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Sai Abhyankkar

2026-05-07T16:36:41Z

Ajit3011: Details!

{{Short description|Indian music composer}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2026}}
{{Infobox musical artist
| name = Sai Abhyankkar
| image =
| caption =
| birth_name = Sai Abhyankkar Ekambaresh
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|2004|11|04|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Virugambakkam]], Tamil Nadu, India
| genre = {{hlist|[[Film score]]|[[Independent music]]}}
| occupation = {{hlist|Composer|Playback singer|Instrumentalist|Music producer}}
| instrument = {{hlist|Vocals|Keyboards|Tabla|Mridangam|Drums|Guitar}}
| years_active = 2022–present
| label = [[Think Music]] & [[Sun Music]]
}}

'''Sai Abhyankkar''' (born 4 November 2004) is an Indian musician, composer and singer who works primarily in [[Tamil cinema]]. He gained recognition with his single "[[Katchi Sera]]". The song released as part of [[Think Music]]'s independent music initiative, marked his debut as a solo artist.

Abhyankkar's other singles include "Aasa Kooda", "Sithira Puthiri", "Vizhi Veekura" and "Pavazha Malli", all composed for Think Indie Collective.

Abhyankkar made his film debut as an original music composer with the Malayalam-Tamil bilingual film ''[[Balti (film)|Balti]]''. He was first signed to compose music for the film [[Benz (film)|''Benz'']], which was intended to be his debut until production got delayed. He has since signed on many other projects including the Telugu film ''[[AA22xA6|Raaka]].''

== Early life ==
Sai Abhyankkar was born on 4 November 2004 in a Tamil family in [[Virugambakkam]], [[Chennai]] to singers [[Tippu (singer)|Tippu]] and [[Harini (singer)|Harini]].<ref name="mirchi">{{Cite interview |first=Sai |last=Abhyankkar |title=Sai Abhyankkar: I manifested for Katchi Sera to become global – Exclusive |url=https://mirchi.in/stories/music/sai-abhyankkar-interview-with-mirchi-plus/108208688 |access-date=2024-07-09 |website=[[Radio Mirchi]] |language=en |archive-date=2024-07-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240709120811/https://mirchi.in/stories/music/sai-abhyankkar-interview-with-mirchi-plus/108208688 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":0"/> He was introduced to music at a young age. His sister, Sai Smriti, is also a singer.<ref name=":3">{{Cite news |last=Radhakrishnan |first=Roopa |date=2024-08-21 |title=We share whatever we feel with each other, say Sai Abhyankkar and Sai Smriti |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/music/we-share-whatever-we-feel-with-each-other-say-sai-abhyankkar-and-sai-smriti/articleshow/112670445.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20250108044621/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/music/we-share-whatever-we-feel-with-each-other-say-sai-abhyankkar-and-sai-smriti/articleshow/112670445.cms |archive-date=2025-01-08 |access-date=2025-01-08 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> A multi-instrumentalist, Abhyankkar learned to play the [[tabla]], [[mridangam]], piano, drums and guitar, and began composing music during early teens.<ref>https://www.moneycontrol.com/entertainment/who-is-sai-abhyankkar-the-20-year-old-young-music-composer-for-allu-arjun-and-atlee-s-next-article-12988421.html</ref> He trained in vocals under singers [[Sriram Parthasarathy]], A.T. Ramamoorthy, and Henry Kuruvilla.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |last=Ramanujam |first=Srinivasa |date=2025-02-17 |title=Sai Abhyankkar interview: 'Music and spirituality shaped me' |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/sai-abhyankkar-interview-music-and-spirituality-shaped-me/article69229595.ece |access-date=2025-07-13 |work=[[The Hindu]] |language=en |archive-date=17 July 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250717031024/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/sai-abhyankkar-interview-music-and-spirituality-shaped-me/article69229595.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> Though he described himself as not very academically inclined, unlike his sister,<ref name=":3" /> he shifted to online schooling after completing 10th standard, allowing him more time to focus on music.<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NZRQMixhYzo |title=Who is Sai Abhyankkar? {{!}} 60 Minutes with Sudhir {{!}} LCU {{!}} Suriya 45 {{!}} Vizhi Veekura |date=2025-07-15 |last=Sudhir Srinivasan |access-date=2025-07-16 |via=YouTube |archive-date=16 July 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250716104708/https://www.youtube.com/watch?si=Tx6ulU8bpsowDjk9&v=NZRQMixhYzo&feature=youtu.be |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|4:50}} According to Smriti, he began composing original music at the age of 13,<ref name=":3" /> and he has described his melodic arrangements as often leaning toward [[jazz]] and [[blues]] sensibilities.<ref name="mirchi"/>

== Career ==

=== 2022–2024: Debut and early success ===
Sai Abhyankkar made his playback singing debut in 2022 with the song "Valam Varavendum", which he wrote himself and was composed by Sriram Parthasarathy.<ref name="timelinedaily.com">{{Cite web |date=14 April 2025 |title=From 'Katchi Sera' To 'STR 49': The Sensational Journey Of Music Composer Sai Abhyankkar |url=https://timelinedaily.com/entertainment/from-katchi-sera-to-str-49-the-sensational-journey-of-music-composer-sai-abhyankkar |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250414120634/https://timelinedaily.com/entertainment/from-katchi-sera-to-str-49-the-sensational-journey-of-music-composer-sai-abhyankkar |archive-date=14 April 2025 |access-date=2025-07-13 |website=TimelineDaily |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0"/> During the [[COVID-19 pandemic in India]], he developed a routine of composing musical grooves daily. One of these compositions stood out to both Abhyankkar and his friend Adesh Krishna, who later wrote the lyrics for it.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |last=Tagat |first=Anurag |date=2024-02-29 |title=Sai Abhyankkar Plans More Music After 'Katchi Sera' Success |url=https://rollingstoneindia.com/sai-abhyankkar-katchi-sera-interview/ |access-date=2025-07-14 |website=Rolling Stone India |language=en-US |archive-date=15 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240715154839/https://rollingstoneindia.com/sai-abhyankkar-katchi-sera-interview/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In March 2023, Abhyankkar approached [[Think Music|Think Indie]] with the track, which was immediately approved and later developed into "Katchi Sera".<ref name="mirchi" /><ref name=":5" />

Released on 21 January 2024, the music video featured Abhyankkar alongside Samyuktha Viswanathan and gained widespread popularity. As of 31 January 2026, the video has garnered over 250 million views on YouTube.<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VU23OPQ1Pmc |title=@SaiAbhyankkar – Katchi Sera (Music Video) {{!}} Samyuktha {{!}} Ken Royson {{!}} Think Indie |date=2024-01-22 |last=Think Music India |access-date=2025-07-13 |via=YouTube |archive-date=26 March 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250326195204/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VU23OPQ1Pmc |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":5"/><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-05-08 |title=Sai Abhyankkar makes a smashing debut with Katchi Sera |url=https://www.indulgexpress.com/culture/music/2024/Feb/29/sai-abhyankkar-makes-a-smashing-debut-with-katchi-sera |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240521051625/https://www.indulgexpress.com/culture/music/2024/Feb/29/sai-abhyankkar-makes-a-smashing-debut-with-katchi-sera |archive-date=2024-05-21 |access-date=2024-07-15 |website=Induge Express |language=en-US}}</ref>

Following the success of his debut, Abhyankkar released his second independent single, "Aasa Kooda", on 12 June 2024. The track featured his sister, Sai Smriti, who sang alongside him. The music video included [[Preity Mukhundhan]] and received a highly positive response, significantly expanding his fanbase.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Sai Abhyankar releases his fourth single, Vizhi Veekura |url=https://mirchi.in/stories/music/sai-abhyankar-releases-his-fourth-single-vizhi-veekura/152239064 |access-date=2025-07-13 |website=mirchi.in |language=en |archive-date=10 August 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250810041848/https://mirchi.in/stories/music/sai-abhyankar-releases-his-fourth-single-vizhi-veekura/152239064 |url-status=live }}</ref> As of 31 January 2026, the video had surpassed 350 million views on YouTube.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |date=2024-11-04 |title=I'm happy to be the third music composer in LCU: Sai Abhyankkar |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/im-happy-to-be-the-third-music-composer-in-lcu-sai-abhyankkar/articleshow/114932012.cms |access-date=2024-11-04 |work=The Times of India |archive-date=7 November 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20241107061146/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/im-happy-to-be-the-third-music-composer-in-lcu-sai-abhyankkar/articleshow/114932012.cms |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a3Ue-LN5B9U |title=@SaiAbhyankkar – Aasa Kooda (Music Video) {{!}} Thejo Bharathwaj {{!}} Preity Mukundhan {{!}} Sai Smriti |date=2024-06-13 |last=Think Music India |access-date=2025-07-13 |via=YouTube |archive-date=3 July 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250703090054/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a3Ue-LN5B9U |url-status=live }}</ref>

On the same day "Aasa Kooda" was released, Abhyankkar signed his first feature film, [[Benz (film)|''Benz'']], directed by [[Bakkiyaraj Kannan]] and presented by [[Lokesh Kanagaraj]], starring [[Raghava Lawrence]].<ref name=":2" /> His involvement was officially announced on his birthday, 4 November 2024.<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?si=Wbo71QlfufvsbkMK&v=iRtKynA6Ylg&feature=youtu.be |title=Welcome On Board Sai Abhyankkar {{!}} Benz {{!}} Raghava Lawrence {{!}} Lokesh Kanakaraj {{!}} Bakkiyaraj Kannan |date=2024-11-04 |last=Think Music India |access-date=2024-11-04 |via=YouTube |archive-date=26 January 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250126203808/https://www.youtube.com/watch?si=Wbo71QlfufvsbkMK&v=iRtKynA6Ylg&feature=youtu.be |url-status=live }}</ref> Later, on 9 December, it was announced that Abhyankkar had replaced [[A. R. Rahman]] as the composer for [[RJ Balaji]]'s directorial venture [[Karuppu (film)|''Karuppu'']] (2025), starring [[Suriya]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-12-09 |title=Aasai Koodai composer Sai Abhyankkar to score music for Suriya-RJ Balaji film |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/sai-abhyankkar-music-composer-for-suriya-rj-balaji-ar-rahman-replaces-2647133-2024-12-09 |access-date=2025-07-13 |website=India Today |language=en |archive-date=13 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241213165938/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/sai-abhyankkar-music-composer-for-suriya-rj-balaji-ar-rahman-replaces-2647133-2024-12-09 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== 2025–present ===
In February 2025, Abhyankkar entered discussions to compose for [[Atlee (director)|Atlee]]'s Telugu debut, starring [[Allu Arjun]] and produced by [[Sun Pictures]], titled ''Raaka''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-02-20 |title=Not Anirudh Ravichander, Sai Abhyankkar in talks for music of Atlee-Allu Arjun film |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/allu-arjun-atlee-film-sai-abhyankkar-anirudh-ravichander-2682811-2025-02-20 |access-date=2025-07-14 |website=India Today |language=en |archive-date=7 June 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250607151123/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/allu-arjun-atlee-film-sai-abhyankkar-anirudh-ravichander-2682811-2025-02-20 |url-status=live }}</ref> His involvement was confirmed in April.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-04-09 |title=Allu Arjun–Atlee's film draws flak over similarities with Dune's poster |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/telugu/news/2025/Apr/09/allu-arjunatlees-film-draws-flak-over-similarities-with-dunes-poster |access-date=2025-07-14 |website=Cinema Express |language=en |archive-date=23 June 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250623162437/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/telugu/news/2025/Apr/09/allu-arjunatlees-film-draws-flak-over-similarities-with-dunes-poster |url-status=live }}</ref>

On [[Puthandu]] (14 April 2025), [[Silambarasan]] confirmed that Abhyankkar would compose music for his 49th film, directed by Ramkumar Balakrishnan.<ref>{{Cite web |title='STR 49': Sai Abhyankkar Turns Music Composer for Silambarasan's Next |url=https://www.hollywoodreporterindia.com/features/insight/str-49-sai-abhyankkar-turns-music-composer-for-silambarasans-next |access-date=2025-07-14 |website=The Hollywood Reporter India |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Features |first=C. E. |date=2025-04-11 |title=Sai Abhyankkar onboard Silambarasan-Ramkumar Balakrishnan's STR 49 |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2025/Apr/14/sai-abhayankkar-onboard-silambarasan-ramkumar-balakrishnans-str-49 |access-date=2025-07-14 |website=Cinema Express |language=en |archive-date=14 April 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250414083514/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2025/Apr/14/sai-abhayankkar-onboard-silambarasan-ramkumar-balakrishnans-str-49 |url-status=live }}</ref> He was also confirmed to compose the score for [[Pradeep Ranganathan]]'s [[Dude (2025 film)|''Dude'']] (2025).<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-05-12 |title=Dude: Pradeep Ranganathan goes shirtless in new poster, film to release on Diwali |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/dude-pradeep-ranganathan-goes-shirtless-in-new-poster-film-to-release-on-diwali-2723457-2025-05-12 |access-date=2025-07-14 |website=India Today |language=en |archive-date=16 June 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250616013754/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/dude-pradeep-ranganathan-goes-shirtless-in-new-poster-film-to-release-on-diwali-2723457-2025-05-12 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In July, Abhyankkar confirmed his involvement in his first film, the Malayalam-Tamil film ''[[Balti (film)|Balti]]'' (2025), starring [[Shane Nigam]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mullappilly |first=Sreejith |date=2025-07-05 |title=Sai Abhyankkar joins Shane Nigam-Shanthnu Bhagyaraj's Balti |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2025/Jul/04/sai-abhyankkar-joins-shane-nigam-shanthnu-bhagyarajs-balti |access-date=2025-07-14 |website=Cinema Express |language=en |archive-date=5 July 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250705044041/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2025/Jul/04/sai-abhyankkar-joins-shane-nigam-shanthnu-bhagyarajs-balti |url-status=live }}</ref> and was announced as the composer for Karthi's ''Marshal'' on 10 July.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-07-10 |title='Marshal': Karthi's next with director Tamizh gets a title; Sai Abhyankkar to compose music |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/marshal-karthi-director-tamizh-sai-abhyankkar-kalyani-priyadarshan-dream-warrior-pictures/article69796413.ece |access-date=2025-07-14 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X |archive-date=14 July 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250714073940/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/marshal-karthi-director-tamizh-sai-abhyankkar-kalyani-priyadarshan-dream-warrior-pictures/article69796413.ece |url-status=live }}</ref>

He was also announced as the composer for [[Sivakarthikeyan]]’s 24th film.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-07-10 |title=This 20-year-old Tamil composer signs 8 films even before debut release |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/sai-abhyankkar-20-year-old-tamil-composer-eight-films-allu-arjun-atlee-film-debut-release-2753671-2025-07-10 |access-date=2025-07-14 |website=India Today |language=en |archive-date=16 July 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250716134504/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/sai-abhyankkar-20-year-old-tamil-composer-eight-films-allu-arjun-atlee-film-debut-release-2753671-2025-07-10 |url-status=live }}</ref> Abhyankkar faced [[trolling]] on social media for signing numerous projects before his first film's release,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mullappilly |first=Sreejith |date=2025-07-08 |title=Sai Abhyankkar faces trolls online after landing multiple projects |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2025/Jul/10/sai-abhyankkar-faces-trolls-online-after-landing-multiple-projects |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250710163503/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2025/Jul/10/sai-abhyankkar-faces-trolls-online-after-landing-multiple-projects |archive-date=10 July 2025 |access-date=2025-07-13 |website=[[Cinema Express]] |language=en}}</ref> to which he responded by crediting his success to "genuine networking" with experienced filmmakers.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-07-16 |title=Sai Abhyankkar on landing multiple big projects as a debutant: 'They came through networking, not influence…' |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2025/Jul/16/sai-abhyankkar-on-landing-multiple-big-projects-as-a-debutant-they-came-through-networking-not-influence |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250722233528/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2025/Jul/16/sai-abhyankkar-on-landing-multiple-big-projects-as-a-debutant-they-came-through-networking-not-influence |archive-date=22 July 2025 |access-date=2025-07-31 |website=[[Cinema Express]] |language=en}}</ref>

"Sithira Puthiri", his third single, was released on 31 January 2025 and featured [[Meenakshi Chaudhary]]. Despite crossing 800,000 views within hours, it received a mixed response.<ref name=":0" /><ref name="timelinedaily.com"/> On 5 July, at an [[Amazon Music]] event in Chennai, Abhyankkar announced his fourth single, "Vizhi Veekura", released on 7 July initially without a music video.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-07-05 |title=Sai Abhyankkar unveils new song at Amazon Music's baelist party |url=https://newstodaynet.com/2025/07/05/sai-abhyankkar-unveils-new-slsong-at-amazon-musics-baelist-party/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250706081146/https://newstodaynet.com/2025/07/05/sai-abhyankkar-unveils-new-slsong-at-amazon-musics-baelist-party/ |archive-date=6 July 2025 |access-date=2025-07-13 |website=[[News Today]] |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> He said the composition began with a simple piano motif, layering instruments such as the noori and [[mandolin]]. A music video was later released on 4 September 2025, featuring [[Saanve Megghana]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sangeetha |first=P. |date=2025-07-11 |title=Sai Abhyankkar releases soulful new single Vizhi Veekura |url=https://www.indulgexpress.com/culture/music/2025/Jul/18/sai-abhyankkar-releases-soulful-new-single-vizhi-veekura |access-date=2025-07-18 |website=Indulgexpress |language=en |archive-date=19 July 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250719141304/https://www.indulgexpress.com/culture/music/2025/Jul/18/sai-abhyankkar-releases-soulful-new-single-vizhi-veekura |url-status=live }}</ref>

Abhyankkar's fifth single, "Pavazha Malli", which released on 4 March 2026, marking his first release of the year. While the music video premiered on 5 March 2026, the track was released early a day prior.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Instagram |url=https://www.instagram.com/p/DU7wF-PkdoW/?hl=en |access-date=2026-02-23 |website=www.instagram.com}}</ref>

== Discography ==
{{pending films key}}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ List of Sai Abhyankkar feature film credits as composer
|-
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" | Title
! scope="col" | Director
! scope="col" | Language
! scope="col" | Notes
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | {{refh}}
|-
| rowspan="2" |2025
| ''[[Balti (film)|Balti]]''
|Unni Sivalingam
|[[Malayalam]]
|
|<ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-06-10 |title=Shane Nigam's 25th film, co-starring Shanthnu Bhagyaraj, titled 'Balti'; title glimpse video out |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/shane-nigam-25th-film-balti-shanthnu-bhagyaraj-preethi-asrani/article69678515.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250611162133/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/shane-nigam-25th-film-balti-shanthnu-bhagyaraj-preethi-asrani/article69678515.ece |archive-date=2025-06-11 |access-date=2025-06-13 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>
|-
|''[[Dude (2025 film)|Dude]]''
|Keerthiswaran
| rowspan="4" |Tamil
|
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |2026
|{{Pending film|[[Karuppu (film)|Karuppu]]}}
|[[RJ Balaji]]
|
|<ref>{{Cite web |last=M |first=Narayani |date=2024-12-09 |title=Sai Abhyankkar replaces AR Rahman in RJ Balaji's Suriya 45 |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2024/Dec/09/sai-abhyankkar-replaces-ar-rahman-in-rj-balajis-suriya-45 |access-date=2024-12-09 |website=Cinema Express |language=en |archive-date=2024-12-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241209060410/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2024/Dec/09/sai-abhyankkar-replaces-ar-rahman-in-rj-balajis-suriya-45 |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|{{Pending film|[[Benz (film)|Benz]]}}
|[[Bakkiyaraj Kannan]]
|
|<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sreejith Mullappilly |date=2024-11-03 |title=Sai Abhyankkar to make his debut as a composer with Lokesh Kanagaraj's Benz |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2024/Nov/03/sai-abhyankkar-to-make-his-debut-as-a-composer-with-lokesh-kanagarajs-benz |access-date=2024-11-03 |website=Cinema Express |language=en |archive-date=7 November 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20241107060946/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2024/Nov/03/sai-abhyankkar-to-make-his-debut-as-a-composer-with-lokesh-kanagarajs-benz |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|{{Pending film|[[Karthi|Marshal]]}}
|Tamizh
|
|
|-
|2027
|{{Pending film|[[Raaka]]}}
| [[Atlee (director)|Atlee]]
|Telugu
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-04-07 |title=Who is Sai Abhyankkar? Meet the singer who has bagged Allu Arjun-Atlee film and replaced AR Rahman in Suriya45 without a single release yet |url=https://www.pinkvilla.com/entertainment/south/who-is-sai-abhyankkar-meet-the-singer-who-has-bagged-allu-arjun-atlee-film-and-replaced-ar-rahman-in-suriya45-without-a-single-release-yet-1381129?amp |access-date=2025-04-08 |website=PINKVILLA |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| ''TBA''
|{{Pending film|[[Dhanush|D55]]}}
|[[Rajkumar Periasamy]]
|Tamil
|
|
|}

=== As playback singer ===
{{pending films key}}

==== Tamil ====
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ List of Tamil playback songs by Sai Abhyankkar
! Year
! Film
! Song
! Composer
! Co-singer(s)
! Notes
|-
| rowspan="8" | 2025
| ''[[Madharaasi]]''
| "Salambala"
| [[Anirudh Ravichander]]
| –
| Debut as playback singer; Tamil debut
|-
| rowspan="7" | ''[[Dude (2025 film)|Dude]]''
| "Oorum Blood"
| rowspan="11" | Himself
| [[Deepthi Suresh]], Bhumika, [[Paal Dabba]]
| –
|-
| "Oorum Blood (Unplugged)"
| –
| –
|-
| "Nallaru Po"
| [[Tippu (singer)|Tippu]], [[Mohit Chauhan]]
| –
|-
| "Kannukulla"
| [[Jonita Gandhi]], Arjun
| –
|-
| "Kannukulla (Reprise)"
| –
| –
|-
| "Singari"
| [[Pradeep Ranganathan]], Sai Smriti, The Indian Choral Ensemble
| –
|-
| "Yumabaibesa"
| –
| –
|-
| rowspan="4" | 2026
| rowspan="4" style="background:#FFD; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;" class="partial table-partial" | ''[[Karuppu (film)|Karuppu]]'' †
| "God Mode"
| Gana Muthu, The Indian Choral Ensemble
| –
|-
|"Naanga Naalu Peru"
|[[Silambarasan|Silambarasan TR]], Asal Kolaar
| rowspan="2" |Additional background vocals
|-
|"Raathu Raasan"
|V.M. Mahalingam, Paal Dabba
|-
|"Karuppa Vaara Da"
|V.M. Mahalingam
|
|}

==== Telugu ====
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ List of Telugu playback songs by Sai Abhyankkar
! Year
! Film
! Song
! Composer
! Co-singer(s)
! Notes
|-
| rowspan="4" | 2025
| rowspan="4" | ''[[Dude (2025 film)|Dude]]''
| "Boom Boom"
| rowspan="4"| Himself
| [[Deepthi Suresh]], Bhumika
| Telugu debut
|-
| "Baagundu Po"
| [[Sanjith Hegde]]
| –
|-
| "Singari"
| Sai Smriti, The Indian Choral Ensemble
| –
|-
| "Nee Gunde Lona"
| [[Jonita Gandhi]], Arjun
| –
|}

==== Malayalam ====
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ List of Malayalam playback songs by Sai Abhyankkar
! Year
! Film
! Song
! Composer
! Co-singer(s)
! Notes
|-
| rowspan="5" | 2025
| rowspan="5" | ''[[Balti (film)|Balti]]''
| "Jaalakaari"
| rowspan="5"| Himself
| [[Sublahshini]]
| Malayalam debut
|-
|"Padakkalame"
| Pranavam Sasi, RANJ
| –
|-
|"Thattara Thattara"
| Navakkarai Naveen Prabanjam
| –
|-
|"Vaada Veera"
| Pranavam Sasi
| –
|-
|"Ammore Senniore"
| Malayali Monkeys
| –
|}

=== Keyboard programmer ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ List of Sai Abhyankkar feature film credits as keyboard programmer
|-
! scope="col" style="background-color:#f2f2f2;" | Year
! scope="col" style="background-color:#f2f2f2;" | Title
! scope="col" style="background-color:#f2f2f2;" | Music Director
! scope="col" style="background-color:#f2f2f2;" | Language
! scope="col" style="background-color:#f2f2f2;" class="unsortable" | {{refh}}
|-
| 2022
| ''[[Cobra (2022 film)|Cobra]]''
| rowspan="2" | [[A.R. Rahman]]
| rowspan="4" | Tamil
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2023
| ''[[Pathu Thala]]''
|
|-
|''[[Japan (2023 film)|Japan]]''
|[[G. V. Prakash Kumar]]
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2024
| ''[[Indian 2]]''
| rowspan="3" | [[Anirudh Ravichander]]
|<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s4MvQWsEAs8 |title=Indian 2 – Paaraa Lyric Video {{!}} Kamal Haasan {{!}} Shankar {{!}} Anirudh {{!}} Subaskaran {{!}} Lyca |date=2024-05-22 |last=Sony Music South |access-date=2025-07-21 |via=YouTube |archive-date=9 January 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250109022157/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s4MvQWsEAs8 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Devara: Part 1]]''
| Telugu
|<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D6MOuX980gc |title=Fear Song {{!}} Devara Part – 1 {{!}} NTR {{!}} Koratala Siva {{!}} Anirudh Ravichander {{!}} Manoj M {{!}} 27 Sep 2024 |date=2024-05-19 |last=T-Series |access-date=2025-07-20 |quote=Additional Keyboard Programmed by Arish, Sai Abhyankkar, Ashwin Krishna |via=YouTube |archive-date=1 February 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250201040607/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D6MOuX980gc |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| 2025
| ''[[Coolie (2025 film)|Coolie]]''
| Tamil
|<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6xqNk5Sf5jo |title=COOLIE – #Thalaivar171 Title Teaser {{!}} Superstar Rajinikanth{{!}} Sun Pictures{{!}} Lokesh Kanagaraj{{!}} Anirudh |date=2024-04-22 |last=Sun TV |access-date=2025-07-21 |via=YouTube |archive-date=23 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240423081900/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6xqNk5Sf5jo |url-status=live }}</ref>
|}

=== Singles ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ List of Sai Abhyankkar singles
|-
! style="background-color:#f2f2f2;" | Year
! style="background-color:#f2f2f2;" | Song
! style="background-color:#f2f2f2;" | Notes
!Director
! style="background-color:#f2f2f2;" | Lyrics
! style="background-color:#f2f2f2;" | Co-Singer
! style="background-color:#f2f2f2;" | {{Abbr|Ref.|Reference}}
|-
| 2023
| "Valam Varavendum"
| Composed by [[Sriram Parthasarathy]]
| –
| Himself
| –
|<ref>{{Citation |title=Valam Varavendum (Full Song) – Sai Abhyankkar, Sriram Parthasarathy |website=[[JioSaavn]] |date=2023-08-06 |url=https://www.jiosaavn.com/song/valam-varavendum/CQERUwNBbUo |access-date=2024-07-09 |language=en-US |archive-date=2024-07-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240709121225/https://www.jiosaavn.com/song/valam-varavendum/CQERUwNBbUo |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2024
| "[[Katchi Sera]]"
| rowspan="5" | Single – [[Think Music|Think Music India]]
|Ken Royson
| Adesh Krishna
| –
|<ref name="mirchi" />
|-
| "Aasa Kooda"
|Thejo Bharathwaj
| Sathyan Ilanko
|Sai Smriti
|<ref>{{Citation |title=Aasa Kooda from Think Indie Song: Aasa Kooda from Think Indie MP3 Tamil Song by Sai Abhyankkar Online Free on Gaana.com |url=https://gaana.com/album/aasa-kooda-from-think-indie |access-date=2024-07-09 |language=en |archive-date=2024-07-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240709120811/https://gaana.com/album/aasa-kooda-from-think-indie |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2025
| "Sithira Puthiri"
|Akshay Sundher
| [[Vivek (lyricist)|Vivek]]
| –
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-01-30 |title=Sai Abhyankkar: சாய் அபயன்கரின் மூன்றாவது பாடல் எப்படி இருக்கு? அட.. இவரும் இருக்காரா? |url=https://tamil.timesnownews.com/entertainment/katchi-sera-fame-sai-abhyankkars-third-song-sithira-puthiri-to-release-on-january-31st-article-117737643 |access-date=2025-02-01 |website=Times Now Tamil |language=ta |archive-date=2025-01-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250130125530/https://tamil.timesnownews.com/entertainment/katchi-sera-fame-sai-abhyankkars-third-song-sithira-puthiri-to-release-on-january-31st-article-117737643 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| "Vizhi Veekura"
| rowspan="2" |Thejo Bharathwaj
|Adesh Krishna
| Sai Smriti
|
|-
|2026
|"Pavazha Malli"
|[[Vivek (lyricist)|Vivek]]
|[[Shruti Haasan]]
|
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb name|15820955}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Abhyankkar, Sai}}
[[Category:2004 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Musicians from Chennai]]
[[Category:Tamil film score composers]]
[[Category:Tamil-language playback singers]]
[[Category:Indian folk-pop singers]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian composers]]
[[Category:Singers from Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Indian male film score composers]]
[[Category:Indian singers]]

History of tuberculosis

2026-05-03T17:11:29Z

Ajit3011: New

{{Short description|none}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2025}}

[[File:Cristobal Rojas 37a.JPG|thumb|upright=1.3|''La Miseria'' by [[Cristóbal Rojas (artist)|Cristóbal Rojas]] (1886). Rojas had tuberculosis when he painted this. Here he depicts the social aspect of the disease, and its relation with living conditions at the close of the 19th century.]]

The '''history of tuberculosis''' encompasses the origins, evolution, and spread of [[Tuberculosis|tuberculosis (TB)]] throughout human history, as well as the development of medical understanding, treatments, and control methods for this ancient disease.

Tuberculosis is an infectious disease caused by bacteria of the ''[[Mycobacterium tuberculosis]]'' complex (MTBC). Throughout history, tuberculosis has been known by differing names, including consumption, phthisis, and the White Plague.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Orgeur |first1=Mickael |last2=Sous |first2=Camille |last3=Madacki |first3=Jan |last4=Brosch |first4=Roland |date=1 March 2024 |title=Evolution and emergence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis |journal=FEMS Microbiology Reviews |language=en |volume=48 |issue=2 |article-number=fuae006 |doi=10.1093/femsre/fuae006 |issn=1574-6976 |pmc=10906988 |pmid=38365982}}</ref> Paleopathological evidence finds tuberculosis in humans since at least the [[Neolithic]] (approximately 10,000-11,000 years ago), with [[Molecular biology|molecular studies]] suggesting a much earlier emergence and co-evolution with humans.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Buzic |first1=Ileana |last2=Giuffra |first2=Valentina |date=30 April 2020 |title=The paleopathological evidence on the origins of human tuberculosis: a review |url=https://www.jpmh.org/index.php/jpmh/article/view/1379 |journal=Journal of Preventive Medicine and Hygiene |language=en |volume=61 |issue=1 Suppl 1 |pages=E3–E8 |doi=10.15167/2421-4248/JPMH2020.61.1S1.1379 |pmc=7263064 |pmid=32529097}}</ref><ref name=":7" />

Phylogenetic analyses indicate that the TB originated in Africa and evolved alongside human populations for tens of thousands of years.<ref name=":7" /> The disease spread globally through human migrations, adapting to different human populations and eventually developing into several distinct lineages with varying geographic distributions.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":9">{{Cite journal |last=Dutour |first=Olivier |date=2023 |title=The paleopathology and paleoepidemiology of Upper paleolithic tuberculosis: Review of evidence and hypotheses |journal=Tuberculosis |language=en |volume=143 |article-number=102348 |doi=10.1016/j.tube.2023.102348|pmid=38012915 |doi-access=free }}</ref> While TB has affected humanity for millennia, it became particularly prevalent during industrialization when urban overcrowding aided transmission. The medical understanding of tuberculosis transformed in the 19th century with [[Robert Koch|Robert Koch's]] 1882 identification of ''Mycobacterium tuberculosis'' as the causative [[Bacteria|bacterium]],<ref name=":7" /> followed by the development of [[Tuberculosis vaccines|vaccines]] and [[antibiotic]] treatments in the mid-20th century.

==Origins==
The modern understanding of the evolutionary origins of ''Mycobacterium tuberculosis'' has been revolutionized by recent [[Genomics|genomic]] and [[Phylogenetics|phylogenetic]] research. Current evidence suggests that tuberculosis is an ancient human disease that co-evolved with human populations for tens of thousands of years, rather than a recent acquisition from domesticated animals during the Neolithic as previously believed.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /> There has also been a claim of evidence of lesions characteristic of tuberculosis in a 500,000-year-old ''[[Homo erectus]]'' fossil, although this finding is controversial.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Roberts |first1=Charlotte A. |last2=Pfister |first2=Luz-Andrea |last3=Mays |first3=Simon |date=1 July 2009 |title=Letter to the editor: Was tuberculosis present in Homo erectus in Turkey? |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |language=en |volume=139 |issue=3 |pages=442–444 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.21056 |issn=1096-8644 |pmid=19358292 |bibcode=2009AJPA..139..442R |url=https://durham-repository.worktribe.com/output/1524313 }}</ref>

=== Phylogenetic evidence ===
Comprehensive phylogenetic analyses of the ''Mycobacterium tuberculosis'' complex (MTBC) demonstrate an African origin for the pathogen.<ref name=":7" /> Whole-genome sequencing of modern TB strains reveals that the bacteria emerged in Africa and followed human migration out of Africa. Research analyzing 259 global TB clinical strains suggests that tuberculosis arose roughly 70,000 years ago, expanding in two major waves: first around 67,000 years ago during human migration to South Asia, and again around 46,000 years ago during migrations to the Near East, Europe, and Asia.<ref name=":7" />

Within TB, researchers have identified multiple lineages (currently nine human-adapted lineages) associated with different geographical regions.<ref name=":7" /> These include Lineage 1 (East Africa, Philippines), Lineages 2-4 (Eurasia), Lineages 5-6 (West Africa), Lineage 7 (Ethiopia), Lineage 8 (East Africa), and Lineage 9 (East Africa).<ref name=":7" /> Animal-adapted lineages, including ''[[Mycobacterium bovis|M. bovis]]'' which infects cattle, evolved from human strains rather than the reverse, contradicting earlier theories about TB's origins.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":9" />

The discovery of ''M. tuberculosis'' Lineage 8 strains in East Africa, which retain genetic features seen in more ancestral mycobacteria but absent in other TB lineages, provides evidence for the ancient African origin of tuberculosis.<ref name=":7" />

=== Paleopathological evidence ===
The oldest confirmed paleopathological evidence of human tuberculosis dates to the [[Pre-Pottery Neolithic]] (10,000-11,000 years ago) in the Near East.<ref name=":8" /> Key early cases include remains from [[Dja'de el-Mughara|Dja'de el Mughara]] and [[Tell Aswad]] in Syria (8800-7600 BCE), [[Ayn Ghazal (archaeological site)|Ain Ghazal]] in Jordan (7250 BCE), and [[Atlit Yam]] in Israel (6200-5500 BCE), where molecular analyses confirmed the presence of TB DNA. In Europe, the earliest confirmed cases come from the [[Linear Pottery culture|Early Neolithic Linear Pottery]] culture sites in Germany (5400-4800 BCE).<ref name=":8" />

A controversial finding reported in 2014 based on DNA from 1,000-year-old skeletons in Peru suggested that tuberculosis might have been transmitted to humans from seals, possibly originating only 6,000 years ago.<ref name="nyt" /> However, subsequent research has challenged this interpretation. The Peruvian samples showed evidence of a TB strain related to ''M. pinnipedii'' (seal TB), but this represents a localized [[Zoonosis|zoonotic]] transfer specific to pre-colonial South America rather than the origin of human tuberculosis.<ref name=":7" /> These seal-derived strains infected coastal populations and spread inland but were eventually replaced by European strains of ''M. tuberculosis'' brought in by colonists.<ref name=":7" /> This finding represents an example of animal-to-human transmission, but does not contradict the evidence for much earlier human tuberculosis in Africa and Eurasia.

The limited [[Paleopathology|paleopathological]] evidence from the [[Upper Paleolithic]] (40,000-10,000 years ago) despite its importance in TB evolution represents a paradox.<ref name=":9" />This may be explained by the low population density of Paleolithic [[Hunter-gatherer|hunter-gatherers]], which would have limited TB transmission and skeletal signs, or by limitations in identifying ancient tuberculosis.<ref name=":9" />

=== Early evolution ===
Genomic research indicate that the emergence and spread of tuberculosis were not linked to [[Domestication of vertebrates|animal domestication]] during the Neolithic, but rather to human population dynamics.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /> The [[Neolithic demographic transition]] (with increased population density and sedentism) aided tuberculosis transmission and allowed it to become more widespread, but long before this, the pathogen had already become adapted to humans.<ref name=":7" />

The [[Coevolution|co-evolution]] between TB and humans is evidenced by the adaptation of different tuberculosis lineages to different human populations, reflecting geographical patterns of human migration and settlement.<ref name=":7" /> Genetic studies also show evidence of selection pressure exerted by tuberculosis on human populations, such as the changing frequency of TB susceptibility variants like TYK2 P1104A in Europeans over the past 2,000 years.<ref name=":7" />

Although relatively little is known about its frequency before the 19th century, its incidence is thought to have peaked between the end of the 18th century and the end of the 19th century. Over time, the various cultures of the world gave the illness different names: ''phthisis'' (Greek),<ref>{{LSJ|fqi/sis|φθίσις|ref}}.</ref> ''consumptio'' (Latin), ''yaksma'' (India), and ''chaky oncay'' (Incan), each of which make reference to the "drying" or "consuming" effect of the illness, [[cachexia]].

In the 19th century, TB's high mortality rate among young and middle-aged adults and the surge of [[Romanticism]], which stressed feeling over reason, caused many to refer to the disease as the "romantic disease".

==Early civilization==
{{external media | width = 210px | float = right | headerimage = [[File:Nofretete Neues Museum.jpg|210px]] | video1 = [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5grLXRuCQ1M Michael Carson ''Persistence of the White Plague, TB''], [[University of California, Irvine|UCI Open]], 50 minutes }}
In 2008, evidence for tuberculosis infection was discovered in human remains from the Neolithic era dating from 9,000 years ago, in [[Atlit Yam]], a settlement in the eastern Mediterranean.<ref name="Hershkovitz e3426">{{cite journal |last1=Hershkovitz |first1=Israel |last2=Donoghue |first2=Helen D. |last3=Minnikin |first3=David E. |last4=Besra |first4=Gurdyal S. |last5=Lee |first5=Oona Y.-C. |last6=Gernaey |first6=Angela M. |last7=Galili |first7=Ehud |last8=Eshed |first8=Vered |last9=Greenblatt |first9=Charles L. |last10=Lemma |first10=Eshetu |last11=Bar-Gal |first11=Gila Kahila |last12=Spigelman |first12=Mark |date=2008 |title=Detection and molecular characterization of 9,000-year-old Mycobacterium tuberculosis from a Neolithic settlement in the Eastern Mediterranean |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=3 |issue=10 |article-number=e3426 |bibcode=2008PLoSO...3.3426H |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0003426 |pmc=2565837 |pmid=18923677 |id={{CORE output|1683642}} {{Gale|A472574981}} |doi-access=free}}</ref> This finding was confirmed by morphological and molecular methods; to date it is the oldest evidence of tuberculosis infection in humans.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mousavi-Sagharchi |first1=Seyyed Mohammad Amin |last2=Ghorbani |first2=Atousa |last3=Meskini |first3=Maryam |last4=Siadat |first4=Seyed Davar |date=1 March 2025 |title=Historical examination of tuberculosis; from ancient affliction to modern challenges |journal=Journal of Infection and Public Health |volume=18 |issue=3 |article-number=102649 |doi=10.1016/j.jiph.2024.102649 |issn=1876-0341|doi-access=free |pmid=39826381 }}</ref>

Evidence of the infection in humans was also found in a cemetery near Heidelberg, in the [[Neolithic]] bone remains that show evidence of the type of angulation often seen with spinal tuberculosis.{{sfn|Madkour|2004|p=3}} Signs of the disease have also been found in Egyptian mummies dated between 3000 and 2400 BC.<ref>Zink 2003:359-67</ref> The most convincing case was found in the mummy of priest Nesperehen, discovered by Grebart in 1881, which featured evidence of spinal tuberculosis with the characteristic [[psoas major muscle|psoas]] abscesses.{{sfn|Madkour|2004|p=6}} Similar features were discovered on other mummies like that of the priest Philoc and throughout the cemeteries of [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]]. It appears likely that [[Akhenaten]] and his wife [[Nefertiti]] both died from tuberculosis, and evidence indicates that hospitals for tuberculosis existed in Egypt as early as 1500 BC.{{sfn|Madkour|2004|pp=11–12}}
The [[Ebers papyrus]], an important Egyptian medical treatise from around 1550 BC, describes a pulmonary consumption associated with the cervical lymph nodes. The [[Old Testament]] mentions a consumptive illness that would affect the Jewish people if they stray from God.

===Ancient India===
The first references to tuberculosis in non-European civilization is found in the [[Veda]]s. The oldest of them ([[Rigveda]], 1500 BC) calls the disease ''yaksma''.<ref>Zysk 1998:12</ref> The [[Atharvaveda]] called it ''balasa''. It is in the Atharvaveda that the first description of [[scrofula]] was given.<ref>Zysk 1998:32</ref> The ''[[Sushruta Samhita]]'', compiled during the period ca. 200 BCE - 500 CE,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Meulenbeld |first=G. Jan |url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/ocm42207455 |title=A history of Indian medical literature |date=1999 |publisher=E. Forsten |isbn=978-90-6980-124-7 |series=Groningen Oriental studies |location=Groningen |oclc=ocm42207455}}</ref> recommended that the disease be treated with breast milk, various meats, alcohol and rest.<ref name="ghose214">Ghose 2003:214</ref> The [[Yajurveda]] advised affected individuals to move to higher altitudes.<ref name="ghose214"/>

===Ancient China===
The [[Classical Chinese]] word ''lào'' [[wikt:癆|癆]] "consumption; tuberculosis" was the common name in [[traditional Chinese medicine]] and ''fèijiéhé'' [[wikt:肺結核|肺結核]] (lit. "lung knot kernel") "pulmonary tuberculosis" is the modern medical term. ''Lao'' is compounded in names like ''xulao'' [[wikt:虛|虛]]癆 with "empty; void", ''láobìng'' 癆[[wikt:病|病]] with "sickness", ''láozhài'' 癆[[wikt:瘵|瘵]] with "[archaic] sickness", and ''feilao'' [[wikt:肺|肺]]癆 with "lungs". Zhang and Unschuld explain that the medical term ''xulao'' 虛癆 "depletion exhaustion" includes infectious and consumptive pathologies, such as ''laozhai'' 癆瘵 "exhaustion with consumption" or ''laozhaichong'' 癆瘵蟲 "exhaustion consumption bugs/worms".<ref>2014: 586, 301–302.</ref> They retrospectively identify ''feilao'' 肺癆 "lung exhaustion" and infectious ''feilao chuanshi'' 肺癆傳尸 "lung exhaustion by corpse [evil] transmission as "consumption/tuberculosis".<ref>2014: 154.</ref> Describing foreign loanwords in early medical terminology, Zhang and Unschuld note the phonetic similarity between Chinese ''feixiao'' 肺消 (from [[Old Chinese]] ''**pʰot-ssew'') "lung consumption" and ancient Greek ''[[wikt:phthisis|phthisis]]'' "pulmonary tuberculosis".<ref>2014: 13.</ref>

The ''[[Huangdi Neijing]]'' classic Chinese medical text ({{circa|400 BCE}} – 260 CE), traditionally attributed to the mythical [[Yellow Emperor]], describes a disease believed to be tuberculosis, called ''xulao bing'' (虛癆病 "weak consumptive disease"), characterized by persistent cough, abnormal appearance, fever, a weak and fast pulse, chest obstructions, and shortness of breath.<ref>Elvin et al. 1998:521-2</ref>{{Verify source|date=July 2015}}

The ''Huangdi Neijing'' describes an incurable disease called ''huaifu'' 壞府 "bad palace", which commentators interpret as tuberculous. "As for a string which is cut, its sound is hoarse. As for wood which has become old, its leaves are shed. As for a disease which is in the depth [of the body], the sound it [generates] is hiccup. When a man has these three [states], this is called 'destroyed palace'. Toxic drugs do not bring a cure; short needles cannot seize [the disease].<ref>25-158, tr. Unschuld and Tessenow 2001: 420–421.</ref> Wang Bing's commentary explains that ''fu'' 府 "palace" stands for ''xiong'' 胸 "chest", and ''huai'' "destroy" implies "injure the palace and seize the disease". The ''Huangdi Neijing'' compiler Yang Shangshan notes, "The [disease] proposed here very much resembles tuberculosis ... Hence [the text] states: poisonous drugs bring no cure; it cannot be seized with short needles."<ref>tr. 2001: 421.</ref>

The ''[[Shennong Bencaojing]]'' pharmacopeia ({{circa|200}}–250 CE), attributed to the legendary inventor of agriculture [[Shennong]] "Divine Farmer", also refers to tuberculosis<ref>Yang 1998:xiii</ref>

The ''Zhouhou beiji fang'' 肘后备急方 "Handbook of Prescriptions for Emergencies", attributed to the Daoist scholar [[Ge Hong]] (263–420), uses the name of ''shizhu'' 尸疰 "corpse disease; tuberculosis" and describes the symptoms and contagion: {{blockquote|"This disease has many changing symptoms varying from thirty-six to ninety-nine different kinds. Generally it gives rise to a high fever, sweating, asthenia, unlocalised pains, making all positions difficult. Gradually, after months and years of suffering, this lingering disease brings about death to the sufferer. Afterwards it is transferred to others until the whole family is wiped out."<ref>1/17a-b, tr. Liu 1971: 298.</ref>
}}
[[Song dynasty]] (920–1279) Daoist priest-doctors first recorded that tuberculosis, called ''shīzhài'' 尸瘵 (lit. "corpse disease") "disease which changes a living being into a corpse",<ref>tr. Liu 1971: 287.</ref> was caused by a specific parasite or pathogen, centuries earlier than their contemporaries in other countries. The ''Duanchu shizhai pin'' 斷除尸瘵品 "On the Extermination of the Corpse Disease" is the 23rd chapter in Daoist collection ''Wushang xuanyuan santian Yutang dafa'' 無上玄元三天玉堂大法 "Great Rites of the Jade Hall of the Three Heavens of the Supreme Mysterious Origins" (''[[Daozang]]'' number 103). The text has a preface dated 1126, written by the Song dynasty [[Zhengyi Dao]] master Lu Shizhong 路時中, who founded the Yutang dafa 玉堂大法 tradition, but internal evidence reveals that the text could not have been written before 1158.<ref>Liu 1971: 287–8.</ref>
{{blockquote|The disaster of the contagious disease, which changes a living being into a corpse, is caused by the infectious [nature] of the nine [kinds of] parasites (''ch'ung'' 蟲). It is also caused by overworking one's mind and exhausting one's energy, injuring one's ''ch'i'' and loosening one's sperm—all of which happen to common folk. When the original vitality is being [gradually] exhausted, the evil aura begins to be transmitted through the affected vital ''ch'i'' [of the sick body]. ... The aspects of the illness vary, and the causes of contamination are different. Rooms and food are capable of gradual contamination, and the clothes worn by the indisposed are twined easily with the infectious ''ch'i'' and these two become inseparable. ... The symptoms of the disease: When it begins, the sufferer coughs and pants; he spits blood [pulmonary hemorrhage]; he is emaciated and skinny; cold and fever affect him intermittently, and his dreams are morbid. This is the evidence that this person is suffering from the disease which is also known as ''wu-ch'uan'' 屋傳 [contagious disease contracted from a sick-room]. ... The disease may be contracted by a healthy person who happens to have slept in the same bed with the patient, or worn his clothes. After the death of the sufferer, the clothes, curtains, bed or couch, vessels and utensils used by him are known to have been contaminated by and saturated with the polluted ''ch'i'' in which the noxious ''ku'' 蠱 [parasites or germs] take their abode. Stingy people wish to keep them for further use, and the poorer families cannot afford to get rid of them and buy everything anew. Isn't this lamentable, since it creates the cause of the great misfortune yet to come!<ref>23/1a-b, tr. Liu 1971: 288.</ref>}}
This passage refers to the cause of TB in ancient medical terminology of ''jiuchong'' 九蟲 "Nine Worms" and ''[[Gu (poison)|gu]]'' 蠱 "supernatural agents causing disease", and ''[[qi]]''. The Nine Worms generically meant "bodily parasites; intestinal worms" and were associated with the ''sanshi'' 三尸 "[[Three Corpses]]" or ''sanchong'' 三蟲 "Three Worms", which were believed to be biospiritual parasites that live in the human body and seek to hasten their host's death.
Daoist medical texts give different lists and descriptions of the Nine Worms. The ''Boji fang'' 博濟方 "Prescriptions for Universal Dispensation", collected by Wang Gun王袞 (fl. 1041), calls the supposed TB pathogen ''laochong'' 癆蟲 "tuberculosis worms".<ref>Liu 1971: 200.</ref>

This ''Duanchu shizhai pin'' chapter (23/7b-8b) explains that the present Nine Worms does not refer to the intestinal ''weichong'' 胃蟲 "stomach worms", ''huichong'' 蛔蟲 "coiling worm; [[roundworm]]", or ''cun baichong'' 寸白蟲 "inch-long white worm; [[nematode]]", and says the supposed six TB worms are "six kinds" of parasites, but the next chapter (24/20a-21b) says they are "six stages/generations" of reproduction.<ref>Liu 1971: 290.</ref> Daoist priests allegedly cured tuberculosis through drugs, acupuncture, and burning ''[[fulu]]'' "supernatural talismans/charms". Burning magic talismans would cause the TB patient to cough, which was considered an effective treatment.
{{blockquote|To cure the disease, it is necessary to produce a spout of smoke by burning off thirty-six charms, and instruct the patient to inhale and to swallow up its fumes, whether he likes it or not. By the time all charms are used up, the smoke should also be dispersed. It may be difficult for the patient to bear the odour of the smoke at first, but once he gets used to such a smell, it does not really matter. Whenever the patient feels that there is phlegm in his throat, he is advised to cough and spit it out. If the patient is greatly affected by the symptoms, it will be good if his spittle is thick and if he can spit it out. When the patient is less affected by the wicked ''ch'i'', he does not have much phlegm to eject, but if he is deeply affected, he tends to vomit and to expectorate heavily until everything is cleared up, and then his illness is cured. When the wicked element is rooted out, it does not need to be fumigated any more [with charms].<ref>tr. Liu 1971: 289.</ref>}}
In addition, Daoist healers would burn talismans in order to fumigate the clothes and belongings of the deceased, and would warn the tuberculosis patient's family to throw away everything into a ''changliu shui'' 長流水 "everflowing stream". According to Liu Ts'un-yan,<ref>1971: 289.</ref> "This proves that the priests of the time actually wanted to destroy all the belongings of the deceased, using charms as a camouflage."

===Classical antiquity===
[[File:Hippocrates Light.JPG|thumb|left|Hippocrates]]

[[Hippocrates]], in his ''Of the Epidemics,'' describes the characteristics of the disease: fever, colourless urine, cough resulting in a thick sputa, and loss of thirst and appetite. He notes that most of those affected became delirious before they died<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Internet Classics Archive {{!}} Of the Epidemics by Hippocrates |url=http://classics.mit.edu/Hippocrates/epidemics.1.i.html |access-date=8 August 2025 |website=classics.mit.edu}}</ref> Hippocrates and many other at the time believed phthisis to be hereditary in nature.{{sfn|Herzog|1998|p=5}} Aristotle disagreed, believing the disease was contagious.

[[Pliny the Younger]] wrote a letter to Priscus in which he details the symptoms of phthisis as he saw them in [[Fannia]]:

{{blockquote|The attacks of fever stick to her, her cough grows upon her, she is in the highest degree emaciated and enfeebled.|Pliny the Younger|Letters VII, 19}}

[[Galen]] proposed a series of therapeutic treatments for the disease, including: [[opium]] as a sleeping agent and painkiller; [[blood letting]]; a diet of barley water, fish, and fruit. He also described the phyma (tumor) of the lungs, which is thought to correspond to the tubercles that form on the lung as a result of the disease.<ref>McClelland 1909:403–404</ref>

[[Vitruvius]] noted that "cold in the windpipe, cough, plurisy, phthisis, [and] spitting blood", were common diseases in regions where the wind blew from north to northwest, and advised that walls be so built as to shelter individuals from the winds.<ref>Vitruvius, ''On Architecture'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Vitruvius/1*.html#6.3 1.6.3]</ref>

[[Aretaeus]] was the first person to rigorously describe the symptoms of the disease in his text ''De causis et signis diuturnorum morborum'':<ref>Aretaeus, ''De causis et signis diuturnorum morborum'' [http://www.chlt.org/sandbox/dh/aretaeusEnglish/page.63.a.php?size=240x320 On Phthisis]</ref>

{{blockquote|Voice hoarse; neck slightly bent, tender, not flexible, somewhat extended; fingers slender, but joints thick; of the bones alone the figure remains, for the fleshy parts are wasted; the nails of the fingers crooked, their pulps are shrivelled and flat...Nose sharp, slender; cheeks prominent and red; eyes hollow, brilliant and glittering; swollen, pale or livid in countenance; the slender parts of the jaws rest on the teeth as, as if smiling; otherwise of cadaverous aspect...|''De causis et signis diuturnorum morborum''|Aretaeus, translated by Francis Adams}}

===Pre-Columbian America===
In South America, reports of a study in August 2014 revealed that TB had likely been spread via seals that contracted it on beaches of Africa, from humans via domesticated animals, and carried it across the Atlantic. A team at the [[University of Tübingen]] analyzed tuberculosis DNA in 1,000-year-old skeletons of the [[Chiribaya culture]] in southern Peru; so much genetic material was recovered that they could reconstruct the genome. They learned that this TB strain was related most closely to a form found only in seals.<ref name="nyt">[https://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/21/science/tuberculosis-is-newer-than-what-was-thought-study-says.html Carl Zimmer, "Tuberculosis Is Newer Than Thought, Study Says"], ''New York Times'', 21 August 2014</ref> In South America, it was likely contracted first by hunters who handled contaminated meat. This TB is a different strain from that prevalent today in the Americas, which is more closely related to a later Eurasian strain.<ref name="NPR">{{cite news |last1=Doucleff |first1=Michaeleen |date=21 August 2014 |title=Sea Lions And Seals Likely Spread Tuberculosis To Ancient Peruvians |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2014/08/21/341930621/sea-lions-and-seals-swam-tuberculosis-to-ancient-peruvians |work=NPR}}</ref><ref name=BosNature2014>{{cite journal |display-authors=4 |last1=Bos |first1=Kirsten I. |last2=Harkins |first2=Kelly M. |last3=Herbig |first3=Alexander |last4=Coscolla |first4=Mireia |last5=Weber |first5=Nico |last6=Comas |first6=Iñaki |last7=Forrest |first7=Stephen A. |last8=Bryant |first8=Josephine M. |last9=Harris |first9=Simon R. |last10=Schuenemann |first10=Verena J. |last11=Campbell |first11=Tessa J. |last12=Majander |first12=Kerttu |last13=Wilbur |first13=Alicia K. |last14=Guichon |first14=Ricardo A. |last15=Wolfe Steadman |first15=Dawnie L. |last16=Cook |first16=Della Collins |last17=Niemann |first17=Stefan |last18=Behr |first18=Marcel A. |last19=Zumarraga |first19=Martin |last20=Bastida |first20=Ricardo |last21=Huson |first21=Daniel |last22=Nieselt |first22=Kay |last23=Young |first23=Douglas |last24=Parkhill |first24=Julian |last25=Buikstra |first25=Jane E. |last26=Gagneux |first26=Sebastien |last27=Stone |first27=Anne C. |last28=Krause |first28=Johannes |title=Pre-Columbian mycobacterial genomes reveal seals as a source of New World human tuberculosis |journal=Nature |date=October 2014 |volume=514 |issue=7523 |pages=494–497 |doi=10.1038/nature13591 |pmid=25141181 |pmc=4550673 |bibcode=2014Natur.514..494B }}</ref>

Prior to this study, the first evidence of the disease in South America was found in remains of the [[Arawak]] culture around 1050 BC.<ref name="prat153">Prat 2003:153</ref> The most significant finding belongs to the mummy of an 8- to 10-year-old Nascan child from Hacienda Agua Sala, dated to 700 AD. Scientists were able to isolate evidence of the bacillus.<ref name="prat153"/>

==Europe: Middle Ages and Renaissance==
During the Middle Ages, no significant advances were made regarding tuberculosis. [[Avicenna]] and [[Rhazes]] continued to consider the disease both contagious and difficult to treat. [[Arnaldus de Villa Nova]] described etiopathogenic theory directly related to that of Hippocrates, in which a cold humor dripped from the head into the lungs.

In [[Medieval]] [[Hungary]], the Inquisition recorded the trials of pagans. A document from the 12th century recorded an explanation of the cause of illness. The pagans said that tuberculosis was produced when a dog-shaped demon occupied the person's body and started to eat his lungs. When the possessed person coughed, then the demon was barking, and getting close to his objective, which was to kill the victim.<ref>Radloff: "Bussgebete" stb. 874. 1 jegyzet.</ref>

===Royal touch===
[[File:Henri IV touche les escrouelles.jpg|thumb|Henry IV of France touching numerous sickly individuals during the ceremony of the "royal touch". The original caption reads: ''Des mirabili strumas sanandi vi solis Galliae regibus christianissimis divinitus concessa liber unus''.]]
{{main|Royal touch}}
Monarchs were seen as religious figures with magical or curative powers. It was believed that [[royal touch]], the touch of the [[sovereign]] of England or France, could cure diseases due to the [[divine right of kings|divine right of sovereigns]].<ref name="Mau87">Maulitz and Maulitz 1973:87</ref> King [[Henry IV of France]] usually performed the rite once a week, after taking communion.<ref name="Dang231">Dang 2001:231</ref> So common was this practice of royal healing in France, that [[scrofula]] became known as the "''mal du roi''" or the "King's Evil".

Initially, the touching ceremony was an informal process. Sickly individuals could petition the court for a royal touch and the touch would be performed at the King's earliest convenience. At times, the [[King of France]] would touch affected subjects during his royal walkabout. The rapid spread of tuberculosis across France and England, however, necessitated a more formal and efficient touching process. By the time of [[Louis XIV]] of France, placards indicating the days and times the King would be available for royal touches were posted regularly; sums of money were doled out as charitable support.<ref name="Dang231"/><ref name="Auf129">Aufderheide 1998:129</ref> In England, the process was extremely formal and efficient. As late as 1633, the [[Book of Common Prayer]] of the [[Anglican Church]] contained a Royal Touch ceremony.<ref>{{cite news | last = Mitchinson | first = John |author2=Molly Oldfield | title = QI: Quite Interesting facts about Kings | work = Telegraph.co.uk | date = 9 January 2009 | url= https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/qi/4176490/QI-Quite-interesting-facts-about-Kings.html | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090125130813/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/qi/4176490/QI-Quite-interesting-facts-about-Kings.html | archive-date= 25 January 2009 | access-date = 23 December 2009}}</ref> The [[monarch]] (king or queen), sitting upon a canopied throne, touched the affected individual, and presented that individual with a [[coin]] – usually an [[Angel (coin)|Angel]], a gold coin the value of which varied from about 6 [[shillings]] to about 10 shillings – by pressing it against the affected's neck.<ref name="Dang231"/>

Although the ceremony was of no medical value, members of the royal courts often propagandized that those receiving the royal touch were miraculously healed. [[André du Laurens]], the senior physician of Henry IV, publicized findings that at least half of those that received the royal touch were cured within a few days.<ref>Gosman 2004:140</ref> The royal touch remained popular into the 18th century. Parish registers from [[Oxfordshire]], England include not only records of baptisms, marriages, and deaths, but also records of those eligible for the royal touch.<ref name="Mau87"/>

===Contagion===
[[Girolamo Fracastoro]] became the first person to propose, in his work ''De contagione'' in 1546, that phthisis was transmitted by an invisible ''virus''. Among his assertions were that the ''virus'' could survive between ''two or three years'' on the clothes of those with the disease and that it was usually transmitted through direct contact or the discharged fluids of the infected, what he called ''fomes''. He noted that phthisis could be contracted without either direct contact or fomes, but was unsure of the process by which the disease propagated across distances.{{sfn|Brock|1999|p=72}}

===Paracelsus's tartaric process===
[[Paracelsus]] advanced the belief that tuberculosis was caused by a failure of an internal organ to accomplish its alchemical duties. When this occurred in the lungs, stony precipitates would develop causing tuberculosis in what he called the ''tartaric'' process.<ref>Debus 2001:13</ref>

==Seventeenth and eighteenth centuries==
[[Franciscus Sylvius]] began differentiating between the various forms of tuberculosis (pulmonary, ganglion). He was the first person to recognize that the skin ulcers caused by scrofula resembled tubercles seen in phthisis,<ref name="anc549">Ancell 1852:549</ref> noting that "phthisis is the scrofula of the lung" in his book ''Opera Medica'', published posthumously in 1679. Around the same time, [[Thomas Willis]] concluded that all diseases of the chest must ultimately lead to consumption.<ref>Waksman 1964:34</ref> Willis did not know the exact cause of the disease but he blamed it on sugar<ref>Macinnis 2002:165</ref> or an acidity of the blood.<ref name="anc549"/> [[Richard Morton (physician)|Richard Morton]] published ''Phthisiologia, seu exercitationes de Phthisi tribus libris comprehensae'' in 1689, in which he emphasized the tubercle as the true cause of the disease. So common was the disease at the time that Morton is quoted as saying "I cannot sufficiently admire that anyone, at least after he comes to the flower of his youth, can {{sic}} dye without a touch of consumption."<ref>Otis 1920:28</ref>

In 1720, [[Benjamin Marten]] proposed in ''A New Theory of Consumptions more Especially of Phthisis or Consumption of the Lungs'' that the cause of tuberculosis was some type of ''animalcula''—microscopic living beings that are able to survive in a new body (similar to the ones described by [[Anton van Leeuwenhoek]] in 1695).<ref>Daniel 2000:8</ref> The theory was roundly rejected and it took another 162 years before Robert Koch demonstrated it to be true.

In 1768, [[Robert Whytt]] gave the first clinical description of tuberculosis meningitis<ref>Whytt 1768:46</ref> and, in 1779, [[Percivall Pott]], an English surgeon, described the vertebral lesions that carry his name.<ref name="Auf129" /> In 1761, [[Leopold Auenbrugger]], an Austrian physician, developed the percussion method of diagnosing tuberculosis,<ref name="Dan45">Daniel 2000:45</ref> a method rediscovered some years later in 1797 by [[Jean-Nicolas Corvisart]] of France. After finding it useful, Corvisart made it readily available to the academic community by translating it into French.{{sfn|Dubos|Dubos|1987|p=79}}

[[William Stark (physician)|William Stark]] proposed that ordinary lung tubercles could eventually evolve into ulcers and cavities, believing that the different forms of tuberculosis were simply different manifestations of the same disease. Unfortunately, Stark died at the age of 30 (while studying [[scurvy]]) and his observations were discounted.{{sfn|Dubos|Dubos|1987|p=83}} In his ''Systematik de speziellen Pathologie und Therapie'', [[Johann Lukas Schönlein|J. L. Schönlein]], Professor of Medicine in Zurich, proposed that the word "tuberculosis" be used to describe the condition of tubercles.{{sfn|Dubos|Dubos|1987|p=84}}{{sfn|Herzog|1998|p=7}}

The incidence of tuberculosis grew progressively during the Middle Ages and Renaissance, displacing [[leprosy]], peaking between the 18th and 19th century as field workers moved to the cities looking for work.<ref name="Auf129"/> When he released his study in 1808, William Woolcombe was astonished at the prevalence of tuberculosis in 18th-century England.{{sfn|Chalke|1959|p=92}} Of the 1,571 deaths in the English city of [[Bristol]] between 1790 and 1796, 683 were due to tuberculosis.{{sfn|Chalke|1959|pp=92–93}} Remote towns, initially isolated from the disease, slowly succumbed. The consumption deaths in the village of Holycross in [[Shropshire]] between 1750 and 1759 were one in six (1:6); ten years later, 1:3. In the metropolis of London, 1:7 died from consumption at the dawn of the 18th century, by 1750 that proportion grew to 1:5.25 and surged to 1:4.2 by around the start of the 19th century.{{sfn|Chalke|1959|p=93}} The [[Industrial Revolution]] coupled with poverty and squalor created the optimal environment for the propagation of the disease.

==Nineteenth century==

In the 18th and 19th century, tuberculosis (TB) had become [[epidemic]] in Europe, showing a seasonal pattern.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Frith|first=John|title=History of Tuberculosis. Part 1 – Phthisis, consumption and the White Plague|url=https://jmvh.org/article/history-of-tuberculosis-part-1-phthisis-consumption-and-the-white-plague/|access-date=26 February 2021|website=Journal of Military and Veterans' Health}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{cite journal |last1=Daniel |first1=Thomas M. |title=The history of tuberculosis |journal=Respiratory Medicine |date=November 2006 |volume=100 |issue=11 |pages=1862–1870 |doi=10.1016/j.rmed.2006.08.006 |pmid=16949809 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Barberis|first1=I.|last2=Bragazzi|first2=N.L.|last3=Galluzzo|first3=L.|last4=Martini|first4=M.|date=March 2017|title=The history of tuberculosis: from the first historical records to the isolation of Koch's bacillus|journal=Journal of Preventive Medicine and Hygiene|volume=58|issue=1|pages=E9–E12 |pmc=5432783|pmid=28515626}}</ref><ref name=":5" /> In the 18th century, TB had a mortality rate as high as 900 deaths (800–1000) per 100,000 population per year in [[Western Europe]], including in places like London, [[Stockholm]] and [[Hamburg]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> A similar death rate occurred in North America.<ref name=":2" /> In the United Kingdom, epidemic TB may have peaked around 1750, as suggested by mortality data.<ref name=":5">{{cite journal |last1=Zürcher |first1=Kathrin |last2=Zwahlen |first2=Marcel |last3=Ballif |first3=Marie |last4=Rieder |first4=Hans L. |last5=Egger |first5=Matthias |last6=Fenner |first6=Lukas |title=Influenza Pandemics and Tuberculosis Mortality in 1889 and 1918: Analysis of Historical Data from Switzerland |journal=PLOS ONE |date=5 October 2016 |volume=11 |issue=10 |article-number=e0162575 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0162575 |pmc=5051959 |pmid=27706149 |bibcode=2016PLoSO..1162575Z |doi-access=free }}</ref>

In the 19th century, TB killed about a quarter of the adult population of Europe.<ref>{{cite journal |id={{Gale|A339253768}} |last1=Saleem |first1=Amer |last2=Azher |first2=Mohammed |title=The next pandemic--tuberculosis: the oldest disease of mankind rising one more time |journal=British Journal of Medical Practitioners |date=June 2013 |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=21–29 }}</ref> In western continental Europe, epidemic TB may have peaked in the first half of the 19th century.<ref name=":5" /> In addition, between 1851 and 1910, around four million died from TB in England and Wales – more than one third of those aged 15 to 34 and half of those aged 20 to 24 died from TB.<ref name=":0" /> By the late 19th century, 70–90% of the urban populations of Europe and North America were infected with the ''[[Mycobacterium tuberculosis]]'', and about 80% of those individuals who developed active TB died of it.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Tuberculosis in Europe and North America, 1800-1922|url=https://curiosity.lib.harvard.edu/contagion/feature/tuberculosis-in-europe-and-north-america-1800-1922|access-date=26 February 2021|website=Harvard University Library|date=26 March 2020 |language=en}}</ref> However, mortality rates began declining in the late 19th century throughout Europe and the United States.<ref name=":1" />

At the time, tuberculosis was called ''the robber of youth,'' because the disease had higher death rate among young people.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" /> Other names included ''the'' ''Great White Plague'' and ''the White Death'', where the "white" was due to the extreme [[anaemic]] pallor of those infected.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Daniel|first=Thomas M.|url=https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/400512|title=Captain of death: the story of tuberculosis|date=1997|publisher=University of Rochester Press|isbn=978-1-878822-96-3|location=Rochester, NY, USA}}</ref> In addition, TB has been called by many as the "Captain of All These Men of Death".<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rubin |first1=Sanford A. |title=Tuberculosis. Captain of all these men of death |journal=Radiologic Clinics of North America |date=July 1995 |volume=33 |issue=4 |pages=619–639 |doi=10.1016/S0033-8389(22)00609-1 |pmid=7610235 }}</ref>

[[File:Anton Pavlovich Chekhov.jpg|left|thumb|The [[Russians|Russian]] writer [[Anton Chekhov]], who died of tuberculosis in 1904]]

It was during this century that tuberculosis was dubbed the White Plague,{{sfn|Madkour|2004|p=20}} ''mal de vivre'', and ''mal du siècle''. It was seen as a "romantic disease". Individuals with tuberculosis were thought to have heightened sensitivity. The slow progress of the disease allowed for a "good death" as those affected could arrange their affairs.<ref>Bourdelais 2006:15</ref> The disease began to represent spiritual purity and temporal wealth, leading many young, upper-class women to purposefully pale their skin to achieve the consumptive appearance. British poet [[Lord Byron]] wrote, "I should like to die from consumption", helping to popularize the disease as the disease of artists.<ref>Yancey 2007:18</ref> [[George Sand]] doted on her phthisic lover, [[Frédéric Chopin]], calling him her "poor melancholy angel".<ref name="Dan1864">Daniel 2006:1864</ref>

In France, at least five novels were published expressing the ideals of tuberculosis: Dumas's ''[[La Dame aux camélias]]'', Murger's ''[[Scènes de la vie de Bohème]]'', Hugo's ''[[Les Misérables]]'', the [[Goncourt brothers]]' ''Madame Gervaisais'' and ''Germinie Lacerteux'', and Rostand's ''[[L'Aiglon]]''. The portrayals by Dumas and Murger in turn inspired operatic depictions of consumption in Verdi's ''[[La traviata]]'' and Puccini's ''[[La bohème]]''. Even after medical knowledge of the disease had accumulated, the redemptive-spiritual perspective of the disease has remained popular<ref>Barnes 1995:51</ref> (as seen in the 2001 film [[Moulin Rouge!|''Moulin Rouge'']] based in part on ''La traviata''; the 2013 film ''[[The Wind Rises]]'', based in part on a 1937 novel about tuberculosis, the [[Les Misérables (musical)|musical adaptations]] of ''Les Misérables''; and in the 2018 video game ''[[Red Dead Redemption 2]]'').

In large cities the poor had high rates of tuberculosis. Public-health physicians and politicians typically blamed both the poor themselves and their ramshackle tenement houses (conventillos) for the spread of the dreaded disease. People ignored public-health campaigns to limit the spread of contagious diseases, such as the prohibition of spitting on the streets, the strict guidelines to care for infants and young children, and quarantines that separated families from ill loved ones.<ref>Diego Armus, ''The Ailing City: Health, Tuberculosis, and Culture in Buenos Aires, 1870–1950'' (2011)</ref>

===Scientific advances===
Though removed from the cultural movement, the scientific understanding advanced considerably. By the end of the 19th century, several major breakthroughs gave hope that a cause and cure might be found.

One of the most important physicians dedicated to the study of phthisiology was [[René Laennec]], who died from the disease at the age of 45, after contracting tuberculosis while studying contagious patients and infected bodies.<ref>Daniel 2000:60</ref> Laennec invented the [[stethoscope]]<ref name="Dan45"/> which he used to corroborate his auscultatory findings and prove the correspondence between the pulmonary lesions found on the lungs of autopsied tuberculosis patients and the respiratory symptoms seen in living patients. His most important work was ''Traité de l'Auscultation Médiate'' which detailed his discoveries on the utility of pulmonary auscultation in diagnosing tuberculosis. This book was promptly translated into English by [[John Forbes (physician)|John Forbes]] in 1821; it represents the beginning of the modern scientific understanding of tuberculosis.<ref name="Dan1864"/> Laennec was named professional chair of [[Hôpital Necker]] in September 1816 and today he is considered the greatest French clinician.<ref>Daniel 2000:44</ref><ref>Ackerknecht 1982:151</ref>

Laennec's work put him in contact with the vanguard of the French medical establishment, including [[Pierre Charles Alexandre Louis]]. Louis would go on to use statistical methods to evaluate the different aspects of the disease's progression, the efficacy of various therapies and individuals' susceptibility, publishing an article in the ''Annales d'hygiène publique'' entitled "Note on the Relative Frequency of Phthisis in the Two Sexes".<ref>Barnes 1995:39</ref> Another good friend and co-worker of Laennec, [[Gaspard Laurent Bayle]], published an article in 1810 entitled ''Recherches sur la Pthisie Pulmonaire'', in which he divided pthisis into six types: tubercular phthisis, glandular phthisis, ulcerous phthisis, phthisis with melanosis, calculous phthisis, and cancerous phthisis. He based his findings on more than 900 autopsies.{{sfn|Madkour|2004|p=20}}<ref>Porter 2006:154</ref>

In 1869, [[Jean Antoine Villemin]] demonstrated that the disease was indeed contagious, conducting an experiment in which tuberculous matter from human cadavers was injected into laboratory rabbits, which then became infected.<ref>Barnes 1995:41</ref>

On 24 March 1882, Robert Koch revealed the disease was caused by an infectious agent.<ref name="Dan1864"/> In 1895, [[Wilhelm Röntgen]] discovered the X-ray, which allowed physicians to diagnose and track the progression of the disease,<ref>Shorter 1991:88</ref> and although an effective medical treatment would not come for another fifty years, the incidence and mortality of tuberculosis began to decline.<ref>Aufderheide 1998:130</ref>

{| cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" align="center"
|colspan="4"|19th-century tuberculosis mortality rate for New York and New Orleans<ref>Daniel 2004:159</ref>
|
|
|----
|
|
|colspan="2" style="border-bottom:1px solid black;" align="center"|Deaths/Year/1000 people
|----
|style="border-bottom:1px solid black;"|Year
|style="border-bottom:1px solid black;"|Population
|style="border-bottom:1px solid black;"|White people
|style="border-bottom:1px solid black;"|Black people
|----
|1821
|New York City
|5.3
|9.6
|----
|1830
|New York City
|4.4
|12.0
|----
|1844
|New York City
|3.6
|8.2
|----
|1849
|New Orleans
|4.9
|5.2
|----
|1855
|New York City
|3.1
|12.0
|----
|1860
|New York City
|2.4
|6.7
|----
|1865
|New York City
|2.8
|6.7
|----
|1880
|New Orleans
|3.3
|6.0
|----
|1890
|New Orleans
|2.5
|5.9
|----
|}

===Robert Koch===
[[File:RobertKoch cropped.jpg|thumb|right|[[Robert Koch]], a [[Prussia|Prussian]] physician, discovered the cause of tuberculosis.]]
Villemin's experiments had confirmed the contagious nature of the disease and had forced the medical community to accept that tuberculosis was indeed an infectious disease, transmitted by some etiological agent of unknown origin. In 1882, Prussian physician [[Robert Koch]] utilized a new staining method and applied it to the sputum of tuberculosis patients, revealing for the first time the causal agent of the disease: ''Mycobacterium tuberculosis'', or Koch's bacillus.{{sfn|Brock|1998|p=120}}

When he began his investigation, Koch knew of the work of Villemin and others who had continued his experiments like Julius Conheim and Carl Salmosen. He also had access to the "pthisis ward" at the Berlin Charité Hospital.{{sfn|Brock|1998|p=118}} Before he confronted the problem of tuberculosis, he worked with the disease caused by anthrax and had discovered the causal agent to be ''Bacillus anthracis''. During this investigation he became friends with Ferdinand Cohn, the director of the Institute of Vegetable Physiology. Together they worked to develop methods of culturing tissue samples. 18 August 1881, while staining tuberculous material with [[methylene blue]], he noticed oblong structures, though he was not able to ascertain whether it was just a result of the coloring. To improve the contrast, he decided to add [[Bismarck brown Y|Bismarck Brown]], after which the oblong structures were rendered bright and transparent. He improved the technique by varying the concentration of alkali in the staining solution until the ideal viewing conditions for the bacilli was achieved.

After numerous attempts he was able to incubate the bacteria in [[coagulated blood serum]] at 37 degrees Celsius. He then inoculated laboratory rabbits with the bacteria and observed that they died while exhibiting symptoms of tuberculosis, proving that the bacillus, which he named ''tuberculosis bacillus'', was in fact the cause of tuberculosis.<ref name="Ati">Koch 1882</ref>

He made his result public at the [[Physiological Society of Berlin]] on 24 March 1882, in a famous lecture entitled ''Über Tuberculose'', which was published three weeks later. Since 1882, 24 March has been known as [[World Tuberculosis Day]].<ref>Yancey 2007:1982</ref>

On 20 April 1882, Koch presented an article entitled ''Die Ätiologie der Tuberculose'' in which he demonstrated that ''Mycobacterium'' was the single cause of tuberculosis in all of its forms.<ref name="Ati"/>

In 1890 Koch developed [[tuberculin]], a purified protein derivative of the bacteria.<ref>Magner 2002:273</ref> Data on experimental inquiry published in Deutsche Landwirthschafts-Zeitung provided immediate practical industry benefits in the form of the [[Tuberculin test]] as an aide to [[Medical diagnosis|diagnosis]] in both sick and healthy cattle.<ref>''Tuberculosis In European Countries'', The Times, 25 February 1895</ref> Tuberculin proved to be an ineffective means of immunization but in 1908, [[Charles Mantoux]] found it was an effective [[intradermic test]] for diagnosing tuberculosis.{{sfn|Madkour|2004|p=49}}{{sfn|Kolchinsky|2013}}

{{blockquote|If the importance of a disease for mankind is measured from the number of fatalities which are due to it, then tuberculosis must be considered much more important than those most feared infectious diseases, plague, cholera, and the like. Statistics have shown that 1/7 of all humans die of tuberculosis.|''Die Ätiologie der Tuberculose''|Robert Koch (1882)}}

===Sanatorium movement===
[[File:1950 Census Enumeration District Maps - Puerto Rico (PR) - Aibonito Municipality, Tuberculosis Sanatorium.jpg|thumb|1950 Census Enumeration District Map of Aibonito, Puerto Rico, United States, indicating a "Tuberculosis Sanatorium" to be a special (Census) enumeration area]]
The advancement of scientific understanding of tuberculosis, and its contagious nature created the need for institutions to house affected individuals.

The first proposal for a tuberculosis facility was made in paper by [[George Bodington]] entitled ''An essay on the treatment and cure of pulmonary consumption, on principles natural, rational and successful'' in 1840. In this paper, he proposed a dietary, rest, and medical care program for a hospital he planned to found in [[Maney]].<ref>Bodington 1840</ref> Attacks from numerous medical experts, especially articles in ''The Lancet'', disheartened Bodington and he turned to plans for housing the insane.{{sfn|Dubos|Dubos|1987|p=177}}

[[Hermann Brehmer]], a German physician, was convinced that tuberculosis arose from the difficulty of the heart to correctly irrigate the lungs. He therefore proposed that regions well above sea level, where the atmospheric pressure was less, would help the heart function more effectively. With the encouragement of explorer [[Alexander von Humboldt]] and his teacher [[Johann Lukas Schönlein|J. L. Schönlein]], the first anti-tuberculosis sanatorium was established in 1854, 650 meters above sea level, at [[Sokołowsko#History|Görbersdorf]].{{sfn|Dubos|Dubos|1987|pp=175–176}} Three years later he published his findings in a book ''Die chronische Lungenschwindsucht und Tuberkulose der Lunge: Ihre Ursache und ihre Heilung''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brehmer |first=Herrmann |url=https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/details/bsb10470952 |title=Die chronische Lungenschwindsucht und Tuberkulose der Lunge |publisher=Verlag von Th. Chr. Fr. Enslin (Adolph Enslin) |year=1869 |location=Berlin}}</ref>

Brehmer and one of his patients, [[Peter Dettweiler]], became proponents for the sanatorium movement, and by 1877, sanatoriums began to spread beyond Germany and throughout Europe. Dr. [[Edward Livingston Trudeau]] subsequently founded the [[Adirondack Cottage Sanitorium]] in [[Saranac Lake, New York]] in 1884. One of Trudeau's early patients was author [[Robert Louis Stevenson]]; his fame helped establish Saranac Lake as a center for the treatment of tuberculosis. In 1894, after a fire destroyed Trudeau's small home laboratory, he organized the Saranac Laboratory for the Study of Tuberculosis; renamed the [[Trudeau Institute]], the laboratory continues to study infectious diseases.<ref>Donaldson, Alfred L., ''A History of the Adirondacks'', Century Co., New York 1921 (reprinted by Purple Mountain Press, Fleischmanns, NY, 1992), pp. 243–265</ref>

Peter Dettweiler went on to found his own sanatorium at [[Falkenstein, Königstein im Taunus|Falkenstein]] in 1877 and in 1886 published findings claiming that 132 of his 1022 patients had been completely cured after staying at his institution.<ref>Graham 1893:266</ref> Eventually, sanatoriums began to appear near large cities and at low altitudes, like the [[Sharon Sanatorium]] in 1890 near Boston.<ref name="Shr47">Shryock 1977:47</ref>

Sanatoriums were not the only treatment facilities. Specialized tuberculosis clinics began to develop in major metropolitan areas. Sir Robert Philip established the [[Royal Victoria Hospital for Consumption|Royal Victoria Dispensary for Consumption]] in [[Edinburgh]] in 1887. [[dispensary|Dispensaries]] acted as special sanatoriums for early tuberculosis cases and were opened to lower income individuals. The use of dispensaries to treat middle and lower-class individuals in major metropolitan areas and the coordination between various levels of health services programs like hospitals, sanatoriums, and tuberculosis colonies became known as the "Edinburgh Anti-tuberculosis Scheme".<ref>"The Edinburgh Scheme" 1914:117</ref>

In 1913, [[West Park Healthcare Centre#History|Queen Mary Hospital for Consumptive Children]] in [[Toronto]], Canada, became the first sanatorium in the world dedicated to tuberculosis in children.<ref name="Burke">{{cite journal | last = Burke | first = Stacie | date = 2023 | title = Review of Building Resistance: Children, Tuberculosis, and the Toronto Sanatorium | url = https://www.erudit.org/en/journals/onhistory/2023-v115-n1-onhistory07936/1098788ar.pdf | journal = Eruid | volume = 115 | number = 1 | pages = 140}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title = Annual Report - Canadian Association for the Prevention of Tuberculosis | publisher = Canadian Tuberculosis Association | year = 1919 | url = https://www.google.com/books/edition/Annual_Report_Canadian_Association_for_t/B242AQAAMAAJ | pages = 55}}</ref>

==Twentieth century==

===Containment===
[[File:Map of the City of Washington Showing Location of Fatal Cases of Consumption.jpg|thumb|A map of deaths from tuberculosis in [[Washington, D.C.]] in 1900–1901.]]
At the beginning of the 20th century, tuberculosis was one of the UK's most urgent health problems. A royal commission was set up in 1901, The Royal Commission Appointed to Inquire into the Relations of Human and Animal Tuberculosis. Its remit was to find out whether tuberculosis in animals and humans was the same disease, and whether animals and humans could infect each other. By 1919, the Commission had evolved into the [[UK's Medical Research Council]].{{Cn|date=May 2025}}

In 1902, the International Conference on Tuberculosis convened in Berlin. Among various other acts, the conference proposed the [[Cross of Lorraine]] be the international symbol of the fight against tuberculosis. National campaigns spread across Europe and the United States to tamp down on the continued prevalence of tuberculosis.{{Cn|date=May 2025}}

After the establishment in the 1880s that the disease was contagious, TB was made a [[notifiable disease]] in Britain; there were campaigns to stop spitting in public places, and the infected poor were pressured to enter sanatoria that resembled prisons; the sanatoria for the middle and upper classes offered excellent care and constant medical attention.<ref name =sanatoria>McCarthy 2001:413-7</ref> Whatever the purported benefits of the fresh air and labor in the sanatoria, even under the best conditions, 50% of those who entered were dead within five years (1916).<ref name=sanatoria/>

The promotion of [[Christmas Seals]] began in Denmark during 1904 as a way to raise money for tuberculosis programs. It expanded to the United States and Canada in 1907–1908 to help the [[National Tuberculosis Association]] (later called the [[American Lung Association]]).{{Cn|date=May 2025}}
[[File:Swine tuberculosis.svg|right|thumb|A chart showing the rate of tuberculosis in [[meat inspection|inspected]] livestock in a 1938 publication of the [[United States Department of Agriculture]].]]
In the United States, concern about the spread of tuberculosis played a role in the movement to prohibit public spitting except into [[spittoon]]s. Public health measures were inaugurated to track and control the prevalence of tuberculosis in livestock that could be transmitted to humans.{{Cn|date=May 2025}}

===Vaccines===
The first genuine success in immunizing against tuberculosis was developed from attenuated bovine-strain tuberculosis by [[Albert Calmette]] and [[Camille Guérin]] in 1906. It was called "BCG" (''[[Bacillus Calmette-Guérin|Bacille Calmette-Guérin]]''). The [[BCG vaccine]] was first used on humans in 1921 in France,{{sfn|Bonah|2005}} but it was not until after World War II that BCG received widespread acceptance in Great Britain and Germany.{{sfn|Comstock|1994}} In the early days of the British [[National Health Service]] X-ray examination for TB increased dramatically but rates of vaccination were initially very low. In 1953 it was agreed that secondary school pupils should be vaccinated, but by the end of 1954 only 250,000 people had been vaccinated. By 1956 this had risen to 600,000, about half being school children.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Webster |first1=Charles |title=The Health Services Since the War |date=1988 |publisher=HMSO |location=London |isbn=978-0-11-630942-6 |page=323}}</ref>

In Italy, [[Salvioli's diffusing vaccine]] ({{lang|it| Vaccino Diffondente Salvioli}}; VDS) was used from 1948 until 1976. It was developed by Professor Gaetano Salvioli of the [[University of Bologna]].

===Treatments===
[[File:Tuberculosis in the USA 1861-2014.png|alt= Tuberculosis mortality in the USA from 1861 to 2014.|thumb|Tuberculosis mortality in the USA from 1861 to 2014.]] [[File:TB Specialist Nurse Eleanor Pond at the 18 bed 'Fresh Air School' for TB patients, Royal Victoria Hospital, Montreal. 1939.tif|thumb|Specialist Nurse at 18-bed 'Fresh Air School' for children with TB. Royal Victoria Hospital, Montreal. 1939.]]

As the century progressed, some surgical interventions, including the [[pneumothorax]] or [[plombage]] technique—collapsing an infected lung to "rest" it and allow the lesions to heal—were used to treat tuberculosis.<ref>Wolfart 1990:506–11</ref> Pneumothorax was not a new technique by any means. In 1696, [[Giorgio Baglivi]] reported a general improvement in tuberculosis patients after they received sword wounds to the chest. [[F.H. Ramadge]] induced the first successful therapeutic pneumothorax in 1834, and reported subsequently the patient was cured. It was in the 20th century, however, that scientists sought to rigorously investigate the effectiveness of such procedures. [[Carlo Forlanini]] experimented with his artificial pneumothorax technique from 1882 to 1888 and this started to be followed only years later.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hansson |first1=Nils |last2=Polianski |first2=Igor J. |title=Therapeutic Pneumothorax and the Nobel Prize |journal=The Annals of Thoracic Surgery |date=August 2015 |volume=100 |issue=2 |pages=761–765 |doi=10.1016/j.athoracsur.2015.03.100|pmid=26234863 |doi-access=free }}</ref> In 1939, the ''[[British Journal of Tuberculosis]]'' published a study by [[Oli Hjaltested]] and [[Kjeld Törning]] on 191 patients undergoing the procedure between 1925 and 1931; in 1951, Roger Mitchell published several articles on the therapeutic outcomes of 557 patients treated between 1930 and 1939 at [[Adirondack Cottage Sanitarium|Trudeau Sanatorium]] in [[Saranac Lake, New York|Saranac Lake]].<ref>Daniel 2006:1866</ref> The search for a medicinal cure, however, continued in earnest.

During the [[Nazi occupation of Poland]], [[SS-Obergruppenführer]] [[Wilhelm Koppe]] organized the execution of more than 30,000 Polish patients with tuberculosis – little knowing or caring that a cure was nearly at hand.

In 1944 [[Albert Schatz (scientist)|Albert Schatz]], [[Elizabeth Bugie]], and [[Selman Waksman]] isolated [[streptomycin]] produced by a bacterial strain ''[[Streptomyces griseus]].'' Streptomycin was the first effective antibiotic against ''M. tuberculosis''.<ref name="Daniel1868">Daniel 2006:1868</ref> This discovery is generally considered the beginning of the modern era of tuberculosis.<ref name="Daniel1868"/> [[Para-aminosalicylic acid]], discovered in 1946, was used in combination with Streptomycin to reduce the emergence of drug resistant variants, which greatly improved patient outcomes.<ref name="snider">{{cite journal|title=Tuberculosis Then and Now: A Personal Perspective on the Last 50 Years| last=Snider| first=Gordon| journal=Annals of Internal Medicine| volume = 126 | number = 3 | date = 1 December 1997 | pages=237–243| doi = 10.7326/0003-4819-126-3-199702010-00011| pmid=9027277 }}</ref> The true revolution began some years later, in 1952, with the development of [[isoniazid]], the first oral mycobactericidal drug.<ref name="Daniel1868"/> The advent of [[rifampin]] in the 1970s hastened recovery times, and significantly reduced the number of tuberculosis cases until the 1980s.

The British epidemiologist [[Thomas McKeown (physician)|Thomas McKeown]] had shown that "treatment by streptomycin reduced the number of deaths since it was introduced (1948–71) by 51 per cent...".<ref name=":13">{{Cite book|url=http://www.nuffieldtrust.org.uk/publications/role-medicine-dream-mirage-or-nemesis|title=The Role of Medicine: Dream, Mirage or Nemesis? (The Rock Carlington Fellow, 1976)|last=McKeown|first=Thomas|publisher=Nuffield Provincial Hospital Trust|year=1976|isbn=978-0-900574-24-5|location=London, UK|page=82}}</ref> However, he also showed that the mortality from TB in England and Wales had already declined by 90 to 95% before streptomycin and BCG-vaccination were widely available, and that the contribution of antibiotics to the decline of mortality from TB was actually very small: "for the total period since cause of death was first recorded (1848–71) the reduction was 3.2 per cent".<ref name=":13" />{{rp|82}} These figures have since been confirmed for all western countries (see for example the decline in TB mortality in the USA) and for all then known infectious diseases. McKeown explained the decline in mortality from infectious diseases by an improved standard of living, particularly by better nutrition, and by better hygiene, and less by medical intervention. McKeown, who is considered as the father of social medicine,<ref name=":142">{{Cite book|title=The Great Escape. Health, wealth, and the origins of inequality|last=Deaton|first=Angus|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0-691-15354-4|location=Princeton and Oxford|pages=91–93|quote=McKeown's views, updated to modern circumstances, are still important today in debates between those who think that health is primarily determined by medical discoveries and medical treatment and those who look to the background social conditions of life.}}</ref> has advocated for many years, that with drugs and vaccines we may win the battle but will lose the war against Diseases of Poverty.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|title=Diseases of Poverty (Chapter 8) In: The Origins of Human Disease|last=McKeown|first=Thomas|publisher=Basil Blackwell|year=1988|isbn=978-0-631-17938-2|location=Oxford, UK|pages=[https://archive.org/details/originsofhumandi0000mcke/page/181 181–199]|url=https://archive.org/details/originsofhumandi0000mcke/page/181}}</ref> Thereto, efforts and resources should be primarily directed toward improving the standard of living of people in low resource countries, and toward improving their environment by providing clean water, sanitation, better housing, education, safety and justice, and access to medical care. Particularly the work of Nobel laureates [[Robert Fogel|Robert W. Fogel]] (1993)<ref name=":22">{{cite journal|last=Fogel|first=R. W.|year=2004|title=Technophysio evolution and the measurement of economic growth|journal=Journal of Evolutionary Economics|volume=14|issue=2|pages=217–21|doi=10.1007/s00191-004-0188-x }}</ref><ref name=":23">{{Cite book|title=The Escape from Hunger and Premature Death, 1700–2100: Europe, America, and the Third World|last=Fogel|first=Robert|publisher=Cambridge University Press, 189 pp|year=2004|isbn=978-0-521-80878-1|location=New York}}</ref><ref name=":24">{{Cite book|title=The Changing Body: Health, Nutrition, and Human Development in the Western World since 1700 |author=Fogel, Robert |author2=Roderick Floud |author3=Bernard Harris |author4=Sok Chul Hong|publisher=Cambridge University Press, New York|year=2011|isbn=978-0-521-87975-0|location=New York|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/changingbodyheal0000unse}}</ref><ref name=":25">{{Cite book|title=Explaining Long-Term Trends in Health and Longevity|last=Fogel|first=Robert W.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-1-107-02791-6|location=New York}}</ref> and [[Angus Deaton]] (2015)<ref name=":142" /> have greatly contributed to the recent reappreciation of the McKeown thesis. A negative confirmation of the McKeown thesis was that increased pressure on wages by IMF loans to post-communist Eastern Europe were strongly associated with a rise in TB incidence, prevalence and mortality.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Stuckler, David |author2=Lawrence P King |author3=Sanjay Basu |title=International Monetary Fund programs and tuberculosis outcomes in post-communist countries|journal=PLOS Medicine|date=22 July 2008 |volume=5 |issue=7|article-number=e143|doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0050143 |doi-access=free |pmid=18651786|pmc=2488179}}</ref>

In the United States there was dramatic reduction in tuberculosis cases by the 1970s. As early as the 1900s, public health campaigns were launched to educate people about the contagion. In later decades, posters, pamphlets and newspapers continued to inform people about the risk of contagion and methods to avoid it, including increasing public awareness about the importance of good hygiene. Though improved awareness of good hygiene practices reduced the number of cases, the situation was worse in the poor neighborhoods. Public clinics were set up to improve awareness and provide screenings. In Scotland, Dr [[Nora Wattie]] led the public health innovations both at local<ref>{{Cite news|date=26 November 1913|title=Watch Your Health|page=3|work=Motherwell Times}}</ref> and national level.<ref>{{Cite news|date=10 July 1939|title=Solving the problems of adolescence, Conference of National Council of Girls' Clubs, Growth of Nervous Diseases.|page=13|work=The Scotsman}}</ref> This resulted in sharp declines through the 1920s and 1930s.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/plague-gallery/|title = TB in America: 1895-1954 | American Experience| website=[[PBS]] }}</ref>

===Resurgence===
[[File:Tuberculosis world map-DALYs per million persons-WHO2012.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|[[Age adjustment|Age-standardized]] [[disability-adjusted life year]]s caused by tuberculosis per 1,000,000 inhabitants, 2012:<ref>{{cite web |title=World Health Organization Disease Burden Estimates for 2000-2012 |url=https://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/estimates/en/index2.html |year=2012 |publisher=World Health Organization (WHO) |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151112174339/https://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/estimates/en/index2.html |archive-date=12 November 2015}}</ref>
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-break}}
{{legend|#ffff20|56-248}}
{{legend|#ffe820|271-911}}
{{legend|#ffd820|930-1,483}}
{{legend|#ffc020|1,511-1,511}}
{{legend|#ffa020|1,559-3,130}}
{{Col-break}}
{{legend|#ff9a20|3,254-7,760}}
{{legend|#f08015|7,860-9,008}}
{{legend|#e06815|9,297-9,297}}
{{legend|#d85010|9,550-14,199}}
{{legend|#d02010|14,284-74,731}}
{{col-end}}]]

Hopes that the disease could be completely eliminated were dashed in the 1980s with the rise of [[Antibiotic resistance|drug-resistant]] strains. Tuberculosis cases in Britain, numbering around 117,000 in 1913, had fallen to around 5,000 in 1987, but cases rose again, reaching 6,300 in 2000 and 7,600 cases in 2005.<ref>{{cite web | url =http://www.hpa.org.uk/infections/topics_AZ/tb/epidemiology/table1.htm | title = Tuberculosis — Respiratory and Non-respiratory Notifications, England and Wales, 1913–2005 | publisher = Health Protection Agency Centre for Infections | date = 21 March 2007 | access-date = 1 August 2007}}</ref> Due to the elimination of public health facilities in New York and the emergence of HIV, there was a resurgence of TB in the late 1980s.<ref>Paolo and Nosanchuk 2004:287–93</ref> The number of patients failing to complete their course of drugs was high. New York had to cope with more than 20,000 TB patients with [[Multidrug resistance|multidrug-resistant]] strains (resistant to, at least, both rifampin and isoniazid).

In response to the resurgence of tuberculosis, the World Health Organization issued a declaration of a global health emergency in 1993.<ref>[[World Health Organization]] (WHO). [https://web.archive.org/web/20041225163604/http://www.who.int/tb/hiv/faq/en/index.html Frequently asked questions about TB and HIV.] Retrieved 6 October 2006.</ref> Every year, nearly half a million new cases of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) are estimated to occur worldwide.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090406170131/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2009/tuberculosis_drug_resistant_20090402/en/index.html Health ministers to accelerate efforts against drug-resistant TB]. ''World Health Organization''.</ref>

==See also==
* [[History of malaria]]
* [[Timeline of global health]]
* [[List of deaths due to tuberculosis]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==

===Books===
* Abel, Emily K. ''Tuberculosis and the Politics of Exclusion : A History of Public Health and Migration to Los Angeles'' (Rutgers University Press 2007)
* {{cite book | title = A Short History of Medicine | url = https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryofme00acke | url-access = registration | author = Ackerknecht, Erwin Heinz | publisher = JHU Press | year = 1982 | isbn = 978-0-471-06762-7}}
* Armus, Diego. ''The Ailing City: Health, Tuberculosis, and Culture in Buenos Aires, 1870–1950'' (2011)
* {{cite book | title = The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Paleopathology | url = https://archive.org/details/cambridgeencyclo0000aufd | url-access = registration |author1=Aufderheide, Arthur C. |author2=Conrado Rodriguez-Martin |author3=Odin Langsjoen | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1998 | isbn = 978-0-521-55203-5}}
* {{cite book | title = The Making of a Social Disease: Tuberculosis in Nineteenth-century France | author = Barnes, David S. | publisher = University of California Press | year = 1995 | isbn = 978-0-520-08772-9}}
* {{cite book | title = Epidemics Laid Low: A History of what Happened in Rich Countries | url = https://archive.org/details/epidemicslaidlow0000bour | url-access = registration |author1=Bourdelais, Patrice |author2=Bart K. Holland | publisher = JHU Press | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-0-8018-8294-4}}
* {{cite book |last1=Brock |first1=Thomas D. |title=Milestones in Microbiology 1546 to 1940 |date=1999 |publisher=ASM Press |isbn=978-1-55581-142-6 }}
* {{cite book |doi=10.1128/9781555818272 |title=Robert Koch |date=1998 |last1=Brock |first1=Thomas D. |isbn=978-1-68367-266-1 }}
* Bryder, Linda. ''Below the Magic Mountain: A Social History of Tuberculosis in Twentieth-Century Britain'' (1988), 298p.
* {{cite book | title = Pioneers of Medicine and Their Impact on Tuberculosis | author = Daniel, Thomas M. | publisher = Boydell & Brewer | year = 2000 | isbn = 978-1-58046-067-5}}
* {{cite book |last1=Dubos |first1=René Jules |last2=Dubos |first2=Jean |title=The White Plague: Tuberculosis, Man, and Society |date=1987 |publisher=Rutgers University Press |isbn=978-0-8135-1224-2 }}
* {{cite book | title = Chemistry and Medical Debate: Van Helmont to Boerhaave | author = Debus, Allen G. | author-link = Allen G. Debus | publisher = Science History Publications | year = 2001 | isbn = 978-0-88135-292-4}}
* {{cite book |author-link3=Liu Tsui-jung | title = Sediments of Time: Environment and Society in Chinese History |author1=Elvin, Mark |author2=Cuirong Liu |author3=Tsʻui-jung Liu | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1998}}
* {{cite book |doi=10.1007/3-540-36488-9 |title=Biotechnology in India I |series=Advances in Biochemical Engineering/Biotechnology |date=2003 |volume=84 |isbn=978-3-540-00609-1 |editor1-first=Tarun K. |editor1-last=Ghose |editor2-first=Purnendu |editor2-last=Ghosh }}
* {{cite book |doi=10.1163/9789004253520 |title=Princes and Princely Culture 1450–1650 |volume=1 |date=2003 |editor1-last=Gosman |editor1-first=Martin |editor2-last=MacDonald |editor2-first=Alasdair A. |editor3-last=Vanderjagt |editor3-first=Arjo J. |isbn=978-90-04-25352-0 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Green |first1=John |title=Everything Is Tuberculosis: The History and Persistence of Our Deadliest Infection |date=2025 |publisher=Penguin Group |isbn=978-0-525-55657-2 }}
* {{cite book | title = Bittersweet: The Story of Sugar | author = Macinnis, Peter | publisher = Allen & Unwin | year = 2002 | isbn = 978-1-86508-657-6 | url = https://archive.org/details/bittersweetstory00maci }}
* McMillen, Christian W. ''Discovering Tuberculosis: A Global History, 1900 to the Present'' (2014)
* {{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-18937-1 |title=Tuberculosis |date=2004 |isbn=978-3-642-62365-3 |editor-last1=Madkour |editor-first1=M. Monir }}
* {{cite book | title = A History of the Life Sciences | author = Magner, Lois N. | publisher = CRC Press | year = 2002 | isbn = 978-0-8247-8942-8 | url = https://archive.org/details/historyoflifesci0000magn }}
* {{cite book |jstor=10.7758/9781610444194.8 |chapter=Tuberculosis |last1=Nathanson |first1=Constance A. |title=Disease Prevention as Social Change |date=2007 |pages=80–106 |publisher=Russell Sage Foundation |isbn=978-0-87154-644-9 }}
* {{cite book | title = Pulmonary tuberculosis | url = https://archive.org/details/pulmonarytubercu00otis | author = Otis, Edward Osgood | publisher = W.M. Leonard |
year = 1920}}
* {{cite book | title = The Cambridge History of Medicine | author = Porter, Roy | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-0-521-55791-7}}
* {{cite book |doi=10.4324/9780429433702 |title=Tuberculosis in the Americas, 1870–1945 |date=2018 |last1=Reber |first1=Vera Blinn |isbn=978-0-429-43370-2 }}
* {{cite book | title = Tuberculosis: The Greatest Story Never Told | author = Ryan, Frank | publisher = Swift Publishers, England | year = 1992 | isbn = 1-874082-00-6}} 446 + xxiii pages.
* {{cite book | title = Doctors and Their Patients: A Social History | author = Shorter, Edward | publisher = Transaction Publishers | year = 1991 | isbn = 978-0-88738-871-2}}
* {{cite book | title = National Tuberculosis Association, 1904-1954: A Study of the Voluntary Health Movement in the United States | author = Shryock, Richard Harrison | publisher = Ayer Publishing | year = 1988 | isbn = 978-0-405-09831-4}}
* Smith, F. B. ''Retreat of Tuberculosis, 1850-1950'' (1988) 271p
* {{cite book | title = The Conquest of Tuberculosis | url = https://archive.org/details/conquestoftuberc0000unse | url-access = registration | author = Waksman, Selman A. | publisher = University of California Press Berkeley and Los Angeles | year = 1964}}
* {{cite book | title = Tuberculosis | author = Yancey, Diane | publisher = Twenty-First Century Books | year = 2007 | isbn = 978-0-7613-1624-4 | url = https://archive.org/details/tuberculosistwen00dian }}
* Zumla, Alimuddin et al. eds. ''Tuberculosis: A Comprehensive Clinical Reference'' (Saunders, 2009)

* {{cite book | title = Medicine in the Veda: Religious Healing in the Veda | author = Zysk, Kenneth G. | publisher = Motilal Banarsidass Publ. | year = 1998 | isbn = 978-81-208-1400-4}}

===Older studies===
* {{cite book | title = A Treatise on Tuberculosis: The Constitutional Origin of Consumption and Scrofula | url = https://archive.org/details/treatiseontuberc00ance | author = Ancell, Henry | publisher = Longman, Brown, Green & Longmans | year = 1852}}
* {{cite book | title = An Essay on the Treatment and Cure of Pulmonary Consumption: On Principles Natural, Rational, and Successful; with Suggestions for an Improved Plan of Treatment of the Disease Amongst the Lower Classes of Society | url = https://archive.org/details/b2172779x | author = Bodington, George | publisher = Longman, Brown, Green & Longmans | year = 1840}}
* Unschuld, Paul U. and Hermann Tessenow (2011), ''Huang Di Nei Jing Su Wen: An Annotated Translation of Huang Di's Inner Classic – Basic Questions'', University of California Press.
* {{cite book | title = Observations on the Dropsy in the Brain | url = https://archive.org/details/b30549966 | author = Whytt, R | publisher = Balfour, Auld & Smellie | year = 1768 | location = Edinburgh}}
* {{cite book | title = The Divine Farmer's Materia Medica: A Translation of the Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing |author1=Yang, Shou-zhong |author2=Bob Flaws | publisher = Blue Poppy Enterprises, Inc. | year = 1998}}
* Zhang Zhibin and Paul U. Unschuld (2014), ''Dictionary of the Ben cao gang mu, Volume 1: Chinese Historical Illness Terminology'', University of California Press.

===Scholarly journals===
* {{cite journal |last1=Bonah |first1=Christian |title=The 'experimental stable' of the BCG vaccine: safety, efficacy, proof, and standards, 1921–1933 |journal=Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences |date=December 2005 |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=696–721 |doi=10.1016/j.shpsc.2005.09.003 |pmid=16337557 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Chalke |first1=H.D. |title=Some historical aspects of tuberculosis |journal=Public Health |date=December 1959 |volume=74 |issue=3 |pages=83–95 |doi=10.1016/S0033-3506(59)80055-X |pmid=13809031}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Comstock |first1=G. W. |title=The International Tuberculosis Campaign: A Pioneering Venture in Mass Vaccination and Research |journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases |date=September 1994 |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=528–540 |doi=10.1093/clinids/19.3.528 |pmid=7811874 }}
* {{cite journal |author=Daniel T |title=The impact of tuberculosis on civilization |journal=Infect Dis Clin N Am |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=157–65 |year=2004 | doi=10.1016/s0891-5520(03)00096-5 |pmid=15081511 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Egedesø |first1=Peter Juul |last2=Hansen |first2=Casper Worm |last3=Jensen |first3=Peter Sandholt |title=Preventing the White Death: Tuberculosis Dispensaries |journal=The Economic Journal |date=July 2020 |volume=130 |issue=629 |pages=1288–1316 |doi=10.1093/ej/ueaa014 }}
* {{cite journal | title = The Treatment of Tuberculosis | author = Graham JE | journal = The Montreal Medical Journal | volume = 21 | pages = 253–273 | date = 1893 | publisher = Gazette Printing Co. | location = Montreal}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Henius |first1=Kurt |last2=Basch |first2=Erich |title=Erfahrungen mit dem Tuberkulomuzin Weleminsky |trans-title=Experiences with Tuberculomucin Weleminsky |language=de |journal=Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift |date=December 1925 |volume=51 |issue=52 |pages=2149–2150 |doi=10.1055/s-0028-1137468 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Herzog |first1=H. |title=History of Tuberculosis |journal=Respiration |date=1998 |volume=65 |issue=1 |pages=5–15 |id={{ProQuest|228284362}} |doi=10.1159/000029220 |pmid=9523361 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Jones |first1=Susan D. |title=Mapping a Zoonotic Disease: Anglo-American Efforts to Control Bovine Tuberculosis before World War I |journal=Osiris |date=January 2004 |volume=19 |pages=133–148 |doi=10.1086/649398 |pmid=15478271 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Koch |first1=Robert | title = Die Aetiologie der Tuberculose |trans-title=The etiology of tuberculosis |language=de | journal = Berliner Klinischen Wochenschrift | volume = 19 |issue=15 | date = 10 April 1882 | pages = 221–230 |hdl=2027/mdp.39015020075001?urlappend=%3Bseq=235%3Bownerid=43028431-234 |hdl-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=S. K. |last2=Matisoo-Smith |first2=E. A. |last3=Buckley |first3=H. R. |last4=Walter |first4=R. K. |last5=Aung |first5=H. L. |last6=Collins |first6=C. J. |last7=Cook |first7=G. M. |last8=Kardailsky |first8=O. |last9=Krause |first9=J. |last10=Knapp |first10=M. |title='TB or not TB': the conundrum of pre-European contact tuberculosis in the Pacific |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |date=23 November 2020 |volume=375 |issue=1812 |article-number=20190583 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2019.0583 |pmid=33012234 |pmc=7702793 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Ts'Un-Yan |first1=Liu |title=The Taoists' Knowledge of Tuberculosis in the Twelfth Century |journal=T'oung Pao |date=1971 |volume=57 |issue=5 |pages=285–301 |doi=10.1163/156853271X00011 |jstor=4527889 |pmid=11633350 }}
* {{cite journal |vauthors=Maulitz RC, Maulitz SR |title=The King's Evil in Oxfordshire |journal=Med Hist |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=87–89 |year=1973 |pmid=4595538 |pmc=1081423 |doi=10.1017/s0025727300018251}}
* {{cite journal |author=McCarthy OR |title=The key to the sanatoria |journal=J R Soc Med |volume=94 |issue=8 |pages=413–7 |year=2001 | pmid = 11461990 |pmc=1281640|doi=10.1177/014107680109400813 }}
* {{cite journal | title = Galen on Tuberculosis | journal = The Physician and Surgeon | volume = 31 | date = September 1909 | author = McClelland C | pages = 400–404}}
* {{cite journal |vauthors=Paolo W, Nosanchuk J |title=Tuberculosis in New York city: recent lessons and a look ahead |journal=Lancet Infect Dis |volume=4 |issue=5 |pages=287–93 |year=2004 | pmid = 15120345 |doi=10.1016/S1473-3099(04)01004-7}}
* {{cite journal | title = Prehistoric Tuberculosis in America: Adding Comments to a Literature Review | author = Prat JG | author2 = SMFM Souza | journal = Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz | issue = Suppl. I | volume = 98 | pages = 151–159 | year = 2003 | doi = 10.1590/S0074-02762003000900023 | pmid = 12687776 | doi-access = free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Stivelman |first1=Barnet P |title=Address on Tuberculosis |journal=Journal of the National Medical Association |volume=23 |issue=3 |date=1931 |pages=128–130 |pmc=2625120 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Waddington |first1=Keir |title='Unfit for Human Consumption': Tuberculosis and the Problem of Infected Meat in Late Victorian Britain |journal=Bulletin of the History of Medicine |date=2003 |volume=77 |issue=3 |pages=636–661 |doi=10.1353/bhm.2003.0147 |id={{Project MUSE|46371}} |jstor=44447796 |pmid=14523263 }}
* {{cite journal | author = Wilson Leonard G | year = 1990 | title = The historical decline of tuberculosis in Europe and America: its causes and significance | journal = Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences | volume = 45 | issue = 3| pages = 366–396 | doi=10.1093/jhmas/45.3.366| pmid = 2212609 }}
* {{cite journal |author=Wolfart W |title=Surgical treatment of tuberculosis and its modifications—collapse therapy and resection treatment and their present-day sequelae |journal=Offentl Gesundheitswes |volume=52 |issue=8–9 |pages=506–11 |year=1990 | pmid = 2146567}}
* {{cite journal |vauthors=Zink A, Sola C, Reischl U, Grabner W, Rastogi N, Wolf H, Nerlich A |title=Characterization of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Complex DNAs from Egyptian Mummies by Spoligotyping |journal=J Clin Microbiol |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=359–67 |year=2003 | pmid = 12517873 | doi = 10.1128/JCM.41.1.359-367.2003 |pmc=149558}}
* {{cite journal | doi = 10.11141/ia.5.3 | issue=5 | title=Detecting Ancient Tuberculosis | journal=Internet Archaeology| year=1998 | last1=Gernaey | first1=Angela M. | last2=Minnikin | first2=David E. | last3=Copley | first3=Mike S. | last4=Power | first4=Jacinda J. | last5=Ahmed | first5=Ali M.S. | last6=Dixon | first6=Ronald A. | last7=Roberts | first7=Charlotte A. | last8=Robertson | first8=Duncan J. | last9=Nolan | first9=John | last10=Chamberlain | first10=Andrew }}
* {{cite journal |title = The Edinburgh Anti=Tuberculosis Scheme |journal = The British Journal of Nursing | volume = 52 | date = 7 January 1914 | page = 117 | url=http://rcnarchive.rcn.org.uk/data/VOLUME052-1914/page117-volume52-07thfebruary1914.pdf}}

===Conferences===
* {{cite book |last1=Dang |first1=B |chapter=The Royal Touch |pages=229–234 |editor1-last=Whitelaw |editor1-first=William A. |title=The Proceedings of the 10th Annual History of Medicine Days: Faculty of Medicine, University of Calgary, Held March 23rd and 24th, 2001 in the Libin Theatre, Health Sciences Centre, Calgary, AB |date=2001 |publisher=University of Calgary |doi=10.11575/PRISM/10355 |hdl=1880/51835 |hdl-access=free |oclc=51294903 }}

===Other references===
* {{cite thesis |last1=Kolchinsky |first1=Anna |title=Tuberculosis as Disease and Politics in Germany, 1871-1961 |date=2013 |publisher=[[Boston College]]. Graduate School of Arts and Sciences |url=https://dlib.bc.edu/islandora/object/bc-ir:101513 |type=[[PhD thesis]]}}

{{History of infectious disease}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:History of Tuberculosis}}
[[Category:Deaths from tuberculosis| ]]
[[Category:Health in Africa]]
[[Category:History of medicine|tuberculosis]]
[[Category:History of pulmonology]]
[[Category:Tuberculosis|Tuberculosis]]

Ravindra Prabhat

2026-05-02T14:20:22Z

Ajit3011: Starting basic post w/ refs

{{Short description|Hindi poet, scholar, journalist, author (born 1969)}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2017}}
{{Infobox writer
| name = Ravindra Prabhat
| image = Ravindra prabhat.jpg
| imagesize =
| caption = Prabhat in December 2008
| pseudonym = Prabhat
| birth_name = Ravindra Kumar Chaubey
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1969|04|05}}
| birth_place = [[Mahindwara]], [[Sitamarhi, Bihar]], India
| death_date =
| death_place =
| occupation = Poet, writer, journalist
| period = (1991–present)
| genre = [[Poetry]], [[ghazal]], [[Narrative|story]] writing and blog criticism
| subject = Literature and blogs
| movement = Initiative to Hindi blog criticism
| spouse = M. Prabhat (1989–present)
| partner =
| children = Urvija, Subendu Prabhat and Urvashi
| signature =
| website = {{URL|www.ravindraprabhat.in}}
}}
'''Ravindra Prabhat''' (born 5 April 1969) is a [[Hindi]]-language novelist, [[journalist]], poet, and [[short story]] writer from [[India]].<ref>[https://nettv4u.com/celebrity/hindi/novelist/ravindra-prabhat Bollywood Novelist Ravindra Prabhat]</ref>

==Early life and education==
Prabhat was born on 5 April 1969 in the village of [[Mahindwara]], [[Sitamarhi]], in [[Bihar]], India.<ref>Hindustan, National Daily, Patna Edition, 24 July 1994, Page No.06, Ravindra Prabhat Ki Gazal</ref><ref>Aj, National Hindi Daily, Patna Edition, 14 November 1994, Page No.:9, Article Title: Literature in Sitamarhi</ref> He was raised and received his primary education in Mahindwara. He obtained his higher education in [[geography]] [[Honours degree#Variations|honours]] from [[B. R. Ambedkar Bihar University]] in [[Muzaffarpur]]. Later, he studied Master of Journalism and Mass Communication (MJMC) at the Uttar Pradesh Rajarshi Tandon Open University, [[Allahabad]].<ref>Maun Ke Swar, Editor: Shri Ram Dubey, Year: 1994, Page No.: 58, Publisher: Kavya Sangam Publication, Indira Nagar,Sitamarhi-843302</ref><ref name=kavitakosh>{{cite web| last = | first = | author-link = | title = रवीन्द्र प्रभात: परिचय और कवितायें| trans-title = Ravindra Prabhat: Introduction and Poems| language = Hindi| publisher = Kavita Kosh| url = http://www.kavitakosh.org/kk/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4| access-date = 28 June 2014| archive-date = 10 May 2019| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190510065640/http://kavitakosh.org/kk/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4| url-status = dead}}</ref><ref name=gadyakosh>{{cite web | last = | first = | author-link = | title = रवीन्द्र प्रभात: परिचय, व्यंग्य, आलेख और कहानियाँ|trans-title=Ravindra Prabhat: Introduction, satire, articles and stories| language = Hindi |publisher=Gadya Kosh|url =http://www.gadyakosh.org/gk/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4 | access-date = 28 June 2014}}</ref><ref>Sanwad(Hindi Monthly), Editor:Basant Arya, Taigore Sahitya Manch Dumara-843301, Bihar, India, Issue-4,5,6,1993, Page No.2</ref>

==Personal life==
According to [[Brahmin]] tradition, he underwent an [[upanayan]] initiation aged eleven. He married ''M. Prabhat'', in [[Bettiah]] on 18 May 1989. They have a son and two daughters.<ref>Aaj, the national Hindi daily, Patna edition,14 November 1994, page numbers: 9, article title: साहित्य में सीतामढ़ी [Sitamarhi in Literature], Author: Ravindra Prabhat</ref><ref>[https://kavishala.in/sootradhar/ravindra-prabhat Ravindra Prabhat Introduction in Kavishala]</ref>

==Literary career==
Prabhat has been writing since 1987 on various subjects.<ref>Rashtriy Sahara, Hindi Daily, New Delhi, Page No.1 (Umang), 26 September 1994, Title: Ek Gauravshali Ateet</ref><ref>INDIA TODAY, National Fortnightly Magazine, New Delhi, 15 May 1995, Page No.52, Article Title: Mithas Kahan Gayil</ref><ref>[http://www.sahityakunj.net/LEKHAK/R/RavindraPrabhat/RavindraPrabhat_main.htm/ Ravindra Prabhat : A Short Introduction] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130301061829/http://www.sahityakunj.net/LEKHAK/R/RavindraPrabhat/RavindraPrabhat_main.htm |date=1 March 2013 }}, ''Sahitya Kunj'', 28 June 2014</ref><ref>[http://classify.oclc.org/classify2/ClassifyDemo?swid=734194598 An experimental classification of Hindī blôgiṅga: abhivyakti kī naī krānti], ''oclc'', 28 June 2014</ref> Some of his works have been translated into other languages and published in various [[literary magazine]]s and [[anthologies]]. Prabhat currently serves as [[Chief Editor|chief editor]] of ''VatVriksh''<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://urvija.parikalpnaa.com/ |title=वटवृक्ष |access-date=5 February 2013 |archive-date=26 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130526041222/http://urvija.parikalpnaa.com/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> and ''Parikalpana Samay''<ref>[https://www.scribd.com/doc/142912884/Parikalpana-Samay-Hindi-Monthly Parikalpana Samay (Hindi Monthly)]</ref> (Hindi Magazine).

