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English language

2026-05-08T14:48:29Z

AhmedSturgis: expanded content

{{short description|West Germanic language}}
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{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}}
{{Use British English|date=July 2014}}
{{Infobox language
| name = English
| pronunciation = {{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɪ|ŋ|ɡ|l|ᵻ|ʃ}} {{respell|ING-glish}}{{sfn|''Oxford Learner's Dictionary''|2015|loc=Entry: [http://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/us/pronunciation/english/english_1 English – Pronunciation]}}
| states = The [[English-speaking world]], including the {{enum|[[United Kingdom]]|[[United States]]|[[Canada]]|[[Australia]]|[[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]|[[New Zealand]]|[[Commonwealth Caribbean]]|[[South Africa]]|[[List of countries and territories where English is an official language|others]]}}
| speakers = [[First language|L1]]: {{nowrap|380 million}}
| speakers_label = Speakers
| date = 2021
| ref = <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/insights/ethnologue200/ |title=What are the top 200 most spoken languages? |website=Ethnologue |date=2023 |access-date=3 October 2023 |archive-date=18 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230618002011/https://www.ethnologue.com/insights/ethnologue200/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
| speakers2 = {{plainlist|
* [[Second language|L2]]: {{nowrap|1.077 billion}} (2021)<ref name="Ethnologue26">{{e26|eng|English}}</ref>
* [[English-speaking world|Total]]: 1.457 billion}}
| familycolor = Indo-European
| fam2 = [[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
| fam3 = [[West Germanic]]
| fam4 = [[North Sea Germanic]]
| fam5 = [[Anglic languages|Anglic]]
| ancestor = [[Proto-English]]
| ancestor2 = [[Old English]]
| ancestor3 = [[Middle English]]
| ancestor4 = [[Early Modern English]]
| script = {{plainlist|
* [[Latin script|Latin]] ([[English alphabet]])
* [[Anglo-Saxon runes]] (historical)
* [[English Braille]], [[Unified English Braille]]
}}
| nation = {{ubli | [[List of countries and territories where English is an official language#Sovereign states|57 countries]] and [[List of countries and territories where English is an official language#Non-sovereign entities|30 dependent territories]] | Organisations including the {{enum
| [[UN]]
| [[EU]]
| [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]]
| [[International Criminal Court|ICC]]
| [[IMF]]
| [[IOC]]
| [[ISO]]
| [[NATO]]
| [[WTO]]
| [[ASEAN]]
| [[Organisation of American States|OAS]]
| [[OECD]]
}} }}
| ethnicity =[[English People|English]]
| iso1 = en
| iso2 = eng
| iso3 = eng
| lingua = 52-ABA
| notice = IPA
| sign = [[Manually coded English]] {{nwr|(multiple systems)}}
| glotto = stan1293
| glottorefname = English
| mapscale = 1.25
| map = English language distribution.svg
| mapcaption = {{legend|#346699|Regions where English is the native language of the majority}}
{{legend|#99ccff|Regions where English is an official or widely spoken language, but not a majority native language}}
| dialects = {{hlist |class=inline |[[British English]]|[[North American English|North American]]|[[Caribbean English|Caribbean]]|[[Australian English|Australian]]|[[New Zealand English|New Zealand]]|[[South African English|South African]]|[[Hiberno-English]]}} ([[List of dialects of English|full list]])
}}
'''English''' is a [[West Germanic languages|West Germanic language]] of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] language family that emerged in [[History of Anglo-Saxon England|early medieval England]] and has since become a global [[lingua franca]].{{sfn|The Routes of English}}{{sfn|Crystal|2003a|p=6}}{{sfn|Wardhaugh|2010|p=55}} The namesake of the language is the [[Angles (tribe)|Angles]], one of the [[Germanic peoples]] who [[Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain|migrated to Britain]] after the [[End of Roman rule in Britain|end of Roman rule]]. English is the [[List of languages by total number of speakers|most spoken language]] in the world, primarily due to the global influences of the former [[British Empire]] (succeeded by the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]) and the [[United States]]. It is the most widely learned [[second language]] in the world, with more second-language speakers than native speakers. However, English is only the [[list of languages by number of native speakers|third-most spoken native language]], after [[Mandarin Chinese]] and [[Spanish language|Spanish]].<ref name="Ethnologue26" />

English is either the official language, or one of the official languages, in [[list of countries and territories where English is an official language|57 sovereign states and 30 dependent territories]], making it the most geographically widespread language in the world. In the [[United Kingdom]], the United States, [[Australia]], and [[New Zealand]], it is the dominant language for historical reasons without being explicitly defined by law.{{sfn|Crystal|2003b|pp=108–109}} It is a [[official languages of the United Nations|co-official language of the United Nations]], the [[languages of the European Union|European Union]], and many other international and regional organisations. It has also become the ''[[de facto]]'' lingua franca of diplomacy, [[languages of science|science]], technology, international trade, [[logistics]], tourism, aviation, entertainment, and the [[languages used on the Internet|Internet]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/01/18/books/review/the-rise-of-english-rosemary-salomone.html |title=How the English Language Conquered the World |last=Chua |first=Amy |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=18 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301222132/https://www.nytimes.com/2022/01/18/books/review/the-rise-of-english-rosemary-salomone.html |archive-date=1 March 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> ''[[Ethnologue]]'' estimated that there were over 1.4 billion speakers worldwide {{as of|2021|lc=y}}.<ref name="Ethnologue26" />

[[Old English]] emerged from a group of West Germanic dialects spoken by the [[Anglo-Saxons]]. Early inscriptions were written with [[Anglo-Saxon runes|runes]] before a [[Old English Latin alphabet|Latin-based alphabet]] was adopted for longer texts. Late Old English borrowed some grammar and core vocabulary from [[Old Norse]], a [[North Germanic languages|North Germanic language]].<ref name="Finkenstaedt1973">{{cite book |last=Finkenstaedt |first=Thomas |author2=Dieter Wolff |title=Ordered profusion; studies in dictionaries and the English lexicon |publisher=C. Winter |year=1973 |isbn=978-3-533-02253-4}}</ref>{{sfn|Bammesberger|1992|p=30}}{{sfn|Svartvik|Leech|2006|p=39}} An evolution of the Latin alphabet, the [[English alphabet]], fully supplanted the runic alphabet by the [[High Middle Ages]], coinciding with the emergence of [[Middle English]] in [[England in the High Middle Ages|England under Norman control]]. Middle English borrowed vocabulary extensively from [[langues d'oïl|French dialects]], which are the source of approximately [[list of English words of French origin|28 per cent of Modern English words]], and from [[Latin]], which is [[list of Latin words with English derivatives|the source of an additional 28 per cent]].<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1017/chol9780521264754.006 |chapter=Lexis and Semantics |title=The Cambridge History of the English Language |date=1992 |last1=Burnley |first1=David |pages=409–499 |isbn=978-1-139-05553-6 |editor-first1=Norman |editor-last1=Blake |quote=Latin and French each account for a little more than 28 percent of the lexis recorded in the [[Shorter Oxford English Dictionary]] (Finkenstaedt & Wolff 1973)}}</ref> While Latin and the [[Romance languages]] are thus the source for a majority of its lexicon taken as a whole, [[English grammar|English's grammar]] and [[English phonology|phonology]] remain Germanic, as does most of its basic everyday vocabulary. Finally, Middle English transformed, in part through the [[Great Vowel Shift]], into [[Modern English]], which exists on a [[dialect continuum]] with [[Scots language|Scots]]; it is next-most closely related to [[Low German|Low Saxon]] and [[Frisian languages|Frisian]].

== Classification ==
English is a member of the [[Indo-European language family]], belonging to the [[West Germanic]] branch of [[Germanic languages]].{{sfn|Bammesberger|1992|pp=29–30}} Owing to their descent from a shared ancestor language known as ''[[Proto-Germanic]]'', English and other Germanic languages{{snd}}which include [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[German language|German]], and [[Swedish language|Swedish]]{{sfn|Durrell|2006}}{{snd}}have characteristic features in common, including a division of verbs into [[Germanic strong verb|strong]] and [[Germanic weak verb|weak]] classes, the use of [[modal verb]]s, and sound changes affecting [[Proto-Indo-European]] consonants known as [[Grimm's law|Grimm's]] and [[Verner's law]]s.{{sfn|König|van der Auwera|1994}}

[[Old English]] was one of several [[Ingvaeonic languages]], which emerged from a [[dialect continuum]] spoken by West Germanic peoples during the 5th century in [[Frisia]], on the coast of the [[North Sea]]. Old English emerged among the Ingvaeonic speakers on the [[British Isles]] following their migration there, while the other Ingvaeonic languages ([[Frisian languages|Frisian]] and [[Old Low German]]) developed in parallel on the continent.{{sfn|Bazelmans|2009|pp=325–326}} Old English evolved into [[Middle English]], which in turn evolved into Modern English.{{sfn|Robinson|1992}} Particular dialects of Old and Middle English also developed into other [[Anglic languages]], including [[Scots language|Scots]]{{sfn|Romaine|1982|pp=56–65}} and the extinct [[Fingallian]] and [[Yola dialect]]s of Ireland.{{sfn|Barry|1982|pp=86–87}}

English was isolated from other Germanic languages on the continent and diverged considerably in [[lexis (linguistics)|vocabulary]], [[syntax]], and [[phonology]] as a result. It is not [[mutually intelligible]] with any continental Germanic language{{snd}}though some, such as Dutch and Frisian, show strong affinities with it, especially in its earlier stages.{{sfn|Harbert|2006}}{{page needed|date=July 2024}} English and Frisian [[Anglo-Frisian languages|were traditionally considered more closely related to one another]] than they were to other West Germanic languages, but most modern scholarship does not recognise a particular affinity between them.<ref>{{multiref2|{{harvnb|Bazelmans|2009|p=326|loc="According to most researchers, this means that there cannot have been an 'original' Anglo-Frisian entity ..."}} | {{harvnb|Stiles|2018|p=31|loc="... It is not possible to construct the exclusive common relative chronology that is necessary in order to be able to establish a node on a family tree. The term and concept of 'Anglo-Frisian' should be banished to the historiography of the subject."}} }}</ref> Though they exhibited similar sound changes not otherwise found around the North Sea at that time, the specific changes appeared in English and Frisian at different times{{snd}}a pattern uncharacteristic for languages sharing a unique phylogenetic ancestor.{{sfn|Versloot|2017|pp=341–342}}{{sfn|Stiles|2018|pp=5–6}}

== History ==
{{Main|History of English}}

=== Proto-Germanic to Old English ===
[[File:Beowulf Cotton MS Vitellius A XV f. 132r.jpg|thumb|Manuscript (written in [[uncial script]]) of ''[[Beowulf]]'', an epic poem composed in Old English between 975 and 1025.{{pb}}The poem begins: {{lang|ang|Hƿæt ƿē Gārde{{\}}na ingēar dagum þēod cyninga{{\}}þrym ge frunon ...}} [Listen! We have heard of the glory in bygone days of the folk-kings of the spear-Danes ...]<ref>{{cite book |title=Beowulf |edition=2nd |date=2012 |orig-date=1999 |translator-last=Liuzza |translator-first=Roy M. |translator-link=Roy Liuzza |publisher=Broadview |isbn=978-1-554811137}}</ref> ]]
[[Old English]] (also called ''Anglo-Saxon'') was the earliest form of the English language, spoken from {{circa|450}} to {{cx|1150}}. Old English developed from a set of [[West Germanic]] dialects, sometimes identified as [[Anglo-Frisian]] or [[North Sea Germanic]], that were originally spoken along the coasts of [[Frisia]], [[Lower Saxony]] and southern [[Jutland]] by Germanic peoples known to the historical record as the [[Angles (tribe)|Angles]], [[Saxons]], and [[Jutes]].<ref>Baugh, Albert (1951). A History of the English Language. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 60–83, 110–130</ref> From the 5th century, the Anglo-Saxons [[Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain|settled Britain]] as [[end of Roman rule in Britain|the Roman economy and administration collapsed]]. By the 7th century, Old English [[Celtic language decline in England|had become dominant in Britain]]{{snd}}replacing the [[Common Brittonic]] and [[British Latin]] previously spoken during the [[Roman Britain|Roman occupation]],{{sfn|Collingwood|Myres|1936}}{{sfn|Graddol|Leith|Swann et al.|2007}}{{sfn|Blench|Spriggs|1999}} which ultimately left little influence on English. ''England'' and ''English'' (originally {{lang|ang|Ænglaland}} and {{lang|ang|Ænglisc}}) are both named after the Angles.{{sfn|Bosworth|Toller|1921}}

Old English was divided into two Anglian dialects ([[Mercian dialect|Mercian]] and [[Northumbrian Old English|Northumbrian]]) and two Saxon dialects ([[Kentish Old English|Kentish]] and [[West Saxon dialect|West Saxon]]).{{sfn|Campbell|1959|p=4}} Through the influence exerted by the kingdom of [[Wessex]], and the educational reforms instated by [[King Alfred]] during the 9th century, the West Saxon dialect became the [[standard language|standard written variety]].{{sfn|Toon|1992|loc=Chapter: Old English Dialects}} The epic poem ''[[Beowulf]]'' is written in West Saxon, and the earliest English poem, ''[[Cædmon's Hymn]]'', is written in Northumbrian.{{sfn|Donoghue|2008}} Modern English developed mainly from Mercian, but the [[Scots language]] developed from Northumbrian. During the earliest period of Old English, a few short inscriptions were made using a [[Anglo-Saxon runes|runic alphabet]].{{sfn|Gneuss|2013|p=23}} By the 7th century, a [[Old English Latin alphabet|Latin alphabet]] had been adopted. Written with [[half-uncial]] [[letterform]]s, it included the runic letters ''[[wynn]]'' {{angbr|{{lang|ang|ƿ}}}} and ''[[thorn (letter)|thorn]]'' {{angbr|{{lang|ang|þ}}}}, and the modified Latin letters ''[[eth]]'' {{angbr|{{lang|ang|ð}}}}, and ''[[Æ|ash]]'' {{angbr|{{lang|ang|æ}}}}.{{sfn|Gneuss|2013|p=23}}{{sfn|Hogg|Denison|2006a|pp=30–31}}

Old English is markedly different from Modern English, such that 21st-century English speakers are entirely unable to understand Old English without special training. Its grammar was similar to that of modern German: [[Old English grammar|nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and verbs]] had many more [[inflectional morphology|inflectional endings and forms]], and word order was [[free word order|much freer]] than in Modern English. Modern English has [[grammatical case|case forms]] in pronouns (''he'', ''him'', ''his'') and has a few verb inflections (''speak'', ''speaks'', ''speaking'', ''spoke'', ''spoken''), but Old English had case endings in nouns as well, and verbs had more [[grammatical person|person]] and [[grammatical number|number]] endings.{{sfn|Hogg|1992a}}{{sfn|Smith|2009}}{{sfn|Trask|2010}}

=== Influence of Old Norse ===
Between the 8th and 11th centuries, the English spoken in some regions [[Middle English#Transition from Old English|underwent significant changes]] due to contact with [[Old Norse]], a [[North Germanic]] language. Several waves of Norsemen colonising the northern British Isles in the 8th and 9th centuries put Old English speakers in constant contact with Old Norse. Norse influence was strongest in the north-eastern varieties of Old English spoken in the [[Danelaw]] surrounding York; today these features are still particularly present in Scots and [[English language in Northern England|Northern English]]. The centre of Norse influence was [[Kingdom of Lindsey|Lindsey]], located in the [[Midlands]]. After Lindsey was incorporated into the Anglo-Saxon polity in 920, English spread extensively throughout the region. An element of Norse influence that continues in all English varieties today is the third person pronoun group beginning with ''th-'' (''they'', ''them'', ''their'') which replaced the Anglo-Saxon pronouns with {{lang|ang|h-}} ({{lang|ang|hie, him, hera}}).{{sfn|Thomason|Kaufman|1988|pp=284–290}}

Other [[list of English words of Old Norse origin|Norse loanwords]] include ''give'', ''get'', ''sky'', ''skirt'', ''egg'', and ''cake'', typically displacing a native Anglo-Saxon equivalent. Old Norse in this era retained considerable mutual intelligibility with some dialects of Old English, particularly northern ones.{{sfn|Kastovsky|1992|pp=320, 332}}

=== Middle English ===
{{Further|Influence of French on English}}
{{Quote box |align=center |quoted=true |
|salign=center
|quote={{lang|enm|Englischmen þeyz hy hadde fram þe bygynnyng þre manner speche, Souþeron, Northeron, and Myddel speche in þe myddel of þe lond, ... Noþeles by comyxstion and mellyng, furst wiþ Danes, and afterward wiþ Normans, in menye þe contray longage ys asperyed, and som vseþ strange wlaffyng, chyteryng, harryng, and garryng grisbytting.}}{{pb}}[Although, from the beginning, Englishmen had three manners of speaking, southern, northern and midlands speech in the middle of the country, ... Nevertheless, through intermingling and mixing, first with Danes and then with Normans, amongst many the country language has arisen, and some use strange stammering, chattering, snarling, and grating gnashing.]
|source= [[John Trevisa]], {{cx|1385}}{{sfn|Hogg|2006|pp=360–361}}
}}
The [[Middle English]] period is often defined as beginning with the [[Norman Conquest]] in 1066. During the centuries that followed, English was heavily influenced by the form of [[Old French]] spoken by the new Norman ruling class that had migrated to England (known as [[Old Norman]]). Over the following decades of contact, members of the middle and upper classes, whether native English or Norman, became increasingly bilingual. By 1150 at the latest, bilingual speakers represented a majority of the English [[aristocracy]], and monolingual French speakers were nearly non-existent.{{sfn|Townend|2012|pp=81–82}} The French spoken by the Norman elite in England eventually developed into the [[Anglo-Norman language]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Short |first=Ian |title=A Companion to the Anglo-Norman World |chapter=Language and Literature |publisher=Boydell and Brewer |date=2002 |isbn=978-1-84615-046-3 |doi=10.1017/9781846150463.011 |pages=191–214}}</ref> The division between Old to Middle English can also be placed during the composition of the ''[[Ormulum]]'' ({{cx|late 12th century}}), a work by the [[Augustinians|Augustinian]] canon [[Orrm]] which highlights blending of Old English and Anglo-Norman elements in the language for the first time.{{sfn|Townend|2012|pp=99–100}}<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Johannesson |first1=Nils-Lennart |title=Ormulum |last2=Cooper |first2=Andrew |date=2023 |url=https://reunido.uniovi.es/index.php/SELIM/article/download/20530/16515 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-289043-6 |series=Early English text society |archive-date=11 August 2024 |access-date=11 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240811020739/https://reunido.uniovi.es/index.php/SELIM/article/download/20530/16515 |url-status=live }}</ref>

As the lower classes, who represented the vast majority of the population, remained monolingual English speakers, a primary influence of Norman was as a lexical [[superstratum]], introducing a wide range of [[loanword]]s related to politics, legislation and prestigious social domains.{{sfn|Svartvik|Leech|2006|p=39}} For instance, the French word {{lang|fr|trône}} appears for the first time, from which the English word ''throne'' is derived.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://scholarworks.harding.edu/tenor/vol5/iss1/5 |title=Effects of the Norman Conquest on the English Language |first=Curt |last=Baker |date=Spring 2016 |journal=Tenor Times |volume=5 |access-date=17 July 2025 |archive-date=9 August 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250809205313/https://scholarworks.harding.edu/tenor/vol5/iss1/5/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Middle English also greatly simplified the inflectional system, probably in order to reconcile Old Norse and Old English, which were inflectionally different but morphologically similar. The distinction between nominative and accusative cases was lost except in personal pronouns, the instrumental case was dropped, and the use of the genitive case was limited to indicating [[possession (linguistics)|possession]]. The inflectional system regularised many irregular inflectional forms,{{sfn|Lass|1992|pp=103–123}} and gradually simplified the system of agreement, making word order less flexible.{{sfn|Fischer|van der Wurff|2006|pp=111–113}}

Middle English literature includes [[Geoffrey Chaucer]]'s ''[[Canterbury Tales]]'' ({{cx|1400}}), and [[Thomas Malory]]'s ''{{lang|fr|[[Le Morte d'Arthur]]}}'' (1485). In the Middle English period, the use of regional dialects in writing proliferated, and dialect traits were even used for effect by authors such as Chaucer.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Horobin |first1=Simon |title=Chaucer's Middle English |url=https://opencanterburytales.dsl.lsu.edu/refmideng/ |website=The Open Access Companion to the Canterbury Tales |publisher=Louisiana State University |access-date=24 November 2019 |quote=The only appearances of their and them in Chaucer's works are in the Reeve's Tale, where they form part of the Northern dialect spoken by the two Cambridge students, Aleyn and John, demonstrating that at this time they were still perceived to be Northernisms |archive-date=3 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191203092713/https://opencanterburytales.dsl.lsu.edu/refmideng/ |url-status=live}}</ref> In [[Wycliffe's Bible|the first translation]] of the entire Bible into English by [[John Wycliffe]] (1382), Matthew 8:20 reads: {{langr|enm|"Foxis han dennes, and briddis of heuene han nestis."}}<ref>{{cite web |last=Wycliffe |first=John |url=http://wesley.nnu.edu/fileadmin/imported_site/wycliffe/wycbible-all.pdf |publisher=Wesley NNU |title=Bible |access-date=9 April 2015 |archive-date=2 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202202047/http://wesley.nnu.edu/fileadmin/imported_site/wycliffe/wycbible-all.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> Here the plural suffix {{lang|enm|-n}} on the verb ''have'' is still retained, but none of the case endings on the nouns are present.

