20th century.{{sfnp|Beddoe|1981}}{{page needed|date=March 2026}}

===Germanic heraldries===
====German-Nordic heraldry====

{{anchor|Czech heraldry|Danish heraldry|Finnish heraldry|German heraldry|German-Nordic heraldry|Icelandic heraldry|Norwegian heraldry|Liechtenstein heraldry|Swedish heraldry}}

{{Main|Czech heraldry|Danish heraldry|Finnish heraldry|German heraldry|Icelandic heraldry|Liechtenstein heraldry|Norwegian heraldry|Swedish heraldry}}

[[File:Mikkeli.vaakuna.svg|thumb|upright|The coat of arms of [[Mikkeli]], a city of [[South Savo]], Finland, has been drawn up in honour of the headquarters of the [[Finnish Defence Forces|Finnish Army]] led by [[Marshal of Finland|Marshal]] [[C. G. E. Mannerheim]]; this was stationed in the city during the [[Winter War]], the [[Continuation War]] and the [[Lapland War]]. The coat of arms was originally used without the [[Mannerheim Cross]], and is the third coat of arms affixed to the city.{{sfnp|Iltanen|2013|pp=133–134}}]]

Coats of arms in [[Germany]], the [[Nordic countries]], [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]], the [[Czech lands]] and northern [[Switzerland]] generally change very little over time. Marks of difference are very rare in this tradition, as are heraldic furs.{{sfnp|Warnstedt|1970|p=129}} One of the most striking characteristics of German-Nordic heraldry is the treatment of the crest. Often, the same design is repeated in the shield and the crest. The use of multiple crests is also common.{{sfnp|Woodcock|Robinson|1988|p=15}} The crest is rarely used separately as in British heraldry, but can sometimes serve as a mark of difference between different branches of a family.<ref>{{harvp|Neubecker|1976|p=158}}</ref> [[Torse]] is optional.<ref>{{harvp|Pinches|1994|p= 82}}</ref> Heraldic courtoisie is observed: that is, charges in a composite shield (or two shields displayed together) usually turn to face the centre.{{sfnp|Volborth|1981|p=88}}

Coats consisting only of a [[Division of the field|divided field]] are somewhat more frequent in Germany than elsewhere.

====Dutch heraldry====
{{Main|Dutch heraldry|South African heraldry|Belgian heraldry}}
The [[Low Countries]] were great centres of heraldry in medieval times. One of the famous armorials is the [[Gelre Armorial]] or ''Wapenboek'', written between 1370 and 1414. Coats of arms in the [[Netherlands]] were not controlled by an official heraldic system like the two in the United Kingdom, nor were they used solely by [[Nobility|noble families]]. Any person could develop and use a coat of arms if they wished to do so, provided they did not usurp someone else's arms, and historically, this right was enshrined in [[Roman Dutch law]].{{sfnp|De Boo|1977}}{{page needed|date=March 2026}} As a result, many merchant families had coats of arms even though they were not members of the nobility. These are sometimes referred to as ''[[burgher arms]],'' and it is thought that most arms of this type were adopted while the Netherlands was a [[Dutch Republic|republic]] (1581–1806).{{citation needed|date=June 2012}} This heraldic tradition was also exported to the erstwhile [[South African heraldry|Dutch colonies]].<ref name="AHS">{{cite web|url = https://www.americanheraldry.org/heraldry-in-the-usa/arms-of-famous-americans/presidents-of-the-united-states/theodore-roosevelt-and-franklin-delano-roosevelt-26th-and-32nd-presidents-of-the-united-states|title = Theodore Roosevelt and Franklin Delano Roosevelt, 26th and 32nd Presidents of the United States|website = American Heraldry Society|first = Joseph|last = McMillan|access-date = 2021-10-25|archive-date = 2018-02-16|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180216205029/https://www.americanheraldry.org/heraldry-in-the-usa/arms-of-famous-americans/presidents-of-the-united-states/theodore-roosevelt-and-franklin-delano-roosevelt-26th-and-32nd-presidents-of-the-united-states|url-status = dead}}</ref> Dutch heraldry is characterised by its simple and rather sober style, and in this sense, is closer to its medieval origins than the elaborate styles which developed in other heraldic traditions.{{sfnp|Pama|1956}}{{page needed|date=March 2026}}

====Gallo-British heraldry====
{{anchor|American heraldry|Australian heraldry|Belgian heraldry|Canadian heraldry|Cornish heraldry|Devon heraldry|English heraldry|French heraldry|Irish heraldry|New Zealand heraldry|Northern Irish heraldry|Scottish heraldry|Welsh heraldry}}
{{Main|American heraldry|Australian heraldry|Belgian heraldry|Canadian heraldry|Cornish heraldry|Devon heraldry|English heraldry|French heraldry|Irish heraldry|New Zealand heraldry|Northern Irish heraldry|Scottish heraldry|Welsh heraldry}}
The use of cadency marks to difference arms within the same family and the use of [[semy]] fields are distinctive features of Gallo-British heraldry (in Scotland the most significant mark of cadency being the bordure, the small brisures playing a very minor role). Marks of cadency are mandatory in Scotland, where no two persons can own identical arms at a time. It is common to see heraldic furs used.{{sfnp|Warnstedt|1970|p=129}} In the United Kingdom, the style is notably still controlled by royal officers of arms.{{sfnp|Volborth|1979|p=192}} French heraldry experienced a period of strict rules of construction under [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]].{{sfnp|Woodcock|Robinson|1988|p=21}} English and Scots heraldries make greater use of supporters than other European countries.{{sfnp|Woodcock|Robinson|1988|p=15}}

===Latin heraldry===
{{anchor|Brazilian heraldry|Ecclesiastical heraldry|Mexican heraldry|Monegasque heraldry|Portuguese heraldry|Spanish heraldry|Vatican heraldry}}
{{Main|Brazilian heraldry|Ecclesiastical heraldry|Mexican heraldry| Maltese heraldry |Monegasque heraldry|Portuguese heraldry|Spanish heraldry|Vatican heraldry}}
The heraldry of [[Romance languages|Latin]] countries, namely [[southern France]], [[Andorra]], [[Spain]], and [[Italy]], and except for northern [[France]] (using the Gallo-British style), [[Portugal]] (which does use crests), and [[Romania]] (using the Eastern European style), is characterised by a lack of crests, and uniquely shaped shields.{{sfnp|Warnstedt|1970|p=129}} Portuguese and Spanish heraldry, which together form a larger Iberian tradition of heraldry, occasionally introduce words to the shield of arms, a practice usually avoided in British heraldry. Latin heraldry is known for extensive use of quartering, because of armorial inheritance via the male and the female lines. Moreover, Italian heraldry is dominated by the Roman Catholic Church, featuring many shields and achievements, most bearing some reference to the Church.<ref>{{harvp|Woodcock|Robinson|1988|pp=24-30}}</ref>

Trees are frequent charges in Latin arms. Charged bordures, including bordures inscribed with words, are seen often in Spain.

===Eastern European heraldry===

{{anchor|Belarusian heraldry|Croatian heraldry|Hungarian heraldry|Polish heraldry|Romanian heraldry|Albanian heraldry|Russian heraldry|Serbian heraldry|Slovak heraldry}}

{{Main|Belarusian heraldry|Croatian heraldry|Hungarian heraldry|Albanian heraldry|Polish heraldry|Romanian heraldry|Russian heraldry|Serbian heraldry|Slovak heraldry}}

[[File:Turiec.jpg|thumb|upright|Coat of arms of the [[Turiec]] county in [[Slovakia]]]]

Eastern European heraldry is in the traditions developed in Eastern Europe and the Balkans, which includes all [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] countries (except for [[Czech Republic|Czechia]], which uses the German-Nordic style), [[Albania]], [[Hungary]], [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania|Lithuania]] and [[Romania]], and excludes [[Greece]], [[Cyprus]] and [[Turkey]]. Eastern coats of arms are characterised by a pronounced, territorial, [[clan]] system—often, entire villages or military groups were granted the same coat of arms irrespective of family relationships. In Poland, nearly six hundred unrelated families are known to bear the same [[Jastrzębiec coat of arms]]. Marks of cadency are almost unknown, and shields are generally very simple, with only one charge. Many heraldic shields derive from ancient [[house mark]]s. At least fifteen per cent of all Hungarian personal arms bear a severed [[Turk head (heraldry)|Turk's head]], referring to their wars against the [[Ottoman Empire]].{{sfnmp|1a1=Warnstedt|1y=1970|1pp=129-30|2a1=Woodcock|2a2=Robinson|2y=1988|2pp=28-32}}

==Quasi-heraldic emblems==
True heraldry, as now generally understood, has its roots in medieval Europe. However, there have been other historical cultures which have used symbols and emblems to represent families or individuals, and in some cases these symbols have been adopted into Western heraldry. For example, the [[coat of arms of the Ottoman Empire]] incorporated the royal [[tughra]] as part of its [[crest (heraldry)|crest]], along with such traditional Western heraldic elements as the [[Escutcheon (heraldry)|escutcheon]] and the [[Compartment (heraldry)|compartment]].

===Greek symbols===
{{Main|Greek heraldry}}
Ancient Greeks were among the first civilizations to use symbols consistently in order to identify a warrior, clan or a state.<ref>{{Cite news |last= Claus |first= Patricia |date= 6 May 2022 |title= Anicent Greek Shields Struck Fear Into Enemy |url= https://greekreporter.com/2022/05/06/ancient-greek-shields/ |access-date= 10 March 2023 |work= [[Greek Reporter]]}}</ref> The first record of a shield blazon is illustrated in [[Aeschylus]]' tragedy ''[[Seven Against Thebes]]''.

===''Mon''===
{{Main|Mon (emblem)}}
{{nihongo|'''Mon'''|紋|}}, also {{nihongo|'''monshō'''|紋章|}}, {{nihongo|'''mondokoro'''|紋所|}}, and {{nihongo|'''kamon'''|家紋|}}, are [[Japan]]ese emblems used to decorate and identify an individual or family. While {{translit|ja|mon}} is an encompassing term that may refer to any such device, {{translit|ja|kamon}} and {{translit|ja|mondokoro}} refer specifically to emblems used to identify a family.{{Explain|reason=This is the same as previously stated, so what is the difference with mon and monshō? |date=February 2016}} An authoritative {{translit|ja|mon}} reference compiles Japan's 241 general categories of {{translit|ja|mon}} based on structural resemblance (a single {{translit|ja|mon}} may belong to multiple categories), with 5116 distinct individual {{translit|ja|mon}} (it is however well acknowledged that there exist lost or obscure {{translit|ja|mon}} that are not in this compilation).<ref>{{cite book |year= 2004 |script-title=ja:日本の家紋大全 |language= ja |trans-title= Encyclopedia Of Japanese Emblem Kamon |publisher= 梧桐書院 |isbn=434003102X }}</ref>{{efn-lr|1= Some 6939 {{translit|ja|mon}} are [https://x181.secure.ne.jp/~x181007/kamon/goodslist.cgi listed here] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161028043638/http://x181.secure.ne.jp/~x181007/kamon/goodslist.cgi |date=2016-10-28 }}.}}

The devices are similar to the [[Heraldic badge|badges]] and [[Coat of arms|coats of arms]] in European heraldic tradition, which likewise are used to identify individuals and families. {{translit|ja|Mon}} are often referred to as [[Crest (heraldry)|crests]] in Western literature, another European heraldic device similar to the {{translit|ja|mon}} in function.

Japanese helmets ({{translit|ja|[[kabuto]]}}) also incorporated elements similar to crests, called [[Kabuto#Parts of the kabuto|{{translit|ja|datemono}}]], which helped identify the wearer while they were concealed by armour. These devices sometimes incorporated {{translit|ja|mon}}, and some figures, like [[Date Masamune]], were well known for their helmet designs.

===Socialist emblems===
{{Main|Socialist state emblems}}
[[File:State_Emblem_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg|thumb|[[State Emblem of the Soviet Union]] (1956–1991 version)]]
[[Communist state]]s often followed a unique style characterised by [[communist symbolism]]. Although commonly called ''[[coats of arms]]'', most such devices are not actually coats of arms in the traditional heraldic sense and should therefore, in a strict sense, not be called arms at all.{{sfnp|Volborth|1981|p=11}} Many communist governments purposely diverged from the traditional forms of [[European heraldry]] in order to distance themselves from the [[monarchy|monarchies]] that they usually replaced, with actual coats of arms being seen as symbols of the monarchs.

The [[Soviet Union]] was the first state to use this type of emblem, beginning at its creation in 1922. The style became more widespread after [[World War II]], when many other communist states were established. Even a few non-socialist states have adopted the style, for various reasons—usually because [[Wars of national liberation|communists had helped them to gain independence]]—but also when no apparent connection to a Communist nation exists, such as the [[emblem of Italy]].{{sfnmp|1a1=Volborth|1y=1972|1p=158|2a1=Volborth|2y=1981|2p=11}} After the [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|fall of the Soviet Union]] and [[Revolutions of 1989|the other communist states in Eastern Europe]] in 1989–1991, this style of heraldry was often abandoned for the old heraldic practices, with many new governments reinstating the traditional heraldry that was previously cast aside.

===Tamgas===
{{Main|Tamga}}
A '''tamga''' or '''tamgha''' {{gloss|stamp, seal}} ({{langx|mn|тамга}}; {{langx|tr|damga}}) is an abstract [[Seal (emblem)|seal]] or stamp used by [[Eurasian nomad]]ic peoples and by cultures influenced by them. The tamga was normally the emblem of a particular tribe, clan or family. They were common among the Eurasian nomads throughout Classical Antiquity and the Middle Ages (including [[Alans]], [[Mongols]], [[Sarmatians]], [[Scythians]] and [[Turkic peoples]]). Similar "tamga-like" symbols were sometimes also adopted by sedentary peoples adjacent to the Pontic-Caspian steppe both in [[Eastern Europe]] and [[Central Asia]],<ref>{{harvp|Neubecker|2002}}; {{harvp|Brook|2006|p=154}}; {{harvp|Franklin|Shepard|1996|pp=120–121}}; {{harvp|Pritsak|1998|pp=78–79}}.</ref> such as the [[East Slavs]], whose ancient [[Symbols of the Rurikids|royal symbols]] are sometimes referred to as "tamgas" and have similar appearance.{{sfnp|Shepard|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LMwmcqwZUGcC&q=rurikid+tamga&pg=PA36 36]}}

Unlike European coats of arms, tamgas were not always inherited, and could stand for families or clans (for example, when denoting territory, livestock, or religious items) as well as for specific individuals (such as when used for weapons, or for royal seals). One could also adopt the tamga of one's master or ruler, therefore signifying said master's patronage. Outside of denoting ownership, tamgas also possessed religious significance, and were used as [[talisman]]s to protect one from curses (it was believed that, as symbols of family, tamgas embodied the power of one's heritage). Tamgas depicted geometric shapes, images of animals, items, or [[glyph]]s. As they were usually inscribed using heavy and unwieldy instruments, such as knives or brands, and on different surfaces (meaning that their appearance could vary somewhat), tamgas were always simple and stylised, and needed to be laconic and easily recognisable.<ref>
{{cite journal |last= Olkhovsky |first= V. S. |date= 2001 |script-title= ru:ТАМГА (к функции знака) |language= ru |trans-title= Tamga (on the function of a sign) |script-journal= ru:Историко-археологический альманах |trans-journal= Historical–Archaeological Almanac |number= 7 |location= Armavir, Armenia |pages= 75–86}}</ref>

===Tughras===
{{Main|Tughra}}
{{Further|Coat of arms of the Ottoman Empire}}
Every sultan of the Ottoman Empire had his own monogram, called the ''tughra'', which served as a royal symbol. A coat of arms in the European heraldic sense was created in the late 19th century. Hampton Court requested from Ottoman Empire the coat of arms to be included in their collection. As the coat of arms had not been previously used in Ottoman Empire, it was designed after this request and the final design was adopted by Sultan Abdul Hamid II on April 17, 1882. It included two flags: the flag of the Ottoman Dynasty, which had a crescent and a star on red base, and the flag of the Islamic Caliph, which had three crescents on a green base.

===Ancient Iran===
The word of "arms" in the [[Pahlavi scripts]] is 𐭥𐭢𐭱𐭠𐭥 which is read as nišān (Persian: نشان). In Islamic sources there are some references to the existence of nišāns in ancient Iran. It is suggested that the words arms, [[Mon (emblem)|mon]], and nišān are oscillating on a same semantic context as they all satisfy a similar need: Heraldic identification. [[al-Masudi]] writes that nišāns (Arabic: شعار) used by [[Parthian Empire|Parthians]] and [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanians]]. When al-Masudi talks about Sasanians, he describes their arms as "flags of Persians and their emblems" (رایات الفرس و أعلامهم). In the world of "pahlavans" (پهلوانان) of Iranian national narratives, as same as the world of European knights, each army under the command of a pahlavan from one of the [[Seven Great Houses of Iran|noble families]] identified by a nišān on its flag. Usually, when the pahlavans were presented in the court of the king of Iran, they were distinguishing each troop from another with a flag which had their lords' nišāns on itself.{{sfnp|Kalani|2022|pp=85, 88}}<ref>{{cite journal |last= Kalani |first= Reza |date= 2017 |title= Multiple Identification Alternatives for Two Sassanid Equestrians on Fīrūzābād I Relief: A Heraldic Approach |work= Tarikh Negar Monthly |location= Tehran |at= p. 3, note 6}}</ref>

==Modern heraldry==

Today, institutions, companies, and private persons continue using coats of arms as their pictorial identification.<ref>{{multiref
|1= {{Cite journal |ref=none |last=Eiland |first=Murray |date=2014 |title=Cigar box heraldry |url=https://www.academia.edu/8013409 |journal=The Armiger's News |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=1–4 |via=academia.edu |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117153136/https://www.academia.edu/8013409 |archive-date= Jan 17, 2023 }}
|2= {{Cite journal |author-mask= 3 |ref=none |last=Eiland |first=Murray |date=2015 |title=Heraldry on Crate Labels |url=https://www.academia.edu/13367039 |journal=The Armiger's News |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=1–4 |via=academia.edu |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230818141534/https://www.academia.edu/13367039 |archive-date= Aug 18, 2023 }}
|3= {{Cite journal |author-mask= 3 |ref=none |last=Eiland |first=Murray |date=2018 |title=Elvis Presley's Coat of Arms |url=https://www.academia.edu/38516784 |journal=The Armiger's News |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=6 |via=academia.edu |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230819003630/https://www.academia.edu/38516784 |archive-date= Aug 19, 2023 }}
|4= {{Cite journal |author-mask= 3 |ref=none |last=Eiland |first=Murray |date=2012 |title=Postcard from the Supreme Court, London |url=https://www.academia.edu/8013370 |journal=The Armiger's News |volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=2–4 |via=academia.edu |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230818141517/https://www.academia.edu/8013370 |archive-date= Aug 18, 2023 }}
}}</ref> In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the English [[King of Arms|Kings of Arms]], Scotland's [[Lord Lyon King of Arms]], and the [[Office of the Chief Herald of Ireland|Chief Herald of Ireland]] continue making grants of arms.{{efn-lr|1= See the [http://college-of-arms.gov.uk/#newsletter College of Arms newsletter] for quarterly samplings of English grants and the [http://www.nli.ie/h_arms1999.htm Chief Herald of Ireland's webpage] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061004045906/http://www.nli.ie/h_arms1999.htm |date=2006-10-04 }} for recent Irish grants.}} There are heraldic authorities in [[Public Register of Arms, Flags and Badges of Canada|Canada]] ([[Canadian Heraldic Authority]]),{{efn-lr|1= See the [http://reg.gg.ca/heraldry/pub-reg/main.asp?lang=e Public Register of Arms, Flags and Badges of Canada].}} [[Bureau of Heraldry|South Africa]], [[Office of the Chief Herald of Arms of Malta |Malta]], Spain, and Sweden that grant or register coats of arms. In [[South African heraldry|South Africa]], the right to armorial bearings is also determined by [[Roman Dutch law]], due to its origins as a 17th-century colony of the Netherlands.{{sfnp|Pama|1972}}{{page needed|date= March 2026}}

Heraldic societies abound in Africa, Asia, Australasia, the Americas and Europe. Heraldry aficionados participate in the [[Society for Creative Anachronism]], medieval revivals, [[micronation]]s and other related projects. Modern armigers use heraldry to express ancestral and personal heritage as well as professional, academic, civic, and national pride.<ref>{{Cite journal |ref=none |last=Eiland |first=Murray |date=2018 |title=Gathering the clans in California |url=https://www.academia.edu/35831716 |journal=The Armiger's News |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=1–6 |via=academia.edu}}</ref> Little is left of class identification in modern heraldry, where the emphasis is more than ever on expression of identity.<ref>{{harvp|Slater|2003|p=238}}</ref>

Heraldry continues to build on its rich tradition in academia, [[government]], guilds and [[professional associations]], religious institutions, and the military. Nations and their subdivisions – provinces, states, counties, cities, etc. – continue to build on the traditions of civic heraldry. The [[Roman Catholic Church]], [[Anglicanism|Anglican]] churches, and other religious institutions maintain the traditions of [[ecclesiastical heraldry]] for clergy, religious orders, and schools.

Many of these institutions have begun to employ blazons representing modern objects. For example, some heraldic symbols issued by the [[United States Army Institute of Heraldry]] incorporate symbols such as guns, airplanes, or locomotives. Some scientific institutions incorporate symbols of modern science such as the [[Symbol (chemistry)|atom]] or particular scientific instruments. The arms of the [[United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority]] uses traditional heraldic symbols to depict the harnessing of atomic power.{{sfnp|Child|1976|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=CUdMRj7qOr8C&q=atom+symbol+in+heraldry&pg=PA21 21]}} Locations with strong associations to particular industries may incorporate associated symbols. The coat of arms of [[Stenungsund Municipality]] in Sweden incorporates a hydrocarbon molecule, alluding to the historical significance of the petrochemical industry in the region.

Heraldry in countries with heraldic authorities continues to be regulated generally by [[Law of heraldic arms|laws]] granting rights to arms and recognizing possession of arms as well as protecting against their misuse. Countries without heraldic authorities usually treat coats of arms as creative property in the manner of [[logo]]s, offering protection under [[copyright law]]s. This is the case in [[Nigerian heraldry|Nigeria]], where most of the components of its heraldic system are otherwise unregulated.

<gallery class=center mode=nolines>
Stenungsund kommunvapen - Riksarkivet Sverige.png|1977 arms with a [[hydrocarbon]] molecule
Italian Coat of Arms of Castagneto by Dario Scaricamazza.png|2022 arms of Castagneto, showing chestnuts (''castagne'')|alt=Coat of arms of Castagneto
052-ADA-Rgmt-COA.png|Arms of the US [[52nd Air Defense Artillery Regiment]], with a locomotive as a crest
</gallery>

==See also==
{{Portal|Heraldry}}
* {{annotated link|Emblematic}}
* {{annotated link|Portal:Heraldry/Web resources|Heraldic societies}}
* {{annotated link|Sigillography}}
* {{annotated link|Totem pole}}

==Footnotes==
{{Notelist-lr}}

==References==
{{Reflist|25em}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
* {{cite book |last= Beddoe |first= Alan |date= 1981 |title= Beddoe's Canadian Heraldry |editor-last= Galloway |editor-first= Strome |publisher= Mika Publishing Company |location= Belleville, Ontario |url= https://archive.org/details/beddoescanadianh0000ltcd/ |url-access= registration |via= Internet Archive}}
* {{cite book |ref= {{sfnRef|De Boo|1977}} |last= de Boo |first= J. A. |title= Familiewapens, oud en nieuw. Een inleiding tot de Familieheraldiek |trans-title= Family Coats of Arms, Old and New: An introduction to Family Heraldry |publisher= Centraal Bureau voor Genealogie |location= [[The Hague]] |date= 1977 |language= nl |oclc= 63382927}}
* {{cite book |author-link=Charles Boutell |last=Boutell |first=Charles |year=1890 |url = https://archive.org/details/heraldryancientm00boutrich |editor-first=S. T. |editor-last = Aveling |title = Heraldry, Ancient and Modern: Including Boutell's Heraldry |location=London |publisher=Frederick Warne |oclc = 6102523 |via=Internet Archive }}
* {{cite book |last= Brook |first= Kevin Alan |date= 2006 |title= The Jews of Khazaria |edition= 2nd |publisher= Rowman and Littlefield |isbn= 0-7425-4981-X }}
* {{cite book |last= Brooke-Little |first= John |date= 1973 |title= An Heraldic Alphabet |publisher= Macdonald |location= London |author-link= John Brooke-Little }}
* {{cite book |last= Child |first= Heather |date= 1976 |title= Heraldic Design: A Handbook for Students |publisher= Genealogical Publishing Com |isbn= 9780806300719 }}
* {{cite book |last= Fox-Davies |first= Arthur Charles |date= 1909 |title= A Complete Guide to Heraldry |location= London |publisher= T. C. & E. C. Jack |lccn= 09023803 |url= https://archive.org/details/completeguidetoh00foxdrich |via= Internet Archive |author-link= Arthur Charles Fox-Davies }}
* {{cite book |last1= Franklin |first1= Simon |last2= Shepard |first2= Jonathan |date= 1996 |title= The Emergence of Rus 750–1200 |location= London |publisher= Longman }}
* {{cite book |last= Franklyn |first= Julian |date= 1960 |title= Shield and Crest: An Account of the Art and Science of Heraldry |publisher= MacGibbon & Kee |location= London }}
* {{cite book |editor-last= Friar |editor-first= Stephen |date= 1987 |title= A Dictionary of Heraldry |publisher= Harmony Books |location= New York |isbn= 9780517566657 |url= https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofhera00fria |url-access= registration }}
* {{cite book |last1= Friar |first1= Stephen |last2= Ferguson |first2= John |date= 1993 |title= Basic Heraldry |publisher= W. W. Norton & Company |location= New York }}
* {{cite book |last= Gwynn-Jones |first= Peter |date= 1998 |title= The Art of Heraldry: Origins, Symbols, and Designs |location= London |publisher= Parkgate Books |isbn= 9780760710821 }}
* Hart, Vaughan. 'London's Standard: Christopher Wren and the Heraldry of the Monument', in ''RES: Journal of Anthropology and Aesthetics'', vol.73/74, Autumn 2020, pp. 325–39
* {{cite book |last= Heim |first= Bruno |date= 1994 |title= Or and Argent |location= Gerrards Cross, Buckingham |publisher=Colin Smythe Limited }}
* {{cite book |last= Iltanen |first= Jussi |date= 2013 |title= Suomen kuntavaakunat – Kommunvapnen i Finland |language= fi |trans-title= Finnish Municipal Coats of Arms |publisher= Karttakeskus |location= Helsinki |isbn= 978-952-266-092-3 }}
* {{cite book |ref= {{sfnRef|Innes|1978}} |last=Innes of Learney |first= Thomas |date= 1978 |editor-last= Innes of Edingight |editor-first= Malcolm |title= Scots Heraldry |edition= 3rd |publisher= Johnston & Bacon |isbn= 9780717942282 |location= London |author-link= Thomas Innes of Learney |editor-link= Malcolm Innes of Edingight }}
* {{cite book |last= Kalani |first= Reza |date= 2022 |title= Indo-Parthians and the Rise of Sasanians |publisher= Tahouri Publishers |location= Tehran }}
* {{cite book |last1= Moncreiffe |first1= Iain |last2= Pottinger |first2= Don |date= 1953 |title= Simple Heraldry Cheerfully Illustrated |location= London; Edinburgh |publisher= Thomas Nelson and Sons |author1-link= Iain Moncreiffe }}
* {{cite book |last= Neubecker |first= Ottofried |date= 1976 |title= Heraldry: Sources, Symbols and Meaning |location= Maidenhead, England |publisher= McGraw-Hill |author-link= Ottfried Neubecker }}
* {{cite book |last= Neubecker |first= Ottofried |date= 2002 |title= Heraldik: Wappen – ihr Ursprung, Sinn und Wert |language= de |trans-title= Heraldry: Coats of Arms – Their Origin, Meaning, and Value |publisher= Orbis |isbn= 9783572013449 }}
* {{cite book |last= Pama |first= Cornelius |date= 1956 |title= Heraldiek in Suid-Afrika |language= af |trans-title= Heraldry in South Africa |publisher= Balkema |location= Cape Town }}
* {{cite book |last= Pama |first= Cornelius |date= 1972 |title= Heraldry of South African Families: Coats of Arms/Crests/Ancestry |publisher= Balkema |location= Cape Town |url= https://archive.org/details/heraldryofsoutha0000cpam/ |url-access=registration |via= Internet Archive }}
* {{cite book |author-link=Michel Pastoureau |last=Pastoureau |first=Michel |title = Heraldry: An Introduction to a Noble Tradition |series="[[Découvertes Gallimard|Abrams Discoveries]]" series |location=New York |publisher=Harry N. Abrams |year=1997 }}
* {{cite book |last= Pinches |first= J. H. |date= 1994 |title= European Nobility and Heraldry |publisher= Heraldry Today |isbn= 0-900455-45-4 }}
* {{cite book |last= Pritsak |first= Omeljan |date= 1998 |title= The Origins of the Old Rus' Weights and Monetary Systems |location= Cambridge, Massachusetts |publisher= [[Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute]] |isbn= 0-582-49090-1 }}
* {{cite book |last= Rimša |first= Edmundas |date= 2005 |title= Heraldry Past to Present |publisher= Versus Aureus |location= Vilnius }}
* {{cite book |last= Shepard |first= J. |date= 2006 |chapter= Closer Encounters with the Byzantine World: The Rus at the Straits of Kerch |editor-last1= Reyerson |editor-first1= Kathryn L. |editor-last2= Stavrou |editor-first2= Theofanis G. |editor-last3= Tracy |editor-first3= James D. |title= Pre-modern Russia and Its World: Essays in Honor of Thomas S. Noonan |isbn= 9783447054256 |publisher= Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |location= Wiesbaden }}
* {{cite book |first=Stephen |last=Slater |title=The Complete Book of Heraldry |publisher=Hermes House |location=New York |year=2003 |isbn = 9781844772247 }}
* {{cite book |ref= {{sfnRef|Volborth|1972}} |last= von Volborth |first= Carl-Alexander |date= 1972 |title= Alverdens heraldik i farver |language= da |trans-title= Heraldry from All Over the World in Color |location= Copenhagen |publisher= Politikens Forlag |translator-last= Achen |translator-first= Sven Tito |translator-link= Sven Tito Achen |isbn= 87-567-1685-0 |author-link1= Carl-Alexander von Volborth}}
* {{cite book |ref= {{sfnRef|Volborth|1979}} |last= von Volborth |first= Carl-Alexander |date= 1979 |title= Heraldry of the World |publisher= Blandford Press |location= Dorset |author-link= Carl-Alexander von Volborth }}
* {{cite book |ref= {{sfnRef|Volborth|1981}} |last= von Volborth |first= Carl-Alexander |date= 1981 |title= Heraldry – Customs, Rules and Styles |location= Ware, Hertfordshire |publisher= Omega Books |isbn= 0-907853-47-1 |author-link= Carl-Alexander von Volborth }}
* {{cite book |last= Wagner |first= Anthony R. |date= 1946 |title= Heraldry in England |publisher= Penguin |oclc= 878505764 |author-link= Anthony Wagner }}
* {{cite journal |ref= {{sfnRef|Warnstedt|1970}} |last=von Warnstedt |first=Christopher |date=October 1970 |title = The Heraldic Provinces of Europe |journal=The Coat of Arms |volume=XI |issue=84 }}
* {{cite book |last= Whitmore |first= William |date= 1968 |title= The Elements of Heraldry |publisher= Weathervane Books |location= New York }}
* {{cite book |author1-link = Thomas Woodcock (officer of arms) |last1 = Woodcock |first1 = Thomas |author2-link = John Martin Robinson |first2=John Martin |last2=Robinson |title=The Oxford Guide to Heraldry |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1988 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Woodward |first1=John |first2=George |last2=Burnett |year=1969 |orig-year=1st pub. 1892 |url = https://archive.org/details/treatiseonherald00wooduoft |title = Woodward's a treatise on heraldry, British and foreign: with English and French glossaries |location=Edinburgh |publisher = W. & A. B. Johnson |isbn = 0-7153-4464-1 |lccn = 02020303 |via=Internet Archive |ref={{SfnRef|Woodward|Burnett|1892}} }}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |last= Burke |first= Bernard |date= 1967 |title= The General Armory of England, Scotland, Ireland and Wales; Comprising a Registry of Armorial Bearings from the Earliest to the Present Time |location= Baltimore |publisher= Genealogical Publishing |author-link= Bernard Burke }}
* {{cite book |last= Dennys |first= Rodney |date= 1975 |title= The Heraldic Imagination |location= New York |publisher= Clarkson N. Potter |author-link= Rodney Dennys }}
* {{cite book |last= Elvins |first= Mark Turnham |date= 1988 |title= Cardinals and Heraldry |location= London |publisher= Buckland Publications |author-link= Mark Elvins }}
* {{cite book |last= Fairbairn |first= James |date= 1986 |title= Fairbairn's Crests of the Families of Great Britain & Ireland |location= New York |publisher= Bonanza Books }}
* {{cite book |last= Fox-Davies |first= Arthur Charles |date= 1904 |title= The Art of Heraldry: An Encyclopedia of Armory |location= London |publisher= T. C. & E. C. Jack |via= Internet Archive |url= https://archive.org/details/artofheraldryenc00foxd/ |author-link= Arthur Charles Fox-Davies }}
* {{cite book |last= Franklyn |first= Julian |date= 1968 |title= Heraldry |location= Cranbury, New Jersey |publisher= A. S. Barnes and Company |isbn= 9780498066832 |url= https://archive.org/details/heraldry0000fran |url-access= registration}}
* {{cite book |last= Humphery-Smith |first= Cecil |date= 1973 |title= General Armory Two |location= London |publisher= Tabard Press |isbn= 9780806305837 |author-link= Cecil Humphery-Smith }}
* {{cite book |last= Le Févre |first= Jean |date= 1971 |title= A European Armorial: An Armorial of Knights of the Golden Fleece and 15th Century Europe |editor-last1= Pinches |editor-first= Rosemary |editor-last2= Wood |editor-first2= Anthony |location= London |publisher= Heraldry Today |isbn= 9780900455131 }}
* {{cite book |last1= Louda |first1= Jiří |last2= Maclagan |first2= Michael |date= 1981 |title= Heraldry of the Royal Families of Europe |location= New York |publisher= Clarkson Potter |author2-link= Michael Maclagan }}
* {{cite book  |last= Mackenzie of Rosehaugh |first= George |date= 1680 |title= Scotland's Herauldrie: the Science of Herauldrie treated as a part of the Civil law and Law of Nations |location= Edinburgh |publisher= Heir of Andrew Anderson }}
* {{cite book |last= Nisbet |first= Alexander |date= 1984 |title= A System of Heraldry |location= Edinburgh |publisher= T & A Constable }}
* {{cite book |last= Parker |first= James |date= 1970 |title= A Glossary of Terms Used in Heraldry |location= Newton Abbot |publisher= David & Charles |url= http://www.heraldsnet.org/saitou/parker/ }}
* {{cite book |last= Paul |first= James Balfour |date= 1903 |title= An Ordinary of Arms Contained in the Public Register of All Arms and Bearings in Scotland |location= Edinburgh |publisher= W. Green & Sons |url= https://archive.org/details/ordinaryofarmsco01paul |via= Internet Archive |author-link= James Balfour Paul }}
* {{cite book |last1= Reid of Robertland |first1= David |first2= Vivien |last2= Wilson |date= 1977 |title= An Ordinary of Arms |volume= II |location= Edinburgh |publisher= Lyon Office }}
* {{cite book |last= Rietstap |first= Johannes B. |date= 1967 |title= Armorial General |location= Baltimore |publisher= Genealogical Publishing |author-link= Johannes Rietstap }}
* {{cite book |last= Siebmacher |first= Johann J. |title=[[Siebmachers Wappenbuch|Siebmacher's Grosses und Allgemeines Wappenbuch Vermehrten Auglage]] |language= de |trans-title= Siebmacher's Large and General Coat of Arms Book |location= Nürnberg |publisher= Von Bauer & Raspe |year= 1890–1901 }}
* {{cite book |last= Wagner |first= Anthony R. |date= 1967 |title= Heralds of England: A History of the Office and College of Arms |location=London |publisher = [[Her Majesty's Stationery Office]] |author-link= Anthony Wagner }}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Heraldry}}
{{Wiktionary}}
{{Wikisource}}
{{Wikiquote}}
* [http://www.europeanheraldry.org/ EuropeanHeraldry.org] catalogues a large number of European noble titles and heraldry.
* [http://www.lyczkowski.net/en/belarusian-gentry-coa/preface.html Heraldry of Greatlitvan Nobility]
* [http://www.ngw.nl/ Heraldry of the World (civic heraldry)], an overview of thousands of coats of arms of towns and countries
* {{Cite EB1911 |wstitle=Heraldry |volume=13 |pages=311–330 |first=Oswald |last=Barron |author-link=Oswald Barron |short=1}}
* [http://www.internationalheraldry.com/ International heraldry] Introduction and examples
* [http://www.heraldik.org/ Heraldisk Selskab] The Scandinavian Heraldry Society (one of the oldest and largest societies dedicated to heraldic research)
* [http://www.heraldryforkids.com/ Heraldry for Kids] Introducing Heraldry for Kids with free heraldry activity sheets
* [http://www.heraldica.org/ Heraldica] The history of heraldry, knighthood and chivalry, glossary of the blazon, themes, coats of arms, etc.
* [https://www.heraldic-arts.com/ Heraldic Arts] Founded in 1987, the Society of Heraldic Arts was the first organisation of its kind in the world.
* [https://www.instagram.com/heraldry.art/ Heraldry Art] An educational Instagram account focused on the dissemination of European heraldry, with a large international audience.