==Writings and style==
Prabhat often writes about social issues and human suffering.<ref name="southasiatoday">{{cite web| last = Basu| first = Dr. Virendra| author-link = | title = The creative fragrance of Ravindra Prabhat| trans-title = | language = | url = http://www.southasiatoday.org/2012/08/the-creative-fragrance-of-ravindra.html| access-date = 25 June 2014| archive-date = 20 April 2019| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190420231919/http://www.southasiatoday.org/2012/08/the-creative-fragrance-of-ravindra.html| url-status = dead}}</ref><ref name="allaboutjaipur">{{cite web | title = Cultural riches of Rajasthan take centre stage at Jaipur Literature Festival 2016| url = http://allaboutjaipur.com/cultural-riches-of-rajasthan-take-centre-stage-at-jaipur-literature-festival-2016/401/| access-date = 8 February 2017}}</ref>

===Blogging===
[[File:International Blogger Confrence.jpg|thumb|right|Ravindra Prabhat with [[Nepal]]i politician [[Arjun Narasingha]] in Kathmandu, Nepal, 2013]]

Prabhat has written and edited works on Hindi blogging and has also published his writing in the form of a blog. He started blogging in 2007 and has published fiction as well as reviews of other blogs.<ref>[http://www.sahityashilpi.com/2011/09/blog-post_12.html News in Hindi related Book released], Sahitya Shilpi, 19 September 2011</ref>

Prabhat is a founding member of the Parikalpna Award, a blog literary award in India.<ref name=thisday>{{cite web | last = | first = | author-link = | title =Opening The Way For Hindi Blogging|trans-title=| language = |website=This Day|url =https://www.thisday.app/en/details/opening-the-way-for-hindi-blogging | access-date = 15 January 2022}}</ref> It is presented by the magazine ''Parikalpana Samay'' and the Non-governmental organization Parikalpnaa.<ref name=thebetterindia>{{cite web | last =Dagar | first =Nisha | title =Opening the Way for Hindi Blogging |script-title=hi:रवीन्द्र प्रभात: हिंदी में ब्लॉग लिखने का है शौक, तो इनसे ज़रूर मिले! |trans-title=Ravindra Prabhat: If you are fond of writing a blog in Hindi, then definitely meet them.| language = hi |website=The Better India |url=https://www.thisday.app/en/details/opening-the-way-for-hindi-blogging | access-date = 15 January 2022}}</ref> The first Parikalpna Award was presented on 30 April 2011.<ref>Dainik Bhasker (Hindi), National Edition, New Delhi,Date:29 April 2011, Author : Piyush Pandey, Title: हिन्दी ब्लॉग सम्मेलन के बहाने (Eng: On the pretext of Hindi blog conference)</ref>

==Bibliography==
===Books===
'''Fiction'''
*''Taki Bacha Rahe Loktantra''(2011) {{ISBN|9788191038583}} (Hindi)
*''Prem Na Hat Bikay'' (2012) {{ISBN|9789381394106}} (Hindi)
*''Dharati Pakad Nirdaliya'' (2013) {{ISBN|9789381394519}} (Hindi)
*''Lakhanaua Kakka''(2018) {{ISBN|978-93-83967-40-7}}(Bhojpuri)
*''Kashmir 370 kilometer'' ([[Notion Press]], 2019) {{ISBN|9781647609320}} (Hindi)<ref>[https://notionpress.com/read/kashmir-370-kilometer Kashmir 370 kilometer]</ref>
*''Dhartiputri [[Sita]]'' ([[Notion Press]], 2020) {{ISBN|9781637452745}} (Hindi)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://notionpress.com/read/dhartiputri-sita|title = Dhartiputri Sita}}</ref>
*''Pratishruti'' ([[Notion Press]], 2021) {{ISBN|9781639970735}} (Hindi)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://notionpress.com/read/pratishruti|title=Pratishruti}}</ref>
'''Non-fiction'''
*''Contemporary Nepali Literature (Hindi: समकालीन नेपाली साहित्य)'' (critical writings, essays and interviews,1995)<ref>Samakalin Nepali Sahitya, Editor-Ravindra Prabhat, Publisher-Urvija Publication, Ward No.-13 (old), Bhavadepur, Sitamarhi-843302, India, Year- 1995,</ref>
*''History of Hindi Blogging (Hindi: हिन्दी ब्लॉगिंग का इतिहास)'' (2011) {{ISBN|978-93-80916-14-9}} (Hindi)
*Contributor to ''Hindi Blogging: Expression of new revolution (Hindi: हिन्दी ब्लॉगिंग: अभिव्यक्ति की नई क्रांति)'' (2011) {{ISBN|978-93-80916-05-7}}
*''Hindi Bhasha ke vividh ayam (Rashtriy Aur Antarrashtriy Pariprekshya men)''(2018) {{ISBN|978-93-84397-67-8}} (Hindi essays collection)
*''Responsibility Awareness & Public Behavior (Hindi: दायित्व बोध और लोक व्यवहार)'' ([[Notion Press]], 2019) {{ISBN|9781647832902}} (Hindi/English)<ref>[https://notionpress.com/read/daitva-bodh-v-lok-vyavhar Responsibility Awareness & Public Behavior]</ref>
*''Social Media and Us (Hindi: samajik midia aur ham)'' ([[Notion Press]], 2020) {{ISBN|9781648055621}} (Hindi)<ref>[https://notionpress.com/read/samajik-media-aur-ham SAMAJIK MEDIA AUR HAM / सामाजिक मीडिया और हम]</ref>
*''SHARE MARKET(Nivesh Ke Tareeke)''([[Notion Press]], 2020) {{ISBN|9781636334752}} (Hindi)<ref>[https://notionpress.com/read/share-market SHARE MARKET / शेयर मार्केट]</ref>
*''Dr. Mithilesh Dikshit ka sahitya srijan evam pradey (Hindi: डॉ. मिथिलेश दीक्षित का साहित्य सृजन एवं प्रदेय)'' (Parikalpana Samay Publications Lucknow, 2021) {{ISBN|9781639579082}} (Hindi)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://notionpress.com/read/dr-mithilesh-dikshit-ka-sahitya-srijan-evam-pradey|title=Dr. Mithilesh Dikshit ka sahitya srijan evam pradey}}</ref>
*''Media aur Social Media'' (Indraprasth Prakashan Delhi, 2021) {{ISBN|9789392696015}} (Hindi)

'''Documentaries'''
*''Naya Bihan'' ([[Screen Play]] Writer, 1992) [[television documentary]] film on Women's Education under the [[UNESCO]] related plan of Unit of [[Sitamarhi District]] in "Bihar Education Project".<ref>Aj, Hindi Daily, [Patna] Edition, 30 December 1995, News Title:Bajjika Lekhak sangh ka Godasahan daura</ref>

'''Poetry collections'''
*''Ham Safar'' (1991) (his first [[poetry]] collection) <ref>Khojbeen, Fortnightly Magazine, Kala Mandir, Main Road, Sitamarhi-843302, India, 15 December 1991, Page No.: 2, Poet: Basant Arya, Review Title: Hamsafar: Yatharth aur kalpna ki dhoop-chhanv</ref><ref>Hamsafar, Author- Ravindra Prabhat, Publisher- Sahitya Sarita Publication, Mela Road Sitamarhi-843302, India, Year- 199,</ref>
*''Mat Rona Ramjani Chacha'' (1999)<ref>Mat Rona Ramjani Chacha, Poet- Ravindra Prabhat, Publisher-Kavya Sangam Publications, Indira Nagar, Sitamarhi-843302, India, 1999</ref>
*''Smriti Shesh'' (2002)<ref>Smriti Shesh, Poet- Ravindra Prabhat, Publisher-Kathyaroop Publications, [[Allahabad]], India,Year- 2002</ref>

'''Magazines'''
*''Urvija'' 1992 to 1995. Published at [[Sitamarhi, Bihar]] in India.
*'' Fagunahat'', 1990 to 1992a yearly magazine published at Sitamarh, Bihar in India.
*''Samvad'', 1993, editor of a special issue of this monthly magazine, whose principal editor was Basant Arya.
*''Sahityanjali'', 1994. editor of a special issue of this monthly magazine, whose principal editor was Madhvendra Verma.
*''Hamari Vani'' 2010, a Hindi e-journal. he was consulting editor for the year 2010.
*''Parikalpna Blogotsav'', 2012 - . He is chief editor of this [[Internet]] web journal.
*''Vatvriksh'', May 2011 to May 2013. A [[Hindi]] magazine published in [[Lucknow]]. He is chief editor.
*''Parikalpana Samay'', June 2013 - A monthly [[Hindi]] magazine published in [[Lucknow]]. He is chief editor.

==Adaptations of Prabhat's works==
*Dr. Siyaram has written a Book of Prabhat's works-
''Ravindra Prabhat Ki Parikalpana aur Blog alochana karm''(2017) {{ISBN|978-93-83967-35-3}} (Hindi)<ref name=himdhara>{{cite web| last = | first = | author-link = | title = रवीन्द्र प्रभात की परिकल्पना और ब्लॉग आलोचना कर्म के मायने: डॉ॰ विरेन्द्र कुमार बसु| trans-title = The meaning of Ravindra Prabhat's Hypothesis and blog criticism work: Dr. Virendra Kumar Basu| language = Hindi| publisher = Himdhara| url = http://blog.himdhara.in/2018/01/blog-post.html| access-date = 18 January 2018| archive-date = 19 January 2018| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180119001106/http://blog.himdhara.in/2018/01/blog-post.html| url-status = dead}}</ref>
*"Ravindra Prabhat ka Upanyas Sahitya ek Anushilan" (Laghu Shodh, Hindi) Pratiksha Kumari/chhatrapati Shahuji Maharaj [[Kanpur University]]
*[[Audiobook]]: Prem Na Haat Bikay (Narrator: Ashish Jain)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.amazon.in/Prem-Na-Haat-Bikay/dp/B07YF241GD|title=Prem Na Haat Bikay |publisher=Audible Studio|date=2019|access-date=2020-01-29}}</ref>
*[[Audiobook]]: Dharati Pakad Nirdaliy (Narrator: Kafeel Jafri)<ref>{{cite book|title=Dharati Pakad Nirdaliy |publisher=Audible Studio|date=2019|isbn=978-9381394519 }}</ref>
*''Echoes of the Getaway'' ([[Notion Press]], 2020) {{ISBN|9781636065694}} {{ASIN|B08QN6D2QB}}(The original book in Hindi ''Kashmir 370 kilometer'' was translated into English by Gautam Roy)<ref>[https://notionpress.com/read/echoes-of-the-getaway Echoes of the Getaway]</ref>
*[[Audiobook]]: Kashmir 370 kilometer on [[Storytel]] (Narrator: Mukul Srivastava)<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.storytel.com/in/en/books/2310398-Kashmir-370-Kilometer|title=Kashmir 370 kilometer|publisher=Mediacura Infoline|date=2021-03-31|access-date=2021-04-03}}</ref>
*[[Audiobook]]: Echoes of the Getaway Behind the dark shadows of the Valley on [[Storytel]] (Narrator: Mukul Srivastava)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.storytel.com/in/en/books/2310524-Echoes-of-the-Getaway--Behind-the-dark-shadows-of-the-Valley|title=Echoes of the Getaway Behind the dark shadows of the Valley|publisher=Mediacura Infoline|date=2021-04-01|access-date=2021-04-03}}{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
*[[Audiobook]]: "Pratishruti" on [[Storytel]] (Narrator: Mukul Srivastava)<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.storytel.com/in/en/books/2551747-Pratishruti|title=Pratishruti|publisher=Mediacura Infoline|date=2021-07-28|access-date=2021-07-28}}</ref>
*[[Audiobook]]: "Dhartiputri Sita" on [[Storytel]] (Narrator:Kusum verma)<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.storytel.com/in/en/books/dhartiputri-sita-1863268|title=Dhartiputri Sita|publisher=Mediacura Infoline|date=2022-08-03|access-date=2022-09-04}}</ref>
*''Stings of the Exodus'' ([[Notion Press]], 2023) {{ISBN|979-8890026767}} {{ASIN| B0BZPBCL94}}(The original book in Hindi ''Pratishruti'' was translated into English by Gautam Roy)<ref>{{cite web | url=https://notionpress.com/read/stings-of-the-exodus | title=Stings of the Exodus }}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
{{wikiquote}}
* {{Official website|http://www.ravindraprabhat.in/}}
* [http://www.veethi.com/india-people/ravindra_prabhat-profile-2999-25.htm Ravindra Prabhat - Profile and Biography in Veethi]
* [http://www.parikalpnasamay.com// Parikalpana Samay] (Hindi)
*[https://www.nettv4u.com/celebrity/hindi/novelist/ravindra-prabhat Hindi Novelist Ravindra Prabhat]
*[http://www.vishwahindidb.com/show_scholar.aspx?id=527 A global database of Hindi scholars and institutions]
*[https://www.poemhunter.com/ravindra-prabhat/biography/ The Biography of Ravindra Prabhat]
*[https://www.hindustantimes.com/lucknow/calling-for-a-code-for-positive-net-effect/story-2OXUBHKAhpG4XLQQwIfNFP.html Calling for a code for positive Net effect](Hindustan Times)
*[http://www.trendtoday.org/2020/09/echoes-of-getaway-very-interesting-and.html Echoes of the Getaway : Very interesting and informative for the readers.](Trend Today)
*[http://www.trendtoday.org/2020/10/ive-discovered-list-of-best-books-to.html I've discovered a list of the best books to read in 2020.]
{{Authority control}}
{{Portal bar|Biography|India|Literature|Journalism}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Prabhat, Ravindra}}
[[Category:1969 births]]
[[Category:Hindi-language poets]]
[[Category:Screenwriters from Bihar]]
[[Category:Journalists from Bihar]]
[[Category:Indian male novelists]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Sitamarhi district]]
[[Category:Indian columnists]]
[[Category:Indian magazine editors]]
[[Category:Indian male poets]]
[[Category:Poets from Bihar]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian novelists]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian poets]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian journalists]]
[[Category:Novelists from Bihar]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian male writers]]
[[Category:Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar Bihar University alumni]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian male journalists]]

Pink Line (Mumbai Metro)

2026-04-27T02:27:04Z

Ajit3011:

{{Short description|Metro line in Mumbai, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2019}}
{{Infobox rail line
| box_width =
| name = {{big|Pink Line}}
| other_name =
| color = {{rcr|Mumbai Metro|pink}}
| logo = MMMOCL MMRDA logo.svg
| logo_width = 200px
| logo_alt =
| image =
| image_width =
| image_alt =
| caption =
| type = [[Rapid transit]]
| system = [[Mumbai Metro]]
| status = Under construction
| locale = [[Mumbai]], [[Maharashtra]], India
| start = {{stl|Mumbai Metro|Swami Samarth Nagar (Lokhandwala)}}
| end = {{stl|Mumbai Metro|Vikhroli EEH}}
| stations = 13
| routes =
| daily_ridership =
| ridership2 =
| planopen = {{Start date|2027}}
| open =
| yearcommenced =
| yearcompleted =
| close =
| event1label =
| event1 =
| event2label =
| event2 =
| event3label =
| event3 =
| owner = [[Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority|MMRDA]]
| operator =
| character = Elevated
| depot = Kanjur Marg
| stock = [[Titagarh Rail Systems]]
| linelength_km = 15.18
| tracklength_km =
| tracks = 2
| gauge = {{Track gauge|sg|allk=on}}
| load_gauge =
| minradius =
| racksystem =
| routenumber =
| linenumber = 6
| electrification =
| speed_km/h =
| signalling =
| elevation_m = 38
| website = {{url|https://mmrda.maharashtra.gov.in/its#|Pink Line}}
| map = {{MM Pink Line}}
| map_name = Pink Line map
| map_state = collapsed
| embedded =
}}

'''Pink Line (Line 6)''' of the [[Mumbai Metro]] is a [[rapid transit]] metro line in the city of [[Mumbai]], [[Maharashtra]], [[India]]. The {{convert|14.477|km|mi|abbr=on}} elevated line will connect [[Lokhandwala Complex]] with [[Vikhroli]] and will have 13 stations.

Pink Line will also provide interchanges with [[Yellow Line (Mumbai Metro)|Yellow Line 2]] at Adarsh Nagar, with [[Aqua Line (Mumbai Metro)|Aqua Line 3]] at SEEPZ, with [[Green Line (Mumbai Metro)|Green Line 4]] at Kanjur Marg West, and with [[Red Line (Mumbai Metro)|Red Line 7]] at [[Jogeshwari–Vikhroli Link Road]]. It also offers connectivity with the [[Mumbai Suburban Railway]]'s [[Western line (Mumbai Suburban Railway)|Western line]] at [[Jogeshwari railway station|Jogeshwari]] and with the [[Central line (Mumbai Suburban Railway)|Central line]] at [[Kanjur Marg railway station|Kanjur Marg]]. Pink Line is expected to open by December 2027.

== Planning ==
A {{Cvt|19.5|km|2}} metro line connecting Bandra Kurla Complex with Kanjurmarg via the airport was proposed as Pink Line in the original Mumbai Metro master plan unveiled by the [[Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority]] (MMRDA) in 2004.<ref name="mmrda1">{{cite web |title=Mmrda – Projects – Mumbai Metro Rail Project |url=http://202.54.119.40/projects_metro_rail.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120319164955/http://202.54.119.40/projects_metro_rail.htm |archive-date=19 March 2012 |access-date=12 March 2014 |publisher=Mmrdamumbai.org}}</ref> In June 2015, the MMRDA proposed building a {{Convert|12|km|4=2|abbr=on}} metro line from [[Jogeshwari–Vikhroli Link Road|JVLR]] to Kanjurmarg as part of a plan to build 6 new metro lines at a total estimated cost of {{INRConvert|64000|c}}.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-06-16 |title=Over 130 km of Metro lines to criss-cross city by 2020 |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/mumbai/over-130-km-of-metro-lines-to-criss-cross-city-by-2020/ |access-date=2023-07-09 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> On 19 October 2016, the [[Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority]] (MMRDA), headed by Chief Minister [[Devendra Fadnavis]], approved a plan to build a {{Convert|14.47|km|abbr=on}} metro rail line connecting Lokhandwala Complex in Andheri to Vikhroli and Kanjurmarg in the east. The line would have 13 stations and was estimated to cost {{INRConvert|6672|c}}.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2016-10-19 |title=MMRDA approves two Metro corridors |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/mumbai/MMRDA-approves-two-Metro-corridors/article16076164.ece |access-date=2023-07-11 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> The detailed project report for Pink Line was prepared by the [[Delhi Metro Rail Corporation]] (DMRC) in December 2016.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-07-08 |title=Maharashtra plans Metro from Jogeshwari to Vikhroli |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/mumbai-news/maharashtra-plans-metro-from-jogeshwari-to-vikhroli/story-0XgxlStUbbll44bLnq67AJ.html |access-date=2023-07-11 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref> The project was approved by the Maharashtra Cabinet on 24 October 2017.<ref name=":1">{{cite web |date=24 October 2017 |title=Mumbai Metro's corridor 5 and 6 gets Maharashtra cabinet approval |url=https://www.livemint.com/Politics/Z1VWUGDGga5lJjdm8llzKI/Mumbai-Metros-corridor-5-and-6-gets-Maharashtra-cabinet-ap.html |access-date=9 October 2018 |website=Livemint}}</ref>

The MMRDA issued a tender to conduct a detailed aerial mapping survey of the alignment in April 2017. Authorities were to determine the location of trees along the alignment with an accuracy of up to {{Cvt|10|cm}}, utilizing a [[differential GPS]] (DGPS), while a digital aerial triangulation system is to help determine the types of trees, their heights and diameters.<ref>{{cite web |date=6 April 2017 |title=MMRDA to begin tree count for Metro 6 |url=http://www.mid-day.com/articles/mmrda-to-begin-tree-count-for-metro-6/18142172 |access-date=6 April 2017 |website=mid-day |language=en}}</ref> The project received [[Coastal Regulation Zone]] (CRZ) clearance from the Maharashtra Coastal Zone Management Authority (MCZMA) in June 2017. A {{Convert|1.1|km|abbr=on}} stretch of Pink Line passes through CRZ areas at the junction of the JVLR and the Eastern Express Highway near Nehru Nagar.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-10-25 |title=Tenders for Metro 5, 6 in a month: MMRDA |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/mumbai/maharashtra-tenders-for-metro-5-6-in-a-month-mmrda-4905005/ |access-date=2023-07-11 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> The MMRDA utilized a drone to carry out survey work for Pink Line. The drones were fitted with 360 degrees camera that provide up to 3 millimetres (0.12 in) accuracy. The aerial survey takes less time than a regular survey, achieves greater accuracy and helps protect against false claims for compensation.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-10-30 |title=MMRDA to use drones to map Metro-5,6 way |url=https://www.asianage.com/metros/mumbai/301017/mmrda-to-use-drones-to-map-metro-56-way.html |access-date=2023-07-11 |website=The Asian Age}}</ref>

In November 2017, the MMRDA stated that it had reached an agreement with the [[Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation]] (BMC) to build a {{Convert|2|km|4=2|abbr=on}} section of Pink Line on a common pier with a flyover. The BMC had been planning to build a flyover connecting Jogeshwari West and the Jogeshwari Vikhroli Link Road (JVLR) along the same alignment of Pink Line. Per the agreement, the metro piers and viaduct would be constructed first and the flyover would be built below it. Pink Line forms the top deck of a three deck structure on this {{Convert|2|km|4=2|abbr=on}} stretch as the flyover itself passes over an existing rail overbridge.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-11-28 |title=Common piers for metro and flyover Metro 6 girders first, then Jogeshwari flyover work: officials |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/mumbai/common-piers-for-metro-and-flyover-metro-6-girders-first-then-jogeshwari-flyover-work-officials-4957765/ |access-date=2023-07-11 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

In April 2018, the BMC stated that it was putting work on a proposed crocodile park at Powai Lake on hold until Pink Line was completed.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-04-10 |title=Metro-6 works delays crocodile park in Powai lake |url=https://www.asianage.com/metros/mumbai/100418/metro-6-works-delays-crocodile-park-in-powai-lake.html |access-date=2023-07-12 |website=The Asian Age}}</ref> The MMRDA faced criticism from Lokhandwala and Powai residents at a public consultation meeting held on 21 May 2019.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=2019-05-22 |title=Mumbai Metro-6: Residents slam MMRDA for ‘shoddy planning’ |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/mumbai-news/mumbai-metro-6-residents-slam-mmrda-for-shoddy-planning/story-DIL8yzdPK0VgawWQR50jBP.html |access-date=2023-07-12 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref>

=== Alignment ===
The fully elevated line is {{Convert|14.477|km|abbr=on}} long with 13 stations. The line begins at Swami Samarth Nagar station in Lokhandwala Complex and passes over Line 2A's viaduct near Infinity Mall junction on Link Road at a height of {{Convert|20|m}}. Pink Line continues east passing over railway lines at Jogeshwari, Line 7's viaduct at the Western Express Highway, and the JVLR. It continues along the periphery of Powai Lake and terminates at Vikhroli station on the Eastern Express Highway. Pink Line has a total of 50 curves along the route, including many sharp turns. The detailed project report noted that the ground along the alignment was "undulated" resulting in a gradient that was very steep.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Baliga |first=Linah |title=Mumbai: Metro 6 line will cause traffic havoc, say experts |url=https://mumbaimirror.indiatimes.com/mumbai/other/metro-6-line-will-cause-traffic-havoc-experts/articleshow/65727424.cms |access-date=2023-07-12 |website=Mumbai Mirror |language=en}}</ref>

Pink Line is the highest metro line in India. The average height of the pillars supporting the line is {{Convert|16|m|abbr=}} (fourth highest in India), but passes at heights over {{Convert|30|m|abbr=}} in some sections. The tallest pillar on Pink Line is located at Gandhi Nagar in Kanjurmarg. It is {{Convert|38|m|abbr=}} in height and is the tallest metro pillar in India.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |date=2020-08-29 |title=Tallest in country MMRDA to deploy 29.5-m tall straddle carrier to launch girders on Metro 6 |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/mumbai/tallest-in-country-mmrda-to-deploy-29-5-m-tall-straddle-carrier-to-launch-girders-on-metro-6-6574174/ |access-date=2023-07-12 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> The tallest station on the line is Kanjurmarg at height of {{Convert|30|m|abbr=}} above ground level.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=Mumbai: MMRDA gears up for civil work for tallest Metro line 6 |url=https://www.freepressjournal.in/mumbai/mumbai-mmrda-gears-up-for-civil-work-for-tallest-metro-line-6 |access-date=2023-07-12 |website=Free Press Journal |language=en}}</ref>

=== Bidding ===
{|class="wikitable"style="text-align:center;margin:auto;
! colspan="6" align="center" style="background:#{{rcr|Mumbai Metro|pink}};" | Pink Line
|-
! colspan="6" align="center" style="background:#{{rcr|Mumbai Metro|pink}};" | Civil Work
|-
!Package
!Section
!Length
!Successful bid/cost
!Contractor
!Award
|-
|BC-01R1
|Vikhroli EEH – Powai Lake
|{{Cvt|4.772|km|}}
|{{INRConvert|444.98|c}}
|J Kumar – CRTG
|13 Feb 2019
|-
|BC-02R
|Powai Lake – Mahakali Caves
|{{Cvt|4.329|km|}}
|{{INRConvert|372.22|c}}
|MBZ-EIIL
|05 Sept 2018
|-
|BC-03
|Mahakali Caves – Swami Samarth Nagar
|{{Cvt|6.079|km|}}
|{{INRConvert|867.75|c}}
|J Kumar – CRTG
|07 Aug 2018
|-
! colspan="2" |Total
|{{Cvt|15.18|km|}}
|{{INRConvert|1684.95|c}}
! colspan="2" |
|-
! colspan="6" align="center" style="background:#{{rcr|Mumbai Metro|pink}};" | Architectural Finishing Works
|-
!Package
! colspan="2"|Section
!Successful bid/cost
!Contractor
!Award
|-
|CA-264
|colspan="2" |IIT Powai to Vikhroli EEH
|{{INRConvert|76.68|c}}
|SS Constructions
|1 Jan 2025
|-
|CA-265
|colspan="2" |Mahakali Caves to Powai lake
|{{INRConvert|124.41|c}}
|NA Construction
|8 Jan 2025
|-
|CA-266
|colspan="2" |Swami Samarth Naga to Shyam Nagar
|{{INRConvert|165.93|c}}
|Landmark – Neev JV
|8 Jan 2025
|-
! colspan="3" |Total
|{{INRConvert|366.94|c}}
! colspan="2" |
|-
! colspan="6" align="center" style="background:#{{rcr|Mumbai Metro|pink}};" | Miscellaneous
|-
!Package
!colspan="2" | Contract
!Successful bid/cost
!Contractor
!Award
|-
|MT-08
| colspan="2" | Track Fastening
|{{INRConvert|29.84|c}}
|Pandrol Rahee
|11 May 2021
|-
|MT-09R
| colspan="2" | Track Work
|{{INRConvert|80.49|c}}
|Paras Railtech
|29 Jan 2024
|-
|CA-208
| colspan="2" |Kanjurmarg Depot Consultant
|{{INRConvert|20.42|c}}
|CEG – KNR
|1 Apr 2024
|-
|CA-209
| colspan="2" |Kanjurmarg Depot Construction
|{{INRConvert|547.45|c}}
|Sam India
|12 Mar 2024
|-
|CA-232
|colspan="2" |Rolling Stock, Platform Screen Door & Signaling Contract
|{{INRConvert|2269.66|c}}
|NCC
|24 Jun 2025
|-
|CA-233
|colspan="2" |Power Supply and Traction, E&M, Lifts & Escalators
|{{INRConvert|668.15|c}}
|IRCON
|24 Jun 2025
|-
|CA-238
|colspan="2" |Automatic Fare Collection system
|colspan="3" |Bidding Underway
|-
! colspan="3" |Total
|{{INRConvert|3616.01|c}}
! colspan="2" |
|-
! colspan="3" |Total Cost
|{{INRConvert|5667.90|c}}
! colspan="2" |
|}

==Construction==
The DMRC was appointed as the implementing agency for the project by the MMRDA in November 2017. The DMRC invited bids for the construction of Pink Line on 28 November 2017. The work was split into 3 packages. The first package included the IIT Powai, Kanjurmarg West and Vikhroli (EEH) stations.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-11-30 |title=DMRC invites bids for Metro 6 construction |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/mumbai/dmrc-invites-bids-for-metro-6-construction-4961230/ |access-date=2023-07-11 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=IIT-Vikhroli Metro stretch work to worsen traffic snarls |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/mumbai/report-iit-vikhroli-metro-stretch-work-to-worsen-traffic-snarls-2563539 |access-date=2023-07-11 |website=DNA India |language=en}}</ref> The second package included the section from Lokhandwala to Mahakali Caves.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Metro work to up traffic snarls in Mumbai |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/mumbai/report-metro-work-to-up-traffic-snarls-in-mumbai-2650823 |access-date=2023-07-12 |website=DNA India |language=en}}</ref> Construction of the first two packages required the cutting 899 trees.<ref name=":3" /> The DMRC awarded J Kumar Infraprojects an {{INRConvert|867|c}} contract for the second package from Lokhandwala to Mahakali Caves in August 2018.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-08-13 |title=Work on Mumbai’s Metro-6 corridor to kick off by December |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/mumbai-news/work-on-mumbai-s-metro-6-corridor-to-kick-off-by-december/story-Jy02EAYKph8NPu1Tj1EEHK.html |access-date=2023-07-12 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref>

Girder launching began in November 2020. The MMRDA stated in the same month that around 21% of the total work had been completed.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-11-13 |title=Mumbai: Metro 6 corridor moves ahead with launch of girders |url=https://www.mid-day.com/mumbai/mumbai-news/article/mumbai--metro-6-corridor-moves-ahead-with-launch-of-girders-23088245 |access-date=2023-07-12 |website=Mid-day |language=en}}</ref> A 29.5-metre tall straddle carrier was used to launch girders for the line.<ref name=":5" /> A crane at a construction site along the JVLR near Kanjurmarg toppled and collapsed while installing a concrete girder on 16 January 2022, resulting in the death of the crane operator.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-01-16 |title=Mumbai: Crane operator killed as vehicle topples while installing girder for Metro line 6 |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/mumbai/mumbai-crane-collapses-while-installing-metro-girder-driver-dies-7726128/ |access-date=2023-07-12 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> About half the work on the line had been completed by July 2022,<ref name=":4" /> and 65% of civil works had been completed by December 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mumbai: Still 2 years for Metro Line 6 |url=https://www.freepressjournal.in/mumbai/mumbai-still-2-years-for-metro-line-6 |access-date=2023-07-12 |website=Free Press Journal |language=en}}</ref> On 12 August 2025 ,the MMRDA stated that it had completed building 723 out of 768 pillars (85.75%) required for Pink Line.<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.ETInfra.com |title=MMRDA completes 73% work of pillars for 6 Mumbai Metro lines - ET Infra |url=https://infra.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/urban-transportation/mmrda-completes-73-work-of-pillars-for-6-mumbai-metro-lines/101558618 |access-date=2023-07-12 |website=ETInfra.com |language=en}}</ref>

==Stations==
The line will consist of 13 stations from Swami Samarth Nagar in [[Lokhandwala Complex]] in Andheri (West) to Vikhroli (East). It will have interchanges with Lines 2, 3, 4 and 7.<ref>{{cite web |title=DPR for Line 6 |url=https://mmrda.maharashtra.gov.in/documents/10180/9283015/Metro+Line+6+DPR/17c5ed14-e9fb-4920-9521-02eebb25c4a9 |publisher=MMRDA |access-date=20 September 2018 |archive-date=30 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210930051658/https://mmrda.maharashtra.gov.in/documents/10180/9283015/Metro+Line+6+DPR/17c5ed14-e9fb-4920-9521-02eebb25c4a9 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Stations on the line will be equipped with [[platform screen doors]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-05-01 |title=Mumbai Metro News: MMRDA To Procure Station Infrastructure for Metro Line 6 |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/mumbai/mumbai-metro-news-mmrda-to-procure-station-infrastructure-for-metro-line-6-article-99905012 |access-date=2023-07-12 |website=TimesNow |language=en}}</ref>

{|class="wikitable"style="text-align:center;margin:auto;
|-
! style="background:#{{rcr|Mumbai Metro|pink}};" colspan="10" | Pink Line 6
|-
! rowspan="2"|#
! colspan="2"|Station Name
! rowspan="2"|Opening<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-04-05 |title=Mumbai Metro on fast track to hit 2025 completion goal |url=https://www.mid-day.com/mumbai/mumbai-news/article/mumbai-metro-races-against-time-to-meet-2025-deadline-23513407 |access-date=2025-04-11 |website=Mid-day |language=en}}</ref>
! rowspan="2"|Interstation Distance
! rowspan="2"|Connections
! rowspan="2"|Layout
|-
! [[English language|English]]||[[Marathi language|Marathi]]
|-
|1 || {{stl|Mumbai Metro|Swami Samarth Nagar (Lokhandwala)}} || स्वामी समर्थ नगर (लोखंडवाला) || 2027 || {{cvt|0|km|mi}} || None || Elevated
|-
|2 || [[Adarsh Nagar (Mumbai) metro station|Adarsh Nagar]] || आदर्श नगर || 2027 || {{cvt|0.7288|km|mi}} || {{rint|Mumbai|m}} {{rcb|Mumbai Metro|yellow|croute}} || Elevated
|-
|3 || {{stl|Mumbai Metro|Jogeshwari (West)}} || जोगेश्वरी (पश्चिम) || 2027 || {{cvt|0.9891|km|mi}} || {{rint|mumbai|s}} {{rcb|Mumbai Suburban Railway|Western|croute}}

{{rint|mumbai|s}} {{rcb|Mumbai Suburban Railway|Harbour|croute}}
|Elevated
|-
|4 || {{stl|Mumbai Metro|JVLR Junction}} || जेवीएलआर जंक्शन || 2027 || {{cvt|1.598|km|mi}} || {{rint|Mumbai|m}} {{rcb|Mumbai Metro|red|croute}} || Elevated
|-
|5 || [[Shyam Nagar (Mumbai) metro station|Shyam Nagar]] || श्याम नगर || 2027 || {{cvt|0.9619|km|mi}} || None || Elevated
|-
|6 || {{stl|Mumbai Metro|Mahakali Caves}} || महाकाली लेणी || 2027 || {{cvt|1.5478|km|mi}} || None || Elevated
|-
|7 || {{stl|Mumbai Metro|SEEPZ Village}} || सीप्झ गाव || 2027 || {{cvt|1.1228|km|mi}} || [[File:Logo_of_Mumbai_Metro_Line_3.png|link=Aqua_Line_(Mumbai_Metro)|17x17px]] {{rcb|Mumbai Metro|aqua|croute}} || Elevated
|-
|8 || {{stl|Mumbai Metro|Saki Vihar Road}} || साकी विहार रोड || 2027 || {{cvt|1.1363|km|mi}} || None || Elevated
|-
|9 || {{stl|Mumbai Metro|Rambaug (Powai)}} || रामबाग (पवई) || 2027 || {{cvt|1.0122|km|mi}} || None || Elevated
|-
|10 || {{stl|Mumbai Metro|Powai Lake}} || पवई तलाव || 2027 || {{cvt|0.8493|km|mi}} || None || Elevated
|-
|11 || {{stl|Mumbai Metro|IIT Powai}} || आयआयटी पवई || 2027 || {{cvt|1.0644|km|mi}} || None || Elevated
|-
|12 || {{stl|Mumbai Metro|Kanjurmarg (West)}} || कांजूरमार्ग (पश्चिम) || 2027 || {{cvt|1.658|km|mi}} || {{rint|Mumbai|m}} {{rcb|Mumbai Metro|green|croute}} (Under Construction) {{rint|mumbai|s}} {{rcb|Mumbai Suburban Railway|Central|croute}} || Elevated
|-
|13 || {{stl|Mumbai Metro|Vikhroli EEH}} || विक्रोळी इइएच || 2027 || {{cvt|1.056|km|mi}} || {{rint|Mumbai|m}} {{rcb|Mumbai Metro|magenta|croute}} (Planned) || Elevated
|}

== Infrastructure ==

=== Rolling stock ===
The MMRDA floated tenders to procure 108 metro cars for Pink Line in June 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-06-12 |title=MMRDA floats tenders to buy 108 coaches for Metro Line 6 |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/mumbai/mmrda-floats-tenders-to-buy-108-coaches-for-metro-line-6-8657810/ |access-date=2023-07-12 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

=== Depot ===
The depot for Pink Line is proposed to be located at Kanjurmarg.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-04-18 |title=Metro 6 depot: Kanjurmarg land release orders issued in Mumbai |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/metro-6-depot-kanjurmarg-land-release-orders-issued/articleshow/99572117.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2023-07-12 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://mmrda.maharashtra.gov.in/documents/10180/9283015/Metro+Line+6+DPR/17c5ed14-e9fb-4920-9521-02eebb25c4a9 Pink Line Detailed Project Report] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210930051658/https://mmrda.maharashtra.gov.in/documents/10180/9283015/Metro+Line+6+DPR/17c5ed14-e9fb-4920-9521-02eebb25c4a9 |date=30 September 2021 }}

{{Mumbai Metro navbox|line 6=yes}}

[[Category:Mumbai Metro lines]]

Gondu Shankar

2026-04-25T00:25:49Z

Ajit3011: created a data.

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2021}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2021}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| office = Member of the [[Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]
| constituency = [[srikakulam (Assembly constituency)|srikakulam]]
| term_start = 2024
| predecessor = [[Dharmana Prasada Rao]]
| successor =
| party = [[Telugu Desam Party]]
| spouse = {{marriage|Gondu swathi|2004}}
| children = 2
| image =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1976|6|18|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[singupuram]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], India
| alma_mater = [[Bangalore University]] ([[Civil engineering]])
}}

'''Gondu Shankar''' is an Indian politician from [[Andhra Pradesh]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-06-04 |title=Srikakulam Election Result 2024 Live Updates Highlights: Assembly Winner, Loser, Leading, Trailing, MLA, Margin |url=https://www.news18.com/elections/srikakulam-election-result-2024-live-updates-highlights-assembly-winner-loser-leading-trailing-mla-margin-8916764.html |access-date=2024-06-06 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref> He is a member of the Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly winning the [[2024 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]s representing the [[Telugu Desam Party]] from the [[Srikakulam Assembly constituency]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-06-04 |title=Srikakulam, Andhra Pradesh Assembly Election Results 2024 Highlights: TDP's Gondu Shankar with 117091 defeats YSRCP's Dharmana Prasada Rao |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/elections/assembly/story/srikakulam-andhra-pradesh-assembly-election-results-2024-live-updates-2548187-2024-06-04 |access-date=2024-06-06 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-06-04 |title=Will strive hard for the development of Srikakulam, says TDP's winning candidate Gondu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/will-strive-hard-for-the-development-of-srikakulam-says-tdps-winning-candidate-gondu/article68251374.ece |access-date=2024-06-06 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

==Career==
He served as sarpanch of Krishnappapeta in Srikakulam mandal.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pativada |first=Sreenu Babu |date=2024-04-13 |title=Amid dissidence, TDP Sankar certain of win in Srikakulam Assembly constituency |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/andhra-pradesh/2024/Apr/13/amid-dissidence-tdp-sankar-certain-of-win-in-srikakulam-assembly-constituency |access-date=2025-03-21 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Gondu Shankar, TDP candidate bio : Assets, Total Income, Liabilities, Criminal Cases and other details. |url=https://www.thehindu.com/elections/candidates/AndhraPradesh2024/gondu-shankar-381/ |access-date=2025-03-21 |website=The Hindu |language=en}}</ref> He was also the president of Srikakulam Sarpanches Association.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-06-04 |title=Will strive hard for the development of Srikakulam, says TDP's winning candidate Gondu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/will-strive-hard-for-the-development-of-srikakulam-says-tdps-winning-candidate-gondu/article68251374.ece |access-date=2025-03-21 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> In 2024, he won the [[2024 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]] from [[Srikakulam (Assembly constituency)|Srikakulam]] constituency with 60.90% votes as a Telugu Desam Party candidate.

== References ==

{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Shankar, Gondu}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Telugu Desam Party politicians]]
[[Category:Andhra Pradesh MLAs 2024–2029]]
[[Category:1976 births]]

{{TDP-politician-stub}}

Mukesh Kapila

2026-04-17T13:49:52Z

Ajit3011: Started Initial Data W/ Refs

{{Short description|Humanitarian leader and author}}
{{Use British English|date=November 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2017}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Mukesh Kapila
| honorific_suffix = [[M.D.]] [[CBE]]
| image = Sudan border lands 2013 - FRECCIA AEGIS-1214.jpg
| birth_date = {{birth year and age|1955}}
| birth_place = [[India]]
| citizenship = [[British people|British]]
| alma_mater = [[Oxford University]] ([[M.D.]]) [[London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine]] (post-grad)
| notable_works = ''[[Against a Tide of Evil]]'' (2013 memoir)
| website = {{url|http://www.mukeshkapila.org/}}
}}
'''Mukesh Kapila''' [[Doctor of Medicine|M.D.]] [[CBE]] (born 1955)<ref name="BMJ 2019">{{Cite journal|date=2019-02-27|title=Mukesh Kapila: The international humanitarian|url=https://www.bmj.com/content/364/bmj.l649|journal=[[BMJ]]|language=en|volume=364|pages=l649 |doi=10.1136/bmj.l649|issn=0959-8138|pmid=30814068|s2cid=73508021 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> is an author, medical doctor, professor, and a senior humanitarian.

He is a specialist in [[Crisis management|crisis]] and [[conflict management]], [[Humanitarian aid|humanitarian affairs]], [[Post-conflict aid|post-conflict]] and development, and [[HIV]]/AIDS. He has worked for the [[National Health Service|UK National Health Service]], the British government and the [[United Nations]] (UN). He witnessed [[Rwandan genocide|genocides in Rwanda]], [[Bosnian genocide|Bosnia-Hercegovina]] and [[Darfur genocide (2003–2005)|Darfur]], the latter while being the head of the United Nations in [[Sudan]]. He was unceremoniously fired, after becoming a [[whistleblower]] regarding UN inaction in Darfur.<ref name="HMDT">{{Cite web |title=Dr Mukesh Kapila CBE |publisher=Holocaust Memorial Day Trust |url=https://www.hmd.org.uk/resource/dr-mukesh-kapila-cbe/ |access-date=2022-01-22 |language=en}}</ref>

Kapila is the author of two books about genocide: ''[[Against a Tide of Evil]]'' (2013) and ''I am a stranger to kindness'' (2019). He currently works as a professor of global health and humanitarian affairs at the [[University of Manchester]], and is a Special Representative of the [[Aegis Trust]] for the prevention of [[crimes against humanity]].<ref name="HMDT" />

== Early life and education ==
Kapila was born in [[India]] in 1955.<ref name="HMDT" /><ref name="The Conversation" />

He has a degree in medicine from [[University of Oxford|Oxford University]] and post graduate [[public health]] qualifications from the [[London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine|London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine]].<ref name="The Conversation" />

==Career==
He is a British medical professional and professor of Global Health and Humanitarian Affairs at the [[University of Manchester]]. He is a specialist in crisis and conflict management, humanitarian affairs, post-conflict and development, and [[HIV]] and [[HIV/AIDS|AIDS]]. Kapila is also Special Representative for the [[Aegis Trust]] for the prevention of crimes against humanity.<ref>[https://www.aegistrust.org/africa-speaking-tour-aegis-special-representative-comes-uganda-kenya/ Africa speaking tour by Aegis Special Representative comes to Uganda and Kenya]. [[Aegis Trust]], September 13th, 2013.</ref><ref>http://www.aegistrust.org/Latest-News/former-un-sudan-chief-becomes-special-representative-for-aegis.html{{dead link|date=February 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

As a mid-level civil servant in 1994, he was part of one of the first British teams to see the aftermath of the [[Rwandan genocide]] after entering [[Rwandan Patriotic Front]]-controlled [[Kigali]].<ref name="Aegis">[http://www.aegistrust.org/index.php?option=content&task=view&id=310&Itemid=260 Dr Mukesh Kapila, edited transcript, 'Moving from Words to Action; the Responsibility to Protect'], [[Aegis Trust]], 25 January 2006</ref>

He was the Deputy Director of the National UK AIDS programme during the 1990s.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

He was Head of Conflict and Humanitarian Affairs unit of the British [[Department for International Development]] from 1998 to 2002. From 2002 to 2003, he was a Special Adviser to the United Nations, first to the Special Representative of the Secretary General in [[Afghanistan]] and then to the [[High Commissioner for Human Rights]]. In 2003–2004, Kapila was the United Nations Resident and Humanitarian Coordinator, and the [[United Nations Development Programme|UN Development Program]] Resident Representative for the [[Sudan]].

While stationed in Sudan, he was outspoken in his condemnation of the human rights abuses being committed in the western region of [[Darfur]]. His activism began after a Darfuri woman came to his office to tell him how she, her daughter and 200 other women in the village of Tawilla had been [[rape|gang-raped]] and mostly murdered by government soldiers and paramilitaries.<ref name="Aegis" /> His reports about the [[Darfur conflict]] were at the time dismissed by the Government of Sudan as "a heap of lies", though they succeeded in bringing Darfur to the attention of the world's media for the first time. Kapila was transferred out of Sudan in April 2004, only 13 months into a 24-month assignment.<ref name="parliament">[http://www.parliament.uk/parliamentary_committees/international_development/ind_04_05_14.cfm Press Notice 14, Session 2004–05 – Darfur, Sudan: Crisis, response and lessons] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080112192142/http://www.parliament.uk/parliamentary_committees/international_development/ind_04_05_14.cfm |date=12 January 2008 }}, announcement for an evidence session of the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]], May 2005</ref> Commenting in 2006 on this period, Kapila stated:

<blockquote>There is debate about whether we had [[genocide]] in Darfur or not, but certainly in my mind, and the mind of many, many people, I think there is very little doubt that what went on in Darfur in 2003 and the early part of 2004 was certainly genocide. We can argue the words, but that would be no consolation to those people who are affected.

 So I subsequently went on to speak about it publicly, having tried the various diplomatic routes and avenues, and I soon found myself hauled onto a plane out of [[Khartoum]]. And as I reflected back on it, I thought to myself that there I was presiding over the first genocide of the 21st century – it is a place in history you don't wish to have.<ref name="Aegis" /></blockquote>

He was a Director in the Department of Health Action in Crises of the [[World Health Organization]] (2004 to 2006). An employee of the Government of the United Kingdom, he was on secondment to the United Nations. He was an Adviser to the World Bank on climate change issues, has advised the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UN/ISDR), and the International Labour Organization. He was the chief executive of PHG Foundation in Cambridge, UK from September 2003 to August 2004.

Prior to his appointment as Special Representative for the Aegis Trust, Kapila was the Under Secretary General for National Society and Knowledge Development at the [[International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies]] (IFRC). Earlier he served as the Special Representative for HIV and AIDS,<ref>[http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/fromthefield/218536/115980564141.htm "Southern Africa deserves better than promises", says the International Federation's new Special Representative for HIV and AIDS], [[Reuters]], 2 October 2006</ref> and subsequently as Special Representative to the Secretary General of the IFRC. While at IFRC, Kapila has been instrumental in developing worldwide "global alliances" of the Red Cross Red Crescent such as HIV and disaster risk reduction, where successful scale-up has been achieved. He has been responsible for formulating Strategy 2020 – the International Federation's vision for the next decade.

He has served as an Advisory Board member of the [[DCAF|Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces]], and of [[Minority Rights Group International]], and Executive committee member of the Alliance for Direct Action against Rape in Conflicts and Crises (AllianceDARC). He has been a member of the Board of Trustees of the [[United Nations Institute for Training and Research]], the [[International Peace Academy]] and of the United Nations Disaster Assessment and Co-ordination (UNDAC) system.

In 2022 Kapila wrote blog posts about corruption at [[United Nations Office for Project Services]], which lead to resignation of its leaders.<ref name="NYT resign">{{cite news |last1=Fahrenthold |first1=David A. |author-link=David Fahrenthold |last2=Fassihi |first2=Farnaz |author-link2=Farnaz Fassihi |date=May 8, 2022 |title=Head of U.N. Agency Resigns After Questions Arise About Loans |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/05/08/us/politics/un-agency-loans-resignation.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |location= |access-date=May 7, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= https://mukeshkapilablog.org/2022/05/01/the-world-bank-and-other-donors-must-stop-funding-fraud-tainted-unops/ |title=Ten reasons why the World Bank and other donors must stop funding fraud-tainted UNOPS |last=Kapila |first=Mukesh |date=May 1, 2022 |website=Mukesh Kapila blog |access-date=May 7, 2022 |quote=}}</ref>

Kapila is a Senior Member of Hughes Hall College, Cambridge University, UK. He is also an Associate Fellow at the Humanitarian and Conflict Response Institute, [[The University of Manchester]], UK.

== Selected publications ==

* Mukesh Kapila'', [[Against a Tide of Evil]],'' 2013, Pegasus Books, ISBN 978-0991099337<ref name="BMJ 2019" /><ref>{{Cite web|last=Herlinger|first=Chris|date=2014-02-15|title=Activists strive to bring attention back to Darfur crisis|url=https://www.ncronline.org/news/world/activists-strive-bring-attention-back-darfur-crisis|access-date=2022-01-22|website=National Catholic Reporter|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Hollingsworth|first=Kimberly|date=15 April 2013|title=Arrest Bashir: My War with Sudan's President|work=Sudan Tribune|url=https://sudantribune.com/article45391/}}</ref><ref>Video: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WEUWU8JwnDI Against A Tide Of Evil]. Aegis Trust, 2013.</ref>
* Mukesh Kapila, ''No Stranger to Kindness'', 2019, ISBN 979-8506914310<ref name="The Conversation">{{Cite web|title=Mukesh Kapila|url=https://theconversation.com/profiles/mukesh-kapila-1248097|access-date=2022-01-22|website=The Conversation|language=en}}</ref>

== Awards ==
In 2003, he was honoured by [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] and named a Commander of the [[Order of the British Empire]] for his international service.<ref>[https://www.who.int/hac/techguidance/training/hearnet/resource_persons/mukesh_kapila/en/index.html WHO Resource Persons: Dr Mukesh KAPILA] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060822061335/http://www.who.int/hac/techguidance/training/hearnet/resource_persons/mukesh_kapila/en/index.html|date=22 August 2006}}, [[World Health Organization]] biography</ref> In 2007 he received the Dr Jean Mayer Global Citizenship Award of the Institute for Global Leadership.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Mukesh Kapila|url=https://www.cigionline.org/people/mukesh-kapila/|access-date=2022-01-22|publisher=Centre for International Governance Innovation|language=en}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Jan Pronk]]

== Notes and references ==

{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://mukeshkapilablog.org/ Flesh & Blood: The Blog of Mukesh Kapila]
* {{Official website|http://www.mukeshkapila.org/}}

=== Interviews and articles by Mukesh Kapila===
* [http://www.irinnews.org/report.asp?ReportID=34872 SUDAN: Interview with Mukesh Kapila, UN Resident and Humanitarian Coordinator], [[Integrated Regional Information Networks|IRIN]], 20 June 2003. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041121055656/http://www.irinnews.org/report.asp?ReportID=34872|date=21 November 2004}}
* [https://theconversation.com/comply-or-leave-the-dilemma-facing-humanitarian-agencies-165787 Comply or leave: the dilemma facing humanitarian agencies] (interview with Mukesh Kapila, by Moina Spooner). ''The Conversation'', 9 August 2021.
* [https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/article/2024/aug/27/sudan-needs-an-exceptional-humanitarian-endeavour-to-end-its-horrific-civil-war Sudan needs an exceptional humanitarian endeavour to end its horrific civil war]. ''[[The Guardian]]'', 27 August 2024.
* [https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/opinionista/2025-04-09-perhaps-the-time-has-come-to-critically-examine-the-wording-of-the-genocide-convention/ Perhaps the time has come to critically examine the wording of the Genocide Convention], ''[[Daily Maverick]]'', 9 April 2025
*[https://www.thenationalnews.com/opinion/comment/2025/05/27/the-gaza-humanitarian-foundation-is-the-best-of-bad-options/ The Gaza Humanitarian Foundation is the best of bad options]. ''[[The National (Abu Dhabi)|The National]]'' 27 May 2025.
*[https://www.e-ir.info/2025/06/04/the-philanthropy-of-bill-gates-should-be-taken-with-caution/ The Philanthropy of Bill Gates Should Be Taken with Caution]. ''[[E-International Relations]]'', 4 June 2025

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kapila, Mukesh}}
[[Category:1955 births]]

[[Category:Alumni of the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine]]
[[Category:Alumni of the University of Oxford]]
[[Category:Civil servants in the Department for International Development]]
[[Category:Commanders of the Order of the British Empire]]
[[Category:Indian emigrants to England]]
[[Category:Indian whistleblowers]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Naturalised citizens of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:People of the War in Darfur]]

List of institutions of higher education in Ranchi

2026-04-16T16:05:04Z

Ajit3011: Started The Details W/ Infobox

{{Short description|none}}
{{Orphan|date=October 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2019}}

Most of the colleges and institutions of higher education in [[Ranchi]], [[Jharkhand]], India are under the jurisdiction of [[Ranchi University]].

As the institutions of higher studies fall short of city's requirement, many students, after completing [[high school|schooling]] in the state, move away to places like [[New Delhi]], [[Karnataka]] and several other locations for study of higher technical and non-technical subjects.

==Autonomous==

*[[Indian Institute of Information Technology ]]
*[[Indian Institute of Management Ranchi ]]
*[[National Institute of Foundry and Forge Technology]]
*[[National University of Study and Research in Law]]
* [[Xavier Institute of Social Service]]
* [https://rkdfuniversity.org/ RKDF University Ranchi]

==Engineering==
* [[Jharkhand Rai University]]
* [[Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra]]
* Birla Institute of Technology, Extension centre, Lalpur
* Cambridge Institute of Technology, Tatisilwai
* [https://rkdfuniversity.org/ RKDF University Ranchi]

==General Colleges==
* Yogoda Satsanga Mahavidyalaya
* Doranda College Doranda
* [[Gossner College]]
* [[Gossner Theological College]]
* J. N. College
* Mahendra Prasad Mahavidyalaya
* [[Marwari Boys' College]]
* Marwari Girls' College
* Moulana Azad College
* Nirmala College, Doranda, Ranchi
* Ranchi College
* Ranchi Women's College
* St. Paul's College, Ranchi
* [[St. Xavier's College, Ranchi]]
* Sanjay Gandhi Memorial College
* [[Suraj Singh Memorial College]]
* Silli College Silli, Ranchi

==Law==
* [[Chotanagpur Law College]]
* [https://rkdfuniversity.org/departments/school-of-law/ RKDF University Ranchi]

==Medical==
*[[Rajendra Institute of Medical Sciences]]
*[[Sadar Hospital, Ranchi|Sadar Medical College and Hospital, Ranchi]]
*[[Central Institute of Psychiatry]]

==University==
* [https://rkdfuniversity.org/ RKDF University Ranchi]
* [[Jharkhand Rai University]]
* [[Birsa Agricultural University]]
* [[Sarala Birla University]]
* [[Central University of Jharkhand]]
* [[ICFAI University, Jharkhand]]
* [[Amity University, Jharkhand]]
* [[Jharkhand Raksha Shakti University]]
* [[Ranchi University]]
* [[Sai Nath University]]

==Other==
* Central Institute of Mining and Fuel Research
* [[Central Institute of Psychiatry]]
* [[Indian Institute of Agricultural Biotechnology]]
* Indian Institute of Coal Management
* Indian Institute of Legal Metrology
* [[Indian Institute of Natural Resins and Gums]]
* International Institute of Professional Studies
* Institute of Management Studies, Ranchi
* Institute of Science & Management
* Kejriwal Institute of Management
* Ranchi Institute of Neuropsychiatry and Applied Sciences
* NILAI Group of Institutions Ranchi
* Ram Tahal Choudhary Institute of Technology
* SBS College, Ranchi
* Swami Mangal Das Pranami College
* Usha Martin University
* Ranchi Veterinary College, Kanke, Ranchi
* Ranchi Agriculture College, Kanke, Ranchi

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

* {{cite web
|title = Ranchi.com
|url = http://www.ranchi.com/central/geninfo/allcollege.asp
|accessdate = 2007-03-08
|url-status = dead
|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20020804054709/http://www.ranchi.com/central/geninfo/allcollege.asp
|archivedate = 2002-08-04
}}
* {{cite news
| title = Indiastudycenter.com}}


{{coord missing|Bihar}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Universities and colleges in Ranchi}}
[[Category:Universities and colleges in Ranchi| ]]
[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges in India by populated place|Ranchi]]
[[Category:Jharkhand-related lists]]

Kalikaalam (2012 film)

2026-04-16T05:25:17Z

Ajit3011: Starting

{{Distinguish|Kalikkalam|Kalikaalam (1992 film)}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Kalikaalam
| image = Kalikalam.jpg
| caption =
| director = Reji Nair
| writer = Reji Nair
| narrator =
| producer = Pilakandi Mohammed Ali
| starring = [[Sharada (actress)|Sharada]] [[Satthya (actor)|Satthya]] [[Lalu Alex]] [[Ashokan (actor)|Ashokan]] [[Suresh Krishna (actor)|Suresh Krishna]] [[Shari (actress)|Shari]] Lakshmi Sharma [[Mamukkoya]] Kozhikode Narayanan Nair Sreehari
| music = [[Ousepachan]]
| editing = Ranjan Abraham
| cinematography = [[Madhu Ambat]]
| studio = Pilakandi Films International
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2012|6|15}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Malayalam
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''Kalikaalam''''' ([[Malayalam]]: കലികാലം) is a 2012 Malayalam [[drama film]] written and directed by Reji Nair. Focussing mainly on relationships, it tells the story of a mother and her three children. The film tries to explore the complexities of a small family. Scriptwriter Reji Nair makes his directorial debut with this film. ''Kalikalam'' was filmed by award-winning cinematographer [[Madhu Ambat]].<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.thehindu.com/arts/cinema/article3500286.ece?homepage=true
|title=Wedded to cinema
|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]
|publisher=thehindu.com
|first=Prema
|last=Manmadhan
|date=7 June 2012
|accessdate=17 June 2012
|location=[[Kochi]]
}}</ref> The film's music is by [[O. N. V. Kurup]]-[[Ousepachan]] team, who reunites once again after ''[[Akashadoothu]]'' (1992). The film was shot in [[Thalassery]] and nearby places.<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/regional/others/news-interviews/Kalikalam-progressing/articleshow/10184286.cms
|title=Kalikalam progressing
|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]
|publisher=indiatimes.com
|first=Ammu
|last=Zachariah
|date=30 September 2011
|accessdate=17 June 2012
|location=[[Kochi]]
}}</ref>

==Plot synopsis==
The story is about Devaki, an active social reformer, who works as a teacher and mother of three children. The film deals with human relationships and explores the complexities that are generally faced in the life of a small family.

==Cast==
{{cast listing|
* [[Sharada (actress)|Sharada]] as Devaki Teacher
* [[Lalu Alex]] as Satheesh Nair
* [[Ashokan (actor)|Ashokan]] as Ravi Nair
* Satthya
* [[Suresh Krishna (actor)|Suresh Krishna]] as Gouthaman Nair
* [[Shari (actress)|Shari]] as Meenakshi
* [[Leona Lishoy]] as Ananya
* Sadhika Venugopal as Shelly
*[[J. Pallassery]] as Pilla
* [[Bheeman Raghu]] as C.I Chandran Nair
*[[Sadhika Venugopal]] as Shelly
* [[Lakshmi Sharma]] as Suja Gouthaman
* [[Mamukkoya]] as Mohammed Koya Master
*[[Kulappulli Leela]] as Nani
* [[Kozhikode Narayanan Nair]] as Rajan Master
* Sreehari as Raghavan Nair
* Munshi Venu as Usman Master
* [[Anoop Chandran]] as Keshavan
*[[Sathaar]] as Dr.Krishnadas
*[[Parvathi T.]] as Dr.Shoshamma Kuriyan
}}

== Soundtrack ==
Music was composed by Ousepachan and the lyrics were written by [[O. N. V. Kurup]].

{{Track listing
| headline = Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| total_length =
| all_writing =
| all_lyrics =
| all_music =
| title_width =
| writing_width =
| music_width =
| lyrics_width =
| extra_width =
| title1 = Mutharamkunnin
| note1 =
| writer1 =
| lyrics1 =
| music1 =
| extra1 = [[K. S. Chithra]]
| length1 = 4:28
| title2 = Pranayamoranandha
| note2 =
| writer2 =
| lyrics2 =
| music2 =
| extra2 = [[P. Jayachandran|Jayachandran]]
| length2 = 5:28
| title3 = Thoovellikasavulla
| note3 =
| writer3 =
| lyrics3 =
| music3 =
| extra3 = [[Shreya Ghoshal]]
| length3 = 5:54
| title4 = Amme
| note4 =
| writer4 =
| lyrics4 =
| music4 =
| extra4 = [[K. J. Yesudas]]
| length4 = 4:30
| title5 = Pranayamoranandha (F)
| note5 =
| writer5 =
| lyrics5 =
| music5 =
| extra5 = [[Rajalakshmy]]
| length5 = 5:27
}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|tt2241269}}

[[Category:2012 Malayalam-language films]]
[[Category:Indian drama films]]
[[Category:2012 directorial debut films]]
[[Category:2012 films]]
[[Category:Films shot in Wayanad]]
[[Category:Films shot in Thalassery]]
[[Category:Films shot in Kannur]]
[[Category:Films shot in Kozhikode]]
[[Category:2012 drama films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Ouseppachan]]
[[Category:Malayalam-language drama films]]

{{2010s-Malayalam-film-stub}}
{{2010s-drama-film-stub}}

Kalayat Assembly constituency

2026-04-15T23:46:58Z

Ajit3011: Details.

{{short description|Legislative Assembly constituency in Haryana State, India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2021}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Kalayat
| type = SLA
| map_image = Kalayat Assembly constituency map.svg
| map_caption =
| map_alt =
| alliance = 
| latest_election_year = [[2024 Haryana Legislative Assembly election|2024]]
| region =
| division =
| constituency_no = 16
| established = 
| abolished = 
| mla = [[Vikas Saharan]]
| party = [[Indian National Congress]]
| state = [[Haryana]]
| district = [[Kaithal district|Kaithal]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Kurukshetra (Lok Sabha constituency)|Kurukshetra]]
| reservation = None
| electors = 2,14,407
}}
'''Kalayat''' is one of the 90 [[Haryana Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]] constituencies of [[Haryana]], India.<ref name=eci1>{{cite web |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf |title=Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 2008 |publisher=The Election Commission of India |pages=6, 148–157}}</ref>

It is part of [[Kaithal district|Kaithal]] district. [[Vikas Saharan]] is the incumbent MLA.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-10-08 |title=Kalayat Assembly Election Result 2024: Congress's Vikas Saharan wins with 48142 votes against BJP's Kamlesh Dhanda |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/gurgaon/kalayat-assembly-election-result-2024-counting-of-votes-today/articleshow/114012988.cms |access-date=2025-09-06 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Year
!Member<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kalayat Assembly constituency Election Result 2024 - Candidates, MLAs, Live Updates & News |url=https://www.elections.in/haryana/assembly-constituencies/kalayat.html |access-date= |website=www.elections.in}}</ref>
!colspan="2"|Party
|-
| [[1967 Haryana Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
| Maru Singh Malik
| {{Full party name with color|Swatantra Party}}
|-
| [[1968 Haryana Legislative Assembly election|1968]]
| Bhagtu Ram Malik
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[1972 Haryana Legislative Assembly election|1972]]
| Bhagat Ram
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress (O)|dab=y}}
|-
| [[1977 Haryana Legislative Assembly election|1977]]
| Prit Singh
| {{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|-
| [[1982 Haryana Legislative Assembly election|1982]]
| Jogi Ram
| {{Full party name with color|Lokdal|rowspan=2}}
|-
| [[1987 Haryana Legislative Assembly election|1987]]
| Banarasi
|-
| [[1991 Haryana Legislative Assembly election|1991]]
| Bharath Singh
| {{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|-
| [[1996 Haryana Legislative Assembly election|1996]]
| Ram Bhaj
| {{Full party name with color|Haryana Vikas Party}}
|-
| [[2000 Haryana Legislative Assembly election|2000]]
| Deena Ram
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Lok Dal}}
|-
| [[2005 Haryana Legislative Assembly election|2005]]
| [[Geeta Bhukkal]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[2009 Haryana Legislative Assembly election|2009]]
| Rampal Majra
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Lok Dal}}
|-
| [[2014 Haryana Legislative Assembly election|2014]]
| [[Jai Parkash]]
| {{party name with color|Independent politician}}
|-
| [[2019 Haryana Legislative Assembly election|2019]]
| [[Kamlesh Dhanda]]
| {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
| [[2024 Haryana Legislative Assembly election|2024]]
| [[Vikas Saharan]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|}

== Election results ==
===Assembly Election 2024===
{{Election box begin|
|title=[[2024 Haryana Legislative Assembly election]]: Kalayat<ref name="Kalayat Assembly Election Result 2024: Congress's Vikas Saharan wins with 48142 votes against BJP's Kamlesh Dhanda">{{cite news |last1=The Times of India |title=Kalayat Assembly Election Result 2024: Congress's Vikas Saharan wins with 48142 votes against BJP's Kamlesh Dhanda |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/gurgaon/kalayat-assembly-election-result-2024-counting-of-votes-today/articleshow/114012988.cms |accessdate=28 October 2024 |date=8 October 2024}}</ref><ref name="Haryana Assembly Election Results 2024 - Kalayat">{{cite news |last1=Election Commission of India |title=Haryana Assembly Election Results 2024 - Kalayat |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/AcResultGenOct2024/candidateswise-S0716.htm |accessdate=28 October 2024 |date=8 October 2024}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Vikas Saharan]] |party=Indian National Congress |votes=48,142 |percentage=30.01% |change={{increase}}0.69 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Kamlesh Dhanda]] |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=34,723 |percentage=21.65% |change={{decrease}}13.54 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Anita Dhull Badsikri |party=Independent politician |votes=25,302 |percentage=15.77% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Rampal Majra |party=Indian National Lok Dal |votes=18,850 |percentage=11.75% |change={{increase}}11.00 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Vinod Nirmal |party=Independent politician |votes=14,508 |percentage=9.04% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Satvinder Singh Rana |party=Independent politician |votes=5,859 |percentage=3.65% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Anurag Dhanda |party=Aam Aadmi Party |votes=5,482 |percentage=3.42% |change={{increase}}2.47 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=None of the Above |party=None of the above |votes=393 |percentage=0.24% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=13,419 |percentage=8.37% |change= {{increase}}2.50 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=1,60,413 |percentage=74.92% |change= {{decrease}}0.74 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 2,14,407 |ref = |change= {{increase}}5.95 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Bharatiya Janata Party |swing= {{decrease}}5.18 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 2019 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2019 Haryana Legislative Assembly election]]: Kalayat<ref name=results2019>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/11697-haryana-legislative-assembly-election-2019/ |title=Haryana Legislative Assembly Election, 2019 - Haryana - Election Commission of India |website=eci.gov.in |accessdate= 2 February 2021}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Kamlesh Dhanda]] |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=53,805 |percentage=35.19 |change=18.16 }}

{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = [[Jai Parkash]]
|party=Indian National Congress |votes=44,833
|percentage=29.32
|change=14.29
}}

{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Satvinder Singh |party=Jannayak Janta Party |votes=37,425 |percentage=24.48 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Jogi Ram |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=7,113 |percentage=4.65 |change=1.88 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Rakesh Singh |party=Loktanter Suraksha Party |votes=2,448 |percentage=1.60 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Seema |party=Aam Aadmi Party |votes=1,453 |percentage=0.95 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Om Parkash |party=Indian National Lok Dal |votes=1,149 |percentage=0.75 |change=-27.20 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Satywan |party=Communist Party of India (Marxist) |votes=855 |percentage=0.56 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Bhumi Dev |party=Sarva Hit Party |votes=807 |percentage=0.53 |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=8,974 |percentage=5.87 |change=0.38 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=1,52,896 |percentage=75.66 |change= -6.85 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 2,02,080 |change =9.11 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Bharatiya Janata Party |loser=Independent politician |swing= 1.75 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 2014 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2014 Haryana Legislative Assembly election]]: Kalayat}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Bhai Jai Parkash (J.P.) |party=Independent politician |votes=51,106 |percentage=33.44 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ram Pal Majra |party=Indian National Lok Dal |votes=42,716 |percentage=27.95 |change=-15.22 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Dharam Pal |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=26,028 |percentage=17.03 |change=15.50 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ranvir Singh Mann |party=Indian National Congress |votes=22,971 |percentage=15.03 |change=-20.85 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Jogi Ram |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=4,232 |percentage=2.77 |change=-6.53 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Balvir |party=Independent politician |votes=998 |percentage=0.65 |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=8,390 |percentage=5.49 |change=-1.81 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=1,52,827 |percentage=82.51 |change= 3.48 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 1,85,214 |change =13.64 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Independent politician |loser=Indian National Lok Dal |swing= -9.73 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 2009 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2009 Haryana Legislative Assembly election]]: Kalayat}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Rampal Majra |party=Indian National Lok Dal |votes=55,614 |percentage=43.17 |change=2.29 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Tejender Pal Singh |party=Indian National Congress |votes=46,214 |percentage=35.88 |change=-6.69 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ramesh |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=11,974 |percentage=9.30 |change=7.57 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Vinod |party=Haryana Janhit Congress (BL) |votes=9,021 |percentage=7.00 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Nar Singh Dhanda |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=1,966 |percentage=1.53 |change=-1.31 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Sube Singh |party=Independent politician |votes=1,377 |percentage=1.07 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Tarsem |party=Independent politician |votes=959 |percentage=0.74 |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=9,400 |percentage=7.30 |change=5.62 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=1,28,814 |percentage=79.04 |change= 1.30 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 1,62,982 |change =50.92 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Indian National Lok Dal |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= 0.61 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 2005 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2005 Haryana Legislative Assembly election]]: Kalayat}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Geeta Bhukkal]] |party=Indian National Congress |votes=35,730 |percentage=42.56 |change=17.10 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Pritam |party=Indian National Lok Dal |votes=34,318 |percentage=40.88 |change=0.34 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Baldev |party=Independent politician |votes=7,795 |percentage=9.29 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Jaswant Kumar |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=2,381 |percentage=2.84 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ramesh Kumar |party=Independent politician |votes=1,579 |percentage=1.88 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Balwan |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=1,450 |percentage=1.73 |change=-2.82 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Om Parkash |party=Independent politician |votes=488 |percentage=0.58 |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=1,412 |percentage=1.68 |change=-13.39 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=83,945 |percentage=77.73 |change= 8.89 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 1,07,989 |change =5.17 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Indian National Lok Dal |swing= 2.03 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 2000 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2000 Haryana Legislative Assembly election]]: Kalayat}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Deena Ram |party=Indian National Lok Dal |votes=28,370 |percentage=40.54 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Baldev Singh |party=Indian National Congress |votes=17,823 |percentage=25.47 |change=12.09 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ram Sarup |party=Independent politician |votes=17,777 |percentage=25.40 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Nathu Ram |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=3,184 |percentage=4.55 |change=-2.81 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Hawa Singh |party=Haryana Vikas Party |votes=2,337 |percentage=3.34 |change=-33.07 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Balbir |party=Independent politician |votes=405 |percentage=0.58 |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=10,547 |percentage=15.07 |change=7.09 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=69,986 |percentage=68.84 |change= 3.83 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 1,02,681 |change =-0.25 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Indian National Lok Dal |loser=Haryana Vikas Party |swing= 4.32 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 1996 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1996 Haryana Legislative Assembly election]]: Kalayat}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Ram Bhaj |party=Haryana Vikas Party |votes=23,351 |percentage=36.41 |change=27.83 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Dina Ram |party=Samata Party |votes=18,233 |percentage=28.43 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Jogi Ram |party=Indian National Congress |votes=8,581 |percentage=13.38 |change=-17.54 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Bal Dev |party=All India Indira Congress (Tiwari) |votes=7,383 |percentage=11.51 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Kamla |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=4,718 |percentage=7.36 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Mahabir |party=Independent politician |votes=640 |percentage=1.00 |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=5,118 |percentage=7.98 |change=2.68 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=64,132 |percentage=65.01 |change= 0.98 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 1,02,939 |change =13.20 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Haryana Vikas Party |loser=Janata Party |swing= 0.20 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 1991 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1991 Haryana Legislative Assembly election]]: Kalayat}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Bharath Singh |party=Janata Party |votes=20,049 |percentage=36.22 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Jogi Ram S/O Datu Ram |party=Indian National Congress |votes=17,117 |percentage=30.92 |change=3.63 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Randhir |party=Haryana Vikas Party |votes=4,750 |percentage=8.58 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Hardeva |party=Independent politician |votes=3,881 |percentage=7.01 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Pirthi |party=Independent politician |votes=3,062 |percentage=5.53 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Raj Mal |party=Independent politician |votes=2,818 |percentage=5.09 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Jogi Ram S/O Mansa Ram |party=Independent politician |votes=1,097 |percentage=1.98 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Jagdev |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=888 |percentage=1.60 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Rajni Devi |party=Independent politician |votes=448 |percentage=0.81 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Gaje Singh |party=Independent politician |votes=370 |percentage=0.67 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Nafe Singh |party=Independent politician |votes=288 |percentage=0.52 |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=2,932 |percentage=5.30 |change=-36.33 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=55,360 |percentage=64.04 |change= -9.39 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 90,933 |change =7.83 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Janata Party |loser=Lokdal |swing= -32.70 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 1987 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1987 Haryana Legislative Assembly election]]: Kalayat}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Banarasi |party=Lokdal |votes=41,872 |percentage=68.92 |change=11.97 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Baldev Singh |party=Indian National Congress |votes=16,582 |percentage=27.29 |change=-7.76 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Dhanpar |party=Vishal Haryana Party |votes=887 |percentage=1.46 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ram Lal |party=Independent politician |votes=401 |percentage=0.66 |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=25,290 |percentage=41.62 |change=19.73 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=60,758 |percentage=73.43 |change= 4.86 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 84,332 |change =18.90 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Lokdal |loser=Lokdal |swing= 11.97 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 1982 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1982 Haryana Legislative Assembly election]]: Kalayat}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Jogi Ram |party=Lokdal |votes=27,228 |percentage=56.94 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Baldev |party=Indian National Congress |votes=16,760 |percentage=35.05 |change=19.28 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Gaje Singh |party=Independent politician |votes=1,067 |percentage=2.23 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ram Saran |party=Independent politician |votes=625 |percentage=1.31 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Sarwan |party=Independent politician |votes=476 |percentage=1.00 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Maru Ram |party=Independent politician |votes=416 |percentage=0.87 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Mamu |party=Independent politician |votes=396 |percentage=0.83 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Prit Singh |party=Independent politician |votes=288 |percentage=0.60 |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=10,468 |percentage=21.89 |change=-2.69 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=47,816 |percentage=68.57 |change= 16.03 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 70,926 |change =21.34 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Lokdal |loser=Janata Party |swing= 14.26 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 1977 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1977 Haryana Legislative Assembly election]]: Kalayat}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Prit Singh |party=Janata Party |votes=12,953 |percentage=42.68 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Maru |party=Independent politician |votes=5,494 |percentage=18.10 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ran Singh |party=Indian National Congress |votes=4,786 |percentage=15.77 |change=-25.29 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Bhagat Ram |party=Independent politician |votes=4,771 |percentage=15.72 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Rangi Ram |party=Communist Party of India |votes=1,489 |percentage=4.91 |change=-0.54 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Chhaju Ram |party=Independent politician |votes=855 |percentage=2.82 |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=7,459 |percentage=24.58 |change=21.41 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=30,348 |percentage=52.54 |change= -14.03 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 58,450 |change =-1.71 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Janata Party |loser=Indian National Congress (Organisation) |swing= -1.54 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 1972 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1972 Haryana Legislative Assembly election]]: Kalayat}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Bhagat Ram S/O Hansa |party=Indian National Congress (Organisation) |votes=17,032 |percentage=44.22 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Bhagat Ram S/O Jamni |party=Indian National Congress |votes=15,812 |percentage=41.06 |change=-20.22 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Gandhi |party=Independent politician |votes=3,396 |percentage=8.82 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Man Singh |party=Communist Party of India |votes=2,097 |percentage=5.44 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Sita Ram |party=Independent politician |votes=176 |percentage=0.46 |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=1,220 |percentage=3.17 |change=-24.52 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=38,513 |percentage=66.57 |change= 38.12 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 59,469 |change =10.09 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Indian National Congress (Organisation) |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= -17.05 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 1968 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1968 Haryana Legislative Assembly election]]: Kalayat}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Bhagtu |party=Indian National Congress |votes=9,117 |percentage=61.27 |change=20.09 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Anant Ram |party=Swatantra Party |votes=4,998 |percentage=33.59 |change=-8.54 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Faqir Chand |party=Sanghata Socialist Party |votes=482 |percentage=3.24 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Shiria |party=Independent politician |votes=282 |percentage=1.90 |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=4,119 |percentage=27.68 |change=26.74 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=14,879 |percentage=28.45 |change= -47.58 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 54,020 |change =1.30 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Swatantra Party |swing= 19.14 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 1967 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1967 Haryana Legislative Assembly election]]: Kalayat}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Maru |party=Swatantra Party |votes=15,910 |percentage=42.13 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=B. Ram |party=Indian National Congress |votes=15,552 |percentage=41.18 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=M. Singh |party=Communist Party of India |votes=3,742 |percentage=9.91 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=R. Ram |party=Independent politician |votes=982 |percentage=2.60 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Surju |party=Independent politician |votes=430 |percentage=1.14 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=B. Ram |party=Independent politician |votes=405 |percentage=1.07 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=M. Ram |party=Independent politician |votes=386 |percentage=1.02 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Jati |party=Independent politician |votes=243 |percentage=0.64 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=S. Singh |party=Independent politician |votes=112 |percentage=0.30 |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=358 |percentage=0.95 |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=37,762 |percentage=76.03 |change= }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 53,328 |change = }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner=Swatantra Party |loser= |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
* [[List of constituencies of the Haryana Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Kaithal district]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Haryana constituencies}}

{{coord|29.68|76.25|display=title}}

[[Category:Kaithal district]]
[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Haryana]]
[[Category:Politics of Haryana]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1967]]
[[Category:1967 establishments in Haryana]]

Bayad Assembly constituency

2026-04-14T03:18:37Z

Ajit3011: Creating Some Post and Citations!

{{short description|Legislative Assembly constituency in Gujarat State, India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2017}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Bayad
| mla = [[Dhavalsinh Zala]]
| party = Independent
| latest_election_year = [[2022 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election|2022]]
| state = Gujarat
| district = [[Aravalli district|Aravalli]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Sabarkantha Lok Sabha constituency|Sabarkantha]]
| established = 1951
| reservation = None
| electors = {{formatnum:246019}}<ref name=election2022>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/14750-gujarat-general-legislative-election-2022/ |title=Gujarat General Legislative Election 2022 |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date= 18 April 2023}}</ref>{{update after|2028|2}}
| type= SLA
| constituency_no = 32
}}

'''Bayad''' is one of the 182 [[Gujarat Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]] constituencies of [[Gujarat]] state in [[India]].<ref name=gjceo>{{cite web |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140125011107/http://ceo.gujarat.gov.in/download/PCAC.pdf |url=http://ceo.gujarat.gov.in/download/PCAC.pdf |archive-date=25 January 2014 |title=Parliament / Assembly constituency wise PS & Electors Detail - Draft Roll - 2014 |access-date= 1 June 2021|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/delim/Final_Publications/Gujarat/gujarat.pdf |title=Gujarat: Order No. 33: Table-A: Assembly Constituency and Their Extent |date=12 December 2006 |website=Election Commission of India |publisher=Delimitation Commission of India |pages=2–31 |format=PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305015941/http://eci.nic.in/delim/Final_Publications/Gujarat/gujarat.pdf |archive-date=5 March 2016 |url-status=dead |access-date=12 February 2017 }}</ref>

It is part of [[Aravalli district|Aravalli]] district.

==List of segments==
This assembly seat represents the following segments:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/delim/Final_Publications/Gujarat/gujarat.pdf|title=Gujarat: Order No. 33: Table-A: Assembly Constituency and Their Extent|date=12 December 2006|website=Election Commission of India|publisher=Delimitation Commission of India|pages=2–31|format=PDF|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305015941/http://eci.nic.in/delim/Final_Publications/Gujarat/gujarat.pdf|archive-date=5 March 2016|url-status=dead|access-date=12 February 2017}}</ref>

# Bayad Taluka30
# Malpur Taluka8

==Members of Legislative Assembly==
* 1951 ([[Bombay State]]) - Patel Gopaldas Venidas, [[Indian National Congress]]
* 1957 ([[Bombay State]]) - Lalsinh Kishorsinh Rahevar, Independent
* 1962 - Lalsinh Kishorsinh Rahevar, [[Swatantra Party]]
* 1967 - Lalsinh Kishorsinh Rahevar, [[Swatantra Party]]
* 1972 - Lalsinh Kishorsinh Rahevar, [[Indian National Congress (O)]]
* 1975 - Lalsinh Kishorsinh Rahevar, [[Indian National Congress (O)]]
* 1980 - Ramsinh Rupsinh Solanki, [[Indian National Congress (I)]]
* 1985 - Ramsinh Rupsinh Solanki, Independent
* 1990 - Chandrabhansinh Mulsinh Solanki, [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
* 1995 - Ramsinh Rupsinh Solanki, [[Indian National Congress]]
* 1998 - Patel Mahendrabhai Somabhai, [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
* 2002 - Ramsinh Rupsinh Solanki, [[Indian National Congress]]
* 2007 - Udesinh Punjaji Zala, [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
* 2012 - [[Mahendrasinh Vaghela]], [[Indian National Congress]]
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Year
!Member
!Picture
!colspan="2"|Party
|-
|[[2017 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election|2017]]
| [[Dhavalsinh Zala]]<ref name=election2017/> ||
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
|2019 (By Poll)<ref name="Gujarat Bypoll Results 2019: Congress, BJP Tie With 3 Seats Each">{{cite news |date=24 October 2019 |title=Gujarat Bypoll Results 2019: Congress, BJP Tie With 3 Seats Each |language=en |work= |url=https://www.india.com/news/india/gujara-assembly-by-poll-results-winners-list-bjp-vs-congress-3817999/ |access-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002184219/https://www.india.com/news/india/gujara-assembly-by-poll-results-winners-list-bjp-vs-congress-3817999/ |archive-date=2 October 2023}}</ref>
|Patel Jashubhai Shivabhai ||
|-
|[[2022 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election|2022]]
|[[Dhavalsinh Zala]]
|
|{{Party name with color|Independent politician}}
|}
{{noteslist}}

==Election results==
=== 2022 ===
<section begin="Assembly Election 2022"/>
{{Election box begin|
|title=[[2022 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election|Gujarat Assembly election, 2022]]:Bayad Assembly constituency }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = [[Dhavalsinh Zala|Dhavalsinh Narendrasinh Zala]]
|party = Independent
|votes = 67078
|percentage = 38.87
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Bhikhiben Girvatsinh Parmar
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = 61260
|percentage = 35.5
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Mahendrasinh Shankarsinh Vaghela
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = 29874
|percentage = 17.31
|change =
}}

{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Chunibhai Bababhai Patel<ref>{{cite news |title=AAP's 6th List For Gujarat Polls Out, 73 Names Out Of 182 Seats Revealed |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/aaps-6th-list-for-gujarat-polls-out-73-names-out-of-182-seats-revealed-3450225 |access-date=21 October 2022 |work=NDTV.com |date=21 October 2022}}</ref>
|party = Aam Aadmi Party
|votes = 5947
|percentage = 3.45
|change =
}}

{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = [[None of the above]]
|party = None of the above
|votes = 2304
|percentage = 1.34
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 5,818
|percentage = 3.37
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes =
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box registered electors
|reg. electors = {{formatnum:245558}}
|ref=<ref name="Gujarat Elections ECI">{{cite web |title=Gujarat Legislative Elections |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/category/72-gujarat/ |website=Election Commission of India |access-date=18 May 2022}}</ref>
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Independent politician
|loser = Indian National Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}<section end="Assembly Election 2022"/>

===2019===
{{Election box begin | title=By-election, 2019: Bayad}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|candidate = Jashubhai Patel
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes =65,597
|percentage = 46.46
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Dhavalsingh Narendrasinh Zala
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = 64,854
|percentage = 45.93
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Chauhan Dolatsinh Jagatsinh
|party = Nationalist Congress Party
|votes = 4,065
|percentage = 2.88
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 743
|percentage = 0.53
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 1,41,212
|percentage = 60.98
|change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Indian National Congress
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2017===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2017 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election]]: Bayad<ref name=election2017>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3841-gujarat-general-legislative-election-2017/ |title=Gujarat General Legislative Election 2017 |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date= 11 July 2021}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|candidate = Dhavalsinh Narendrasinh Zala
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = 79,556
|percentage = 50.39
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Adesinh Chauhan
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = 71,655
|percentage = 45.39
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes =
|percentage = 5.00
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 1,57,873
|percentage = 70.71
|change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Indian National Congress
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2012===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2012 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election]]: [[Bayad]]}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Mahendrasinh Vaghela
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = 74,746
|percentage = 48.46
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Udesinh Zala
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = 38,723
|percentage = 25.14
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 35,923
|percentage = 23.32
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 1,54,050
|percentage = 76.72
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Indian National Congress
|loser = Bharatiya Janata Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
* [[List of constituencies of the Gujarat Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Aravalli district]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cite web |title=Results of Gujarat Assembly Elections |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/category/72-gujarat/ |website=eci.gov.in |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=15 March 2022}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Gujarat}}
{{Gujarat elections|state=collapsed}}

{{coord|23.23|73.22|display=title}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Gujarat]]
[[Category:Aravalli district]]
[[Category:Politics of Gujarat]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1951]]

K. R. Naik

2026-04-13T15:38:23Z

Ajit3011:

{{Short description|Indian industrial engineer}}
{{BLP sources|date=August 2012}}
{{EngvarB|date=September 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2024}}
{{Infobox person
| name = K R Naik
| image = KRNaik.jpg
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1947|11|19|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Karwar]], Karnataka, India
| occupation = Executive chairman, Smartlink Network Systems Ltd.
| education = Jhunjhunwala College, Mumbai Jamnalal Bajaj Institute, Mumbai
| spouse = Sudha Naik
| children = Arati Naik, Lakshana Sharma
}}

'''Kamlaksha Rama Naik''', better known as '''K R Naik''' ([[Hindi]]: क़ रा नायक़) is an Indian industrial engineer. He founded D-Link Ltd. (India) in 1993.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ciol.com/content/news/exeTrack/Portraits/2006/106110701.asp |title=CIOL : Portraits : Portrait: KR Naik: D-Link |work=CyberMedia India Online Ltd |location=Bangalore, India |date=7 November 2006 |accessdate=1 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070129114050/http://www.ciol.com/content/news/exeTrack/Portraits/2006/106110701.asp |archive-date=29 January 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 1994 he entered into a joint venture with a multinational - D-Link Corporation under the name “D-Link India” with a manufacturing facility in Goa and corporate office in Mumbai.
==Early life and education==
Naik was born in [[Karwar]], Karnataka on 19 November 1947. He completed his schooling in Karwar and later shifted to Mumbai. Naik is a mechanical engineer with a P.G. Diploma in Industrial Engineering and Licenciate in Plastic Engineering. He earned a Business Management degree from the Jamnalal Bajaj Institute in [[Mumbai]].<ref name="A self-made entrepreneur">{{cite web | url=http://www.expresscomputeronline.com/20090330/pathfinders11.shtml | title=A self-made entrepreneur | publisher=www.expresscomputeronline.com | accessdate=19 September 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100922125137/http://www.expresscomputeronline.com/20090330/pathfinders11.shtml | archive-date=22 September 2010 | url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Career==
His first job at Mumbai was with Bradma, but soon after that he joined [[IBM]] India in 1970 starting as a Mainframe Peripheral Assembly Engineer. In 1977 he contributed significantly to the development of an indigenous line printer at the 'Big Blue' center. He worked to develop indigenous computer peripheral parts of plastic and metal until IBM closed its Indian operation in 1978.<ref name="A self-made entrepreneur"/> After IBM closed down, he joined ORG System Ltd. wherein he was one of the 6 team members who developed the first indigenous line printers with a speed of 1000+ line per minute.<ref name="A self-made entrepreneur"/>

In 1984, Naik founded Virtual Computer Pvt. Ltd., and was among the first to import a wave-soldering machine to manufacture printed circuit boards of PCs.

From 1990–91, Naik entered into networking products as a distributor of D-Link brand products. Within 3 years, he decided to start manufacturing of networking products in India as a joint venture with D-Link. Taking financial and tax advantages offered by the [[government of Goa]], he shifted manufacturing operations from the Ansa Industrial Estate in Mumbai to Verna Electronic City, Goa. In 1994–95 he also started a passive networking-products company together with UK-based passive components company Sapphire UK Ltd. In 1994, he entered into a joint venture with [[D-Link]] Corporation Taiwan<ref>{{cite web | url=http://voicendata.ciol.com/content/news/111040101.asp | title=Schneider Electric acquires Digilink for Rs 500 cr | publisher=www.voicendata.ciol.com | date=1 April 2011 | accessdate=19 September 2012 | author=Menezes, Beryl | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120521175320/http://voicendata.ciol.com/content/news/111040101.asp | archive-date=21 May 2012 | url-status=dead }}</ref> and helped constructing new buildings and importing SMT lines from Japan.

In 1995, Naik set out to create a completely new channel for D-Link products. Rather than going after large distributors he decided to put a regional distribution model in place—arguably the first in India among the IT channel.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.crn.in/KR-Naik-Channel-Chief-001Nov010.aspx | title=Channel Chief "I don’t look at my company’s future through the narrow prism of D-Link" | publisher=www.crn.in | accessdate=19 September 2012 | archive-date=18 October 2011 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111018150821/http://www.crn.in/KR-Naik-Channel-Chief-001Nov010.aspx | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.informationweek.in/Data_Center/11-03-31/Smartlink_Network_Systems_sells_Digilink_to_Schneider.aspx |title=Smartlink Network Systems sells Digilink to Schneider |newspaper=InformationWeek News Network |publisher=UBM India Pvt. Ltd |location=Mumbai, India |date=31 March 2011 |accessdate=5 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130826203728/http://www.informationweek.in/data_center/11-03-31/smartlink_network_systems_sells_digilink_to_schneider.aspx |archive-date=26 August 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Honours and awards==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year !! Name !! Awarding organization !! Ref
|-
| 2012 || Outstanding Channel Contribution || CRN, UBM India
|<ref name="CRN">{{cite web |url=http://www.crn.in//ITChannel-007Aug012-CRN-Honors-28-Leading-Partners-At-the-12th-Edition-Of-CRN-Xcellence-Awards-2012.aspx |title=CRN Honors 28 Leading Partners at the 12th Edition of CRN Xcellence Awards 2012 |first=Amit |last=Singh |work=www.crn.in |date=7 August 2012 |accessdate=31 August 2012 }}{{Dead link|date=July 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
|-
| 2011 || TOP SME ENTREPRENEUR 2010–11 || SME Channels
|<ref name="SME Channels">{{cite web |url= http://smechannels.com/awardees.htm |title= SME Channels Achievers's Award 2011 |work= Smechannels.com |accessdate= 31 August 2012 |archive-date= 21 January 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130121183717/http://www.smechannels.com/awardees.htm |url-status= dead }}</ref>
|-
| 2003-4 || President of MAIT || MAIT
|<ref name="MAIT">{{cite web |url= http://www.mait.com/index.php?option=com_members&view=pastmembers&uid=9 |title=MAIT Past Presidents |work=www.mait.com |accessdate=31 August 2012}}</ref>
|}

==Personal life==

Naik's wife Sudha Naik is a homemaker; they have 2 daughters: Arati Naik and Dr. Lakshana Sharma (who is married to Dr. Amit Sharma).

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://www.smartlink.co.in Smartlink Network Systems Ltd]
* [http://www.mait.com/ MAIT]

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Naik, K. R.}}
[[Category:1947 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Karwar]]
[[Category:Indian computer scientists]]
[[Category:Indian company founders]]
[[Category:Businesspeople from Karnataka]]

Atri, Odisha

2026-04-12T18:02:33Z

Ajit3011: Creating The Details W/ Refs!

{{short description|Village in the Khurda district of Odisha, India}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{more citations needed|date= February 2018}}
{{Unreferenced|date=April 2026}}
}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2018}}

{{Infobox hot spring
| name = Atri
| photo =
| photo_width =
| photo_caption =
| name_origin =
| location = [[Khurda district]], [[Odisha]], [[India]]
| coordinates = {{coord|20.15|85.30|region:IN-OR|display=inline,title}}
| elevation =
| hot_spring_type =
| height =
| duration =
| frequency =
| discharge =
| temperature = ?
| depth =
|map = India Odisha#India
|map_size =
| map_caption =
| label = Atri
| map_width =
}}

'''Atri''' is a small village located in the [[Khordha district]] of [[Odisha]], [[India]], approximately 15 km west of [[Khordha]]. The nearest airport is located in [[Bhubaneswar]], while the closest railway station is Khurda Road Junction Railway Station.

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Hydrography of Odisha}}

[[Category:Hot springs of Odisha]]
[[Category:Villages in Khordha district]]
[[Category:Tourism in Odisha]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Odisha]]

{{Odisha-geo-stub}}

Frank Moraes

2026-04-04T19:51:44Z

Ajit3011: created new data.

{{Short description|Indian newspaper editor (1907–1974)}}
{{more footnotes needed|date=June 2019}}
{{EngvarB|date=November 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2025}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Frank Moraes
| image = Frank Moraes.jpg
| birth_name = Francis Robert Moraes
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1907|11|12|df=yes}}
| birth_place = Bombay, [[British India]]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1974|05|02|1907|11|12|df=yes}}
| death_place = London, England
| occupation = Newspaper editor, writer
| family =
| spouse = {{marriage|Beryl Moraes|1937}}
| partner = [[Marilyn Silverstone]] (1960s–1974)
| children = [[Dom Moraes]] (son)
| relatives = [[Teresa Albuquerque]] (sister)

}}

'''Francis Robert''' "'''Frank'''" '''Moraes''' (12 November 1907 – 2 May 1974) was an editor of many prominent newspapers in post-independence India, including ''[[The Times of India]]'' and ''[[The Indian Express]]''.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Garvik |first1=Olav |title=Frank Moraes |url=https://snl.no/Frank_Moraes |website=[[Store norske leksikon]] |language=no |date=26 November 2024}}</ref>

==Early life and education==
Born in [[Bombay]] (now Mumbai) of [[Goan]] descent on 12 November 1907,<ref name=obit>{{cite news
| author =
| title = Mr Frank Moraes
| newspaper = The Times
| location = London, England
| date = 4 May 1974
| page = 14
}}</ref> Moraes was the son of Anthony Xavier Moraes, a Goan [[civil engineer]]. He spent his childhood in the city of [[Poona]], [[British India]], and studied at Catholic schools in both cities. The historian [[Teresa Albuquerque]] was his sister.<ref name=wire>{{cite news|newspaper=The Wire|url=https://thewire.in/146812/teresa-albuquerque-historian-colonial-bombay-goan-diaspora-no/|title=Teresa Albuquerque, Historian of Colonial Bombay and the Goan Diaspora, is No More|last=Noronha|first=Frederick|date=12 June 2017|access-date=13 June 2017}}</ref>

From 1923, Moraes was at [[St. Xavier's College, Mumbai|St Xavier's College]] where he studied history under [[Henry Heras]] and also economics. He earned his B.A. at [[Bombay University]] majoring in history and economics. He went to Oxford for his M.A. in history"<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Revolt in Tibet|last=Moraes|first=Frank|publisher=Macmillan.|year=1960|location=New York, NY|pages=dust jacket- back flap|oclc=469037988|quote="... earned his B.A. at Bombay University majoring in history and economics. He went to Oxford for his M.A. in history"}}</ref><ref name=obit/> He was active in [[University of Oxford|Oxford University]] student politics, and edited the student newspaper ''Bharat''. He also studied law at [[Lincoln's Inn]] in London, and was [[called to the Bar]]. In all, he spent seven years in England from 1927 to 1934.

In 1937, Moraes married Beryl Anna Bonosa. The couple had a son named Dom, who went on to become the famous poet [[Dom Moraes]]. Beryl suffered from mental illness in the 1940s and was confined to hospitals and mental asylums.<ref>{{Cite web|url= http://www.open.ac.uk/researchprojects/makingbritain/content/frank-moraes|title=Biography of Frank Moraes|publisher=Making Britain|access-date=24 August 2019}}</ref>

==Career==
Returning to India in 1934, he practiced as a barrister for a few months, and in 1936 joined ''[[The Times of India]]'' as a journalist, was promoted to junior assistant editor in 1938,<ref name=obit/> and worked in Burma and China as the war correspondent for ''The Times'' between 1942 and 1945.

Between 1946 and 1949, Moraes was based in [[Ceylon]] (now Sri Lanka) as editor of ''The Times Ceylon'' and ''The Morning Standard''.<ref name=obit/> He worked as the India correspondent of several British newspapers, and in 1950 became The Times of India's first "Indian editor", amidst a changing post-colonial situation.

On returning from Ceylon in 1949, Frank Moraes was named editor of ''The National Standard'', a [[Ramnath Goenka|Goenka]]-owned Indian newspaper that later morphed into ''The [[Indian Express]]''. According to another journalist of Goan origin, [[Victor Rangel-Ribeiro]], "[A]t that time I was on the news copy desk as well as being the music critic, and remember him as an individual who kept himself aloof, quite unlike other editors I have worked with. Six days a week he wrote the main editorial and a column he signed as 'Atticus'". Moraes left within months to be the editor at the ''Times of India''.

Ribeiro recalls that in January 1953, while at Calcutta on the job of Sunday editor at their soon-to-be-started edition in that city in eastern India, Moraes visited the edition. He recalls, "Well after midnight I was down in the pressroom okaying pages as they were being "made up" on the 'stone'---those were the days of metal type and printers' ink—and in rolled Frank Moraes at the head of his cohort, and he had just a one-line mantra for me: "Let's get the paper out! Let's get the paper out!" Having said that, he kept out of our way. Others in the group, however, were more obtrusive, and soon we had to hustle them back upstairs.".

In 1957, ''[[The Indian Express]]'' (formerly the ''Morning Standard'') named him as the editor-in-chief of this Goenka-run newspaper.<ref name=obit/> Becoming one of India's best-known journalists his columns appeared regularly on Sundays and Mondays in the ''Indian Express'', while another column signed as "Ariel" made its mark in the ''Sunday Standard''. He did some radio broadcasts. In 1961 he was appointed [[Sheriff of Bombay]].

==Retirement and death==
Frank Moraes retired from ''The Indian Express'' in 1972, moved to London as its representative the next year, and died in 1974.<ref name=obit/> His last days were spent in the company of [[Marilyn Silverstone|Marilyn Rita Silverstone]] with whom he had been in a relationship for more than a decade.

==Moraes' books==
Moraes authored ''India Today'', ''The Revolt in Tibet'' (1960), ''Report on Mao's China'', ''Yonder one world : a study of Asia and the West'', ''The importance of being black: an Asian looks at Africa'' (1965) and ''Behind the Bamboo Curtain''.

Other books [http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search2?coll_id=162&inst_id=19 listed here] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060714034425/http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search2?coll_id=162&inst_id=19 |date=14 July 2006 }} include ''Introduction to India'' (1945. co-authored with H L Stimson), ''Report on Mao's China'' (1953); ''[[Jawaharlal Nehru]]: A Biography'' (1956); ''Sir Purshotamdas Thakurdas'' (1957); ''Yonder One World: A Study of Asia and the West'' (1957); ''India Today'' (1960); ''[[Nehru]], Sunlight and Shadow'' (1964); ''[[John Kenneth Galbraith]] Introduces India'' (1974, co-edited); and his political autobiography, ''Witness to an Era: India 1920 to the Present Day'' (1973).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://aim25.com/cgi-bin/search2?coll_id=162&inst_id=19|title=Papers of Francis [Frank] Robert Moraes- AIM25 collection description|website=aim25.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180822225928/https://aim25.com/cgi-bin/search2?coll_id=162&inst_id=19|archive-date=22 August 2018|access-date=2018-08-22|quote=Francis Robert Moraes was the author of several acclaimed books. With H L Stimson he wrote Introduction to India (1945); then followed a series of political studies, Report on Mao's China (1953); Jawaharlal Nehru: A Biography (1956); Sir Purshotamdas Thakurdas (1957); Yonder One World: A Study of Asia and the West (1957); The Revolt in Tibet (1960); India Today (1960); Nehru, Sunlight and Shadow (1964); The Importance of Being Black: an Asian Looks at Africa (1965). He co-edited John Kenneth Galbraith Introduces India (1974). His own political autobiography, Witness to an Era: India 1920 to the Present Day, was published in 1973.}}</ref>

==Author, celebrated journalist, editor==
In obituaries to his son, the poet and writer [[Dom Moraes]], Frank Moraes<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/obituaries/story/0,3604,1231084,00.html Dom Moraes | Obituaries | Guardian Unlimited]</ref> was called an "author ... sometime editor of the Times of India", and "an Oxford-educated lawyer who was to become a celebrated journalist and Editor of The Times of India".<ref>[https://archive.today/20070311085401/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,60-1133315,00.html Dom Moraes | Times Online Obituary]</ref>

==Archives==
Frank Moraes' [http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search2?coll_id=162&inst_id=19 archives] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060714034425/http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search2?coll_id=162&inst_id=19 |date=14 July 2006 }} are held in London by SOAS Special Collections and consist of "notebooks and diaries; correspondence; newspaper clippings and typescripts of Moraes' regular columns, articles and tour articles; reviews of Moraes' books; photographs; drawings, illustrations and programmes; recorded broadcasts; papers of (his wife) Beryl Moraes' objects".

His archives include papers covering mainly the 1930s–1974 period, and are useful considering that he worked as a journalist, author and editor during a crucial period in the history of India and a then just-being-decolonised Asia – particularly between 1950 and 1974.

It also contains his notebooks and diaries, dating from 1950 to 1974, from Australia and New Zealand, South East Asia, China, Japan, Pakistan, India, Africa, Western and Eastern Europe and the USA. [http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search2?coll_id=162&inst_id=19 Listings of his archives] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060714034425/http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search2?coll_id=162&inst_id=19 |date=14 July 2006 }} say it includes correspondence, professional and personal matters, newspaper clippings, regular columns and archives, reviews of the books he published, photographs from 1930s to 1970s, recorded broadcasts and the diary of his wife, Beryl, dating to 1962.

==Frank Moraes Foundation==
[https://web.archive.org/web/20070314040733/http://www.hindu.com/2005/12/31/stories/2005123115890600.htm This news item] in [[The Hindu]] newspaper mentions a memorial lectures in honour of Frank Moraes. It cites a "Frank Moraes Foundation" being among the institutions taking the initiative in this regard. The United Writer's Association of India "is responsible for having instituted the distinguished FRANK MORAES MEMORIAL LECTURES to perpetuate the hallowed memory of distinguished Journalist FRANK MORAES – the doyen of Indian Journalism who was responsible for having extended the realm of journalism to socio-political dimensions of development, for fearless comments on the highest in the land and for a broader vision of India. (...) The UWA has eminently succeeded in organizing three decades of public lectures in our country."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.uwaindia.com/lectures.htm|title=United Writers' Association|website=uwaindia.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180817195224/http://www.uwaindia.com/lectures.htm|archive-date=17 August 2018|access-date=2018-08-22|quote=is responsible for having instituted the distinguished FRANK MORAES MEMORIAL LECTURES to perpetuate the hallowed memory of distinguished Journalist FRANK MORAES – the doyen of Indian Journalism who was responsible for having extended the realm of journalism to socio-political dimensions of development, for fearless comments on the highest in the land and for a broader vision of India. (...) The UWA has eminently succeeded in organizing three decades of public lectures in our country.}}</ref>

[http://www.educationworldonline.net/eduworld/article.php?choice=prev_art&article_id=396&issueid=31 EducationWorldOnline.net] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060522032214/http://www.educationworldonline.net/eduworld/article.php?choice=prev_art&article_id=396&issueid=31 |date=22 May 2006 }} says the Frank Moraes Foundation was set up by demographer, social worker, academician and philosopher Dr. K. Thyagarajan "in 1985 and instituted the Frank Moraes Memorial Lecture in 2002". It adds that Thyagaraj was an "ardent admirer and disciple of the late ''Indian Express'' editor Frank Moraes, the doyen of Indian journalism."

==See also==
* [[Marilyn Silverstone]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Moraes, Frank}}
[[Category:1907 births]]
[[Category:1974 deaths]]
[[Category:Goan Catholics]]
[[Category:Members of Lincoln's Inn]]
[[Category:Journalists from Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Writers from Mumbai]]
[[Category:Sheriffs of Mumbai]]
[[Category:Moraes family]]
[[Category:Indian barristers]]
[[Category:Indian Roman Catholics]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian lawyers]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian journalists]]

Abdul Nazir Sab

2026-04-01T02:42:00Z

Ajit3011: Creating Some Stub and Citations!

{{Short description|Former Karnataka minister}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Abdul Nazir Sab
| image = 
| caption =
| office1 = [[Ministry of Rural Development (India)|Minister for Rural Development]] and [[Panchayat Raj]]
| term_start1 = 1983
| term_end1 = 1985
| president1 =
| prime_minister1 =
| predecessor1 =
| successor1 =
| office2 = President of the Town Municipal Council, Gundlupet
| term_start2 =
| term_end2 =
| predecessor2 =
| successor2 =
| office3 = Organizing Secretary of the [[Karnataka Pradesh Congress Committee|Congress Committee, Mysore]]
| term_start3 =
| term_end3 =
| predecessor3 =
| successor3 =
| office4 = President of [[Karnataka Kranti Ranga]]
| term_start4 =
| term_end4 =
| predecessor4 =
| successor4 =
| birth_date = {{birth date|1934|12|25|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Ayanavaram]], [[Madras Presidency]], [[British India]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|1988|10|25|1934|12|25|df=yes}}
| death_place = [[Bangalore]], [[Karnataka]], India
| party = [[Janata Party]]
| spouse = Ashraf Jehan Begum
| children = 5
| alma_mater =
| profession = {{hlist|Politician|agriculturist}}
| signature =
| signature_alt =
| minister =
}}

'''Abdul Nazir Sab''' (25 December 1934 – 25 October 1988), a.k.a. Neer Sab, was an Indian politician, agriculturist, and member of the [[Janata Party]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-10-23 |title=Hegde's gamble to put up two Cabinet ministers for Legislative Council seats pays off |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/indiascope/story/19830430-karnataka-cm-hegde-gamble-to-put-up-two-cabinet-ministers-for-legislative-council-seats-pays-off-771353-2013-10-23 |access-date=2024-07-20 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref> who served as the [[Ministry of Rural Development (India)|Minister for Rural Development]] and [[Panchayati raj|Panchayat Raj]] in the [[First Hegde ministry|Ramakrishna Hegde Cabinet]] from 1983 to 1985.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Aji |first=Sowmya |title=Unsung sheroes |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/features/unsung-sheroes-909264.html |access-date=2024-07-20 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref> He was a pioneer in advocating for the implementation of the Panchayat Raj system and the decentralization of political power.<ref name="Mathew 2011">{{Cite book |last=Mathew |first=George |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gCruKStN4DsC&q=%22Abdul+Nazir+Sab%22 |title=Two Decades of New Panchayati Raj in Karnataka: Issues, Options, and Lessons |date=2011 |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |isbn=978-81-8069-767-8 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last= |date=2017-07-17 |title=Abdul Nazir Sab was an ideal personality: PGR Sindhia |url=https://starofmysore.com/abdul-nazir-sab-ideal-personality-pgr-sindhia/ |access-date=2024-07-22 |website=Star of Mysore |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Early life ==
Nazir Sab was born on 25 December 1934, in [[Ayanavaram]], in the [[Madras Presidency]] of [[British India]] (in present-day [[Tamil Nadu]], India). He was commonly referred to as Neer Sab, meaning water in [[Kannada]],<ref name=":0" /> due to his efforts in promoting the installation of hand pumps in every village.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-02-05 |title=A Tableau Of Feelings |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/national/a-tableau-of-feelings-news-295856 |access-date=2024-07-22 |website=Outlook India |language=en}}</ref>

== Political career ==
Nazir Sab's political journey began as a social worker. He was mostly active in the education field. He would also organize farm laborers and advocate for the upliftment of marginalized communities. He served as the President of the [[Municipal council|Town Municipal Council]], [[Gundlupet]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Abdul Nazir Sab |url=https://kla.kar.nic.in/council/members/EXMEMBERS/AbdulNazirSab.htm |access-date=2024-07-22 |website=kla.kar.nic.in}}</ref> and was the Organizing Secretary of the [[All India Congress Committee|Congress Committee]] in [[Mysore]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=2015-09-12 |title=Minister emphasises role of gram panchayats in ushering in growth |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/minister-emphasises-role-of-gram-panchayats-in-ushering-in-growth/article7647288.ece |access-date=2024-07-22 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> After completing his term as a [[Legislative council|Member of the Legislative Council]] (MLC) during [[R. Gundu Rao|Gundu Rao]]'s regime, he left the [[Indian National Congress (R)|Congress (I)]] and joined the Janata-Ranga alliance. He was the President of [[Karnataka Kranti Ranga]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-07-23 |title=Bangarappa revokes decision to merge Kranti Ranga with Janata Party |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/indiascope/story/19830331-bangarappa-revokes-decision-to-merge-kranti-ranga-with-janata-party-770542-2013-07-23 |access-date=2024-07-22 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-10-23 |title=Hegde's gamble to put up two Cabinet ministers for Legislative Council seats pays off |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/indiascope/story/19830430-karnataka-cm-hegde-gamble-to-put-up-two-cabinet-ministers-for-legislative-council-seats-pays-off-771353-2013-10-23 |access-date=2024-07-22 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref>

[[Ramakrishna Hegde]] was the [[List of chief ministers of Karnataka|Chief Minister of Karnataka]] when the Janata Party came to power in 1983. His government focused on social welfare and rural development.<ref name="Mathew 2011"/> In 1983, Nazir Sab was appointed as the Rural Development and Panchayat Raj Minister.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-02-03 |title=Karnataka CM Ramakrishna Hegde survives Congress(I)'s attempts to topple his Government |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/cover-story/story/19831215-karnataka-cm-ramakrishna-hegde-survives-congressis-attempts-to-topple-his-government-804482-2014-02-02 |access-date=2024-07-22 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref> During his tenure, he introduced a scheme for decentralized democracy across the country. Under his leadership, the Panchayat Raj Institution was empowered. Karnataka was one of the first states to implement the Panchayat Raj system in India by enacting the Karnataka Zilla Parishads, Taluk Panchayat Samithies, Mandal Panchayats, and Nyaya Panchayats Act, 1985, commonly known as the Act of 1983. This legislation was based on the recommendations of the [[Asoka Mehta Committee|Ashok Mehta Committee]] and was drafted by Nazir Sab. The bill was introduced in the State Assembly in 1983, and the Act received the assent of the President of India in 1985.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2004-02-12 |title=A politician with elan |url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/other/article30221082.ece |access-date=2024-07-20 |website=Frontline |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=The Path to Gram Swaraj in Karnataka |url=https://www.concernedforworkingchildren.org/wp-content/uploads/Final-Report-11Nov14.pdf | date=November 2014 | author=Karnataka Panchayat Raj Act Amendment Committee | via=concernedforworkingchildren.org | accessdate=25 August 2024}}</ref>
[[File:Sign Abdul Nazir Sab Institute Mysore May23 A7C 04918.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Sign boards, Administrative Training Institute, Abdul Nazir Sab State Institute of Rural Development & Panchayat Raj (ANSSIRD&PR), Mysore, Karnataka]]

== Death ==
Nazir Sab was diagnosed with cancer and went to the US for treatment.<ref>{{Cite web |title=THE STATE OF MY STATE - Where the interests of mining and real estate come first |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/opinion/the-state-of-my-state-where-the-interests-of-mining-and-real-estate-come-first/cid/394457 |website=Telegraph India}}</ref> In his final days, he returned to his native [[Gundlupet]]. He was admitted to the [[Kidwai Memorial Institute of Oncology]] in [[Bangalore]], where he died on 25 October 1988, at the age of 54. He was survived by his wife, Ashraf Jehan Begum, one son, and four daughters. In 2005, a statue of Nazir Sab was placed at the Zilla Panchayat office in [[Bangalore]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=ನ್ಯೂಸ್ |first=ಕಲ್ಪ |date=2021-07-09 |title=ಮೈಸೂರು: ಸಚಿವ ಈಶ್ವರಪ್ಪ ಅವರಿಂದ ಅಬ್ದುಲ್ ನಜೀರ್ ಸಾಬ್ |url=https://kalpa.news/mysore-mysore-abdul-nazeer-saab-statue-unveiled-by-minister-eshwarappa/ |access-date=2024-07-22 |website=kalpa.news |language=en-US}}</ref> The [[Abdul Nazir Sab State Institute of Rural Development and Panchayat Raj]] was set up in [[Mysore]] in 1989 after his name. The institute provides training in rural development and decentralized governance for elected representatives of Panchayat Raj Institutions.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sripad |first=Ashwini M. |date=2023-11-14 |title=49,000 women gram panchayat members to be trained in leadership skills |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/karnataka/2023/Nov/14/49000-womengram-panchayat-membersto-be-trained-in-leadership-skills-2632634.html |access-date=2024-07-22 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

The [[Government of Karnataka]] created a chair at the Centre for Multi-disciplinary Development Research (CMDR) to conduct research on various aspects of decentralized decision-making.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Nadkarni |first1=M. V. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cxIwDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22Abdul+Nazir+Sab%22&pg=PT11 |title=Decentralised Democracy in India: Gandhi's Vision and Reality |last2=Sivanna |first2=N. |last3=Suresh |first3=Lavanya |date=2017-08-07 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-351-60083-5 |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sab, Abdul Nazir}}
[[Category:1934 births]]
[[Category:1988 deaths]]
[[Category:Janata Party politicians]]
[[Category:Politicians from Bengaluru]]

J. F. R. Jacob

2026-03-26T02:07:33Z

Ajit3011: quick added structure based on references and fixed typos for accuracy

{{Short description|Indian Army officer and statesman (1923–2016)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2020}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Jack Farj Rafael Jacob
| image = File:JFR Jacob.jpg
|caption = JFR Jacob in 2012

| office = 24th{{nbsp}}[[List of governors of Punjab (India)|Governor of Punjab]] 11th [[Administrator of Chandigarh]]
| honorific_prefix = [[Lieutenant General]]
| honorific_suffix = [[Param Vishisht Seva Medal|PVSM]]
| image_size =
| birth_date = {{birth date|df=yes|1921|5|2}}<ref name="Indian_Army_List_45"/><ref name="birthdate" group="note">As given in the pre-Independence ''Indian Army List''.</ref>
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|2016|1|13|1921|5|2}}
| birth_place = [[Calcutta]], [[Bengal Presidency]], [[British Raj|British India]] (Now, [[Kolkata]], [[West Bengal]], India)
| death_place = [[New Delhi]], India
| placeofburial =
| placeofburial_label =
| placeofburial_coordinates = 
| nickname =
| office1 = 9th{{nbsp}}[[List of governors of Goa|Governor of Goa]]
| predecessor1 = [[T. R. Satish Chandran]]
| successor1 = [[Mohammed Fazal]]
| termend1 = 26{{nbsp}}November 1999
| termstart1 = 19{{nbsp}}April 1998
| birth_name = Jack Farj Rafael Jacob
| module = {{Infobox military person
|embed = yes
|nickname =
|allegiance = {{flag|British India}} {{flag|India}}
|branch = {{army|British India}} {{army|India}}
|serviceyears = 7 June 1942 – 31 July 1978
|rank = [[File:Lieutenant_General_of_the_Indian_Army.svg|20px]] [[Lieutenant General]]
|servicenumber = IC-470<ref name="major"/>
|unit =
|commands = [[File:IA_Eastern_Command.jpg|20px]] [[Eastern Command (India)|Eastern Command]] [[File: White Knight Corps.jpg|20px]] [[XVI Corps (India)|XVI Corps]] 12 Infantry Division
|battles =
{{tree list}}
* [[World War II]]
** [[Tunisia Campaign]]
** [[Burma Campaign]]
* [[Indo-Pakistan War of 1965]]
* [[Indo-Pakistan War of 1971]]
{{tree list/end}}}}
| battles_label =
| awards = {{plainlist
|
* [[File:Param_Vishisht_Seva_Medal_ribbon.svg|20px]] [[Param Vishisht Seva Medal]]
* Commendation of Merit
* [[Friends of Liberation War Honour]]
|relations=
|signature = }}
| relations =
| occupation =
| profession =
| predecessor = [[B. K. N. Chhibber]]
| successor = [[O. P. Verma]]
| termend = 8{{nbsp}}May 2003
| termstart = 27{{nbsp}}November 1999
| signature =
| 4blankname = Chief Minister
| 4namedata = [[Parkash Singh Badal]] [[Amarinder Singh]]
| 4blankname1 = Chief Minister
| 4namedata1 = [[Pratapsingh Rane]] (1998) [[Luizinho Faleiro]] (1998–1999) [[Francisco Sardinha]] (1999)
}}
[[Lieutenant General]] '''Jack Farj Rafael''' '''Jacob''' {{Post-nominals|country=IND|PVSM}} (2{{Nbsp}}May 1921 – 13{{Nbsp}}January 2016)<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/lt-gen-jfr-jacob-pvsm-retd/articleshow/50564598.cms|title=LT GEN JFR JACOB, PVSM (RETD)|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=14 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220715000922/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/lt-gen-jfr-jacob-pvsm-retd/articleshow/50564598.cms |access-date=27 August 2021|archive-date=15 July 2022 }}</ref> was a prominent Indian military officer. He was best known for his role in the [[Bangladesh Liberation War]] of 1971. Jacob, then a [[Major general (India)|major general]], served as the chief of staff of the Indian Army's [[Eastern Command (India)|Eastern Command]]. During his 36-year long career in the army, Jacob fought in [[World War II]] and the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965]]. He later served as the [[Governor (India)|governor]] of the Indian states of [[Goa]] and [[Punjab (India)|Punjab]].