=== Early Modern English ===
{{Main|Early Modern English}}
[[File:Great Vowel Shift2a.svg|thumb|Illustration of the [[Great Vowel Shift]] that affected long vowels in [[Early Modern English]]. After the highest vowels /i: u:/ broke into [[diphthong]]s /ai au/, each of the lower vowels gradually shifted up one level to compensate.]]
The period of Early Modern English, lasting between 1500 and 1700, was characterised by the [[Great Vowel Shift]] (1350–1700), inflectional simplification, and linguistic standardisation. The Great Vowel Shift affected the stressed long vowels of Middle English. It was a [[chain shift]], meaning that each shift triggered a subsequent shift in the vowel system. [[Mid vowel|Mid]] and [[open vowel]]s were [[raising (sound change)|raised]], and [[close vowel]]s were [[vowel breaking|broken]] into [[diphthong]]s. For example, the word ''bite'' was originally pronounced as the word ''beet'' is today, and the second vowel in the word ''about'' was pronounced as the word ''boot'' is today. The Great Vowel Shift explains many irregularities in spelling since English retains many spellings from Middle English, and it also explains why English vowel letters have very different pronunciations from the same letters in other languages.{{sfn|Lass|2000a}}{{sfn|Görlach|1991|pp=66–70}}

English began to rise in prestige, relative to Norman French, during the reign of [[Henry V of England|Henry V]]. Around 1430, the [[Court of Chancery]] in [[Westminster]] began using English in its [[writ|official documents]], and a new standard form of Middle English, known as [[Chancery Standard]], developed from the dialects of London and the [[East Midlands English|East Midlands]]. In 1476, [[William Caxton]] introduced the [[printing press]] to England and began publishing the first printed books in London, expanding the influence of this form of English.{{sfn|Nevalainen|Tieken-Boon van Ostade|2006|pp=274–279}}

Literature in early modern English includes the works of [[William Shakespeare]] and the 1611 [[King James Version]] (KJV) of the Bible. Even after the vowel shift the language still sounded different from Modern English: for example, the [[consonant cluster]]s {{IPA|/kn ɡn sw/}} in ''knight'', ''gnat'', and ''sword'' were still pronounced. Many of the grammatical features that a modern reader of Shakespeare might find quaint or archaic represent the distinct characteristics of early modern English.{{sfn|Cercignani|1981}} Matthew 8:20 in the KJV reads: "The Foxes have holes and the birds of the ayre have nests."{{sfn|Lass|2006|pp=46–47}} This exemplifies the loss of case and its effects on sentence structure (replacement with [[subject–verb–object word order]], and the use of ''of'' instead of the non-possessive genitive), and the introduction of loanwords from French ({{lang|fr|ayre}}) and word replacements (''bird'', originally meaning 'nestling', which had replaced Old English {{lang|ang|fugol}}).{{sfn|Lass|2006|pp=46–47}}

=== Spread of Modern English ===
By the late 18th century, the [[British Empire]] had spread English through its colonies and geopolitical dominance. Commerce, science and technology, diplomacy, art, and formal education all contributed to English becoming the first truly global language. English also facilitated worldwide international communication.{{sfn|How English evolved into a global language|2010}}{{sfn|The Routes of English}} English was adopted in parts of North America, parts of Africa, Oceania, and many other regions. When they obtained political independence, some of the newly independent states that had multiple [[indigenous language]]s opted to continue using English as the official language to avoid the political and other difficulties inherent in promoting any one indigenous language above the others.{{sfn|Romaine|2006|p=586}}{{sfn|Mufwene|2006|p=614}}{{sfn|Northrup|2013|pp=81–86}} In the 20th century the growing economic and cultural influence of the United States and its status as a superpower following the Second World War has, along with worldwide broadcasting in English by the [[BBC]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Baker |first=Colin |title=Encyclopedia of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YgtSqB9oqDIC&pg=PA311 |date=1998 |page=311 |publisher=Multilingual Matters |isbn=978-1-85359-362-8}}</ref> and other broadcasters, caused the language to spread across the planet much faster.{{sfn|Graddol|2006}}{{sfn|Crystal|2003a}} In 1951, the [[International Civil Aviation Organization]] (ICAO) recommended to the [[Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation|International Chicago Convention]] that [[Aviation English]] be universally adopted for "international aeronautical radiotelephony communications."<ref name=ICAO>{{cite web |url=https://www2023.icao.int/SAM/Documents/2003/RAAC8/RAAC8IP18.pdf |title=Status of English Language Standard for Use in Civil Aviation |publisher=International Civil Aviation Organization |date=April 2003 |accessdate=November 8, 2013}}</ref> In 2001, the [[International Maritime Organization]] (IMO) developed a set of key phrases, named [[Standard Marine Communication Phrases]] (SMCP), in English to be the recognised language supported by the international maritime community for use at sea. In the 21st century, English is more widely spoken and written than any other language in history.{{sfn|McCrum|MacNeil|Cran|2003|pp=9–10}}

As Modern English developed, explicit norms for standard usage were published, and spread through official media such as public education and state-sponsored publications. In 1755, [[Samuel Johnson]] published his ''[[Dictionary of the English Language]]'', which introduced standard spellings of words and usage norms. In 1828, [[Noah Webster]] published the ''[[Webster's Dictionary|American Dictionary of the English language]]'' to try to establish a norm for speaking and writing American English that was independent of the British standard. Within Britain, non-standard or lower class dialect features were increasingly stigmatised, leading to the quick spread of the prestige varieties among the middle classes.{{sfn|Romaine|1999a}}

In modern English, the loss of grammatical case is almost complete (it is now found only in pronouns, such as ''he'' and ''him'', ''she'' and ''her'', ''who'' and ''whom''), and [[subject–verb–object word order]] is mostly fixed.{{sfn|Romaine|1999a}} Some changes, such as the use of [[do-support|''do''-support]], have become universalised. (Earlier English did not use the word ''do'' as a general auxiliary as Modern English does; at first it was only used in question constructions, and even then was not obligatory.{{sfn|Romaine|1999a|p=2|loc="Other changes such as the spread and regularisation of do support began in the thirteenth century and were more or less complete in the nineteenth. Although do coexisted with the simple verb forms in negative statements from the early ninth century, obligatoriness was not complete until the nineteenth. The increasing use of do periphrasis coincides with the fixing of SVO word order. Not surprisingly, do is first widely used in interrogatives, where the word order is disrupted, and then later spread to negatives."}} Now, ''do''-support with the verb ''have'' is becoming increasingly standardised.) The use of progressive forms in ''-ing'', appears to be spreading to new constructions, and forms such as "had been being built" are becoming more common. Regularisation of irregular forms also slowly continues (e.g. ''dreamed'' instead of ''dreamt''), and analytical alternatives to inflectional forms are becoming more common (e.g. ''more polite'' instead of ''politer''). British English is also undergoing change under the influence of American English, fuelled by the strong presence of American English in the media.{{sfn|Leech|Hundt|Mair|Smith|2009|pp=18–19}}{{sfn|Mair|Leech|2006}}{{sfn|Mair|2006}}

== Geographical distribution ==
{{See also|List of countries and territories where English is an official language|List of countries by English-speaking population|English-speaking world}}
[[File:Detailed SVG map of the Anglophone world.svg|thumb|upright=1.1|
{{legend|#045a8d|Majority native language}}
{{legend|#0674b6|Co-official and majority native language}}
{{legend|#439dd4|Official but minority native language}}
{{legend|#9bbae1|Secondary language: spoken as a second language by more than 20 per cent of the population, ''de facto'' working language of government, language of instruction in education, etc.<ref name="Ethnologue26" />}}
]]
[[File:EF English Proficiency Index 2019 Europe.svg|thumb|upright=1.1|[[EF English Proficiency Index]] 2019 in Europe:<ref>{{cite web |title=EF English Proficiency Index 2019 |url=https://www.ef.com/assetscdn/WIBIwq6RdJvcD9bc8RMd/cefcom-epi-site/reports/2019/ef-epi-2019-english.pdf |access-date=15 August 2024}} (pp. 6–7).</ref>
{{legend|#407294|Very high (63.07–70.27)}}
{{legend|#5A857D|High (58.26–61.86)}}
{{legend|#9DBB88|Moderate (52.50–57.38)}}
{{legend|#E7CB5B|Low (48.69–52.39)}}
{{legend|#F47B4B|Very low (40.87–48.19)}}
{{legend|#c0c0c0|Not included in report}}]]
{{as of|2016}}, 400 million people spoke English as their [[first language]], and 1.1 billion spoke it as a second language.<ref>{{cite web |title=Which countries are best at English as a second language? |url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/11/which-countries-are-best-at-english-as-a-second-language-4d24c8c8-6cf6-4067-a753-4c82b4bc865b |publisher=World Economic Forum |first1=Keith |last1=Breene |date=15 November 2019 |access-date=29 November 2016 |archive-date=25 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161125144549/https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/11/which-countries-are-best-at-english-as-a-second-language-4d24c8c8-6cf6-4067-a753-4c82b4bc865b/ |url-status=live}}</ref> English is the [[list of languages by total number of speakers|largest language by number of speakers]], spoken by communities on every continent.{{sfn|Crystal|2003b|p=106}} Estimates of [[second language]] and foreign-language speakers vary greatly depending on how proficiency is defined, from 470 million to more than 1 billion.{{sfn|Crystal|2003b|pp=108–109}} In 2003, [[David Crystal]] estimated that non-native speakers outnumbered native speakers by a ratio of three-to-one.{{sfn|Crystal|2003a|p=69}}

=== Three circles model ===
[[Braj Kachru]] has categorised countries into the [[Three Circles of English]] model, according to how the language historically spread in each country, how it is acquired by the populace, and the range of uses it has there{{snd}}with a country's classification able to change over time.{{sfn|Kachru|2006|p=196}}{{sfn|Svartvik|Leech|2006|p=2}}

"Inner-circle" countries have large communities of native English speakers; these include the United Kingdom, the United States, Australia, Canada, Ireland, and New Zealand, where the majority speaks English{{snd}}and South Africa, where a significant minority speaks English. The countries with the most native English speakers are, in descending order, the United States (at least 231 million),{{sfn|Ryan|2013|loc=Table 1}} the United Kingdom (60 million),{{sfn|Office for National Statistics|2013|loc=Key Points}}{{sfn|National Records of Scotland|2013}}{{sfn|Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency|2012|loc=Table KS207NI: Main Language}} Canada (19 million),{{sfn|Statistics Canada|2014}} Australia (at least 17 million),{{sfn|Australian Bureau of Statistics|2013}} South Africa (4.8 million),{{sfn|Statistics South Africa|2012|loc=Table 2.5 Population by first language spoken and province (number)}} Ireland (4.2 million), and New Zealand (3.7 million).{{sfn|Statistics New Zealand|2014}} In these countries, children of native speakers learn English from their parents; citizens with other first languages, as well as incoming immigrants, learn English to communicate in local English-speaking neighbourhoods and workplaces.{{sfn|Bao|2006|p=377}} Inner-circle countries are the base from which English spreads to other regions of the world.{{sfn|Kachru|2006|p=196}}

"Outer-circle" countries{{snd}}such as the Philippines,{{sfn|Rubino|2006}} Jamaica,{{sfn|Patrick|2006a}} India, Pakistan, Singapore,{{sfn|Lim|Ansaldo|2006}} Malaysia, and Nigeria{{sfn|Connell|2006}}{{sfn|Schneider|2007}}{{snd}}have much smaller proportions of native English speakers, but use of English as a second language in education, government, or domestic business is significant, and its use for instruction in schools and official government operations is routine.{{sfn|Trudgill|Hannah|2008|p=5}} These countries have millions of native speakers on dialect continua, which range from [[English-based creole languages]] to standard varieties of English used in inner-circle countries. They have many more speakers who acquire English as they grow up through day-to-day use and exposure to English-language broadcasting, especially if they attend schools where English is the language of instruction. Varieties of English learned by non-native speakers born to English-speaking parents may be influenced, especially in their grammar, by the other languages spoken by those learners{{snd}}with most including words rarely used by native speakers in inner-circle countries, as well as grammatical and phonological differences from inner-circle varieties.{{sfn|Bao|2006|p=377}}

"Expanding-circle" countries are where English is taught as a foreign language{{sfn|Trudgill|Hannah|2008|p=4}}{{snd}}though the character of English as a first, second, or foreign language in a given country is often debatable, and may change over time.{{sfn|Trudgill|Hannah|2008|p=5}} For example, in countries like the Netherlands, an overwhelming majority of the population can speak English,{{sfn|European Commission|2012}} and it is often used in higher education and to communicate with foreigners.{{sfn|Kachru|2006|p=197}}

=== Pluricentric English ===
English is a [[pluricentric language]], which means that no one national authority sets the standard for use of the language.{{sfn|Trudgill|Hannah|2008|p=2}}{{sfn|Romaine|1999}}{{sfn|Baugh|Cable|2002}}{{sfn|Trudgill|Hannah|2008|pp=8–9}} Spoken English, including English used in broadcasting, generally follows national pronunciation standards that are established by custom rather than by regulation. International broadcasters are usually identifiable as coming from one country rather than another through their [[accent (sociolinguistics)|accents]],{{sfn|Trudgill|2006}} but newsreader scripts are also composed largely in international [[standard written English]]. The norms of standard written English are maintained purely by the consensus of educated English speakers around the world, without any oversight by any government or international organisation.{{sfn|Ammon|2008|pp=1537–1539}}

American listeners readily understand most British broadcasting, and British listeners readily understand most American broadcasting. Most English speakers around the world can understand radio programmes, television programmes, and films from many parts of the [[English-speaking world]].{{sfn|Svartvik|Leech|2006|p=122}} Both standard and non-standard varieties of English can include both formal or informal styles, distinguished by word choice and syntax and use both technical and non-technical registers.{{sfn|Trudgill|Hannah|2008|pp=5–6}}

The settlement history of the English-speaking inner circle countries outside Britain helped level dialect distinctions and produce [[koiné]] forms of English in South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand.{{sfn|Deumert|2006|p=130}} The majority of immigrants to the United States without British ancestry rapidly adopted English after arrival. Now the majority of the United States population are monolingual English speakers.{{sfn|Ryan|2013|loc=Table 1}}{{sfn|Deumert|2006|p=131}}
* Australia has no official languages at the federal or state level.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ward |first=Rowena |date=2019 |title='National' and 'Official' Languages Across the Independent Asia-Pacific |journal=Journal of Multidisciplinary International Studies |volume=16 |issue=1/2 |pages=83–84 |doi=10.5130/pjmis.v16i1-2.6510 |doi-access=free |quote=The use of English in Australia is one example of both a de facto national and official language: it is widely used and is the language of government and the courts, but has never been legally designated as the country's official language.}}</ref>
* In Canada, English and French share an [[Official Languages Act (Canada)|official status]] at the federal level.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Oliver |first=Peter |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Oxford_Handbook_of_the_Canadian_Cons/ulsvDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA556&printsec=frontcover |title=The Oxford Handbook of the Canadian Constitution |last2=Macklem |first2=Patrick |last3=Rosiers |first3=Nathalie Des |date=2017-08-10 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-066482-4 |language=en |page=556 |quote=
Both English and French are official languages, which means that they have "equality of status and equal rights and privileges as to their use... |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260221215831/https://books.google.ca/books?id=ulsvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA556&printsec=frontcover&source=entity_page&newbks=0&hl=en&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false |archive-date=2026-02-21}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://laws.justice.gc.ca/eng/O-3.01/page-1.html |title=Official Languages Act – 1985, c. 31 (4th Supp.) |work=Act current to July 11th, 2010 |publisher=Department of Justice |access-date=15 August 2010 |archive-date=5 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110105194649/http://laws.justice.gc.ca/eng/O-3.01/page-1.html |url-status=dead}}</ref> English has official or co-official status in six provinces and three territories, while three provinces have none and Quebec's only official language is French.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.legisquebec.gouv.qc.ca/en/tdm/cs/C-11 |title=Charter of the French language |last= |first= |date=26 March 2024 |website=Légis Québec |publisher=Québec Official Publisher |access-date=5 June 2024 |quote=French is the official language of Québec. Only French has that status. |archive-date=6 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240606093614/https://www.legisquebec.gouv.qc.ca/en/tdm/cs/C-11 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* English is the official second language of Ireland, while Irish is the first.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.irishstatutebook.ie/eli/cons/en/html#part2 |title=Article 8 of the Constitution of Ireland |last= |first= |date=January 2020 |website=Irish Statute Book |access-date=5 June 2024 |quote=1 The Irish language as the national language is the first official language. 2 The English language is recognised as a second official language. |archive-date=23 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220423200419/https://www.irishstatutebook.ie/eli/cons/en/html#part2 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* While New Zealand is majority English-speaking, its two official languages are [[Maori Language Act 1987|Māori]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Maori Language Act 1987 |url=http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1987/0176/latest/DLM124116.html |access-date=18 December 2011 |archive-date=9 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141009183739/http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1987/0176/latest/DLM124116.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[New Zealand Sign Language#Official language status|New Zealand Sign Language]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://tvnz.co.nz/view/page/488120/696482 |title=Recognition for sign language |date=6 April 2006 |work=[[Television New Zealand]] |access-date=30 October 2011 |archive-date=15 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515221254/http://tvnz.co.nz/view/page/488120/696482 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* The United Kingdom does not have an official language. In Wales and Northern Ireland, English is co-official alongside [[Welsh Language Act 1993|Welsh]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Huws |first1=Catrin Fflur |title=The Welsh Language Act 1993: A Measure of Success? |journal=Language Policy |date=June 2006 |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=141–160 |doi=10.1007/s10993-006-9000-0}}</ref> and [[Identity and Language (Northern Ireland) Act 2022|Irish]]<ref>{{Cite news |date=26 October 2022 |title=Irish language and Ulster Scots bill clears final hurdle in Parliament |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-northern-ireland-63402597 |access-date=27 October 2022 |archive-date=3 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240703141924/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-northern-ireland-63402597 |url-status=live }}</ref> respectively. Neither Scotland nor England have an official language.
* In the United States, English was designated the official language of the country by [[Executive Order 14224]] in 2025.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Ho |first1=Vivian |last2=Pannett |first2=Rachel |date=1 March 2025 |title=A Trump order made English the official language of the U.S. What does that mean? |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2025/03/01/trump-english-official-language-explainer/ |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |archive-date=1 March 2025 |access-date=19 April 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250301233633/https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2025/03/01/trump-english-official-language-explainer/ |url-status=live }}</ref> English has additional official or co-official status at the state level in 32 states, and all 5 territories;<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-states/#people-and-society |title=United States |date=29 May 2024 |website=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |access-date=5 June 2024 |quote=Note: data represent the language spoken at home; the US has no official national language, but English has acquired official status in 32 of the 50 states; Hawaiian is an official language in the state of Hawaii, and 20 indigenous languages are official in Alaska. |archive-date=21 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210321202516/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-states/#people-and-society |url-status=dead }}</ref> 18 states and the District of Columbia have no official language.

=== English as a global language ===
{{Main|English as a lingua franca}}
{{See also|Foreign-language influences in English|Study of global communication}}
[[File:Countries in which English Language is a Mandatory or an Optional Subject.svg|thumb|upright=1.1|Status of English in public education by region<ref>{{cite web |title=Countries in which English Language is a Mandatory or an Optional Subject |url=https://www.uwinnipeg.ca/global-english-education/countries-in-which-english-is-mandatory-or-optional-subject.html |publisher=The University of Winnipeg |access-date=30 October 2022 |archive-date=31 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221031000038/https://www.uwinnipeg.ca/global-english-education/countries-in-which-english-is-mandatory-or-optional-subject.html |url-status=live}}</ref>{{legend|#00a2e8|Mandatory subject}}{{legend|#ffc90e|Optional subject}}{{legend|#ababab|No data}}]]
[[File:English Proficiency Index by country as of 2014.svg|thumb|upright=1.1|2014 English Proficiency Index<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2119.html |title=CIA World Factbook |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160322184415/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2119.html |archive-date=22 March 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> {{legend|#225500|Very high (80–100 per cent)}}
{{legend|#44aa00|High (60–80 per cent)}}
{{legend|#66ff00|Moderate (40–60 per cent)}}
{{legend|#99ff55|Low (20–40 per cent)}}
{{legend|#ccffaa|Very low (0.1–20 per cent)}}
{{legend|#c0c0c0|No data}}]]

Modern English is sometimes described as the first global [[lingua franca]],{{sfn|Graddol|2006}}{{sfn|Meierkord|2006|p=165}} or as the first [[world language]].{{sfn|Brutt-Griffler|2006|pp=690–691}}{{sfn|Northrup|2013}} English is the world's most widely used language in newspaper publishing, book publishing, international telecommunications, scientific publishing, international trade, mass entertainment, and diplomacy.{{sfn|Northrup|2013}} Parity with French as a language of diplomacy had been achieved by [[Treaty of Versailles]] negotiations in 1919.{{sfn|Phillipson|2004|p=47}} By the time the [[United Nations]] was founded at the end of [[World War II]], English had become pre-eminent;{{sfn|Conrad|Rubal-Lopez|1996|p=261}} it is one of six official languages of the United Nations.{{sfn|United Nations|2010}} and is now the main worldwide language of diplomacy and international relations.{{sfn|Richter|2012|p=29}} Many other worldwide international organisations, including the [[International Olympic Committee]], specify English as a working language or official language of the organisation. Many regional international organisations, such as the [[European Free Trade Association]] (EFTA), [[Association of Southeast Asian Nations]] (ASEAN),{{sfn|Crystal|2003a}} and [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]] (APEC) use English as their sole working language, despite most members not being countries with a majority of native English speakers. While the EU allows member states to designate any of the national languages as an official language of the Union, in practice English is the main working language of EU organisations.{{sfn|Ammon|2006|p=321}} English serves as the basis for the required [[controlled natural language]]s{{sfn|Wojcik|2006|p=139}} [[Seaspeak]] and Airspeak, used as [[international auxiliary language|international languages]] of seafaring{{sfn|International Maritime Organization|2011}} and aviation.{{sfn|International Civil Aviation Organization|2011}}

English is the most frequently taught foreign language in the world.{{sfn|Graddol|2006}}{{sfn|Crystal|2003a}} Most people learning English do so for practical reasons, as opposed to ideological reasons.{{sfn|Kachru|2006|p=195}} In EU countries, English is the most widely spoken foreign language in 19 of the 25 member states where it is not an official language (that is, the countries other than Ireland and [[Malta]]). In a 2012 official Eurobarometer poll (conducted when the UK was still a member of the EU), 38 per cent of the EU respondents outside the countries where English is an official language said they could speak English well enough to have a conversation in that language. The next most commonly mentioned foreign language, French (which is the most widely known foreign language in the UK and Ireland), could be used in conversation by 12 per cent of respondents.{{sfn|European Commission|2012|pp=21, 19}} The global influence of English has led to concerns about [[language death]],{{sfn|Crystal|2000}} and to claims of [[linguistic imperialism]],{{sfn|Jambor|2007}} and has provoked resistance to the spread of English; however, the number of speakers continues to increase because many people around the world believe that English provides them with better employment opportunities and increased quality of life.{{sfn|Svartvik|Leech|2006|loc=Chapter 12: English into the Future}}

Working knowledge of English has become a requirement in a number of occupations and professions such as medicine{{sfn|Alcaraz Ariza|Navarro|2006}} and computing. Though it formerly had parity with French and German in scientific research, English now dominates the field.{{sfn|Gordin|2015}} Its importance in scientific publishing is such that over 80 per cent of scientific journal articles indexed by ''Chemical Abstracts'' in 1998 were written in English, as were 90 per cent of all articles in natural science publications by 1996, and 82 per cent of articles in humanities publications by 1995.{{sfn|Brutt-Griffler|2006|pp=694–695}}

As decolonisation proceeded throughout the British Empire in the 1950s and 1960s, former colonies often did not reject English but rather continued to use it as independent countries setting their own language policies.{{sfn|Mufwene|2006|p=614}}{{sfn|Northrup|2013|pp=81–86}}{{sfn|Mesthrie|2010|p=594}} For example, English is one of the official languages of India. Many Indians have shifted from associating the language with colonialism to associating it with economic progress.{{sfn|Annamalai|2006}} English is widely used in media and literature, with India being the third-largest publisher of English-language books in the world, after the US and UK.{{sfn|Sailaja|2009|pp=2–9}} However, less than 5 per cent of the population speak English fluently, with the country's native English speakers numbering in the low hundreds of thousands.<ref>{{cite news |title=Indiaspeak: English is our 2nd language |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Indiaspeak-English-is-our-2nd-language/articleshow/5680962.cms |newspaper=The Times of India |date=14 March 2010 |access-date=5 January 2016 |archive-date=22 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422224021/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Indiaspeak-English-is-our-2nd-language/articleshow/5680962.cms |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=http://ihds.umd.edu/IHDS_files/HumanDevelopmentinIndia.pdf |title=Human Development in India: Challenges for a Society in Transition|first1=Sonalde B. |last1=Desai|first2=Amaresh|last2=Dubey|first3=Brij Lal |last3=Joshi|first4=Mitali |last4=Sen|first5=Abusaleh|last5=Shariff|first6=Reeve|last6=Vanneman |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=5 January 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151211124532/http://www.ihds.umd.edu/IHDS_files/HumanDevelopmentinIndia.pdf |archive-date=11 December 2015 |isbn=978-0-19-806512-8}}</ref> In 2004, David Crystal claimed India had the largest population of people able to speak or understand English in the world,{{sfn|Crystal|2004}} though most scholars estimate the US remains home to a larger English-speaking population.{{sfn|Graddol|2010}} Many English speakers in Africa have become part of an "Afro-Saxon" language community that unites Africans from different countries.{{sfn|Mazrui|Mazrui|1998}} Regarding its future development, it is considered most likely that English will continue to function as a [[koiné]] language, with a standard form that unifies speakers around the world.{{sfn|Crystal|2006}}