{{British nobility}}{{heraldry|state=expanded}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Heraldry| ]]

Kiran Bhat

2026-03-10T01:58:09Z

Alimirza: Made A Stub

{{Short description|American author}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2023}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Kiran Bhat
| image = Kiran's rainbow lit fest reading.jpg
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1990|4|21}}
| birth_place = [[Jonesboro, Georgia]], U.S.
| alma_mater = [[New York University]]
| occupation = novelist, poet, short-story writer
| years_active = 2013-present
| known_for = Poetry collections Autobiografia, Speaking in Tongues (2022) and the novel We of the Forsaken World (2020)
| website = {{URL|https://kiranbhatweldgeist.com/}}
}}

'''Kiran Bhat''' (born 21 April 1990) is an Indian–American novelist, poet, short-story writer, literary critic and translator, who has written the poetry collections ''Autobiografia'', ''Speaking in Tongues (2022)'',<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Indian literature: Page turners 2022 |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/delhi/2022/dec/31/indian-literature-page-turners-2022-2533449.html |access-date=2023-02-05 |website=The New Indian Express}}</ref> and the novel ''We of the Forsaken World'' (2020).<ref name="globalatlanta.com">{{Cite web |title=Kiran Bhat's Book Launch: We of the Forsaken World |url=https://www.globalatlanta.com/event/kiran-bhats-book-launch-we-of-the-forsaken-world/ |access-date=2023-02-05 |website=Global Atlanta |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Author Kiran Bhat and Book: We of the Forsaken World |url=https://www.khabar.com/events-calendar/Author-Kiran-Bhat-and-Book-We-of-the-Forsaken-World |access-date=2023-02-05 |website=www.khabar.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=16 March 2021 |title="I like the idea of channeling the sorts of stories that humans like to come back to..."- Kiran Bhat (Author, Girar) |url=http://kitaab.org/2021/03/16/i-like-the-idea-of-channeling-the-sorts-of-stories-that-humans-like-to-come-back-to-kiran-bhat-author-girar/ |access-date=2023-02-05 |website=KITAAB |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Early life ==
Bhat was born to doctors Anu and Subra Bhat and raised in [[Jonesboro, Georgia]], United States.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Circling the World: An Interview with Kiran Bhat |url=http://prismmagazine.ca/2021/04/29/circling-the-world-an-interview-with-kiran-bhat/ |access-date=2023-02-05 |website=PRISM international |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Veena |date=10 January 2020 |title=I try to compress our globe into a single narrative fictional space: Author Kiran Bhat |url=https://nripulse.com/i-try-to-compress-our-globe-into-a-single-narrative-fictional-space-author-kiran-bhat/ |access-date=2023-02-05 |website=NRI Pulse |language=en-US}}</ref> He began writing at the age of 17.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 August 2021 |title=A Fevers of the Mind Quick-9 Interview with Kiran Bhat |url=https://feversofthemind.com/2021/08/16/a-fevers-of-the-mind-quick-9-interview-with-kiran-bhat/ |access-date=2023-02-05 |website=Fevers of the Mind |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Kiran Bhat Interviewed by Paresh Tiwari – EKL REVIEW |url=https://eklreview.com/kiran-bhat-interviewed-by-paresh-tiwari/ |access-date=2023-02-05 |language=en-US}}</ref> Bhat graduated from [[New York University]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 March 2019 |title=NRI writer's travelogue 'Tirugata' released in city |url=https://starofmysore.com/nri-writers-travelogue-tirugata-released-in-city/ |access-date=2023-02-05 |website=Star of Mysore |language=en-US}}</ref> He spent time studying abroad in Spain from 2010 to 2011.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mellacheruvu |first=Abhinav |date=16 March 2018 |title=Meet Global Citizen and Writer Kiran Bhat |url=https://archives.rgnn.org/2018/03/17/meet-global-citizen-writer-kiran-bhat/ |access-date=2023-02-05 |website=ROOSTERGNN |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Career ==

In 2017 Bhat published ''Accepting My Place,'' a collection of nonfiction journals written between 2011 and 2014.<ref name="eBookIt.com">{{Cite book |last=B |first=K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jSI_DwAAQBAJ |title=Accepting My Place: The Early Journals |date=17 November 2017 |publisher=eBookIt.com |isbn=978-1-4566-2928-1 |language=en}}</ref>

In 2019 he published a Kannada-language travelogue titled ''Tirugaatha.''<ref name="Kiran Bhat">{{Cite web |title=Kiran Bhat |url=http://cordite.org.au/author/kiranbhat/ |access-date=2023-02-05 |website=Cordite Poetry Review |language=en-US}}</ref> Other books he released during this year include the poetry collection ''Autobiografia''<ref name="globalatlanta.com"/> and the Mandarin-language poetry collection ''Kiran Speaks.''<ref name="Kiran Bhat"/><ref>{{Cite web |date=30 January 2020 |title=What Rough Beast {{!}} Poem for 30 January 2020 |url=https://www.indolentbooks.com/what-rough-beast-poem-for-january-30-2020/ |access-date=2023-02-05 |website=Indolent Books |language=en-US}}</ref>

In 2020 Bhat published a Portuguese story collection titled Afora, Adentro<ref>{{Cite web|date=30 January 2020 |title=What Rough Beast {{!}} Poem for 30 January 2020 |url=https://www.indolentbooks.com/what-rough-beast-poem-for-january-30-2020/ |access-date=2023-02-06 |website=Indolent Books |language=en-US}}</ref> and his novel We of the forsaken world...<ref>{{Cite web |last=Editor_Kitaab |date=16 March 2021 |title="I like the idea of channeling the sorts of stories that humans like to come back to..."- Kiran Bhat (Author, Girar) |url=http://kitaab.org/2021/03/16/i-like-the-idea-of-channeling-the-sorts-of-stories-that-humans-like-to-come-back-to-kiran-bhat-author-girar/ |access-date=2023-02-06 |website=KITAAB |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Author Kiran Bhat and Book: We of the Forsaken World |url=https://www.khabar.com/events-calendar/Author-Kiran-Bhat-and-Book-We-of-the-Forsaken-World |access-date=2023-02-06 |website=www.khabar.com}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Edinboro Now |url=https://www.edinboronow.com/article/world-traveling-author-makes-stop-at-edinboro |access-date=2023-02-06 |website=www.edinboronow.com}}</ref> The latter was reviewed by [[Kirkus Reviews]]' paid Kirkus Indie program.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.kirkusreviews.com/book-reviews/kiran-bhat/we-of-the-forsaken-world/ |title=WE OF THE FORSAKEN WORLD... {{!}} Kirkus Reviews |language=en}}</ref> It is a [[short story cycle]] involving sixteen narratives based in four imagined places replicating the industrialising parts of our world.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-04-23 |title="'The Will to Survive Is a Force That Never Discriminates': Literature and Global Environmental Refugees and Other 'Forsaken' Peoples" by Cristina Deptula for Bad Survivalist |url=https://heavyfeatherreview.org/2020/04/23/deptula/ |access-date=2023-09-02 |website=Heavy Feather Review |language=en}}</ref>

In 2021 Bhat announced that he was working on a new novel, titled ''Girar.''<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Circling the World: An Interview with Kiran Bhat |url=http://prismmagazine.ca/2021/04/29/circling-the-world-an-interview-with-kiran-bhat/ |access-date=2023-02-06 |website=PRISM international |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Veena |date=12 April 2021 |title=With Girar, author Kiran Bhat is reinventing storytelling and publishing |url=https://nripulse.com/with-girar-author-kiran-bhat-is-reinventing-storytelling-and-publishing/ |access-date=2023-02-06 |website=NRI Pulse |language=en-US}}</ref> Girar is released as a digital novel in monthly installments, with each story set in another country of the world.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |date=2022-12-20 |title=BOMB Magazine {{!}} Writing on the Go: Kiran Bhat Interviewed |url=https://bombmagazine.org/articles/kiran-bhat-interviewed/ |access-date=2023-09-02 |website=BOMB Magazine}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite web |date=2021-11-09 |title=Lounge Interview: Kiran Bhat (Author, Traveller and Polyglot) |url=http://kitaab.org/2021/11/09/lounge-interview-kiran-bhat-author-traveller-and-polyglot/ |access-date=2023-09-02 |website=KITAAB |language=en-US}}</ref>

Bhat published the poetry collection ''Speaking in Tongues: Poems in Spanish, Mandarin, and Turkish'' through the publisher Red River in 2022.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Book Review: Speaking in Tongues: Poems in Spanish, Mandarin, and Turkish |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/culture-society/book-review-speaking-in-tongues-poems-in-spanish-mandarin-and-turkish-weekender_story-236727 |journal=Outlookindia|date=12 November 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Indian literature: Page turners 2022 |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/delhi/2022/dec/31/indian-literature-page-turners-2022-2533449.html |access-date=2023-02-06 |website=The New Indian Express}}</ref> Bhat also contributed the poem "A Reporter Asked" to the poetry anthology ''Amity: Peace Poems,'' which was edited by Sahana Ahmed and published in December 2022.<ref name="A Poetic Call for Peace">{{Cite web |title=A Poetic Call for Peace |url=https://thewire.in/books/a-poetic-call-for-peace |access-date=2023-02-06 |website=The Wire}}</ref>

Bhat has also been a contributor to publications such as [[The Brooklyn Rail]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bhat |first=Kiran |title=BrooklynRail.org contributor Kiran-Bhat |url=https://brooklynrail.org/contributor/Kiran-Bhat |access-date=2023-02-06 |website=The Brooklyn Rail |language=en-US}}</ref> [[The Kenyon Review]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bhat |first=Kiran |date=16 November 2020 |title=Dancing on the Back of God: A Profile of Kazim Ali, A Poet at His Strongest « Kenyon Review Blog |url=https://kenyonreview.org/2020/11/dancing-on-the-back-of-god-a-profile-of-kazim-ali-a-poet-at-his-strongest/ |access-date=2023-02-06 |website=The Kenyon Review |language=en |archive-date=19 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201119154532/https://kenyonreview.org/2020/11/dancing-on-the-back-of-god-a-profile-of-kazim-ali-a-poet-at-his-strongest/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Colorado Review]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Voice of Sheila Chandra |url=https://coloradoreview.colostate.edu/reviews/the-voice-of-sheila-chandra/ |access-date=2023-02-06 |website=Center for Literary Publishing |language=en-US}}</ref> [[Eclectica Magazine]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Poet's Journey: a Conversation with Douglas Cole—Interview by Kiran Bhat—Eclectica Magazine 24n4 |url=https://www.eclectica.org/v24n4/bhat.html |access-date=2023-02-06 |website=www.eclectica.org}}</ref> and The Chakkar.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Kiran Bhat |url=https://www.thechakkar.com/kiran-bhat |access-date=2023-02-06 |website=The Chakkar |language=en-IN}}</ref> He has also worked as a Spanish to English literary translator for poets Carlos Lopez, Antonio Guzman Gomez, and the Snichimal Vayuchil.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Chakraborthy |first=Biswadip |date=2021-12-25 |title=Almendranada - A Poem by Carlos Lopez |url=https://www.theantonymmag.com/almendranada-carlos-lopez/ |access-date=2023-09-02 |website=The Antonym |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Vok'el, Unen Tseb, Chal Tijmembele, Lioyote, Ts'unel, Vilan: Candelaria Alvarez, translated by Kiran Bhat - Beltway Poetry Quarterly |url=https://www.beltwaypoetry.com/vokel-unen-tseb-chal-tijmembele-lioyote-tsunel-vilan-candelaria-alvarez-translated-by-kiran-bhat/ |access-date=2023-09-02 |website=www.beltwaypoetry.com |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Personal life ==
Bhat is of [[Kannadiga]] origin. He has traveled to over 147 countries and held residence in 18 cities.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" /> He resides in [[Mumbai|Mumbai, India]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kiran Bhat {{!}} The Caravan |url=https://caravanmagazine.in/author/64341 |access-date=2023-09-02 |website=caravanmagazine.in}}</ref> He speaks several languages including English, Kannada, Spanish, Portuguese, Mandarin, and Turkish.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" />

== Selected bibliography ==

* ''Early Stories'' (2013)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bhat |first=Kiran |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nohHyEWcFtkC |title=Early Stories |date=20 April 2013 |publisher=eBookIt.com |isbn=978-1-4566-1657-1 |language=en}}</ref>
* ''Accepting My Place'' (2017)<ref name="eBookIt.com"/>
* ''Tirugaatha'' (2019)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kiran Bhat |url=http://cordite.org.au/author/kiranbhat/ |access-date=2023-02-06 |website=Cordite Poetry Review |language=en-US}}</ref>
* ''Autobiografia'' (2019)<ref name="eBookIt.com"/>
* ''We of the forsaken world'' (2020)<ref>{{Cite web |title=we of the forsaken world... {{!}} Iguana Books |url=https://www.iguanabooks.ca/books/we-of-the-forsaken-world |access-date=2023-02-06 |website=www.iguanabooks.ca}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=9 December 2019 |title=we, the forsaken world, by Kiran Bhat |url=https://dactylreview.com/2019/12/08/we-the-forsaken-world-by-kiran-bhat/ |access-date=2023-02-06 |website=Dactyl Review |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=George |first=Abigail |date=13 May 2020 |title=On the page the novelist-poet questions in Kiran Bhat's seminal work: We of the Forsaken World |url=https://moderndiplomacy.eu/2020/05/13/on-the-page-the-novelist-poet-questions-in-kiran-bhats-seminal-work-we-of-the-forsaken-world/ |access-date=2023-02-06 |website=Modern Diplomacy |language=en-US}}</ref>
* ''Girar (2021)<ref name=":1" />''
* ''Speaking in Tongues (2022)<ref name=":0" />''

== Book contributions ==

* Yearbook of Indian Poetry in English: 2020–2021 by Many Poets<ref>{{Cite book |last=Poets |first=Many |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3SOAzgEACAAJ |title=Yearbook of Indian Poetry in English: 2020–2021 |date=15 June 2021 |publisher=Amazon Digital Services LLC – KDP Print US |isbn=978-81-952401-0-4 |language=en}}</ref>
* The Best Asian Short Stories 2021 by Zafar Anjum<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Anjum |first1=Zafar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BQ2wzgEACAAJ |title=The Best Asian Short Stories 2021 |last2=Vethamani |first2=Malachi Edwin |date=2021 |publisher=Kitaab |isbn=978-981-18-0038-2 |language=en}}</ref>
* Amity: Peace Poems (2022)<ref name="A Poetic Call for Peace"/>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bhat, Kiran}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1990 births]]
[[Category:21st-century American male writers]]
[[Category:21st-century American novelists]]
[[Category:American male writers of Indian descent]]
[[Category:American novelists of Indian descent]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian poets]]
[[Category:21st-century American poets]]

Bhavnagar State

2026-03-09T13:14:13Z

Alimirza: update article additionally and cleaned formatting per sources

{{Short description|Princely state of India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2017}}
{{Infobox former subdivision
| conventional_long_name = Bhavnagar State
| common_name = Bhavnagar
| native_name =
| nation = [[the British Raj]]
| subdivision = [[Princely State]]
| capital = [[Bhavnagar]]
| era =
| year_start = 1723
| date_start =
| event_start =
| year_end = 1948
| date_end =
| event_end = [[Partition of India|Indian independence]]
| event1 =
| date_event1 =
| p1 =
| s1 = Saurashtra State
| flag_p1 =
| flag_s1 =
| image_flag = [[File:Flag of Bhavnagar.svg|100px]]
| image_coat = Bhavnagar.jpg
| image_map = SaurashtraKart.jpg
| image_map_caption = Location of Bhavnagar State in Saurashtra
| stat_area1 = 7669
| stat_year1 = 1891
| stat_pop1 = 464,671
| footnotes = {{EB1911|wstitle=Bhaunagar}}
}}
[[File:BhavnagarLancersCoatOfArms.jpg|thumb|Bhavnagar Lancers Coat Of Arms]]
[[File:Nilambagh Palace, Bhavnagar.jpg|thumb|Nilambagh Palace, Bhavnagar]]
[[File:Thakur of Bhavnagar in the 1870s.jpg|thumb|180px|A Thakur of Bhavnagar in the 1870s]]
[[File:Maharaja Krishnakumarsinhji Gohil.jpg|thumb|Maharaja Krishnakumarsinhji Gohil]]
'''Bhavnagar State''' was a [[princely state]] with 13 Gun Salutes during the [[British Raj]]. It was part of [[Kathiawar Agency]] in [[Saurashtra (region)|Saurashtra]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YQdZlHJ2WTAC&pg=PA75|title=Indian Princely Medals: A Record of the Orders, Decorations, and Medals of the Indian Princely States|author=Tony McClenaghan|publisher=Lancer Publishers|page=75|year=1996|isbn=9781897829196}}</ref> The State of Bhavnagar covered an area of 2,961 sq. miles and had a population of 618,429 in 1941. Its ruler signed the [[accession to the Indian Union]] on 15 February 1948.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kWptYbzpXE8C&pg=PA26|title=Political and Administrative Integration of Princely States|author=S. N. Sadasivan|publisher=Mittal Publications|year=2005|page=26|isbn=9788170999683}}</ref>

==History==
The [[Gohil dynasty|Gohil]] [[Rajput]]s faced severe competition in [[Marwar]]. Around 1260 AD, they moved down to the Gujarat coast and established three capitals; Sejakpur (present-day [[Ranpur, Gujarat|Ranpur]]), [[Umrala]] and [[Sihor]].<ref name="Bhavnagar.com">{{cite web|title=History of Bhavnagar city|url=http://www.bhavnagar.com/history.asp|access-date=15 August 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070817025546/http://bhavnagar.com/history.asp|archive-date=17 August 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref> Sejakpur was founded in 1194.

Predecessor state of Sejakpur founded in 1194 (or 1240 or 1260), then the capitals were at Ranipur 1254/1309, Umrala or Gogha 1309/1445, Umrala 1445/1570, Shihor 1570/1723 then finally Bhavnagar from 1723. The Gohils claim to be descended from the celebrated Pandavas, who belonged to the lunar or Chandravanshi race, and so trace their line from the celebrated Shalivahan, founder of the Shaka era (Col. James Tod makes them of the solar race). The old family title of Rawal or Raol was earned at the memorable battle of Chitor, fought with Alauddin Khilji in 1303. The state motto is "Man Proposes but God disposes" on a label azure. The state arms are Gules, an eagle or displayed, in chief on a canton of the second, a lion statant of the first.

In 1722–1723, forces led by Khanthaji Kadani and [[Pilaji Gaekwad]] attempted to raid [[Sihor]] but were repelled by Maharaja Bhavsinhji Gohil. After the war Bhavsinhji realised the reason for repeated attack was the location of Sihor. In 1723, he established a new capital near Vadva village, 20 km away from Sihor, and named it [[Bhavnagar]] after himself. It was a carefully chosen strategic location because of its potential for maritime trade. Naturally, [[Bhavnagar]] became the capital of Bhavnagar State. In 1807, Bhavnagar State became a [[British protectorate]].<ref name="Dosabhai">{{cite book|last=Dosábhai|first=Edalji
|title=A History of Gujarat from the Earliest Period to the Present Time|url=https://archive.org/details/ahistorygujartf00dosgoog|publisher=United Print and General Agency|year=1894| page=[https://archive.org/details/ahistorygujartf00dosgoog/page/n219 177]}}</ref><ref>[http://www.worldstatesmen.org/India_princes_A-J.html Princely States of India]</ref>

The old town of Bhavnagar was a fortified town with gates leading to other important regional towns. It remained a major port for almost two centuries, trading commodities with Mozambique, [[Zanzibar]], Singapore, and the [[Persian Gulf]].

Bhavsinhji ensured that Bhavnagar benefited from the revenue that was brought in from maritime trade, which was monopolised by Surat and Cambay. As the castle of Surat was under the control of the Sidis of Janjira, Bhavsinhji brokered an agreement with them, giving the Sidis 1.25% of the revenue by Bhavnagar port. Bhavsinhji entered into a similar agreement with the British when they took over Surat in 1856. Whilst Bhavsinhji was in power, Bhavnagar grew from a small chieftainship to a considerably important state. This was due to the addition of new territories as well as the income provided by maritime trade. Bhavsinhji's successors continued to encourage maritime trade through Bhavnagar port, recognising its importance to the state. The territory was further expanded by Bhavsinhji's grandson, Vakhatsinhji Gohil when he took possession of lands belonging to [[Kolis]] and Kathis, obtained Rajula from the Navab Saheb Ahmad Khan, and merged Ghogha Taluka into the state. In 1793, Vakhatsinhji conquered the forts of Chital and Talaja, and later conquered Mahuva, Kundla, Trapaj, Umrala and Botad. Bhavnagar remained the main port of the state, with Mahuva and Ghogha also becoming important ports. Because of the maritime trade, the state prospered compared to other states. During the late 19th century, the [[Bhavnagar State Railway]] was constructed. This made Bhavnagar the first state that was able to construct its railway system without any aid from the central government, which was mentioned in the [[Imperial Gazetteer]]. Mr Peile, a political agent, described the state as follows: "With flourishing finances and much good work in progress. Of financial matters I need say little; you have no debts, and your treasury is full."<ref>{{cite book | title=Poverty and un-British rule in Inda | publisher=Low Price Publications | author=Naoroji, Dadabhai | year=1990 | pages=229}}</ref> Between 1870 and 1878 the state was put under joint administration, due to the fact that Prince [[Takhtsinhji]] was a minor. This period produced some notable reforms in the areas of administration, revenue collection, judiciary, [[Postal, telegraph and telephone service|the post and telegraph services]], and economic policy. The ports were also modernised. The two people who were responsible for those reforms were Mr E. H. Percival of the [[Bombay Civil Service]] and [[Gaurishankar Udayshankar]], Chief Minister of Bhavnagar State Bhavngar Boroz.

In 1911, HH Maharani Nundkanvarba of Bhavnagar, was awarded the [[Order of the Crown of India]], the highest Imperial award for women of the Empire. The former princely state of Bhavnagar was also known as Gohilwad; "Land of the Gohils" (the clan of the ruling family).

===The Bhavnagar Lancers===
Initially, the infantry, known as the Bhavnagar State Infantry, were employed as armed police, though some were noted as having been specially trained for artillery duties.

While the State had long maintained an artillery, cavalry and infantry for defense and security, in 1866, these gave way to a body of police, which was found more suitable for keeping order in the towns and villages under the Thakur. In 1890 the Thakur of Bhavnagar joined with other Rulers in Kathiawar in offering a portion of their State troops for re-organization under the Imperial Service Troops Scheme and in the following year it was agreed that Bhavnagar's contribution should be 300 Rajput cavalry.

By 1909 the army was noted as comprising:
Imperial Service Lancers 256
Cavalry 51
Infantry 285

Nevertheless, during the First World War, the Bhavnagar Lancers were on active service in Egypt, Palestine and Mesopotamia, during which the unit gained a number of battle honors and some of its men received decorations for bravery in the field.

In 1922 both the Lancers and the State Infantry joined the Indian State Forces Scheme. During the Second World War the units themselves were too small to be considered for active service but the Lancers and Infantry supplied men for an Indian Army transport company, as well as providing 15 signalers for the Indian Corps of Signals.

In December 1948 the Bhavnagar Lancers and Infantry, Dhrangadhra Infantry and Porbandar Infantry were amalgamated to form the 2nd Battalion, Saurashtra Infantry. This eventually became a part of the 18th (Saurashtra) Battalion, The Rajputana Rifles, Indian Army. It was subsequently re-designated 11th Battalion, (18th Rajputana Rifles)(Saurashtra), The
Mechanised Infantry Regiment, and as such still exists.

===Merger with the Indian Union in 1948===
In 1947, the Deputy Prime Minister of the newly independent [[Dominion of India|Indian Union]], [[Vallabhbhai Patel]], undertook the process of [[political integration of India|unifying]] 565 princely states with the Union. The Maharaja of Bhavnagar, [[Krishna Kumarasingh Bhavasingh]] first king of princely state who handed over the administration of his Bhavnagar State to the people's representative in 1948.

The royal family of Bhavnagar continues to lead an active role in the public eye as well as in business (hotels, real-estate, agriculture and [[ship breaking]]) and is held in high regard by the population both in the city as well as areas that comprised the princely state of Bhavanagar.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/rajkot/Bhavnagar-kings-sacrifice-to-feature-in-school-textbook/articleshow/10585349.cms|title = Bhavnagar king's sacrifice to feature in school textbook | Rajkot News - Times of India|website = [[The Times of India]]}}</ref>

==Rulers==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Name !! Reign !! Title
|-
| Ratanji (d. 1703) II || 1660–1703 || Thakur Sahib
|-
| Bhavsinhji I Ratanji (1683–1764) || 1703–1764 || Thakur Sahib
|-
| Akherajji II Bhavsinhji (1714–1772) || 1764–1772 || Thakur Sahib
|-
| Wakhatsinhji Akherajji (1748–1816) ||1772–1816 || Thakur Sahib
|-
|Wajesinhji Wakhatsinhji (1780–1852) || 1816–1852 || Thakur Sahib
|-
| Akherajji III Bhavsinhji (1817–1854)|| 1852–1854 || Thakur Sahib
|-
|Jashwantsinhji Bhavsinhji (1827–1870) || 1854 – 11 April 1870 || Thakur Sahib
|-
|[[Takhtsinhji]] Jashwantsinhji (1858–1896) || 11 April 1870 – 29 January 1896 || Thakur Sahib
|-
|rowspan="2" | [[Bhavsinhji II]] Takhatsinhji (1896–1919) || 29 January 1896 – 1 January 1918 || Thakur Sahib
|-
| 1 January 1918 – 17 July 1919 || Maharaja Raol
|-
| [[Krishna Kumarsinhji Bhavsinhji|Krishnakumarsinhji Bhavsinhji]] (1912–1965) || 17 July 1919 – 15 August 1947 || Maharaja Raol
|-
| Virbhadrasinhji Krishnakumarsinhji Gohil (1932–1994){{Efn|name=titular|Titular only}} || 1 April 1965 – 26 Jul 1994 || Maharaja Raol
|-
| Vijayrajsinhji Virbhadrasinhji Gohil (1968){{Efn|name=titular}} Shivbhadrasinhji Virbhadrasinhji Gohil
| 26 July 1994 – || Maharaja Raol
|-
|Jaiveerrajsinhji Vijayrajsinhji Gohil
|27 October 1990
|Maharaja Raol
|}
[[File:With cheetah.jpg|thumb|HH Maharaja Raol Shri KRISHNAKUMARSINHJI GOHIL with his pet Cheetah during a hunt, Cheetahs were used as game retrievers back then.]]
{{Notelist}}

=== Notable Dewans (chief ministers) of State===

* [[Gaurishankar Udayshankar|Oza Gaurishankar Udayashankar]] (1846–1877)
* Samaldas Parmananddas Mehta (1877–1884)
* Vithaldas Samaldas Mehta (1884–1900)
* Sir [[Prabhashankar Pattani]] (Pattani Prabhashankar Dalpatram) (1900–1937)
* Anantrai [[Prabhashankar Pattani]] (1937 – Jan 1948)

==Legacy==
*The [[Bhavnagar State Railway]] was named after this state.
[[File:Bhavnagarrailway.jpg|thumb|235x235px|An old photo of Railway Station of Bhavnagar in Saurashtra was taken in 1910 AD. It was built by Bhavnagar State in 1880 AD.]]

==See also==
*[[Baroda, Western India and Gujarat States Agency]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{Commons category-inline}}

{{Princely states of India}}
{{Princely states of the Western India States Agency}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Coord|28.76|N|72.15|E|region:IN_type:landmark_source:kolossus-svwiki|display=title}}

[[Category:States under the Kathiawar Agency]]
[[Category:Rajput history]]
[[Category:Gohils]]
[[Category:Bhavnagar district]]
[[Category:1723 establishments in India]]
[[Category:1948 disestablishments in India]]
[[Category:Princely states of Gujarat]]

Rasgulla

2026-03-08T10:09:03Z

Alimirza: small expanded details for clarity and updated info to improve readability

{{Short description|Syrupy dessert popular in South Asia}}
{{Redirect|Rosogolla|the 2018 film|Rosogolla (film)}}
{{pp-move}}
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{{Use British English|date=May 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2025}}
{{Infobox food
| name = Rasgulla
| image = {{multiple image
| border = infobox
| total_width = 250
| perrow = 1/1
| image1 = Rasgulla.jpg
| caption1 = Bengali rosogolla, also known as ''rasgulla''
| alternate_name = Rosogolla, roshogolla, rasbhari or rasbari (Nepali), rasagola, rosgola
| image2 = RasGulla_Jaggery1.jpg
| caption2 = Banglar Nolen Gurer roshogolla, also known as jaggery rosogolla}}
| region = [[West Bengal]], [[Odisha]]
| course = [[Dessert]]
| type = Soft sweet soaked in syrup
| served = Hot, cold, or room temperature
| main_ingredient = [[Chhena]], sugar
| minor_ingredient =
| variations = Bengali roshogolla, Odia pahala rasa gola, Bengali Nolen Gurer roshogolla, Bengali baked rosogolla
| serving_size =
| calories =
| protein =
| fat =
| carbohydrate =
| glycemic_index =
| similar_dish = [[Ras malai]], [[khiramohana]], [[Khondoler misti]]
| other =
| associated_cuisine = [[Indian cuisine|Indian]]
| place_of_origin = India
| cookbook = Rosogulla
}}

'''Rasgulla''' (literally "syrup-filled ball"){{efn|Also known as rasagola, rosogola, or rosogolla.}} is a syrupy dessert popular in the [[Eastern South Asia|eastern part]] of South Asia. It is made from ball-shaped dumplings of [[chhena]] dough cooked in light sugar syrup until the syrup permeates the dumplings.

While it is nearly universally agreed that the dessert originated in the eastern Indian subcontinent, the exact locus of origin is disputed between locations such as [[West Bengal]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Subodhchandra Sengupta|url=http://archive.org/details/SamsadBanglaCharitabhidhan|title=Samsad Bangla Charitabhidhan|date=1960}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Ghosh|first=Bishwanath|date=15 November 2014|title=Kolkata Chromosome: Like KC for 'rossogolla'|url=https://www.livemint.com/Leisure/J5jK255x5F6wpRll00gVFP/Kolkata-Chromosome-Like-KC-for-rossogolla.html|access-date=24 August 2021|work=mint|language=en}}</ref> and [[Odisha]],<ref>{{Cite news|title=Panel seal on rasgulla's Odisha origin|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1160714/jsp/frontpage/story_96633.jsp#.V_DfrHV97Qo|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160715155949/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1160714/jsp/frontpage/story_96633.jsp#.V_DfrHV97Qo|url-status=dead|archive-date=15 July 2016|access-date=2 October 2016}}</ref> where it is offered at the [[Jagannath Temple, Puri|Puri Jagannath Temple]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Sarat Chandra Mahapatra|title=Car Festival of Lord Jagannath, Puri|date=1994|publisher=Sri Jagannath Research Centre|location=Puri|page=149|oclc=967072714}}</ref>

In 2017, when West Bengal received its rosogolla's [[geographical indication]] (GI) status, the Registry Office of India clarified that West Bengal was given GI status for Banglar rosogolla, and Odisha could claim it too if it cited the place of origin of its variant along with colour, texture, taste, juice content, and method of manufacturing.<ref name="NIE_2017" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ipindiaservices.gov.in/GI_DOC/533/533%20-%20Certificate%20of%20Registration%20-%2014-11-2017.pdf|title=GI Certificate by Govt of India}}</ref> In 2019, the Government of Odisha was granted the GI status for "Odisha rasagola" (Odia rasagola).<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/lifestyle/food-wine/odisha-receives-gi-tag-for-rasagola-5860795/|title=Sweet success: Odisha's Rasagola gets GI tag|date=29 July 2019|work=The Indian Express|language=en-IN|access-date=29 July 2019}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/battle-over-origin-of-rasgulla-contines-after-odisha-files-petition-demanding-change-of-gi-tag-2056055.html|title=Battle Over Origin of 'Rasgulla' Continues, After Odisha Files Petition Demanding Change of GI Tag|work=News18|access-date=29 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/website/story/india-news-odisha-finally-gets-geographical-indication-tag-for-odishara-rasagola/335106|title=Odisha Finally Gets Geographical Indication Tag For 'Odishara Rasagola'|magazine=Outlook|access-date=29 July 2019}}</ref>

== Names ==
The dessert is {{IPA|bn|rɔʃoɡolːa|pron}} in [[Bengali language|Bengali]], {{IPA|or|ɾɔsɔɡola|pron}} in [[Odia language|Odia]], and {{IPA|sa|rɐsɐɡoːlɐkɐm|pron}} in [[Sanskrit]]. Its [[Hindi]] name ''rasgulla'' is a [[calque]] of its [[Bengali language|Bengali]] name ''roshogolla'', meaning a ball (''gōlla/gullā'') of juice (''rôs/ras'').<ref>{{Citation |title=rasgulla |date=2025-12-16 |work=Wiktionary, the free dictionary |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=rasgulla&oldid=88609645 |access-date=2026-03-07 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=রসগোল্লা |date=2025-10-21 |work=Wiktionary, the free dictionary |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE&oldid=87497261 |access-date=2026-03-07 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=रसगुल्ला |date=2025-11-01 |work=Wiktionary, the free dictionary |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE&oldid=87909683 |access-date=2026-03-07 |language=en}}</ref> Other names for the dish include ''rasagulla'',<ref>{{cite news|author=Deepika Sahu|date=2 July 2012|title=Discover Odisha's 'sweet' magic|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/Discover-Odishas-sweet-magic/articleshow/14595468.cms|work=The Times of India}}</ref> ''rasagola'',<ref name="ZeeJuly2015">{{cite news|url=http://zeenews.india.com/entertainment/and-more/rasagola-originated-in-odisha-did-you-know_1638800.html|title=Rasagola originated in Odisha- Did you know?|publisher=Zee News|date=30 July 2015}}</ref> ''rasagolla'',<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/Food/how-to-makerasagolla/article4927694.ece|title=How to make...Rasagolla|author=Sonali Pattnaik|newspaper=The Hindu|date=18 July 2013}}</ref> and ''rasbhari'' or ''rasbari'' (Nepali).<ref name="Alan2006"/>

== History ==
=== Claims of invention in Bengal ===
==== Claims of invention in West Bengal ====
According to sweetmeat researcher Haripada Bhowmick, ''dela rasagulla'' was popular in [[Nabadwip]] and [[Phulia]] of [[Nadia district|Nadia]]. [[Sri Chaitanya]] loved this type of rasagulla, and the art of its making spread to other regions during the [[Bhakti movement]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=The rasogolla's journey, from Nadia to Odisha and Kolkata|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/the-rasogollas-journey-from-nadia-to-odisha-and-kolkata/articleshow/61651738.cms|work=The Times of India|issn=0971-8257|date=15 November 2017|access-date=9 August 2024}}</ref> The spongy, white rôśôgolla is believed to have been introduced in present-day [[West Bengal]] in 1868 by the [[Kolkata]]-based confectioner [[Nobin Chandra Das]].<ref>{{cite book|date=1976|title=Samsad Bangla Charitabhidhan|edition=1st|url=https://archive.org/stream/SamsadBanglaCharitabhidhan/Samsad-Bangla-Charitabhidhan#page/n237/mode/2up|access-date=23 February 2018|editor-last=Subodh Chandra|editor-first=Sengupta|publisher=Sahitya Samsad|location=Kolkata|page=240}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Ghosh|first=Bishwanath|date=15 November 2014|title=Kolkata Chromosome: Like KC for 'rossogolla'|url=https://www.livemint.com/Leisure/J5jK255x5F6wpRll00gVFP/Kolkata-Chromosome-Like-KC-for-rossogolla.html|access-date=29 September 2020|work=mint|language=en}}</ref> Das started making rôśôgolla by processing the mixture of [[chhena]] and [[semolina]] in boiling sugar [[syrup]] in contrast to the mixture sans semolina in the original rôśôgolla in his sweet shop in [[Sutanuti]] (present-day [[Bagbazar]]).