[[File:Jacob1.jpg| Charcoal on Paper by [[Amitabh Mitra]] Lieutenant General J.F.R Jacob, the liberator of Dhaka|thumb|right]]

==Early life==
Jacob was born in [[Calcutta]] to a deeply religious [[Baghdadi Jews|Baghdadi Jewish]] family originally from [[Iraq]] which had settled in Calcutta in the mid-19th century. His father, Elias Emanuel, was an affluent businessman.<ref name="OTM">{{cite web |first=Aimee |last=Ginsburg |url=http://www.openthemagazine.com/article/nation/the-sum-of-his-many-parts |title=The Sum of His Many Parts |publisher=Openthemagazine.com |date=2 June 2012 |access-date=30 July 2012 |archive-date=10 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120610174209/http://www.openthemagazine.com/article/nation/the-sum-of-his-many-parts |url-status=live }}</ref> After his father became sick, Jacob was sent at the age of nine to [[Victoria Boys' School (Kurseong)|Victoria Boys' School]], a boarding school in [[Kurseong]] near [[Darjeeling]]. From then on, he went home only during school holidays.<ref name=itoday/>

Jacob, motivated by reports of the [[Holocaust]] of [[European Jews]] during World War II, enlisted in the [[British Indian Army]] in 1942 as "Jack Frederick Ralph Jacob."<ref name="Indian_Army_List_45"/> His father objected to his enlisting. Jacob said in 2010, "I am proud to be a Jew, but am Indian through and through."<ref name="OTM" />

==Military career==
===Early career===
Jacob graduated from the Officers' Training School (OTS) in [[Mhow]] in 1942, and received an emergency commission as a [[second lieutenant]] on 7{{Nbsp}}June.<ref name="Indian_Army_List_45">{{cite book|pages=631|title=Indian Army List for October 1945 (Part I)|publisher=Government of India Press|year=1945}}</ref> He was initially posted to northern Iraq in anticipation of a possible [[Nazi Germany|German]] attempt to seize the oil fields of [[Kirkuk]], and was promoted war-substantive [[lieutenant]] on 7{{Nbsp}}December.<ref name=itoday/><ref name=toi/><ref name="Indian_Army_List_45"/>

In 1943, Jacob was transferred to an artillery brigade that was dispatched to [[Tunisia Campaign|Tunisia]] to reinforce the [[British Army]] against Field Marshal [[Erwin Rommel]]'s [[Afrika Korps]]. The brigade arrived after the [[Axis powers|Axis]] surrender. From 1943 to the end of the war, Jacob's unit fought in the [[Burma Campaign]] against the [[Empire of Japan]].<ref name=tribune>{{cite news|title=Lt Gen Jacob, 1971 war hero, dies at 92|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/news/cities/chandigarh/lt-gen-jacob-1971-war-hero-dies-at-92/183340.html|work=The Tribune|access-date=15 January 2016|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304081937/http://www.tribuneindia.com/news/cities/chandigarh/lt-gen-jacob-1971-war-hero-dies-at-92/183340.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In the wake of Japan's defeat, he was assigned to [[Sumatra]].<ref name=dtrib/>

On 27{{Nbsp}}October 1945, Jacob was granted a permanent commission in the rank of lieutenant.<ref name="Indian_Army_List_47">{{cite book|pages=269E|title=Indian Army List (Special Edition) 1947|publisher=Government of India Press|year=1947}}</ref> After World War II, he attended and graduated from artillery schools in England and the United States, specialising in advanced artillery and missiles.<ref name=tribune/> He returned to India following its [[partition of India|partition]], and joined the [[Indian Army]].

===Post-Independence===
In May 1951, Jacob was selected to attend the [[Defence Services Staff College]], [[Wellington Cantonment|Wellington]], the staff course started in October of the same year.<ref>{{cite web |title=Staff College Entrance Examination Results |url=https://archive.pib.gov.in/archive/ArchiveSecondPhase/DEFENCE/1951-JAN-DEC-DEFENCE/PDF/DEF-1951-05-25_094.pdf |website=archive.pib.gov.in |date=25 May 1951 |access-date=16 February 2021}}</ref> As the first commanding officer, he raised [[3 Medium Regiment|3 Field Regiment]] on 14 May 1956.<ref name="Khullar 2017">{{cite book|last=Khullar|first=Darshan |title= Themes of Glory: Indian Artillery in War|date=2017|publisher= VIJ Books (India) Pty Ltd|isbn=978-9385563973|page=}}</ref> On 20 May 1964, he was given command of an artillery brigade, with the acting rank of [[brigadier]].<ref name="act_brig">{{cite news |title=Part I-Section 4: Ministry of Defence (Army Branch) |page=312 |date=8 August 1964|publisher=The Gazette of India}}</ref> During the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965]], he commanded an [[Infantry Division]], which later became the [[12th Infantry Division (India)|12th Infantry Division]], in the state of [[Rajasthan]].<ref name=dtrib/> During this period, Jacob composed an Indian Army manual on [[desert warfare]].<ref name=redi>{{cite web|title=Lt Gen JFR Jacob: The man who masterminded Pakistan's surrender in 1971|url=http://www.rediff.com/news/special/defence-news-lt-gen-jfr-jacob-the-man-who-masterminded-pakistan-surrender-in-1971-war/20151213.htm|publisher=Rediff|access-date=16 January 2016}}</ref>

Jacob was promoted to substantive brigadier on 17{{Nbsp}}January 1966,<ref name="brig"/> and took command of an infantry brigade on 30 September.<ref>{{cite news |title=Part I-Section 4: Ministry of Defence (Army Branch) |page=777 |date=31 December 1966 |publisher=The Gazette of India}}</ref> On 2 October 1967, he was promoted to the acting rank of [[major general]] and was given command of an infantry division,<ref name="GOC_actg">{{cite news |title=Part I-Section 4: Ministry of Defence (Army Branch) |page=874 |date=18 November 1967 |publisher=The Gazette of India}}</ref><ref name=itoday>{{cite web|title=Who was Lt Gen JFR Jacob? Here's all you need to know about the 1971 Indo-Pak war hero|date=13 January 2016|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/fyi/story/jfr-jacob-1971-indo-pakistan-war-hero-liberation-of-bangladesh-303611-2016-01-13|publisher=India Today|access-date=15 January 2016|archive-date=14 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160114184856/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/jfr-jacob-1971-indo-pakistan-war-hero-liberation-of-bangladesh/1/569401.html|url-status=live}}</ref> with promotion to the substantive rank on 10 June 1968.<ref name="maj_gen">{{cite news |title=Part I-Section 4: Ministry of Defence (Army Branch) |page=286 |date=29 March 1969 |publisher=The Gazette of India}}</ref> On 29 April 1969, he was appointed the chief of staff (COS) of the [[Eastern Command (India)|Eastern Command]], by [[General (India)|General]] [[Sam Manekshaw]] (later [[Field marshal (India)|Field Marshal]]).<ref>{{cite news |title=Part I-Section 4: Ministry of Defence (Army Branch) |page=597 |date=28 June 1969 |publisher=The Gazette of India}}</ref><ref name="dtrib">{{cite news|title=Never surrender: Remembering JFR Jacob|url=http://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2016/jan/14/never-surrender-remembering-jfr-jacob|work=Dhaka Tribune|access-date=15 January 2016|archive-date=5 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305021316/http://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2016/jan/14/never-surrender-remembering-jfr-jacob|url-status=live}}</ref> As the COS, Jacob's immediate superior was [[Lieutenant General]] [[Jagjit Singh Aurora]], the [[General officer commanding|General officer commanding-in-chief (GOC-in-C)]] [[Eastern Command (India)|Eastern Command]].<ref name=toi>{{cite news |title=Lt Gen JFR Jacob, last of 1971 war trinity, dies at 92|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Lt-Gen-JFR-Jacob-last-of-1971-war-trinity-dies-at-92/articleshow/50569055.cms|work=The Times of India|access-date=15 January 2016}}</ref> Jacob was soon tasked with dealing with the mounting [[insurgency in Northeast India]].<ref>{{cite web|title=India can hold but not deter China: Lt Gen (retd) JFR Jacob in conversation with Gen (retd) Ved Prakash Malik|date=14 December 2012 |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/india-today-37th-anniversary/story/india-can-hold-but-not-deter-china-says-lt-gen-jfr-jacob-124253-2012-12-13|publisher=India Today|access-date=16 January 2016}}</ref>

===Bangladesh Liberation War===
[[File:1971 Instrument of Surrender WaPo.jpg|thumbnail|[[A. A. K. Niazi]] signing the [[Pakistani Instrument of Surrender|instrument of surrender]] under the gaze of [[Jagjit Singh Aurora|J. S. Aurora]]. Standing immediately behind (L-R) [[Nilakanta Krishnan|Nilkanta Krishnan]], [[Hari Chand Dewan]], [[Sagat Singh]], Jacob (with. Krishnamurthy peeping over his shoulder). Newscaster, [[Surajit Sen]] of [[All India Radio]], is seen holding a microphone on the right]]
Jacob gained prominence during his stint as the chief of staff of the Eastern Command; the command helped to defeat the [[Pakistan Army]] in [[East Pakistan]] during the 1971 [[Bangladesh Liberation War]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Do not forget Operation Searchlight of Gen Yahya Khan|url=http://zeenews.india.com/news/nation/do-not-forget-operation-searchlight-of-gen-yahya-khan_433109.html|work=Zee News|access-date=15 January 2016|date=28 March 2008}}</ref> Jacob was awarded a commendation of merit for his role.<ref name=haaretz/>

In March 1971, the Pakistan Army launched [[Operation Searchlight]] to stem the Bengali nationalist movement in East Pakistan.<ref name="Ganguly">{{cite book|title=Conflict Unending: India-Pakistan Tensions Since 1947|last=Ganguly|first=Sumit|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2002|isbn=978-0-231-12369-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/conflictunending0000gang/page/60 60]|url=https://archive.org/details/conflictunending0000gang/page/60}}</ref> The action led to over 10{{Nbsp}}million refugees entering India, fuelling tensions between India and Pakistan.<ref>{{cite news |title=A leaf from history: After Operation Searchlight|date=3 March 2012|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/699975/a-leaf-from-history-after-operation-searchlight|work=Dawn|access-date=16 January 2016}}</ref> By the monsoon season Jacob—as chief of staff—was tasked with drawing the contingency plans in case of a conflict. After consulting with his superior officers, Jacob developed a plan for engaging [[Pakistan]] in a "[[Maneuver warfare|war of movement]]" in the difficult and swampy terrain of East Pakistan.<ref name=itoday/>

An initial plan, given to the Eastern Command by [[Sam Manekshaw|Manekshaw]], involved an incursion into East Pakistan and the capture of the provinces of [[Chittagong]] and [[Khulna]].<ref name=dstar>{{cite news |title=We did not take Khulna, and we did not capture Chittagong, yet we won the war.|date=22 March 2015|url=http://www.thedailystar.net/op-ed/we-did-not-take-khulna-and-we-did-not-capture-chittagong-yet-we-won-the-war-72964|work=The Daily Star|access-date=16 January 2016}}</ref> Senior Indian Army officers were reluctant to execute an aggressive invasion for fears of early ceasefire demands by the [[United Nations]] and a looming threat posed by China.<ref name=redi/> That, together with the difficulty of navigating the marshy terrain of East Pakistan through three wide rivers, led the commanders to initially believe that the capture of all of East Pakistan was not possible. Jacob disagreed; his "war of movement" plan aimed to take control of all of East Pakistan. Jacob felt that the capital [[Dhaka]] was the geopolitical centre of the region, and that any successful campaign had to involve the eventual capture of Dhaka.<ref name=redi/> Realising that the Pakistani Army's commander of its [[Pakistan Armed Forces Eastern Command|eastern command]], [[A. A. K. Niazi]], was going to fortify the towns and "defend them in strength", his plan was to bypass intermediary towns altogether, neutralise Pakistan's command and communication infrastructure, and use secondary routes to reach Dhaka.<ref name=itoday/> Jacob's plan was eventually approved by the Eastern Command.<ref name=redi/>

The strategy eventually led to the capture of Dhaka. The Pakistani forces were selectively bypassed, their communication centres were captured and secured, and their command and control capabilities were destroyed.<ref name=redi/> His campaign was planned for execution in three weeks, but was executed in under a fortnight.

Jacob understood that a protracted war would not be in India's best interests. On 16 December, during a lull in the battle, Jacob sought permission to visit Niazi to seek his surrender. He flew to Dhaka and obtained an unconditional surrender from Niazi,<ref name=redi/> who later accused Jacob of blackmailing him into the surrender by threatening to order the annihilation of Pakistani troops in the east by bombing.<ref name="hindustantimes1">{{cite news |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india/a-victory-and-little-else/story-SsNVK32pgh3qygG1vBkNrM.html |title=A victory, and little else |work=Hindustan Times |date=15 December 2011 |access-date=30 July 2012 |archive-date=31 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170831133517/http://www.hindustantimes.com/india/a-victory-and-little-else/story-SsNVK32pgh3qygG1vBkNrM.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Gen. Jacob made Niazi surrender publicly at the [[Suhrawardy Udyan|Dhaka racecourse]] in front of the people of Dhaka, and provided a guard of honour.<ref>{{cite news|last=Sengupta|first=Ramananda|date=20 December 2006|title=How Pakistan surrendered in 1971|url=https://www.rediff.com/news/2006/dec/20jacob.htm|newspaper=Rediff News|archive-date=23 October 2020|access-date=7 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201023215714/https://www.rediff.com/news/2006/dec/20jacob.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GFp05Rc1rcE |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211222/GFp05Rc1rcE |archive-date=22 December 2021 |url-status=live|title=Walk the Talk with Lieutenant General JFR Jacob|date=April 2012 |publisher=NDTV}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

The war was a significant victory for India, with nearly ninety thousand Pakistani soldiers surrendering to the Indian Army despite only three thousand Indian soldiers in the immediate area of Dhaka.<ref name=tribune/>

A study of the campaign by Pakistan's [[National Defence University, Pakistan|National Defence College]] concluded that "the credit really goes to Jacob's meticulous preparations in the Indian eastern command and to the implementation by his corps commanders."<ref name=itoday/><ref name="hindustantimes1"/> According to the website [[Bharat Rakshak]], Jacob had repeatedly asserted that the Bangladesh war was only successful because of his own efforts rather than those of [[Sam Manekshaw|Field Marshal Manekshaw]] or the [[General Officer Commanding-in-Chief|GOC-in-C]] of Eastern Command, Lieutenant General [[Jagjit Singh Aurora|Aurora]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Walia|first=Sumit|title=1971 War: Dhaka or Bust?|url=http://bharat-rakshak.com/LAND-FORCES/History/1971War/409-1971-War-Dhaka-or-Bust.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120104162502/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/LAND-FORCES/History/1971War/409-1971-War-Dhaka-or-Bust.html|archive-date=4 January 2012}}</ref>

For his role in the war, Jacob was awarded the [[Param Vishisht Seva Medal]] (PVSM) for distinguished service of the most exceptional order. The citation for the PVSM reads as follows:<ref>{{cite web |title=President's Secretariat |url=https://archive.pib.gov.in/archive/ArchiveSecondPhase/RASHTRAPATI%20BHAWAN/1972-JAN-MAY-RASHTRPATI-BHVAN/PDF/RPB-1972-01-06_012.pdf |website=archive.pib.gov.in |date=6 January 1972}}</ref>
{{Blockquote|
{{center|'''CITATION''' 
'''MAJOR GENERAL JACK FREDERICK RALPH JACOB (IC-470)''' 
'''COS, HQ Eastern Command'''}}

In the operations in the Eastern Theatre, leading to the liberation of BANGLADESH, the contribution of Major General JACK FREDERICK RALPH JACOB, has been pivotal and most valuable as Chief of Staff, Eastern Command he worked for long hours over an extended period without loss of efficiency and displayed a firm grip and outstanding organising ability. He was responsible for detailed planning and execution of administrative and logistic support and his handling of these difficult problems during operations was highly imaginative, thorough and efficient. He has displayed devotion to duty, unstinted loyalty and outstanding ability and has rendered distinguished service of the most exceptional order.|sign=|source=}}

===Later military career===
On 17 June 1972, Jacob was promoted to the acting rank of [[Lieutenant General (India)|lieutenant general]] and was appointed as the [[General Officer Commanding]] of [[XVI Corps (India)|XVI Corps]] (newly created),<ref name="act_lt_gen">{{cite news |title=Part I-Section 4: Ministry of Defence (Army Branch) |page=95 |date=27 January 1973|publisher=The Gazette of India}}</ref> with promotion to substantive lieutenant-general on 5 August 1973.<ref name="lt_gen">{{cite news |title=Part I-Section 4: Ministry of Defence (Army Branch) |page=314 |date=16 March 1974|publisher=The Gazette of India}}</ref> His final appointment was as GOC-in-C, Eastern Command, which he held from 1974 until 31 July 1978, when he retired from the Army following 36{{Nbsp}}years of service and having reached the mandatory retirement age.<ref>{{cite news |title=Part I-Section 4: Ministry of Defence (Army Branch) |page=975 |date=7 October 1978|publisher=The Gazette of India}}</ref><ref name=haaretz/>

==Post-retirement life and political career==
[[File:גנרל ג'ייקוב (General JFR Jacob) מדליק חנוכיה בביתו.JPG|thumbnail|Jacob lighting [[Hanukkah]] candles, together with [[Rabbi]] Schneur Kuptz'ik, [[Chabad-Lubavitch]] [[Diplomat|emissary]] in Delhi (December 2012)]]
Following his retirement from the army, Jacob entered a career in business. In the late 1990s, he joined the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] and served as its security adviser.<ref name=haaretz>{{cite news|last1=Barzilai|first1=Amnon|title=The Jewish General Who Beat Pakistan|url=https://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/features/the-jewish-general-who-beat-pakistan-1.133918|newspaper=Haaretz|date=6 September 2004|access-date=15 January 2016}}</ref>

From 19 April 1998 till 26 November 1999, he served as the [[List of governors of Goa|Governor of Goa]]. While Governor of Goa, he was also the administrator during president's rule, due to instability in the Goa assembly. As administrator, he was recognised as an efficient administrator. He contributed to the preservation of Goa's natural green cover by declaring [[Mhadei Wildlife Sanctuary|Mhadei]] [{{convert|209|km2|sqmi|sigfig=3|abbr=on}}] and [[Netravali Wildlife Sanctuary|Netravati]] [{{convert|211|km2|sqmi|sigfig=3|abbr=on}}] as wildlife sanctuaries.<ref>{{cite news |date=14 January 2016|title=Gen Jacob not only a war hero but green hero: Goa assembly|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/Gen-Jacob-not-only-a-war-hero-but-green-hero-Goa-assembly/articleshow/50575505.cms|newspaper=The Times of India}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=14 January 2016|title=Goa Assembly pays homage to ex-Governor Lt Gen J F R Jacob|url=https://www.india.com/news/india/goa-assembly-pays-homage-to-ex-governor-lt-gen-j-f-r-jacob-861317/|newspaper=India.com}}</ref>

From 27 November 1999 till 8 May 2003, he served as the [[List of governors of Punjab (India)|Governor of Punjab]], and [[List of administrators of Chandigarh|Administrator of Chandigarh]]. During this period, he successfully setup the IT Park in Chandigarh and invited [[N. R. Narayana Murthy]], Chairman of [[Infosys]], to set up a development center there. Thereafter, other IT companies also set up operations in the Chandigarh IT Park, thus increasing employment avenues in the city.<ref>{{cite book|author=Lt. Gen J.F.R. Jacob|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=99BbBAAAQBAJ&q=I+met+executives+from+Infosys,+Satyam,+and+Wipro,+and+managed+to+persuade+Narayan+Murthy+of+Infosys+to+set+up+a+complex+at+Chandigarh&pg=PT134|title=An Odyssey in War and Peace|publisher=Roli Books Private Limited|year= 2012|isbn=9788174369338|pages=189}}</ref> He also conceptualised the Chandigarh War Memorial, which was designed by the students of the [[Chandigarh College of Architecture]] and inaugurated by President [[A. P. J. Abdul Kalam]] on 17 August 2006.<ref>{{cite news |date=17 August 2006|title=Chandigarh War Memorial inaugurated by Kalam|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/newswire/story/chandigarh-war-memorial-inaugurated-by-kalam/407410|newspaper=Outlook India}}</ref>

He was a supporter of improved [[India–Israel relations]]. When the Bharatiya Janata Party became part of the ruling coalition government of India in 1998, one of their first priorities was to improve relations with Israel, with which India has had formal diplomatic relations since 1992.<ref name=haaretz/> In the run-up to [[2004 Indian general election|2004 election]], he postulated the implications of a win for the [[Indian National Congress]] in terms of Indo–Israel relations as:

{{blockquote|A victory by the Congress Party under the leadership of [[Sonia Gandhi]]...will not lead to any change in India's policy toward Israel. The good relations will continue, and in certain area even grow deeper. If I had to rank the present-day level of relations between India and [[Israel]], I would give them a 9 out of 10.<ref>{{cite book|last=Sharma|first=Diwakar|title=Modern Journalism Reporting and Writing|year=2005|publisher=Deep and Deep Publications|pages=200}}</ref><ref name=haaretz/>}}

He supported the purchase and trade of military equipment and technology from Israel by India, particularly the purchase of [[Arrow (Israeli missile)|Israeli Arrow missiles]], which he preferred over the U.S.-made [[MIM-104 Patriot|Patriot missiles]] on account of the Arrows' ability to intercept enemy missiles at higher altitudes.<ref name=haaretz/>

He remained cautious about relations between India and Pakistan in light of the Pakistani media's suggesting that military and intelligence co-operation between Israel and India, which they called a "[[Zionism|Zionist]] threat" on Pakistan's borders.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.axt.org.uk/antisem/archive/archive1/pakistan/pakistan.htm |title=Pakistan |publisher=Axt.org.uk |date=3 January 1997 |access-date=30 July 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121005064328/http://www.axt.org.uk/antisem/archive/archive1/pakistan/pakistan.htm |archive-date=5 October 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.indiadaily.com/editorial/4604.asp |title=Pakistan's Israel dilemma |publisher=Indiadaily.com |access-date=30 July 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120628064504/http://indiadaily.com/editorial/4604.asp |archive-date=28 June 2012 }}</ref>

{{blockquote|India has been attacked several times by Pakistan. We cannot take risks, and be unprepared for a surprise attack. India should be prepared for both Pakistan and China. Therefore, there is a need for anti-missile missiles. Due to the Pakistani danger and the threat of launch of missiles with nuclear warheads.<ref name=haaretz/>}}

He was also positive about India's recent economic growth and the capabilities of the young Indian generation. He said:

{{blockquote|As a country, we are at the threshold of an economic explosion and, hence, at this moment, empowerment means most to those who hold the key to the future. I talk of the younger generation. Sound economic and strategic planning will bring about this change. Unfortunately, since our prosperity comes in bursts, good governance, in the form of dedicated politicians and bureaucrats, is essential to usher any changes.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Big Idea|url=http://www.indiaempowered.com/templates/bigidea.html|work=The Indian Express|access-date=16 January 2016|archive-date=16 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170216051042/http://www.indiaempowered.com/templates/bigidea.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>}}

==Death==
[[File:The Union Minister for Defence, Shri Manohar Parrikar paying homage at the mortal remains of Lt. Gen. J.F.R. Jacob, in New Delhi on January 14, 2016.jpg|thumb|Defence Minister [[Manohar Parrikar]] lays a wreath at Lt. Gen. Jacob's grave in New Delhi on 14 January 2016.]]
On 13 January 2016, at around 8.30 am [[Indian Standard Time|local time]], Jacob died at [[New Delhi]]'s Army Research and Referral Hospital due to pneumonia.<ref>{{cite news|title=1971 Indo-Pak War Hero, Lieutenant General JFR Jacob Dies|url=http://www.ndtv.com/india-news/1971-indo-pak-war-hero-lieutenant-general-jfr-jacob-dies-1265318|publisher=NDTV|access-date=13 January 2016|archive-date=13 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113130502/http://www.ndtv.com/india-news/1971-indo-pak-war-hero-lieutenant-general-jfr-jacob-dies-1265318|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=RIP: Lt Gen JFR Jacob, hero of the 1971 war, passes away at 93|url=http://www.firstpost.com/india/rip-lt-gen-jfr-jacob-hero-of-the-1971-war-passes-away-2582162.html|access-date=13 January 2016|work=Firstpost|date=13 January 2016}}</ref> He was laid to rest the following day in Delhi's [[Jewish cemetery]] on Humayun Road. His funeral was attended by India's [[Minister of Defence (India)|defence minister]], [[Minister of Information and Broadcasting (India)|information minister]], and foreign delegations.<ref name=dna>{{cite news |title=Lt Gen JFR Jacob, 1971 Indo-Pak war hero, laid to rest in New Delhi|date=14 January 2016|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-lt-gen-jfr-jacob-1971-indo-pak-war-hero-laid-to-rest-in-new-delhi-2165932|work=DNA India|access-date=15 January 2016}}</ref>

In April 2019, Israel honoured Jacob with a commemorative plaque on the [[Battle of Ammunition Hill#Memorial site|Ammunition Hill Wall of Honour]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Israel honours 1971 war hero Lt Gen JFR Jacob with a plaque on Ammunition Hill Wall of Honour |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/israel-honours-1971-war-hero-lt-gen-jfr-jacob-with-a-plaque-on-ammunition-hill-wall-of-honour/articleshow/69116030.cms |access-date=1 May 2019 |work=The Economic Times |agency=PTI |date=30 April 2019 |archive-date=29 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190529185613/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/israel-honours-1971-war-hero-lt-gen-jfr-jacob-with-a-plaque-on-ammunition-hill-wall-of-honour/articleshow/69116030.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Major publications==

Jacob was the author of these books:
* ''Surrender at Dacca: Birth of a Nation'' ({{ISBN|984-05-1395-8}})
* ''An Odyssey in War and Peace: An Autobiography'' ({{ISBN|978-81-7436-840-9}})

== Honours and awards ==
{| style="margin:1em auto; text-align:center;"
| colspan="4" |[[File:Param_Vishisht_Seva_Medal_ribbon.svg|100x100px]] {{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=award-star|ribbon=IND_Poorvi_Star_Ribbon.svg|width=106}} [[File:IND_Paschimi_Star_Ribbon.svg|100x100px]]
|-
|[[File:IND_Raksha_Medal_Ribbon.svg|100x100px]]
|[[File:IND_Sangram_Medal_Ribbon.svg|100x100px]]
|[[File:IND_Sainya_Seva_Medal_Ribbon.svg|100x100px]]
|[[File:Indian_Independence_medal_1947.svg|100x100px]]
|-
|[[File:IND_25th_Anniversary_Independence_medal.svg|100x100px]]
|[[File:IND_20YearsServiceMedalRibbon.svg|100x100px]]
|[[File:IND_9YearsServiceMedalRibbon.svg|100x100px]]
|[[File:Ribbon_-_1939-45_Star.png|100x100px]]
|-
|[[File:Ribbon_-_Burma_Star.png|100x100px]]
|[[File:Defence Medal 1945.png|109x109px]]
|[[File:War Medal 1939–1945 (UK) ribbon.png|100x100px]]
|[[File:General Service Medal 1918-62.png|100x100px]]
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto; text-align:center;"
|[[Param Vishisht Seva Medal]]
| colspan="2" |[[Poorvi Star]]
|[[Paschimi Star]]
|-
|[[Raksha Medal]]
|[[Sangram Medal]]
|[[Sainya Seva Medal]]
|[[Indian Independence Medal]]
|-
|[[Awards and decorations of the Indian Armed Forces#Independence medals|25th Anniversary of Independence Medal]]
|[[Awards and decorations of the Indian Armed Forces#Long service awards|20 Years Long Service Medal]]
|[[Awards and decorations of the Indian Armed Forces#Long service awards|9 Years Long Service Medal]]
|[[1939–1945 Star]]
|-
|[[Burma Star]]
|[[Defence Medal (United Kingdom)|Defence Medal]]
|[[War Medal 1939–1945]]
|[[General Service Medal (1918)]]
|}
The Bangladesh government, in 2012, in recognition of his contribution to the creation of Bangladesh, conferred him with the [[Awards and decorations of the Bangladesh Liberation War#Civilian awards|Friends of Liberation War Honour]].<ref>[https://www.thedailystar.net/editorial/passing-general-jacob-201976 Passing on of General Jacob, Adieu dear friend, Bangladesh Daily Star, Friday January 15, 2016]</ref>

==Dates of rank==
{|class="wikitable" style="background:white"
! Insignia !! Rank !! Component !! Date of rank
|-
|align="center" |[[File:British_Army_OF-1a.svg|35px]] || [[Second lieutenant#United Kingdom & other Commonwealth countries|Second Lieutenant]] || [[British Indian Army]] || 7 June 1942 (emergency) 7 December 1943 (substantive)<ref name="Indian_Army_List_47"/>
|-
|align="center" |[[File:British_Army_OF-1b.svg|35px]] || [[Lieutenant (British Army and Royal Marines)|Lieutenant]] || British Indian Army || 7 December 1942 (war-substantive)<ref name="Indian_Army_List_47"/> 27 October 1945 (substantive; regular commission)<ref name="Indian_Army_List_47"/>
|-
|align="center" |[[File:British_Army_OF-2.svg|35px]] || [[Captain (British Army and Royal Marines)|Captain]] || British Indian Army || 2 February 1945 (acting)<ref name="Indian_Army_List_47"/> 2 May 1945 (temporary) 20 July 1946 (war-substantive)<ref name="Indian_Army_List_47"/>
|-
|align="center" |[[File:British Army (1920–1953) OF-3.svg|35px]] || [[Major (United Kingdom)|Major]] ||British Indian Army || 20 April 1946 (acting) 20 July 1946 (temporary)<ref name="Indian_Army_List_47"/>
|-
|align="center" |[[File:British_Army_OF-1b.svg|35px]] || Lieutenant || [[Indian Army]] || 15 August 1947<ref group="note" name="insignia">Upon independence in 1947, India became a [[Dominion of India|Dominion]] within the British [[Commonwealth of Nations]]. As a result, the rank insignia of the [[British Army]], incorporating the [[Tudor Crown (heraldry)|Tudor Crown]] and four-pointed [[Order of the Bath|Bath Star]] ("pip"), was retained, as [[George VI of the United Kingdom|George VI]] remained Commander-in-Chief of the [[Indian Armed Forces]]. After 26 January 1950, when India became a [[Republic of India|republic]], the [[President of India]] became Commander-in-Chief, and the [[Lion Capital of Asoka|Ashoka Lion]] replaced the crown, with a five-pointed star being substituted for the "pip."</ref><ref name="insignia_designs"/>
|-
|align="center" |[[File:British_Army_OF-2.svg|35px]] || Captain || Indian Army || 1948<ref group="note" name="insignia"/><ref name="insignia_designs"/>
|-
|align="center" |[[File:Captain_of_the_Indian_Army.svg|35px]] || Captain || Indian Army || 26 January 1950 (recommissioning and change in insignia)<ref name="insignia_designs">{{cite web|title=New Designs of Crests and Badges in the Services|url=http://pib.nic.in/archive/docs/DVD_38/ACC%20NO%20807-BR/HOM-1950-01-06_484.pdf|website=Press Information Bureau of India - Archive|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808193914/http://pib.nic.in/archive/docs/DVD_38/ACC%20NO%20807-BR/HOM-1950-01-06_484.pdf|archive-date=8 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Part I-Section 4: Ministry of Defence (Army Branch) |page=227 |date=11 February 1950 |publisher=The Gazette of India}}</ref>
|-
|align="center" |[[File:Major_of_the_Indian_Army.svg|35px]] || [[Major (rank)|Major]] || Indian Army || 7 June 1955<ref name="major">{{cite news |title=Part I-Section 4: Ministry of Defence (Army Branch) |page=177 |date=17 September 1955 |publisher=The Gazette of India}}</ref>
|-
|align="center" |[[File:Lieutenant_Colonel_of_the_Indian_Army.svg|35px]] || [[Lieutenant-Colonel]] || Indian Army || 7 June 1958<ref name="lt_col">{{cite news |title=Part I-Section 4: Ministry of Defence (Army Branch) |page=217 |date=27 August 1960 |publisher=The Gazette of India}}</ref>
|-
|align="center" |[[File:Colonel_of_the_Indian_Army.svg|35px]] || [[Colonel]] || Indian Army || 23 December 1964<ref name="col">{{cite news |title=Part I-Section 4: Ministry of Defence (Army Branch) |page=583 |date=13 November 1965 |publisher=The Gazette of India}}</ref>
|-
|align="center" |[[File:Brigadier_of_the_Indian_Army.svg|35px]] || [[Brigadier]] || Indian Army || 20 May 1964 (acting)<ref name="act_brig"/> 17 January 1966 (substantive)<ref name="brig">{{cite news |title=Part I-Section 4: Ministry of Defence (Army Branch) |page=557 |date=17 September 1966 |publisher=The Gazette of India}}</ref>
|-
|align="center" |[[File:Major_General_of_the_Indian_Army.svg|35px]] || [[Major general#India|Major General]] || Indian Army || 2 October 1967 (acting)<ref name="GOC_actg"/> 10 June 1968 (substantive)<ref name="maj_gen"/>
|-
|align="center" |[[File:Lieutenant_General_of_the_Indian_Army.svg|35px]] || [[Lieutenant-General]] || Indian Army || 17 June 1972 (acting)<ref name="act_lt_gen"/> 5 August 1973 (substantive)<ref name="lt_gen"/>
|-
|}

==In popular culture==
The short film 'Mukti – Birth of a Nation', starring [[Milind Soman]] as Gen. Jacob and [[Yashpal Sharma (actor)|Yashpal Sharma]] as Gen. [[A. A. K. Niazi]] covers the negotiations between Gen. Jacob and Gen. Niazi on 16 December 1971, resulting in the unconditional surrender of Pakistani forces in Bangladesh.<ref>{{cite news|last=Tulsiani|first=Kriti|date=18 August 2017|title=Mukti - Birth of a Nation Showcases History of Indian Military During 1971|url=https://www.news18.com/news/movies/mukti-birth-of-a-nation-showcases-history-of-indian-military-during-1971-1494717.html|newspaper=News 18|archive-date=30 October 2020|access-date=18 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030180227/https://www.news18.com/news/movies/mukti-birth-of-a-nation-showcases-history-of-indian-military-during-1971-1494717.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite AV media |title=Mukti |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6bGdIAf2J_k |date=15 January 2017 |type=Motion picture |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824054150/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6bGdIAf2J_k |archive-date=24 August 2017 |publisher=[[Sony LIV]] |access-date=18 June 2020 |url-status=live |via=[[YouTube]]}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category|J. F. R. Jacob}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061013110855/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/LAND-FORCES/Army/Images-1971b.html Bharat Rakshak Images]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061006193134/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/LANCER/idr00010.htm Gen. Jacob]
* [http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-opinion/taking-dhaka-did-not-figure-in-manekshaws-plans-general-jacob/article1837531.ece "Taking Dhaka did not figure in Manekshaw’s plans: General Jacob PVSM, The Hindu online]
*[https://twitter.com/sidhant/status/1532358102040846337/photo/1 Grave with inscription: Lt Gen Jack Frederick Raphael Jacob PVSM 02.05.1922 - 13.01.1916 Lived his life, at his own terms, till the end. Straight as an arrow, who nobody could bend. May his soul rest in peace. Amen.]
{{S-start}}
{{s-mil}}
{{succession box
|before = [[N. C. Rawlley]]
|title = [[General Officer Commanding-in-Chief]] [[Eastern Command (India)|Eastern Command]]
|years = 1974–1978
|after =E A Vas}}
{{S-off}}
{{Succession box
| title = [[List of governors of Punjab (India)|Governor of Punjab]]
| years = 1999–2003
| before = [[B. K. N. Chibber]]
| after = [[O. P. Verma]]
}}
{{Succession box
| title = [[List of governors of Goa|Governor of Goa]]
| years = 1998–1999
| before = [[T. R. Satish Chandran]]
| after = [[Mohammed Fazal]]
}}
{{S-end}}

{{1971 Indo-Pak War}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Jacob, Jfr}}
[[Category:1921 births]]
[[Category:2016 deaths]]
[[Category:Military personnel from Kolkata]]
[[Category:Indian Jews]]
[[Category:Indian generals]]
[[Category:Indian people of Iraqi-Jewish descent]]
[[Category:Jewish military personnel]]
[[Category:British Indian Army officers]]
[[Category:Generals of the India–Pakistan war of 1971]]
[[Category:Indian military personnel of the India–Pakistan war of 1971]]
[[Category:Jewish Indian politicians]]
[[Category:Baghdadi Jews]]
[[Category:People of the Bangladesh Liberation War]]
[[Category:Governors of Goa]]
[[Category:Governors of Punjab, India]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Param Vishisht Seva Medal]]
[[Category:Deaths from pneumonia in India]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from West Bengal]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian politicians]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian politicians]]
[[Category:Defence Services Staff College alumni]]

Kiul–Khana Loop Line

2026-03-24T08:56:16Z

Ajit3011: Done

{{Short description|Indian railway line}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2015}}
{{Infobox rail line
| box_width = 28em
| name = Kiul—Khana Loop Line
| color =
| logo = 
| logo_width = 100 px
| image = Bhagalpur jn..jpg
| image_width =
| caption = Bhagalpur Junction is Important Station on Kiul–Khana Loop Line
| type =
| system =
| status = Operational
| locale = [[West Bengal]], [[Jharkhand]], [[Bihar]]
| start = [[Khana Junction]]
| end = [[Kiul Junction]]
| stations =
| routes =
| daily_ridership =
| open = 1866
| close =
| owner = [[Indian Railways]]
| operator = [[Eastern Railway zone|Eastern Railway]]
| character =
| depot =
| stock =
| linelength = {{convert|403.8|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}
| tracklength =
| tracks = 1/ 2
| gauge = {{Track gauge|5ft6in|lk=on}} [[broad gauge]]
| old_gauge =
| minradius =
| racksystem =
| electrification = Yes
| speed = 130 km/h
| elevation =
| website =
| map = {{Sahibganj loop}}
| map_state = collapsed
}}
The '''Kiul—Khana Loop Line''' is a railway line connecting [[Kiul Junction railway station|Kiul Junction]] and [[Khana Junction]]. Originally a part of the [[Howrah–Delhi main line]], it was opened to traffic in 1866. With the construction of a shorter railway line for a part of the route, the {{convert|403.8|km}} stretch was assigned a separate identity.

==History==
Railway transportation was introduced in India within 30 years of its [[Stockton and Darlington Railway|maiden run]] in England.

The [[East Indian Railway Company]] which was formed on 1 June 1845, completed its survey for a railway line from Kolkata, then called Calcutta, to Delhi via Mirzapur in 1846. The company initially became defunct on refusal of government guarantee, which was given in 1849. Thereafter, an agreement was signed between East Indian Railway Company and the East India Company, for the construction and operation of an "experimental" line between Kolkata and Rajmahal, which would later be extended to Delhi via Mirzapur. Construction began in 1851.

On 15 August 1854, the first passenger train in the eastern section was operated up to [[Hugli-Chuchura|Hooghly]], {{convert|39|km}} away. On 1 February 1855 the first train ran from Hooghly to [[Raniganj]], {{convert|195|km}} from Howrah. The priority accorded to the Raniganj section was because of the assurance of coal transportation.

The Khana Junction-Rajmahal section was complete in October 1859, crossing [[Ajay River]] on the way. The first train ran from Howrah to Rajmahal via Khana on 4 July 1860.<ref>{{cite book| page=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.506696/page/n42 28]| title=History of the East Indian Railway| url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.506696| author=George Huddleston| author-link=George Huddleston| year=1906}}</ref><ref name=r2>{{cite book| author=Rao, M.A.| year=1988| title=Indian Railways| location=New Delhi| publisher=National Book Trust| page=19}}</ref> The Loop from Khana Junction to Kiul via Jamalpur, including the [[Monghyr]] branch, was ready in February 1862.<ref name=r2/>

From Rajmahal, construction progressed rapidly, moving westward along the banks of the [[Ganges]], reaching Bhagalpur in 1861, Munger in February 1862, and opposite Varanasi (across the Ganges) in December 1862 and then on to Naini on the bank of the [[Yamuna]]. The work included EIR's first tunnel at Jamalpur and first major [[Koilwar Bridge|bridge]] across the [[Son River]] at Arrah.

During 1863–64, work progressed rapidly on the Allahabad–Kanpur–Tundla and Aligarh–Ghaziabad sections. The Yamuna bridge near Delhi was completed in 1864 and EIR established the Delhi terminus. The Yamuna bridge at Allahabad opened on 15 August 1865 and in 1866 Kolkata and Delhi were directly linked. The 1 Dn/ 2 Up Mail started running.

With the completion of the {{convert|300.8|km|adj=on}} long line from Khana Junction connecting Durgapur, Asansole with Kiul Junction in 1871, a "shorter main line" was in position. Initially, it was called the chord line. However, as it attracted more traffic it was designated the main line and the original line became the Sahibganj loop.

After approx 150 years of operation, Sahibganj loop is converted in double line on 14-05-2019 except Ratanpur–Jamalpur section as construction of tunnel near Jamalpur is in progress. Train operation with Electric Loco in Kiul–Bhagalpur section is started on 03–06–2019.

In the Rail Budget 2008, Bhagalpur was announced to be converted to as Railway Division but decision withdrawn by ER in 2009. The new rail lines from Sultanganj to Deoghar announced and the construction yet to start . Bhagalpur to Rampurhat via Dumka {{convert|184.9|km|adj=on}} section is operational. Bhagalpur to Deoghar via Banka {{convert|107.1|km|adj=on}} section is operational. Bhagalpur to Godda via Hansdiha is operational.

== Route ==
[[Khana railway station|Khana]] → [[Bolpur Shantiniketan railway station|Bolpur]] → [[Rampurhat Junction railway station|'''Rampurhat''']] → [[Pakur railway station|Pakur]]→ [[Gumani railway station|Gumani]] → [[Sahibganj Junction railway station|Sahibganj]] → [[Bhagalpur Junction railway station|'''Bhagalpur''']] → [[Jamalpur Junction railway station|Jamalpur]] → [[Kiul Junction railway station|Kiul]]

==Branch lines==
In 1863, the Indian Branch Railway Company, a private company opened the Nalhati–Azimganj branch line. The {{convert|50|km}} track was initially a 4' gauge line. The track was subsequently converted to 5' 6" broad gauge. The Indian Branch Railway Company was purchased by the Government of India in 1872 and the line was renamed Nalhati State Railway. It became a part of the [[East Indian Railway Company]] in 1892.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.oldmartiniansassociation.co.uk/documents/OudhandRohilkandRly.pdf | title = The Oudh & Rohilkhand Railway | access-date = 2011-12-01 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130621225555/http://www.oldmartiniansassociation.co.uk/documents/OudhandRohilkandRly.pdf | archive-date = 21 June 2013 | df = dmy-all }}</ref>

In 1913, the Hooghly–Katwa Railway constructed a {{convert|105|km|adj=on}}line from Bandel to Katwa, and the Barharwa–Azimganj–Katwa railway constructed the {{convert|171.9|km|adj=on}} Barharwa–Azimganj–Katwa loop line. The {{convert|73.3|km|adj=on}} [[Andal–Sainthia branch line]] was built in 1913.

The {{convert|105|km|adj=on}}-long [[Ahmedpur–Katwa Railway|Ahmedpur–Katwa Light Railway]] connecting {{stnlnk|Ahmadpur Junction}} and {{stnlnk|Katwa Junction}} and {{stnlnk|Katwa Junction}} to {{stnlnk|Barddhaman Junction}}, built on {{convert|760|mm}}, was opened to traffic on 29 September 1917.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://wiki.fibis.org/index.php?title=Ahmadpur-Katwa_Railway | title = Ahmadpur–Katwa Railway | access-date = 2011-12-02 }}</ref>

{{convert|184.9|km|adj=on}} Bhagalpur to Rampurhat via Dumka section is operational. {{convert|107.1|km|adj=on}} Bhagalpur to Deoghar section via Banka is operational.

{{convert|72.9|km|adj=on}} Mirza Cheoki–Godda and {{convert|67.6|km|adj=on}} Godda–Hansdiha is operational. Trains are running between Bhagalpur and Godda via Hansdiha.

==Developments==
Only Ratanpur to Jamalpur of the Sahibganj loop is still operating on single track. Work of construction of second tunnel near Janalpur is in progress. Second tunnel work near Jamalpur is likely to be completed by 2021. Twenty-one pairs of trains ply between Bhagalpur and Sahibganj.

New rail line from Pakur–Godda and Bashukinath Dham–Chatra is proposed.
Work for doubling the {{convert|111|km|mi|adj=mid|-long}} stretch started in 2010 (announced in 1996).<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1100921/jsp/bihar/story_12959235.jsp#top| title=Green light to double rail on oldest route – 135-year-old Kiul–Sahebganj loop section will finally get twin railway |last=Sarkar| first=Gautam| work=The Telegraph| date=21 September 2010| access-date=15 November 2011| url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904210600/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1100921/jsp/bihar/story_12959235.jsp#top| archive-date=4 September 2015| df=dmy-all}}</ref>

Work on the new {{convert|130|km|mi|adj=mid|-long}} Rampurhat–Dumka–Mander Hill broad-gauge line completed and Kavi Guru Express BhagalpurJn to Howrah is running on this route.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/er-revenue25-at-rs-1144-crore/295349/| title=ER revenue up 25% at Rs 1144 crore| work=Business Standard| date=22 August 2007| access-date=15 November 2011 }}</ref>

==Jamalpur Workshop==
Jamalpur Workshop, the first full-fledged railway workshop facility in India, was opened on 8 February 1862, at a time when the [[Howrah–Delhi main line]], passing through Jamalpur was under construction. It was felt that communities of gunsmiths and other craftsmen in the area handling mechanical engineering jobs could pick up the skills required in a railway workshop. It undertook repairs of wagons, coaches, cranes and tower cars, and locomotives, as well as manufacture of some tower cars, break-down cranes and various kinds of heavy-duty lifting jacks. They also produced their own locomotives, starting with the CA 764 ''Lady Curzon'' in 1899. It has also produced ticket printers and other ticket machines (slitting, counting, and chopping). With fairly extensive workshop facilities, it was a fairly self-contained.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.irfca.org/faq/faq-shop.html#jamal| title=Production Units & Workshops| work=Jamalpur Workshop| publisher=IRFCA | access-date=15 November 2011 }}</ref>

==Electrification==
Electrification of the Khana–Rampurhat–Sainthia–Pakur section was announced in the rail budget for 2010–11.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://pib.nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx?relid=58164| title=Electrification of new rail sections| publisher=Press information Bureau| access-date=28 November 2011| url-status=live| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140324045703/http://www.pib.nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx?relid=58164| archive-date=24 March 2014| df=dmy-all}}</ref>
The electrification of Ahmedpur–Khana–Sainthia–Rampurhat–Pakur–Bonidanga section was completed in 2016. The first electric train service started from 29 September 2016 through running of Howrah – Rampurhat Express by Electric Locomotive.

The electrification of Bonidanga Link Cabin–Barharwa–Sahibganj–Kiul section including the Tinpahar – Rajmahal section (Announced by Prime Minister Package in Bihar) has been started from September 2017 and was expected to be completed by the end of March 2020 but got delayed due to COVID-19 pandemic and was completed on 30 June 2020.

After approximately 150 years of operation of Kiul–Bhagalpur section of Sahibganj loop, Vikramshila Express became the first train to be hauled by an electric locomotive on 2 June 2019.

After the electrification between Bhagalpur to Kiul, first train with electric locomotive on this loop was started with Vikramshila Express between Anand Vihar Terminal to Bhagalpur hauled by WAP-5 of Ghaziabad Shed. The next day it departed and ran with the same electric loco from Bhagalpur Junction till Anand Vihar Terminal. By then almost 8 pairs of express trains originated from Bhagalpur begun its operations by electric locomotives.

The electrification of the further loop line between Bhagalpur to Bonidanga Link Cabin was delayed due to doubling work between Sahibganj–Bhagalpur section which was completed in the month of April 2019.

After the electrification of Bhagalpur Kiul section, the remaining electrification work was resumed between Bhagalpur to Bonidanga in 4 stages which began from both sides,
As the Bonidanga–Barharwa section was electrified within a month in the 1st phase.

The remaining work continued between Barharwa–Tinpahar which was completed within two months in its 2nd phase.

Within that time, doubling work between Bhagalpur to Kahalgaon section was completed but, it was again delayed due to the ongoing Route-Relay Interlocking (RRI) work. So, the remaining electrification work from Bhagalpur side was paused due to RRI work.

After the electrification of Barharwa–Tinpahar section, Tinpahar–Sahibganj section was electrified in its third phase and its CRS Inspection was completed between Sahibganj to Barharwa.

The 4th last phase of remaining electrification work was done between Sahibganj to Bhagalpur into two parts.

# Sahibganj–Shivnarayanpur (33 km) – was completed in February 2020
# Shivnarayanpur–Bhagalpur (42 km) – was completed in March 2020, CRS Inspection was done on 30 June 2020.

With the completion of electrification of Sahibganj loop from (Bonidanga Link Cabin to Kiul) distance of total 247 rkm, it became a history by becoming 100% fully electrified. The Howrah–New Delhi oldest rail route was constructed in the late 1880s by the British Government (East India Company) and thus, it ended the longest running era of diesel locomotives.

After this section was fully electrified between Bhagalpur – Shivnarayanpur remaining portion which is under Eastern Railways’ Malda division,
Train number - 05956/05955 Delhi–Dibrugarh-Delhi Special Brahmaputra Mail was the first express train from Delhi to reach up to New Jalpaiguri with an Electric Locomotive. According to the NFR zone, the national transporter will save an amount of around Rs 20.4 crore per annum in its fuel cost, for running this train on electric traction between Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Jn (formerly Mughalsarai Junction) and New Jalpaiguri Jn railway stations.

Finally, the whole Sahibganj loop route has been electrified and the last CRS inspection was done on 30 June 2020 between Bhagalpur and Shivnarayanpur. Electric Trains are fully operational now in this route.

== Route map ==
{{Sahibganj loop|collapse=y}}

== See also ==
{{stack|{{Portal|India|Trains}}}}
*[[Khana railway station]]
*[[Rampurhat Junction railway station]]
*[[Barharwa Junction railway station]]
*[[Sahibganj Junction railway station]]
*[[Bhagalpur Junction railway station|Bhagalpur Station]]
*[[Jamalpur Junction railway station]]
*[[Kiul Junction railway station]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Indian Railways}}
{{Railways in Eastern India}}

[[Category:5 ft 6 in gauge railways in India]]
[[Category:Rail transport in West Bengal]]
[[Category:Rail transport in Jharkhand]]
[[Category:Rail transport in Bihar]]
[[Category:Transport in Birbhum district]]
[[Category:Railway loop lines]]
[[Category:1866 establishments in India]]

Farishta (1958 film)

2026-03-23T16:16:46Z

Ajit3011: created a stub.

{{More citations needed|date=September 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2015}}
{{infobox film
| name = Farishta
| image = Farishta (1958 film).jpg
| director = [[Ravindra Dave]]
| writer = [[Abrar Alvi]]
| screenplay = C. J. Pavri
| story = C. J. Pavri
| starring = [[Sohrab Modi]] [[Ashok Kumar]] [[Meena Kumari]] [[Anita Guha]]
| music = [[O. P. Nayyar]]
| cinematography = Prakash Malhotra
| editing = Pran Mehra
| studio = Pancholi Pictures<ref>{{cite web |title=Farishta |url=https://indiancine.ma/IRL/info}}</ref>
| released = {{Film date|1958}}
| country = India
| language = Hindi
}}
'''''Farishta''''' is a 1958 Indian [[Hindi|Hindi-language]] [[suspense thriller film]] directed by [[Ravindra Dave]]. It stars [[Sohrab Modi]], [[Ashok Kumar]], [[Meena Kumari]] in lead roles.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hungama |first=Bollywood |date=1958-01-01 |title=Farishta Cast List {{!}} Farishta Movie Star Cast {{!}} Release Date {{!}} Movie Trailer {{!}} Review- Bollywood Hungama |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/farishta/cast/ |access-date=2025-09-02 |language=en}}</ref>

==Cast==
*[[Sohrab Modi]] as Dayal
*[[Ashok Kumar]] as Chandan / Ashok
*[[Meena Kumari]] as Shobha
*[[Anita Guha]] as Rani
*[[Mehmood (actor)|Mehmood]] as Sukhiya
*[[Nana Palsikar]] as Ramdin
*[[Mubarak (actor)|Mubarak]] as Leeladhar
*[[Murad (actor)|Murad]] as Bagga

==Soundtrack==
{|class="wikitable"
! Song !! Singer
|-
| "Jo Waqt Pe Kaam Aa Jaye, Aji Wahi Sahara Achha Hai"
| [[Mohammed Rafi]], [[Asha Bhosle]]
|-
| "Balam Bada Jhutha"
| Asha Bhosle
|-
| "Aaj Maine Jana Mera Dil"
| Asha Bhosle
|-
| "Karke Ishara Mera Dil Le Gaya"
| Asha Bhosle
|-
| "Meri Akhiyon Mein Akhiyan"
| Asha Bhosle
|-
| "Bach Bach Bach"
| [[Geeta Dutt]]
|-
|}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|tt0139192}}

[[Category:Films scored by O. P. Nayyar]]
[[Category:1958 films]]
[[Category:1958 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Ravindra Dave]]
[[Category:Indian thriller films]]
[[Category:1958 thriller films]]

{{1950s-Hindi-film-stub}}

2022–23 Odisha FC season

2026-03-21T18:23:28Z

Ajit3011: Creating The Info W/ Refs!

{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2022}}
{{Infobox football club season
| club = [[Odisha FC|Odisha]]
| season = [[2022–23 in Indian football|2022–23]]
| image =
| image_size = 250px
| alt =
| caption = Odisha FC celebrating the [[2023 Indian Super Cup|2023 Super Cup]] title with 2-1 victory over Bengaluru.
| chrtitle = President
| chairman = Raj Athwal
| owner = GMS Inc.
| mgrtitle = Head coach
| manager = [[Josep Gombau]] (until 11 March) [[Clifford Miranda]] (interim, from 16 March)
| stadium = [[Kalinga Stadium]]
| league = [[2022–23 Indian Super League|Indian Super League]]
| league result = [[2022–23 Indian Super League|6th]]
| cup1 = [[2022–23 Indian Super League#Semi-finals|ISL Play-offs]]
| cup1 result = [[2023 Indian Super League playoffs|Knockout]]
| cup2 = [[2023 Indian Super Cup|Super Cup]]
| cup2 result = '''[[2023 Indian Super Cup|Champions]]'''
| cup3 = [[Durand Cup]]
| cup3 result = [[2022 Durand Cup|Quarter-finals]]
| league topscorer = [[Diego Maurício]] (12)
| season topscorer = Diego Maurício (22)
| highest attendance = 7,716 (vs [[NorthEast United FC|NorthEast United]], 2 December 2022)
| lowest attendance = 4,417 (vs [[Mumbai City FC|Mumbai City]], 2 January 2023)
| average attendance = 6,383
| pattern_la1 = _purpleborder
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| pattern_ra1 = _purpleborder
| pattern_sh1 =
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| updated =
| prevseason = [[2021–22 Odisha FC season|2021–22]]
| nextseason = [[2023–24 Odisha FC season|2023–24]]
}}

The '''2022–23 season''' was [[Odisha FC|Odisha Football Clubs]]'s fourth professional season in the [[Indian Super League]] since their establishment in 2019. Odisha finished 6th in the [[2022–23 Indian Super League|Indian Super League]] regular season table and lost to [[ATK Mohun Bagan FC|ATK Mogun Bagan]] in the [[2022–23 Indian Super League#Semi-finals|play-off knockout]]. The club won the [[2023 Indian Super Cup|Super Cup]] for the first time in their history and were knocked out of [[2022 Durand Cup|Durand Cup]] in the quarter-finals.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.indiansuperleague.com/news/durand-cup-2022-pedro-martins-late-goal-helps-odisha-fc-see-off-army-green |title=Durand Cup 2022: Pedro Martin's late goal helps Odisha FC see off Army Green |last=Media Team |first=ISL |date=4 September 2022 |website=Indian Super League |publisher=[[Indian Super League]] |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref><ref name="the-aiff 12849">{{cite web |url=https://www.the-aiff.com/match-center/cms/12849 |title=Match Center: Odisha FC 1-2 Bengaluru Football Club|date=10 September 2022 |website=All India Football Federation |publisher=[[All India Football Federation]] |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref>

==Overview==
===Pre-season and Durand Cup===
Odisha FC brought back head coach [[Josep Gombau]] who enjoyed an excellent two-year spell at the club on 8 June.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.instagram.com/p/Cei5HThtFB5/ |title= Josep Gombau is back! |last=FC |first=Odisha|date=8 June 2022 |website=Instagram |publisher=[[Instagram]] |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> He started to rebuild the team by bringing a new set of players. He stated that the team composition and their play would be different, so they wanted new players. He also confirmed that they retain no foreign players from last season.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.indiansuperleague.com/news/our-minimum-target-is-to-reach-the-knockout-stage-odisha-fc-head-coach-josep-gombau |title= Our minimum target is to reach the knockout stage: Odisha FC head coach Josep Gombau |last=Media Team |first=ISL|date=27 June 2022 |website=Indian Super League |publisher=[[Indian Super League]] |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> On 1 July, They announced the launch of [[Odisha FC Women]] team.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.indiansuperleague.com/news/odisha-fc-announce-the-launch-of-senior-womens-team |title= Odisha FC announce the launch of senior women's team |last=Media Team |first=ISL|date=2 July 2022 |website=Indian Super League |publisher=[[Indian Super League]] |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref>

Odisha made their Durand Cup debut in Group D. They won their first game with 6 goals against [[NorthEast United FC|NorthEast United]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.indiansuperleague.com/news/durand-cup-2022-odisha-fc-stun-northeast-united-fc-6-0-ten-man-bengaluru-fc-see-off-jamshedpur-fc-2-1|title= Durand Cup 2022: Odisha FC stun NorthEast United FC 6-0; Ten-man Bengaluru FC see off Jamshedpur FC 2-1|last=Media Team |first=ISL|date=17 August 2022 |website=Indian Super League |publisher=[[Indian Super League]] |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> Odisha defeated [[Kerala Blasters FC|Kerala Blasters]], [[Sudeva Delhi FC|Sudeva Delhi]] and [[Army Green (football team)|Army Green]] in their remaining group matches without conceding a single goal.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.indiansuperleague.com/news/durand-cup-2022-pedro-martins-late-goal-helps-odisha-fc-see-off-army-green |title=Durand Cup 2022: Pedro Martin's late goal helps Odisha FC see off Army Green |last=Media Team |first=ISL|date=4 September 2022 |website=Indian Super League |publisher=[[Indian Super League]] |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> But in the quarter-finals, they lost against [[Bengaluru FC|Bengaluru]], who later won the tournament.<ref name="the-aiff 12849"/>

===Indian Super League===
Odisha was handed an away fixture in their first match, facing defending premiers [[Jamshedpur FC|Jamshedpur]]. Odisha won the game 3–2.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.indiansuperleague.com/news/odisha-fc-score-two-late-goals-to-edge-jamshedpur-fc-in-a-thriller |title= Odisha FC score two late goals to edge Jamshedpur FC in a thriller |last=Media Team |first=ISL|date=11 October 2022 |website=Indian Super League |publisher=[[Indian Super League]] |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> But in next match [[Mumbai City FC]] notched a 2–0 win over them in a tightly contested affair with a [[Shubham Sarangi]] own goal and a [[Bipin Singh]] late strike.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.indiansuperleague.com/news/islanders-seal-seasons-first-win-in-cagey-affair-with-odisha-fc |title=Islanders seal season's first win in a cagey affair with Odisha FC |last=Media Team |first=ISL|date=15 October 2022 |website=Indian Super League |publisher=[[Indian Super League]] |access-date=15 October 2022}}</ref> In their first home match, Odisha FC made another stunning comeback to register second win of the season. After the first half [[Kerala Blasters]] was leading with a goal, but in the second half [[Jerry Mawihmingthanga]] equalised and substitute [[Pedro Martín]] won it for the Juggernauts.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.indiansuperleague.com/news/odisha-fc-make-a-stunning-comeback-to-register-their-first-home-win-of-the-season |title=Odisha FC make a stunning comeback to register their first home win of the season |last=Media Team |first=ISL|date=23 October 2022 |website=Indian Super League |publisher=[[Indian Super League]] |access-date=24 October 2022}}</ref> In next match they picked their second home win as well by beating [[Bengaluru FC]]. [[Nandhakumar Sekar]] scored the game's only goal.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.indiansuperleague.com/news/sekar-sinks-bengaluru-fc-as-odisha-fc-pick-up-third-win-of-the-season-and-go-top-of-the-table |title= Sekar sinks Bengaluru FC as Odisha FC pick up third win of the season and go top of the table |last=Media Team |first=ISL|date=27 October 2022 |website=Indian Super League |publisher=[[Indian Super League]] |access-date=27 October 2022}}</ref> But an early goal sink them to their second defeat of the season against [[Hyderabad FC]]. Then they nabbed three consecutive wins against East Bengal, Chennaiyin and NorthEast united.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.indiansuperleague.com/news/odisha-fc-withstand-chennaiyin-fc-pressure-to-seal-another-thrilling-win |title=Odisha FC withstand Chennaiyin FC pressure to seal another thrilling win |last=Media Team |first=ISL|date=24 November 2022 |website=Indian Super League |publisher=[[Indian Super League]] |access-date=24 November 2022}}</ref> But in the next match, The Juggernauts were reduced to ten men in the 65th minute when Nandhakumar Sekar was shown a second yellow and FC Goa made the visitors pay with all three goals coming after.{{citation needed|date=September 2024}} In the next match, Odisha FC and ATK Mohun Bagan shared the points in the season's first goalless draw to complete Odisha's first half of the season with six wins and one draw.{{citation needed|date=September 2024}}

==Competitions==
===Indian Super League===
====League table====
{{:2022–23 Indian Super League|showteam=OFC}}

====League stage====
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Date!!Gameweek!!Opponent!!Venue!!Result{{efn|name=score}}!!Scorers!!Attendance!!Referee
|- bgcolor = "#d0ffe3"
|11 October 2022||align="center"|1||[[Jamshedpur FC|Jamshedpur]]||Away||3-2||[[Diego Maurício|Maurício]] (2), [[Isaac Vanmalsawma|Isaac]]||align="center"|19,213||[[Rowan Arumughan|A Rowan]]
|- bgcolor = "#ffd0e3"
|15 October 2022||align="center"|2||[[Mumbai City FC|Mumbai City]]||Away||0-2||||align="center"|4,128||[[Pranjal Banerjee]]
|- bgcolor = "#d0ffe3"
|23 October 2022||align="center"|3||[[Kerala Blasters FC|Kerala Blasters]]||Home||2-1||[[Jerry Mawihmingthanga|Jerry]], [[Pedro Martín|Pedro]]||align="center"|5,217||[[Rowan Arumughan|A Rowan]]
|- bgcolor = "#d0ffe3"
|27 October 2022||align="center"|4||[[Bengaluru FC|Bengaluru]]||Home||1-0||[[Nandhakumar Sekar|Nandha]]||align="center"|6,811||Senthil Nathan S
|- bgcolor = "#ffd0e3"
|5 November 2022||align="center"|5||[[Hyderabad FC|Hyderabad]]||Away||0-1||||align="center"|10,126||R Venkatesh
|- bgcolor = "#d0ffe3"
|18 November 2022||align="center"|6||[[East Bengal Club|East Bengal]]||Away||4-2||[[Pedro Martín|Pedro]] (2), [[Jerry Mawihmingthanga|Jerry]], [[Nandhakumar Sekar|Nandha]]||align="center"|17,772||I Jamal Mohamed
|- bgcolor = "#d0ffe3"
|24 November 2022||align="center"|7||[[Chennaiyin FC|Chennaiyin]]||Home||3-2||[[Diego Maurício|Maurício]], [[Nandhakumar Sekar|Nandha]], [[Vafa Hakhamaneshi|Vafa]] (o.g.)||align="center"|7,218||Aditya Purkayastha
|- bgcolor = "#d0ffe3"
|2 December 2022||align="center"|8||[[NorthEast United FC|NorthEast United]]||Home||2-1||[[Nandhakumar Sekar|Nandha]], [[Jerry Mawihmingthanga|Jerry]]||align="center"|7,716||Umesh Bora
|- bgcolor = "#ffd0e3"
|10 December 2022||align="center"|9||[[FC Goa|Goa]]||Away||0-3||||align="center"|9,456||Crystal John
|- bgcolor = "#f3f3f3"
|15 December 2022||align="center"|10||[[ATK Mohun Bagan FC|ATK Mohun Bagan]]||Home||0-0||||align="center"|7,019||[[C. R. Srikrishna]]
|- bgcolor = "#ffd0e3"
|26 December 2022||align="center"|11||[[Kerala Blasters FC|Kerala Blasters]]||Away||0-1||||align="center"|31,712||Pratik Mondal
|- bgcolor = "#ffd0e3"
|2 January 2023||align="center"|12||[[Mumbai City FC|Mumbai City]]||Home||2-4||[[Diego Maurício|Maurício]] (2)||align="center"|4,417||[[Rowan Arumughan|A Rowan]]
|- bgcolor = "#d0ffe3"
|7 January 2023||align="center"|13||[[East Bengal FC|East Bengal]]||Home||3-1||[[Diego Maurício|Maurício]] (2), [[Nandhakumar Sekar|Sekar]]||align="center"| ||
|- bgcolor = "#ffd0e3"
|14 January 2023||align="center"|14||[[Bengaluru FC|Bengaluru]]||Away||3-1||[[Diego Maurício|Maurício]]||align="center"| ||
|- bgcolor = "#ffd0e3"
|28 December 2022||align="center"|15||[[ATK Mohun Bagan FC|ATK Mohun Bagan]]||Away||0-2||||align="center"| ||
|- bgcolor = "#f3f3f3"
|2 February 2023||align="center"|16||[[Chennaiyin FC|Chennaiyin]]||Away||2-2||[[Diego Maurício|Maurício]], [[Isak Vanlalruatfela|Vanlalruatfela]]||align="center"| ||
|- bgcolor = "#f3f3f3"
|6 February 2023||align="center"|17||[[FC Goa|Goa]]||Home||1-1||[[Diego Maurício|Maurício]]||align="center"| ||
|- bgcolor = "#d0ffe3"
|10 February 2023||align="center"|18||[[Hyderabad FC|Hyderabad]]||Home||3-1||[[Diego Maurício|Maurício]], [[Nim Dorjee Tamang|Tanang]] (o.g.), [[Isak Vanlalruatfela|Vanlalruatfela]]||align="center"| ||
|- bgcolor = "#d0ffe3"
|17 February 2023||align="center"|19||[[Northeast United FC|Northeast United]]||Away||3-1||[[Diego Maurício|Maurício]], [[Víctor Rodríguez (Spanish footballer)|Rodríguez]], [[Nandhakumar Sekar|Sekar]]||align="center"| ||
|- bgcolor = "#ffd0e3"
|22 February 2023||align="center"|20||[[Jamshedpur FC|Jamshedpur]]||Home||0-2|| ||align="center"| ||
|- bgcolor = "#ffd0e3"
|6 March 2023||align="center"|Knockout||[[ATK Mohun Bagan FC|ATK Mohun Bagan]]||Away||0-2||||align="center"|35,256||Rahul Kumar Gupta
|}

====Results by round====
{{#invoke:sports rbr table|table|sortable=y|legendpos=b
|team1=[[Odisha FC|Odisha]]
|pos1= W/L/W/W/L/W/W/W/L/D/L/L/W/L/L/D/D/W/W/L
|color_W = green2| text_W =Win
|color_D = yellow2| text_D =Draw
|color_L = red2| text_L =Lose
|update = 26 February 2023
|source = [https://www.indiansuperleague.com/schedule-fixtures Indian Super League]
}}

===Super Cup===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Date!! Round!!Opponent!!Result{{efn|name=score|Odisha FC's score written first}}!!Scorers!!Referee
|- bgcolor = "#f3f3f3"
|9 April 2023||align="center"|Group Stage||[[East Bengal FC|East Bengal]]||1-1||[[Nandhakumar Sekar|Sekar]]||align="center"|Rahul Kumar Gupta
|- bgcolor = "#d0ffe3"
|13 April 2023||align="center"|Group Stage||[[Aizawl FC|Aizawl]]||3-0||[[Diego Maurício|Maurício]], [[Víctor Rodríguez (Spanish footballer)|Rodríguez]], [[Nandhakumar Sekar|Sekar]]||align="center"|[[Aniket Jadhav]]
|- bgcolor = "#d0ffe3"
|17 April 2023||align="center"|Group Stage||[[Hyderabad FC|Hyderabad]]||2-1||[[Diego Maurício|Maurício]], [[Sahil Panwar|Panwar]]||align="center"|Pranjal Banerjee
|- bgcolor = "#d0ffe3"
|17 April 2023||align="center"|Semi Final||[[Northeast United FC|Northeast United]]||3-1||[[Nandhakumar Sekar|Sekar]](2), [[Diego Maurício|Maurício]]||align="center"|Senthil Nathan S
|- bgcolor = "#d0ffe3"
|25 April 2023||align="center"|Final||[[Bengaluru FC|Bengaluru]]||2-1||[[Diego Maurício|Maurício]] (2)||align="center"|Rahul Kumar Gupta
|}

===Durand Cup===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Date!!Round!!Opponent!!Result{{efn|name=score}}!!Scorers!!Referee
|- bgcolor = "#d0ffe3"
|17 August 2022||Group Stage||[[NorthEast United FC|NorthEast United]]||6-0||[[Jerry Mawihmingthanga|Jerry]] (2), [[Nandhakumar Sekar|Nandha]], [[Isak Vanlalruatfela|Isak]], [[Diego Maurício|Maurício]], [[Thoiba Singh Moirangthem|Thoiba]]||[[Pranjal Banerjee]]
|- bgcolor = "#d0ffe3"
|23 August 2022||Group Stage||[[Kerala Blasters FC|Kerala Blasters]]||2-0||[[Isaac Vanmalsawma|Isaac]], [[Saúl Crespo|Saúl]]||Ashwin Kanojiya
|- bgcolor = "#d0ffe3"
|29 August 2022||Group Stage||[[Sudeva Delhi FC|Sudeva Delhi]]||3-0||[[Saúl Crespo|Saúl]] (2), [[Jerry Mawihmingthanga|Jerry]]||Dipu Roy
|- bgcolor = "#d0ffe3"
|4 September 2022||Group Stage||[[Army Green (football team)|Army Green]]||1-0||[[Pedro Martín|Pedro]]||[[Pranjal Banerjee]]
|- bgcolor = "#ffd0e3"
|10 September 2022||Quarter-finals||[[Bengaluru FC|Bengaluru]]||1-2 (a.e.t)||[[Diego Maurício|Maurício]]||Dipu Roy
|}

===AFC Cup===
{{main|2023 AFC Cup}}
Since the '''[[2023–24 AFC Champions League]]''' and the '''[[2023–24 AFC Cup]]''' adopted transitional calendar with the switch from ''Spring-to-Autumn'' to an ''Autumn-to-Spring'' schedule,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.the-afc.com/en/about_afc/committees/executive_committee/news/afc_executive_committee_unveils_dynamic_enhancements_to_the_afc_club_competitions.html|title=AFC Executive Committee unveils dynamic enhancements to the AFC Club Competitions|publisher=AFC}}</ref> the '''[[All India Football Federation]]''' decided that its continental slots are determined by extra playoffs.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.the-aiff.com/article/qualification-for-the-afc-competitions-2023-24|title=Qualification for the AFC Competitions 2023-24|publisher=www.the-aiff.com}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Date!!Round!!Opponent!!Result{{efn|name=score}}!!Scorers!!Referee
|- bgcolor = "#d0ffe3"
|29 April 2022||[[Indian club qualifiers for 2023–24 AFC competitions|Play–off for AFC Cup]]||[[Gokulam Kerala FC|Gokulam Kerala]]||3-1||[[Diego Maurício|Maurício]] (3) ||Tejas Visvasrao Nagvenkar
|}
{{notelist}}

== Transfers ==
Josep Gombau after being signed as the head coach stated that the team composition, and how they play, all will be different so they wanted new players. They didn't retain any foreign players. Signed 4 players from Spanish teams, [[Osama Malik]] from an Australian club [[Perth Glory FC|Perth Glory]] and [[Diego Maurício]] returned from [[Mumbai City FC|Mumbai City]]. Even though [[Kamaljit Singh]] has signed an extension, he later transferred to [[East Bengal Club|East Bengal]]. They signed 15 players in total, transferred 17 players out and retained 17 players from last season. [[Vinit Rai]] continued on loan in [[Mumbai City FC|Mumbai City]].

=== Transfers In ===
{|class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center; text-align:left"
|-
!Date
!Name
!Position
!No.
!Last Club
!Fee
|-
| 30 August 2022
| {{flagicon|IND}} Niraj Kumar
| GK
| 13
| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Rajasthan United FC|Rajasthan United]]
| Undisclosed
|-
| 1 June 2022
| {{flagicon|IND}} Rishabh Dobriyal
| FW
| 37
| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Sudeva Delhi FC|Sudeva Delhi]]
| Free
|-
| 9 June 2022
| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Michael Soosairaj]]
| FW
| 23
| {{flagicon|IND}} [[ATK Mohun Bagan FC|ATK Mohun Bagan]]
| Undisclosed
|-
| 9 June 2022
| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Narender Gahlot]]
| DF
| 3
| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Jamshedpur FC|Jamshedpur]]
| Free
|-
| 9 June 2022
| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Nikhil Prabhu]]
| DF
| 4
| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Hyderabad FC|Hyderabad]]
| Undisclosed
|-
| 19 June 2022
| {{flagicon|ESP}} [[Carlos Delgado (footballer, born 1990)|Carlos Delgado]]
| DF
| 5
| {{flagicon|ESP}} [[CD Atlético Baleares|Atlético Baleares]]
| Free
|-
| 20 June 2022
| {{flagicon|AUS}} [[Osama Malik]]
| MF
| 6
| {{flagicon|AUS}} [[Perth Glory FC|Perth Glory]]
| Free
|-
| 26 June 2022
| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Raynier Fernandes]]
| MF
| 10
| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Mumbai City FC|Mumbai City]]
| Loan
|-
| 1 July 2022
| {{flagicon|BRA}} [[Diego Maurício]]
| FW
| 9
| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Mumbai City FC|Mumbai City]]
| Free
|-
| 6 July 2022
| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Denechandra Meitei]]
| DF
| 30
| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Kerala Blasters FC|Kerala Blasters]]
| Loan
|-
| 7 July 2022
| {{flagicon|ESP}} [[Saúl Crespo]]
| MF
| 21
| {{flagicon|ESP}} [[SD Ponferradina|Ponferradina]]
| Free
|-
| 8 July 2022
| {{flagicon|ESP}} [[Pedro Martín]]
| FW
| 7
| {{flagicon|ESP}} [[Gimnàstic de Tarragona|Gimnàstic]]
| Free
|-
| 10 July 2022
| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Lalthuammawia Ralte]]
| GK
| 28
| {{flagicon|IND}} [[RoundGlass Punjab FC|RoundGlass Punjab]]
| Free
|-
| 12 July 2022
| {{flagicon|ESP}} [[Víctor Rodríguez (Spanish footballer)|Víctor Rodríguez]]
| FW
| 32
| {{flagicon|ESP}} [[Elche CF|Elche]]
| Free
|-
| 16 September 2022
| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Amrinder Singh]]
| GK
| 1
| {{flagicon|IND}} [[ATK Mohun Bagan FC|ATK Mohun Bagan]]
| Free
|}

=== Transfers Out ===
{|class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center; text-align:left"
|-
!Date
!Name
!To
!Fee
|-
| 22 June 2022
| {{Flagicon|IND}} Ankit Bhuyan
| Free agent
|
|-
| 22 June 2022
| {{Flagicon|ESP}} [[Javi Hernández (footballer, born 1989)|Javi Hernández]]
| {{Flagicon|IND}} [[Bengaluru FC|Bengaluru]]
| Free
|-
| 30 June 2022
| {{Flagicon|IND}} [[Arshdeep Singh (footballer, born 1997)|Arshdeep Singh]]
| {{Flagicon|IND}} [[FC Goa|Goa]]
| Free
|-
| 1 July 2022
| {{Flagicon|IND}} [[Baoringdao Bodo]]
| {{Flagicon|IND}} [[TRAU FC|TRAU]]
| Free
|-
| 1 July 2022
| {{Flagicon|ESP}} [[Aridai Cabrera]]
| {{Flagicon|AND}} [[Inter Club d'Escaldes]]
| Free
|-
| 13 July 2022
| {{Flagicon|ESP}} [[Víctor Mongil]]
| {{Flagicon|IND}} [[Kerala Blasters FC|Kerala Blasters]]
| Free
|-
| 15 July 2022
| {{Flagicon|BRA}} [[Jonathas de Jesus]]
| {{Flagicon|BRA}} [[Clube Náutico Capibaribe|Náutico]]
| Free
|-
| 31 July 2022
| {{Flagicon|IND}} Premjit Singh
| {{Flagicon|IND}} [[TRAU FC|TRAU]]
| Free
|-
| 22 July 2022
| {{Flagicon|ESP}} [[Héctor Rodas]]
| {{Flagicon|ESP}} [[Atlético Saguntino]]
| Free
|-
| 1 August 2022
| {{Flagicon|IND}} [[Saurabh Meher]]
| {{Flagicon|IND}} [[Gokulam Kerala FC|Gokulam Kerala]]
| Undisclosed
|-
| 11 August 2022
| {{Flagicon|IND}} [[Kamaljit Singh]]
| {{Flagicon|IND}} [[East Bengal Club|East Bengal]]
| Undisclosed
|-
| 25 August 2022
| {{Flagicon|IND}} [[Gaurav Bora]]
| {{Flagicon|IND}} [[NorthEast United FC|NorthEast United]]
| Free
|-
| 6 September 2022
| {{Flagicon|IND}} [[Ravi Kumar (footballer)|Ravi Kumar]]
| {{Flagicon|IND}} [[RoundGlass Punjab FC|RoundGlass Punjab]]
| Free
|-
| 7 September 2022
| {{Flagicon|IND}} [[George D'Souza]]
| {{Flagicon|IND}} [[Churchill Brothers FC Goa|Churchill Brothers]]
| Free
|-
| 9 September 2022
| {{Flagicon|IND}} [[Samuel Lalmuanpuia]]
| {{Flagicon|IND}} [[RoundGlass Punjab FC|RoundGlass Punjab]]
| Free
|-
| 13 September 2022
| {{Flagicon|IND}} [[Daniel Lalhlimpuia]]
| {{Flagicon|IND}} [[RoundGlass Punjab FC|RoundGlass Punjab]]
| Free
|-
| 17 September 2022
| {{Flagicon|IND}} [[Kamalpreet Singh]]
| {{Flagicon|IND}} [[Real Kashmir FC|Real Kashmir]]
| Free
|}

==Statistics==
===Appearances and goals===
{{Efs start|Indian Super League|Durand Cup}}
{{Efs player|no=1|name=[[Amrinder Singh]]|nat=IND|pos=GK|12|0|0|0}}
{{Efs player|no=13|name=Niraj Kumar|nat=IND|pos=GK|0|0|0|0}}
{{Efs player|no=28|name=[[Lalthuammawia Ralte]]|nat=IND|pos=GK|0|0|3|0}}
{{Efs player|no=31|name=Antonio D'Silva{{efn|name=fn1|Not included in the ISL squad}}|nat=IND|pos=GK|0|0|2|0}}
{{Efs player|no=2|name=[[Lalhrezuala Sailung]]|nat=IND|pos=DF|0|0|0|0}}
{{Efs player|no=3|name=[[Narender Gahlot]]|nat=IND|pos=DF|9|0|5|0}}
{{Efs player|no=4|name=[[Nikhil Prabhu]]|nat=IND|pos=DF|2|0|1|0}}
{{Efs player|no=5|name=[[Carlos Delgado (footballer, born 1990)|Carlos Delgado]]|nat=ESP|pos=DF|12|0|4|0}}
{{Efs player|no=15|name=[[Shubham Sarangi]]|nat=IND|pos=DF|3|0|4|0}}
{{Efs player|no=22|name=[[Hendry Antonay]]{{efn|name=fn1}}|nat=IND|pos=DF|0|0|0|0}}
{{Efs player|no=27|name=[[Sebastian Thangmuansang]]|nat=IND|pos=DF|0|0|1|0}}
{{Efs player|no=30|name=[[Denechandra Meitei]]|nat=IND|pos=DF|7|0|1|0}}
{{Efs player|no=33|name=[[Karan Amin]]{{efn|name=fn1}}|nat=IND|pos=DF|0|0|0|0}}
{{Efs player|no=36|name=[[Sahil Panwar]]|nat=IND|pos=DF|11|0|4|0}}
{{Efs player|no=39|name=[[Lalruatthara]]|nat=IND|pos=DF|1|0|1|0}}
{{Efs player|no=55|name=Deven Sawhney|nat=IND|pos=DF|0|0|0|0}}
{{Efs player|no=6|name=[[Osama Malik]]|nat=AUS|pos=MF|11|0|4|0}}
{{Efs player|no=8|name=[[Paul Ramfangzauva]]|nat=IND|pos=MF|2|0|3|0}}
{{Efs player|no=10|name=[[Raynier Fernandes]]|nat=IND|pos=MF|12|0|4|0}}
{{Efs player|no=19|name=[[Isak Vanlalruatfela]]|nat=IND|pos=MF|4|0|5|1}}
{{Efs player|no=21|name=[[Saúl Crespo]]|nat=ESP|pos=MF|9|0|5|3}}
{{Efs player|no=24|name=[[Thoiba Singh Moirangthem|Thoiba Singh]]|nat=IND|pos=MF|12|0|5|1}}
{{Efs player|no=48|name=[[Isaac Vanmalsawma]]|nat=IND|pos=MF|12|1|3|1}}
{{Efs player|no=7|name=[[Pedro Martín]]|nat=ESP|pos=FW|12|3|5|1}}
{{Efs player|no=9|name=[[Diego Maurício]]|nat=BRA|pos=FW|12|5|5|2}}
{{Efs player|no=11|name=[[Nandhakumar Sekar|Nanda Kumar]]|nat=IND|pos=FW|11|4|5|1}}
{{Efs player|no=12|name=Akshunna Tyagi|nat=IND|pos=FW|1|0|2|0}}
{{Efs player|no=17|name=[[Jerry Mawihmingthanga]]|nat=IND|pos=FW|12|3|5|3}}
{{Efs player|no=23|name=[[Michael Soosairaj]]|nat=IND|pos=FW|0|0|3|0}}
{{Efs player|no=32|name=[[Víctor Rodríguez (Spanish footballer)|Víctor Rodríguez]]|nat=ESP|pos=FW|8|0|0|0}}
{{Efs player|no=37|name=Rishabh Dobriyal|pos=FW|nat=IND|0|0|0|0}}
{{Efs player|no=77|name=CVL Remtluanga|nat=IND|pos=FW|0|0|0|0}}
|}
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Odisha FC}}
{{2022–23 in Indian football}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:2022-23 Odisha FC season}}
[[Category:Odisha FC seasons]]
[[Category:2022–23 Indian Super League season by team|Odisha FC]]

Social movement

2026-03-21T03:48:53Z

Ajit3011: Content updated and refined

{{Short description|Group sharing social or political objectives}}
{{distinguish|Social mobility}}
{{redirects|Popular movement|various organisations known as Popular Movements|People's Movement}}
{{sociology}}
A '''social movement''' or '''popular movement''' is a loosely organized effort by a large number of people to achieve a particular goal, typically a [[Social issue|social]] or [[Political movement|political]] one.<ref>{{Citation|last1=Scott|first1=John|title=Social movements|date=2009|url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199533008.001.0001/acref-9780199533008-e-2148|work=A Dictionary of Sociology|publisher=Oxford University Press|language=en|doi=10.1093/acref/9780199533008.001.0001|isbn=978-0-19-953300-8|access-date=2020-03-06|last2=Marshall|first2=Gordon|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.webster-dictionary.org/definition/social%20movement|title=social movement {{!}} Definition of social movement by Webster's Online Dictionary|website=www.webster-dictionary.org|access-date=2020-03-06}}</ref> This may be to carry out a [[social change]], or to resist or undo one. It is a type of [[Group action (sociology)|group action]] and may involve [[individuals]], [[organizations]], or both.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Opp|first=Karl-Dieter|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ccP7oNnYoX8C&pg=PA36|title=Theories of Political Protest and Social Movements: A Multidisciplinary Introduction, Critique, and Synthesis|date=2009-04-08|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-01439-2|language=en}}</ref> Social movements have been described as "organizational structures and strategies that may empower oppressed populations to mount effective challenges and resist the more powerful and advantaged elites".<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Deric.|first=Shannon|title=Political sociology : oppression, resistance, and the state|date=2011-01-01|publisher=Pine Forge Press|isbn=9781412980401|page=150|oclc=746832550}}</ref> They represent a method of social change from the bottom within [[nations]].<ref name=":0" /> On the other hand, some social movements do not aim to make society more [[Egalitarianism|egalitarian]], but to maintain or amplify existing power relationships. For example, scholars have described [[fascism]] as a social movement.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Berger |first1=Stefan |last2=Nehring |first2=Holger |title=The History of Social Movements in Global Perspective |url=http://ndl.ethernet.edu.et/bitstream/123456789/47903/1/37.Stefan%20Berger.pdf |website=ndl.ethernet.edu.et}}</ref>

[[Political science]] and [[sociology]] have developed a variety of theories and empirical research on social movements.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Adams |first=Natasha |date=2024-04-08 |title=How to Map a Movement |url=https://commonslibrary.org/how-to-map-a-movement/ |access-date=2024-04-19 |website=The Commons Social Change Library |language=en-AU}}</ref> For example, some research in political science highlights the relation between popular movements and the formation of new [[political party|political parties]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pugh|first=Jeff|date=2008|title=Vectors of Contestation: Social Movements and Party Systems in Ecuador and Colombia|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270512275|journal=Latin American Essays|volume=XXI|pages=46–65}}</ref> as well as discussing the function of social movements in relation to [[Agenda-setting theory|agenda setting]] and influence on politics.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Party & society : reconstructing a sociology of democratic party politics|last=de|first=Leon, Cedric|date=31 December 2013|publisher=Wiley |isbn=9780745653686|oclc=856053908}}</ref> Sociologists distinguish between several types of social movement examining things such as scope, type of change, method of work, range, and time frame.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Commons Librarian |date=2023-12-12 |title=What is a Social Movement? Social Movement Definitions |url=https://commonslibrary.org/what-is-a-social-movement-social-movement-definitions/ |access-date=2024-04-19 |website=The Commons Social Change Library |language=en-AU}}</ref>

Some scholars have argued that modern Western social movements became possible through education (the wider dissemination of [[literature]]) and increased mobility of labor due to the [[industrialization]] and [[urbanization]] of 19th-century societies.<ref name="w2013">Weinberg, 2013</ref> It is sometimes argued that the freedom of expression, education and relative economic independence prevalent in the modern [[Western culture]] are responsible for the unprecedented number and scope of various contemporary social movements. Many of the social movements of the last hundred years grew up, like the [[Mau Mau rebellion|Mau Mau]] in Kenya, to oppose Western colonialism. Social movements have been and continue to be closely connected with [[democracy|democratic]] [[political system]]s. Occasionally, social movements have been involved in [[democratization|democratizing]] nations, but more often they have flourished after democratization. Over the past 200 years, they have become part of a popular and global expression of [[dissent]].<ref name="t2004">Tilly, 2004</ref>

Modern movements often use technology and the internet to mobilize people globally. Adapting to communication trends is a common theme among successful movements.<ref name="Advocacy 2.0" /> Research is beginning to explore how advocacy organizations linked to social movements in the U.S.<ref name="Advocacy 2.0">{{cite journal|last=Obar|first=Jonathan|title=Advocacy 2.0: An Analysis of How Advocacy Groups in the United States Perceive and Use Social Media as Tools for Facilitating Civic Engagement and Collective Action|journal=Journal of Information Policy|year=2012|volume=2|pages=1–25|doi=10.5325/jinfopoli.2.2012.1|ssrn=1956352|s2cid=246628982|display-authors=etal|doi-access=free}}</ref> and Canada<ref name="Obar">{{cite journal |last=Obar |first=Jonathan |date=2013-04-22 |title=Canadian Advocacy 2.0: A Study of Social Media Use by Social Movement Groups and Activists in Canada |journal=Canadian Journal of Communication |ssrn=2254742}}</ref> use [[social media]] to facilitate civic engagement and collective action.<ref name="Buettner2016a">{{cite conference|author=Buettner, R. and Buettner, K.|year=2016|title=A Systematic Literature Review of Twitter Research from a Socio-Political Revolution Perspective|conference=49th Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences|location=Kauai, Hawaii|publisher=IEEE|doi=10.13140/RG.2.1.4239.9442|conference-url=http://www.hicss.org}}</ref>

==Definitions==
Mario Diani argues that nearly all definitions share three criteria: "a network of informal interactions between a plurality of individuals, groups and/or organizations, engaged in a political or cultural conflict, on the basis of a shared collective identity".<ref name="Diani1992">{{cite journal|last1=Diani|first1=Mario|s2cid=145286106|title=The concept of social movement|journal=The Sociological Review|volume=40|issue=1|year=1992|pages=1–25|issn=0038-0261|doi=10.1111/j.1467-954X.1992.tb02943.x}}</ref>

Sociologist [[Charles Tilly]] defines social movements as a series of contentious performances, displays and campaigns by which ordinary people make collective claims on others.<ref name=t2004/> For Tilly, social movements are a major vehicle for ordinary people's participation in public politics.<ref name=t2004-3>Tilly, 2004, p.3</ref> He argues that there are three major elements to a social movement:<ref name=t2004/>

# '''Campaigns''': a sustained, organized public effort making collective claims of target authorities;
# '''Repertoire''' ([[repertoire of contention]]): employment of combinations from among the following forms of [[political action]]: creation of special-purpose associations and coalitions, public meetings, solemn processions, vigils, rallies, demonstrations, petition drives, statements to and in public media, and pamphleteering; and
# '''WUNC displays''': participants' concerted public representation of '''w'''orthiness, '''u'''nity, '''n'''umbers, and '''c'''ommitments on the part of themselves and/or their constituencies.

[[Sidney Tarrow]] defines a social movement as "collective challenges [to elites, authorities, other groups or cultural codes] by people with common purposes and solidarity in sustained interactions with elites, opponents and authorities." He specifically distinguishes social movements from political parties and [[advocacy group]]s.<ref>Tarrow, 1994</ref>

The sociologists John McCarthy and Mayer Zald define as a social movement as "a set of opinions and beliefs in a population which represents preferences for changing some elements of the social structure and/or reward distribution of a society."<ref>{{cite journal|last1=McCarthy|first1=John|last2=Zald|first2=Mayer N.|title=Resource Mobilization and Social Movements: A Partial Theory|journal=The American Journal of Sociology|date=May 1977|volume=82|issue=6|pages=1217–1218|doi=10.1086/226464|jstor=2777934|s2cid=2550587}}</ref>

According to Paul van Seeters and [[Paul James (academic)|Paul James]], defining a social movement entails a few minimal conditions of 'coming together':
{{blockquote|(1.) the formation of some kind of collective identity; (2.) the development of a shared normative orientation; (3.) the sharing of a concern for change of the status quo and (4.) the occurrence of moments of practical action that are at least subjectively connected together across time addressing this concern for change. Thus we define a social movement as a form of political association between persons who have at least a minimal sense of themselves as connected to others in common purpose and who come together across an extended period of time to effect social change in the name of that purpose.<ref>{{Cite book | year= 2014 | last1= James | first1= Paul | author-link= Paul James (academic) | last2= van Seeters | first2= Paul | title= Globalization and Politics, Vol. 2: Global Social Movements and Global Civil Society | url= https://www.academia.edu/7305007 | publisher= Sage Publications | location= London |page=xi}}</ref>}}

==History==

===Beginning===
[[File:William Hogarth - John Wilkes, Esq.png|thumb|150px|upright|Satirical engraving of Wilkes by [[William Hogarth]]. Wilkes is holding two editions of ''[[The North Briton]]''.]]
The early growth of social movements was connected to broad economic and political changes in England in the mid-18th century, including [[political representation]], [[market capitalization]], and [[proletarianization]].<ref name=t2004/>

The first mass social movement catalyzed around the controversial political figure [[John Wilkes]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/51006/232.pdf?...1|title=BRITAIN CREATES THE SOCIAL MOVEMENT|author=Charles Tilly}}</ref> As editor of the paper ''[[The North Briton]]'', Wilkes vigorously attacked the new administration of [[John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute|Lord Bute]] and the peace terms that the new government accepted at the 1763 [[Treaty of Paris (1763)|Treaty of Paris]] at the end of the [[Seven Years' War]]. Charged with [[seditious libel]], Wilkes was arrested after the issue of a [[general warrant]], a move that Wilkes denounced as unlawful – the [[Lord Chief Justice]] eventually ruled in Wilkes favour. As a result of this, Wilkes became a figurehead to the growing movement for popular sovereignty among the middle classes – people began chanting "Wilkes and Liberty" in the streets.

After a later period of exile brought about by further charges of libel and [[obscenity]], Wilkes stood for the Parliamentary seat at [[Middlesex (UK Parliament constituency)|Middlesex]], where most of his support was located.<ref>{{Cite book |title = John Wilkes: the scandalous Father of Civil Liberty
|last = Cash
|first = Arthur H.
|author-link = Arthur H. Cash
|year = 2006
|location = New Haven; London
|publisher = [[Yale University Press]]
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=S7xC_Uo98R0C
|isbn = 0-300-10871-0
|pages=204–26}}</ref> When Wilkes was imprisoned in the [[King's Bench Prison]] on 10 May 1768, a mass movement of support emerged, with large demonstrations in the streets under the slogan "No liberty, no King."{{Sfn|Cash|2006|pp=216–26}}

Stripped of the right to sit in Parliament, Wilkes became an [[Alderman]] of [[City of London|London]] in 1769, and an activist group called the ''Society for the Supporters of the Bill of Rights'' began aggressively promoting his policies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historyhome.co.uk/c-eight/18reform/ssbr.htm|title=The Society for the Supporters of the Bill of Rights (SSBR)|website=www.historyhome.co.uk}}</ref> This was the first ever sustained social movement: it involved public meetings, demonstrations, the distribution of pamphlets on an unprecedented scale and the mass petition march. However, the movement was careful not to cross the line into open rebellion; it tried to rectify the faults in governance through appeals to existing legal precedents and was conceived of as an extra-Parliamentary form of agitation to arrive at a consensual and constitutional arrangement.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Popular sovereignty and the historical origin of the social movement | doi=10.1007/s11186-012-9180-x | volume=41|issue=6 |journal=Theory and Society|pages=581–601 | last1 = Rudbeck | first1 = Jens|year=2012 | s2cid=143513084 }}</ref> The force and influence of this social movement on the streets of London compelled the authorities to concede to the movement's demands. Wilkes was returned to Parliament, [[general warrant]]s were declared unconstitutional, and press freedom was extended to the coverage of [[Debate (parliamentary procedure)|Parliamentary debates]].

[[File:The Gordon Riots by John Seymour Lucas.jpg|left|thumb|230px|''[[The Gordon Riots]]'' by [[John Seymour Lucas]], 1879]]
A much larger movement of [[anti-Catholic]] protest was triggered by the [[Papists Act 1778]], which eliminated a number of the penalties and disabilities endured by [[Roman Catholicism in England and Wales|Roman Catholics in England]], and formed around [[Lord George Gordon]], who became the President of the [[Protestant Association]] in 1779.<ref>{{Cite book|publisher=Printed by W. Wilson, for Vernor, Hood, and Sharpe|last=Brayley|first=Edward Wedlake|author-link=Edward Wedlake Brayley |author2=James Norris Brewer |author3=Joseph Nightingale|title=London and Middlesex|year=1810|author2-link=James Norris Brewer}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Lord George Gordon|access-date=2009-07-25|url=http://tarlton.law.utexas.edu/lpop/etext/newgate4/gordonlg.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090601132538/http://tarlton.law.utexas.edu/lpop/etext/newgate4/gordonlg.htm|archive-date=2009-06-01|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-14372-1|last=Horn|first=David Bayne|author2=Mary Ransome |title=English Historical Documents 1714-1783|year=1996}}</ref> The Association had the support of leading Calvinist religious figures, including [[Rowland Hill (preacher)|Rowland Hill]], [[Erasmus Middleton]], and [[John Rippon]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Joanna Innes|title=Inferior Politics: Social Problems and Social Policies in Eighteenth-Century Britain|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e-1Q78IUE4IC&pg=PP446|access-date=15 September 2013|date=8 October 2009|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-160677-9|page=446}}</ref> Gordon was an articulate propagandist and he inflamed the mob with fears of Papism and a return to [[Absolute monarchy|absolute monarchical rule]]. The situation deteriorated rapidly, and in 1780, after a meeting of the Protestant Association, its members subsequently marched on the [[House of Commons of Great Britain|House of Commons]] to deliver a petition demanding the repeal of the Act, which the government refused to do. Soon, [[Gordon riots|large riots]] broke out across London and embassies and Catholic owned businesses were attacked by angry mobs.

Other [[political movement]]s that emerged in the late 18th century included the British [[Abolitionism in the United Kingdom|abolitionist]] movement against [[slavery]] (becoming one between the sugar boycott of 1791 and the second great petition drive of 1806), and possibly the upheaval surrounding the [[French Revolution|French]] and [[American Revolution]]s. In the opinion of Eugene Black (1963), "...association made possible the extension of the politically effective public. Modern extra parliamentary political organization is a product of the late eighteenth century [and] the history of the age of reform cannot be written without it.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?isbn=0674050002|title=The Association British Extra Parliamentary Political Organization, 1769-1793|author=Eugene Charlton Black|year=1963|publisher=Harvard University Press|page=279}}</ref>

===Growth and spread===
[[File:Chartist meeting on Kennington Common by William Edward Kilburn 1848 - restoration1.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The Great [[Chartism|Chartist]] Meeting on [[Kennington Common]], London in 1848]]
From 1815, [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]] after victory in the [[Napoleonic Wars]] entered a period of social upheaval characterised by the growing maturity of the use of social movements and special-interest associations. [[Chartism]] was the first mass movement of the growing working-class in the world.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.counterfire.org/index.php/articles/75-our-history/12331-chartism-the-birth-of-mass-working-class-resistance|title=Chartism: the birth of mass working class resistance |access-date=2012-12-17}}</ref> It campaigned for political reform between 1838 and 1848 with the [[Chartism#People's Charter of 1838|People's Charter of 1838]] as its manifesto – this called for [[universal suffrage]] and the implementation of the [[secret ballot]], amongst other things. The term "social movements" was introduced in 1848 by the German Sociologist [[Lorenz von Stein]] in his book ''Socialist and Communist Movements since the Third French Revolution (1848)'' in which he introduced the term "social movement" into scholarly discussions<ref>Tilly, 2004, p.5</ref> – actually depicting in this way [[political movement]]s fighting for the social rights understood as [[welfare rights]].
[[File:Martin Luther King Jr National Historic Site (36233249121).jpg|left|thumb|200x200px|[[Martin Luther King Jr.]] was a leader in the [[civil rights movement]], one of the most famous social movements of the 20th century.]]
The [[labor movement]] and [[socialist movement]] of the late 19th century are seen as the prototypical social movements, leading to the formation of [[communism|communist]] and [[social democracy|social democratic]] parties and organisations. These tendencies were seen in poorer countries as pressure for reform continued, for example in Russia with the [[Russian Revolution of 1905]] and [[Russian Revolution of 1917|of 1917]], resulting in the collapse of the Czarist regime around the end of the [[World War I|First World War]].

[[File: Red Guards in Tian'anmen Square.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|[[Red Guards]] in China<ref name="y435">{{cite journal | last=Yang | first=Guobin | title=The Liminal Effects of Social Movements: Red Guards and the Transformation of Identity | journal=Sociological Forum | publisher=[Wiley, Springer] | volume=15 | issue=3 | year=2000 | issn=08848971 | jstor=684803 | pages=379–406 | url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/684803 | access-date=2026-02-07}}</ref>]]
In 1945, Britain after victory in the [[World War II|Second World War]] entered a period of radical reform and change. In the post-war period, [[feminism]], [[gay rights movement]], [[peace movement]], [[civil rights movement]], [[anti-nuclear movement]] and [[environmental movement]] emerged, often dubbed the [[new social movements]]<ref>{{cite journal|last1=West|first1=David|title=New Social Movements|journal=Handbook of Political Theory|pages=265–276|date=2004|location=1 Oliver's Yard, 55 City Road, London EC1Y 1SP United Kingdom |url=http://www.omnilogos.com/2015/02/new-social-movements.html|access-date=2015-02-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215161004/http://www.omnilogos.com/2015/02/new-social-movements.html|archive-date=2015-02-15|url-status=dead|doi=10.4135/9781848608139.n20|isbn=9780761967880|url-access=subscription}}</ref> They led, among other things, to the formation of [[green parties]] and organisations influenced by the [[new left]]. Some find in the end of the 1990s the emergence of a new global social movement, the [[anti-globalization movement]]. Some social movement scholars posit that with the rapid pace of globalization, the potential for the emergence of new ''type'' of social movement is latent—they make the analogy to national movements of the past to describe what has been termed a [[global citizens movement]].

===Key processes===
Several key processes lie behind the history of social movements. [[Urbanization]] led to larger settlements, where people of similar goals could find each other, gather and organize. This facilitated [[social interaction]] between scores of people, and it was in urban areas that those early social movements first appeared. Similarly, the process of [[Industrialisation|industrialization]] which gathered large masses of workers in the same region explains why many of those early social movements addressed matters such as economic wellbeing, important to the [[worker class]]. Many other social movements were created at [[university|universities]], where the process of [[mass education]] brought many people together. With the development of [[communication]] technologies, creation and activities of social movements became easier – from printed pamphlets circulating in the 18th century [[coffeehouse]]s to [[newspaper]]s and [[Internet]], all those tools became important factors in the growth of the social movements. Finally, the spread of [[democracy]] and [[political rights]] like the [[freedom of speech]] made the creation and functioning of social movements much easier.

== Mass mobilization ==
Nascent social movements often fail to achieve their objectives because they fail to mobilize sufficient numbers of people. Srdja Popovic, author of Blueprint for Revolution,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Blueprint for revolution : how to use rice pudding, Lego men, and other nonviolent techniques to galvanize communities, overthrow dictators, or simply change the world|author=Popovic, Srdja|others=Miller, Matthew I., 1979-|isbn=9780812995305|edition=First|location=New York|oclc=878500820|year = 2015}}</ref> and spokesperson for [[Otpor!|OTPOR!]], says that movements succeed when they address issues that people actually care about. "It's unrealistic to expect people to care about more than what they already care about, and any attempt to make them do so is bound to fail." Activists too often make the mistake of trying to convince people to address their issues. A mobilization strategy aimed at large-scale change often begins with action a small issue that concerns many people.

Popovic also argues that a social movement has little chance of growing if it relies on boring speeches and the usual placard waving marches. He argues for creating movements that people actually want to join. OTPOR! succeeded because it was fun, funny, and invented graphic ways of ridiculing dictator [[Slobodan Milošević|Slobodan Milosevic]]. It turned fatalism and passivity into action by making it easy, even cool, to become a revolutionary, branding itself within hip slogans, rock music and street theatre. [[Tina Rosenberg]], in ''Join the Club, How Peer Pressure can Transform the World'',<ref>{{Cite book|title=Join the club : how peer pressure can transform the world|last=Tina.|first=Rosenberg|date=2011|publisher=W.W. Norton & Co|isbn=9780393068580|edition=1st|location=New York|oclc=601108086|url=https://archive.org/details/joinclubhowpeerp00rose}}</ref> shows how movements grow when there is a core of enthusiastic players who encourage others to join them.

== Types ==
[[Image:Types of social movements.svg|right|thumb|400px|Types of social movements<ref>Aberle, David F. 1966. ''The Peyote Religion among the Navaho''. Chicago: Aldine. {{ISBN|0-8061-2382-6}}</ref>]]

Sociologists distinguish between several types of social movement:
* Scope:
** [[reform movement]] - movements advocating changing some [[norm (sociology)|norms]] or [[law]]s. Examples of such a movement would include a [[trade union]] with a goal of increasing [[workers rights]], a [[green movement]] advocating a set of [[ecology|ecological]] laws, or a movement supporting introduction of a [[capital punishment]] or the right to [[abortion]]. Some reform movements may aim for a change in custom and moral norms, such as condemnation of [[pornography]] or proliferation of some [[religion]].
** [[Radical politics|radical movement]] - movements dedicated to changing [[value system]]s in a fundamental way. Examples would include the [[Civil Rights Movement]] which demanded full [[civil rights]] and equality under the law to all Americans, regardless of [[Race (classification of human beings)|race]]; the [[Poland|Polish]] [[Solidarity (Polish trade union)|Solidarity]] (''Solidarność'') movement which demanded the transformation of a [[Stalinist]] political and [[economic system]] into a [[democracy]]; or the [[South Africa]]n shack dwellers' movement [[Abahlali baseMjondolo]] which demands the full inclusion of shack dwellers into the life of cities.
* Type of change:
** innovation movement - movements which want to introduce or change particular norms, values, etc. The [[singularitarianism]] movement advocating deliberate action to effect and ensure the safety of the [[technological singularity]] is an example of an innovation movement.
** conservative movement - movements which want to preserve existing norms, values, etc. For example, the anti-technology 19th century [[Luddite]]s movement or the modern movement opposing the spread of the [[genetically modified food]] could be seen as conservative movements in that they aimed to fight specific [[technological change]]s.
* Targets:
** group-focus movements - focused on affecting groups or society in general, for example, advocating the change of the political system. Some of these groups transform into or join a [[political party]], but many remain outside the reformist party political system.
** individual-focused movements - focused on affecting individuals. Most [[religious movement]]s would fall under this category.
* Methods of work:
** peaceful movements - various movements which use [[nonviolence|nonviolent]] means of protest as part of a campaign of [[nonviolent resistance]], also often called [[civil resistance]]. The American Civil Rights Movement, Polish Solidarity movement or the [[nonviolent]], [[civil disobedience]]-orientated wing of the [[Indian independence movement]] would fall into this category.<ref>[[Adam Roberts (scholar)|Roberts, Adam]] and [[Timothy Garton Ash]] (eds.), [http://www.oup.com/uk/catalogue/?ci=9780199552016 ''Civil Resistance and Power Politics: The Experience of Non-violent Action from Gandhi to the Present''] {{webarchive|url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20141115183530/http://ukcatalogue.oup.com/product/9780199552016.do|date=2014-11-15}}, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009. {{ISBN|978-0-19-955201-6}}, contains chapters on these and many other social movements using non-violent methods.[https://books.google.com/books?id=BxOQKrCe7UUC&q=Civil+resistance+and+power+politics]</ref>
** violent movements - various movements<ref>Seferiades, S., & Johnston, H. (Eds.). (2012). ''Violent protest, contentious politics, and the neoliberal state''. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.</ref> which resort to violence; they are usually armed and in extreme cases can take a form of a [[paramilitary]] or [[terrorist]] organization. Examples: the [[Rote Armee Fraktion]], [[Al-Qaida]].
* Old and new:
** old movements - movements for change have existed for many centuries. Most of the oldest recognized movements, dating to late 18th and 19th centuries, fought for specific social groups, such as the working class, peasants, whites, aristocrats, Protestants, men. They were usually centered around some [[materialism|materialistic]] goals like improving the [[standard of living]] or, for example, the political autonomy of the working class.
** [[new social movements|new movements]] - movements which became dominant from the second half of the 20th century. Notable examples include the [[civil rights movement|American civil rights movement]], [[second-wave feminism]], [[gay rights movement]], [[environmental movement|environmentalism and conservation efforts]], [[Mass surveillance|opposition to mass surveillance]], etc. They are usually centered around issues that go beyond but are not separate from class.
* Range:
** global movements - social movements with global ([[International organization|transnational]]) objectives and goals. Movements such as the [[International Workingmen's Association|first]] (where Marx and Bakunin met), [[Second International|second]], [[Comintern|third]] and [[fourth international]]s, the [[World Social Forum]], the [[Peoples' Global Action]] and the [[anarchism|anarchist movement]] seek to change society at a global level.
** local movements - most of the social movements have a local scope.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Snow |first1=David A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6ACcrTbUuEUC&pg=PA4 |title=The Blackwell Companion to Social Movements |last2=Soule |first2=Sarah A. |last3=Kriesi |first3=Hanspeter |date=2004-02-13 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-0-631-22669-7 |language=en}}</ref> They are focused on local or regional objectives, such as protecting a specific natural area, lobbying for the lowering of tolls in a certain motorway, or preserving a building about to be demolished for gentrification and turning it into a [[social center]].

==Identification of supporters==
A difficulty for scholarship of movements is that for most, neither insiders to a movement nor outsiders apply consistent labels or even descriptive phrases. Unless there is a single leader who does, or a formal system of membership agreements, activists will typically use diverse labels and descriptive phrases that require scholars to discern when they are referring to the same or similar ideas, declare similar goals, adopt similar programs of action, and use similar methods. There can be great differences in the way that is done, to recognize who is and who is not a member or an allied group:{{Citation needed|date=March 2019}}

* Insiders: Often exaggerate the level of support by considering people supporters whose level of activity or support is weak, but also reject those that outsiders might consider supporters because they discredit the cause, or are even seen as adversaries.{{Citation needed|date=March 2019}}
* Outsiders: Those not supporters who may tend to either underestimate or overestimate the level or support or activity of elements of a movement, by including or excluding those that insiders would exclude or include.{{Citation needed|date=March 2019}}

It is often outsiders rather than insiders that apply the identifying labels for a movement, which the insiders then may or may not adopt and use to self-identify. For example, the label for the [[levellers]] [[political movement]] in 17th-century England was applied to them by their antagonists, as a [[term of disparagement]]. Yet admirers of the movement and its aims later came to use the term, and it is the term by which they are known to history.

Caution must always be exercised in any discussion of amorphous phenomena such as movements to distinguish between the views of insiders and outsiders, supporters and antagonists, each of whom may have their own purposes and agendas in [[characterization]] or mischaracterization of it.{{Citation needed|date=March 2019}}

==Dynamics==
[[Image:Stages of social movements.svg|right|thumb|400px|Stages of social movements<ref>Graph based on Blumer, Herbert G. 1969. "Collective Behavior." In Alfred McClung Lee, ed., ''Principles of Sociology''. Third Edition. New York: Barnes & Noble Books, pp. 65–121; Mauss, Armand L. 1975. ''Social Problems as Social Movements''. Philadelphia: Lippincott; and Tilly, Charles. 1978. ''From Mobilization to Revolution''. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley, 1978.</ref>]]

Social movements have a life cycle: they are created, they grow, they achieve successes or failures and eventually, they dissolve and cease to exist.

They are more likely to evolve in the time and place which is friendly{{Citation needed|date=March 2019}} to the social movements: hence their evident symbiosis with the 19th century proliferation of ideas like individual rights, freedom of speech and civil disobedience. Social movements occur in liberal and authoritarian societies but in different forms. These new movements are activated by a wish for change in social customs, ethics and values which oppress certain communities. The birth of a social movement needs what sociologist [[Neil Smelser]] calls an ''initiating event'': a particular, individual event that will begin a [[chain reaction]] of events in the given society leading to the creation of a social movement. The root of this event must be the result of some common discontent among a community. Hence, making ''emergence'' the first step to a social movement. This discontent will act as the chain that links common people together, as they share the same experiences and feelings of oppression. "Within this stage, social movements are very preliminary and there is little to no organization. Instead this stage can be thought of as widespread discontent (Macionis, 2001; Hopper, 1950).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hopper|first=R. D.|date=1950-03-01|title=The Revolutionary Process: A Frame of Reference for the Study of Revolutionary Movements|journal=Social Forces|volume=28|issue=3|pages=270–279|doi=10.2307/2572010|issn=0037-7732|jstor=2572010}}</ref>" Emergence is prior to any sort of organized resistance to the condition of society. Jonathan Christiansen's essay on the four stages of social movement dissects further into the historical sociology of how each stage affects the whole movement. The Civil Rights Movement's early stages are an example of the public display of protest that is utilized to push a movement into the next stages. "It was not until after the Brown v. the Board of Education Supreme court decision (1954), which outlawed segregation in Public schools, and following the arrest of Rosa Parks in Montgomery, Alabama for refusing to comply with segregation laws on city buses by giving up her bus seat to a white man, that the American Civil Rights Movement would proceed to the next stage – coalescence."<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ebscohost.com/uploads/imported/thisTopic-dbTopic-1248.pdf|title=Four Stages of Social Movement|last=Christiansen|first=Jonathan|date=2009}}</ref> The impact of a black woman, [[Rosa Parks]], riding in the whites-only section of the bus (although she was not acting alone or spontaneously—typically activist leaders lay the groundwork behind the scenes of interventions designed to spark a movement).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.montgomeryadvertiser.com/story/news/local/blogs/moonblog/2015/11/29/bus-boycott-took-planning-smarts/76456904/|title=Bus Boycott took planning, smarts|website=The Montgomery Advertiser|language=en|access-date=2019-06-03}}</ref> This leads into coalesce because now the common dilemma and source of oppression is being pinned down, allowing for organizations and appearance to the public eye to be established. The Polish Solidarity movement, which eventually [[Revolutions of 1989|toppled the communist regimes of Eastern Europe]], developed after trade union activist [[Anna Walentynowicz]] was fired from work. The South African shack dwellers' movement [[Abahlali baseMjondolo]] grew out of a road blockade in response to the sudden selling off of a small piece of land promised for housing to a developer. Such an event is also described as a ''volcanic model'' – a social movement is often created after a large number of people realize that there are others sharing the same value and desire for a particular social change.

This third stage, bureaucratization, is when movements must become more organized, centered around a more systematic model. The set up and system for going about the construct must be more formal, with people taking on specific roles and responsibilities. "In this phase their political power is greater than in the previous stages in that they may have more regular access to political elites."<ref name=":1" /> In this stage, one organization may take over another one in order to obtain a greater status and formal alliance. This 'taking over' may be a positive or negative move for organizations. Ella Baker, an activist who played a role in the NAACP,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.naacp.org/|title=NAACP {{!}} Home|website=NAACP|language=en|access-date=2019-06-03}}</ref> had proposed to the students of the student movement to start their own organization. This becomes known as the SNCC, the student nonviolent coordinating committee (1960s). The students could have joined forces with the SCLC,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/encyclopedia/southern-christian-leadership-conference-sclc|title=Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) |author=Stanford University |date=2017-07-07 |website=The Martin Luther King, Jr., Research and Education Institute|language=en|access-date=2019-06-03}}</ref> an already existing organization, but that would have been a poor bureaucratizing decision, as they would succumb to old ideologies. New and progressive ideas that challenge prior authority are crucial to social change.

The declining of a social movement does not necessarily mean failure. There are multiple routes in which a movement may take before proceeding into decline. Success of a movement would result in permanent changes within the society and/or government that would result in a loss of need for protest. Failure is often the result of the incapability to keep a common focus, and work towards the goal in mind. "Failure of social movements due to organizational or strategic failings is common for many organizations".<ref>{{Citation|chapter=Contents|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=9780812203653|doi=10.9783/9780812203653.toc|title=American Patriotism, American Protest|year=2011|pages=vii-viii|doi-access=free}}</ref> Such a route would result in the gradual breaking up of an organization, and out of the stages of movement. Co-optation results when people or groups are integrated and shift away from the social movement's initial concerns and values. Repression is another example, when the movement is slowly wiped away from the public platform through means of an outside force, usually being the government. The last route into declining is going mainstream, which is generally perceived as an overall success. This is when goals of the movement are taken into society as a part of daily life, making it a 'social norm.' For example, birth control is still a greatly debated topic on a government level, but it has been accepted into social life as a common thing that exists.

It is important to recognize that though movements may disintegrate and cease to be active, the impact that they have in the social realm is success in its own way. It sparks the notion in new generations that the possibility to organize and make change is there.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Fians |first=Guilherme |date=2022-03-18 |title=Prefigurative politics |url=https://www.anthroencyclopedia.com/entry/prefigurative-politics |encyclopedia=[[Open Encyclopedia of Anthropology]]|language=en |doi=10.29164/22prefigpolitics|s2cid=247729590 |doi-access=free |hdl=10023/25123 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

==Theories==
{{Main|Social movement theory}}
Sociologists have developed several [[Social movement theory|theories]] related to social movements.{{sfn|Kendall|2005}} Some of the better-known approaches are outlined below. Chronologically they include:
* [[Marxist theory]] (1880s)
* [[collective behavior]]/[[collective action]] theories (1950s)
* [[relative deprivation theory]] (1960s)
* [[value-added theory]] (1960s)
* [[resource mobilization]] (1970s)
* [[political process theory]] (1980s)
* [[Framing (social sciences)|framing theory]] (1980s) (closely related to [[social constructionist theory]])
* [[new social movement theory]] (1980s)

===Deprivation theory===
[[relative deprivation theory|Deprivation theory]] argues that social movements have their foundations among people who feel deprived of some good(s) or resource(s). According to this approach, individuals who are lacking some good, service, or comfort are more likely to organize a social movement to improve (or defend) their conditions.<ref>Morrison 1978</ref>

There are two significant problems with this theory. First, since most people feel deprived at one level or another almost all the time, the theory has a hard time explaining why the groups that form social movements do when other people are also deprived. Second, the reasoning behind this theory is circular – often the only evidence for deprivation is the social movement. If deprivation is claimed to be the cause but the only evidence for such is the movement, the reasoning is circular.<ref>Jenkins and Perrow 1977</ref>

===Mass society theory===
[[Mass society theory]] argues that social movements are made up of individuals in large societies who feel insignificant or socially detached. Social movements, according to this theory, provide a sense of empowerment and belonging that the movement members would otherwise not have.<ref>Kornhauser 1959</ref>

Very little support has been found for this theory. Aho, in his study of Idaho Christian Patriotism, did not find that members of that movement were more likely to have been socially detached. In fact, the key to joining the movement was having a friend or associate who was a member of the movement.{{sfn|Aho|1990}}

===Structural strain theory===
Social Strain Theory, is the "proposal that pressure derived from social factors, such as lack of income or lack of quality education, drives individuals to commit crime."<ref>{{Cite web|title=strain theory {{!}} sociology |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/strain-theory-sociology|access-date=2021-11-17|website=Britannica|language=en}}</ref>
# structural conduciveness - people come to believe their society has problems
# [[structural strain]] - people experience deprivation
# growth and spread of a solution - a solution to the problems people are experiencing is proposed and spreads
# precipitating factors - discontent usually requires a catalyst (often a specific event) to turn it into a social movement
# lack of social control - the entity that is to be changed must be at least somewhat open to the change; if the social movement is quickly and powerfully repressed, it may never materialize
# mobilization - this is the actual organizing and active component of the movement; people do what needs to be done

This theory is also subject to [[circular reasoning]] as it incorporates, at least in part, deprivation theory and relies upon it, and social/structural strain for the underlying motivation of social movement activism. However, social movement activism is, like in the case of deprivation theory, often the only indication that there was strain or deprivation.