== Dialects, accents, and varieties ==
Dialectologists identify many [[English dialects]], which usually refer to regional varieties that differ from each other in terms of patterns of grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation. The pronunciation of particular areas distinguishes dialects as separate [[regional accents of English|regional accents]]. The major native dialects of English are often divided by linguists into the two extremely general categories of [[British English]] (BrE) and [[North American English]] (NAE).{{sfn|Crystal|2003b|p=107}}

=== Britain and Ireland ===
<gallery mode="packed">
Alain de Botton on Fear of Failure at Cannes Lions 2012.flac|An example of a man with a contemporary [[Received Pronunciation]] accent ([[Alain de Botton]]).
Danny Baker BBC Radio4 Desert Island Discs 31 Jul 2007 b012wcl4.flac|An example of a man with a [[Cockney accent]] ([[Danny Baker]]).
Russell brand bbc radio4 desert island discs 21 07 2013.flac|An example of an [[Essex]] man with a working-class [[Estuary English]] accent ([[Russell Brand]]).
Damien hirst bbc radio4 desert island discs 13 05 2013 b01sd0hy.flac|An example of a man with a ([[West Yorkshire|West]]) [[Yorkshire accent]] ([[Damien Hirst]]).
John bishop bbc radio4 desert island discs 24 06 2012.flac|An example of a man with a contemporary [[Liverpool accent]] ([[John Bishop]]).
Rob Brydon BBC Radio4 Front Row 18 Mar 2012 b01dhl11.flac|An example of a man with a ([[South Wales|South]]) [[Welsh English|Wales accent]] ([[Rob Brydon]]).
Alex Salmond BBC Radio4 Desert Island Discs 16 January 2011 b00xgs41.flac|An example of a man with one of the many [[Scottish English|accents of Scotland]] ([[Alex Salmond]]).
George Best - The New Elizabethans -20 Jul 2012 - b01kt7cs.flac|An example of a man with a [[Northern Irish accent]] ([[George Best]]).
Mary Robinson - Desert Island Discs - 28 July 2013.flac|An example of a woman with one of the many [[Hiberno-English|accents of Ireland]] ([[Mary Robinson]]).
</gallery>
[[File:Dialects of English in UK and Ireland.svg|thumb|Primary dialect regions in the United Kingdom and Ireland]]

The fact that English has been spoken in England for 1,500 years explains why England has a great wealth of regional dialects.{{sfn|Trudgill|1999|p=10}} Within the United Kingdom, [[Received Pronunciation]] (RP), an educated accent associated originally with [[South East England]], has been traditionally used as a broadcast standard and is considered the most prestigious of British accents. The spread of RP (also known as BBC English) through the media has caused many traditional dialects of rural England to recede, as youths adopt the traits of the prestige variety instead of traits from local dialects. At the time of the 1950–61 [[Survey of English Dialects]], grammar and vocabulary differed across the country, but a process of lexical attrition has led most of this variation to disappear.{{sfn|Trudgill|1999|p=125}}

Nonetheless, this attrition has mostly affected dialectal variation in grammar and vocabulary. Only 3% of the English population actually speak RP, the remainder speaking in regional accents and dialects with varying degrees of RP influence.{{sfn|Hughes|Trudgill|1996|p=3}} There is also variability within RP, particularly along class lines between Upper and Middle-class RP speakers and between native RP speakers and speakers who adopt RP later in life.{{sfn|Hughes|Trudgill|1996|p=37}} Within Britain, there is also considerable variation along lines of social class; some traits, though exceedingly common, are nonetheless considered "non-standard" and associated with lower-class speakers and identities. An example of this is [[h-dropping|''h''-dropping]], which was historically a feature of lower-class London English, particularly Cockney, and can now be heard in the local accents of most parts of England. However, it remains largely absent in broadcasting and among the upper crust of British society.{{sfn|Hughes|Trudgill|1996|p=40}}

[[English in England]] can be divided into four major dialect regions: South East English, South West English (also known as [[West Country English]]), Midlands English and [[English language in Northern England|Northern English]]. Within each of these regions, several local dialects exist: within the Northern region, there is a division between the [[Yorkshire dialect]]s, the [[Geordie]] dialect (spoken around [[Newcastle upon Tyne|Newcastle]], in [[Northumbria (modern)|Northumbria]]) and the [[Lancashire dialect|Lancashire]] dialects, which include the urban subdialects of [[Manchester]] ([[Manchester dialect|Mancunian]]) and [[Liverpool]] ([[Scouse]]). Having been the centre of Danish occupation during the Viking invasions of England, Northern English dialects, particularly the Yorkshire dialect, retain Norse features not found in other English varieties.{{sfn|Hughes|Trudgill|1996|p=31}} In the [[West Midlands (region)|West Midlands]], dialects such as [[Black Country]] ([[Black Country dialect|Yam Yam]]), and by less extent [[Birmingham]] ([[Brummie dialect|Brummie]]), preserve archaic features from early modern and Middle English, retaining Germanic elements such as specific grammatical structures and vocabulary.{{sfn|Clark|Asprey|2013}}

Since the 15th century, South East England varieties have centred on London, which has been the centre from which dialectal innovations have spread to other dialects. In London, the [[Cockney]] dialect was traditionally used by the lower classes, and it was long a socially stigmatised variety. The spread of Cockney features across the South East led the media to talk of Estuary English as a new dialect, but the notion was criticised by many linguists on the grounds that London had been influencing neighbouring regions throughout history.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/estuary/ee-faqs-jcw.htm |title=Estuary English Q and A – JCW |publisher=Phon.ucl.ac.uk |access-date=16 August 2010 |archive-date=11 January 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100111062912/http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/estuary/ee-faqs-jcw.htm |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Roach|2009|p=4}}{{sfn|Trudgill|1999|p=80}} Traits that have spread from London in recent decades include the use of [[linking and intrusive R|intrusive R]] (''drawing'' is pronounced "drawring" {{IPA|/ˈdrɔːrɪŋ/}}), [[t-glottalization|''t''-glottalisation]] (''Potter'' is pronounced with a glottal stop as ''Po'er'' {{IPA|/ˈpɒʔə/}}) and [[th-fronting|''th''-fronting]], or the pronunciation of ''th-'' as {{IPA|/f/}} (''thanks'' pronounced "fanks") or {{IPA|/v/}} (''bother'' pronounced "bover").{{sfn|Trudgill|1999|pp=80–81}}

[[Scots language|Scots]] is today considered a separate language from English, but it has [[history of the Scots language|its origins]] in early Northern Middle English{{sfn|Aitken|McArthur|1979|p=81}} and developed and changed during its history with influence from other sources, particularly [[Scottish Gaelic]] and Old Norse. Scots itself has a number of regional dialects. In addition to Scots, [[Scottish English]] comprises the varieties of Standard English spoken in Scotland; most varieties are Northern English accents, with some influence from Scots.{{sfn|Romaine|1982}}

In [[Ireland]], various forms of English have been spoken following the [[Norman invasion of Ireland|Norman invasion of the island]] during the 11th century. In [[County Wexford]] and in the area surrounding [[Dublin]], two extinct dialects known as [[Forth and Bargy]] and [[Fingallian]] developed as offshoots from Early Middle English and were spoken until the 19th century. Modern [[Irish English]], however, has its roots in English colonisation in the 17th century. Today Irish English is divided into [[Ulster English]], the Northern Ireland dialect with strong influence from Scots, and various dialects of Ireland. Like Scottish and most North American accents, almost all Irish accents preserve the [[rhoticity in English|rhoticity]] which has been lost in the dialects influenced by RP.{{sfn|Barry|1982|pp=86–87}}{{sfn|Hickey|2007}}

=== North America ===
<gallery mode="packed">
Emery Emery Voice.ogg|An example of a [[Midwestern America]]n man with a [[General American accent]] ([[Emery Emery]]).
Rep. Martha Roby's "Roller Coaster" Speech Sound Bite.flac|An Alabama woman with a contemporary [[Southern American accent]] ([[Martha Roby]]).
Chuck Zito on Becoming a Hells Angel.flac|A man with a [[New York City accent]] ([[Chuck Zito]]).
Sec. Walsh on Construction Jobs in Infrastructure Bill v2.flac|A man with a [[Boston accent]] ([[Marty Walsh]]).
On the phone- Russell Gage.ogg|An example of two men with [[AAVE accents]], the interviewer from [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] ([[D. J. Shockley]]) and the interviewee from [[Louisiana]] ([[Russell Gage]]).
Margaret atwood bbc radio4 front row 27 07 2007 b007tjpb.flac|An Ontario woman with a [[Standard Canadian accent]] ([[Margaret Atwood]]).
</gallery>

[[File:Population speaking English at home by PUMA.png|thumb|upright=1.4|Percentage of Americans aged 5+ in the 50 states, [[Washington, D.C.]], and [[Puerto Rico]] who speak English at home, according to the 2016–2021 [[American Community Survey]]]]
[[File:Non-RhoticityUSA.png|thumb|upright=0.8|Rhoticity dominates in [[North American English]], but ''[[The Atlas of North American English]]'' found over 50 per cent non-rhoticity, with at least one local speaker in each US metropolitan area (marked with a red dot) and non-rhotic AAVE pronunciations found primarily among African Americans regardless of location.]]
{{image frame
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Due to the relatively strong degree of mixing, mutual accommodation, and koinéisation that occurred during the colonial period, [[North American English]] has traditionally been perceived as relatively homogeneous, at least in comparison with British dialects. However, modern scholars have strongly opposed this notion, arguing that North American English shows a great deal of phonetic, lexical, and geographic variability. This becomes all the more apparent considering social, ethnolinguistic, and regional varieties such as [[African-American English]], [[Chicano English]], [[Cajun English]], or [[Newfoundland English]].<ref>{{cite book |title=The Handbook of World Englishes |date=2020 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-1-119-16421-0 |page=45}}</ref> American accent variation is increasing at the regional level and decreasing at the very local level,{{sfn|Labov|2012}} though most Americans still speak within a phonological continuum of similar accents,{{sfn|Wells|1982|p=34}} known collectively as [[General American English]] (GA), with differences hardly noticed even among Americans themselves, including [[Midland American English|Midland]] and [[Western American English]].{{sfn|Rowicka|2006}}{{sfn|Toon|1982}}{{sfn|Cassidy|1982}}

[[Canadian English]] varieties, excepting those from [[Atlantic Canada]] and possibly [[Quebec]], are generally considered to belong to the GA continuum, although they often show [[Canadian raising|raising]] of the vowels {{IPAc-en|aɪ}} and {{IPAc-en|aʊ}} before [[voiceless consonants]] and have distinct norms for writing and pronunciation as well.{{sfn|Boberg|2010}} [[Atlantic Canadian English]], notably distinct from [[Standard Canadian English]],<ref>[[Labov, William]]; Sharon Ash; Charles Boberg (2006). ''[[The Atlas of North American English]]''. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 141, 148.</ref> comprises [[Atlantic Canadian English#Maritimes|Maritime English]] and [[Newfoundland English]]. It was influenced mostly by British and Irish English, as well as [[Irish language|Irish]], [[Scottish Gaelic]], and [[Acadian French]].<ref>Chambers, Jack K. (2010). "English in Canada" (PDF). Kingston, Ontario. p. 14. Retrieved 20 July 2012.</ref>

In most American and Canadian English dialects, [[rhoticity in English|rhoticity]] (or ''r''-fullness) is dominant, with non-rhoticity (or ''r''-dropping) being associated with lower prestige and social class, especially since the end of [[World War II]]. This contrasts with the situation in England, where non-rhoticity has become the standard.{{sfn|Labov|1972}} Varieties beyond GA which have developed distinct sound systems include the [[Southern American English]], [[New York City English]], [[Eastern New England English]], and [[African-American Vernacular English]] (AAVE) groups{{snd}}all of which are historically non-rhotic, save a few varieties of Southern American.

In Southern American English, the most populous grouping outside GA,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/speak/ahead/ |title=Do You Speak American: What Lies Ahead |access-date=15 August 2007 |publisher=[[PBS]] |archive-date=14 September 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070914172319/http://www.pbs.org/speak/ahead/ |url-status=live}}</ref> rhoticity now strongly prevails, replacing the region's [[older Southern American English|historical non-rhotic prestige]].<ref>{{citation |title=Rural White Southern Accents |first=Erik R. |last=Thomas |publisher=[[Mouton de Gruyter]] |work=Atlas of North American English |year=2003 |url=http://www.atlas.mouton-content.com/secure/generalmodules/varieties/unit0000/virtualsession/vslessons/thomas.pdf |page=16 |access-date=11 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141222004531/http://www.atlas.mouton-content.com/secure/generalmodules/varieties/unit0000/virtualsession/vslessons/thomas.pdf |archive-date=22 December 2014 |url-status=dead}} [Later published as a chapter in: Bernd Kortmann and Edgar W. Schneider (eds) (2004). ''A Handbook of Varieties of English: A Multimedia Reference Tool.'' New York: Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 300–324.]</ref>{{sfn|Levine|Crockett|1966}}{{sfn|Schönweitz|2001}} Southern accents are colloquially described as a "drawl" or "twang",{{sfn|Montgomery|1993}} being recognised most readily by the Southern Vowel Shift initiated by [[monophthong|glide-deleting]] in the {{IPA|/aɪ/}} vowel (e.g. pronouncing ''spy'' almost like ''spa''), the "Southern breaking" of several front pure vowels into a gliding vowel or even two syllables (e.g. pronouncing the word ''press'' almost like "pray-us"),{{sfn|Thomas|2008|pp=95–96}} the [[pin–pen merger]], and other distinctive phonological, grammatical, and lexical features, many of which are actually recent developments of the 19th century or later.{{sfn|Bailey|1997}}

Spoken primarily by working- and middle-class African Americans, [[African-American Vernacular English]] (AAVE) is largely non-rhotic, and likely originated among enslaved Africans and African Americans influenced primarily by the non-standard [[older Southern American English|older Southern dialects]]. A minority of linguists,<ref>{{cite book |title=Word on the Street: Debunking the Myth of a "Pure" Standard English |last=McWhorter |first=John H. |author-link=John McWhorter |publisher=Basic Books |year=2001 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Edt7yUD6PkMC |page=162 |isbn=978-0-7382-0446-8}}</ref> contrarily, propose that AAVE mostly traces back to African languages spoken by the slaves who had to develop a [[pidgin]] or [[English-based creole]] to communicate with slaves of other ethnic and linguistic origins.{{sfn|Bailey|2001}} AAVE's important commonalities with Southern accents suggest it developed into a highly coherent and homogeneous variety in the 19th or early 20th century. AAVE is commonly stigmatised in North America as a form of "broken" or "uneducated" English, as are white Southern accents, but linguists today recognise both as fully developed varieties of English with their own norms shared by large speech communities.{{sfn|Green|2002}}{{sfn|Patrick|2006b}}

=== Australia and New Zealand ===
<gallery mode="packed">
AustraliaPart2.ogg|An example of a man with a [[Australian English phonology|general Australian accent]].
Prime Minister Gillard of Australia at News Conference with President Obama.flac|An example of a [[South Australia]]n woman with a [[broad Australian accent]] ([[Julia Gillard]]).
Geoffrey Rush bbc radio4 front row 01 05 2013.flac|An example of a [[Queensland]] man with a cultivated Australian accent ([[Geoffrey Rush]]).
Eleanor catton bbc radio4 womans hour 09 09 2013.flac|An example of a woman with a [[New Zealand accent]] ([[Eleanor Catton]]).
H.E. Mr. John Key Prime Minister, New Zealand - speech at Connect Asia-Pacific 2013 Summit.ogg|An example of a man with a [[New Zealand accent]] ([[John Key]]).
</gallery>

Since 1788, English has been spoken in [[Oceania]], and [[Australian English]] has developed as the first language of the vast majority of the inhabitants of the Australian continent, its standard accent being [[General Australian]]. The [[New Zealand English|English of neighbouring New Zealand]] has to a lesser degree become an influential standard variety of the language.{{sfn|Eagleson|1982}} Australian and New Zealand English are each other's closest relatives with few differentiating characteristics, followed by [[South African English]] and the English of South East England, all of which have similarly non-rhotic accents, aside from some accents in the [[South Island]] of New Zealand. Australian and New Zealand English stand out for their innovative vowels: many short vowels are fronted or raised, whereas many long vowels have diphthongised. Australian English also has a contrast between long and short vowels, not found in most other varieties. Australian English grammar aligns closely with British and American English; like American English, collective plural subjects take on a singular verb, e.g. "the government is" (rather than ''are'').{{sfn|Trudgill|Hannah|2002|pp=16–21}}{{sfn|Burridge|2010}} New Zealand English uses front vowels that are often even higher than in Australian English.{{sfn|Trudgill|Hannah|2002|pp=24–26}}{{sfn|Maclagan|2010}}{{sfn|Gordon|Campbell|Hay et al.|2004}}

=== Southeast Asia ===
<gallery mode="packed">
Declaration of Independence Part 1.ogg|An example of a male teenager with a [[Singaporean English|Singaporean accent]].
Dr. Villaverde on Conflicts of Interest in Medicine and Dr. Dans on Evidence-Based Medicine in INCLEN.flac|Examples of a man and woman with [[Philippine English|Filipino accents]].
</gallery>
English is an official language of the [[Philippines]]. Its use is ubiquitous in the country, and appears in areas including on [[road signs in the Philippines|street signs]], marquees, and government documents, and in courtrooms, public media, the entertainment industry, and the business sector. It became an important and widely spoken language in the country during the period of American rule between 1898 and 1946.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dayag |first1=Danilo |date=2008 |chapter=English-language media in the Philippines: Description and research |title=Philippine English: Linguistic and Literary Perspectives |pages=49–66 |editor-last1=Bautista |editor-first=Ma. Lourdes |editor-last2=Bolton |editor-first2=Kingsley |location=Hong Kong |publisher=Hong Kong University Press |doi=10.5790/hongkong/9789622099470.003.0004 |isbn=978-962-209-947-0}}</ref> [[Taglish]] is a prominent form of [[code-switching]] between [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] and English.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bautista |first1=Maria Lourdes S. |title=Tagalog-English Code-switching as a Mode of Discourse |journal=Asia Pacific Education Review |date=2004 |volume=5 |pages=226–233 |issue=2 |doi=10.1007/BF03024960 |s2cid=145684166 |url=https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ720543.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220515012035/https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ720543.pdf |archive-date=15 May 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Africa, the Caribbean, and South Asia ===
<gallery mode="packed">
South African English.ogg|An example of a man with a [[South African accent]].
Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie bbc radio4 front row 03 05 2013.flac|An example of a woman with an educated [[Nigerian English|Nigerian accent]] ([[Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie]]).
Sylbourne Sydial with Nordia Teape on Integrated Diaspora Services.flac|An example of a woman and man with [[Jamaican English|Jamaican accents]].
Arundhati Roy BBC Radio4 Bookclub 2 Oct 2011 b015brn8.flac|An example of a woman with an [[Indian accent]] ([[Arundhati Roy]]).
</gallery>
English is spoken widely in southern Africa and is an official or co-official language in several of the region's countries. In [[South Africa]], English has been spoken since 1820, co-existing with [[Afrikaans]] and various African languages such as the [[Khoe languages|Khoe]] and [[Bantu languages]]. Today, about nine per cent of the South African population speaks [[South African English]] (SAE) as a first language. SAE is a non-rhotic variety that tends to follow RP as a norm. It is one of the few non-rhotic English varieties that lack [[Linking and intrusive R|intrusive R]]. The second-language varieties of South Africa differ based on the native languages of their speakers.{{sfn|Lanham|1982}} Most phonological differences from RP are in the vowels.{{sfn|Lass|2002}} Consonant differences include the tendency to pronounce {{IPA|/p, t, t͡ʃ, k/}} without aspiration (e.g. ''pin'' pronounced {{IPA|[pɪn]}} rather than as {{IPA|[pʰɪn]}} as in most other varieties), while r is often pronounced as a flap {{IPA|[ɾ]}} instead of as the more common fricative.{{sfn|Trudgill|Hannah|2002|pp=30–31}}

Nigerian English is a variety of English spoken in [[Nigeria]]; over 150 million Nigerians speak some form of the language.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://encarta.msn.com/dictionary_1861683342/Nigerian_English.html |title=Nigerian English |encyclopedia=Encarta |publisher=Microsoft |access-date=17 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100909162439/http://encarta.msn.com/dictionary_1861683342/Nigerian_English.html |archive-date=9 September 2010}}</ref> Though traditionally based on British English, increasing United States influence during the latter 20th century has resulted in American English vocabulary entering Nigerian English. Additionally, some new words and collocations have emerged from the variety out of a need to express concepts specific to the culture of the nation (e.g. ''senior wife'').<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adegbija |first1=Efurosibina |title=Lexico-semantic variation in Nigerian English |journal=World Englishes |date=1989 |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=165–177 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-971X.1989.tb00652.x}}</ref>

Varieties of English are spoken throughout the former British colonial possessions in the Caribbean, including Jamaica, the [[Leeward Islands|Leeward]] and [[Windward Islands]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]], [[Barbados]], the [[Cayman Islands]], and [[Belize]]. Each of these areas is home both to a local variety of English and a local English-based creole, combining English and African languages. The most prominent varieties are [[Jamaican English]] and [[Jamaican Creole]]. In Central America, English-based creoles are spoken on the Caribbean coasts of Nicaragua and Panama.{{sfn|Lawton|1982}} Residents are often fluent in both the local English variety and the local creole languages, and frequently [[code-switch]] between them. The relationship between different varieties can be conceptualised as a continuum, in which more creole-like or RP-like forms function as more formal and informal registers of the language respectively.{{sfn|Trudgill|Hannah|2002|p=115}}

Most Caribbean varieties are based on British English and consequently, most are non-rhotic, except for formal styles of Jamaican English which are often rhotic. Jamaican English differs from RP in its vowel inventory, which has a distinction between long and short vowels rather than tense and lax vowels as in Standard English. The diphthongs {{IPA|/ei/}} and {{IPA|/ou/}} are monophthongs {{IPA|[eː]}} and {{IPA|[oː]}} or even the reverse diphthongs {{IPA|[ie]}} and {{IPA|[uo]}} (e.g. ''bay'' and ''boat'' pronounced {{IPA|[bʲeː]}} and {{IPA|[bʷoːt]}}). Often word-final consonant clusters are simplified so that "child" is pronounced {{IPA|[t͡ʃail]}} and "wind" {{IPA|[win]}}.{{sfn|Trudgill|Hannah|2002|pp=117–118}}{{sfn|Lawton|1982|pp=256–260}}{{sfn|Trudgill|Hannah|2002|pp=115–116}}