Another theory is that rôśôgolla was first prepared by someone else in Bengal, and Das only popularised it. In ''Banglar Khabar'' (1987), food historian Pranab Ray writes that a man named Braja Moira introduced rôśôgolla in his shop near [[Calcutta High Court]] in 1866, two years before Das started selling it.<ref name="Michael_Oxford">{{cite book|author=Ishita Dey|display-editors=etal|year=2015|editor=Michael Krondl|title=The Oxford Companion to Sugar and Sweets|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R1bCBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA580|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=580–581|isbn=978-0-19-931361-7}}</ref> In 1906, Panchana Bandopadhyay wrote that rôśôgolla was invented in the 19th century by Haradhan Mondal (Moira),<ref>{{Cite news|script-title=bn:বিশ্বের 'সবথেকে বড়' রসগোল্লার আত্মপ্রকাশ, ফুলিয়ায় মিষ্টিযজ্ঞ|url=https://www.sangbadpratidin.in/bengal/fulia-makes-worlds-biggest-rosogolla/|access-date=1 May 2025|work=Sangbad Pratidin|language=bn}}</ref> a [[Phulia]]-based sweetmaker who worked for the Pal Chowdhurys of [[Ranaghat]].<ref>{{cite news|date=29 September 2014|title=The sweet legacy of Durga Puja|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/food/The-sweet-legacy-of-Durga-Puja/articleshow/43790152.cms|newspaper=The Times of India}}</ref> According to ''Mistikatha'', a newspaper published by the West Bengal Sweetmeat Traders Association, many other people prepared similar sweets under different names, such as ''gopalgolla'' (prepared by Gopal Moira of Burdwan district), ''jatingolla'', ''bhabanigolla'', and ''rasugolla''.<ref name="Michael_Oxford"/> Food historian Michael Krondl says that irrespective of its origin, rôśôgolla likely predates Nobin Chandra Das. A sales brochure of the company run by Das's descendants also hints at this: "it is hard to tell whether or not cruder versions of similar sweets existed anywhere at that time. Even if they did, they did not match the quality of Nobin Chandra, and having failed to excite the Bengali palate, they slipped into oblivion."<ref name="Michael_2011"/>

[[Bhagwandas Bagla]], a [[Marwari people|Marwari]] businessman and a customer of Nobin Chandra Das, popularised the Bengali rôśôgolla beyond the shop's locality by ordering huge amounts.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rediff.com/business/slide-show/slide-show-1-how-the-rasogolla-became-a-global-name/20111116.htm?print=true |title=How the rasogolla became a global name!|date=16 November 2011|publisher=[[Rediff.com]]}}</ref>

=== Modern popularity ===
In 1930, the introduction of [[vacuum packing]] by Nobin Chandra's son [[Krishna Chandra Das]] led to the availability of canned Rasgullas, which made the dessert popular outside Kolkata and then outside India.<ref name="IE_sticky_2011">{{cite news|author=Piyasree Dasgupta|date=29 October 2011|title=Sticky Sweet Success|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/sticky-sweet-success/867051/0|work=The Indian Express}}</ref> Krishna Chandra's son [[Sarada Charan Das]] established the K. C. Das Pvt Ltd company in 1946.<ref name="GHOSH2014">{{cite book|author=Bishwanath Ghosh|title=Longing, Belonging: An Outsider At Home In Calcutta|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C4obBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT177|date=29 October 2014|publisher=Westland|isbn=978-93-84030-60-5|page=177}}</ref> Sarada Charan's younger, estranged son Debendra Nath established [[K.C. Das Grandsons]] in 1956.

Today, canned rasgullas are available throughout India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, as well as in South Asian grocery stores outside the Indian subcontinent. In [[Nepal]], rasgulla became popular under the name ''rasbari''.<ref name="Alan2006">{{cite book|author=Alan Davidson|title=The Oxford Companion to Food|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pZ-1AQAAQBAJ&pg=PT1880|date=21 September 2006|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-101825-1|pages=1880}}</ref>

The Indian space agency, [[ISRO]], is developing dehydrated rasgullas and other dishes for Indian astronauts in its planned crewed missions.<ref>{{cite news|author=Ram Kumar Ramaswamy|date=16 June 2012|title=Isro astronauts to savour idlis, rasgullas in space|url=http://archive.asianage.com/hyderabad/isro-astronauts-savour-idlis-rasgullas-space-187|newspaper=Asian Age|archive-date=14 May 2014|access-date=20 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140514033720/http://archive.asianage.com/hyderabad/isro-astronauts-savour-idlis-rasgullas-space-187|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In 2015, the Odisha government initiated a move to get [[geographical indication]] (GI) status for the rasagulla made in Pahala.<ref name="ToI_citing_2015"/> On 30 July, the people of Odisha celebrated "Rasagola Dibasa" ("Rasgulla Day") to reaffirm Odisha as the dish's origin.<ref name ="HT20July2015">{{cite news|author=Ramani Ranjan Mohapatra|date=30 July 2015|title=#RasagolaDibasa trends as Odias reclaim iconic dish|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/rasagoladibasa-trends-as-odias-reclaim-iconic-dish/story-CoHZUeQ9zpxL4OLW5zSw5L.html|newspaper=Hindustan Times}}</ref> In August, [[West Bengal]] contested Odisha's move to obtain GI status.<ref name="ToI_Jhimli_2015">{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Maharashtra-takes-up-rosogolla-battle-with-Odisha/articleshow/48417745.cms|title=Maharashtra (West Bengal) takes up rosogolla battle with Odisha|work=The Times of India|date=10 August 2015|author=Jhimli Mukherjee Pandey}}</ref> In 2015, the Odisha state government constituted three committees to claim the rasgulla. The committees submitted their interim report to the government. Noted journalist and food researcher [[Bhakta Tripathy]] and a member of the committee had submitted a dossier containing historical evidence of rasgulla origin in [[Odisha]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://orissadiary.com/ShowOriyaColumn.asp?id=62220|title=Sweet Struggle - Origin of Rasgulla|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160818041330/http://orissadiary.com/ShowOriyaColumn.asp?id=62220|archive-date=18 August 2016|url-status=dead|date=16 October 2015|author=Sumit Behera|website=rissadiary.com}}</ref> The Science and Technology Department of the West Bengal government also started the process to get its own GI status for the dessert.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://food.ndtv.com/food-drinks/west-bengal-and-odisha-battle-over-the-invention-of-rasgulla-1211128|title=West Bengal and Odisha Battle Over the Invention of 'Rasgulla'|publisher=NDTV|date=26 August 2015}}</ref>

=== Alternative claims of Puri temple tradition of Odisha ===
According to historians of Odisha, the rasgulla originated in [[Puri]], as ''[[Khiramohana|khira mohana]]'', which later evolved into the Pahala rasgulla.<ref name="ToI_Bishwa_2015">{{cite news|author=Mitra Bishwabijoy|date=6 July 2015|title=Who invented the rasgulla?|newspaper=The Times of India|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/food/food-features/Who-invented-the-rasgulla/articleshow/47909754.cms|access-date=2 August 2015}}</ref> It has been traditionally offered as ''[[bhog]],'' a religious offering, to goddess [[Lakshmi]] at [[Jagannath Temple, Puri]].<ref>{{cite news|date=5 July 2009|title=Trinity take 'adhar pana' on raths|newspaper=The New Indian Express|url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/odisha/article90964.ece|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140512225523/http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/odisha/article90964.ece#.UytBYlcqQ0M|url-status=dead|archive-date=12 May 2014}}</ref> According to the local legend, Lakshmi got upset because her husband, [[Jagannath|Lord Jagannath]], went on a 9-day sojourn (the ''ratha yatra'') without her consent, so she locked ''Jai Vijay Dwar'', one of the temple gates, and prevented his convoy from reentering the temple's [[Garbhagriha|Garbhagṛha]] (sanctum sanctorum). Jagannath offered her rasgullas to appease her. This ritual, known as ''Bachanika'', is part of the "Niladri Bije" (or "Arrival of the God") observance, which marks the return of the deities to the temple after the [[Ratha-Yatra (Puri)|Ratha Yatra]].<ref>{{cite news|author=Subhashish Mohanty|date=3 July 2012|title=Lord placates wife with sweet delight|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1120703/jsp/odisha/story_15682727.jsp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140314143938/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1120703/jsp/odisha/story_15682727.jsp#.UytFEVcqQ0M|url-status=dead|archive-date=14 March 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=26 July 2010|title=Sweet and sermon return for deities|newspaper=The Telegraph|location=Calcutta|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1100726/jsp/orissa/story_12725909.jsp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025125021/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1100726/jsp/orissa/story_12725909.jsp|url-status=dead|archive-date=25 October 2012}}</ref>

Jagannath Temple scholars, such as Laxmidhar Pujapanda, and researchers like Jagabandhu Padhi say the tradition dates to the 12th century, when the temple was first built.<ref name="ToI_citing_2015">{{cite news|author1=Mohapatra Bhattacharya|author2=Debabrata Kajari|date=31 July 2015|title=Citing Rath ritual, Odisha lays claim to rasagulla, WB historians don't agree|newspaper=The Times of India|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bhubaneswar/Citing-Rath-ritual-Odisha-lays-claim-to-rasagulla-WB-historians-dont-agree/articleshow/48297818.cms|access-date=1 August 2015}}</ref><ref name="Padhi2000">{{cite book|author=Jagabandhu Padhi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QHMeMwEACAAJ|title=Sri Jagannatha at Puri|date=2000|publisher=S.G.N. Publications}}</ref> Pujapanda says the Niladri Bije tradition is mentioned in ''Niladri Mahodaya'', which dates to the 18th century by Sarat Chandra Mahapatra.<ref name="ToI_citing_2015" /><ref>{{cite book|author=Sarat Chandra Mahapatra|title=Car Festival of Lord Jagannath, Puri|date=1994|publisher=Sri Jagannath Research Centre|location=Puri|page=55|oclc=967072714}}</ref> According to Mahapatra, several temple scriptures over 300 years old have evidence of the rasgulla offering ritual in Puri.<ref>{{cite news|author=Debabrata Mohapatra|date=29 July 2007|title=Researchers Claim Rasgullas Were Born In Puri|newspaper=The Times of India}}</ref>

According to folklore, Pahala (a village on the outskirts of Odisha's capital, [[Bhubaneswar]]) had many cows. The village produced excess milk, and the villagers threw it away when it spoiled. When a priest from the Jagannath Temple saw this, he taught them the art of [[curdling]], including the recipe for rasagulla. Pahala thus became the biggest market for chhena-based sweets in the area.<ref>{{cite news|author=Madhulika Dash|date=11 September 2014|title=The Food Story: How India's favourite sweet dish rosugulla was born|newspaper=The Indian Express|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/lifestyle/food-wine/the-food-story-how-indias-favourite-sweet-dish-rosugulla-was-born/}}</ref>

According to Asit Mohanty, an Odia research scholar on the Jagannath cult and traditions, the sweet is mentioned as "Rasagola" in the 15th-century text ''[[Odia Ramayana|Jagamohana Ramayana]]'' of Balaram Das.<ref>{{cite news|date=15 July 2016|title=Hopes for Rasagola Origin in Odisha Revived|newspaper=The Pioneer|url=http://www.dailypioneer.com/state-editions/bhubaneswar/hopes-for-rasagola-origin-in-odisha-revived.html|access-date=20 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Odisha celebrates GI Tag, distributes 50,000 Rasagolas in Bhubaneswar|work=Hindustan Times|date=19 August 2019|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/odisha-celebrates-gi-tag-distributes-50-000-rasagolas-in-bhubaneswar/story-TxjS2Z2uuKUM5pOTmo1mzL.html}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=The unkindest cut: 'Rasagolas' are not Bengali after all|date=3 August 2015|url=http://www.firstpost.com/living/unkindest-cut-rasagolas-not-bengali-2375514.html|work=Firstpost|access-date=12 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=New evidence on rasagola's Odisha origin found | Sambad English|date=18 May 2016|url=https://sambadenglish.com/new-evidence-found-rasagolas-odisha-origin/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Rasagola | PDF|url=https://www.scribd.com/document/472998635/Rasagola}}</ref>

The text mentions rasagola along with other sweets found in Odisha. There is also mention of many other cheese sweets like ''chhenapuri'', ''chhenaladu'', and ''rasabali''.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ramayana|first=Jagamohan|title=Ramayana|publisher=Balaram Das|location=Ajodhya Kanda}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Typical selections from Oriya Literature|title=Ramayana|publisher=B.C. Mazumdar|page=84}}</ref> Another ancient text, ''Premapanchamruta'' of Bhupati, also mentions cheese (''chhena'').<ref>{{cite book|author=G. C. Praharaj|url=http://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/contextualize.pl?p.15.praharaj.1121967|title=Purnnacandra Odia Bhashakosha|date=1931–1940|publisher=Utkal Sahitya Press|location=Cuttack|page=2594|access-date=20 July 2016|archive-date=27 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201027000623/http://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/contextualize.pl?p.15.praharaj.1121967|url-status=dead}}</ref> It is argued that the cheese-making process was well known before the Portuguese came to Odisha.

According to the Bengali culinary historian Pritha Sen, in the mid-18th century, many [[Odia people|Odia]] cooks were employed in Bengali homes who arguably introduced rasgulla along with many other Odia dishes, but there is no proof of that.<ref name="ToI_Bishwa_2015" /> According to another theory, Bengali visitors to Puri carried the recipe for rasgulla back to Bengal in the 19th century, but evidence of that is also lacking.<ref name="gastr">{{cite journal|author=Michael Krondl|date=Summer 2010|title=The Sweetshops of Kolkata|journal=Gastronomica|volume=10|issue=3|pages=58–65|doi=10.1525/gfc.2010.10.3.58|jstor=10.1525/gfc.2010.10.3.58}}</ref>

According to food historians [[K. T. Achaya]] and Chitra Banerji, there are no references to cheese (including chhena) in India before the 17th century. The milk-based sweets were mainly made up of [[khoa]], before the [[Portuguese India|Portuguese]] influence led to the introduction of cheese-based sweets, so it is highly unlikely that a cheese-based dish was offered at Jagannath Temple in the 12th century.<ref>{{cite news|author=Shoaib Daniyal|date=4 August 2015|title=Who Deserves Credit For The Rasgulla? Bengalis, Odiyas...Or The Portuguese?|newspaper=Kashmir Observer|url=http://www.kashmirobserver.net/news/opinion/who-deserves-credit-rasgulla-bengalis-odiyasor-portuguese|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151009143538/http://www.kashmirobserver.net/news/opinion/who-deserves-credit-rasgulla-bengalis-odiyasor-portuguese|archive-date=9 October 2015}}</ref> According to Nobin Chandra Das's descendant Animikh Roy and historian Haripada Bhowmik, rasgulla is not among the ''chhappan bhog'' ("56 offerings") in the temple's early records; the name was coined in Bengal. They also say it would have been blasphemy to offer something made from spoiled milk (chhena) to a deity.<ref name="ToI_citing_2015" /><ref name="ToI_Jhimli_2015" /> But Michael Krondl argued that Hindu dietary rules vary by region and that this restriction may not have existed in present-day Odisha. Krondl gave no substantial information to uphold this claim.<ref name="Michael_2011">{{cite book|author=Michael Krondl|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gN6ySQnUnfwC&pg=PA53|title=Sweet Invention: A History of Dessert|publisher=Chicago Review Press|year=2011|isbn=978-1-55652-954-2|pages=55–59}}</ref>

== Niladri Bije ==
Niladri Bije is a Hindu ritual that happens after Rath Yatra. When Lord [[Jagannath]] returns to Puri Mandir, Lakshmi feeds him roshogolla. On this point, Odisha also claims roshogolla. Lord Jagannath is highly prayed in both [[Odisha]] and [[West Bengal]]. Sand artist [[Sudarshan Patnaik]] made a sand sculpture in [[Puri Beach]] depicting "Niladri Bije" and Jagannath offering rasgulla to Lakshmi.<ref name="OST">{{Cite news|last=|date=31 July 2015|title=Odisha celebrates 'Rasagola Dibasa' with great fanfare|url=http://odishasuntimes.com/2015/07/31/odisha-celebrates-rasagola-dibasa-with-great-fanfare/|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150731215142/http://odishasuntimes.com/2015/07/31/odisha-celebrates-rasagola-dibasa-with-great-fanfare/|archive-date=31 July 2015|access-date=2 August 2015|work=Odisha Sun Times}}</ref>

== Rosogolla Utsob ==
To pay tribute to the inventor of rosogolla, [[Nobin Chandra Das]], and to promote the [[Bengali cuisine|Bengali]] claim of authenticity over rosogolla, since 2017 the government of [[West Bengal]] has celebrated "Rosogolla Utsob" every year on 28 December.<ref>{{Cite news|title=All you need to know about the 'Rosogolla Festival'|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/food-news/all-you-need-to-know-about-the-rosogolla-festival/articleshow/67284341.cms|access-date=24 August 2021|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref> At the 2017 rosogolla festival, Bengali confectioners prepared the world's largest rasgulla, which weighed nine kilograms.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Sengar|first=Resham|title=Now, West Bengal creates world's biggest 'Rasgulla' weighing 9 kg!|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/travel/destinations/now-west-bengal-creates-worlds-biggest-rasgulla-weighing-9-kg/as61818151.cms|access-date=24 August 2021|newspaper=The Times of India}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Venkatesh|first=Shruti|date=24 November 2017|title=Sweet Treat: West Bengal Makes World's Biggest Rasgulla to Celebrate GI Tag for 'Banglar Rosogolla'|url=https://www.india.com/viral/west-bengal-makes-worlds-biggest-rasgulla-to-celebrate-gi-for-banglar-rosogolla-2670637/|access-date=24 August 2021|website=India News, Breaking News {{!}} India.com|language=en}}</ref> To celebrate the 150th anniversary of rosogolla's invention, the government of West Bengal organised a three-day 'Rosogolla festival' from 28 to 30 December 2018.

== Preparation ==
To prepare rasgulla, the cheese (chhena) mixture is formed into small balls. These balls are then simmered in a sugar syrup.<ref>{{cite book|author=Lois Sinaiko Webb|title=Multicultural Cookbook of Life-cycle Celebrations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CdLuaG_3LowC&pg=PA309|date=1 January 2000|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57356-290-4|pages=309–}}</ref> It can also be prepared using a [[pressure cooker]]<ref>{{cite book|author=Tarla Dalal|title=Desserts Under Ten Minutes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BvBzBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT69|date=17 November 2003|publisher=Sanjay & Co|isbn=978-81-86469-84-2|pages=69–}}</ref> or an oven.<ref>{{cite book|title=Low Calorie Sweets|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CfFwnkCqCigC&pg=PA42|author=Tarla Dalal|year=2006|publisher=Sanjay & Co|isbn=978-81-89491-34-5|pages=42–}}</ref> While serving, a drop of rose water (only the organic and edible type of rose water, not rose perfume or synthetic flavours) can be added.

<gallery mode="packed">
File:Divided Chhena - Rasgulla Preparation - Digha - East Midnapore - 2015-05-02 9556.JPG | Chhena divided into balls
File:Boiling Rasgulla - Digha - East Midnapore - 2015-05-02 9561.JPG | Chenna balls being boiled
File:Gopal Maishal - Rasgulla Preparation - Digha - East Midnapore - 2015-05-02 9579.JPG | Rasgulla being taken out of the syrup
</gallery>

== Variations ==
<gallery mode="packed">
File:Rasgulla - Kolkata 2011-08-02 4547.JPG|Rajbhog from [[Kolkata]], India
File:Red color rasagola from Pahala, Khurda district, Odisha, India.jpg| Reddish rasgullas from Pahala (located between the cities of [[Bhubaneswar]] and [[Cuttack]]), Odisha
File:The famous Indian syrupy dessert Rasgulla, from West Bengal.jpg|Sponge Rasgulla of Kolkata
File:Bengali orange rasgulla.jpg| ''Kamalabhog'', an orange-flavoured Bengali rasgulla
File:Baked Rasgulla.JPG|Kolkata's Baked rosogolla – a Bengali variation
File:Ishwar Rasogola.JPG|Colored Rasagola from Kalahandi, Odisha
</gallery>

== Nutrition ==
Typically, a 100-gram serving of rasgulla contains 186 calories, out of which about 153 calories come from carbohydrates. It also contains about 1.85 grams of fat and 4 grams of protein.<ref name = "nutrit">[http://www.livestrong.com/article/49345-nutrition-information-rasgulla/ Nutrition Information For Rasgulla]. Livestrong.Com. Retrieved 6 December 2012.</ref>

== Geographical indication (GI) tag ==
In 2015, West Bengal applied for a [[geographical indication]] (GI) status for "Banglar Rasogolla" (Bengali Rasgulla). The Government clarified that there was no conflict with Odisha, and its application was only for a specific variant that was different "in colour, texture, taste, juice content and method of manufacturing" from the variant produced in Odisha.<ref name="NDTV_claim_2016">{{cite news|title=Our Claim Only On A Variety Of Rasogolla, No Dispute With Odisha: West Bengal|url=http://www.ndtv.com/india-news/our-claim-only-on-a-variety-of-rasogolla-no-dispute-with-odisha-bengal-1436883|access-date=24 August 2016|agency=[[Press Trust Of India]]|publisher=[[NDTV]]|date=27 July 2016}}</ref> On 14 November 2017, the [[List of Geographical Indications in India|GI Registry of India]] granted West Bengal the GI status for Banglar Rasogolla.<ref name="NIE_2017">{{cite news|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2017/nov/14/sweet-war-this-gi-tag-is-for-banglar-rosogolla-it-is-not-about-the-origin-1700787.html|title=Sweet War: This GI tag is for Banglar Rosogolla, it is not about the origin|date=14 November 2017|newspaper=The New Indian Express}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ipindiaservices.gov.in/GirPublic/ViewApplicationDetails.aspx?AppNo=533&index=0&pIndex=0&status=1|title=Intellectual Property India|website=ipindiaservices.gov.in|language=en|access-date=15 November 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ipindiaservices.gov.in/GI_DOC/533/533%20-%20Certificate%20of%20Registration%20-%2014-11-2017.pdf|title=Certificate of Registration of Geographical Indication under section 16 (1)-or of authorised user under section 17(3)(e)|date=14 November 2017|website=Intellectual Property India|access-date=15 November 2017}}</ref>

The GI Registrar office at [[Chennai]] later specifically clarified that West Bengal was given GI status only for the Bengali version of rasgulla ("Banglar Rasogolla"), not for the sweet's origin. The office also said that Odisha had not by then applied for a GI tag, but could also get Odisha Rasgulla's GI tag by presenting the necessary evidence.<ref name="NIE_2017" />

In 2018, Odisha applied for GI status in the Chennai GI Registry.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.businesstoday.in/latest/trends/odisha-rasagola-receives-gi-tag-two-years-after-west-bengal/story/368775.html|title=Odisha Rasagola receives geographical indication tag; here's what it means|magazine=Business Today|access-date=29 July 2019}}</ref> On 29 July 2019, the GI Registry of India granted Odisha the GI status for "Odisha Rasagola", the Odia version of Rasgulla.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />

== See also ==
* [[Bangladeshi cuisine]]
* [[Bengali cuisine]]
* [[Dharwad pedha]]
* [[List of Indian sweets and desserts]]
* [[Litti (dish)|Litti]]
* [[Mysore pak]]
* [[Odia cuisine]]
* [[West Bengal cuisine]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}
{{clear}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{India topics}}
{{Cuisine of India}}
{{Indian Dishes}}
{{West Bengal}}
{{Culture of West Bengal}}
{{Bengali cuisine}}
{{Cheese dishes}}
{{Geographical indications in West Bengal}}

[[Category:Bangladeshi cuisine]]
[[Category:Bangladeshi desserts]]
[[Category:Bengali cuisine]]
[[Category:Bengali desserts]]
[[Category:Cheese desserts]]
[[Category:Geographical indications in Odisha]]
[[Category:Geographical indications in West Bengal]]
[[Category:Indian cheese dishes]]
[[Category:Indian cuisine]]
[[Category:Indian desserts]]
[[Category:Indo-Caribbean cuisine]]
[[Category:Mauritian cuisine]]
[[Category:Nepalese cuisine]]
[[Category:Cuisine of Odisha]]
[[Category:Semolina desserts]]
[[Category:Sweets of West Bengal]]
[[Category:Vegetarian dishes of India]]
[[Category:West Bengal cuisine]]

2021 Rajasthan municipal elections

2026-03-06T13:46:15Z

Alimirza:

{{Short description|Details of the 2020 Rajasthan urban local body elections}}

{{Infobox election
| election_name = 2021 Rajasthan urban local body elections
| type = parliamentary
| ongoing = no
| election_date = 2020
| previous_election =
| country = India
| previous_year = 2020
| next_election =
| next_year = 2022
| 1blank = Wards
| 2blank = Wards ±
| 3blank = ULBs
| 4blank = ULBs ±
| 5blank = Mayors
| 6blank = Mayors ±
| seats_for_election = {{plainlist|3,034 wards across 90 urban local bodies (ULBs)
}}

| image1 = {{CSS image crop|Image=Ashok Gehlot 2012.jpg |bSize=120|cWidth=100|cHeight=120|oLeft=10|oTop=0}}
| image1_size = 160x160px
| leader1 = [[Ashok Gehlot]]
| party1 = Indian National Congress
| 1data1 = '''1,197'''
| 2data1 = ''TBC''
| 3data1 = 23{{efn|Includes both majority and leads}}
| 4data1 = ''TBC''
| 5data1 = '''48'''
| 6data1 = ''TBC''

| image2 = {{CSS image crop|Image=Dr. Satish Poonia.jpg|bSize=150|cWidth=100|cHeight=120|oLeft=17|oTop=05}}
| image2_size = 160x160px
| leader2 = [[Satish Poonia]]
| party2 = Bharatiya Janata Party
| 1data2 = 1,140
| 2data2 = ''TBC''
| 3data2 = '''24'''{{efn|Includes both majority and leads}}
| 4data2 = ''TBC''
| 5data2 = 37
| 6data2 = ''TBC''

| image3 = {{CSS image crop|Image=Indian Election Symbol Clock.png|bSize=120|cWidth=100|cHeight=120|oLeft=10|oTop=0}}
| image3_size = 160x160px
| leader3 = Ummed Singh Champawat
| party3 = Nationalist Congress Party
| 1data3 = 46
| 2data3 = ''TBC''
| 3data3 = 2
| 4data3 = ''TBC''
| 5data3 = 1
| 6data3 = ''TBC''
}}

Local elections were held in the Indian state of [[Rajasthan]] for 90 urban local bodies in the state on 28 January 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rajasthan Municipal Election 2021 Results: With 1197 seats, Cong widens lead over BJP's 1,140; CM Gehlot hails party's win |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/elections/story/rajasthan-municipal-election-results-2021-live-updates-bjp-congress-fight-1764413-2021-01-31 |access-date=2023-01-01 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref> The [[Indian National Congress]] registered a victory in a neck-to-neck fight with the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-01-31 |title=Congress wins Rajasthan municipal polls in neck-to-neck fight with BJP |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/jaipur-news/congress-wins-rajasthan-municipal-polls-in-neck-to-neck-fight-with-bjp-101612110608750.html |access-date=2023-01-01 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref>

== Results ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!'''Sl.'''
!'''Party'''
! colspan="2" |'''Symbol'''
!Wards
!ULBs
!Mayors
|-
|1.
|[[Indian National Congress]]
| bgcolor="#00BFFF" |
|[[File:Hand_INC.svg|50x50px]]
|'''1,197'''
|23
|'''48'''
|-
|2.
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| bgcolor="{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}" |
|[[File:BJP_election_symbol.png|50x50px]]
|1,140
|'''24'''
|37
|-
|3.
|[[Nationalist Congress Party]]
| bgcolor="{{party color|Nationalist Congress Party}}" |
|[[File:Indian Election Symbol Clock.png|50x50px]]
|46
|2
|1
|-
|4.
|[[Rashtriya Loktantrik Party]]
| bgcolor="{{party color|Rashtriya Loktantrik Party}}" |
|[[File:Water_bottle_RLP_election_symbol.svg|50x50px]]
|13
| rowspan="4" |''TBC''
|1
|-
|5.
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]]
| bgcolor="{{party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}" |
|[[File:CPI(M) election symbol - Hammer Sickle and Star.svg|50x50px]]
|3
|0
|-
|6.
|[[Bahujan Samaj Party]]
| bgcolor="{{party color|Bahujan Samaj Party}}" |
|[[File:Indian_Election_Symbol_Elephant.png|50x50px]]
|1
|0
|-
|7.
|[[Independent politician|Independents]]
|
|
|634
|3
|-
! colspan="4" align="center" |'''Total'''
!3,034
! colspan="2" |90
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

{{Rajasthan elections}}

{{ci|date=January 2023}}

[[Category:Elections in Rajasthan]]

Somu Sound Engineer

2026-03-03T12:12:31Z

Alimirza: started a info...

{{Short description|2024 Kannada Language Films}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2024}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Somu Sound Engineer
| image = Somu Sound Engineer.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = Abhi
| writer = Abhi Maasthi (dialogues)
| producer = Christopher Kini
| starring = Shrestha Shruthi Patil
| cinematography = Shiva Sena
| editing = Deepu S Kumar
| music = [[Charan Raj (composer)|Charan Raj]]
| studio = Aartha Entertainers
| distributor = [[Jayanna Combines]]
| released = {{film date|df=yes|2024|03|15}}
| runtime = 132 minutes
| country = India
| language = Kannada
}}
'''''Somu Sound Engineer''''' is a 2024 Indian [[Kannada]]-language film directed by Abhi, making his debut, and produced by Christopher Kini. The film stars Shrestha, Shruthi Patil, Jahangir, Girish Jatti, Yash Shetty, and Apoorva.<ref>{{cite web |title=Somu Sound Engineer (2024) |url=https://www.avclub.com/film/reviews/somu-sound-engineer-2022 |website=[[The A.V. Club]] |access-date=25 March 2024 |language=en}}</ref>

== Synopsis ==
Somu lives in the city without a job, hanging out with his friends, fighting with boys, something happens in his life that changes his life. How he changes because of that. What is the path of his life and what will happen to the hero in the future is the summary of the story of this film.

== Cast ==
{{Cast listing|* Shrestha as Somu
* Shruthi Patil as Somu's Love Interest
* Jahangir
* Girish Jatti
* Yash Shetty
* Apoorva}}

== Production ==
The technical team of ''[[Tagaru]]'' and ''[[Salaga (film)|Salaga]]'' after being impressed with the results of their previous works and their appreciation joined the crew.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |date=2022-01-28 |title=Tagaru and Salaga technicians come together for Somu Sound Engineer |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movies/news/tagaru-and-salaga-technicians-come-together-for-somu-sound-engineer/articleshow/89157791.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2024-02-19 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> They cast Shrestha as the lead actor and ''Shruthi Patil'' was paired alongside him.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ಹೀರೋ ಆಗಿ ಬಡ್ತಿ ಪಡೆದ 'ಸಲಗ' ಖ್ಯಾತಿಯ ಕೆಂಡ; ಶ್ರೇಷ್ಠ ಈಗ ಸೌಂಡ್ ಇಂಜಿನಿಯರ್‌! |url=https://vijaykarnataka.com/entertainment/news/salaga-fame-actor-kenda-shreshta-deubt-as-a-hero-in-somu-sound-engineer-movie/articleshow/89268544.cms |access-date=2024-02-19 |website=Vijay Karnataka |language=kn |archive-date=19 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240219172318/https://vijaykarnataka.com/entertainment/news/salaga-fame-actor-kenda-shreshta-deubt-as-a-hero-in-somu-sound-engineer-movie/articleshow/89268544.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>

"Unlike films where the cast usually takes precedence over the technical team, this one will see a set of technicians, who have been around in the industry for more than a decade and have carved a niche for themselves, coming together to back a new director and young actors", said Maasthi who co-wrote the dialogues for the film.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Exclusive {{!}} Maasthi Upparahalli on Kaatera, writing lines for the Challenging Star Darshan and more |url=https://www.ottplay.com/news/exclusive-maasthi-upparahalli-on-kaatera-writing-lines-for-the-challenging-star-darshan-and-more/6c5e84c36d644 |access-date=2024-02-19 |website=OTTPlay |language=en |archive-date=19 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240219172318/https://www.ottplay.com/news/exclusive-maasthi-upparahalli-on-kaatera-writing-lines-for-the-challenging-star-darshan-and-more/6c5e84c36d644 |url-status=live }}</ref> Director Suri contributed his part by writing the nameboard and title design for the film.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-09-09 |title='ಸೋಮು ಸೌಂಡ್ ಇಂಜಿನಿಯರ್' ಟೈಟಲ್ ಟ್ರ್ಯಾಕ್ : ಸೂರಿ ಶಿಷ್ಯನ ಚೊಚ್ಚಲ ಪ್ರಯತ್ನ |url=https://publictv.in/somu-sound-engineer-title-track-suri-shishyas-debut-effort/ |access-date=2024-02-19 |website=Public TV - Latest Kannada News, Public TV Kannada Live, Public TV News |language=en-US |archive-date=19 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240219172318/https://publictv.in/somu-sound-engineer-title-track-suri-shishyas-debut-effort/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

The film was shot in the [[Kudalasangama|Koodalasangama]] area of Ilakal Ganjihala in [[Hunagunda]] taluk of [[Bagalkote]] district.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-10-12 |title=Somu Sound Engineer: ದುನಿಯಾ ಸೂರಿ ಶಿಷ್ಯನ ಹೊಸ ಸೌಂಡ್, ಇದೇ 15ಕ್ಕೆ ಸೋಮು ಸೌಂಡ್ ಇಂಜಿನಿಯರ್ ಟೀಸರ್ |url=https://kannada.news18.com/news/entertainment/kannada-new-film-somu-sound-engineer-teaser-release-on-this-15th-october-rvj-hhb-862135.html |access-date=2024-02-19 |website=News18 ಕನ್ನಡ |language=kn}}</ref>

== Soundtrack ==
{{Infobox album
| name = Somu Sound Engineer
| type = soundtrack
| artist = [[Charan Raj (composer)|Charan Raj]]
| cover =
| alt =
| released = 2024
| recorded =
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Film soundtrack|Feature film soundtrack]]
| length = 8:22
| language = [[Kannada]]
| label = A2 Music
| producer = [[Charan Raj (composer)|Charan Raj]]
| prev_title = Bad Manners
| prev_year = 2023
| next_title =
| next_year =
}}
[[Charan Raj (composer)|Charan Raj]] composed the background score and soundtrack of the film.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-02-27 |title=Chandasina Chandadalli Song From Kannada Film Somu Sound Engineer Out |url=https://www.news18.com/movies/chandasina-chandadalli-song-from-kannada-film-somu-sound-engineer-out-8794564.html |access-date=2024-03-11 |website=News18 |language=en |archive-date=11 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240311123302/https://www.news18.com/movies/chandasina-chandadalli-song-from-kannada-film-somu-sound-engineer-out-8794564.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

{{track listing
| headline = Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Soma Soma
| length1 = 4:06
| lyrics1 = Dhananjay Ranjan
| extra1 = [[Swaroop Khan]]
| title2 = Chandasina Chandadalli
| length2 = 4:16
| lyrics2 = Dhananjay Ranjan
| extra2 = Sidhartha Belmannu, Meghana Bhat
| total_length = 8:22
}}

== Release ==
The film was released on 15 March 2024.<ref>{{cite news |title=Makers Of Somu Sound Engineer Promote The Film In Hubballi, Hold Press Conference |url=https://www.news18.com/movies/makers-of-somu-sound-engineer-promote-the-film-in-hubballi-hold-press-conference-8823963.html |access-date=25 March 2024 |work=[[CNN-News18|News18]] |date=21 March 2024 |language=en}}</ref>

== Reception ==
Harish Basavarajaiah for ''[[The Times of India]]'' rated 3.5 out of 5 stars and wrote "Director Abhi Basavraj has naturally brought in that rural set-up to theatres."<ref>{{cite news |last=Basavarajaiah |first=Harish |title=Somu Sound Engineer Movie Review : Somu Sound Engineer review: A father-son story set in rugged backdrop |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movie-reviews/somu-sound-engineer/movie-review/108511269.cms |access-date=25 March 2024 |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=15 March 2024 |archive-date=25 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240325070926/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movie-reviews/somu-sound-engineer/movie-review/108511269.cms |url-status=live }}{{rating|3.5|5}}</ref>

A Sharadhaa from ''[[The New Indian Express]]'' rated 2.5 out of 5 and stated "The portrayal of Somu’s journey maintains its realistic tone, though the fault lies in stretching the narrative, Initially, the viewers are presented with a clear image of Somu and his struggles with anger issues, and at one point, you don’t want to know more about it, but this gets extensively explored before introducing significant plot twists at the interval."<ref>{{cite news |last=Sharadhaa |first=A. |title='Somu Sound Engineer' movie review: A raging symphony about one man's battle with anger |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/review/2024/Mar/16/somu-sound-engineer-movie-review-a-raging-symphony-about-one-mans-battle-with-anger |access-date=25 March 2024 |work=[[The New Indian Express]] |date=16 March 2024 |language=en}}{{rating|2.4|5}}</ref>

A critic of ''[[Times Now]]'' rated 3 out of 5 stars and wrote "The love story that comes along with a good number by music director Charan Raj is noteworthy."<ref>{{cite news |last=S M |first=Shashiprasad |title=Somu Sound Engineer Review: Speaks Volumes About Human Behaviour |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment-news/reviews/kannada/somu-sound-engineer-review-speaks-volumes-about-human-behaviour-review-108512116 |access-date=25 March 2024 |work=[[Times Now]] |date=15 March 2024 |language=en}}{{rating|3|5}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDB title}}

[[Category:2024 films]]
[[Category:2024 Kannada-language films]]
[[Category:Films set in Karnataka]]
[[Category:Films shot in Karnataka]]
[[Category:2024 directorial debut films]]
[[Category:2024 Indian films]]
[[Category:2024 action films]]

Cheena Thaana 001

2026-03-03T04:26:14Z

Alimirza: quick update

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Cheena Thaana 001
| image = Cheena Thaana 001.jpg
| caption = DVD cover
| director = [[T. P. Gajendran]]
| screenplay = [[T. P. Gajendran]] [[Uday Krishna]] [[Siby K. Thomas]]
| based_on = [[CID Moosa]] (2003) by [[Johny Antony]]
| starring = [[Prasanna (actor)|Prasanna]] [[Sheela (Tamil actress)|Sheela]]
| producer = Mid Valley
| music = [[Deva (composer)|Deva]]
| cinematography = Raja Rajan
| editing = N. Ganesh
| studio = Mid Valley Entertainment
| released = {{Film date|2007|09|07|df=y}}
| runtime =
| language = Tamil
| country = India
| budget =
}}
'''''Cheena Thaana 001''''' is a 2007 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language [[Action comedy|action comedy film]] directed by [[T. P. Gajendran]]. The film stars [[Prasanna (actor)|Prasanna]] and [[Sheela (Tamil actress)|Sheela]], while [[Vadivelu]], [[Manivannan]], [[Riyaz Khan]], [[Delhi Ganesh]], and [[Kazan Khan]] play supporting roles. It is a remake of the 2003 [[Malayalam]] film ''[[C.I.D. Moosa]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sebastian |first=Shevlin |date=2018-05-09 |title=In a hole |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/malayalam/2018/May/08/in-a-hole-1812058.html |access-date=2024-08-17 |website=[[The New Indian Express]] |language=en}}</ref> The music was composed by [[Deva (composer)|Deva]] with cinematography by Raja Rajan and editing by N. Ganesh. The film released on 7 September 2007.