===Resource mobilization theory===
[[Resource mobilization theory]] emphasizes the importance of resources in social movement development and success. Resources are understood here to include: knowledge, money, media, labor, solidarity, legitimacy, and internal and external support from power elite. The theory argues that social movements develop when individuals with grievances are able to mobilize sufficient resources to take action.The emphasis on resources offers an explanation why some discontented/deprived individuals are able to organize while others are not.<ref name=mccarthyzald>{{cite journal|last1=McCarthy|first1=John|last2=Zald|first2=Mayer N.|title=Resource Mobilization and Social Movements: a Partial Theory|journal=American Journal of Sociology|date=May 1977|volume=82|issue=6|pages=1212–1241|doi=10.1086/226464|s2cid=2550587}}</ref>

In contrast to earlier [[collective behavior]] perspectives on social movements—which emphasized the role of exceptional levels of deprivation, grievance, or social strain in motivating mass protest—Resource Mobilization perspectives hold "that there is always enough discontent in any society to supply the grass-roots support for a movement if the movement is effectively organized and has at its disposal the power and resources of some established elite group"<ref name=TurnerKillian>{{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=L.|last2=Killian|first2=R. N.|title=Collective Behavior|date=1972|publisher=Prentice-Hall|location=Englewood Cliffs, N.J|page=251}}</ref> Movement emergence is contingent upon the aggregation of resources by social movement entrepreneurs and movement organizations, who use these resources to turn collective dissent in to political pressure.<ref name=mccarthyzald/> Members are recruited through networks; commitment is maintained by building a collective identity, and through interpersonal relationships.{{citation needed|date=April 2015}}

Resource Mobilization Theory views social movement activity as "politics by other means": a rational and strategic effort by ordinary people to change society or politics.<ref name=gamson>{{cite journal|last1=Gamson|first1=William A.|title=The Limits of Pluralism|journal=CRSO Working Papers|date=June 1974|issue=102|page=12|url=http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/50879/102.pdf?sequence=1|access-date=12 April 2015}}</ref> The form of the resources shapes the activities of the movement (e.g., access to a TV station will result in the extensive use TV media). Movements develop in contingent ''opportunity structures'' that influence their efforts to mobilize; and each movement's response to the opportunity structures depends on the movement's organization and resources.{{citation needed|date=April 2015}}

Critics of this theory argue that there is too much of an emphasis on resources, especially financial resources. Some movements are effective without an influx of money and are more dependent upon the movement members for time and labor (e.g., the civil rights movement in the U.S.).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Piven |first1=Francis |last2=Cloward |first2=Richard |s2cid=189939717 |date=Summer 1991 |title=Collective Protest: A Critique of Resource Mobilization Theory |journal=International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society |volume=4|issue=4 |pages=435–458 |jstor=20007011 |doi=10.1007/BF01390151 }}</ref>

===Political process theory===
[[Political process theory]] is similar to resource mobilization in many regards, but tends to emphasize a different component of [[social structure]] that is important for social movement development: [[political opportunities]]. Political process theory argues that there are three vital components for movement formation: insurgent consciousness, organizational strength, and political opportunities.

Insurgent consciousness refers back to the ideas of deprivation and grievances. The idea is that certain members of society feel like they are being mistreated or that somehow the system is unjust. The insurgent consciousness is the collective sense of injustice that movement members (or potential movement members) feel and serves as the motivation for movement organization.

[[Image:J20 democracy dc.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Photo taken at the 2005 U.S. Presidential inauguration protest]]

Organizational strength falls inline with resource-mobilization theory, arguing that in order for a social movement to organize it must have strong leadership and sufficient resources.

Political opportunity refers to the receptivity or vulnerability of the existing political system to challenge. This vulnerability can be the result of any of the following (or a combination thereof):
* growth of political pluralism
* decline in effectiveness of repression
* elite disunity; the leading factions are internally fragmented
* a broadening of access to institutional participation in political processes
* support of organized opposition by elites

One of the advantages of the political process theory is that it addresses the issue of timing or emergence of social movements. Some groups may have the insurgent consciousness and resources to mobilize, but because political opportunities are closed, they will not have any success. The theory, then, argues that all three of these components are important.

Critics of the political process theory and resource-mobilization theory point out that neither theory discusses movement culture to any great degree. This has presented culture theorists an opportunity to expound on the importance of culture.

One advance on the political process theory is the ''political mediation model,'' which outlines the way in which the political context facing movement actors intersects with the strategic choices that movements make. An additional strength of this model is that it can look at the outcomes of social movements not only in terms of success or failure but also in terms of consequences (whether intentional or unintentional, positive or negative) and in terms of [[collective benefits]].

===Framing perspective===
Reflecting the [[cultural turn]] in the social sciences and humanities more broadly, recent strains of social movement theory and research add to the largely structural concerns seen in the resource mobilization and political process theories by emphasizing the cultural and psychological aspects of social movement processes, such as collectively shared interpretations and beliefs, ideologies, values and other meanings about the world. In doing so, this general cultural approach also attempts to address the [[Free rider problem|free-rider problem]]. One particularly successful take on some such cultural dimensions is manifested in the [[Framing (social sciences)|framing perspective]] on social movements.

While both resource mobilization theory and political process theory include, or at least accept, the idea that certain shared understandings of, for example, perceived unjust societal conditions must exist for mobilization to occur at all, this is not explicitly problematized within those approaches. The framing perspective has brought such shared understandings to the forefront of the attempt to understand movement creation and existence by, e.g., arguing that, in order for social movements to successfully mobilize individuals, they must develop an ''injustice frame''. An injustice frame is a collection of ideas and symbols that illustrate both how significant the problem is as well as what the movement can do to alleviate it,<blockquote>Like a picture frame, an issue frame marks off some part of the world. Like a building frame, it holds things together. It provides coherence to an array of symbols, images, and arguments, linking them through an underlying organizing idea that suggests what is essential – what consequences and values are at stake. We do not see the frame directly, but infer its presence by its characteristic expressions and language. Each frame gives the advantage to certain ways of talking and thinking, while it places others out of the picture.<ref>Ryan and Gamson 2006, p.14</ref></blockquote>Important characteristics of the injustice frames include:<ref>Ryan and Gamson 2006</ref>
* Facts take on their meaning by being embedded in frames, which render them relevant and significant or irrelevant and trivial.
* People carry around multiple frames in their heads.
* Successful reframing involves the ability to enter into the worldview of our adversaries.
* All frames contain implicit or explicit appeals to moral principles.
In emphasizing the injustice frame, culture theory also addresses the free-rider problem. The free-rider problem refers to the idea that people will not be motivated to participate in a social movement that will use up their personal resources (e.g., time, money, etc.) if they can still receive the benefits without participating. In other words, if person X knows that movement Y is working to improve environmental conditions in his neighborhood, he is presented with a choice: join or not join the movement. If he believes the movement will succeed without him, he can avoid participation in the movement, save his resources, and still reap the benefits – this is ''free-riding''. A significant problem for social movement theory has been to explain why people join movements if they believe the movement can/will succeed without their contribution. Culture theory argues that, in conjunction with social networks being an important contact tool, the injustice frame will provide the motivation for people to contribute to the movement.

Framing processes includes three separate components:
* Diagnostic frame: the movement organization frames what is the problem or what they are critiquing
* Prognostic frame: the movement organization frames what is the desirable solution to the problem
* Motivational frame: the movement organization frames a "call to arms" by suggesting and encouraging that people take action to solve the problem

==Social networking==
For more than ten years,{{When|date=December 2019}} social movement groups have been using the Internet to accomplish organizational goals. It has been argued that the Internet helps to increase the speed, reach and effectiveness of social movement-related communication as well as mobilization efforts, and as a result, it has been suggested that the [[Internet]] has had a positive impact on the social movements in general.<ref name="Obar"/><ref>{{cite journal|last=Ope|first=J.A.M.|title=From the Streets to the Internet: The Cyber-Diffusion of Contention|journal=Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science|year=1999|volume=566|issue=1 |pages=132–143|doi=10.1177/0002716299566001011}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Eaton|first=M.|s2cid=141971731|title=Manufacturing Community in an Online Activity Organization: The Rhetoric of MoveOn.org's E-mails|journal=Information, Communication & Society|year=2010|volume=13|issue=2|pages=174–192|doi=10.1080/13691180902890125}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Obar|first=J.A. |author2=Zube, P. |author3=Lampe, C.|title=Advocacy 2.0: An analysis of how advocacy groups in the United States perceive and use social media as tools for facilitating civic engagement and collective action|journal=Journal of Information Policy|year=2012|volume=2|pages=1–25|ssrn=1956352|doi=10.2139/ssrn.1956352|s2cid=145712218 }}</ref> The systematic literature review of Buettner & Buettner analyzed the role of Twitter during a wide range of social movements (2007 [[WikiLeaks]], 2009 [[April 2009 Moldovan parliamentary election protests|Moldova]], 2009 [[2009 student protests in Austria|Austria student protest]], 2009 [[Gaza–Israel conflict|Israel-Gaza]], 2009 [[Iranian Green Movement|Iran green revolution]], 2009 [[2010 G-20 Toronto summit protests|Toronto G20]], 2010 [[Bolivarian Revolution|Venezuela]], 2010 [[Stuttgart 21|Germany Stuttgart21]], 2011 [[Egyptian Revolution of 2011|Egypt]], 2011 [[2011 England riots|England]], 2011 US [[Occupy movement]], 2011 [[Anti-austerity movement in Spain|Spain Indignados]], 2011 [[Anti-austerity movement in Greece|Greece Aganaktismenoi movements]], 2011 [[2011 Rome demonstration|Italy]], 2011 [[2011 Wisconsin protests|Wisconsin labor protests]], 2012 [[Gaza–Israel conflict|Israel Hamas]], 2013 [[2013 protests in Brazil|Brazil Vinegar]], 2013 [[Gezi Park protests|Turkey]]).<ref name="Buettner2016a" />

Many discussions have been generated recently on the topic of social networking and the effect it may play on the formation and mobilization of social movement.<ref>[[Clay Shirky|Shirky, Clay]]. ''[[Here Comes Everybody: The Power of Organizing Without Organizations]]''. Penguin Press HC, The, 2008. Print.</ref> For example, the emergence of the [[Coffee Party]] first appeared on the social networking site, [[Facebook]]. The party has continued to gather membership and support through that site and file sharing sites, such as [[Flickr]]. The [[2009–2010 Iranian election protests]] also demonstrated how social networking sites are making the mobilization of large numbers of people quicker and easier. Iranians were able to organize and speak out against the election of [[Mahmoud Ahmadinejad]] by using sites such as [[Twitter]] and [[Facebook]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Castells |first=Manuel |title=Networks of outrage and hope: social movements in the Internet age |publisher=Polity Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-7456-9575-4 |edition= |location=Cambridge, MA |oclc=896126968}}</ref> This in turn prompted widespread government censorship of the web and social networking sites.

The sociological study of social movements is quite new.{{According to whom|date=December 2019}} The traditional view of movements often perceived them as chaotic and disorganized, treating activism as a threat to the [[social order]]. The activism experienced in the 1960s and 1970s shuffled in a new world opinion about the subject. Models were now introduced to understand the organizational and structural powers embedded in social movements.{{Citation needed|date=December 2019}}

==World meetings of popular movements==
The [[Catholic Church]] has fostered the development of "popular movements", with Popes [[Pope Francis|Francis]] and [[Leo XIV]] both supporting and addressing the World Meetings of Popular Movements (WMPM) which have taken place since 2014.<ref>[http://popularmovements.org/ World Meeting of Popular Movements], Modesto, California, 16-19 February 2017, accessed on 5 December 2025</ref><ref>Holy See, [https://www.vatican.va/content/leo-xiv/en/speeches/2025/october/documents/20251023-movimenti-popolari.html Address of Pope Leo XIV to Participants in the World Meeting of Popular Movements], Vatican City, 23 October 2025, accessed on 5 December 2025</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Society}}
{{div col|colwidth=18em}}
* [[List of social movements]]
* [[Civil resistance]]
* [[Counterculture of the 1960s]]
* [[Countermovement]]
* [[Culture jamming]]
* [[Moral shock]]
* [[New religious movements]]
* [[New social movements]]
* [[Nonviolent resistance]]
* [[Political movement]]
* [[Reform movement]]
* [[Revolutionary movement]]
* [[Social defence]]
* [[Social equality]]
* [[Teaching for social justice]]
* [[Union organizer]]
* [[Online social movements]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* [[David F. Aberle]]. 1966. ''The [[Peyote Religion]] among the [[Navaho]]''. Chicago: Aldine. {{ISBN|0-8061-2382-6}}
* James Alfred Aho. 1990. ''Politics of Righteousness: Idaho Christian Patriotism''. Washington: [[University of Washington Press]]. {{ISBN|0-295-96997-0}}
* Paul Almeida. 2019. ''Social Movements: The Structure of Collective Mobilization''. Berkeley: University of California Press. {{ISBN|9780520290914}}
* [[Herbert G. Blumer]] 1969. "Collective Behavior." In Alfred McClung Lee, ed., Principles of Sociology. Third Edition. New York: [[Barnes & Noble]] Books, pp. 65–121.
* Mark Chaves. 1997. ''Ordaining Women: Culture and Conflict in Religious Organizations''. Cambridge: [[Harvard University Press]]. {{ISBN|0-674-64146-9}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Dolata | first1 = Ulrich | last2 = Schrape | first2 = Jan-Felix | s2cid = 141985609 | year = 2016 | title = Masses, Crowds, Communities, Movements: Collective Action in the Internet Age | journal = [[Social Movement Studies]] | volume = 15 | issue = 1| pages = 1–18 | doi=10.1080/14742837.2015.1055722}}
* Graeme Chesters and Ian Welsh. ''Complexity and Social Movements: Multitudes at the Edge of Chaos'' [[Routledge]] 2006. {{ISBN|0-415-43974-4}}
* Mario Diani and Doug McAdam, ''Social movements and networks'', Oxford University Press, 2003.
* Susan Eckstei, ed. ''Power and Popular Protest: Latin American Social Movements'', Updated Edition, [[University of California Press]] 2001. {{ISBN|0-520-22705-0}}
* [[Anthony Giddens]]. 1985. ''The Nation-State and Violence''. Cambridge, England: Polity Press. {{ISBN|0-520-06039-3}}
*[[Jeff Goodwin]] and [[James M. Jasper]]. 2009. ''The Social Movements Reader''. Malden, Massachusetts: [[Wiley-Blackwell]]. {{ISBN|978-1-4051-8764-0}}
* Angelique Haugerud, ''No Billionaire Left Behind: Satirical Activism in America,'' [[Stanford University Press]], 2013. {{ISBN|9780804781534}}
* {{Cite book | year= 2014 | last1= James | first1= Paul | author-link= Paul James (academic) | last2= van Seeters | first2= Paul | title= Globalization and Politics, Vol. 2: Global Social Movements and Global Civil Society | url= https://www.academia.edu/7305007 | publisher= Sage Publications | location= London }}
* [[James M. Jasper]]. 1997. ''The Art of Moral Protest: Culture, Biography, and Creativity in Social Movements''. Chicago: [[University of Chicago Press]].
* [[James M. Jasper]]. 2014. ''Protest: A Cultural Introduction to Social Movements''. [[Polity Press]].
* {{cite journal | last1 = Jenkins | first1 = J. Craig | last2 = Perrow | first2 = Charles | year = 1977 | title = Insurgency of the Powerless Farm Worker Movements (1946–1972) | journal = [[American Sociological Review]] | volume = 42 | issue = 2| pages = 249–268 | doi=10.2307/2094604| jstor = 2094604 }}
* Diana Kendall, ''Sociology In Our Times'', [[Thomson Wadsworth]], 2005. {{ISBN|0-534-64629-8}}
* William Kornhauser. 1959. The Politics of Mass Society. New York: [[Free Press (publisher)|Free Press]]. {{ISBN|0-02-917620-4}}
* Donna Maurer. 2002. ''Vegetarianism: Movement or Moment?'' Philadelphia: [[Temple University Press]]. {{ISBN|1-56639-936-X}}
* [[Armand L. Mauss]]. 1975. ''Social Problems of Social Movements''. Philadelphia: Lippincott.
* Denton E. Morrison. 1978. "Some Notes toward Theory on Relative Deprivation, Social Movements, and Social Change." In Louis E. Genevie, ed., Collective Behavior and Social Movements. Itasca, Ill.: Peacock. pp. 202–209.
* {{cite journal | last1 = Mölders | first1 = Marc | last2 = Schrape | first2 = Jan-Felix | year = 2019 | title = Digital Deceleration. Protest and Societal Irritation in the Internet Age | journal = Österreichische Zeitschrift für Soziologie | volume = 44 | issue = 1| pages = 199–215 | doi=10.1007/s11614-019-00354-3| s2cid = 189875881 }}
* [[Immanuel Ness]], ed. ''Encyclopedia of American Social Movements'', 2004. {{ISBN|0-7656-8045-9}}.
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270512275_Vectors_of_Contestation_Social_Movements_and_Party_Systems_in_Ecuador_and_Colombia Jeff Pugh. 2008. "Vectors of Contestation: Social Movements and Party Systems in Ecuador and Colombia."] ''Latin American Essays'' XXI: 46–65.
* [[Adam Roberts (scholar)|Adam Roberts]] and [[Timothy Garton Ash]] (eds.), ''Civil Resistance and Power Politics: The Experience of Non-violent Action from Gandhi to the Present'', Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009. {{ISBN|978-0-19-955201-6}}. [https://books.google.com/books?id=BxOQKrCe7UUC&q=Civil+resistance+and+power+politics]
* {{cite journal | last1 = Ryan | first1 = Charlotte | author-link2 = William A. Gamson | last2 = Gamson | first2 = William A. | s2cid = 59529692 | year = 2006 | title = The Art of Reframing Political Debates | journal = Contexts | volume = 5 | issue = 1| pages = 13–18 | doi=10.1525/ctx.2006.5.1.13| doi-access = free }}
* [[Neil J. Smelser]]. 1962. ''Theory of Collective Behavior''. New York: Free Press. {{ISBN|0-02-929390-1}}
* [[David A. Snow|David Snow]], Sarah A. Soule and [[Hanspeter Kriesi]], ed. ''Blackwell Companion to Social Movements'', Blackwell, 2004.
* Suzanne Staggenborg, ''Social Movements'', [[Oxford University Press]], 2008. {{ISBN|978-0-19-542309-9}}
* [[Sidney Tarrow]], ''Power in Movement: Collective Action, Social Movements and Politics'', [[Cambridge University Press]], 1994. {{ISBN|0-521-42271-X}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Temelini | first1 = Michael | s2cid = 144378936 | title = Dialogical Approaches to Struggles Over Recognition and Distribution | journal = Critical Review of International Social and Political Philosophy | year = 2013 | issue = 4| pages = 2–25 | doi = 10.1080/13698230.2013.763517 | volume=17}}
* Charles Tilly, 1978. ''From Mobilization to Revolution''. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley, 1978.
* [[Charles Tilly]], ''Social Movements, 1768–2004'', Boulder, CO, Paradigm Publishers, 2004 262 pp. {{ISBN|1-59451-042-3}} (hardback) / {{ISBN|1-59451-043-1}} (paperback)
* Leonard Weinberg, 2013. ''Democracy and Terrorism''. New York: Routledge, 2013.
* Quintan Wiktorowicz, ''Islamic Activism: A Social Movement Theory Approach'', Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004.
* Marco G. Giugni, ''How Social Movements Matter'', [[University of Minnesota Press]], 1999, {{ISBN|0-8166-2914-5}}
* Rod Bantjes, ''Social Movements in a Global Context'', CSPI, 2007, {{ISBN|978-1-55130-324-6}}
* Michael Barker, ''Conform or Reform? Social Movements and the Mass Media'', Fifth-Estate-Online - International Journal of Radical Mass Media Criticism. February 2007. [https://web.archive.org/web/20070716214831/http://www.fifth-estate-online.co.uk/criticsm/conformorreformsocialmovements.html Fifth-estate-online.co.uk]
* Dennis Chong, ''Collective Action and the Civil Rights Movement'', [[University of Chicago Press]], 1991, {{ISBN|978-0-226-10441-6}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Social movements}}
{{Wikiversity|social movements}}

* ''[https://mobilization.sdsu.edu/ Mobilization]'' - journal
* ''[https://www.interfacejournal.net/ Interface: a Journal For and About Social Movements]''

{{Sociology2}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Social Movement}}
[[Category:Comparative politics]]
[[Category:Social movements| ]]
[[Category:Social change]]

Western Satraps

2026-03-20T14:36:42Z

Ajit3011: reworked article for clarity

{{short description|Indo-Scythian rulers of western and central India (35-415 CE)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2025}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Great Satraps
| native_name = [[File:Gupta ashoka m.svg|13px]] [[File:Gupta ashoka h.svg|13px]] [[File:Gupta ashoka kss.png|13px]][[File:Gupta ashoka tr.png|13px]][[File:Gupta ashoka p.svg|11px]] {{small|''Mahakṣatrapa''}}
| era = [[ancient history|Antiquity]]
| status =
| year_start = 35
| year_end = 415 CE
| p1 = Indo-Scythians
| p2 = Malavas
| p3 = Satavahana dynasty
| s1 = Gupta Empire
| s2 = Vakataka dynasty
| s3 = Kalachuris of Mahishmati
| s4 = Traikutaka dynasty
| s5 = Kingdom of Valabhi
| image_map =
{{Location map+
|South Asia
|overlay_image=Map_of_the_Western_Satraps.png
| width=290 
| float = center
| border =none
| nodiv = 1
| mini = 1
| relief = yes
| places =
{{Annotation|225|100|[[Varman dynasty|KAMARUPAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|215|113|[[Gauda Kingdom|GAUDA]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|225|5|[[350 CE|South-Asia {{Circa|350 CE}}]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=10|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|140|178|[[Andhra Ikshvaku|IKSHVAKUS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|115|220|[[Kalabhra dynasty|KALABHRAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}{{Annotation|115|200|[[Western Ganga dynasty|WESTERN GANGAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|95|185|[[Kadamba dynasty|KADAMBAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|130|192|[[Pallava dynasty|PALLAVAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|95|54|[[Kushan Empire|LITTLE KUSHANS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|50|70|[[Hind (Sasanian province)|SASANIAN HIND]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|150|150|[[Mahameghavahana dynasty|MAHAMEGHA- VAHANAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|200|125|[[Samatata|SAMATATAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|100|160|[[Abhira dynasty|ABHIRAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|110|170|[[Vakatakas|VAKATAKAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|160|100|[[Gupta Empire|GUPTA EMPIRE]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=9|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|5|5|[[Kidarites|KIDARITES]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|20|20|[[Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom|KUSHANO- SASANIANS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|1|55|[[Sasanian Empire|SASANIAN EMPIRE]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=9|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|262|250|[[Template:South Asia in 125 CE| ◁ ]] [[Template:South Asia in 500 CE| ▷ ]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=12|color=#000000}}
|caption=
}}
| image_map_caption = {{center|Approximate territory of the Western Satraps (35–415) circa 350 CE.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |date=1978 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |page=145, map XIV.1 (h)|isbn=0226742210 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/reference/schwartzberg/query.py?object=182&display_type=image_display#gsc.tab=0}}</ref>}}
| capital = [[Ujjain]] [[Barygaza|Bharuch]] [[Minnagara]]
| common_languages = [[Pali]] ([[Kharoshthi]] script) [[Sanskrit]], [[Maharashtri]] [[Prakrit]] ([[Brāhmī script|Brahmi]] script)
| religion = [[Hinduism]] [[Buddhism]]
| government_type = Monarchy
| leader1 = [[Abhiraka]]
| year_leader1 = {{Circa|35}}
| leader2 = [[Rudrasimha III]]
| year_leader2 = 388–415
| title_leader = [[Indo-Scythians#Western Satraps|Satrap]]
| today = [[India]] [[Pakistan]]
}}
The '''Western Satraps''', or '''Western Kshatrapas''' ([[Brahmi]]:[[File:Gupta ashoka m.svg|13px]] [[File:Gupta ashoka h.svg|13px]] [[File:Gupta ashoka kss.png|13px]][[File:Gupta ashoka tr.png|13px]][[File:Gupta ashoka p.svg|11px]], ''Mahakṣatrapa'', "Great [[Satrap]]s") were [[Indo-Scythian]] ([[Saka]]) rulers of the western and central parts of India (extending from [[Saurashtra (region)|Saurashtra]] in the south and [[Malwa]] in the east, covering modern-day [[Sindh]], [[Gujarat]], [[Maharashtra]], [[Rajasthan]] and [[Madhya Pradesh]] states), between 35 and 415 CE. The Western Satraps were contemporaneous with the [[Kushan Empire|Kushan]]s who ruled the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, and were possibly vassals of the Kushans. They were also contemporaneous with the [[Satavahana]] who ruled in Central India. They are called "Western Satraps" in modern historiography in order to differentiate them from the "[[Northern Satraps]]", who ruled in [[Punjab]] and [[Mathura]] until the 2nd century CE.

The power of the Western Satraps started to decline in the 2nd century CE after the Saka rulers were defeated by the Emperor [[Gautamiputra Satakarni]] of the [[Satavahana dynasty]].<ref>World history from early times to A D 2000 by B .V. Rao: p.97</ref> After this, the Saka kingdom revived, but was [[Gupta–Saka Wars|ultimately defeated]] by [[Chandragupta II]] of the [[Gupta Empire]] in the 4th century CE.<ref>Ancient India by Ramesh Chandra Majumdar p. 234</ref>

==Name==
[[File:Mahakhatapa.jpg|thumb|The rulers of the Western Satraps were called {{transliteration|pra|Mahākhatapa}} (𑀫𑀳𑀸𑀔𑀢𑀧, "Great Satrap") in their [[Brahmi script]] inscriptions, as here in a dedicatory inscription by Prime Minister Ayama in the name of his ruler [[Nahapana]], [[Manmodi Caves]], circa 100 CE. Nahapana was also attributed the titles of {{transliteration|pra|Raño}} ("King") and {{transliteration|pra|Sāmi}} ("Lord") conjointly.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Burgess|first1=Jas|title=Archaeological Survey Of Western India|date=1883|page=103|url=https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.35775}}</ref>]]
They are named Western Satraps in contrast to the "[[Northern Satraps]]" who ruled around [[East Punjab]] and the area of [[Mathura]], such as [[Rajuvula]], and his successors under the Kushans, the "Great Satrap" Kharapallana and the "Satrap" Vanaspara.<ref name="ReferenceA">Kharapallana and Vanaspara are known from an inscription discovered in [[Sarnath]], and dated to the third year of [[Kanishka]], in which they were paying allegiance to the Kushanas. Source: "A Catalogue of the Indian Coins in the British Museum. Andhras etc." Rapson, p ciii</ref>

Although they called themselves "Satraps" on their coins, leading to their modern designation of "Western Satraps", [[Ptolemy]] in his 2nd century "[[Geographia (Ptolemy)|Geographia]]" still called them "Indo-Scythians".<ref>Ptolemy, "Geographia", Chap 7</ref> The word {{transliteration|sa|Kṣatrapa}} has the same origin as the word ''[[satrap]]'' and are both descended from [[Median language|Median]] ''{{lang|xme|xšaθrapāvan-}}'', which means viceroy or governor of a province, and according to John Marshall, the word {{transliteration|sa|kṣatrapa}} means the viceroy of the "King of kings". The title of the {{transliteration|sa|Mahakṣatrapa}} or the "Great Satrap" was given to the ruling Satrap, and the title of {{transliteration|sa|kṣatrapa}} was given to the heir apparent. The western Kshatrapas were also known as Sakas to Indians.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marshall|first1=John|title=A guide to Sanchi|date=1936|publisher=Eastern book House|location=Patna|isbn=978-81-85204-32-1|page=16}}</ref>

The Sakas of Western India spoke the Saka language, also known as [[Khotanese language|Khotanese]] as it is first attested in the [[Tarim Basin]].<ref name="DD350">{{cite book |last1=Diringer |first1=David |title=Alphabet A Key To The History Of Mankind |date=1948 |page=350 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.57042/page/n351/mode/2up}}</ref>

==History==

===First expansion: Kshaharata dynasty (1st century CE)===
[[File:Coin of Bhumaka.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|left|Coin of [[Bhumaka]] (?–119). '''Obv:''' Arrow, pellet, and thunderbolt. [[Kharoshthi]] inscription ''Chaharasada Chatrapasa Bhumakasa'': "Ksaharata Satrap Bhumaka". '''Rev:''' Capital of a pillar with seated lion with upraised paw, and wheel ([[dharmachakra]]). [[Brāhmī script|Brahmi]] inscription: ''Kshaharatasa Kshatrapasa Bhumakasa''.]]
The Western Satraps are thought to have started with the rather short-lived ''Kshaharata'' dynasty (also called ''Chaharada'', ''Khaharata'' or ''Khakharata'' depending on sources).<ref>Rapson, p. CVII</ref> The term ''Kshaharata'' is also known from the 6 CE [[Taxila copper plate]] inscription, in which it qualifies the Indo-Scythian ruler [[Liaka Kusulaka]]. The [[Nasik]] inscription of the 19th year of [[Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi|Sri Pulamavi]] also mentions the ''Khakharatavasa'', or ''Kshaharata'' race.<ref>"Kharoshthi inscription, Taxila copper plate of Patika", [[Sten Konow]], p25</ref>

The earliest Kshaharata for whom there is evidence is [[Abhiraka]], whose rare coins are known. He was succeeded by [[Bhumaka]], father of [[Nahapana]], who only used on his coins the title of Satrap, and not that of ''Raja'' or ''Raño'' (king). Nahapana's rule is variously dated to 24-70 CE, 66-71 CE, or 119–124 CE, according to one of his coins, which bear [[Buddhist]] symbols, such as the eight-spoked wheel ([[dharmachakra]]), or the lion seated on a capital, a representation of a pillar of [[Ashoka]].

[[File:Silver coin of Nahapana British Museum.jpg|thumb|Coin of [[Nahapana]] (whose rule is variously dated to 24-70 CE, 66-71 CE, or 119–124 CE), a direct derivation from [[Indo-Greek]] coinage. [[British Museum]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Alpers |first1=Edward A. |last2=Goswami |first2=Chhaya |title=Transregional Trade and Traders: Situating Gujarat in the Indian Ocean from Early Times to 1900 |date=2019 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199096138 |page=99 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2lyNDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT100 |language=en}}</ref>]]
[[File:RANNIO MAHAPATA on Nahapana coinage.jpg|thumb|The [[Greek script|Greco]]-[[Prakrit]] title "RANNIO KSAHARATA" ("ΡΑΝΝΙ<big>ω</big> ΞΑΗΑΡΑΤΑ(Ϲ)", Prakrit for "King Kshaharata" rendered in corrupted Greek letters) on the obverse of the coinage of Nahapana.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cribb |first1=Joe |title=Indian Ocean In Antiquity |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781136155314 |page=310 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PtzWAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA310 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Alpers |first1=Edward A. |last2=Goswami |first2=Chhaya |title=Transregional Trade and Traders: Situating Gujarat in the Indian Ocean from Early Times to 1900 |date=2019 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199096138 |page=99 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2lyNDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT99 |language=en}}</ref>]]
{{Location map+
|South Asia
|float = right
|width = 220 
|caption = Location of Western Satrap inscriptions in Buddhist rock-cut caves, indicating the southern extent of their territory, circa 120 CE,<ref name="Tripathi"/> and main neighbouring polities at that time.<ref name="JES">{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |date=1978 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |page=145, map XIV.1 (e) |isbn=0226742210 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=182 |archive-date=24 February 2021 |access-date=25 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224162023/https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=182 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
|nodiv = 1
|mini = 1
|relief = yes
|places =
{{Annotation|180|5|South-Asia {{circa|120 CE}}|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}}
{{location map~ |South Asia |lat=19.2|N |long=73.88|E |label=[[Manmodi Caves|Junnar]]|position=right |label_size=60}}
{{location map~ |South Asia |lat=19.94|N |long=73.75|E |label=[[Nasik Caves|Nasik]]|position=top |label_size=60 }}
{{location map~ |South Asia |lat=18.78|N |long=73.47|E |label=[[Karla Caves|Karli]]|position=left |label_size=60}}
{{Annotation|75|130|[[Satavahana Empire|SATAVAHANAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|100|170|[[Pandyan dynasty|PANDYAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|90|155|[[Chola dynasty|CHOLAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|80|65|[[Kushan Empire|KUSHAN EMPIRE]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|55|84|WESTERN SATRAPS|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|45|50|[[Paratarajas|PARATA RAJAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|115|100|[[Mahameghavahana dynasty|MAHAMEGA- VAHANA]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|2|50|[[Indo-Parthians|INDO- PARTHIANS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|110|5|[[Han dynasty|HAN DYNASTY]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
}}

Nahapana succeeded him, and became a very powerful ruler. He occupied portions of the [[Satavahana Empire]] in western and central India. Nahapana held sway over [[Malwa]], Southern [[Gujarat]], and Northern [[Konkan]], from [[Bharuch]] to [[Sopara]] and the [[Nasik]] and [[Poona]] districts.<ref>"The Satavahanas did not hold the western Deccan for long. They were gradually pushed out of the west by the Sakas
(Western Khatrapas). The Kshaharata Nahapana's coins in
the Nasik area indicate that the Western Kshatrapas controlled this region by the 1st century CE. By becoming master of wide regions including Malwa, Southern Gujarat, and Northern Konkan, from Broach to Sopara and the Nasik and Poona districts, Nahapana rose from the status of a mere Kshatrapa in the year 41 (58 AD) to that of Mahakshatrapa in the year 46 (63 AD)." in "History of the Andhras"</ref> At that time, the area northwest of the Western Satraps in [[Baluchistan]] was ruled by the [[Paratarajas]], an [[Indo-Parthian]] polity, while the [[Kushans]] were expanding their empire in the North.<ref name="PA37">"New light on the Paratarajas" Pankaj Tandon [http://people.bu.edu/ptandon/Paratarajas.pdf p.37]</ref>

His son-in-law, the Saka [[Ushavadata]] (married to his daughter Dakshamitra), is known from inscriptions in [[Nasik]] and [[Karla Caves|Karle]] and [[Junnar]] ([[Manmodi Caves]], inscription of the year 46) to have been viceroy of Nahapana, ruling over the southern part of his territory.<ref>"Catalogue of Indian coins of the British Museum. Andhras etc." Rapson. p. LVII</ref><ref name="Tripathi">{{cite book|last1=Tripathi|first1=Rama Shankar|title=History of Ancient India|date=1942|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=9788120800182|page=216|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rOVpOG6MPMcC|language=en}}</ref>

Nahapana established the silver coinage of the Kshatrapas.

Circa 120 CE, the Western Satraps are known to have allied with the [[Uttamabhadras]] in order to repulse an attack by the [[Malavas]], whom they finally crushed.<ref>Ancient Indian History and Civilization by Sailendra Nath Sen [https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA188 p.188]</ref> The claim appears in an inscription at the [[Nashik Caves]], made by the [[Nahapana]]'s viceroy [[Ushavadata]]:

{{blockquote|...And by order of the lord I went to release the chief of the Uttamabhadras, who had been besieged for the rainy season by the Malayas, and those Malayas fled at the mere roar (of my approaching) as it were, and were all made prisoners of the Uttamabhadra warriors.|Inscription in Cave No.10 of the [[Nashik Caves]].<ref>Epigraphia Indica Vol.8 [https://archive.org/details/EpigraphiaIndica p.78-79]</ref>}}

====Support of Indian religions====
An important inscription related to [[Nahapana]] in the Great Chaitya at [[Karla Caves]]<ref>Valukura is thought to be an ancient name for Karla Caves</ref> shows his support of Buddhism and Hinduism:
[[File:Karla Caves inscription 13 of Nahapana.jpg|thumb|left|[[Karla Caves]], inscription of Nahapana.]]
{{clear left}}
{{blockquote|Success!! By [[Ushabadata]], the son of Dinaka and the son-in-law of the king, the Kshaharata, the [[Kshatrapas|Kshatrapa]] [[Nahapana]], who gave three hundred thousand cows, who made gifts of gold and a [[Tirtha (Hinduism)|tirtha]] on the river Banasa, who gave to the Devas and [[Brahmanas]] sixteen villages, who at the pure tirtha Prabhasa gave eight wives to the Brahmanas, and who also fed annually a hundred thousand Brahmanas- there has been given the village of Karajika for the support of the ascetics living in the caves at [[Karla Caves|Valuraka]] without any distinction of sect or origin, for all who would keep the [[Ritu (Indian season)|varsha]].|Inscription of Nahapana, Karla Caves.<ref>Epigraphia Indica Vol.7, Hultzsch, E. [https://archive.org/details/epigraphiaindica014351mbp p.58]</ref>}}
{{clear left}}

====Construction of Buddhist caves====
The Western Satraps are known for the construction and dedication of numerous Buddhist caves in Central India, particularly in [[Maharashtra]] and [[Gujarat]].<ref name="WH"/><ref name="FI">Foreign Influence on Ancient India, Krishna Chandra Sagar, Northern Book Centre, 1992 [https://books.google.com/books?id=0UA4rkm9MgkC&pg=PA150 p.150]</ref> It is thought that Nahapana ruled at least 35 years in the region of [[Karla, Ratnagiri|Karla]], [[Junnar]] and [[Nasik]], giving him ample time for construction work there.<ref>{{cite book|title=Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bombay|date=1986|publisher=Asiatic Society of Bombay|page=219|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5zgUAQAAMAAJ|language=en|quote=If Konow is right, then the length of time for Ksatrapa rule in the Nasik-Karla-Junnar region would be at least thirty-fire years.}}</ref>

Numerous inscriptions in the caves are known, which were made by the family of Nahapana: six inscriptions in [[Nasik Caves]], one inscription at [[Karla Caves]], and one by Nahapana's minister in the [[Manmodi Caves]] at [[Junnar]].<ref>Cultural and Religious Heritage of India: Zoroastrianism, Suresh K. Sharma, Usha Sharma, Mittal Publications, 2004 [https://books.google.com/books?id=bmu3vZOSp_IC&pg=PA112 p.112]</ref><ref>The Dynastic Arts of the Kushans, John M. Rosenfield [https://books.google.com/books?id=udnBkQhzHH4C&pg=PA131 p.131]</ref> At the same time, "[[Yavana]]s", Greeks or [[Indo-Greeks]], also left donative inscriptions at the Nasik Caves, Karla Caves, [[Lenyadri]] and [[Manmodi Caves]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Religions and Trade: Religious Formation, Transformation and Cross-Cultural Exchange between East and West|date=2013|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9789004255302|page=97|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AXdfAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA97|language=en}}</ref>

=====Great Chaitya hall at Karla Caves=====
{{see also|Karla Caves}}
In particular, the [[chaitya]] cave complex of the Karla Caves, the largest in [[South Asia]], was constructed and dedicated in 120 CE by the Western Satraps ruler Nahapana.<ref name="WH">World Heritage Monuments and Related Edifices in India, Volume 1 ʻAlī Jāvīd, Tabassum Javeed, Algora Publishing, 2008 [https://books.google.com/books?id=fg-lGID3WpQC&pg=PA42 p.42]</ref><ref name="SA">Southern India: A Guide to Monuments Sites & Museums, by George Michell, Roli Books Private Limited, 1 mai 2013 [https://books.google.com/books?id=GdBbBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT72 p.72]</ref><ref name="GM">"This hall is assigned to the brief period of [[Kshatrapas]] rule in the western Deccan during the 1st century." in Guide to Monuments of India 1: Buddhist, Jain, Hindu - by George Michell, Philip H. Davies, Viking - 1989 Page 374</ref>

<gallery mode="packed" heights="150" caption="Great Chaitya hall at Karla" style="border:1px #aaa solid">
File:Karla Amit R Mahadik 01.jpg|Hall of the Great Chaitya Cave at Karla (120 CE)<ref name="WH" />
Karla Caves,Pune,Maharashtra - panoramio (14).jpg|Right row of columns
File:Caves, Temple and inscription (Karla Caves).jpg|Chaitya roof
File:Fine carvings 2.jpg|Capitals
File:Karla Amit R Mahadik 02.jpg|Donative inscription by a [[Yavana]] ("[[Indo-Greek]]") named Vitasamghata.<ref>Epigraphia Indica Vol.18 [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.367557 p.326 Inscription No1]</ref>
</gallery>

=====Cave No.10 of Nasik, the 'Nahapana Vihara'=====
{{see also|Nasik Caves|Nasik inscription of Ushavadata}}
Parts of the Nasik Caves, also called Pandavleni Caves, were also carved during the time of Nahapana.<ref name="FI"/>

The inscriptions of cave no.10 in the Nasik Caves near [[Nasik]], reveal that in 105-106 CE, Kshatrapas defeated the Satavahanas after which Kshatrapa [[Nahapana]]’s son-in-law and Dinika's son- [[Ushavadata]] donated 3000 gold coins for this cave as well as for the food and clothing of the monks. Usabhdatta's wife (Nahapana's daughter), Dakshmitra also donated one cave for the Buddhist monks. Cave 10 - 'Nahapana Vihara' is spacious with 16 rooms.

<gallery mode="packed" heights="120" caption="[[Nasik Caves]], cave No. 10" style="border:1px #aaa solid">
036 Cave 10, Front (33928302236).jpg|Front
037 Cave 10, Verandah (33125843084).jpg|Veranda
038 Cave 10, Interior (33928438936).jpg|Interior
039 Cave 10, Chaitya and Umbrellas (33928437976).jpg|Chaitya and Umbrellas
040 Cave 10, Inscription (33928437016).jpg|Inscription
</gallery>

Two inscriptions in Cave 10 mention the building and the gift of the whole cave to the [[Samgha]] by [[Ushavadata]], the [[Saka]]<ref>Ushavadata also presents himself as a [[Saka]] in inscription 14a of Cave No.10 of the [[Nasik Caves]]: "[Success !] By permanent charities of Ushavadata, the Saka, [son of Dinika], son-in-law of king Nahapana, the [Kshahara]ta Kshatrapa...." in Epigraphia Indica [https://archive.org/stream/EpigraphiaIndica/Epigraphia_Indica p.85-86]</ref> son-in-law and viceroy of Nahapana:

[[File:Nasik_Cave_inscription_No_10.jpg|thumb|[[Nasik Caves|Nasik Cave]] inscription No.10. of Nahapana, Cave No.10.]]
[[File:Pillar_built_by_Ushavadata_circa_120_CE_Pandavleni_Caves_caves_No10.jpg|thumb|upright|One of the pillars built by [[Ushavadata]], viceroy of [[Nahapana]], circa 120 CE, [[Nasik Caves]], cave No10.]]
{{blockquote|Success! [[Ushavadata]], son of Dinika, son-in-law of king Nahapana, the Kshaharata Kshatrapa, (...) inspired by (true) religion, in the Trirasmi hills at [[Govardhan Hill|Govardhana]], has caused this cave to be made and these cisterns.|[[:File:Nasik_Cave_inscription_No_10.jpg|Inscription No.10 of Nahapana]], Cave No.10, Nasik<ref>Epigraphia Indica [https://archive.org/stream/EpigraphiaIndica/Epigraphia_Indica p.78-79]</ref>}}
{{blockquote|Success! In the year 42, in the month Vesakha, [[Ushavadata]], son of Dinika, son-in-law of king Nahapana, the Kshaharata Kshatrapa, has bestowed this cave on the [[Samgha]] generally....|[[:File:Nasik Cave inscription No 12.jpg|Inscription No.12 of Nahapana]], Cave No.10, Nasik<ref>Epigraphia Indica [https://archive.org/stream/EpigraphiaIndica/Epigraphia_Indica p.82-83]</ref>}}

According to the inscriptions, Ushavadata accomplished various charities and conquests on behalf of his father-in-law. He constructed rest-houses, gardens and tanks at Bharukachchha ([[Bharuch|Broach]]), Dashapura ([[Mandasor]] in [[Malwa]]), [[Govardhan Hill|Govardhana]] (near [[Nasik]]) and Shorparaga ([[Sopara]] in the [[Thane|Thana]] district).

=====Junnar dedication=====
A dedication in the [[Lenyadri|Lenyadri complex]] of the [[Junnar]] caves (inscription No. 26 in Cave VI of the Bhimasankar group of caves), mentions a gift by Nahapana's prime minister Ayama in the "year 46":

{{blockquote|The meritorious gift.... of Ayama of the Vachhasagotra, prime minister of the King Mahakshatrapa the lord Nahapana|Junnar inscription No. 26, 124 CE<ref name="Sharma">Cultural and Religious Heritage of India: Zoroastrianism, by Suresh K. Sharma, Usha Sharma [https://books.google.com/books?id=bmu3vZOSp_IC&pg=PA114 p.114]</ref>}}

This inscription, the last one of the reign of Nahapana, suggests that Nahapana may have become an independent ruler since he is described as a King.<ref name="Sharma"/>

====International trade: the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea====
Nahapana is mentioned in the [[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]] under the name ''Nambanus'',<ref>"History of the Andhras", Durga Prasad [https://web.archive.org/web/20060422120411/http://202.41.85.234:8000/gw_44_5/hi-res/hcu_images/G2.pdf Source]</ref> as ruler of the area around [[Barigaza]]:

{{blockquote|Beyond the [[Gulf of Kutch|gulf of Baraca]] is that of [[Bharuch|Barygaza]] and the coast of the country of [[Ariaca]], which is the beginning of the Kingdom of Nambanus and of all India. That part of it lying inland and adjoining Scythia is called [[Abiria]], but the coast is called [[Syrastrene]]. It is a fertile country, yielding [[wheat]] and [[rice]] and [[sesame]] oil and clarified butter, [[cotton]] and the Indian cloths made therefrom, of the coarser sorts. Very many cattle are pastured there, and the men are of great stature and black in color. The metropolis of this country is [[Minnagara]], from which much cotton cloth is brought down to Barygaza.|Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Chap. 41 <ref>[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/periplus.html Source]</ref>}}

[[File:Nahapana coin hoard.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Nahapana coin hoard.]]
Under the Western Satraps, Barigaza was one of the main centers of [[Roman trade with India]]. The Periplus describes the many goods exchanged:

{{blockquote|There are imported into this market-town (Barigaza), wine, Italian preferred, also [[Laodicea on the Lycus|Laodicean]] and [[Arabia]]n; [[copper]], [[tin]], and [[lead]]; [[coral]] and [[topaz]]; thin clothing and inferior sorts of all kinds; bright-colored girdles a cubit wide; storax, sweet clover, flint glass, [[realgar]], [[antimony]], gold and silver coin, on which there is a profit when exchanged for the money of the country; and ointment, but not very costly and not much. And for the King there are brought into those places very costly vessels of silver, singing boys, beautiful maidens for the harem, fine wines, thin clothing of the finest weaves, and the choicest ointments. There are exported from these places [[spikenard]], [[costus]], [[bdellium]], [[ivory]], [[agate]] and [[carnelian]], [[lycium]], cotton cloth of all kinds, [[silk]] cloth, mallow cloth, yarn, long pepper and such other things as are brought here from the various market-towns. Those bound for this market-town from [[Egypt]] make the voyage favorably about the month of July, that is Epiphi.|Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Chapter 49.<ref name="Source">[http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/periplus/periplus.html Source]</ref>}}

[[File:Map of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.5|The Western Satraps under Nahapana, with their harbour of Barigaza, were among the main actors of the 1st century CE international trade according to the [[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]].]]
Goods were also brought down in quantity from [[Ujjain]], the capital of the Western Satraps:

{{blockquote|Inland from this place and to the east, is the city called Ozene, formerly a royal capital; from this place are brought down all things needed for the welfare of the country about Barygaza, and many things for our trade: agate and carnelian, Indian muslins and mallow cloth, and much ordinary cloth.|Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Chapter 48.<ref name="Source"/>}}

Some ships were also fitted out from Barigaza, to export goods westward across the Indian Ocean:

{{blockquote|Ships are also customarily fitted out from the places across this sea, from Ariaca and Barygaza, bringing to these far-side market-towns the products of their own places; wheat, rice, clarified butter, sesame oil, cotton cloth (the monache and the sagmatogene), and girdles, and honey from the reed called sacchari. Some make the voyage especially to these market-towns, and others exchange their cargoes while sailing along the coast.|Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Chapter 14.<ref name="Source"/>}}

=====Pompei Lakshmi=====
An Indian statuette, the [[Pompeii Lakshmi]], was found in the ruins of [[Pompei]] and is thought to have been the result of [[Indo-Roman trade relations]] in the 1st century CE.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Pollard|first=Elizabeth Ann|date=7 August 2013|title=Indian Spices and Roman "Magic" in Imperial and Late Antique Indomediterranea|journal=Journal of World History|volume=24|issue=1|pages=1–23|doi=10.1353/jwh.2013.0012|s2cid=145360753|issn=1527-8050}}</ref> There is a possibility that the statuette found its way to the west during the rule of [[Western Satrap]] [[Nahapana]] in the [[Bhokardan]] area, and was shipped to [[Rome]] from the port of [[Barigaza]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Brancaccio |first1=Pia |title=The Buddhist Caves at Aurangabad: Transformations in Art and Religion |date=2010 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-9004185258 |page=64 Note 94 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m_4pXm7dD78C&pg=PA64 |language=en}}</ref>

====Defeat by Gautamiputra Satakarni====
[[File:Saka-Yavana-Palhava inscription in the Nasik cave 3 inscription of Queen Gotami Balasiri.jpg|thumb|The "Saka-[[Indo-Greeks|Yavana]]-[[Indo-Parthians|Palhava]]" ([[Brahmi script]]: 𑀲𑀓 𑀬𑀯𑀦 𑀧𑀮𑁆𑀳𑀯) defeated by [[Gautamiputra Satakarni]], mentioned in the [[Nasik Caves|Nasik cave]] 3 inscription of Queen Gotami Balasiri (end of line 5 of the inscription).<ref name="EI60">{{cite book |last1=Hultzsch |first1=E. |title=Epigraphia Indica Vol.8 |date=1906 |page=60 |url=https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.56654#page/n75/mode/2up}}</ref>]]
[[File:Gautamiputra Yajna Satakarni over Nahapana.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Coin of [[Gautamiputra Yajna Satakarni]] struck over a drachm of Nahapana. Circa 167-196 CE. [[Ujjain]] symbol and three arched mountain symbol struck respectively on the obverse and reverse of a drachm of Nahapana.]]
Nahapana and Ushavadata were ultimately defeated by the powerful Satavahana king [[Gautamiputra Satkarni|Gautamiputra Satakarni]]. Gautamiputra drove the Sakas from Malwa and Western Maharashtra, forcing Nahapana west to Gujarat. His victory is known from the fact that Gautamiputra restruck many of Nahapana's coins (such a hoard was found in Jogalthambi, [[Nashik]] District),<ref>{{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Upinder |title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century |date=2008 |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=9788131711200 |page=383 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&pg=PA383 |language=en}}</ref>) and that he claimed victory on them in an inscription at [[Pandavleni Caves#Cave No.3, "Gautamiputra vihara" (circa 150 CE)|Cave No. 3]] of the [[Pandavleni Caves]] in [[Nashik]]:

{{blockquote|[[Gautamiputra Satkarni|Gautamiputra Satakarni]] (…) who crushed down the pride and conceit of the [[Kshatriyas]]; who destroyed the [[Saka]]s (Western Satraps), [[Yavana]]s ([[Indo-Greek]]s) and [[Pahlava]]s ([[Indo-Parthians]]),<ref>{{cite book |last1=V.D |first1=Mahajan |title=Ancient India |date=2016 |publisher=S. Chand Publishing |isbn=9789352531325 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7TJlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA315 |language=en}}</ref> who rooted out the Khakharata family (the Kshaharata family of Nahapana); who restored the glory of the Satavahana race.|Inscription of Queen Mother Gautami Balashri at [[Pandavleni Caves#Cave No. 3, "Gautamiputra vihara" (2nd century CE)|Cave No. 3]] of the [[Pandavleni Caves]] in [[Nashik]].}}

====Colonization of Java and Sumatra====
It seems that the Indian colonisation of the islands of [[Java]] and [[Sumatra]] took place during the time of the Western Satraps.<ref name="KCS"/> People may have fled the sub-continent due to the conflicts there. Some foundation legends of Java describe the leader of the colonists as [[Aji Saka]], a prince from [[Gujarat]], at the beginning of the [[Shaka era]] (which is also the Java era).<ref name="KCS">Foreign Influence on Ancient India, Krishna Chandra Sagar, Northern Book Centre, 1992 [https://books.google.com/books?id=0UA4rkm9MgkC&pg=PA131 p.131]</ref>

===[[Kardamaka|Kardamaka dynasty]], family of Castana (1st–4th century)===
[[File:Coin of Chastana.jpg|thumb|left|Coin of the Western Satrap [[Chastana]] ({{Circa|130 CE}}). ''Obv:'' King in profile. The legend typically reads "PANNIΩ IATPAΠAC CIASTANCA" (corrupted Greek script), transliteration of the Prakrit ''Raño Kshatrapasa Castana'': "King and Satrap Castana".]]
A new dynasty, called the Bhadramukhas or [[Kardamaka|Kardamaka dynasty]], was established by the "Satrap" [[Chastana|Castana]]. The date of Castana is not certain, but many believe his reign started in the year 78 CE, thus making him the founder of the [[Saka era]].<ref>A. Jha and D. Rajgor: ''Studies in the Coinage of the Western Ksatraps'', Nashik: Indian Institute of Research in Numismatic Studies, 1992, p. 7.</ref> This is consistent with the fact that his descendants (who we know used the Saka era on their coins and inscriptions) would use the date of their founder as their era. Castana was satrap of [[Ujjain]] during that period. A statue found in Mathura together with statues of the [[Kushan Empire|Kushan]] king [[Kanishka]] and [[Vima Taktu]], and bearing the name "Shastana" is often attributed to Castana himself, and suggests Castana may have been a feudatory of the Kushans. Conversely, the [[Rabatak inscription]] also claims Kushan dominion over Western Satrap territory (by mentioning Kushan control over the capital [[Ujjain]]) during the reign of [[Kanishka]] ({{Circa|127}}–150 CE).

====Territory under Chastana====
[[File:Chastana with costume details.jpg|thumb|Statue of Chastana, with costume details. The belt displays designs of horsemen and [[Triton (mythology)|tritons]]/[[anguiped]]s, the coat has a highly ornate hem. Inscription "Shastana" ([[Brahmi script|Middle Brahmi script]]: [[File:Gupta ashoka ss.svg|10px]][[File:Gupta ashoka sta.jpg|13px]][[File:Gupta ashoka n.svg|10px]] ''Ṣa-sta-na'').<ref name="JBO"/> [[Mathura Museum]].<ref>The Dynastic Art of the Kushans, John Rosenfield, University of California Press, xxxiv</ref>]]
The territory of the Western Satraps at the time of Chastana is described extensively by the geographer [[Ptolemy]] in his "Geographia", where he qualifies them as "Indo-Scythians". He describes this territory as starting from [[Patalene]] in the West, to [[Ujjain]] in the east ("Ozena-Regia Tiastani", "Ozene/Ujjain, capital of king [[Chastana]]"),<ref>{{cite book|last1=Allchin|first1=F. R.|last2=Erdosy|first2=George|title=The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States|date=1995|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521376952|page=279|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5kI02_zW70C&pg=PA279|language=en}}</ref> and beyond [[Barigaza]] in the south.

{{blockquote|Moreover the region which is next to the western part of India, is called Indoscythia. A part of this region around the (Indus) river mouth is [[Patalena]], above which is [[Abiria]]. That which is about the mouth of the Indus and the Canthicolpus bay is called [[Saurashtra (region)|Syrastrena]]. (...) In the island formed by this river are the cities Pantala, [[Barbarikon|Barbaria]]. (...) The Larica region of Indoscythia is located eastward from the swamp near the sea, in which on the west of the [[Narmada river|Namadus river]] is the interior city of [[Barygaza]] emporium. On the east side of the river (...) [[Ujjain|Ozena]]-Regia Tiastani (...) [[Minnagara]].|Ptolemy, ''Geographia'', Book Seven, Chapter I}}

====Rudradaman I (130-150 CE)====
=====Victory against the Satavahanas=====
[[File:Coin of Rudradaman.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Silver coin of [[Rudradaman I]] (130–150). '''Obv:''' Bust of Rudradaman, with corrupted Greek legend "OVONIΛOOCVΛCHΛNO". '''Rev:''' Three-arched hill or [[Chaitya]] with river, crescent and sun. [[Brāhmī script|Brahmi]] legend: ''Rajno Ksatrapasa Jayadamasaputrasa Rajno Mahaksatrapasa Rudradamasa'': "King and Great Satrap Rudradaman, son of King and Satrap [[Jayadaman]]" 16mm, 2.0 grams.]]
[[File:Ashoka Rock Edict at Junagadh.jpg|thumb|The [[Junagadh]] rock contains inscriptions of [[Ashoka]] (fourteen of the [[Edicts of Ashoka]]), [[Rudradaman I]] (the [[Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman]]) and [[Skandagupta]].<ref name="Guha">Artefacts of History: Archaeology, Historiography and Indian Pasts, Sudeshna Guha, SAGE Publications India, 2015 [https://books.google.com/books?id=jhqJCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA50 p.50]</ref>]]
Around 130 CE, [[Rudradaman I]], grandson of [[Chastana]], took the title "Mahakshatrapa" ("Great Satrap"), and defended his kingdom from the [[Satavahanas]]. The conflict between Rudradaman and Satavahanas became so gruelling, that in order to contain the conflict, a matrimonial relationship was concluded by giving Rudradaman's daughter to the Satavahana king [[Vashishtiputra Satakarni]]. The inscription relating the marriage between Rudradaman's daughter and [[Vashishtiputra Satakarni]] appears in a cave at [[Kanheri]]:

{{blockquote|Of the queen ... of the illustrious [[Vashishtiputra Satakarni|Satakarni Vasishthiputra]], descended from the race of Karddamaka kings, (and) daughter of the Mahakshatrapa Ru(dra)....... .........of the confidential minister Sateraka, a water-cistern, the meritorious gift.|Kanheri inscription of Rudradaman I's daughter.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Burgess|first1=James|last2=Bühler|first2=Georg|title=Report on the Elura cave temples and the Brahmanical and Jaina caves in western India; completing the results of the fifth, sixth, and seventh seasons' operations of the Archaeological survey, 1877-78, 1878-79, 1879-80. Supplementary to the volume on "The cave temples of India."|date=1883|publisher=London, Trübner & Co.|page=78|url=https://archive.org/stream/reportoneluraca00bhgoog}}</ref>}}

The Satavahanas and the Western Satraps remained at war however, and Rudradaman I defeated the Satavahanas twice in these conflicts, only sparing the life of Vashishtiputra Satakarni due to their family alliance:

{{blockquote|Rudradaman (...) who obtained good report because he, in spite of having twice in fair fight completely defeated Satakarni, the lord of [[Dakshinapatha]], on account of the nearness of their connection did not destroy him.|[[Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman]]<ref name="projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu">[http://projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu/Docs/HISTORY/PRIMARYDOCS/EPIGRAPHY/JunagadhRockInscription.htm Source] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090223182107/http://projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu/Docs/HISTORY/PRIMARYDOCS/EPIGRAPHY/JunagadhRockInscription.htm |date=23 February 2009 }}</ref>}}

Rudradaman regained all the previous territories held by Nahapana, probably with the exception of the southern areas of [[Poona]] and [[Nasik]] (epigraphical remains in these two areas at that time are exclusively Satavahana):<ref name="Sircar">{{cite book|last1=Sircar|first1=D. C.|title=Studies in Indian Coins|date=2005|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=9788120829732|page=118|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m1JYwP5tVQUC&pg=PA118|language=en}}</ref>

{{blockquote|Rudradaman (...) who is the lord of the whole of eastern and western Akaravanti ([[Dasharna|Akara]]: [[Malwa|East Malwa]] and [[Avanti (India)|Avanti]]: [[Malwa|West Malwa]]), the [[Anupa]] country, [[Anarta]], [[Surashtra]], Svabhra (northern [[Gujarat]]), Maru ([[Marwar]]), Kachchha ([[Cutch State|Cutch]]), [[Sindhu]]-[[Sauvira]] ([[Sindh]] and [[Multan]] districts), Kukura (Eastern [[Rajputana]]), [[Aparanta]] ("Western Border" – Northern [[Konkan]]), [[Nishada]] (an aboriginal tribe, [[Malwa]] and parts of [[Central India]]) and other territories gained by his own valour, the towns, marts and rural parts of which are never troubled by robbers, snakes, wild beasts, diseases and the like, where all subjects are attached to him, (and) where through his might the objects of (religion), wealth and pleasure (are duly attained).|[[Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman]].<ref name="projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu"/> Geographical interpretations in parentheses from Rapson.<ref>Rapson, "Indian coins of the British Museum" p.lx</ref>}}

=====Victory against the Yaudheyas=====
Later, the Junagadh rock inscription ({{Circa|150 CE}}) of [[Rudradaman I]]<ref>[http://projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu/Docs/HISTORY/PRIMARYDOCS/EPIGRAPHY/JunagadhRockInscription.htm Junagadh Rock Inscription of Rudradaman I] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090223182107/http://projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu/Docs/HISTORY/PRIMARYDOCS/EPIGRAPHY/JunagadhRockInscription.htm |date=23 February 2009 }}, accessed on 23 March 2007.</ref> acknowledged the military might of the [[Yaudheyas]] "who would not submit because they were proud of their title 'heroes among the Kshatriyas'", before explaining that they were ultimately vanquished by Rudradaman I.<ref>Rosenfield, "The dynastic art of the Kushans", p132</ref><ref>Rapson, "A catalogue of the Indian coins in the British Museum", p.lx</ref>

{{blockquote|Rudradaman (...) who by force destroyed the Yaudheyas who were loath to submit, rendered proud as they were by having manifested their title of 'heroes among all Kshatriyas'.|[[Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman]]<ref name="projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu"/>}}

Recently discovered pillar inscriptions describe the presence of a Western Satrap named ''Rupiamma'' in the [[Bhandara district|Bhandara]] district of the area of [[Vidarbha]], in the extreme northeastern area of [[Maharashtra]], where he erected the pillars.<ref>"Vidarbha also was under the rule of another Mahakshatrapa named Rupiamma, whose pillar inscription was recently discovered at [[Pavni]] in the [[Bhandara district|Bhandara]] district [Mirashi, Studies in Indology, Vol. IV, p. 109 f.]. It records the erection of a chhaya-stambha or sculptured pillar at the place. The Satavahanas had, Therefore, to leave Western Maharashtra and Vidarbha. They seem to have repaired to their capital Pratishthana where they continued to abide waiting for a favourable opportunity to oust the Shaka invaders." [http://www.maharashtra.gov.in/english/gazetteer/nasik/005%20History/001%20AncientPeriod.htm Source]</ref>

Rudradarman is known for his sponsoring of the arts. He is known to have written poetry in the purest of Sanskrit, and made it his court language. His name is forever attached to the inscription by Sudharshini lake.

He had at his court a Greek writer named [[Yavanesvara]] ("Lord of the Greeks"), who translated from Greek to Sanskrit the [[Yavanajataka]] ("Saying of the Greeks"), an astrological treatise and India's earliest Sanskrit work in horoscopy.<ref>Mc Evilley "The shape of ancient thought", p385 ("The Yavanajataka is the earliest surviving Sanskrit text in astrology, and constitute the basis of all later Indian developments in horoscopy", himself quoting [[David Pingree]] "The Yavanajataka of Sphujidhvaja" p5)</ref>

=====Jivadaman (178-181 CE, 197-198 CE)=====
[[File:Jivadaman Saka Era 100 coin.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|A coin dated to the beginning of the first reign of [[Jivadaman]], in the year 100 ([[File:One hundred in the Brahmi script of the Western Satraps.jpg|15px|One hundred in the Brahmi script of the Western Satraps]]) of the [[Saka Era]] (corresponding to 178 CE).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rapson |first1=Edward James |title=Catalogue Of The Indian Coins In The British Museum |date=1967 |page=83 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.533728/page/n295/mode/1up}}</ref>]]
King [[Jivadaman]] became king for the centenary of the [[Saka Era]], in the year 100 (corresponding to 178 CE). His reign is otherwise undocumented, but he is the first Western Satrap ruler who started to print the minting date on his coins, using the [[:File:Brahmi numeral signs.svg|Brāhmī numerals]] of the [[Brāhmī script]] behind the king's head.<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/catalogueofcoins00brit#page/82/mode/2up Rapson, p.cxxiv]</ref> This is of immense value to date precisely Western Satrap rulers, and to clarify perfectly the chronology and succession between them, as they also mention their predecessor on their coins. According to his coins, Jivadaman seems to have ruled two times, once between [[Saka Era]] 100 and 103 (178-181 CE), before the rule of [[Rudrasimha I]], and once between Saka Era 119 and 120 (197-198 CE).

=====Rudrasimha I (180-197)=====
[[File:Western Satrap Coin of Rudrasimha I .jpg|thumb|250px|Coin of the Western Kshatrapa ruler [[Rudrasimha I]] (178–197).
'''Obv:''' Bust of Rudrasimha, with corrupted Greek legend "..OHIIOIH.." ([[Indo-Greek]] style).
'''Rev:''' Three-arched hill or [[Chaitya]], with river, crescent and sun, within [[Prakrit]] legend in [[Brāhmī script|Brahmi]] script: {{center|[[File:Rudrasimha_I,_Brahmi_legend_on_coinage.jpg|250px|Rudrasimha I, Brahmi legend on coinage.]] "King and Great Satrap Rudrasimha, son of King and Great Satrap [[Rudradaman I|Rudradaman]]".<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/catalogueofcoins00brit#page/92/mode/2up Rapson p.92]</ref>]]}}
An inscription of [[Rudrasimha I]] (178–197) was recently found at Setkhedi in [[Shajapur district]], dated to 107 [[Saka Era]], that is 185 CE, confirming the expansion of the Western Satraps to the east at that date.<ref name="Misra">{{cite book|last1=Misra|first1=Om Prakash|title=Archaeological Excavations in Central India: Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh|date=2003|publisher=Mittal Publications|isbn=9788170998747|page=6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o0ISjDDWJwQC&pg=PA6|language=en}}</ref> There is also an earlier inscription related to Saka rule in [[Ujjain]],<ref name="Misra"/> as well as a later one, the [[Kanakerha inscription]], related to Saka rule in the area of [[Vidisha]], [[Sanchi]] and [[Eran]] in the early 4th century.<ref name="Misra"/>

=====Great Satrap Rupiamma (2nd century CE)=====
{{main|Rupiamma}}
A memorial pillar with an inscription in the name of "Mahakshatrapa Kumara [[Rupiamma]]" has been recovered in [[Pauni]] in the central region of [[Vidharba]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Siddham. The Asian Inscription Database, Pauni (पवनी Bhandara district). Memorial Pillar (OBNAG0032) with Inscription (INNAG0031) of Rupiamma |url=https://siddham.network/object/obnag0032/ |language=en}}</ref> and is dated to the 2nd century CE.<ref name="VVM">{{cite journal |last1=Mirashi |first1=V. V. |title=A Pillar Inscription of Mahakshatrapa Rupiamma from Pawni |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |date=1965 |volume=27 |pages=51–54 |issn=2249-1937|jstor=44140583 }}</ref> Although this Great Satrap is not otherwise known from coinage, this memorial pillar is thought to mark the southern extent of the conquests of the Western Satraps, much beyond the traditionally held boundary of the [[Narmada River]].<ref name="VVM"/> The use of the word "Kumara" may also mean that Rupiamma was the son of a Great Satrap, rather than holding the title himself.<ref>"The pillar inscription of Rupiamma from Pauni (1-41) may present a similar example. In it, Rupiamma is described as Mahakhattava-kumära; he is a son or prince of the mahäksatrapa; the title in itself is felt to be sufficient identification" {{cite book |title=Vienna Journal of South Asian Studies |date=1974 |publisher=E.J. Brill |page=21 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uF5OAAAAYAAJ |language=de}}</ref>

====Loss of southern territories to the Satavahanas (end of 2nd century CE)====
The south Indian ruler [[Yajna Sri Satakarni]] (170-199 CE) of the [[Satavahana dynasty]] defeated the Western Satraps in the late 2nd century CE, thereby reconquering their southern regions in western and central India, which led to the decline of the Western Satraps.<ref>"later Satavahana named Yajna Satakarni seems to have conquered the Southern Dominions of the Western Satraps. His coins contain figures of ships, probably indicating the naval power of the Andras. He not only ruled Aparanta, but probably also the eastern part of the Central Provinces". Majumdar, p. 135</ref>

Yajna Sri Satakarni left inscriptions in [[Nasik Caves]], [[Kanheri]] and [[Guntur]], testifying to the renewed extent of Satavahana territory.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sen|first1=Sailendra Nath|title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization|date=1999|publisher=New Age International|isbn=9788122411980|page=174|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA174|language=en}}</ref> There are two inscriptions of Yajna Sri Satakarni at [[Kanheri]], in cave No. 81,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Burgess|first1=James|last2=Bühler|first2=Georg|title=Report on the Elura cave temples and the Brahmanical and Jaina caves in western India; completing the results of the fifth, sixth, and seventh seasons' operations of the Archaeological survey, 1877-78, 1878-79, 1879-80. Supplementary to the volume on "The cave temples of India."|date=1883|publisher=London, Trübner & Co.|page=79|url=https://archive.org/stream/reportoneluraca00bhgoog}}</ref> and in the Chaitya cave No. 3.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Burgess|first1=James|last2=Bühler|first2=Georg|title=Report on the Elura cave temples and the Brahmanical and Jaina caves in western India; completing the results of the fifth, sixth, and seventh seasons' operations of the Archaeological survey, 1877-78, 1878-79, 1879-80. Supplementary to the volume on "The cave temples of India."|date=1883|publisher=London, Trübner & Co.|page=75|url=https://archive.org/stream/reportoneluraca00bhgoog}}</ref> In the [[Nasik Caves]], there is one inscription of [[Sri Yajna Satakarni]], in the 7th year of his reign.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Burgess|first1=Jas|title=Archaeological Survey Of Western India|date=1883|page=114|url=https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.35775/2015.35775.Archaeological-Survey-Of-Western-India}}</ref>

There is a possibility, however, that the areas of [[Poona]] and [[Nasik]] had remained in the hands of the Satavahanas since the time of [[Gautamiputra Satakarni]] after his victory over [[Nahapana]], as there are no epigraphical records of the Kardamakas in this area.<ref name="Sircar"/>

====Rudrasena II (256–278)====
[[File:Rudrasena II Circa 256-278 CE.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|right|[[Rudrasena II (Western Satrap)|Rudrasena II]] (256-278 CE). Head right, wearing close-fitting cap / Three-arched hill; group of five pellets to right.<ref>CNG Coins [https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=322826 Coin image]</ref>]]
{{Location map+
|India
|float = right
|width = 250
|caption = Western Satrap territory extended from the west coast of [[India]] to [[Vidisha]]/ [[Sanchi]] and [[Eran]], from the time of [[Rudrasena II]] (256–278) well into the 4th century.<ref name="Shaw 58"/> Marital alliances with the [[Andhra Ikshvaku|Ikshvaku]] of southern India are mentioned in inscriptions at [[Nagarjunakonda]] (3rd century CE).<ref name="books.google.com">"Another queen of Virapurusha was Rudradhara-bhattarika. According to D.C. Sircar she might have been related to Rudrasena II (c. a.d. 254-74) the Saka ruler of Western India" in {{cite book |last1=Rao |first1=P. Raghunadha |title=Ancient and medieval history of Andhra Pradesh |date=1993 |publisher=Sterling Publishers |isbn=9788120714953 |page=[https://archive.org/details/ancientmedievalh0000ragh/page/23 23] |url=https://archive.org/details/ancientmedievalh0000ragh |url-access=registration |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Government Central Press">{{cite book |last1=(India) |first1=Madhya Pradesh |title=Madhya Pradesh District Gazetteers: Ujjain |date=1982 |publisher=Government Central Press |page=26 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lo5hAAAAIAAJ |language=en}}</ref>
|nodiv = 1
|mini = 1
|relief = yes
|places =
{{location map~ |India |lat=23.53|N |long=77.82|E |label=[[Vidisha]]/ [[Sanchi]]|position=right |label_size=60}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=24.09|N |long=78.16|E |label=[[Eran]]|position=top |label_size=60 }}
{{location map~ |India |lat=23.17|N |long=75.79|E |label=[[Ujjain]]|position=bottom |label_size=60 }}
{{location map~ |India |lat=21.71|N |long=72.99|E |label=[[Bharuch|Barigaza]]|position=left |label_size=60 }}
{{location map~ |India |lat=23.54|N |long=73.12|E |label=[[Devnimori]]|position=top |label_size=60 }}
{{location map~ |India |lat=16.521894|N |long=79.24285|E |label=[[Nagarjunakonda]] (Alliances)|position=bottom |label_size=60|mark=Purple pog.svg}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=20.553333|N |long=75.700278|E |label=[[Ajanta Caves|Ajanta (Viśvasena coinage)]]|position=bottom |label_size=60 |mark=Blue pog.svg}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=20.78|N |long=79.63|E |label=[[Pauni]] ([[Rupiamma|Rupiamma pillar]])|position=right |label_size=60 |mark=Blue pog.svg}}
}}
The Kshatrapa dynasty seems to have reached a high level of prosperity under the rule of [[Rudrasena II (Western Satrap)|Rudrasena II]] (256–278), 19th ruler of Kshatrapa.

A marital alliance between the [[Andhra Ikshvaku]] and the Western Satraps seems to have occurred during the time of Rudrasena II, as the Andhra Ikshvaku ruler Māṭharīputra Vīrapuruṣadatta (250-275 CE) seems to have had as one of his wives Rudradhara-bhattarika, the daughter of "the ruler of [[Ujjain]]", possibly king Rudrasena II.{{sfn|K. Krishna Murthy|1977|p=6}}<ref name="books.google.com">"Another queen of Virapurusha was Rudradhara-bhattarika. According to D.C. Sircar she might have been related to Rudrasena II (c. a.d. 254-74) the Saka ruler of Western India" in {{cite book |last1=Rao |first1=P. Raghunadha |title=Ancient and medieval history of Andhra Pradesh |date=1993 |publisher=Sterling Publishers |isbn=9788120714953 |page=[https://archive.org/details/ancientmedievalh0000ragh/page/23 23] |url=https://archive.org/details/ancientmedievalh0000ragh |url-access=registration |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Subramanian |first1=K. R. |title=Buddhist Remains in Andhra and the History of Andhra Between 225 and 610 A.D. |date=1989 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=9788120604445 |page=82 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vnO2BMPdYEoC&pg=PA82 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Motilal Banarsidass Publ">{{cite book |last1=Majumdar |first1=Ramesh Chandra |title=Vakataka - Gupta Age Circa 200-550 A.D. |date=1986 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=9788120800267 |page=66 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OswUZtL1_CUC&pg=PA66 |language=en}}</ref> According to an inscription at Nagarjunakonda, Iksvaku king Virapurushadatta had multiple wives,{{sfn|K. Krishna Murthy|1977|p=5}} including Rudradhara-bhattarika, the daughter of the ruler of [[Ujjain]] (''Uj(e)nika mahara(ja) balika'').{{sfn|K. Krishna Murthy|1977|p=6}}<ref name="books.google.com"/><ref name="Government Central Press">{{cite book |last1=(India) |first1=Madhya Pradesh |title=Madhya Pradesh District Gazetteers: Ujjain |date=1982 |publisher=Government Central Press |page=26 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lo5hAAAAIAAJ |language=en}}</ref>

The region of [[Sanchi]]-[[Vidisha]] was again captured from the Satavahanas during the rule of Rudrasena II (255-278 CE), as shown by finds of Rudrasena II's coinage in the area.<ref name="Shaw 58" /> The region would then remain under Western Satrap rule until the 4th century CE, as attested by the [[Kanakerha inscription]].<ref name="Shaw 58" />

The last Kshatrapa ruler of the Chastana family was [[Visvasena]] (Vishwasen, r.293–304 CE), brother and successor to [[Bhratadarman|Bhartrdaman]] and son of Rudrasena II. A coin of Visvasena was found in excavations at the [[Ajanta Caves]], in the burnt-brick monastery facing the caves on the right bank of the river [[Waghora]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mitra |first1=Debala |title=Ajanta |date=2004 |publisher=Archaeological Survey of India |pages=[https://archive.org/details/ajanta00mitr/page/94 94]–95 |isbn=978-81-87780-19-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/ajanta00mitr}}</ref>

=== Rudrasimha II dynasty (c. 304–396 CE) ===
[[File:Head of Buddha Shakyamuni LACMA M.79.8.jpg|thumb|Head of Buddha Shakyamuni, [[Devnimori]], [[Gujarat]] (375–400). Derived from the [[Greco-Buddhist art]] of [[Gandhara]], an example of the Western Indian art of the Western Satraps.<ref name="JIABS"/><ref>[http://collections.lacma.org/node/242276 Los Angeles County Museum of Art description]</ref>]]
A new family took over, started by the rule of [[Rudrasimha II]] (r. 304–348 CE). He declared on his coins to be the son of a Lord (Svami) Jivadaman.<ref>Catalogue of the coins of the Andhra dynasty, the Western Ksatrapas, the Traikutaka dynasty, and the "Bodhi" dynasty, by British Museum. Dept. of Coins and Medals; Rapson, E. J. (Edward James) [https://archive.org/details/catalogueofcoins00brit p.170]</ref> His rule is partly coeval with that of other rulers, who were his sons as written on their coins and may have been sub-kings: [[Yasodaman II]] (r. 317–332 CE) and [[Rudradaman II]] (r. 332–348 CE).

;Contributions to Buddhism
Under Rudrasimha II, the Western Satraps are known to have maintained their presence in the [[Central India]]n areas of [[Vidisha]]/[[Sanchi]]/[[Eran]] well into the 4th century: during his rule, in 319 CE, a Saka ruler inscribed the [[Kanakerha inscription]],<ref>Marshall, The Monuments of Sanchi [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.532798 p.392]</ref> on the hill of [[Sanchi]] mentioning the construction of a well by the Saka chief and "righteous conqueror" (''dharmaviyagi mahadandanayaka'') [[Sridharavarman]] (339-368 CE).<ref name="Shaw 58"/> Another inscription of the same Sridhavarman with his military commander is known from [[Eran]].<ref name="Shaw 58"/> These inscriptions point to the extent of Saka rule as of the time of Rudrasimha II.

The construction of Buddhist monuments in the area of [[Gujarat]] during the later part of Western Satrap rule is attested with the site of [[Devnimori]], which incorporates [[vihara]]s and a [[stupa]]. Coins of Rudrasimha were found inside the [[Buddhist]] [[stupa]] of Devnimori.<ref name="Schastok 28">{{cite book|last1=Schastok|first1=Sara L.|title=The Śāmalājī Sculptures and 6th Century Art in Western India|date=1985|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-9004069411|pages=23–31|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jh1fF8HvJmMC&pg=PA24|language=en}}</ref> The Buddha images in Devnimori clearly show the influence of the [[Greco-Buddhist art]] of [[Gandhara]],<ref name="JIABS">The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, Volume 4 1981 Number I [https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/jiabs/article/viewFile/8536/2443 An Exceptional Group of Painted Buddha Figures at Ajanṭā, p.97 and Note 2]</ref> and have been described as examples of the Western Indian art of the Western Satraps.<ref name="JIABS"/> It has been suggested that the art of Devnimori represented a Western Indian artistic tradition that was anterior to the rise of [[Gupta Empire]] art, and that it may have influenced not only the latter, but also the art of the [[Ajanta Caves]], [[Sarnath]] and other places from the 5th century onward.<ref name="Schastok 28"/>

Overall, the Western Satraps may have played a role in the transmission of the [[Gandhara art|art of Gandhara]] to the western [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] region.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Brancaccio|first1=Pia|title=The Buddhist Caves at Aurangabad: Transformations in Art and Religion|date=2010|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-9004185258|page=107|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m_4pXm7dD78C&pg=PA107|language=en}}</ref>

====Sasanian expansion in the northwest====
[[File:Location map of the Sasanian coinage of Sindh.jpg|thumb|Location of the [[Sasanian coinage of Sindh]], circa 400 CE, in relation with the other polities of the time.]]
After a period of control of the areas as far as [[Gandhara]] by the [[Kushano-Sasanians]], the [[Sasanian Empire]] further expanded into the northwest of the subcontinent, particularly in the regions of Gandhara and [[Punjab]], from the time of [[Shapur II]] circa 350 CE.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ghosh |first1=Amalananda |title=Taxila |date=1965 |publisher=CUP Archive |pages=790–791 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0NA3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA787 |language=en}}</ref> Further south, as far as the mouth of the [[Indus river]], the Sasanians exerted some sort of control or influence, as suggested by the [[Sasanian coinage of Sindh]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schindel |first1=Nikolaus |last2=Alram |first2=Michael |last3=Daryaee |first3=Touraj |last4=Pendleton |first4=Elizabeth |title=The Parthian and Early Sasanian Empires: adaptation and expansion |date=2016 |publisher=Oxbow Books |isbn=9781785702105 |pages=127–128 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GqONDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA127 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="RCS">{{cite journal |last1=Senior |first1=R.C. |title=The Coinage of Sind from 250 AD up to the Arab Conquest |journal=Oriental Numismatic Society |date=1991 |volume=129 |issue=June–July 1991 |pages=3–4 |url=http://orientalnumismaticsociety.org/JONS/Files/ONS_129.pdf |access-date=27 September 2019 |archive-date=26 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190926175600/http://orientalnumismaticsociety.org/JONS/Files/ONS_129.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> It is probable that the Sasanian expansion in India, which put an end to the remnants of [[Kushan Empire|Kushan]] rule, was also made in part at the expense of the Western Satraps.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mahajan |first1=Vidya Dhar |title=Ancient India |date=2016 |publisher=S. Chand Publishing |isbn=9789352531325 |page=335 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7TJlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA335 |language=en}}</ref>

====Conquered by the Guptas (c. 335–415 CE)====
{{main|Gupta Empire|Gupta-Saka Wars}}

=====Central India conquered by [[Samudragupta]] (r. 336–380 CE)=====
The Central Indian region around [[Vidisha]]/ [[Sanchi]] and [[Eran]] had been occupied by a Saka ruler named [[Sridharavarman]], who his known from the [[Kanakerha inscription]] at Sanchi, and another inscription with his Naga general at Eran.<ref name="Shaw 58">Buddhist Landscapes in Central India: Sanchi Hill and Archaeologies of Religious and Social Change, c. Third Century BC to Fifth Century AD, Julia Shaw, Routledge, 2016 [https://books.google.com/books?id=IUbUDAAAQBAJ&pg=PR58 p58-59]</ref> At [[Eran]], it seems that Sridharavarman's inscription is succeeded by a monument and an inscription by [[Gupta Empire]] [[Samudragupta]] (r.336-380 CE), established "for the sake of augmenting his fame", who may therefore have ousted Sridharavarman's Sakas in his campaigns to the West.<ref>"During the course of this expedition he is believed to have attacked and defeated the Saka Chief Shridhar Varman, ruling over Eran-Vidisha region. He then annexed the area and erected a monument at Eran (modern Sagar District) "for the sake cf augmenting his fame"." in {{cite book |last1=Pradesh (India) |first1=Madhya |last2=Krishnan |first2=V. S. |title=Madhya Pradesh: District Gazetteers |date=1982 |publisher=Government Central Press |page=28 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7CYLAQAAIAAJ |language=en}}</ref> Sridharavarman is probably the "Saka" ruler mentioned in the [[Allahabad pillar]] inscription of Samudragupta, as having "paid homage" to the Gupta Emperor,<ref name="CII4">{{cite book |last1=Mirashi |first1=Vasudev Vishnu |title=Corpus inscriptionum indicarum vol.4 pt.2 Inscriptions of the Kalachuri Chedi Era |date=1955 |publisher=Archaeological Society of India |pages=605–611 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.3725/page/n321}}</ref> forced to "self-surrender, offering (their own) daughters in marriage and a request for the administration of their own districts and provinces".<ref>Lines 23-24 of the [[Allahabad pillar]] inscription of Samudragupta: "Self-surrender, offering (their own) daughters in marriage and a request for the administration of their own districts and provinces through the Garuḍa badge, by the [[Kushan Empire|Dēvaputra-Shāhi-Shāhānushāhi]] and the Śaka lords and by (rulers) occupying all Island countries, such as Siṁhala and others."</ref>

===== Gujarat campaign of [[Ramagupta]] =====
[[File:Bhadramukhas ruler Rudrasimha III Circa 385-415 CE.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Coin of the last Western Satrap ruler [[Rudrasimha III]] (388–395).]]
[[Rudrasimha III]] seems to have been the last of the Western Satrap rulers.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Cambridge Shorter History of India |publisher=CUP Archive |page=93 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9_48AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA93 |language=en}}</ref> A fragment from the [[Indian classical dance|Natya-darpana]] mentions that the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]] king [[Ramagupta]], the elder brother of [[Chandragupta II]], decided to expand his kingdom by attacking the Western Satraps in [[Gujarat]].

The campaign soon took a turn for the worse and the Gupta army was trapped. The Saka king, Rudrasimha III, demanded that Ramagupta hand over his wife Dhruvadevi in exchange for peace. To avoid the ignominy, the Guptas decided to send Madhavasena, a courtesan and a beloved of Chandragupta, disguised as the queen. However, Chandragupta changed the plan and himself went to the Saka King disguised as the queen. He then killed Rudrasimha and later his own brother, Ramagupta. Dhruvadevi was then married to Chandragupta.

=====Conquests of [[Chandragupta II]] (r. 380–415 CE)=====
[[File:Sanchi, Inscription of Candragupta II..JPG|thumb|The victorious [[Sanchi inscription of Chandragupta II]] (412-413 CE).]]
The Western Satraps were eventually conquered by emperor Chandragupta II. Inscriptions of a victorious [[Chandragupta II]] in the year 412-413 CE can be found on the railing near the Eastern Gateway of the Great Stupa in [[Sanchi]].<ref>Marshall, The Monuments of India [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.532798 p.388]</ref>

{{blockquote|The glorious Candragupta (II), (...) who proclaims in the world the good behaviour of the excellent people, namely, the dependents (of the king), and who has acquired banners of victory and fame in many battles|[[Sanchi inscription of Chandragupta II]], 412-413 CE.<ref>Marshall, The Monuments of India [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.532798 p.388 inscription 833]</ref>}}

The Gupta ruler [[Skandagupta]] (455-467 CE) is known for a long inscription where he describes himself as "the ruler of the earth" on a large rock at [[Junagadh]], in [[Gujarat]], next to the older inscriptions of [[Ashoka]] and [[Rudradaman I]], confirming the Gupta hold on the western regions.<ref>[http://projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu/Docs/HISTORY/PRIMARYDOCS/EPIGRAPHY/JunagadhRockInscription.htm "Junagadh Rock Inscription of Rudradaman", ''Project South Asia''.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090223182107/http://projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu/Docs/HISTORY/PRIMARYDOCS/EPIGRAPHY/JunagadhRockInscription.htm|date=23 February 2009 }}</ref>

Following these conquests, the silver coins of the Gupta kings [[Chandragupta II]] and his son [[Kumaragupta I]] adopted the Western Satrap design (itself derived from the [[Indo-Greeks]]) with bust of the ruler and pseudo-Greek inscription on the obverse, and a royal eagle ([[Garuda]], the dynastic symbol of the Guptas) replacing the [[chaitya]] hill with star and crescent on the reverse.<ref name="CIC">"Evidence of the conquest of [[Saurashtra (region)|Saurastra]] during the reign of [[Chandragupta II]] is to be seen in his rare silver coins which are more directly imitated from those of the Western Satraps... they retain some traces of the old inscriptions in Greek characters, while on the reverse, they substitute the Gupta type ... for the [[chaitya]] with crescent and star." in Rapson "A catalogue of Indian coins in the British Museum. The Andhras etc.", p.cli</ref>
<gallery mode="packed" heights="110" caption="Gupta Empire coins on the model of the Western Satraps" style="border:1px #aaa solid">
File:Silver_Coin_of_Chandragupta_II.jpg|Coin of Gupta ruler [[Chandragupta II]] (r.380–415) in the style of the Western Satraps.<ref name="CIC"/>
File:Silver Coin of Kumaragupta I.jpg|Coin of Gupta ruler [[Kumaragupta I]] (r.414–455) (Western territories).<ref name="CIC"/>
File:Gupta Kings. Skandagupta. AD 455-467.jpg | Coin of Gupta ruler [[Skandagupta]] (r.455-467), in the style of the Western Satraps.<ref name="CIC"/>
</gallery>

The campaigns of Chandragupta II brought an end to nearly four centuries of Saka rule on the subcontinent. This period also corresponds to the wane of the very last [[Kushan Empire|Kushan]] rulers in the [[Punjab]] and the arrival of the [[Kidarites|Kidarite Huns]], the first [[Huna people|Huna]] invaders from the steppes of [[Central Asia]]. Less than a century later, the [[Alchon Huns]] in turn invaded northern India, bringing an end to the [[Gupta Empire]] and the Classical period of India.

==Coinage==
The Kshatrapas have a very rich and interesting coinage. It was based on the coinage of the earlier [[Indo-Greek]] Kings, with Greek or pseudo-Greek legend and stylised profiles of royal busts on the obverse. The reverse of the coins, however, is original and typically depict a thunderbolt and an arrow, and later, a chaitya or three-arched hill and river symbol with a crescent and the sun, within a legend in Brahmi. These coins are very informative, since they record the name of the King, of his father, and the date of issue, and have helped clarify the early history of India.

===Regnal dates===
[[File:Western Satrap Damasena year 153.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Coin of [[Damasena]]. The minting date, here 153 (100-50-3 in [[:File:Brahmi numeral signs.svg|Brahmi script numerals]]) of the [[Saka era]], therefore 232 CE, clearly appears behind the head of the king.]]
From the reigns of [[Jivadaman]] and [[Rudrasimha I]], the date of minting of each coin, reckoned in the [[Saka era]], is usually written on the obverse behind the king's head in [[Brahmi numerals]], allowing for a quite precise datation of the rule of each king.<ref>Rapson CCVIII</ref> This is a rather uncommon case in Indian numismatics. Some, such as the numismat R.C Senior considered that these dates might correspond to the much earlier [[Azes era]] instead.

Also the father of each king is systematically mentioned in the reverse legends, which allows reconstruction of the regnal succession.

===Languages===
[[Kharoshthi]], a script in use in more northern territories (area of [[Gandhara]]), is employed together with the [[Brāhmī script|Brahmi]] script and the [[Greek alphabet|Greek]] script on the first coins of the Western Satraps, but is finally abandoned from the time of [[Chastana]].<ref>Rapson p. CIV</ref> From that time, only the Brahmi script would remain, together with the pseudo-Greek script on the facing, to write the [[Prakrit]] language employed by the Western satraps. Occasionally, the legends are in [[Sanskrit]] instead.

The coins of [[Nahapana]] bear the Greek script legend "PANNIΩ IAHAPATAC NAHAΠANAC", transliteration of the Prakrit "Raño Kshaharatasa Nahapanasa": "In the reign of Kshaharata Nahapana". The coins of [[Chastana|Castana]] also have a readable legend "PANNIΩ IATPAΠAC CIASTANCA", transliteration of the Prakrit "Raño Kshatrapasa Castana": "In the reign of the Satrap Castana". After these two rulers, the legend in Greek script becomes denaturated, and seems to lose all signification, only retaining an aesthetic value. By the 4th century, the coins of [[Rudrasimha II]] exhibit the following type of meaningless legend in corrupted Greek script: "...ΛIOΛVICIVIIIΛ...".<ref>Rapson, "A Catalogue of Indian coins in the British Museum. Andhras etc.", p.cxcii</ref>

===Influences===
[[File:Dharasena, Traikutaka Dynasty.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|An imitation of Western Satrap coinage: silver coin of king [[Dharasena (ruler)|Dahrasena]] (c. 415–455 CE), of the [[Traikutaka dynasty]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rapson |first1=E. J. (Edward James) |title=Catalogue of the coins of the Andhra dynasty, the Western Ksatrapas, the Traikutaka dynasty, and the "Bodhi" dynasty |date=1908 |publisher=London : Printed by order of the Trustees |page=198 |url=https://archive.org/details/catalogueofcoins00brit/page/198/mode/2up?view=theater}}</ref>]]
The coins of the Kshatrapas were also very influential and imitated by neighbouring or later dynasties, such as the Satavahanas, and the [[Gupta Empire|Guptas]]. Silver coins of the Gupta kings [[Chandragupta II]] and his son [[Kumaragupta I]] adopted the Western Satrap design (itself derived from the [[Indo-Greeks]]) with bust of the ruler and pseudo-Greek inscription on the obverse, and a royal eagle ([[Garuda]], the dynastic symbol of the Guptas) replacing the [[chaitya]] hill with star and crescent on the reverse.<ref name="CIC"/>

The Western Satrap coin design was also adopted by the subsequent dynasty of the [[Traikutakas]] (388–456) or the [[Kingdom of Valabhi]] (475–776).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Virji |first1=krishnakumari J. |title=Ancient History Of Saurashtra |date=1952 |page=225 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.57287/page/n249/mode/2up}}</ref>

==Monuments==
Sudarshan Lake of the Satrap period is mentioned in major rock edicts of [[Junagadh]] but no trace of it remains. Six inscription-stones called ''[[Paliya|Lashti]]''s of 1st century were recovered from a hillock near Andhau village in the Khavda region of [[Kutch]] and were moved to the [[Kutch Museum]] in [[Bhuj]]. They are the earliest dated monuments of the Satrap period and were erected in the time of Rudradaman I.<ref name="Sankalia1941">{{cite book|author=Hasmukh Dhirajlal Sankalia|title=The Archaeology of Gujarat: Including Kathiawar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fvAdAAAAMAA|year=1941|publisher=Natwarlal & Company|pages=46}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} [http://www.dli.ernet.in/handle/2015/51876 Alt URL] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170803130738/http://www.dli.ernet.in/handle/2015/51876 |date=3 August 2017 }}</ref>

The large number of stone inscriptions from Kutch and Saurastra as well as hundreds of coins throughout Gujarat are found belonging to the Satrap period. The earlier caves at [[Sana Caves|Sana]], [[Junagadh Buddhist Cave Groups|Junagadh]], [[Dhank Caves|Dhank]], [[Talaja Caves|Talaja]], Sidhasar, Prabhas Patan and Ranapar in the Barada Hills are mostly plain and austere in looks except some carvings in the [[Bava Pyara Caves]] of Junagadh. They are comparable to Andhra-Satrap period caves in Deccan. As they have almost no carvings, the determination of their date and chronology is difficult. The [[Uparkot Caves]] of Junagadh and the [[Khambhalida Caves]] belong to the later years of the Satraps.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Nanavati|first1=J. M.|last2=Dhaky|first2=M. A.|date=1 January 1969|title=The Maitraka and the Saindhava Temples of Gujarat|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.321094|journal=Artibus Asiae. Supplementum|volume=26|pages=15–17|doi=10.2307/1522666|jstor=1522666}}</ref> The ''stupas'' excavated at Boria and Intwa near Junagadh belonged to the Satrap period. The ''stupa'' excavated at Shamlaji probably belonged to this period or to the Gupta period.<ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.280444|title=Journal Of Oriental Institute Baroda Vol.10|last=Nanavati|first=J. M.|date=March 1961|publisher=Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda|editor-last=Sandesara|editor-first=B. J.|volume=X|pages=223–224|chapter=A Kshatrapa Head from Saurashtra|issue=3}}</ref>

==Contribution to Sanskrit epigraphy==
[[File:Inscription No.10 Cave No.10 Nasik caves (longitudinal).jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|The inscription of [[Ushavadata]], son-in-law of [[Nahapana]], runs the length of the entrance wall of one of the Nasik caves, over the doors, and is here visible in parts between the pillars. Actual image, and corresponding rubbing. Cave No.10, [[Nasik Caves]].]]
{{main|Sanskrit epigraphy}}

In what has been described as "the great linguistical [[paradox]] of India", [[Sanskrit]] inscriptions first appeared much later than [[Prakrit]] inscriptions, although Prakrit is considered as a descendant of the Sanskrit language.{{sfn|Salomon|1998|pp=86-87}} This is because Prakrit, in its multiple variants, had been favoured since the time of the influential [[Edicts of Ashoka]] (circa 250 BCE).{{sfn|Salomon|1998|pp=86-87}}

Besides a few examples from the 1st century BCE, most of the early Sanskrit inscriptions date to the time of the [[Indo-Scythian]] rulers, either the [[Northern Satraps]] around [[Mathura]] for the earliest ones, or, slightly later, the closely related Western Satraps in western and central India.{{sfn|Salomon|1998|pp=87-88}}{{sfn|Salomon|1998|pp=93-94}} It is thought that they became promoters of Sanskrit as a way to show their attachment to Indian culture: according to Salomon "their motivation in promoting Sanskrit was presumably a desire to establish themselves as legitimate Indian or at least Indianized rulers and to curry the favor of the educated Brahmanical elite".{{sfn|Salomon|1998|pp=93-94}}

[[File:Junagadh_inscription_of_Rudradaman_(complete).jpg|thumb|left|The [[Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman|Junagadh rock inscription]], inscribed by [[Rudradaman I]] circa 150 CE, is "the first long inscription recorded entirely in more or less standard Sanskrit".{{sfn|Salomon|1998|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=XYrG07qQDxkC&pg=PA89 89]}}]]
In western India, the first known inscription in Sanskrit appears to have been made by [[Ushavadata]], son-in-law of the Western Satrap ruler [[Nahapana]], at the front of Cave no.10 in the [[Nasik Caves]]. The inscription dates to the early 2nd century CE, and has hybrid features.{{sfn|Salomon|1998|p=89}}

{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=300|caption_align=center
| align = right
| direction =horizontal
| header=Scythian warriors
| image1 = Nagarjunakonda Scythian soldier Palace site.jpg
| image2 = Nagarjunakonda Scythian warrior, 2nd century CE.jpg
| footer="[[Indo-Scythian|Scythian]]" soldier, [[Nagarjunakonda]] Palace site, circa 2nd century CE.<ref name=CS>"In Nagarjunakonda Scythian influence is noticed and the cap and coat of a soldier on a pillar may be cited as an example.", in {{cite book |last1=Sivaramamurti |first1=C. |title=Indian Sculpture |date=1961 |publisher=Allied Publishers |page=51 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HL81AAAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref><ref name=AR>"A Scythian dvarapala standing wearing his typical draperies, boots and head dress. Distinct ethnic and sartorial characteristics are noreworthy.", in {{cite book |last1=Ray |first1=Amita |title=Life and Art of Early Andhradesa |date=1982 |publisher=Agam |page=249 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uQXqAAAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=National Portal and Digital Repository: Record Details |url=http://museumsofindia.gov.in/repository/record/nat_del-50-23-25222 |website=museumsofindia.gov.in |language=en}}</ref>
}}
The [[Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman|Junagadh rock inscription]] of Western Satraps ruler [[Rudradaman I]] (c. 150 AD, [[Gujarat]]) is the first long inscription in fairly standard Sanskrit that has survived into the modern era. It represents a turning point in Sanskrit epigraphy, states Salomon, being "the first extensive record in the poetic style" in "more or less standard Sanskrit".{{sfn|Salomon|1998|p=89}} The Rudradaman inscription is "not pure classical Sanskrit", but with few epic-vernacular Sanskrit exceptions, it approaches high classical Sanskrit.{{sfn|Salomon|1998|p=89}} It is important because it is likely the prototype of the extensive Sanskrit inscriptions of the [[Gupta Empire]] era.{{sfn|Salomon|1998|p=89}} These inscriptions are also in the [[Brahmi script|''Brāhmī'' script]].<ref name="Salomon 1998">{{harvnb|Salomon|1998|pp=10, 86–90}}</ref>
During the reign of Rudradaman, circa 150 CE, it is also known that the Greek writer [[Yavanesvara]] translated the [[Yavanajataka]] from Greek to Sanskrit, for "the use of those who could not speak Greek", a translation which became an authority for all later astrology works in India.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Selin |first1=Helaine |title=Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures |date=2013 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=9789401714167 |page=906 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GzjpCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA906 |language=en}}</ref>

The spread of the usage of Sanskrit inscriptions to the south can also probably be attributed to the influence of the Western Satraps, who were in close relation with southern Indian rulers: according to Salomon "a [[Nagarjunakonda]] memorial pillar inscription of the time of King [[Rudrapurusadatta]] attests to a marital alliance between the Western Ksatrapas and the [[Andhra Ikshvaku|Iksvaku]] rulers of Nagarjunakonda".{{sfn|Salomon|1998|pp=93-94}}<ref name="Motilal Banarsidass Publ"/> The [[Nagarjunakonda]] inscriptions are the earliest substantial South Indian Sanskrit inscriptions, probably from the late 3rd-century to early 4th-century CE. These inscriptions are related to Buddhism and to the [[Shaivism]] tradition of Hinduism, and parts of them reflect both standard Sanskrit and hybridised Sanskrit.{{sfn|Salomon|1998|pp=90-91}} An earlier hybrid Sanskrit inscription found on Amaravati slab is dated to the late 2nd-century, while a few later ones include Sanskrit inscriptions along with Prakrit inscriptions related to Hinduism and Buddhism.{{sfn|Salomon|1998|pp=90-91 with footnote 51}} After the 3rd-century CE, Sanskrit inscriptions dominate and many have survived.{{sfn|Salomon|1998|pp=91-93}}

==Possible vassalage to the Kushans==
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction =vertical
| header=Statue of Chastana Mathura Museum
| total_width=180
| image1 = Inscribed Image of Saka King Chstan - Kushan Period - Mat - ACCN 12-212 - Government Museum - Mathura 2013-02-24 5904.JPG
| image2 = Shastana inscription.jpg
| footer=Inscribed statue of Saka King Chastana, with inscription "Shastana" ([[Brahmi script|Middle Brahmi script]]: [[File:Gupta ashoka ss.svg|10px]][[File:Gupta ashoka sta.jpg|13px]][[File:Gupta ashoka n.svg|10px]] ''Sha-sta-na'').<ref name="JBO"/> Kushan period.
}}
It is still unclear whether the Western Satraps were independent rulers or vassals of the [[Kushan Empire]] (30–375 CE). The continued use of the word "[[Satrap]]" on their coin would suggest a recognised subjection to a higher ruler, possibly the Kushan emperor.<ref>"The titles "Kshatrap" and "Mahakshatrapa" certainly show that the Western Kshatrapas were originally feudatories" in Rapson, "Coins of the British Museum", p.cv</ref>

[[File:India 2nd century AD.jpg|thumb|left|The Western Satraps (orange) and the [[Kushan Empire]] (green), in the 2nd century CE]]
Also, a statue of [[Chastana]] was found in [[Mathura, Uttar Pradesh|Mathura]] at the Temple of Mat together with the famous statues of [[Vima Kadphises]] and [[Kanishka]]. The statue has the inscription "Shastana" ([[Brahmi script|Middle Brahmi script]]: [[File:Gupta ashoka ss.svg|10px]][[File:Gupta ashoka sta.jpg|13px]][[File:Gupta ashoka n.svg|10px]] ''Sha-sta-na'').<ref name="JBO">{{cite book |title=Journal of the Bihar and Orissa Research Society |date=1920 |publisher=The Society |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yKZEAQAAMAAJ}} "The three letters give us a complete name, which I read as Ṣastana (vide facsimile and cast). Dr. Vogel read it as Mastana but that is incorrect for Ma was always written with a circular or triangular knob below with two slanting lines joining the knob"</ref> This also would suggest at least alliance and friendship, if not vassalage. Finally Kanishka claims in the [[Rabatak inscription]] that his power extends to [[Ujjain]], the classical capital of the Western Satrap realm. This combined with the presence of the Chastana statue side by side with Kanishka would also suggest Kushan alliance with the Western Satraps.

Finally, following the period of the "[[Northern Satraps]]" who ruled in the area of [[Mathura, Uttar Pradesh|Mathura]], the "Great Satrap" [[Kharapallana]] and the "Satrap" [[Vanaspara]] are known from an inscription in [[Sarnath]] to have been feudatories of the Kushans.<ref name="ReferenceA" />

Generally, the position taken by modern scholarship is that the Western Satraps were vassals of the Kushans, at least in the early period until [[Rudradaman I]] conquered the [[Yaudheyas]], who are usually thought to be Kushan vassals. The question is not considered perfectly settled.
{{clear left}}

== List of rulers ==
{{main|List of Indo-Scythian dynasties and rulers}}
{{Rulers of the Western Satraps}}
;Family tree
[[File:Genealogical table of the Western Satraps.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Genealogical table of the Western Satraps]]

==See also==
*[[History of India]]
*[[Indo-Greek Kingdom]]
*[[Indo-Scythians]]
*[[Indo-Parthians]]
*[[Kushan Empire]]
*[[Rulers of Malwa]]
*[[Abhira people|Abhiras]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}
*Rapson, "A Catalogue of Indian coins in the British Museum. Andhras etc."
*John Rosenfield, "The dynastic art of the Kushans", 1976
*Claudius Ptolemy, "The geography", Translated and edited by Edward Luther Stevenson, Dover Publications Inc., New York, {{ISBN|0-486-26896-9}}
{{refend}}

==Sources==
* {{Cite book | last=Salomon | first=Richard | title=Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the Other Indo-Aryan Languages | publisher=Oxford University Press | place=Oxford | year=1998 | isbn=978-0-19-509984-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XYrG07qQDxkC}}
* {{cite book |author=K. Krishna Murthy |title=Nāgārjunakoṇḍā: A Cultural Study |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4gBSWyLTSzkC&pg=PA1 |year=1977 |publisher=Concept |oclc=4541213 }}

==External links==
*[http://www.katragadda.com/articles/HistoryOfTheAndhras.pdf] History of the Andhras, Prasad 1988 With many references to Western Satrap rule
*[http://coinindia.com/galleries-kshatrapas.html Online catalogue of Western Kshatrapa coins]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20051224062028/http://www.grifterrec.com/coins/india/ancientindia3.html Coins of the Western Kshatrapas]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20061209050033/http://www.maharashtra.gov.in/english/gazetteer/nasik/005%20History/001%20AncientPeriod.htm The Kshatrapas in Nasik]
*[https://www.academia.edu/1563408/The_Origins_of_the_Indian_Coinage_Tradition The Origins of the Indian Coinage Tradition] at [[Academia.edu]]
{{Middle kingdoms of India}}
{{Indo-Scythians}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Western Satraps| ]]
[[Category:States and territories established in the 30s]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in the 5th century]]
[[Category:History of Sindh]]
[[Category:History of Rajasthan]]
[[Category:Dynasties of India]]
[[Category:Satraps]]
[[Category:History of Gujarat]]
[[Category:History of Ujjain]]
[[Category:History of Madhya Pradesh]]

Bengal Army

2026-03-15T08:05:38Z

Ajit3011: Enhanced article with new information

{{Short description|Army of the Bengal Presidency of British India}}
{{See also|Bengal Presidency Army Units}}
{{Use British English|date=November 2011}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}}
{{Infobox military unit
|unit_name=Bengal Army
| image= Flag of the British East India Company (1801).svg
| image_size = 150
|caption=
|allegiance={{flag|East India Company}} (1756-1895) {{flag|British India}} (1895-1908)
|country={{flagicon|East India Company}} [[Company rule in India|Company ruled India]] {{flag|British India}}
|branch=
|type=[[Formation (military)|Command]]
|dates= 1756–1895 (as the Bengal Army) 1895–1908 (as the Bengal Command of the British Indian Army)
|specialization=
|command_structure=[[Presidency armies]]
|size=105,000 (1876)<ref name=raugh>Raugh, p. 55</ref>
|current_commander=
|garrison=[[Nainital]], [[Nainital district]] (1895–1908)<ref>Shah, p. 97</ref>
|battles=
|notable_commanders=
}}
The '''Bengal Army''' was the army of the [[Bengal Presidency]], one of the three presidencies of [[Presidencies and provinces of British India|British India]] within the [[British Empire]].

It was formed in 1756 and underwent various re-organisations, including the creation of irregular infantry and cavalry regiments during the 1840s. It was originally recruited from high-caste Hindus but more diversity was introduced after 1857.

The [[presidency armies]], like the presidencies themselves, belonged to the [[East India Company]] (EIC) until the [[Government of India Act 1858]], passed in the aftermath of the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]], transferred all three presidencies to the direct authority of the [[Monarchy of the United Kingdom|British Crown]]. In 1895 the three presidency armies were merged into the [[British Indian Army]].