[[Indian English]] historically tends towards RP as an ideal, with the proximity of speakers to RP generally reflective of class distinctions. Indian English accents are marked by the pronunciation of phonemes such as {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/d/}} (often pronounced with retroflex articulation as {{IPA|[ʈ]}} and {{IPA|[ɖ]}}) and the replacement of {{IPA|/θ/}} and {{IPA|/ð/}} with dentals {{IPA|[t̪]}} and {{IPA|[d̪]}}. Sometimes Indian English speakers may also use spelling-based pronunciations where the silent {{angbr|h}} found in words such as ''ghost'' is pronounced as an Indian [[voiced aspirated]] stop {{IPA|[ɡʱ]}}.{{sfn|Sailaja|2009|pp=19–24}}

=== Non-native varieties ===
<gallery mode="packed">
Non-native English reading by Spanish native speaker 003.ogg|An example of a [[Hispanophone]] man speaking English.
Japan PM Shinzo Abe addressing US Congress 2015.ogg|An example of a Japanese man speaking English ([[Shinzo Abe]]).
Werner Herzog BBC Radio4 Start the Week 26 March 2012 b01dtjcj.flac|An example of a German man speaking English ([[Werner Herzog]]).
</gallery>
[[English as a second or foreign language|Non-native English speakers]] may pronounce words differently due to having not fully mastered English pronunciation. This can happen either because they apply the [[phonology|speech rules]] of their mother tongue to English ("interference") or through implementing strategies similar to those used in [[first language acquisition]]. They may create novel pronunciations for English sounds not found in their first language.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bjarkman |first1=Peter C. |last2=Hammond |first2=Robert Matthew |title=American Spanish Pronunciation |publisher=Georgetown University Press |place=Washington, D.C. |date=1989 |isbn=978-0-87840-099-7 |page=226}}</ref>

== Phonology ==
{{IPA notice|brackets=no|section}}
[[English phonology]] and [[phonetics]] differ from one dialect to another, usually without interfering with mutual communication. Phonological variation affects the inventory of [[phoneme]]s (speech sounds that distinguish meaning), and phonetic variation consists in differences in pronunciation of the phonemes.{{sfn|Wolfram|2006|pp=334–335}} This overview mainly describes [[Received Pronunciation]] (RP) and [[General American]] (GA), the [[standard varieties]] of the United Kingdom and the United States respectively.{{sfn|Carr|Honeybone|2007}}{{sfn|Bermúdez-Otero|McMahon|2006}}{{sfn|MacMahon|2006}}

=== Consonants ===
Most English dialects share the same 24{{nbsp}}consonant phonemes (or 26, if marginal {{IPA|/x/}} and glottal stop {{IPA|/ʔ/}} are included). The consonant inventory shown below is valid for [[California English]],{{sfn|International Phonetic Association|1999|pp=41–42}} and for RP.{{sfn|König|1994|p=534}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|+ Consonant phonemes
! colspan="2" | !! colspan="2" | [[Bilabial]] !! colspan="2" | [[Labiodental]] !! colspan="2" | [[Dental consonant|Dental]] !! colspan="2" | [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]] !! colspan="2" | [[Postalveolar consonant|Post- alveolar]] !! colspan="2" | [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]] !! colspan="2" | [[Velar consonant|Velar]] !! colspan="2" | [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPA link|m}}
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPA link|n}}
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPA link|ŋ}}
| colspan="2" |
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Plosive]]
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPA link|p}} || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPA link|b}}
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPA link|t}} || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPA link|d}}
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" |
| colspan="2" |
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPA link|k}} || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPA link|ɡ}}
| style="border-right: 0;" | ({{IPA link|ʔ}}) || style="border-left: 0;" |
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Affricate]]
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" |
| colspan="2" |
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" |
| colspan="2" |
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPA link|tʃ}} || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPA link|dʒ}}
| colspan="2" |
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" |
| colspan="2" |
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Fricative]]
| colspan="2" |
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPA link|f}} || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPA link|v}}
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPA link|θ}} || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPA link|ð}}
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPA link|s}} || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPA link|z}}
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPA link|ʃ}} || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPA link|ʒ}}
| colspan="2" |
| style="border-right: 0;" | ({{IPA link|x}}) || style="border-left: 0;" |
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPA link|h}} || style="border-left: 0;" |
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Approximant]]
! [[Median consonant|Median]]
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPA link|ɹ}}
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPA link|j}}
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPA link|w}}
| colspan="2" |
|-
! [[Lateral consonant|Lateral]]
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPA link|l}}
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
|-
|}
For pairs of [[obstruent]]s (stops, affricates, and fricatives) such as {{IPA|/p b/}}, {{IPA|/tʃ dʒ/}}, and {{IPA|/s z/}}, the first is [[fortis and lenis|fortis]] (strong) and the second is lenis (weak). Fortis obstruents, such as {{IPA|/p tʃ s/}} are pronounced with more muscular tension and breath force than lenis consonants, such as {{IPA|/b dʒ z/}}, and are always [[voiceless]]. Lenis consonants are partly [[voiced]] at the beginning and end of utterances, and fully voiced between vowels. Fortis stops such as {{IPA|/p/}} have additional articulatory or acoustic features in most dialects: they are [[aspirated consonant|aspirated]] {{IPA|[pʰ]}} when they occur alone at the beginning of a stressed syllable, often unaspirated in other cases, and often [[unreleased stop|unreleased]] {{IPA|[p̚]}} or pre-glottalised {{IPA|[ʔp]}} at the end of a syllable. In a single-syllable word, a vowel before a fortis stop is shortened: e.g. ''nip'' has a noticeably shorter vowel (phonetically, not phonemically) than ''nib'' {{IPA|[nɪˑb̥]}} ([[#Vowels|see below]]).{{sfn|Collins|Mees|2003|pp=47–53}}
* Lenis stops: ''bin'' {{IPA|[b̥ɪˑn]}}, ''about'' {{IPA|[əˈbaʊt]}}, ''nib'' {{IPA|[nɪˑb̥]}}
* Fortis stops: ''pin'' {{IPA|[pʰɪn]}}; ''spin'' {{IPA|[spɪn]}}; ''happy'' {{IPA|[ˈhæpi]}}; ''nip'' {{IPA|[nɪp̚]}} or {{IPA|[nɪʔp]}}

In RP, the lateral approximant {{IPA|/l/}} has two main [[allophone]]s (pronunciation variants): the clear or plain {{IPA|[l]}}, as in ''light'', and the dark or [[velarised alveolar lateral approximant|velarised]] {{IPA|[ɫ]}}, as in ''full''.{{Sfn|Trudgill|Hannah|2008|p=13}} GA has dark ''l'' in most cases.{{Sfn|Trudgill|Hannah|2008|p=41}}
* Clear ''l'': RP ''light'' {{IPA|[laɪt]}}
* Dark ''l'': RP and GA ''full'' {{IPA|[fʊɫ]}}, GA ''light'' {{IPA|[ɫaɪt]}}

All [[sonorant]]s (liquids {{IPA|/l, r/}} and nasals {{IPA|/m, n, ŋ/}}) devoice when following a voiceless obstruent, and they are syllabic when following a consonant at the end of a word.{{sfn|Brinton|Brinton|2010|pp=56–59}}
* Voiceless sonorants: ''clay'' {{IPA|[kl̥eɪ̯]}}; ''snow'' RP {{IPA|[sn̥əʊ̯]}}, GA {{IPA|[sn̥oʊ̯]}}
* Syllabic sonorants: ''paddle'' {{IPA|[ˈpad.l̩]}}, ''button'' {{IPA|[ˈbʌt.n̩]}}

=== Vowels ===
{{stack begin}}
{| class="wikitable floatright" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Closing diphthongs
! [[Received Pronunciation|RP]] !! [[General American|GA]] !! Word
|-
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|eɪ}} || b'''ay'''
|-
| {{IPA|əʊ}} || {{IPA|oʊ}} || r'''oa'''d
|-
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|aɪ}} || cr'''y'''
|-
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|aʊ}} || c'''ow'''
|-
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|ɔɪ}} || b'''oy'''
|}

{| class="wikitable floatright" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Centring diphthongs
! [[Received Pronunciation|RP]] !! [[General American|GA]] !! Word
|-
| {{IPA|ɪə}} || {{IPA|ɪɹ}} || p'''eer'''
|-
| {{IPA link|ɛ|eə}} || {{IPA|ɛɹ}} || p'''air'''
|-
| {{IPA|ʊə}} || {{IPA|ʊɹ}} || p'''oor'''
|}
{{stack end}}

{{stack begin}}
{| class="wikitable floatright" style="text-align: center; margin-right: 1em;"
|+ Monophthongs
! [[Received Pronunciation|RP]] !! [[General American|GA]] !! Word
|-
| {{IPA link|iː}} || {{IPA link|i}} || n'''ee'''d
|-
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|ɪ}} || b'''i'''d
|-
| {{IPA link|e̞|e}} || {{IPA link|ɛ}} || b'''e'''d
|-
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|æ}} || b'''a'''ck
|-
| {{IPA link|ɑː}} || rowspan="2" | {{IPA link|ɑ}} || br'''a'''
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA link|ɒ}} || b'''o'''x
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA link|ɔ}}, {{IPA link|ɑ}} || cl'''o'''th
|-
| {{IPA link|ɔ|ɔː}}|| p'''aw'''
|-
| {{IPA link|uː}} || {{IPA link|u}} || f'''oo'''d
|-
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|ʊ}} || g'''oo'''d
|-
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|ɐ|ʌ}} || b'''u'''t
|-
| {{IPA link|ə|ɜː}} || {{IPA link|ɚ|ɜɹ}} || b'''ir'''d
|-
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|ə}} || comm'''a'''
|}
{{stack end}}

The pronunciation of vowels varies a great deal between dialects and is one of the most detectable aspects of a speaker's accent. The accompanying table below lists the vowel [[phoneme]]s in RP and GA, with example words from [[lexical set]]s. The vowels are represented with symbols from the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]]; those given for RP are standard in British dictionaries and other publications.<ref>{{cite web |last=Wells |first=John C. |date=8 February 2001 |url=https://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/wells/ipa-english-uni.htm |title=IPA transcription systems for English |publisher=University College London |access-date=3 September 2018 |archive-date=19 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180919182345/https://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/wells/ipa-english-uni.htm |url-status=live}}</ref>

In RP, vowel length is phonemic; [[long vowels]] are marked with a [[triangular colon]] {{angbr IPA|ː}} in the table above, such as the vowel of ''need'' {{IPA|[niːd]}} as opposed to ''bid'' {{IPA|[bɪd]}}.{{sfn|Giegerich|1992|pp=56–57}} In GA, vowel length is non-distinctive.{{sfn|Cohen|2012|p=80}}

In both RP and GA, vowels are phonetically [[clipping (phonetics)|shortened before fortis consonants]] in the same [[syllable]], like {{IPA|/t tʃ f/}}, but not before lenis consonants like {{IPA|/d dʒ v/}} or in open syllables: thus, the vowels of ''rich'' {{IPA|[rɪtʃ]}}, ''neat'' {{IPA|[nit]}}, and ''safe'' {{IPA|[seɪ̯f]}} are noticeably shorter than the vowels of ''ridge'' {{IPA|[rɪˑdʒ]}}, ''need'' {{IPA|[niˑd]}}, and ''save'' {{IPA|[seˑɪ̯v]}}, and the vowel of ''light'' {{IPA|[laɪ̯t]}} is shorter than that of ''lie'' {{IPA|[laˑɪ̯]}}. Because lenis consonants are frequently voiceless at the end of a syllable, vowel length is an important cue as to whether the following consonant is lenis or fortis.{{sfn|Collins|Mees|2003|pp=46–50}}

The vowel {{IPA|/ə/}} only occurs in unstressed syllables and is more open in quality in stem-final positions.{{sfn|Cruttenden|2014|p=138}}{{sfn|Flemming|Johnson|2007}} Some dialects do not contrast {{IPA|/ɪ/}} and {{IPA|/ə/}} in unstressed positions, such that ''rabbit'' and ''abbot'' rhyme and ''Lenin'' and ''Lennon'' are homophonous, a dialectal feature called the [[weak vowel merger]].{{sfn|Wells|1982|p=167}} GA {{IPA|/ɜr/}} and {{IPA|/ər/}} are realised as an [[r-colored vowel|''r''-coloured vowel]] {{IPA|[ɚ]}}, as in ''further'' {{IPA|[ˈfɚðɚ]}} (phonemically {{IPA|/ˈfɜrðər/}}), which in RP is realised as {{IPA|[ˈfəːðə]}} (phonemically {{IPA|/ˈfɜːðə/}}).{{sfn|Wells|1982|p=121}}

=== Phonotactics ===
An English syllable includes a syllable nucleus consisting of a vowel sound. Syllable onset and coda (start and end) are optional. A syllable can start with up to three consonant sounds, as in ''sprint'' {{IPA|/sprɪnt/}}, and end with up to five, as in (for some dialects) ''angsts'' {{IPA|/aŋksts/}}. This gives an English syllable a structure of (CCC)V(CCCCC){{snd}}where C represents a consonant and V a vowel. The word ''strengths'' {{IPA|/strɛŋθs/}} is thus close to the most complex syllable possible in English. The consonants that may appear together in onsets or codas are restricted, as is the order in which they may appear. Onsets can only have four types of consonant clusters: a stop and approximant, as in ''play''; a voiceless fricative and approximant, as in ''fly'' or ''sly''; ''s'' and a voiceless stop, as in ''stay''; and ''s'', a voiceless stop, and an approximant, as in ''string''.{{sfn|Brinton|Brinton|2010|page=60}} Clusters of nasal and stop are only allowed in codas. Clusters of obstruents always agree in voicing, and clusters of [[sibilant]]s and of [[plosive]]s with the same point of articulation are prohibited. Several consonants have limited distributions: {{IPA|/h/}} can only occur in syllable-initial position, and {{IPA|/ŋ/}} only in syllable-final position.{{sfn|König|1994|pp=537–538}}

=== Stress, rhythm, and intonation ===
{{See also|Stress and vowel reduction in English|Intonation (linguistics)#English|English prosody}}
[[Stress (linguistics)|Stress]] plays an important role in English. Certain [[syllable]]s are stressed, while others are unstressed. Stress is a combination of duration, intensity, vowel quality, and sometimes changes in pitch. Stressed syllables are pronounced longer and louder than unstressed syllables, and vowels in unstressed syllables are frequently [[vowel reduction|reduced]] while vowels in stressed syllables are not.{{sfn|International Phonetic Association|1999|p=42}}

Stress in English is [[phonemic]], gaining freedom and dynamicity once lost in Proto-Germanic through a majority of borrowings from non-Germanic languages. For instance, the word ''contract'' is stressed on the first syllable ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ɒ|n|t|r|æ|k|t}} {{respell|KON|trakt}}) when used as a noun, but on the last syllable ({{IPAc-en|k|ə|n|ˈ|t|r|æ|k|t}} {{respell|kən|TRAKT|'}}) for most meanings (for example, "reduce in size") when used as a verb.{{sfn|Oxford Learner's Dictionary|2015|loc=Entry "contract"}}{{sfn|Merriam Webster|2015|loc=Entry "contract"}}{{sfn|Macquarie Dictionary|2015|loc=Entry "contract"}} Here stress is connected to [[vowel reduction]]: in the noun "contract" the first syllable is stressed and has the unreduced vowel {{IPA|/ɒ/}}, but in the verb "contract" the first syllable is unstressed and its vowel is reduced to {{IPA|/ə/}}. Stress is also used to distinguish between words and phrases, so that a compound word receives a single stress unit, but the corresponding phrase has two: e.g. "a burnout" ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|b|ɜːr|n|aʊ|t}}) versus "to burn out" ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|b|ɜːr|n|_|ˈ|aʊ|t}}), and "a hotdog" ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|ɒ|t|d|ɒ|g}}) versus "a hot dog" ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|ɒ|t|_|ˈ|d|ɒ|g}}).{{sfn|Brinton|Brinton|2010|p=66}}

In terms of [[rhythm]], English is generally described as a [[stress-timed]] language, meaning that the amount of time between stressed syllables tends to be equal.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sentence stress |url=https://esol.britishcouncil.org/content/teachers/staff-room/teaching-articles/sentence-stress |website=ESOL Nexus |publisher=British Council |access-date=24 November 2019 |archive-date=3 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191203092723/https://esol.britishcouncil.org/content/teachers/staff-room/teaching-articles/sentence-stress |url-status=dead}}</ref> Stressed syllables are pronounced longer, but unstressed syllables (syllables between stresses) are shortened. Vowels in unstressed syllables are shortened as well, and vowel shortening causes changes in [[vowel quality]]: [[vowel reduction]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lunden |first1=Anya |title=Duration, vowel quality, and the rhythmic pattern of English |journal=Laboratory Phonology |volume=8 |page=27 |doi=10.5334/labphon.37 |year=2017 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Regional variation ===
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible"
|+ Phonological features in Standard English varieties{{sfn|Trudgill|Hannah|2002|pp=4–6}}
! !! scope="col" | [[American English|United States]] !! scope="col" | [[Canadian English|Canada]] !! scope="col" | [[Hiberno-English|Ireland]] !! scope="col" | [[Ulster English|Northern Ireland]] !! scope="col" | [[Scottish English|Scotland]] !! scope="col" | [[English language in England|England]] !! scope="col" | [[Welsh English|Wales]] !! scope="col" | [[South African English|South Africa]] !! scope="col" | [[Australian English|Australia]] !! scope="col" | [[New Zealand English|New Zealand]]
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:right" | [[father-bother merger|''father''–''bother'' merger]]
| {{yes}} || {{yes}} || || || || || || || ||
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:right" | {{IPA|/ɒ/}} is [[unrounded]]
| {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || || || || || || ||
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:right" | {{IPA|/ɜr/}} is pronounced {{IPA|[ɚ]}}
| {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || || || || || ||
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:right" | [[cot-caught merger|''cot''–''caught'' merger]]
| {{MaybeCheck|text=Possibly}} || {{yes}} || {{MaybeCheck|text=Possibly}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || || || || ||
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:right" | [[Full–fool merger|''fool''–''full'' merger]]
| || || || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || || || || ||
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:right" | {{IPA|/t, d/}} [[flapping]]
| {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{MaybeCheck|text=Possibly}} || {{usually|Often}} || {{rarely}} || {{rarely}} || {{rarely}} || {{rarely}} || {{yes}} || {{usually|Often}}
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:right" | [[trap-bath split|''trap''–''bath'' split]]
| || || {{MaybeCheck|text=Possibly}} || {{MaybeCheck|text=Possibly}} || || {{usually|Often}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{usually|Often}} || {{yes}}
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:right" | [[non-rhoticity]]
| || || || || || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}}
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:right" | close vowels for {{IPA|/æ, ɛ/}}
| || || || || || || || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}}
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:right" | {{IPA|/l/}} can always be pronounced {{IPA|[ɫ]}}
| {{yes}} || {{yes}} || || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || || || || {{yes}} || {{yes}}
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:right" | {{IPA|/ɑː/}} is [[fronted (phonetics)|fronted]] before {{IPA|/r/}}
| || {{MaybeCheck|text=Possibly}} || {{MaybeCheck|text=Possibly}} || || || || || || {{yes}} || {{yes}}
|}
{|class="wikitable floatright"
|+ Dialects and low vowels
! scope="col" style="text-align:right" | [[Lexical set]] !! scope="col" | RP || scope="col" | GA !! scope="col" | CanE !! scope="col" | Sound change
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:right" | {{sc2|THOUGHT}}
| {{IPA|/ɔː/}} || rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/ɔ/}} or {{IPA|/ɑ/}} || rowspan="4" | {{IPA|/ɑ/}} || [[Cot–caught merger|''cot''–''caught'' merger]]
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:right" | {{sc2|CLOTH}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/ɒ/}} || [[Lot–cloth split|''lot''–''cloth'' split]]
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:right" | {{sc2|LOT}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/ɑ/}} || rowspan="2" | [[Father–bother merger|''father''–''bother'' merger]]
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:right" | {{sc2|PALM}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/ɑː/}}
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:right" | {{sc2|BATH}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/æ/}} || rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/æ/}} || rowspan="2" | [[Trap–bath split|''trap''–''bath'' split]]
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:right" | {{sc2|TRAP}}
| {{IPA|/æ/}}
|}
Varieties of English vary the most in pronunciation of vowels. The best-known national varieties used as standards for education in non-English-speaking countries are British (BrE) and American (AmE). Countries such as [[Canadian English|Canada]], [[Australian English|Australia]], [[Hiberno-English|Ireland]], [[New Zealand English|New Zealand]] and [[South African English|South Africa]] have their own standard varieties which are less often used as standards for education internationally.{{sfn|Trudgill|Hannah|2002|pp=4–6}}

English has undergone many [[phonological history of English|historical sound changes]], some of them affecting all varieties, and others affecting only a few. Most standard varieties are affected by the [[Great Vowel Shift]], which changed the pronunciation of long vowels, but a few dialects have slightly different results. In North America, a number of chain shifts such as the [[Northern Cities Vowel Shift]] and [[Canadian Shift]] have produced very different vowel landscapes in some regional accents.{{sfnm|Lass|1992|1pp=90, 118, 610|Lass|2000|2pp=80, 656}}

Some dialects have fewer or more consonant phonemes and [[phone (phonetics)|phones]] than the standard varieties. Some conservative varieties like Scottish English have a [[voiceless]] {{IPAblink|ʍ}} sound in ''whine'' that contrasts with the voiced {{IPA|[w]}} in ''wine'', but most other dialects pronounce both words with voiced {{IPA|[w]}}, a dialect feature called [[wine–whine merger|''wine''–''whine'' merger]]. The voiceless velar fricative sound {{IPA|/x/}} is found in Scottish English, which distinguishes ''loch'' {{IPA|/lɔx/}} from ''lock'' {{IPA|/lɔk/}}. Accents like [[Cockney]] with "[[h-dropping|''h''-dropping]]" lack the glottal fricative {{IPA|/h/}}, and dialects with [[th-stopping|''th''-stopping]] and [[th-fronting|''th''-fronting]] like [[African-American Vernacular English|African-American Vernacular]] and [[Estuary English]] do not have the dental fricatives {{IPA|/θ, ð/}}, but replace them with dental or alveolar stops {{IPA|/t, d/}} or labiodental fricatives {{IPA|/f, v/}}.{{sfn|Roach|2009|p=53}}{{sfn|Giegerich|1992|p=36}} Other changes affecting the phonology of local varieties are processes such as [[yod-dropping|''yod''-dropping]], [[yod-coalescence|''yod''-coalescence]], and reduction of consonant clusters.{{sfn|Wells|1982}}{{Page needed|date=January 2023}}