==Plot==
Tamizharasu wants to become a cop, but the arrogant police officers Inspector Parameshwaran and AC Gowrishankar ensure that he does not succeed. Meanwhile, Tamizharasu discovers a plot to assassinate the Governor by the terrorist Gulshan Baba, and he complains about this to Gowrishankar, but he discovers that he is also a member of the plot. So he forms a detective agency and starts cracking the plot. How he succeeds in it with the help of his father Ezhumalai, his father's friend and with his own friend Cheenichamy, who is also a thief, forms the rest of the story.

==Cast==
{{cast listing|
* [[Prasanna (actor)|Prasanna]] as Tamizharasu
* [[Sheela (Tamil actress)|Sheela]] as Priya
* [[Vadivelu]] as Cheenichamy
* [[Manivannan]] as Inspector Parameshwaran, Tamizharasu's brother-law
* [[Riyaz Khan]] as ACP Gowri Shankar
* [[Delhi Ganesh]] as Head Constable Ezhumalai, Tamizharasu's father
* [[Ilavarasu]] as Sub Inspector Dhandapani, Tamizharasu's father's friend
* [[Nizhalgal Ravi]] as Vijayaraghavan IPS, the Chennai City Police Commissioner
* [[Visu]] as Vishwanath Reddy, former High Court Judge current Governor of Tamil Nadu
* [[Kazan Khan]] as Terrorist Leader Gulshan Baba
* [[Satya Prakash (actor)|Satya Prakash]] as Terrorist Satya
* [[Muthukaalai]] as Omapodi
* Reena as Tamizharasu's mother
* [[Shanthi Williams]] as Governor's wife
* [[T. P. Gajendran]] as Madman
* [[Singamuthu]]
* Bhuvana
* Simran Khan (Item number)
*[[Vengal Rao]]
* [[J. Livingston|Livingston]] as CID Aanthaikannan (Special Appearance)
}}

==Soundtrack==
The music was composed by [[Deva (composer)|Deva]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mossymart.com/product/cheena-thaana-007-tamil-film-audio-cd-by-deva/|title=Cheena Thaana 007 Tamil Film Audio CD by Deva|website=Mossymart|access-date=17 August 2024}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 95%;"
! Song !! Singers !! Lyrics !! Length
|-
| Acha Acha || Arjith || [[Piraisoodan]] || 05:27
|-
| Cheena Thana || [[Tippu (singer)|Tippu]] || Krithiya || 05:01
|-
| Poruki || [[Suchitra]] || [[Snehan]] || 04:59
|-
| Unna Onnu || Sabesh, [[Grace Karunas]] || Lakshmi Priyan || 04:01
|-
| Unnai Paartha || [[Karthik (singer)|Karthik]], [[Harini (singer)|Harini]] || [[Yugabharathi]] || 05:38
|-
|}

==Reception==
''Indiaglitz'' wrote, "Prasanna after a series of serious portrayals in his earlier films opts for a laugh-riot role. He is at his best in comedy and stunt sequences. However, walking away with all honors is Vadivelu. Playing Prasanna's close aide, he brings the roof down with laughter. His body language and dialogue delivery provides instant laughter."<ref>{{Cite web |date=September 10, 2007 |title=Cheena Thana 001 - A laugh riot |url=http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/tamil/review/8929.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070918181201/http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/tamil/review/8929.html |archive-date=18 September 2007 |website=Indiaglitz |access-date=14 June 2014 }}</ref>

''Behindwoods'' wrote, "Prasanna has come up with a good performance. Vadivelu and his team guarantee the audience with clean comedy and he rocks as always. The sequences where he encounters a mottai need to be seen to be enjoyed. Visu who comes as a Governor delivers a few orders which are certainly rib ticklers of the highest order. Songs are just average. Many scenes from Seena Thaana are guaranteed to find themselves in the comedy programs of television."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jyothsna |last2=Movie Guru |title=Film Review - Seena Thaana 001 |url=https://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movie-articles/movies-06/seena-thaana-review.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231006034123/https://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movie-articles/movies-06/seena-thaana-review.html |archive-date=6 October 2023 |website=Behindwoods.com |access-date=17 August 2024 }}</ref>

''[[Sify]]'' wrote, "The humour here is the "Tom & Jerry", one-man- upmanship type. Prasanna wants to become a cop, but the comedians are determined that he does not get selected. So it becomes a merry-go-round of our hero Vs team of comedians- Vadivelu, Mannivannan, comic villain Riaz Khan and assorted 'terrorist' baddies who want to kill the governor, Visu. Sheela is there for the songs tuned by Deva."<ref>{{cite web |title=Cheena Thana 001 |url=http://www.sify.com/movies/cheena-thana-001-review-tamil-14525558.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140715124003/http://www.sify.com/movies/cheena-thana-001-review-tamil-14525558.html |archive-date=15 July 2014 |access-date=9 August 2022 |website=[[Sify]]}}</ref>

''Bharatstudent.com'' wrote, "Prasanna excels both in the action scenes as well as comedy scenes. His comedy timing is also good. Vadivelu literally steals the show with his comedy. Sheela has a brief role. She acts in a couple of songs and then disappears. Visu, Riyaz Khan, Kasan Khan, Ilavarasu, Delhi Ganesh and others go about their jobs in a neat manner. Deva's music is good. The film is a good entertainer and can be enjoyed by both adults and children alike".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cheena Thana 001 Movie Review |url=http://www.bharatstudent.com/cafebharat/movie_reviews_2-Tamil-Cheena_Thana_001-Movie-Review-3,110.php |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714215045/http://www.bharatstudent.com/cafebharat/movie_reviews_2-Tamil-Cheena_Thana_001-Movie-Review-3,110.php |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=5 July 2014 |website=Bharatstudent.com}}</ref>

''Chennai Online'' wrote, "No logic, says one of the captions that flash on the screen as the movie opens. And it's not just logic, but your total sensibility that you have to leave behind before you sit to watch this film".<ref>{{cite web |last=Mannath |first=Malini |date=Sep 20, 2007 |title=Seena Thana 001 |url=http://www.chennaionline.com/film/Moviereviews/Sept2007/09seenathana001.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071015032946/http://www.chennaionline.com/film/Moviereviews/Sept2007/09seenathana001.asp |archive-date=15 October 2007 |access-date=19 April 2022 |website=Chennai Online}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title}}

{{T. P. Gajendran}}

[[Category:2007 Indian films]]
[[Category:2007 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:2007 action comedy films]]
[[Category:2007 crime comedy films]]
[[Category:2007 films]]
[[Category:Films directed by T. P. Gajendran]]
[[Category:Films scored by Deva (composer)]]
[[Category:Indian action comedy films]]
[[Category:Indian crime comedy films]]
[[Category:Indian slapstick comedy films]]
[[Category:Tamil remakes of Malayalam films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]

Kandharvan

2026-03-03T03:31:37Z

Alimirza: updated details

{{Short description|2014 Indian film by Salangai Durai}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2024}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Kandharvan
| image =
| alt =
| caption =
| native_name = 
| director = [[Salangai Durai]]
| writer = Salangai Durai
| screenplay =
| story =
| based_on = 
| producer = S. Duraisamy
| starring = Kathir [[Honey Rose]]
| narrator =
| cinematography = Anil K. Sekar
| editing = SMV Subbu
| music = [[Alex Paul]]
| studio = South Indian Productions
| distributor = 
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2014|4|11}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Tamil
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''Kandharvan''''' is a 2014 Indian Tamil-language romantic drama film directed by [[Salangai Durai]] and starring Kathir and [[Honey Rose]].

== Cast ==
{{Cast listing|
*Kathir as Mani
*[[Honey Rose]] as Meena
*[[Ganja Karuppu]]
*[[V. A. Andamuthu]] as Meena's father
*[[Kadhal Dhandapani]] as Lorry owner
*[[Crane Manohar]] as Lorry cleaner
*[[Chelladurai]]
*[[Vellai Subbaiah]] as Meena's relative
*[[Kovai Senthil]] as Broker
*[[Nellai Siva]] as Chicken seller
*Kamalesh as Mani's friend
}}

== Production ==
The film began production in 2009. Kathir, who played a lorry driver in Salangai Durai's earlier film ''[[Kathavarayan (2008 film)|Kathavarayan]]'' (2008), was cast in this film as a water tank lorry driver. He practised lorry driving for the film. This was Malayalam actress [[Honey Rose]]'s second Tamil film after ''[[Mudhal Kanave]]'' (2007), but the delay of the film meant that this was her fourth Tamil film after ''[[Singam Puli]]'' (2011). The climax was shot in Chennai.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ashok Kumar |first=S.R. |date=2 June 2012 |title=Audio beat: Kantharvan |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/audio-beat-kantharvan/article3483047.ece |url-access=subscription |website=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref>

== Soundtrack ==
The music was composed by Malayalam composer [[Alex Paul]] in his Tamil debut.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2012 |title=Kantharvan (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) - EP |url=https://music.apple.com/qa/album/kantharvan-original-motion-picture-soundtrack-ep/1442383928 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230924165035/https://music.apple.com/qa/album/kantharvan-original-motion-picture-soundtrack-ep/1442383928 |archive-date=2023-09-24 |access-date=2023-09-24 |website=[[Apple Music]]}}</ref>
{{Track listing
| headline = Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Muthumaniye
| lyrics1 = Kavin Sampath
| extra1 = Sheela Mani, [[Ranjini Jose|Renjani Jose]], Lizy Francis
| length1 = 4:59
| title2 = Lakka Langatika
| lyrics2 = Muthu Vijayan
| extra2 = [[Shankar Mahadevan]]
| length2 = 5:14
| title3 = Kadal Kadal
| lyrics3 = [[Vaali (poet)|Valee]]
| extra3 = [[Srinivas (singer)|Srinivasan]]
| length3 = 4:29
| title4 = Nerupai
| lyrics4 = Muthu Vijayan
| extra4 = [[Karthik (singer)|Karthik]]
| length4 = 4:40
| title5 = Kadal Oru Pattam Poochi
| lyrics5 = [[Viveka (lyricist)|Viveka]]
| extra5 = Anita
| length5 = 5:23
| total_length = 24:45
}}

== Reception ==
A critic from ''[[The New Indian Express]]'' wrote that "The director’s earlier debut film ''Kathavarayan'' was a far better effort than this one".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mannath |first=Malini |date=19 April 2014 |title=A Story Without Depth |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/bengaluru/2014/apr/19/a-story-without-depth-601848.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220809200203/https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/bengaluru/2014/apr/19/A-Story-Without-Depth-601848.html |archive-date=9 August 2022 |access-date=24 September 2023 |website=[[The New Indian Express]]}}</ref> A critic from ''[[Dinamalar]]'' criticised the film for solely relying on the climax.<ref>{{Cite web |title=காந்தர்வன் |url=https://cinema.dinamalar.com/movie-review/188/Kantharvan |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181002013713/http://cinema.dinamalar.com:80/movie-review/188/Kantharvan |archive-date=2 October 2018 |website=[[Dinamalar]] |language=ta}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{IMDb title|13070670}}

[[Category:Indian romantic drama films]]
[[Category:2014 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:2014 Indian films]]

Senjittale En Kadhala

2026-03-03T03:14:11Z

Alimirza: started a post...

{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2018}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Senjittle En Kadhala
| image = Senjittale En Kadhala.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = Ezhil Durai
| producer = S. Balasubramaniam
| writer =
| starring = Ezhil Durai [[Madhumila]] [[Abhinaya (actress)|Abhinaya]]
| music = F. Raj Bharath
| cinematography = M. Manish
| editing = Lawrence Kishore
| studio = SB Entertainment
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2017|04|07}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Tamil
| budget =
| gross =
}}

'''''Senjittale En Kadhala''''' ({{translation}} She's Ended My Love) is a 2017 Indian Tamil-language romantic drama film written and directed by Ezhil Durai. He also features in the lead role opposite [[Madhumila]], while [[Abhinaya (actress)|Abhinaya]] and [[Mime Gopi]] among others play supporting roles. The film began production during early 2016 and was released on 7 April 2017.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Friday Fury- April 7 |url=http://www.sify.com/movies/friday-fury-april-7-news-tamil-rehh04eeihijd.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170407170358/http://www.sify.com/movies/friday-fury-april-7-news-tamil-rehh04eeihijd.html |archive-date=7 April 2017}}</ref>

==Cast==
{{Cast listing|
* Ezhil Durai as Veera
* [[Madhumila]] as Anushka
* [[Abhinaya (actress)|Abhinaya]] as Sona
* [[Arjunan (actor)|Arjunan]]
* Velan
* Kayal Vincent
* Vanitha Hariharan
* Divya
* [[Ajay Rathnam]] as Veera's father
* [[Rama (actress)|Rama]] as Veera's mother
* [[Mime Gopi]] as Dhamodaran
* [[Mahanadi Shankar]]
* [[Cool Suresh]]
}}

==Production==
Ezhil Durai chose to make his first feature film after working in almost fifty short films. Production began in mid-2016, with the film initially wrongly reported in the media to be based on the [[Swathi murder case|murder of a young working professional]] by a stalker in Chennai. Ezhil refuted the claims and revealed it was a romantic comedy, with actresses [[Madhumila]] and [[Abhinaya (actress)|Abhinaya]] working alongside him.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Senjitale...not based on the techie's murder |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2016/aug/31/senjitale...not-based-on-the-techies-murder-1514599.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230730222300/https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2016/aug/31/Senjitale...not-based-on-the-techies-murder-1514599.html |archive-date=30 July 2023 |access-date=14 April 2017}}</ref> The film was also dubbed into Telugu as ''100% Break Up'' soon after the original Tamil version had been completed.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Premalo Padithe, 100 per cent Break up |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/previews/premalo-padithe-100-per-cent-break-up/articleshow/57665650.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170323185531/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/previews/premalo-padithe-100-per-cent-break-up/articleshow/57665650.cms |archive-date=23 March 2017 |access-date=14 April 2017}}</ref> The makers initially targeted to release the film around Valentine's Day but postponements meant that they settled for an April release.<ref>{{Cite web |title=It's not ideal to release my film alongside Kaatru Veliyidai |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2017/apr/05/its-not-ideal-to-release-my-film-alongside-kaatru-veliyidai-1590337.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170414081604/http://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2017/apr/05/its-not-ideal-to-release-my-film-alongside-kaatru-veliyidai-1590337.html |archive-date=14 April 2017 |access-date=14 April 2017}}</ref>

==Soundtrack==
{{Infobox album
| name = Senjittale En Kadhala
| type = Soundtrack
| artist = F. Raj Bharath
| cover =
| alt =
| released = 31 January 2017
| recorded = 2016
| venue =
| studio =
| genre =
| length =
| language = Tamil
| label = VMS Music Records
| producer = F. Raj Bharath
| prev_title =
| prev_year =
| next_title =
| next_year =
}}
The film's music was composed by Raj Bharath, while the audio rights of the film was acquired by VMS Music Records. The album released on 31 January 2017 and featured seven songs.

{{track listing
| headline = Track list
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| total_length =
| title1 = Sillakidum
| lyrics1 = Vaira Bharathi
| extra1 = Hariharasudhan, [[Nikhil Mathew]]
| length1 = 4:05
| title2 = Kannamma
| lyrics2 = [[Subramania Bharati]]
| extra2 = Sreekanth Hariharan
| length2 = 4:08
| title3 = Finding Aai Paiyan
| lyrics3 = GKB
| extra3 = [[L. R. Eswari]], [[Gangai Amaran]], Sakthi, Nincy Vincent
| length3 = 3:42
| title4 = En Vaazhkkai
| lyrics4 = Ezhil Durai
| extra4 = Rohit Sridhar
| length4 = 3:57
| title5 = Play Girl
| lyrics5 = Femcee Nicki Ziee G, R. B. Jenifer
| extra5 = Femcee Nicki Ziee G, R. B. Jenifer
| length5 = 2:22
| title6 = Idhu Varai
| lyrics6 = Vaira Bharathi
| extra6 = Vaishavi Sathyamoorthi
| length6 = 1:53
| title7 = Finding Aai Paiyan - Extended version
| lyrics7 = GKB
| extra7 = [[L. R. Eswari]], [[Gangai Amaran]], Sakthi, Nincy Vincent
| length7 = 4:36
}}

==Release==
The film opened on 7 April 2017 across Tamil Nadu alongside [[Mani Ratnam]]'s ''[[Kaatru Veliyidai]]''. [[The Times of India]] wrote "there is an earnestness about ''Senjittale En Kadhala'' that gives the film some appeal, but the filmmaking lacks zing" and that "we can sense a gap between the writing and the execution and often, this comes in the way of us fully immersing ourselves into it".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Senjittale en Kadhala Review {2.5/5}: There is an earnestness about Senjittale en Kadhala that gives the film some appeal, but the filmmaking lacks zing |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movie-reviews/senjittale-en-kadhala/movie-review/58061002.cms}}</ref> A critic from The New Indian Express wrote "the writing is simple and Ezhil approaches all aspects in earnest" but "there's inconsistency in presentation and since most of the artistes are newbies, it lacks the fizz - a regular ingredient of new time writers".<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 April 2017 |title=Senjittale en Kaadhala review: Inconsistency in presentation and lacks the fizz |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/movie-reviews/080417/senjittale-en-kaadhala-review-inconsistency-in-presentation-and-lacks-the-fizz.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170413202421/http://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/movie-reviews/080417/senjittale-en-kaadhala-review-inconsistency-in-presentation-and-lacks-the-fizz.html |archive-date=13 April 2017 |access-date=14 April 2017}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|id=6984772}}

[[Category:2017 films]]
[[Category:2017 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:Indian romantic drama films]]
[[Category:2017 directorial debut films]]
[[Category:2017 romantic drama films]]

Crook (film)

2026-03-02T06:18:53Z

Alimirza: enhanced formatting for consistency for clarity

{{short description|2010 Indian action thriller film}}
{{Use British English|date=March 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Crook
| image = Crook2.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[Mohit Suri]]
| writer = Ankur Tiwari
| story = Mohit Suri
| producer = [[Mukesh Bhatt]]
| starring = [[Emraan Hashmi]] [[Neha Sharma]] Shella Alan [[Arjan Bajwa]]
| music = '''Songs:''' [[Pritam]] '''Score:''' [[Raju Singh]]
| cinematography = Ravi Walia
| editing = Ajay Sharma
| studio = [[Vishesh Films]]
| distributor = [[Sahara One Entertainment]]
| released = {{Film date|2010|10|8||df=y}}
| runtime = 121 minutes
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| budget = {{INRConvert|175|m}}
| gross = {{INRConvert|124|m}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/crook-its-good-to-be-bad/box-office/ |title=Box Office |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]]|date=8 October 2010 }}</ref>
}}
'''''Crook: It's Good to be Bad''''' is a 2010 Indian [[Hindi]]-language [[action thriller film]] written and directed by [[Mohit Suri]] and produced by [[Mukesh Bhatt]]. The film stars [[Emraan Hashmi]], [[Neha Sharma]], Shella Alan and [[Arjan Bajwa]] in the lead roles. It was released on 8 October 2010. The film was shot in Australia and India, and is heavily based on the controversy regarding the [[Violence against Indians in Australia controversy|racial attacks on Indian students]] in Australia between 2007 and 2010.<ref name='crookstory2'>{{cite web|title=Shooting for anti-racial film 'Crook' begins in Oz|url=http://www.expressindia.com/latest-news/Shooting-for-antiracial-film-Crook-begins-in-Oz/621374/|publisher=Express India|access-date=8 October 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100523135410/http://www.expressindia.com/latest-news/Shooting-for-antiracial-film-Crook-begins-in-Oz/621374/|archive-date=23 May 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title="Crook is based on racial discrimination" - Mohit Suri|url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/features/2010/02/25/5994/index.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100228205259/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/features/2010/02/25/5994/index.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=28 February 2010|work=Bollywood Hungama|accessdate=8 October 2010}}</ref>

==Plot==

Jai Dixit, is a young adult who sells [[Pirated movie release types|pirated DVDs]] in [[Mumbai]]. One day, his uncle Joseph catches him, and this changes his personality completely, he changes his name to Suraj Bhardwaj, and his uncle sends him to [[Melbourne]]. At the airport, he meets Romi Latti, an international graduate student originally from [[Gurdaspur, Punjab|Gurdaspur]] who got a scholarship to a [[university college]]. He also meets Suhani, a girl who has come to pick Romi up. Suraj is attracted to Suhani, and therefore he pretends to be Romi and leaves with Suhani. When Suhani finds out that he is not the real Romi, Suraj makes a run for it. Suraj then stays with Goldie, a responsible adult living with his brothers.

While Suraj is at a [[grocery store]], on the phone with his uncle Joseph, he finds that [[Australians]] are attacking the [[shopkeeper]] because he is a [[Muslim]], so Suraj finds a [[gun]] and comes out. He has the Australians at gunpoint as the police arrive. Suraj remembers that his uncle told him not to get in any type of trouble with the [[Victoria Police|police]], so Suraj runs away. Suraj hides in Nicole's car, although he finds out Nicole is the younger sister of the attackers. Nicole works in a [[strip club]] named 'Duke's Club'. Meanwhile, When Samarth's car breaks down, Suraj has to get help, but instead, he tells Romi to go and fix his car so Suhani and Suraj can have a beautiful night together. But when they are about to kiss, Samarth shows up, and tells them that Romi has been badly [[Assault|beaten up]] by the Australians on the [[Highways in Australia|highway]] and Romi and Samarth are about to [[protest]] against the Australians. Suraj and Suhani had a dispute due to which he [[Making out|makes out]] with Nicole in a club. Nicole proposes to Jai, and he reciprocates, due to being [[Sexual arousal|aroused]]. But Suraj realizes he is still in love with Suhani and cannot forget about her. Nicole told him that Samarth is going to be attacked, where he leaves her and tries to save Samarth but he was too late and Samarth is badly beaten up. Suraj rushes him to hospital turns out he is in a coma, where Suhani and Romi arrive and Suhani has an emotional breakdown in Suraj's arms. Romi takes Samarth out of hospital meanwhile, Suraj and Suhani goes to the Police Station realizing it is a trap, they run.

When it's revealed that Samarth is not in a coma, he loses his temper and [[kidnap]]s Nicole causing an unrest in entire Melbourne as Nicole's brother attempts to try to find her. When Suraj goes to save Nicole, it turns out that Samarth is planning to murder Nicole and [[False accusation|blame the murder]] on Suraj. When Suraj learns of Samarth's plan, Samarth beats Suraj and claims that he is doing all this because his sister Sheena was also murdered by the Australians once. Suraj tries to warn Suhani about Russell capturing her when Suhani reveals the actual truth behind Sheena's death. (Sheena was in love with an Australian and she became [[Pregnancy|pregnant]] with his child, which infuriated Samarth and he decided to abort the child, despite knowing the fact that she will die because of it, due to the [[Abortion in Australia|abortion]] she ends up dead). Suhani gets captures by Russell. Suraj gets mad and goes to fulfills Suhani's promise to save Nicole. He saves Nicole, but when Samarth accidentally shoots Suraj, Romi comes up behind him with a [[shovel]] and hits it on Samarth's head, and he dies. The unrest in city stops when the news breaks out that Nicole is alive, Russell gets arrested, and the Indians and Australians both unite for peace. Suraj and Suhani reunites and reciprocates their love for each other and Russell and Nicole reunites.The film ends with Suraj being felicitated in front of the media with Suhani by his side as uncle Joseph gets touched after seeing the news in [[Mumbai]].

==Cast==
*[[Emraan Hashmi]] as Jai Dixit (real name)/Suraj Bhardwaj (fake name), Suhani's love interest and Mahesh's son
*[[Neha Sharma]] as Suhani, Jai's love interest and Samarth's sister
*Shella Allen as Nicole, Russell's younger sister
*[[Arjan Bajwa]] as Samarth, Suhani and Sheena's brother
*[[Upendra Rao]] as Goldie
*[[Kavin Dave]] as Romi Latti
*[[Gulshan Grover]] as [[Assistant commissioner of police|ACP]] Joseph Pinto
* [[Bob Christo]] as Russell, Nicole's elder brother (Voice Dubbed By [[Subhalekha Sudhakar]])
*[[Smiley Suri]] as Sheena, Suhani and Samarth's sister (Special Appearance)
* [[Sathyaraj]] as [[Sergeant|Sgt.]] Damien Stern
* [[Soubin Shahir]] as [[Chief of police|Chief of Police]]
* [[Vineet Kumar Singh]] as Mahesh Dixit, Jai's father, an [[Organised crime in India|underworld gangster of Mumbai]]

==Soundtrack==
{{Infobox album
| italic_title = no
| name = Crook
| type = soundtrack
| longtype =
| artist = [[Pritam]]
| cover =
| alt =
| released = {{Start date|df=yes|2010|08|31}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://music.apple.com/in/album/crook-original-motion-picture-soundtrack/390435258 |title=Crook (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) |date=31 August 2010 |publisher=[[iTunes]]}}</ref>
| recorded = 2010
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Soundtrack]]
| length = {{Duration|m=34|s=25}}
| language = [[Hindi]]
| label = [[Sony]]
| director = [[Mohit Suri]]
| producer = [[Mukesh Bhatt]]
| chronology = [[Pritam]]
| prev_title = [[Hello Darling]]
| prev_year = 2010
| next_title = [[Aakrosh (2010 film)|Aakrosh]]
| next_year = 2010
}}
The soundtrack was composed by [[Pritam]] with the lyrics written by [[Kumaar]]. The song, "Challa" was based on the song "Australian Challa" by [[Babbal Rai]].<ref>{{cite news|title=I'm happy to get my credit now: Babbal|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/music/news/Im-happy-to-get-my-credit-now-Babbal/articleshow/6700114.cms|work=The Times of India|accessdate=7 October 2010|last1=Dasgupta |first1=Priyanka }}</ref> The song "Mere Bina" topped the charts in India. The film's background score was composed by [[Raju Singh]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Crook (Album Details) |url=http://www.indicine.com/bollywood/crook |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160311223939/http://www.indicine.com/bollywood/crook |archivedate=11 March 2016 |accessdate=11 February 2016 |publisher=Indicine}}</ref>

===Track listing===
{{Track listing
| extra_column = Performer(s)
| title1 = Challa
| extra1 = [[Babbu Mann]], [[Suzanne D'Mello]]
| length1 = 3:45
| title2 = Mere Bina
| extra2 = [[Nikhil D'Souza]]
| length2 = 4:50
| title3 = Kya
| extra3 = [[Neeraj Shridhar]], [[Beyonce]]
| length3 = 3:50
| title4 = Tujhi Mein
| extra4 = [[KK (singer)|KK]]
| length4 = 5:00
| title5 = Tujhko Jo Paaya
| extra5 = [[Nikhil D'Souza]]
| length5 = 3:05
| title6 = Challa (Remix)
| extra6 = [[Babbu Mann]], Suzanne D'Mello
| length6 = 4:25
| title7 = Mere Bina (Unplugged)
| extra7 = [[Kattassery Joseph Yesudas]]| length7 = 4:50
| title8 = Tujhi Mein (Reprise)
| extra8 = [[Kunal Ganjawala]]
| total_length = 34:25
| length8 = 4:40
}}

===Reception===
''[[NDTV India]]'' quoted, "Music composer Pritam Chakraborty, who is a favourite of the [[Bhatt family|Bhatt camp]], brings forth another likable soundtrack in forthcoming film ''Crook''. Even though the compositions fall under his signature style and not much experimentation is involved, the tracks do have the potential of getting noticed."<ref>{{cite web|title=Music Review: Crook|work=NDTVMovies.com |url=http://movies.ndtv.com/music/music-review-crook-596814|publisher=NDTV Movies|accessdate=12 September 2010}}</ref>

==Critical reception==

===India===
The reception of the film in India has been mixed. The critics praised the story and music but criticized the execution. However, many of them praised the [[Sex in film|erotic scenes]] between [[Emraan Hashmi]] and Shella Allen. Movie critic [[Taran Adarsh]], criticized the film as a "half-hearted effort", but praised [[Mohit Suri]]'s handling of the subject during the second hour of the film.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movies/|title=Hindi Movie List|website=[[Bollywood Hungama]]|date=11 August 2023 }}</ref> Another critic praised the film for presenting "an altogether different approach to the situation and (the director) takes both the sides and speaks in favour of Indians and as well as the Australians.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.india-server.com/news/crook-its-good-to-be-bad-review-crook-34251.html|title="Crook- It's Good To Be Bad" Movie Review|website=india-server.com}}</ref>

Among negative reviews, a critic at ''[[India Today]]'' complained that the film racially [[Anti-Australian sentiment|vilifies Australians]] as:

{{cquote|A country of [[Convicts in Australia|ex-convicts]]. A country where they [[Extramarital sex|sleep with each other without marrying]]. A country where they don't take care of their families. Yes, that's the sort of venom that's spewed against the Australians in Crook ......
}}

Also stating that "it is badly directed and doesn't even have that one redeeming feature of all".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/reviews/story/film-review-crook-83514-2010-10-09|title=Film review: Crook|first=Kaveree|last=Bamzai|date=October 9, 2010|website=India Today}}</ref>

A critic at ''[[Rediff.com]]'' complained of a weak script and story line.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://movies.rediff.com/report/2010/oct/08/review-crook.htm|title=Crook: As Bad as it Gets|website=Rediff}}</ref> A reviewer at ''Bolly Spice'' said that the film was "too insensitive" and "superficial".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bollyspice.com/movie-reviews.php/0772-crook-its-good-to-be-bad-movie-review.html |title=Movie Review: Crook: Its Good to be Bad » Bollywood Spice |accessdate=2010-11-11 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101114121234/http://www.bollyspice.com/movie-reviews.php/0772-crook-its-good-to-be-bad-movie-review.html |archivedate=14 November 2010}}</ref>

===Australia===
One media outlet in Australia voiced concern about the film, repeating Indian newspaper reviews that Crook portrayed Australia as "A country of ex-convicts. A country where they sleep with each other without marrying. A country where they don't take care of their families. Yes that's the sort of venom that's spewed against the Australians in Crook."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/bollywood-film-paints-australians-as-violent-racists/news-story/a4b1a7c0554e5898aec52fb4c323cd64|title=Bollywood film paints Aussies as racists|date=14 October 2010|website=dailytelegraph.com.au}}</ref>

Among Australia's local Indian population, Gautam Gupta, spokesman for the [[Federation of Indian Student Associations in Australia|Federation of Indian Students]] criticized the piece, saying: "They have performed their research so badly, it's shocking." He also complained that, far from helping the situation, that the film could help inflame tensions.<ref name = "Gautam Gupta's criticism">{{cite news | url=http://www.news.com.au/national/even-indians-say-new-bollywood-movie-errs-with-melbourne-violence/story-e6frfkvr-1225938939099#ixzz14x9pWOUw | work=Herald Sun | first1=Katherine | last1=Firkin | first2=Finn | last2=Bradshaw | title=Bollywood blockbuster paints Melbourne as racist | date=15 October 2010 | access-date=11 November 2010 | archive-date=21 October 2010 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101021142538/http://www.news.com.au/national/even-indians-say-new-bollywood-movie-errs-with-melbourne-violence/story-e6frfkvr-1225938939099#ixzz14x9pWOUw | url-status=dead }}</ref>

Director Mohit Suri responded to these charges, rejecting the claims of bias. The ''[[Hindustan Times]]'' quoted Suri saying:

{{cquote|I am facing [[flak]] from both sides. Indians are saying that the film is [[Australophile|pro Australia]], and they are saying it shows them in a bad light. I think Australians should watch the film as a cinematic experience. The film does not show them as 'wrong'.”<ref name="Suri-response">{{cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/archive-news/|title=Hindustan Times - Archive News|website=Hindustan Times}}</ref>
}}

Responding to allegations that the film is "poorly researched", Suri says, "I have just made a film. At 28, don't expect me to have a [[Anti-racism|cure for racism]] worldwide. I have just expressed my opinion."<ref name="Suri-response" />

Suri also complained that during the production of the film:

{{cquote|"Permissions were not given in several places and even our [[Line producer|online]] Australian producer had his doubts. One day, we were stopped from entering a club by an Indian [[bouncer]] who allowed other foreigners in! Then there was the incident where Emraan Hashmi asked an Aussie to click a picture of all of us at a beach. He agreed, and then tossed the camera far into the air and walked away!”<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/content/105083/of-dark-narratives.html|title=Of dark narratives|date=15 October 2010|website=Deccan Herald}}</ref>
}}

==Awards and nominations==

;6th [[Producers Guild Film Awards|Apsara Film & Television Producers Guild Awards]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Apsara Award 2011 Nominations|url=http://www.pinkvilla.com/entertainment/discussion/apsara-awards-2011-nominations|publisher=Pinkvilla|accessdate=6 January 2011}}</ref>
Nominated
* [[Producers Guild Film Award for Best Music Director|Apsara Award for Best Music]] - [[Pritam]]
* [[Producers Guild Film Award for Best Performance in a Negative Role|Apsara Award for Best Performance in a Negative Role]] - Arjan Bajwa

;[[3rd Mirchi Music Awards]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.radiomirchi.com/mma2010/hindi/nominees.php|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110130070949/http://www.radiomirchi.com/mma2010/hindi/nominees.php|url-status=dead|archive-date=2011-01-30|title=Nominees - Mirchi Music Award Hindi 2010|date=2011-01-30|access-date=2018-09-30}}</ref>
Nominated
* Best Programmer & Arranger of the Year - Jim Satya, Johan Folke and [[Dhrubajyoti Phukan|DJ Phukan]] - "Mere Bina"

== See also ==

* [[List of Hindi films of 2010]]
* [[Indian Australians]]
* [[Australia–India relations]]
* [[Anti-Indian sentiment]]
* [[Racism in Australia]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb title|1753640|Crook}}

{{Mohit Suri}}

[[Category:2010 films]]
[[Category:2010 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:2010 Indian films]]
[[Category:2010 action thriller films]]
[[Category:Indian action thriller films]]
[[Category:Films shot in Australia]]
[[Category:Films scored by Pritam]]
[[Category:Films about racism]]
[[Category:Films set in Australia]]
[[Category:Films directed by Mohit Suri]]
[[Category:Indian-Australian films]]
[[Category:Films set in Mumbai]]
[[Category:Films shot in Mumbai]]
[[Category:Films shot in Melbourne]]
[[Category:Films set in Melbourne]]
[[Category:Films about immigration]]
[[Category:Indian gangster films]]
[[Category:Films about organised crime in India]]
[[Category:Hindi-language films based on actual events]]
[[Category:Films about con artists]]
[[Category:Anti-Indian sentiment in Oceania]]
[[Category:Films about activists]]
[[Category:Films about kidnapping]]
[[Category:Films set in department stores]]
[[Category:Films set in universities and colleges]]
[[Category:Films about violence]]
[[Category:Indian vigilante films]]
[[Category:Indian romantic action films]]
[[Category:Indian romantic thriller films]]
[[Category:Films about abortion]]
[[Category:Fictional portrayals of the Maharashtra Police]]

Amritsar Municipal Corporation

2026-03-01T01:45:01Z

Alimirza: basic update details for accuracy and fixed typos to improve readability

{{Short description|Local civic body in Amritsar, Punjab, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2023}}
{{Infobox legislature
| name = Amritsar Municipal Corporation
| coa_pic =
| coa_res =
| coa_alt =
| coa-pic =
| coa-res =
| house_type = [[Municipal Corporation]]
| preceded_by = Amritsar Municipal Council
| foundation =
| leader1_type =
| leader1 =
| leader2_type = Mayor
| leader2 = Jatinder Singh
| party2 = [[Aam Aadmi Party|AAP]]
| election2 = 27 January 2025<ref name="AAP wins Amritsar Mayoral Poll">{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/aaps-jatinder-singh-moti-bhatia-elected-amritsar-mayor-amid-controversy-murder-of-democracy-cong/articleshow/117611000.cms|title=AAP’s Jatinder Singh Moti Bhatia elected Amritsar mayor amid controversy; murder of democracy: Cong|work=Times of India|accessdate=27 January 2025}}</ref>
| leader3_type = Senior Deputy Mayor
| leader3 = Priyanka Sharma
| party3 = [[Aam Aadmi Party|AAP]]
| election3 = 27 January 2025
| leader4_type = Junior Deputy Mayor
| leader4 = Anita Rani
| party4 = [[Aam Aadmi Party|AAP]]
| election4 = 27 January 2025
| leader5_type = [[Municipal commissioner (India)|Municipal commissioner]]
| leader5 =
| election5 =
| seats = '''85'''
| structure1 = File:India Amritsar, Punjab Municipal Corporation 2025.svg
| structure1_res = 300px
| political_groups1 =
'''Government (33)'''
* {{Party index link|Aam Aadmi Party}} (33)
'''Opposition (52)'''
* {{Color box|#00BBFF}} [[Indian National Congress|INC]] (39)
* {{Color box|#FF9933}} [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]] (8)
* {{Color box|#0F204A}} [[Shiromani Akali Dal|SAD]] (4)
* {{Color box|#B2B2B2}} [[Independent politician|IND]] (1)
'''Ex-officios'''
* TBA
| first_election1 = 1991
| last_election1 = [[2024 Punjab, India local elections|21 December 2024]]
| next_election1 = 2029
| term_length = 5 years
| session_res =
| meeting_place =
| website = {{Official website|https://www.amritsarcorp.com/}}
| motto =
}}

The '''Amritsar Municipal Corporation''' is a ''[[nagar nigam]]'' ([[urban local body|municipal corporation]]) which administers the city of [[Amritsar]], [[Punjab, India|Punjab]]. It has 85 members elected with a [[first-past-the-post]] voting system and 5 ex-officio members which are MLA for [Assembly Constituency members]. The corporation was founded 1977, and the first elections were held in 1991.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=www.amritsarcorp.com|url=https://www.amritsarcorp.com/historyMCA.htm|access-date=2022-01-26|website=www.amritsarcorp.com}}</ref>

==List of Mayors==
The '''mayor of Amritsar''' is the elected chief of the Municipal Corporation of Amritsar. The mayor is the first citizen of the city. The role is largely ceremonial as the real powers are vested in the Municipal Commissioner.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cms.gcg11.ac.in/attachments/article/233/Mayor.pdf|title=Mayor - Powers and Functions|access-date=4 March 2021}}</ref> The mayor plays a decorative role of representing and upholding the dignity of the city and a functional role in deliberating over the discussions in the corporation.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-07-20|title=Directly elected mayor: An idea whose time has come|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/mumbai-news/directly-elected-mayor-an-idea-whose-time-has-come/story-XUhycvDC7wcTCxthjsUY7O.html|access-date=2021-03-04|website=Hindustan Times|language=en}}</ref>

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
!S. No.
!Name
!Took office
!Left office
!Tenure
!colspan=2|Party
!Ward No.
!Ref.
|-
!1
|[[Om Parkash Soni]]
|25 June 1991
|18 June 1996
|{{age in years and days|1991|6|25|1996|6|18}}
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|
|<ref name=":0" />
|-
!2
|Subash Sharma
|28 May 1997
|18 October 2000
|{{age in years and days|1997|5|28|2000|10|18}}
|bgcolor=#FF9933|
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
|
|<ref name=":0" />
|-
!3
|Brij Mohan Kapur
|18 October 2000
|27 April 2002
|{{age in years and days|2000|10|18|2002|4|27}}
|bgcolor=#FF9933|
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
|
|<ref name=":0" />
|-
!4
|[[Sunil Dutti]]
|15 June 2002
|2007
|5 years
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|
|<ref name=":0" />
|-
!5
|[[Shwait Malik]]
|6 September 2007
|2012
|5 years
|bgcolor=#FF9933|
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
|
|<ref name=":0" />
|-
!6
|Bakshi Ram Arora
|19 September 2012
|2017
|5 years
|bgcolor=#FF9933|
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
|
|<ref name=":0" />
|-
!7
|Karamjit Singh Rintu
|23 January 2018
|27 January 2025
|{{age in years and days|2018|1|23|}}
|bgcolor={{party color|Aam Aadmi Party}}|
|[[Aam Aadmi Party|AAP]]
|
|<ref>{{Cite web|date=24 January 2018|first=Yudhvir|last=Rana|title=Rintu elected 8th mayor of Amritsar|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/amritsar/rintu-elected-8th-mayor-of-amritsar/articleshow/62626126.cms|access-date=2022-01-26|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref>
|-
!8
|Jatinder Singh
|27 January 2025
|Incumbent
|{{age in years and days|2025|1|25|}}
|bgcolor={{party color|Aam Aadmi Party}}|
|[[Aam Aadmi Party|AAP]]
|26
|<ref name="AAP wins Amritsar Mayoral Poll"/>
|}

==List of deputy mayors==
===Senior Deputy Mayor===
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
!S. No.
!Name
!Took office
!Left office
!Tenure
!colspan=2|Party
!Ward No.
!Ref.
|-
!1
|Priyanka Sharma
|27 January 2025
|Incumbent
|175 days
|{{Party name with color|Aam Aadmi Party}}
|11
|<ref name="AAP wins Amritsar Mayoral Poll"/>
|}

===Junior Deputy Mayor===
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
!S. No.
!Name
!Took office
!Left office
!Tenure
!colspan=2|Party
!Ward No.
!Ref.
|-
!1
|Anita Rani
|27 January 2025
|Incumbent
|175 days
|{{Party name with color|Aam Aadmi Party}}
|67
|<ref name="AAP wins Amritsar Mayoral Poll"/>
|}

==Current members==
Amritsar Municipal Corporation has a total of 85 members or councillors, who are directly elected after a term of 5 years. The council is led by the Mayor. The latest elections were held in [[2024 Punjab, India local elections|21 December 2024]]. The current mayor of Amritsar is Jatinder Singh of the [[Aam Aadmi Party]]. The current senior deputy mayor and deputy mayor are Priyanka Sharma and Anita Devi of the [[Aam Aadmi Party]] respectively.