==History==
===Origins===

The Bengal Army originated with the establishment of a European Regiment in 1756.<ref>Raugh, p. 46</ref> While the East India Company had previously maintained a small force of Dutch and Eurasian mercenaries in Bengal, this was destroyed when [[Siege of Calcutta|Calcutta was captured]] by the Nawab of Bengal on 30 June that year.<ref>{{cite book|first=Stuart|last=Reid|page=5|title=Armies of the East India Company 1750–1850|date=18 August 2009|publisher=Bloomsbury USA |isbn=978-1-84603-460-2}}</ref>

===East India Company===
[[File:Troops in the East India Company's service, a Sergeant and a Grenadier Sepoy of the Bengal Army, 1812.jpg|thumb|upright|1812 illustration of a Bengal Army sergeant and grenadier]]

In 1757, the first locally recruited unit of Bengal [[sepoys]] was created in the form of the ''Lal Paltan'' battalion. It was recruited from soldiers that had served in the Nawab's Army from Bihar and the Awadh ([[Oudh]]) who were collectively called [[Purbiya]]s. Drilled and armed along British army lines this force served well at the [[Battle of Plassey]] in 1757 and 20 more Indian battalions were raised by 1764. In 1766, the [[Monghyr Mutiny]], quelled by [[Robert Clive]], affected many of the white officers of the Bengal Army.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Martin |first1=Robert Montgomery |title=Our Indian Empire and the Adjacent Countries of Afghanistan, Beloochistan, Persia, Etc., Depicted and Described by Pen and Pencil |year=1879 |publisher=London Print. and Publishing Company |page=305 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IlABAAAAQAAJ |language=en}}</ref>

In his deposition, [[Lieutenant General]] [[Jasper Nicolls]], who was an army commander stationed in India, stated of the Bengal Army's recruitment that:<ref>{{cite book |last1=Barat |first1=Amiya |title=The Bengal Native Infantry: Its Organisation and Discipline, 1796-1852 |date=1962 |publisher=Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyay |page=119 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rsoHAAAAMAAJ&q=%22the+whole+sepoy+army+of+Bengal+is+drawn+from+the+Company%27s+province+of+Bihar+and+Oudh%22}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Parliament. House of Commons. Select Committee on the East India Company |title=Minutes of Evidence Taken Before the Select Committee on the Affairs of the East India Company: And Also an Appendix and Index, Volume 3, Part 1 |date=1832 |publisher=House of Commons |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yCtDAAAAcAAJ&dq=bengal+army+%22behar%22+sepoys&pg=PA1}}</ref>

{{quote|''"It may well be said that the whole sepoy army of Bengal is drawn from the Company's province of Bihar and Oudh, with very few exceptions".''|author=|title=|source=}}

The East India Company steadily expanded its Bengal Army and by 1796 the establishment was set at three battalions of European artillery, three regiments of European infantry, ten regiments of Indian cavalry and twelve regiments (each of two battalions) of Indian infantry.<ref>Mollo, pp. 13–14</ref>

In 1824 the Bengal Army underwent reorganisation, with the regular infantry being grouped into 68 single battalion regiments numbered according to their date of establishment. Nine additional infantry regiments were subsequently raised, though several existing units were disbanded between 1826 and 1843. On the eve of the [[First Afghan War]] (1839–42) the Bengal Army had achieved a dominant role in the forces of the HEIC. There were 74 battalions of Bengal regular infantry against only 52 from Madras, 26 from Bombay and 24 British (Queen's and Company). On average an inch and a half taller and a stone heavier than the southern Indian troops, the Bengal sepoy was highly regarded by a military establishment that tended to evaluate its soldiers by physical appearance.<ref>{{cite book|first=Philip|last=Mason|pages=194–195|title=A Matter of Honour – An Account of the Indian Army, its Officers and Men|year=1986|publisher=Macmillan |isbn=0-333-41837-9}}</ref>

[[File:Bengal Troops on the Line of March (6125141926).jpg|thumb|250px|Bengal troops in the 19th century (1840s)]]
[[File:Bengal Troops on the Line of March (6124600077).jpg|thumb|250px|Bengal infantry on the line of march]]

A new feature in the Bengal Army was the creation of irregular infantry and cavalry regiments during the 1840s.<ref>Mollo, pp. 51-52</ref> Originally designated as "Local Infantry" these were permanently established units but with less formal drill and fewer British officers than the regular Bengal line regiments.<ref>{{cite book|first=Michael|last=Creese|pages=26–27|title=Swords Trembling in Their Scabbards. The Changing Status of Indian Officers in the Indian Army 1757–1947|year=2015|publisher=Helion Limited |isbn=9-781909-982819}}</ref>

The main source of recruitment continued to be high caste Brahmins, Bhumihars and Rajputs from Bihar and Oudh,<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Wagner |first=Kim A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZWlNDwAAQBAJ&dq=kim%20a%20wagner%20rajput%20Bhumihar&pg=PA18 |title=The Skull of Alum Bheg: The Life and Death of a Rebel of 1857 |date=2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-087023-2 |pages=18,22 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{cite book|first=Philip|last=Mason|page=125|title=A Matter of Honour - An Account of the Indian Army, its Officers and Men|year=1986|publisher=Macmillan |isbn=0-333-41837-9}}</ref> although the eight regular cavalry regiments consisted mainly of Muslim [[sowars]] from the Indian Muslim [[Baradari (brotherhood)|biradaris]] such as the [[Ranghar]], [[Shaikhs of Uttar Pradesh|Sheikhs]], [[sayyid|Sayyids]], [[Mughal people|Mughals]], and [[Pathans of Uttar Pradesh|Hindustani Pathans]].<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=VaLfAAAAMAAJ&q=ranghar+lalkhani |title= Defence Journal:Volumes 4-5|page=66 |date=2001 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=fWEeEAAAQBAJ&dq=skinner%27s+horse+muslims+delhi&pg=PA125 |title= Unbattled Fears: Reckoning the National Security |year= 2021 |author= Sumit Walia |page= 125|publisher= Lancer Publishers |isbn= 9788170623311 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=4g8xAQAAMAAJ&q=Three++fourths+of+the+Cavalry+branch+of+the+Bengal+Army+were+recruited+from+the+Muslims+of+various+descriptions+such+as+Hindusthanee+Muhammadans+,+Sheikhs+,+Syuds+,+Moguls+,+Pathans+,+Rangars+(+Rajput+Mussalmans+)+and+Afghans+,+while |title= Calcutta Review 1956 |page= 38 |publisher= University of Calcutta. |date= 1956 }}</ref>

[[File:Skinner's Horse.png|thumb|Skinner's Horse]]

Another innovation introduced prior to 1845 was to designate specific regiments as "Volunteers" – that is recruited for general service, with sepoys who had accepted a commitment for possible overseas duty. Recruits for the Bengal Army who were prepared to travel by ship if required, received a special allowance or ''batta''.<ref>{{cite book|first=Kim A.|last=Wagner|page=37|title=The Great Fear of 1857|year=2014|publisher=Dev Publishers & Distributors |isbn=978-93-81406-34-2}}</ref> Two of these BNI regiments were serving in China in 1857 and so escaped any involvement in the great rebellion of that year.<ref>{{cite book|first=Lt. Gen. Sir George|last=MacMunn|page=100|title=The Armies of India|year=1984|publisher=Crécy |isbn=0-947554-02-5}}</ref> The East India Company's Bengal Army in 1857 consisted of 151,361 men of all ranks, of whom the great majority - 128,663 - were Indians.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Spilsbury|first=Julian|title=The Indian Mutiny|publisher=Orion Publishing Group|year=2007|isbn=9780297856306|location=Jouve, France|pages=9}}</ref>

===Indian Rebellion 1857===
A total of 64 Bengal Army regular infantry and cavalry regiments rebelled during the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]], or were disbanded after their continued loyalty was considered doubtful.<ref name=raugh/> From 1858 onwards the [[Chamar|Chamars]] (outcaste)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Karsten |first=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fh_fAQAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA161 |title=Recruiting, Drafting, and Enlisting: Two Sides of the Raising of Military Forces |date=2013-10-31 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-66150-2 |language=en}}</ref> and the actual high-caste Awadhi and Bihari Hindu presence in the Bengal Army was reduced<ref>{{cite book|first=Saul|last=David|page=377 |title=The Indian Mutiny|date=4 September 2003|publisher=Penguin Adult |isbn=0-141-00554-8}}</ref> because of their perceived primary role as "mutineers" in the 1857 rebellion.<ref name="Boxers">Bickers and Tiedemann, p. 231</ref> The new and less homogeneous Bengal Army was essentially drawn from Punjabi Muslims, Sikhs, Gurkhas, Baluchis and Pathans, although twelve of the pre-mutiny Bengal line infantry regiments continued in service with the same basis of recruitment, traditions and uniform colours as before.<ref>W.Y. Carman, pages 107–108, "Indian Army Uniforms" Morgan-Grampian Books 1969</ref>

A largely unspoken rationale was that an army of diverse origins was unlikely to unite in rebellion.<ref>{{cite book|first=Philip|last=Mason|pages=320 & 326 & 359|title=A Matter of Honour|year=1986|publisher=Macmillan |isbn=0-333-41837-9}}</ref>

===Demise===
[[File:1stEuropeanBengalFusilierspre1862.jpg|right|thumb|Soldiers of the 1st European Bengal Fusiliers, pre-1862]]
[[File:Sepoy of the Indian Infantry, 1900 (c)..jpg|thumb|Sepoy of the 6th Bengal Light Infantry, {{circa|1890s}}.]]
In 1895 the three separate Presidency Armies began a process of unification which was not to be concluded until the Kitchener reforms of eight years later.<ref>{{cite book|first=John|last=Gaylor|page=2|title=Sons of John Company. The Indian & Pakistan Armies 1903–1991|year=1992|publisher=Spellmount |isbn=0-946771-98-7}}</ref>
As an initial step the Army of India was divided into four commands, each commanded by a lieutenant-general. These comprised Bengal, Bombay (including Aden), Madras (including Burma) and Punjab (including the North West Frontier).<ref>{{cite web|title=Northern Command|url=http://indianarmy.nic.in/Site/FormTemplete/frmTempSimple.aspx?MnId=rOVaZ1oDN4Y+6g+B7wVzFA==&ParentID=pR6rWvPTFCtsMyihEuBwFg==|access-date=5 July 2013}}</ref> In 1903 the separately numbered regiments of the Bombay, Madras and Bengal Armies were unified in a single organisational sequence and the presidency affiliations disappeared.<ref>{{cite book|first=John|last=Gaylor|page=3|title=Sons of John Company. The Indian & Pakistan Armies 1903–1991|year=1992|publisher=Spellmount |isbn=0-946771-98-7}}</ref>

The Bengal infantry units in existence at the end of the Presidency era continued as the senior regiments ([[1st Brahmans]] to 48th Pioneers) of the newly unified Indian Army.<ref>Carmen, pp. 225-226</ref>

==Ethnic composition==
The Bengal Army of the East India Company was mainly recruited from high castes living in Bihar and the Awadh.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MMFdosx0PokC&pg=PA308 |title=Rethinking India's Oral and Classical Epics: Draupadi among Rajputs, Muslims and Dalits|first=Alf|last= Hiltebeitel|page=308|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1999|isbn=978-0226340500}}</ref>

Prior to 1857, company military service was most popular in the zamindaris of North and South Bihar with the East India Company signing contracts to raise levies of troops from them.<ref name="Alavi1995">{{cite book |last1=Alavi |first1=Seema |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_qDeAAAAMAAJ&q=The+Sepoys+and+the+Company%C2%A0 |title=The Sepoys and the Company: Tradition and Transition in Northern India, 1770-1830 |date=1995 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780195634846 |pages=51–55}}</ref> Recruits from the [[Rajput]] and [[Brahmin|Brahman]] caste<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bayly |first=Susan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HbAjKR_iHogC&pg=PA203 |title=Caste, Society and Politics in India from the Eighteenth Century to the Modern Age |date=2001-02-22 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-79842-6 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Roy |first=Kaushik |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jpXijlqeRpIC&pg=PA98 |title=India's Historic Battles: From Alexander the Great to Kargil |date=2004 |publisher=Orient Blackswan |isbn=978-81-7824-109-8 |language=en}}</ref> were common and they would use service in the Bengal Army as an opportunity to raise their wealth and status and for this reason, the Bhumihar zamindaris of Bihar became "prime recruiting grounds" for the Army.<ref name= Alavi1995 />

In the 1780s, the Company maintained a major recruiting station in [[Buxar]] with six companies under a Captain Eaton. These recruiting stations in Bihar were kept as "nurseries" which supplied battalions when drafts were made. Other recruiting centres were located in [[Bhagalpur]], [[Shahabad district|Shahabad]], [[Munger district|Monghyr]], [[Saran district|Saran]] and [[Hajipur]].<ref name="Alavi1995" />

Brigadier Troup, who served as the commander of [[Bareilly]], stated of recruitment that the ‘Bengal native Infantry came chiefly from the province of Awadh, Buxar, Bhojpur and Arrah.’<ref name= Alavi1995 />
In 1810, [[Francis Buchanan-Hamilton]] noted in his account of the districts of Bihar, that the number of men absent from [[Shahabad district|Shahabad]] to serve in the Army was 4680. The [[Ujjainiya]] zamindar of Bhojpur also informed him that 12000 recruits from his district had joined the Bengal Army.<ref name= Alavi1995 />

Writing in The Indian Army (1834), [[John Malcolm|Sir John Malcolm]], who had a lifetime's experience of Indian soldiering, wrote: ''"They consist largely of Rajpoots ([[Rajput]]), who are a distinguished race. We may judge the size of these men when we are told that the height below which no recruit is taken is five feet six inches. The great proportion of the Grenadiers are six feet and upwards."''<ref name=":1" />

Both prior to and following 1857, the Bengal Army included what were to become some of the most famous units in India: [[1st Duke of York's Own Skinner's Horse|Skinner's Horse]], the [[Gurkhas]] from the [[Himalayas]] and the [[Corps of Guides (British India)|Corps of Guides]] on the Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa.<ref>'Lumsden of the Guides' (London, 1899) by P. Lumsden and G. Elsmie; p. 28.</ref>

=== Composition in 1856 ===

===Cavalry===

====Bengal Regular Cavalry====
These were:<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2hkoAAAAYAAJ |title=East-India Register and Army List |date=1856 |publisher=W.H. Allen. |pages=90–99 |language=en}}</ref>
*1st Regiment of Light Cavalry
*2nd Regiment of Light Cavalry
*3rd Regiment of Light Cavalry
*4th Regiment of Light Cavalry (Lancers)
*5th Regiment of Light Cavalry
*6th Regiment of Light Cavalry
*7th Regiment of Light Cavalry
*8th Regiment of Light Cavalry
*9th Regiment of Light Cavalry
*10th Regiment of Light Cavalry

====Bengal Irregular Cavalry====
These were:<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2hkoAAAAYAAJ |title=East-India Register and Army List |date=1856 |publisher=W.H. Allen. |pages=181–184 |language=en}}</ref>
[[File:Skinner's Horse at Exercise, 1840 (c).jpg|thumb|Skinner's Horse at Exercis]]
[[File:Colonel James Skinner holding a Regimental Durbar, 1827.jpg|Skinner's Horse Regimental Durbar|thumb]]
[[File:'7th Irregular Cavalry', 1841 (c).jpg|thumb|'7th Irregular Cavalry', 1841 (c)]]
*[[1st Horse (Skinner's Horse)|1st Irregular Cavalry]]
*[[2nd Lancers (Gardner's Horse)|2nd Irregular Cavalry]]
*3rd Irregular Cavalry
*[[3rd Skinner's Horse|4th Irregular Cavalry]]
*5th Irregular Cavalry
*[[4th Cavalry (India)|6th Irregular Cavalry]]
*[[5th Cavalry (India)|7th Irregular Cavalry]]
*[[6th King Edward's Own Cavalry|8th Irregular Cavalry]]
*9th Irregular Cavalry
*10th Irregular Cavalry
*11th Irregular Cavalry
*12th Irregular Cavalry
*13th Irregular Cavalry
*14th Irregular Cavalry
*15th Irregular Cavalry
*16th Irregular Cavalry
*[[7th Hariana Lancers|17th Irregular Cavalry]]
*[[8th Lancers|18th Irregular Cavalry]]

===Artillery===
====Bengal Horse Artillery====
These were:<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2hkoAAAAYAAJ |title=East-India Register and Army List |date=1856 |publisher=W.H. Allen. |pages=76 (Bengal Establishment) |language=en}}</ref>

* 1st Brigade
** 3 European Troops
** 2 Native Troops
* 2nd Brigade
** 3 European Troops
** Native Troop
* 3rd Brigade
** 3 European Troops
** Native Troop

==== Bengal European Foot Artillery (4 companies per battalion) ====
These were:<ref name=":0" />
* 1st Battalion
* 2nd Battalion
* 3rd Battalion
* 4th Battalion
* 5th Battalion
* 6th Battalion

==== Bengal Native Foot Artillery (6 companies per battalion) ====
These were:<ref name=":0" />

*1st Battalion
* 2nd Battalion
* 3rd Battalion

===Engineers===

==== Corps of Engineers ====
These were:<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2hkoAAAAYAAJ |title=East-India Register and Army List |date=1856 |publisher=W.H. Allen. |pages=85 |language=en}}</ref>

==== Corps of [[Bengal Sappers and Miners]] ====
These were:<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2hkoAAAAYAAJ |title=East-India Register and Army List |date=1856 |publisher=W.H. Allen. |pages=89 |language=en}}</ref>

===Infantry===

==== Bengal European Infantry ====
These were:<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2hkoAAAAYAAJ |title=East-India Register and Army List |date=1856 |publisher=W.H. Allen. |pages=100–104 |language=en}}</ref>

*[[101st Regiment of Foot (Royal Bengal Fusiliers)|1st Bengal (European) Fusiliers]]
*[[104th Regiment of Foot (Bengal Fusiliers)|2nd Bengal (European) Fusiliers]]
*[[107th (Bengal Infantry) Regiment of Foot|3rd Bengal (European) Regiment]]

====Bengal Native Infantry====
These were:<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2hkoAAAAYAAJ |title=East-India Register and Army List |date=1856 |publisher=W.H. Allen. |pages=106–179 |language=en}}</ref>
[[File:Bengal-native-army.jpg|thumb|upright|Bengal Native Infantry 1846]]
[[File:Hindu priest garlanding the flags of the 35th Bengal Light Infantry (c.1847) - BL Add.Or.741 (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Purohita|Hindu priests]] garlanding the colours of the 35th Bengal Light Infantry at a [[Presentation of Colours]] ceremony, {{circa|1847}}]]
[[File:Sir John Bennet Hearsey.jpg|thumb|Lieutenant-General Sir [[John Bennet Hearsey]], 2nd (Bengal) Irregular Cavalry (Gardner's Horse). Painted circa 1839.]]
*1st Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*2nd Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry (Grenadiers)
*3rd Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*4th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*5th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*6th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*7th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*8th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*9th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*10th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*11th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*12th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*13th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*14th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*15th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*16th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry (Grenadiers)
*17th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*18th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*19th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*20th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*[[1st Brahmans|21st Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry]]
*22nd Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*23rd Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*24th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*25th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*26th Regiment of Bengal Light Infantry
*27th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*28th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*29th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*30th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*[[2nd Queen Victoria's Own Rajput Light Infantry|31st Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry]]
*[[3rd Brahmans|32nd Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry]]
*[[4th Prince Albert Victor's Rajputs|33rd Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry]]
*34th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*35th Regiment of Bengal Light Infantry
*36th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry (Volunteers)
*37th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry (Volunteers)
*38th Regiment of Bengal Light Infantry (Volunteers)
*39th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry (Volunteers)
*40th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry (Volunteers)
*41st Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*[[5th Light Infantry|42nd Regiment of Bengal Light Infantry]]
*[[6th Jat Light Infantry|43rd Regiment of Bengal Light Infantry]]
*44th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*45th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*46th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*[[7th (Duke of Connaught's Own) Rajputs|47th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry (Volunteers)]]
*48th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*49th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*50th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*51st Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*52nd Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*53rd Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*54th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*55th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*56th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*57th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*58th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*[[8th Rajputs|59th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry]]
*60th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*61st Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*62nd Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*[[9th Gorkha Rifles|63rd Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry]]
*64th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*[[10th Jats|65th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry (Volunteers)]]
*[[1st Gorkha Rifles (The Malaun Regiment)|66th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry (Goorkha Regiment)]]
*67th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry (Volunteers)
*68th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*69th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*[[11th Rajputs|70th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry]]
*71st Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*72nd Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*73rd Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry
*74th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry

===== Bengal Local Infantry =====
These were:<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2hkoAAAAYAAJ |title=East-India Register and Army List |date=1856 |publisher=W.H. Allen. |pages=189–191 |language=en}}</ref>

* [[18th Infantry (British Indian Army)|Calcutta Native Militia]]
* Ramghur Light Infantry Battalion
* Hill Rangers
* New Nusseree (Rifle) Battalion
* Pegu Light Infantry Battalion
* [[2nd King Edward VII's Own Gurkha Rifles (The Sirmoor Rifles)|Sirmoor Rifle Battalion]]
* [[3rd Gorkha Rifles|Kemaoon Battalion]]
* [[6th Queen Elizabeth's Own Gurkha Rifles|1st Assam Light Infantry]]
* [[7th Duke of Edinburgh's Own Gurkha Rifles|2nd Assam Light Infantry]]
* [[44th Merwara Infantry|Mhairwarrah Battalion]]
* Arracan Battalion
* Hurrianah Light Infantry Battalion
* 1st Regiment of Oude Infantry
* 2nd Regiment of Oude Infantry
* Sylhet Light Infantry Battalion

===== Other Infantry Units =====
These were:<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2hkoAAAAYAAJ |title=East-India Register and Army List |date=1856 |publisher=W.H. Allen. |pages=180 |language=en}}</ref>

* [[12th Pioneers|Regiment of Kelat-i-Ghilzie]]
* Sikh battalions
** [[15th Ludhiana Sikhs|Regiment of Loodianah]]
** [[14th King George's Own Ferozepore Sikhs|Regiment of Ferozepore]]

=== [[Punjab Irregular Force]] ===
These were:<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2hkoAAAAYAAJ |title=East-India Register and Army List |date=1856 |publisher=W.H. Allen. |pages=185–187 |language=en}}</ref>

==== Punjab Cavalry ====
* [[11th Cavalry (Frontier Force)|1st Regiment of Punjab Cavalry]]
*[[11th Cavalry (Frontier Force)|2nd Regiment of Punjab Cavalry]]
*[[12th Cavalry (Frontier Force)|3rd Regiment of Punjab Cavalry]]
*4th Regiment of Punjab Cavalry
*[[12th Cavalry (Frontier Force)|5th Regiment of Punjab Cavalry]]

==== Punjab Infantry ====
*[[55th Coke's Rifles (Frontier Force)|1st Regiment of Punjab Infantry, Punjab Frontier Force]]
*[[56th Punjabi Rifles (Frontier Force)|2nd Regiment of Punjab Infantry, Punjab Frontier Force]]
*3rd Regiment of Punjab Infantry, [[Punjab Irregular Force|Punjab Frontier Force]]
*[[57th Wilde's Rifles|4th Regiment of Punjab Infantry, Punjab Frontier Force]]
*[[58th Vaughan's Rifles (Frontier Force)|5th Regiment of Punjab Infantry, Punjab Frontier Force]]
*[[59th Scinde Rifles (Frontier Force)|Scinde Rifle Corps]]

==== Sikh Corps ====
*[[51st Sikhs (Frontier Force)|1st Regiment of Sikh Infantry]]
*[[52nd Sikhs (Frontier Force)|2nd Regiment of Sikh Infantry]]
*[[53rd Sikhs (Frontier Force)|3rd Regiment of Sikh Infantry]]
*[[54th Sikhs (Frontier Force)|4th Regiment of Sikh Infantry]]
*[[Corps of Guides (India)|Corps of Guides]]

=== Other Units ===
These were:<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2hkoAAAAYAAJ |title=East-India Register and Army List |date=1856 |publisher=W.H. Allen. |pages=192–196 |language=en}}</ref>

* Nagpore Irregular Force<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2hkoAAAAYAAJ |title=East-India Register and Army List |date=1856 |publisher=W.H. Allen. |pages=188 |language=en}}</ref>
** Cavalry Regiment
** Artillery
** 1st Infantry
** 2nd Infantry
** 3rd Infantry
* Malwa Bheel Corps
* Meywar Bheel Corps
* Sebundy Corps of Sappers and Miners
* The Shekhawatee Brigade (Cavalry, Artillery, [[13th Rajputs (The Shekhawati Regiment)|Infantry]])
* The Joudpore Legion (Cavalry, Artillery, Infantry)
* Gwalior Contingent<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2hkoAAAAYAAJ |title=East-India Register and Army List |date=1856 |publisher=W.H. Allen. |pages=193–194 |language=en}}</ref>
** 1st Cavalry
** 2nd Cavalry
** Artillery
** 1st Infantry
** 2nd Infantry
** 3rd Infantry
** 4th Infantry
** 5th Infantry
** 6th Infantry
** 7th Infantry
* Malwa Contingent (Cavalry, Artillery, Infantry)
* Bhopal Contingent (Cavalry, Artillery, Infantry)
* Hyderabad Contingent<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2hkoAAAAYAAJ |title=East-India Register and Army List |date=1856 |publisher=W.H. Allen. |pages=195–196 |language=en}}</ref>
** 1st Cavalry
** 2nd Cavalry
** 3rd Cavalry
** 4th Cavalry
** Artillery
** [[94th Russell's Infantry|1st Infantry]]
** [[95th Russell's Infantry|2nd Infantry]]
** [[96th Berar Infantry|3rd Infantry]]
** [[97th Deccan Infantry|4th Infantry]]
** [[98th Infantry|5th Infantry]]
** [[99th Deccan Infantry|6th Infantry]]
* Kotah Contingent (Cavalry, Artillery, Infantry)

==Units raised during 1857 Rebellion==
===Cavalry===

====Bengal European Cavalry====
These were:<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ygMLAQAAIAAJ&pg=PP13 |title=The India Office List |date=1859 |publisher=H.M. Stationery Office |pages=90-99 (Bengal Establishment) |language=en}}</ref>
*1st European Light Cavalry
*2nd European Light Cavalry
*3rd European Light Cavalry
*4th European Light Cavalry
*5th European Light Cavalry

====Sikh Irregular Cavalry====
These were:<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ygMLAQAAIAAJ&pg=PP13 |title=The India Office List |date=1859 |publisher=H.M. Stationery Office |pages=184* |language=en}}</ref>
*1st Sikh Irregular Cavalry
*2nd Sikh Irregular Cavalry
*3rd Sikh Irregular Cavalry
*4th Sikh Irregular Cavalry

===Infantry===

==== Bengal European Infantry ====
These were:<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ygMLAQAAIAAJ&pg=PP13 |title=The India Office List |date=1859 |publisher=H.M. Stationery Office |pages=106–111 |language=en}}</ref>

*4th European Infantry
*5th European Infantry
*6th European Infantry

==== Bengal Local Infantry ====
These were:<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ygMLAQAAIAAJ&pg=PP13 |title=The India Office List |date=1859 |publisher=H.M. Stationery Office |pages=189 (Bengal Establishment) |language=en}}</ref>

* Calcutta Volunteer Guards (Cavalry, Artillery, Infantry)

==== Other Infantry Units ====

* Irregular Regiment, Ferozepore<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ygMLAQAAIAAJ&pg=PP13 |title=The India Office List |date=1859 |publisher=H.M. Stationery Office |pages=180 |language=en}}</ref>

=== [[Punjab Irregular Force]] ===

==== Punjab Infantry ====
These were:<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ygMLAQAAIAAJ&pg=PP13 |title=The India Office List |date=1859 |publisher=H.M. Stationery Office |pages=187a, 187b, 187c (Bengal Establishment) |language=en}}</ref>
*[[19th Punjabis|7th Regiment of Punjab Infantry]]
*8th Regiment of Punjab Infantry
*9th Regiment of Punjab Infantry
*10th Regiment of Punjab Infantry
*11th Regiment of Punjab Infantry
*12th Regiment of Punjab Infantry
*13th Regiment of Punjab Infantry
*14th Regiment of Punjab Infantry
*15th Regiment of Punjab Infantry
*16th Regiment of Punjab Infantry
*17th Regiment of Punjab Infantry
*18th Regiment of Punjab Infantry
*19th Regiment of Punjab Infantry
*20th Regiment of Punjab Infantry
*21st Regiment of Punjab Infantry
*22nd Regiment of Punjab Infantry
*23rd Regiment of Punjab Infantry
*24th Regiment of Punjab Infantry
*25th Regiment of Punjab Infantry

==== Sikh Corps ====
*Sikh Volunteers<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ygMLAQAAIAAJ&pg=PP13 |title=The India Office List |date=1859 |publisher=H.M. Stationery Office |pages=185 (Bengal Establishment) |language=en}}</ref>

=== Other Units ===
These were:<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ygMLAQAAIAAJ&pg=PP13 |title=The India Office List |date=1859 |publisher=H.M. Stationery Office |pages=187d, 187e, 187f (Bengal Establishment) |language=en}}</ref>

* Muneepoor Regiment
* Kamroop Regiment
* Mhair Regiment
* Peshawur Light Horse
* Lahore Light Horse
* Camel Corps
* Beatson's Horse
** 1st Regiment
** 2nd Regiment
* Rohilcund Horse
* Goorkha Force
* Extra Goorkha Regiment
* Irregular Horse
* Mahratta Horse
** 1st Regiment
** 2nd Regiment
* Hodson's Horse
** 1st Regiment
** 2nd Regiment
** 3rd Regiment
* Mynpoorie Irregular Horse

== Composition in 1864 ==

=== Cavalry ===
These were:<ref>{{Cite web |title=The India office list 1864:2. |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.$b582714&seq=182&view=2up |access-date=2024-08-25 |website=HathiTrust |pages=134–139 |language=en}}</ref>

* 1st Regiment of Bengal Cavalry
* 2nd Regiment of Bengal Cavalry
* 3rd Regiment of Bengal Cavalry
* 4th Regiment of Bengal Cavalry
* 5th Regiment of Bengal Cavalry
* 6th Regiment of Bengal Cavalry
* 7th Regiment of Bengal Cavalry
* 8th Regiment of Bengal Cavalry
* 9th Regiment of Bengal Cavalry
* 10th Regiment of Bengal Cavalry
* 11th Regiment of Bengal Cavalry
* 12th Regiment of Bengal Cavalry
* 13th Regiment of Bengal Cavalry
* 14th Regiment of Bengal Cavalry
* 15th Regiment of Bengal Cavalry
* 16th Regiment of Bengal Cavalry
* 17th Regiment of Bengal Cavalry
* 18th Regiment of Bengal Cavalry
* 19th Regiment of Bengal Cavalry
* Lahore Light Horse
* 1st Regiment of Central India Horse
* 2nd Regiment of Central India Horse

=== Artillery ===
These were:<ref>{{Cite web |title=The India office list 1864:2. |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.$b582714&seq=164&view=2up |access-date=2024-08-25 |website=HathiTrust |page=121 |language=en}}</ref>

==== Royal Horse Artillery ====

* C Brigade
* F Brigade

==== Royal Artillery ====

* 16th Brigade
* 19th Brigade
* 22nd Brigade
* 24th Brigade
* 25th Brigade

=== Engineers ===

* Royal Engineers<ref>{{Cite web |title=The India office list 1864:2. |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.$b582714&seq=164&view=2up |access-date=2024-08-25 |website=HathiTrust |page=130 |language=en}}</ref>
* Corps of Sappers and Miners<ref>{{Cite web |title=The India office list 1864:2. |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.$b582714&seq=164&view=2up |access-date=2024-08-25 |website=HathiTrust |page=133 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Infantry ===
These were:<ref>{{Cite web |title=The India office list 1864:2. |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.$b582714&seq=184&view=2up |access-date=2024-08-25 |website=HathiTrust |pages=140–152 |language=en}}</ref>

* 1st Native Infantry
* 2nd Native Infantry
* 3rd Native Infantry
* 4th Native Infantry (Volunteer Corps)
* 5th Native Infantry
* 6th Native (Light) Infantry
* 7th Native Infantry
* 8th Native Infantry
* 9th Native Infantry
* 10th Native Infantry
* 11th Native Infantry
* 12th Native Infantry
* 13th Native Infantry
* 14th Native Infantry
* 15th Native Infantry
* 16th Native Infantry
* 17th Native Infantry
* 18th Native Infantry
* 19th Native Infantry
* 20th Native Infantry
* 21st Native Infantry
* 22nd Native Infantry
* 23rd Native Infantry
* 24th Native Infantry
* 25th Native Infantry
* 26th Native Infantry
* 27th Native Infantry
* 28th Native Infantry
* 29th Native Infantry
* 30th Native Infantry
* 31st Native Infantry
* 32nd Native Infantry
* 33rd Native Infantry
* 34th Native Infantry
* 35th Native Infantry
* 36th Native Infantry
* 37th Native Infantry
* 38th Native Infantry
* 39th Native Infantry
* 40th Native Infantry
* 41st Native Infantry
* 42nd Native Infantry
* 43rd Native Infantry
* 44th Native Infantry
* 45th Native Infantry
* 1st Goorkha Regiment
* 2nd Goorkha Regiment
* 3rd Goorkha Regiment
* 4th Goorkha Regiment
* 5th Goorkha Regiment

=== Punjab Irregular Force ===

==== Sikh Infantry ====
These were:<ref>{{Cite web |title=The India office list 1864:2. |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.$b582714&seq=184&view=2up |access-date=2024-08-25 |website=HathiTrust |pages=153–154 |language=en}}</ref>

* 1st Regiment
* 2nd Regiment
* 3rd Regiment
* 4th Regiment

==== Punjab Cavalry ====
These were:<ref>{{Cite web |title=The India office list 1864:2. |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.$b582714&seq=184&view=2up |access-date=2024-08-25 |website=HathiTrust |pages=154–155 |language=en}}</ref>

* 1st Regiment
* 2nd Regiment
* 3rd Regiment
* 4th Regiment
* 5th Regiment

==== Punjab Infantry ====
These were:<ref>{{Cite web |title=The India office list 1864:2. |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.$b582714&seq=198&view=2up |access-date=2024-08-25 |website=HathiTrust |pages=155–156 |language=en}}</ref>

* 1st Punjab Infantry
* 2nd Punjab Infantry
* 3rd Punjab Infantry
* 4th Punjab Infantry
* 5th Punjab Infantry
* 6th Punjab Infantry

==== Corps of Guides ====

=== Other units ===
These were:<ref>{{Cite web |title=The India office list 1864:2. |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.$b582714&seq=294&view=2up |access-date=2024-08-25 |website=HathiTrust |pages=157–161 |language=en}}</ref>

* Malwa Bheel Corps
* Meywar Bheel Corps
* Sebundy Corps of Sappers and Miners
* East Indian Regiment
* Erinpoora Irregular Force (Cavalry and Infantry)
* Deolee Irregular Force (Cavalry and Infantry)
* [[9th Bhopal Infantry|Bhopaul Levy]]
* '''Hyderabad Contingent'''<ref>{{Cite web |title=The India office list 1864:2. |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.$b582714&seq=294&view=2up |access-date=2024-08-25 |website=HathiTrust |pages=240–241 |language=en}}</ref>
** Artillery
*** 1st Company
*** 2nd Company
*** 3rd Company
*** 4th Company
** 1st Cavalry
** 2nd Cavalry
** 3rd Cavalry
** 4th Cavalry
** 1st Infantry
** 2nd Infantry
** 3rd Infantry
** 4th Infantry
** 5th Infantry
** 6th Infantry

==Commanders==
Because the Bengal Army was the largest of the three Presidency Armies, its Commander-in-Chief was, from 1853 to 1895, also [[Commander-in-Chief, India]].<ref>Raugh, p. 45</ref> 
'''Commander-in-Chief, Bengal Command'''
* Lieutenant-General [[William Elles|Sir William Elles]] (1895–1896)
* Lieutenant-General [[Baker Russell|Sir Baker Russell]] (1896–1898)
* Lieutenant-General [[George Luck|Sir George Luck]] (1898–1903)
* Lieutenant-General [[Alfred Gaselee|Sir Alfred Gaselee]] (1903–1907)

== Table of Organisation ==
The following data has been retrieved from The Quarterly Indian Army List for 1 January 1901. This date was chosen for being in a suitable time period at the end of the Bengal Army (divided at this time into Bengal and Punjab Commands).
{| class="wikitable"
!
!British personnel
!Indian Officers
!Other Ranks
!Total
|-
! rowspan="2" |Native Cavalry Regiment (Bengal and Punjab)<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Authority Of The Council |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.284978/page/n937/mode/2up |title=Indian Army List For January I -1901 |date=1901 |pages=945}}</ref>
| rowspan="2" |Commandant
4 Squadron Commanders
5 Squadron Officers
Adjudant
Medical Officer
| rowspan="2" |Risaldar-Major
3 Risaldars
5 Ressaidars (including Wardi-Major)
8 Jamadars
|8 Kot-Daffadars
54 Daffadars
| rowspan="2" |637 per regiment
|-
|519 Sowars (504 horsemen, 8 camel riders, 3 clerks 4 Ward Orderlies)
8 Trumpeters
Farrier-Major, 16 Farriers
Salutri, Assistant Salutri
|-
! rowspan="2" |Corps of Guides<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Authority Of The Council |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.284978/page/n937/mode/2up |title=Indian Army List For January I -1901 |date=1901 |pages=947}}</ref>
| rowspan="2" |Commandant
3 Squadron Commanders
4 Squadron Officers
4 Double-company Commanders
5 Double-company Officers
2 Adjudants (1 each for cavalry and infantry)
Quartermaster
Medical Officer
| rowspan="2" |Risaldar Major, Subadar Major
2 Risaldars
4 Ressaidars (including Wardi-Major)
7 Subadars
14 Jamadars
|6 Kot Daffadars, 40 Havildars
42 Daffadars, 40 Naiks
| rowspan="2" |1402 total
|-
|402 Sowars (391 horsemen, 8 camel riders, 3 Ward Orderlies)
800 sepoys (including 4 Ward Orderlies)
6 Trumpeters, 16 Buglers
|-
! rowspan="2" |Mountain Artillery Battery<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Authority Of The Council |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.284978/page/n937/mode/2up |title=Indian Army List For January I -1901 |date=1901 |pages=943}}</ref>
| rowspan="2" |Captain
4 Subalterns
| rowspan="2" |Subadar
3 Jamadars
|Havildar Major, Pay Havildar, 10 Havildars
3 Daffadars, 13 Naiks
| rowspan="2" |373 per battery
|-
|114 Gunners
26 Muleteers
191 Drivers
2 Trumpeters
Salutri
2 Shoeing Smiths
|-
! rowspan="2" |Punjab Garrison Artillery<ref name=":02" />
| rowspan="2" |Captain
| rowspan="2" |Subadar
Jamadar
|6 Havildars
6 Naiks
| rowspan="2" |76 total
|-
|60 Gunners
Trumpeter
|-
! rowspan="2" |Corps of Bengal Sappers and Miners<ref name=":12">{{Cite book |last=Authority Of The Council |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.284978/page/n937/mode/2up |title=Indian Army List For January I -1901 |date=1901 |pages=946}}</ref>
|Commandant
2 Superintendents
Adjudant
10 Company Commanders
10 Company Officers
Medical Officer
| rowspan="2" |10 Subadars
18 Jamadars
|67 Havildars
101 Naiks
| rowspan="2" |1872 total
|-
|Warrant Officer, Regimental Sergeant Major
Regimental Quartermaster Sergeant, 2 Quartermaster Segreant Instructors, 4 Company Sergeant Majors
40 British Non-commissioned Officers
|1404 Sappers
90 Drivers
18 Buglers
90 Recruit and Pension Boys
|-
! rowspan="2" |Native Infantry Regiment (Bengal, Gurkha and Punjab)<ref name=":2" />
| rowspan="2" |Commandant
4 Double-company Commanders
4 Double-company Officers
Adjudant
Quartermaster
Medical Officer
| rowspan="2" |Subadar Major
7 Subadars
8 Jamadars
|40 Havildars
40 Naiks
| rowspan="2" |924 per regiment
|-
|800 Sepoys (including 3 clerks and 4 Ward Orderlies)
16 Drummers
|}
Each Mountain Artillery battery was authorised 10 horses and 233 mules.<ref name=":02" />

The Bengal Sappers and Miners were authorised 90 mules.<ref name=":12" />

Gurkha Regiments were authorised 14 or 20 supernumerary personnel per battalion. The 2nd (31st before 1860) Bengal Light Infantry and 2nd Gurkha Rifles were authorised 1 extra Jamadar to carry their respective honorary colours. Pioneer Regiments were authorised 24 Artificers each (2 Havildars, 2 Naik and 20 Sepoys) each. The Havildar and Naik Artificers were supernumerary NCOs.<ref name=":2" />

==See also==
* [[Presidency armies]]
* [[Bombay Army]]
* [[Madras Army]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
*{{cite book| first1 = Robert A. |last1= Bickers| first2= R. G. |last2=Tiedemann| title = The Boxers, China, and the World| publisher = Rowman & Littlefield| year = 2007| isbn = 978-0-7425-5395-8}}
*{{cite book|last=Carmen|title=Indian Army Uniforms under the British from the 18th century to 1947. Artillery, Engineers and Infantry|year=1969|publisher=Morgan-Grampian Books Ltd|isbn=978-0-249-43956-4}}
*{{cite book|first=Boris|last=Mollo|title=The Indian Army|publisher=Littlehampton Book Services Ltd|year=1981|isbn=978-0-7137-1074-8}}
*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HvE_Pa_ZlfsC&pg=PA55 |last=Raugh|first=Harold|title=The Victorians at War, 1815–1914: An Encyclopedia of British Military History|year=2004|publisher=ABC-CLIO Ltd|isbn=978-1-57607-925-6}}
*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TNpeJWBT0fwC&pg=PA97 |last=Shah|first=Giriraja |title=Nainital: The Land of Trumpet and Song; Based on J.M. Clay's Book on Nainital|year=1999|publisher=Shakti Malik|isbn=978-81-7017-324-3}}

==Further reading==
*Stubbs, Francis W. Major-General., ''History of the Organization, Equipment, And War Services of the Regiment of Bengal Artillery, Compiled From Published Works, Official Records, And Various Private Sources'' (London. Volumes 1 & 2. Henry S. King, 1877. Volume 3. W.H. Allen, 1895). A full detailed history with maps, appendices, etc.
*Cardew, F. G., ''Sketch of the Services of the Bengal Native Army: To the Year 1895'' (Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, 1903, reprinted by Naval and Military Press Ltd., 2005, {{ISBN|1-84574-186-2}}) Contents: Chapter I: 1599–1767; II. 1767–1796; III. 1797–1814; IV. 1814–1824; V. 1824–1838; VI. 1838–1845; VII. 1845–1857; VIII. 1857–1861; IX. 1862–1979; X. 1878–1881; XI. 1882–1890; XII. 1891–1895; Appendix: I. A Chronological List of the Corps of the Bengal Army, Showing particulars of their origin and their subsequent history; II. Existing Corps of the Bengal Army, Showing Dates of Raising and Changes in their Titles; III. Commanders-in-chief of the Bengal Army; IV. Chronology list of the Services of the Bengal Native Army; Index.
* {{cite book|last=Malleson|first=George Bruce|author-link=George Bruce Malleson|title=[[s:The Mutiny of the Bengal Army|The Mutiny of the Bengal Army]]|year=1857|publisher=Bosworth and Harrison|location=London}}
* Stanley, Peter, ''White Mutiny: British Military Culture in India 1825–75'' (Christopher Hurst, London, 1998).
* J.B.M. Frederick, ''Lineage Book of British Land Forces 1660–1978'', Vol II, Wakefield, Microform Academic, 1984, {{ISBN|1-85117-009-X}}.

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Military of British India]]
[[Category:Military history of the British East India Company]]
[[Category:History of the Bengal Engineer Group]]
[[Category:Bengal Presidency]]
[[Category:1756 establishments in the British Empire]]
[[Category:Military units and formations established in 1756]]

2012 Delhi gang rape and murder

2026-03-08T06:01:35Z

Ajit3011: refine content for accuracy and improved wording

{{Short description|Gang rape, torture, murder and assault incident in India}}
{{Redirect|Nirbhaya|the 2021 film|Nirbhaya (film)}}
{{Good article}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2022}}
{{Infobox civilian attack
| title = 2012 Delhi gang rape and murder
| image = Silent Protest at India Gate.jpg
| image_upright = 1.15
| caption = Protesters at [[India Gate]] in Delhi
| date = {{start date|2012|12|16|df=y}}
| time =
| location = [[Delhi]], [[India]]
| injuries = 2
| victims = Jyoti Singh, Avnindra Pratap Pandey
| fatalities = 1
| type = [[Femicide]], [[torture murder]], [[gang rape]], [[kidnapping]], [[robbery]], [[assault]]
| perps = * Akshay Thakur
* Mukesh Singh
* a juvenile, 17 years at that time
* Pawan Gupta
* Ram Singh (died before trial)
* Vinay Sharma
| verdict = [[Guilt (law)|Guilty on all counts]]
| convictions = [[Rape]], [[Murder in Indian law|murder]], [[Section 377#India|unnatural offences]], [[Tampering with evidence#Spoliation|destruction of evidence]]<ref name="NYT3113">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/01/04/world/asia/murder-charges-filed-against-5-men-in-india-gang-rape.html|title=Murder Charges Are Filed Against 5 Men in New Delhi Gang Rape|work=[[The New York Times]]|first=Gardiner|last=Harris|date=3 January 2013|access-date=3 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130106112125/http://www.nytimes.com/2013/01/04/world/asia/murder-charges-filed-against-5-men-in-india-gang-rape.html?hp&_r=0|archive-date=6 January 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>{{Infobox event
| title =
| child = yes
| sentence =
* [[Capital punishment in India|Death penalty]] for four adult convicts
* The juvenile was sentenced to the maximum of three years in prison under [[Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2000|Juvenile Justice laws]] when the crime was committed<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.india.com/news/india/nirbhaya-gangrape-case-juvenile-conviwas-working-as-cook-with-different-identity-2103108/|title=Nirbhaya gangrape case: Juvenile convict now working as cook with different identity|website=india.com|access-date=6 May 2017|language=en|archive-date=31 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331135230/https://www.india.com/news/india/nirbhaya-gangrape-case-juvenile-convict-mohammad-afroz-was-working-as-cook-with-different-identity-2103108/|url-status=live}}</ref>
| outcome = Passage of the Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Amendment Bill 2015
}}
}}

The '''2012 Delhi gang rape and murder''', commonly known as the '''Nirbhaya case''', involved the gang rape and fatal assault that occurred on 16 December 2012 in [[Munirka]], a neighbourhood in [[Delhi]]. The incident took place when '''Jyoti Singh''', a 22-year-old [[physical therapy]] intern, was [[Battery (crime)|beaten]], [[gang rape]]d, and [[torture]]d in a private bus in which she was travelling with her friend, '''Avnindra Pratap Pandey'''. There were six others in the bus, including the driver, all of whom raped the woman and beat her friend. She was rushed to [[Safdarjung Hospital]] in Delhi for treatment and, as the public outrage mounted, the government had her transferred to [[Mount Elizabeth Hospital]], [[Singapore]] eleven days after the assault, where she died from her injuries two days later.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/safdarjung-doctors-remember-nirbhaya-as-brave-woman-say-law-has-taken-its-course/articleshow/74727735.cms |title=Safdarjung doctors remember Nirbhaya as 'brave woman', say law has taken its course |newspaper=[[Times of India]] |date=2020-03-20 |access-date=2022-08-23 |archive-date=25 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220925024924/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/safdarjung-doctors-remember-nirbhaya-as-brave-woman-say-law-has-taken-its-course/articleshow/74727735.cms |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="NYT18Dec" /><ref name="Chronology">{{cite news |title=Delhi gangrape: Chronology of events |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/delhi-gangrape-chronology-of-events/article5079321.ece |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=31 August 2013 |access-date=2 September 2013 |location=New Delhi |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130902063859/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/delhi-gangrape-chronology-of-events/article5079321.ece |archive-date=2 September 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> The incident generated widespread national and international coverage and was widely condemned, both in India and abroad. Subsequently, public protests against the [[Government of Delhi]] and the [[Government of India]] for failing to provide adequate security for women took place in [[New Delhi]], where thousands of protesters clashed with [[security forces]]. Similar protests took place in major cities throughout the country. Since Indian law does not allow the press to publish a rape victim's name, the victim was widely known as ''Nirbhaya'', meaning "fearless", and her struggle and death became a symbol of women's resistance to rape around the world.<ref name="Devi2018">{{cite book|author=Nunglekpam Premi Devi|title=Short Essays on Women and Society: Manipuri Women through the Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1xBdDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT16|date=25 May 2018|publisher=FSP Media Publications|pages=16–|id=GGKEY:K6X6DZDQYTH|access-date=4 April 2019|archive-date=31 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331114622/https://books.google.com/books?id=1xBdDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT16|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="BBC News March 2020">{{cite news |title=Nirbhaya case: Four Indian men executed for 2012 Delhi bus rape and murder |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-51969961 |access-date=13 April 2021 |work=BBC News |date=20 March 2020 |archive-date=31 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200331132509/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-51969961 |url-status=live }}</ref>

All the accused were arrested and charged with [[sexual assault]] and murder. One of the accused, Ram Singh, died in police custody from possible suicide on 11 March 2013.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/delhi-gangrape-case-accused-commits-suicide/article4496333.ece?homepage=true | title=Delhi gang-rape case accused commits 'suicide' | work=The Hindu | date=11 March 2013 | access-date=11 March 2013 | location=Chennai, India | first1=Devesh K. | last1=Pandey | first2=Shubhomoy | last2=Sikdar | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130313221918/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/delhi-gangrape-case-accused-commits-suicide/article4496333.ece?homepage=true | archive-date=13 March 2013 | url-status=live | df=dmy-all }}</ref> According to some published reports and the police, Ram Singh hanged himself, but the defence lawyers and his family allege he was murdered.<ref>{{cite news|title=Delhi rape accused found dead in prison|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-21737748|publisher=BBC|access-date=11 March 2013|date=11 March 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130311073707/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-21737748|archive-date=11 March 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> The rest of the accused went on trial in a fast-track court; the prosecution finished presenting its evidence on 8 July 2013.<ref name=TOI87>{{cite news |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-07-08/delhi/40442634_1_akshay-thakur-juvenile-justice-board-moving-bus |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130710142011/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-07-08/delhi/40442634_1_akshay-thakur-juvenile-justice-board-moving-bus |url-status=dead |archive-date=10 July 2013 |title=16 December gang rape: Prosecution finishes evidence |agency=Indo-Asian News Service |date=8 July 2013 |work=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=10 February 2014}}</ref> On 10 September 2013, the four adult defendants – Pawan Gupta, Vinay Sharma, Akshay Thakur and Mukesh Singh (Ram Singh's brother) – were found guilty of rape and murder and three days later were [[Capital punishment in India|sentenced to death]].<ref name="BBC 13 Sep">{{cite news|title=Delhi gang rape: Four sentenced to death|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-24078339|work=BBC News|access-date=13 September 2013|date=13 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130913151841/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-24078339|archive-date=13 September 2013|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="NYT Sep 13" /><ref name="vocativ1">{{cite web|url=http://www.vocativ.com/09-2013/photos-india-demands-death-for-gang-rape-killers/|title=Photos: Indian court echoes populist outcry, gives 4 rapists death sentence|publisher=Vocativ.com|work=Sneak Peek|last1=Sharma|first1=Betwa|date=13 September 2013|access-date=14 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130914094558/http://www.vocativ.com/09-2013/photos-india-demands-death-for-gang-rape-killers/|archive-date=14 September 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> In the death reference case and hearing appeals on 13 March 2014, [[Delhi High Court]] upheld the guilty verdict and the death sentences.<ref name="NDTV" /> On 18 December 2019, the [[Supreme Court of India]] rejected the final appeals of the condemned perpetrators of the attack.<ref>{{cite news |title=India court paves the way for 4 men to be hanged for fatal gang rape on bus |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/india-rape-appeal-rejected-today-delhi-bus-gang-rape-suspects-to-hang-death-sentence-2019-12-18/ |website=CBS News |agency=Associated Press |access-date=8 January 2020 |archive-date=12 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200112104424/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/india-rape-appeal-rejected-today-delhi-bus-gang-rape-suspects-to-hang-death-sentence-2019-12-18/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The four adult convicts were executed by hanging on 20 March 2020.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/nirbhaya-gang-rape-murder-convicts-executed-hanged-delhi-tihar-jail-1657649-2020-03-20|title=Justice for Nirbhaya: 4 men convicted for gang-rape hanged 7 years after brutal crime|last=Goswami|first=Dev|website=India Today|date=20 March 2020 |access-date=20 March 2020|archive-date=20 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200320000956/https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/nirbhaya-gang-rape-murder-convicts-executed-hanged-delhi-tihar-jail-1657649-2020-03-20|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="BBC News March 2020" /> The juvenile Mohammed Afroz was convicted of rape and murder and given the maximum sentence of three years' imprisonment in a reform facility, as per the [[Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2000|Juvenile Justice Act]].<ref>{{in lang|en}} [http://www.lejournalinternational.fr/Fast-Track-court-awards-death-sentences-to-convicts-of-Delhi-Rape-case_a1252.html " Fast Track court awards death sentences to convicts of Delhi Rape case "] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021214001/http://www.lejournalinternational.fr/Fast-Track-court-awards-death-sentences-to-convicts-of-Delhi-Rape-case_a1252.html |date=21 October 2013 }}, Ramalingam.Va, Le Journal International, 14 septembre 2013</ref>

As a result of the protests, in December 2012, a judicial committee was set up to study and take public suggestions for the best ways to amend laws to provide quicker investigation and prosecution of sex offenders. After considering about 80,000 suggestions, the committee submitted a report which indicated that failures on the part of the government and police were the root cause behind crimes against women. In 2013, the [[Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013]] was promulgated by President [[Pranab Mukherjee]], several new laws were passed, and six new fast-track courts were created to hear rape cases. Critics argue that the legal system remains slow to hear and prosecute rape cases, but most agree that the case has resulted in a tremendous increase in the public discussion of crimes against women and statistics show that there has been an increase in the number of women willing to file a crime report. However, in December 2014, two years after the attack, the victim's father called the promises of reform unmet and said that he felt regret in that he had not been able to bring justice for his daughter and other women like her.<ref name="nothing changed">{{cite news |title=Nothing in India has changed since 16 December 2012: Nirbhaya's father |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/crime/nothing-in-india-has-changed-since-december-16-2012-nirbhayas-father/ |date=15 December 2014 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |location=New Delhi |access-date=23 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141223204716/http://indianexpress.com/article/india/crime/nothing-in-india-has-changed-since-december-16-2012-nirbhayas-father/ |archive-date=23 December 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Incident ==
The victims, a 22-year-old woman, Jyoti Singh and her male friend were returning home on the night of 16 December 2012 after watching the film ''[[Life of Pi (film)|Life of Pi]]'' at [[PVR Cinemas|PVR]] [[Select Citywalk|Select City Walk]], [[Saket (Delhi)|Saket]]. They took an [[auto rickshaw]] to [[Munirka]] bus stand,<ref name="firstpost20121218">{{cite news|title=Delhi gangraped victim regains consciousness, next 48 hours critical |work=First Post |date=18 December 2012 |url=http://www.firstpost.com/india/delhi-gangrape-victim-regains-consciousness-next-48-hours-critical-561535.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130131005824/http://www.firstpost.com/india/delhi-gangrape-victim-regains-consciousness-next-48-hours-critical-561535.html |url-status=live |archive-date=31 January 2013 |access-date=30 December 2012 }}</ref> then boarded the bus at Munirka for [[Dwarka Sub City|Dwarka]] at about 9:30 pm ([[Indian Standard Time|IST]]). There were only six others in the bus, including the driver. One of the men, identified as a minor, had called for passengers telling them that the bus was going towards their destination.<ref name="NYT18Dec">{{cite news|title=Indians Outraged by Account of Gang Rape on a Bus |first1=Nikarika |last1=Mandhana |first2=Anjani |last2=Trivedi |work=The New York Times |date=18 December 2012 |url=http://india.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/12/18/outrage-in-delhi-after-latest-gang-rape-case |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121230152045/http://india.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/12/18/outrage-in-delhi-after-latest-gang-rape-case/ |url-status=live |archive-date=30 December 2012 |access-date=30 December 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/delhi-gangrape-accused-had-tried-to-mow-down-braveheart-under-bus-male-friend-saved-her/313386-3-244.html|title=Delhi gangrape: Accused had tried to mow down braveheart under bus, male friend saved her|date=1 January 2013|access-date=1 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130102035356/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/delhi-gangrape-accused-had-tried-to-mow-down-braveheart-under-bus-male-friend-saved-her/313386-3-244.html|archive-date=2 January 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> They took ₹10 each as fare from both the victims. The victim's male friend became suspicious when the bus deviated from its normal route and its doors were shut. When he objected, the group of six men already on board, including the driver, taunted the couple, asking what they were doing alone at such a late hour.<ref name="sikdar">{{cite news|title=Delhi gang-rape: victim narrates the tale of horror |last=Sikdar |first=Shubhomoy |location=New Delhi |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=23 December 2012 |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/delhi-gangrape-victim-narrates-the-tale-of-horror/article4230038.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130101021127/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/delhi-gangrape-victim-narrates-the-tale-of-horror/article4230038.ece |url-status=live |archive-date=1 January 2013 |access-date=30 December 2012 |quote=The victim purportedly told the SDM that around 9.30 p.m. while she and her friend were standing at a bus stop at Munirka, they were called into the bus by the juvenile accused Rahul (name changed), who told them that the bus would go towards Palam. On entering the vehicle, the victims found that in all there were. A few minutes into the ride, her friend got suspicious as the bus had deviated from the supposed route and the other occupants had shut the door. When he objected, the six accused taunted them, asking what they were doing together so late in the night.}}</ref>

During the argument, a scuffle ensued between her friend and the group of men. He was beaten, gagged and knocked unconscious with an iron rod. The men then dragged Singh to the rear of the bus, beating her with the rod and raping her while the bus driver continued to drive. A medical report later said that she suffered serious injuries to her abdomen, intestines and genitals due to the assault, and doctors said that the damage indicated that a blunt object (suspected to be the iron rod) may have been used for penetration.<ref name="firstpost20121218" /> That rod was later described by police as being a rusted, L-shaped implement of the type used as a [[Jack (device)|wheel jack handle]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Rape survivor airlift was govt., not medical, decision |first=Bindu Shajan |last=Perappadan |location=New Delhi |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=28 December 2012 |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/rape-survivor-airlift-was-govt-not-medical-decision/article4246109.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121230064311/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/rape-survivor-airlift-was-govt-not-medical-decision/article4246109.ece |url-status=live |archive-date=30 December 2012 |access-date=30 December 2012 }}</ref><ref name="theguardian1">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/sep/10/delhi-gang-rape-india-women|title=Delhi rape: how India's other half lives|first=Jason|last=Burke|date=10 September 2013|access-date=5 May 2017|newspaper=The Guardian|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170506002404/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/sep/10/delhi-gang-rape-india-women|archive-date=6 May 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Kaul">{{cite news |title=Rape victim still critical, writes to mother 'I want to live' |last=Kaul |first=Rhythma |location=New Delhi |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |date=20 December 2012 |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/NewDelhi/Delhi-gang-rape-victim-writes-on-a-piece-of-paper-Mother-I-want-to-live/Article1-976798.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121231003459/http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/NewDelhi/Delhi-gang-rape-victim-writes-on-a-piece-of-paper-Mother-I-want-to-live/Article1-976798.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-date=31 December 2012 |access-date=31 December 2012 }}</ref>

According to police reports, Jyoti attempted to fight off her assailants, biting three of the attackers and leaving bite marks on the accused men.<ref name="Delhi gangrape: Accused had tried to mow down braveheart under bus, friend saved her" />
After the beatings and rape ended, the attackers threw both victims from the moving bus. One of the perpetrators later cleaned the vehicle to remove evidence. Police impounded it the next day.<ref name="Delhi gangrape: Accused had tried to mow down braveheart under bus, friend saved her">{{cite news|title=Delhi gangrape: Accused had tried to mow down braveheart under bus, male friend saved her |publisher=[[CNN-IBN]] |agency=Press Trust of India |date=1 January 2013 |url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/delhi-gangrape-accused-had-tried-to-mow-down-braveheart-under-bus-male-friend-saved-her/313386-3-244.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130102035356/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/delhi-gangrape-accused-had-tried-to-mow-down-braveheart-under-bus-male-friend-saved-her/313386-3-244.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=2 January 2013 |access-date=1 January 2013 }}</ref><ref name=HT18Dec>{{cite news |title=Delhi gangrape: main accused sent to 5-day police custody, refuses identification parade |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |agency=Press Trust of India/Indo-Asian News Service |date=18 December 2012 |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/NewDelhi/Delhi-gangrape-main-accused-sent-to-5-day-police-custody-refuses-identification-parade/Article1-974332.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121231003702/http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/NewDelhi/Delhi-gangrape-main-accused-sent-to-5-day-police-custody-refuses-identification-parade/Article1-974332.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-date=31 December 2012 |access-date=30 December 2012 }}</ref>

The partially clothed victims were found on the road by a passerby at around 11 pm. The passerby called the [[Delhi Police]] who took the couple to [[Safdarjung Hospital]], where Jyoti was given emergency treatment and placed on mechanical ventilation.<ref>{{cite news|title=Delhi gang-rape: Victim is fighting for life, on ventilator, say doctors |first=Amit |last=Chaturvedi |location=New Delhi |publisher=[[NDTV]] |date=19 December 2012 |url=http://www.ndtv.com/article/cities/delhi-gang-rape-victim-is-fighting-for-life-on-ventilator-say-doctors-307131 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121222063117/http://www.ndtv.com/article/cities/delhi-gang-rape-victim-is-fighting-for-life-on-ventilator-say-doctors-307131 |url-status=live |archive-date=22 December 2012 |access-date=31 December 2012 }}</ref> She was found with injury marks, including numerous bite marks, all over her body. According to reports, one of the accused men admitted to having seen a rope-like object, assumed to be her intestines, being pulled out of the woman by the other assailants on the bus. Two blood-stained metal rods were retrieved from the bus and medical staff confirmed that "it was penetration by this that caused massive damage to her genitals, uterus and intestines".<ref name="theguardian1" /><ref name="Kaul" />

== Victims ==
Jyoti Singh was born in [[Delhi]] on 10 May 1990, the eldest of three children and the only daughter of a [[lower-middle-class]] family.<ref name="indiatoday.in">{{cite news|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/delhi-gangrape/story/delhi-gangrape-victim-damini-profile-father-remembers-daughter-125740-2012-12-31|title=She could have been saved, decision to fly her out to Singapore came late, says Delhi gangrape victim's brother|website=IndiaToday|date=31 December 2012|access-date=9 August 2021|archive-date=29 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929032825/https://www.indiatoday.in/delhi-gangrape/story/delhi-gangrape-victim-damini-profile-father-remembers-daughter-125740-2012-12-31|url-status=live}}</ref> Her parents hailed from a small village in [[Ballia district]] of [[Uttar Pradesh]].<ref name="indiatoday.in" /> While Jyoti's mother is a homemaker,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-12-15 |title=Nirbhaya case: The rape victim's mum fighting for India's daughters |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-63968198 |access-date=2024-08-14 |language=en-GB |archive-date=22 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240822150157/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-63968198 |url-status=live }}</ref> her father worked double shifts (two jobs) to support his family and send his children to good schools. In an interview, he related that as a youth, he had dreamed of becoming a schoolteacher, but his family could not afford to support his education beyond high school. After moving to Delhi, he worked at a pressure cooker factory,<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=2020-01-31 |title='My pain became my driving force': Nirbhaya's mother Asha Devi |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/cover-story/story/20200210-my-pain-became-my-driving-force-asha-devi-1641454-2020-01-31 |access-date=2024-08-14 |website=India Today |language=en |archive-date=14 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240814181446/https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/cover-story/story/20200210-my-pain-became-my-driving-force-asha-devi-1641454-2020-01-31 |url-status=live }}</ref> as a security guard and eventually a luggage loader.<ref name="autogenerated6" /> He said, "when I left [his village] 30 years ago, I vowed never deny my children so sending them to school was fulfilling my desire for knowledge."<ref name="autogenerated6" /> He said, "It never entered our hearts to ever discriminate. How could I be happy if my son is happy and my daughter isn't? And it was impossible to refuse a little girl who loved going to school."<ref name="autogenerated6" /><ref name="village" />

Jyoti Singh graduated in [[Physical therapy|physiotherapy]] from the Sai Institute of Paramedical & Allied Sciences in [[Dehradun]], and had just applied for an intern's position at [[St Stephen's Hospital, Delhi|St Stephen's Hospital]] in Delhi.<ref name=":2" /> She lived in Delhi and only sometimes visited her family's ancestral village.<ref name="village">{{cite news|title= Far from media storm, U.P. village grieves for its daughter|last= Rashid|first= Omar|location= Ballia|work= [[The Hindu]]|date= 30 December 2012|url= http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/far-from-media-storm-up-village-grieves-for-its-daughter/article4253570.ece|access-date= 31 December 2012|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130101040433/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/far-from-media-storm-up-village-grieves-for-its-daughter/article4253570.ece|archive-date= 1 January 2013|url-status= live|df= dmy-all}}</ref>

In compliance with Indian law, the real name of the victim was initially not released to the media, so [[pseudonym]]s were used for her by various media houses instead, including ''Jagruti'' (awareness), ''Amanat'' (treasure), ''Nirbhaya'' (fearless one), ''Damini'' (lightning, after the hit [[Damini – Lightning|1993 Hindi film]]) and ''Delhi braveheart''.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/delhi-gangrape/story/delhi-gangrape-victim-damini-profile-father-remembers-daughter-125740-2012-12-30 |title=She could have been saved, decision to fly her out to Singapore came late, says Delhi gangrape victim's brother |work=India Today |date=31 December 2012 |access-date=31 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231054235/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/delhi-gangrape-victim-damini-profile-father-remembers-daughter/1/240153.html |archive-date=31 December 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.outlookindia.com/lcp.aspx?siteid=1&issue=10951 |title=Woman of the Year |publisher=outlookindia.com |access-date=1 January 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130101002806/http://outlookindia.com/lcp.aspx?siteid=1&issue=10951 |archive-date=1 January 2013 }}</ref><ref name="Why does media want to give Delhi gangrape victim a name?">{{cite news|last= Roy|first= Sandip|title= Why does media want to give Delhi gangrape victim a name?|work= [[First Post (India)|First Post]]|date= 24 December 2012|url= http://www.firstpost.com/living/why-does-media-want-to-give-delhi-gangrape-victim-a-name-567444.html|access-date= 31 December 2012|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121231005214/http://www.firstpost.com/living/why-does-media-want-to-give-delhi-gangrape-victim-a-name-567444.html|archive-date= 31 December 2012|url-status= live|df= dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title= She could have been saved, decision to fly her out to Singapore came late, says Delhi gangrape victim's brother|first= Neetu|last= Chandra|location= New Delhi|work= [[India Today]]|date= 31 December 2012|url= https://www.indiatoday.in/delhi-gangrape/story/delhi-gangrape-victim-damini-profile-father-remembers-daughter-125740-2012-12-30|access-date= 1 January 2013|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130101022245/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/delhi-gangrape-victim-damini-profile-father-remembers-daughter/1/240153.html|archive-date= 1 January 2013|url-status= live|df= dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/delhi-bravehearts-family-turns-down-college-offer-to-refund-fee/378710-3-244.html |title=Delhi braveheart's family turns down college offer to refund fee |publisher=CNN-IBN |date=14 March 2013 |access-date=1 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130529194655/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/delhi-bravehearts-family-turns-down-college-offer-to-refund-fee/378710-3-244.html |archive-date=29 May 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The male victim, Awindra Pratap Pandey, was a software engineer from [[Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh|Gorakhpur]], Uttar Pradesh, who lived in [[Ber Sarai]], New Delhi; he suffered broken limbs but survived.<ref name=ballia>{{cite news|title=Physiotherapist gang raped in moving bus, critical |location=New Delhi |agency=DHNS |work=[[Deccan Herald]] |date=17 December 2012 |url=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/299074/delhi-gang-rape-victim-battles.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121219221908/http://www.deccanherald.com/content/299074/delhi-gang-rape-victim-battles.html |access-date=31 December 2012 |url-status=live |archive-date=19 December 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Delhi-gang-rape-case-All-four-convicts-awarded-death-sentence/articleshow/22546130.cms|title=Delhi gang-rape case: All four convicts awarded death sentence|work=The Times of India|date=13 September 2013|access-date=13 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130914003750/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Delhi-gang-rape-case-All-four-convicts-awarded-death-sentence/articleshow/22546130.cms|archive-date=14 September 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>

Delhi police registered a criminal case against the editor of a Delhi-based tabloid, ''[[Mail Today]]'', for disclosing the female victim's identity, as such disclosure is an offence under section 228(A) of [[Indian Penal Code]].<ref name=disclosure>{{cite news|title=Delhi gang-rape: Criminal case against Mail Today|url=http://in.news.yahoo.com/delhi-gang-rape-criminal-case-against-mail-today-151814067.html|access-date=31 December 2012|newspaper=Yahoo news India|date=31 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130103154017/http://in.news.yahoo.com/delhi-gang-rape-criminal-case-against-mail-today-151814067.html|archive-date=3 January 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Shashi Tharoor]], then a union minister, suggested that if the parents had no objection, her identity could be made public, as a mark of respect for her courageous response, with the possibility of naming future laws after her.<ref name="tharoor">{{cite news|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/NewDelhi/Make-Delhi-gangrape-victim-s-identity-public-Shashi-Tharoor/Article1-983612.aspx|title=Make Delhi gangrape victim's identity public, says Shashi Tharoor|agency=[[Press Trust of India]]|date=1 January 2013|work=Hindustan Times|access-date=1 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130101221439/http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/NewDelhi/Make-Delhi-gangrape-victim-s-identity-public-Shashi-Tharoor/Article1-983612.aspx|archive-date=1 January 2013|url-status=dead|quote=In remarks that can stoke a controversy, union minister Shashi Tharoor on Tuesday favoured making public the identity of the 23-year-old gang-rape victim wondering what interest is served by keeping her name under wraps.}}</ref> Speaking to a British reporter on 5 January, the victim's father was quoted as saying, "We want the world to know her real name. My daughter didn't do anything wrong, she died while protecting herself. I am proud of her. Revealing her name will give courage to other women who have survived these attacks. They will find strength from my daughter."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/want-the-world-to-know-her-name-delhi-victim-s-father/1055552/ |title=Want the world to know her name: Delhi victim's father |agency=Press Trust of India |date=7 January 2013 |work=The Indian Express |access-date=21 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130413040537/http://www.indianexpress.com/news/want-the-world-to-know-her-name-delhi-victim-s-father/1055552/ |archive-date=13 April 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> Indian law forbids revealing the name of a rape victim unless the family agrees to it and, following the news article which published the father's reported quote and the victim's name, some news outlets in India, Germany, Australia, and the United States also revealed her name.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/world-news/india-gang-rape-victims-father-1521289|title=India gang rape victim's father: I want the world to know my daughter's name is Jyoti Singh|first=Nada|last=Farhoud|website=[[Daily Mirror]]|date=5 January 2013|access-date=5 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313224742/http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/world-news/india-gang-rape-victims-father-1521289|archive-date=13 March 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> However, the following day [[Zee News]] quoted the father as saying, "I have only said we won't have any objection if the government uses my daughter's name for a new law for crime against women that is more stringent and better framed than the existing one."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://zeenews.india.com/news/delhi/delhi-rape-victims-father-says-didnt-allow-uk-daily-to-name-daughter_821228.html |title=Delhi rape victim's father says didn't allow UK daily to name daughter |date=7 January 2013 |publisher=Zeenews.india.com |access-date=17 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509130216/http://zeenews.india.com/news/delhi/delhi-rape-victims-father-says-didnt-allow-uk-daily-to-name-daughter_821228.html |archive-date=9 May 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> During a protest against the juvenile convict's release on 16 December 2015, the victim's mother stated that her daughter's name was Jyoti Singh and she was not ashamed of disclosing her name.<ref name="Times of India">{{cite news | url = http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/My-daughters-name-was-Jyoti-Singh-Not-ashamed-to-name-her-Nirbhayas-mother/articleshow/50206977.cms | title = My daughter's name was Jyoti Singh, Not ashamed to name her: Nirbhaya's mother | work = The Times of India| date = 16 December 2015 | access-date = 22 December 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151222014432/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/My-daughters-name-was-Jyoti-Singh-Not-ashamed-to-name-her-Nirbhayas-mother/articleshow/50206977.cms | archive-date = 22 December 2015 | url-status = live}}</ref>

== Medical treatment and death ==
On 19 December 2012, Singh underwent her fifth surgery, which removed most of her remaining intestine. Doctors reported that she was in "stable but critical" condition.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/NewDelhi/Delhi-gang-rape-Doctors-remove-victim-s-intestines-one-accused-says-he-deserves-death/Article1-976657.aspx |title=Delhi gang-rape: victim battles on, undergoes fifth surgery; doctors remove her intestine |work=Hindustan Times |date=19 December 2012 |access-date=26 December 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121230194849/http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/newdelhi/delhi-gang-rape-doctors-remove-victim-s-intestines-one-accused-says-he-deserves-death/article1-976657.aspx |archive-date=30 December 2012 }}</ref> On 21 December, the government appointed a committee of doctors to ensure she received the best medical care.<ref>{{cite news|agency=[[Press Trust of India]] |title=Delhi gangrape: Committee formed to monitor girl's treatment |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/NewDelhi/Delhi-gangrape-Committee-formed-to-monitor-girl-s-treatment/Article1-977263.aspx |newspaper=[[Hindustan Times]] |access-date=21 December 2012 |date=20 December 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121221115503/http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/NewDelhi/Delhi-gangrape-Committee-formed-to-monitor-girl-s-treatment/Article1-977263.aspx |archive-date=21 December 2012 }}</ref> By 25 December, she remained [[tracheal intubation|intubated]], on [[life support]] and in [[medical state|critical condition]]. Doctors stated that she had a fever of 102 to 103 °F (39 °C) and that internal bleeding due to [[sepsis]] was somewhat controlled. It was reported that she was "stable, conscious and meaningfully communicative".<ref>{{cite news |url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/delhi-gang-rape-victims-condition-better-still-on-ventilator-say-doctors/articleshow/17756779.cms |title=Delhi gang rape: Victim's condition better, still on ventilator, say doctors |work=The Economic Times |date=25 December 2012 |access-date=26 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303125352/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/delhi-gang-rape-victims-condition-better-still-on-ventilator-say-doctors/articleshow/17756779.cms |archive-date=3 March 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>

At a cabinet meeting chaired by then-[[Prime Minister of India|Prime Minister]] [[Manmohan Singh]] on 26 December, a decision was made to fly her to [[Mount Elizabeth Hospital]] in [[Singapore]] for further treatment. Mount Elizabeth is a multi-organ transplant specialty hospital.<ref>{{cite news|title=Delhi gang-rape victim shifted from hospital, to be flown abroad for treatment|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/Delhi-gang-rape-victim-shifted-from-hospital-to-be-flown-abroad-for-treatment/articleshow/17773431.cms|access-date=27 December 2012|date=26 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104083330/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-12-26/delhi/36007401_1_platelet-doctors-victim|archive-date=4 November 2013|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="hindu singapore">{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/delhi-gangrape-victim-in-extremely-critical-condition/article4244190.ece |newspaper=The Hindu |title=Delhi gang-rape victim in 'extremely critical condition' |agency=Press Trust of India |date=27 December 2012 |access-date=28 December 2012 |location=Chennai, India |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121230053006/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/delhi-gangrape-victim-in-extremely-critical-condition/article4244190.ece |archive-date=30 December 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> Some doctors criticised the decision as political, questioning the need to transfer an [[intensive care unit]] (ICU) patient for organ transplants that were not scheduled for weeks or even months.<ref name="political">{{cite web |url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/govt-defends-decision-to-shift-delhi-gangrape-survivor-to-singapore-rules-out-politics/312853-3.html |title=Govt defends decision to shift Delhi gangrape survivor to Singapore, rules out politics |publisher=CNN-IBN |date=9 October 2012 |access-date=30 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121230194327/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/govt-defends-decision-to-shift-delhi-gangrape-survivor-to-singapore-rules-out-politics/312853-3.html |archive-date=30 December 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=Bindu Shajan Perappadan |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/rape-survivor-airlift-was-govt-not-medical-decision/article4246109.ece |title=News / National : Rape survivor airlift was govt., not medical, decision |work=The Hindu |access-date=30 December 2012 |location=Chennai, India |date=28 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121230064311/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/rape-survivor-airlift-was-govt-not-medical-decision/article4246109.ece |archive-date=30 December 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> Government sources indicated that then [[Chief Minister of Delhi]], [[Sheila Dikshit]], was personally behind the decision.<ref name="sd_ht">{{cite web|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/NewDelhi/Delhi-CM-behind-gangrape-victim-s-shift-to-Singapore/Article1-981689.aspx |title=Delhi CM behind gangrape victim's shift to Singapore |work=Hindustan Times |access-date=30 December 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121230002015/http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/NewDelhi/Delhi-CM-behind-gangrape-victim-s-shift-to-Singapore/Article1-981689.aspx |archive-date=30 December 2012 }}</ref> Hours earlier, then-Union Minister [[P. Chidambaram]] had stated that Jyoti was not in a condition to be moved.<ref>{{cite web |author=FP Staff |url=http://www.firstpost.com/india/delhi-rape-victim-being-taken-to-mt-elizabeth-hospital-in-singapore-570002.html |title=Delhi rape victim being taken to Mt Elizabeth Hospital in Singapore |date=26 December 2012 |publisher=Firstpost |access-date=30 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121230180517/http://www.firstpost.com/india/delhi-rape-victim-being-taken-to-mt-elizabeth-hospital-in-singapore-570002.html |archive-date=30 December 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>

During the six-hour air-ambulance flight to Singapore on 27 December, Jyoti suddenly went into a "near collapse", which a later report described as [[cardiac arrest]].<ref name=hospital>{{cite news | agency=Press Trust of India | title =Delhi gang-rape case: Victim 'fighting for her life', hospital says | date =28 December 2012 | url =https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/Delhi-gang-rape-case-Victim-fighting-for-her-life-hospital-says/articleshow/17792245.cms | access-date =28 December 2012 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20121229215123/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-12-28/delhi/36035434_1_hospital-staff-loh-ventilator-support | archive-date =29 December 2012 | url-status =live | newspaper =[[The Times of India]] | df =dmy-all }}</ref> The doctors on board inserted an [[Arterial catheter|arterial line]] to stabilise her, but she had been without a pulse and blood pressure for nearly three minutes and never regained consciousness in Singapore.<ref name="et-midflight">{{cite news |url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/delhi-gang-rape-high-drama-at-30000ft-as-girls-blood-pressure-dips-alarmingly/articleshow/17788110.cms |title=Delhi gang rape: High drama at {{convert|30000|ft|m|abbr=on}} as girl's blood pressure dips alarmingly |work=The Economic Times |access-date=30 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121230035315/http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/delhi-gang-rape-high-drama-at-30000ft-as-girls-blood-pressure-dips-alarmingly/articleshow/17788110.cms |archive-date=30 December 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>

On 28 December, at 11 am (IST), Jyoti's condition was extremely critical. The chief executive officer of the Mount Elizabeth Hospital said that the victim suffered [[Brain injury|brain damage]], [[pneumonia]], and [[Intra-abdominal infection|abdominal infection]], and that she was "fighting for her life."<ref name=hospital /> Her condition continued to deteriorate, and she died at 4:45 am on 29 December, Singapore Standard Time (2:15 am, 29 December, [[India Standard Time|IST]]; 8:45 pm, 28 December, [[UTC]]).<ref>{{cite news | url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-20860569 | title = Delhi gang-rape victim dies in hospital in Singapore | date = 28 December 2012 | access-date = 28 December 2012 | work = BBC News | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121229032113/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-20860569 | archive-date = 29 December 2012 | url-status = live}}</ref> Her body was cremated on 30 December in Delhi under high police security. The [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP), then the country’s main opposition party, criticised the high-security measures, stating that they were reminiscent of the [[The Emergency (India)|Emergency era]], during which civil liberties were suspended.<ref name=session /> One of Jyoti's brothers later remarked that the decision to fly her out to Singapore had come too late, and they had held high hopes for her recovery prior to her death.<ref name="indiatoday.in" />

== Arrests ==
[[File:Nirbhaya-six.jpg|thumb|The six Nirbhaya case convicts (clockwise from top left): Akshay Thakur, Pawan Gupta, Mukesh Singh, Mohammed Afroz, whose identity was protected due to his status as a minor, Ram Singh (deceased) and Vinay Sharma. ]]
A [[Special Investigation Team (India)|Special Investigation Team]] was formed to investigate the case, which was led by [[Pramod Kumar Kushwaha]], the Deputy Commissioner of [[Delhi Police]]'s Special Cell.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/a-tribute-to-nirbhaya-investigators-say-after-execution-of-convicts-1657691-2020-03-20|title=A tribute to Nirbhaya: Investigators say after execution of convicts|website=India Today|date=20 March 2020|accessdate=25 August 2023|archive-date=25 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230825193148/https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/a-tribute-to-nirbhaya-investigators-say-after-execution-of-convicts-1657691-2020-03-20|url-status=live}}</ref>
Police found and arrested some suspects within 24 hours of the crime.<ref name=NDTV18Dec>{{cite web |url=http://www.ndtv.com/article/cities/how-the-police-cracked-the-delhi-gang-rape-case-306698 |first=Abhinav |last=Bhatt |date=18 December 2012 |title=How the police cracked the Delhi gang-rape case |access-date=2 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130102234528/http://www.ndtv.com/article/cities/how-the-police-cracked-the-delhi-gang-rape-case-306698 |archive-date=2 January 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> From recordings made by a highway [[Closed-circuit television|CCTV]], a description of the bus, a white charter bus with a name written on it, was broadcast. Other operators identified it as being contracted by a South Delhi private school. They then traced it and found its driver, Ram Singh. Police obtained sketches of the assailants with the help of the male victim, and used a mobile phone stolen from the two victims to find one of the assailants.<ref name=NDTV18Dec />

Six men were arrested in connection with the incident. They included 30-year-old Ram Singh, the bus driver, and his 26-year-old brother, Mukesh Singh, who were both arrested in [[Rajasthan]]. Ram and Mukesh Singh lived in Ravidas camp, a slum in South Delhi.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://blogs.wsj.com/indiarealtime/2012/12/29/in-delhi-slum-tales-of-the-rape-suspects/|title=In Delhi Slum, Tales of the Rape Suspects|newspaper=IndiaRealtime|date=29 December 2012|first1=Amol|last1=Sharma|first2=Krishna|last2=Pokharel|access-date=4 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161224182322/http://blogs.wsj.com/indiarealtime/2012/12/29/in-delhi-slum-tales-of-the-rape-suspects/|archive-date=24 December 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> 20-year-old Vinay Sharma, an assistant gym instructor, and 19-year-old Pawan Gupta, a fruit seller, were both arrested in UP and Bihar.<ref name="OI-1">{{cite news|url=http://news.outlookindia.com/items.aspx?artid=784100 |date=19 December 2012 |access-date=19 December 2012 |title=Hang Me, I've Done Heinous Act: Delhi Rape Accused |newspaper=[[Outlook India]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121219110156/http://news.outlookindia.com/items.aspx?artid=784100 |archive-date=19 December 2012 }}</ref> A 17-year-old juvenile named Mohammed Afroz, from [[Badayun]], Uttar Pradesh,<ref name=Emirates247>{{cite news|title=Delhi gang-rape accused was on reality TV show|url=http://www.emirates247.com/news/delhi-gang-rape-accused-was-on-reality-tv-show-2013-01-12-1.489766|access-date=12 January 2013|newspaper=Emirates 27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130112152024/http://www.emirates247.com/news/delhi-gang-rape-accused-was-on-reality-tv-show-2013-01-12-1.489766|archive-date=12 January 2013|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Reuters>{{cite news|last1=Williams|first1=Matthias|last2=Roychoudhury|first2=Arup|title=Delhi rape accused lived on margins of India's boom|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-india-rape-accused-idUKBRE90B05G20130112|access-date=12 January 2013|work=[[Reuters]]|date=12 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201026205724/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-india-rape-accused-idUKBRE90B05G20130112|archive-date=26 October 2020|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=zee22Dec>{{cite web |url=http://zeenews.india.com/news/delhi/delhi-gang-rape-case-delhi-police-confirm-fifth-accused-a-minor_818317.html |title=Delhi gang-rape case: Delhi police confirm fifth accused a minor |publisher=Zee News |date=22 December 2012 |access-date=26 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121226064616/http://zeenews.india.com/news/delhi/delhi-gang-rape-case-delhi-police-confirm-fifth-accused-a-minor_818317.html |archive-date=26 December 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> was arrested at the Anand Vihar terminal in Delhi. The juvenile had only met the others that day.<ref name=zee22Dec /> 28-year-old Akshay Thakur, who had come to Delhi seeking employment, was the final suspect to be arrested in [[Aurangabad, Bihar]]; he was married with one son at the time of his arrest.<ref name="OI-1" /><ref>{{cite news|first=Amit|last=Chaturvedi|url=http://www.ndtv.com/article/cheat-sheet/delhi-gang-rape-case-missing-sixth-attacker-arrested-from-village-in-bihar-308398|date=21 December 2012|access-date=21 December 2012|title=Delhi gang-rape case: missing sixth attacker arrested from village in Bihar|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121221163944/http://www.ndtv.com/article/cheat-sheet/delhi-gang-rape-case-missing-sixth-attacker-arrested-from-village-in-bihar-308398|archive-date=21 December 2012|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theweek.in/news/india/2020/03/02/nirbhaya-case-as-hanging-nears-tracing-backgrounds-of-the-6-convicts.html|title=Nirbhaya case: Tracing backgrounds of the six convicts|website=The Week|date=2 March 2020|access-date=9 August 2021|archive-date=9 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210809144237/https://www.theweek.in/news/india/2020/03/02/nirbhaya-case-as-hanging-nears-tracing-backgrounds-of-the-6-convicts.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

According to reports, the group had been eating and drinking together and "having a party" earlier in the day.<ref name=NYT18Dec /> Although the charter bus which Ram Singh drove on weekdays was not permitted to pick up public passengers<ref name=HT18Dec /> or even to operate in Delhi because of its [[Window film|tinted windows]],<ref name=NDTV19Dec /> they decided to take it out "to have some fun".<ref name=NYT18Dec /> A few hours before committing the gang rape, the attackers had robbed a carpenter. The carpenter was 35-year-old Ramadhir Singh (unrelated to Ram, Mukesh and Jyoti), who boarded the bus that was being driven by Mukesh Singh. The juvenile convict had lured him into the bus saying it was going to [[Nehru Place]]. He was then beaten up and robbed of his mobile phone and {{INR}}1500 in cash. After robbing him, the group dumped him at the [[IIT Flyover]]. He reported the robbery to three police constables: Kailash, Ashok and Sandeep, who were passing nearby. They refused to take any action in response, saying that the crime scene wasn't under their purview as they were from the [[Hauz Khas]] police station, and that he would have to report the incident to the station in [[Vasant Vihar]].<ref name=sikdar /><ref name=sanyal>{{cite web|url=http://www.ndtv.com/india-news/december-16-gang-rape-convicts-now-convicted-in-robbery-case-1211621|title=16 December Gang-Rape Convicts Now Convicted in Robbery Case|work=[[NDTV]]|last1=Sanyal|first1=Anandita|date=28 August 2015|access-date=30 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151226100351/http://www.ndtv.com/india-news/december-16-gang-rape-convicts-now-convicted-in-robbery-case-1211621|archive-date=26 December 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Delhi/charge-sheet-filed-in-robbery-case-against-delhi-gangrape-accused/article4515347.ece|title=Charge sheet filed in robbery case against Delhi gang-rape accused|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|date=16 March 2013|access-date=30 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130520111902/http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Delhi/charge-sheet-filed-in-robbery-case-against-delhi-gangrape-accused/article4515347.ece|archive-date=20 May 2013|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=suspended>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/Delhi-gang-rape-Three-cops-suspended-for-duty-failure/articleshow/17724910.cms|title=Delhi gangrape: Three cops suspended for duty failure|work=[[Times of India]]|date=23 December 2012|access-date=30 December 2015|archive-date=31 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331135228/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/Delhi-gang-rape-Three-cops-suspended-for-duty-failure/articleshow/17724910.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>

Shortly after the attacks, Pawan Gupta said he accepted his guilt and should be hanged.<ref>{{cite news |title= 'I feel the attack in my heart': India's shame at brutal rape |first= Andrew |last= Buncombe |url= https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/i-feel-the-attack-in-my-heart-indias-shame-at-brutal-rape-8426209.html |newspaper= The Independent |date= 20 December 2012 |access-date= 25 December 2012 |location= London |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121224062704/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/i-feel-the-attack-in-my-heart-indias-shame-at-brutal-rape-8426209.html |archive-date= 24 December 2012 |url-status= live |df= dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title= Delhi gang-rape: What was the police doing, asks angry High Court |first= Abhinav |last= Bhatt |url= http://www.ndtv.com/article/cheat-sheet/delhi-gang-rape-what-was-the-police-doing-asks-angry-high-court-307241 |publisher= NDTV |date= 19 December 2012 |access-date= 25 December 2012 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121225020909/http://www.ndtv.com/article/cheat-sheet/delhi-gang-rape-what-was-the-police-doing-asks-angry-high-court-307241 |archive-date= 25 December 2012 |url-status= live |df= dmy-all }}</ref> Mukesh Singh, who was placed in [[Tihar Jail]] after his arrest, was assaulted by other inmates and was kept in [[solitary confinement]] for his own protection.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/tihar-inmates-assault-chartered-bus-driver/1048307/|title=Tihar inmates bludgeon Delhi bus driver involved in horrific Delhi gangrape|newspaper=[[The Indian Express]]|date=21 December 2012|access-date=29 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121231001620/http://www.indianexpress.com/news/tihar-inmates-assault-chartered-bus-driver/1048307|archive-date=31 December 2012|url-status=live}}</ref>

Ram Singh was presented before the Metropolitan Magistrate on 18 December 2012.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/delhi-gangrape/story/delhi-gangrape-sixth-accused-arrested-in-aurangabad-124984-2012-12-20 |title=Delhi gangrape: Sixth accused arrested in Aurangabad in Bihar |work=India Today |date=21 December 2012 |access-date=7 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121222123158/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/delhi-gangrape-sixth-accused-arrested-in-aurangabad/1/238911.html |archive-date=22 December 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> He refused to participate in an identification process.<ref name=NDTV19Dec>{{cite web|url=http://www.ndtv.com/article/cities/delhi-gang-rape-case-bus-with-tinted-windows-driver-with-a-record-307230|title=Delhi gang-rape case: bus with tinted windows, driver with a record|first=Abhinav|last=Bhatt|date=19 December 2012|access-date=30 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121225020743/http://www.ndtv.com/article/cities/delhi-gang-rape-case-bus-with-tinted-windows-driver-with-a-record-307230|archive-date=25 December 2012|url-status=live}}</ref>
Investigation revealed a history of frequent drinking that resulted in "blinding rage", "bad temper", and quarrels with employers, that had led friends to call him "mental".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ndtv.com/article/people/delhi-gang-rape-case-ram-singh-was-prone-to-mood-swings-violent-outbursts-say-jail-officials-340783 |title=Delhi gang-rape case: Ram Singh was prone to mood swings, violent outbursts, say jail officials |publisher=NDTV |date=11 March 2013 |access-date=1 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130419100212/http://www.ndtv.com/article/people/delhi-gang-rape-case-ram-singh-was-prone-to-mood-swings-violent-outbursts-say-jail-officials-340783 |archive-date=19 April 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 11 March, Ram Singh was discovered hanging from a ventilator shaft in his cell which he shared with 3 other prisoners, at about 5:45 a.m.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/No-watch-on-night-Ram-Singh-died/articleshow/19052918.cms |title=No watch on night Ram Singh died |date=19 March 2013 |access-date=1 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130926054856/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-03-19/delhi/37842713_1_cctv-footage-tihar-jail-tihar-authorities |archive-date=26 September 2013 |work=[[The Times of India]] |url-status=live }}</ref> Authorities said it was unclear whether it was a suicide or a murder.<ref>{{cite news |last=Mandhana |first=Niharika |url=http://india.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/03/10/suspect-in-india-gang-rape-found-dead-in-jail/?hp |title=Suspect in India Gang Rape Found Dead in Jail |location=New Delhi |work=The New York Times |date=29 December 2012 |access-date=11 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130314004621/http://india.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/03/10/suspect-in-india-gang-rape-found-dead-in-jail/?hp |archive-date=14 March 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=autogenerated3>{{cite news | url = https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/india/9921621/India-gang-rape-accused-Ram-Singh-commits-suicide.html | title = India gang-rape: accused Ram Singh commits suicide | date = 11 March 2013 | access-date = 11 March 2013 | newspaper = The Telegraph | location = London | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130313224455/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/india/9921621/India-gang-rape-accused-Ram-Singh-commits-suicide.html | archive-date = 13 March 2013 | url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/Suicide-or-murder-Nirbhaya-main-accused-found-hanging-in-Tihar/articleshow/18916760.cms | title=Suicide or murder? Nirbhaya main accused found hanging in Tihar | date=12 March 2013 | access-date=3 July 2013 | author1=Basu, Indrani | author2=Sekhar, Raj | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130926054859/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-03-12/delhi/37650482_1_tihar-law-officer-tihar-jail-tihar-authorities | archive-date=26 September 2013 | url-status=live | work=[[The Times of India]] | df=dmy-all }}</ref>

== Trial ==
The male victim, Awindra Pratap Pandey, testified in court on 19 December 2012.<ref>{{cite news|title= Delhi gang-rape: victim's friend, also on bus, gives statement in court|first= Shamik|last= Ghosh|publisher= [[NDTV]]|date= 19 December 2012|url= http://www.ndtv.com/article/india/delhi-gang-rape-victim-s-friend-also-on-bus-gives-statement-in-court-307391|access-date= 30 December 2012|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121229072135/http://www.ndtv.com/article/india/delhi-gang-rape-victim-s-friend-also-on-bus-gives-statement-in-court-307391|archive-date= 29 December 2012|url-status= live|df= dmy-all}}</ref> Pandey recorded his statement with a [[sub-divisional magistrate]] at the Safdarjung Hospital on 21 December, in the presence of the Deputy Commissioner of police.<ref>{{cite news|title= Gangrape victim speaks to magistrate|work= [[The Hindu]]|agency= [[Press Trust of India]]|location= New Delhi|date= 22 December 2012|url= http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/gangrape-victim-speaks-to-magistrate/article4229374.ece|access-date= 30 December 2012|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121224234459/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/gangrape-victim-speaks-to-magistrate/article4229374.ece|archive-date= 24 December 2012|url-status= live|df= dmy-all}}</ref> He was reportedly plagued with guilt and trauma over the incident.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://fridaymagazine.ae/life-culture/delhi-gang-rape-victim-s-friend-tortured-by-guil-1.1321650|title=Delhi gang rape victim's friend 'tortured by guilt'|website=Friday Magazine|date=28 April 2014|access-date=9 August 2021|archive-date=9 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210809143534/https://fridaymagazine.ae/life-culture/delhi-gang-rape-victim-s-friend-tortured-by-guil-1.1321650|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 21 December, the government promised to file the [[chargesheet]] quickly and seek the maximum penalty of [[life imprisonment]] for the perpetrators.<ref name="Hindu1">{{cite news|title=Police to seek life imprisonment for rape accused|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/police-to-seek-life-imprisonment-for-rape-accused/article4226285.ece|date=21 December 2012|work=The Hindu|location=New Delhi|access-date=22 December 2012|first=Sandeep|last=Joshi|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121222045138/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/police-to-seek-life-imprisonment-for-rape-accused/article4226285.ece|archive-date=22 December 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> Following public outrage and a demand for a speedy trial and prosecution, on 24 December, the police promised to file the charge sheet within one week.<ref>{{cite news|title= Crackdown mutes protest|first1= Mohammad|last1= Ali|first2= Ashok|last2= Kumar|location= New Delhi|work= [[The Hindu]]|date= 24 December 2012|url= http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/rape-case-delhi-turns-fortress-2-acps-suspended/article4234255.ece|access-date= 30 December 2012|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121227131108/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/rape-case-delhi-turns-fortress-2-acps-suspended/article4234255.ece|archive-date= 27 December 2012|url-status= live|df= dmy-all}}</ref> The Parliamentary [[Standing Committee on Home Affairs]] met on 27 December to discuss the issue, and [[Union Home Secretary (India)|Union Home Secretary]] [[R. K. Singh]] and [[Commissioner of the Delhi Police|Delhi Police Commissioner]] [[Neeraj Kumar (police officer)|Neeraj Kumar]] were summoned to appear.<ref name="TOI 20121221">{{cite news|last=Naidu|first=Venkaiah|title=Delhi gang rape: Parliamentary panel summons Union home secretary, Delhi police chief|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Delhi-gang-rape-Parliamentary-panel-summons-Union-home-secretary-Delhi-police-chief/articleshow/17707153.cms|access-date=31 December 2012|date=21 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121223032000/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-12-21/india/35952434_1_delhi-gang-delhi-police-new-delhi|archive-date=23 December 2012|work=[[The Times of India]]|url-status=live}}</ref> The Delhi High Court approved the creation of five fast-track courts to try rape and sexual assault cases.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/NewDelhi/5-special-fast-track-courts-by-January-3/Article1-982169.aspx |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |title=5 special fast track courts by 3 January |date=29 December 2012 |access-date=29 December 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130925062509/http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/NewDelhi/5-special-fast-track-courts-by-January-3/Article1-982169.aspx |archive-date=25 September 2013 }}</ref> The first of the five approved fast-track courts was inaugurated on 2 January 2013 by [[Altamas Kabir]], [[Chief Justice of India]], in [[Saket (Delhi)|Saket]] court complex in South Delhi.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.firstpost.com/india/cji-promises-swift-justice-for-crimes-against-women-576502.html|work=[[First Post]]|title=CJI promises swift justice for crimes against women|date=2 January 2013|access-date=2 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130104172603/http://www.firstpost.com/india/cji-promises-swift-justice-for-crimes-against-women-576502.html|archive-date=4 January 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 21 December, the Delhi High Court reprimanded the Delhi police for being "evasive" in a probe status report providing details of officers on patrol duty in the area covered by the bus route.<ref name="Inept Delhi cops">{{cite news|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report_inept-delhi-cops-get-hc-rap_1780383|date=21 December 2012|access-date=22 December 2012|title=Inept Delhi cops get HC rap|newspaper=[[Daily News and Analysis|DNA]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121223064354/http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report_inept-delhi-cops-get-hc-rap_1780383|archive-date=23 December 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> A further court hearing on the matter was scheduled for 9 January 2013.<ref name="Inept Delhi cops" /> The following day, the Delhi Police initiated action against three [[Hauz Khas]] police station personnel for their inaction in responding to the robbery of the carpenter that took place earlier on the bus in the day.<ref name=sikdar /> On 24 December, two Assistant Commissioners of Police were suspended for failing to prevent the gang rape incident.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-newdelhi/two-acps-are-suspended/article4237103.ece | title=Two ACPs are suspended | work=The Hindu | access-date=28 December 2012 | location=Chennai, India | date=25 December 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130102021128/http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-newdelhi/two-acps-are-suspended/article4237103.ece | archive-date=2 January 2013 | url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Juvenile defendant ===
The [[Juvenile delinquency|juvenile]] defendant Mohammed Afroz,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dailypioneer.com/2020/sunday-edition/r-i-p-nirbhaya.html|title=R.I.P Nirbhaya|last=Hashmi|first=Musba|date=22 March 2020|work=[[The Pioneer (India)]]|publisher=CMYK Printech Ltd|access-date=21 May 2022|archive-date=28 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220928121000/https://www.dailypioneer.com/2020/sunday-edition/r-i-p-nirbhaya.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Anand2018">{{cite book|first=Pinky|last=Anand|author-link=Pinky Anand|title=Trials of Truth: India's Landmark Criminal Cases|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jp1IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT88|access-date=6 January 2021|date=28 January 2018|publisher=Penguin Random House India Private Limited|isbn=978-93-87326-59-0|pages=88–|archive-date=31 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331114632/https://books.google.com/books?id=jp1IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT88|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Nirbhaya's 'Juvenile' Rapist Who Walked Free Last Year Is Reportedly Working As A Cook |url=https://www.scoopwhoop.com/meanwhile-heres-how-the-juvenile-rapist-of-nirbhaya-is-spending-his-life/ |website=scoopwhoop |date=5 May 2017 |publisher=scoopwhoop.com |access-date=23 March 2020 |archive-date=19 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200519105859/https://www.scoopwhoop.com/meanwhile-heres-how-the-juvenile-rapist-of-nirbhaya-is-spending-his-life/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Raveena Tandon takes on the rape issue headlong in her upcoming film 'Maatr' |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-raveena-tandon-takes-on-the-rape-issue-headlong-in-her-upcoming-film-maatr-2373998 |website=dnaindia.com |date=30 March 2017 |publisher=dnaindia |access-date=23 March 2020 |archive-date=25 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220925132824/https://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-raveena-tandon-takes-on-the-rape-issue-headlong-in-her-upcoming-film-maatr-2373998 |url-status=live }}</ref> whose name was later changed to Raju in the media due to his age, was declared as 17 years and six months old on the day of the crime by the [[Juvenile Justice Board]] (JJB), which relied on his [[birth certificate]] and school documents. The JJB rejected a police request for a bone [[ossification]] (age determination) test for a positive documentation of his age.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/Chunk-HT-UI-IndiaSectionPage-DelhiGangrape/Delhi-gangrape-sixth-accused-declared-a-minor-by-board/Article1-1002908.aspx |title=Most brutal rapist declared minor, victim's kin outraged |work=Hindustan Times |date=28 January 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130128234008/http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/Chunk-HT-UI-IndiaSectionPage-DelhiGangrape/Delhi-gangrape-sixth-accused-declared-a-minor-by-board/Article1-1002908.aspx |archive-date=28 January 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1130128/jsp/frontpage/story_16493429.jsp#.UQaYNx3FVxA |title=Delhi gang-rape: Board declares 6th accused a minor, does not allow bone test |work=[[The Telegraph (Calcutta)|The Telegraph]] |location=Calcutta |date=28 January 2013 |access-date=28 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130131033618/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1130128/jsp/frontpage/story_16493429.jsp#.UQaYNx3FVxA |archive-date=31 January 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |agency=Press Trust of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/Gang-rape-victims-kin-appalled-as-6th-accused-declared-minor/articleshow/18224801.cms |title=Gang-rape victim's kin appalled as 6th accused declared minor |date=28 January 2013 |access-date=29 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130922230251/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-01-28/delhi/36595368_1_jjb-juvenile-board-juvenile-justice |archive-date=22 September 2013 |work=[[The Times of India]] |url-status=live }}</ref>

On 28 January 2013, the Juvenile Justice Board determined that Afroz would not be tried as an adult. A petition launched by [[Janata Party]] president [[Subramanian Swamy]] seeking the prosecution of the minor as an adult due to the violent nature of his alleged crime was rejected by the JJB.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/NewDelhi/Subramanian-Swamy-s-plea-for-trying-juvenile-as-adult-accused-dismissed/Article1-999187.aspx |title=Subramanian Swamy's plea for trying juvenile as adult accused dismissed |work=Hindustan Times |date=24 January 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130126212008/http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/NewDelhi/Subramanian-Swamy-s-plea-for-trying-juvenile-as-adult-accused-dismissed/Article1-999187.aspx |archive-date=26 January 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |agency=Press Trust of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/Subramanian-Swamys-plea-for-trying-juvenile-with-adult-gang-rape-accused-dismissed/articleshow/18167043.cms |title=Subramanian Swamy's plea for trying juvenile with adult gang-rape accused dismissed |date=24 January 2013 |access-date=28 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104083412/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-01-24/delhi/36526479_1_subramanian-swamy-juvenile-justice-board-jjb |archive-date=4 November 2013 |work=[[The Times of India]] |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/juvenile-board-rejects-subramanian-swamys-plea-seeking-trial-of-juvenile-along-with-adult-accused/1064313/ |title=Juvenile Board rejects Swamy's plea seeking trial of juvenile along with accused adults |work=The Indian Express |date=24 January 2013}}</ref> The minor was tried separately in a [[juvenile court]].

A verdict in the case was scheduled to be announced on 25 July,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2013/07/11/india-rape-verdict/2507867/ |title=Lawyer: India rape verdict to be given 25 July |date=11 July 2013 |work=USA Today |access-date=11 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130712003915/http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2013/07/11/india-rape-verdict/2507867/ |archive-date=12 July 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> but was deferred until 5 August<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ibtimes.co.in/articles/494546/20130725/delhi-gang-rape-case-juvenile-accused-vedict.htm |title=Delhi Gang-Rape Case: Verdict On Juvenile Accused to be Pronounced on 5 August |date=25 July 2013 |work=International Business Times |access-date=25 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130728041509/http://www.ibtimes.co.in/articles/494546/20130725/delhi-gang-rape-case-juvenile-accused-vedict.htm |archive-date=28 July 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> and then deferred again to 19 August.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/Delhi-gang-rape-case-Board-defers-verdict-on-juvenile-again/articleshow/21639170.cms |title=Delhi gang-rape case: Board defers verdict on juvenile again |date=6 August 2013 |agency=Times News Network |access-date=9 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130811231301/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-08-06/delhi/41131005_1_principal-magistrate-geetanjali-goel-juvenile-justice-board-the-jjb |archive-date=11 August 2013 |work=[[The Times of India]] |url-status=live }}</ref> On 31 August, he was convicted of rape and murder under the [[Juvenile Justice Act]] and given the maximum sentence of three years' imprisonment in a reform facility, inclusive of the eight months he spent in remand during the trial.<ref>{{cite news|title=Nirbhaya gang-rape case: Juvenile found guilty of rape and murder|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/Nirbhaya-gang-rape-case-Juvenile-found-guilty-of-rape-and-murder/articleshow/22183253.cms|access-date=31 August 2013|newspaper=The Times of India|date=31 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130831170638/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/Nirbhaya-gang-rape-case-Juvenile-found-guilty-of-rape-and-murder/articleshow/22183253.cms|archive-date=31 August 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> Reportedly, Jyoti's younger brother had impulsively tried to attack the juvenile convict after hearing the verdict but the crowd in the courtroom managed to restrain him.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/nirbhayas-brother-tries-to-attack-juvenile-family-in-despair/articleshow/22197841.cms|title=Nirbhaya's brother tries to attack juvenile, family in despair|website=Times of India|date=1 September 2013|access-date=11 August 2021|archive-date=11 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210811145954/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/nirbhayas-brother-tries-to-attack-juvenile-family-in-despair/articleshow/22197841.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> The juvenile was released on 20 December 2015.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2015/12/20/asia/india-new-delhi-gang-rape-juvenile-released/|title=New Delhi gang-rape convict released|first1=Moni|last1=Basu|first2=Harmeet Shah|last2=Singh|date=20 December 2015|publisher=CNN|access-date=3 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223053113/http://www.cnn.com/2015/12/20/asia/india-new-delhi-gang-rape-juvenile-released/|archive-date=23 December 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

For the rehabilitation and mainstreaming of Afroz as mandated by the [[Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2000|Juvenile Justice Act, 2000]] management committees were set up before the release of juvenile convicts. Accordingly, a 'post-release plan' was submitted to the Delhi high court in December 2015. The plan was prepared and submitted by the management committee, headed by the officer of the District Child Protection Unit, and had recommended that "(Afroz) should lead a new life with a new identity provided by the appropriate government as applicable in his case if permissible to avoid any backlash or violent reaction".<ref name="Hindustan Times plan">{{cite news |title=Dec 16 juvenile convict trained as tailor, may get Rs 10k for new life |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/delhi/panel-recommends-aid-of-rs-10-000-for-juvenile-to-restart-life-afresh/story-GrpNxkWdnLuQnBu693tnjJ.html |access-date=19 January 2020 |work=Hindustan Times |date=19 December 2015 |language=en |archive-date=16 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200516195908/https://www.hindustantimes.com/delhi/panel-recommends-aid-of-rs-10-000-for-juvenile-to-restart-life-afresh/story-GrpNxkWdnLuQnBu693tnjJ.html |url-status=live }}</ref> According to the report, the juvenile had learnt cooking and tailoring while staying in the reform house.<ref name="Hindustan Times plan" /> The report further said that Afroz would need a tailoring shop, a sewing machine and other tailoring equipment. The report also mentioned that a one-time grant of {{INRConvert|10000}} from the government should be sufficient to support him initially.<ref name="Hindustan Times plan" /><ref name="HT rehabilitation">{{cite news |last1=Kumar |first1=Nirnimesh |title=Nirbhaya case: Juvenile will get full help to land a tailoring job |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Delhi/nirbhaya-case-juvenile-will-get-full-help-to-land-a-tailoring-job/article8005380.ece |access-date=19 January 2020 |work=The Hindu |date=18 December 2015 |language=en-IN |archive-date=14 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200514105733/https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Delhi/nirbhaya-case-juvenile-will-get-full-help-to-land-a-tailoring-job/article8005380.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> The department of women and child development (WCD) of the government stated that it would provide the money and would arrange the machine from an [[Non-governmental organization|NGO]].<ref name="Abhinav">{{cite news |last1=Garg |first1=Abhinav |title=Nirbhaya juvenile to walk free on Dec 20, Centre opposes move |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/50179656.cms |access-date=19 January 2020 |work=The Times of India |agency=TNN |date=15 December 2015 |language=en |archive-date=31 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331135231/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/nirbhaya-juvenile-to-walk-free-on-dec-20-centre-opposes-move/articleshow/50179656.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> Afroz's family had ostracized him for the crime and refused to accept him.<ref>{{cite news |title=Nirbhaya gangrape case: Juvenile rapist shifted to secret spot a day before release |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/mail-today/story/nirbhaya-gangrape-case-juvenile-rapist-shifted-to-secret-spot-a-day-before-release-278076-2015-12-20 |access-date=19 January 2020 |work=India Today |date=15 January 2015 |language=en |archive-date=16 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200516155219/https://www.indiatoday.in/mail-today/story/nirbhaya-gangrape-case-juvenile-rapist-shifted-to-secret-spot-a-day-before-release-278076-2015-12-20 |url-status=live }}</ref> However, after his release it was reported that he was working as a cook.<ref>{{cite news |author=S. W. Staff |title=Nirbhaya's 'Juvenile' Rapist Who Walked Free Last Year Is Reportedly Working As A Cook |url=https://www.scoopwhoop.com/meanwhile-heres-how-the-juvenile-rapist-of-nirbhaya-is-spending-his-life/ |access-date=11 June 2019 |work=ScoopWhoop |date=5 May 2017 |language=en |archive-date=19 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200519105859/https://www.scoopwhoop.com/meanwhile-heres-how-the-juvenile-rapist-of-nirbhaya-is-spending-his-life/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Adult defendants ===
Five days after Jyoti's death, on 3 January 2013, the police filed charges against the five adult men for rape, murder, kidnapping,<ref name="CNN5113">{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2013/01/05/world/asia/india-rape-case/index.html|publisher=CNN|title=Suspects in New Delhi gang rape case to appear in court Monday|date=5 January 2013|access-date=6 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130106002737/http://www.cnn.com/2013/01/05/world/asia/india-rape-case/index.html|archive-date=6 January 2013|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="BBC5113">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-20920842|publisher=BBC|title=India rape: Delhi court hears of forensic evidence|date=5 January 2013|access-date=6 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130106020524/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-20920842|archive-date=6 January 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> destruction of evidence, and the attempted murder of the woman's male companion.<ref name="NYT3113" /> Senior lawyer Dayan Krishnan was appointed as the special public prosecutor.<ref>{{cite news|title=Delhi gangrape case: special public prosecutor not to speak to media |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |agency=Press Trust of India |date=3 January 2013 |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/NewDelhi/Delhi-gangrape-case-special-public-prosecutor-not-to-speak-to-media/Article1-983579.aspx |access-date=3 January 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130103152107/http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/NewDelhi/Delhi-gangrape-case-special-public-prosecutor-not-to-speak-to-media/Article1-983579.aspx |archive-date=3 January 2013 }}</ref> Mukesh Singh, Vinay Sharma, Akshay Thakur and Pawan Gupta denied the charges. Some of the men had confessed earlier; however, their lawyers said that their clients had been tortured and that their confessions had been coerced.<ref name=BBC109 /><ref name="Not Guilty">{{cite news|url=http://india.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/01/09/three-accused-in-delhi-gang-rape-case-to-plead-not-guilty/|work=The New York Times|title=Three Accused in Delhi Gang Rape Case to Plead 'Not Guilty'|date=9 January 2013|access-date=9 January 2013|first1=Niharika|last1=Mandhana|first2=Anjani|last2=Trivedi|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130109182950/http://india.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/01/09/three-accused-in-delhi-gang-rape-case-to-plead-not-guilty/|archive-date=9 January 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 10 January, one of their lawyers, [[Manohar Lal Sharma]], said in a media interview that the victims were responsible for the assault because they should not have been using public transportation and, as an unmarried couple, they should not have been on the streets at night. He went on to say: "Until today I have not seen a single incident or example of rape with a respected lady. Even an underworld [[Boss (crime)|don]] would not like to touch a girl without respect."<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite news|url=http://www.smh.com.au/world/victims-in-delhi-rape-case-are-to-blame-defendants-lawyer-says-20130110-2ch95.html |title=Victims in Delhi rape case are to blame, defendants' lawyer says |work=The Sydney Morning Herald |date=10 January 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130109203801/http://www.smh.com.au/world/victims-in-delhi-rape-case-are-to-blame-defendants-lawyer-says-20130110-2ch95.html |archive-date=9 January 2013 }}</ref> He also called the male victim "wholly responsible" for the incident because he "failed in his duty to protect the woman".<ref name=autogenerated1 />

The Delhi police filed a charge sheet against the defendants on 13 March in the robbery of Ramadhir.<ref name=Robbery />

The four surviving adult defendants went on trial in a fast-track court. The prosecution presented evidence including witness statements, the victim's statement, fingerprints, [[DNA testing]], and dental modelling. It completed its case on 8 July.<ref name=TOI87 /><ref name=HT109>{{cite web|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/Chunk-HT-UI-IndiaSectionPage-DelhiGangrape/Delhi-gang-rape-verdict-four-convicted-sentence-tomorrow-girl-s-father-says-hang-them/Article1-1119980.aspx |title=Delhi gang-rape verdict: four convicted, sentence tomorrow; girl's father says 'hang them' |author=Nair, Harish V |date=10 September 2013 |work=Hindustan Times |access-date=10 September 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130912223501/http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/Chunk-HT-UI-IndiaSectionPage-DelhiGangrape/Delhi-gang-rape-verdict-four-convicted-sentence-tomorrow-girl-s-father-says-hang-them/Article1-1119980.aspx |archive-date=12 September 2013 }}</ref>

=== Conviction, sentencing, and imprisonment ===
On 10 September 2013, in the fast track court of Delhi, the four adult defendants were found guilty of rape, murder, unnatural offences and destruction of evidence.<ref>''State (Government of NCT of Delhi) vs. Ram Singh & Ors'', S.C. No. 114/2013, [https://www.wsj.com/public/resources/documents/rape_verdict.pdf Judgment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303125352/https://www.wsj.com/public/resources/documents/rape_verdict.pdf |date=3 March 2018 }}</ref> The four men faced the death penalty, and demonstrators outside the courthouse called for the hanging of the defendants.<ref name=BBC109>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-24028767 |title=Four convicted for Delhi gang rape |date=10 September 2013 |work=BBC News |access-date=10 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130910103446/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-24028767 |archive-date=10 September 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="TOI10/09/13">{{cite news |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Delhi-gang-rape-case-All-four-accused-convicted-sentencing-tomorrow/articleshow/22457148.cms |title=Delhi gang-rape case: All four accused convicted, sentencing tomorrow |work=The Times of India |date=10 September 2013 |access-date=10 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303125717/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Delhi-gang-rape-case-All-four-accused-convicted-sentencing-tomorrow/articleshow/22457148.cms |archive-date=3 March 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> The victim's father also called for the defendants to be hanged, stating, "We will get complete closure only if all the accused are wiped off from the face of the earth."<ref name=HT109 /> Lawyers for three of the four stated that their clients intended to appeal the verdict.<ref name=BBC109 /> The four men were sentenced on 13 September to death by hanging.<ref name="NYT Sep 13">{{cite news|title=4 Sentenced to Death in Rape Case That Riveted India|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/14/world/asia/4-sentenced-to-death-in-rape-case-that-riveted-india.html?emc=edit_na_20130913|date=13 September 2013|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|last1=Barry|first1=Ellen|author-link1=Ellen Barry (journalist)|access-date=13 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403012143/http://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/14/world/asia/4-sentenced-to-death-in-rape-case-that-riveted-india.html?emc=edit_na_20130913|archive-date=3 April 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>''State (Government of NCT of Delhi) vs. Ram Singh & Ors'', S.C. No. 114/2013, [https://www.wsj.com/public/resources/documents/DelhiRape.pdf Order on Sentence] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303124953/https://www.wsj.com/public/resources/documents/DelhiRape.pdf |date=3 March 2018 }}</ref> Judge Yogesh Khanna rejected pleas for a lesser sentence saying the case has "shocked the collective conscience of India" and that "courts cannot turn a blind eye to such crimes."<ref name="BBC 13 Sep" /><ref name="vocativ1" /> The victim's family was present for the sentencing and her mother expressed satisfaction over the verdict saying, "We were waiting with bated breath, now we are relieved. I thank the people of my country and the media."<ref name="timesofindia">{{cite news|title=4 Delhi gang-rape case: Death sentence for all four convicts|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Delhi-gang-rape-case-Death-sentence-for-all-four-convicts/articleshow/22547783.cms|date=13 September 2013|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=13 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130913225244/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Delhi-gang-rape-case-Death-sentence-for-all-four-convicts/articleshow/22547783.cms|archive-date=13 September 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> After the verdict was delivered, the people waiting outside the courtroom applauded.<ref name="timesofindia" />

Upon hearing that he would be executed, Vinay Sharma collapsed and pleaded with the judge, saying, "Please sir, please sir." As the men left the courtroom, they shouted out to the crowd, "Brothers, save us!"<ref>{{Cite news|date=13 September 2013|title=Delhi gang rape: Four sentenced to death|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-24078339|access-date=11 February 2022|archive-date=28 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220928234046/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-24078339|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=13 September 2013|title="Sir ji, Sir ji" cried Delhi gangrape convict as judge pronounced death sentence|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/north/story/sir-ji-sir-ji-cried-delhi-gangrape-convict-210893-2013-09-13|access-date=11 February 2022|website=India Today|language=en|archive-date=11 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220211180336/https://www.indiatoday.in/india/north/story/sir-ji-sir-ji-cried-delhi-gangrape-convict-210893-2013-09-13|url-status=live}}</ref>

While on death row, Mukesh Singh blamed Jyoti for being raped, saying "You can't clap with one hand – it takes two hands. A decent girl won't roam around at 9 o'clock at night. A girl is far more responsible for rape than a boy. Boy and girl are not equal. Housework and housekeeping is for girls, not roaming in discos and bars at night doing wrong things, wearing wrong clothes. About 20 percent of girls are good."<ref>{{cite web|title=Indian Parliament Bans India's Daughter, Cites Global Conspiracy|url=https://jezebel.com/indian-parliament-bans-indias-daughter-cites-global-co-1689469071|access-date=11 February 2022|website=Jezebel|date=4 March 2015|language=en-us|archive-date=11 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220211180338/https://jezebel.com/indian-parliament-bans-indias-daughter-cites-global-co-1689469071|url-status=live}}</ref> Singh also blamed Jyoti for her death, saying "When being raped, she shouldn't fight back. She should just be silent and allow the rape. Then they'd have dropped her off after 'doing her', and only hit the boy."<ref>{{Cite news|date=3 March 2015|title=Delhi rapist says victim shouldn't have fought back|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-31698154|access-date=11 February 2022|archive-date=11 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220211180336/https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-31698154|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 13 March 2014, the Delhi High Court found each of the defendants guilty of rape, murder, unnatural offences and destruction of evidence. With the verdict, the High Court confirmed the death sentences for the four men convicted in September 2013. The court noted that the crime, which stirred widespread protests over sexual crimes against women in the country, fell into the judicial system's "rarest of the rare category" that allows capital punishment.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lobis.nic.in/dhc/RK/judgement/12-03-2014/RK13032014DSRF62013.pdf|title=Death Sentence Ref. No. 6/2013|publisher=High Court of Delhi|date=13 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140427011430/http://lobis.nic.in/dhc/RK/judgement/12-03-2014/RK13032014DSRF62013.pdf|archive-date=27 April 2014}}</ref> The lawyers of the four men said they would appeal to the Supreme Court.<ref name="NDTV">{{cite web|title=Delhi gang-rape case: High Court verdict confirms convicts' death sentence|url=http://www.ndtv.com/article/india/delhi-gang-rape-case-high-court-verdict-confirms-convicts-death-sentence-495149|date=13 March 2014|access-date=13 March 2014|archive-date=31 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331135233/https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/delhi-gang-rape-case-high-court-confirms-death-sentence-for-four-convicts-553796|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Supreme Court appeal ==
On 15 March 2014, the [[Supreme Court of India]] stayed the execution of two of the four convicts, Mukesh Singh and Pawan Gupta, to allow them to make their appeal against their conviction on 31 March.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-26593587|title=Delhi gang rape: Death penalty for two men put on hold|work=BBC News|date=15 March 2014|access-date=20 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201161316/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-26593587|archive-date=1 February 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> This was further extended by the court to the second week of July.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/Final-Hearing-on-Two-Delhi-Gang-Rape-Convicts-Appeals-in-July-SC/2014/04/28/article2194457.ece|title=Final Hearing on Two Delhi Gang Rape Convicts' Appeals in July: SC|work=The New Indian Express|date=28 April 2014|access-date=7 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140715065131/http://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/Final-Hearing-on-Two-Delhi-Gang-Rape-Convicts-Appeals-in-July-SC/2014/04/28/article2194457.ece|archive-date=15 July 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> On 2 June, the two other convicts, Sharma and Thakur, also asked the Supreme Court to stay their execution to allow them to make an appeal of their convictions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.livemint.com/Politics/VTl2C9EGdZ4GKtscNXfUbI/Delhi-gangrape-Two-death-row-convicts-move-Supreme-Court.html|title=Delhi gang-rape: Two death row convicts move Supreme Court|publisher=Livemint|date=2 June 2014|access-date=5 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140605184746/http://www.livemint.com/Politics/VTl2C9EGdZ4GKtscNXfUbI/Delhi-gangrape-Two-death-row-convicts-move-Supreme-Court.html|archive-date=5 June 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.firstpost.com/fwire/two-more-convicts-in-delhi-gang-rape-case-move-sc-1555503.html|title=Two more convicts in Delhi gang rape case move SC|work=Firstpost|date=4 June 2014|access-date=5 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924121347/http://www.firstpost.com/fwire/two-more-convicts-in-delhi-gang-rape-case-move-sc-1555503.html|archive-date=24 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> On 14 July, their execution was also stayed by Supreme Court.<ref>{{cite web|title=Supreme Court halts death sentence of 2 Convicts in Delhi Gang Rape Case|url=http://news.biharprabha.com/2014/07/supreme-court-halts-death-sentence-of-2-convicts-in-delhi-gang-rape-case/|work=IANS|date=14 July 2014|publisher=news.biharprabha.com|access-date=14 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140715204612/http://news.biharprabha.com/2014/07/supreme-court-halts-death-sentence-of-2-convicts-in-delhi-gang-rape-case/|archive-date=15 July 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> On 27 August 2015, Vinay, Akshay, Mukesh and Pawan were convicted of robbing Ramadhir and were later sentenced to 10 years' imprisonment.<ref name=sanyal /><ref name= Robbery>{{cite news|url=http://www.ndtv.com/delhi-news/4-nirbhaya-gang-rape-convicts-get-10-year-jail-in-robbery-case-1213598|title=4 Nirbhaya gang-rape convicts get 10-year jail in robbery case|work=[[NDTV]]|date=2 September 2015|access-date=30 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151231074537/http://www.ndtv.com/delhi-news/4-nirbhaya-gang-rape-convicts-get-10-year-jail-in-robbery-case-1213598|archive-date=31 December 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 5{{spaces}}May 2017, the Supreme Court rejected the convicts' appeal and, saying they had committed "a barbaric crime" that had "shaken society's conscience", the court upheld the death sentence of the four who had been charged in the murder. The verdict was well received by the family of the victim and the civil society. According to legal experts, the convicts still had the right to file a [[review petition]] to the Supreme Court.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-39814910|title=India court upholds 2012 Delhi gang rapists' death penalty|date=5 May 2017|work=BBC News|access-date=5 May 2017|language=en-GB|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719140618/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-39814910|archive-date=19 July 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> On 9{{spaces}}July 2018, the Supreme Court rejected a review petition by three of the convicts.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/delhi-gang-rape-and-murder-case-supreme-court-to-decide-fate-of-nirbhaya-s-killers-1880002|title=Nirbhaya Case: Parents Welcome Supreme Court Judgement|access-date=9 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180709123952/https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/delhi-gang-rape-and-murder-case-supreme-court-to-decide-fate-of-nirbhaya-s-killers-1880002|archive-date=9 July 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2018/jul/09/nirbhaya-gangrape-case-supreme-court-rejects-review-petition-of-three-convicts-1840658.html|title=Nirbhaya gangrape case: Supreme Court rejects review petition of three convicts|access-date=9 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180709185014/http://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2018/jul/09/nirbhaya-gangrape-case-supreme-court-rejects-review-petition-of-three-convicts-1840658.html|archive-date=9 July 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In November 2019, the Supreme Court dismissed a review petition from Akshay pleading for mercy. In doing so, the court retained the death sentence. After the verdict, Akshay's lawyer told the Supreme Court that he would appeal to the president. For this, he should be given three weeks' time.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://hindi.news18.com/news/delhi/nirbhaya-case-hearing-on-mercy-petition-of-convict-akshay-kumar-singh-in-supreme-court-today-nodmk8-2699281.html|title=निर्भया मामला: SC ने खारिज की दोषी अक्षय की पुनर्विचार याचिका, बरकरार रखी फांसी की सजा|date=18 December 2019|website=News18 India|access-date=18 December 2019|archive-date=18 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191218084933/https://hindi.news18.com/news/delhi/nirbhaya-case-hearing-on-mercy-petition-of-convict-akshay-kumar-singh-in-supreme-court-today-nodmk8-2699281.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="SC juvenile 17 Jan" /> In January 2020, a five-judge bench of the Supreme Court rejected the curative petitions of convicts, Vinay Sharma and Mukesh.<ref name="SC juvenile 17 Jan" />

On 7 January 2020 a death warrant was issued for the convicts by a Delhi court, setting an execution date of 22 January 2020 at 7:00{{nbsp}}a.m. IST in Tihar Jail.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/nirbhaya-rapists-to-be-hanged-on-january-22-at-7am-1634718-2020-01-07|title=December 2012 gangrape case: Death warrant issued for Nirbhaya rapists, to be hanged on 22 January at 7am|agency=Ist|newspaper=India Today|access-date=7 January 2020|archive-date=7 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200107165827/https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/nirbhaya-rapists-to-be-hanged-on-january-22-at-7am-1634718-2020-01-07|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/court-issues-death-warrant-for-all-4-nirbhaya-case-convicts/articleshow/73139574.cms|title=Nirbhaya case latest news: Court issues death warrant for all 4 Nirbhaya case convicts|website=The Times of India|date=7 January 2020|access-date=7 January 2020|archive-date=7 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200107115801/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/court-issues-death-warrant-for-all-4-nirbhaya-case-convicts/articleshow/73139574.cms|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/01/07/asia/india-gang-rape-nirbhaya-death-warrant-intl/index.html|title=Four men ordered to hang for fatal gang rape on New Delhi bus|first1=Vedika|last1=Sud|first2=Manveena|last2=Suri|first3=Swati|last3=Gupta|website=CNN|access-date=13 January 2020|archive-date=13 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200113151117/https://www.cnn.com/2020/01/07/asia/india-gang-rape-nirbhaya-death-warrant-intl/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Government authorities and the victim's mother alleged that the four convicts were "intentionally delaying" and "frustrating" the legal process in this case by filing their pleas in stages, so that the execution could be postponed.<ref name="Tribune reject 15 Jan">{{cite news |title=Delhi recommends rejection of Nirbhaya convict's mercy plea |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/delhi-recommends-rejection-of-nirbhaya-convict%E2%80%99s-mercy-plea-26809 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200515125038/https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/delhi-recommends-rejection-of-nirbhaya-convict%E2%80%99s-mercy-plea-26809 |url-status=dead |archive-date=15 May 2020 |access-date=17 January 2020 |date=15 January 2020 }}</ref> Under prison rules, if any one particular case results in more than one death penalty conviction (as here) and any one of those convicted in the case petitions for a mercy plea, the execution dates of all others convicted in the case must be postponed until a decision is made on the pending mercy plea.<ref name="Tribune reject 15 Jan" />