GA and RP vary in their pronunciation of historical {{IPA|/r/}} after a vowel at the end of a syllable (in the [[syllable coda]]). GA is a [[rhotic dialect]], meaning that it pronounces {{IPA|/r/}} at the end of a syllable, but RP is non-rhotic, meaning that it loses {{IPA|/r/}} in that position. English dialects are classified as rhotic or non-rhotic depending on whether they elide {{IPA|/r/}} like RP or keep it like GA.{{sfn|Lass|2000|p=114}}

There is complex dialectal variation in words with the [[phonological history of English short A|open front]] and [[phonological history of English low back vowels|open back vowels]] {{IPA|/æ ɑː ɒ ɔː/}}. These four vowels are only distinguished in RP, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. In GA, these vowels merge to three {{IPA|/æ ɑ ɔ/}},{{sfn|Wells|1982|pp=xviii–xix}} and in Canadian English, they merge to two {{IPA|/æ ɑ/}}.{{sfn|Wells|1982|p=493}}

== Orthography ==
Since the 9th century, English has been written using the [[English alphabet]], which uses the [[Latin script]]. [[Anglo-Saxon runes]] were previously used to write Old English, but only in short inscriptions; the overwhelming majority of attested writings in Old English are in the [[Old English Latin alphabet]].{{sfn|Gneuss|2013|p=23}}

[[English orthography]] is multi-layered and complex, with elements of French, Latin, and Greek spelling on top of the native Germanic system.{{sfn|Swan|2006|p=149}} Further complications have arisen through [[sound change]]s with which the orthography has not kept pace.{{sfn|Lass|2000a}} Compared to European languages for which official organisations have promoted [[spelling reform]]s, English has spelling that is a less consistent indicator of pronunciation, and standard spellings of words that are more difficult to guess from knowing how a word is pronounced.{{sfn|Mountford|2006}} There are also systematic [[American and British English spelling differences|spelling differences between British and American English]]. These situations have prompted [[English-language spelling reform|proposals for spelling reform in English]].{{sfn|Neijt|2006}}

Although letters and speech sounds do not have a one-to-one correspondence in standard English spelling, spelling rules that take into account syllable structure, phonetic changes in derived words, and word accent are reliable for most English words.{{sfn|Daniels|Bright|1996|p=653}} Moreover, standard English spelling shows etymological relationships between related words that would be obscured by a closer correspondence between pronunciation and spelling{{snd}}for example, the words ''photograph'', ''photography'', and ''photographic'',{{sfn|Daniels|Bright|1996|p=653}} or the words ''electricity'' and ''electrical''. While few scholars agree with Chomsky and Halle (1968) that conventional English orthography is "near-optimal",{{sfn|Swan|2006|p=149}} there is a rationale for current English spelling patterns.{{sfn|Abercrombie|Daniels|2006}} The standard orthography of English is the most widely used writing system in the world.{{sfn|Mountford|2006|p=156}} Standard English spelling is based on a graphomorphemic segmentation of words into written clues of what meaningful units make up each word.{{sfn|Mountford|2006|pp=157–158}}

Readers of English can generally rely on the correspondence between spelling and pronunciation to be fairly regular for letters or [[digraph (orthography)|digraphs]] used to spell consonant sounds. The letters ''b'', ''d'', ''f'', ''h'', ''j'', ''k'', ''l'', ''m'', ''n'', ''p'', ''r'', ''s'', ''t'', ''v'', ''w'', ''y'', ''z'' represent, respectively, the phonemes {{IPA|/b, d, f, h, dʒ, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, v, w, j, z/}}. The letters ''c'' and ''g'' normally represent {{IPA|/k/}} and {{IPA|/ɡ/}}, but there is also a [[soft c|soft ''c'']] pronounced {{IPA|/s/}}, and a [[hard and soft G|soft ''g'']] pronounced {{IPA|/dʒ/}}. The differences in the pronunciations of the letters ''c'' and ''g'' are often signalled by the following letters in standard English spelling. Digraphs used to represent phonemes and phoneme sequences include ''ch'' for {{IPA|/tʃ/}}, ''sh'' for {{IPA|/ʃ/}}, ''th'' for {{IPA|/θ/}} or {{IPA|/ð/}}, ''ng'' for {{IPA|/ŋ/}}, ''qu'' for {{IPA|/kw/}}, and ''ph'' for {{IPA|/f/}} in Greek-derived words. The single letter ''x'' is generally pronounced as {{IPA|/z/}} in word-initial position and as {{IPA|/ks/}} otherwise. There are exceptions to these generalisations, often the result of loanwords being spelled according to the spelling patterns of their languages of origin{{sfn|Daniels|Bright|1996|p=653}} or residues of proposals by scholars in the early period of Modern English to follow the spelling patterns of Latin for English words of Germanic origin.{{sfn|Daniels|Bright|1996|p=654}}

For the vowel sounds of the English language, however, correspondences between spelling and pronunciation are more irregular. There are many more vowel phonemes in English than there are single vowel letters (''a'', ''e'', ''i'', ''o'', ''u'', ''y'', and very rarely ''w''). As a result, some "[[vowel length#Short and long vowels in English|long vowels]]" are often indicated by combinations of letters (like the ''oa'' in ''boat'', the ''ow'' in ''how'', and the ''ay'' in ''stay''), or the historically based [[silent e|silent ''e'']] (as in ''note'' and ''cake'').{{sfn|Abercrombie|Daniels|2006}}

The consequence of this complex orthographic history is that learning to read and write can be challenging in English. It can take longer for school pupils to become independently fluent readers of English than of many other languages, including Italian, Spanish, and German.{{sfn|Dehaene|2009}} Nonetheless, there is an advantage for learners of English reading in learning the specific sound-symbol regularities that occur in the standard English spellings of commonly used words.{{sfn|Daniels|Bright|1996|p=653}} Such instruction greatly reduces the risk of children experiencing reading difficulties in English.{{sfn|McGuinness|1997}}{{sfn|Shaywitz|2003}} Making primary school teachers more aware of the primacy of morpheme representation in English may help learners learn more efficiently to read and write English.{{sfn|Mountford|2006|p=159}}

English writing also includes a system of [[punctuation]] marks that is similar to those used in most alphabetic languages around the world. The purpose of punctuation is to mark meaningful grammatical relationships in sentences to aid readers in understanding a text and to indicate features important for reading a text aloud.{{sfn|Lawler|2006|p=290}}

== Grammar ==
Typical for an Indo-European language, [[English grammar]] follows [[nominative–accusative alignment|accusative]] [[morphosyntactic alignment]]. Unlike other Indo-European languages, English has largely abandoned the inflectional [[case system]] in favour of [[analytic language|analytic]] constructions. Only the [[personal pronoun]]s retain morphological case more strongly than any other [[word class]]. English distinguishes at least seven major word classes: verbs, nouns, adjectives, adverbs, determiners (including articles), prepositions, and conjunctions. Some analyses add pronouns as a class separate from nouns, and subdivide conjunctions into [[English subordinators|subordinators]] and [[English coordinators|coordinators]], and add the class of interjections.{{sfn|Huddleston|Pullum|2002|p=22}} English also has a rich set of [[auxiliary verb]]s, such as ''have'' and ''do'', expressing the categories of mood and aspect. Questions are marked by [[do-support|''do''-support]], [[wh-movement|''wh''-movement]] (fronting of question words beginning with ''wh''-) and word order [[subject–auxiliary inversion|inversion]] with some verbs.<ref name="Carter2016">{{cite book |last1=Carter |first1=Ronald |last2=McCarthey |first2=Michael |last3=Mark |first3=Geraldine |last4=O'Keeffe |first4=Anne |title=English Grammar Today |date=2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-61739-7}}</ref>

Some traits typical of Germanic languages persist in English, such as the distinction between irregularly inflected [[strong inflection|strong]] stems inflected through [[ablaut]] (i.e. changing the vowel of the stem, as in the pairs ''speak''{{\}}''spoke'' and ''foot''{{\}}''feet'') and weak stems inflected through affixation (such as ''love''{{\}}''loved'', ''hand''{{\}}''hands'').<ref name="Baugh2012">{{cite book |last1=Baugh |first1=Albert |last2=Cable |first2=Thomas |title=A history of the English language |date=2012 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-65596-5 |edition=6th}}</ref> Vestiges of the case and gender system are found in the pronoun system (''he''{{\}}''him'', ''who''{{\}}''whom''); similarly, traces of more complex verb conjugation are seen in the inflection of the [[copula (linguistics)|copula]] verb ''to be''.<ref name="Baugh2012" />

The seven word classes are exemplified in this sample sentence:{{sfb|Aarts|Haegeman|2006|p=118}}
{| style="text-align: center;"
|-
! Det. !! Noun !! Prep. !! Det. !! Noun !! Conj. !! Det. !! Adj. !! Noun !! Verb !! Advb. !! Conj. !! Det. !! Noun !! Verb
|-
| ''The'' || ''chairman'' || ''of'' || ''the'' || ''committee'' || ''and'' || ''the'' || ''loquacious'' || ''politician'' || ''clashed'' || ''violently'' || ''when'' || ''the'' || ''meeting'' || ''started''.
|}

=== Nouns and noun phrases ===
[[English nouns]] are only inflected for number and possession. New nouns can be formed through derivation or compounding. They are semantically divided into [[proper noun]]s (names) and common nouns. Common nouns are in turn divided into concrete and abstract nouns, and grammatically into [[count noun]]s and [[mass noun]]s.{{sfn|Payne|Huddleston|2002}}

Most count nouns are inflected for plural number through the use of the plural [[suffix]] -''s'', but a few nouns have irregular plural forms. Mass nouns can only be pluralised through the use of a count noun classifier, e.g. "one loaf of bread", "two loaves of bread".{{sfn|Huddleston|Pullum|2002|pp=56–57}}

Regular plural formation:
* Singular: ''cat'', ''dog''
* Plural: ''cats'', ''dogs''

Irregular plural formation:
* Singular: ''man'', ''woman'', ''foot'', ''fish'', ''ox'', ''knife'', ''mouse''
* Plural: ''men'', ''women'', ''feet'', ''fish'', ''oxen'', ''knives'', ''mice''

Possession can be expressed either by the possessive [[enclitic]] -''s'' (also traditionally called a genitive suffix), or by the preposition ''of''. Historically the -''s'' possessive has been used for [[animacy|animate nouns]], whereas the ''of'' possessive has been reserved for inanimate nouns. Today this distinction is less clear, and many speakers use -''s'' also with inanimates. Orthographically the possessive -''s'' is separated from a singular noun with an apostrophe. If the noun is plural formed with -''s'' the apostrophe follows the -''s''.<ref name="Carter2016" />

Possessive constructions:
* With -''s'': "The woman's husband's child"
* With ''of'': "The child of the husband of the woman"

Nouns can form [[noun phrase]]s (NPs) where they are the syntactic head of the words that depend on them such as determiners, quantifiers, conjunctions or adjectives.{{sfn|Huddleston|Pullum|2002|p=55}} Noun phrases can be short, such as ''the man'', composed only of a determiner and a noun. They can also include modifiers such as adjectives (e.g. ''red'', ''tall'', ''all'') and specifiers such as determiners (e.g. ''the'', ''that''). But they can also tie together several nouns into a single long NP, using conjunctions such as ''and'', or prepositions such as ''with'', e.g. "the tall man with the long red trousers and his skinny wife with the spectacles" (this NP uses conjunctions, prepositions, specifiers, and modifiers). Regardless of length, an NP functions as a syntactic unit.<ref name="Carter2016" /> For example, the possessive enclitic can, in cases which do not lead to ambiguity, follow the entire noun phrase, as in "The President of India's wife", where the enclitic follows ''India'' and not ''President''.

The class of determiners is used to specify the noun they precede in terms of [[definiteness]], where ''the'' marks a definite noun and ''a'' or ''an'' marks an indefinite one. A definite noun is assumed by the speaker to be already known by the interlocutor, whereas an indefinite noun is not specified as being previously known. Quantifiers, which include ''one'', ''many'', ''some'' and ''all'', are used to specify the noun in terms of quantity or number. The noun must agree with the number of the determiner, e.g. ''one man'' (sg.) but ''all men'' (pl.). Determiners are the first constituents in a noun phrase.{{sfn|Huddleston|Pullum|2002|pp=54–55}}

==== Adjectives ====
[[English adjectives]] are words such as ''good'', ''big'', ''interesting'', and ''Canadian'' that most typically modify nouns, [[denotation|denoting]] characteristics of their [[referent]]s (e.g. "a ''red'' car"). As modifiers, they come before the nouns they modify and after determiners.{{sfn|Huddleston|Pullum|2002|p=57}} English adjectives also function as predicative complements (e.g. "the child is ''happy''").{{sfn|Huddleston|Pullum|2002|p=530}}

In Modern English, adjectives are not inflected so as to [[agreement (linguistics)|agree]] in form with the noun they modify, as in most other Indo-European languages. For example, in the phrases "the slender boy", and "many slender girls", the adjective ''slender'' does not change form to agree with either the number or gender of the noun.{{sfn|Huddleston|Pullum|2002|p=528}}

Some adjectives are inflected for [[degree of comparison]], with the positive degree unmarked, the suffix -''er'' marking the comparative, and -''est'' marking the superlative: "a small boy", "the boy is smaller than the girl", "that boy is the smallest". Some adjectives have irregular [[suppletive]] comparative and superlative forms, such as ''good'', ''better'', and ''best''. Other adjectives have comparatives formed by [[periphrasis|periphrastic constructions]], with the adverb ''more'' marking the comparative, and ''most'' marking the superlative: ''happier'' or ''more happy'', ''the happiest'' or ''most happy''.{{sfn|König|1994|p=540}} There is some variation among speakers regarding which adjectives use inflected or periphrastic comparison, and some studies have shown a tendency for the periphrastic forms to become more common at the expense of the inflected form.{{sfn|Mair|2006|pp=148–149}}

==== Determiners ====
[[English determiners]] are words such as ''the'', ''each'', ''many'', ''some'', and ''which'', occurring most typically in noun phrases before the head nouns and any modifiers and marking the noun phrase as [[definite]] or indefinite.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Huddleston |first1=Rodney D. |title=A student's introduction to English grammar |last2=Pullum |first2=Geoffrey K. |last3=Reynolds |first3=Brett |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2022 |isbn=978-1-316-51464-1 |edition=2nd |pages=124–126}}</ref> They often agree with the noun in [[grammatical number|number]]. They do not typically inflect for degree of comparison.

==== Pronouns, case, and person ====
[[English pronouns]] conserve many traits of case and gender inflection. The personal pronouns retain a difference between subjective and objective case in most persons ({{pronoun pair|nolink=yes|I|me}}, {{pronoun pair|nolink=yes|he|him}}, {{pronoun pair|nolink=yes|she|her}}, {{pronoun pair|nolink=yes|we|us}}, {{pronoun pair|nolink=yes|they|them}}) as well as an animateness distinction in the third person singular (distinguishing ''it'' from the three sets of animate third person singular pronouns) and an optional gender distinction in the animate third person singular (distinguishing between feminine {{pronoun pair|she|her}}, [[epicene]] {{pronoun pair|they|them}}, and masculine {{pronoun pair|he|him}}.<ref name="OEDthey">{{OED|they|id=200700}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Singular "They" |url=https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/singular-they |access-date=24 November 2021 |website=APA Style |archive-date=21 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201021234745/https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/singular-they |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[subjective case]] corresponds to the Old English [[nominative case]], and the [[objective case]] is used in the sense both of the previous [[accusative case]] (for a patient, or direct object of a transitive verb), and of the Old English dative case (for a recipient or [[indirect object]] of a transitive verb).{{sfn|Leech|2006|p=69|loc="Nominative is a traditional name for the subjective case"}}{{sfn|O'Dwyer|2006|loc="English has subjective, objective and possessive cases."}} The subjective is used when the pronoun is the subject of a finite clause, otherwise the objective is used.{{sfn|Greenbaum|Nelson|2002}} While grammarians such as [[Henry Sweet]]{{sfn|Sweet|2014|p=52|loc="But in that special class of nouns called personal pronouns we find a totally different system of case-inflection, namely, a '''nominative''' case (he) and an '''objective''' case (him)"}} and [[Otto Jespersen]]{{sfn|Jespersen|2007|pp=173–185}} noted that the English cases did not correspond to the traditional Latin-based system, some contemporary grammars, including ''[[The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language]]'', retain traditional ''nominative'' and ''accusative'' labels for the cases.{{sfn|Huddleston|Pullum|2002}}

Possessive pronouns exist in dependent and independent forms; the dependent form functions as a determiner specifying a noun (as in ''my chair''), while the independent form can stand alone as if it were a noun (e.g. "the chair is mine").{{sfn|Huddleston|Pullum|2002|pp=425–426}} Grammatical person in English no longer distinguishes between formal and informal pronouns of address, with the second person singular familiar pronoun ''[[thou]]'' that previously existed in the language having fallen almost entirely out of use by the 18th century.{{sfn|McMahon|2012|p=182}}

Both the second and third persons share pronouns between the plural and singular:
* Plural and singular are always identical (''you'', ''your'', ''yours'') in the second person (except in the reflexive form: {{pronoun pair|nolink=yes|yourself|yourselves}}) in most dialects. Some dialects have introduced innovative second person plural pronouns, such as ''y'all'' (found in [[Southern American English]] and [[African-American Vernacular English]]), ''youse'' (found in [[Australian English]]), or ''ye'' (in [[Hiberno-English]]).
* In the third person, the {{pronoun pair|nolink=yes|they|them}} series of pronouns (''they'', ''them'', ''their'', ''theirs'', ''themselves'') are used in both plural and singular, and are the only pronouns available for the plural. In the singular, the {{pronoun pair|they|them}} series (sometimes with the addition of the singular-specific reflexive form ''themself'') serve as a [[gender-neutral]] set of pronouns. These pronouns are becoming more accepted, especially as part of [[LGBTQ culture]].<ref name="OEDthey" /><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://apastyle.apa.org/blog/singular-they |title=Welcome, singular "they" |last=Lee |first=Chelsea |date=31 October 2019 |publisher=American Psychological Association |access-date=24 November 2021 |archive-date=14 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200214220442/https://apastyle.apa.org/blog/singular-they |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Kamm |first=Oliver |title=The Pedant: The sheer usefulness of singular 'they' is obvious |access-date=24 November 2021 |date=12 December 2015 |website=[[The Times]] |url=https://www.thetimes.com/uk/society/article/the-pedant-the-sheer-usefulness-of-singular-they-is-obvious-3qs05ngflkj |archive-date=19 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190619175236/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/the-pedant-the-sheer-usefulness-of-singular-they-is-obvious-3qs05ngflkj |url-status=live}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|+ English personal pronouns
! scope="col" | Person !! scope="col" | Subjective case !! scope="col" | Objective case !! scope="col" | Dependent possessive !! scope="col" | Independent possessive !! scope="col" | Reflexive
|-
! scope="row" | 1st, singular
| ''I'' || ''me'' || ''my'' || ''mine'' || ''myself''
|-
! scope="row" | 2nd, singular
| ''you'' || ''you'' || ''your'' || ''yours'' || ''yourself''
|-
! scope="row" | 3rd, singular
| ''he/she/it/[[singular they|they]]'' || ''him/her/it/them'' || ''his/her/its/their'' || ''his/hers/its/theirs'' || ''himself/herself/itself/themself/themselves''
|-
! scope="row" | 1st, plural
| ''we'' || ''us'' || ''our'' || ''ours'' || ''ourselves''
|-
! scope="row" | 2nd, plural
| ''you'' || ''you'' || ''your'' || ''yours'' || ''yourselves''
|-
! scope="row" | 3rd, plural
| ''they'' || ''them'' || ''their'' || ''theirs'' || ''themselves''
|}

Pronouns are used to refer to entities [[deixis|deictically]] or [[anaphoric reference|anaphorically]]. A deictic pronoun points to some person or object by identifying it relative to the speech situation{{snd}}for example, the pronoun ''I'' identifies the speaker, and the pronoun ''you'', the addressee. Anaphoric pronouns such as ''that'' refer back to an entity already mentioned or assumed by the speaker to be known by the audience, for example in the sentence "I already told you that". The reflexive pronouns are used when the oblique argument is identical to the subject of a phrase (e.g. "he sent it to himself" or "she braced herself for impact").{{sfn|Huddleston|Pullum|2002|p=426}}

==== Prepositions ====
Prepositional phrases (PP) are phrases composed of a preposition and one or more nouns, e.g. "with the dog", "for my friend", "to school", "in England".{{sfn|Huddleston|Pullum|2002|p=58}} [[English prepositions]] have a wide range of uses{{snd}}including describing movement, place, and other relations between entities, as well as functions that are syntactic in nature, like introducing complement clauses and oblique arguments of verbs.{{sfn|Huddleston|Pullum|2002|p=58}} For example, in the phrase "I gave it to him", the preposition ''to'' marks the indirect object of the verb ''to give''. Traditionally words were only considered prepositions if they governed the case of the noun they preceded, for example causing the pronouns to use the objective rather than subjective form, "with her", "to me", "for us". But some contemporary grammars no longer consider government of case to be the defining feature of the class of prepositions, rather defining prepositions as words that can function as the heads of prepositional phrases.{{sfn|Huddleston|Pullum|2002|pp=598–600}}

=== Verbs and verb phrases ===
[[English verbs]] are inflected for tense and aspect and marked for agreement with a third person present singular subject. Only the copula verb ''to be'' is still inflected for agreement with the plural and first and second person subjects.{{sfn|König|1994|p=540}} Auxiliary verbs such as ''have'' and ''be'' are paired with verbs in the [[infinitive]], past, or progressive forms. They form [[periphrasis|complex]] tenses, aspects, and moods. Auxiliary verbs differ from other verbs in that they can be followed by the negation, and in that they can occur as the first constituent in a question sentence.{{sfn|Huddleston|Pullum|2002|p=51}}{{sfn|König|1994|p=541}}

Most verbs have six inflectional forms. The primary forms are a plain present, a third person singular present, and a preterite (past) form. The secondary forms are a plain form used for the infinitive, a gerund-participle and a past participle.{{sfn|Huddleston|Pullum|2002|p=50}} The verb ''to be''{{snd}}which among other uses in English functions as the primary auxiliary verb indicating the [[imperfective aspect]] (e.g. "I ''am'' going"), as well as the [[Copula (linguistics)|copula]]{{sfn|Peters|2004|loc="be" p. 66}}{{snd}}is the only verb to retain some of its original conjugation, and takes different inflectional forms depending on the subject. The first person present form is ''am'', the third person singular form is ''is'', and the form ''are'' is used in the second person singular and all three plurals. The only verb past participle is ''been'' and its gerund-participle is ''being''.{{sfn|Huddleston|Pullum|2002|pp=75, 91, 113–114}}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ English inflectional forms
! scope="col" | Inflection !! scope="col" | Strong !! scope="col" | Regular
|-
! scope="row" | Plain present
| ''take'' || ''love''
|-
! scope="row" | 3rd person sg. present
| ''takes'' || ''loves''
|-
! scope="row" | Preterite
| ''took'' || ''loved''
|-
! scope="row" | Plain (infinitive)
| ''take'' || ''love''
|-
! scope="row" | Gerund–participle
| ''taking'' || ''loving''
|-
! scope="row" | Past participle
| ''taken'' || ''loved''
|}

==== Tense, aspect, and mood ====
English has two primary tenses, past (preterite) and non-past. The preterite is inflected by using the preterite form of the verb, which for the regular verbs includes the suffix ''-ed'', and for the strong verbs either the suffix ''-t'' or a change in the stem vowel. The non-past form is unmarked except in the third person singular, which takes the suffix ''-s''.{{sfn|Huddleston|Pullum|2002|p=51}}

{| class="wikitable"
! scope="col" | !! scope="col" | Present !! scope="col" | Preterite
|-
! scope="row" | First person
| ''I run'' || ''I ran''
|-
! scope="row" | Second person
| ''You run'' || ''You ran''
|-
! scope="row" | Third person
| ''John runs'' || ''John ran''
|}

English does not have future verb forms.{{sfn|Huddleston|Pullum|2002|pp=208–210}} The future tense is expressed periphrastically with one of the auxiliary verbs ''will'' or ''shall''.{{sfn|Huddleston|Pullum|2002|pp=51–52}} Many varieties also use a [[near future tense|near future]] constructed with the [[phrasal verb]] "be going to" ([[going-to future]]).{{sfn|Huddleston|Pullum|2002|pp=210–211}}

{| class="wikitable"
! scope="col" | !! scope="col" | Future
|-
! scope="row" | First person
| "I will run"
|-
! scope="row" | Second person
| "You will run"
|-
! scope="row" | Third person
| "John will run"
|}

Further aspectual distinctions are shown by auxiliary verbs, primarily ''have'' and ''be'', which show the contrast between a perfect and non-perfect past tense ("I have run" vs. "I was running"), and compound tenses such as preterite perfect ("I had been running") and present perfect ("I have been running").{{sfn|Huddleston|Pullum|2002|pp=50–51}}

For the expression of mood, English uses a number of modal auxiliaries, such as ''can'', ''may'', ''will'', ''shall'' and the past tense forms ''could'', ''might'', ''would'', ''should''. There are also [[English subjunctive|subjunctive]] and [[imperative mood]]s, both based on the plain form of the verb (i.e. without the third person singular ''-s''), for use in subordinate clauses (e.g. subjunctive: "It is important that he run every day"; imperative ''Run!'').{{sfn|Huddleston|Pullum|2002|pp=51–52}}

An infinitive form, that uses the plain form of the verb and the preposition ''to'', is used for verbal clauses that are syntactically subordinate to a finite verbal clause. Finite verbal clauses are those that are formed around a verb in the present or preterite form. In clauses with auxiliary verbs, they are the finite verbs and the main verb is treated as a subordinate clause.<ref>{{cite web |title=Finite and Nonfinite Clauses |url=https://myenglishgrammar.com/lesson-17-clauses/6-finite-and-nonfinite-clauses.html |website=MyEnglishGrammar.com |access-date=7 December 2019 |archive-date=7 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191207091436/http://myenglishgrammar.com/lesson-17-clauses/6-finite-and-nonfinite-clauses.html |url-status=live}}</ref> For example, "he has to go" where only the auxiliary verb ''have'' is inflected for time and the main verb ''to go'' is in the infinitive, or in a complement clause such as "I saw him leave", where the main verb is ''see'', which is in a preterite form, and ''leave'' is in the infinitive.