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
!style="background-color:#0072B0; color:white" colspan=5|Mayor: Jatinder Singh
|-
!style="background-color:#0072B0; color:white" colspan=5|Senior Deputy Mayor: Priyanka Sharma
|-
!style="background-color:#0072B0; color:white" colspan=5|Junior Deputy Mayor: Anita Rani
|-
! Ward No.
! Name of Councillor
! colspan="2" | Party
! Remarks
|-
| 1 || Kuljit Kaur || {{Full party name with color|Aam Aadmi Party|rowspan=2}}
|
|-
| 2 || Amarjit Singh
|
|-
| 3 || Navdeep Kaur || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
| 4 || Mandeep Singh Aujla || {{Full party name with color|Aam Aadmi Party}}
| Elected as Independent councillor; later joined AAP<ref name="Councillors join AAP in Amritsar">{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/in-amritsar-mayoral-election-aap-gains-ground-despite-having-fewer-councillors-than-factionalism-hit-congress/articleshow/117243310.cms|title=In Amritsar mayoral election, AAP gains ground despite having fewer councillors than factionalism-hit Congress|work=Times of India|accessdate=14 January 2025}}</ref>
|-
| 5 || Kriti Arora || {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=2}}
|
|-
| 6 || Amandeep Aery
|
|-
| 7 || Kajal Devi || {{Full party name with color|Aam Aadmi Party|rowspan=2}}
|
|-
| 8 || Balwinder Singh
|
|-
| 9 || Shobit Kaur || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
| 10 || Shruti Vij || {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|
|-
| 11 || Priyanka Sharma || {{Full party name with color|Aam Aadmi Party}}
|
|-
| 12 || Narinder Singh || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
| 13 || Gurwinder Kaur || {{Full party name with color|Aam Aadmi Party}}
|
|-
| 14 || Rajkanwal Preetpal Singh Sandhu || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
| 15 || Rama Devi || {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|
|-
| 16 || Sandeep Sharma || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=3}}
|
|-
| 17 || Anita Kumari
|
|-
| 18 || Navdeep Singh
|
|-
| 19 || Navjeet Kaur || {{Full party name with color|Aam Aadmi Party}}
|
|-
| 20 || Gurinder Singh || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
| 21 || Kulwinder Kaur || {{Full party name with color|Aam Aadmi Party}}
|
|-
| 22 || Sujinder Bidlan || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=4}}
|
|-
| 23 || Kulwinder Kaur
|
|-
| 24 || Satnam Singh Sabha

|
|-
| 25 || Monika Sharma
|
|-
| 26 || Jatinder Singh || {{Full party name with color|Aam Aadmi Party|rowspan=2}}
|
|-
| 27 || Preet Kaur
| Elected as [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]] councillor, later joined AAP<ref name="Councillors join AAP in Amritsar"/>
|-
| 28 || Saurabh Madaan Mithu || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|
|-
| 29 || Shweta Devi
|
|-
| 30 || Avtar Singh || {{Full party name with color|Shiromani Akali Dal}}
|
|-
| 31 || Sukhbir Kaur || {{Full party name with color|Aam Aadmi Party|rowspan=3}}
|
|-
| 32 || Jagmeet Singh Ghulli
| Elected as Independent councillor; later joined AAP<ref name="Councillors join AAP in Amritsar"/>
|-
| 33 || Ashnoor Kaur
|
|-
| 34 || Amritpal Singh || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
| 35 || Amarji Kaur || {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|
|-
| 36 || Ashok Kumar || {{Full party name with color|Aam Aadmi Party|rowspan=5}}
|
|-
| 37 || Gurjit Kaur
|
|-
| 38 || Bhagwant Singh
|
|-
| 39 || Manpreet Kaur
|
|-
| 40 || Gurwinder Singh
|
|-
| 41 || Sukhwinder Kaur || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|
|-
| 42 || Gagandeep Singh
|
|-
| 43 || Inderjit Singh || {{Full party name with color|Shiromani Akali Dal}}
|
|-
| 44 || Jaswinder Singh Gill || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=3}}
|
|-
| 45 || Sukhbir Kaur
|
|-
| 46 || Navpreet Singh
|
|-
| 47 || Kiranjit Kaur || {{Full party name with color|Aam Aadmi Party}}
|
|-
| 48 || Ashwani Kumar || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|
|-
| 49 || Ritu Kundra
|
|-
| 50 || Ritu Devi || {{Full party name with color|Aam Aadmi Party}}
|
|-
| 51 || Sarita Devi || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=5}}
|
|-
| 52 || Vikas Soni
|
|-
| 53 || Komal Shah
|
|-
| 54 || Amit Kumar
|
|-
| 55 || Kulbir Kaur
|
|-
| 56 || Varinder Vicky Datta || {{Full party name with color|Aam Aadmi Party}}
|
|-
| 57 || Manju Mehra Pappal || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
| 58 || Jarnail Singh || {{Full party name with color|Aam Aadmi Party}}
|
|-
| 59 || Gurmeet Kaur || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
| 60 || Gaurav Gill || {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=2}}
|
|-
| 61 || Rajni Devi
|
|-
| 62 || Sameer Dutta || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
| 63 || Usha Rani || {{Full party name with color|Aam Aadmi Party}}
| Elected as Independent councillor; later joined AAP<ref name="Councillors join AAP in Amritsar"/>
|-
| 64 || Nitu Tangri || {{Party name with color|Independent}}
|
|-
| 65 || Neeraj Chaudhary || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
| 66 || Virat Devgan || {{Full party name with color|Aam Aadmi Party|rowspan=2}}
|
|-
| 67 || Anita Devi
| Elected as Independent councillor; later joined AAP<ref name="Councillors join AAP in Amritsar"/>
|-
| 68 || Vikas Gill || {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|
|-
| 69 || Gurpreet Kaur || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
| 70 || Vijay Kumar Bhagat || {{Full party name with color|Aam Aadmi Party|rowspan=2}}
| Elected as Independent councillor; later joined AAP<ref name="Councillors join AAP in Amritsar"/>
|-
| 71 || Surjit Kaur
|
|-
| 72 || Avtar Singh || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
| Elected as [[Indian National Congress|INC]] councillor; later joined AAP, then returned to INC<ref name="2 Amritsar INC councillors join AAP">{{cite web|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/amritsar/fresh-setback-to-cong-as-two-party-councillors-join-aap/|title=Fresh setback to Amritsar Congress as two party councillors join AAP|work=The Tribune|accessdate=19 August 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/amritsar/councillor-does-u-turn-rejoins-cong-hours-after-leaving-party/|title=Councillor does U-turn, rejoins Cong hours after leaving party|work=The Tribune|accessdate=20 August 2025}}</ref>
|-
| 73 || Kuldeep Singh
|
|-
| 74 || Paramjeet Kaur Dhillon || {{Full party name with color|Shiromani Akali Dal}}
|
|-
| 75 || Kashmir Singh || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
| 76 || Sukhbir Singh || {{Full party name with color|Aam Aadmi Party}}
|
|-
| 77 || Sunita Devi || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
| 78 || Anita Sharma || {{Full party name with color|Aam Aadmi Party|rowspan=2}}
| Elected as Independent councillor; later joined AAP<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/amritsar/another-independent-councillor-joins-aap/|title=Another independent councillor joins AAP|work=The Tribune|accessdate=20 August 2025}}</ref>
|-
| 79 || Shivali Devi
| Elected as [[Indian National Congress|INC]] councillor; later joined AAP<ref name="2 Amritsar INC councillors join AAP"/>
|-
| 80 || Raman Kumar || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|
|-
| 81 || Nisha Dhillon
|
|-
| 82 || Sandeep Singh || {{Full party name with color|Aam Aadmi Party}}
|
|-
| 83 || Nagwant Kaur || {{Full party name with color|Shiromani Akali Dal}}
|
|-
| 84 || Rashpal Singh || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
| 85 || Natasha Gill || {{Full party name with color|Aam Aadmi Party}}
| Elected as Independent councillor; later joined AAP<ref name="Councillors join AAP in Amritsar"/>
|}

== Previous election results ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Year
!Total Seats
!INC
!AAP
!SAD(with an Alliance with BJP before 2024 elections)
!BJP
|-
!2024
!85<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congress cruises past halfway mark in Amritsar MC elections |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/chandigarh-news/congress-cruises-past-halfway-mark-in-amritsar-mc-elections-101734810057520-amp.html}}</ref>
|43
|24
|4
|10
|-
!2017
!85<ref>{{Cite web |title=ਪੰਜਾਬ ਸ਼ਹਿਰੀ ਚੋਣਾਂ |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/chandigarh/punjab-civic-polls-tomorrow-4-major-municipal-bodies-previous-elections-9735779/}}</ref>
|60
|4
|13
|Alliance with SAD
|-
!2012
!65
|4
|~
|48
|Alliance with
SAD
|-
!2007
!65
|18
|~
|33
|Alliance with SAD
|-
!2002
!60
|33
|~
|7
|Alliancee with
SAD
|}
~ Party didn't exist

== See also ==
[[Ludhiana Municipal Corporation]]

[[Patiala Municipal Corporation]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Municipal corporations in Punjab, India]]
[[Category:Organisations based in Amritsar]]

Iyengar

2026-02-12T20:04:23Z

Alimirza: slightly adjust details per sources also and cleaned formatting to improve readability

{{short description|Tamil Brahmin community}}
{{Other people|Iyengar}}
{{pp-extended|small=yes}}
{{Use British English|date=September 2012}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{infobox ethnic group|
| group = Iyengar
| native_name = ஐயங்கார்
| native_name_lang = ta
| image = File:Page 346 Life in India or Madras, the Neilgherries, and Calcutta.png
| image_caption = A 19th century illustration of an Iyengar man
| poptime =
| popplace = [[India]] [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Karnataka]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Telangana]]
| rels = [[Hinduism]] ([[Sri Vaishnavism]])
| related_groups = [[Tamil Brahmins]]
| langs = [[Tamil language|Tamil]] ([[Iyengar Tamil]]), [[Sanskrit]] (liturgical)
| footnotes =
}}
{{Portal|India|Hinduism
}}
'''Iyengars'''{{refn|group=note|''Iyengar'' is the [[British English]] spelling, and ''Aiyaṅgār'' is the [[ISO 15919|Romanized]] spelling from [[Indic scripts]].}} (also spelt '''Ayyangar''', '''Aiyengar''', or '''Aiyangar''', pronounced {{IPA|ta|ɐjːɐŋɡaːr|}}) are an [[ethnoreligious]] community of [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-speaking [[Hindu]] [[Brahmins]], whose members follow [[Sri Vaishnavism]] and the [[Visishtadvaita]] philosophy propounded by [[Ramanuja]]. Iyengars are divided into two denominations, the [[Vadakalai]] and the [[Sri Vaishnavism|Tenkalai]] and live mostly in the [[Southern India]]n states of [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Karnataka]], and [[Andhra Pradesh]]. The community belongs to the [[Pancha-Dravida|Pancha Dravida Brahmana]] classification of Brahmins in India.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Aiyar |first=S. Ramanath |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DuwUAAAAYAAJ&dq=tamil+brahmins+five+dravidian&pg=PA114 |title=A Brief Sketch of Travancore, the Model State of India: The Country, Its People and Its Progress Under the Maharajah |date=1903 |publisher=Modern Star Press |pages=114 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Babu |first1=D. Shyam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lXyWE6KbG8oC&pg=PA168 |title=Caste in Life: Experiencing Inequalities |last2=Khare |first2=Ravindra S. |date=2011 |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-81-317-5439-9 |pages=168 |language=en}}</ref>

== Etymology ==
There are several opinions regarding the etymology of the term ''Iyengar'', which is the anglicized form of the Dravidian word ''Aiyaṅgār'' ({{Langx|ta|ஐயங்கார்}}, {{IPA|ta|əjəŋɡɑːɾ|pron}}).

One is that it derives from the [[Proto-Tamil|Proto-Dravidian]] word ''ayya-gāru'' ([[Tamil-Brahmi|𑀅𑀬𑀕𑀭𑀼]]), which became ''Ayyangāru'' ({{Langx|ta|அய்யங்காரு}}), and later ''Ayengar''. The term ''ayya'' is the [[Tamil language|Tamil]] equivalent of the [[Sanskrit]] word ''ārya,'' ([[Brahmi script|𑀆𑀭𑁆𑀬]]/[[Devanagari|आर्य]]) which in Sanskrit means ''noble''.<ref name="hinduism_encyclopedia_898">{{cite book|title=Encyclopaedia of Hinduism, Volume 7|page=898|author=Nagendra Kumar Singh|publisher=Anmol Publications PVT LTD|year=1999|isbn=978-81-7488-168-7}}</ref> ''Gāru'' refers to a form of the [[Pali]] term ''gārava'', and later ''gaurava'', meaning respect or esteem.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Davids |first1=T. W. Rhys |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u7fjDwAAQBAJ&dq=garu+esteem+pali&pg=PA250 |title=Pali-English Dictionary |last2=Stede |first2=William |date=2015-01-01 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-3772-0 |pages=250 |language=en}}</ref>

Another is that the word ''ayyangār'' was first used by Kandhādai Ramanuja Ayyangār of Tirupati, around 1450 CE.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lester |first=Robert C. |title=The Sattada Srivaisnavas |journal=The Journal of the American Oriental Society |date=1 January 1994 |jstor=604951 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/604951 }}</ref>

== History ==

===Common origins===
[[File:Ramanujacharya Idol in a temple.jpg|[[Ramanuja]]|right|thumb]]
The Iyengar community traces its philosophical origins to [[Nathamuni]], the first [[Srivaishnavism|Sri Vaishnava]] [[acharya]],<ref name="Dutta2007" /> who lived around 900 CE. He is traditionally believed to have collected the 4,000 works of [[Nammalvar]] and other [[alvars]],<ref name="Overzeep35">{{cite book |title=The Body Divine: The Symbol of the Body in the Works of Teilhard de Chardin and Ramanuja |first=Anne Hunt |last=Overzee |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-521-38516-9 |page=35 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YywriB9JVWcC}}</ref> the poet-saints of Southern India who were intensely devoted to [[Vishnu]] on both an emotional and intellectual plane.<ref name="Coward" /> The belief is that he set this collection - commonly called the ''[[Divya Prabandha|Tamil Prabhandams]]'' - to music,<ref name="Overzeep35" /> and he introduced the devotional hymns of the alvars into worship, thus mixing their Tamil [[Veda]] with the traditional Vedas written in [[Sanskrit]]. A scriptural equivalence was accepted by the community that formed from his works. The Sanskrit texts are considered to be [[Metaphysics|metaphysical]] truth and the Tamil oral<ref name="Dutta2007">{{cite journal |title=Texts, Tradition and Community Identity: The Srivaisnavas of South India |first=Ranjeeta |last=Dutta |journal=Social Scientist |volume=35 |issue=9/10 |date=September–October 2007 |pages=22–43 |jstor=27644238}} {{subscription required}}</ref> variants to be based on human experience of the same.<ref>{{cite book |title=Majesty and Meekness: A Comparative Study of Contrast and Harmony in the Concept of God |first=John B. |last=Carman |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-8028-0693-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DyVfKEmEK2QC |pages=101–102}}</ref> This community became immersed in the dual-language worship in temples where issues of [[caste|varna]] were of no concern.<ref name="Dutta2007" />

A century or so later, [[Ramanuja]] became the principal amongst religious leaders who formalized the efforts of Nathamuni as a theology.<ref name="Dutta2007" /> Ramanuja developed the philosophy of Visishtadvaita and is described by [[Harold Coward]] as "the founding interpreter of Sri Vaisnavite scripture,"<ref name="Coward">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UVsXcS3xPFsC|title= The Perfectibility of Human Nature in Eastern and Western Thought |first=Harold G. |last=Coward |author-link=Harold Coward |pages=139–141 |publisher=State University of New York Press|location=Albany, NY |isbn=978-0-7914-7335-1 |year=2008}}</ref>{{efn|The traditional biographies of Ramanuja place his life in the period of 1017–1137 CE,<ref name="Carman 1994 80">{{cite book |title=Majesty and Meekness: A Comparative Study of Contrast and Harmony in the Concept of God |first=John B. |last=Carman |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-8028-0693-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DyVfKEmEK2QC |page=80}}</ref>}} while Anne Overzee says that he was a collator and interpreter rather than an original thinker. Although showing originality in his method of synthesizing the Tamil and Sanskrit sources,<ref>{{cite book |title=The Body Divine: The Symbol of the Body in the Works of Teilhard de Chardin and Ramanuja |first=Anne Hunt |last=Overzee |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-521-38516-9 |pages=30–31 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YywriB9JVWcC}}</ref> Ranjeeta Dutta said that the two sets of sources "continued to be parallel to each other and not incorporative" at this time.<ref name="Dutta2007" />

Nathamuni and Ramanuja were both Brahmins, while Nammalvar was of the [[Vellalar|Vellala]] community. All three men were Tamils,{{efn|Nathamuni is thought to have been born at [[Viranarayana]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A History of Indian Philosophy |volume=3 |year=1991 |first=S. N. |last=Dasgupta |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0414-2 |page=94 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jI2PUAa8B8oC}}</ref> Ramanuja was born at [[Sriperumbudur]],<ref name="Carman 1994 80"/> and Nammalvar at [[Alwarthirunagiri|Alvartirunakam]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Bhakti Poetry in Medieval India: Its Inception, Cultural Encounter and Impact |first=Neeti M. |last=Sadarangani |publisher=Sarup & Sons |year=2004 |isbn=978-81-7625-436-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WVQrKJbJ2JIC |page=28}}</ref>}} although Ramanuja documented his thoughts in Sanskrit.<ref>{{cite book |title=Majesty and Meekness: A Comparative Study of Contrast and Harmony in the Concept of God |first=John B. |last=Carman |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-8028-0693-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DyVfKEmEK2QC |page=147}}</ref>

=== Schism ===
[[File:Vadagalai Tiruman.JPG|thumb|Vadakalai [[Urdhva Pundra]]]]
[[File:Thengalai thiruman.jpg|thumb|Tenkalai [[Urdhva Pundra]]]]
Ramanuja was initially a proponent of the traditional [[bhakti]] philosophy that demanded adherents have a good command of Sanskrit texts and a ritualized approach to life and devotion. This outlook marginalized women and members of the Shudra Varna because they were barred from learning the Sanskrit Vedas. Ramanuja later changed his position and became more receptive to a more inclusive theory.<ref name="Cowardp139" /> His metaphorical devices suggested that devotion through ritual "earned" salvation but also that salvation was given through the grace of God.<ref name="Carmanp95">{{cite book |title=Majesty and Meekness: A Comparative Study of Contrast and Harmony in the Concept of God |first=John B. |last=Carman |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-8028-0693-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DyVfKEmEK2QC |page=95}}</ref> Subsequently, some time around the fourteenth century, the Iyengar community divided into two sects.<ref>{{cite book |title=Bhakti Poetry in Medieval India: Its Inception, Cultural Encounter and Impact |first=Neeti M. |last=Sadarangani |publisher=Sarup & Sons |year=2004 |isbn=978-81-7625-436-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WVQrKJbJ2JIC |page=19}}</ref> Both sects maintained a reverence for his works<ref name="Charip244" /> but were increasingly divided due to the doctrinal uncertainties evident in them.<ref name="Carmanp95" />

The Vadakalai sect is referred to as the "Northern" culture or school, and the Tenkalai sect is the "Southern" culture or school. These cultures reference the perceived prominence given by the sects to the terse style of [[Sanskrit]] traditions and the lyrical ''Tamil Prabhandams'', respectively. S. M. Srinivasa Chari believes this linguistic differentiation to be overstated. The Vadakalai favour [[Vedanta Desika]] as their [[acharya]] and the Tenkalai prefer instead the teachings of [[Manavala Mamuni]]. Chari notes that the sects share a common allegiance to Nammalvar and Ramanuja. and that their subsequent significant thinkers "wholly accepted the authority and importance" of both linguistic styles.<ref name="Charip244">{{cite book |title=Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Alvars |first=S. M. Srinivasa |last=Chari |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1997 |isbn=978-81-208-1342-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8TwHhuZrZ-wC |page=244}}</ref>{{efn|S. Dasgupta is quoted by Thomas Manninezhath: "Though the leaders themselves were actuated by a spirit of sympathy with one another, yet their followers made much of these little differences in their views and constantly quarrelled with one another, and it is a well-known fact that these sectarian quarrels exist even now".<ref name="Manninezhath35">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uE4-veDrY7AC |title=Harmony of Religions: Vedanta Siddhanta Samarasam of Tayumanavar |first=Thomas |last=Manninezhath |page=35 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1993|isbn=9788120810013 }}</ref>}} Harold Schiffman says that the linguistic schism reflects wider underlying doctrinal differences between the populist southern school and the social conservatism of the north, with Tamil historically being a language understood by the masses. while Sanskrit was elitist and "caste-bound".<ref>{{cite book |title=Linguistic Culture and Language Policy |first=Harold F. |last=Schiffman |publisher=Routledge |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-415-18406-9 |pages=183–184 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rS--gYWbbIIC}}</ref>

Vedic philosophy holds that the supreme goal in life is to attain the blissful state of [[Brahman]] through [[moksha]], being the process of liberation of the suffering soul from the cycle of [[reincarnation]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Alvars |first=S. M. Srinivasa |last=Chari |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1997 |isbn=978-81-208-1342-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8TwHhuZrZ-wC |pages=143–144}}</ref> Although eighteen points of difference between the two Iyengar sects are generally recognised, being referred to as the ''ashtadasa bhedas'',<ref name="Manninezhath35" /> most of these are minor.<ref>{{cite book |title=Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Alvars |first=S. M. Srinivasa |last=Chari |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1997 |isbn=978-81-208-1342-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8TwHhuZrZ-wC |page=240}}</ref>{{efn|The eighteen sectarian differences are detailed in ''History of Sri Vaishnavism in the Tamil country'' (N. Jagadeesan, Koodal Publishers, 1977)}} Abraham Eraly describes a principal difference, being {{blockquote|... their views on the nature of divine grace - while the Thenkalai holds that devotion is all that is necessary and that god will on his own initiative carry the devotee to salvation, like a cat carrying a kitten, the Vadakalai holds that man has to win god's grace through his efforts and he has to cling on to god, like an infant monkey clinging on to its mother.<ref>{{cite book |title=The First Spring: The Golden Age of India |first=Abraham |last=Eraly |publisher=Penguin Books India |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-670-08478-4 |page=853 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=te1sqTzTxD8C}}</ref>}} Coward considers this to be ''the'' difference between the two schools of thought,<ref name="Cowardp139">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UVsXcS3xPFsC|title= The Perfectibility of Human Nature in Eastern and Western Thought |first=Harold G. |last=Coward |author-link=Harold Coward |page=139 |publisher=State University of New York Press|location=Albany, NY |isbn=978-0-7914-7335-1 |year=2008 |quote=The distinction between the two schools is the degree of self-effort or God's grace required for one's surrender to the Lord and release from rebirth."}}</ref> and Carman says that "... both [sects] accord primacy to divine grace, but one group feels it necessary to insist that there is no human contribution at all to the attainment of salvation."<ref>{{cite book |title=Majesty and Meekness: A Comparative Study of Contrast and Harmony in the Concept of God |first=John B. |last=Carman |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-8028-0693-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DyVfKEmEK2QC |page=148}}</ref> These variations in interpretation of the nature of ''[[Saranagati|prapatti]]'' – loosely translated "self-surrender to god"<ref name="Manninezhath35" /> – are called ''marjara nyaya'' and ''markata nyaya'', referring to the young of cats and monkeys. They give rise to another naming convention for the two sects, being the "monkey school" and the "cat school".<ref>{{cite book |title=Indian Philosophy: An Introduction to Hindu and Buddhist Thought |first=Richard |last=King |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-7486-0954-3 |page=224 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uca8R72W8iQC}}</ref>

Unlike the Vadakalai, the Tenkalai Iyengar sect reject the [[Varna (Hinduism)|varna]] system,<ref name="VijayNagar">{{cite web|url=http://www.tamilnadu.ind.in/tamilnadu_history/vijaya_nagar/religious_cultural_impacts_under_vijaya_nagar.php|publisher=tamilnadu.ind.in|title=Tamil Nadu, Religious Condition under Vijaya Nagar Empire|access-date=8 January 2017|archive-date=5 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005234729/http://www.tamilnadu.ind.in/tamilnadu_history/vijaya_nagar/religious_cultural_impacts_under_vijaya_nagar.php|url-status=dead}}</ref> and accepted those of lower castes into their temples. The sect was founded by [[Pillai Lokacharya]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Vraj Kumar Pandey|title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Philosophy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cDXsAAAAIAAJ|volume=1|year=2007|publisher=Anmol Publications|isbn=978-81-261-3112-9|page=86}}</ref>

Vadakalai Iyengars believe that it is necessary to offer obeisance/prostration to God multiple times, while Tenkalai Iyengars believe that it is enough if you offer obeisance/prostration to God once. This is the reason why a Vadakalai Iyengar is often seen prostrating four times, while Tenkalai Iyengars are seen prostrating only once.<ref name="Social History">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ystAAAAIAAJ&q=prostration |title=Pg.128 Studies in social history: modern India, O. P. Bhatnagar, India. University Grants Commission, University of Allahabad. Dept. of Modern Indian History, St. Paul's Press Training School – 1964 |date=20 March 2007|last1=Bhatnagar |first1=O. P. }}</ref>

=== Sectarian rivalry ===
The sectarian rivalry has at times been bitter and, according to [[Andre Beteille]], "aggressive".<ref>{{cite book |title=Caste, Class & Power: Changing Patterns of Stratification in a Tanjore Village |first=André |last=Béteille |author-link=André Béteille |publisher=University of California Press |year=1965 |isbn=978-0-520-02053-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/casteclasspowerc0000bete |url-access=registration |pages=[https://archive.org/details/casteclasspowerc0000bete/page/75 75], 96}}</ref> Thomas Manninezhath notes an intensification of disputes at the time of [[Thayumanavar]] in the eighteenth century<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uE4-veDrY7AC |title=Harmony of Religions: Vedanta Siddhanta Samarasam of Tayumanavar |first=Thomas |last=Manninezhath |page=26 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1993|isbn=9788120810013 }}</ref> and on other occasions legal processes have been used in attempts to settle the control of temples.<ref>{{cite book |title=Caste and Race in India |first=Govind Sadashiv |last=Ghurye |author-link=G. S. Ghurye |edition=5th |publisher=Popular Prakashan |year=1969 |orig-year=1932 |isbn=978-81-7154-205-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/casteraceinindia0000ghur |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/casteraceinindia0000ghur/page/209 209]}}</ref>

=== Relations with other communities ===
''See Also: [[Iyer#Criticism|Criticism of Iyers]], [[Brahmin]]ism, [[Anti-Brahminism]], [[Reservation in India#Caste based|varna-Based Reservations in Tamil Nadu]]''

[[File:Gandhi Rajagopalachari.jpg|[[Chakravarti Rajagopalachari]] ''(right)'' has been the most prominent Iyengar in Indian politics|thumb|right|150px]]
[[File:Iyengar Vedic students 1909.JPG|thumb|Iyengar children, [[Thanjavur]], 1909.]]
Prior to the [[independence of India]], Brahmins had a significant presence in the government posts and education system of [[Madras province]], a part of which is now Tamil Nadu.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tehelka.com/story_main17.asp?filename=Ne042206superiority.asp |title=''Superiority in Numbers'' from ''Tehelka.com'', April 22, 2006 |publisher=Tehelka.com |date=22 April 2006|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120918002111/http://www.tehelka.com/story_main17.asp?filename=Ne042206superiority.asp |archive-date=18 September 2012}}</ref> Since independence, grievances and alleged instances of discrimination by Brahmins in Tamil Nadu are believed to be the main factors which fueled the [[Self-Respect Movement]] and marginalised them.<ref name="Non-Brahmin Movement">''Caste in Indian Politics'' by [[Rajni Kothari]], Pg 254</ref> This, in combination with the depressed economic and social conditions of non-Brahmins, led the non-Brahmins to agitate and form the [[Justice Party (India)|Justice Party]] in 1916, which later became the [[Dravidar Kazhagam]]. The Justice Party banked on vehement anti-Hindu and anti-Brahmin propaganda to ease Brahmins out of their privileged positions. Gradually, the non-Brahmin replaced the Brahmin in every sphere and destroyed the monopoly over education and the [[administration (government)|administrative services]] which the Brahmin had previously held.<ref name="education-meansofsocialmobility">{{cite news|last=Warrier |first=Shobha |title=Education is the means of social mobility |date=30 May 2006 |url=http://in.rediff.com/news/2006/may/30spec.htm |work=Rediff News|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080504051207/http://in.rediff.com/news/2006/may/30spec.htm |archive-date=4 May 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

There were also accusations that they were Sanskritists who had a contemptuous attitude towards Tamil language, culture and civilisation. [[Kamil Zvelebil]], a [[Dravidologist]], argues from a study of the history of Tamil literature that this accusation is factually wrong. He notes that the Brahmin was chosen as a scapegoat to answer for the decline of Tamil civilisation and culture in the medieval and post-medieval periods.<ref>{{cite book | title=Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qAPtq49DZfoC| last=Zvelebil| first=Kamil V. |year=1992| publisher=BRILL| isbn=90-04-09365-6 | author-link=Kamil Zvelebil |pages=212–213, 216}}</ref>

== Subgroups ==
=== Hebbar ===
Hebbar Iyengar or Hebbari Srivaishnava is a caste of Hindu Brahmins of Tamil origin whose members follow the Visishtadvaita philosophy propounded by Ramanuja. They are found primarily in the Indian state of Karnataka especially in Southern Districts.