=== Mercy plea to the President of India ===
Mukesh Singh filed a mercy plea in January 2020. The Delhi government made a recommendation to reject the plea and forwarded it to the Lieutenant Governor. On 17 January 2020, the [[President of India]] rejected the mercy plea. Both the [[Government of Delhi]] and [[Ministry of Home Affairs (India)|home ministry]] had recommended the president that the plea should be rejected.<ref name="Tribune reject 15 Jan" /><ref name="17 January 2020">{{cite news |last1=Singh |first1=Vijaita |title=President rejects mercy plea of Nirbhaya case convict Mukesh Singh |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/president-rejects-mercy-plea-of-nirbhaya-convict-mukesh-singh/article30583649.ece |access-date=17 January 2020 |work=The Hindu |date=17 January 2020 |language=en-IN |archive-date=17 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200117075941/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/president-rejects-mercy-plea-of-nirbhaya-convict-mukesh-singh/article30583649.ece |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Second, third and fourth death warrants ===
On 17{{spaces}}January 2020, hours after the rejection of the mercy plea, Judge [[Dharmender Rana]] issued a second [[execution warrant|death warrant]] for the convicts to be hanged after a mandatory fourteen-day gap on 1 February at 6:00{{nbsp}}a.m.<ref name="NDTV Warrant 17 Jan">{{cite news |title=Nirbhaya Case: Convicts Will Now Hang On Feb 1 At 6 am, Says Delhi Court |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/nirbhaya-case-four-convicts-will-now-hang-on-february-1-at-6-am-delhi-court-issues-fresh-death-warra-2165617 |work=NDTV.com |date=17 January 2020 |access-date=17 January 2020 |archive-date=17 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200117172738/https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/nirbhaya-case-four-convicts-will-now-hang-on-february-1-at-6-am-delhi-court-issues-fresh-death-warra-2165617 |url-status=live }}</ref> The fourteen days' reprieve was provided in accordance with law which states that the convicts awaiting an execution must have a reprieve after their mercy plea is rejected.<ref name="NDTV Warrant 17 Jan" /> During the same hearing, the court also rejected a plea by the convict Mukesh to postpone the execution.<ref name="NDTV Warrant 17 Jan" />

On 17{{spaces}}January, Pawan appealed to the Supreme Court against the Delhi High Court order that rejected his claim that Pawan was a juvenile during the crime in 2012.<ref name="SC juvenile 17 Jan">{{cite news |title=Nirbhaya convict moves SC against HC's order rejecting his juvenility claim |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/nirbhaya-convict-moves-sc-against-hcs-order-rejecting-his-juvenility-claim/article30589217.ece |access-date=17 January 2020 |work=The Hindu |date=17 January 2020 |language=en-IN |archive-date=17 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200117230134/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/nirbhaya-convict-moves-sc-against-hcs-order-rejecting-his-juvenility-claim/article30589217.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> On 31{{spaces}}January, a Delhi court stayed the death warrant. The judge did not issue a fresh warrant for their execution. The lawyer cited Rule 836 of the prison manual which says that in a case where more than one person has been sentenced to death, the execution cannot take place unless all the convicts have exhausted their legal options.<ref name="second death warrant cancelled">{{cite news |last1=Banka |first1=Richa |title=4 Delhi gang rape convicts get a reprieve, judge cancels death warrant |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/delhi-news/execution-of-delhi-gang-rape-convicts-stayed/story-QeDExRoyjcoIHgAAZLS05L.html |access-date=2 February 2020 |work=The Hindi |date=31 January 2020 |language=en-IN |archive-date=1 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201192238/https://www.hindustantimes.com/delhi-news/execution-of-delhi-gang-rape-convicts-stayed/story-QeDExRoyjcoIHgAAZLS05L.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

On 17{{spaces}}February 2020, a third death warrant was issued by the court with the execution date as 3 March 2020 at 6:00{{spaces}}a.m.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/delhi-rape-convict-on-hunger-strike-says-lawyer-decision-on-death-warrant-soon/story-iDkbvT9jVgL1eHfMnORMHL.html|title=Delhi Court issues new death warrant to execute 4 gang rape convicts at 6 am on 3 March|date=17 February 2020|website=Hindustan Times|language=en|access-date=17 February 2020|archive-date=17 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200217102705/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/delhi-rape-convict-on-hunger-strike-says-lawyer-decision-on-death-warrant-soon/story-iDkbvT9jVgL1eHfMnORMHL.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 4{{spaces}}March 2020, a fourth death warrant was issued by court with the execution date as 20 March 2020 at 5:30{{spaces}}a.m.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Rajagopal|first1=Krishnadas|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/nirbhaya-case-supreme-court-to-step-in-on-march-23-if-convicts-are-not-hanged-on-march-20/article30990699.ece|title=Supreme Court to step in if convicts are not hanged on 20 March|date=5 March 2020|work=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=6 March 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306021538/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/nirbhaya-case-supreme-court-to-step-in-on-march-23-if-convicts-are-not-hanged-on-march-20/article30990699.ece|archive-date=6 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Mathur|first1=Aneesha|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/nirbhaya-rapists-hanging-on-march-20-1652719-2020-03-05|title=Nirbhaya rapists to hang on 20 March at 5.30 am, fresh death warrant issued for 4 convicts|date=5 March 2020|work=India Today|access-date=6 March 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306205558/https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/nirbhaya-rapists-hanging-on-march-20-1652719-2020-03-05|archive-date=6 March 2020}}</ref> Numerous pleas and appeals were made by both the families of the convicts and the convicts themselves, including three of the convicts moving the [[International Court of Justice]] for a stay on the death sentence; however, the date for the execution remained the same.<ref>{{cite news |title='Allow us euthanasia': 16 December gang rape convicts' kin to President Kovind |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/allow-us-euthanasia-december-16-gang-rape-convicts-kin-to-president-kovind/story-oqtNarcMfLTomnAnlU33vK.html |access-date=16 March 2020 |work=Hindustan Times |agency=ANI |date=16 March 2020 |archive-date=16 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200316134001/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/allow-us-euthanasia-december-16-gang-rape-convicts-kin-to-president-kovind/story-oqtNarcMfLTomnAnlU33vK.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Three Nirbhaya convicts move International Court of Justice for stay on death sentence |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/national/three-nirbhaya-convicts-move-international-court-of-justice-for-stay-on-death-sentence-814275.html |access-date=16 March 2020 |work=Deccan Herald |date=16 March 2020 |archive-date=31 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331135317/https://www.deccanherald.com/national/three-nirbhaya-case-convicts-move-international-court-of-justice-for-stay-on-death-sentence-814275.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Roy |first1=Divyanshu Dutta |title="No Remedy Left": Top Court Rejects Nirbhaya Convict's Fresh Request |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/nirbhaya-case-supreme-court-rejects-convict-mukeshs-request-to-file-fresh-curative-petition-says-he-2195585 |access-date=16 March 2020 |agency=NDTV |date=16 March 2020 |archive-date=16 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200316223105/https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/nirbhaya-case-supreme-court-rejects-convict-mukeshs-request-to-file-fresh-curative-petition-says-he-2195585 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Execution of convicts ==
On 20 March 2020, at 5:30{{nbsp}}a.m. IST, Mukesh Singh, Vinay Sharma, Akshay Thakur and Pawan Gupta were executed at [[Tihar Jail]]. The gallows used for the execution had been specially designed for four people.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.sky.com/story/india-executes-four-men-convicted-of-bus-gang-rape-and-murder-11960633|title=India executes four men convicted of bus gang rape and murder|website=Sky News|access-date=20 March 2020|archive-date=27 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230127192933/https://news.sky.com/story/india-executes-four-men-convicted-of-bus-gang-rape-and-murder-11960633|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="BBC News March 2020" /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/03/india-hangs-men-2012-delhi-bus-rape-murder-200320033644808.html|title=India hangs four men over 2012 Delhi bus gang rape and murder|website=www.aljazeera.com|access-date=21 March 2020|archive-date=20 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200320203413/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/03/india-hangs-men-2012-delhi-bus-rape-murder-200320033644808.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Ellis-Petersen|first=Hannah|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/mar/20/india-executes-four-men-convicted-of-2012-delhi-bus-and|title=India executes four men convicted of 2012 Delhi bus rape and murder|date=20 March 2020|work=The Guardian|access-date=21 March 2020|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077|archive-date=21 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200321052700/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/mar/20/india-executes-four-men-convicted-of-2012-delhi-bus-and|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/south-asia/india-executes-four-men-convicted-in-2012-delhi-bus-rape-and-murder|title=Four men convicted of brutal rape in Delhi in 2012 hanged|date=20 March 2020|website=[[The Straits Times]]|access-date=1 July 2020|archive-date=30 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221130014130/http://www.straitstimes.com/asia/south-asia/india-executes-four-men-convicted-in-2012-delhi-bus-rape-and-murder|url-status=live}}</ref> According to prison officials, the four convicts refused the offers of a last meal and new clothes prior to the execution. They were blindfolded and did not resist as they were led to the gallows; however, Vinay Sharma suffered a breakdown prior to his execution and began pleading with the guards.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kmaneck |first1=Roshneesh |title=REVEALED: Nirbhaya convicts' last moments before hanging |url=https://www.rediff.com/news/report/revealed-how-nirbhaya-convicts-spent-last-moments/20200320.htm |website=Rediff |language=en |access-date=27 April 2020 |archive-date=29 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929042003/https://www.rediff.com/news/report/revealed-how-nirbhaya-convicts-spent-last-moments/20200320.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> The four convicts were pronounced dead after hanging for 30 minutes.<ref>{{cite web |title=Nirbhaya convicts didn't resist when taken for execution, Vinay broke down: Tihar official |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/nirbhaya-convicts-didn-t-resist-when-taken-for-execution-vinay-broke-down-tihar-official-1657957-2020-03-20 |website=India Today |date=20 March 2020 |language=en |access-date=27 April 2020 |archive-date=28 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220928191218/https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/nirbhaya-convicts-didn-t-resist-when-taken-for-execution-vinay-broke-down-tihar-official-1657957-2020-03-20 |url-status=live }}</ref> Mukesh Singh reportedly requested to donate his organs.<ref>{{cite news |title=Nirbhaya convicts' last wishes: Mukesh seeks to donate organs, Vinay gives his paintings to jail super |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/nirbhaya-convicts-last-wishes-mukesh-seeks-to-donate-organs-vinay-gives-his-paintings-to-jail-super/articleshow/74725240.cms?from=mdr |website=The Economic Times |access-date=27 April 2020 |archive-date=16 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200516203106/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/nirbhaya-convicts-last-wishes-mukesh-seeks-to-donate-organs-vinay-gives-his-paintings-to-jail-super/articleshow/74725240.cms?from=mdr |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Public protests ==
=== After the incident ===
[[File:Delhi protests-students, Raisina Hill.jpg|thumb|Students protest at [[Raisina Hill]], Rajpath, New Delhi]]
Public protests took place in New Delhi on 21 December 2012 at [[India Gate]] and [[Raisina Hill]], the latter being the location of both the [[Parliament of India]] and [[Rashtrapati Bhavan]], the official residence of the [[President of India]]. Thousands of protesters clashed with police and battled [[Rapid Action Force]] units.<ref>{{cite web|title=Government waging 'war' against people: Arvind Kejriwal|url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/government-waging-war-against-people-arvind-kejriwal/312011-37-64.html|publisher=CNN-IBN|access-date=24 December 2012|date=24 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121231012934/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/government-waging-war-against-people-arvind-kejriwal/312011-37-64.html|archive-date=31 December 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> Demonstrators were [[baton charge]]d,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thatssogloss.com/rape-shame-delhi-a-witness-account-of-the-protests/ |title=Rape & Shame in Delhi : A witness' account of the protests |publisher=thatssogloss.com |access-date=10 February 2014 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104064252/http://thatssogloss.com/rape-shame-delhi-a-witness-account-of-the-protests/ |archive-date=4 November 2013 }}</ref> shot with [[water cannon]] and [[tear gas]] shells, and arrested.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://india.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/12/23/protests-over-rape-turn-violent-in-delhi/ |title=Protests Over Rape Turn Violent in Delhi |first1=Heather |last1=Timmons |first2=Hinarika |last2=Mandhana |first3=Sruthi |last3=Gottipatti |date=23 December 2012 |access-date=23 December 2012 |work=The New York Times |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121223130846/http://india.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/12/23/protests-over-rape-turn-violent-in-delhi/ |archive-date=23 December 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Similar protests occurred throughout the country. More than 600 women belonging to various organisations demonstrated in [[Bangalore]].<ref>{{cite news|agency=[[Press Trust of India]]|title=Delhi gang-rape: Women, students protest in Bangalore|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/delhi-gang-rape-women-students-protest-in-bangalore/articleshow/17721312.cms|access-date=23 December 2012|newspaper=[[The Economic Times]]|date=22 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180614040532/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/delhi-gang-rape-women-students-protest-in-bangalore/articleshow/17721312.cms|archive-date=14 June 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Jim Ankan Deka |url=http://www.demotix.com/news/1700981/bangalore-pays-tribute-delhi-gang-rape-victim |title=Bangalore pays tribute to Delhi gang-rape victim |publisher=Demotix |access-date=31 December 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130107053736/http://www.demotix.com/news/1700981/bangalore-pays-tribute-delhi-gang-rape-victim |archive-date=7 January 2013 }}</ref> Thousands of people silently marched in [[Kolkata]].<ref>{{cite news|agency=Indo-Asian News Service|title=Kolkata walks in silence to protest Delhi gangrape|url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/kolkata-walks-in-silence-to-protest-delhi-gangrape/311865-3-231.html|access-date=23 December 2012|newspaper=IBNlive.in.com|date=23 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130101105941/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/kolkata-walks-in-silence-to-protest-delhi-gangrape/311865-3-231.html|archive-date=1 January 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> Protests occurred online as well on the social networking sites Facebook and [[WhatsApp]], with users replacing their profile images with a black dot symbol.<ref name="Black Dot, TOI">{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/When-words-fail-a-dot-speaks-volumes/articleshow/17701877.cms |title=When words fail, a dot speaks volumes |date=21 December 2012 |access-date=30 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130923034729/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-12-21/chandigarh/35952817_1_delhi-gangrape-city-student-dot |archive-date=23 September 2013 |work=[[The Times of India]] |url-status=live }}</ref> Tens of thousands signed an online petition protesting the incident.<ref name="TOI Online protests">{{cite news |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tech/social-media/Delhi-gang-rape-case-FacebookTwitter-fuels-rally-at-India-Gate/articleshow/17741529.cms |title=Delhi gang rape case: Facebook, Twitter 'anchoring' protest |work=The Times of India |date=24 December 2012 |access-date=30 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121227022755/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tech/social-media/Delhi-gang-rape-case-FacebookTwitter-fuels-rally-at-India-Gate/articleshow/17741529.cms |archive-date=27 December 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Yoga guru [[Ramdev|Baba Ramdev]] and former Army chief General [[V. K. Singh|Vijay Kumar Singh]] were among the demonstrators who clashed with Delhi Police at [[Jantar Mantar]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dailypioneer.com/city/117675-ramdev-backers-arrive-spar-with-cops-booked.html |title=Ramdev backers arrive, spar with cops; booked |work=The Pioneer |location=India |date=28 August 2011 |access-date=24 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130923024752/http://www.dailypioneer.com/city/117675-ramdev-backers-arrive-spar-with-cops-booked.html |archive-date=23 September 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 24 December, activist [[Rajesh Gangwar]] started a hunger strike, saying about the accused men, "If my death shakes the system and gets them hanged, I am ready to die".<ref>{{cite news|title=Delhi gang rape case: Cold does not deter protesting duo at Jantar Mantar |location=New Delhi |date=5 January 2013 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/us |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130620023319/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-01-05/delhi/36160988_1_jantar-mantar-delhi-gang-babu-singh |work=[[The Times of India]] |archive-date=20 June 2013 }}</ref> Gangwar ended his fast after 14 days, saying, "My fight to demand a strict law against rape will be continued in the future... I have dedicated myself for this cause".<ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/Protester-ends-fast/articleshow/17934238.cms | title=Protester ends fast | access-date=10 February 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130121054744/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-01-08/delhi/36215274_1_protester-ends-hunger-strike-jantar-mantar | archive-date=21 January 2013 | work=[[The Times of India]] | url-status=live}}</ref> Middle Finger Protests, a Chandigarh-based pressure group and NGO headed by human rights and social activist Prabhloch Singh, also played a key role in the agitations and protests in New Delhi.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/news/life-style/gyan-zone/world-of-activism/377908.html|title=World of activism|last=Chawla|first=Smridhi|date=17 March 2017|work=[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)|The Tribune]]|access-date=17 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170503213603/http://www.tribuneindia.com/news/life-style/gyan-zone/world-of-activism/377908.html|archive-date=3 May 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/City-marches-for-Sippy/articleshow/50168550.cms|title=City marches for Sippy|date=14 December 2015|work=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=17 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171222033258/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/City-marches-for-Sippy/articleshow/50168550.cms|archive-date=22 December 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/news/chandigarh/community/sippy-s-kin-protest-outside-igp-s-residence/164775.html|title=Sippy's kin protest outside IGP's residence|date=30 November 2015|work=[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)|The Tribune]]|access-date=17 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171005100723/http://www.tribuneindia.com/news/chandigarh/community/sippy-s-kin-protest-outside-igp-s-residence/164775.html|archive-date=5 October 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Delhi protests-teargassed.jpg|thumb|left|Police used water cannon and tear gas to attempt to break up the protestors.]] Seven metro rail stations in New Delhi were closed on 22 December to discourage protesters from gathering at Raisina Hill.<ref>{{cite news|agency=[[Press Trust of India]]|title=Delhi protest: Seven Metro stations closed|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/delhi-protest-seven-metro-stations-closed/article4231532.ece|access-date=23 December 2012|newspaper=The Hindu|date=23 December 2012|location=Chennai, India|first=Sowmiya|last=Ashok|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121224110637/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/delhi-protest-seven-metro-stations-closed/article4231532.ece|archive-date=24 December 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> On 24 December, police blocked roads leading to India Gate and Raisina Hill to prevent possible mass protests, and closed nine metro stations, affecting thousands of transit patrons. News reporters were not allowed to reach India Gate and Raisina Hill. In addition to [[Criminal Procedure Code, 1973 (India)|CrPC]] [[Unlawful assembly|section 144]], which disallows assembly of groups larger than five, curfew was imposed near the presidential residence.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/chaos-in-capital-as-police-block-roads-shut-9-metro-stations/article4234275.ece?homepage=true | title=Chaos in Capital as police block roads, shut 9 metro stations | work=Business Line | date=24 December 2012 | access-date=28 December 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729224344/http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/chaos-in-capital-as-police-block-roads-shut-9-metro-stations/article4234275.ece?homepage=true | archive-date=29 July 2013 | url-status=live}}</ref> [[The Hindustan Times]] accused police of using excessive force against the protestors, reporting that 375 [[Tear Gas|tear gas canisters]] were used at India Gate and elsewhere in Delhi to disperse the crowds.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/NewDelhi/Delhi-cops-go-shopping-for-nasty-itchy-tear-gas/Article1-980385.aspx |title=Delhi cops go shopping for nasty, itchy tear gas |newspaper=[[Hindustan Times]] |date=25 December 2012 |access-date=27 December 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121226201353/http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/NewDelhi/Delhi-cops-go-shopping-for-nasty-itchy-tear-gas/Article1-980385.aspx |archive-date=26 December 2012 }}</ref> An article in [[Firstpost|First Post]] criticised the Indian government as well, saying that they failed to act positively or give credible assurances to the protesters and instead used police force, lathi-charging, pushing the media out of the scene, and shutting down metro rail stations.<ref name=GRes>{{cite news|last=Kaul|first=Vivek|title=Shinde-speak shows all that is wrong with government|url=http://www.firstpost.com/india/shinde-speak-shows-all-that-is-wrong-with-government-567536.html|newspaper=FirstPost|date=24 December 2012|access-date=25 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121231004818/http://www.firstpost.com/india/shinde-speak-shows-all-that-is-wrong-with-government-567536.html|archive-date=31 December 2012|url-status=live}}</ref>
Police stated that peaceful protests had been "hijacked" by hooligans and political activists.<ref>{{cite news|title=Delhi gangrape: violence at Raisina Hills; PM appeals for calm, assures safety to women |work=Hindustan Times |location=New Delhi |date=23 December 2012 |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/NewDelhi/Delhi-gangrape-violence-at-India-Gate-top-cop-say-public-sentiments-hijacked/Article1-979832.aspx |access-date=3 January 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121231003858/http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/NewDelhi/Delhi-gangrape-violence-at-India-Gate-top-cop-say-public-sentiments-hijacked/Article1-979832.aspx |archive-date=31 December 2012 }}</ref>

During one protest, a police constable named Subhash Tomar collapsed and later died in hospital.<ref name="BBC policeman">{{cite news |author=Biswas, Soutik |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-20840797 |title=Policeman killed |publisher=BBC |date=18 December 2012 |access-date=26 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121225184126/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-20840797 |archive-date=25 December 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> Two witnesses claimed that Tomar collapsed without being hit by any protesters, while a third disputed this.<ref name="Hindu Tomar">{{cite news |first=Devesh K. |last=Pandey |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/new-eyewitness-says-protesters-beat-up-tomar/article4244304.ece |title=News / National : New 'eyewitness' says protesters beat up Tomar |work=The Hindu |access-date=30 December 2012 |location=Chennai, India |date=27 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121229161555/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/new-eyewitness-says-protesters-beat-up-tomar/article4244304.ece |archive-date=29 December 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> Hospital doctors and the post-mortem gave contradictory reports: he died due to cardiac arrest, but it is not known if the heart attack was caused by blunt-force injuries that he suffered to his chest and neck.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report_post-mortem-report-subhash-tomar-s-ribs-were-fractured-injuries-lead-to-heart-attack_1781970 |title=Subhash Tomar's ribs were fractured; injuries lead to heart-attack, claims post-mortem report |work=DNA India |access-date=28 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130204181521/http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report_post-mortem-report-subhash-tomar-s-ribs-were-fractured-injuries-lead-to-heart-attack_1781970 |archive-date=4 February 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> Some experts state that his chest injuries may have been a side effect of the administration of [[CPR]].<ref name="Hindu Tomar CPR">{{cite news | url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/cpr-could-have-caused-constables-injuries/article4246130.ece | title=CPR could have caused constable's injuries | work=The Hindu | date=28 December 2012 | access-date=28 December 2012 | location=Chennai, India | first=Devesh K. | last=Pandey | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121231141627/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/cpr-could-have-caused-constables-injuries/article4246130.ece | archive-date=31 December 2012 | url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="HT on Tomar">{{cite web|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/NewDelhi/No-injury-marks-bruises-were-visible-on-constable-s-body-doctor/Article1-980772.aspx |title=Controversy surrounds death of cop in post-rape protests |work=Hindustan Times |date=26 December 2012 |access-date=30 December 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121231004905/http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/NewDelhi/No-injury-marks-bruises-were-visible-on-constable-s-body-doctor/Article1-980772.aspx |archive-date=31 December 2012 }}</ref> The Delhi Police arrested 8 young men and charged them with Tomar's murder and rioting at India Gate.<ref>{{cite news|title=Eight arrested in constable Subhash Tomar's death are innocent: Delhi police|url=http://www.tehelka.com/eight-arrested-in-constable-subhash-tomars-death-are-innocent-delhi-police/|work=Tehelaka Magazine|date=12 March 2013|access-date=2 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130925141813/http://www.tehelka.com/eight-arrested-in-constable-subhash-tomars-death-are-innocent-delhi-police/|archive-date=25 September 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> Later in March 2013, the police admitted in the Delhi High Court they had no evidence against the eight and dropped the murder charges against them. The youths said the move by the commissioner of police to charge them with murder had been "irresponsible".<ref>{{cite news|title=Delhi police gives clean chit to 8 in constable Tomar's death during anti-rape protests |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/delhi-gangrape/story/delhi-gangrape-accused-in-constable-subhash-tomar-death-given-clean-chit-155947-2013-03-12 |work=[[India Today]] |date=12 March 2013 |author=Mail Today Bureau |access-date=3 January 2020 |location=New Delhi |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103151038/https://www.indiatoday.in/delhi-gangrape/story/delhi-gangrape-accused-in-constable-subhash-tomar-death-given-clean-chit-155947-2013-03-12 |archive-date=3 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== After the victim's death ===
[[File:Bangalore protests following Delhi gang-rape (photo - Jim Ankan Deka).jpg|thumb|People in Bangalore protesting outside [[Bangalore Town Hall]] on 30 December 2012]]

After Jyoti Singh's death on 29 December 2012, protests were staged throughout India, including [[Kolkata]], [[Chennai]], [[Bengaluru]], [[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]], [[Kochi]], [[Thiruvananthapuram]], [[Mumbai]], [[Bhubaneswar]] and [[Visakhapatnam]]. Many of the mourners carried candles and wore black dresses; some pasted black cloth across their mouths.<ref name=candle>{{cite news|title= Delhi gang rape: Protests go viral nationwide, unstoppable public outpouring as gang rape victim dies|work= [[The Economic Times]]|agency= Press Trust of India|location= New Delhi|date= 29 December 2012|url= http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2012-12-29/news/36051046_1_jantar-mantar-marches-silent-protest|access-date= 30 December 2012|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130928031134/http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2012-12-29/news/36051046_1_jantar-mantar-marches-silent-protest|archive-date= 28 September 2013|url-status= dead|df= dmy-all}}</ref>

The following day a large number of people staged protests near Jantar Mantar, New Delhi.<ref name=clash30>{{cite news|title=Delhi gang-rape: Protesters clash with police at Jantar Mantar|agency=Press Trust of India|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/delhi-gang-rape-protesters-clash-with-police-at-jantar-mantar/articleshow/17818533.cms|access-date=30 December 2012|newspaper=[[The Economic Times]] (India)|date=30 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613004350/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/delhi-gang-rape-protesters-clash-with-police-at-jantar-mantar/articleshow/17818533.cms|archive-date=13 June 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> There were minor clashes between some groups of protesters and the police; the police then removed some protesters from the area.<ref name=clash30 /> One group of protesters also observed a one-day hunger strike at Jantar Mantar.<ref name=clash30 /> All roads leading to India Gate were closed by police and areas where protesters had gathered during the previous week were out of bounds to the public.<ref name=clash30 /> Some of the protesters drew graffiti and slogans on papers spread on the road, condemning the incident and demanding stricter laws and speedy judgement.<ref name=graffiti>{{cite news|title= Delhi gang-rape: Peaceful protest at Jantar Mantar marred by violence|publisher= [[DNA India]]|agency= Asian News International|date= 30 December 2012|url= http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report_delhi-gang-rape-protesters-clash-with-cops-at-jantar-mantar_1783445|access-date= 30 December 2012|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180915083919/http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report_delhi-gang-rape-protesters-clash-with-cops-at-jantar-mantar_1783445|archive-date= 15 September 2018|url-status= live|df= dmy-all}}</ref> The BJP renewed its demand for a special parliament session to discuss the case and to adopt stricter laws on crime against women.<ref name=session>{{cite news|agency=Press Trust of India|title=BJP disapproves of restrictions, questions 'hush-hush manner' cremation of Delhi gangrape victim|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/delhi-gangrape/story/delhi-gangrape-protests-bjp-victim-cremation-125716-2012-12-29|access-date=30 December 2012|newspaper=India Today|date=30 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121230184756/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/delhi-gangrape-protests-bjp-victim-cremation/1/240122.html|archive-date=30 December 2012|url-status=live}}</ref>

New Year's celebrations were scaled down to a large extent, with the Indian armed forces and some clubs and hotels in Delhi cancelling their New Year parties.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ndtv.com/article/india/in-memory-of-amanat-a-makeshift-memorial-protests-continue-311719 |title=In memory of 'Amanat', a makeshift memorial, protests continue |publisher=NDTV |access-date=2 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130102053034/http://www.ndtv.com/article/india/in-memory-of-amanat-a-makeshift-memorial-protests-continue-311719 |archive-date=2 January 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Indian protests also sparked protests across South Asia, including marches and rallies in Nepal, Sri Lanka, Pakistan and Bangladesh. In Nepal, hundreds of demonstrators in Kathmandu called for legal reforms and an overhaul of attitudes to women. In Bangladesh the human rights group [[Ain o Salish Kendra]] (ASK) said the protests in Delhi had given fresh impetus to protests against sexual violence. According to an ASK spokesperson, "although previous demonstrations on similar issues were largely dominated by women, men were now protesting too. The protests had also drawn people from a broad range of society."<ref name=autogenerated4>{{cite news | url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jan/04/rape-protests-spread-beyond-india | title=Rape protests spread beyond India | work=The Guardian | date=4 January 2013 | access-date=4 January 2013 | first=Jason | last=Burke | location=London | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130901013427/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jan/04/rape-protests-spread-beyond-india | archive-date=1 September 2013 | url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:Candlelight Rally Against Rape - Sector-V - Salt Lake City - Kolkata 2012-12-29 2107.JPG|thumb|left|205px|People protest with candlelight tributes at [[Bidhannagar, Kolkata|Bidhannagar]] ("Salt Lake City") in [[Kolkata]] on 29 December 2012]]

In Paris, people participated in a march to the Indian embassy where a petition was handed over asking for action to make India safer for women.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ndtv.com/video/player/news/protests-in-paris-to-demand-justice-for-india-s-daughter/260273?v_also_see |title=Protests in Paris to demand justice for 'India's Daughter' Video |publisher=NDTV |access-date=2 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130102065120/http://www.ndtv.com/video/player/news/protests-in-paris-to-demand-justice-for-india-s-daughter/260273?v_also_see |archive-date=2 January 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref>

An author for the South Asia Analysis Group explained the protests as expressions of middle-class angst arising out of a collapse of a social contract between them and the liberal state.<ref>{{cite news|title=Understanding issues raised by the Delhi gang-rape case|date=13 January 2013|work=South Asia Analysis Group Post|url=http://www.southasiaanalysis.org/node/1130/|access-date=16 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117060325/http://www.southasiaanalysis.org/node/1130|archive-date=17 January 2013|url-status=usurped}}</ref>
New Delhi has the highest number of sex crimes among India's major cities. Police figures show a rape reported on average every 18 hours; reported rape cases rose by nearly 17 percent between 2007 and 2011.<ref name=highest>{{cite news|title= Body of gang rape victim cremated in New Delhi|first1= Adnan|last1= Abidi|first2= Devidutta|last2= Tripathy|work=[[Reuters]]|date= 30 December 2012|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/india-gang-rape-delhi-singapore-body-idINDEE8BT00420121230|access-date=30 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201026210025/https://www.reuters.com/article/india-gang-rape-delhi-singapore-body-idINDEE8BT00420121230|archive-date=26 October 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> Only one of the 706 rape cases filed in Delhi in 2012 saw a successful conviction against the attacker.<ref name=autogenerated3 /> Between 16 December and 4 January 501 calls for harassment and 64 calls for rape were recorded by the Delhi Police, but only four were followed up by inquiries.<ref name=autogenerated4 /> The regional program director for U.N. Women South Asia said, "There are rape cases in almost all cities and rural areas, where the victim dies immediately because of the brutality of the crime... This time, it was like, 'Wake up.'"<ref name=autogenerated2>{{cite magazine |last=Mahr |first=Krista |url=https://world.time.com/2013/01/10/were-the-delhi-rape-suspects-tortured-by-police/ |title=Were the Delhi Rape Suspects Tortured by Police? |magazine=Time |date=10 January 2013 |access-date=10 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130111033313/http://world.time.com/2013/01/10/were-the-delhi-rape-suspects-tortured-by-police/ |archive-date=11 January 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Reactions ==
Members of the Indian parliament demanded severe punishment for the perpetrators. The then [[Leader of the Opposition (India)|Leader of the Opposition]] in the [[Lok Sabha]], [[Sushma Swaraj]], stated: "The rapists should be hanged".<ref name="BBC-1">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-20765869|date=18 December 2012|access-date=19 December 2012|title=Delhi bus gang rape: Uproar in Indian parliament|work=BBC News|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121218211418/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-20765869|archive-date=18 December 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> Chairperson of the then ruling [[United Progressive Alliance (India)|United Progressive Alliance]] [[Sonia Gandhi]] visited the [[Safdarjang Hospital]] and met doctors on duty in the anesthesia and surgery departments for an update on the woman's health.<ref name="IE3">{{cite news|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/delhi-gangrape-shakes-parliament--sushma-swaraj-others-seek-death-penalty/1047359/|date=19 December 2012|access-date=19 December 2012|title=Delhi gangrape shakes Parliament; Jaya Bachchan breaks down, Sushma Swaraj, others seek death penalty|newspaper=[[The Indian Express]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121231015325/http://www.indianexpress.com/news/delhi-gangrape-shakes-parliament--sushma-swaraj-others-seek-death-penalty/1047359|archive-date=31 December 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Bahujan Samaj Party]] chief, [[Mayawati]], said that proper investigation was required, and that "action should be so strict that no one should dare to act in such a manner again".<ref name="BBC-1" /> Actress and member of the [[Rajya Sabha]] [[Jaya Bachchan]] said that she was "terribly disturbed" over the incident, and felt "ashamed" sitting in the House, feeling "helpless" for "not being able to do anything".<ref name=IE3 /> [[Meira Kumar]], the then Speaker of the Lok Sabha, told reporters a "new law should be brought in and must get passed to ensure the safety of women."<ref name="Need Stronger Laws">{{cite news|agency=Indo-Asian News Service|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report_delhi-gang-rape-need-stronger-laws-says-meira-kumar_1779260|date=19 December 2012|access-date=19 December 2012|title=Delhi gang-rape: Need stronger laws, says Meira Kumar|newspaper=DNA|archive-date=31 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331135914/https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-delhi-gang-rape-need-stronger-laws-says-meira-kumar-1779260|url-status=live}}</ref> She went on to say: "The laws at present are not enough, we need stricter laws."<ref name="Need Stronger Laws" /><ref name=CC1>{{cite news|url=http://www.cricketcountry.com/cricket-articles/Delhi-gang-rape-Indian-cricketers-express-disappointment/21107|title=Delhi gang-rape: Indian cricketers express disappointment|date=19 December 2012|work=CricketCountry|location=Mumbai|access-date=21 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121222001716/http://www.cricketcountry.com/cricket-articles/Delhi-gang-rape-Indian-cricketers-express-disappointment/21107|archive-date=22 December 2012|url-status=live}}</ref>

The then [[Chief Minister of Delhi]] [[Sheila Dixit]], said that she did not have the courage to meet the victim and described Delhi as a "rape capital" in interviews.<ref>{{cite news|agency=Indo-Asian News Service|url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/did-not-have-courage-to-meet-gangrape-victim-sheila-dikshit/311747-3-244.html|date=22 December 2012|access-date=22 December 2012|title=Did not have courage to meet gangrape victim: Sheila Dixit|newspaper=IBN Live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121221232235/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/did-not-have-courage-to-meet-gangrape-victim-sheila-dikshit/311747-3-244.html|archive-date=21 December 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> She said that senior police officials should be held accountable for the failure to take adequate measures to stop such incidents and called for "immediate setting up of fast-track courts to try rape cases and to get justice in a time-bound manner".<ref>{{cite news|agency=[[Press Trust of India]]|title=Senior police officers should be held accountable, says Delhi CM|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/senior-police-officers-should-be-held-accountable-says-delhi-cm/article4232431.ece|access-date=23 December 2012|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|date=23 December 2012|location=Chennai, India|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121226224353/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/senior-police-officers-should-be-held-accountable-says-delhi-cm/article4232431.ece|archive-date=26 December 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> The three constables who had refused to take action upon Ram Adhar's complaint of robbery were suspended for dereliction of duty.

On 24 December 2012, in his first official reaction after the incident, then [[Prime Minister of India]] [[Manmohan Singh]] appealed for calm, stressing that "violence will serve no purpose".<ref name="emirates">{{cite web|url=http://www.emirates247.com/news/delhi-gang-rape-indian-pm-manmohan-singh-s-theek-hai-goes-viral-as-capital-burns-2012-12-24-1.488541|title=Delhi gang-rape: Indian PM Manmohan Singh's 'Theek Hai' gaffe sets Twitter on fire|publisher=[[Emirates 24/7]]|date=24 December 2012|access-date=24 December 2012|archive-date=31 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331135833/https://www.emirates247.com/news/delhi-gang-rape-indian-pm-manmohan-singh-s-theek-hai-goes-viral-as-capital-burns-2012-12-24-1.488541|url-status=live}}</ref> In a televised address, he assured that all possible efforts would be made to ensure the safety of women in India. Singh expressed empathy, saying: "As a father of three daughters I feel as strongly about the incident as each one of you".<ref name="emirates" /> As a tribute to Nirbhaya, the prime minister cancelled all his official events to celebrate the new year.<ref>{{cite news |first=Rama |last=Lakshmi |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/muted-new-year-celebrations-in-india-after-gang-rape-victims-death/2012/12/31/6e372eac-5370-11e2-abc4-3d33329b6128_story.html |title=Muted New Year's celebrations in India after gang-rape victim's death |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=31 December 2012 |access-date=23 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180915084002/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/muted-new-year-celebrations-in-india-after-gang-rape-victims-death/2012/12/31/6e372eac-5370-11e2-abc4-3d33329b6128_story.html |archive-date=15 September 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> Then Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh, [[Akhilesh Yadav]], announced a package of financial assistance {{INRConvert|2|m|nolink=yes}} and a government job to her family.<ref name=compensation>{{cite news|agency=Press Trust of India|title=Delhi gang-rape: UP govt to give Rs 20 lakh to braveheart's family|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report_delhi-gang-rape-up-govt-to-give-rs20-lakh-to-braveheart-s-family_1784020|access-date=31 December 2012|newspaper=DNA India|date=31 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130102140121/http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report_delhi-gang-rape-up-govt-to-give-rs20-lakh-to-braveheart-s-family_1784020|archive-date=2 January 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>

Speaking out against the protesters, President Pranab Mukherjee's son [[Abhijit Mukherjee]] argued that the women protesters did not appear to him to be students. He said

<blockquote>What's basically happening in Delhi is a lot like Egypt or elsewhere, where there's something called the Pink Revolution, which has very little connection with ground realities. In India, staging candle-lit marches, going to discothèques ... I can see many beautiful women among them – highly dented-painted ... [but] I have grave doubts whether they're students ...<ref>{{cite news |work=The Times of India |url=http://www.indiatimes.com/india/dentedpainted-women-abhijit-mukherjees-dumb-sexist-remark-51899.html |title='Dented-Painted' Women: Abhijit Mukherjee's Dumb Sexist Remark |date=27 December 2012 |access-date=6 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130125072831/http://www.indiatimes.com/india/dentedpainted-women-abhijit-mukherjees-dumb-sexist-remark-51899.html |archive-date=25 January 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> </blockquote>

The remark was widely condemned as sexist.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ibnlive.in.com/videos/312665/abhijit-mukherjee-slammed-for-his-dentedpainted-women-comment.html|title=Abhijit slammed for his dented-painted women comment|website=News18|access-date=5 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403033114/http://ibnlive.in.com/videos/312665/abhijit-mukherjee-slammed-for-his-dentedpainted-women-comment.html|archive-date=3 April 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> His sister [[Sharmistha Mukherjee|Sharmistha]] said that she and their father, the president both disapproved.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/delhi-gangrape/story/delhi-gangrape-protests-abhijit-mukherjee-pranab-mukehrjee-son-withdraws-sexist-remark-125451-2012-12-26|title=Delhi gangrape protests: Presidents son Abhijit Mukherjee withdraws his dented, painted women remark|date=27 December 2012 |access-date=5 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304093616/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/delhi-gangrape-protests-abhijit-mukherjee-pranab-mukehrjee-son-withdraws-sexist-remark/1/239672.html|archive-date=4 March 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Then Maharashtra Chief Minister [[Prithviraj Chavan]] also expressed disapproval.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.firstpost.com/politics/chavan-disapproves-of-abhijits-dented-painted-remarks-570899.html|title=Chavan disapproves of Abhijit's 'dented painted' remarks|work=Firstpost |date=27 December 2012|access-date=5 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170315032532/http://www.firstpost.com/politics/chavan-disapproves-of-abhijits-dented-painted-remarks-570899.html|archive-date=15 March 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Abhijit quickly withdrew his comment and apologised.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-i-officially-withdraw-my-dented-painted-comment-prezs-son-abhijit-1782416|title=I officially withdraw my dented-painted comment: Prez's son Abhijit – Latest News & Updates at Daily News & Analysis|date=27 December 2012|access-date=5 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924232230/http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-i-officially-withdraw-my-dented-painted-comment-prezs-son-abhijit-1782416|archive-date=24 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> Spiritual guru [[Asaram Bapu]] also provoked extensive criticism from the public<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/NewDelhi/Asaram-Bapu-holds-victim-responsible-for-gangrape/Article1-986079.aspx |title=Asaram Bapu adds to shame, says victim at fault too |work=Hindustan Times |date=7 January 2013 |access-date=6 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130212020951/http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/NewDelhi/Asaram-Bapu-holds-victim-responsible-for-gangrape/Article1-986079.aspx |archive-date=12 February 2013 }}</ref> by saying that the victim was also to blame for her own assault because she could have stopped the attack if she had "chanted God's name and fallen at the feet of the attackers".<ref>{{cite news|last1=Daniel|first1=Frank Jack|last2=Bhattacharjya|first2=Satarupa|title=Asaram Bapu's view on Delhi rape raises anger, but shared by many|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/india-delhi-gang-rape-asaram-bapu-views/asaram-bapus-view-on-delhi-rape-raises-anger-but-shared-by-many-idINDEE90809L20130109|access-date=15 January 2013|work=[[Reuters]]|date=9 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201026210537/https://www.reuters.com/article/india-delhi-gang-rape-asaram-bapu-views/asaram-bapus-view-on-delhi-rape-raises-anger-but-shared-by-many-idINDEE90809L20130109|archive-date=26 October 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>

Following the gruesome crime, several celebrities like [[Preity Zinta]], [[Shah Rukh Khan]], [[Kareena Kapoor Khan|Kareena Kapoor]], [[Amitabh Bachchan]], [[Farhan Akhtar]] and many more expressed outrages on social medial platforms like [[Twitter]]. Many of them demanded that the rapists be castrated or hanged.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.emirates247.com/entertainment/bollywood/buzz/amitabh-salman-srk-kareena-angered-by-delhi-gang-rape-case-2012-12-19-1.487876|title= Amitabh, Salman, SRK, Kareena angered by Delhi gang rape case|date= 19 December 2012|access-date= 12 March 2024|archive-date= 12 March 2024|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240312143103/https://www.emirates247.com/entertainment/bollywood/buzz/amitabh-salman-srk-kareena-angered-by-delhi-gang-rape-case-2012-12-19-1.487876|url-status= live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSDEE8BS012/|title= Delhi gang rape victim dies: reactions on Twitter|website= [[Reuters]]}}</ref> The incident was later featured in the first episode of [[Satyamev Jayate (season 2)|second season]] of [[Satyamev Jayate (talk show)|Satyamev Jayate]]. Hosted by [[Aamir Khan]], the episode also dealt with other incidents of rape, as well as the sufferings of rape survivors at the hands of police officers, medical personnel, judicial system, and the general public.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.india.com/entertainment/satyamev-jayate-2-first-episode-aamir-khan-speaks-about-rape-survivors-and-their-difficulties-18301/|title= Satyamev Jayate 2 First Episode: Aamir Khan Speaks About Rape Survivors And Their Difficulties|access-date= 12 March 2024|archive-date= 12 March 2024|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240312145215/https://www.india.com/entertainment/satyamev-jayate-2-first-episode-aamir-khan-speaks-about-rape-survivors-and-their-difficulties-18301/|url-status= live}}</ref>

=== International ===
The [[Embassy of the United States, New Delhi|American embassy]] released a statement on 29 December 2012, offering their condolences to Nirbhaya's family and stated, "we also recommit ourselves to changing attitudes and ending all forms of gender-based violence, which plagues every country in the world".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://newdelhi.usembassy.gov/pr122912.html |title=U.S. Embassy New Delhi, India, Statement on the Death of New Delhi Assault Victim |publisher=Newdelhi.usembassy.gov |date=29 December 2012 |access-date=1 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729221639/http://newdelhi.usembassy.gov/pr122912.html |archive-date=29 July 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Nirbhaya was posthumously awarded one of the 2013 [[International Women of Courage Award]]s of the [[US State Department]]. The citation stated that "for millions of Indian women, her personal ordeal, perseverance to fight for justice, and her family's continued bravery is helping to lift the stigma and vulnerability that drive violence against women."<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.state.gov/s/gwi/programs/iwoc/2013/bio/index.htm | title=2013 International Women of Courage Award Winners | work=Office of Global Women's Issues | date=4 March 2013 | access-date=9 March 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130308095225/http://www.state.gov/s/gwi/programs/iwoc/2013/bio/index.htm | archive-date=8 March 2013 | url-status=dead}}</ref>

The crime of rape became a capital offence in India following the rape. Indian politician [[Mulayam Singh Yadav]] opposed this change in the law, saying that "Boys will be boys. Boys commit mistakes".<ref>{{cite news |first=Jason |last=Burke |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/may/31/india-gang-rape-katra-sadatgunj-fathyer-speaks |title='Go to the mango trees,' the bereaved father was told. 'The body of your daughter is there' |work=The Observer |date=31 May 2014 |access-date=19 July 2014 |archive-date=11 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140711202411/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/may/31/india-gang-rape-katra-sadatgunj-fathyer-speaks |url-status=live }}</ref> Two years later, in response to these comments and another [[2014 Badaun gang rape|incident of rape]] that took place in Uttar Pradesh where Yadav's party was governing, UN Secretary-General [[Ban Ki-moon]] said "We say no to the dismissive, destructive attitude of, 'Boys will be boys'"<ref>{{cite news |last=Gottipati |first=Sruthi |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-india-rape/ally-of-indias-modi-says-rape-sometimes-right-sometimes-wrong-idUKKBN0EG1GH20140605 |title=Ally of India's Modi says rape 'sometimes right, sometimes wrong' |work=[[Reuters]] |date=5 June 2014 |access-date=19 July 2014 |archive-date=27 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201127072820/https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-india-rape/ally-of-indias-modi-says-rape-sometimes-right-sometimes-wrong-idUKKBN0EG1GH20140605 |url-status=live }}</ref> and stated, "Violence against women must never be accepted, never excused, never tolerated. Every girl and woman have the right to be respected, valued and protected".<ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Ban-condoles-death-of-gang-rape-victim-urges-reforms-to-deter-violence-against-women/articleshow/17830281.cms | title=Ban expresses condolences on death of gang-rape victim, urges reforms to deter violence against women | date=31 December 2012 | access-date=29 June 2013 | author=Manash Pratim Gohain, TNN | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104083110/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-12-31/india/36079130_1_condoles-gender-equality-women | archive-date=4 November 2013 | work=[[The Times of India]] | url-status=live}}</ref> [[UN Women]] called on the [[Government of India]] and the [[Government of Delhi]] "to do everything in their power to take up radical reforms, ensure justice and reach out with robust public services to make women's lives more safe and secure".<ref>{{cite press release|first=Anne F. |last=Stenhammer |url=http://www.unwomen.org/2012/12/un-women-condemns-gang-rape-of-delhi-student/ |date=20 December 2012 |access-date=21 December 2012 |title=UN Women condemns gang rape of Delhi student |publisher=UN Women |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130124235948/http://www.unwomen.org/2012/12/un-women-condemns-gang-rape-of-delhi-student/ |archive-date=24 January 2013 }}</ref>

[[File:Delhi protests-India Raped, says one young woman's sign.jpg|thumbnail|Students voice for women after the 2012 Delhi gang rape]]

In the wake of remarks against India in Western media, [[Jessica Valenti]], writing in ''[[The Nation]]'', argued that such rapes are also common in the [[Rape in the United States|United States]], but US commentators exhibit a [[double standard]] in denying or minimising their systemic nature while simultaneously attacking India for an alleged rape culture.<ref name="nation">{{cite web |url= http://www.thenation.com/blog/172024/americas-rape-problem-we-refuse-admit-there-one |title= America's Rape Problem: We Refuse to Admit That There Is One |last= Valenti |first= Jessica |date= 4 January 2013 |work= [[The Nation]] |access-date= 4 February 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130209071944/http://www.thenation.com/blog/172024/americas-rape-problem-we-refuse-admit-there-one |archive-date= 9 February 2013 |url-status= live |df= dmy-all }}</ref> Author and activist [[Eve Ensler]], who organised [[One Billion Rising]], a global campaign to end violence against women and girls, said that the gang rape and murder was a turning point in India and around the world. Ensler said that she had travelled to India at the time of the rape and murder, and she commented:

<blockquote>After having worked every day of my life for the last 15 years on sexual violence, I have never seen anything like that, where sexual violence broke through the consciousness and was on the front page, nine articles in every paper every day, in the centre of every discourse, in the centre of the college students' discussions, in the centre of any restaurant you went in. And I think what's happened in India, India is really leading the way for the world. It's really broken through. They are actually fast-tracking laws. They are looking at sexual education. They are looking at the bases of patriarchy and masculinity and how all that leads to sexual violence.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.democracynow.org/2013/2/14/one_billion_rising_playwright_eve_ensler#transcript | title=One Billion Rising: Playwright Eve Ensler Organizes Global Day of Dance Against Sexual Abuse | publisher=Democracynow.org | access-date=14 February 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130216054839/http://www.democracynow.org/2013/2/14/one_billion_rising_playwright_eve_ensler#transcript | archive-date=16 February 2013 | url-status=live}}</ref></blockquote>

=== Tourism ===

In the aftermath of the rape case the number of female tourists to India fell by 35% compared to the same period the previous year, according to an industry survey by [[ASSOCHAM]].<ref name="guardian_31March2013">{{cite news|title=India tourist visits down 25% following fatal Delhi gang rape|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/mar/31/india-tourist-visits-down-delhi-gang-rape|access-date=30 October 2016|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=31 March 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161031030941/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/mar/31/india-tourist-visits-down-delhi-gang-rape|archive-date=31 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Foreign Office]] of the UK modified its travel advice and advised women against travelling alone.<ref name="ukfo">{{cite web|title=Foreign travel advice – India|url=https://www.gov.uk/foreign-travel-advice/india/safety-and-security|publisher=[[Foreign Office]]|access-date=30 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161031025216/https://www.gov.uk/foreign-travel-advice/india/safety-and-security|archive-date=31 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2014, Finance Minister [[Arun Jaitley]] commented "one small incident of rape in Delhi' advertised world-over is enough to cost us billions of dollars in terms of lower tourism".<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/140822/nation-current-affairs/article/%E2%80%98small-incidents%E2%80%99-delhi-rape-costs-billions-says-arun-jaitley | title=Arun Jaitley terms Delhi rape 'small incident that cost billions in tourism' | work=Deccan Chronicle | date=22 August 2014 | access-date=23 August 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140824181818/http://www.deccanchronicle.com/140822/nation-current-affairs/article/%E2%80%98small-incidents%E2%80%99-delhi-rape-costs-billions-says-arun-jaitley | archive-date=24 August 2014 | url-status=live}}</ref>

== Results of protests ==
In the view of widespread protests, governments at the centre and various states announced several steps to ensure the safety of women. The [[Government of Karnataka]] announced the launch of a [[24/7 service|24/7]] dedicated helpline (1091) to be operated by the state police to register sexual abuse complaints from women.<ref name="Hindu">{{cite news | url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/helpline-launched-for-women-to-report-sexual-assault-cases/article4269699.ece | title=Helpline launched for women to report sexual assault cases | date=4 January 2013 | access-date=2 July 2013 | location=Chennai, India | work=The Hindu | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104083337/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/helpline-launched-for-women-to-report-sexual-assault-cases/article4269699.ece | archive-date=4 November 2013 | url-status=live}}</ref> It is also checking the possibility of setting up fast-track courts to dispose of pending cases pertaining to crimes against women.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thestatesman.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=437716&catid=36 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130222094742/http://www.thestatesman.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=437716&catid=36 |url-status=dead |archive-date=22 February 2013 |title=Karna mulls fast-track courts for crime against women |work=The Statesman }}</ref> The [[Government of Tamil Nadu]] also announced a 13-point action plan to ensure safety of women in Tamil Nadu and said that incidents of sexual assault would be treated as a grave crime, and probes would be entrusted to top police officials. The Tamil Nadu chief minister also said that daily hearings would be conducted in all sexual abuse cases in the state for speedy trials at specially constituted fast-track courts, and women prosecutors would be appointed as government counsels.<ref name="articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com">{{cite news |url=http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2013-01-02/news/36094633_1_jayalalithaa-sexual-assault-sexual-abuse |title=Delhi gang-rape case: Jayalalithaa for harsher punishment for rape |work=The Economic Times |date=2 January 2013 |access-date=6 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104083625/http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2013-01-02/news/36094633_1_jayalalithaa-sexual-assault-sexual-abuse |archive-date=4 November 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[Jammu and Kashmir (state)|Jammu and Kashmir]] government also announced plans to change the state's laws against sexual offenses and gender crimes. The [[Government of Himachal Pradesh]] decided to set up state and district-level committees to review progress of all cases of crimes against women.<ref name="articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com" />

Despite these state government responses, Singh herself endured great hardship during and after the protests. As one scholar put it, she continued to be "raped" (literally and figuratively):<ref>{{Cite book |last=Saxena |first=Saumya |date=23 January 2013 |title=Justice JS Verma Committee Report |url=https://www.academia.edu/25499640 |access-date=11 May 2023 |archive-date=19 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231019054333/https://www.academia.edu/25499640 |url-status=live }}</ref> Singh faced a demeaning medical examination, a harsh cross-examination by the court, as well as "salacious media reports" and an insensitive response from society as a whole, including from people who knew her.

=== Justice Verma Committee and changes in law ===
{{Further|Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013}}

On 22 December 2012, a judicial committee headed by [[J. S. Verma]], a former [[Chief Justice of India]] and one of India's most highly regarded Chief Justices and eminent jurists<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=alYZ3MaClZ4|title=The Last Word : Remembering Justice JS Verma|last=|first=|date=23 April 2013|work=IBN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131018002415/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=alYZ3MaClZ4|archive-date=18 October 2013|url-status=dead|access-date=9 June 2024}}</ref> was appointed by the Central government to submit a report within 30 days to suggest amendments to criminal law to sternly deal with [[sexual abuse|sexual assault]] cases. The committee urged the public in general and particularly eminent jurists, legal professionals, NGOs, women's groups and civil society to share "their views, knowledge and experience suggesting possible amendments in the criminal and other relevant laws to provide for quicker investigation, prosecution and trial, and also enhanced punishment for criminals accused of committing sexual assault of an extreme nature against women."<ref>{{cite news |first=Sandeep |last=Joshi |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/justice-verma-committee-begins-work-seeks-public-comments/article4235212.ece |title=Shinde calls meeting of Chief Secretaries, police chiefs to review crime against women |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |date=24 December 2012 |access-date=27 December 2012 |location=Chennai, India |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121227131054/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/justice-verma-committee-begins-work-seeks-public-comments/article4235212.ece |archive-date=27 December 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Committee held its first meeting on 26 December 2012; it had received more than 6,000 emails with suggestions by then.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://pib.nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx?relid=91179 | title=Justice J.S.Verma Committee holds its First Meeting More than 6,000 E-Mails Received | publisher=Pib.nic.in | date=26 December 2012 | access-date=1 January 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130103165858/http://pib.nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx?relid=91179 | archive-date=3 January 2013 | url-status=live}}</ref> The Justice Verma Committee report was submitted after 29 days, after considering 80,000 suggestions received during the period. The report indicated that failures on the part of the government and police were the root cause behind crimes against women. Suggestions in the report included the need to review the [[Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act, 1958]] (AFSPA) in conflict areas, and setting the maximum punishment for rape as death penalty rather than life imprisonment. The committee did not favour lowering the age of an adult from 18 to 16.<ref name=VermaCommittee_22Jan2013>{{cite news|title=Failure of governance root cause of crimes against women: Verma committee|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/failure-of-governance-root-cause-of-crimes-against-women-verma-committee/article4336046.ece?homepage=true|access-date=23 January 2013|newspaper=The Hindu|date=23 January 2013|location=Chennai, India|first=Sandeep|last=Joshi|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130126045210/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/failure-of-governance-root-cause-of-crimes-against-women-verma-committee/article4336046.ece?homepage=true|archive-date=26 January 2013|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=VermaCommitteeHighlights_23Jan2013>{{cite news|title=Read: Highlights of Justice Verma Committee report|url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/read-highlights-of-justice-verma-committee-report/317376-3.html|access-date=23 January 2013|newspaper=CNNIBNLive|date=23 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127031941/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/read-highlights-of-justice-verma-committee-report/317376-3.html|archive-date=27 January 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref>

On 26 December 2012, a Commission of Inquiry headed by former Delhi High Court judge [[Usha Mehra]] was set up to identify lapses, determine responsibility in relation to the incident, and suggest measures to make Delhi and the wider [[National Capital Region (India)|National Capital Region]] safer for women.<ref>{{cite news |first=Aarti |last=Dhar |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/govt-forms-panel-to-probe-delhi-rape-case/article4241274.ece |title=Commission to suggest steps to make Delhi safe for women |work=The Hindu |date=26 December 2012 |access-date=27 December 2012 |location=Chennai, India |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121229131356/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/govt-forms-panel-to-probe-delhi-rape-case/article4241274.ece |archive-date=29 December 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 1 January 2013, a task force headed by the Union Home Secretary was established to look into women's safety issues in Delhi and review the functioning of the city police force on a regular basis.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://zeenews.india.com/news/nation/government-constitutes-task-force-to-look-into-women-s-safety-issues_820124.html |title=Government constitutes task force to look into women's safety issues |publisher=Zee News |date=2 January 2013 |access-date=1 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729213902/http://zeenews.india.com/news/nation/government-constitutes-task-force-to-look-into-women-s-safety-issues_820124.html |archive-date=29 July 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref>

On 3 February 2013, the [[Criminal Law (Amendment) Ordinance, 2013]] was promulgated by then President [[Pranab Mukherjee]]. It provides for amendment of the [[Indian Penal Code]], [[Indian Evidence Act]], and Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973, on laws related to sexual offences.<ref>{{cite news|title=Prez Pranab Mukherjee promulgates ordinance on crime against women|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/president-pranab-mukherjee-promulgates-ordinance-on-crime-against-women/1068720/|access-date=4 February 2013|newspaper=The Indian Express|date=3 February 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130303013240/http://www.indianexpress.com/news/president-pranab-mukherjee-promulgates-ordinance-on-crime-against-women/1068720|archive-date=3 March 2013|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=President signs ordinance to effect changes in laws against sexual crimes|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/north/story/president-signs-ordinance-to-effect-changes-in-laws-against-sexual-crimes-153156-2013-02-02|access-date=4 February 2013|newspaper=India Today|date=3 February 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130204021255/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/president-signs-ordinance-to-effect-changes-in-laws-against-sexual-crimes/1/248740.html|archive-date=4 February 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> The ordinance provides for the death penalty in cases of rape. According to Minister of Law and Justice [[Ashwani Kumar (politician)|Ashwani Kumar]], 90 percent of the suggestions given by the Verma Committee Report were incorporated into the Ordinance. However, critics state that many key suggestions of the commission have been ignored, including the criminalisation of marital rape and trying military personnel accused of sexual offences under criminal law.<ref>{{cite news|title=We have accepted 90% of Justice Verma panel's recommendations: Law Minister|url=http://www.ndtv.com/article/india/we-have-accepted-90-of-justice-verma-panel-s-recommendations-law-minister-to-ndtv-325775|access-date=4 February 2013|publisher=NDTV|date=3 February 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130203075427/http://www.ndtv.com/article/india/we-have-accepted-90-of-justice-verma-panel-s-recommendations-law-minister-to-ndtv-325775|archive-date=3 February 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>

In a December 2013 interview, Nirbhaya's parents, Badri Nath Singh and Asha Devi, said they were trying to get the juvenile law changed in such crimes as the rape and murder of their daughter. They petitioned the Supreme Court to try the juvenile in a criminal court instead of a Juvenile Justice court. The juvenile defendant was sent to [[borstal]] youth detention for three years and then released. He was just short of 18 years when he committed the crime.<ref name=autogenerated6>{{cite news | url=http://india.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/12/16/a-year-later-family-of-delhi-gang-rape-victim-press-for-full-justice/?_php=true&_type=blogs&_php=true&_type=blogs&_r=1 | work=The New York Times | first=Betwa | last=Sharma | title=A Year Later, Family of Delhi Gang Rape Victim Press for 'Full Justice' | date=16 December 2013 | access-date=23 January 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150412180344/http://india.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/12/16/a-year-later-family-of-delhi-gang-rape-victim-press-for-full-justice/?_php=true&_type=blogs&_php=true&_type=blogs&_r=1 | archive-date=12 April 2015 | url-status=live}}</ref>

In a March 2015 interview with [[The Tribune (Chandigarh)|''The Tribune'']], Women and Child Development Minister [[Maneka Gandhi]] said that Government is going ahead with a law treating juveniles as adults in grave crimes.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/news/nation/govt-to-go-ahead-with-law-treating-juveniles-as-adults-in-grave-crimes/60391.html|title=Govt to go ahead with law treating juveniles as adults in grave crimes|first=Aditi|last=Tandon|publisher=The Tribune (Chandigarh)|date=29 March 2015|access-date=4 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150331191006/http://www.tribuneindia.com/news/nation/govt-to-go-ahead-with-law-treating-juveniles-as-adults-in-grave-crimes/60391.html|archive-date=31 March 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 22 December 2015, Rajya Sabha passed the revised [[Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015|Juvenile Justice Act]], which proposed that the accused of heinous crimes who are above 16 years of age will be treated as an adult in the court of law.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Rajya-Sabha-passes-Juvenile-Justice-Bill-Nirbhayas-mother-satisfied/articleshow/50285328.cms|title=Rajya Sabha passes Juvenile Justice Bill, Nirbhaya's mother 'satisfied'|work=The Times of India|date=22 December 2015 |access-date=5 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170806105839/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Rajya-Sabha-passes-Juvenile-Justice-Bill-Nirbhayas-mother-satisfied/articleshow/50285328.cms|archive-date=6 August 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Legacy ==
=== Anniversary memorials ===
On 16 December 2013, the first anniversary of the attack, activists held memorials throughout New Delhi in memory of the victim widely known as Nirbhaya, meaning "fearless". Members of women's organizations lit candles in her memory and protested against exploitation of women. University students and others organized a candlelight march at the bus stand in South Delhi where Nirbhaya and her friend Pandey boarded the bus in which the rape and beatings took place.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://in.news.yahoo.com/dec-16-gang-rape-family-set-trust-tributes-175222551.html|title=Dec 16 gang rape: Family to set up trust, tributes paid to victim|access-date=5 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160314150610/https://in.news.yahoo.com/dec-16-gang-rape-family-set-trust-tributes-175222551.html|archive-date=14 March 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> At a commemorative prayer meeting political leaders resolved to increase efforts to improve women's security. Speaking with the victim's mother, former chief minister Sheila Dikshit said that Delhi's society and the various authorities will work together to build a permanent legacy to her daughter: "... whatever you will want in her memory, we will try to fulfil. And we will try with a conviction that such an incident is not repeated with anybody else in the future".<ref>{{cite news | url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-12-16/india/45254541_1_prayer-meeting-juvenile-justice-board-juvenile-home | title=Trust to be set up to help rape victims: Nirbhaya's mother| access-date=21 January 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202120907/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-12-16/india/45254541_1_prayer-meeting-juvenile-justice-board-juvenile-home | archive-date=2 February 2014 | work=[[The Times of India]] | url-status=dead}}</ref> The victim's parents spoke at a memorial saying that they were proud of the courage that their daughter showed, which they believe "has spurred more women to speak out instead of hiding the crimes committed against them".<ref name=autogenerated6 />

In December 2014, the second anniversary of the attack, referring to a woman who was raped in a car operated by an [[Uber]] driver, the parents remarked to the press that not much had changed: "Nothing in India has changed since 16 December 2012. All promises and statements made by our leaders and ministers have turned out to be shallow. Our suffering gives them their moment in limelight. My daughter asks me what I have done to get her justice. She asks what am I doing so that many more like her get justice and I wake up to realise how helpless and trivial I am..."<ref name="nothing changed" />

"Nirbhaya Chetna Diwas", a public event organised by women's and citizens groups, candlelight vigils, prayer meetings, and other events were held on 16 December 2015 at the Jantar Mantar to pay homage to Jyoti on the third anniversary of her death. In what was called "a brave homage to her daughter", Jyoti's mother, Asha Devi, said, "My daughter's name was Jyoti Singh and I am not ashamed to name her. Those who commit heinous crimes like rape, their heads should hang in shame, not the victims' or their families'."<ref name="Times of India" />
Devi spoke out against the upcoming release of the juvenile and put forth four demands for justice:

<blockquote>On the third death anniversary of our death, we are seeing the release of the juvenile convict. Where is justice in that? I do not know whether he is 16 or 18. I only know that he has committed a brutal crime and there should be no age limit for punishment; [...] the juvenile convict should be sentenced to death, fast-track courts be set up in all the courts to offer speedy justice to sexual assault victims, amendments to the Juveniles Justice Act be passed and utilisation of Nirbhaya Fund for setting up high quality forensic labs in all states.<ref name="Times of India" /></blockquote>

=== Changes to the legal system ===
The outpouring of anger and grief following the rape and murder gave rise to hopes for change in India.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-20907755 | work=BBC News | title=The rapes that India forgot | date=5 January 2013 | access-date=20 June 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181013135317/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-20907755 | archive-date=13 October 2018 | url-status=live}}</ref> The government responded with the passage of several new sexual assault laws, including a mandatory minimum sentence of 20 years for gang rape, and six new fast-track courts created solely for rape prosecutions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thinkprogress.org/health/2013/12/29/3106691/india-rape-anniversary/|title=One Year After Horrific New Delhi Gang Rape, India Still Struggles With Rape Culture|website=[[ThinkProgress]]|date=29 December 2013|access-date=5 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603153322/http://thinkprogress.org/health/2013/12/29/3106691/india-rape-anniversary/|archive-date=3 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> As an indicator of the scope of the problem of rape prosecution, the "Nirbhaya" case was the only conviction obtained among the 706 rape cases filed in New Delhi in 2012.<ref name=autogenerated5>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/dec/10/delhi-rape-one-year-anything-changed-india-women|title=Delhi rape: one year on, has anything changed for India's women?|first=Sunny|last=Hundal|date=10 December 2013|access-date=5 May 2017|newspaper=The Guardian|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170511000055/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/dec/10/delhi-rape-one-year-anything-changed-india-women|archive-date=11 May 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Between 16 December 2012 and 4 January 2013, Delhi police recorded 501 allegations of harassment and 64 of rape, but only four inquiries were launched. However, it appears that the "Nirbhaya" case has had an effect on the willingness of rape or molestation victims to report the crime; police records show that during the final nine months of 2013 almost twice as many rape victims filed a police report and four times as many allegations of molestation were made.<ref name=autogenerated5 /> A recent report released by the [[National Crime Records Bureau]] shows that 95 percent of the cases brought to the police were classified as a crime. However, there is a large backlog of cases with fewer than 15 percent of those charged tried in 2012, leaving 85 percent waiting to come to trial.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/witw/articles/2013/12/19/one-year-on-from-delhi-bus-gang-rape-what-has-changed-for-india-s-women.html|title=Delhi Gang Rape: One Year Later|first=Mallika|last=Dutt|date=19 December 2013|website=The Daily Beast|access-date=5 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170329162922/http://www.thedailybeast.com/witw/articles/2013/12/19/one-year-on-from-delhi-bus-gang-rape-what-has-changed-for-india-s-women.html|archive-date=29 March 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 16 December 2013, the first anniversary of the rape was commemorated in London with a public memorial to honour the victim. Speakers included [[Meera Syal]], whose parents are from New Delhi. Speaking of the anger that was expressed at the time of the rape, she said, "We need to hold onto that anger and demand that the Indian Government enforces all the promised changes of its recent Criminal Law Amendment Act, which changed laws to expand the definition of rape and incorporated new offences including acid attack, sexual harassment, voyeurism and stalking".<ref name=Syal>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/meera-syal/meera-syal-delhi-gang-rape_b_4452241.html|title=Remembering Nirbhaya: Rape Is Every Country's Shame|website=HuffPost UK|date=16 December 2013|access-date=5 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181004165100/https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/meera-syal/meera-syal-delhi-gang-rape_b_4452241.html|archive-date=4 October 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> She also said that activists need to act in solidarity with other organisations to stop violence against women and girls around the world.<ref name=Syal />

Following the incident the government set up the [[Nirbhaya Fund]] for "empowerment, safety and security of women and girl children."<ref>{{cite press release | url=http://pib.nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx?relid=95115 | title=Nirbhaya Fund | date=26 April 2013 | access-date=30 March 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140330113213/http://pib.nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx?relid=95115 | archive-date=30 March 2014 | url-status=live}}</ref> The Fund is administered by [[Department of Economic Affairs (India)|Department of Economic Affairs]] of the finance ministry.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=103324 | title=Nirbhaya Fund | date=13 December 2013 | access-date=30 March 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140330112353/http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=103324 | archive-date=30 March 2014 | url-status=live}}</ref> However, an [[Oxfam]] India report published in 2021 shows that the fund remains underused and underutilized.<ref>{{cite web|last=Deol|first=Taran|date=9 February 2021|title=Nirbhaya Fund underused, slotted for services that don't help women directly — Oxfam report|url=https://theprint.in/india/nirbhaya-fund-underused-slotted-for-services-that-dont-help-women-directly-oxfam-report/601936/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210223062809/https://theprint.in/india/nirbhaya-fund-underused-slotted-for-services-that-dont-help-women-directly-oxfam-report/601936/|archive-date=23 February 2021|access-date=6 March 2021|website=ThePrint|language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Public discussions about violence against women ===
Observers agree that the victim's ordeal has brought a change to public conversations about women's issues, with men joining in the discussions as well. A young woman who had taken part in the protests at the time of the rape said a year later, "A welcome change is that the taboo on discussing rape and sexual violence has been broken. The protests brought debates and discussions to our homes." She also said that since the rape and protests the media is now providing coverage of sexual violence. However, she saw "absolutely no change in the rape culture and related brutality. The streets are not safe. [[Eve teasing|Teasing]] and [[Street harassment|catcalling]] or worse are to be found everywhere. Sexual harassment in public places as well as inside the home is still rampant." She added, "I do acknowledge, however, that a year is too less to undo what [[patriarchy]] has done over centuries. It is too embedded in our homes, our institutions and in our laws. The police may be a little more receptive, but it is not out of a sense of duty but out of the fear of censure".<ref name="India News">{{cite web | url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/shelitaflame/law-is-impotent-in-the-face-of-patriarchy/article1-1162845.aspx | title=Law is impotent in the face of patriarchy | work=Hindustan Times| date=15 December 2013 | access-date=31 December 2014 | author=Joshi, Mallica | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140315083159/http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/shelitaflame/law-is-impotent-in-the-face-of-patriarchy/article1-1162845.aspx | archive-date=15 March 2014 | url-status=live}}</ref>

Women in urban spaces in India yet feel unsafe.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Sur |first=Piyali |date=2014-08-01 |title=Safety in the Urban Outdoors: Women Negotiating Fear of Crime in the City of Kolkata |url=https://vc.bridgew.edu/jiws/vol15/iss2/14 |journal=Journal of International Women's Studies |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=212–226 |issn=1539-8706}}</ref> They report needing to wear clothing that covers their bodies in order to "make them feel safe". Public officials and commentators in India often claim that women who wear "skimpy" clothing and go around partying with other guys "invite these attacks" and thus cannot claim it is rape.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Lodhia |first=Sharmila |date=2015-05-01 |title=From "living corpse" to India's daughter: Exploring the social, political and legal landscape of the 2012 Delhi gang rape |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0277539515000667 |journal=Women's Studies International Forum |language=en |volume=50 |pages=89–101 |doi=10.1016/j.wsif.2015.03.007 |s2cid=141527164 |issn=0277-5395|url-access=subscription }}</ref> In reality, the majority of women actually do not wear Western clothing in public because of the fear of provoking sexual assault.<ref name=":0" />

The discussion surrounding women's attire "provoking assault" is described as [[victim blaming]] by government officials, social commentators, men, and even other women.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> As society and the Indian government have not been able to successfully address the root of the issue, women resort to strategies to feel safe. Some of these "strategies" include ignoring sexual commentary, avoiding direct eye-contact with men, dressing more modestly, and "refrain[ing] from going out at night".<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nieder |first1=Christina |last2=Muck |first2=Christoph |last3=Kärtner |first3=Joscha |date=November 2019 |title=Sexual Violence Against Women in India: Daily Life and Coping Strategies of Young Women in Delhi |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1077801218824056 |journal=Violence Against Women |language=en |volume=25 |issue=14 |pages=1717–1738 |doi=10.1177/1077801218824056 |pmid=30714855 |s2cid=73432109 |issn=1077-8012 |access-date=11 May 2023 |archive-date=10 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230510070000/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1077801218824056 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> This has escalated to women avoiding public spaces altogether including public transportation, feeding into the expectation that women should stay at home and that they belong there. Critics claim that these avoidance tactics are just a band-aid solution to a much deeper issue relating in victim-blaming and lack of accountability for men in Indian society.

A poll in October 2017, the first of its kind in the world, which was published by [[Thomson Reuters Foundation]], found that Delhi was the fourth most dangerous city in the world for women and it was also the worst city in the world for women when it came to sexual violence, rape and harassment.<ref>{{cite news | last = Canton | first = Naomi | title = Sexual attacks: Delhi worst in world, says poll | url = https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/Sexual-attacks-Delhi-worst-in-world-says-poll/articleshow/61095531.cms | work = [[The Times of India]] | date = 16 October 2017 | access-date = 16 October 2017 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171017004111/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/Sexual-attacks-Delhi-worst-in-world-says-poll/articleshow/61095531.cms | archive-date = 17 October 2017 | url-status = live}}</ref>

In response to incident, [[Safecity]], a non-profit organisation and free website, was developed by the [[Red Dot Foundation]] and launched in 2012. The website allows users to make anonymous reports of incidents of gender-based harassment, abuse, and violence, and creates maps of these reports which are publicly available to be viewed and downloaded.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SafeCity |url=https://webapp.safecity.in/ |access-date=2026-01-17 |website=webapp.safecity.in}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-09-16 |title="Bedrock of Safety: The 'Nirbhaya' incident was the trigger that made D'Silva take up women's issues" |url=https://www.businesstoday.in/magazine/features/story/elsa-marie-dsilva-founder-and-chief-executive-red-dot-foundation-safecity-internet-platform-womens-safety-82105-2017-09-16 |access-date=2026-01-17 |website=Business Today |language=en}}</ref> Safecity has used this data to increase public awareness of [[sexual harassment]], abuse, and violence, and advocate for improvements in public safety measures to prevent sexual violence.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ceccato |first=Vania |date=2017-09-01 |title=Women’s victimisation and safety in transit environments |url=https://doi.org/10.1057/s41300-017-0024-5 |journal=Crime Prevention and Community Safety |language=en |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=163–167 |doi=10.1057/s41300-017-0024-5 |issn=1743-4629}}</ref>

=== Nirbhaya Trust ===
In December 2013, the family of the victim along with social entrepreneur Sarvesh Kumar Tiwari established the Nirbhaya Trust,<ref name="nirbhayatr">{{cite news |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-12-16/india/45254541_1_prayer-meeting-juvenile-justice-board-juvenile-home |title=Trust to be set up to help rape victims: Nirbhaya's mother |date=16 December 2013 |access-date=21 January 2014 |work=[[The Times of India]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202120907/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-12-16/india/45254541_1_prayer-meeting-juvenile-justice-board-juvenile-home |archive-date=2 February 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> an institute formed to assist women who have experienced violence to find shelter and legal assistance.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/business/in-other-news/300818/nirbhaya-jyoti-trust-honours-women-for-inspiration-and-excellence-in-w.html|title=Nirbhaya Jyoti Trust honours women for inspiration and excellence in work|date=30 August 2018|website=Deccan Chronicle|language=en|access-date=11 November 2019|archive-date=11 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191111105906/https://www.deccanchronicle.com/business/in-other-news/300818/nirbhaya-jyoti-trust-honours-women-for-inspiration-and-excellence-in-w.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Due to the fact that Indian laws do not allow the publishing of a rape victim's name, it was named ''Nirbhaya'' which means ''fearless'' in Hindi, after the name used by the media. The victim's father stated, "So many people supported us, so... we want [to] help those girls who have no one."<ref name="ayrlater">{{cite web|url=http://india.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/12/16/a-year-later-family-of-delhi-gang-rape-victim-press-for-full-justice/|title=A Year Later, Family of Delhi Gang Rape Victim Press for 'Full Justice'|first=Betwa|last=Sharma|date=16 December 2013|access-date=5 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150912064508/http://india.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/12/16/a-year-later-family-of-delhi-gang-rape-victim-press-for-full-justice/|archive-date=12 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Women of India Summit ===
Inspired by the protests and international attention, women's rights activists organized the first [[The Women of India Leadership Summit|Women of India Leadership Summit]], later renamed the Women of India Summit, in 2013. It is an annual summit that gathers activists together in order to develop strategies that empower women, especially in the [[National Capital Region (India)|National Capital Region]], so that Delhi is no longer known as the "rape capital of the world."<ref>{{Cite press release |last=Summit |first=Women of India Leadership |title=Join the Movement With 'Women of India Leadership Summit - 2014' - Invest in Yourself This September |url=https://www.prnewswire.com/in/news-releases/join-the-movement-with-women-of-india-leadership-summit---2014---invest-in-yourself-this-september-274852251.html |access-date=2024-05-23 |website=www.prnewswire.com |language=en |archive-date=23 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240523180129/https://www.prnewswire.com/in/news-releases/join-the-movement-with-women-of-india-leadership-summit---2014---invest-in-yourself-this-september-274852251.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Artistic depictions of ''Nirbhaya'' ==
=== BBC Storyville: ''India's Daughter'' ===
{{Main|India's Daughter}}

''[[India's Daughter]]'' (2015) is a documentary film directed and produced by [[Leslee Udwin]], and is part of the [[BBC]]'s ongoing ''[[Storyville (TV series)|Storyville]]'' series.<ref name="ndtv.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.ndtv.com/india-news/bbc-airs-nirbhaya-documentary-indias-daughter-in-uk-744394|title=After India's Ban, Nirbhaya Documentary 'India's Daughter' Aired by BBC|access-date=5 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170708153303/http://www.ndtv.com/india-news/bbc-airs-nirbhaya-documentary-indias-daughter-in-uk-744394|archive-date=8 July 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=SoulFilmMaker>{{cite news|title=Interview with Delhi gang rapist left 'stain on my soul', says British film maker|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/india/11446337/Interview-with-Delhi-gang-rapist-left-stain-on-my-soul-says-British-film-maker.html|access-date=6 March 2015|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|date=3 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150306062952/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/india/11446337/Interview-with-Delhi-gang-rapist-left-stain-on-my-soul-says-British-film-maker.html|archive-date=6 March 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> It was scheduled to be broadcast on [[International Women's Day]], 8 March 2015,<ref name=clearance>{{cite news | url=http://www.ndtv.com/india-news/indias-daughter-required-clearances-were-taken-744072 | title=India's Daughter: Required Clearances Were Taken by Documentary Maker | work=[[NDTV]] | date=4 March 2015 | access-date=4 March 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150304105513/http://www.ndtv.com/india-news/indias-daughter-required-clearances-were-taken-744072 | archive-date=4 March 2015 | url-status=live}}</ref> in India on [[NDTV 24x7]] and in [[UK]] on [[BBC Four]].<ref name=Onsunday>{{cite news | url=http://www.media247.co.uk/bizasia/ndtv-24x7-to-air-nirbhaya-doc-on-sunday-2015 | title=NDTV 24×7 & BBC to air 'Nirbhaya' film on Sunday | work=[[NDTV 24x7]] | date=3 March 2015 | access-date=4 March 2015 | last=Baddhan | first=Raj | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150307223859/http://www.media247.co.uk/bizasia/ndtv-24x7-to-air-nirbhaya-doc-on-sunday-2015 | archive-date=7 March 2015 | url-status=dead}}</ref> On 1 March it was revealed that the filmmakers had interviewed one of the rapists while he was being held in the Tihar jail.<ref name=PrisonInterview>{{cite news|title=Delhi bus rapist blames his victim in prison interview|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/india/11443462/Delhi-bus-rapist-blames-his-victim-in-prison-interview.html|access-date=6 March 2015|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|date=1 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150305095553/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/india/11443462/Delhi-bus-rapist-blames-his-victim-in-prison-interview.html|archive-date=5 March 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=ThisStory>{{cite news|title=This story must be told, says filmmaker who interviewed Dec 16 rapist|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/filmmaker-accused-of-giving-platform-to-rapist-after-interview-with-december-16-convict/article1-1322618.aspx|access-date=6 March 2015|work=[[Hindustan Times]]|date=3 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150305164522/http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/filmmaker-accused-of-giving-platform-to-rapist-after-interview-with-december-16-convict/article1-1322618.aspx|archive-date=5 March 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> Soon, the news was picked up by Indian [[news media|media outlets]].<ref name=ThisStory /><ref name=DuringRape>{{cite news|title=During Rape the Girl Shouldn't Fight Back, Says December 16 Convict|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/msn-mail-today/story/delhi-december-16-gang-rape-mukesh-singh-bbc-interview-242744-2015-02-13|access-date=6 March 2015|work=[[India Today]]|date=6 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150305162106/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/delhi-december-16-gang-rape-mukesh-singh-bbc-interview/1/421930.html|archive-date=5 March 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> The Indian government blocked its broadcast in India by obtaining a court order on 4 March. The BBC said it would comply with the order and did not broadcast the film in India.<ref name="aired">{{cite news | url=http://www.ndtv.com/india-news/bbc-airs-nirbhaya-documentary-indias-daughter-in-uk-744394 | title=After India's Ban, Nirbhaya Documentary 'India's Daughter' Aired by BBC | work=[[NDTV]] | date=5 March 2015 | access-date=5 March 2015 | last=Bhatt | first=Abhinav | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150308173103/http://www.ndtv.com/india-news/bbc-airs-nirbhaya-documentary-indias-daughter-in-uk-744394 | archive-date=8 March 2015 | url-status=live}}</ref> In the UK however, the BBC moved the transmission forward to 4 March, and it was shown on that date.<ref name=BBCForward>{{cite news | url=https://www.theguardian.com/media/2015/mar/04/indias-daughter-bbc-delhi-rape-documentary-uk-india-ban | title=India's Daughter: BBC brings forward airing of Delhi rape documentary | work=[[The Guardian]] | date=4 March 2015 | access-date=5 March 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150305141920/http://www.theguardian.com/media/2015/mar/04/indias-daughter-bbc-delhi-rape-documentary-uk-india-ban | archive-date=5 March 2015 | url-status=live}}</ref> The film was also uploaded on [[YouTube]] and soon went [[viral video|viral]] with various shares on social media. On 5 March, the Indian government directed YouTube to block the video in India and YouTube complied with the order.<ref name=YoutubeBlock>{{cite news|title=India asks YouTube to block banned rape film|url=https://news.yahoo.com/delhi-rape-victims-father-urges-viewing-documentary-080939613.html|access-date=6 March 2015|work=[[Yahoo News]]|date=5 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402162209/https://news.yahoo.com/delhi-rape-victims-father-urges-viewing-documentary-080939613.html|archive-date=2 April 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=YoutubeBlocks>{{cite news|title=YouTube blocks BBC's Nirbhaya documentary video|url=http://ibnlive.in.com/videos/532286/youtube-blocks-access-to-bbc-documentary-nirbhaya-in-india.html|access-date=6 March 2015|work=[[India Today]]|date=5 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150308091117/http://ibnlive.in.com/videos/532286/youtube-blocks-access-to-bbc-documentary-nirbhaya-in-india.html|archive-date=8 March 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> The film has generated a great deal of controversy in both India and worldwide.<ref name="YoutubeBlock" /><ref name="ndtv.com" /><ref name="Heartfelt Tribute to Nirbhaya 'Wo Desh Ki Beti'">{{cite web | url=http://nirbhaya.shraddhanjali.in/ | title=Heartfelt Tribute to Nirbhaya 'Wo Desh Ki Beti' | publisher=Sunil Kumar Verma, D.Phil. (University of Oxford, U.K.) | access-date=18 March 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150306221822/http://nirbhaya.shraddhanjali.in/ | archive-date=6 March 2015 | url-status=live}}</ref>

Because India does not permit a rape victim's name to be published, the victim was called "''Nirbhaya''", which means fearless, because of her efforts to fight off her rapists and her insistence on making a detailed statement to the police before she died. However, following the death of their daughter, the parents were quoted in several media articles as saying they had no objections to using their daughter's name.<ref name="BBC News">{{cite web | url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-20925164 | title=India rape: Father 'wants victim named' | work=BBC News | date=6 January 2015 | access-date=3 April 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150503032128/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-20925164 | archive-date=3 May 2015 | url-status=live}}</ref> In the film the father states he is "happy" to reveal her name, Jyoti Singh, and on 5 March the father was quoted as saying he thought "everyone should watch the documentary, which showed 'the bitter truth' about attitudes to women in India".<ref name="Yahoo News">{{cite web | url=https://news.yahoo.com/delhi-rape-victims-father-urges-viewing-documentary-080939613.html | title=India asks YouTube to block banned rape film | publisher=Yahoo News | date=5 March 2015 | access-date=3 April 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402162209/https://news.yahoo.com/delhi-rape-victims-father-urges-viewing-documentary-080939613.html | archive-date=2 April 2015 | url-status=live}}</ref> Even still, on 6 March, the news outlet ''[[The Hindu]]'' ran an article "Father objects to revealing gangrape victim's name in 'India's Daughter'" in which they quoted the father as saying that he planned to take legal action because her name was used.<ref name="The Hindu">{{cite web | url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/victims-father-objects-to-revealing-daughters-name-in-documentary/article6962480.ece#comments | title=Father objects to revealing gangrape victim's name in 'India's Daughter | work=The Hindu| date=6 March 2015 | access-date=3 April 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611110009/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/victims-father-objects-to-revealing-daughters-name-in-documentary/article6962480.ece#comments | archive-date=11 June 2020 | url-status=live}}</ref>

The film's director and producer Leslee Udwin said that it was the courage and bravery shown by the unprecedented numbers of men and women who protested the rape and murder that inspired her to make the film. Speaking in an interview, Udwin said:

<blockquote>Courageous and impassioned ordinary men and women of India braved the December freeze to protest in unprecedented numbers, withstanding an onslaught of teargas shells, lathi charges [baton charges] and water cannons, to make their cry of "enough is enough" heard. In this regard, India led the world by example. In my lifetime, I can't recall any other country standing up with such commitment and determination for women's rights.<ref name="Huffington Post">{{cite web | url=http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2015/03/03/delhi-bus-rapist-interview-bbc_n_6789994.html | title=India Gang Rape Convict Blames Victim Jyoti Singh For Her Own Rape And Death | work=Huffington Post| date=3 March 2015 | access-date=23 March 2015 | author=Barrell, Ryan | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150322221732/http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2015/03/03/delhi-bus-rapist-interview-bbc_n_6789994.html | archive-date=22 March 2015 | url-status=live}}</ref></blockquote>

In reference to the actual film, Nirbhaya's father, Badrinath Singh, said that ''India's Daughter'' "holds up a mirror to society", and that the screening of the film holds a significance in the sense "that the struggle that my daughter was part of continues." Singh has also said that since the death of his daughter "every girl on the street is [now] like a daughter" to him and his wife, and that people in general need to understand that their sons need to be taught to respect women. Speaking on 5 March, Singh said:

{{Blockquote|My wife and I brought up our children with the sole intention of making them good citizens. I can proudly say that we have achieved that. Our daughter has shown society its true face. She has changed the lives of many young girls. She remains an inspiration even after her death. She fought back those devils. We are proud of our daughter.|Badrinath Singh<ref name="The Economic Times">{{cite web | url=http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2015-03-05/news/59808153_1_death-sentences-daughter-documentary | title=Ban Wasn't Needed. For Truth to Be Known, Filth Has to Come Out, Says Nirbhaya's Father Badrinath Singh | work=The Economic Times| date=5 March 2015 | access-date=14 March 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150308153147/http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2015-03-05/news/59808153_1_death-sentences-daughter-documentary | archive-date=8 March 2015 | url-status=dead}}</ref>}}

=== ''Anatomy of Violence'' by Deepa Mehta===
{{Main|Anatomy of Violence}}

Indian-Canadian filmmaker [[Deepa Mehta]]'s 2016 film ''Anatomy of Violence'' was also based on the incident, exploring the social conditions and lack of mental and sexual education in Indian society that made it possible.<ref name=globe>[https://www.theglobeandmail.com/arts/awards-and-festivals/tiff/anatomy-of-violence-examines-the-men-involved-in-the-delhi-attack/article31773993/ "Anatomy of Violence examines the men involved in the Delhi attack"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170419160424/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/arts/awards-and-festivals/tiff/anatomy-of-violence-examines-the-men-involved-in-the-delhi-attack/article31773993/ |date=19 April 2017 }}. ''[[The Globe and Mail]]'', 8 September 2016. On 9 July 2018, the petition filed by the convicts in Supreme Court to reduce their death sentence to life imprisonment but SC upheld its earlier decision. The summary of the case is as follows: "The men convicted of raping and torturing a medical student on a moving bus in Delhi in 2012 will hang, the Supreme Court ruled today, confirming its earlier decision and rejecting the request of three of four convicts for their sentence to be reduced to a life term." The convicts were executed by the state on 20 March 2020.</ref>

=== ''Crime Patrol'': "A Nation Awakens" ===
{{Main|A Nation Awakens}}

"A Nation Awakens" is the 296th and 297th special two-part episode of the fourth season of the [[Sony Entertainment Television (India)|Sony TV]] television series ''[[Crime Patrol (TV series)|Crime Patrol]]'' (which features real crime stories) and the 546th and 547th episodes overall. Originally aired in two parts on 21 September and 22 September 2013, the episodes were written by Subramanian S. Iyer and director by R. Amit Kumar Jha. The principal photography of the episodes was held in [[Mumbai]], [[India]] and was commenced in the first week of January 2013. The episode was hosted by [[Anup Soni]] and role of head police inspector was played by [[Sanjeev Tyagi (actor)|Sanjeev Tyagi]].<ref>{{Cite web |title='No intention to sensationalise the Delhi gang rape' |url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/report/no-intention-to-sensationalise-the-delhi-gang-rape/20130921.htm |access-date=2023-03-30 |website=Rediff |language=en |archive-date=30 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330112024/https://www.rediff.com/movies/report/no-intention-to-sensationalise-the-delhi-gang-rape/20130921.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-09-12 |title=Delhi gang rape case to feature on Crime Patrol |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/tv/delhi-gang-rape-case-to-feature-on-crime-patrol/story-sJbgc2Z8JbO3yAD0yzrqbM.html |access-date=2023-03-30 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en |archive-date=30 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330112019/https://www.hindustantimes.com/tv/delhi-gang-rape-case-to-feature-on-crime-patrol/story-sJbgc2Z8JbO3yAD0yzrqbM.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Netflix series ''Delhi Crime'' ===
[[Richie Mehta]], a Canadian filmmaker, made a seven-part [[web television]] series titled ''[[Delhi Crime]]'' in 2019. It was based on the aftermath and the subsequent manhunt of the perpetrators of the case. Starring [[Shefali Shah]], [[Rasika Duggal]] and [[Adil Hussain]], the series was released on [[Netflix]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/web-series/delhi-crime-story-review-shefali-shah-rasika-dugal-5628043/|title=Delhi Crime review: Crime and Punishment|last=Gupta|first=Shubhra|work=The Indian Express|date=15 March 2019|access-date=16 March 2019|archive-date=16 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190316052458/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/web-series/delhi-crime-story-review-shefali-shah-rasika-dugal-5628043/|url-status=live}}</ref> This 7-episode series won the ''[[International Emmy Award for Best Drama Series|Best Drama Series]]'' at the [[48th International Emmy Awards]].

=== Literary works ===
[[File:WDKB-SKVerma-Voice.ogg|thumb|Wo desh ki beti' (The daughter of the Nation), poems written and narrated by [[Sunil Kumar Verma]], depicting the national pain at the gang rape of its daughters]]

The comic book ''[[Priya's Shakti]]'' was inspired by the Nirbhaya case.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.priyashakti.com/about/|title=About Priya's Shakti|access-date=4 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407163108/http://www.priyashakti.com/about/|archive-date=7 April 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.themarknews.com/2015/03/31/a-different-kind-of-superhero-fighting-sexual-violence-in-india/|title=A different kind of superhero: fighting sexual violence in India|date=31 March 2015|access-date=4 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150404023150/http://www.themarknews.com/2015/03/31/a-different-kind-of-superhero-fighting-sexual-violence-in-india/|archive-date=4 April 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> The protagonist fights against gender-based sexual violence in India and around the world.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/society/priyas-shakti-rape-survivor-augmented-reality-comic-ram-devineni-dan-goldman/article6689200.ece|title=More power to the pencil|author=Susanna myrtle lazarus|work=The hindu|date=16 December 2014|access-date=4 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303125717/http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/society/priyas-shakti-rape-survivor-augmented-reality-comic-ram-devineni-dan-goldman/article6689200.ece|archive-date=3 March 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.firstpost.com/living/priyas-shakti-magical-comic-book-new-heroine-rape-ridden-india-1842785.html|title=Priya's Shakti: A magical comic book has a new heroine for rape-ridden India|first=Deepanjana|last=Pal|publisher=Firstpost|date=10 December 2014|access-date=4 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141229014705/http://www.firstpost.com/living/priyas-shakti-magical-comic-book-new-heroine-rape-ridden-india-1842785.html|archive-date=29 December 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

A book on the Nirbhaya case titled ''Courting Injustice: The Nirbhaya Case and its Aftermath'' was authored by [[Rajesh Talwar]], and published by Hay House in 2013<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hayhouse.co.in/BookDetails.aspx?Id=IW2jC0tBldU%3D|archive-url=https://archive.today/20140921045148/http://www.hayhouse.co.in/BookDetails.aspx?Id=IW2jC0tBldU=|url-status=dead|title=Hay House India|date=21 September 2014|archive-date=21 September 2014|publisher=Hay House India |access-date=5 May 2017}}</ref>

On 5 September 2014, Bandaru Dattareya, a member of Parliament and [[Bhartiya Janata Party|BJP]] National Vice President, inaugurated "Wo Desh Ki Beti" (Nation's Daughter),<ref>{{cite web|title=Wo Desh Ki Beti: An exhibition of poetry and art|url=http://wo-desh-ki-beti.in|access-date=11 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150411182721/http://wo-desh-ki-beti.in/|archive-date=11 April 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> a social event at [[Hyderabad]] showcasing a collection of sixteen poems<ref>{{cite web|title=Heartfelt Tribute to Nirbhaya 'Wo Desh Ki Beti'|url=http://nirbhaya.shraddhanjali.in/|website=Nirbhaya: Wo Desh Ki Beti|access-date=12 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402093856/http://nirbhaya.shraddhanjali.in/|archive-date=2 April 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> authored by [[Sunil Kumar Verma]] which depicted the pain of a nation at the gang rape of its daughters.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Sharma|first1=Charu|title=This is not art, this is pain|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/people/this-is-not-art-this-is-pain/movie-review/41858495.cms|access-date=30 December 2014|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=6 September 2014|archive-date=31 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331135254/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/spotlight/this-is-not-art-this-is-pain/articleshow/41858495.cms?|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Wo Desh Ki Beti (वो देश की बेटी...!): showcasing the poetry of Dr. SK Verma at LaMakaan Hyderabad |url=http://www.abshyderabad.org/events.html |website=www.abshyderabad.org |publisher=Association of British Scholars |date=5 September 2014 |access-date=18 November 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141221165136/http://www.abshyderabad.org/events.html |archive-date=21 December 2014 }}</ref>

=== Art ===
Several artists have been inspired to create artworks based on Nirbhaya's story.<ref>{{cite web|last=Das|first=Bijoyeta|title=Tackling sexual violence through art|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2013/12/28/tackling-sexual-violence-through-art|access-date=9 January 2022|website=www.aljazeera.com|language=en|archive-date=9 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220109045635/https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2013/12/28/tackling-sexual-violence-through-art|url-status=live}}</ref> In January 2014, artists from all over the country came together to hold an art exhibition about Nirbhaya and sexual assault in India.<ref>{{cite news|title=Artistes around the country put up art exhibition inspired by Nirbhaya rape case in Delhi – Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/events/delhi/artistes-around-the-country-put-up-art-exhibition-inspired-by-nirbhaya-rape-case-in-delhi/articleshow/20225665.cms|access-date=9 January 2022|website=The Times of India|language=en|last1=Tuli|first1=Aanchal|archive-date=9 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220109045636/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/events/delhi/artistes-around-the-country-put-up-art-exhibition-inspired-by-nirbhaya-rape-case-in-delhi/articleshow/20225665.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> Contemporary scroll painter, Kalam Patua created a painting titled ''Nirbhaya'' that was exhibited in The 8th Asia Pacific Triennial of Contemporary Art.<ref>{{cite web|title=Nirbhaya – Kalam Patua|url=https://artsandculture.google.com/asset/nirbhaya-kalam-patua/BAHJyMePj3VTFA|access-date=9 January 2022|website=Google Arts & Culture|language=en|archive-date=9 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220109045649/https://artsandculture.google.com/asset/nirbhaya-kalam-patua/BAHJyMePj3VTFA|url-status=live}}</ref> Feminist artist [[Pritika Chowdhry]] has created several artworks reimagining Nirbhaya as a superheroine.<ref>{{cite web|date=16 December 2021|title=Reimagining Nirbhaya: An artist's ode to December 16 victim|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/lifestyle/art-culture/reimagining-nirbhaya-an-artist-s-ode-to-december-16-victim-101639635292805.html|access-date=9 January 2022|website=Hindustan Times|language=en|archive-date=9 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220109092611/https://www.hindustantimes.com/lifestyle/art-culture/reimagining-nirbhaya-an-artist-s-ode-to-december-16-victim-101639635292805.html|url-status=live}}</ref> To depict the large number of rape victims every year, she has created a Nirbhaya superheroine, an Anonymous Nirbhaya mask, and more art projects to advocate against sexual assault through art.<ref>{{cite web|title=Nirbhaya Art {{!}} Pritika Chowdhry|url=https://www.pritikachowdhry.com/nirbhaya-art|access-date=9 January 2022|website=Pritika Chowdhry Art|language=en|archive-date=9 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220109045637/https://www.pritikachowdhry.com/nirbhaya-art|url-status=live}}</ref> Polish-American artist Monica Weiss has created an art memorial for Nirbhaya.<ref>{{cite web|title=NIRBHAYA|url=https://www.monikaweiss.net/nirbhaya|access-date=9 January 2022|publisher=Monika Weiss|language=en-US|archive-date=9 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220109045654/https://www.monikaweiss.net/nirbhaya|url-status=live}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|India|Law|Crime}}

=== General ===
{{Div col|colwidth=25em}}
* [[2023 Delhi hit-and-run case]]
* [[Capital punishment in India]]
* [[Dekh Le]], a viral video released on the first anniversary of the incident
* ''[[Delhi Crime]]'', Indian drama series based on the incident
* ''[[India's Daughter]]'', documentary about the incident
* [[It's Your Fault (video)|''It's Your Fault'' (video)]]
* [[Nirbhaya Fund]]
* [[Nirbheek]], revolver named in tribute of the victim
* ''[[Nirbhoya]]'', a Bengali film based on the incident
* ''[[Priya's Shakti]]''
* [[Rape in India]]
* [[Sexism in India]]
* [[Slut-shaming]]
* [[Victim blaming]]
* [[Women in India]]
{{Div col end}}

=== Rape crimes ===
{{Div col|colwidth=25em}}
* [[Mathura rape case]], a 1972 custodial rape
* [[1990 Bantala rape case]], a 1990 rape-murder case
* [[Priyadarshini Mattoo]], a 1996 rape-murder case
* [[Ajmer rape case|1992 Ajmer serial gang rapes case]]
* [[Prathibha Srikanth Murthy]], a 2005 rape-murder case
* [[Soumya murder case]], a 2011 rape-murder case
* [[2013 Mumbai gang rape]]
* [[2014 Badaun gang rape]]
* [[Murder of Özgecan Aslan]] – psychology student murdered in a bus in February 2015
* [[Aruna Shanbaug case]] – left in [[vegetative state]] after assault in November 1973, died May 2015
* [[Nadia nun rape case]]
* [[2017 Unnao rape case]]
* [[2019 Hyderabad gang rape and murder]]
* [[2024 Kolkata rape and murder incident]]
{{Div col end}}

== References ==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
{{Wikinews| Five accused of Delhi gang rape and murder plead not guilty}}
* [http://pib.nic.in/feature/feyr2001/fmay2001/f010520012.html Fast-track courts]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20131103155302/http://stopcrimeagainstwomen.in/incident/16th_december_case/timeline Timeline of the incident]

{{Rape in India}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Delhi gang rape and murder 2012}}
[[Category:2010s in Delhi|Gang rape and murder]]
[[Category:2010s trials]]
[[Category:2012 murders in India]]
[[Category:21st-century executions by India]]
[[Category:December 2012 crimes in Asia]]
[[Category:December 2012 in India]]
[[Category:Capital murder cases]]
[[Category:Gang rape in India]]
[[Category:Incidents of violence against women]]
[[Category:Kidnappings in India]]
[[Category:Kidnapping in the 2010s]]
[[Category:Murder committed by minors]]
[[Category:Murder in Delhi|2012 gang rape and murder]]
[[Category:Murder trials]]
[[Category:Rape in the 2010s]]
[[Category:Trials in India]]
[[Category:Women in Delhi]]
[[Category:Torture in India]]
[[Category:Rape in India]]
[[Category:Violence against women in India]]

Alone (2015 Hindi film)

2026-03-02T05:08:12Z

Ajit3011: slightly cleanup article per standard format additionally and cleaned formatting to improve readability

{{short description|2015 film by Bhushan Patel}}
{{Use British English|date=April 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Alone
| image= Alone - 2015 Hindi film poster.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[Bhushan Patel]]
| producer = {{plainlist|
* [[Kumar Mangat Pathak]]
* [[Abhishek Pathak]]
* Pradeep Agarwal
* Prashant Sharma
}}
| writer =
| based_on = {{based on|[[Alone (2007 film)|Alone]]|[[Banjong Pisanthanakun]]|[[Parkpoom Wongpoom]]}}
| starring = {{plainlist|
* [[Bipasha Basu]]
* [[Karan Singh Grover]]
* [[Zakir Hussain (actor)|Zakir Hussain]]
}}
| music = {{plainlist|
* [[Ankit Tiwari]]
* [[Mithoon]]
* [[Jeet Gannguli]]
* [[Raghav Sachar]]
}}
| cinematography = [[Prakash Kutty]]
| editing =
| studio = [[Panorama Studios]]
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2015|01|16}}
| runtime = 134 minutes
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| budget = ₹19 crore
| gross = {{Estimation}} {{INRConvert|25.84|c}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.boxofficeindia.co.in/weekly-collections-%E2%80%93-box-office/ |title=Weekly Collections – Box Office India|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110418014920/http://www.boxofficeindia.co.in/weekly-collections-%E2%80%93-box-office/ |date=18 April 2015 |work=Box Office India|archive-date=18 April 2011}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/box-office/alone-box-office-bipasha-basus-film-makes-over-rs-19-33-crore-in-three-weeks/articleshow/45921698.cms | title=Alone box office: Bipasha Basu's film makes over Rs 19.33 crore in three weeks | newspaper=The Times of India | date=17 March 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/alone/box-office/ | title=Alone Box Office Collection | India | Day Wise | Box Office - Bollywood Hungama | website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] | date=16 January 2015 }}</ref>}}

'''''Alone''''' is a 2015 Indian [[horror film]] directed by [[Bhushan Patel]], starring [[Bipasha Basu]] and [[Karan Singh Grover]]. The film is a remake of the 2007 [[Cinema of Thailand|Thai]] [[Alone (2007 film)|film of the same name]], which was itself based on the ''[[Tales from the Crypt (TV series)|Tales From The Crypt]]'' episode "My Brothers Keeper".

==Plot ==
The film starts on a stormy night in [[Bangalore]]. A large tree branch falls and breaks the roof of an [[apartment]]. The woman inspecting the outhouse ends up in a hospital.

In another town, the woman's daughter, Sanjana, and her husband, Kabir, argue about not being able to celebrate her birthday together. Sanjana gets a call about her mother's accident and they quickly fly to Bangalore.

In Bangalore, Sanjana begins having visions that make her believe her dead conjoined twin's soul is after her. Her husband does not believe her and sends her to his former professor for spiritual healing.

During the treatment period, she tells the professor about how her conjoined twin sister Anjana always hated that Kabir liked Sanjana more than her. In fact, it was when Kabir told Sanjana that he was coming back home from abroad that Sanjana decided to separate from Anjana. It was during this operation that Anjana died, and Sanjana blames herself for her sister's death. The professor reassures Sanjana that her visions of Anjana are the result of her guilt and only a figment of her subconscious mind.

At her mother's place that night, Sanjana is forced into the outhouse by an unseen entity. Hearing noises, Kabir wakes up and finds her unconscious in the outhouse. When Sanjana awakes, she is possessed by Anjana's soul. After this, Sanjana/Anjana can't get enough of Kabir. When the professor meets her again, he feels there is something wrong and tells Kabir to keep an eye on her, which she overhears.

The caretaker suggests that a ritual should be performed on Sanjana/Anjana. After the ritual, Anjana's stronghold on Sanjana escalates and her true colors are shown, resulting in an exorcist being called in.

During the kanjar, Anjana reveals that she was murdered. As she leaves Sanjana's body, she urges Kabir to discover the truth of her death. After Sanjana wakes up, Kabir threatens to leave her. Sanjana tells him that years ago when he called her to tell Sanjana that he was coming home, Anjana lost her mind and tried to kill her because she had feelings for Kabir too. In self-defense, Sanjana hit Anjana on the head with a glass music box, killing her. Their mother covered the truth to protect her daughter. After consulting with the professor, they try to find and burn the last possession of Anjana and set her soul free.

Sanjana, Kabir, the caretaker, and her daughter-in-law all follow the music leading to the outhouse. Under the floor, they find Anjana's corpse. The caretaker and her daughter-in-law go inside to get kerosene with which to burn the body. They both die at the hands of Anjana's soul. The professor arrives at the outhouse with kerosene, but is possessed by Anjana and tries to attack Sanjana. While Kabir fights him, he finds the locket he gave to Sanjana when they were young on Anjana's corpse. When he confronts Sanjana, she confesses that she is actually Anjana. She tells him that she killed Sanjana with the music box and took her sister's place so she could be with Kabir. Outraged, Kabir decides to leave her despite her pleas that she loves him. Sanjana (now revealed to be Anjana) hits him on the head with a chair to stop him from leaving and he falls. Anjana tries to kill Kabir with a pair of scissors but is stopped by Sanjana's soul, the burning roof falls on Anjana thus killing her and professor saves Kabir. Kabir sees Sanjana's soul smiling at him and then disappearing in the fire.


== Cast ==
*[[Bipasha Basu]] as Sanjana/Anjana ([[dual role]])
*[[Karan Singh Grover]] as Kabir
* Sagar Saikia as Prithvi
*[[Zakir Hussain (actor)|Zakir Hussain]] as Psychiatrist
*[[Neena Gupta]] as The Twins' Mother
*Sunny Hawlader as Raj
*Sneha Vaidya as Child Sanjana
*Sowmya Vaidya as Child Anjana
*[[Dino Morea]] as Kabir Singh

== Reception ==
===Critical response===
The film received mixed reviews. Trade Analyst [[Komal Nahta]] predicted that the film would do well at the box office, and praised the lead actor, writing that "Bipasha Basu does a splendid job...Karan Singh Grover makes Breakups an impressive [[Rajneesh Duggal]] debut on the big screen. He looks handsome and has screen presence. He acts very ably."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://komalsreviews.wordpress.com/2015/01/16/alone/ |title=ALONE |work=Komal Nahta's Blog |date=16 January 2015}}</ref>

[[India TV]] stated that "With some genuine scary moments and Bipasha-Karan's scorching chemistry, ''Alone'' stands apart from numerous horrible horror flicks made in the past. Bipasha Basu as a terrified lady in the beginning while as a ghost herself shines, Karan Singh Gorver flaunts his acting skills with same exactness that he carries while flaunting his body when required."<ref name="indiatvnews.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.indiatvnews.com/entertainment/bollywood/alone-movie-review-starring-bipasha-karan-20017.html |title=Alone movie review |work=www.indiatvnews.com |date=15 January 2015}}</ref>

Some reviewers were more critical, however. [[Filmfare]] praised the two lead actors, but gave film 3 stars, stating that "The only reason why ''Alone'' will work is for its erotic packaging. Those looking for a genuine scary movie will only get bad rehashes of scenes from The Conjuring and other popular Hollywood fare."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.filmfare.com/reviews/movie-review-alone-8221.html |title=Movie Review: Alone |work=filmfare.com}}</ref> [[Times of India]] gave it a 2.5 and said, "When you scratch the surface, you don't end up scared shitless. And isn't that what ''Alone'' is meant to do?"<ref>Meena Iyer, (16 January 2015). [http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/movie-review/Alone/movie-review/45911826.cms "Alone Movie Review"]. ''India Times''</ref>

[[Bollywood Hungama]] gave it 2 stars and said "On the whole, ''Alone'' is a below average fare that has a commendable performance by Bipasha Basu" Praising debutant Karan SIngh Grovers performance, it says "Karan Singh Grover makes a sprightly debut. He's not conscious of the camera at all. Considering he has done TV, he is high on emotional appeal. He has all the trappings of being a star but he needs to choose his films more wisely. "<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/criticreview/id/743034 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140613162350/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/criticreview/id/743034 |url-status=dead |archive-date=13 June 2014 |title=Alone |work=Bollywood Hungama}}</ref>

[[Zee News]] gave 1.5 stars out of 5 and wrote, "The scenes have been lifted from various English horror films and although they have been executed fairly, they leave you a little disappointed."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://zeenews.india.com/entertainment/movies/alone-review-just-not-scary-enough_1531220.html |title='Alone' review: Queen of horror Bipasha Basu in an unimpressive venture |work=Zee News |date=16 January 2015}}</ref> The [[CNN IBN]] critic [[Rajeev Masand]] stated, "I'm going with one-and-a-half out of five for ''Alone''. You'll wish you'd stayed home instead."<ref name="indiatvnews.com"/>

Critic Saibal Chatterjee of [[NDTV]] gave it a rating of 2 stars out of 5 and wrote, "''Alone'' is strictly for those that have an insatiable appetite for cinematic concoctions that serve up the dual dose of sex and horror."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://movies.ndtv.com/movie-reviews/alone-movie-review-1080 |title=Alone movie review}}</ref>
however, the film received negative reviews from the US Cinema.

Subhara gupta of [[The Indian Express]] gave it 1.5 stars out of 5 and stated it has very few mild scares.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/movie-review/2267168-alone-movie-review/ |title='Alone' Movie review: There's not much anyone can do |work=The Indian Express |date=19 January 2015}}</ref>

=== Box office ===

''[[Box Office India]]'' stated that ''Alone'' had the highest opening of the four major films released in its weekend, opening with 50% occupancy nationwide and full houses at some single screens.<ref>http://www.boxofficeindia.co.in/alone-scares-up-good-numbers-at-ticket-counter/{{Dead link|date=September 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> ''[[Daily News and Analysis]]'' stated that ''Alone''{{'}}s business of Rs 140 million and modest budget allowed for a good financial return.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://bolly4uhd.site/ |title=Alone box office collections: Bipasha Basu starrer enjoys decent opening weekend |last= |first= |date= |work=dna|access-date=}}</ref> ''[[FilmFare]]'' also reported that the movie had a good weekend making 146.5 million in the opening weekend.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.filmfare.com/news/alone-enjoys-a-good-weekend-and-i-creates-havoc-down-south-8236.html |title=Alone enjoys a good weekend and I creates havoc down south |work=filmfare.com}}</ref>

==Soundtrack==
{{Infobox album
| name = Alone
| type = Soundtrack
| artist = [[Ankit Tiwari]], [[Mithoon]], [[Jeet Gannguli]] and [[Raghav Sachar]]
| cover =
| alt =
| caption = Soundtrack cover
| released = {{Start date|df=yes|2015|1|3}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://music.apple.com/in/album/alone-original-motion-picture-soundtrack-ep/1074929400 |title=Alone (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) |date=3 January 2015 |publisher=[[iTunes]]}}</ref>
| recorded =
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Feature film soundtrack]]
| length = {{Duration|m=20|s=06}}
| label = [[T-Series (company)|T-Series]]
| producer = Kumar Mangat
| prev_title =
| prev_year =
| next_title =
| next_year =
| misc = {{External media
| audio1 = {{YouTube|ErZ1RAmgWeI|Audio Jukebox}}}}
}}

The music was composed by [[Ankit Tiwari]], [[Mithoon]], [[Raghav Sachar]] and [[Jeet Gannguli]]. The album consists of 4 songs. The song "Touch My Body" was from [[Dr Zeus|Dr.Zeus]] song "Don't Be Shy" from the album 'Rouge' by Rouge, with lyrics written by Lola Olafis, which was then recreated the second time in [[Bala (2019 film)|Bala]] (2019) by [[Sachin–Jigar]], with vocals by [[Badshah (rapper)|Badshah]], [[Shalmali Kholgade]], and Gurdeep Mehendi.
{{Track listing
| headline = Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| total_length = 25:18
| title1 = Katra Katra
| extra1 = Ankit Tiwari, [[Prakriti Kakar]]
| music1 = [[Ankit Tiwari]]
| lyrics1 = Abhay Upadhyay
| length1 = 6:21
| title2 = Awaara
| extra2 = Altamash Faridi, Saim Bhatt
| music2 = [[Mithoon]]
| lyrics2 = Mithoon
| length2 = 5:12
| title4 = Touch My Body
| extra4 = [[Aditi Singh Sharma]]
| music4 = [[Raghav Sachar]]
| lyrics4 = [[Kumaar]]
| length4 = 3:46
| title3 = Chand Aasmano Se Laapata
| extra3 = [[Bhaven Dhanak]]
| music3 = [[Jeet Gannguli]]
| lyrics3 = [[Sandeep Nath]]
| length3 = 4:47
| title5 = Awaara
| note5 = Sad Version
| extra5 = Altamash Faridi
| music5 = Mithoon
| lyrics5 = Mithoon
| length5 = 5:12
}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Bollywood Hungama movie|alone}}
* {{IMDb title|4271730}}

{{Portal|India|Film|Bollywood}}

[[Category:Hindi-language horror films]]
[[Category:2015 films]]
[[Category:2015 horror films]]
[[Category:2010s ghost films]]
[[Category:2015 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:2015 Indian films]]
[[Category:Indian ghost films]]
[[Category:Indian haunted house films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Ankit Tiwari]]
[[Category:Films scored by Raghav Sachar]]
[[Category:Films scored by Mithoon]]
[[Category:Films scored by Jeet Gannguli]]
[[Category:Twins in Indian films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Bhushan Patel]]
[[Category:Films shot in Alappuzha]]
[[Category:Indian remakes of Thai films]]
[[Category:Indian horror film remakes]]
[[Category:Fiction about conjoined twins]]
[[Category:Indian romantic horror films]]
[[Category:Films about exorcism]]
[[Category:Indian crime horror films]]
[[Category:Indian dark fantasy films]]
[[Category:Films about twin sisters]]
[[Category:Panorama Studios films]]

Sethupathi

2026-02-22T07:15:19Z

Ajit3011: enhanced lead also and updated info

{{Short description|Tamil Kingdom}}{{Other uses}}
{{pp-extended|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2024}}
[[File:Sethupathi coin.png|240x180px|thumb|An 18th-century copper coin made under an unidentified Sethupathi king depicting a horse and the word Sethupathi in Tamil.]]