==== Phrasal verbs ====
English also makes frequent use of constructions traditionally called [[phrasal verb]]s, verb phrases that are made up of a verb root and a preposition or particle that follows the verb. The phrase then functions as a single predicate. In terms of intonation the preposition is fused to the verb, but in writing it is written as a separate word. Examples of phrasal verbs are "to get up", "to ask out", "to get together", and "to put up with". The phrasal verb frequently has a highly [[English-language idioms|idiomatic]] meaning that is more specialised and restricted than what can be simply extrapolated from the combination of verb and preposition complement (e.g. ''lay off'' meaning ''terminate someone's employment'').{{sfn|Dixon|1982}} Some grammarians do not consider this type of construction to form a syntactic constituent and hence refrain from using the term "phrasal verb". Instead, they consider the construction simply to be a verb with a prepositional phrase as its syntactic complement, e.g. "he woke up in the morning" and "he ran up in the mountains" are syntactically equivalent.{{sfn|Huddleston|Pullum|2002|p=274}}

==== Adverbs ====
The function of adverbs is to modify the action or event described by the verb by providing additional information about the manner in which it occurs.<ref name="Carter2016" /> Many [[English adverbs]] are derived from adjectives by appending the suffix ''-ly''. For example, in the phrase "the woman walked quickly", the adverb ''quickly'' is derived from the adjective ''quick''. Some commonly used adjectives have irregular adverbial forms, such as ''good'', which has the adverbial form ''well''.{{sfn|Huddleston|Pullum|2002|pp=565–566}}

=== Syntax ===
[[File:Constituent structure analysis English sentence.svg|thumb|In the English sentence "The cat sat on the mat", the subject is ''the cat'' (a noun phrase), the verb is ''sat'', and ''on the mat'' is a prepositional phrase composed of a noun phrase ''the mat'', headed by the preposition ''on''.]]
Modern English syntax is moderately [[isolating language|analytic]].{{sfn|McArthur|1992|pp=64, 610–611}} It has developed features such as [[English modal verb|modal verbs]] and [[word order]] as resources for conveying meaning. [[Auxiliary verb]]s mark constructions such as questions, negative polarity, the [[grammatical voice|passive voice]] and progressive [[grammatical aspect|aspect]].{{sfn|Huddleston|Pullum|2002|pp=1209–1219}}

==== Basic constituent order ====
English has moved from the Germanic [[V2 word order|verb-second (V2) word order]] to being almost exclusively [[subject–verb–object]] (SVO).{{sfn|König|1994|p=553}} The combination of SVO order and use of auxiliary verbs often creates clusters of two or more verbs at the centre of the sentence, such as "he had been hoping to try opening it".{{sfn|Müller|2020|p=666}}

In most sentences, English only marks grammatical relations through word order.{{sfn|König|1994|p=550}} The subject constituent precedes the verb and the object constituent follows it. The grammatical roles of each constituent are marked only by the position relative to the verb:

{| style="text-align: center;"
|-
! S !! V !! O
|-
| ''The dog'' || ''bites'' || ''the man''
|-
| ''The man'' || ''bites'' || ''the dog''
|}

An exception is found in sentences where one of the constituents is a pronoun, in which case it is doubly marked, both by word order and by case inflection, where the subject pronoun precedes the verb and takes the subjective case form, and the object pronoun follows the verb and takes the objective case form.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cases of Nouns and Pronouns |url=http://guidetogrammar.org/grammar/cases.htm |website=Guide to Grammar and Writing |access-date=24 November 2019 |archive-date=16 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191116081858/http://guidetogrammar.org/grammar/cases.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> The example below demonstrates this double marking in a sentence where both object and subject are represented with a third person singular masculine pronoun:

{| style="text-align: center;"
|-
! S !! V !! O
|-
| ''He'' || ''hit'' || ''him''
|}

[[Indirect object]]s (IO) of ditransitive verbs can be placed either as the first object in a double object construction (S V IO O), such as "I gave ''Jane'' the book" or in a prepositional phrase, such as "I gave the book ''to Jane''".{{sfn|König|1994|p=551}}

==== Clause syntax ====
{{Main|English clause syntax}}
English sentences may be composed of one or more clauses, that may in turn be composed of one or more phrases (e.g. noun phrases, verb phrases, prepositional phrases). A clause is built around a verb and includes its constituents, such as any noun or prepositional phrases. Within a sentence, there is always at least one main clause (or matrix clause) whereas other clauses are subordinate to a main clause. Subordinate clauses may function as arguments of the verb in the main clause. For example, in the phrase "I think (that) you are lying", the main clause is headed by the verb ''think'', the subject is ''I'', but the object of the phrase is the subordinate clause "(that) you are lying". The subordinating conjunction ''that'' shows that the clause that follows is a subordinate clause, but it is often omitted.{{sfn|Miller|2002|pp=60–69}} [[Relative clause]]s are clauses that function as a modifier or specifier to some constituent in the main clause: For example, in the sentence "I saw the letter that you received today", the relative clause "that you received today" specifies the meaning of the word ''letter'', the object of the main clause. Relative clauses can be introduced by the pronouns ''who'', ''whose'', ''whom'', and ''which'' as well as by ''that'' (which can also be omitted).{{sfn|König|1994|p=545}} In contrast to many other Germanic languages there are no major differences between word order in main and subordinate clauses.{{sfn|König|1994|p=557}}

==== Auxiliary verb constructions ====
[[English auxiliary verbs]] are relied upon for many functions, including the expression of tense, aspect, and mood. Auxiliary verbs form main clauses, and the main verbs function as heads of a subordinate clause of the auxiliary verb. For example, in the sentence "the dog did not find its bone", the clause "find its bone" is the complement of the negated verb ''did not''. [[Subject–auxiliary inversion]] is used in many constructions, including focus, negation, and interrogative constructions.{{sfn|Huddleston|Pullum|2002|pp=94–98}}

The verb ''do'' can be used as an auxiliary even in simple declarative sentences, where it usually serves to add emphasis, as in "I did shut the fridge." However, in the negated and inverted clauses referred to above, it is used because the rules of English syntax permit these constructions only when an auxiliary is present. Modern English does not allow the addition of the negating adverb ''not'' to an ordinary [[finite verb|finite]] lexical verb, as in *"I know not"{{snd}}it can only be added to an auxiliary (or [[copular verb|copular]]) verb, hence if there is no other auxiliary present when negation is required, the auxiliary ''do'' is used, to produce a form like "I do not (don't) know." The same applies in clauses requiring inversion, including most questions{{snd}}inversion must involve the subject and an auxiliary verb, so it is not possible to say *"Know you him?"; grammatical rules require "Do you know him?"{{sfn|Huddleston|Pullum|2002|p=114}}

Negation is done with the adverb ''not'', which precedes the main verb and follows an auxiliary verb. A contracted form of not -''n't'' can be used as an enclitic attaching to auxiliary verbs and to the copula verb ''to be''. Just as with questions, many negative constructions require the negation to occur with ''do''-support, thus in Modern English "I don't know him" is the correct answer to the question "Do you know him?", but not *"I know him not", although this construction may be found in older English.{{sfn|Huddleston|Pullum|2002|pp=786–790}}

Passive constructions also use auxiliary verbs. A passive construction rephrases an active construction in such a way that the object of the active phrase becomes the subject of the passive phrase, and the subject of the active phrase is either omitted or demoted to a role as an oblique argument introduced in a prepositional phrase. They are formed by using the past participle either with the auxiliary verb ''to be'' or ''to get'', although not all varieties of English allow the use of passives with ''get''. For example, putting the sentence "she sees him" into the passive becomes "he is seen (by her)", or "he gets seen (by her)".{{sfn|Miller|2002|pp=26–27}}

==== Questions ====
Both [[yes/no question]]s and [[wh-question|''wh''-questions]] in English are mostly formed using [[subject–auxiliary inversion]] ("Am I going tomorrow?", "Where can we eat?"), which may require ''do''-support ("Do you like her?", "Where did he go?"). In most cases, [[interrogative word]]s (or wh''-words''){{snd}}which include ''who'', ''what'', ''when'', ''where'', ''why'', and ''how''{{snd}}appear in a [[wh-movement|fronted position]]. For example, in the question "What did you see?", the word ''what'' appears as the first constituent despite being the [[grammatical object]] of the sentence. When the ''wh''-word is the subject or forms part of the subject, no inversion occurs (e.g. "Who saw the cat?"). [[Prepositional phrases]] can also be fronted when they are the questions theme (e.g. "To whose house did you go last night?"). The personal interrogative pronoun ''[[who (pronoun)|who]]'' is the only interrogative pronoun to still show inflection for case, with the variant ''whom'' serving as the objective case form, although this form may be going out of use in many contexts.{{sfn|Huddleston|Pullum|2002|pp=7–8}}

==== Discourse level syntax ====
While English is a subject-prominent language, at the discourse level it tends to use a [[topic–comment]] structure, where the known information (topic) precedes the new information (comment). Because of the strict SVO syntax, the topic of a sentence generally has to be the grammatical subject of the sentence. In cases where the topic is not the grammatical subject of the sentence, it is often promoted to subject position through syntactic means. One way of doing this is through a passive construction, "the girl was stung by the bee". Another way is through a [[cleft sentence]] where the main clause is demoted to be a complement clause of a copula sentence with a [[dummy subject]] such as ''it'' or ''there'', e.g. "it was the girl that the bee stung", "there was a girl who was stung by a bee".{{sfn|Huddleston|Pullum|2002|pp=1365–1370}} Dummy subjects are also used in constructions where there is no grammatical subject such as with impersonal verbs (e.g. "it is raining") or in existential clauses ("there are many cars on the street"). Through the use of these complex sentence constructions with informationally vacuous subjects, English is able to maintain both a topic–comment sentence structure and a SVO syntax.{{sfn|Peters|2004|loc="dummy subject" p. 167, "there" p. 537}}

[[Focus (linguistics)|Focus constructions]] emphasise a particular piece of new or salient information within a sentence, generally through allocating the main sentence level stress on the focal constituent. For example, "the girl was stung by ''a bee''" (emphasising it was a bee and not, for example, a wasp that stung her), or "''the girl'' was stung by a bee" (contrasting with another possibility, for example that it was the boy).{{sfn|Huddleston|Pullum|2002|p=1370}} Topic and focus can also be established through syntactic dislocation, either preposing or postposing the item to be focused on relative to the main clause. For example, "That girl over there, she was stung by a bee", emphasises the girl by preposition, but a similar effect could be achieved by postposition, "she was stung by a bee, that girl over there", where reference to the girl is established as an afterthought.{{sfn|Huddleston|Pullum|2002|p=1366}}

[[Cohesion (linguistics)|Cohesion]] between sentences is achieved through the use of deictic pronouns as [[anaphora (linguistics)|anaphora]] (e.g. "that is exactly what I mean" where ''that'' refers to some fact known to both interlocutors, or ''then'' used to locate the time of a narrated event relative to the time of a previously narrated event).{{sfn|Halliday|Hasan|1976}} [[Discourse marker]]s such as ''oh'', ''so'', or ''well'', also signal the progression of ideas between sentences and help to create cohesion. Discourse markers are often the first constituents in sentences. Discourse markers are also used for [[stance (linguistics)|stance taking]] in which speakers position themselves in a specific attitude towards what is being said, for example, "no way is that true!" (the idiomatic marker "no way!" expressing disbelief), or "boy! I'm hungry" (the marker ''boy'' expressing emphasis). While discourse markers are particularly characteristic of informal and spoken registers of English, they are also used in written and formal registers.{{sfn|Schiffrin|1988}}

== Vocabulary ==
The English [[lexicon]] consists of around 170,000 words (or 220,000, if counting obsolete words), according to an estimate based on the 1989 edition of the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/explore/how-many-words-are-there-in-the-english-language |title=How many words are there in the English language? |website=Oxford Dictionaries |access-date=13 September 2017 |archive-date=9 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170909203258/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/explore/how-many-words-are-there-in-the-english-language |url-status=dead}}</ref> Over one-half are nouns, one-quarter are adjectives, and one-seventh are verbs. Another estimate{{snd}}which includes [[scientific jargon]], [[prefix]]ed and [[suffix]]ed words, loanwords of extremely limited use, technical [[acronym]]s, etc.{{snd}}counts around 1 million total English words.{{sfn|Algeo|1999}}

English borrows vocabulary quickly from many languages and other sources. Early studies of English vocabulary by [[lexicography|lexicographers]] (scholars who study vocabulary and compile dictionaries) were impeded by a lack of comprehensive data on actual vocabulary in use from high-quality [[linguistic corpora]]{{sfn|Leech|Hundt|Mair|Smith|2009|pp=24–50}} (collections of actual written texts and spoken passages). Many statements published before the end of the 20th century about the growth of English vocabulary over time, the dates of first use of various words in English, and the sources of English vocabulary will have to be corrected as new computerised analyses of linguistic corpus data become available.{{sfn|Algeo|1999|pp=584–585}}{{sfn|Kastovsky|2006}}

=== Word-formation processes ===
English forms new words from existing words or roots in its vocabulary through a variety of processes. One of the most productive processes in English is conversion,{{sfn|Crystal|2003b|p=129}} using a word with a different grammatical role, for example using a noun as a verb or a verb as a noun. Another productive word-formation process is nominal compounding,{{sfn|Algeo|1999}}{{sfn|Kastovsky|2006}} producing compound words such as ''babysitter'' or ''ice cream'' or ''homesick''.{{sfn|Crystal|2003b|p=129}}

Formation of new words, called [[neologism]]s, based on [[list of Greek and Latin roots in English|Greek or Latin roots]] (for example ''television'' or ''optometry'') is a highly productive process in modern European languages like English, so much so that it is often difficult to determine in which language a neologism originated. For this reason, American lexicographer [[Philip Gove]] attributed many such words to the "[[international scientific vocabulary]]" (ISV) when compiling ''[[Webster's Third New International Dictionary]]'' (1961). Another active word-formation process in English is that of [[acronym]]s, which result from pronouncing abbreviations of longer phrases as single words, e.g. ''[[NATO]]'', ''[[laser]]'', ''[[scuba set|scuba]]''.{{sfn|Crystal|2003b|pp=120–121}}

=== Word origins ===
{{Further|Foreign-language influences in English|Lists of English words by country or language of origin}}
{{See also|Linguistic purism in English}}
{{Pie chart
|caption=English lexicon by source language<ref name="Finkenstaedt1973" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.askoxford.com/asktheexperts/faq/aboutenglish/proportion |title=What is the proportion of English words of French, Latin, or Germanic origin? |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2008 |website=Ask the experts |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080817153021/http://www.askoxford.com/asktheexperts/faq/aboutenglish/proportion |archive-date=17 August 2008}}</ref>
|value1=28.30
|label1=French, including Anglo-Norman
|value2=28.24
|label2=Latin, including scientific and technical loans
|value3=25
|label3=Germanic (Old English, Old Norse, Dutch)
|value4=5.32
|label4=Greek
|value5=4.03
|label5=None given
|value6=3.28
|label6=Derived from proper names
|other=Other languages
}}
Throughout its history, English has been a particularly frequent borrower of loanwords from other languages.{{sfn|Denning|Kessler|Leben|2007|p=7}} West Germanic words in use since the Anglo-Saxon period still comprise most of the language's core vocabulary, as well as most of its most frequently used words.{{sfn|Nation|2001|p=265}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Denning |first=Keith |title=English Vocabulary Elements |date=2007 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jz76l9RAccQC |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=34 |isbn=978-0-19-516802-0}}</ref>{{sfn|Algeo|1999}} Many sentences can be constructed without loanwords, but not without core Anglo-Saxon vocabulary.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Solodow |first1=Joseph |title=Latin Alive: The Survival of Latin in English and the Romance Languages |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2OfV9NZxH68C |date=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=196 |isbn=978-0-521-51575-7}}</ref> English has formal and informal [[register (sociolinguistics)|speech registers]]; informal registers, including child-directed speech, tend to be made up predominantly of Anglo-Saxon vocabulary, while Latinate vocabulary appears more frequently in legal, scientific, and academic writing.{{sfn|Crystal|2003b|pp=124–127}}{{sfn|Algeo|1999|pp=80–81}}

Prolonged and intense contact with French has resulted in English having a very high proportion of Latinate words{{snd}}with French loanwords borrowed during different stages of the language's history comprising 28 per cent of the English lexicon.{{sfn|Gottlieb|2006|p=196}} In all periods of its history, English has also borrowed words from Latin directly,{{sfn|Kastovsky|2006}}{{sfn|Algeo|1999}} representing another 28 per cent of the lexicon.{{sfn|Burnley|1992|pp=409–499|loc="Latin and French each account for a little more than 28 percent of the lexis recorded in the ''[[Shorter Oxford English Dictionary]]'' (Finkenstaedt & Wolff 1973)"}} In turn, many of these words had originally entered Latin from Greek. Greek and Latin stems remain highly productive sources for new literary, technical, and scientific vocabulary in English.{{sfn|Romaine|1999|p=4}}

Loanwords from Old Norse primarily entered English between the 8th and 11th centuries, during the Norse colonisation of eastern and northern England, and typically displaced an Anglo-Saxon equivalent. Many represent core vocabulary{{snd}}including ''give'', ''get'', ''sky'', ''skirt'', ''egg'', and ''cake''.{{sfn|Denning|Kessler|Leben|2007}}{{sfn|Kastovsky|1992|pp=320, 332}}

=== English loans in other languages ===
{{Main|Englishisation}}
[[File:Spanglish sign for mecanic.jpg|thumb|Sign written in [[United States Spanish]], using the English word ''free'' instead of the Spanish {{lang|es|gratis}}]]
English has had a strong influence on the vocabulary of other languages.{{sfn|Gottlieb|2006|p=196}}{{sfn|Brutt-Griffler|2006|p=692}} The influence of English comes from such factors as opinion leaders in other countries knowing the English language, the role of English as a world lingua franca, and the large number of books and films that are translated from English into other languages.{{sfn|Gottlieb|2006|p=197}} That pervasive use of English leads to a conclusion in many places that English is an especially suitable language for expressing new ideas or describing new technologies. Among varieties of English, it is especially American English that influences other languages.{{sfn|Gottlieb|2006|p=198}} Some languages, such as Chinese, write words borrowed from English mostly as [[calque]]s, while others, such as Japanese, readily take in English loanwords written in sound-indicating script.{{sfn|Gottlieb|2006|p=202}} Dubbed films and television programmes are an especially fruitful source of English influence on languages in Europe.{{sfn|Gottlieb|2006|p=202}}

== See also ==
* [[English in the Commonwealth of Nations]]
* {{annotated link|English-only movement}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

=== Bibliography ===
{{CS1 config|mode=cs1}}

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* {{cite book |last=Graddol |first=David |title=English Next: Why global English may mean the end of 'English as a Foreign Language' |author-link=David Graddol |url=http://englishagenda.britishcouncil.org/sites/ec/files/books-english-next.pdf |access-date=7 February 2015 |date=2006 |publisher=The British Council |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150212042939/http://englishagenda.britishcouncil.org/sites/ec/files/books-english-next.pdf |archive-date=12 February 2015 }}
* {{cite book |last=Graddol |first=David |title=English Next India: The future of English in India |author-link=David Graddol |url=http://englishagenda.britishcouncil.org/sites/ec/files/books-english-next-india-2010.pdf |access-date=7 February 2015 |date=2010 |publisher=The British Council |isbn=978-0-86355-627-2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150212042654/http://englishagenda.britishcouncil.org/sites/ec/files/books-english-next-india-2010.pdf |archive-date=12 February 2015 }}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Graddol |editor1-first=David |editor2-last=Leith |editor2-first=Dick |editor3-last=Swann |editor3-first=Joan |editor4-last=Rhys |editor4-first=Martin |editor5-last=Gillen |editor5-first=Julia |title=Changing English |url=http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415376792/ |date=2007 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-37679-2 |ref={{sfnref|Graddol|Leith|Swann et al.|2007}} |archive-date=24 February 2015 |access-date=11 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150224062821/http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415376792/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Green |first=Lisa J. |date=2002 |title=African American English: a linguistic introduction |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780521891387 |url-access=registration |publisher=Cambridge University Press }}
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** {{Harvc |last=Hogg |first=Richard M. |chapter=Phonology and Morphology |in=Hogg |year=1992 |pages=67–168 |id={{sfnref|Hogg|1992a}}}}
** {{Harvc |last=Kastovsky |first=Dieter |chapter=Semantics and Morphology |in=Hogg |year=1992 |pages=290–408}}
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* {{Accents of English}}
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{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Library resources box |about=yes |by=no }}
* [http://www.lel.ed.ac.uk/research/gsound/Eng/Database/Phonetics/Englishes/Home/HomeMainFrameHolder.htm Accents of English from Around the World (University of Edinburgh)]. Sound files comparing how 110 words are pronounced in 50 English accents from around the world.
* [http://www.dialectsarchive.com/ International Dialects of English Archive – recordings of English dialects and international L2 accents]

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Lokmanya Tilak Terminus–Agartala AC Express

2026-05-07T00:39:10Z

AhmedSturgis: New some article w/ refs

{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2025}}
{{Infobox rail service
| color = D24E01
| name = Agartala–Mumbai LTT AC Express
| image = Trainboard of Mumbai LTT Kamakhya AC Express.jpg
| caption = Trainboard of Mumbai LTT–Agartala AC Express
| type = [[AC Express (Indian Railways)|AC Express]]
| status = Operational
| locale = [[Tripura]], [[Assam]], [[West Bengal]], [[Bihar]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Madhya Pradesh]] and [[Maharashtra]]
| operator = [[Northeast Frontier Railway zone|Northeast Frontier Railway]]
| start = [[Lokmanya Tilak Terminus]] (LTT)
| stops = 24
| end = {{rws|Agartala}} (AGTL)
| first = 21 April 2013
| distance = {{cvt|3126|km}}
| journeytime = 44 hours 40 minutes
| frequency = Weekly
| trainnumber = 12519 /12520
| class = AC 1st Class, AC 2 Tier, AC 3 Tier
| catering = [[Pantry car]] attached
| seating = No
| sleeping = Available
| autorack = No
| baggage = Below the seats
| observation = [[LHB coach]]
| gauge = [[Broad gauge]]
| speed = {{cvt|120|km/h}} maximum {{cvt|57|km/h}} including halts
| map = {{Lokmanya Tilak Terminus–Agartala AC Express Route}}
}}

The '''Agartala–Mumbai LTT AC Express'''<ref>{{Cite web|title=Indian Railways extend train services connecting Northeast to Mumbai, Hyderabad – Details here|url=https://www.financialexpress.com/business/railways-indian-railways-extend-train-services-connecting-northeast-to-mumbai-hyderabad-details-here-3260558/lite/|website=www.financialexpress.com |date=2 October 2023 }}</ref> is a Superfast fully [[AC Express (Indian Railways)|air-conditioned Express]] train connecting [[Agartala]] and [[Mumbai]].