=== Mandayam ===
Mandayam Iyengars are a subgroup of Iyengars, settled in various parts of Karnataka, predominantly [[Melkote]].<ref name="bangalorefirst">{{cite web|url=http://www.bangalorefirst.in/?p=15413|publisher=bangalorefirst.in|title=Bangalore First » Blog Archive » Pages from History : Why Mandyam Iyengars do not observe Deepavali ?|access-date=8 January 2017}}</ref><ref name="books.google.com">{{cite book|title=Bulletin of the Anthropological Survey of India|author=Anthropological Survey of India|date=1971|volume=20|publisher=Director, Anthropological Survey of India, Indian Museum|issn=0536-6704|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zW0LAAAAIAAJ}}</ref> Mandayam Iyengars also speak a different dialect of Tamil called as Mandayam Tamil.<ref name="books.google.com"/> Mandayam Iyengars follow Ramanujacharya and [[Manavala Mamunigal]].<ref name="google">{{cite book|title=Man in India|author=Roy, S.C.|date=1937|issue=v. 17–18|publisher=A. K. Bose|issn=0025-1569|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IkseAQAAMAAJ}}</ref> Mandyam Iyengars do not celebrate the popular Hindu festival of Diwali in remembrance of the day [[Tipu Sultan]] massacred close to 1500 men, women and children of this community on Diwali of 1773 in [[Srirangapatna]].<ref name = "Times of India | India Times">{{cite web| url= https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/mandyam-community-still-feels-tipus-sword/articleshow/71861480.cms|title = Mandyam community still feels Tipu's sword| website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date = 2 November 2019}}</ref>

'''Chelluru / Selvanallur'''

Chelluru Iyengars are a subgroup of Tenkalai Iyengars, believed to have migrated from Selvanallur ( a village in banks of Godavari) and settled in and around Madurai as early as 9th Century. Chelluru Iyengars follow Ramanujacharya and [[Manavala Mamunigal]].<ref name="google" />

== Wedding customs ==
{{See also|Visishtadvaita#VisishtAdvaita and Sri Vaishnavism|l1=Vishishtadvaita and Sri Vaishnavism}}
[[File:Iyengar Yagnjopaveetham (Poonal) (Sacred Thread) ceremony.jpg|thumb|The rite of passage ceremony of an Iyengar boy ([[Upanayanam]])]]
[[File:Sri Balmukundacharyaji Maharaj.jpg|thumb|Sri Balmukundacharya in typical Iyengar attire]]
Tamil Brahmin weddings are held to a distinct standard of religious orthodoxy in comparison to the ceremonies of other communities. They consist of age-old traditions, enactments, time-bound customs, as well as practices for securing kinship affiliations for the sacred initiation of the bride into her new family. These are performed in an elaborate fashion that are intended to secure the blessings of both God and one's ancestors. A typical Iyengar wedding is made up of the following events:<ref name="iyengar_marriage_3">{{cite news|last=Gariyali |first=C. K. |title=Iyengar Marriage Rituals – Part Four |date=16 April 2002 |url=http://chennaionline.com/columns/DownMemoryLane/diary159.asp |archive-url=https://archive.today/20020428141931/http://chennaionline.com/columns/DownMemoryLane/diary159.asp |url-status=dead |archive-date=28 April 2002 |work=Chennai Online |access-date=4 September 2008 }}</ref><ref name="iyengar_marriage_2">{{cite news|last=Gariyali |first=C. K. |title=Iyengar Marriage Part 1 |date=11 March 2002 |url=http://chennaionline.com/columns/DownMemoryLane/diary156.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020522123301/http://www.chennaionline.com/columns/DownMemoryLane/diary156.asp |url-status=dead |archive-date=22 May 2002 |work=Chennai Online |access-date=4 September 2008 }}</ref>
* '''Vethalaipakku''' Exchange of gifts between the bride and groom
* '''Pandalkal''' Blessing the wedding venue
* '''Janavasam''' Heralding the arrival of the groom and inviting him to the [[Wedding mandapa|mandapam]]
* '''Nischayathartham''' Commitment to be married is made and announced to all
* '''Jadhaga Naamagaranam''' Re-naming of bride
* '''Nandi or Vratham''' Anointing the bride and groom
* '''Kashiyathrai''' The groom embarks on a mock pilgrimage before the father of the bride requests him to come back to the wedding
* '''Oonjal''' The couple exchanges garlands and sit on a decorated swing while ladies sing songs
* '''Piddishuttal''' The couple is protected from 'dhrishti' evil eye
* '''Kanyadaanam''' The father gives away the bride
* '''Mangalya Dharanam''' The groom ties the sacred 'thaali' on the bride
* '''Akshathai''' The couple is blessed with the showering of coloured rice
* '''Sesha Homam''' Lighting of the sacred fire
* '''Saptapadi''' The groom and bride take seven steps around the sacred fire
* '''Nagoli Vasthra''' The bride' s family welcomes the son-in-law
* '''Gruhapravesham''' The bride is welcomed into her marital home
* '''Sambandhi Virandhu''' The wedding is followed by a feast for the new families
* '''Reception''' Post-wedding celebrations
* '''Nalangu''' The bride and groom play games while the guests sing songs

== Notable people ==

{{Main|List of Iyengars}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

== See also ==
* [[Iyer]]s
* [[Tamil Brahmin]]s
* [[Brahmin]]s

== References ==
'''Notes'''
{{notelist}}
'''Citations'''
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book | title=Ritualizing on the Boundaries: Continuity and Innovation in the Tamil Diaspora| last=W. Clothey| first=Fred| year=2006| publisher=University of South Carolina|isbn=978-1-57003-647-7}}
* {{cite book | title=The Smile of Murugan on Tamil Literature of South India| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VF2VMUoY_okC| last=Zvelebil | first=Kamil| author-link=Kamil Zvelebil| year=1973| publisher=BRILL| isbn=90-04-03591-5}}
* {{cite book | title=Brahmin Women| last=Ghosh| first=G. K.| author2=Shukla Ghosh| year=2003| publisher=Firma KLM| isbn=978-81-7102-107-9}}
* {{cite book|title=The Sri Vaishnava Brahmins|author=K. Rangachari|author-link=K. Rangachari|year=1931}}

{{Brahmin communities}}

[[Category:Surnames of Hindu origin]]
[[Category:Tamil-language surnames]]
[[Category:Vaishnava sects]]
[[Category:Hindu denominations]]
[[Category:Tamil Brahmins]]
[[Category:Social groups of Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Brahmin communities of Karnataka]]
[[Category:Brahmin communities of Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:South Indian communities]]
[[Category:Indian castes]]

Moozhayil Sankaranarayana Temple

2026-02-08T12:01:23Z

Alimirza: put up place

{{Short description|Hindu temple in Kottayam district, Kerala}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2023}}
{{Infobox temple
| name = Moozhayil Sankaranarayana Temple, Anicad
| image =
| alt =
| caption =
| map_type = India Kerala
| map_caption = Moozhayil Sankaranarayana Temple, [[Anicad (Kottayam)|Anickadu]], [[Kottayam district|Kottayam]], [[Kerala]]
| coordinates = {{coord|9|35|37.5|N|76|41|13.1|E|display=inline,title}}
| country = {{flag|India}}
| state = [[Kerala]]
| district = [[Kottayam district|Kottayam]]
| location = [[Anicad (Kottayam)|Anickadu]]
| elevation_m = 110.87
| deity = Sankaranarayana
| festivals = [[Krishna Janmashtami]], [[Maha Shivaratri]]
| architecture = [[Architecture of Kerala]]
| temple_quantity = One
| monument_quantity =
| inscriptions =
| year_completed =
| creator =
| website =
}}

'''Moozhayil Sankaranarayana Temple''' is a [[Hindu temple]] located at [[Anicad]], in [[Kottayam district|Kottayam]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Shankaranarayna Temples in Kerala |url=https://www.vaikhari.org/shankaranarayana.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110114003519/http://www.vaikhari.org/shankaranarayana.html |url-status=usurped |archive-date=14 January 2011 |access-date=2023-11-30 |website=www.vaikhari.org}}</ref> [[Kerala]], [[India]]. This is one of the 7 Sankaranarayana temples in [[Kerala]].{{cn|date=February 2026}}

==See also==
* [[Navaikulam#Sankaranarayana_temple|Navaikkulam Sankaranarayana temple]] in Thiruvananthapuram district

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=kZQsx0RLULA YouTube - Moozhayil Sankaranarayana Temple, Anickadu]

{{Hindu temples in Kerala}}
[[Category:Hindu temples in Kottayam district]]

{{Kerala-hindu-temple-stub}}

M. Buchi Babu Naidu

2026-02-08T11:55:34Z

Alimirza: brief cleanup layout for clarity and cleaned formatting as per guidelines

{{Short description|Indian cricket pioneer (1868–1908)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2013}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Buchi Babu Naidu
| image = BUCHI BABU " Father of South Indian Cricket ".jpg
| alt =
| caption =
| native_name = బుచ్చిబాబు నాయుడు
| birth_name = Mothavarapu Venkata Mahipathi Naidu, మోతవరపు వెంకట మహిపతి నాయుడు
| birth_date = 
| birth_place = [[Madras]], [[Madras Presidency]]
| death_date = 19 December 1908 (aged {{c.|lk=no|40}})<ref name=":1"/>
| death_place = Madras, Madras Presidency
| other_names =
| occupation = Cricketer
| years_active =
| known_for = Father of Madras Cricket
| notable_works =
}}

'''Mothavarapu Venkata Mahipathi Naidu''' (1868–1908), popularly known as '''Buchi Babu Naidu''' was an Indian [[cricket]] pioneer in the [[British Raj|colonial era]] who organised cricket clubs for native Indians.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=9 June 2022 |title=మర్యాదస్తుల ఆటలోనూ వివక్షే... ఎదురించిన నెల్లూరువాసి! |url=https://www.etvbharat.com/telugu/telangana/bharat/azadi-ka-amrit-mothavarapu-buchi-babu-naidu-biography/na20220609080107978978739 |access-date=2023-04-10 |website=[[ETV Network|ETV Bharat]] |language=te}}</ref> He is considered to be the 'Father of Madras Cricket'.<ref>Muthiah, S, ''The Spirit of Chepauk'', East West Books, 1998, p.114</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last1=Eastman |first1=Benjamin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TdfbAAAAQBAJ&dq=Buchi+Babu+Naidu&pg=PA7 |title=America's Game(s): A Critical Anthropology of Sport |last2=Ralph |first2=Michael |last3=Brown |first3=Sean |date=2007-12-12 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-80263-8 |pages=7 |language=en}}</ref> He founded the annual [[Madras Presidency Matches]], the first of which was held shortly after his death. The annual Buchi Babu Tournament is held in his honour.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Ravindran |first=Siddarth |date=1 September 2013 |title=A Madras classic |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/siddarth-ravindran-traces-the-history-of-the-buchi-babu-tournament-667439 |access-date=2023-04-10 |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Jyotsna |date=2024-08-28 |title=బుచ్చిబాబు, ది లెజెండ్‌ క్రికెటర్‌ -మనం మర్చిన మన తెలుగు క్రికెటర్‌ |url=https://telugu.abplive.com/sports/cricket/do-you-know-who-is-known-as-the-father-of-the-south-indian-cricket-team-177372 |access-date=2024-10-14 |website=[[ABP Desam]] |language=te}}</ref> Two of Naidu's sons, [[M. Baliah Naidu]] and [[Cotah Ramaswami|C. Ramaswami]], played for the [[Indian national cricket team]].<ref name=":22">{{Cite web |title=Cotar Ramaswami Profile |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/cricketers/cotar-ramaswami-33059 |access-date=2023-04-10 |website=ESPNcricinfo |language=en}}</ref>

==Early life==
Buchi Babu Naidu was born as Mothavarapu Venkata Mahipathi Naidu (మోతవరపు వెంకట మహిపతి నాయుడు) in 1868 as the eldest of five brothers of a [[Telugu people|Telugu]] [[Balija]] family<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Lakshmi |first=C. S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LnflUVu0w2QC&dq=Buchi+Babu+Naidu&pg=PA111 |title=The Unhurried City: Writings on Chennai |date=2004 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-14-303026-3 |pages=111 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Guha |first=Ramachandra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZTq7DQAAQBAJ&q=Buchi+Babu |title=A Corner of a Foreign Field: The Indian History of a British Sport |date=2016-11-24 |publisher=Random House India |isbn=978-93-5118-693-9 |language=en |author-link=Ramachandra Guha}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Guha |first=Ramachandra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WCocAAAAIAAJ&q=Buchi+Babu+Naidu |title=Wickets in the East: An Anecdotal History |date=1992 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-562809-8 |pages=121 |language=en |author-link=Ramachandra Guha}}</ref> hailing from [[Nellore]].<ref name=":1" /> He was adopted by his maternal grandfather, Mothavarapu Dera Venkataswami Naidu. His family was involved as ''dubashes'' (interpreters and middlemen in business dealings with the British) and became enormously wealthy from their business dealings.<ref name=":5" /> He inherited much of his grandfather's fortune at an early age.<ref name=":0" /> Naidu graduated from the [[Presidency College, Chennai|Presidency College]], [[Chennai|Madras]].<ref name=":1" />

== Career ==
[[File:Buchi Babu and his sporting clan.jpg|thumb|212x212px|left|Luz House built around 1850]]Naidu, who loved sports, energetically set about organising the sporting scene in Madras. Madras cricket in its formative years was dominated by the [[British people|British]].<ref name=":1" /> The Madras Cricket Club (MCC), established in 1846, was their exclusive preserve and Babu's interest in the game grew watching them play at [[Chepauk Stadium|Chepauk]].<ref name=":5" /> He used to be taken there as a child by his two [[English people|English]] nannies.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=History |url=https://www.theluzhouse.com/luz-house-venue |access-date=2023-04-10 |website=The Luz House |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":5" /> From his sprawling bungalow Luz House, located in [[Mylapore]], he worked on his game.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":6" />

=== Madras United Cricket Club ===
In the Madras Cricket Club, Indian players were required to sit under the tree and eat their lunch in the shade, while the European players enjoyed the comfort of the club's pavilion.<ref name=":3" /> Outraged by this, Naidu had helped found the Madras United Cricket Club (now Madras United Club or MUC), which focused on taking sport to Indians in the city.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" /> In 1888, he took an area near Esplanade and got it levelled. Six [[Cricket pitch|pitches]] were prepared in that ground.<ref name=":1" /> The club's founding was a landmark in the history of Madras cricket. The club's ground provided a space for locals to play. Naidu organised the matches and trained the Indian players. When necessary he provided the necessary attire and equipment for promising individuals.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Badrinath |first=Tulsi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oNMuBgAAQBAJ&dq=Buchi+Babu+Naidu&pg=PT55 |title=Madras, Chennai and the Self: Conversations with the City |date=2015-01-29 |publisher=Pan Macmillan |isbn=978-1-5098-0006-3 |language=en}}</ref> The club started playing regularly against MCC.<ref name=":0" />

=== The Presidency Match ===
Naidu's dream was to have an annual fixture where the best local players would take on the Englishmen of the MCC, which evolved into the annual Presidency Match. This match was first played in 1908, shortly after his death. Subsequently, it was played annually from 1915 to 1952 and was commonly known as the [[Pongal (festival)|Pongal]] Match because it was played during the [[harvest festival]] week.<ref name=":0" /> It was very popular before the introduction of [[Test cricket]] and became the Presidency's biggest fixture until the [[Ranji Trophy]] competition was started in the 1930s.<ref name=":1" />

== Personal life ==
[[File:Indian Debonair Cricketers of bygone era in 1940.jpg|thumb|Standing from left [[Cotah Ramaswami|C. Ramaswami]], [[M. Baliah Naidu|M. Baliah]], [[C. K. Nayudu]] and M. V. Ramanjulu (Bhatt). Sitting from left: [[C. S. Nayudu]] and [[M. V. Bobjee]]]]
[[File:Buchi Babu,in his favourite garb.jpg|thumb|Buchi Babu in his favourite garb|left|270x270px]]Buchi Babu Naidu was proficient in riding, tennis and cricket, while his younger brother Chitti Babu was a tennis champion, and a cricketer. Buchi Babu's three sons – Venkataramanujulu (Bhatt), [[M. Baliah Naidu]] and [[Cotah Ramaswami]] also played in the early Presidency matches.<ref name=":4" /> Ramaswami later went on to represent India in both cricket and [[tennis]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Cotar Ramaswami Profile |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/cricketers/cotar-ramaswami-33059 |access-date=2023-04-10 |publisher=ESPNcricinfo|language=en}}</ref> After his retirement, Ramaswami was part of the national selection panel for nearly two decades.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cotar Ramaswami Profile |url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Players/0/684/684.html |publisher=CricketArchive}}</ref> Several of Naidu's grandsons were also cricketers, playing the [[Ranji Trophy]] and league cricket.<ref name=":0" />

==Legacy==
The Buchi Babu memorial tournament began in 1909–10, a year after Babu's death, and it was conceived as a tournament between local sides. Its profile got a big lift in the late 1960s when it was converted to an invitational tournament, with outstation stars coming in and the [[Tamil Nadu Cricket Association]] taking control of its organisation.<ref name=":0" />

Cricket in Madras till Buchi Babu Naidu changed the scenario was an Englishman's game. A few Indians tried to imitate what they got a glimpse of watching from the outfield of the Madras Cricket Club's hallowed ground at Chepauk, but the real players were the British colonialists till Buchi Babu came along and offered them an Indian challenge. Not only did MUC-MCC cricket matches then become regular features but the Indians vs Europeans presidency match become the Presidency's biggest fixture until the [[Ranji Trophy]] competition came along in the 1930s.<ref name=":1" />

==References==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==

* Suri and Raja (1993), ''Buchi Babu (Father of Madras Cricket) and His Sporting Clan''.
* [[Venkatraman Ramnarayan|V. Ramnarayan]] (2002), ''Mosquitos and Other Jolly Rovers: The Story of Tamil Nadu Cricket''

{{DEFAULTSORT:Naidu, Buchi Babu}}
[[Category:Indian cricketers]]
[[Category:Hindus cricketers]]
[[Category:Cricketers from Chennai]]
[[Category:1868 births]]
[[Category:1908 deaths]]
[[Category:19th-century Indian sportsmen]]
[[Category:Telugu people]]
[[Category:Sportspeople from British India]]

Asjad Madani

2026-02-05T03:19:14Z

Alimirza: added the data v1 - done

{{Short description|Indian Islamic scholar (b. c. 1956)}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Asjad Madani
| image = 
| caption =
| honorific_prefix = Maulana
| office1 = Vice President of [[Jamiat Ulama-e-Hind]] (Arshad faction)
| term_start1 = 2023
| president1 = [[Arshad Madani]]
| office2 = Head of JUH Legal Aid Committee
| term_start2 = 10 September 2023
| predecessor2 = [[Gulzar Azmi]]
| module = {{Infobox religious biography
| embed = yes
| religion = Islam
| denomination = [[Sunni Islam]]
| creed = [[Maturidi]]
| jurisprudence = [[Hanafi]]
| movement = [[Deobandi]]
| birth_date = {{nowrap|c. 1956 (age {{age|1956}}{{efn-ua|name=birthnote|While several sources mention that Asjad Madani was born in 1957,{{Sfn|Qasmi|2022}} including some that specify 15 December 1957,{{Sfn|Qasmi|2025}} a memorial article published on 15 February 1958 in ''Daily Al-Jamiat'' described him as being "about one and a half years old" at that time.{{Sfn|al-Wahīdi|1998|p=234}} This suggests a possible birth date in mid-1956. Another account states that his father, [[Hussain Ahmad Madani]], was 80 years old at the time of his birth.{{Sfn|al-Wahīdi|1991|p=798}} According to the Islamic calendar, Hussain Ahmad Madani was born on 19 Shawwal 1296 AH and died on 13 Jumada al-Awwal 1377 AH, living approximately 81 lunar years.{{Sfn|al-Wahīdi|1998|pp=5, 7}}}})}}
| birth_place = [[Deoband]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], India
| alma_mater = [[Darul Uloom Deoband]]
| father = [[Hussain Ahmad Madani]]
| relatives = [[Asad Madani]] (elder brother) [[Arshad Madani]] (brother) [[Mahmood Madani]] (nephew)
| spouse = Daughter of Samiur Rahman ([[Samastipur]])<ref name="Farid">{{cite book |last=al-Wahīdi |first=Fareed |title=Maulana Hussain Ahmad Madani: ek sawanehi wa tareekhi mutala |trans-title=Maulana Hussain Ahmad Madani: A Biographical and Historical Study |publisher=Qaumi Kitab Ghar |location=Zakir Nagar, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi |year=1991 |pages=797–798 |chapter=Awlad o Akhlaaf |language=ur |url=https://www.rekhta.org/ebooks/detail/maulana-husain-ahmad-madani-ek-sawanehi-wa-tareekhi-mutala-fareedul-waheedi-ebooks}}</ref>
| children = 1 son (Hasan Madani), 2 daughters<ref name="Farid" />
| occupation = Islamic scholar, administrator
}}
}}
'''Asjad Madani''' (born {{Circa|1956}}{{efn-ua|name=birthnote}}) is an Indian Islamic scholar and administrator who serves as the senior vice-president and head of the Legal Aid Committee of the [[Jamiat Ulama-e-Hind]]. A graduate of [[Darul Uloom Deoband]], he has been actively involved in religious education, social reform, and legal advocacy. He is the youngest son of the freedom fighter and Islamic scholar [[Hussain Ahmad Madani]].

== Early life and education ==
Asjad Madani was born {{circa|1956}}{{efn-ua|name=birthnote}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=al-Wahīdi |first=Syed Farīd |date=10 July 1998 |orig-date=15 February 1958 |editor-last=Farqaleet |editor-first=Muhammad Usman |editor2-last=Barni |editor2-first=Bahar |title=Sheikh al-Islam ki gharelo zindagi ki aik jhalak |trans-title=A glimpse into the domestic life of Sheikh al-Islam |url=https://archive.org/details/drmaharshah_gmail_20181231/page/n234/mode/1up |journal=Daily al Jamiat |edition=2nd |volume=43 |page=234}}</ref> in [[Deoband]], India. He is the son of [[Hussain Ahmed Madani]] and his fourth wife, known as Aapa Jan.<ref name="Tanweer">{{Cite journal |last=Sharifi|first=Tanweer Ahmad |date=September 2012 |editor-last=Iskander |editor-first=Abdur Razzaq |editor-link=Abdur Razzaq Iskander |title=Hazrat Aapa Jan Rahmatullah Alaiha, zawjat-e-muhtarma of Sheikh al-Islam Maulana Hussain Ahmad Madani|trans-title=Hazrat Aapa Jan, respected wife of Sheikh al-Islam Maulana Hussain Ahmad Madani |url=https://www.banuri.edu.pk/bayyinat-detail/%D8%AD%D8%B6%D8%B1%D8%AA-%D8%A2%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86-%D8%B1%D8%AD%D9%85%DB%83-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%DB%81-%D8%B9%D9%84%DB%8C%DB%81%D8%A7-%D8%B2%D9%88%D8%AC%DB%81-%D9%85%D8%AD%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%85%DB%81-%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%AE-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85-%D8%AD%D8%B6%D8%B1%D8%AA-%D9%85%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%AF-%D8%AD%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%86-%D8%A7%D8%AD%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%86%DB%8C |journal=[[Bayyināt]] |language=ur |volume= |issue= |pages=57, 62}}</ref><ref name="Qasmi2025">{{cite web |last=Qasmi |first=A Azad |title=Maulana Syed Asjad Madani ek nazar mein |trans-title=Maulana Syed Asjad Madani at a glance |url=https://dailyhindustanexpress.com/maulana-syed-asjad-madni-at-a-glance/ |date=21 July 2025 |language=ur|access-date=25 July 2025}}</ref> His elder brothers include [[Asad Madani]] and [[Arshad Madani]]. His nephew is [[Mahmood Madani]].<ref name="Qasmi2022">{{cite web |last=Qasmi |first=Nazish Huma |date=28 March 2022 |title=Haan, main Syed Asjad Madani hoon! |trans-title=Yes, I am Syed Asjad Madani! |url=https://roznamakhabrein.com/yes-i-am-maulana-syed-asjad-madani/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250725064229/https://roznamakhabrein.com/yes-i-am-maulana-syed-asjad-madani/ |archive-date=25 July 2025 |access-date=25 July 2025 |website=Roznama Khabrein |language=ur}}</ref>

He memorized the Qur'an under scholars such as Qari Asghar Ali and Qari Muhammad Kamil. He studied at [[Madrasa Shahi]], Moradabad, and later enrolled at [[Darul Uloom Deoband]], where he studied under notable scholars including Abdul Haq Damani (a disciple of Hussain Ahmad Madani), [[Mirajul Haq Deobandi]], [[Wahiduzzaman Kairanawi]], [[Naseer Ahmad Khan (scholar)|Naseer Ahmad Khan]], [[Saeed Ahmad Palanpuri]], [[Nematullah Azami]], and his elder brother, [[Arshad Madani]]. He graduated in 1986.{{Sfn|Qasmi|2025}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nadwi |first=Mohammad Akram |author-link=Akram Nadwi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jvUHEQAAQBAJ&dq=%D8%A3%D8%B3%D8%AC%D8%AF+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%86%D9%8A&pg=PA42 |title=AL-JAMI' AL-MU'IN FI ȚABAQAT AŠ-ŠUYUH AL-MUTQININ WALMUJĪZIN AL-MUSNIDIN |date=2023-01-01 |publisher=Dar Al Kotob Al Ilmiyah |location=[[Beirut]], Lebanon |page=42 |language=ar}}</ref>

== Career ==
Madani began his organizational involvement in 1987 as secretary of the [[Jamiat Ulama-e-Hind]] (JUH), and in 2006, he became a member of its working committee. In 2023, he was appointed vice-president of the JUH (A) during a general body meeting held in Mumbai.{{Sfn|Qasmi|2025}}<ref>{{cite web |last=Firozuddin |first=Muhammad |date=21 May 2023 |title=A delegation of Jamiat Ulama officials from Kamareddy and Medak districts met Hazrat Maulana Syed Asjad Madani (may his blessings continue) to congratulate him on being elected Vice President of Jamiat Ulama-e-Hind |trans-title= |url=https://urduleaks.com/185375/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231018123713/https://urduleaks.com/185375/ |archive-date=18 October 2023 |access-date=25 July 2025 |website=Urdu Leaks |language=ur}}</ref>{{Sfn|Sharifi|2012|p=62}} Later that year, following the death of [[Gulzar Azmi]], Madani was appointed head of the JUH Legal Aid Committee, which has been active since 2007. The committee focuses on defending Muslims who have been falsely accused in terrorism-related cases. According to JUH sources, the committee has contributed to the acquittal of over 300 individuals, including some who had initially received death sentences.{{Sfn|Qasmi|2025}}<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-09-10 |title=जमीअत उलमा-ए-हिंद के विचाराधीन-मुकदमों में मौलाना असजद मदनी होंगे याचिकाकर्ता: आन-रिकार्ड सुप्रीम कोर्ट में मौलाना असजद मदनी को रिकार्ड पर लेने की अर्जी दाखिल की जा चुकी |trans-title=Maulana Asjad Madni will be the petitioner in the pending cases of Jamiat Ulama-e-Hind: An application has been filed in the Supreme Court to take Maulana Asjad Madni on record |url=https://www.bhaskar.com/local/uttar-pradesh/saharanpur/deoband/news/maulana-asjad-madani-will-be-the-petitioner-in-the-pending-cases-of-jamiat-ulama-e-hind-131818291.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230913193135/https://www.bhaskar.com/local/uttar-pradesh/saharanpur/deoband/news/maulana-asjad-madani-will-be-the-petitioner-in-the-pending-cases-of-jamiat-ulama-e-hind-131818291.html |archive-date=2023-09-13 |access-date=2025-07-25 |work=[[Dainik Bhaskar]] |language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2023-09-10 |title=New Head of Jamiat Legal Aid Committee |url=https://www.etvbharat.com/urdu/national/state/delhi/maulana-asjad-madani-appointed-as-new-head-of-jamiat-ulema-hind-legal-aid-committee/na20230910172745060060789 |access-date=2025-07-25 |website=[[ETV Bharat News]] |language=ur}}</ref> In 2019, Madani was appointed as a member of a five-member committee formed by Jamiat Ulama-e-Hind (A) to consider filing a review petition against the [[2019 Supreme Court verdict on Ayodhya dispute|Supreme Court's verdict in the Ayodhya case]]. The committee was tasked with evaluating legal options and was scheduled to report within four days.<ref>{{cite news |last=Ghosh |first=Abantika |date=15 November 2019 |title=Ayodhya verdict: Jamiat panel to take call on review plea |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/ayodhya-verdict-jamiat-panel-to-take-call-on-review-plea-6120401/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191115020041/https://indianexpress.com/article/india/ayodhya-verdict-jamiat-panel-to-take-call-on-review-plea-6120401/ |archive-date=15 November 2019 |access-date=25 July 2025 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |language=en}}</ref>

In addition to his organizational roles, Madani manages a number of educational and religious institutions across India. These include the Madani Educational Trust in Deoband, Madrasa Madania in Bihar, Ma'had Tahfiz al-Qur'an in [[Hazaribagh]] (Jharkhand), the Modern Madani Public School in [[Madhubani, India|Madhubani]] (Bihar), and Jamia Islamia Lilbanat Inter College in Deoband.{{Sfn|Qasmi|2025}}{{Sfn|Sharifi|2012|p=62}} In 2021, he participated in a JUH (A) working committee meeting that publicly opposed co-education and called for the establishment of separate educational institutions for girls.<ref>{{cite news |date=31 August 2021 |title=Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind opposes co-education |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/jamiat-ulema-e-hind-opposes-co-education/article36193200.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250120201259/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/jamiat-ulema-e-hind-opposes-co-education/article36193200.ece |archive-date=20 January 2025 |access-date=25 July 2025 |work=[[The Hindu]] |language=en}}</ref> In February 2022, he attended another JUH working committee meeting chaired by Arshad Madani, in which the organization declared that [[hijab]] is mandatory in Islam and criticized restrictions on it as a violation of [[Freedom of religion in India#Laws and Indian Constitution|Article 25]] of the Indian Constitution.<ref>{{cite news |title=Hijab mandatory in Islam, stopping Muslims from wearing it against Article 25: Jamiat |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/hijab-mandatory-in-islam-stopping-muslims-from-wearing-it-against-article-25-jamiat-1085541.html |work=[[Deccan Herald]] |date=27 February 2022 |access-date=25 July 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Hijab mandatory in Islam, stopping Muslims from wearing it against Article 25: Jamiat |url=https://theprint.in/india/hijab-mandatory-in-islam-stopping-muslims-from-wearing-it-against-article-25-jamiat/849783/ |work=[[The Print]] |agency=[[Press Trust of India|PTI]] |date=26 February 2022 |access-date=25 July 2025}}</ref>

In October 2024, Madani addressed a gathering in [[Shamli]], Uttar Pradesh, where he emphasized the need to protect waqf properties and madrasas from what he described as anti-Islamic efforts to dismantle them. He urged Muslims to respond legally and constitutionally, and appealed for mass participation in a JUH-led “Defend the Constitution” convention in Delhi.<ref>{{cite news |title=वक्फ और मदरसों की रक्षा के लिए आंदोलन जरूरी: असजद मदनी |trans-title=Movement needed to protect waqf and madrasas: Asjad Madani |url=https://www.livehindustan.com/uttar-pradesh/shamli/story-maulana-asjad-madani-urges-protection-of-waqf-and-madrasas-amid-anti-islamic-forces-201730122924230.html |work=Hindustan |date=28 October 2024 |access-date=25 July 2025 |language=hi}}</ref>

In November 2024, during a visit to [[Prayagraj district]], he publicly criticized the Uttar Pradesh government for its handling of a [[2024 Sambhal violence|communal incident in Sambhal]], urging it to uphold constitutional values and act impartially.<ref>{{cite news |title=संभल मामले में निष्पक्ष कार्य करे सरकारः मदनी |trans-title=Government should act impartially in Sambhal incident: Madani |url=https://www.livehindustan.com/uttar-pradesh/gangapar/story-jamiat-ulema-hind-leader-maulana-asjad-madani-welcomed-in-mau-aima-amid-criticism-of-up-government-201732614758202.html |work=Hindustan |date=26 November 2024 |access-date=25 July 2025 |language=hi}}</ref>

Madani is also actively involved in humanitarian and relief efforts. His work includes providing housing for widows, ensuring access to clean water, supporting people with disabilities, and offering free medical care. He has also focused on technical education for girls, particularly in underprivileged regions such as Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, and West Bengal.{{Sfn|Qasmi|2025}}

In February 2019, Asjad Madani formally inaugurated the newly renamed "Madani Chattar" (Madani Square) in Sylhet, Bangladesh. Named by the Sylhet City Corporation in honor of his father, [[Hussain Ahmad Madani]], the square commemorates his historic association with the region. During the event, Asjad Madani also addressed the public at the nearby Naya Sarak Mosque.<ref>{{cite news |title=নয়াসড়ক পয়েন্ট এখন মাদানী চত্বর |trans-title=Naya Sarak Point is now Madani Chattar |url=https://old.dailyinqilab.com/article/187365/ |work=[[Daily Inqilab]] |date=19 February 2019 |access-date=25 July 2025 |language=bn |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250709025852/https://old.dailyinqilab.com/article/187365/%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%9F%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%9C%E0%A6%95-%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%9F%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F-%E0%A6%8F%E0%A6%96%E0%A6%A8-%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%80-%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B0 |archive-date=9 July 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=সিলেটের নয়াসড়ক এখন থেকে 'মাদানী চত্বর' |trans-title=Sylhet's Naya Sarak is now 'Madani Chattar' |url=https://www.banglanews24.com/islam/news/bd/701826.details |work=[[Banglanews24.com]] |date=18 February 2019 |access-date=25 July 2025 |language=bn}}</ref>

He has authored and contributed to several pamphlets and publications released by the JUH, covering topics such as legal aid and rehabilitation, the Babri Masjid case, and interfaith harmony in India. These works have been circulated through JUH’s media division and have also appeared in national newspapers.{{Sfn|Qasmi|2025}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tabassum |first=Farhat |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uxFuAAAAMAAJ&q=asjad+madani |title=Deoband Ulema's Movement for the Freedom of India |date=2006 |publisher=Jamiat Ulama-i-Hind |isbn=978-81-7827-147-7 |page=33 |language=en}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Arshad Madani]]
* [[Syed Ashhad Rashidi]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist-ua}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Madani, Asjad}}
[[Category:1956 births]]
[[Category:Indian Islamic religious leaders]]
[[Category:Darul Uloom Deoband alumni]]
[[Category:Jamiat Ulama-e-Hind]]
[[Category:Indian Sunni Muslim scholars of Islam]]
[[Category:People from Deoband]]
[[Category:Living people]]

Thane Lok Sabha constituency

2026-01-19T06:30:30Z

Alimirza:

{{short description|Lok Sabha constituency in Maharashtra}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2015}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Thane Lok Sabha
| type = LS
| map_image = {{Maplink|frame=yes|plain=y|frame-width=300|frame-height=300|frame-align=center|type=shape|from=Lok Sabha constituencies/2019/Maharashtra/Thane.map}}
| map_caption = Thane Lok Sabha Constituency map
| map_alt =
| state = [[Maharashtra]]
| established = 1952
| assembly_cons = [[Mira-Bhayandar Assembly constituency|Mira Bhayandar]] [[Kopri-Pachpakhadi Assembly constituency|Kopri-Pachpakhadi]] [[Ovala-Majiwada Assembly constituency|Ovala-Majiwada]] [[Thane Assembly constituency|Thane]] [[Airoli Assembly constituency|Airoli]] [[Belapur Assembly constituency|Belapur]]
| latest_election_year = [[2024 Indian general election|2024]]
| reservation = None
| incumbent_image = 
| mp = [[Naresh Mhaske]]
| party = {{Party index link|Shiv Sena (2022–present)}}
|alliance = {{Party index link|National Democratic Alliance}}
| electors =25,07,372
| preceded_by = [[Rajan Vichare]]
}}

'''Thane Lok Sabha constituency''' (formerly, '''Thana Lok Sabha constituency''') is one of the 48 [[Lok Sabha]] (parliamentary) constituencies of [[Maharashtra]] state in western India.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mumbaivoice.com/thane-lok-sabha-election-2014 |title=Thane |publisher=Mumbai Voice}}</ref>

==Assembly segments==
At present, after the implementation of the [[President of India|Presidential]] notification on [[Electoral boundary delimitation|delimitation]] on 19 February 2008, Thane Lok Sabha constituency comprises six Vidhan Sabha (legislative assembly) segments. These segments are:
{| class="wikitable"
! #
! Name
! District
! Member
! colspan="2" |Party
!colspan=2 |Leading {{small|(in 2024)}}

|-
|145
|[[Mira Bhayandar Assembly constituency|Mira Bhayandar]]
| rowspan="6" |[[Thane district|Thane]]
|[[Narendra Mehta]]
| style="background-color:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}" |
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
|{{party name with color|Shiv Sena (2022–present)|rowspan=6}}
|-
|146
|[[Ovala-Majiwada Assembly constituency|Ovala-Majiwada]]
|[[Pratap Sarnaik]]
|{{party name with color|Shiv Sena (2022–present)|rowspan=2}}
|-
|147
|[[Kopri-Pachpakhadi Assembly constituency|Kopri-Pachpakhadi]]
|[[Eknath Shinde]]
|-
|148
|[[Thane Assembly constituency|Thane]]
|[[Sanjay Mukund Kelkar|Sanjay Kelkar]]
|{{party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=3}}
|-
|150
|[[Airoli Assembly constituency|Airoli]]
|[[Ganesh Naik]]
|-
|151
|[[Belapur Assembly constituency|Belapur]]
|[[Manda Vijay Mhatre|Manda Mhatre]]
|}

==Members of Parliament==

In 1952 and 1957, this Thane area contributed two members to Lok Sabha.
*1952: Govind Dharmaji Vartak, [[Indian National Congress]]
*1952: Anant Savalaram Nandkar, [[Indian National Congress]] (ST)<ref>{{ cite web |url= http://164.100.47.132/LssNew/members/state1to12.aspx?state_name=Bombay |title= First Lok Sabha Members |accessdate=24 February 2012}}</ref>
*1952:[[Choithram Gidwani|Choithram Partabrai Gidwani]], PSP
*1952 (by-poll): [[Yashwantrao Martandrao Mukne]], [[Indian National Congress]] (ST)
*1957: [[Shamrao Vishnu Parulekar]], [[Communist Party of India]]
*1957: [[Laxman Mahadu Matera]], [[Communist Party of India]] (ST)<ref>{{ cite web |url= http://164.100.47.132/LssNew/members/state1to12.aspx?state_name=Bombay |title= Second Lok Sabha Members |accessdate=24 February 2012}}</ref>

In 2008, the [[Delimitation Commission of India]] split the seat into Thane and [[Kalyan Lok Sabha constituency|Kalyan]] seats.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Year
!Member
!colspan="2"|Party
|-
| [[1962 Indian general election|1962]]
| [[Sonubhau Dagadu Baswant|Sonubhau Baswant]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| colspan="4"|{{center|''1967-76 : Seat does not exist''}}
|-
| [[1977 Indian general election|1977]]
| rowspan="2" | [[Rambhau Mhalgi]]
|rowspan="2"style="background-color: {{party color|Bharatiya Lok Dal}}" |
| rowspan="2"|[[Bharatiya Lok Dal]]
|-
| [[1980 Indian general election|1980]]
|-
| 1982{{efn|bypoll}}

| [[Jagannath Patil]]
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
| [[1984 Indian general election|1984]]
| Shantaram Gholap
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[1989 Indian general election|1989]]
| rowspan="2" | [[Ram Kapse]]
| {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=2}}
|-
| [[1991 Indian general election|1991]]
|-
| [[1996 Indian general election|1996]]
| rowspan="4" | [[Prakash Paranjape]]
| {{Full party name with color|Shiv Sena|rowspan=5}}
|-
| [[1998 Indian general election|1998]]
|-
| [[1999 Indian general election|1999]]
|-
| [[2004 Indian general election|2004]]
|-
| 2008{{efn|bypoll}}
| [[Anand Paranjpe]]
|-
| [[2009 Indian general election|2009]]
| [[Sanjeev Ganesh Naik|Sanjeev Naik]]
|{{Full party name with color|Nationalist Congress Party}}
|-
| [[2014 Indian general election|2014]]
| rowspan="2"|[[Rajan Vichare]]
|rowspan="2"style="background-color: {{party color|Shiv Sena}}" |
| rowspan="2"|[[Shiv Sena (1966–2022)|Shiv Sena]]
|-
| [[2019 Indian general election|2019]]
|-
| [[2024 Indian general election|2024]]
|[[Naresh Mhaske]]
|{{Full party name with color|Shiv Sena (2022–present)}}
|}