The '''Sethupathis''' are a [[Tamils|Tamil]] clan of the [[Maravar]] community native to the [[Ramanathapuram district|Ramanathapuram]] and [[Sivaganga district]] of [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b-LvAAAAMAAJ|title=Trends in history|last=N.Y.)|first=Institute for Research in History (New York|date=1982|publisher=Institute for Research in History|pages=134|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n2U9DwAAQBAJ|title=Possessed by the Virgin: Hinduism, Roman Catholicism, and Marian Possession in South India|last=Bloomer|first=Kristin C.|date=2017-11-10|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780190615116|language=en}}</ref> They were from the 12th century considered independent kings in 16th century who ruled the [[Ramnad kingdom#Ramnad|Ramnad kingdom]], also known as ''[[Maravar]] country''.<ref name=":0">{{Cite thesis |last=Scherl |first=Richard Brian |title=Speaking with ''mariyatai'': A linguistic and cultural analysis of markers of plurality in Tamil. |date=December 1996 |pages=81, 83 |language=en |publisher=The University of Chicago |degree=Ph.D. |id={{ProQuest|304278470}}}}</ref> The male rulers of Ramnathapuram also bore the title of "Sethupathi" or "protector of the bridge", the bridge here referring to the legendary sacred [[Rama's Bridge]] (Adam's Bridge),<ref name="sethupathi_tondaimans">{{cite web|url=http://www.tamilnadu.ind.in/tamilnadu_history/sethupathis_thondaimans/sethupathis.php|title=Sethupathi Tondaimans|work=The History of Tamil Nadu|access-date=5 July 2020|archive-date=12 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210712110239/https://www.tamilnadu.ind.in/tamilnadu_history/sethupathis_thondaimans/sethupathis.php|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="holdersofhistory">{{cite news|title=Holder of History: The Ramnad Sethupathis|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P3-1518390491.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023031602/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P3-1518390491.html|journal=[[Hindustan Times]]|date=26 July 2008|location=New Delhi|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 October 2012|via=Highbeam}}</ref><ref name="bridgeofram">{{cite web|title=Sethupathi Dynasty of Ramnad - Guardians of Rama Sethu|url=http://www.bridgeofram.com/2008/02/sethupathi-dynasty-of-ramnad-guardians.html|publisher=Bridge of Ram|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006003201/http://www.bridgeofram.com/2008/02/sethupathi-dynasty-of-ramnad-guardians.html|archive-date=6 October 2011}}</ref> while female rulers bore the title '''"Nachiyar"'''. Among the 72 [[poligar]]s (feudal title of chieftains under [[Madurai Nayak dynasty|Nayaka rulers]]) of the region, the Sethupathi stood first. This special position was conferred not based upon the revenue that his kingdom generated but because of his military prowess. Back in the beginning of the 18th century, the Sethupathi ruler could mobilize a considerable army, about 30,000 to 40,000 strong at short notice (one week).<ref>{{cite book|title=Kingship and Political Practice in Colonial India|author=Pamela G. Price|publisher=Cambridge University Press, 14-Mar-1996 - History - 220 pages|page=26}}</ref>

Under the [[Madurai Nayak dynasty|Madurai Nayak]] king ''Muthukrishnappa Nayak,'' the first recorded Sethupathi, ''Saidaikan'' who assumed the title ''Udaiyan Rakunatha Sethupathi'' was installed as ruler from 1606–1621.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nl45AAAAIAAJ|title=Journal of Tamil Studies|date=1987|publisher=International Association of Tamil Research, International Institute of Tamil Studies|pages=79|language=en}}</ref> The Sethupathis who were under the [[suzerainty]] of the Madurai Nayak, gained its full independence in 1702. The Ramnad Kingdom lost its independence under [[British Empire]] and became a [[Zamindar]]i divided into the [[Ramnad estate]] also called ''Greater Marava'' and [[Sivaganga estate]] also called ''Little Marava''.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zjTneAGmatsC|title=History of Tinnevelly|last=Caldwell|first=Bishop R.|date=1989|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=9788120601611|pages=210|language=en}}</ref>

== Etymology ==
The title ''Sethupathi'' is a [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]] term meaning "Lord of ''Sethu''",<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OpxeaYQbGDMC|title=The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara|last=Stein|first=Burton|date=1989|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521266932|pages=135|language=en}}</ref> where Sethu refers to [[Ram Setu]],<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=laIPgMQF_XsC|title=A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary with Transliteration, Accentuation, and Etymological Analysis Throughout|last=Macdonell|first=Arthur Anthony|date=2004|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=9788120820005|pages=359|language=en}}</ref> a chain of [[limestone]] shoals from [[Rameswaram Island]] in [[India]] to [[Mannar Island]] in [[Sri Lanka]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Adams-Bridge|title=Adam's Bridge {{!}} shoals, India|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=2018-10-17|language=en}}</ref> The Maravar clan from 5th century CE were patrons of the [[Ramanathaswamy Temple]], which is also known as ''Sethu'' and thereupon assumed the title ''Sethupathi''.<ref name=":1" /> According to Jennifer Howes, while inscription evidence about Sethupathis is available only since early 17th century; two manuscripts collected by [[Colin Mackenzie]] attribute first coronation of Sethupathi in [[Puranas|puranic]] past by none other than [[Rama|Ramayana-Rama]] himself.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Howes, . 2003. |first=Jennifer |title=The Courts of Pre-Colonial South India: Material Culture and Kingship. |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2003 |isbn=9781135789961 |pages=71,72 |chapter=Pantings in the Ramlinga Vilasam}}</ref> Howes says as per the manuscripts true rulership of South India was in the hands of Sethupathis during [[Pandya dynasty|Pandya]] period and that the [[Chola Empire|Cholas]] had dispossessed Sethupathis of their territories.<ref name=":02" />

The title ''"Sethu Kavalar''" meaning "Guardian of ''Sethu''" was a title used by the [[Aryacakravarti dynasty]] of [[Jaffna Kingdom]], who also used the term "Sethu" on their coin on account of being related to the Sethupathis.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kj_aWm4DeFEC|title=The Sri Lanka Reader: History, Culture, Politics|last=Holt|first=John|date=2011-04-13|publisher=Duke University Press|isbn=978-0822349822|pages=83–84|language=en}}</ref>

== Sethupathis of Ramnad and Sivaganga ==
The rulers of Ramnad and Sivaganga region of early 17th century were called Sethupathis. The Nayak ruler Muthukrishnappa Nayak reestablished the ancient line of Sethupathys who were the chieftains under the pandyas in the beginning of 17th century as protector and guardian of the pilgrims to Sethusamudram and Rameswaram. The protector of Sethusamudram was called as Sethupathy. Sadaikkathevar emerged as the chief of the poligas. Sethupathis were maravas of Ramnad, Madurai and Tirunelveli. They had Ramnad as their official headquarters. Sadaikkathevar and his son KuttanSethupathi acted as Sethupathis and extended protection to the pilgrims who visited Rameswaram. Apart from giving protection two Sethupathis did religious services to the Ramanathaswamy temple at Rameswaram. The Sethupathis also issued copper coins until they became Zamindar in the 18th century, the coins depict horses and peacocks with deity on the obverse and the name Sethupathi in Tamil on the reverse.<ref>11</ref>

==List of Sethupathis==
<ref> Alagappa University › uploadsPDFtamil civilization and culture from 1336 to ... - Alagappa University </ref>

* [[Sadaikka Thevar Sethupathi]] (1590–1621)
* [[Kootan Sethupathi]] (1621–1637)
* [[Dalavai Sethupathi]] (1637–1659)
* [[Raghunatha Thirumalai Sethupathi]] (1659–1670)

'''The independent kings were:'''

* [[Raghunatha Kilavan|Raghunatha Kilavan Sethupathi]] (1670–1708)
* [[Vijaya Raghunatha Sethupathi]] I (1708–1723)
* [[Sundaresvara Raghunatha Sethupathi]] (1723–1728)
* [[Kumara Muthu Vijaya Raghunatha Sethupathi]] (1728–1734)
* [[Muthukumara Raghunatha Sethupathi]] (1734–1747)
* Rakka Thevar (1747–1748)
* [[Vijaya Raghunatha Sethupathi II]] (1748–1760)
* [[Muthuramalinga Sethupathi]] (1760–1794)
* Ruler of princely state under the paramountcy of the British Raj
* ''Interregnum'' (1795—1803)<ref>{{Cite book |author=A. Ramaswami |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.csl.3390/page/n115/mode/1up |page=98|title=Tamil Nadu District Gazetteers: Ramanathapuram |date=1972 |publisher=Director of Stationery and Printing}}</ref>

'''The zamindars are as follows:'''

* Mangaleswari Nachiyar (1803–1807)
* Annaswami Sethupathi (1807–1820)
* Ramaswami Sethupathi (1820–1830)
* Muthu Chella Thevar Sethupathi (1830–1846)
* Parvatha Vardhani Ammal Nachchiyar (1846–1862)
* [[Muthuramalinga Sethupathi II]](1862–1873)

'''Court of Wards (1873–1889)'''

* [[Bhaskara Sethupathi]] (1889–1903)
* Dinakara Sethupathy
* [[Raja Rajeswara Sethupathi]] (1903–1929)
* [[Shanmugha Rajeswara Sethupathi]](1929–1967)
* [[Ramanatha Sethupathi]] (1967–1979)
* [[Rajeswari Nachiyar]] (1979–present)

== Raghunatha Sethupathi II alias Kizhavan Sethupathi ==
{{main|Raghunatha Kilavan}}
[[File:Kilavan Sethupathi.JPG|240x180px|thumb|right|Kizhavan Sethupathi]]

Kizhavan Sethupathi (1671 AD to 1710 AD) was the greatest ruler among the Tamil kings. He was the seventh king of Ramnad.<ref name="FM Sivaganga">{{cite web|title=Sivaganga, Tamil Nadu|url=http://financeminister.gov.in/sivaganga.html|publisher=financeminister.gov.in|access-date=3 November 2012|archive-date=29 May 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080529093255/http://financeminister.gov.in/sivaganga.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> He was helpful to Chokkanatha Nayak. The Nayak king conferred him a title Para Rajakesari (Lion to alien kings). He annexed some territories of Madurai Kingdom. Aranthangi, Thirumayam, Piranmalai. He opposed the spread of Christian missionary activities. Kizhavan Sethupathi liberated the Marava country from the control of Madurai Nayak. After defeating Rani Mangammal's army, he declared independent Marava country in 1707. He shifted his headquarters from Pughalur to Ramnad.
Kilavan Sethupathi established the Nalcottal palayam (later Sivaganga) and appointed Udaya Thevar as governor. He served well for the development of Hinduism. He endowed villages to a temple at Thiruvadanai and Kalaiyar Koil. He constructed a fort around the Ramanathapuram, the capital city. He constructed a dam across the Vaigai. His rule was marked as the golden age of the Maravas. Kilavan Sethupathi was succeeded by Bhavani Shankarathevar and Thandathevar.

== Post Kilavan Sethupathi ==
[[File:Bhaskara Sethupathy of Ramnad.jpg|240x180px|left|thumb|Bhaskara Sethupathy]]

[[Vijayaraghunatha Sethupathi]] became the 8th King of Ramnad in 1710 after the death of Kilavan Sethupathy.<ref name ="FM Sivaganga"/><ref>{{cite news|title=Crumbling Glory|url=http://www.hindu.com/lf/2003/08/04/stories/2003080406750200.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130125190506/http://www.hindu.com/lf/2003/08/04/stories/2003080406750200.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=25 January 2013|author=Suresh Kumar P S|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|date=3 August 2003}}</ref> After Kilavan Sethupathi the kingdom was divided into two new Sivaganga Kingdom emerged. During the later period of Sethupathi's rule, the Ramnad was reduced to a zamin level. Then it was brought under the control of the Britishers. Finally it became a part of the Indian Union. Among the later Sethupathis, [[Bhaskara Sethupathy]] was an exceptionally enlightened zamindar. And his brother Raja [[Dhingara Sethupathi]] were English educated rulers.{{fact|date=August 2024}}

Raja Dhinagara sethypathy become the zamindar after Bhaskara Sethypathy died from 1903. He honored Swami Vivekananda who attended the parliament of Religion at Chicago. on return of Swami Vivekananda both zamindars maeda great agenda on that day, for this they made a memorial pillar on ''Sigil Raha'' Street, Now the street is named after the ''"Swamy Vivekanandga Salai"''. The social life under Sethupathi's rule was good.{{fact|date=August 2024}}

== See also ==
* [[Ramnad_estate#Ramnad|Ramnad Kingdom]]
* [[Maravar]], community to which Ramnad / Sethupathi kings belonged
* [[Thanjavur Nayak kingdom]], once an ally and later adversary of Sethupathis
* [[Madurai Nayak dynasty]], once and ally and later adversary of Sethupathis
* [[Marava War of Succession]], war of succession after Vijaya Raghunatha Sethupathi

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sethupathi}}

[[Category:Lists of Indian monarchs]]

Dufferin Clock Tower

2026-02-20T11:17:16Z

Ajit3011:

{{Short description|Clock tower in Karnataka province, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2017}}
[[File:Chikka Gadiyara clocktower.jpg|thumb|The clock tower in 2015]]

[[File:CLOCK TOWER.jpg|thumb|Dufferin Clock Tower]]
[[File:Mysuru Market area clock tower.jpg|thumb|The clock tower before renovation]]
[[File:Dufferin Clock Tower, Mysore.jpg|thumb|left|The clock tower after renovation in 2012]]

{{coord|12.30953|76.65227|display=title}}

'''Dufferin Clock Tower''' is a historic relic and heritage structure of Mysore city in Karnataka province, India.
==Location==
The Dufferin Clock Tower is located near the new bus station in Mysore in front of the Deveraja Market.
==History==
In princely state of Mysore during British, the Wadeyars ruled under the guidance of Vice-Roy. Of course, Wadeyars had to please the Vice-Roy and other Officers to maintain a cordial relationship.
[[Lord Dufferin]] was the Viceroy of India during 1884–1888. What is popularly known as Chikkagadiyara seen at the end of Devaraja Market close to Krishna Rajendra Circle was commissioned in his honor. He was the first Viceroy of the colonial India to pay a ceremonial and friendly visit to Mysore on invitation of Maharaja Chamaraja Wadeyar X in 1886. It is named after him as Dufferin Clock Tower. It is now a heritage structure in Mysore and served as time keeper during the reign of the Wadeyars.

Dufferin Clock Tower well known as 'Chikkagadiyara' (Little Clock) is situated at the end of [[Devaraja Market]], near KR Circle. It is comparatively small to Bigger clock (Doddagadiyara) near the Town Hall. It was built in 1886 and ornately embroidered to make attractive in the vicinity. It was neglected for a long time. In the recent years, the Clock Tower was renovated to give an impressive look.

==The structure==
The clock tower is built on a foundation of eight pillars covered by railings. A decorated fountain at the center is the showpiece of the structure.
The local people call the clock tower ''Chikka Gadiyara'' or the small clock tower. The clock tower has historic importance of its location in front of the monumental Devaraja Market.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mysuru/Victimisation-of-the-Dufferin-Clock/articleshow/4330891.cms|title = Victimisation of the Dufferin Clock | Mysuru News - Times of India|website = [[The Times of India]]}}</ref>

==Renovation 2012==
The space around the clock tower was formerly used by hawkers and vehicle parkers. The heritage department vacated the hawkers and emptied the space for development. In 2012, the city council completed the work of renovating the space around the clock tower with tiles and seats for tourists. The space is spacious enough to conduct small gatherings. The work was completed on a project of four million Indian rupees. Nine small fountains and 13 decorated lamps were added to the space. The place is now suitable for conducting small music concerts.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-karnataka/cultural-space-at-dufferin-clock-tower-nearly-ready/article3644337.ece|title=Cultural space at Dufferin Clock Tower nearly ready|newspaper=The Hindu|date=16 July 2012}}</ref>

{{Geographic Location
| title =
|Northwest =
|North = Deveraja Market
|Northeast =
|West = Devaraj Urs Road
|Centre = '''Dufferin Clock Tower'''
|East = Town Hall
|Southwest =
|South = City Bus Station
|Southeast =
}}

==See also==
* [[Devaraj Urs Road, Mysore]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Tourist attractions in Mysore]]
[[Category:Mysore North]]
[[Category:Clock towers in India]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Mysore]]
[[Category:Towers completed in 1886]]

Kanaka (actress)

2026-02-16T15:39:23Z

Ajit3011: minor changes

{{Short description |Indian actress (born 1973)}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2025}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Kanaka
| image =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1973|07|14|df=y}}
| birth_place =
| birth_name = Kanaka Mahalakshmi Devadoss
| occupation = {{hlist|[[Actor]]}}
| mother = [[Devika]]
| years_active = 1989{{endash}}2000
| relatives = [[Raghupathi Venkaiah Naidu]] (great-grandfather)
| website =
| other_names = Kanaga
}}

'''Kanaka Mahalakshmi Devadoss''', known [[mononym]]ously as '''Kanaka''', is an Indian former actress who appeared in [[Tamil cinema|Tamil]], [[Telugu cinema|Telugu]] and [[Malayalam cinema|Malayalam]] language films. She is known of her role in her debut Tamil film ''[[Karakattakkaran]]'' (1989).

==Personal life==
Kanaka is the daughter of actress [[Devika]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/entertainment/entertainment-news/2018/05/05/kanaka-actress-movies-tragedy-father-personal-life-cancer-rumours.html |title=Kanaka keen on comeback, clears the air on rumours |date=5 May 2018 |website=[[Onmanorama]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-fridayreview/blend-of-grace-and-charm/article28570926.ece |title=Blend of grace and charm |author=S. R. Ashok Kumar |date=10 May 2002 |work=[[The Hindu]] |url-access=subscription |language=en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200224181458/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-fridayreview/blend-of-grace-and-charm/article28570926.ece |archive-date=24 February 2020}}</ref> She is also the great-granddaughter of [[Telugu cinema]] pioneer, [[Raghupathi Venkaiah Naidu]].

==Career==

She started her career as a heroine in the [[Tamil cinema|Tamil]] movie ''[[Karakattakkaran]]'', directed by [[Gangai Amaran]], a blockbuster movie which ran more than a year.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/celebrating-30-years-of-karagattakaran/articleshow/69812835.cms |title=Celebrating 30 Years of Karagattakaran |last=Suganth |first=M |date=16 June 2019 |website=[[The Times of India]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820092247/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/celebrating-30-years-of-karagattakaran/articleshow/69812835.cms |archive-date=20 August 2019 |access-date=17 June 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> Kanaka acted in many Tamil movies, including ''[[Periya Veetu Pannakkaran]]'' (1990), ''[[Athisaya Piravi]]'' (1990), ''[[Samundi]]'' (1992), ''[[Periya Kudumbam]]'' (1995), ''[[Simmarasi]]'' (1998) and ''[[Viralukketha Veekkam]]'' (1999). She also starred in a few [[Telugu cinema|Telugu]] and [[Malayalam cinema|Malayalam]] movies with major stars like [[Mukesh (actor)|Mukesh]], [[Mammootty]] and [[Mohanlal]]. She has acted in more than 50 films in Tamil, Malayalam and Telugu in a span of 10 years.

== Filmography ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|- style="background:#000;"
! Year !! Film !! Role !! Language !! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
|rowspan=2|1989 || ''[[Karakattakkaran]]'' || Kamakshi||rowspan="16"| [[Tamil cinema|Tamil]] ||
|-
| ''[[Thangamana Raasa]]'' || Kannamma ||
|-
| rowspan=11|1990|| ''[[Seetha (1990 film)|Seetha]]''|| Seetha ||
|-
| ''Muthalali Amma'' || Kaveri ||
|-
| ''[[Periya Idathu Pillai]]'' ||Geetha ||
|-
| ''[[Periya Veetu Pannakkaran]]''|| Chella Meena ||
|-
| ''[[Athisaya Piravi]]''|| Gowri ||
|-
| ''[[Durga (1990 film)|Durga]]''|| Kannamma ||
|-
|''[[Enga Ooru Aattukkaran]]'' ||Unknown ||
|-
| ''[[Sathan Sollai Thattathe]]''|| Chitra ||
|-
| ''[[Amman Kovil Thiruvizha]]''||Bhavani ||
|-
| ''[[Vellaiya Devan]]''||Santhi ||
|-
| ''[[Ethir Kaatru]]'' || Anita ||
|-
| rowspan=5|1991 || ''[[Kumbakarai Thangaiah]]'' || Mangamma ||
|-
| ''[[Sendhoora Devi]]''|| Selvi ||
|-
| ''[[Thalattu Ketkuthamma]]'' || Pechiamma ||
|-
| ''[[Brahmarshi Vishwamitra]]'' || Sita || [[Telugu cinema|Telugu]] ||
|-
| ''[[Godfather (1991 film)|Godfather]]'' || Malu || [[Malayalam cinema|Malayalam]] ||
|-
|rowspan=7| 1992 ||''[[Purushan Enakku Arasan]]''|| Kalpana|| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Valu Jada Tolu Beltu]]''|| Seetha ||Telugu||
|-
| ''[[Vasudha]]'' || Varsha || rowspan="2"| Malayalam ||
|-
| ''[[Ezhara Ponnana]]'' || Ashwathi ||
|-
| ''[[Mudhal Kural]]'' || Vaali || rowspan="2"|Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Samundi]]'' || Ponnuthayi ||
|-
| ''[[Vietnam Colony]]'' || Unnimol || Malayalam ||
|-
| rowspan=5|1993 || ''[[Koyil Kaalai]]'' || Arasaayi ||rowspan="4"| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Sakkarai Devan]]''|| Dhanam||
|-
| ''[[Thaali Kattiya Raasa]]'' ||Mythili ||
|-
| ''[[Kilipetchu Ketkava]]'' || Sivagami ||
|-
| ''[[Golanthara Vartha]]'' || Rajani || rowspan="2"|Malayalam ||
|-
|rowspan=4| 1994 || ''[[Vardhakya Puranam]]'' ||Rajani ||
|-
| ''[[Sakthivel]]''|| Lalli|| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Pingami]]'' || Sridevi || Malayalam ||
|-
| ''[[Jallikattu Kaalai]]'' || Radha || Tamil ||
|-
| rowspan=3|1995 || ''[[Kusruthikaatu]]'' || Indira ||rowspan="2"| Malayalam ||
|-
| ''[[Mangala Soothram]]''||Indu ||
|-
| ''[[Periya Kudumbam]]''|| Jyothi ||rowspan="2"| Tamil ||
|-
| 1996 || ''[[Katta Panchayathu]]'' || Shenbagam ||
|-
|rowspan=2| 1997 || ''[[Mannadiar Penninu Chenkotta Checkan]]'' || Archa ||rowspan="3"| Malayalam ||
|-
| ''[[Bhoopathi (1997 film)|Bhoopathi]]'' || Lakshmi ||
|-
| rowspan=3|1998 || ''[[Manthri Kochamma]]'' || Maya ||
|-
| ''[[Simmarasi]]'' || Lakhsmi ||rowspan="3"| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Thalaimurai]]'' || Herself||
|-
| 1999 || ''[[Viralukketha Veekkam]]'' || Malu ||
|-
| rowspan="2"|2000|| ''[[Narasimham (film)|Narasimham]]'' || Indulekha || rowspan="2"| Malayalam ||
|-
| ''Ee Mazha Then Mazha'' || Rekha||
|}

==References==

{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb name|id=1262182}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kanaka}}
[[Category:Actresses in Malayalam cinema]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Actresses in Tamil cinema]]
[[Category:Indian film actresses]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian actresses]]
[[Category:Actresses in Telugu cinema]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian actresses]]
[[Category:1973 births]]

{{India-film-actor-1970s-stub}}

Kuar Lachman Singh

2026-02-12T14:44:17Z

Ajit3011: Stub

{{Short description|Indian deputy collector}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Kuar Lachman Singh
| image =
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = 9 October 1826
| birth_place =
| death_date = 1896
| death_place =
| other_names =
| occupation = [[deputy magistrate|Deputy collector]] of the [[Bulandshahr District|district of Bulandshahr]]
| years_active =
| known_for = Translation from Sanskrit of ''[[Shakuntala (play)|Shakuntala]]'' and [[Meghadūta]]
| notable_works = ''Historical and Statistical Memoir of Zila Bulandshahar'' (1874)
}}
'''Kuar Lachman Singh''', also known as '''Raja Lachhman Singh''', (9 October 1826 – 1896),<ref name=NWPOfficers1881>{{cite book |author=Govt. Sectt., N.W.P. and Oudh |title=History of services of gazetted officers employed under the government of the N.W.P. and Oudh |date=1881 |publisher=North-Western Provinces and Oudh Govt. Press |location=Allahabad |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofservice00alla/page/143/mode/2up?q=Singh|page=143}}</ref> was an Indian [[deputy magistrate|deputy collector]] of the [[Bulandshahr District|district of Bulandshahr]], [[North-Western Provinces]] (NWP), [[British India|India]], and author of ''Historical and Statistical Memoir of Zila Bulandshahar'' (1874), commissioned by Lieutenant Governor of the NWP [[William Muir]].<ref name=Poswal2019>{{cite journal |last1=Poswal |first1=Alpna |title=Kuar Lachman Singh: an eye witness of 1857 and early local history writer |journal=Pragya Shikshan Shodh Rachna |date=January 2019 |volume=1 |issue=7 |pages=256-259 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Vighnesh-Kumar-3/publication/385682400_KUAR_LACHMAN_SINGH_AN_EYE-WITNESS_OF_1857_AND_EARLY_LOCAL_HISTORY_WRITER/links/672f7914ecbbde716b642cc7/KUAR-LACHMAN-SINGH-AN-EYE-WITNESS-OF-1857-AND-EARLY-LOCAL-HISTORY-WRITER.pdf |issn=2319-8079}}</ref><ref name=Tyagi2023>{{cite journal |last1=Tyagi |first1=Kuldeep Kumar |last2=Kumar |first2=Vighnesh |last3=Tyagi |first3=Shivani |last4=Cour |first4=Manpreet |title=Revisiting Colonial British Imperialism through Governor General Lord Wellesley’s Agra-Delhi Plan in 1803 |journal=Contemporary Social Sciences |date=July 2023 |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=136-141 |url=https://jndmeerut.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/14.pdf}}</ref><ref name=Carlleyle1879>{{cite book |last1=Carlleyle |first1=A. C. L. |title=Report of Tours in the Central Doab and Gorakhpur in 1874-75 and 1875-76 |date=1879 |publisher=Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing |location=Calcutta |pages=27-35 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xmtBAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA27|language=en |chapter=9. Ahar}}</ref><ref name=Tewari1966>{{cite journal |last1=Tewari |first1=J. P. |title=The Revolt of 1857 in Bulandshahr District |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |date=1966 |volume=28 |pages=365–376 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44140455 |issn=2249-1937|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref name=Atkinson>{{cite book |last1=Atkinson |first1=Edwin T. |title=Statistical descriptive and historical account of the North-Western provinces of India |date=1876 |publisher=North-Western Provinces' Government Press |page=iii |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CBTc7SPqr2kC&pg=PA11|language=en}}</ref>{{efn|Muir's daughter had married [[William Lowe (civil servant)|William Lowe]], a former district collector in Bulandshahr.<ref name=Sketches1884>{{cite book |last1=Growse |first1=F. S. |title=Bulandshahr: Or, Sketches of an Indian District: Social, Historical and Architectural |date=1884 |publisher=Medical Hall Press |location=Benares |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/bulandshahrorsk00growgoog/page/n118/mode/2up |language=English|chapter=3. The rebuilding of Bulandshahr|pages=66-79}}</ref>}} He also produced a Hindi translation from Sanskrit of ''[[Shakuntala (play)|Shakuntala]]'' and [[Meghadūta]].<ref name=Sketches1884/><ref name=Buckland>{{cite book |last1=Buckland |first1=Charles Edward |title=Dictionary of Indian biography |date=1906 |publisher=London S. Sonnenschein |location=London |page=60 |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofindi00buckuoft/page/60/mode/2up?q=singh}}</ref>

==Selected publications==
*{{cite book |title=Historical and Statistical Memoir Of Zila Bulandshahar |date=1874 |publisher=The North Western Provinces Government Press, Allahabad |location=Allahabad |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.11477/page/n1/mode/2up}} (with a note by [[William Muir]])

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Singh, Kuar Lachman}}
[[Category:1826 births]]
[[Category:1896 deaths]]
[[Category:19th-century Indian writers]]
[[Category:Year of death missing]]

{{India-writer-stub}}

Dhum Dhadaka

2026-02-12T08:50:54Z

Ajit3011: created a entry.

{{Short description|1985 film by Mahesh Kothare}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Dhum Dhadaka
| image = Dhoom Dhadaka.jpg
| caption = Promotional release poster
| director = [[Mahesh Kothare]]
| producer = [[Mahesh Kothare]]
| writer =
| screenplay =
| story = [[Annasaheb Deulgaonkar]]
| starring = [[Ashok Saraf]] [[Mahesh Kothare]] [[Laxmikant Berde]] [[Nivedita Joshi]] Surekha Rane [[Prema Kiran]] [[Sharad Talwalkar]] Bhalchandra Kulkarni [[Jairam Kulkarni]]
| narrator =
| music = Anil–Arun
| cinematography = [[Suryakant Lavande]]
| editing = [[N. S. Vaidya]]
| studio = Jenma Films International<ref>{{Cite web|title=Dhoom Dhadaka cast and crew|url=https://indiancine.ma/ZQF/info|website=Indian cine.ma|access-date=2023-05-01}}</ref>
| distributor = Adinath Films Distributors ([[Maharashtra]]) Kiran Films Corporation ([[Mumbai City district|Mumbai City]])
| released = {{Film date|1985|08|19|[[Maharashtra]]|ref1=<ref>{{Cite web|title=Watch Dhoom Dhadaka|url=https://www.zee5.com/movies/details/dhum-dhadaka/0-0-movie_270958522|website=ZEE5|access-date=2023-05-01}}</ref>|df=y}}
| runtime = 147 minutes
| country = [[India]]
| language = [[Marathi language|Marathi]]
| budget = {{estimation}} [[Indian rupee|IN₹]]6.5 [[lakh]]s ([[US$]]7,700)<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=KOTHARE |first=MAHESH |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9f2lEAAAQBAJ&dq=damn+it+ani+barach+kahi+reviews&pg=PT199 |title=DAMN IT ANI BARACH KAHI |date=2023-01-01 |publisher=Mehta Publishing House Pvt Ltd |isbn=978-81-959709-6-4 |location=Mumbai |language=mr}}</ref>
| gross = {{estimation}} IN₹65 lakhs (US$77,000)<ref name=":0" />
}}

'''''Dhum Dhadaka''''' ([[translation]]: ''Hustle and Bustle'') is a [[List of Marathi films of 1985|1985]] [[Cinema of India|Indian]] [[Marathi cinema|Marathi]]-language [[Slapstick film|slapstick]] [[Comedy film|comedy]] [[Buddy film|buddy]] film directed and produced by [[Mahesh Kothare]] under Jenma Films International and written by [[Annasaheb Deulgaonkar]]. Released in [[Maharashtra]] on 19 August 1985, the film stars an [[ensemble cast]] of [[Ashok Saraf]], [[Mahesh Kothare]], [[Laxmikant Berde]], [[Nivedita Saraf]], Surekha Rane, [[Prema Kiran]], [[Sharad Talwalkar]], Bhalchandra Kulkarni, and [[Jairam Kulkarni]]. The music was composed by Anil-Arun and the lyrics were penned by Shantaram Nandgaonkar. The film is a remake of the [[Tamil language|Tamil]] movie ''[[Kadhalikka Neramillai]]'' (1964), which was also remade earlier in [[Telugu language|Telugu]] as ''[[Preminchi Choodu (1965 film)|Preminchi Choodu]]'' (1965), in [[Hindi]] as ''[[Pyar Kiye Jaa]]'' (1966), and in [[Kannada]] as ''[[Preethi Madu Thamashe Nodu]]'' (1979).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Editorial |first=M. M. W. |date=2005-03-22 |title=Dhum Dhadaka ( धुम धडाका ) |url=https://marathimovieworld.com/moviedetail/dhum-dhadaka.php |access-date=2022-12-30 |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Synopsis ==
A spoilt, young girl, Gauri ([[Nivedita Joshi-Saraf|Nivedita Joshi]]), bumps into an impoverished, village-based young man, Mahesh Jawalkar ([[Mahesh Kothare]]), on the road and both despise each other at first sight. Coincidentally, Mahesh works in the factory owned by Gauri's [[widow]]ed father, Dhanaji Ramchandra Wakde ([[Sharad Talwalkar]]), who is a haughty, renowned [[industrialist]]. Mahesh and Gauri's argument results in Dhanaji firing Mahesh from his job out of affection for his daughter. Nevertheless, a determined Mahesh protests by building a [[tent]] in the Wakde household's [[front yard]]. He also challenges Dhanaji to get his daughter married to him, causing Dhanaji to retaliate by [[Demolition|demolishing]] Mahesh's tent with the help of the police. After petty misunderstandings, Mahesh and Gauri eventually fall in love, but know that it will be difficult to convince Dhanaji for their marriage as Mahesh is way below the Wakde household's [[social status]]. In order to overcome Dhanaji's resistance, Mahesh seeks the aid of his wealthy childhood friend, Ashok Gupchup ([[Ashok Saraf]]), by disguising him as his own elderly, estranged, [[billionaire]] father, "Yadunath Jawalkar", and thus begins the comedy of errors. Dhanaji instantly falls for the scheme and approves of Mahesh's marriage with Gauri. However, things take a drastic turn when Ashok is shocked to meet Gauri's older sister, Seema (Surekha Rane), as Seema was coincidentally Ashok's girlfriend during a trip in [[New Delhi]]. Ashok believes Seema to be Mahesh's girlfriend and leaves the Wakde household in anger, but returns when Mahesh pursues him and clears the misunderstanding. Mahesh reveals Ashok's true identity to Gauri, while Ashok himself reveals his true identity to Seema. Meanwhile, Seema and Gauri's older brother, Laxmikant "Lakshya" ([[Laxmikant Berde]]), is an aspiring [[filmmaker]] who is not interested in the Wakde household's [[family business]]. He desires to sign up a film with a village belle, Ambakka Rede ([[Prema Kiran]]), whom he also loves. Thus, Lakshya aims to make Dhanaji [[Film finance|finance]] his upcoming film as well as approve of his marriage with Ambakka. Eventually, Lakshya discovers Ashok's true identity and supports both him and Mahesh in their tactics against Dhanaji. Ashok, Mahesh, and Lakshya will now try all possible ways to impress Dhanaji to approve their respective marriages. Will the trio succeed in their endeavours?

== Cast ==
The cast is listed below (according to the opening credits) -

* [[Ashok Saraf]] as Ashok Aaba Gupchup / Yadunath Jawalkar (fake)
* [[Mahesh Kothare]] as Mahesh Nana Jawalkar / Mahesh Yadunath Jawalkar (fake)
* [[Laxmikant Berde]] as Laxmikant "Lakshya" Dhanaji Wakde
* [[Nivedita Joshi-Saraf|Nivedita Joshi]] as Gauri Dhanaji Wakde
* Surekha Rane as Seema Dhanaji Wakde
* [[Prema Kiran]] as Ambakka Baldev Rede
* [[Sharad Talwalkar]] as Dhanaji Ramchandra Wakde
* Bhalchandra Kulkarni as Aaba Gupchup (Ashok's father)
* [[Jairam Kulkarni]] as Nana Mahadev Jawalkar (Mahesh's father)
* Saroj Sukhtankar as Laxmi Nana Jawalkar (Mahesh's mother)
* [[Bipin Varti]] as Rabbar Singh ([[crime lord]] for smugglers in the [[Climax (narrative)|climax]])
* Dinkar Inamdar as Hambirrao Mohite (Mahesh's village [[sarpanch]])

== Production ==

=== Casting ===
[[Mahesh Kothare]], who aimed to act as [[Shashi Kapoor]] in Marathi version of ''[[Pyar Kiye Jaa]]'', decided to provide the role of [[Kishore Kumar]] to [[Ashok Saraf]]. However, he was still searching for someone to portray the character of [[Mehmood (actor)|Mehmood]]. Eventually, he chose [[Laxmikant Berde]], whom he had met during a play where Kothare's parents were also acting.<ref name="auto">{{Cite book|title=Damn It Ani Barach Kahi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9f2lEAAAQBAJ&dq=damn+it+ani+barach+kahi+reviews&pg=PT199| date=January 2023 | publisher=Mehta Publishing House Pvt | isbn=9788195970964 |access-date=2023-06-14}}</ref> [[Ranjana Deshmukh]] was supposed to act alongside [[Ashok Saraf]], but she had a car accident while filming for ''[[Jhanjhaar]]''. Unfortunately, she lost both her legs in the accident, and Surekha Rane replace her in the film.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Marathi Actress Surekha Rane's story |url=https://divyamarathi.bhaskar.com/news/bol-mb-iftm-marathi-actress-aishwarya-rane-story-5786535-pho.html |website=Divya Bharti}}</ref> Kothare signed his long-time friend, [[Nivedita Saraf]], for a role opposite to him. [[Priya Berde|Priya Arun Berde]] was offered to make a debut by portraying a village belle opposite [[Laxmikant Berde]], but since she was still in the [[9th grade]], she did not accept the role and [[Prema Kiran]] ended up portraying the role instead.<ref name="auto"/>

== Soundtrack ==
{{Infobox album
| name = Dhum Dhadaka
| type = soundtrack
| artist = Anil Arun
| released = {{Film date|1985}}
| genre = [[Feature film soundtrack]]
| length = {{Duration|m=18|s=08}}
| language = [[Marathi language|Marathi]]
| label = [[T-Series (company)|T-Series]]
| misc = {{external music video| header = Official audio
|{{YouTube|Yn9eE43ew0Y|Dhoom Dhadaka - Full Album}}
}}
}}
The music is composed by Anil-Arun and lyrics penned by Shantaram Nandgaonkar.

{{Track listing
| headline = Track listing
| extra_column = Singer (s)
| title1 = Dhanajirao Murdabad
| length1 = 5:00
| extra1 = [[Suresh Wadkar]]
| title2 = Aga Aga Pori Phaslis Ga
| length2 = 4:12
| extra2 = [[Suresh Wadkar]], Jyotsna Hardikar
| title3 = Cinemawala Thamba Jara
| length3 = 4:53
| extra3 = [[Shabbir Kumar]], Uttara Kelkar
| title4 = Priyatama Priyatama Ye Javali Seema
| length4 = 3:45
| extra4 = Suresh Wadkar
| total_length = 18:08
}}

==Accolades==
; [[32nd Filmfare Awards]]
* [[Filmfare Award for Best Film – Marathi]]
* [[Filmfare Award for Best Director – Marathi]] for [[Mahesh Kothare]]
* [[Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Marathi]] for [[Laxmikant Berde]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb title|id=0233567}}
*{{YouTube|id=OZIFxRshqEs|title=''Dhoom Dhadaka''}}

[[Category:Indian comedy films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Mahesh Kothare]]
[[Category:1985 comedy films]]
[[Category:1985 films]]
[[Category:Marathi remakes of Tamil films]]
[[Category:1980s Marathi-language films]]
[[Category:Films about father–son relationships]]
[[Category:Marathi-language comedy films]]

Pala, Kerala

2026-02-10T18:40:22Z

Ajit3011: refined page further and cleaned formatting

{{pp|small=yes}}
{{about|the municipality|the constituency|Pala (State Assembly constituency)|other|Pala (disambiguation)}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{More citations needed|date=May 2012}}
{{original research|date=August 2017}}
}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2018}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Pala
| native_name = 
| native_name_lang =
| other_name =
| settlement_type = [[Municipalities of Kerala|Municipality]]<ref>{{Cite web| title=Grama Panchayaths | url=https://lsgkerala.gov.in/system/files/2017-10/localbodies.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180417130137/http://lsgkerala.gov.in:80/system/files/2017-10/localbodies.pdf | archive-date=2018-04-17}}</ref>
| image_skyline = File:Pala town.jpg
| image_size = 250px
| image_alt =
| image_caption = Pala town
| nickname =
| map_alt =
| map_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Kerala#India
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption =
| coordinates = {{coord|9.71278|N|76.68353|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = India
| subdivision_type1 = State
| subdivision_name1 = [[Kerala]]
| subdivision_type2 = District
| subdivision_name2 = [[Kottayam district|Kottayam]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type = [[Municipalities of Kerala|Municipality]]
| governing_body = [[Municipalities of Kerala|Pala Municipality]]
| leader_title = Municipal Chairperson
| leader_name = Diya Binu Pulikkakandam
| leader_title1 = Member of the Legislative Assembly of Kerala (MLA)
| leader_name1 = [[Mani C. Kappan]]
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 = 16.06
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 31
| population_total = 22,056
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes = <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.citypopulation.de/en/india/kerala/|title = Kerala (India): Districts, Cities and Towns - Population Statistics, Charts and Map}}</ref>
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Malayalam]], English
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 686573, 686574, 686575
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| area_code = +9148 22
| registration_plate = KL 35, KL 67
| blank1_name_sec1 = Nearest city
| blank1_info_sec1 = [[Kottayam]]
| blank2_name_sec1 = [[Vidhan Sabha]] constituency
| blank2_info_sec1 = Pala
| blank3_name_sec1 = [[Lok Sabha]] constituency
| blank3_info_sec1 = Kottayam
| blank1_name_sec2 = Official website
| blank1_info_sec2 =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Pala''' ({{IPA|ml|paːlaː|IPA}}) is a [[Municipalities of Kerala|municipality]]<ref>{{Cite web| title=Grama Panchayaths | url=https://lsgkerala.gov.in/system/files/2017-10/localbodies.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180417130137/http://lsgkerala.gov.in:80/system/files/2017-10/localbodies.pdf | archive-date=2018-04-17}}</ref> in the [[Kottayam district]] of Kerala, India. It is located {{convert|28|km|1|abbr=on}} north of the district headquarters in [[Kottayam]] and about {{convert|167|km|1|abbr=on}} north of the state capital [[Thiruvananthapuram]]. As per the [[2011 Indian census]], Pala has a population of 22,056, and a population density of {{convert|1373|/sqkm|abbr=on}}.

Pala is on the banks of the [[Meenachil River]] and is a major hub of [[St. Thomas Christian|Syrian Christian]] culture in Kerala.<ref>{{Cite web | title=Pala- A Rurban Town in Kerala {{!}} CEPT - Portfolio | url=https://portfolio.cept.ac.in/2020/M/fp/understanding-the-city-studio-up4002-monsoon-2020-8121/pala-a-rurban-town-in-kerala-monsoon-2020-pup20270 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240520163847/https://portfolio.cept.ac.in/2020/M/fp/understanding-the-city-studio-up4002-monsoon-2020-8121/pala-a-rurban-town-in-kerala-monsoon-2020-pup20270 | access-date=2025-03-18 | archive-date=2024-05-20}}</ref>

== Demographics ==
{{As of|2001}} Indian [[census]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040616075334/http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archive-date=2004-06-16|title= Census of India 2001: Data from the 2001 Census, including cities, villages and towns (Provisional)|access-date=2008-11-01|publisher= Census Commission of India}}</ref> Pala had a population of 22,640. Males constitute 49% of the population and females 51%. Pala has an average literacy rate of 98%, higher than the national average of 73%: male literacy is 98.5%, and female literacy is 97.8%, still much higher than the state average. 10% of the population is under 6 years of age. Christians make up 65.09% of the population, Hindus 34.19%, Muslims 0.1%, Jain 0.00%, other religions 0.05% and 0.15% not stated.
{{bar box
|title = Religions in Pala Town (2011)
|titlebar=#Fcd116
|left1=Religion
|right1=Percent
|float=right
|bars=
{{bar percent|[[Christianity in Kerala|Christianity]]|dodgerblue|65.09}}
{{bar percent|[[Hinduism in Kerala|Hinduism]]|darkorange|34.19}}
{{bar percent|[[Islam in Kerala|Islam]]|green|0.1}}
{{bar percent|Other or not stated|black|0.20}}
}}

==Current members==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Ward !! Ward Name !! Councilor Name !! Party !! Alliance
|-
| 001 || PARAMALAKUNNU || Adv. Betty Shaju Thuruthel || KC(M) || LDF
|-
| 002 || MUNDUPALAM || Shaju Thuruthen || KC(M) || LDF
|-
| 003 || MARKET || Josin Bino || Independent || OTH
|-
| 004 || KIZHATHADIYOOR || Sonia Chitted || KEC || UDF
|-
| 005 || PLATHANAM || Georgekutty Cheruvallil || KC(M) || LDF
|-
| 006 || KANATTUPARA || Sebastian J. Panaikkal || INC || UDF
|-
| 007 || PULIMALAKUNNU || Jiji Baiju Kollamparambil || KC(M) || LDF
|-
| 008 || KAVEEKUNNU || Riya Chiramkuzhy || INC || UDF
|-
| 009 || KOCHIDAPPADI || Siji Tony Thottathil || KEC || UDF
|-
| 010 || MOONNANI || Biju Varikkani || KEC || UDF
|-
| 011 || MONASTRI || Ruby Anto Padinjarekere || KC(M) || LDF
|-
| 012 || CHETHIMATTOM || Tony Thaiparambil || INC || UDF
|-
| 013 || MURIKKUMPUZHA || Biju Pulikkakandam || Independent || OTH
|-
| 014 || PARIPPIL KUNNU || Adv. Binu Pulikkakandam || Independent || OTH
|-
| 015 || PALAMPURAYIDOM || Diya Binu Pulikkakandam || Independent || OTH
|-
| 016 || KANNADIYURUMBU || Tomin Vattamala || KC(M) || LDF
|-
| 017 || 12TH MILE || Sanil Raghavan || KC(M) || LDF
|-
| 018 || MUKKALIKUNNU || Lisikutty Mathew Kandathiparambil || INC || UDF
|-
| 019 || PALA || Maya Rahul || Independent || OTH
|-
| 020 || LALAM || Biji Jojo Kudakachira || KC(M) || LDF
|-
| 021 || VELLAPPADU || Leena Sunny Purayidom || KC(M) || LDF
|-
| 022 || ARUNAPURAM || Rajitha Prakash || INC || UDF
|-
| 023 || COLLEGE WARD || Princy Sunny || KDP || UDF
|-
| 024 || KOTTARAMATTOM || Biju Mathews || INC || UDF
|-
| 025 || NELLIYANI || Biju Palupadavil || KC(M) || LDF
|-
| 026 || PUTHENPALLIKUNNU || Roy Francis || CPI(M) || LDF
|}

==Sports==
The Municipal Stadium is the centre of sports in Pala.<ref>{{cite web |title=Municipal Stadium |url=http://www.palamunicipality.lsgkerala.gov.in/municipal-stadium-0 |website=Pala Municipality}}</ref>

The 61st Kerala State Schools Athletics Championships was held at the stadium in 2017.<ref>{{cite news |title=State School sports meet to begin tomorrow; Rally carrying torch reaches Pala |url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/sports/sports-news/state-school-sports-meet-to-begin-tomorrow-rally-carrying-torch-reaches-pala-athletics-1.2322245}}</ref> At least 2500 students from 100 schools attended the sports meet.<ref>{{cite news |title=Stage set for Kerala schools athletics meet but field wide open |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/more-sports/athletics/stage-set-for-kerala-schools-athletics-meet-but-field-wide-open/articleshow/61148689.cms |publisher=Times Of India |date=October 20, 2017}}</ref> The 63rd Kerala State Athletics Championship was also held at the stadium in the month of October, 2019.<ref>{{cite news |title=Kerala state junior athletics: Young stars get chance to make big. |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/more-sports/athletics/kerala-state-junior-athletics-young-stars-get-chance-to-make-big/articleshow/71435075.cms}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Bharananganam]]
* [[Kattappana]]
* [[Thodupuzha]]
* [[Erattupetta]]
* [[Cherpunkal]]
* [[List of people from Pala]]
* [[Places of worship in Pala]]
* [[Meenachil]]
* [[Meenachil River]]
*[[Pala (State Assembly constituency)]]
*[[Ullanadu]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
{{Wikivoyage|Pala}}

{{Kerala}}
{{Municipalities of Kerala}}
{{Kottayam district}}
{{Central Travancore}}
{{Northern Travancore}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Pala, Kerala| ]]
[[Category:Cities and towns in Kottayam district]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Kottayam district]]

Rafael Advanced Defense Systems

2026-02-09T14:32:42Z

Ajit3011: fix layout for clarity

{{Short description|Israeli defense company}}
{{pp-extended|small=yes}}
{{Use American English|date=June 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2021}}
{{Infobox company
| name = Rafael Advanced Defense Systems Ltd.
| logo = Rafael Advanced Defense Systems Logo.svg
| logo_size = 250px
| caption =
| type = [[Government-owned corporation]]
| traded_as =
| fate =
| predecessor = Science Corps
| successor =
| foundation = {{start date and age|1948}}
| founder =
| defunct = 
| location_city = [[Kiryat Bialik]]
| location_country = Israel
| locations =
| area_served =
| key_people = [[Yoav Har-Even]] ([[CEO]] and [[President (corporate title)|President]])
| industry = [[Arms industry|Defense]], [[Aerospace]]
| products = Military aerospace Missiles [[Artillery|Ordnance]] Defense electronics Protection systems Naval systems
| services =
| revenue = {{profit}}$4.850 billion [[United States dollar|USD]] (2024)<ref name=israeldefense>{{cite web|url=https://www.rafael.co.il/press/rafael-registers-record-breaking-year-in-sales-orders/|title=RAFAEL Registers Record Breaking Year in Sales & Orders|website=www.rafael.co.il/}}</ref>
| operating_income =
| net_income = {{profit}}$159 million [[United States dollar|USD]] (2024)<ref name=israeldefense />
| assets =
| equity =
| owner = [[State of Israel]]
| num_employees = 10,000
| divisions = Missiles and NCW Division Ordnance and Protection Division Manor – Advanced Defense Technologies Division
| subsid = RDC (RAFAEL Development Corporation)
| homepage = {{URL|www.rafael.co.il}}
| footnotes =
| intl =
}}
'''Rafael Advanced Defense Systems Ltd.''' ({{langx|he|רפאל - מערכות לחימה מתקדמות בע"מ}}) is an Israeli [[Defense contractor|defense technology company]]. It was founded as Israel's National R&D Defense Laboratory for the development of [[weapon]]s and [[military technology]] within the [[Ministry of Defense (Israel)|Israeli Ministry of Defense]]; in 2002 it was incorporated as a [[limited company]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://duns100.dundb.co.il/ts.cgi?tsscript=comp_eng&duns=600024863|title=Globes Dun's 100 - Rafael Advanced Defense Systems Ltd.|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514133537/http://duns100.dundb.co.il/ts.cgi?tsscript=comp_eng&duns=600024863|archive-date=2013-05-14}}</ref>

==History==
[[File:Operation Guardian of the Walls, May 2021. XVIII.jpeg|thumb|Rafael's [[Iron Dome]] air defense and [[Counter Rocket, Artillery, and Mortar|C-RAM]] system]]
[[File:Spike LR 3.jpg|thumb|220px|Israeli soldier with [[Spike (missile)|Spike]] anti-tank missile launcher]]
[[File:Python5-missile001.jpg|thumb|220px|Python-5 (front) and Shafrir 1 (back) missiles]]
[[File:Popey missile.jpg|thumb|220px|[[Popeye (missile)|Popeye standoff missile]]]]
[[File:Trophy-APS--Merkava-4M-pic01-Zachi-Evenor (cropped).jpg|thumb|220px|Rafael's [[Trophy (countermeasure)|Trophy active protection system]], "Windbreaker", on an Israeli [[Merkava#Merkava Mark IV|Merkava Mk IV]] [[main battle tank]]]]

Rafael was established in 1948 as the Science Corps ({{langx|he|חיל המדע}}, known by the acronym HEMED, {{langx|he|חמד}}) under the leadership of [[Shlomo Gur]]. It was renamed the Research and Design Directorate ({{Script/Hebrew|אגף הפיתוח והתיכנון}}) in 1952. In 1952 [[David Ben-Gurion]] decided to split the activities of HEMED into two agencies. The pure scientific research was left with HEMED, while the development of weapons was placed into the new EMET agency.<ref>The bomb is the basement, page 43</ref>

In 1954 Ben-Gurion decided to change the name of EMET to ''RAFAEL'' ({{langx|he|רשות לפיתוח אמצעי לחימה|lit=Armament Development Authority}}).<ref>The bomb is the basement, page 113</ref> It was reorganized as Rafael in 1958.<ref name="merdor">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Science Corps (Hemed)|encyclopedia=IDF in Its Corps: Army and Security Encyclopedia|last=Merdor|first=Monaya M.|publisher=Revivim Publishing|year=1982|pages=17–19|volume=17|language=he}}</ref>

In 1995, [[Yitzhak Rabin]] asked [[Amos Horev]] to become chairman of the board of Rafael, following many years in which Horev had served as chairman of Rafael's advisory committee.<ref name="mit-forumil">{{cite web |url=http://mit-forum.org.il/about/advisory-board/101-amos-horev |title=Amos Horev |publisher=MIT Enterprise Forum |date=January 1, 2001 |access-date=June 17, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721143533/http://mit-forum.org.il/about/advisory-board/101-amos-horev |archive-date=2011-07-21 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Horev served as chairman until January 2001.<ref name="mit-forumil"/>

===Restructuring as a limited company===
During the early 1990s Rafael was operating at a loss (peaking in 1995, with a loss of $120 million on a turnover of $460 million). Therefore, it was decided to restructure the organization and start operating Rafael as a company. Initially the new company had three discrete divisions, each operating as a profit center, with a separate balance sheet presented to the newly formed management board.<ref>{{cite news|title=Rafael Operating as Gov't Company Since January 1 - Preparatory to Becoming Limited Company|url=http://www.globes.co.il/serveen/globes/docview.asp?did=368672|newspaper=Globes|date=May 1, 1997}}</ref>

The restructuring was completed in 2002 when Rafael was formally incorporated as a [[limited company]] (although still as a [[government-owned corporation]]), while maintaining its technological capabilities through an investment of about 10% of turnover in [[R&D]] programs. In its first year as a limited company, Rafael earned a $37 million profit on $830 million in sales.<ref>{{cite news|title=Rafael 2003 net profit: $37m|url=http://www.globes.co.il/serveen/globes/docview.asp?did=781005|newspaper=Globes|date=March 17, 2004}}</ref> By 2016, Rafael reported annual net profits of 473 million [[Israeli new shekel|ILS]] (roughly 130 million dollars), up 3%, compared with ILS 459 million in 2015. New orders in 2016 totaled ILS 10.7 billion, and sales amounted to ILS 8.32 billion, 6% more than in 2015. The company's orders backlog as of the end of 2016 was ILS 21.72 billion, 12% more than at the end of 2015.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.globes.co.il/en/article-rafael-reports-higher-profit-for-2016-1001181597|title=Rafael reports higher profit for 2016|last=Azulai|first=Yuval|date=March 20, 2017|website=Globes}}</ref>

On October 14, 2007, the company changed its name from Rafael Armament Development Authority Ltd. to Rafael Advanced Defense Systems Ltd.

==Notable products==
*[[Python (missile)|Python]] – an [[air-to-air missile]]s system.
* [[Spike (missile)|Spike]] – a fourth generation<ref name=4thgen>{{cite web |url=http://defense-update.com/features/du-2-07/helicopters_EO_missiles.htm |title=Defense Update issue 2-07 (May - June 2007) : Electro-Optically Guided Weapons |publisher=Defense-Update.Com |access-date=1 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100106035337/http://defense-update.com/features/du-2-07/helicopters_EO_missiles.htm |archive-date=6 January 2010 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref> [[fire-and-forget]] [[anti-tank guided missile]]
* [[Popeye (missile)|Popeye]] – an air-to-ground missile system.
** [[Popeye (missile)#Popeye Turbo Submarine Launched Cruise Missile|Popeye Turbo SLCM]] – believed to be a nuclear-tipped [[submarine-launched cruise missile]]<ref>[http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/israel/missile/popeye-t.htm Popeye Turbo - Israel Special Weapons]. Fas.org. Retrieved on 2013-07-17.</ref>
*[[Iron Beam]] – laser missile defense system
* [[Iron Dome]] – an [[Anti-aircraft warfare|air defense system]] to intercept short-range [[rocket]]s and [[Shell (projectile)|artillery shells]]<ref name=firstInterceptAshkelon>{{cite news|title=Iron Dome successfully intercepts Gaza rocket for first time|url=https://www.haaretz.com/news/diplomacy-defense/iron-dome-successfully-intercepts-gaza-rocket-for-first-time-1.354696|access-date=7 April 2011|newspaper=Haaretz|date=7 April 2011|author=Anshel Pfeffer|author2=Yanir Yagna}}</ref>
* [[Trophy (countermeasure)|TROPHY]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=TROPHY® Active Protection System for AFVs |url=https://www.rafael.co.il/worlds/land/trophy-aps/ |access-date=2023-10-24 |website=www.rafael.co.il}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=TROPHY™ - Active Protection System (APS) and Hostile Fire Detection (HFD) for Armored Vehicles |url=https://www.leonardodrs.com/what-we-do/products-and-services/trophy-active-protection-system-aps/ |access-date=2023-10-24 |website=Leonardo DRS |language=en-US}}</ref>– an [[active protection system]] for armored vehicles.
* [[Protector USV]] – an [[unmanned surface vehicle]] (unmanned, autonomous naval combat system)<ref>{{cite web |title=Protector |work=Defence Updates |url=http://www.defense-update.com/products/p/protector.htm |access-date=2007-04-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070503115143/http://www.defense-update.com/products/p/protector.htm |archive-date=2007-05-03 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* [[David's Sling]] – surface-to-air missile system.

==Civilian technology transfer==
In 1993, Rafael Development Corporation (RDC), a [[technology transfer]] company, was established as a joint venture with [[Elron Electronic Industries]]; in order to commercialize applications based on defense technologies for medical devices, telecommunications, and semiconductor industries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://investing.businessweek.com/research/stocks/private/snapshot.asp?privcapId=536891|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090101143126/http://investing.businessweek.com/research/stocks/private/snapshot.asp?privcapId=536891|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 January 2009|title=RDC Rafael Development Corporation Ltd.: Private Company Information - Businessweek|work=Businessweek.com|access-date=10 July 2015}}</ref> The company established and developed several companies including:

* [[Given Imaging]] – focusing on [[capsule endoscopy]] technologies.<ref>[http://www.investinisrael.gov.il/NR/exeres/01104877-8720-4F39-8441-BD24EC58D8B9.htm Invest in Israel: Given Imaging] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721142613/http://www.investinisrael.gov.il/NR/exeres/01104877-8720-4F39-8441-BD24EC58D8B9.htm |date=2011-07-21 }}</ref>
* [[Oramir|Oramir Semiconductor Equipment]] – a developer of laser cleaning technologies for the semiconductor industry,<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20150403093030/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-12813651.html Fairchild launches Oramir] Israel Business Today</ref> sold to [[Applied Materials]] in 2001 for $21 million.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.secinfo.com/d6p8.4f897.htm|title=SEC Info - Applied Materials Inc/DE - '10-Q' for 7/29/01|access-date=10 July 2015}}</ref>
* Starling Advanced Communications ([[TASE]]:STLG) – a provider of broadband wireless networking solutions for [[airliner]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://investing.businessweek.com/research/stocks/snapshot/snapshot.asp?ticker=STLG:IT|title=List of Public Companies Worldwide, Letter - Businessweek - Businessweek|work=Businessweek.com|access-date=10 July 2015}}{{dead link|date=April 2023|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>
* Galil Medical – a developer of [[cryotherapy]] solutions.<ref name=globes>{{cite news|title=Elron sells entire Galil Medical stake|url=http://www.globes.co.il/serveen/globes/docview.asp?did=1000546886&fid=1725|newspaper=Globes|date=15 March 2010}}</ref>
* SELA Semiconductor Engineering Laboratories – a provider of automated sample preparation tools for semiconductor manufacturers, sold to Camtek Intelligent Imaging.<ref name=globes />
* 3DV Systems – developers of the [[ZCam]], a [[time-of-flight camera]] products for [[video]] applications, sold to [[Microsoft]].<ref name="MS confirmed">{{cite web |first=Shmulik |last=Shelah |title=Microsoft confirms 3DV acquisition |url=http://www.globes.co.il/serveen/globes/docview.asp?did=1000460733 |work=[[Globes (newspaper)|Globes]] |publisher=Globes Publisher Itonut |location=[[Tel Aviv]] |date=2009-06-22 |quote=[Microsoft corporate vice president of Israel Research & Development Moshe Lichtman] said, for the first time officially, that "the R&D center helped Microsoft in buying the intellectual property of 3DV Systems, and in the wake of that dozens of the company's employees were recruited to work at the development center." |access-date=2009-06-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090626051708/http://www.globes.co.il/serveen/globes/docView.asp?did=1000460733 |archive-date=2009-06-26 }} [http://www.ivc-online.com/ivcWeeklyItem.asp?articleID=9252 Alt URL] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120218202558/http://www.ivc-online.com/ivcWeeklyItem.asp?articleID=9252 |date=18 February 2012 }}</ref>
* Medingo – developer of a micro pump [[insulin delivery]] system consists of two parts: a semi-disposable insulin dispensing patch and a remote control, which allows for discreet personalized insulin delivery. The company was sold to [[Hoffmann-La Roche]]'s subsidiary [[Roche Diagnostics]] for $160 million as well as up to $40 million in milestone payments.<ref>{{cite news|title=Roche Acquires Insulin Pump Company Medingo|url=https://www.diabetesdaily.com/forum/diabetes-news/41612-roche-acquires-insulin-pump-company-medingo|newspaper=Diabetes Daily|date=14 April 2010}}</ref>
[[File:Spyder missile system.jpg|thumb|SPYDER launcher]]

==Products==
* Air Defense systems
** [[Iron Dome]]
*** [[Tamir (missile)|Tamir]], missile used by Iron Dome
*** [[C-Dome]] (the naval version of Iron Dome)
** MIC4AD
** [[SPYDER]]
** [[David's Sling]]
** [[Drone Dome]]
** [[Iron Beam]]
** [[SkySonic]]
* Air to Air missiles
** [[Python-5]]
** [[Python (missile)#Derby|I-Derby]]
** [[Python (missile)#I-Derby ER|I-Derby ER]]
** [[Sky Spear (missile)]]
* Air to Surface missile

** [[Sparrow (target missile)|SPARROW family]]
** [[ROCKS (missile)|Rocks]] Family, unveiled in February 2019.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hughes |first1=Robin |title=Rafael unveils Rocks air-to-surface missile |url=https://www.janes.com/article/86679/rafael-unveils-rocks-air-to-surface-missile |website=Jane's 360 |access-date=20 February 2019 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20190220211407/https://www.janes.com/article/86679/rafael-unveils-rocks-air-to-surface-missile |archive-date=2019-02-20 |location=London |date=20 February 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Ahronheim |first1=Anna |title=Israel unveils Rafael's new advanced bunker buster missile, 'Rocks' |url=https://www.jpost.com/Arab-Israeli-Conflict/Israel-unveils-Rafaels-new-advanced-bunker-buster-missile-Rocks-581201 |website=The Jerusalem Post |access-date=20 February 2019 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20190220211431/https://www.jpost.com/Arab-Israeli-Conflict/Israel-unveils-Rafaels-new-advanced-bunker-buster-missile-Rocks-581201 |archive-date=2019-02-20 |date=20 February 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
Guided Bombs
** [[Spice (bomb)]] Family
* Electronic Warfare Systems
** [[Sky Shield|SKY SHIELD]] Escort Jamming pod
** [[C-GEM]] Active Offboard Decoy
* Precision Guided missiles
** [[Spike (missile)|SPIKE ER]]
** [[Spike (missile)|SPIKE LR]]
** [[Spike (missile)|SPIKE NLOS]]
** [[Sea Breaker (missile)|Sea Breaker]]
* Missile upgrade kits
** Electro-optical Precision Integration Kit (EPIK)<ref name="ynetnews1">{{cite news|url=https://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-5277924,00.html|title='Sharp Flame': Rafael's new rocket precision guidance system|author=Zitun, Yoav|work=[[Ynetnews]]|date=March 6, 2018|access-date=June 4, 2018}}</ref>
* Active Protection System
** [[Trophy (countermeasure)|TROPHY]] an active armor protection system, "Windbreaker" ([[Hebrew]]: מעיל רוח)
* Remote-controlled weapon station
** Rafael OWS (nicknamed "[[FN MAG|MAG Rafael]]" by the [[Israel Defense Forces|IDF]])
** [[Samson RCWS]] ([[Hebrew]] name: קטלנית)
** [[Typhoon Weapon Station]] for naval applications and military ships
* [[Demining|Demining Systems]]
** [[Rafael Carpet]]

== 2026 Partial Privatisation and IPO ==
The long-standing debate over the state’s role in Israel’s defense industry reached a turning point in January 2026, when the government formalized a timeline to partially privatize Rafael Advanced Defense Systems through an [[initial public offering]] (IPO) on the [[Tel Aviv Stock Exchange]].<ref>'''Kahlon, R. (2026, January 12).''' ''Israel poised to launch defence privatisations in months, says government official'' (S. Scheer, Interviewer). Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/business/aerospace-defense/israel-poised-launch-defence-privatisations-months-official-2026-01-12/</ref> This transition represents a significant evolution for this company, as it began as a national laboratory, and was only incorporated as a state-owned enterprise in 2002. The decision follows years of internal pressure from Rafael’s leadership, who argued that its fully state-owned status created a "bureaucratic glass ceiling," making it harder to compete for elite engineering talent and respond to global market shifts as nimbly as its publicly traded rivals, [[Elbit Systems]] and IAI.<ref>Azulay, Y. (2025, 21 Disember). ''Iron Dome and Iron Beam maker Rafael moves closer to a possible IPO''. Calcalistech. https://www.calcalistech.com/ctechnews/article/b2xwqg57o</ref>

=== Implementation and Valuation Challenges ===
The roadmap for this transition became clear on January 12, 2026, when [[Ravi Kahlon|Roi Kahlon]], director of the Government Companies Authority, confirmed that the government would seek to float a 25% to 30% minority stake as early as the second quarter of 2026.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-01-12 |title=Israel poised to launch defense privatizations in months, says government official |url=https://english.alarabiya.net/News/middle-east/2026/01/12/israel-poised-to-launch-defense-privatizations-in-months-says-government-official |access-date=2026-01-14 |website=Al Arabiya English |language=en}}</ref>

Unlike other defense firms, Rafael’s path to the stock market is uniquely complicated by its deep integration with the [[Ministry of Defense (Israel)|Ministry of Defense]] and the highly [[Classified information|classified]] nature of its flagship technologies. Establishing a public valuation has historically been stalled by the difficulty of sharing detailed financial data for "proprietary" systems, such as the [[Iron Dome]] and the newly deployed [[Iron Beam]] laser interceptor, without compromising [[national security]].<ref name=":0">'''Bob, Y. J. (2026, January 13).''' ''Israel moves to privatize defense giants IAI and Rafael.'' The Jerusalem Post. https://www.jpost.com/defense-and-tech/article-883293</ref>

Supported by a record-high order backlog of $18 billion, Rafael’s valuation at the time of the announcement was estimated at approximately $10 billion.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Wrobel |first=Sharon |date=2026-01-13 |title=Israel eyes privatization of defense giants IAI and Rafael via public share sale |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/israel-eyes-privatization-of-defense-giants-iai-and-rafael-via-public-share-sale/ |access-date=2026-01-14 |work=The Times of Israel |language=en-US |issn=0040-7909}}</ref> This financial strength is largely a result of the global "battle-proven" reputation of its air defense portfolio, which has seen increased demand from international partners like [[Germany]] and [[Finland]].<ref>Scheer, S. (2023, August 2). ''Israel, U.S. approved missile-defense sale to Finland''. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/business/aerospace-defense/israel-us-approved-missile-defense-sale-finland-2023-08-02/</ref> To balance the needs of private investors with the imperatives of the state, the Israeli government intends to retain a controlling interest and release shares in a series of small, staggered tranches through 2027, ensuring that Rafael remains a strategic asset while gaining the operational flexibility of a public company.<ref name=":0" />

== See also ==
{{Div col}}
*[[Elbit]] (El-Op)
*[[Israel Aerospace Industries|Israel Aircraft Industries (IAI)]]
*[[Israel Military Industries]]
*[[Israel Shipyards]]
*[[Military equipment of Israel]]
*[[Soltam]]
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

*''The bomb in the basement'', Michael Karpin, Ed Simon & Schuster. {{ISBN|978-0-7432-6595-9}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
*{{Official website|www.rafael.co.il|Rafael official website}}
*[http://www.rdc.co.il Rafael Development Corporation]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050129014441/http://www.eurosatory.mod.gov.il/pdfs/rafae1.pdf Rafael at EurpStory 2004]
*[http://www.rafael.co.il/web/rafnew/events/lic-05.htm Rafael at the LIC-2005 conference]
*[https://rafael-uk.com Rafael UK]
{{Rafael Advanced Defense Systems}}
{{Automotive industry in Israel}}

{{Authority control}}

{{Coord|32.8684|N|35.0931|E|display=title|region:IL}}

[[Category:Rafael Advanced Defense Systems| ]]
[[Category:Government-owned companies of Israel]]
[[Category:Defense companies of Israel]]
[[Category:Companies based in Haifa]]
[[Category:1948 establishments in Israel]]
[[Category:Companies established in 1948]]
[[Category:Unmanned surface vehicle manufacturers]]
[[Category:Haifa in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict]]

Bhavani Sangameswarar Temple

2026-02-06T10:58:36Z

Ajit3011: enhanced citations and fixed typos based on references

{{Short description|Hindu temple in Tamil Nadu, India}}
{{Distinguish|Sangameswara temple, Kurnool}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox Hindu temple
| name = Sangameswarar Temple
| image = Sangameswarar9.jpg
| alt =
| caption =
| map_type = 
| map_caption = Location in Tamil Nadu
| coordinates =
| native_name = Thirunana
| country = [[India]]
| state = [[Tamil Nadu]]
| district = [[Erode District|Erode]]
| location = [[Kooduthurai]], Bhavani, Erode
| elevation_m =
| deity = Shiva, Vishnu
| festivals=
| architecture = South Indian, Temple
| temple_quantity =
| monument_quantity =
| inscriptions =
| established =
| creator =
| website =
}}

'''Sangameswarar temple''' (also called '''Thirunana''' and '''Thirukooduthurai''') is a temple in [[Bhavani, Tamil Nadu|Bhavani]], in the [[Erode district]], of the [[States and territories of India|Indian state]] of [[Tamil Nadu]]. It is a [[Hindu temple]] dedicated to Lord [[Shiva]]. It is 15 km from [[Erode]], 30 km from [[Gobichettipalayam]], 56 km from [[Salem, Tamil Nadu|Salem]] and 106 km from [[Coimbatore]].

The temple was built at the confluence of rivers [[Kaveri River|Kaveri]], [[Bhavani River|Bhavani]] and the mystic [[Sarasvati River|Amutha]] (Agaya Gangai).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bhavanisangameswarartemple.tnhrce.in/|title=Arulmigu Bhavani Sangameshwarar Temple|publisher=TNHRCE|access-date=29 December 2015}}</ref> The temple was praised in old Tamil literature as Thirunana. The place is also known as Dakshina Triveni Sangamam and [[Kooduthurai]] indicating the confluence of three rivers. Devotees perform last rites for ancestors on the riverbank and offer prayers at the Sangameshwarar temple.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-tamilnadu/performing-rituals-at-kooduthurai-becomes-risky/article4024478.ece|title=Performing rituals at Kooduthurai becomes risky|date=23 October 2012|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref>

==Legend==
[[File:Sangameswarar2.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Image of the shrines]]
''Kubera'', son of ''Vishrava'' was gifted an aircraft to visit Shiva temples across the country in recognition of his devotion to Lord Shiva. While he was flying near the river Cauvery ''Kubera'' was surprised to see a deer, tiger, cow, elephant, snake, and rat drinking water near an ''Ilandhai'' tree on the river bank without enmity, to answer his wonder ''Kubera'' heard a voice from the sky saying it was a place where ''vedas'' visited, inhabited by ''Gandharvas'' and advised him to worship the ''shiva lingam'' under the ''iilanadhi'' tree. The temples ''Ilandhai'' tree gives fruit on all season and was used for everyday puja even today. The cow behind the Vishnu statue remains the harmony between ''Saivism'' and ''Vaishnavism''. It was said that every inch under the temple has one ''shiva lingam''. The presiding deity is believed to have been worshipped by [[Kubera]] and sages [[Vishvamitra]] and [[Parasara]].<ref name=Ka>{{cite book|title=River cauvery the most battle(r)ed|last=Ka. Vi.|first=Kannan|page=27|publisher=Notion Press|year=2019|isbn=9781684666041|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4CGFDwAAQBAJ&q=thiruvavaduthurai}}</ref>

During the period of Chera Chola and Pandya, there was a cave connection between the ''Chidambaram'' and ''Sangameshwarar'' temples and puja's are performed at same time in both temples.

In the year 1804, William Karo, a British Collector of [[Coimbatore]] district, visited [[Bhavani]], camping in the Travellers' [[Bungalow]]. One night, a small girl woke him up and got him out of the Bungalow when he was asleep. Once they were out, the Bungalow collapsed. Shocked by this incident, the Collector turned to thank the girl but to find, she wasn't there. The next day, the priest on duty informed him that it was Bhavani Vedanaayaki Amman, who saved his life. He bore three holes in the temple wall opposite Vedanaayaki Amman shrine and torched these holes to pray the goddess. He offered a gold plate to the goddess with his signature dated 11/01/1804. The holes and the gold plate are present even now and are taken care of with caution. {{Citation needed|date=August 2021}}

==History==
The temple is maintained and administered by the [[Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowments Department]] of the [[Government of Tamil Nadu]].<ref>[http://www.tnhrce.org/hrce_act_1959.html Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowments Act, 1959]</ref>

==Architecture==
[[File:Sangameswarar1.jpg|250px|right|thumb|Ghat where sacrifices are performed]]

The temple is constructed on a {{convert|4|acre|m2|adj=on}} plot. The main [[Gopuram|RajaGopuram]] with five tiers is located on the north side of the temple. The presiding deity is Shiva known as Sangameswarar along with his consort Pannaar Mozhiyaal or Vedanayagi. A shrine dedicated to [[Kartikeya]] is situated between the shrines of Shiva and Parvati. There is also separate shrine inside the temple for [[Vishnu]] and his consort Soundaravalli Thaayar. The stala vriksham is an ilandai (''[[Zizyphus mauritiana]]'') tree. The annual Brahmotsavam is celebrated in the [[Tamil month]] of Chitrai.

Rock status of this temple represents the beauty of stone carving and the culture of the people. When water or milk poured on the two identical stone statues in front of ''ambal sannidhi''- Hindu goddess, one smiles at you, while the other sheds tears at you. The temple got a precious ''Ambal'' statue, a Hindu goddess donated by a district collector during British period for saving his life. Of all the seven holy Shiva centers of the Kongu Region, ''Bhavani'' is known as ''Thirunana'' in script. The holy waters of Sangameswarar temple is known as ''Cauvery theertham'', ''Surya theertham'' and ''Gayatri theertham''.

The Amirthalingeswarar in the temple is placed on a seat called Avudayar according to Saiva principles. It is a mobile one that can be removed and placed on the seat again. Men and women seeking boons for children take the Sivalinga, perform puja and walk around it for three times and place it back on the Avudayar. The Amirthalinga is in the southern entrance of the temple.

== Literary mention ==
It is one of the shrines of the 275 [[Paadal Petra Sthalams]]. The [[Nayanmars]] [[Thevaram]] pathigam is composed by [[Sambandar]]. He had composed 10 poems in this temple in the praise of the lord which comes under 2nd Thirumurai. Saint [[Arunagirinathar]] who visited Thirunanaa, has composed many songs ([[Thirupugazh]]) on Lord [[Murugan|Subramanya]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Sambandar Thevaram|publisher=Thevaram.org|access-date=24 September 2015|url=http://www.thevaaram.org/thirumurai_1/koil_view.php?koil_idField=165}}</ref>

== Gallery ==
<gallery>
File:Sangameswarar Temple 1.jpg|Prakara
File:Sangameswarar Temple 3.jpg|Vimana
File:Sangameswarar Temple 2.jpg|Vimanas
File:Sangameswarar4.jpg|Entrance to Sangameswarar shrine
File:Bhavani sangameswarar temple1.jpg|Nandhi mandapa in front of Rajagopura
File:Bhavani sangameswarar temple2.jpg|Rajagopura
File:Bhavani sangameswarar temple3.jpg|Sangameswarar shrine
File:Bhavani sangameswarar temple4.jpg|Vedayanaki Amman shrine
File:Bhavani sangameswarar temple5.jpg|Murugan shrine
File:Bhavani sangameswarar temple6.jpg|Adhi Kesava Perumal shrine
File:Bhavani sangameswarar temple7.jpg|Soundaravalli Thayar shrine
</gallery>

==Ambal sannadhi with beautiful sculptures==
<gallery class="center">
File:Bhavani sangamesvarar temple amman shrine1.jpg
File:Bhavani sangamesvarar temple amman shrine2.jpg
File:Bhavani sangamesvarar temple amman shrine3.jpg
File:Bhavani sangamesvarar temple amman shrine5.jpg
File:Bhavani sangamesvarar temple amman shrine4.jpg
File:Bhavani sangamesvarar temple amman shrine6.jpg
File:Bhavani sangamesvarar temple amman shrine7.jpg
</gallery>

== References ==
<references />

==External links==
* [http://tourismeveryone.com/India-Tamil%20Nadu-Erode-Sangameswarar+Temple Sangameswara Temple]

{{commons category|Sangameswarar temple}}

{{Coord|11|26|5.6|N|77|40|58.1|E|display=title}}

[[Category:Hindu temples in Erode district]]
[[Category:Padal Petra Stalam]]
[[Category:Shiva temples in Erode district]]

Br Lakshmanan

2026-02-06T06:09:09Z

Ajit3011: created new data

{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2019}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Br Lakshmanan
| image=
| birth_name =
| birth_date =
| occupation = Music director
| spouse =
| parents =
| children =
| years_active= 1952-1966
}}

'''Br Lakshmanan''' was an Indian music director in [[Malayalam movie]]s during 1950s and 1960s.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.malayalachalachithram.com/profiles.php?i=70|title=Br Lakshmanan}}</ref>

Lakshmanan started his career with ''[[Aathmasakhi]]'' in 1952.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.msidb.org/displayProfile.php?artist%3DBr+Lakshmanan%26category%3Dmusician |title=Profile of Malayalam Musician Br Lakshmanan |accessdate=2014-11-21 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129123420/http://en.msidb.org/displayProfile.php?artist=Br%20Lakshmanan&category=musician |archivedate=2014-11-29 }}</ref> He provided music for around 250 Malayalam movie songs.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://play.raaga.com/malayalam/music/Br._Lakshmanan|title = Br.-Lakshmanan songs, Br.-Lakshmanan hits, Download Br.-Lakshmanan Mp3 songs, music videos, interviews, non-stop channel}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://oldmalayalamcinema.wordpress.com/tag/br-lakshmanan/|title = Br.Lakshmanan| date=23 December 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-metroplus/oldisgold/article2311813.ece | title=oldisGOLD | date=1 August 2011 | newspaper=The Hindu | accessdate=18 September 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://oldmalayalamcinema.wordpress.com/2010/07/03/ponkathir-1953-lata-mangeshkar-br-lakshmanan-and-jikkis-liveliness/|title = Ponkathir (1953), Lata Mangeshkar, Br.Lakshmanan and Jikki's liveliness|date = 3 July 2010}}</ref> Lakshmanan's songs were also used in the films ''[[Ponkathir]], [[Balyasakhi|Baalyasakhi]]'' and ''Harishchandra.'' Most of his songs were written by [[Thirunainar Kurichi Madhavan Nair]] and sung by [[Kamukara Purushothaman]]. The trio made numerous popular songs in 1950s and early 60s, mostly in the films produced by [[Merryland Studios]].

==Filmography==
{{Category see also|Films scored by Br Lakshmanan}}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Film !! Language !! Director !! Banner !! Co-Music Directors
|-
| 1946 || ''[[Vikatayogi]]'' || [[Tamil language|Tamil]] || [[K. Subramanyam]] || Madras United Artistes Corporation || Modhi Babu & Radha Krishnan
|-
| 1947 || ''[[Vichitra Vanitha]]'' || Tamil || [[K. Subramanyam]] || Madras United Artistes Corporation ||
|-
| 1949 || ''[[Geetha Gandhi]]'' || Tamil || [[K. Subramanyam]] || Madras United Artistes Corporation || [[C. N. Pandurangan]]
|-
| 1952 || ''[[Aathmasakhi]]'' || [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]] || G. R. Rao || [[Merryland Studio|Neela Productions]] ||
|-
| 1952 || ''Priyasakhi'' || Tamil || G. R. Rao || Neela Productions ||
|-
| 1953 || ''[[Ponkathir]]'' || Malayalam || E. R. Cooper || Neela Productions ||
|-
| 1953 || ''[[Irulukku Pin]]'' || Tamil || E. R. Cooper || Neela Productions ||
|-
| 1954 || ''[[Baalyasakhi]]'' || Malayalam || [[Antony Mitradas]] || Neela Productions ||
|-
| 1954 || ''[[Avakasi]]'' || Malayalam || [[Antony Mitradas]] || Neela Productions ||
|-
| 1954 || ''[[Avakasi|Avan Yaar]]'' || Tamil || [[Antony Mitradas]] || Neela Productions ||
|-
| 1955 || ''[[Aniyathi (film)|Aniyathi]]'' || Malayalam || [[M. Krishnan Nair (director)|M. Krishnan Nair]] || Neela Productions ||
|-
| 1955 || ''[[Harishchandra (1955 film)|Harishchandra]]'' || Malayalam || [[Antony Mitradas]] || Neela Productions ||
|-
| 1955 || ''[[Kalam Marunnu]]'' || Malayalam || [[R. Velappan Nair]] || Kailas Pictures || [[G. Devarajan]]
|-
| 1955 || ''[[C.I.D. (1955 film)|C.I.D.]]'' || Malayalam || [[M. Krishnan Nair (director)|M. Krishnan Nair]] || Neela Productions ||
|-
| 1955 || ''[[C.I.D. (1955 film)|C.I.D.]]'' || Tamil || [[M. Krishnan Nair (director)|M. Krishnan Nair]] || Neela Productions ||
|-
| 1956 || ''[[Manthravadi]]'' || Malayalam || [[P. Subramaniam]] || Neela Productions ||
|-
| 1956 || ''[[Manthravadi|Mandhiravadhi]]'' || Tamil|| [[P. Subramaniam]] || Neela Productions ||
|-
| 1957 || ''[[Padatha Painkili]]'' || Malayalam || [[P. Subramaniam]] || Neela Productions ||
|-
| 1957 || ''[[Jailppulli]]'' || Malayalam || [[P. Subramaniam]] || Neela Productions ||
|-
| 1958 || ''[[Mariakutty]]'' || Malayalam || [[P. Subramaniam]] || Neela Productions ||
|-
| 1959 || ''[[Aana Valarthiya Vanampadi]]'' || Malayalam || [[P. Subramaniam]] || Neela Productions ||
|-
| 1959 || ''[[Aana Valarthiya Vanampadi|Yaanai Valartha Vaanambadi]]'' || Tamil || [[P. Subramaniam]] || Neela Productions ||
|-
| 1960 || ''Petraval Kanda Peruvazhvu'' || Tamil || [[P. Subramaniam]] || Neela Productions ||
|-
| 1960 || ''Poothali'' || Malayalam || [[P. Subramaniam]] || Neela Productions ||
|-
| 1961 || ''Bhakta Kuchela'' || Malayalam || [[P. Subramaniam]] || Neela Productions ||
|-
| 1961 || ''[[Christmas Rathri]]'' || Malayalam || [[P. Subramaniam]] || Neela Productions ||
|-
| 1961 || ''[[Yar Manamagan?]]'' || Tamil|| [[P. Subramaniam]] || Neela Productions ||
|-
| 1962 || ''[[Sreerama Pattabhishekam]]'' || Malayalam || G. K. Ramu || Neela Productions ||
|-
| 1963 || ''[[Snapaka Yohannan]]'' || Malayalam || [[P. Subramaniam]] || Neela Productions ||
|-
| 1963 || ''[[Kaattumaina]]'' || Malayalam || [[M. Krishnan Nair (director)|M. Krishnan Nair]] || Neela Productions ||
|-
| 1963 || ''[[Kaattumaina]]'' || Tamil || [[M. Krishnan Nair (director)|M. Krishnan Nair]] || Neela Productions ||
|-
| 1964 || ''[[Atom Bomb (film)|Atom Bomb]]'' || Malayalam || [[P. Subramaniam]] || Neela Productions ||
|-
| 1966 || ''[[Priyathama]]'' || Malayalam || [[P. Subramaniam]] || Neela Productions ||
|-
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb name|1550223}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Lakshmanan, Br}}
[[Category:Malayalam film score composers]]
[[Category:Indian male composers]]
[[Category:Male film score composers]]

Uttam Kamble

2026-02-04T21:34:56Z

Ajit3011: fixed lead for accuracy and added references

{{short description|Indian journalist (born 1956)}}
{{BLP sources|date=February 2012}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2014}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Uttam Kamble
| image = Uttam Kamble.jpg
| caption =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1956|5|31}}
| birth_place = Shirguppi, [[Chikkodi, Belagum, Karnataka]], India
| death_date =
| death_place =
| alma_mater = [[Shivaji University]], [[Kolhapur]]
| other_names =
| known_for =
| occupation = Journalist, writer, poet
}}

'''Uttam Kamble''' is an Indian journalist and the chief editor of [[Sakal|Sakal Media Group]]. He is the author of around 63 published books.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://ambedkaree.com/journalist2.asp |title=Archived copy |access-date=13 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110313081642/http://ambedkaree.com/journalist2.asp |archive-date=13 March 2011 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Through a journalism career of over three decades, he is best known for his writings focused on the oppressed and deprived class. He was also the President of the 84th [[Marathi Sahitya Sammelan|Akhil Bhartiya Marathi Sahitya Sammelan]] literary conference,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.oneindia.in/2007/10/14/journalist-uttam-kamble-new-welcoming-president-of-sammelan-patil-1192375987.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121013194048/http://news.oneindia.in/2007/10/14/journalist-uttam-kamble-new-welcoming-president-of-sammelan-patil-1192375987.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=13 October 2012 |title=Journalist Uttam Kamble new welcoming-president of Sammelan: Patil – News Oneindia |publisher=Oneindia |date=14 October 2007 |access-date=12 October 2013}}</ref> and inaugurated the 16th Kamgar Sahitya Sammelan in the Satara district of Maharashtra in February 2011, presided over by Ramdas Phutane.

==Early life==
Uttam Kamble was born on 31 May 1956 into poverty in a rural area of [[Chikkodi]] [[Taluka]] in the [[Belgaum district|Belagum]] district of [[Karnataka]].He came from a humble background and his mother was not so educated, and Uttam used to help her with her work during his childhood. He was the first person in his family to receive an education. During his youth, he worked various jobs including sales and as a paper-boy, while still continuing with his education.

==Career==
Uttam Kamble graduated from [[Shivaji University]], [[Kolhapur]], Maharashtra in 1978 with a Bachelor of Arts ([[Political Science]]) degree. After graduation in 1979, he joined a small daily newspaper named Samaj (Marathi: समाज). He joined the [[Sakal]] Group in 1982 and remained there for the rest of his career.

==Books==
===Novels===
* SHRADDHA (Marathi: श्राद्ध ): Posthumous Rituals (Three Editions) (1st edition 24 March 1986)
* ASWASTHA NAYAK (Marathi: अस्वस्थ नायक): Anguished Hero (1st edition 26 January 2000)
* PANNAS TAKKYANCHI THAS THAS MARATHI (July 2014)
* SHEVTUN AALA MAANUS (2015)
* BUDDHACHA RAHAAT (Three Editions) (2015)
* MIRAVNUK (2016)
* Koytyawarcha Kok (Two Editions)
* WAT TUDAVTANA (6th editions:25 July 2011)

===Collections of short stories===
* Rang Mansanche (Marathi: रंग माणसांचे): (Colors of Human Beings) (1995)
* Katha Mansanchya (Marathi: कथा माणसांच्या): (Stories of Human Beings) (2001)
* Kavale Ani Manase (Marathi: कावळे आणि माणसे): (Crows and Humans) (1998)
* Na Disnari Ladhai(Marathi: न दिसणारी लढाई): (The Unseen Battle) (2008)
* Paratya (Marathi: परत्या): (The Returnee) (2010)
* Pardhyachi Gaay (2018)

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kamble, Uttam}}
[[Category:Writers from Pune]]
[[Category:Indian newspaper editors]]
[[Category:Marathi-language writers]]
[[Category:1956 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Shivaji University alumni]]
[[Category:Journalists from Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Presidents of the Akhil Bharatiya Marathi Sahitya Sammelan]]

Influence and legacy of Swami Vivekananda

2026-02-04T21:02:03Z

Ajit3011: Stub.

{{Short description|Impact of Indian monk and philosopher}}
{{EngvarB|date=October 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2018}}
[[File:Swami Vivekananda 1893 Scanned Image.jpg|right|250px|thumb|upright|Swami Vivekananda]]
'''[[Swami Vivekananda]]''', the nineteenth-century Indian [[Hindu]] monk, philosopher and spiritual mentor, is considered to be one of the most influential people of modern India and [[Hinduism]]. Celebrated particularly for his skill and power as a speaker, he was also one of the first and most successful missionaries of [[Vedanta]] to the [[Western world]].

[[Rabindranath Tagore]] suggested that much could be learned about India through study of Vivekananda's works. Indian independence activist [[Subhas Chandra Bose]] regarded Vivekananda as his spiritual teacher. [[Mahatma Gandhi]] said that after reading the works of Vivekananda, his love for his nation increased a thousandfold. [[Barack Obama]], the President of the United States, quoted Vivekananda's words in his speech delivered in India in November 2010. [[Jayalalithaa]], the Chief Minister of [[Tamil Nadu]] said that Vivekananda inspired her to enter politics.

Vivekananda's birthday, on 12 January, is celebrated as [[National Youth Day]] in India. In 2012, a three-day [[150th birth anniversary of Swami Vivekananda#World Congress of Religions 2012|world conference]] was organised by the Institute of World Religions to commemorate the [[150th birth anniversary of Swami Vivekananda]].

== Influence on notable Indian people ==
{{multiple image
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| footer = Left: Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1856–1920) said that Swami Vivekananda preached Hindu religion in the length and breadth of the world. Right: Mahatma Gandhi said that after reading the works of Vivekananda, his love for his nation became a thousand-fold.
}}
After becoming a ''[[sannyasin]]'' in 1886, Vivekananda developed a deep desire to spread the message of “divine unity of existence and unity in diversity’ throughout the country.<ref>{{Cite web|url= http://www.oocities.org/neovedanta/sv8.html|title= Life and Teachings of Swami Vivekananda: Part 7 The Soul Wanted to Soar High|access-date=29 September 2013|publisher=International Forum for NeoVedantins}}</ref> He travelled the length and breadth of India as a ''Parivrajaka'' ("wandering monk"). He travelled for two years, befriending many notable people and teaching his [[Advaita Vedanta]] philosophy. Many of them, such as [[Ajit Singh of Khetri]] in [[Rajasthan]], the Dewan of Porbandar and Junagadh in Gujarat, the Raja of Ramnad in Madras,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oocities.org/neovedanta/sv9.html|title=Life and Teachings of Swami Vivekananda: Part 8:Parivrajaka Sadhu: The 'wandering monk'|access-date=29 September 2013|publisher=International Forum for NeoVedantins}}</ref> the Dewan of Mysore [[K. Seshadri Iyer]], and the Maharaja of Mysore [[Chamarajendra Wadiyar X|Chamaraja Wodeyar]],<ref name="Chattopadhyaya1999">{{cite book|author=Rajagopal Chattopadhyaya|title=Swami Vivekananda in India: A Corrective Biography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EtcoeaQIQdAC&pg=PA95|access-date=29 September 2013|date=1 January 1999|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1586-5|pages=95–}}</ref> encouraged him to travel to the United States to attend the Parliament of World Religions in Chicago, and gave financial support.

Indian nationalist [[Bal Gangadhar Tilak]], the first popular leader of the [[Indian Independence Movement]], observed:<blockquote>Twelve centuries ago [[Adi Shankara|Sankaracharya]] was the only great personality, who not only spoke of the purity of our religion, not only uttered in words that this religion was our strength and wealth, not only said that it was our sacred duty to preach this religion in the length and breadth of the world – but also brought all this into action. Swami Vivekananda is a person of that stature—who appeared towards the last half of the 19th century.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.slideshare.net/dokka/great-indian-personalities-thoughtrs-on-swami-vivekananda|title=Great indian personalities thoughtrs on Swami Vivekananda|date=25 March 2012 |access-date=25 March 2012|publisher=Slideshare.net}}</ref></blockquote>

[[Rabindranath Tagore]] said "If you want to know India, study Vivekananda. In him everything is positive and nothing negative."{{Sfn|Vivekananda|Lokeswarananda|1996|p=196}} According to [[Sri Aurobindo]], Vivekananda was "a very lion among men, but the definite work he has left behind is quite incommensurate with our impression of his creative might and energy."{{Sfn|Vivekananda|Lokeswarananda|1996|p=197}} [[Bal Gangadhar Tilak]] praised Vivekananda for taking the initiative to re-establish the glory of Hinduism.{{Sfn|Vivekananda|Lokeswarananda|1996|pp=198–199}} According to [[Bipin Chandra Pal]], Vivekananda's message was "the message of modern humanity".{{Sfn|Vivekananda|Lokeswarananda|1996|pp=201–203}}

[[Mahatma Gandhi]], at [[Belur Math]] on 6 February 1921, paid homage to Vivekananda: {{Sfn|Vivekananda|Lokeswarananda|1996|p=206}}
<blockquote>I have come here to pay my homage and respect to the revered memory of Swami Vivekananda, whose birthday is being celebrated today. I have gone through his works very thoroughly, and after having gone through them, the love that I had for my country became a thousand-fold.<ref name=swamigov>{{cite web|title=about Swami Vivekananda|url=http://vivekananda.gujarat.gov.in/influence.aspx|publisher=Gujarat.gov|access-date=18 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019052614/http://vivekananda.gujarat.gov.in/influence.aspx|archive-date=19 October 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> I ask you, young men, not to go away empty-handed without imbibing something of the spirit of the place where Swami Vivekananda lived and died.</blockquote>

During his journey from Japan to Canada on the ship ''Empress'' in 1893, Vivekananda met [[Jamsetji Tata]] and discussed with him the necessity of establishing a world-class scientific Institution in India. Consequently, Tata established the [[Indian Institute of Science]], which gradually became one of the best-known research universities in India.{{Sfn|Rajadhyaksha|2007|p=31}}

Indian independence activist [[Subhas Chandra Bose]] called Vivekananda a "full-blooded masculine personality – and a fighter to the core of his being". Bose said that under the "sacred influence" of [[Ramakrishna]] and Vivekananda his own life was awakened.{{Sfn|Vivekananda|Lokeswarananda|1996|pp=209–210}}

[[Jawaharlal Nehru]], the first Prime Minister of [[Independent India]], praised Vivekananda's personality and dignity and said that his heart carried fire: "it was no empty talk he was indulging in. He was putting his heart and soul into the words he uttered." Nehru also spoke of the influence Vivekananda had on his generation,{{Sfn|Vivekananda|Lokeswarananda|1996|p=206}} particularly through his modern outlook that blended science and spirituality.<ref>[https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/toi-edit-page/secular-nehru-helped-spread-vivekanandas-ideas/ Secular Nehru Helped Spread Vivekananda's Ideas, Times of India, 27 May 2020]</ref>

{{multiple image
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| footer = Left: Rabindranath Tagore (left) suggested reading Vivekananda to learn about India. Right: C Rajagopalachari said that Vivekananda saved Hinduism and India.
}}

[[Vinoba Bhave]] honoured Vivekananda for seeking to make Indians conscious of their strength during a time of widespread poverty and oppression, and for exhorting them to overcome their weaknesses. According to Bhave, the people of India were shrouded in ''[[tamas (philosophy)|tamas]]'', ignorance and unwisdom, and unable to distinguish between weakness and non-attachment and peace. In this situation Vivekananda brought new light, emphatically teaching that "the same [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Soul]] resides in each and all", and that mankind could be served by remembering this.{{Sfn|Vivekananda|Lokeswarananda|1996|pp=211–212}}

According to Indian independence activist and social worker [[C. Rajagopalachari]], who became the first Indian [[Governor General of India]], Vivekananda saved Hinduism and India.{{Sfn|Vivekananda|Lokeswarananda|1996|p=218}} [[Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan]], the first vice-president and the second President of independent India, said that Vivekananda was born in a "critical period" when the nation and her people were collapsing in "despair, frustration and hopelessness". Vivekananda's teachings gave the people new hope and taught them to rely on spiritual resources.{{Sfn|Vivekananda|Lokeswarananda|1996|pp=218–219}}

According to Indian historian Ramesh Chandra Majumdar, Vivekananda preached the best parts of Hinduism and Indian spirituality to the world.{{Sfn|Vivekananda|Lokeswarananda|1996|p=220}} At home, his ideals added a spiritual basis to Indian nationalism. Majumdar noted:{{Sfn|Vivekananda|Lokeswarananda|1996|p=221}}

<blockquote>Though an ascetic, Vivekananda was a patriot of patriots. The thought of restoring the prehistoric glory of India by resuscitating among her people the spiritual vitality which was dormant, but not dead, was always the uppermost thought in his mind...</blockquote>

In 2013, former President of India [[Pranab Mukherjee]] suggested remembering Vivekananda's call to reconstruct India's national character. He said:
<blockquote> Swamiji unhesitatingly appreciated the positive aspects and accomplishments of the Western Societies – and refrained from being dogmatic as he made his point, he was able to build a robust new bridge of understanding and goodwill for India. In so doing, he also opened a new dialogue between our peoples based on mutual acceptance.<ref name="Pranamb Mukherjee's speech May 2013">{{cite web|title=Pranamb Mukherjee's speech May 2013 |url=http://presidentofindia.gov.in/sp310513-1.html |publisher=Indian Government |access-date=29 September 2013 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130929111837/http://presidentofindia.gov.in/sp310513-1.html |archive-date=29 September 2013 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all }}</ref></blockquote>

[[Narendra Modi]], the Prime minister of India, often invokes Vivekananda's name when promoting his political ideology. In April 2013, he visited [[Belur Math]] and meditated in the room of Vivekananda.<ref name="Modi meditates OneIndia">{{cite news|title=Narendra Modi meditates in Vivekananda's room in Kolkata |url=https://www.oneindia.com/2013/04/10/narendra-modi-meditates-in-vivekananda-s-room-kolkata-1190491.html |access-date=28 September 2013 |newspaper=One India |date=10 April 2013 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130928184549/http://news.oneindia.in/2013/04/10/narendra-modi-meditates-in-vivekananda-s-room-kolkata-1190491.html |archive-date=28 September 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Jayalalithaa]], the Chief Minister of [[Tamil Nadu]], said that Vivekananda inspired her to enter politics.<ref name="Jayalalithaa's inspiration">{{cite news|title=Vivekananda my inspiration to enter politics: Jayalalithaa |url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil_nadu/article1481716.ece |access-date=28 September 2013 |newspaper=The New Indian Express |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130928185116/http://newindianexpress.com/states/tamil_nadu/article1481716.ece |archive-date=28 September 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Mamata Banerjee]], the Chief Minister of [[West Bengal]], was inspired by Vivekananda's writings which she said helped her in the difficult times of her political career. Banerjee stated:<ref name="Mamat Banerjee drew inspiration">{{cite news|title=Mamata drew inspiration from Vivekananda |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-otherstates/mamata-drew-inspiration-from-vivekananda/article4300918.ece |access-date=28 September 2013 |newspaper=The Hindu |date=12 January 2013 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130928185747/http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-otherstates/mamata-drew-inspiration-from-vivekananda/article4300918.ece |archive-date=28 September 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<blockquote>In the course of the several movements that I led, there would be moments of doubt. There were some who were critical of me and even I wondered that there were so many people who had pinned their hopes on me. What if I were to fail them? I would read books written by Swami Vivekananda to gather my strength.</blockquote>

Social activist [[Anna Hazare]] was motivated by the works of Swami Vivekananda and took inspiration for all the social work he did from Swami Vivekananda only.<ref name="Anna Hazare On Swami Vivekananda">{{cite web|title=Anna Hazare On Swami Vivekananda|url=http://www.swamivivekanandaquotes.org/2014/04/anna-hazare-on-swami-vivekananda.html|publisher=Swami Vivekananda Quotes|access-date=14 April 2014|archive-date=24 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924112245/http://www.swamivivekanandaquotes.org/2014/04/anna-hazare-on-swami-vivekananda.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Arvind Kejriwal]], anti-corruption campaigner and former Chief Minister of Delhi, also spoke of being inspired by Vivekananda. In a letter to the youth of India in 2015, he said:<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kejriwal |first1=Arvind |title=Letter To The Youth Of India |url=https://thelogicalindian.com/arvind-kejriwals-letter-youth-india/ |website=The Logical Indian |date=14 January 2015 |access-date=27 March 2025}}</ref><blockquote>I always believed that truth is timeless. These words by Swami Vivekananda are as relevant today as they were when we had to struggle for freedom. And they will be just as relevant, decades after I have left this world.</blockquote>

== Influence on non-Indian people ==
Vivekananda, during and after his tour of western countries in Europe and the United States had profound influence on notable personalities, who either became his ardent devotees or friends and some even his ardent disciples and many of whom even became ascetics. Right at the beginning of his visit to Chicago to address the Parliament of World Religions Professor [[John Henry Wright]] of [[Harvard University]], invited him to speak at Harvard.<ref name="wright">{{Harvnb|Minor|1986|p=133}}</ref> He pointed out to Vivekananda the necessity of going to the Parliament of Religions, which he thought would give an introduction to the nation.<ref name="Bhuyan 2003 16"/> Wright's reasoning was "To ask for your credentials is like asking the sun to state its right to shine in the heavens".<ref name="Bhuyan 2003 16">{{Harvnb|Bhuyan|2003|p = 16}}</ref> Some of such well-known luminaries are: [[Max Müller]] (Indologist), [[J. J. Goodwin]], [[John Henry Barrows]], [[Mark Twain]], Sturdy, [[Romain Rolland]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ramakrishnavivekananda.info/vivekananda_biography/11_northern_india.htm|title= In Northern India|access-date=29 September 2013|publisher= Ramakrishnavivekananda.info}}</ref>
[[Sara Chapman Bull]], his American mother and benefactor, [[Mary Hale]], [[Josephine MacLeod]], Christine Greenstidel (who later came to be known as [[Sister Christine]]), Maragaret Noble ([[Sister Nivedita]] in later years), [[William James]], [[Josiah Royce]], [[Robert G. Ingersoll]], [[Nikola Tesla]], [[Lord Kelvin]], [[Harriet Monroe]], [[Ella Wheeler Wilcox]], [[Sarah Bernhardt]], [[Emma Calvé]] and [[Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von Helmholtz]] {{sfn|Badrinath|2006|p=x}} He initiated several followers : Marie Louise (a French woman) became [[Swami Abhayananda]], and Leon Landsberg became Swami Kripananda,<ref name="bruke-618">{{Harvnb|Burke|1958|p=618}}</ref>

American industrialist [[John D. Rockefeller]] reportedly made his first large donation for public welfare and later became a notable philanthropist after a meeting with Vivekananda. Vivekananda succinctly explained to Rockfeller that his philanthropy would only be a channel to help the poor and distressed people.{{Sfn|Vivekananda|Lokeswarananda|1996|p=178}}

Vivekananda influenced French Opera singer [[Emma Calvé]], who wrote in her autobiography:{{Sfn|Calvé|1922|p=185}}

<blockquote>It has been my good fortune and my joy to know a man who truly "walked with God," a noble being, a saint, a philosopher, and a true friend. His influence upon my spiritual life was profound. He opened up new horizons before me, enlarging and vivifying my religious ideas and ideals, teaching me a broader understanding of truth. My soul will bear him an eternal gratitude.</blockquote>

Vivekananda's life and works have influenced many scholars, writers, politicians worldwide. French writer [[Romain Rolland]] wrote that Vivekananda was "energy personified". Rolland felt "kingliness" was Vivekananda's characteristics, "He was a born king and nobody ever came near him in India or America without paying homage to his majesty."{{Sfn|Vivekananda|Lokeswarananda|1996|p=212}} American writer, historian, philosopher [[Will Durant]] told, the speeches of Vivekananda were more "virile" than the ones delivered in the Vedic times.{{Sfn|Vivekananda|Lokeswarananda|1996|p=218}}

The nationalist leader and the first president of independent Indonesia [[Sukarno]] said that it was Swami Vivekananda who inspired him to become strong and to serve God and mankind.{{Sfn|Grover|2000|p=479}} Historian and [[Indologist]] [[Arthur Llewellyn Basham]] compared Vivekananda with other eminent religious figures of India such as [[Kabir]], [[Adi Shankara]], [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu|Chaitanya]].{{Sfn|Vivekananda|Lokeswarananda|1996|p=218}} Russian academician and public figure [[Eugene Chelyshev]] was an ardent admirer of Swami Vivekananda. He said:{{Sfn|Vivekananda|Lokeswarananda|1996|p=226}}
<blockquote>Reading and re-reading the works of Vivekananda each time I find in them something new that helps deeper to understand India, its philosophy, the way of the life and customs of the people in the past and the present, their dreams of the future...</blockquote>
Chelyshev also predicted that the memory of Vivekananda will never fade away.{{Sfn|Vivekananda|Lokeswarananda|1996|p=227}} Chinese scholar Huan Xin Chuan stated that Vivekananda was the most renowned social figure of modern China and Chinese socialists carefully study the works of Vivekananda.{{Sfn|Vivekananda|Lokeswarananda|1996|p=228}}

[[Barack Obama]], the President of the United States, quoted Vivekananda's words in his speech delivered in India in November 2010. He said:<ref name="US President Barack Obama’s Parliament address">{{cite news|title=U.S. President Barack Obama's Parliament address |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/us-president-barack-obamas-parliament-address/article874394.ece |access-date=28 September 2013 |newspaper=The Hindu |date=8 November 2010 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130928195753/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/us-president-barack-obamas-parliament-address/article874394.ece |archive-date=28 September 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<blockquote>Instead of succumbing to division, you have shown that the strength of India—the very idea of India—is its embrace of all colors, castes and creeds. It's the diversity represented in this chamber today. It's the richness of faiths celebrated by a visitor to my hometown of Chicago more than a century ago—the renowned Swami Vivekananda. He said that, "holiness, purity and charity are not the exclusive possessions of any church in the world, and that every system has produced men and women of the most exalted character."</blockquote>

== Notable memorials and observations ==

=== National Youth Day ===
{{Main|National Youth Day (India)}}
Swami Vivekananda's birthday, i.e. 12 January, is celebrated as the [[National Youth Day]] in India. On 17 October 1984, the Indian Government officially declared the birthdate of Vivekananda as the National Youth Day, which was to be celebrated 1985 onwards. The circular stated: "it was felt that the philosophy of Swamiji and the ideals for which he lived and worked could be a great source of inspiration for the Indian Youth."{{Sfn|Goel|2008|p=103}}

=== Universal Brotherhood Day ===
The "Universal Brotherhood Day" is observed on 11 September, on the day when Vivekananda delivered his first speech at the [[Parliament of the World's Religions]] Chicago in 1893 and addressed the American people and his audience as "Sisters and brothers of America".<ref name="A saffron monk who introduced India to the world">{{cite news|title=A saffron monk who introduced India to the world |url=http://zeenews.india.com/blog/a-saffron-monk-who-introduced-india-to-the-world_251.html |access-date=28 September 2013 |newspaper=Zee News |date=11 January 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130928201222/http://zeenews.india.com/blog/a-saffron-monk-who-introduced-india-to-the-world_251.html |archive-date=28 September 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== 150th birth anniversary of Swami Vivekananda ===
The [[150th birth anniversary of Swami Vivekananda]] was celebrated in India and abroad during 2013. The Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports in India officially made an official declaration in this regard.<ref name="PTI declaration">{{cite web|title=2013–14 Declared the Year for Skill Development of the Youth Parliamentary Consultative Committee Attached to Ministry of Youth Affairs & Sports Meets|url=http://pib.nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx?relid=92824|publisher=PTI|access-date=3 March 2013}}</ref> Year-long events and programs have been organised by branches of the [[Ramakrishna Math]], the [[Ramakrishna Mission]], the central and state governments in India, educational institutions and youth groups. Bengali film director Tutu (Utpal) Sinha made a film, ''[[The Light: Swami Vivekananda]]'', and Indian American Bengali animator and laserist [[Manick Sorcar]] created a laser show, ''[[Swamiji (film)|Swamiji]]'',<ref name="Swamiji">{{cite web|title=Swami Vivekananda's life depicted in laser|url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/features/swami-vivekanandas-life-depicted-in-laser/article3988155.ece|work=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=4 May 2014}}</ref> as a tribute for his 150th birth anniversary.<ref name="Year-long events to mark Vivekananda's 150th birthday">{{cite news|title=Year-long events to mark Vivekananda's 150th birthday|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-01-05/mumbai/36160847_1_ramakrishna-mission-sachin-pilot-tripura-governor|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511020214/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-01-05/mumbai/36160847_1_ramakrishna-mission-sachin-pilot-tripura-governor|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 May 2013|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=29 September 2013}}</ref>

Swami Vivekananda delivered his famous lectures at the Parliament of the World's Religions, Chicago in 1893. In 2012, a 3-day World conference was organised by the Institute of World Religions (of the [[List of Hindu temples in the United States|Washington Kali Temple]]), [[Burtonsville, Maryland]], in association with the Council for Parliament of World Religions, Chicago, [[Illinois]] to commemorate the 150th birth anniversary of Swami Vivekananda.<ref name="World Congress of Religions 2012">{{cite web |title=World Congress of Religions 2012 |url=http://www.parliamentofreligions.org/news/index.php/2012/09/world-congress-of-religions-2012/ |publisher=Parliament of the World's Religions |access-date=28 September 2013 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130928190128/http://www.parliamentofreligions.org/news/index.php/2012/09/world-congress-of-religions-2012/ |archive-date=28 September 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[File:Swami Vivekananda 2013 stamp of India 3.jpg|thumb|Vivekananda on a 2013 stamp of India]]
Posts of India and Sri Lanka issued several commemorative stamps of Vivekananda in 2013. Vivekananda was also featured on other stamps of India in 1963, 1993 and 2015 and of Sri Lanka in 1997. In 2018, India and Serbia issued joint stamps devoted to Vivekananda.<ref>[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Swami_Vivekananda_on_stamps Category:Swami Vivekananda on stamps]. commons.wikimedia.org</ref><ref>[https://colnect.com/en/stamps/years/item_name/vivekananda Vivekananda]. colnect.com</ref>

=== Vivek Express ===
In 2011—2013 [[Railway Budget]], [[Indian Railways]] announced four pairs of new express trains on the Indian Railways network. These new trains were started as a tribute to Vivekananda on his 140th birth anniversary.<ref name="Salient Features of New all India Time Table ‘Trains at a Glance’">{{cite web|title=Salient Features of New all India Time Table 'Trains at a Glance' |url=http://pib.nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx?relid=72959 |publisher=Press Information Bureau, India |access-date=29 September 2013 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130929112527/http://pib.nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx?relid=72959 |archive-date=29 September 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Public Notice 3 ===
To mark the anniversary of Swami Vivekananda's landmark address at the Chicago Art Institute, and in remembrance of the terrorist attacks at the World Trade Center and the Pentagon 108 years later on that very date, 11 September, Indian artist Jitish Kallat created Public Notice 3, a site-specific installation on the Art Institute's Woman's Board Grand Staircase.

On 28 January 2012, the Art Institute of Chicago, in conjunction with the Republic of India, reinstalled a plaque commemorating Vivekananda's landmark speech outside Fullerton Hall.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.artic.edu/about/mission-and-history/1879-1913-formative-years/1893-world-s-parliament-religions-and-swami/ref | title=History }}</ref>

== In popular culture ==

=== Films ===
Bengali
Swami Vivekananda has been the primary topic of many films, dramas ad folk-plays. Bengali film director [[Amar Mullick]] made two different movies: ''Swamiji'' (1949) and its adaptation in Hindi, ''[[Swami Vivekananda (1955 film)|Swami Vivekananda]]'' (1955). The film ''Swami Vivekananda'' (1955) is considered a "faithful and memorable documentation feature" on Vivekananda.<ref name="Indian Express Take a little">{{cite news|title=Take a little, leave most behind... |url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/take-a-little-leave-most-behind.../1074204/0 |access-date=26 September 2013 |newspaper=The Indian Express |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130926024421/http://www.indianexpress.com/news/take-a-little-leave-most-behind.../1074204/ |archive-date=26 September 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The ''[[Swami Vivekananda (1998 film)|Swami Vivekananda]]'' was released on 12 June 1998. The film was premiered on India's public service broadcaster Doordarshan on 15 August 1998 as a part of Doordarshan's celebration of 50th year of India's Independence.<ref name="Iyer submits to Ramakrishna Mission to release Vivekananda">{{cite news |title=Iyer submits to Ramakrishna Mission to release Vivekananda |url=http://expressindia.indianexpress.com/ie/daily/19980815/22750354.html |access-date=5 September 2013 |newspaper=Indian Express |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002172607/http://expressindia.indianexpress.com/ie/daily/19980815/22750354.html |archive-date=2 October 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> The film has been appreciated for blending the role of "eccentric middle-aged mystic, nominally a Brahmin priest, claiming nothing short of godhood role “of Paramahmsa very well with that of the“ young non-Brahmin agnostic modernist role" of Vivekananda.<ref name="India Today June 1998">{{cite news |title=All-pervasive intolerance forces director of Swami Vivekananda to make seminal changes to cast and script of the historical film |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/society-and-the-arts/films/story/19980810-intolerance-forces-director-of-swami-vivekananda-to-make-seminal-changes-to-cast-and-script-of-historical-film-826859-1998-06-09 |access-date=5 September 2013 |newspaper=India Today |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020184443/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/intolerance-forces-director-of-swami-vivekananda-to-make-seminal-changes-to-cast-and-script-of-historical-film/1/264713.html |archive-date=20 October 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2013, Utpal (Tutu) Sinha directed ''[[The Light: Swami Vivekananda]]'' which was a tribute to Vivekananda on his 150th anniversary of his birth.<ref name="Embrace a good way of living">{{cite news|title=Embrace a good way of living|url=http://portal.thebengalpost.com/index.php/index/newsdetails/Embrace-a-good-way-of-living-419310111357823535|newspaper=Bengal Post|access-date=29 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180728035811/http://portal.thebengalpost.com/index.php/index/newsdetails/Embrace-a-good-way-of-living-419310111357823535|archive-date=28 July 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="I am inspired by Rekhaji: Archita Sahu">{{cite news|title=I am inspired by Rekhaji: Archita Sahu|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/others/news-interviews/I-am-inspired-by-Rekhaji-Archita-Sahu/etarticleshow/13958118.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130808141744/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-06-09/news-interviews/32140031_1_odia-odisha-mujra|url-status=live|archive-date=8 August 2013|access-date=24 September 2013|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|date=9 June 2012}}</ref><ref name="TW The Light – Swami Vivekananda">{{cite web|title=The Light – Swami Vivekananda|url=http://tollywoodindustry.com/the-light-swami-vivekananda/|access-date=24 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927010444/http://tollywoodindustry.com/the-light-swami-vivekananda/|archive-date=27 September 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> Indian American animator and laserist [[Manick Sorcar]] created a laser show, ''[[Swamiji (film)|Swamiji]]'',<ref name="Swamiji" /> in honor of the anniversary.

''[[Bireswar Vivekananda|Birieswar Vivekananda]]'' is a 1964 Indian Bengali-language film directed by Modhu Bose, starring Amaresh Das in the titular role. Indian filmmaker [[Bimal Roy]] made a documentary about Vivekananda, titled ''Life and Message of Swami Vivekananda'', in the same year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Rajadhyaksha|first1=Ashish|last2=Willemen|first2=Paul|title=Encyclopaedia of Indian cinema|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediaofi0000raja|url-access=registration|accessdate=|year=1999|publisher=British Film Institute|isbn=9780851706696 }}</ref>

''Sound of Joy'', an Indian 3D-[[animated short film]] directed by Sukankan Roy depicts the spiritual journey of Vivekananda. It won the [[National Film Award for Best Non-Feature Animation Film]] in 2014.<ref>{{cite web |title=Swamiji's story in 3D animation |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/swamiji-s-story-in-3d-animation/cid/1278558 |website=[[Telegraph India]]}}</ref>

=== Dramas ===
Bengali theatre group ''Lokkrishti'' staged a drama ''[[Biley]]'' to commemorate the birth anniversary. Bengali theatre actor [[Debshankar Haldar]] played the role of Swami Vivekananda in this drama.<ref name="THeatre review Biley">{{cite news|title=THeatre review Biley |url=http://my.anandabazar.com/content/%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF-%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE-38 |access-date=4 March 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121115194302/http://my.anandabazar.com/content/%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF-%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE-38 |archive-date=15 November 2012}}</ref> In 2013 ''Belgharia Shankhamala theatre group'' staged the drama ''[[Bireswar]]''. The drama was written by Basab Dasgupta and directed by [[Debesh Chattopadhyay]].<ref name="Bireswar drama review">{{cite web |title=মন নিকেতন (Bireswar drama review) |url=http://my.anandabazar.com/content/%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF-%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE-69 |publisher=[[Anandabazar Patrika]] |access-date=29 September 2013 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130929111211/http://my.anandabazar.com/content/%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF-%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE-69 |archive-date=29 September 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

=== Bibliography ===
* {{cite book|last= Badrinath |first=Chaturvedi |title=Swami Vivekananda, the Living Vedanta|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qo1X96E0JPAC&pg=PA240|date=1 January 2006|publisher=Penguin Books India|isbn=978-0-14-306209-7}}
* {{Citation |last=Bhuyan |first=P. R. |title=Swami Vivekananda: Messiah of Resurgent India |publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Distributors |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZLmFDRortS0C&pg=PR1 |year=2003 |isbn=978-81-269-0234-7 |location=New Delhi}}
* {{Citation |last=Burke |first=Marie Louise |author-link=Marie Louise Burke |title=Swami Vivekananda in America: New Discoveries |year=1958 |publisher=Advaita Ashrama |location=Kolkata |isbn=978-0-902479-99-9}}
* {{Cite book|last=Calvé|first=Emma|title=My Life|url=https://archive.org/details/mylife004040mbp|year=1922|publisher=D.Appleton And company }}
* {{cite book|last=Goel|first=S.L.|title=Administrative and Management Thinkers (Relevance in New Millennium)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6MJ51yOiwFQC&pg=PA103|date=1 January 2008|publisher=Deep & Deep Publications|isbn=978-81-8450-077-6}}
* {{cite book|last=Grover|first=Verinder|title=Indonesia: Government and Politics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wo8LYFcrEAMC&pg=PA479|date=1 January 2000|publisher=Deep & Deep|isbn=978-81-7100-932-9}}
* {{Citation|last=Minor|first=Robert Neil|title=Modern Indian Interpreters of the Bhagavad Gita|publisher=SUNY Press|year=1986|isbn=978-0-88706-297-1|location=Albany, New York|chapter=Swami Vivekananda's use of the ''Bhagavad Gita''|url=https://archive.org/details/modernindianinte0000unse}}
* {{Citation|last=Prabhananda|first=Swami |date=June 2003|title= Profiles of famous educators: Swami Vivekananda|journal=Prospects|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|location=Netherlands |volume=XXXIII|issue=2| pages=231–245|doi=10.1023/A:1023603115703 |s2cid=162659685 |url=http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/archive/publications/ThinkersPdf/vivekane.pdf}}
* {{Citation | last = Nikhilananda | first = Swami | year = 1953 | title=Vivekananda: A Biography | url=http://www.vivekananda.net/PDFBooks/BiographybyNikhilananda.pdf | publisher = Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Center | publication-place = New York | isbn = 0-911206-25-6}}
* {{cite book|last=Rajadhyaksha|first=Niranjan|title=The Rise of India: Its Transformation from Poverty to Prosperity|url=https://archive.org/details/riseofindiaitstr0000raja|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/riseofindiaitstr0000raja/page/31 31]|year=2007|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-82201-2}}
* {{cite book|last1=Vivekananda|first1=Swami|last2=Lokeswarananda|first2=Swami|title=My India : the India eternal|year=1996|publisher=Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture|location=Calcutta|isbn=81-85843-51-1|edition=1st}}

{{Swami Vivekananda}}

[[Category:Swami Vivekananda]]
[[Category:Hinduism in India]]
[[Category:Legacies by person|Vivekananda]]
[[Category:Neo-Vedanta]]

Lepa Rada district

2026-02-02T03:50:03Z

Ajit3011: Expanded content with additional details

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Lepa Rada district
| settlement_type = [[List of districts of Arunachal Pradesh|District]] of [[Arunachal Pradesh]]
| total_type = Total
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| map_caption = Location in Arunachal Pradesh
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| subdivision_name1 = [[Arunachal Pradesh]]
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| established_title = Established
| established_date = 2018
| seat_type = Headquarters
| seat = [[Basar, Arunachal Pradesh|Basar]]
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| official_name =
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| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 791101<ref>{{cite web|title=Leparada PIN Code|url=https://postalcodes.azinfoportal.com/india/arunachal-pradesh/leparada|website=postalcodes.azinfoportal.com|accessdate=11 April 2024}}</ref>
}}

'''Lepa Rada district''', with headquarters at [[Basar, Arunachal Pradesh|Basar]], is one of the 28 [[Districts of Arunachal Pradesh|districts]] of [[Arunachal Pradesh]] state in northeastern [[India]]. Lepa Rada falls under 29-Basar Assembly Constituency and 1-West Parliamentary Constituency. The district is centrally located, hence the name Lepa Rada (Lepa means centre and Rada means bulls-eye like in Archery). Basar, Tirbin, Dari and Sago are 4 administrative circles of the district. <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/for-creation-of-3-new-districts-pakke-kesang-lepa-rada-shi-yomi-arunachal-pradesh-assembly-passes-bi-1908352|title=Arunachal Assembly Passes Bill For Creation Of 3 New Districts|work=NDTV.com|access-date=2018-08-30}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/north-east/arunachal-pradesh-gets-25th-district-shi-yomi/cid/1678222|title=Arunachal Pradesh gets 25th district called Shi Yomi|website=www.telegraphindia.com|language=en|access-date=2019-02-16}}</ref> It was created from the [[West Siang district]] by bifurcating its southern areas along Assam border into a new district.