This is the first fully air conditioned train connecting the north eastern and western parts of India touching [[Tripura]], [[Assam]], [[West Bengal]], [[Bihar]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Madhya Pradesh]] and [[Maharashtra]]. It is the fastest train connecting Northeast India and Mumbai

This train was announced in Union [[Railway Budget]] 2012 and it made its first inaugural run on 18 April 2013.

Assam Chief Minister [[Tarun Gogoi]] flagged off the first fully air-conditioned Agartala–Lokmanya Tilak Terminal Mumbai AC Express, at a function held at Kamakhya railway station.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/guwahati/CM-flags-off-Mumbai-to-Kamakhya-AC-Express/articleshow/19640887.cms |title = CM flags off Mumbai to Kamakhya AC Express| work=Times of India| date=20 April 2013 |accessdate = 2013-04-20 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Northeast Residents Rejoice As Indian Railways Extends Train Services To Major Cities; All Route Details Here|url=https://www.india.com/news/india/northeast-indian-railways-extends-train-services-to-silchar-guwahati-secunderabad-mumbai-lokmanya-tilak-kamakhya-agartala-details-here-6373170/l|website=www.india.com}}</ref>

This train is currently India's longest running [[AC Express (Indian Railways)|AC Express]] after its extension to [[Agartala]].

==Accommodations==
This train comprises 1 First AC, 4 AC 2-Tiers, 14 AC 3-Tiers, 1 AC Hot Buffet Car & 2 Luggage/Parcel cum Generator cum Brake van one of which is provided with the Guards' cabin. Total coach composition is 22. This train will be using the latest [[LHB coach]]. Rakes are owned and maintained by [[Northeast Frontier Railway]] (NFR).<ref>{{cite web| url = http://indiarailinfo.com/train/8847|title = Agartala Mumbai LTT AC Express| publisher=India Rail Info|accessdate = 2015-09-21 }}</ref>

==Major stops==
{| class=wikitable
! State !! Station
|-
|rowspan=3| [[Tripura]]
| {{rws|Agartala}}
|-
| {{rws|Ambassa}}
|-
| {{rws|Dharmanagar}}
|-
|rowspan=10| [[Assam]]
| {{rws|Badarpur}}
|-
| {{rws|New Haflong}}
|-
| {{rws|Lumding}}
|-
| {{rws|Hojai}}
|-
| {{rws|Jagiroad}}
|-
| {{rws|Chaparmukh}}
|-
| {{rws|Guwahati}}
|-
| {{rws|Kamakhya Junction}}
|-
| {{rws|Rangiya Junction}}
|-
| {{rws|New Bongaigaon Junction}}
|-
|rowspan=2| [[West Bengal]]
| {{rws|New Cooch Behar Junction}}
|-
| {{rws|New Jalpaiguri Junction}} ([[Siliguri]])
|-
|rowspan=9| [[Bihar]]
| {{rws|Kishanganj}}
|-
| {{rws|Katihar Junction}}
|-
| {{rws|Naugachia}}
|-
| {{rws|Khagaria Junction}}
|-
| {{rws|Begusarai}}
|-
| {{rws|Barauni}}
|-
| {{rws|Hajipur Junction}}
|-
| {{rws|Patliputra Junction}}
|-
| {{rws|Danapur}}
|-
|rowspan=3| [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| {{rws|Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Junction}}
|-
| {{rws|Mirzapur}}
|-
| {{rws|Prayagraj Chheoki Junction}}
|-
|rowspan=4| [[Madhya Pradesh]]
| {{rws|Satna Junction}}
|-
| {{rws|Jabalpur Junction}}
|-
| {{rws|Itarsi Junction}}
|-
| {{rws|Khandwa Junction}}
|-
|rowspan=8| [[Maharashtra]]
| {{rws|Bhusaval Junction}}
|-
| {{rws|Jalgaon Junction}}
|-
| {{rws|Manmad Junction}}
|-
| {{rws|Nasik Road}}
|-
| {{rws|Igatpuri}}
|-
| {{rws|Kalyan Junction}}
|-
| {{rws|Thane}}
|-
| [[Lokmanya Tilak Terminus]]
|}

==Traction==
A [[Electric Loco Shed, Gomoh|Gomoh]]-based [[WAP-7]] hauls the train from Lokmanya Tilak Terminus till Guwahati and from Guwahati to Agartala, the train is hauled by [[Diesel Loco Shed, Siliguri]] based [[WDP4]]/[[WDP-4D]] locomotive and vice versa.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.indianrail.gov.in Indian Railway Website]

{{Railways in Eastern India}}
{{AC Express}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Lokmanya Tilak Terminus-Kamakhya AC Express}}
[[Category:Transport in Mumbai]]
[[Category:Transport in Guwahati]]
[[Category:AC Express (Indian Railways) trains]]
[[Category:Rail transport in Assam]]
[[Category:Rail transport in Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Rail transport in Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:Rail transport in West Bengal]]
[[Category:Rail transport in Bihar]]
[[Category:Rail transport in Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Railway services introduced in 2013]]

Mana Shankara Vara Prasad Garu

2026-05-06T16:23:34Z

AhmedSturgis: New some stub initial version

{{Short description|2026 film by Anil Ravipudi}}
{{pp-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2026}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Mana Shankara Vara Prasad Garu
| image = Mana Shankara Vara Prasad Garu.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[Anil Ravipudi]]
| producer = {{Plain list|
* [[Sahu Garapati]]
* Sushmita Konidela
}}
| starring = {{Plain list|
* [[Chiranjeevi]]
* [[Venkatesh (actor)|Venkatesh]]
* [[Nayanthara]]
* [[Catherine Tresa]]
}}
| writer = Anil Ravipudi
| music = [[Bheems Ceciroleo]]
| cinematography = [[Sameer Reddy]]
| editing = Tammiraju
| studio = {{Plain list|
* Shine Screens
* Gold Box Entertainments
}}
| released = {{Film date|2026|01|12|df=y}}
| runtime = 165 minutes
| country = India
| language = Telugu
| budget = {{INR|200 crore}}<ref name="budget">{{cite web | title=Rs 28 cr budget for Chiranjeevi's Mana Shankara Vara Prasad Garu; it earned over Rs 300 cr globally, says director | date=23 January 2026 | url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/telugu/chiranjeevi-mana-shankara-vara-prasad-garu-rs-28-cr-budget-earns-rs-350-cr-box-office-anil-ravipudi-10490547/ |website=[[The Indian Express]] |access-date=25 January 2026 }}</ref>
| gross = {{INR|300{{ndash}}400 crore}}{{efn|name="msvpg"|''Mana Shankara Vara Prasad Garu''{{'s}} reported worldwide grosses vary around ₹300 crore (''[[The Indian Express]]'', which notes that although the headline cites ₹375 crore, that figure is producer-stated while the article text reports ₹300 crore)<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-02-05 |title=Mana Shankara Vara Prasad Garu rewrites box office records, hits Rs 375 crore milestone in 25 days |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/telugu/mana-shankara-vara-prasad-garu-box-office-records-chiranjeevi-film-earns-rs-375-crore-10515138/ |access-date=2026-04-09 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> – ₹400 crore (''[[Cinema Express]]'' reports the film’s sustained run supporting its commercial performance)<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-03-02 |title=Mana Shankara Vara Prasad Garu completes 50-day run in 109 centres |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/telugu/news/2026/Mar/02/mana-shankara-vara-prasad-garu-completes-50-day-run-in-109-centres |access-date=2026-03-12 |website=Cinema Express |language=en}}</ref>}}
}}

'''''Mana Shankara Vara Prasad Garu''''' ({{Translation|Our Mr. Shankara Vara Prasad}}) is a 2026 Indian [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-language [[action comedy]] film written and directed by [[Anil Ravipudi]]. The film is produced by [[Sahu Garapati]] and Sushmita Konidela. It stars [[Chiranjeevi]] in the titular role, alongside [[Venkatesh (actor)|Venkatesh]], [[Nayanthara]] and [[Catherine Tresa]]. The plot follows Shankara Vara Prasad, a national security officer who seeks to protect his estranged wife and children, seeing it as a chance to re-unite with them.

Principal photography began on 23 May 2024, with filming taking place in [[Hyderabad]], [[Kerala]], [[Mussoorie]], and [[Dehradun]]. The film's shoot was wrapped up in December 2025. The film has music composed by [[Bheems Ceciroleo]].

The film was theatrically released on 12 January 2026 and received generally positive reviews from critics and audiences with praise at Chiranjeevi’s performance and the film’s subject. It performed well at the box office, making it the [[List of Telugu films of 2026|highest-grossing Telugu film of 2026]], [[List of Indian films of 2026|third highest-grossing Indian film of 2026]], and [[List of highest-grossing Telugu films|eleventh highest-grossing Telugu film of all time]].

== Plot ==
[[National Security Guard|National Security Guard officer]] Shankara Vara Prasad falls in love with and marries Sasirekha. However, their marriage is short-lived due to a severe ideological rift between Prasad and his father-in-law, G.V.R., a powerful and influential businessman. The conflict escalates to the point that Prasad and Sasirekha are forced to divorce. Separated from his wife and children for six years, Prasad longs for an opportunity to reunite with them.

Years later, Prasad learns that his children are attending a boarding school. Seizing the chance to reconnect with them, he adopts a new identity and secures a position at the school as a Physical Training (PT) mentor. He is assisted by his team members Jwaala, Narayana, and Mustafa. Although he gradually bonds with his children, Sasirekha eventually discovers his true identity. Despite her initial shock, she chooses not to reveal the truth to their children while Prasad continues his efforts to redeem himself.

Meanwhile, in [[Mumbai]], an assassination attempt targeting G.V.R. takes place. Recognizing the seriousness of the threat, the [[Government of India|central government]] appoints Prasad—revealed to be a former [[National Security Guard]] advisor—as G.V.R.'s lead security officer.

Prasad enters G.V.R.'s household with the dual aim of reuniting with Sasirekha and confronting G.V.R., whom he holds responsible for their divorce. Complications arise when Venky Gowda, an influential businessman from [[Karnataka]], arrives with the intention of marrying Sasirekha. Amid wedding preparations and family misunderstandings, Prasad investigates the assassination attempt and concludes that the real target was Sasirekha, not G.V.R.

Months earlier, [[Inspector|Police Inspector]] Virendra Pandey's brother had raped and murdered a woman. Due to public outrage, the police attempt to kill the accused in an [[Encounter killing|encounter killing]]. However, Virendra Pandey secretly plots his brother's escape, which is foiled by Sasirekha and her children. Pandey's brother is killed by the police, and Pandey is imprisoned. After being released on bail six months later, he seeks revenge against Sasirekha.

Venky and Prasad later reconcile after rediscovering their past friendship. Venky abandons his plans to marry Sasirekha and instead supports Prasad. Virendra Pandey subsequently attacks Sasirekha at her bungalow, but Prasad intervenes and kills him. Prasad ultimately earns the forgiveness of G.V.R. and Sasirekha, leading to his reunion with Sasirekha, while Venky marries Jwaala.

== Cast ==
{{castlist|
* [[Chiranjeevi]] as Shankara Varaprasad
* [[Venkatesh (actor)|Venkatesh]] as Venky Gowda
* [[Nayanthara]] as Sasirekha "Sasi"
* [[Catherine Tresa]] as Jwala
* [[Zarina Wahab]] as Varaprasad's mother
* [[Harsha Vardhan]] as Narayana
* [[Abhinav Gomatam]] as Mustafa
* [[Sachin Khedekar]] as G.V.R, Sasi's father
* [[Sharat Saxena]] as MP Nitin Sharma
* [[Harsha Chemudu]] as Drunkard in Forest
* [[Raghu Babu]] as Intelligence Officer
* [[Sudev Nair]] as Virendra Pandey
* [[Srinivasa Reddy]] as Reddy, GVR's PA
* Khushi Soni as Nikki, Vara Prasad and Sasi’s daughter
* Ooha Reddy as Vikki, Vara Prasad and Sasi’s son
* Bheemala Revanth as C.P.L Sugunesh
* Vadlamani Srinivas as School Principal
* Karuna Bhushan as Sasi’s friend
* Nandana Nandu as Sasi’s friend
* [[Anil Ravipudi]] as Himself in "Mega Victory Mass" song (Cameo)
}}

== Production ==

=== Development ===
Following the film ''[[Sankranthiki Vasthunam]]'' (2025), director [[Anil Ravipudi]] narrated a script to actor [[Chiranjeevi]] which would mark their maiden collaboration.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mega 157: Chiranjeevi teams up with Anil Ravipudi for new entertainer |url=https://www.ottplay.com/news/mega-157-chiranjeevi-teams-up-with-anil-ravipudi-for-new-entertainer/16485c076f977 |access-date=2026-01-04 |website=OTTPlay |language=en}}</ref> The film was formally launched on 30 March 2025 with the working title ''Mega 157'' (intended to be Chiranjeevi's 157th film as lead actor)''.''<ref>{{Cite news |last= |first= |date=2025-03-30 |title='Mega 157': Chiranjeevi's next with Anil Ravipudi launched; Venkatesh Daggubati sounds the clapboard |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/mega-157-chiranjeevi-venkatesh-daggubati-anil-ravipudi-sankranthiki-vasthunam/article69392964.ece |access-date=2026-01-04 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> Actress [[Nayanthara]] was cast opposite Chiranjeevi.<ref>{{Cite news |last= |first= |date=2025-05-17 |title='Mega 157': Nayanthara joins Chiranjeevi's film with Anil Ravipudi |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/mega-157-nayanthara-chiranjeevi-anil-ravipudi-shine-screens-sankranthiki-vasthunam/article69586818.ece |access-date=2026-01-04 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> [[Venkatesh (actor)|Venkatesh]] was signed for a "substantial role" in the film.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Venkatesh Plays a Substantial Role in Chiranjeevi's Mega 157, Director Clarifies |url=https://www.msn.com/en-in/entertainment/southcinema/venkatesh-plays-a-substantial-role-in-chiranjeevi-s-mega-157-director-clarifies/ar-AA1HXRT1 |access-date=2026-01-04 |website=www.msn.com}}</ref> The film thus marked the first on-screen collaboration between the actors in their decades long career.<ref>{{Cite news |last=ANI |date=2025-10-25 |title='Mana Shankara Vara Prasad Garu': Chiranjeevi set for maiden collaboration with Venkatesh Daggubati |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/chiranjeevi-venkatesh-daggubati-mana-shankara-vara-prasad-garu-anil-ravipudi-nayanthara-sankranthi-2026/article70200836.ece |access-date=2026-01-12 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2025-12-04 |title=Chiranjeevi & Venkatesh Set for Blockbuster Collaboration, Express Joy |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/chiranjeevi-venkatesh-set-for-blockbuster-collaboration-express-joy-1921535 |access-date=2026-01-04 |website=www.deccanchronicle.com |language=en}}</ref>

In August 2025, the film's title was announced as ''Mana Shankara Vara Prasad Garu,'' referencing Chiranjeevi's real name "Shankara Vara Prasad'''''."'''''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Devulapally |first=Aditya |date=2025-08-22 |title=Chiranjeevi's Mega157 titled Mana ShankaraVaraPrasad Garu; title glimpse teases stylish avatar |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/telugu/news/2025/Aug/22/chiranjeevis-mega157-titled-mana-shankaravaraprasad-garu-title-glimpse-teases-stylish-avatar |access-date=2026-01-12 |website=Cinema Express |language=en}}</ref>

=== Principal photography ===
Principal photography began on 23 May 2024 in [[Hyderabad]].<ref>{{Cite web |title='మెగా 157' ప్రారంభం.. ఫస్ట్‌ సీన్‌ ఎక్కడంటే {{!}} Chiranjeevi Mega 157 Movie Shooting Now Started In Hyderabad {{!}} Sakshi |url=https://www.sakshi.com/telugu-news/movies/chiranjeevi-mega-157-movie-shooting-now-started-hyderabad-2458000 |access-date=2026-01-12 |website=www.sakshi.com |language=te}}</ref> Filming also took place in [[Kerala]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Megastar Chiranjeevi, Anil Ravipudi's Mega 157 Moves to Kerala {{!}} Filmfare.com |url=https://www.filmfare.com/news/south/megastar-chiranjeevi-anil-ravipudis-mega-157-moves-to-kerala-75606.html |access-date=2026-01-04 |website=www.filmfare.com |language=en}}</ref> [[Mussoorie]],<ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-06-17 |title=Chiranjeevi and Nayanthara begin shooting for Anil Ravipudi's 'Mega157' in Mussoorie |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/chiranjeevi-and-nayanthara-begin-shooting-for-anil-ravipudis-mega157-in-mussoorie/articleshow/121907078.cms |access-date=2026-01-12 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> and [[Dehradun]].<ref name=":0" /> The film's shoot was wrapped up 14 December 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-12-14 |title=Mana Shankara Vara Prasad Garu Grand Release For Sankranthi on Jan 12 |url=https://www.telugutimes.net/en/cinemas/cinema-news/mana-shankara-vara-prasad-garu-grand-release-for-sankranthi-on-jan-12-333958.html |access-date=2026-01-12 |website=Telugu Times |language=en}}</ref>

== Music ==
{{Main|Mana Shankara Vara Prasad Garu (soundtrack)}}
The soundtrack and background score was composed by [[Bheems Ceciroleo]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=czRBWurAFdU|title=Mana Shankaravaraprasad Garu Jukebox | Chiranjeevi,Nayanthara | Bheems Ceciroleo | Anil Ravipudi|date=January 10, 2026|via=YouTube}}</ref>

== Release ==
''Mana Shankara Vara Prasad Garu'' was theatrically released on 12 January 2026, coinciding with [[Sankranti]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Mana Shankara Vara Prasad Garu release date locked for Sankranti 2026 |url=https://www.bookmyshow.com/movies/mana-shankara-vara-prasad-garu/ET00457184 |date=5 September 2024}}</ref>

=== Home media ===
The film's digital streaming rights were acquired by [[ZEE5]], and it premiered on the platform on 11 February 2026.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mana Shankara Vara Prasad Garu: 5 Reasons to stream the Chiranjeevi film on OTT |url=https://www.ottplay.com/news/mana-shankara-vara-prasad-garu-5-reasons-to-stream-the-chiranjeevi-film-on-ott/9857cf3581817 |access-date=2026-02-10 |website=OTTPlay |language=en}}</ref>

== Reception ==

=== Critical reception ===
''Mana Shankara Varaprasad Garu'' received positive reviews from critics. Chiranjeevi has received praised for his performance but the film is criticized for its weak writing.<ref name="reviews">{{Cite web |last=Das |first=Garima |date=13 January 2026 |title=Mana Shankara Vara Prasad Garu Box Office Collection Day 1: Chiranjeevi Starrer Earns Nearly Rs 30 Crore |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/art-entertainment/south-cinema/mana-shankara-vara-prasad-garu-box-office-collection-day-1 |access-date=13 January 2026 |website=[[Outlook India]]}}</ref> Writing for ''[[The New Indian Express]]'', Suresh Kavirayani opined that, "This film belongs entirely to Chiranjeevi. More than Anil Ravipudi’s writing, it is Chiru’s screen presence that holds the film together."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kavirayani |first=Suresh |date=2026-01-12 |title=Mana Shankara Vara Prasad Garu Movie Review: It is Chiranjeevi's show all the way |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/review/2026/Jan/12/telugureview2026jan12mana-shankara-vara-prasad-garu-movie-review-it-is-chiranjeevis-show-all-the-way |access-date=2026-01-14 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> [[NDTV]]'s Latha Srinivasan, who rated the film 2.5/5, stated - "The plot is not new and neither is the treatment - the jokes fall flat and really don't hit the high notes at any point."<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 January 2026 |title=Mana Shankara Vara Prasad Garu Review: Chiranjeevi's Performance Cannot Save This Predictable Sankranthi Film |url=https://www.ndtv.com/entertainment/mana-shankara-vara-prasad-garu-review-chiranjeevis-performance-cannot-save-this-predictable-sankranthi-film-2-5-stars-10732772 |website=[[NDTV]]}}</ref> Swaroop Kodur of ''[[The Indian Express]]'', who also rated the film 2.5/5, saying that, "the film makes a low-effort attempt at entertaining us, and only a few parts work well."<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-01-13 |title=Mana Shankara Vara Prasad Garu movie review: Chiranjeevi and Anil Ravipudi settle for easy, contrived laughs |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/movie-review/mana-shankara-vara-prasad-garu-review-chiranjeevi-anil-ravipudi-settle-for-easy-contrived-laughs-10468961/ |access-date=2026-01-14 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> On the film's writing, Shruthi Ganapati Raman of [[The Hollywood Reporter|''The Hollywood Reporter India'']], stated, "The writing remains slaphappy and nostalgic, evocative of films that represented good family fun."<ref>{{Cite web |title='Mana Shankara Vara Prasad Garu' Movie Review: A Fun Chiranjeevi Navigates A Trite Marriage Drama |url=https://www.hollywoodreporterindia.com/reviews/theatrical/mana-shankara-vara-prasad-garu-movie-review-a-fun-chiranjeevi-navigates-a-trite-marriage-drama |access-date=2026-01-14 |website=The Hollywood Reporter India |language=en}}</ref>