==Election results==
===2024===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2024 Indian general elections]]: [[Thane]]}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Shiv Sena (2022–present)
|candidate = [[Naresh Mhaske|Naresh Ganpat Mhaske]]
|votes = 7,34,231
|percentage = 56.09
|change = {{down}}7.21
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Shiv Sena (Uddhav Balasaheb Thackeray)
|candidate = [[Rajan Vichare]]
|votes = 5,17,220
|percentage = 39.51
|change = ''New''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above]]
|votes = 17,901
|percentage = 1.37
|change = {{down}}0.38
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 2,17,011
|percentage = 16.58
|change = {{down}}18.63
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 13,11,056
|percentage = 52.27
|change = {{up}}2.88
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Shiv Sena
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2019===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2019 Indian general elections]]: [[Thane]]}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Shiv Sena
|candidate = [[Rajan Vichare|Rajan Baburao Vichare]]
|votes = 7,40,969
|percentage = 63.30
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Nationalist Congress Party
|candidate = [[Anand Paranjpe]]
|votes = 3,28,824
|percentage = 28.09
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Vanchit Bahujan Aghadi
|candidate = Mallikarjun Saibanna Pujari
|votes = 47,432
|percentage = 4.05
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above]]
|votes = 20,426
|percentage = 1.75
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 4,12,145
|percentage = 35.21
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 11,70,970
|percentage = 49.39
|change = -1.46
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Shiv Sena
|swing = +7.84
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2014===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2014 Indian general elections]]: [[Thane]]}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Shiv Sena
|candidate = [[Rajan Vichare|Rajan Baburao Vichare]]
|votes = 5,95,364
|percentage = 56.46
|change = +22.86
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Nationalist Congress Party
|candidate = [[Sanjeev Ganesh Naik]]
|votes = 3,14,065
|percentage = 29.78
|change = -10.36
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Maharashtra Navnirman Sena
|candidate = Abhijit Ramesh Panse
|votes = 48,863
|percentage = 4.63
|change = -13.35
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Aam Aadmi Party
|candidate = [[Sanjeev Sane|Sanjeev Vishnu Sane]]
|votes = 41,535
|percentage = 3.94
|change = N/A
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Vidhyadhar Bhimrao Kirtawade
|votes = 10,982
|percentage = 1.04
|change = -0.85
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above|None of the Above]]
|votes = 13,174
|percentage = 1.25
|change = N/A
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 2,81,299
|percentage = 26.68
|change = +20.14
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 10,54,189
|percentage = 50.85
|change = +9.35
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Shiv Sena
|loser = Nationalist Congress Party
|swing = +17.66
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2009===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2009 Indian general elections]]: [[Thane]]}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Nationalist Congress Party
|candidate = [[Sanjeev Naik|Dr. Sanjeev Ganesh Naik]]
|votes = 3,01,000
|percentage = 40.14
|change = -1.67
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Shiv Sena
|candidate = [[Vijay Chougule|Vijay Laxman Chaugule]]
|votes = 2,51,980
|percentage = 33.60
|change = -18.42
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Maharashtra Navnirman Sena
|candidate = [[Rajan Raje]]
|votes = 1,34,840
|percentage = 17.98
|change = N/A
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Avanindra Kumar Tripathi
|votes = 14,192
|percentage = 1.89
|change = -0.47
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Independent (politician)
|candidate = Vidyadhar Laxman Joshi
|votes = 9,680
|percentage = 1.29
|change = N/A
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 49,020
|percentage = 6.53
|change = +1.48
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 7,49,873
|percentage = 41.50
|change = N/A
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Nationalist Congress Party
|loser = Shiv Sena
|swing = -1.67
}}
{{Election box end}}

===Bye-election 2008===
{{Election box begin | title=Bye-election, 2008: Thane}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Shiv Sena
|candidate = [[Anand Paranjape]]
|votes = 4,62,766
|percentage = 52.02
|change = +4.86
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Nationalist Congress Party
|candidate = [[Sanjeev Naik]]
|votes = 3,71,894
|percentage = 41.81
|change = -4.58
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Chandrashekhar Shukla
|votes = 20,971
|percentage = 2.36
|change = +0.47
}}

{{Election box majority|
|votes = 90,872
|percentage = 5.05
|change = +3.63
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 8,89,568
|percentage = 26.78
|change = -13.75
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Shiv Sena
|swing = +4.86
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2004===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2004 Indian general elections]]: [[Thane]]}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Shiv Sena
|candidate = [[Prakash Paranjape]]
|votes = 6,31,414
|percentage = 48.08
|change = +4.86
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Nationalist Congress Party
|candidate = [[Vasant Davkhare]]
|votes = 6,09,156
|percentage = 46.39
|change = +26.82
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Sambhaji Pawar
|votes = 24,828
|percentage = 1.89
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Samajwadi Party
|candidate = Karmaveer Yadav
|votes = 22,412
|percentage = 1.70
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 22,258
|percentage = 1.69
|change = -9.32
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 13,13,252
|percentage = 40.53
|change = +6.84
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Shiv Sena
|swing = +4.86
}}
{{Election box end}}

===1999===
{{Election box begin | title=[[1999 Indian general election]]: [[Thane]]}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Shiv Sena
|candidate = [[Prakash Paranjape]]
|votes = 3,91,446
|percentage = 43.22
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Nakul Patil
|votes = 2,91,763
|percentage = 32.21
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Nationalist Congress Party
|candidate = Prabhakar Hegade
|votes = 1,77,256
|percentage = 19.57
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 99,683
|percentage = 11.01
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 9,05,683
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Shiv Sena
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist|30em}}

==See also==
* [[Thane district]]
* [[List of constituencies of the Lok Sabha]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://www.indiaelections2014.info/parliament/2019/states/maharashtra/thane/lok_sabha_parliamentary_election_2019_results.html Thane lok sabha constituency election 2019 results details]
*http://results.eci.gov.in/pc/en/trends/statewiseS135.htm

{{Lok Sabha constituencies of Maharashtra}}
{{Authority control}}
{{coords|19.22|72.98|display=title}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Thane Lok Sabha constituency}}
[[Category:Politics of Thane district]]
[[Category:Lok Sabha constituencies in Maharashtra]]

Simpelius (crater)

2026-01-16T07:22:45Z

Alimirza: corrected citations for clarity additionally and corrected details per sources

{{Short description|Lunar surface depression}}
{{Infobox Lunar crater
| image = Simpelius crater 4094 h2.jpg
| caption = [[Lunar Orbiter 4]] image with north at top
| coordinates = {{coord|73.0|S|15.2|E|globe:moon_type:landmark|display=inline,title}}
| diameter = 70 km
| depth = 3.2 km
| colong = 349
| eponym = [[Hugh Sempill]]
}}

'''Simpelius''' is an [[impact crater]] that lies in the southern part of the [[Moon]]. It lies to the north-northwest of the somewhat larger crater [[Schomberger (crater)|Schomberger]], and east-southeast of the prominent [[Moretus (crater)|Moretus]].
[[File:Cysatus - Mutus Si Vinco Zetta Ferruggia.jpg|left|thumb|The crater area (on the bottom) in a Selenochromatic format Image (Si)]]
The most distinctive aspect of this crater is the asymmetry of the inner wall, with the side being nearly twice as wide at the southern end as it is to the north. As a result, the level interior floor is offset to the north of the crater interior. The rim and inner wall are less sharply defined than those of Schomberger or Moretus, having been softened and smoothed by impacts. The rim is uneven, with peaks to the north, west, east, and south-southeast, and low sections in between. There are also a number of small crater pits along the inner wall and the interior floor.

India's [[Chandrayaan-3]] mission successfully landed near the crater at 69.37 degrees south latitude and 32.35 degrees east longitude.

== Satellite craters ==

By convention these features are identified on lunar maps by placing the letter on the side of the crater midpoint that is closest to Simpelius.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: right;"
|-
! scope="col" | Simpelius
! scope="col" | Latitude
! scope="col" | Longitude
! scope="col" | Diameter
|-
! scope="row" | A
| 70.1° S
| 16.5° E
| 60 km
|-
! scope="row" | B
| 75.2° S
| 10.2° E
| 50 km
|-
! scope="row" | C
| 72.6° S
| 5.9° E
| 49 km
|-
! scope="row" | D
| 71.6° S
| 8.6° E
| 54 km
|-
! scope="row" | E
| 70.1° S
| 11.0° E
| 45 km
|-
! scope="row" | F
| 68.7° S
| 16.8° E
| 29 km
|-
! scope="row" | G
| 71.8° S
| 23.0° E
| 24 km
|-
! scope="row" | H
| 68.0° S
| 15.5° E
| 29 km
|-
! scope="row" | J
| 76.1° S
| 8.4° E
| 17 km
|-
! scope="row" | K
| 74.8° S
| 15.7° E
| 23 km
|-
! scope="row" | L
| 70.4° S
| 6.7° E
| 16 km
|-
! scope="row" | M
| 70.4° S
| 16.4° E
| 7 km
|-
! scope="row" | N
| 71.3° S
| 24.3° E
| 8 km
|-
! scope="row" | P
| 75.5° S
| 5.0° E
| 8 km
|}

== References ==

{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book
| last1 = Andersson
| first1 = L. E.
| last2 = Whitaker
| first2 = E. A.
| authorlink2 = Ewen Whitaker
| date = 1982
| title = [[NASA]] Catalogue of Lunar Nomenclature
| publisher = NASA RP-1097
}}
* {{cite web
| last = Blue
| first = Jennifer
| date = July 25, 2007
| title = Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature
| publisher = [[United States Geological Survey|USGS]]
| url = https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/
| access-date = 2007-08-05
}}
* {{cite book
| last1 = Bussey
| first1 = B.
| authorlink1 = Ben Bussey
| last2 = Spudis
| first2 = P.
| authorlink2 = Paul Spudis
| date = 2004
| title = The Clementine Atlas of the Moon
| publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]]
| location = New York
| isbn = 978-0-521-81528-4
}}
* {{cite book
| last1 = Cocks
| first1 = Elijah E.
| last2 = Cocks
| first2 = Josiah C.
| date = 1995
| title = Who's Who on the Moon: A Biographical Dictionary of Lunar Nomenclature
| publisher = Tudor Publishers
| isbn = 978-0-936389-27-1
| url = https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780936389271
}}
* {{cite web
| last = McDowell
| first = Jonathan
| date = July 15, 2007
| url = http://host.planet4589.org/astro/lunar/
| title = Lunar Nomenclature
| publisher = [[Jonathan's Space Report]]
| access-date = 2007-10-24
| archive-date = 2012-02-08
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120208141804/http://host.planet4589.org/astro/lunar/
| url-status = dead
}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Menzel|first1=D. H. |last2=Minnaert|first2=M. |last3=Levin|first3=B. |last4=Dollfus|first4=A. |last5=Bell|first5=B. |title=Report on Lunar Nomenclature by the Working Group of Commission 17 of the IAU |doi=10.1007/BF00171763 |journal=[[Space Science Reviews]] |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=136–186 |date=1971 |bibcode=1971SSRv...12..136M |s2cid=122125855 }}
* {{cite book
| first = Patrick
| last = Moore
| authorlink = Patrick Moore
| date = 2001
| title = On the Moon
| publisher = [[Sterling Publishing Co.]]
| isbn = 978-0-304-35469-6
| url = https://archive.org/details/patrickmooreonmo00patr
}}
* {{cite book
| first = Fred W.
| last = Price
| date = 1988
| title = The Moon Observer's Handbook
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| isbn = 978-0-521-33500-3
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Rükl
| first = Antonín
| authorlink = Antonín Rükl
| date = 1990
| title = Atlas of the Moon
| publisher = [[Kalmbach Books]]
| isbn = 978-0-913135-17-4
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Webb
| first = Rev. T. W.
| authorlink = Thomas William Webb
| date = 1962
| title = Celestial Objects for Common Telescopes
| edition = 6th revised
| publisher = Dover
| isbn = 978-0-486-20917-3
| url = https://archive.org/details/celestialobjects00webb
}}
* {{cite book
| first = Ewen A.
| last = Whitaker
| authorlink = Ewen Whitaker
| date = 1999
| title = Mapping and Naming the Moon
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| isbn = 978-0-521-62248-6
}}
* {{cite book
| first = Peter T.
| last = Wlasuk
| date = 2000
| title = Observing the Moon
| publisher = Springer
| isbn = 978-1-85233-193-1
}}
{{refend}}

[[Category:Impact craters on the Moon]]

BTVI

2025-12-30T11:06:05Z

Alimirza:

{{Use Indian English|date=May 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2020}}
{{Infobox television channel
| name = BTVI
| logo = Btvilogo.png
| logo_size = 230px
| airdate =
| launch_date = {{start date and age|df=y|2008|}}
| replaced_by =
| closed_date = {{End date and age|df=y|2019|}}<ref>{{cite tweet|number=1168029386768932864|user=BTVI|title=A heartfelt thanks to our followers and viewers. We have paused our broadcast operations and will have further ann… |date=1 September 2019}}</ref>
| picture_format = [[1080i]], [[HDTV]]
| network =
| owner = Business Broadcast News Pvt. Ltd (BBNPL).
| key_people =
| former_names = Bloomberg UTV, UTVi, Bloomberg TV India
| country = India
| language = English
| area = Global
| affiliates =
| headquarters = [[New Delhi]], [[India]]
| website = [https://www.btvi.in]
| Facebook =
}}

''' Business Television India (BTVI)''', formerly known as Bloomberg TV India, Bloomberg UTV and UTVi, was a [[24-hour news cycle|24-hour]] [[English language|English]] [[news channel]] in India, with a focus on Business and economic news.

==History==
The UTVi English [[business news]] channel was launched by UTV in April 2008, along with a content deal for [[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]] through [[Disney-ABC International Television]] (Asia Pacific).<ref>{{cite news|title=UTV to launch English business news channel UTVi by April-end|url=http://www.exchange4media.com/tv/utv-to-launch-english-business-news-channel-utvi-by-april-end_30411.html|access-date=24 May 2017|work=Exchange4media|date=3 April 2008|location=Mumbai|language=en}}</ref> [[Bloomberg L.P.|Bloomberg]] also took a stake in the channel in 2008.<ref name="bsi">{{cite news|title=Bloomberg and Business Broadcast News end their media licensing deal|url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/companies/bloomberg-and-business-broadcast-news-end-their-media-licensing-deal-116012201202_1.html|access-date=24 May 2017|work=Business Standard India|date=23 January 2016}}</ref> By late 2009, UTVi had rebranded as Bloomberg UTV, as UTV had switched to Bloomberg for additional content.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Daswanl|first1=Mansha|title=The Numbers Game|url=https://issuu.com/worldscreen/docs/aft-tv-asia-pacific-2010|access-date=24 May 2017|work=TV Asia Pacific - ATF Edition |via=issu|publisher=WSN, Inc.|date=December 2009|page=4|language=en}}</ref> Reliance Group purchased UTV's stake in 2012 causing another rebranding to Bloomberg TV India.<ref name="bsi" />

On 1 August 2016, the channel was rechristened as BTVI from Bloomberg TV India after the [[licensing agreement]] between Business Broadcast News and Bloomberg L.P. came to an end. Earlier in January, both Business Broadcast News and Bloomberg had decided not to renew their licensing agreement, ending a seven-year-old partnership.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Laghate|first1=Gaurav|title=Bloomberg TV India rechristened as BTVI - The Economic Times|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/media/entertainment/media/bloomberg-tv-india-rechristened-as-btvi/articleshow/53488651.cms|access-date=24 May 2017|work=The Economic Times|date=1 August 2016}}</ref>

On 31 August, the channel suspended broadcast without citing any reason. In a message to its employees just hours prior, it said it has closed the gap with the market leader (CNBC TV18) to emerge as the second largest business channel. It ceased transmission in September 2019.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.exchange4media.com/media-tv-news/btvi-suspends-transmission-on-broadcast-platforms-99272.html | title=BTVI suspends transmission on broadcast platforms | date=3 September 2019 | publisher=exchange4media | access-date=6 November 2019 }}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Television news in India}}

[[Category:2008 establishments in India]]
[[Category:2019 disestablishments in India]]
[[Category:Business-related television channels in India]]
[[Category:Bloomberg L.P.]]
[[Category:Business-related television channels]]
[[Category:Defunct television channels in India]]
[[Category:English-language television stations in India]]
[[Category:Mass media in Mumbai]]
[[Category:Television channels and stations established in 2008]]
[[Category:Television channels and stations disestablished in 2019]]
[[Category:Television stations in Mumbai]]

List of mayors of Srinagar

2025-12-20T23:27:03Z

Alimirza: updated details for clarity for clarity

{{short description|None}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2018}}

{{Infobox Political post
| post = Mayor
| body = Srinagar
| insignia = File:Jammu and Kashmir Srinagar district.svg
| insigniasize = 118px
| insigniacaption =
| image = File:Srinagar - views around Srinagar 19.JPG
| incumbent = Vaccant
| incumbentsince = 5 November 2023
| style = [[The Honourable]]
| residence = Srinagar
| appointer = Municipal Commissioner
| termlength = 5 years
| formation = 1956
| succession = Deputy Mayor
| inaugural =
| website = https://www.smcsrinagar.in
| deputy = Parvaiz Ahmad Qadri
| Deputy Mayor Srinagar =
}}
The '''Mayor of Srinagar''' is the first citizen of the [[India]]n city of [[Srinagar]] in [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]]. He is the chief of the 74-member [[Srinagar Municipal Corporation]]. He is elected through a popular vote in a quinquennial election. Seat is vacant since 5 November 2023

==List of mayors==
{{More citations needed|date=December 2025}}

==Current position holder==

On 6 November 2018, [[Junaid Azim Mattu]] became the mayor of Srinagar, after getting 07 corporator votes, as a candidate of [[Jammu and Kashmir People's Conference]].<ref>{{cite web | title=Junaid Azim Mattu is Mayor of Srinagar | url=https://thekashmirwalla.com/2018/11/junaid-azim-is-mayor-of-srinagar/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181106151758/https://thekashmirwalla.com/2018/11/junaid-azim-is-mayor-of-srinagar/ | url-status=usurped | archive-date=6 November 2018 | date=6 November 2018 | publisher=The Kashmir Walla | accessdate=2 September 2019 }}</ref> On 16 June 2020, he was removed from the position after losing a [[no-confidence motion]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Junaid Azim Mattu loses no-confidence motion, removed as Srinagar mayor |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/junaid-azim-mattu-loses-no-confidence-motion-removed-as-srinagar-mayor/article31842590.ece |date=16 June 2020 |publisher=The Hindu |work=Press Trust of India |accessdate=16 July 2020 }}</ref>
In November 2020, Junaid Azim Mattu was once again elected as Mayor of Srinagar after six months after he was ousted from the office through a no-confidence motion. He joined [[Altaf Bukhari]] led [[Jammu and Kashmir Apni Party]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Srinagar Mayor Junaid Azim Mattu joins Apni Party
|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/j-k/srinagar-mayor-junaid-azim-mattu-joins-apni-party-176713|publisher=The Tribune India |accessdate=28 November 2020 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Junaid Azim Mattu Returns As Srinagar Mayor, 6 Months After He Was Removed|url=https://www.ndtv.com/srinagar-news/junaid-azim-mattu-returns-as-srinagar-mayor-6-months-after-he-was-removed-2330078|publisher=NDTV |accessdate=28 November 2020 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Newly elected Srinagar's mayor Junaid Azim Mattu joins J-K Apni Party |url=https://in.news.yahoo.com/newly-elected-srinagars-mayor-junaid-183009440.html|publisher=Yahoo News|accessdate=28 November 2020 }}</ref>

There is also a Deputy Mayor of Srinagar post in Srinagar Municipal Corporation. Current Deputy Mayor of Srinagar is Parvaiz Ahmad Qadri<ref>{{Cite web|last=Pandit|first=M. Saleem|date=January 13, 2020 |title=Parvez Qadri new deputy mayor of Srinagar|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/parvez-qadri-new-deputy-mayor-of-srinagar/articleshow/73234911.cms|access-date=2021-09-01|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Network |first=KL News |date=2020-01-14 |title=Parvez Qadri is new Dy Mayor Srinagar |url=https://kashmirlife.net/parvez-qadri-is-new-dy-mayor-srinagar-222148/ |access-date=2024-02-06 |website=Kashmir Life |language=en-GB}}</ref>

== Process ==
The elections are held in all 74 wards in the city to elect corporators. The party that wins the maximum number of seats holds an internal vote to decide on the mayor.<ref>{{cite web | last=Bhat | first=Tariq | title=J&K municipal polls: Who will become Mayor in Srinagar? | website=The Week | date=2018-10-20 | url=https://www.theweek.in/news/india/2018/10/20/jk-municipal-polls-who-will-become-mayor-srinagar.html | access-date=2020-08-24}}</ref>

== Powers ==
The mayor of Srinagar holds a status equal to a [[Minister of State|minister of state]] as of 20 August 2019.<ref>{{cite web | author = Press Trust of India | title= Srinagar, Jammu Mayors Get Minister Of State Status | url = https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/srinagar-jammu-mayors-get-minister-of-state-status-2088541 }}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist|1}}

== External links==
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qiaXOsHy-IU Mayor debate]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mayors of Srinagar}}
[[Category:People from Srinagar]]
[[Category:Mayors of places in Jammu and Kashmir]]
[[Category:Jammu and Kashmir municipal councillors]]
[[Category:Politicians from Srinagar]]
[[Category:Lists of mayors of places in India|Srinagar]]

Nisar Hussain Khan

2025-12-14T17:18:15Z

Alimirza: Done

{{Short description|Musician from India (1906–1993)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2023}}
'''Ustad Nissar Hussain Khan''' (1906 – 16 July 1993) was an [[Hindustani classical music|Indian classical]] vocalist from the [[Rampur-Sahaswan gharana|Rampur-Sahaswan]] [[gharana]]. He was a disciple and son of Fida Hussain Khan and after a long and illustrious career was awarded the [[Padma Bhushan]] in 1971.<ref name=PadmaAwards>{{cite web|url=http://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/LST-PDAWD-2013.pdf |title=Padma Awards (see page 39 of 172 for his award in 1971) |publisher=Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India website|date=2016 |access-date=1 January 2024 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015193758/http://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/LST-PDAWD-2013.pdf |archive-date=15 October 2015}}</ref>

He was the court musician of [[Maharaja Sayajirao Gaekwad III]] at [[Baroda]] and was featured extensively on [[All India Radio]]. He was a specialist in [[Tarana]]. His most famous disciples are his cousin [[Ghulam Mustafa Khan (singer)|Ghulam Mustafa Khan]] and [[Rashid Khan (musician)|Rashid Khan]].<ref name=SRA/>

==Career==
Nisar Hussain Khan gave his first performance at age 11 which was considered phenomenal at that time.<ref name=SRA>{{cite web|url=
http://www.itcsra.org/TributeMaestro.aspx?Tributeid=17|url-status=dead|title=Tribute to a Maestro - Nisar Hussain Khan|website=ITC Sangeet Research Academy website|archive-date=10 June 2018|access-date=1 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180610175652/http://www.itcsra.org/TributeMaestro.aspx?Tributeid=17}}</ref> Then he went on to receive a scholarship from the [[Maharaja of Baroda]] who also appointed his father as a court musician to further help train his young son. By the age of 18, he had gained much more confidence as a singer in Maharaja's court and then Nisar, too, was appointed as a court musician. He remained in that position for nearly three decades.<ref name=SRA/>

By the 1940s, Nisar Hussain had become a well-known performer on the concert circuit of India and he also was broadcasting for [[All India Radio]].<ref name=SRA/>

==Vocal style==
Khansahib inherited a vast repertoire of well-known and obscure melodies from his forebears. His rich, resonant voice was cultivated through decades of training. He embellished the [[Mode (music)|modal]] form of the ragas with flashes of ''gamaks'', ''bol-taans'' and ''sargams''. As an exponent of the [[khyal]] style, he rendered [[tarana]]s with distinction.<ref name=SRA/><ref>All India Radio/Odeon LP, PMLP 3065, 1990.</ref>

==Lineage==
Khan's most famous disciple was his grandnephew Rashid Khan. He trained Rashid in the traditional master-apprentice manner, first at his own residence at [[Badaun]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], and subsequently at the [[ITC Sangeet Research Academy]] in [[Calcutta]], where he spent the last years of his life.<ref name=SRA/>

Khansahib's gharana, the [[Rampur-Sahaswan gharana]], has a revered lineage of classical vocalists, [[Inayat Hussain Khan]], Fida Hussain Khan and [[Mushtaq Hussain Khan]].<ref name=SRA/>

==Awards==
*[[Padma Bhushan]] Award by the [[Government of India]] in 1971<ref name=PadmaAwards/><ref name=SRA/>
*[[Sangeet Natak Akademi]] Award in 1970<ref name=SRA/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://sangeetnatak.gov.in/sna/awardeeslist.htm|url-status=dead|title=Vocal Music Awards List (Nisar Hussain Khan on the LIST for 1970)|website=Sangeet Natak Akademi website|archive-date=30 May 2015|access-date=1 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150530204253/http://sangeetnatak.gov.in/sna/awardeeslist.htm}}</ref>
*[[Tansen]] Award from the [[Government of Madhya Pradesh]]<ref name=SRA/>

==Partial discography==
===78rpm recordings ([[Saregama|His Master's Voice]]: {{circa|1938}} onwards)===
* {{transliteration|hi|N 15721: Todi, Allah jane; Jaunpuri, [[tarana]]}}
* {{transliteration|hi|N 15747: Kedar, kanha re nanda nandana; Bhairavi, tarana}}
* {{transliteration|hi|N 15776: Puriya dhanashri, payaliya jhankar; Desh, tarana}}
* {{transliteration|hi|N 15809: Multani, kangana mundariya; Miya malhar, tarana}}
* {{transliteration|hi|N 15834: [[Raga Bahar]], kaliyan sanga karan; Bahar, koyalia kuk sunawe}}
* {{transliteration|hi|N 88215: Chayanat, jhanana jhanana; Malkauns, tarana}}
* {{transliteration|hi|N 88260: Basant, samana sunawe koyaliya; Pilu thumri, bake aika mori}}

===EP/LP recordings: His Master's Voice 1961===
* {{transliteration|hi|7EPE 1202: [[Gaud Sarang]], Bin deke tere; Puriya Dhanashri, tarana}}<ref name=ITC>{{cite web|url=http://www.itcsra.org/sra_story/sra_story_guru/sra_story_guru_links/sra_story_guru_gharana/gharana.asp?gharanaid=5 |archive-date=23 May 2012|access-date=1 January 2024|url-status=dead|title=Rampur Sahaswan Gharana - Nisar Hussain Khan's Tarana songs listed|website=ITC Sangeet Research Academy website
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120523232017/http://www.itcsra.org/sra_story/sra_story_guru/sra_story_guru_links/sra_story_guru_gharana/gharana.asp?gharanaid=5}}</ref>
* {{transliteration|hi|7EPE 1236: Vrindabani Sarang, Achchhe Peer More; Pancham, Mohe Ataman Kaise}}
* {{transliteration|hi|7EPE 1242: Alhaiya Bilawal, Sumiran Kar Man; Jhinjhoti, Tarana: Tana Ta Tana Dere}}<ref name=ITC/>
* {{transliteration|hi|ECLP 2260: Abhogi, Vil. jhaptal: Charan Dhar Ayeri; Tarana: tintal; Gowardhani Todi. Vil. ektal: Tu Ayore Ayo, Drut tintal: Kahe Karat Mose Batiyan}}

===His Master's Voice 1972===
* {{transliteration|hi|ECSD 2489: Lalit. Tintal: Yaarda; Bhatiyar. Tintal: tarana}}
* {{transliteration|hi|ECSD 2509: Basant. Phagwa Brih Dekhan; Jaijaiwanti. Tintal: tarana}}

===Odeon Records 1990===
* {{transliteration|hi|PMLP 3065: [[Raga Kalyaan]] Ka Prakar.}} With [[Hafeez Ahmed Khan]] & Sarfaraz Hussain Khan (vocal support), Shakur Khan ([[sarangi]]) and Prem Ballabh ([[tabla]])

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{PadmaBhushanAwardRecipients 1970–79}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Khan, Nissar Hussain}}
[[Category:1909 births]]
[[Category:1993 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian Muslims]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Bhushan in arts]]
[[Category:Hindustani singers]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian male classical singers]]
[[Category:20th-century Khyal singers]]
[[Category:Musicians from West Bengal]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award]]
[[Category:All India Radio people]]

St George church, Vypin

2025-11-29T05:46:35Z

Alimirza: started new pg

{{Short description|Nineteenth-century Roman Catholic church in Kerala, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2019}}
{{refimprove|date=December 2014}}

'''St. George Church''' Wadel is a [[Church (building)|Church]] in [[Vypin]], Ernakulam District, Kerala, India. Built in 1849,<ref>{{cite book|first1=Lizzie|last1=George|title=The Catholic Directory of India, 1984|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uUDQAAAAMAAJ|year=1984|publisher=C.B.C.I. Centre|page=711}}</ref> the church has the highest number of priests and nuns in the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Verapoly]].{{cn|date=December 2014}}

== See also ==
*[[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Verapoly]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{coord missing|Kerala}}
{{Christianity in Kerala}}
{{Churches of Kerala}}

[[Category:Roman Catholic church buildings in Kochi]]

{{India-RC-church-stub}}

Divya Thakur

2025-10-11T18:47:07Z

Alimirza: Creating A Details

{{Short description|Indian interior architect}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2025}}
{{Infobox person
| birth_date = 1971
| alma_mater = [[Sir J.J. Institute of Applied Arts]] ([[Bachelor of Fine Arts|BFA]])
| occupation = [[Interior architect]] [[Designer]] Creative director of Design Temple (established 1999)
| years_active = 1999–
| known_for = [[Interior architecture]]
| notable_works = Design Temple
| website = {{URL|divyathakur.com}}
}}
'''Divya Thakur''' (born 1971)<ref>{{Cite news |last=Rubenstein |first=Michael |date=2009-11-24 |title=A Three-Bedroom Apartment in Mumbai |url=https://www.nytimes.com/slideshow/2009/11/24/greathomesanddestinations/1124-mumbai-slideshow_index.html |access-date=2024-02-19 |work=[[The New York Times]] |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> is an Indian designer and [[Interior architecture|interior architect]] who is the founder and creative director of Design Temple,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Thakur |first=Divya |date=2023-08-19 |title=Inside a 100-year-old Colaba building that Divya Thakur calls home |url=https://www.architecturaldigest.in/story/inside-a-100-year-old-colaba-building-that-divya-thakur-calls-home-old-south-mumbai-homes/ |access-date=2024-02-19 |website=[[Architectural Digest]] |language=en-IN}}</ref> a [[boutique]] design firm.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Booth |first=Hannah |date=2010-04-02 |title=Interiors: An Indian stunner |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2010/apr/03/modern-mumbai-living-interiors |access-date=2024-02-17 |work=[[The Guardian]] |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Thacker |first=Shruti |date=2012-03-30 |title=Design Temple Unveils Waterbearers |url=https://www.vogue.in/content/design-temple-unveils-waterbearers |access-date=2024-02-19 |website=[[Vogue India]] |language=en-IN}}</ref> Described by ''[[The New York Times]]'' as "often modern and sometimes [[Kitsch|kitschy]]",<ref>{{Cite news |last=Clinton |first=Lindsay |date=2009-11-24 |title=In Mumbai, Reinforcing a Resilient Spirit |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/25/greathomesanddestinations/25gh-mumbai.html |access-date=2024-02-18 |work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> her work in design focuses on incorporating elements from the [[culture of India]].

Thakur's work spans from film posters including ''[[The Namesake (film)|The Namesake]]'' and ''[[The Reluctant Fundamentalist (film)|The Reluctant Fundamentalist]];''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shankar |first=Meenakshi |date=2018-03-09 |title=In conversation with Design Temple's Divya Thakur |url=https://www.goodhomes.co.in//home-and-design-trends/dcode/in-conversation-with-design-temples-divya-thakur-5677.html |access-date=2024-02-19 |website=Good Homes |language=en}}</ref> book covers, such as [[Naman Ramachandran]]'s ''[[Lights, Camera, Masala]]'';<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |last=Garfinkel |first=Perry |date=2020-06-26 |title=Celebrating India’s Innovative Spirit Through Design |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/26/world/asia/divya-thakur-india-design.html |access-date=2024-02-16 |work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> to designs for brands including [[Asian Paints]] and [[Taj Hotels]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tungekar |first=Samreen |date=2023-03-20 |title=Divya Thakur On The Evolution Of Visualisation And Spatial Designs |url=https://www.grazia.co.in/people/women-in-design-divya-thakur-10685.html |access-date=2024-02-17 |website=[[Grazia]] |language=en}}</ref> Her art installations have been featured in exhibitions throughout [[India]] and internationally, including in the [[Millesgården]] in [[Stockholm]] and the [[Victoria and Albert Museum]] in [[London]].<ref name=":0" />

== Early life and education ==
Thakur was born in 1971. Her father, Umesh Chandra Thakur, is a former [[Indian Army]] major, and her mother, Prema Thakur, is a former school principal. As a student at [[St. Kabir Public School]] in [[Chandigarh, India]], Thakur won her first design award. She later attended the [[Welham Girls' School|Welham Girls’ School]] in the state of [[Uttarakhand]].<ref name=":0" />

Thakur obtained her [[Bachelor of Fine Arts]] from the [[Sir J.J. Institute of Applied Art|Sir J.J. Institute of Applied Arts]]. She has taken various design courses at [[Central Saint Martins]], the [[London College of Fashion]], the [[Pratt Institute]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Zakaria |first=Namrata |date=2022-05-17 |title=For Design Temple’s Divya Thakur, India remains her forever muse |url=http://www.news9live.com/lifestyle/for-design-temples-divya-thakur-india-remains-her-forever-muse-170839 |access-date=2024-02-19 |website=News9Live |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Career ==
Thakur established Design Temple in 1999,<ref>{{cite interview |last=Thakur |first=Divya |subject-link= |interviewer=Amruta Nemivant |title=Production details is the key to transform an idea into a design |url=https://www.printweek.in/features/production-details-key-transform-idea-design-23679 |access-date=2024-02-18 |work= |publisher=[[PrintWeek India]] |location= |date=2017-02-15}}</ref> originally offering design work relating to home accessories and furniture.<ref name=":0" />

In 2004, she hosted her first exhibition, "India Indigenous," at [[Loggia dei Mercanti]].<ref name=":0" />

Her 2016 installation, "Design: The India Story" at the [[Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya]], traced the history of the [[architecture of India]].<ref name=":1" /> It attracted approximately 250,000 visitors.<ref name=":0" /> In [[Elle (India)|''Elle'']], Aditi Sharma Maheshwari described the installation as having "delved deep into the products made by homegrown talent, throwing light on how they truly shaped the design story of India."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Maheshwari |first=Aditi |date=2017-01-11 |title=Divya Thakur's curatorial show on iconic Indian designs was a throwback to our roots |url=https://elledecor.in/article/divya-thakurs-curatorial-show-on-iconic-indian-designs-was-a-throwback-to-our-roots/ |access-date=2024-02-19 |website=[[Elle India]] |language=en-US}}</ref>

The same year, she was named 'Best Dressed' by [[Verve (Indian magazine)|''Verve'' magazine]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sinha |first=Saumya |date=2016-10-18 |title=Best Dressed 2016: Divya Thakur {{!}} Verve Magazine |url=https://www.vervemagazine.in/people/verve-best-dressed-list-2016-divya-thakur-design-temple |access-date=2024-02-19 |website=[[Verve (Indian magazine)|Verve]] |language=en-US}}</ref>

From 2010 to 2017, Shakur owned a design gallery.<ref name=":0" /> In 2017, Thakur designed one of [[Marriott Hotels & Resorts|Marriott Hotels]]' promotional campaigns in [[Jaisalmer]].<ref name=":0" />

== References ==
<references />

{{DEFAULTSORT:Thakur, Divya}}

[[Category:1971 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian architects]]
[[Category:People from Mumbai]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian women artists]]
[[Category:Indian women architects]]
[[Category:Indian interior designers]]

Govinda Vidyadhara

2025-09-24T16:34:07Z

Alimirza: Creating Details...

{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2024}}
{{Short description|Founder of the Bhoi Dynasty}}
{{Infobox royalty
| type = Emperor
| name = Govinda Vidyadhara
| title = [[Gajapati (title)|Gajapati]] Suvarnakeshari Vira Govinda Deva
| succession = Gajapati Emperor
| reign = 1541 CE–1548 CE
| coronation = 1541 CE
| predecessor = Kakharua Deva
| successor = Chakrapratapa
| full name =
| house = [[Bhoi dynasty|Bhoi]]
| father =
| death_place =
| religion = [[Hinduism]]
}}

'''Govinda Vidyadhara'''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Society |first=Bihar Research |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tS_HAAAAMAAJ&q=vira+govinda+deva |title=The Journal of the Bihar Research Society |date=1927 |language=en}}</ref> was the founder of [[Bhoi dynasty|Bhoi Dynasty]]<ref name="Panigrahi1981">{{cite book|author=Krishna Chandra Panigrahi|title=History of Orissa: Hindu Period|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VhFuAAAAMAAJ&q=Govinda+Vidyadhara|year=1981|publisher=Kitab Mahal}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Mohapatra|first=Gopinath|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH4cAAAAMAAJ&q=Bhoi+dynasty+Yadodu+vamsa|title=Jagannātha in History & Religious Traditions of Orissa|date=1982|publisher=Punthi Pustak|pages=109|language=en}}</ref> in Eastern India.