== History==
The district was created in 2018 by bifurcating the [[Lower Siang district]].<ref>[https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-current-affairs/story/arunachal-pradesh-bill-new-districts-new-states-post-independence-india-1327780-2018-08-30 Arunachal Assembly passes bill for the creation of 3 new districts: List of Indian states that took birth post-independence], [[India Today]], 30 Aug 2018.</ref>

== Demographics ==
At the time of the 2011 census, Lepa Rada district had a population of 14,490. Scheduled Tribes made up 11,235 (77.54%).<ref name="districtcensus">{{Cite journal |title=West Siang |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_A/12/1206_PART_A_DCHB_WEST%20SIANG.pdf |journal=2011 Census of India |series=District Census Handbooks - Arunachal Pradesh |publisher=Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India}}</ref> {{citation needed|reason=the numbers don't add up when you compute for Tirbin, Daring, and Basar alone|date=April 2024}}

{{bar box
|title=Religions in Lepa Rada district (2011)<ref name="Religion">{{cite web |title=C-16 Population By Religion – Arunachal Pradesh|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01/DDW00C-01%20MDDS.XLS |website=census.gov.in |publisher=Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India}}</ref>
|titlebar=#FCD116
|left1=Religion
|right1=Percent
|float=left
|bars=
{{bar percent|[[Donyi-Polo]]|red|51.51}}
{{bar percent|[[Christianity in Arunachal Pradesh|Christianity]]|dodgerblue|27.38}}
{{bar percent|[[Hinduism]]|darkorange|18.27}}
{{bar percent|[[Islam]]|green|1.85}}
{{bar percent|[[Buddhism]]|yellow|0.81}}
{{bar percent|Other or not stated|black|0.18}}
}}

At the time of the 2011 census, 71.81% of the population spoke [[Gallong language|Galo]], 4.72% [[Nepali language|Nepali]], 3.78% [[Bengali language|Bengali]], 3.60% [[Adi people#Language|Adi]], 3.27% [[Hindi]], 2.74% [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]], 2.67% [[Assamese language|Assamese]] and 1.08% [[Boro language (India)|Boro]] as their first language.<ref>[http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-16.html 2011 Census of India, Population By Mother Tongue]</ref>

==Culture==
'''People'''

Lepa Rada is inhabited by the [[Galo tribe]]. [[Mopin]] being the main festival of harvest.

== See also ==
* [[List of districts of Arunachal Pradesh]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.arunachalpradesh.gov.in/lepa-rada/ Official website]

{{Arunachal Pradesh}}

{{coord missing|Arunachal Pradesh}}

[[Category:Districts of Arunachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:Lepa Rada district|*]]

{{ArunachalPradesh-geo-stub}}

One Part Woman

2026-01-31T15:20:03Z

Ajit3011: Starting first post more to come

{{Short description|Novel by Perumal Murugan}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2020}}
{{Infobox book
| name = One Part Woman
| image = One Part Woman Perumal Murugan book cover.jpg
| image_size =
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| caption = Paperback English edition, 2013
| author = [[Perumal Murugan]]
| audio_read_by =
| title_working =
| translator = Aniruddhan Vasudevan
| illustrator =
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| country = [[India]]
| language = [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[English language|English]]
| series =
| release_number =
| subject =
| genre =
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| publisher = Kalachuvadu Publications (Tamil)
| publisher2 = [[Penguin Books]] (English)
| pub_date = 1 December 2010
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'''''One Part Woman''''' ({{IPA|ta|mɑːd̪oɾʉbɑːgən|pron}}) is a [[Tamil language|Tamil]] novel written by [[India]]n writer [[Perumal Murugan]] titled "Mathorupagan" (மாதொருபாகன்). Initially published by Kalachuvadu Publications in 2010,<ref name="https://www.outlookindia.com/ 2015">{{cite web | title='How Can Literature Survive?' | website=[[Outlook (Indian magazine)|Outlook]]|first=Anuradha|last=Raman| date=8 January 2015 | url=https://www.outlookindia.com/website/story/how-can-literature-survive/293072 | access-date=14 January 2020}}</ref> it was later translated into English by Aniruddhan Vasudevan and published in 2013 in India by [[Penguin Books]],<ref name="Penguin India 2020">{{cite web | title=One Part Woman | website=Penguin India | url=https://penguin.co.in/book/fiction/one-part-woman/ | access-date=14 January 2020}}</ref> and in 2018 in the US by [[Grove Atlantic]].<ref name="Murugan 2018">{{cite web | title=One Part Woman | website=Grove Atlantic | date=9 October 2018 | url=https://groveatlantic.com/book/one-part-woman/ | access-date=14 January 2020}}</ref> Set during the [[British Raj|colonial era]] in the Southern state of [[Tamil Nadu]] in India, it deals with the social stigma that a married couple faces due to their childlessness, and the lengths they go to conceive.

==Background==
The idea for writing the novel came to Murugan on witnessing couples around him suffer due to the inability to have a child. The novel is set in the [[Tiruchengode]] town in Tamil Nadu, from which Murugan hails, and its main characters in the book belong to the [[Kongu Vellalar|Kongu Vellalar Gounder]] caste, which he himself belongs to.<ref name="singh 2015">{{cite web |last=Singh |first=Bhasha |date=9 February 2015 |title=One Part Dead |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/magazine/story/one-part-dead/293261 |access-date=12 January 2020 |website=[[Outlook (Indian magazine)|Outlook]]}}</ref> The original name of the novel comes from the word ''Madhorubaagan'', the Tamil name for [[Ardhanarishvara|the androgynous form of Lord Shiva]] in [[Hindu mythology]].<ref name="Baskaran 2015" /> In 2005, Murugan was awarded a grant by the [[India Foundation for the Arts]] to do the background research for the novel.<ref name="Baskaran 2015">{{cite web | last=Baskaran | first=S. Theodore | title=Rage over a custom | website=[[Frontline (magazine)|Frontline]] | date=7 January 2015 | url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/the-nation/rage-over-a-custom/article6756685.ece | access-date=12 January 2020}}</ref> In the course of his research, he came across a societal practice that existed in the past to deal with childlessness, which he decided to include in the book.<ref name="kannadesan">{{cite news |last1=Kannadesan |first1=Akhila |title=Of desire, despair and hope |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/namakkalbased-author-perumal-murugan-talks-about-his-novel-madhorubhagan/article6748836.ece |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=2 January 2015 |access-date=5 January 2020}}</ref> The existence of such a practice has been a subject of dispute.<ref name="Yamunan 2016">{{cite web | last=Yamunan | first=Sruthisagar | title=In defence of the opposition to 'Madhorubhagan' | website=[[The Hindu]] | date=10 July 2016 | url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/In-defence-of-the-opposition-to-%E2%80%98Madhorubhagan%E2%80%99/article14483321.ece | access-date=14 January 2020}}</ref> Murugan stated in an interview with ''[[The Hindu]]'' that there was no documentary evidence relating to the custom and that details about it were passed on orally.<ref name="kolappan">{{cite news |last1=Kolappan |first1=B. |title=People are looking to settle scores with me: Perumal Murugan |url=https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/interview/people-are-looking-to-settle-scores-with-me-perumal-murugan/article6778030.ece |work=[[The Hindu]]|date=11 January 2015 |access-date=5 January 2020}}</ref>

==Plot==
Kali and Ponna are a couple living in Tamil Nadu. Despite having been married for 12 years, they are unable to conceive a child. Their childlessness becomes a source of constant taunts from family members and fellow villagers, who variously attribute it to family curses, God's wrath, or their ancestors' ill behavior. Desperate, the couple try several remedies, prayers and offerings but to no avail. Kali is often encouraged to have a second wife, an idea he considers but ultimately rejects. As a last resort, their families put forward the suggestion that Ponna go to the chariot festival of the androgynous god Ardhanarishvara, where on the 18th day, societal taboo relating to extramarital sex is relaxed and consenting men and women may sleep together. Kali is repulsed by the idea but brings up the subject with Ponna, who responds by saying she would go if he wished so. Kali feels betrayed by her reaction and eventually grows colder to her. The following year, Ponnu's family takes matters into their own hands by luring Kali out of the house, while convincing her that he has given his consent for her to go to the festival. She does so and finds a man she considers "a god" to impregnate her. Meanwhile, Kali returns home to find Ponna gone, leading him to breakdown and curse Ponna.

==Themes==
''One Part Woman'' deals with the themes of ritual and tradition, and the power these elements have in societies, relationships and individuals.<ref name="bao">{{cite web |last1=Heath |first1=Will |title=Review: One Part Woman by Perumal Murugan |date=5 September 2019 |url=https://booksandbao.com/2019/09/05/review-one-part-woman/ |publisher=Books & Bao |access-date=3 January 2020}}</ref><ref name="sehgal">{{cite news |last1=Sehgal |first1=Parul |title=A Novel That Roiled India Is Now Translated Into English |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/16/books/review-one-part-woman-perumal-murugan.html |date=16 October 2018|work=[[The New York Times]]|access-date=18 August 2020}}</ref> The novel explores how a community's pathological obsession estranges a loving couple and breaks up their happy marriage.<ref name="pune">{{cite journal |last1=Paulraj |first1=Selvarani |title=SINGLE ISSUE, MULTITUDE SUFFERING-TRAUMA AND PAIN - REFERENCE TO PERUMAL MURUGAN'S ONE PART WOMAN |journal=Pune Research |date=August 2017 |volume=2 |issue=2 |url=http://puneresearch.com/media/data/issues/59340519f217b.pdf |access-date=13 January 2020}}</ref> It also depicts life in pre-Independence rural India, focusing in particular on the rigid social hierarchy set by the [[Caste system in India|caste system]]. In the mostly agrarian Gounder caste to which Kali and Ponna belong, the status of the landowner is directly proportional to the number of sons he has.<ref name="ali">{{cite journal |last1=Ali |first1=Nazir |title=THE HUMAN AND THE NON-HUMAN IN PERUMAL MURUGAN'S ONE PART WOMAN |journal=Research Journal of English Language and Literature |date=Apr–Jun 2016 |volume=4 |issue=2 |url=https://www.academia.edu/26302859 |access-date=14 January 2020}}</ref> Ponna is pressurized to conceive to improve her husband's social standing and to stop people from bringing up the lack of inheritance for her family's property.<ref name="Alyahya">{{cite journal|last1=Saleh Alyahya|first1=Rimah|date=5 March 2019|title=ARTICULATION OF WOMEN THROUGH THE LENS OF INTERSECTIONALITY AND ITS DIMENSIONS IN 'ONE PART WOMAN' AND 'SINGAREVVA AND THE PALACE'|url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/688a/545c2d7417d6513ad654198481d0bd90da2b.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200113160335/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/688a/545c2d7417d6513ad654198481d0bd90da2b.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=13 January 2020|journal=Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews|volume=7|issue=2|access-date=13 January 2020}}</ref> Thus, a major portion of the couple's woes come not from their own desire to have a child, but their community's stigmatization towards those who do not have any.<ref name="pune"/> The novel also highlights the stratification of Indian society along caste lines, which is brought out through the concept of [[untouchability]]. Part of Kali's distress over Ponna attending the festival stems from the thought that his wife might have intercourse with an untouchable.<ref name="Alyahya"/><ref name="Bala 2017">{{cite web | last=Bala | first=Priya | title=Writer Perumal Murugan is back from the dead | website=[[Hindustan Times]] | date=18 November 2017 | url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/brunch/write-perumal-murugan-is-back-from-the-dead/story-3n5Ez3Mh3ZrxxVFourbGKL.html | access-date=12 January 2020}}</ref>

The novel also examines how patriarchal customs in India turn women into victims of [[gender essentialism]]. Women are expected to conform to a fixed female identity, and Ponna's failure to do so results in the repression of her individual self.{{citation needed|date=February 2020}} In connection to this, the novel explores the condition of marriage and gender roles within it. When the couple remains childless for years, Kali is recommended for a second marriage, almost naturally placing the blame on the woman.<ref name="pune"/> Murugan has pointed out that marriage in India "is not a democratic institution [...] The man always has and continues to have a wider space in which to function, [while] the woman is constantly constrained." The novel also describes how patriarchy leads to the oppression of female sexuality, by viewing it solely as means to motherhood and the benefit of her husband and progeny alone.<ref name="Alyahya" />

==Reception==
The novel has garnered critical acclaim. [[Meena Kandasamy]] of ''[[The Guardian]]'' praised Murugan's "unsurpassed ability to capture Tamil speech, [which] lays bare the complex organism of the society he adeptly portrays" as well as Vasudevan's translation for "preserving the mood of the original".<ref name="Kandasamy 2019">{{cite web | last=Kandasamy | first=Meena | title=One Part Woman by Perumal Murugan review – a skilful Tamil tale | website=the Guardian | date=25 July 2019 | url=http://www.theguardian.com/books/2019/jul/25/one-part-woman-perumal-murugan-review | access-date=14 January 2020}}</ref> ''[[The New Yorker]]'' called it "a subtly subversive novel [that] considers the constraints of tradition [...] In simple yet lyrical prose, Murugan shows how their standing in the world depends on their offspring."<ref name="newyorker">{{cite magazine |title=Briefly Noted |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2018/10/29/all-you-can-ever-know-hiking-with-nietzsche-one-part-woman-and-desirable-bodyhttps://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2018/10/29/all-you-can-ever-know-hiking-with-nietzsche-one-part-woman-and-desirable-body |magazine=[[The New Yorker]] |access-date=31 December 2019 }}{{Dead link|date=January 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref> Lucy Scholes of ''[[The National (Abu Dhabi)|The National]]'' summed it up as a "moving, quietly magnificent portrait of a tender, loving marriage that’s buckling under the impossible strain of meddling busybodies and the weight of conventional societal expectations." She opined that the translation was "competent" even though "occasional phrase[s] [that] strike as a little too modern does sneak through."<ref name="scholes">{{cite web |last1=Scholes |first1=Lucy |title=Review: Perumal Murugan's latest novel challenges India's expectations of marriage |date=15 July 2019 |url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/arts-culture/books/review-perumal-murugan-s-latest-novel-challenges-india-s-expectations-of-marriage-1.886617 |publisher=[[The National (Abu Dhabi)|The National]] |access-date=31 December 2019}}</ref> ''[[Kirkus Reviews]]'' concurred, writing: "Poignant and sweet, the novel suffers only from a certain roughness in the prose; something, it seems, has been lost in translation."<ref name="kirkus">{{cite web |title=ONE PART WOMAN |url=https://www.kirkusreviews.com/book-reviews/perumal-murugan/one-part-woman/ |publisher=[[Kirkus Reviews]] |access-date=31 December 2019}}</ref>

The original Tamil novel was awarded the [[Indian Languages Festival|ILF Samanvay Bhasha Samman]] in 2015.<ref name="PTI 2015">{{cite web | title=Tamil Writer Perumal Murugan wins ILF Samanvay Bhasha award | website=[[The Hindu]] | date=5 October 2015 | url=https://www.thehindu.com/books/books-authors/tamil-writer-perumal-murugan-wins-ilf-samanvay-bhasha-award/article7726521.ece | access-date=14 January 2020}}</ref> The English version was awarded [[The Tamil Literary Garden]] Award for Translation in 2014,<ref name="Baskaran 2015" /> and longlisted for the 2018 [[National Book Award for Translated Literature]].<ref name="scroll">{{cite web |title=Perumal Murugan's 'One Part Woman' on the translated books longlist for the US National Book Awards |url=https://shop.scroll.in/book/894234/perumal-murugans-one-part-woman-on-the-translated-books-longlist-for-the-us-national-book-awards |publisher=[[scroll.in]] |access-date=31 December 2019}}</ref> It was also announced as the [[Sahitya Akademi Award#Other literary honors|Sahitya Akademi Translation Prize]] awardee in 2018, but the High Court of Madras passed a stay order on it after agitators filed a plea against it. Vasudevan consequently declined the award, citing an unwillingness to pursue a legal battle for the same.<ref name="The News Minute 2018">{{cite web | title=Translator of Perumal Murugan's 'One Part Woman' declines Sahitya Akademi Award | website=The News Minute | date=31 January 2018 | url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/perumal-murugan-s-translator-and-sahitya-akademi-award-winner-aniruddhan-vasudevan-declines | access-date=14 January 2020|last1=Rao |first1=Manasa}}</ref> In the wake of these events, Sahitya Akademi jury member [[Githa Hariharan]] filed a counter-affidavit contending that issues within the purview of litterateurs could not be subjected to judicial review.<ref name="counter">{{cite news |title='Sahitya Akademi award not subject to judicial review' |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/sahitya-akademi-award-not-subject-to-judicial-review/article22683456.ece |work=[[The Hindu]]|date=7 February 2018 |access-date=31 December 2019}}</ref>

==Controversy==
{{quote box
| width = 30%
| align = right
| quote = "Author Perumal Murugan has died. He is no god, so he is not going to resurrect himself. Nor does he believe in reincarnation. From now on, Perumal Murugan will survive merely as a teacher, as he has been. [...] Please leave him alone. Thanks to everyone."
| author = - [[Perumal Murugan]]
| source = in a Facebook post published in January 2015.<ref name="Scroll.in 2015">{{cite web | title='Author Perumal Murugan has died': Tamil writer withdraws all published work following protests | website=[[Scroll.in]] | date=13 January 2015 | url=https://scroll.in/article/700217/author-perumal-murugan-has-died-tamil-writer-withdraws-all-published-work-following-protests | access-date=12 January 2020}}</ref>
}}
In December 2014, the novel attracted the attention of various caste-based factions in Tamil Nadu,<ref name="Saravanan 2015">{{cite web | last=Saravanan | first=S.P. | title=Hounded by caste outfits | website=[[The Hindu]] | date=14 January 2015 | url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/hounded-by-caste-outfits/article6787062.ece | access-date=12 January 2020}}</ref> who claimed that the novel's depiction of extramarital sex during the Ardhanarishvara festival insulted their deity and the women of their caste. Nearly 10,000 copies of the controversial portions of the novel were distributed by the protesters in houses and among women to mobilize people against the book.<ref name="Lal 2019">{{cite web | last=Lal | first=Amrith | title=Tamil author Perumal Murugan announces his 'death' on Facebook over lack of freedom of speech | website=[[The Indian Express]]| date=15 October 2019 | url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/forced-to-withdraw-novel-tamil-author-announces-his-death/ | access-date=12 January 2020}}</ref> Protests broke out in Tiruchengode, where copies of the book were burned and an official complaint, demanding a ban against the book and the arrest of the publisher and author, was lodged.<ref name="Janardhanan 2014">{{cite web | last=Janardhanan | first=Arun | title=Saffron outfits burn copies of Tamil novel, seek ban | website=[[The Indian Express]] | date=28 December 2014 | url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/saffron-outfits-burn-copies-of-tamil-novel-seek-ban/ | access-date=12 January 2020}}</ref> After a district-wide [[general strike|strike]] was declared, Murugan issued a clarification that he would remove all references to the place where events in the novel take place. As protests continued, he attended a peace meeting presided over by local administrators, where he was forced to render an unconditional apology and agreed to withdraw the book itself.<ref name="Hindu 2015">{{cite web | last=Hindu | first=The | title='Perumal Murugan was asked to exile himself by police' | website=[[The Hindu]] | date=15 January 2015 | url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/perumal-murugan-was-asked-to-exile-himself-by-police/article6792161.ece | access-date=12 January 2020}}</ref><ref name="Lal 2019"/><ref name="Nianias 2015">{{cite web | last=Nianias | first=Helen | title=Freedom of expression row as author Perumal Murugan begs fans to burn books | website=The Independent | date=16 January 2015 | url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/perumal-murugan-the-author-whos-begging-fans-to-burn-his-books-after-sex-censorship-row-9983754.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220524/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/perumal-murugan-the-author-whos-begging-fans-to-burn-his-books-after-sex-censorship-row-9983754.html |archive-date=24 May 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live | access-date=12 January 2020}}</ref> In the aftermath of these events, he posted what has been called a "literary suicide" note on his [[Facebook]] page, withdrawing all his written work and declaring a self-imposed end to his career as a writer.<ref name="The New Yorker">{{cite magazine | first=Amitava| last=Kumar| title=How Perumal Murugan Was Resurrected Through Writing | magazine=[[The New Yorker]] | date=12 December 2019| url=https://www.newyorker.com/books/page-turner/how-perumal-murugan-was-resurrected-through-writing | access-date=12 January 2020}}</ref><ref name="Vijayan 2015">{{cite web | last=Vijayan | first=Suchitra | title=The death of the author | website=[[The Hindu]] | date=17 January 2015 | url=https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/the-death-of-the-author/article6794468.ece | access-date=12 January 2020}}</ref>

In 2016, a petition was filed with the [[Madras High Court]] to nullify the settlement against publication of the book. Concurrently, multiple criminal complaints were filed against Murugan on the grounds of obscenity, blasphemy, and defamation. The High Court ultimately ruled in favor of the author, invalidating the settlement and dismissing the criminal complaints.<ref name="Bhatia 2016">{{cite web | last=Bhatia | first=Gautam | title=Perumal Murugan book controversy: The fault in our speech | website=[[The Hindu]] | date=7 July 2016 | url=https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/perumal-murugan-book-controversy-and-madras-high-court/article14476037.ece | access-date=12 January 2020}}</ref> In the verdict delivered in July 2015, Chief Justice [[Sanjay Kishan Kaul]] held:
{{Cquote|The choice to read is always with the reader. If you do not like a book, throw it away. All writings, unpalatable for one section of the society, cannot be labelled as obscene, vulgar, depraving, prurient and immoral. The author and artistes like him cannot be under a constant apprehension that if he deviates from the oft-treaded path, he will face adverse consequences. Let the author be resurrected to what he is best at. Write.
|source= Excerpts from the Madras High Court ruling, July 2016{{cite court |court=[[Madras High Court]], India |date=5 July 2016 |url=https://www.thehindu.com/multimedia/archive/02921/Perumal_Murugan_ca_2921087a.pdf |accessdate= 12 Jan 2020 |quote=}}}}

The judgment was hailed in the press as a landmark victory for free speech in India.<ref name="The New York Times 2016">{{cite web | title=Opinion - In India, a Spirited Defense of Writers | website=[[The New York Times]] | date=10 July 2016 | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/10/opinion/in-india-a-spirited-defense-of-writers.html | access-date=12 January 2020}}</ref><ref name="NDTV.com 2016">{{cite web | first= Subhashini| last=Ali| title=Opinion: The Landmark Verdict In Favour Of Tamil Writer Murugan | website=[[NDTV]] | date=14 July 2016 | url=https://www.ndtv.com/opinion/the-landmark-verdict-in-favour-of-tamil-writer-murugan-1431475 | access-date=12 January 2020}}</ref>

==Sequel==
In 2014, Murugan wrote two books, ''அர்த்தநாரி'' ({{IPA|ta|ərt̪t̪ənɑːɾɪˑ|pron}})<ref>{{cite web |title=அர்த்தநாரி [Arthanaari] |url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/24562131-arthanaari |website=[[Goodreads]] |access-date=5 January 2020}}</ref> and ''ஆலவாயன்'' ({{IPA|ta|ɑːləʋɑːjən |pron}})<ref>{{cite web |title=ஆலவாயன் [Aalavaayan] by Perumal Murugan, பெருமாள் முருகன் |url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/24562165-aalavaayan |website=[[Goodreads]] |access-date=5 January 2020}}</ref> as "dual sequels" to ''One Part Woman'', both picking up from the end of the original novel but each following different storylines. However, the protests against the original broke out in the time leading up to the printing and release of the books, thus curtailing its publication. Subsequent to the High Court ruling on the matter, the books were translated into English by the original translator, Aniruddhan Vasudevan, as ''A Lonely Harvest'' and ''Trial by Silence'' respectively, and were released in December 2018 by [[Penguin Random House]].<ref name="najib">{{cite web |last1=Najib |first1=Rihan |title=Between the word and the margins |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/blink/know/between-the-word-and-the-margins/article26278694.ece# |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=15 February 2019 |access-date=5 January 2020}}</ref><ref name="tnm">{{cite web |title=Writer Perumal Murugan launches two sequels to controversial novel 'One Part Woman' |date=5 December 2018 |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/writer-perumal-murugan-launches-two-sequels-controversial-novel-one-part-woman-92808 |publisher=[[The News Minute]] |access-date=5 January 2020}}</ref> The books were well received by critics, who praised the novels' indigenous writing style, strong characters and the themes they dealt with.<ref name="manish">{{cite web |last1=Manish |first1=Sheeba |title=Perumal Murugan's brilliant sequels to 'One Part Woman' give us two alternate endings |date=17 December 2018 |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/perumal-murugans-brilliant-sequels-one-part-woman-give-us-two-alternate-endings-93496 |publisher=[[The News Minute]] |access-date=5 January 2020}}</ref><ref name="ghosal">{{cite web |last1=Ghosal |first1=Somak |title=Two endings and a funeral |date=11 January 2019 |url=https://www.livemint.com/Leisure/H415Wey4HDngwG1mBkXxDO/Two-endings-and-a-funeral.html |publisher=[[Mint (newspaper)|Mint]] |access-date=5 January 2020}}</ref><ref name="manivannan">{{cite web |last1=Manivannan |first1=Sharanya |title=Perumal Murugan's double sequels to 'One Part Woman' explore what comes after a transgression |date=13 January 2019 |url=https://scroll.in/article/908833/perumal-murugans-double-sequels-to-one-part-woman-explore-what-comes-after-a-transgression |publisher=[[Scroll.in]] |access-date=5 January 2020}}</ref> The two books were jointly shortlisted for the [[JCB Prize|JCB Prize for Literature 2019]].<ref name="bahuguna">{{cite web |last1=Bahuguna |first1=Urvashi |title=What each of the novels on the JCB Prize for Literature 2019 shortlist is worth reading for |date=12 October 2019 |url=https://scroll.in/article/940128/what-each-of-the-novels-on-the-jcb-prize-for-literature-2019-shortlist-is-worth-reading-for |publisher=[[Scroll.in]] |access-date=5 January 2020}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:2010 Indian novels]]
[[Category:Novels set in Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Tamil-language literature]]
[[Category:Penguin Books books]]
[[Category:LGBTQ literature in India]]
[[Category:2010s LGBTQ novels]]
[[Category:Novels set in British India]]
[[Category:Books about the caste system in India]]
[[Category:Dalit literature]]

Arte da Lingoa Canarim

2026-01-29T05:44:44Z

Ajit3011: quick refined section for consistency further and improved wording

{{Short description|16th-century Konkani language grammar}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2017}}
The '''''Arte da Lingoa Canarim''''', the grammar of the [[Konkani language]],<ref>D.O. Hunter-Blair incorrectly describes the ''Arte'' as a grammar of the language spoken in Canara, a district on the Malabar coast; see "Thomas Stephen Buston". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913. The Catholic Encyclopedia (1913) has two articles on Thomas Stephens, the one cited and another under "Thomas Stephens".</ref> was composed by the 16th-century English Jesuit priest [[Thomas Stephens (Jesuit)|Thomas Stephens]], thus making Konkani the first among the modern Indian languages to have its grammar codified and described.<ref>Mariano Saldanha, "História de Gramática Concani," Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies 8 (1935-37) 715. See also M. Saradesaya, ''A History of Konkani Literature: From 1500 to 1992'' (New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi, 2000) 42-43.</ref> The system was expanded upon by Diogo Ribeiro and four other [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits]] and printed in [[Rachol]] (located in the Indian state of [[Goa]]) in the year 1640. A second edition was then developed and introduced in 1857 by [[Joaquim Heliodoro da Cunha Rivara|J.H. da Cunha Rivara]], who possessed a great passion for Konkani. Consequently, three versions of the ''Arte'' exist:

#''Arte da lingoa Canari''. MS held by the School of Oriental and African Studies, London.
#''Arte da lingoa Canarim'', composed by Padre Thomaz Estevão and Padre Diogo Ribeiro of the Company of Jesus & amended by other Padres of the same company. 1640.
''Grammatica da Lingua Concani'', composed by Padre Thomaz Estevão of the Company of Jesus and edited by [[Joaquim Heliodoro da Cunha Rivara|J.H. da Cunha Rivara]]. Nova Goa: Imprensa Nacional. 1857.

==Canarim==
Konkani has been known by a variety of names: ''Canarim'', ''concanim'', ''gomantaki'', ''bramana'' and ''goani''. It is called ''amchi bhas'' ("our language") by native speakers and ''govi'', or ''Goenchi bhas'', by others.<ref>M. Saldanha 717. J. Thekkedath, however, quotes Jose Pereira to the following effect: A lay brother of the College of St Paul around 1563 composed the first grammar of Konkani. His work was continued by Fr Henry Henriques and later by Fr Thomas Stephens. The grammar of Fr Stephens was ready in manuscript form before the year 1619. (Jose Pereira, ed., "Gaspar de S. Miguel’s ''Arte da Lingoa Canarim'', parte 2a, Sintaxis copiossisima na lingoa Bramana e pollida," ''Journal of the University of Bombay'' [Sept. 1967] 3-5, as cited in J. Thekkedath, ''History of Christianity in India'', vol. II: From the Middle of the Sixteenth to the End of the Seventeenth Century (1542-1700) [Bangalore: TPI for CHAI, 1982] 409).</ref>{{verify source|date=December 2023}} Pro-maharashtri agitators tend to call it ''gomantaki'' or ''goanese'', because they claim [[Konkani language|Konkani]] spoken outside Goa is a recent dialect of the "[[classical language]]" Mahratti.

The name ''canarim'' or ''lingua canarim'', which is how Thomas Stephens himself refers to it in the title of his famous grammar, has always been intriguing. It is possible that the term is derived from the Persian word for coast, ''kinara''; if so, it would be means "the language of the coast." The problem is that this term overlaps with Kanarese or Kannada. It is therefore not surprising to find [[Mariano Saldanha]] calling absurd the appellation ''lingua canarim'', since the language of Goa, being derived from Sanskrit, has nothing to do with Kannada, which is a Dravidian language. The missionaries, who certainly travelled to Kanara as well, must have realized the infelicity of the term, but, not being philologists, continued to follow the current practice. Thus Stephens speaks of the ''lingua canarim'', and a Portuguese missionary called his work ''Arte Canarina da lingoa do Norte'', referring to the {{citation needed span|Konkanised Marathi||date=December 2023}} of the northern province of [[Daman, India|Damaon]], Bassein, Bandra ([[Salsette Island]]) & Bombay.<ref>''Arte Canarina na lingoa do Norte.'' Anonymous MS, edited by Cunha Rivara under the title: ''Gramática da Lingua Concani no dialecto do Norte, composta no seculo XVII por um Missionário Portugues; e agora pela primeira vez dada à estampa'' (Nova Goa: Imprensa Nacional, 1858). Cunha Rivara suggested that the author was either a Franciscan or a Jesuit residing in Thana on the island of Salsette; hence the reference to a "Portuguese missionary" in the title.</ref>

All the authors, however, recognized in Goa two forms of the language: The [[Plebeians|plebeian]] called ''canarim'', and the more regular, used by the educated classes, called ''lingua canarim brámana'' or simply ''brámana de Goa''. Since the latter was the preferred choice of the Europeans (and also of other castes) for writing, sermons and religious purposes, it was this that became the norm for all the grammars, including that of Stephens'. The licence of the Ordinary given to his work refers to it as "''arte da lingua canarin bramana''". For his Purāṇa, Stephens preferred to use Marathi, and gives explicit notice of his choice, even though he also notes that he mixes this with the local "language of the Brahmins" so as to make his work more accessible.<ref>M. Saldanha 717-718.</ref> He was therefore well aware of the difference between Marathi and what he chose to call ''canarim''.

==References==
<references />

{{italic title}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Konkani]]
[[Category:Grammar books]]
[[Category:1640 books]]

1991 elections in India

2026-01-27T20:15:09Z

Ajit3011: minor expand formatting per sources

{{Short description|none}} 
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2025}}
{{Infobox Indian elections
| year = 1991
| type =
| incumbent_pm = [[P. V. Narasimha Rao]]
| next_lok_sabha = [[13th Lok Sabha|14th]]
| rajya_control = [[Indian National Congress]]
| rajya_seats_contested = TBD
| rajya_net_change = TBD
| rajya_map =
| rajya_map_caption =
| lok_control =
| lok_seats_contested = 543
| lok_net_change =
| lok_map =
| lok_map_caption =
| states_contested = 7
| state_net_change = TBD
| state_map =
| state_map_caption =
| website =
}}
{{Politics of India}}

'''Elections in the Republic of India''' in ''1991'' included the [[1991 Indian general election|general election]], elections to seven state legislative assemblies and to seats in the [[Rajya Sabha]].

==General Election==
{{Main|1991 Indian general election}}
{{Election results
|image=[[File:Lok Sabha Zusammensetzung 1991.svg|350px]]
|party1=[[Indian National Congress]]|votes1=99799403|seats1=232|sc1=
|party2=[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]|votes2=55345075|seats2=120|sc2=
|party3=[[Janata Dal]]|votes3=32589180|seats3=59|sc3=
|party4=[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]]|votes4=16954797|seats4=35|sc4=
|party5=[[Janata Party]]|votes5=9267096|seats5=5|sc5=
|party6=[[Telugu Desam Party]]|votes6=8223271|seats6=13|sc6=
|party7=[[Communist Party of India]]|votes7=6851114|seats7=14|sc7=
|party8=[[Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam]]|votes8=5741910|seats8=0|sc8=
|party9=[[All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam]]|votes9=4470542|seats9=11|sc9=
|party10=[[Bahujan Samaj Party]]|votes10=4420719|seats10=2|sc10=
|party11=[[Shiv Sena]]|votes11=2208712|seats11=4|sc11=
|party12=[[Revolutionary Socialist Party (India)|Revolutionary Socialist Party]]|votes12=1749730|seats12=4|sc12=
|party13=[[Asom Gana Parishad]]|votes13=1489898|seats13=1|sc13=
|party14=[[Jharkhand Mukti Morcha]]|votes14=1481900|seats14=6|sc14=
|party15=[[Janata Dal (Gujarat)]]|votes15=1399702|seats15=1|sc15=
|party16=[[Pattali Makkal Katchi]]|votes16=1283065|seats16=0|sc16=
|party17=[[All India Forward Bloc]]|votes17=1145015|seats17=3|sc17=
|party18=[[Indian Congress (Socialist) – Sarat Chandra Sinha]]|votes18=982954|seats18=1|sc18=
|party19=[[Indian Union Muslim League]]|votes19=845418|seats19=2|sc19=
|party20=[[Indian Peoples Front]]|votes20=644891|seats20=0|sc20=
|party21=[[Natun Asom Gana Parishad]]|votes21=494628|seats21=0|sc21=
|party22=Karnataka Rajya Ryota Sangha|votes22=490275|seats22=0|sc22=
|party23=[[Doordarshi Party]]|votes23=466869|seats23=0|sc23=
|party24=[[All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen]]|votes24=456900|seats24=1|sc24=
|party25=[[Kerala Congress (M)]]|votes25=384255|seats25=1|sc25=
|party26=[[Jharkhand Party]]|votes26=350699|seats26=0|sc26=
|party27=[[Haryana Vikas Party]]|votes27=331794|seats27=1|sc27=
|party28=[[Naga People's Front|Nagaland People's Council]]|votes28=328015|seats28=1|sc28=
|party29=Bharatiya Republican Paksha|votes29=327941|seats29=0|sc29=
|party30=[[Kerala Congress]]|votes30=319933|seats30=0|sc30=
|party31=[[Peasants and Workers Party of India]]|votes31=295402|seats31=0|sc31=
|party32=[[United Minorities Front, Assam]]|votes32=206737|seats32=0|sc32=
|party33=[[Lokdal]]|votes33=173884|seats33=0|sc33=
|party34=[[Marxist Co-ordination Committee]]|votes34=171767|seats34=0|sc34=
|party35=United Reservation Movement Council of Assam|votes35=170376|seats35=0|sc35=
|party36=[[Manipur Peoples Party]]|votes36=169692|seats36=1|sc36=
|party37=[[Autonomous State Demand Committee]]|votes37=139785|seats37=1|sc37=
|party38=Sanjukta Loka Parishad|votes38=125738|seats38=0|sc38=
|party39=[[Sikkim Sangram Parishad]]|votes39=106247|seats39=1|sc39=
|party40=[[Republican Party of India (Khobragade)]]|votes40=91557|seats40=0|sc40=
|party41=[[Shiromani Akali Dal (Amritsar)|Shiromani Akali Dal (Simaranjit Singh Mann)]]|votes41=88084|seats41=0|sc41=
|party42=[[Plain Tribals Council of Assam]]|votes42=87387|seats42=0|sc42=
|party43=[[Mizo National Front]]|votes43=82019|seats43=0|sc43=
|party44=Sarv Jati Janata Parishad|votes44=70368|seats44=0|sc44=
|party45=[[Akhil Bharat Hindu Mahasabha]]|votes45=67495|seats45=0|sc45=
|party46=[[Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party]]|votes46=64752|seats46=0|sc46=
|party47=Tharasu Makkal Mandram|votes47=55165|seats47=0|sc47=
|party48=[[Uttarakhand Kranti Dal]]|votes48=47369|seats48=0|sc48=
|party49=[[Marxist Communist Party of India (S.S. Srivastava)]]|votes49=43085|seats49=0|sc49=
|party50=Bharatiya Krishi Udyog Sangh|votes50=42504|seats50=0|sc50=
|party51=Jan Parishad|votes51=37725|seats51=0|sc51=
|party52=[[Republican Party of India]]|votes52=36541|seats52=0|sc52=
|party53=[[Amra Bangali]]|votes53=35186|seats53=0|sc53=
|party54=Indian Union Muslim League (IML)|votes54=31387|seats54=0|sc54=
|party55=Sampooran Kranti Das|votes55=29647|seats55=0|sc55=
|party56=Akhil Bharatiya Manav Seva Das|votes56=28528|seats56=0|sc56=
|party57=Uttar Pradesh Republican Party|votes57=28379|seats57=0|sc57=
|party58=Yuva Vikas Party|votes58=28159|seats58=0|sc58=
|party59=[[Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist)]]|votes59=27730|seats59=0|sc59=
|party60=Jawan Kisan Mazdoor Party|votes60=23929|seats60=0|sc60=
|party61=Proutist Bloc of India|votes61=22734|seats61=0|sc61=
|party62=Soshit Samaj Dal|votes62=19925|seats62=0|sc62=
|party63=Akhil Bharatiya Jansangh|votes63=19243|seats63=0|sc63=
|party64=Orissa Vikas Parishad|votes64=15893|seats64=0|sc64=
|party65=[[Hul Jharkhand Party]]|votes65=15406|seats65=0|sc65=
|party66=Socialist Party of India (Lohia)|votes66=12928|seats66=0|sc66=
|party67=Akhil Bharatiya Hindustani Krantikari Samajwadi Party|votes67=12820|seats67=0|sc67=
|party68=Dalit Panthers Party|votes68=11967|seats68=0|sc68=
|party69=Bharatiya Loktantrik Mazdoor Dal|votes69=10837|seats69=0|sc69=
|party70=Akhil Bharatiya Revolutionary Samaj Dal|votes70=8825|seats70=0|sc70=
|party71=Akhil Bhartiya Shivsena-Rashtrawadi|votes71=8810|seats71=0|sc71=
|party72=Asom Jatiyatabadi Dal|votes72=8519|seats72=0|sc72=
|party73=[[Ambedkar Makkal Iyakkam]]|votes73=8252|seats73=0|sc73=
|party74=Asom Jatiya Parishad|votes74=8047|seats74=0|sc74=
|party75=Socialist Party (Ramakant Pandey)|votes75=7104|seats75=0|sc75=
|party76=Akhil Bharatiya Pichhadavarg Party|votes76=6897|seats76=0|sc76=
|party77=All India Dalit Muslim Minorities Suraksha Mahasangh|votes77=5888|seats77=0|sc77=
|party78=Vidarbha Praja Party|votes78=5597|seats78=0|sc78=
|party79=Akhil Bharatiya Gram Parishad|votes79=5521|seats79=0|sc79=
|party80=Akhil Bhartiya Dharmnirpeksh Dal|votes80=5436|seats80=0|sc80=
|party81=Hindu Swaraj Sangathan|votes81=5325|seats81=0|sc81=
|party82=Republican Presidium Party of India|votes82=4967|seats82=0|sc82=
|party83=Surajya Party|votes83=4705|seats83=0|sc83=
|party84=Sarvodaya Party|votes84=4642|seats84=0|sc84=
|party85=Janata Dal (Samajwadi)|votes85=4548|seats85=0|sc85=
|party86=Deseeya Karshaka Party|votes86=4508|seats86=0|sc86=
|party87=Gondwana Party|votes87=3605|seats87=0|sc87=
|party88=Azad Hind Fauz (Rajkiya)|votes88=3543|seats88=0|sc88=
|party89=Samdarshi Party|votes89=2921|seats89=0|sc89=
|party90=Lok Party|votes90=2873|seats90=0|sc90=
|party91=Socialist League of India|votes91=2852|seats91=0|sc91=
|party92=All India Urdu Morcha|votes92=2655|seats92=0|sc92=
|party93=Akhil Bhartiya Ramrajya Parishad (Vasudev Shastri Atul)|votes93=2519|seats93=0|sc93=
|party94=All India Kisan Mazdoor Sabha|votes94=2311|seats94=0|sc94=
|party95=Pondicherry Mannila Makkal Munnani|votes95=2259|seats95=0|sc95=
|party96=Pandav Dal|votes96=2213|seats96=0|sc96=
|party97=[[Internationalist Democratic Party]]|votes97=2078|seats97=0|sc97=
|party98=Gomant Lok Party|votes98=1983|seats98=0|sc98=
|party99=Akhil Bharatiya Desh Bhakt Morcha|votes99=1792|seats99=0|sc99=
|party100=[[Workers Party of India]]|votes100=1781|seats100=0|sc100=
|party101=[[Nationalist Party (India)|Nationalist Party]]|votes101=1768|seats101=0|sc101=
|party102=Marx Engles Leninist Commune Health Association|votes102=1692|seats102=0|sc102=
|party103=Nagaland Peoples Party|votes103=1572|seats103=0|sc103=
|party104=Adarsh Lok Dal|votes104=1544|seats104=0|sc104=
|party105=Desh Bhakt Party|votes105=1521|seats105=0|sc105=
|party106=Akhil Bharatiya Bharat Desham Party|votes106=1466|seats106=0|sc106=
|party107=[[Republican Party of India (Kamble)]]|votes107=1300|seats107=0|sc107=
|party108=Akhil Bharatiya Janhit Jagrati Party|votes108=1245|seats108=0|sc108=
|party109=Mukt Bharat|votes109=1191|seats109=0|sc109=
|party110=Rashtriya Krantikari Dal|votes110=1125|seats110=0|sc110=
|party111=Sampooran Rashtriya Sena|votes111=1040|seats111=0|sc111=
|party112=Gramma Munnetra Kazhagam|votes112=1030|seats112=0|sc112=
|party113=Navbharat Party|votes113=787|seats113=0|sc113=
|party114=Labour Party of India (V.V. Prasad)|votes114=684|seats114=0|sc114=
|party115=Thayaga Marumalrchi Kazhagam|votes115=665|seats115=0|sc115=
|party116=Poorvanchal Rashtriya Congress|votes116=605|seats116=0|sc116=
|party117=Jammu-Kashmir Panthers Party|votes117=587|seats117=0|sc117=
|party118=Kannada Paksha|votes118=576|seats118=0|sc118=
|party119=Akhil Bharatiya Mahila Dal|votes119=573|seats119=0|sc119=
|party120=Socialist Revolutionary Party|votes120=571|seats120=0|sc120=
|party121=Lokhit Morcha|votes121=532|seats121=0|sc121=
|party122=[[Republican Party of India (Athawale)]]|votes122=521|seats122=0|sc122=
|party123=Labour Party (Ashok Bhattacharjee)|votes123=434|seats123=0|sc123=
|party124=Akhil Bharatiya Loktantra Party|votes124=408|seats124=0|sc124=
|party125=Cheluva Kannad Nadu|votes125=383|seats125=0|sc125=
|party126=Azad Party|votes126=372|seats126=0|sc126=
|party127=Democratic Party of India|votes127=359|seats127=0|sc127=
|party128=Bharatiya Backward Party|votes128=329|seats128=0|sc128=
|party129=Hindu Shiv Sena (A.K. Brahmbatt)|votes129=325|seats129=0|sc129=
|party130=Rashtriya Unnatsheel Das|votes130=316|seats130=0|sc130=
|party131=Akhil Bharatiya Gram Parishad|votes131=314|seats131=0|sc131=
|party132=Akhil Bharatiya Loktantric Alpsankhyak Janmorcha|votes132=257|seats132=0|sc132=
|party133=Sr. Citizens National Party of India|votes133=250|seats133=0|sc133=
|party134=Socialist Labour League|votes134=246|seats134=0|sc134=
|party135=M.G.R. Munnetra Kazhagam|votes135=228|seats135=0|sc135=
|party136=Mahabharat People's Party|votes136=225|seats136=0|sc136=
|party137=Janata Congress Party of Bharatvarsha|votes137=194|seats137=0|sc137=
|party138=Akhil Bhartiya Hindu Shakti Dal|votes138=193|seats138=0|sc138=
|party139=Akhil Bharatiya Socialist Party|votes139=166|seats139=0|sc139=
|party140=Kannada Desh Party|votes140=164|seats140=0|sc140=

|party141=Bharatiya Dhruba Labour Party|votes141=142|seats141=0|sc141=
|party142=Jai Mahakali Nigrani Samiti|votes142=138|seats142=0|sc142=
|party143=Bhartiya Sangthit Nagrik Party|votes143=120|seats143=0|sc143=
|party144=Vishal Bharat Party|votes144=56|seats144=0|sc144=
|party145=Jan Ekata Morcha|votes145=34|seats145=0|sc145=
|party146=Independents|votes146=11441688|seats146=1|sc146=
|row147=Nominated [[Anglo-Indians]]|seats147=2
|invalid=7493952
|electorate=498363801
|source=<ref>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/4121-general-election-1991-vol-i-ii |title=General Election, 1991 (Vol I, II) |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]}}</ref>
}}

==Overall Results==
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;"
! Date(s)
!State
! colspan="2" |Government before election
!Chief Minister before election
! colspan="2" |Government after election
!Chief Minister after election
!Maps
|-
|24 April 1991
|[[1991 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|West Bengal]]
| {{Full party name with color|Left Front (West Bengal)}}
| [[Jyoti Basu]]
| {{Full party name with color|Left Front (West Bengal)}}
|[[Jyoti Basu]]
| [[File:IN-WB.svg|50px]]
|-
|6 to 8 June 1991
| [[1991 Assam Legislative Assembly election|Assam]]
| bgcolor="#000000" |
| colspan="2" align="center" |[[President's rule|President's Rule]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
| [[Hiteswar Saikia]]
|[[File:IN-AS.svg|50px]]
|-
|rowspan="2|15 June 1991
|[[1991 Pondicherry Legislative Assembly election|Pondicherry]]
| bgcolor="#000000" |
| colspan="2" align="center" |[[President's rule|President's Rule]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|[[V. Vaithilingam]]
|[[File:IN-PY.svg|50px]]
|-
| [[1991 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|Tamil Nadu]]
| bgcolor="#000000" |
| colspan="2" align="center" |[[President's rule|President's Rule]]
| {{Full party name with color|All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}
| [[J. Jayalalithaa]]
| [[File:IN-TN.svg|50px]]
|-
|18 June 1991
|[[1991 Kerala Legislative Assembly election|Kerala]]
| {{Full party name with color|Left Democratic Front (Kerala)}}
|[[E. K. Nayanar]]
|{{Full party name with color|United Democratic Front (Kerala)}}
|[[K. Karunakaran]]
|[[File:IN-KL.svg|50px]]
|-
| June 1991
|[[1991 Haryana Legislative Assembly election|Haryana]]
| bgcolor="#000000" |
| colspan="2" align="center" |[[President's rule|President's Rule]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Bhajan Lal Bishnoi]]
| [[File:IN-HR.svg|50px]]
|-
| June 1991
| [[1991 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|Uttar Pradesh]]
| bgcolor="#000000" |
| colspan="2" align="center" |[[President's rule|President's Rule]]
| {{Full party name with color|Bhartiya Janata Party}}
| [[Kalyan Singh]]
| [[File:IN-UP.svg|50px]]
|}

==Legislative Assembly elections==
===Assam===
{{Main|1991 Assam Legislative Assembly election}}
{{Election results
|image=[[File:India Assam Legislative Assembly 1991.svg]]
|party1=[[Indian National Congress]]|votes1=2455302|seats1=66|sc1={{increase}}41
|party2=[[Asom Gana Parishad]]|votes2=1499911|seats2=19|sc2=New
|party3=[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]|votes3=548271|seats3=10|sc3=New
|party4=[[Natun Asom Gana Parishad]]|votes4=456209|seats4=5|sc4=New
|party5=[[Janata Dal]]|votes5=398623|seats5=1|sc5=New
|party6=[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]]|votes6=321926|seats6=2|sc6=0
|party7=[[Communist Party of India]]|votes7=206541|seats7=4|sc7={{increase}}4
|party8=[[Autonomous State Demand Committee]]|votes8=133280|seats8=4|sc8=New
|party20=Others|votes20=553683|seats20=0|sc20=0
|party21=Independents|votes21=1791086|seats21=15|sc21={{decrease}}77
|total_sc=0
|invalid=502807
|electorate=11892170
|source=ECI<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.eci.gov.in/files/file/4003-assam-1991/ |title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1991 to the Legislative Assembly of Assam |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date=10 February 2022}}</ref>
}}

===Haryana===
{{Main|1991 Haryana Legislative Assembly election}}
{{election table|title=Summary of results of the Haryana Legislative Assembly election, 1991<ref>{{cite web |url= http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1991/stat_rep_HR_91.pdf |title= Statistical Report of General Election, 1991 to the Legislative Assembly of Haryana |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=2018-02-15}}</ref>|sortable=yes}}
|- align=center
!style="background-color:#E9E9E9" class="unsortable"|
!style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=center|Political Party 
!style="background-color:#E9E9E9" |No. of candidates 
!style="background-color:#E9E9E9" |No. of elected 
!style="background-color:#E9E9E9" |Number of Votes 
!style="background-color:#E9E9E9" |% of Votes 
|-
| {{party color cell|Indian National Congress}}
|align="left"|[[Indian National Congress]]||90||51||2,084,856||33.73%
|-
| {{party color cell|Janata Party}}
|align="left"|[[Janata Party]]||88||16||1,361,955||22.03%
|-
| {{party color cell|Haryana Vikas Party}}
|align="left"|[[Haryana Vikas Party]]||61||12||775,375||12.54%
|-
| {{party color cell|Janata Dal}}
|align="left"|[[Janata Dal]]||25||3||277,380||4.49%
|-
| {{party color cell|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|align="left"|[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]||89||2||582,850||9.43%
|-
| {{party color cell|Bahujan Samaj Party}}
|align="left"|[[Bahujan Samaj Party]]||26||1||143,611||2.32%
|-
| {{party color cell|Independent (politician)}}
|align="left"|[[Independent (politician)|Independents]]||1412||5||848,527||13.73%
|-
|
! Total !! 1885 !! 90 !! 6,181,187 !!
|-
|}

===Kerala===
{{Main|1991 Kerala Legislative Assembly election}}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+'''Party Wise Results<ref>{{Cite web|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1991 to the Legislative Assembly of Kerala|url=http://www.ceo.kerala.gov.in/pdf/KLA/KL_1991_ST_REP.pdf|url-status=live|website=ceo.kerala.gov.in|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120216144409/http://www.ceo.kerala.gov.in:80/pdf/KLA/KL_1991_ST_REP.pdf |archive-date=16 February 2012 }}</ref>'''
!Party
!Seats
|-
|[[Communist Party of India|Communist Party of India (CPI)]]
|12
|-
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|Communist Party of Indian (Marxist) (CPM)]]
|28
|-
|[[Indian Congress (Socialist) – Sarat Chandra Sinha|Indian Congress (Socialist-Sarat Chandra Sinha) ICS(SCS)]]
|2
|-
|[[Indian National Congress|Indian National Congress (INC)]]
|55
|-
|[[Janata Dal|Janta Dal (JD)]]
|3
|-
|[[Kerala Congress (M)|Kerala Congress (M) (KCM)]]
|10
|-
|[[Kerala Congress|Kerala Congress (KEC)]]
|1
|-
|[[Indian Union Muslim League|Muslim League (MUL)]]
|19
|-
|[[Revolutionary Socialist Party (India)|Revolutionary Socialist Party (RSP)]]
|2
|-
|Communist Party of India (Marxist) CPI(M)
|1
|-
|[[Communist Marxist Party|Communist Marxist Party of India (CPM)(K)]]
|1
|-
|[[National Democratic Party (Kerala)|National Democratic Party (NDP)]]
|2
|-
|Independent (IND)
|4
|-
|Total
|140
|-
|}

===Pondicherry===
{{Main|1991 Pondicherry Legislative Assembly election}}
{{Election results
|image=[[File:India Pondicherry Legislative Assembly 1991.svg]]
|party1=[[Indian National Congress]]|votes1=117289|seats1=15|sc1={{increase}}4
|party2=[[Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam]]|votes2=96607|seats2=4|sc2={{decrease}}5
|party3=[[All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam]]|votes3=67792|seats3=6|sc3={{increase}}3
|party4=[[Janata Dal]]|votes4=26321|seats4=1|sc4={{decrease}}3
|party5=[[Communist Party of India]]|votes5=19503|seats5=1|sc5={{decrease}}1
|party20=Others|votes20=27678|seats20=0|sc20=0
|party21=Independents|votes21=35739|seats21=3|sc21={{increase}}2
|total_sc=0
|invalid=10895
|electorate=593318
|source=ECI<ref name=election1991>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3433-puducherry-1991/ |title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1991 to the Legislative Assembly of Pondicherry |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date=30 July 2022}}</ref>
}}

===Tamil Nadu===
{{Main|1991 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election}}
[[File:1991 tamil nadu legislative election map by parties.png|thumb|Election map of results based on parties. Colours are based on the results table on the left]]
{{Election table|title=Summary of the 1991 May 1991 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election results}}
|-
! style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:left;vertical-align:top;" |Alliance/Party
!style="width:4px" |
! style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:right;" |Seats won
! style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:right;" |Change
! style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:right;" |Popular Vote
! style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:right;" |Vote %
! style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:right;" |Adj. %‡
|-
! style="background-color:#009900; color:white"|AIADMK+ alliance
! style="background-color: {{party color|AIADMK}}" |
| '''225'''
| '''+172'''
| '''14,738,042'''
| colspan=2 style="text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;"| '''59.8%'''
|-
|[[All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam|AIADMK]]
! style="background-color: #008000" |
| 164
| +137
| 10,940,966
| 44.4%
| 61.1%
|-
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
! style="background-color: #00FFFF" |
| 60
| +34
| 3,743,859
| 15.2%
| 56.2%
|-
|[[Indian Congress (Socialist) – Sarat Chandra Sinha|ICS(SCS)]]†
! style="background-color: #800000" |
| 1
| +1
| 53,217
| 0.2%
| 56.1%
|-
! style="background-color:#FF0000; color:white"|DMK+ alliance
! style="background-color: {{party color|DMK}}" |
| '''7'''
| '''-164'''
| '''7,405,935'''
| colspan=2 style="text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;"| '''30.0%'''
|-
|[[Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam|DMK]]
! style="background-color: #FF0000" |
| 2
| -148
| 5,535,668
| 22.5%
| 29.9%
|-
|[[Thayaga Marumalarchi Kazhagam|TMK]]
! style="background-color: #FF00FF" |
| 2
| -1
| 371,645
| 1.5%
| 31.0%
|-
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
! style="background-color: #000080" |
| 1
| -14
| 777,532
| 3.2%
| 31.2%
|-
|[[Janata Dal|JD]]
! style="background-color: #FFFF00" |
| 1
| +1
| 415,947
| 1.7%
| 28.3%
|-
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
! style="background-color: #0000FF" |
| 1
| -2
| 305,143
| 1.2%
| 29.9%
|-
! style="background-color:gray; color:white"|Others
! style="background-color:gray" |
| '''2'''
| '''-8'''
| '''2,505,431'''
| colspan=2 style="text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;"| '''10.2%'''
|-
|[[Pattali Makkal Katchi|PMK]]
! style="background-color: #800080" |
| 1
| +1
| 1,452,982
| 5.9%
| 7.0%
|-
|[[Janata Party|JP]]
! style="background-color: " |
| 0
| -4
| 51,564
| 0.2%
| 0.7%
|-
|[[Independent politician|IND]]
! style="background-color: #666666" |
| 1
| -5
| 390,227
| 1.6%
| 1.7%
|-
| style="text-align:center;" |'''Total'''
! style="background-color: " |
| 234
| –
| 24,649,408
| 100%
| style="text-align:center;" | –
|-
|}{{refbegin}}
'''†''': ICS(SCS) contested in 13 different constituencies, but only the one contested by Sanjay Ramaswamy was endorsed by AIADMK. '''‡''': Vote % reflects the percentage of votes the party received compared to the entire electorate that voted in this election. Adjusted (Adj.) Vote %, reflects the % of votes the party received per constituency that they contested.
 Sources: Election Commission of India <ref>[http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1991/StatisticalReport-Tamil%20Nadu91.pdf ECI: 1991 Election Statistical Report]</ref>
{{refend}}

===Uttar Pradesh===
{{Main|1991 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election}}
{| class="wikitable sortable" style=text-align:right
!Party name
!Seats
|-
|align=left|Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)
|221
|-
|align=left|Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP)
|12
|-
|align=left|Communist Party of India (CPI)
|4
|-
|align=left|Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPM)
|1
|-
|align=left|Indian National Congress (INC)
|46
|-
|align=left|Janata Dal (JD)
|92
|-
|align=left|Janata Party (JP)
|34
|-
|align=left|Shiv Sena (SHS)
|1
|-
|align=left|Shoshit Samaj Dal (SSD)
|1
|-
|align=left|Independents
|7
|- class=sortbottom
|align=left|'''Total'''
|'''419'''
|-
|}

===West Bengal===
{{Main|1991 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election}}
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:right
!colspan=2|Party
!Candidates
!Seats
!Votes
!%
|-
|rowspan=12 align=left|[[Left Front (West Bengal)|Left Front]] & allies
|align=left|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]] 
|204
|182
|10,954,379
|35.37
|-
|align=left|[[All India Forward Bloc]]
|34
|29
|1,707,676
|5.51
|-
|align=left|[[Revolutionary Socialist Party (India)|Revolutionary Socialist Party]]
|23
|18
|1,073,445
|3.47
|-
|align=left|[[Communist Party of India]]
|12
|6
|542,964
|1.75
|-
|align=left|[[West Bengal Socialist Party]]
|4
|4
|208,147
|0.67
|-
|align=left|[[Marxist Forward Bloc]]
|2
|2
|130,454
|0.42
|-
|align=left|[[Democratic Socialist Party (Prabodh Chandra)]]
|2
|2
|98,905
|0.39
|-
|align=left|[[Revolutionary Communist Party of India]]
|2
|1
|92,544
|0.30
|-
|align=left|[[Biplobi Bangla Congress]]
|1
|0
|50,414
|0.16
|-
|align=left|[[Janata Dal]]
|8
|1
|208,951
|0.67
|-
|align=left|[[Akhil Bharatiya Gorkha League]]
|1
|0
|35,489
|0.11
|-
|align=left|[[Communist Revolutionary League of India]]
|1
|0
|22,716
|0.07
|-
|rowspan=5 align=left|Congress & allies
|align=left|[[Indian National Congress]]
|284
|43
|10,875,834
|35.12
|-
|align=left|[[Gorkha National Liberation Front]]
|3
|3
|146,541
|0.47
|-
|align=left|[[Jharkhand Party]]
|6
|1
|140,391
|0.45
|-
|align=left|[[United Communist Party of India]]
|1
|0
|40,806
|0.13
|-
|align=left|Congress-supported independent
|1
|0
|40,426
|0.13
|-
|colspan=2 align=left|[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|291
|0
|3,513,121
|11.34
|-
|colspan=2 align=left|[[Jharkhand Mukti Morcha]]
|23
|0
|95,038
|0.31
|-
|colspan=2 align=left|[[Bahujan Samaj Party]]
|97
|0
|88,836
|0.29
|-
|colspan=2 align=left|[[Janata Party]]
|78
|0
|50,037
|0.16
|-
|colspan=2 align=left|[[Provisional Central Committee, Communist Party of India (Marxist-Leninist)|Communist Party of India (Marxist-Leninist)]]
|18
|0
|41,828
|0.14
|-
|colspan=2 align=left|[[Indian People's Front]]
|23
|0
|39,004
|0.13
|-
|colspan=2 align=left|[[Indian Union Muslim League]]
|28
|0
|28,156
|0.09
|-
|colspan=2 align=left|[[Amra Bangalee]]
|60
|0
|22,295
|0.07
|-
|colspan=2 align=left|[[Workers Party of India]]
|6
|0
|10,670
|0.03
|-
|colspan=2 align=left|[[Hul Jharkhand Party]]
|3
|0
|9,239
|0.03
|-
|colspan=2 align=left|Doordashti Party
|26
|0
|4,980
|0.02
|-
|colspan=2 align=left|[[Marxist Communist Party of India]]
|5
|0
|3,804
|0.01
|-
|colspan=2 align=left|[[Akhil Bharatiya Hindu Mahasabha]]
|5
|0
|1,553
|0.01
|-
|colspan=2 align=left|Akhil Bharatiya Jan Sangh
|6
|0
|1,485
|0.00
|-
|colspan=2 align=left|[[Indian National Congress (O) Anti Merger Group]]
|5
|0
|1,309
|0.00
|-
|colspan=2 align=left|All India Dalit Muslim Minorities Suraksha Mahasangh
|2
|0
|988
|0.00
|-
|colspan=2 align=left|Revolutionary Communist Party of India (Gouranga Sit)
|1
|0
|983
|0.00
|-
|colspan=2 align=left|[[Shiv Sena]]
|1
|0
|880
|0.00
|-
|colspan=2 align=left|[[Indian Congress (Socialist-Sarat Chandra Sinha)]]
|1
|0
|876
|0.00
|-
|colspan=2 align=left|[[Bolshevik Party of India]]
|1
|0
|335
|0.00
|-
|colspan=2 align=left|Bharat Dal
|1
|0
|203
|0.00
|-
|colspan=2 align=left|[[Lok Dal]]
|1
|0
|121
|0.00
|-
|colspan=2 align=left|Bidhan Dal
|1
|0
|92
|0.00
|-
|colspan=2 align=left|Independents Including [[Socialist Unity Centre of India]] candidates
|631
|2
|684,130
|2.21%
|-
|colspan=2 align=left|'''Total'''
|'''1,903'''
|'''294'''
|'''30,970,045'''
|'''100'''
|-
|align=left colspan=6|Source: [http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1991/StatisticalReport-West%20Bengal91.pdf Election Commission of India]<ref name="Committee69">{{cite book|author=Communist Party of India (Marxist). West Bengal State Committee|title=Election results of West Bengal: statistics & analysis, 1952–1991|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CNeNAAAAMAAJ|publisher=The Committee|pages=4, 69}}</ref>
|}

==Rajya Sabha==
{{Main|1991 Indian Rajya Sabha elections}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cite web |url=https://eci.gov.in/statistical-report/statistical-reports/ |title=Election Results - Full Statistical Reports |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]}}

{{Indian elections}}

[[Category:1991 elections in India]]
[[Category:1991 elections in Asia|India]]
[[Category:1991 in India]]
[[Category:Elections in India by year]]

List of Indian Bengali films of 1967

2026-01-14T10:07:05Z

Ajit3011: Starting New Bio More To Come

{{Short description|none}}
{{more citations needed|date=May 2019}}
{{Bengali films}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2022}}
A list of films produced by the [[Tollywood Bangla|Tollywood]] ([[Cinema of West Bengal|Bengali language film industry]]) based in [[Kolkata]] in the year '''1967'''.

==A-Z of films==

{| class="wikitable sortable" border="0"
|-
! Title
! Director
! Cast
! Genre
! Notes
|-
|''[[Antony Firingee (film)|Antony Firingee]]''||Sunil Bannerjee||[[Uttam Kumar]], [[Tanuja]]||Musical Drama||
|-
|''[[Arogya Niketan (film)|Arogya Niketan]]''||Bijoy Bose||[[Bikash Roy]], [[Subhendu Chatterjee]], [[Ruma Guha Thakurta]]||Drama||
|-
|''[[Ashite Ashiona]]''||Sree Jayadrath||[[Bhanu Bannerjee]], [[Asit Baran]], [[Rabi Ghosh]]||Comedy||
|-
|''[[Balika Badhu (1967 film)|Balika Badhu]]''||[[Tarun Majumdar]] ||[[Moushumi Chatterjee]]||Social Drama||
|-
|''[[Chhoti Si Mulaqat]]''||Alo Sarkar||Vyjayanthimala, Uttam Kumar, Rajendranath Malhotra|| ||
|-
|''[[Chhuti]]''||[[Arundhati Devi]]||[[Ajitesh Bandopadhyay]], Mrinal Mukherjee, Nandini Mahiya||Drama||
|-
|''[[Chiriyakhana]]''||[[Satyajit Ray]]||[[Uttam Kumar]]||Crime Thriller||
|-
|''Grihadaha''||Subodh Mitra||Suchitra Sen, Uttam Kumar, Pradeep Kumar|| ||
|-
|''[[Hatey Bazarey]]'' || [[Tapan Sinha]] || [[Ashok Kumar]], [[Ajitesh Bannerjee]] || Drama ||
|-
|''[[Hathat Dekha]]''|| ||[[Soumitra Chatterjee]], [[Sandhya Roy]]||Drama ||
|-
|''Jiban Mrityu''||Hiren Nag||[[Uttam Kumar]], [[Supriya Devi]], [[Kamal Mitra]]||Drama||
|-
|''Kanchanmala''||Safdar Ali Bhulyan||Sujata, Mannan, Tejen Chakraborty|| ||
|-
|''[[Miss Priyambada]]''||Rabi Basu, Dushymanta Choudhuri||[[Bhanu Bandyopadhyay]], [[Lily Chakraborty]]|| ||
|-
|''[[Nayika Sangbad]]''||[[Agradoot]]||[[Uttam Kumar]], [[Anjana Bhowmik]]||Romance, Comedy||
|-
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://www.imdb.com/search/title?languages=bn&release_date=1964-01-01%2C1964-12-31&sort=moviemeter%2Casc Tollywood films of 1964] at the [[Internet Movie Database]]

{{Cinema of West Bengal}}
{{Indian film list}}
{{1967 films}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bengali Films Of 1967}}
[[Category:Lists of Bengali films by year|1967]]
[[Category:Lists of 1967 films by language|Bengali]]
[[Category:1967 in Indian cinema|Films, Bengali]]

MG Music Awards

2025-12-11T19:26:46Z

Ajit3011: Started The Pg Nd Citations

{{short description|Annual Nagaland music awards}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2023}}
{{Infobox award
| name = MG Music Awards
| image = MG Music Awards.png
| imagesize = 200px
| caption =
| current_awards = 2022 MG Music Awards
| awarded_for = Excellence in music
| presenter = Musicians Guild Nagaland
| sponsor =
| country = India
| year = {{Start date and age|df=yes|2021|6|21}}
| network =
| website = {{URL|https://musiciansguildnagaland.com/}}
}}
The '''MG Music Awards''' was an annual music awards show presented by the Musicians Guild Nagaland. The annual ceremony was first held over a virtual ceremony on 21 June 2021.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.eastmojo.com/nagaland/2022/06/16/nagaland-musicians-guild-awards-to-honour-ne-talents/|title=Nagaland: Musicians Guild Awards to honour NE talents|date=17 June 2022|website=[[East Mojo]]|access-date=17 May 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://nagalandpost.com/index.php/12-artistes-from-ne-receive-musicians-guild-award-2022/|title=12 artistes from NE receive Musicians Guild Award 2022|date=20 June 2022|newspaper=[[Nagaland Post]]|access-date=17 May 2023}}</ref> No awards were given in 2023, 2024, and 2025.

== Ceremonies ==
{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center"
|-
! scope="col" style="width:5em;" | Edition
! scope="col" style="width:25%;"| Date
! scope="col" style="width:25%;"| Venue
! scope="col" style="width:25%;"| Venue City
! scope="col" style="width:25%;"| Host
! scope="col" | {{Abbr|Ref.|Reference}}
|-
! scope="row" |[[2021 MG Music Awards|1st]]
| 21 June 2021
| colspan="2" |Online event
| [[Mengu Süokhrie]] and Yanpvüo Kikon
||<ref>{{cite web|url=https://morungexpress.com/musicians-guild-nagalands-virtual-relief-concert-raises-rs-206544|title=Musicians Guild Nagaland’s virtual relief concert raises Rs 2,06,544|date=23 June 2021|website=[[The Morung Express]]|access-date=17 May 2023}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |[[2022 MG Music Awards|2nd]]
| 18 June 2022
| [[Regional Centre of Excellence for Music & Performing Arts|RCEMPA Hall]]
| [[Kohima]]
| Ruopfüzhano Whiso
||<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.morungexpress.com/musicians-guild-music-awards-2022|title=Musicians Guild Music Awards 2022|date=18 June 2022|website=[[The Morung Express]]|access-date=17 May 2023}}</ref>
|-
|}

== Categories ==
*Best Electronic Artist
*Best Folk Fusion
*Best Gospel Artist
*Best Hip Hop Artist
*Best Indie Artist
*Best Music Video
*Best Pop Duo/Group
*Best Pop Female
*Best Pop Male
*Best Rock Artist
*Best Song of the Year
*Best Sound Engineer

== Song of the Year ==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
! width="70" style="background:#b3d1e3; | Year
! width="250" style="background:#b3d1e3; | Winner
! width="250" style="background:#b3d1e3; | Song
|-
| 2022 || Klanjan || "Knight in Shining Armour"
|-
| 2021 || Trance Effect || "Clowns"
|-
|}

== Best Music Video ==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
! width="70" style="background:#b3d1e3; | Year
! width="250" style="background:#b3d1e3; | Artist
! width="250" style="background:#b3d1e3; | Song
|-
| 2022 || Lily Sawian x B4NSHAN & Lucy || "Suri"
|-
| 2021 || Abdon Mech || "Give Me My Soul Back"
|-
|}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.musiciansguildnagaland.com/ MG Music Awards] Official Website
{{commons category|MG Music Awards}}

[[Category:MG Music Awards|*]]
[[Category:Awards established in 2021]]
[[Category:2021 establishments in Nagaland]]
[[Category:Annual events in India]]
[[Category:Indian music awards]]
[[Category:Music of Nagaland]]

Gujarat State Election Commission

2025-11-23T10:01:59Z

Ajit3011: created new details.

{{Short description|Election regulatory body of Gujarat}}

{{Infobox government agency
| name = Gujarat State Election Commission
| nativename =
| nativename_a =
| nativename_r =
| logo =
| logo_width =
| logo_caption =
| seal =
| seal_width =
| seal_caption =
| formed = September' 1993
| preceding1 =
| preceding2 =
| dissolved =
| superseding =
| jurisdiction = [[Gujarat]]
| headquarters = Address: State Election Commission, Sardar Patel Bhavan, Sector No. 10, Block 9, 6th Floor, Gandhinagar, Gujarat 382010.
Phone No.:(O) 079-23252149, Fax No.:079-23252307. Office Time : 10:30 a.m. to 6:10 p.m. E-mail : commi-sec @gujarat.gov.in
sec-sec @gujarat.gov.in
| employees =
| budget =
| minister1_name =
| minister1_pfo =
| minister2_name =
| minister2_pfo =
| chief1_name = Shri Sanjay Prasad.<ref name="gec ref9">{{cite web |title=State Election Commission, Gujarat |url=https://sec.gujarat.gov.in/index.htm |website=State Election Commission, Gujarat |access-date=13 December 2021}}</ref>
| chief1_position = Chief Election Commissioner
| chief2_name =
| chief2_position =
| chief3_name =
| chief3_position =
| chief4_name =
| chief4_position =
| chief5_name =
| chief5_position =
| chief6_name =
| chief6_position =
| chief7_name =
| chief7_position =
| chief8_name =
| chief8_position =
| chief9_name =
| chief9_position =
| parent_department =
| parent_agency =
| website = {{URL|https://sec.gujarat.gov.in/}}
| footnotes =
}}

'''Gujarat State Election Commission''' is an [[Autonomy|autonomous]] and [[statutory]] body constituted in the [[India]]n state of [[Gujarat]] for ensuring that [[elections in Gujarat]] are conducted in a free, fair and unbiased way. The [[Constitution of India]] with provisions as per Article 243K and 243 ZA and Article 324 ensures the creation and safeguarding of the powers of [[States Election Commission (India)|State Election Commissions]]. Gujarat State Election Commission is responsible for conducting elections for [[Municipal governance in India|Urban Local Bodies]] like [[Municipality|Municipalities]], [[Municipal corporation (India)|Municipal Corporations]], [[Panchayati raj|Panchayat]]s and any other specified by [[Election Commission of India]]. Gujarat State Election Commissioner is appointed by [[Governor (India)|Governor]].

== History and Administration ==

Gujarat State Election Commission was formed in accordance with powers of [[Election Commission of India]], which was constituted in year 1950<ref name="sec ref1">{{cite news |title=WHAT IS ELECTION COMMISSION OF INDIA (ECI)? |url=https://www.business-standard.com/about/what-is-election-commission-of-india#collapse |access-date=6 December 2021 |publisher=Business Standard India}}</ref> to supervise state level elections.<ref name="sec ref3">{{cite news |title=State election panels: Independent of central EC, with similar powers |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/state-election-panels-independent-of-central-ec-with-similar-powers-5132220/ |access-date=6 December 2021 |work=The Indian Express |date=12 April 2018 |language=en}}</ref> State Election Commission, Gujarat was constituted in September 1993 under Article 243K of the Constitution of India. State Election Commission has been entrusted with the function of conducting free, fair and impartial elections to the local bodies in the state. State election commissioner is appointed by Governor.<ref name="sec ref2">{{cite news |title=India Code: Section Details |url=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show-data?actid=AC_CEN_18_21_00005_199426_1517807320414&sectionId=42788&sectionno=98&orderno=98 |access-date=6 December 2021 |publisher=www.indiacode.nic.in}}</ref><ref name="sec ref6">{{cite news |title=State Election Commissioner Conditions of Service Rules, 1994 |url=http://www.bareactslive.com/HRY/HL534.HTM |access-date=6 December 2021 |publisher=www.bareactslive.com |archive-date=6 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211206113835/http://www.bareactslive.com/HRY/HL534.HTM |url-status=dead }}</ref> To ensure the autonomy of the position, the Gujarat state election commissioner cannot be removed from office except on the grounds and manner specified for [[judge]] of [[High courts of India|High Court]].

== Powers and Responsibilities ==

State election commission carries out activities related to preparation of wards / election division as per local bodies rules, decision of boundaries and distribution of seats along with preparation of voters list for the local bodies organizations like Gram Panchayat, Taluka and District Panchayat / Municipality and Municipal Corporation of the state and conducting general / mid-term / bye-elections and supervising them. For all these functions, the authority is vested in the State Election Commission under Article 243 K under which it has been empowered with Superintendence, Direction and Control of elections of local bodies.

As per the election rules of such local self government organizations, District Election Officer for Panchayat elections, District Municipal Election Officer for elections of municipality and City Election Officer for the elections of municipal corporation have been appointed. State election commission has empowered the collectors for all activities related to elections of Gram Panchayat where as the delimitation and allocation of seats for various reserved categories, voter's list, election programs and other related activities are carrying out by State Election Commission.

Gujarat States Election Commissioner is responsible for the following:<ref name="sec ref1" /><ref name="sec ref7">{{cite news |title=Election Commission directs all state electoral officers to immediately redress all pending voter applications |url=https://www.thestatesman.com/india/election-commission-directs-state-electoral-officers-immediately-redress-pending-voter-applications-1503026387.html |access-date=6 December 2021 |publisher=The Statesman |date=23 November 2021}}</ref>

* Releasing election schedule.<ref name="gec ref4">{{cite news |title=Gujarat Local Body Polls To Be Held In 2 Phases On February 21, 28 Amid Covid |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/gujarat-local-body-elections-to-be-held-in-2-phases-on-february-21-28-amid-pandemic-2357193 |access-date=13 December 2021 |publisher=NDTV.com |date=24 January 2021}}</ref>
* Issue notification containing guidelines for conducting elections for Municipal Corporations in State.
* Conducting elections for Municipal Corporations in State.
* Issue notification containing guidelines for conducting elections for conducting elections for Municipal panchayats in State.<ref name="gec ref6">{{cite news |title=Gujarat state election commission announces local body elections in February |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/gujarat-state-election-commission-announces-local-body-elections-in-february-101611418089853.html |access-date=13 December 2021 |publisher=Hindustan Times |date=23 January 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="gec ref7">{{cite news |title=Gujarat Local Body Election Results 2021 Date: Counting to Begin Tomorrow |url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/gujarat-local-body-election-results-2021-date-counting-to-begin-tomorrow-3487778.html |access-date=13 December 2021 |publisher=News18 |date=1 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
* Conducting elections for Municipal panchayats in State.<ref name="gec ref1">{{cite news |title=Rescheduled Gujarat's Gandhinagar Civic Polls To Be Held On October 3 |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/rescheduled-gujarats-gandhinagar-civic-polls-to-be-held-on-october-3-2531924 |access-date=13 December 2021 |publisher=NDTV.com |date=6 September 2021}}</ref>
* Laying guidelines for persons eligible to contest in elections for Municipal Corporations in State.
* Conducting elections for Municipal panchayats in State.<ref name="gec ref3">{{cite news |title=Gujarat Local Body Polls Tomorrow, 3.04 Crore People To Vote |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/gujarat-local-body-polls-tomorrow-3-04-crore-people-to-vote-2380143 |access-date=13 December 2021 |publisher=NDTV.com |date=27 February 2021}}</ref>
* Model code of conduct are following in elections for local bodies.
* Updating Electoral rolls with new additions.
* Updating Electoral rolls with removals, if any.
* Declaration of results of elections held for Municipal Corporations in State.
* Declaration of results of elections held for Municipal panchayats in State.
* Ordering repoll if needed.
* Making arrangements for Statewide polls.
* Monitoring poll expenditure for Panchayat polls.
* Laying guidelines for issue of opinion polls.
* Decision on conducting elections.<ref name="gec ref2">{{cite news |title=Civic Body Polls In Gujarat's Gandhinagar Postponed Over COVID-19 |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/civic-body-polls-in-gujarats-gandhinagar-postponed-over-covid-19-2410882 |access-date=13 December 2021 |publisher=NDTV.com |date=11 April 2021}}</ref>
* Declaring results of local body polls.<ref name="gec ref10">{{cite news |title=Gujarat civic polls: BJP wins Gandhinagar, 2 other civic bodies; Cong wins 1 |url=https://www.livemint.com/politics/news/gujarat-civic-poll-results-bjp-wins-gandhinagar-2-other-civic-bodies-cong-wins-1-11633431793338.html |access-date=13 December 2021 |publisher=mint |date=5 October 2021 |language=en}}</ref>

== Composition ==

Gujarat State Election Commission is headed by Chief Election Commissioner and as many members as specified in State Act. State Election Commissioners are independent persons not holding position or office in any Central or State Government organisations<ref name="sec ref5">{{cite news |title=State election commissioners should be independent, says SC |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/state-election-commissioners-should-be-independent-says-sc/cid/1809411 |publisher=www.telegraphindia.com |date=13 March 2021}}</ref>

Smt. P. Bharathi, I.A.S., is the Chief Electoral Officer (CEO)<ref>{{Cite news |date=30 April 2022 |title=In poll year, Gujarat appoints new Chief Electoral Officer |work=Indian Express |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/ahmedabad/in-poll-year-gujarat-appoints-new-chief-electoral-officer-7894265/ |access-date=9 October 2022}}</ref> and Shri Sanjay Prasad is the Chief Election Commissioner of Gujarat State Election Commission. His period of service will be 5 years or attaining an age of 65 years whichever is earlier.

State Government has appointed Shri Sanjay Prasad, IAS (Retd) as State Election Commissioner with effect from 03/09/2019<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gujarat State Election Commission |url=https://sec.gujarat.gov.in/overview-dtl.htm}}</ref>

== Constitutional Requirements ==

Gujarat State Election Commission was formed after amendment of Constitution with 73rd and 74th declaration.<ref name="sec ref4">{{cite news |title=India State Election - Find information of all State elections in India |url=https://www.elections.in/state-elections.html |access-date=6 December 2021 |publisher=www.elections.in}}</ref> State Election Commissions were formed as per Article 243K of the Constitution, similar to setting up of Election commission of India as per Article 324.<ref name="sec ref3" />

== See also ==
* [[Election Commission of India]]

== References ==

{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://sec.gujarat.gov.in/ Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221010124155/https://sec.gujarat.gov.in/ |date=2022-10-10 }} of State Election Commission, Gujarat.
* [https://ceo.gujarat.gov.in/Default Official website] of State Electoral Officer, Gujarat.

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:State election commissioners of India]]
[[Category:Local government in Gujarat]]
[[Category:Elections in Gujarat]]
[[Category:State agencies of Gujarat]]

Koorainadu Punukeeswarar Temple

2025-11-16T11:01:41Z

Ajit3011: Done

{{Short description|Hindu temple in Tamil Nadu, India}}
{{Infobox Hindu temple
| name = Koorainadu Punukeeswarar Temple
| native_name = கூறைநாடு புனுகீஸ்வரர் கோயில்
| image = Punukeeswarar temple1.jpg
| caption = ''Gopuram'' of the Punukeeswarar Temple
| deity = Punukeeswarar ([[Siva]])
| location = [[Koranad]], [[Mayiladuthurai]]
| district = [[Mayiladuthurai district | Mayiladuthurai]]
| state = [[Tamil Nadu]]
| country = India
| map_type = Tamil Nadu
| coordinates = {{coord|11|05|43|N|79|38|37|E|type:landmark_region:IN|display=inline,title}}
| architect = [[Dravidian architecture|Dravidian]]
}}

'''Koorainadu Punukeeswarar Temple,''' or simply '''Punukeeswarar Temple''', is a Hindu temple located in [[Koranad|Koorainadu]] (also known as Koranad) in the town of [[Mayiladuthurai]], [[Tamil Nadu]], India. The temple is dedicated to Lord Punukeeswarar, a form of [[Shiva]].

== Location ==
The temple is located in Koranad, a residential neighbourhood in [[Mayiladuthurai]] on the Mayiladuthurai to Kumbakonam state highway, a couple of kilometers south of the [[Kaveri River|Cauvery River]]. It is about {{cvt|256|km}} southeast of [[Chennai]], the state capital. The nearest railway station is [[Mayiladuthurai Junction railway station|Mayiladuthurai railway junction]], {{Convert|2|km|mi|abbr=on}} from the temple. The nearest bus terminal is [[Mayiladuthurai]], {{Convert|1.5|km|mi|abbr=on}} from the temple.

== Etymology ==
According to the historical legend, a [[civet]] (''punugu pūnai'' or civet cat) in the forest area of [[Koranad]] was searching for a goddess to worship and receive divine blessings. The civet looked for a Shiva [[Lingam]] in the surrounding area and found one in a paddy field. It applied ''punugu'' ([[civetone]]), an ancient fragrance, to the sacred Lingam and offered ''vilva'' ([[Aegle marmelos]]) leaves to Lord Shiva in worship, having brought the leaves reverently in its mouth. After many days of prayer, Lord Shiva is believed to have appeared before the civet, granted it divine status, and offered it a place in [[Mount Kailash]].<ref>{{cite web |date= |title=Significance of Koranad Punukeeswarar Temple at Mayiladuthurai – Where Punugu Poonai Worshiped |url=https://tamil.news18.com/photogallery/spiritual/significance-of-koranad-punukeeswarar-temple-at-mayiladuthurai-where-punugu-poonai-worshiped-amt-mkn-local18-ws-l-1930351-page-4.html |accessdate=2025-11-09 |website=News18 Tamil |publisher=News18}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Thirumoolar |first=Saravanan |date=2021-08-29 |title=புனுகீஸ்வரர் |url=https://tsaravanan.com/punukeeswarar/ |access-date=2025-11-09 |website=சரவணன் அன்பே சிவம் |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Architecture ==
Beyond the ''[[Gopuram|rajagopuram]]'' (main tower), the entrance leads into the front hall (''mukha mandapa''), where the temple flagstaff (''kodimaram'') is located. Following the flagstaff are the ''bali peetha'' (altar) and ''[[Nandi (Hinduism)|Nandi]]'' statue. On the right side of the temple premises is the shrine of the Goddess Amman.<ref name=":0">{{cite web |last1=Tamil |first1=Hindu |date=10 Jul 2025 |title=Short history of Koranad Punukeeswarar Temple (in Tamil) |url=https://www.hindutamil.in/news/supplements/anantha-jothi/1368855-short-history-of-koranad-punukeeswarar-temple-explained-in-tamil.html |accessdate=10 Jul 2025 |website=Hindu Tamil Thisai}}</ref>

Circumambulating the sanctum (garbhagriha), one can see the shrine of Chandikeswari. In front of the Amman shrine, there are also the bali peetha and Nandi. Near the Amman shrine are the decorative hall and resting chamber.<ref name=":0" />

Along the corridor around the sanctum, there are shrines dedicated to Varadha Vinayakar, Anjaneyar, Somaskanda, Ayyappan, Nesanayanar (one of the 63 Nayanmars), and Subramaniyar. In the outer circumambulatory path, there are shrines for Surya, Bhairavar, and Keelakkumaran Subramaniyar. Nearby is the Navagraha (nine planets) shrine, followed by the 63 Nayanmars.<ref name=":0" />
[[File:Punukeeswarar temple, Mayavaram3.jpg|thumb|''Punugu pūnai'' worshipping Lord Shiva]]
On the koshta (outer wall of the sanctum), images of Brahma, Adimudi Kaana Annal (Lord Shiva as the Infinite), Dakshinamurthy, and Vinayaka are seen. The shrine of Chandikeswarar is situated nearby. In the outer prakaram, there are sculptures of Shaniswaran, Lingathirumeni (Shiva Lingam with altar and Nandi in front), and Vinayakar.<ref name=":0" />

As of June 2016, renovation works (''thiruppani'') were being carried out in the temple.<ref>{{Cite web |last=எஸ்.கதிரேசன் |date=2017-07-15 |title=கூறைநாடு புனுகீஸ்வரர் கோயில் கும்பாபிஷேகம்: வெகுவிமர்சையாக நாளை தொடங்குகிறது! |url=https://www.vikatan.com/spiritual/temples/95660-koorainadu-punugiswarar-temple-pooja-will-happen-tomorrow |access-date=2017-07-15 |website= |language=ta}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=விஜயன் |first=கடம்பூர் |date=2017-09-09 |title=பாவச் சுமைகளை நீக்கும் மயிலாடுதுறை திருக்கோயில்கள் (பகுதி 1) |url=https://www.dinamani.com/religion/2017/Sep/09/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8D-%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%88-%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D-%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%88-%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D-%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF-1-2770210.html |access-date=2025-11-09 |website=Dinamani |language=ta}}</ref>

== Deity ==
The presiding deity of the temple is Punukeeswarar, and the goddess is Santhanayaki.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=விஜயன் |first=கடம்பூர் |date=2017-09-09 |title=பாவச் சுமைகளை நீக்கும் மயிலாடுதுறை திருக்கோயில்கள் (பகுதி 1) |url=https://www.dinamani.com/religion/2017/Sep/09/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8D-%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%88-%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D-%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%88-%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D-%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF-1-2770210.html |access-date=2025-11-09 |website=Dinamani |language=ta}}</ref>

== Mayiladuthurai Saptha stana temples ==
This temple is one of the seven Shiva temples that take part in the Sapthasthanam festival, which is celebrated at the Ayyarappar Temple under the administration of the [[Thiruvaduthurai Adheenam]] located in [[Mayiladuthurai district]].<ref name=":1" />

# [[Mayuranathaswami Temple, Mayiladuthurai|Mayuranathaswami temple]] – Mayiladuthurai.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ayyar |first=P. V. Jagadisa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NLSGFW1uZboC&dq=MAYURANATHAR+TEMPLE&pg=PA271 |title=South Indian Shrines: Illustrated |date=1982 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=978-81-206-0151-2 |language=en}}</ref>
# Margasahayeswarar temple (Vazhikaatum Vallalar) – Moovalur.<ref>{{Citation |title=மூவலூர் மார்க்கசகாயேஸ்வரர் கோயில் |date=2021-08-12 |work=தமிழ் விக்கிப்பீடியா |url=https://ta.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%B8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D&oldid=3225554 |access-date=2025-11-09 |language=ta}}</ref>
# Aiyaarappar temple - Koranad, Mayiladuthurai.<ref>{{Citation |title=மயிலாடுதுறை ஐயாறப்பர் கோயில் |date=2020-04-06 |work=தமிழ் விக்கிப்பீடியா |url=https://ta.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%88_%E0%AE%90%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D&oldid=2946375 |access-date=2025-11-09 |language=ta}}</ref>
# Kasi Vishwanathar temple - Lagadam, Mayiladuthurai.<ref>{{Citation |title=துலாக்கட்டம் காசிவிசுவநாதர் கோயில் |date=2023-06-07 |work=தமிழ் விக்கிப்பீடியா |url=https://ta.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D&oldid=3732594 |access-date=2025-11-09 |language=ta}}</ref>
# Brahmapureeswarar temple - Sitharkadu, Mayiladuthurai.<ref>{{Citation |title=சித்தர்காடு பிரம்மபுரீஸ்வரர் கோயில் |date=2020-04-06 |work=தமிழ் விக்கிப்பீடியா |url=https://ta.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%B8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D&oldid=2946355 |access-date=2025-11-09 |language=ta}}</ref>
# Azhagiyanathar temple - Sholampettai, Mayiladuthurai.

The presiding deities of these seven temples come together at the [[Mayuranathaswami Temple, Mayiladuthurai|Mayuranathar Temple]] during the Sapthasthanam festival, which is held annually in Mayiladuthurai.

== Gallery ==
{{Gallery|mode=packed|align=left|title=Punukeeswarar temple, Mayavaram6
|File:Punukeeswarar temple4.jpg|Main entrance after gopuram
|File:Punukeeswarar temple, Mayavaram6.jpg|Nesanayanar (one of the 63 Nayanmars)
|File:Punukeeswarar temple, Mayavaram1.jpg|Pilliyar
|File:Punukeeswarar temple, Mayavaram2.jpg|Ambal
|File:Punukeeswarar temple, Mayavaram4.jpg|Ambal
}}
{{-}}

== See also ==

* [[Mayiladuthurai]]
* [[Saptha Stana Temples]]
* [[Koranad]]

== References ==
<references />

== Bibliography ==
{{refbegin}}
*{{Cite book |last=S. R. |first=Balasubrahmanyam |url=https://ignca.gov.in/Asi_data/66858.pdf |title=Later Chola Temples |date=23 Apr 1978 |publisher=MUDGALA TRUST |edition=1st |publication-date=23 Apr 1978 |pages=336 |language=English |trans-title=PANCHANADISVARAR TEMPLE}}{{refend}}

== External links ==

{{Mayiladuthurai Topics}}
{{Famous Shiva temples}}
{{HinduMythology}}
{{Mayiladuthurai district}}

[[Category:Shiva temples in Mayiladuthurai district]]
[[Category:Hindu temples in Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Mayiladuthurai]]
[[Category:Hindu temples in Mayiladuthurai district]]
[[Category:Shiva temples in Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Dravidian architecture]]

Bharatpur

2025-10-25T15:10:29Z

Ajit3011:

{{wikt|Bharatpur|भरतपुर}}
'''Bharatpur''' may refer to:

==India==
*[[Bharatpur division]], Rajasthan, India
**[[Bharatpur district]], within Bharatpur division
***[[Bharatpur, Rajasthan]], a city in Bharatpur district
***[[Bharatpur (Lok Sabha constituency)]]
***[[Bharatpur (Rajasthan Assembly constituency)]]
**[[Bharatpur State]], former princely state in modern Rajasthan
**[[Siege of Bharatpur (disambiguation)]]
*[[Bharatpur, Chhattisgarh]], a subdivision and tehsil of Koriya district in Chhattisgarh
*[[Bharatpur, Murshidabad]], a village in Murshdiababd district, West Bengal
:*[[Bharatpur I]], community development block
:*[[Bharatpur II]], community development
:*[[Bharatpur, West Bengal Assembly constituency]]
*[[Bharatpur, Purba Bardhaman]], a village in Purba Bardhaman district, West Bengal
*[[Bharatpur (archaeological site)|Bharatpur]], an archaeological site in Purba Bardhaman district, West Bengal
*[[Bharatpur Assembly constituency (disambiguation)]]

==Nepal==
*[[Bharatpur, Nepal]], a city in Nepal
**[[Bharatpur Airport]]
*[[Bharatpur, Dhanusa]], village in Nepal
*[[Bharatpur, Mahottari]], village in Nepal

{{Geodis}}

Narotam Sekhsaria

2025-10-22T23:58:46Z

Ajit3011: updated

{{Short description|Indian industrialist and philanthropist}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2018}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Narrotam Satyanarayan Sekhsaria
| birth_place = [[Rajasthan]], India
| alma_mater = [[Institute of Chemical Technology|Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai]]
| occupation = Industrialist Entrepreneur Philanthropist
| spouse = Nalini Sekhsaria
| children = Pulkit Sekhsaria Padmini Sekhsaria
| family = [[Seksaria]]
| parents =
| awards =
| website =
| imagesize =
| restingplace =
| restingplacecoordinates =
| othername =
| known for = [[Ambuja Cements]] [[ACC Limited]] [https://www.ambujacementfoundation.org Ambuja Cement Foundation] [[Narotam Sekhsaria Foundation]]
}}

'''Narrotam Satyanarayan Sekhsaria''' is an Indian industrialist and [[philanthropist]].<ref name="N.S. Sekhsaria is the new Chairman of Ambuja Cements">{{cite web | url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/press-releases/n-s-sekhsaria-is-the-new-chairman-of-ambuja-cements-109092300107_1.html | title=N.S. Sekhsaria is the new Chairman of Ambuja Cements | newspaper=Business Standard | date=23 September 2009 | accessdate=23 June 2016}}</ref>

== Early life ==
Born in [[Chirawa]], [[Rajasthan]], India in the [[Seksaria]] [[Marwari people|Marwari]] trading family in 1950,<ref name="Cement czar: Narotam Sekhsaria">{{cite web | url=https://www.rediff.com/money/2005/jan/29profile.htm | title=Cement czar: Narotam Sekhsaria | publisher=ReDiff | date=29 January 2005 | accessdate=23 June 2016}}</ref> he was brought up in Bombay and was educated as a chemical engineer from the city's prestigious University Department of Chemical Technology (UDCT), now known as [[Institute of Chemical Technology|Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Narotam Sekhsaria Net Worth (2020) – wallmine.com |url=https://in.wallmine.com/nse/acc/officer/1692932/narotam-sekhsaria |work=in.wallmine.com |language=en-in}}</ref>

== Career ==
He started his career at his family business, predominantly trading cotton. He subsequently switched career in the early 1980s, giving up trading to set up [[Ambuja Cements]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Cement czar: Narotam Sekhsaria|url=https://www.rediff.com/money/2005/jan/29profile.htm|accessdate=15 December 2014}}</ref> Over the next decade, Mr Seksharia built [[Ambuja Cements]] into one of the world's most efficient, profitable, and greenest cement companies.<ref name="Board of Directors - ACC Limited">{{cite web | url=https://www.acclimited.com/about/board-of-directors | title=Board of Directors - ACC Limited | work=ACC Limited | date=2022 | accessdate=13 February 2022 | archive-date=5 August 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240805233815/https://www.acclimited.com/about/board-of-directors | url-status=dead }}</ref> It was among the earliest companies in India to develop its own captive sea-ports and use sea transportation to ship cement across the country and abroad.<ref name="The brand story - Ambuja Cement">{{cite web | url=https://www.ambujacement.com/about-ambuja/the-brand-story | title=The brand story - Ambuja Cement | work=Ambuja Cement | date=2022 | accessdate=13 February 2022}}</ref> [[Ambuja Cements]] went on to acquire a stake in [[ACC Limited]], then India's best known and geographically speaking, the largest cement company.<ref name="ACC Limited - Milestones">{{cite web | url=https://www.acclimited.com/about/milestones | title=ACC Limited - Milestones | work=ACC Limited | date=2022 | accessdate=13 February 2022}}</ref> In 2005, Mr Sekhsaria, then still in his 50s, did something unthinkable among family-controlled businesses in India. He divested his interest in Ambuja Cements and ACC Ltd. and ceded control to [[Holcim Group]], the Swiss multinational cement giant.<ref name="ACC Limited - Milestones"/> Mr Sekhsaria continues to be the non-executive chairman of [[Ambuja Cements]] and [[ACC Limited]].<ref name="Ambuja Cements - Board of Directors">{{cite web | url=https://www.ambujacement.com/about-ambuja/management-team/board-of-directors | title=Ambuja Cements - Board of Directors | work=Ambuja Cements | date=2022 | accessdate=13 February 2022}}</ref><ref name="Board of Directors - ACC Limited"/>

Mr Sekhsaria is the chairman of Ambuja Cement Foundation, which he set up as part of Ambuja in the early 1990s and has since grown to become one of India's most extensive corporate CSR programs.<ref name="Ambuja Cement CSR brings CONCRETE Changes in the Life of 2.7 million People">{{cite web | url=https://thecsrjournal.in/ambuja-cement-foundation-csr-corporate-social-responsibility-report/ | title=Ambuja Cement CSR brings CONCRETE Changes in the Life of 2.7 million People | publisher=The CSR Journal | date=2021 | accessdate=13 February 2022}}</ref> It does work in the areas of rural development through agriculture, health, education,skill-building and women's empowerment initiatives.<ref name="Ambuja Cement Foundation">{{cite web | url=https://www.ambujacementfoundation.org/programs/our-programs | title=Ambuja Cement Foundation | publisher=Ambuja Cement Foundation | date=2022 | accessdate=13 February 2022}}</ref>

He is also the Chairman of the [[Narotam Sekhsaria Foundation]], the philanthropic arm of his family office, which funds and supports individuals and organisations working in health, education, livelihoods, governance, art and culture.<ref name="Narotam Sekhsaria Foundation">{{cite web | url=https://nsfoundation.co.in | title=Narotam Sekhsaria Foundation | publisher=Narotam Sekhsaria Foundation | date=2022 | accessdate=13 February 2022}}</ref>

Publication: The Ambuja Story 
Publisher: [https://harpercollins.co.in/product/the-ambuja-story/ HarperCollins]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{cite book|author1=Meenaz Kassam|author2=Femida Handy|author3=Emily Jansons|title=Philanthropy in India: Promise to Practice|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7-T3CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA225|date=21 March 2016|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=978-93-5150-753-6|pages=225–}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sekhsaria, Narotam}}
[[Category:Businesspeople from Mumbai]]
[[Category:Rajasthani people]]
[[Category:Indian businesspeople in the cement industry]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Indian philanthropists]]
[[Category:Indian art collectors]]
[[Category:Engineers from Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Institute of Chemical Technology alumni]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Marwari people]]

{{India-business-bio-stub}}

National Highway 52 (India, old numbering)

2025-10-17T06:24:35Z

Ajit3011: Starting New Stub Basic Info

#REDIRECT [[National Highway 15 (India)]]

{{Redirect category shell|
{{R with history}}
}}

Mavoor

2025-10-15T09:45:40Z

Ajit3011: refined details to improve readability and cleaned formatting

{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2018}}
{{more citations needed|date=May 2007}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Mavoor
| native_name =
| native_name_lang = Malayalam
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = [[Town]]
| image_skyline = File:Mavoor Nochikkad . D.jpg
| image_alt =
| image_caption = Nochikkad Kadavu Bridge, Mavoor
| pushpin_map =
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Kerala, India
| coordinates = {{coord|11|15|35|N|75|56|55|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Kerala]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Kozhikode district|Kozhikode]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total =29,781
| population_as_of = 2001
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]], [[English language|English]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 673661
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| area_code = 0495 288
| registration_plate = KL 11
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[Human sex ratio|Sex ratio]]
| blank1_info_sec1 = 1:1 [[male|♂]]/[[female|♀]]
| website = {{URL|www.mavoorpanchayath.com}}
| footnotes =
}}
[[File:Mavoor.Cheruppa.jpg|thumbnail|Cheruppa village, Mavoor]]

[[File:Mavoor.6.jpg|thumbnail|Mavoor-Mukkam Road]]
[[File:Peruvayal.3.jpg|thumbnail|Peruvayal Temple]]

'''Mavoor''' is a town in the [[Kozhikode district]] of [[Kerala]], [[India]]. It is located 19 km from [[Kozhikode]] city.

==Etymology==

The former name of [[Mavur|Mavoor]] was Pulpparambu, or "hayfields" in [[Malayalam]], as grass for thatching houses was stored in this town. (In Malayalam, ''pul'' means "grass/hay", and ''parampu'' means "field".)

==Geography==

Mavoor is located 21 km east of [[Kozhikode]] city, beside the Chaliyar River.

==Grasim factory==

Until the 1960s, Mavoor was like any other village in Kerala. During the 1963s the industrial house of Birla established a factory named "'[[Gwalior Rayons]]'" (later renamed as [[Grasim]]) at Mavoor for producing pulp and fibre on 316 acres of land. An integrated township with schools, a hospital, and a police station also came up. The arrival of Gwalior Rayons caused a rapid change in the area.

In 1985 Grasim shut down for three years. The disruption caused to the local economy was significant. 11 suicides in Mavoor were attributed to this. In 1988, the Government of Kerala offered more concessions to the management and the factory was re-opened by the management.

The factory faced many protests as it turned out to be a heavily polluting unit. The management avoided the use of any pollution control measures, citing profitability concerns. A large quantity of pollutants produced by Grasim ended up in the Chaliyar river which flows beside the factory. The thick effluents recklessly released by the factory were identified as poisonous. The factory was also a serious air polluter. The impact of the pollution could be seen in the every aspect of the town. Cases of asthma and other respiratory diseases shot up. There was a marked decline in the fish population. Thousands of dead fish and other aquatic animals surfaced from the Chaliyar river. Environmental organizations started agitations focusing on this aspect of the factory.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.labourfile.org/ArticleMore.aspx?id=129|title=Labour File: Labour Rights in MTA}}</ref>

E N Peethambaran master was a significant figure who worked for restoration of the environmental cleanliness, as well as ensuring justice to the workers of the factory. A series of labour strikes and heightened trade union was also witnessed at the plant. All these factors contributed to the shutdown of Gwalior Rayons in 2001. (See also [[K A Rahman#Environmental Movement In Kerala|the first environmental movement in Kerala]].) The closure of the factory caused the loss of employment of around 3000 people.

==Future plans==
386 acres of land is still owned by the Birla group of companies in Mavoor town. The government can utilize this land for the development of Mavoor town. However, the control of the land is still vested with the Birla management. The Kerala Government is planning to build another industrial hub in Mavoor which will be an eco-friendly project. This area is also considered ideal for the setting up of the [[All India Institute of Medical Sciences|AIIMS]] hospital,<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/ddc-plea-to-set-up-aiims-in-kozhikode/article6158990.ece|title = DDC plea to set up AIIMS in Kozhikode|newspaper = The Hindu|date = 29 June 2014}}</ref> considering the availability of the required amount of land in the vicinity of an abundant freshwater source - the Chaliyar. Moreover, Mavoor, owing to the previous presence of a factory, is fully equipped to house big installations and organizations...

==Culture==

Many [[temple]]s, [[mosque]]s and [[church (building)|churches]] are situated in the nearby places. Kalchira Sree Narasimha Moorthy Kshethram, kanniparambu Siva kshethram, Mavoor Juma masjid, Valiya Juma masjid, Kalpally Juma masjid, Christ the King Church, and Little Flower Church are the major religious centers in Mavoor.

Arts and sports clubs drive the cultural aspirations of people.

The Mavoor Public Library is on the ground floor of the Grama Panchayath Office.

==Climate==

The district has a generally humid climate with a hot season extending from March to May. The most important rainy season is during the south west [[monsoon]], which sets in the first week of June and extends up to September. In June and July, most of the places suffer the threat of floods.

==Demographics==

{{Historical populations|state=expanded
|title= Mavoor panchayat population

|1981| 24165
|1991| 26144
|2001| 27845
|2011| 29781
|footnote= Source: [[Census of India]]
}}

{{As of|2001}} India [[census]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040616075334/http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archive-date=2004-06-16|title= Census of India 2001: Data from the 2001 Census, including cities, villages and towns (Provisional)|access-date=2008-11-01|publisher= Census Commission of India}}</ref> Mavoor had a population of 27,843. Males constitute 50% of the population and females 50%. Mavoor has an average literacy rate of 82%, higher than the national average of 59.5%: male literacy is 85%, and female literacy is 79%. In Mavoor, 13% of the population is under 6 years of age.

==Suburbs of Mavoor==
The suburbs of Mavoor are Kuttikkadu, Valayanoor, Kuniyankadavu, Chittari Pilakkal, Thathoor, Koolimad, Cheruvadi, [[Kodiyathur]], Kettungal, Ayamkulam, Kacherikunnu, Kanniparamba, Cherupa, Kuttikadave, Valayanoor, Peruvayal, Cheruppa, Thengilakkadavu, Kalleri, Manakkad, Kolakkott Thazham, Kalpally and Parammal.

==Educational institutions==

Some of the educational institutes are Mavoor GMUP school, GHSS Mavoor, Mahlara Public school (CBSE), Mahlara Arts & Science College, Crescent English school, St. Mary's English Medium School <ref>[http://www.stmaryschoolmavoor.com St. Mary's English Medium School]</ref> Aduvad AUP school, GUP school, Arayancode ALP school, ALP School Kanniparamba, Govt UP School Manakkad, Cheruppa and Govt LP School Nechikkad, Cherooppa.

==See also==
* [[Kunnamangalam]]
* [[Cheruvadi]]
* [[kodiyathur]]
* [[Thamarassery]]
* [[Thiruvambady]]
* [[Mukkam]]
* [[Koduvally]]
* [[Elamaram]]
* [[Manasheri]]
* [[Pannicode]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Mavoor}}
* Website for Mavoor with photos: [https://www.mavoorpanchayath.com]
* Documentary on Mavoor Chaliyar pollution: [http://blip.tv/file/2269096/ ''Chaliyar... The Final Struggle'' by P.Baburaj and C.Saratchandran]

{{Kozhikode district}}

[[Category:Cities and towns in Kozhikode district]]
[[Category:Suburbs of Kozhikode]]

Shunri

2025-10-03T11:39:43Z

Ajit3011:

{{Short description|Bengali Hindu caste}}
{{more citations needed|date=December 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2024}}
{{Infobox caste
| caste_name = Shunri
| image = Shunri distiller.jpg
| caption = Shunri wine maker, from a 1799 collection of etchings
| classification =
| population = 317,543 (West Bengal, 2001 census)
| populated_states = [[West Bengal]], [[Assam]], [[Tripura]], [[Bangladesh]]
| languages = [[Bengali language|Bengali]]
| religions = [[Hinduism]]
| kula_devi = [[Lakshmi]]
| related = [[Sundhi]]
}}

'''Shunri''' ({{langx|bn|শুঁড়ি}}) is a [[Bengali Hindu]] caste whose traditional occupation is the distillation and selling of country wine.<ref name="kundu">{{cite book |title=Bangali Hindu Jati Parichay |trans-title=An Introduction of Bengali Hindu Castes |language=Bengali |last=Kundu |first=Santosh Kumar |year=2008 |publisher=Presidency Library |location=Kolkata |isbn=978-81-89466-13-8 |pages=264–265}}</ref>

== Population ==
In the census of 2001, the Shunris numbered 317,543 in [[West Bengal]], consisting of 1.7% of the total [[Scheduled Caste]] population of the state.<ref name="goi">{{cite web |url=http://censusindia.gov.in/Tables_Published/SCST/dh_sc_westbengal.pdf |title=West Bengal - Data Highlights: The Scheduled Castes - Census of India 2001 |work=Census of India |page=1 |access-date=10 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071124160657/http://censusindia.gov.in/Tables_Published/SCST/dh_sc_westbengal.pdf |archive-date=24 November 2007}}</ref>

== Religion ==
The Shunris are predominantly Vaishnavas. [[Lakshmi]] is their titular deity. Thursday being the weekly day of worship of Lakshmi, they used to keep their liquor shops closed. Even today, both the foreign and country liquor shops remain closed on Thursday. On the first day of Magh, they worship Bair Lakshmi with much pomp and grandeur. In the month of Kartik, they worship Kartik. The Shunris keep pigeons as pets, because they believe the flapping of their wings bring good luck to them.{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}

== See also ==
*[[Saha (surname)]]
*[[Baishya Saha]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Bengali Hindu people}}
{{Scheduled Castes in West Bengal}}

[[Category:Bengali Hindu castes]]
[[Category:Social groups of West Bengal]]
[[Category:Indian castes]]

Russian Embassy School in Delhi

2025-09-28T02:16:25Z

Ajit3011: update references based on references

{{Short description|International School in New Delhi, India}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{More citations needed|date=September 2020}}
{{Primary sources|date=August 2022}}
{{notability|Org|date=December 2023}}
}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2018}}
{{coord|28.592848|77.18218|display=title}}
{{Infobox school
| name = Russian Embassy School in New Delhi
| native_name = {{lang|ru|Средняя общеобразовательная школа при Посольстве России в Индии}}
| image =
| alt =
| caption =
| motto = 
| motto_translation =
| location = [[Chanakyapuri]], [[New Delhi]]
| country = [[India]]
| coordinates = 
| other_name = 
| former_name = 
| type =
| established = 
| founder = 
| closed = 
| school_board =
| district =
| authority = 
| oversight = 
| principal = 
| head = 
| staff =
| faculty =
| grades = 
| gender = 
| age_range = 
| enrollment = 
| language =
| campus_size =
| campus_type =
| colors = 
| accreditation = 
| publication =
| newspaper =
| yearbook =
| affiliation = 
| website = 
| footnotes =
}}

The '''Russian Embassy School in New Delhi''' ({{langx|ru|Средняя общеобразовательная школа при Посольстве России в Индии}}) is a Russian international school located in [[Chanakyapuri]], [[New Delhi]].<ref name=About>"{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20130924132658/http://www.russchooldelhi.org/p198aa1.html Сведения о школе.]}}" ({{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20150418152529/http://russchooldelhi.org/p198aa1.html Archive]}}). Russian Embassy School in New Delhi. Retrieved on 18 April 2015. "PLOT G BLOK 50E NYAYA MARG, CHANAKYAPURI, NEW-DELHI -110021, INDIA"</ref> It is run by the [[Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs]].

It was previously under the [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Soviet Union)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Soviet Union]]. It was upgraded from a primary school to an eight-year school under Order No. 957 from the Soviet Ministry of Foreign Relations in 1974. This was effective on 11 September that year. The same ministry upgraded it to a secondary school under Order No. 4063 18 July 1991. It was further upgraded to a high school with an in-depth study of a foreign language from Order No. 1053 of the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs.<ref name=About/>

==See also==
{{Portal|India|Russia|Schools}}
* [[Embassy of India School Moscow]]
* [[India–Russia relations]]
* [[Education in India]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://newdelhischool.ru/ Russian Embassy School in New Delhi] {{in lang|ru}}
{{Schools in Delhi}}
{{International schools in Delhi}}
{{Russian international schools}}

[[Category:International schools in Delhi]]
[[Category:Russian international schools|Delhi]]
[[Category:India–Russia relations]]
[[Category:India–Soviet Union relations]]
[[Category:Schools in New Delhi]]

{{Delhi-school-stub}}

Kanniammanpettai

2025-08-07T09:14:34Z

Ajit3011: slightly corrected section for accuracy

{{more footnotes|date=July 2020}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Kanniammanpettai
| native_name = கண்ணியம்மன்பேட்டை
| native_name_lang = ta
| other_name =
| settlement_type = Neighbourhood
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| nickname =
| image_map =
| map_alt =
| map_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Chennai#Tamil Nadu#India
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption =
| coordinates = {{coord|13.19430|N|80.25617|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[File:TamilNadu Logo.svg|23x16px|border|link=|alt=|Tamil Nadu]][[Tamil Nadu]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Chennai district|Chennai]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[Taluk]]
| subdivision_name3 = [[Tiruvottiyur taluk|Tiruvottiyur]]
| subdivision_type5 = Metro
| subdivision_name5 = [[Chennai]]
| subdivision_type6 = [[List of Chennai Corporation wards|Zone & Ward]]
| subdivision_name6 = [[Manali, Chennai|Manali Zone 2]] & Ward 16
| established_title =
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total =
| population_as_of =
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 600103
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| area_code = 044-2593
| registration_plate = TN-18-xxxx & TN-20-xxxx(old)
| blank1_name_sec1 = Civic agency
| blank1_info_sec1 = [[Greater Chennai Corporation]]
| blank2_name_sec1 = [[Urban planning|Planning]] agency
| blank2_info_sec1 = [[Chennai Metropolitan Development Authority|CMDA]]
| blank3_name_sec1 = [[List of cities and towns in India by population|City]]
| blank3_info_sec1 = [[Chennai]]
| blank4_name_sec1 = [[Lok Sabha]] constituency
| blank4_info_sec1 = [[Chennai North (Lok Sabha constituency)|Chennai North]]
| blank5_name_sec1 = [[Vidhan Sabha]] constituency
| blank5_info_sec1 = [[Tiruvottiyur (State Assembly Constituency)|Tiruvottiyur]]
| website = http://www.chennaicorporation.gov.in/
| footnotes =
}}

'''Kanniammanpettai''' ({{langx|ta|கண்ணியம்மன்பேட்டை}}), is an industrial/residential area in [[Manali, Chennai|Manali]], North of [[Chennai]], a metropolitan city in [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]]. In October 2011, the erstwhile [[Kadapakkam, Chennai|Kadapakkam]] village panchayat is merged with [[Greater Chennai Corporation]] and it came under the jurisdiction of [[Greater Chennai Corporation]].<ref>{{cite news|title=More areas to come under Chennai Corporation|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/more-areas-to-come-under-chennai-corporation/article128605.ece|website=The Hindu|date=30 December 2009|access-date=6 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Expanded Chennai Corporationto be divided into 3 regions|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Chennai/article2658830.ece|website=The Hindu|date=25 November 2011|access-date=6 December 2015}}</ref> Though Kanniammanpettai is annexed with [[Greater Chennai Corporation]] it is remained as a part of [[Tiruvottiyur taluk]] in [[Tiruvallur district]] till 15 August 2018.

==Location==
Kanniammanpettai is located in [[Manali, Chennai|Manali]], North Chennai with [[Tiruvottiyur]] in the east and south. Other neighbouring areas include [[Mathur, Chennai|Mathur]], [[Madhavaram, Chennai|Madhavaram]], [[Andarkuppam]], [[Manali Pudhunagar]], [[Kosappur]], [[Ennore]].
{{-}}

==Surroundings==
{{Geographic Location
|title = '''''Directions From Kanniammanpettai'''''
|Northwest = [[Kadapakkam, Chennai|Kadapakkam]]
|North = [[Vichoor]]
|Northeast = [[Ennore]]
|West = [[Ariyalur, Chennai|Ariyalur]]
|Centre = Kanniammanpettai
|East = [[Tiruvottiyur]]
|Southwest = [[Mathur MMDA]]
|South = [[Manali, Chennai|Manali]]
|Southeast = [[Tiruvottiyur]]
}}

{{Portal|India}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.chennaicorporation.gov.in Corporation of Chennai]
*[http://www.cmdachennai.gov.in/ CMDA Official Webpage] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211008183728/http://www.cmdachennai.gov.in/ |date=8 October 2021 }}
*[http://www.cmdamaps.tn.nic.in/pdflinkcombine.php?lbcode=38&vname=Mathur,MP CDMA map of Mathur] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120326112255/http://www.cmdamaps.tn.nic.in/pdflinkcombine.php?lbcode=38&vname=Mathur,MP |date=26 March 2012 }}

{{Chennai Topics}}
{{Areas of Chennai}}
{{Neighbourhoods of Chennai}}

[[Category:Neighbourhoods in Chennai]]

{{Chennai-geo-stub}}

Waltangoo

2025-07-28T05:33:48Z

Ajit3011: New

{{Orphan|date=April 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2023}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Waltengo Kund
| subdivision_type2 = District
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| subdivision_name3 = [[Devsar, Jammu and Kashmir|Devsar]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Kulgam district|Kulgam]]
| subdivision_name1 = {{flag|Jammu and Kashmir}}
| subdivision_type3 = Tehsil
| subdivision_type1 = State
| official_name = Waltengo
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| coordinates = {{coord|33.54770701|75.11244867|display=inline}}
| pushpin_label_position = Right
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]], [[India]]
| pushpin_map = India Jammu and Kashmir#India
| settlement_type = Village
| demographics1_info1 = [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]], [[Urdu]], [[Hindi]], [[Dogri language|Dogri]], [[English language|English]]<ref name="OfficialLang">{{cite web |url=http://egazette.nic.in/WriteReadData/2020/222037.pdf |title=The Jammu and Kashmir Official Languages Act, 2020 |publisher=The Gazette of India|date=27 September 2020 |access-date=27 September 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | title=Parliament passes JK Official Languages Bill, 2020 | work=Rising Kashmir | date=23 September 2020 | url=http://risingkashmir.com/news/parliament-passes-jk-official-languages-bill-2020 | access-date=23 September 2020 | archive-date=24 September 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924141909/http://risingkashmir.com/news/parliament-passes-jk-official-languages-bill-2020 | url-status=dead }}</ref>
}}

'''Waltengo'''<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-01-07 |title=DC Kulgam visits far-off Kund area |url=https://boldnewsonline.com/dc-kulgam-visits-far-off-kund-area/ |access-date=2022-04-13 |website=Bold News |language=en-US}}</ref> is a village in [[Qazigund]] Block in [[Kulgam]] District of [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)]], India. It is located 12 km towards East from District headquarters [[Kulgam]]. 65 km from State capital [[Srinagar]], [[Jammu]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=DDC tours Kund, Waltangoo, assesses damage caused to horticulture sector - The News Now |url=https://www.thenewsnow.co.in/newsdet.aspx?q=93846 |access-date=2022-04-13 |website=www.thenewsnow.co.in}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Untold Story of VASAKNAG |url=https://www.panditasblogs.co.in/2021/01/untold-story-of-vasak-nag.html |access-date=2022-04-13}}</ref> This village is famous because of ziyarat shareef of Hazrat Syed Noor Shah wali Bagadai R.A {{citation needed|date=June 2023}}

== 2005 Snowstorm ==
On 18 February 2005, A snow storm killed 175 people in Waltengo Nar in Kulgam district. Many villages are situated in the crest of the mountain ridges, making them vulnerable to snow storm and avalanches because of slopes protruding from two sides making wind to whirl and trigger avalanches.{{citation needed|date=June 2023}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Villages in Kulgam district]]