== Early life ==
He belonged to [[Karan (caste)|writer caste]] and came from a community of accountants or Bhoi.<ref name="Kapoor2002">{{cite book|author=Subodh Kapoor|title=The Indian Encyclopaedia: Gautami Ganga -Himmat Bahadur|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nt4nbp1VIhsC&pg=PA2687|year=2002|publisher=Cosmo Publications|isbn=978-81-7755-266-9|pages=2687–}}</ref><ref name="Reddy2005">{{cite book|author=Reddy|title=General Studies History 4 Upsc|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yWfeU9eQd5YC&pg=SL2-PA32|date=1 November 2005|publisher=Tata McGraw-Hill Education|isbn=978-0-07-060447-6|pages=2–}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Indian History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ORnlAAAAQBAJ&pg=SL2-PA175|publisher=Tata McGraw-Hill Education|isbn=978-1-259-06323-7|pages=2–}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Mukherjee|first=Prabhat|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1o8BAAAAMAAJ&q=accountant|title=The History of the Gajapati Kings of Orissa and Their Successors|date=1953|publisher=General Trading Company|pages=108|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Mohapatra|first=Gopinath|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH4cAAAAMAAJ&q=govinda+vidyadhara+accountant|title=Jagannātha in History & Religious Traditions of Orissa|date=1982|publisher=Punthi Pustak|pages=87|language=en}}</ref>
According to Historian [[Krishna Chandra Panigrahi|KC. Panigrahi]] Bhoi rulers belonged to [[Karan (caste)|Karana]] caste.<ref>{{Cite book |last=PANIGRAHI |first=KRISHNA CHANDRA |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p0mkEAAAQBAJ&dq=govinda+vidyadhara&pg=PT340 |title=History of Orissa: (HINDU PERIOD) |date=2023-01-05 |publisher=Notion Press |isbn=978-1-68586-798-0 |language=en}}</ref> Historian [[Hermann Kulke]] while quoting [[Krishna Chandra Panigrahi|KC. Panigrahi]] mentions the lineage of Govinda Vidyadhara's ancestors and their ancestral occupation, according to him Govinda Vidyadhara's ancestors were [[Karan (caste)|Karanas]] who were employed as writers in [[Gajapati Empire]] and had received land grants in [[Rajahmundry]] in Gajapati administration. Govinda Vidyadhara's younger son was also the founder of [[Peddapuram]] Zamindari of [[Andhra Pradesh]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kulke |first1=Hermann |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JIzXAAAAMAAJ&q=karanas+(+scribes+) |title=Jagannath Revisited: Studying Society, Religion, and the State in Orissa |last2=Schnepel |first2=Burkhard |date=2001 |publisher=Manohar |isbn=978-81-7304-386-4 |language=en}}</ref> [[Hermann Kulke|Kulke]] also mentions that there was an attempt made by later poets to connect the Bhoi rulers with other dynasties despite them being of [[Karan (caste)|writer caste]] lineage.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kulke |first1=Hermann |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yPlUEAAAQBAJ&dq=bhoi+dynasty+writer&pg=PA408 |title=The Routledge Handbook of the State in Premodern India |last2=Sahu |first2=Bhairabi Prasad |date=2022-01-13 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-000-48514-1 |language=en}}</ref> Other historians like [[Ashirbadi Lal Srivastava]] and Francesco Brighenti have also affirmed that Bhoi rulers were of [[Karan (caste)|Karan (writer caste)]] descent.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brighenti |first=Francesco |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rnnXAAAAMAAJ&q=bhoi+karan |title=Śakti Cult in Orissa |date=2001 |publisher=D.K. Printworld |isbn=978-81-246-0179-2 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Srivastava |first=Ashirbadi Lal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ce61AAAAIAAJ&q=bhoi+writer+ |title=The Sultanate of Delhi: Including the Arab Invasion of Sindh, Hindu Rule in Afghanistan and Causes of the Defeat of the Hindus in Early Medieval Age (711 - 1526 A.D.) |date=1959 |publisher=Shiva Lal Agarwala |language=en}}</ref> Govinda Vidyadhara had usurped the Gajapati throne by killing 16 sons or heirs of [[Prataparudra Deva]] through treachery and after ascending the throne he took the regnal title of "Suvarnakeshari" as per [[Madala Panji]], his rule was short-lived that for seven years only followed by his son Chakrapratapa.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Subrahmanyam|first=R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8xhFAAAAIAAJ|title=The Sūryavaṁśi Gajapatis of Orissa|date=1957|publisher=Andhra University|pages=129|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Verma|first=Balraj|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w2owAQAAIAAJ|title=The Beautiful India - Orissa|date=2006|publisher=Reference Press|isbn=978-81-8405-005-9|pages=62|language=en}}</ref> Govinda Vidyadhara founded the Vira-Govindapur Sasana for [[Utkala Brahmin|Brahmins]] and his son Chakrapratapa was the founder of RaiChakrapur Sasana for Brahmins.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K-dHAAAAMAAJ&q=chakrapratapa |title=The Journal of Orissan History |date=1987 |publisher=Orissa History Congress |language=en}}</ref>

== Not recognised as Gajapati ==
After ascending the throne Govinda Vidyadhara was not recognised as [[Gajapati (title)|Gajapati]] by the feudatory [[Orissa Tributary States|Gadajat]] states of Odisha as the rightful ruler as evident from his own "Jagamohana" inscription of [[Jagannath Temple, Puri]] in which he warned the feudatory states to stay loyal to him or else they will incur the wrath of Lord [[Jagannath]] for the sin of killing a Brahmana.<ref>{{Cite book |last=PANIGRAHI |first=KRISHNA CHANDRA |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p0mkEAAAQBAJ&dq=govinda+vidyadhara&pg=PT340 |title=History of Orissa: (HINDU PERIOD) |date=2023-01-05 |publisher=Notion Press |isbn=978-1-68586-798-0 |language=en}}</ref>

== Conflict with Golconda Sultanate ==
Immediately after ascending the throne Govinda Vidyadhara came into conflict with the Sultan of [[Sultanate of Golconda|Golconda Sultanate]] who had invaded southern Odisha, Govinda Vidyadhara had to spend eight months in fighting the Sultan in southern Odisha meanwhile Raghu Bhanja Chhottaraya a nephew of [[Prataparudra Deva]] started a rebellion in North Odisha with the help of an individual named Abdul Shah and managed to capture [[Cuttack]], Govinda Vidyadhara rushed back to his capital after hearing the news of rebellion and defeated Raghu Bhanja driving him out of Cuttack, Raghu Bhanja wanted to get revenge for the murder of the sons of Gajapati by capturing Cuttack.<ref>{{Cite book |last=PANIGRAHI |first=KRISHNA CHANDRA |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p0mkEAAAQBAJ&q=kc+panigrahi |title=History of Orissa: (HINDU PERIOD) |date=2023-01-05 |publisher=Notion Press |isbn=978-1-68586-798-0 |language=en}}</ref>

== See also ==
*[[Ramachandra Deva I]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=PANIGRAHI |first=KRISHNA CHANDRA |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p0mkEAAAQBAJ&dq=ramachandra+deva&pg=PT185 |title=History of Orissa: (HINDU PERIOD) |date=2023-01-05 |publisher=Notion Press |isbn=978-1-68586-798-0 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[Bisara Mohanty]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:History of Odisha]]
[[Category:15th-century Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:People from Odisha]]

Ravi Sharma (Uttar Pradesh politician)

2025-09-07T16:13:03Z

Alimirza: Stub

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2024}}

{{Infobox officeholder
| office = Member of the [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]
| name = Ravi Sharma
| constituency = [[Jhansi Nagar Assembly constituency|Jhansi Nagar]]
| term_start = 2012
| predecessor = Kailash Sahu
| birth_place = [[Jhansi]], [[Jhansi district]], Uttar Pradesh
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|11 November 1971}}
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| education = Bachelor of Commerce (BKD College)
}}

'''Ravi Sharma''' (born 11 November 1971)<ref name="upvidhansabhaproceedings">{{Cite web |title=Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly (UPLA): Member info |url=https://upvidhansabhaproceedings.gov.in/member?memberId=19840 |access-date=20 December 2024 |website=upvidhansabhaproceedings.gov.in}}</ref> is an Indian politician from [[Uttar Pradesh]]. He is a member of the [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]] from Jhansi Nagar Assembly constituency in [[Jhansi district]]. He won the [[2022 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]] representing the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 March 2022 |title=Jhansi Nagar, Uttar Pradesh Assembly Election Results 2022 LIVE Updates: BJP's Ravi Sharma defeats SP's Sita Ram Kushwaha with 56731 votes |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/elections/story/jhansi-nagar-uttar-pradesh-assembly-election-results-2022-live-updates-1923252-2022-03-09 |access-date=20 December 2024 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=9 March 2022 |title=Jhansi Nagar (Uttar Pradesh) Assembly Election Results 2022 Live: Winner, Runner-up |url=https://indianexpress.com/elections/jhansi-nagar-uttar-pradesh-assembly-election-results-2022-live-winner-runner-up-candidates-7811143/ |access-date=20 December 2024 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
Sharma was born in [[Jhansi]], Jhansi district, Uttar Pradesh. He is the son of Satya Prakash Sharma. He married Sunita on 31 January 1990 and together they have a son and a daughter. He belongs to Brahmin community and resides in Jhansi. He completed his LLB in 1991 and earlier did his B.Com. in 1988 at BKD College, [[Bundelkhand University]], Jhansi.<ref name="upvidhansabhaproceedings"/><ref>{{Cite web |title=Ravi Sharma(Bharatiya Janata Party(BJP)):Constituency- JHANSI NAGAR(JHANSI) - Affidavit Information of Candidate|url=https://www.myneta.info/uttarpradesh2022/candidate.php?candidate_id=1714 |access-date=20 December 2024 |website=www.myneta.info}}</ref>

== Career ==
Sharma won from [[Jhansi Nagar Assembly constituency]] representing Bharatiya Janata Party in the 2022 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election. He polled 148,262 votes and defeated his nearest rival, Sitaram Kushwaha of the [[Samajwadi Party]], by a margin of 76,353 votes.<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 March 2022 |title=Jhansi Nagar, Uttar Pradesh Assembly Election Results 2022 Live Updates: Jhansi Nagar विधानसभा सीट पर BJP प्रत्याशी Ravi Sharma की जीत |url=https://www.aajtak.in/elections/story/jhansi-nagar-assembly-election-results-2022-live-updates-uttar-pradesh-vidhan-sabha-chunav-result-winner-loser-news-in-hindi-1425834-2022-03-10 |access-date=20 December 2024 |website=आज तक |language=hi}}</ref> He first became an MLA winning the [[2012 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]] on BJP ticket and retained it in the [[2017 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]. In 2022, he won for the third consecutive term.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Jhansi Nagar Election Result 2022 LIVE Updates: Ravi Sharma of BJP Wins |url=https://www.news18.com/news/politics/jhansi-nagar-election-result-2022-live-updates-winner-loser-leading-trailing-mla-margin-4849565.html |access-date=20 December 2024 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sharma, Ravi}}
[[Category:1971 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Uttar Pradesh MLAs 2012–2017]]
[[Category:Uttar Pradesh MLAs 2017–2022]]
[[Category:Uttar Pradesh MLAs 2022–2027]]
[[Category:People from Jhansi district]]
[[Category:Bundelkhand University alumni]]

Nur-un-Nissa Begum

2025-08-15T15:10:27Z

Alimirza: Done

{{see also|Nur-un-Nissa Begum (wife of Jahangir)}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Nur-un-Nissa Begum
| title =
| image =
| caption =
| succession =
| reign =
| reign-type =
| spouse = {{marriage|[[Bahadur Shah I]]|1659|1701|reason=died}}
| issue = [[Rafi-ush-Shan]]
| full name =
| house = [[Timurid dynasty|Timurid]] (by marriage)
| father = Sanjar Khan Najam Sani
| mother =
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [[Khurasan]]
| death_date = February 1701
| death_place = [[Kabul]], [[Mughal Empire]]
| burial_place =
| religion = [[Islam]]
}}

'''Nur-un-Nissa Begum''' ({{langx|fa|نورالنسا بیگم}}; meaning "Light among women"; died February 1701) was the first wife and chief consort of Mughal Emperor [[Bahadur Shah I]].{{sfn|Syed|1977|p=343}}

She was the mother of his third son, Prince [[Rafi-ush-Shan]], and exercised great influence over her husband.{{sfn|Irvine|2006|p=141}} Nur-un-Nissa was also the grandmother of future Emperors [[Rafi ud-Darajat]], [[Shah Jahan II]], and [[Muhammad Ibrahim (Mughal emperor)|Muhammad Ibrahim]]. She died in 1701, six years before Bahadur Shah's accession to the throne.

==Family==
Born at [[Khurasan]], Nur-un-Nissa Begum was the daughter of Sanjar Khan Najam Sani,{{sfn|Irvine|2006|p=141}} She had a brother named Shakir Khan.{{sfn|Irvine|2006|p=142}}

==Marriage==
[[File:Bahadur Shah I and his Consort.png|thumb|Bahudar Shah I and a consort. ]]
She married Prince Muhammad Muazzam (future Bahadur Shah I) on 30 December 1659, after his return from Deccan to Delhi with Wazir Khan. The customary royal gifts were given to the bride and the bridegroom.{{sfn|Syed|1977|p=151}}{{sfn|Sarkar|1947|p=17}} In 1671, she gave birth to a son. Mirza Muahammad, an agent of Muazzam escorted the mother and son to [[Aurangzeb]], who gave the baby the name of Rafi-ush-Shan.{{sfn|Sarkar|1947|p=66}}

She was adorned with many commandable qualities. She had monopolized Muazzam's heart by her accomplishments. She composed Hindi verses,<ref>{{cite book|first=Sudha|last=Sharma|title=The Status of Muslim Women in Medieval India|publisher=SAGE Publications India|date=March 21, 2016|pages=212|isbn=978-9-351-50567-9}}</ref> and was famous for her charity and helpfulness to the needy. She won her husband's heart by her excellent behavior, obedience, and attractiveness, and because of this his other wives were jealous of her. They accused her of immorality and of being the cause of message between [[Abul Hasan Qutb Shah]], the ruler of Golconda, and Muazzam, and other bad acts.{{sfn|Syed|1977|p=343}}{{sfn|Sarkar|1972|p=431}}

[[Muhammad Azam Shah]]'s partisans{{sfn|Sarkar|1972|p=431}} and Muazzam's enemies began to say that Nur-un-Nissa had gone to Golconda and settled with Abul Hasan, and that if the Emperor did not accept his appeal for peace with him, Muazzam would also join him.{{sfn|Sarkar|1972|pp=431-432}}{{sfn|Syed|1977|p=343}} As a result, Muazzam was placed in confinement for seven years in the Deccan.<ref>{{cite book|first=Munis D.|last=Faruqui|title=The Princes of the Mughal Empire, 1504–1719|publisher=Cambridge University Press|date=August 27, 2012|pages=111|isbn=978-1-139-53675-2}}</ref> Muazzam's sons<ref>{{cite book|first=Shyam Singh|last=Shashi|title=Encyclopaedia Indica: Aurangzeb and his administrative measures|publisher=Anmol Publications|year=1999|pages=270|isbn=978-8-170-41859-7}}</ref> and Nur-un-Nissa were also imprisoned in separate jails.<ref>{{cite book|first=M. P.|last=Srivastava|title=The Mughal administration|publisher=Chugh Publications|year=1995|pages=247|isbn=978-8-185-61397-0}}</ref> She was often insulted and rebuked by Aurangzeb's eunuchs.{{sfn|Latif|2010|p=27}} She was deprived of her liberty, her property was escheated, and her chief officer was tortured to make him reveal the suspected disloyal acts of Muazzam and Nur-un-Nissa.<ref>{{cite book|first=Sir Jadunath|last=Sarkar|title=History of Aurangzib: Mainly based on Persian sources|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.135408|publisher=S. C. Sarkar & Sons ltd.|year=1928|pages=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.135408/page/n60 46]–7}}</ref> During this time [[Juliana Dias da Costa]] remained with her and served as her maid.{{sfn|Latif|2010|p=28}}

In 1693, both Nur-un-Nissa and Muazzam were released from prison.{{sfn|Latif|2010|p=29}} In 1699, Muazzam was appointed the governor of [[Kabul]], where Nur-un-Nissa accompanied him. During their stay at Kabul, Aurangzeb presented Amat-ul-Habib to Muazzam in order to spite Nur-un-Nissa. Amat-ul-Habib was mother to a son born in 1700 at Khairabad.{{sfn|Irvine|2006|p=142}}

==Death==
Nur-un-Nissa Begum died at Kabul in February 1701.{{sfn|Irvine|2006|p=142}} According to Niccolao Manucci, "she was in every way a most accomplished princess". Her death was a great affliction to both Muazzam and Rafi-ush-Shan. Aurangzeb and all the courtiers came to them, and offered their condolences.<ref>{{cite book|first=Niccolao|last=Manucci|author-link=Niccolao Manucci|title=Storia Do Mogor: Or, Mogul India, 1653-1708 - Volume 3|url=https://archive.org/details/storiadomogororm03manuuoft|publisher=J. Murray|year=1907|pages=[https://archive.org/details/storiadomogororm03manuuoft/page/254 254]}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book|first=Anees Jahan|last=Syed|title=Aurangzeb in Muntakhab-al Lubab|publisher=Somaiya Publications|year=1977}}
* {{cite book|first=Jadunath|last=Sarkar|author-link=Jadunath Sarkar|title=Maasir-i-Alamgiri: A History of Emperor Aurangzib-Alamgir (reign 1658-1707 AD) of Saqi Mustad Khan|publisher=Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta|year=1947}}
* {{cite book|title=The Later Mughals|author-link=William Irvine (historian)|first=William|last=Irvine|year=2006 |isbn=8175364068|publisher=Low Price Publications}}
* {{cite book|first=Bilkees I.|last=Latif|title=Forgotten|publisher=Penguin Books India|year=2010|pages=31|isbn=978-0-143-06454-1}}
* {{cite book|first=Sir Jadunath|last=Sarkar|title=History of Aurangzib based on original sources - Volume 4|publisher=S. C. Sarkar & Sons ltd.|year=1972}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Nur-un-nissa Begum}}
[[Category:Year of birth unknown]]
[[Category:1701 deaths]]
[[Category:17th-century Indian women]]
[[Category:17th-century Mughal Empire people]]

[[Category:Wives of Bahadur Shah I]]
[[Category:Mothers of Mughal emperors]]

Manyamkonda

2025-05-23T05:21:24Z

Alimirza: slightly improved section based on references and added references to improve readability

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}

'''Manyamkonda Sri Lakshmi Venkateshwara Swamy Temple''' is a hill [[shrine]] of [[Lord]] [[Venkateswara|Venkateshwara]], located 5 km from Devarakadra town on the National highway 167 to [[Raichur]]. It was the first temple in [[Telangana]] to have ropeway access.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2023-01-31 |title=Manyamkonda to become first temple in Telangana to get ropeway service |url=https://telanganatoday.com/manyamkonda-to-become-first-temple-in-telangana-to-get-ropeway-service |access-date=2024-01-31 |website=Telangana Today |language=en-US}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{coord|16.649622|77.88718|display=title}}
{{Hindu Temples in Telangana}}

[[Category:Hindu temples in Telangana]]

{{india-hindu-temple-stub}}

Tenzin Nyima Glow

2025-05-17T12:02:47Z

Alimirza:

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| office = [[Member of Legislative Assembly|Member]] of [[11th Arunachal Pradesh Assembly|Arunachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]
| term_start = 1 June 2024
| term_end =
| constituency = [[Thrizino-Buragaon Assembly constituency|Thrizino-Buragaon]]
| predecessor = [[Kumsi Sidisow]]
| party = Independent
}}

'''Tenzin Nyima Glow''' is an Indian politician from [[Arunachal Pradesh]]. He is a member of the Legislative Assembly in the [[11th Arunachal Pradesh Assembly|11th Arunachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-06-02 |title=Thrizino-Buragaon, Arunachal Pradesh Assembly Election Results 2024 Live Updates |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/elections/assembly/story/thrizino-buragaon-arunachal-pradesh-assembly-election-results-2024-live-updates-2546646-2024-06-02 |access-date=2024-06-02 |website=India Today}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-06-02 |title=Thrizino-Buragaon Assembly Election Result 2024: Thrizino-Buragaon Arunachal Pradesh Elections Poll Result Winner |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/itanagar/thrizino-buragaon-assembly-election-results-2024-thrizino-buragaon-arunachal-pradesh-elections-poll-result-winner/articleshow/110638442.cms |access-date=2024-06-02 |work=The Times of India}}</ref><ref name="Thrizino-Buragaon (ST) Constituency Election Results 2024">{{cite news |title=Thrizino-Buragaon (ST) Constituency Election Results 2024 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/assembly-elections/arunachal-pradesh/constituency-show/thrizino-buragaon |access-date=17 May 2025 |publisher=The Times of India |date=2 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250517112332/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/assembly-elections/arunachal-pradesh/constituency-show/thrizino-buragaon |archive-date=17 May 2025 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Arunchal Pradesh Assembly Election Results 2024">{{cite news |title=Arunchal Pradesh Assembly Election Results 2024 |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/AcResultGen2ndJune2024/candidateswise-S026.htm |access-date=17 May 2025 |work= |publisher=Election Commission of India |date=2 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250517112336/https://results.eci.gov.in/AcResultGen2ndJune2024/candidateswise-S026.htm |archive-date=17 May 2025 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="3 Independent MLAs extend unconditional support to BJP govt in Arunachal">{{cite news |title=3 Independent MLAs extend unconditional support to BJP govt in Arunachal |url=https://www.daijiworld.com/news/newsDisplay?newsID=1200548 |access-date=17 May 2025 |publisher=Daijiworld |date=18 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250517112504/https://www.daijiworld.com/news/newsDisplay?newsID=1200548 |archive-date=17 May 2025 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="3 Independents Extend Unconditional Support To BJP Government In Arunachal">{{cite news|title=3 Independents Extend Unconditional Support To BJP Government In Arunachal|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/3-independents-extend-unconditional-support-to-bjp-government-in-arunachal-5909598|accessdate=17 May 2025|work=|publisher=NDTV|date=17 June 2024|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20250517115805/https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/3-independents-extend-unconditional-support-to-bjp-government-in-arunachal-5909598|archivedate=17 May 2025|language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Glow, Tenzin Nyima}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Arunachal Pradesh MLAs 2024–2029]]
[[Category:Independent politicians in India]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

{{ArunachalPradesh-politician-stub}}

The Mahabharata Secret

2025-04-23T23:16:54Z

Alimirza: started new data...

{{short description|2013 novel by Christopher C. Doyle}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2015}}
{{Infobox book
| name = The Mahabharata Secret
| image = The Mahabharata Secret.jpg
| alt =
| caption =
| author = Christopher C. Doyle
| cover_artist = {{hlist|Ritu Rathour|Anand Prakash}}
| country = India
| language = English
| genre = [[Fiction]]
| publisher = Om Books
| pub_date = 21 October 2013
| media_type = {{hlist|[[Paperback]]|[[Amazon Kindle|Kindle]]}}
| pages = 386
| isbn = 9-789383-202317
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'''''The Mahabharata Secret''''' is the debut novel by Indian author Christopher C. Doyle and was released on 21 October 2013 by Om Books. The story follows Vijay and his friends, as they try to decipher a series of clues which would lead them to a devastating Secret hidden by a brotherhood known as the Nine Men. Doyle had initially started writing a story for his daughter, which gradually expanded into the book. The author was primarily inspired by the Indian epic ''[[Mahabharata]]'', believing its events to be based on scientific facts. The book was followed by Doyle's second novel, ''[[The Mahabharata Quest: The Alexander Secret]]'', which is the first book in a planned trilogy of sequels.

Doyle believes in the possibility of the existence of a secret history which was probably not recorded in antiquity. While researching he also came across legends prevalent about King [[Ashoka]] and linked the story with him. Following its release, ''The Mahabharata Secret'' was a commercial success, which enabled the author to get signed for further thriller novels based on the subject matter and was also nominated for the 2014 [[Crossword Book Award]].

==Plot synopsis==
In 244 BC, Indian emperor [[Ashoka]] finds a hilly cave with an astonishing secret. Believing it could destroy the world, he creates a secret brotherhood of Nine Men, who would guard the cave's contents through the centuries. He also removed the Vimana Parva chapter of the Indian epic, ''[[Mahabharata]]'', from its written transcripts.

In present day, Vikram Singh, an Indian nuclear scientist, is murdered at his fort in Jaungarh. Before his death he sent four cryptic emails to his nephew Vijay, who with his business partner Colin, childhood friend Radha and her father, linguist Dr. Shukla, start analyzing it. They are aided by Bheem Singh, current owner of Rajvirgarh fort and Greg White, an archaeologist mentioned in Vikram's emails. The group deduce that the emails refer to the Nine Men and their secret, which can be revealed by using a metal disc, a key, a ball of rock and a riddle. Their mission is interrupted by a man called Farooq, a [[Lashkar-e-Taiba]] (LeT) militant. The group find that the metal disc and the key together point to the [[Edicts of Ashoka]]. They travel to [[Viratnagar|Bairat]] and find a hidden library of the Nine, but are imprisoned inside by Farooq and his men. The group find an alternate route and the ball of rock.

[[File:Lomas_Rishi_entrance.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Barabar Caves]], location of the second inscribed ball.]]
In the meantime, [[Intelligence Bureau (India)|Intelligence Bureau]] (IB) official Imran Kidwai gets information about Farooq and starts investigating. Vijay and his friends travel to the [[Barabar Caves]] in Bihar after interpreting a clue in Bairat. Inside the caves they unearth another such ball with inscriptions on it. However, Vijay and Radha are kidnapped by Farooq. Imran suspects Bheem Singh and investigates in his basement, but gets caught. Bheem explains that the Vimana Parva of the ''Mahabharata'' spoke about ancient arsenal which could be made invisible by covering them with an undisclosed element, thus making them fatal. This was what the Nine tried to protect. Imran understands that Bheem was allied with Farooq and were trying to discover the secret location of the weapons. In an ensuing conflict, Bheem's attack on Imran backfires and he himself is killed.

Farooq had given 48 hours time to Vijay's friends to decipher the meaning of the final clue in the ball. They unearth the final secret to be at [[Hazaribagh]], atop a hill called [[Santhal religion|Marang Buru]]. Farooq and his men escape with Vijay on being notified of Imran's advance, leaving Radha behind. As the whole group reaches Marang Buru, there it is revealed that Greg was actually an assassin employed by Farooq called Murphy, impersonating the real Greg White. On Farooq's insistence, Vijay and Colin enter the hill and through numerous chambers reach the secret vault of the Nine. There they discover the giant artillery, including the nuclear weapons. Farooq and his henchmen start collecting the weapons, unaware that Imran and Indian commandos had surrounded them. Colin, Shukla and Vijay are rescued and reunite with Radha, with Imran driving them away from Hazaribagh. A mistimed grenade blasts the secret cavern, destroying the hillside and killing off Farooq and the others, thereby wiping out the Nine's secret.

A few days later, Vijay re-reads his uncle's e-mails and finds another clue, directing him to the vicinity of Jaungarh fort. There he finds a secret chamber containing the documents belonging to the Nine, as well as important texts, scriptures and ancient artifacts. A letter from his uncle reveals him as the last member of the Nine, and a request for Vijay to accept the guardianship of the documents. Vijay accepts and becomes a member of the Nine Men.

==Development==
Author Christopher C. Doyle had studied [[Business Management]] from [[Indian Institute of Management Calcutta]] and runs a firm for training [[Chief executive officer|CEO]] and [[Chief experience officer|CXO]]s. However, he always had a childhood weakness for fantasy novels, being inspired by authors like [[Jules Verne]], [[H. G. Wells]], [[J. R. R. Tolkien]] as well as [[Robert Jordan]].<ref>''The Mahabharata Secret'', 2013, p. 2</ref> One day he started writing a novel for his daughter, who was interested in stories based on fantasy and science. However, as she grew older, she wanted a more mature story. It was then that Doyle decided to expand the story and write it into a full novel. He was inspired by a 1917 book he had read, ''The Hindu History'' by Akshay Majumdar, which wrote about an alternate history of India by combining legends and mythology. Doyle was also intrigued by the Indian epic ''[[Mahabharata]]'' which translated into "this is what happened". He thought about the basis of the epic in history and science and moved forward with his writing. Two other books contributed to his inspiration and research, ''[[Fingerprints of the Gods]]'' by [[Graham Hancock]] and ''[[Uriel's Machine]]'' by [[Christopher Knight (author)|Christopher Knight]] and [[Robert Lomas]].<ref name="table">{{cite news|first=Sangeeta |last=Barooah Pisharoty |url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/table-for-two-column-author-executive-coach-christopher-c-doyle/article6636165.ece |title=A Taste of Legends |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=26 November 2014 |access-date=6 July 2015}}</ref> His reading led him to the conclusion that the Mahabharata might be true, and he stated that:
<blockquote>
And if the ''Mahabharata'' was true, then it was possible that some of the fantastic events described in the ''Mahabharata'' could have a scientific base as well, which no one has explored as of now. This fascinating thought lingered in my mind and propelled me to explore this aspect further. So that's really how history, mythology and science came together.<ref name="dom">{{cite news|url=http://www.domain-b.com/people/interviews/20141215_mahabharat_quest.html |title=Christopher Doyle's Mahabharata Quest |publisher=Domain Business |date=15 December 2014 |access-date=6 July 2015}}</ref>
</blockquote>
Doyle researched the legends surrounding King [[Ashoka]], including those of the Nine Men,<ref name="nine">{{cite news|first=Apoorva |last=Sripathi |url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/christopher-doyles-second-book-the-mahabharata-quest-searches-for-the-science-behind-our-mythology/article6643251.ece |title=Even Gods Have Problems |work=The Hindu |date=28 November 2014 |access-date=6 July 2015}}</ref> and Ashoka's alleged suppression of science. Doyle says he used such legends to develop a plot about the brotherhood of the Nine, setting it between 200 BC and 500 BC.<ref name="dom"/><ref>{{cite news|last=Vijayan |first=Naveena |url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/2014/12/01/Doyle-and-his-%E2%80%98Secret%E2%80%99-Quest/article2548580.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150710132957/http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/2014/12/01/Doyle-and-his-%E2%80%98Secret%E2%80%99-Quest/article2548580.ece |url-status=dead |archive-date=10 July 2015 |title=Doyle and his 'Secret' Quest|work=[[The New Indian Express]] |date=1 December 2014 |access-date=6 July 2015}}</ref> Doyle visited [[The Asiatic Society]] in [[Kolkata]] to review material on Ashoka and emperor's edicts that are preserved there.<ref name="mintdruid">{{cite news|last=Venkatesh|first=M|url=http://www.livemint.com/Leisure/sTTqSNOtIAM2FWuUKxlRRL/Readers-in-India-still-prefer-paper-to-pixels-ChristopherC.html |title=Readers in India still prefer paper to pixels: Christopher Doyle|work=[[Mint (newspaper)|Mint]] |date=19 August 2016|access-date=5 September 2016}}</ref> Doyle stated that it took him two years to finalize and complete ''The Mahabharata Secret''. According to Doyle, the fictional weapon in the book "used a totally different scientific concept which I had to build from scratch. The use of hard core science and accepted scientific fact to explain mythology was something that makes my books different".<ref name="dom"/>

==Release and reception==
''The Mahabharata Secret'' was released by Om Books on 21 October 2013.<ref>{{cite book|author=Christopher C. Doyle (Author) |title=Buy The Mahabharata Secret Book Online at Low Prices in India | The Mahabharata Secret Reviews & Ratings |id={{ASIN|9383202319|country=in}} }}</ref> Following its release, the book was a commercial success, selling over 100,000 copies within two years.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/current-affairs/turning-a-new-leaf-engineer-mba-s-romance-with-popular-fiction-115030700772_1.html |title=Turning a new leaf: Engineer-MBA's romance with popular fiction |work=[[Business Standard]] |date=7 March 2015 |access-date=6 July 2015|last=Mishra|first=Mayank}}</ref> It was nominated for the 2014 [[Crossword Book Award]] with Vivek Tejuja of Scroll.in giving a positive feedback, comparing the novel with that of author [[Dan Brown]]'s ''[[The Da Vinci Code]]'' (2003), and adding "A suspense thriller served with large helpings of history makes for a good in-flight read."<ref>{{cite news|first=Vivek |last=Tejuja |url=http://scroll.in/article/715526/14-books-shortlisted-for-the-crossword-popular-choice-award |title=14 books shortlisted for the Crossword Popular Choice award |publisher=Scroll.in |access-date=6 July 2015|date=23 March 2015}}</ref> Seeing the success of the book, [[Westland Books|Westland Publishers]] signed Doyle to write a thriller trilogy inspired by the ''Mahabharata''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://zeenews.india.com/entertainment/bookworm/bookworm-s-trail/westland-ropes-in-the-mahabharata-secret-author-for-thriller-trilogy_3289.htm |title=Westland ropes in 'The Mahabharata Secret' author for thriller trilogy |publisher=[[Zee News]] |date=29 May 2014 |access-date=6 July 2015}}</ref> ''[[The Mahabharata Quest: The Alexander Secret]]'', Doyle's second novel and the first in the planned trilogy, was released in October 2014.{{citation needed|date=December 2015}}

==See also==
{{Portal|India|Religion|Mythology|Nuclear technology}}
*''[[Ashokavadana]]''
*[[Ashoka's Major Rock Edicts]]
*''[[Bhagavad Gita]]''
*[[Cloaking device]]
*''[[The Emperor's Riddles]]''
* [[Edicts of Ashoka]]
*[[Metamaterial cloaking]]
* [[Pillars of Ashoka]]
* [[The Nine Unknown]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Official website|https://authorchristophercdoyle.com/books/the-mahabharata-secret/}}
* {{YouTube|eAyH3Mbc3Zc|''The Mahabharata Secret'' trailer (Aug 28, 2013) }}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mahabharata Secret}}
[[Category:2013 Indian novels]]
[[Category:2013 debut novels]]
[[Category:Memorials to Ashoka]]
[[Category:Novels set in the Maurya Empire]]
[[Category:Cultural depictions of Ashoka]]
[[Category:Fiction about invisibility]]
[[Category:Intelligence Bureau (India) in fiction]]
[[Category:Novels based on the Mahabharata]]
[[Category:Novels set in Bihar]]
[[Category:Indian mystery novels]]
[[Category:Indian thriller novels]]
[[Category:Novels about cryptography]]
[[Category:Novels about conspiracy theories]]

Ghulam Nabi Khayal

2024-11-28T10:22:14Z

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{{Short description|Indian poet and writer (died 2023)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2023}}
{{notability|1=Biographies|date=April 2021}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Ghulam Nabi Khayal
| image =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1939|03|04|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Srinagar]], [[Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)|Jammu and Kashmir]], [[British Raj]]
| death_date = {{death date and given age|df=y|2023|10|15|84}}
| death_place = [Srinagar, [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]]
| occupation = Poet, essayist, Journalist, writer and translator
}}

'''Ghulam Nabi Khayal''' (4 March 1939 – 15 October 2023) was an Indian [[Kashmiris|Kashmiri]] poet and essayist. He authored 30 books in [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]], [[Urdu]] and [[English language|English]].<ref>{{Cite news|agency=PTI|date=2015-10-12|title=Now Kashmiri writer returns Sahitya Akademi award|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/now-kashmiri-writer-ghulam-nabi-khayal-returns-sahitya-akademi-award/article7753173.ece|access-date=2021-03-09|issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=ANI|date=2015-10-13|title=Kashmiri writer Ghulam Nabi Khayal also gives up his Sahitya Akademi award|work=Business Standard India|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ani/kashmiri-writer-ghulam-nabi-khayal-also-gives-up-his-sahitya-akademi-award-115101300459_1.html|access-date=2021-03-09}}</ref>

Khayal was the winner of [[Sahitya Akademi Award]] but he returned the award as a sign of protest.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Kashmiri Writer Khayal Returns Sahitya Akademi Award|url=https://thewire.in/books/kashmiri-writer-khayal-returns-sahitya-akadem-award|access-date=2021-03-09|website=The Wire}}</ref> He became the first Kashmiri to return the literary award as a sign of protest in the valley.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Service|first=Tribune News|title=Kashmiri writer too decides to return Sahitya Akademi award|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/features/kashmiri-writer-too-decides-to-return-sahitya-akademi-award-145215|access-date=2021-03-09|website=Tribuneindia News Service|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Now Kashmiri writer Ghulam Nabi Khayal returns Sahitya Akademi award|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/now-kashmiri-writer-ghulam-nabi-khayal-returns-sahitya-akademi-award/articleshow/49320267.cms?from=mdr|access-date=2021-03-09}}</ref>

Ghulam Nabi Khayal died on 15 October 2023, at the age of 84.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Desk |first=GK Web |date=2023-10-15 |title=Sahitya Akademi award winning writer Gh Nabi Khayal passes away |url=https://www.greaterkashmir.com/kashmir/sahitya-akademi-award-winning-writer-gh-nabi-khayal-passes-away |access-date=2023-10-15 |website=Greater Kashmir |language=en}}</ref>

== Books ==
* ''Allama Iqbal aur Tehreek-e-Azadi-e-Kashmir''
* '' Gaashir Munaar''<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=..:: SAHITYA : Akademi Awards ::..|url=http://sahitya-akademi.gov.in/awards/akademi%20samman_suchi.jsp#KASHMIRI|access-date=2021-03-09|website=sahitya-akademi.gov.in}}</ref>
* ''Chinar Rang''
* ''Fikr-e-Khayal''
* ''Iqbal aur Tehreek-e-Azadi-e-Kashmir''
* ''Karvaan-e-Khayal''
* ''Khayalat''
* ''Khayal-e-Qalam''
* ''Pragaash''<ref>{{Cite web|title=Urdu Books of Gulam Nabi Khayal|url=https://www.rekhta.org/authors/gulam-nabi-khayal/ebooks|access-date=2021-03-09|website=Rekhta}}</ref>
* ''Kashmir, The Burning of a Paradise''

== Awards ==
[[Sahitya Akademi Award]] in year 1975.<ref name=":0" />

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Khayal, Ghulam}}
[[Category:1940s births]]
[[Category:Year of birth uncertain]]
[[Category:2023 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Jammu and Kashmir]]
[[Category:Kashmiri poets]]
[[Category:Kashmiri writers]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Sahitya Akademi Award in Kashmiri]]
[[Category:Writers from Srinagar]]

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