A reviewer from ''[[Eenadu]]'', identified Chiranjeevi's performance in the film, humour and climax as its positives while screenplay of the second-half is a let down.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mana Shankara Vara Prasad Garu Review: రివ్యూ: మన శంకరవరప్రసాద్‌గారు.. చిరు-అనిల్‌ కాంబో మెప్పించిందా? |url=https://www.eenadu.net/telugu-news/movies/mana-shankara-vara-prasad-garu-movie-reivew-in-telugu/0203/126006861 |access-date=2026-01-14 |website=EENADU |language=te}}</ref> On Chiranjeevi–Venkatesh collaboration, Sangeetha Devi of ''[[The Hindu]]'' stated that the portions are slightly underwhelming, is "film is weighed down by the expectations that come with pairing two superstars." She has also criticized the film's technical values and cinematography.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Dundoo |first=Sangeetha Devi |date=2026-01-12 |title='Mana Shankara Vara Prasad Garu' movie review: Chiranjeevi returns with a fun outing, and Venkatesh joins the party |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/mana-shankara-vara-prasad-garu-movie-review-anil-ravipudis-film-stars-chiranjeevi-venkatesh-and-nayanthara/article70500563.ece |access-date=2026-01-14 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

=== Box office ===
The film grossed {{Indian rupee}}65 [[crore]] on its opening day, with ₹44.75 crore from India and $2.3 million in international territories. It is Chiranjeevi's second best opening following ''[[Sye Raa Narasimha Reddy]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-01-13 |title=Mana Shankara Varaprasad Garu worldwide box office collection day 1: Chiranjeevi film opens at ₹65 crore, beats Pushpa |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/telugu-cinema/mana-shankara-varaprasad-garu-worldwide-box-office-collection-day-1-chiranjeevi-film-65-crore-beats-pushpa-gadar-2-101768306641138.html |access-date=2026-01-14 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref> After the first seven days of its release, the film grossed between ₹222.50{{En dash}}225 crores worldwide including ₹189{{En dash}}157.75 crore domestically.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Singh |first=Vanshika |date=19 January 2026 |title=South box office report: Mana Shankara Vara Prasad Garu leads, Anaganaga Oka Raju follows, Vaa Vaathiyaar slides |url=https://www.news9live.com/entertainment/celebrity/mana-shankara-vara-prasad-garu-collectanaganaga-oka-raju-follows-vaa-vaathiyaar-slides-2920639 |access-date=19 January 2026 |website=[[TV9 Telugu|News9]] |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wadhwa |first=Aman |date=19 January 2026 |title=Mana Shankara Vara Prasad Garu box office collection day 7: Chiranjeevi film crushes The Raja Saab, earns Rs 222 crore worldwide |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-mana-shankara-vara-prasad-garu-box-office-collection-day-7-chiranjeevi-film-crushes-the-raja-saab-earns-rs-222-crore-worldwide-3197535 |access-date=19 January 2026 |website=[[Daily News and Analysis]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mathur |first=Abhimanyu |date=19 January 2026 |title=Mana Shankara Varaprasad Garu worldwide box office collection day 7: Chiranjeevi film mints ₹225 cr; beats The Raja Saab |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/mana-shankara-varaprasad-garu-worldwide-box-office-collection-day-7-chiranjeevi-film-225-cr-beats-prabhas-the-raja-saab-101768794920537.html |access-date=19 January 2026 |website=[[Hindustan Times]]}}</ref>

The film earned ₹300 crore worldwide in 50 days of theatrical run.{{efn|name="msvpg"}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb title|28629017}}
*''[https://www.zee5.com/movies/details/mana-shankara-vara-prasad-garu/0-0-1z5904059 Mana Shankara Vara Prasad Garu]'' on [[ZEE5]]

{{Anil Ravipudi}}

[[Category:Films shot in Hyderabad, India]]
[[Category:Films set in Mumbai]]
[[Category:Films shot in Mumbai]]
[[Category:Indian action drama films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Anil Ravipudi]]
[[Category:Films scored by Bheems Ceciroleo]]
[[Category:Fictional portrayals of the Maharashtra Police]]
[[Category:2026 Indian films]]
[[Category:Films shot in Kerala]]
[[Category:2026 Telugu-language films]]
[[Category:Telugu-language action comedy films]]
[[Category:Indian action comedy films]]
[[Category:Indian films about revenge]]
[[Category:Films about dysfunctional families]]
[[Category:Films about father–son relationships]]
[[Category:Films about mother–son relationships]]
[[Category:Films about families]]
[[Category:National Security Guards in fiction]]
[[Category:Films about security and surveillance]]
[[Category:Films shot in Dehradun]]
[[Category:Films about divorce]]

Chander Bhan Khayal (poet)

2026-05-06T14:19:36Z

AhmedSturgis: made initial pg and citations.

{{Short description|Indian poet and journalist}}
{{Infobox Officeholder
| name = Chander Bhan khayal
| office1 = Convenor of [[Sahitya Akademi]]
| term_start1 = 2023
| office = Vice-Chairman of the [[National Council for Promotion of Urdu Language]]
| term_start = 2008
| term_end = 2011
| office2 = Convener of Urdu Advisory Board at the [[Sahitya Akademi]]
| term_end2 = 2017
| term_start2 = 2013
| birth_date = 30 April 1946
| birth_place = Hoshangabad, Madhya Pradesh
| alma_mater = [[Dr. Hari Singh Gour University]]
| awards = [[Sahitya Akademi Award]]
}}
'''Chander Bhan Khayal''' is an Indian Urdu poet and journalist.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Habib |first=Khurram |date=2023-07-30 |title=Passion of the Poet |url=https://thepatriot.in/profile/passion-of-the-poet-38569 |access-date=2026-03-27 |website=The Patriot |language=en-US}}</ref> He has made a significant contribution to Urdu literature, and for this contribution he was awarded the [[Sahitya Akademi Award]] in 2021.

== Career ==

Chandrabhan Khayal was born on 30 April 1946 in Babai, in the Hoshangabad district (now Narmadapuram) of [[Madhya Pradesh]]. He was born into a simple family.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2011-05-06 |title=Writers awarded for their contribution to Indian languages |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/mumbai/writers-awarded-for-their-contribution-to-indian-languages/story-YTvndI6lUXMyPr5TnmKJGL.html |access-date=2026-03-27 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref> Their means of livelihood were agriculture and small-scale trade.<ref>{{Cite web |title=चन्द्रभान ख़याल की ई-पुस्तकें {{!}} सूफ़ीनामा |url=https://sufinama.org/poets/chandrabhan-khayal/ebooks?lang=hi |access-date=2026-03-27 |website=Sufinama |language=hi}}</ref> During his childhood, he faced a lack of resources and completed his early education despite many hardships.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-12-08 |title=Chandrabhan Khayal: Wrote 400 Couplets on Prophet Muhammad |url=https://dnn24.com/chandrabhan-khayal-wrote-400-couplets-on-prophet-muhammad |access-date=2026-03-27 |language=en-US}}</ref> He completed his graduation from Sagar University ([[Dr. Hari Singh Gour University|Dr. Harisingh Gour University]]), Madhya Pradesh.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tribune |first=Qatar |last2=webmaster |date=2021-02-10 |title=Qatar-based literary organisation announces Silver Jubilee awards for Urdu scholars |url=https://www.qatar-tribune.com/article/207336/NATION/Qatar-based-literary-organisation-announces-Silver-Jubilee-awards-for-Urdu-scholars |access-date=2026-03-27 |website=Qatar Tribune |language=en}}</ref> After completing his graduation, he moved to Delhi in search of better employment opportunities. There, he began his career as a journalist.<ref>{{Cite web |title=चन्द्रभान ख़याल - प्रोफ़ाइल एवं जीवनी {{!}} रेख़्ता |url=https://www.rekhta.org/poets/chandrabhan-khayal/profile |access-date=2026-03-27 |website=Rekhta |language=hi}}</ref> He began working with Savera and Qaumi Awaaz. From 1981 to 2006, he worked as a Special Correspondent for [[Qaumi Awaz|Qaumi Awaaz.]] In 1979, his first poetry collection Sholon Ka Shajar was published.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-04-23 |title=’’لولاک ‘‘ ایک غیر مسلم شاعر کا نعتیہ نذرانہ : پروفیسر اسلم جمشید پوری - Roznama Sahara اردو |url=https://roznamasahara.com/laulak-by-chandrabhan-khyal/ |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20251210153205/https://roznamasahara.com/laulak-by-chandrabhan-khyal/ |archive-date=2025-12-10 |access-date=2026-03-27 |work=Roznama Sahara اردو |language=en-US}}</ref> This collection drew the attention of leading Urdu writers and critics of that time.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-08 |title=Urdu Poetry Award - Urdu Academy Delhi: Promoting Urdu Language & Culture in Delhi |url=https://www.urduacademydelhi.com/awards_sec/award-for-urdu-poetry/ |access-date=2026-03-27 |language=en-US}}</ref> Some of his well-known works include Taaza Hawa Ki Tabishein, Laulak, Sholon Ka Shajar, Gumshuda Aadmi Ka Intezaar, Sulagti Soch Ke Saaye, and Subah-e-Mashriq Ki Azaan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What inspired Chanderbhan Khayal to pen world's longest poem on Prophet Muhammad |url=https://www.awazthevoice.in/heritage-news/what-inspired-chanderbhan-khayal-to-pen-world-s-longest-poem-on-prophet-muhammad-29882.html |access-date=2026-03-27 |website=awazthevoice |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2006-08-26 |title=He taught self Urdu when Imam refused |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/he-taught-self-urdu-when-imam-refused/story-GUyOThfGSCLQV4KNagaXjK.html |access-date=2026-03-27 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref> He served as Vice-Chairman of the [[National Council for Promotion of Urdu Language]] (NCPUL), [[Government of India]], from 2008 to 2011, and was also a member of the Governing Council of the Delhi Urdu Academy for two terms.<ref>{{Cite web |title=..:: Welcome to Sahitya Akademi- Executive Board Members ::.. |url=https://sahitya-akademi.gov.in/aboutus/executive_board_member.jsp |access-date=2026-04-10 |website=sahitya-akademi.gov.in}}</ref> He served as the Convener of Urdu Advisory Board at the Sahitya Akademi from 2013 to 2017, In 2020, he was appointed Vice Chairman of the Madhya Pradesh Urdu Academy. He further contributed as a member of the Urdu Advisory Board of the [[National Book Trust]] (NBT), India, and served as the Convenor of the Urdu Bhasha Samiti for the Saraswati Samman under the [[K. K. Birla Foundation]], Delhi.<ref>{{Cite web |title=..:: Welcome to Sahitya Akademi- Executive Board Members ::.. |url=https://sahitya-akademi.gov.in/aboutus/executive_board_member.jsp |access-date=2026-04-13 |website=sahitya-akademi.gov.in}}</ref> He is currently in his second term as Convener.
== Awards and Honours ==
In 2021, he was awarded the prestigious [[Sahitya Akademi]] Award for Taaza Hawa Ki Tabishen.<ref>{{Cite web |last=adbimiras |date=2023-07-11 |title=معروف شاعر چندر بھان خیال سے علیزےنجف کی ایک ملاقات |url=https://adbimiras.com/maroof-shayer-chanderbhan-khayal-se-alizey-najaf-ki-aik-alizey-najaf-ki-aik-mulaqat/ |access-date=2026-03-27 |website=Adbi Miras |language=ur}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=SAHITYA AKADEMI AWARD 2021 IN URDU |url=https://culture.gov.in/files/press_release_document/English_Press_Urdu_24_02_2022.pdf |website=[[Ministry of Culture (India)|Ministry of Culture]] |access-date=7 April 2026}}</ref> In 2003, he was honoured by the Delhi Urdu Academy for his contribution to Urdu literature.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ہندوستان، رواداری کی سرزمین، ہم آہنگی ہمارااثاثہ: چندربھان خیال |url=https://www.urdu.awazthevoice.in/opinion-news/india-land-of-tolerance-harmony-our-asset-chandrabhan-khyal-38488.html |access-date=2026-03-27 |website=awazthevoice |language=ur}}</ref> In addition, he received the [[Uttar Pradesh]] Urdu Academy Award, the Shehri Bhopali Award by the M.P. Urdu Academy, and he also received the Nai Aawaz Award for his renowned poetry collection Laulak.<ref>{{Cite web |title=चंद्रभान खयाल को साहित्य अकादमी पुरस्कार देने की घोषणा |url=https://navbharattimes.indiatimes.com/india/announcement-of-sahitya-akademi-award-for-chandrabhan-khayal/articleshow/89754687.cms |access-date=2026-03-27 |website=Navbharat Times |language=hi}}</ref> He was awarded the Sahitya Sangam Award for promoting harmony between Hindi and Urdu literature and the All India Unani Tibbi Conference Award for promoting national integration.<ref>{{Cite web |last=admin |date=2022-02-23 |title=जानिए चंद्रभान ख़याल को, जिन्हें ‘ताज़ा हवा की ताबिशें’ के लिए मिलेगा उर्दू का साहित्य अकादमी पुरस्कार |url=https://jagranhindi.in/%e0%a4%9c%e0%a4%be%e0%a4%a8%e0%a4%bf%e0%a4%8f-%e0%a4%9a%e0%a4%82%e0%a4%a6%e0%a5%8d%e0%a4%b0%e0%a4%ad%e0%a4%be%e0%a4%a8-%e0%a4%96%e0%a4%bc%e0%a4%af%e0%a4%be%e0%a4%b2-%e0%a4%95%e0%a5%8b-%e0%a4%9c/ |access-date=2026-04-08 |website=हिंदी हैं हम |language=en-US}}</ref> In 2014, Khayal received the national ‘Iqbal Samman’ award from the Department of Culture, Madhya Pradesh.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2011-05-06 |title=Writers awarded for their contribution to Indian languages |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/mumbai/writers-awarded-for-their-contribution-to-indian-languages/story-YTvndI6lUXMyPr5TnmKJGL.html |access-date=2026-04-08 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref> In 2011, he was honored with the Tagore Literary Award for his ghazal collection 'Subah-e-Mashriq ki Azan'.<ref>{{Cite web |title=AWARDS |url=https://www.milligazette.com/news/1-community-news/9920-awards/ |access-date=2026-04-08 |website=The Milli Gazette — Indian Muslims Leading News Source |language=en}}</ref> In recognition of his contributions, he was honoured with the Vishwarang Manad Samman in 2025.

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{authority control}}
== Bibliography ==

* Abedi, Syed Taqi, Dr. Laulak: Chander Bhan Khayal ki shahkaar naatiya nazm ka tajlili aur tanqidi jaiza.
* Intesab Aalami. Quarterly special issue on Chander Bhan Khayal.
* Aalami Zaban. Monthly Laulak Number.
* Lamhe Lamhe. Urdu journal Laulak Number.
* Hamid, Intikhab (Prof.). “لولاک: نعت کے دانشورانہ ڈائمنشنز اور عصری مطابقت.” Ishtiraak (online literary platform), 12 July 2023.
* Jamshidpuri, Aslam (Prof.). “لولاک: ایک غیر مسلم شاعر کا نعتیہ نذرانہ.” Roznama Sahara (Urdu daily), 23 April 2024.
* UPA National E-Journal (Interdisciplinary Peer-Reviewed Special Issue, Vol. 9, Issue 1, March 2023)

[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian poets]]
[[Category:1946 births]]
[[Category:Indian journalists]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Sahitya Akademi Award in Urdu]]
[[Category:Indian male poets]]
[[Category:Urdu-language Indian poets]]
[[Category:Poets from Delhi]]
[[Category:Poets from Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:Indian Hindus]]

Madhya Pradesh

2026-05-05T03:50:11Z

AhmedSturgis: cleaned up details for consistency and added references

{{Short description|State in central India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2026}}
{{Infobox Indian state or territory
| name = Madhya Pradesh
| official_name = State of Madhya Pradesh
| type = State
| image_skyline = {{multiple image
| border = infobox
| total_width = 300
| image_style =
| perrow = 1/2/2/2/2/2/2/1

| image1 = India-5749 - Visvanatha Temple - Flickr - archer10 (Dennis).jpg
| caption1 = [[Khajuraho Group of Monuments]]
| image2 = East Gateway - Stupa 1 - Sanchi Hill 2013-02-21 4398.JPG
| caption2 = [[Sanchi Stupa]]
|image3 = Heliodorus pillar (cropped).jpg
|caption3 = [[Heliodorus pillar|Heliodorus Pillar]]
| image4 = Marble Rocks - Jabalpur.jpg
| caption4 = [[Marble Rocks]] along the [[Narmada River]]
| image5 = Rock Shelter 8, Bhimbetka 02.jpg
| caption5 = [[Bhimbetka rock shelters|Bhimbetka Rock Shelters]]
| image6 = Old temple, Orchha.jpg
| caption6 = [[Chaturbhuj Temple (Orchha)|Chaturbhuj Temple]]
|image7 = Jahangir_Mahal,_Orchha,_Madhya_Pradesh,_India.jpg
|caption7 = [[Jahangir Mahal]]
|image8 = Mahakaleshwar Temple, Ujjain.jpg
| caption8 = [[Mahakaleshwar Jyotirlinga]]
|image9 = Maharaja Chhatrasal's Cenotaph, Dhubela.JPG
|caption9 = [[Maharaja Chhatrasal Museum|Palace of Maharaja Chhatrasal]]
|image10 = General View Tomb of Kamlapati.jpg
|caption10 = [[Samadhi (shrine)|Samadhi]] [[Chhatarpur district|of Maharani Kamlapati]]
|image11 = Orchha mausolea.jpg
|caption11 = [[Chhatri]]s on the banks of the [[Betwa River]]
|image12 = Gulganj Fort.jpg
|caption12 = [[Chhatarpur district|Gulganj Fort]]
| image13 = Tiger Kanha National Park.jpg
| caption13 = [[Kanha Tiger Reserve]]
| image14 = Gwalior Fort front.jpg
| caption14 = [[Gwalior Fort|Gwalior Fort]]
}}
| image_seal = Emblem of Madhya Pradesh.svg
| etymology = "Central Province"
| nickname = "Heart of India"
| motto = [[Satyameva Jayate]] ([[Sanskrit]]) "Truth alone triumphs"{{force singular}}
| anthem = [[Mera Madhya Pradesh]] ([[Hindi]])<ref>{{cite magazine |title=MP: State Song to be Sung Along with National Anthem |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/newswire/story/mp-state-song-to-be-sung-along-with-national-anthem/697068 |access-date=21 March 2020 |magazine=Outlook |date=12 October 2010 |archive-date=21 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200321173757/https://www.outlookindia.com/newswire/story/mp-state-song-to-be-sung-along-with-national-anthem/697068 |url-status=live}}</ref> "My Madhya Pradesh"
| image_map = IN-MP.svg
| region = Central India
| before_was = [[Central Provinces and Berar]] & [[Madhya Pradesh (1956–2000)]]
| formation_date2 = formation1
| formation_date4 = 1 November 1956
| capital = Bhopal
| largestcity = Indore
| districts = [[List of districts of Madhya Pradesh|55 (10 divisions)]]
| Governor = [[Mangubhai C. Patel]]
| Chief_Minister = [[Mohan Yadav]]
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
| Deputy_CM = [[Jagdish Devda]] [[Rajendra Shukla (politician)|Rajendra Shukla]] ([[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]])
| judiciary = [[Madhya Pradesh High Court]]
| legislature_type = Unicameral
| assembly = [[Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]
| assembly_seats = 230 seats
| rajya_sabha_seats = 11 seats
| lok_sabha_seats = 29 seats
| area_total_km2 = 308252
| area_rank = 2nd
| length_km = 605
| width_km = 870
| elevation_m = 400
| elevation_max_m = 1,352
| elevation_max_point = [[Dhupgarh]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kohli |first=M. S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GIs4zv17HHwC&pg=PA39 |title=Mountains of India: Tourism, Adventure and Pilgrimage |date=2002 |publisher=Indus Publishing |isbn=978-81-7387-135-1 |language=en}}</ref>
| elevation_min_m = 90
| elevation_min_point = [[Chambal River|Chambal Valley]]
| population_footnotes = <ref name="2011_censusindia_gov_in">{{cite web |url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/data_files/mp/01Content.pdf |title=2011 Census of India |website=Censusindia.gov.in |access-date=14 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111017092345/http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/data_files/mp/01Content.pdf |archive-date=17 October 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
| population_total = {{IncreaseNeutral}} 7,25,97,565
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank = 5th
| population_urban = 27.63%
| population_rural = 72.37%
| population_density = 240
| population_demonym = Madhya Pradeshis
| 0fficial_Langs = [[Hindi]]<ref name="langoff">{{cite web |url=http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM47thReport.pdf |title=Report of the Commissioner for linguistic minorities: 47th report (July 2008 to June 2010) |pages=122–126 |publisher=Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities, Ministry of Minority Affairs, Government of India |access-date=16 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120513161847/http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM47thReport.pdf |archive-date=13 May 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
| official_script = [[Devanagari script]]
| GDP_footnotes = <ref name="MOSPI">{{cite web |url=http://mospi.nic.in/sites/default/files/press_releases_statements/State_wise_SDP_15_03_2021.xls |title=MOSPI State Domestic Product, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of India |date=15 March 2021 |access-date=28 March 2021 |archive-date=15 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415164725/http://www.mospi.nic.in/sites/default/files/press_releases_statements/State_wise_SDP_15_03_2021.xls |url-status=live}}</ref>
| GDP_total = {{IncreaseNeutral}}{{INRConvert|18.48|t|lk=r}}
| GDP_year = 2026–27
| GDP_rank = 10th
| GDP_per_capita = {{INRConvert|216523|r|0}} (2026–27)<ref name="auto2">{{Cite web |title=Madhya Pradesh Budget Analysis 2024-25 |url=https://prsindia.org/budgets/states/madhya-pradesh-budget-analysis-2024-25 |website=PRS Legislative Research |access-date=20 May 2025}}</ref>
| GDP_per_capita_rank = 25th
| HDI = {{Increase}} 0.692 {{color|#fc0|Medium}}<ref>{{cite web |title=India: Subnational HDI |url=https://globaldatalab.org/shdi/table/shdi/IND/ |website=Global Data Labs |access-date=17 March 2026}}</ref>
| HDI_year = 2023
| HDI_rank = 32nd
| literacy = 75.2%<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.mospi.gov.in/sites/default/files/publication_reports/AnnualReport_PLFS2023-24L2.pdf |title=Annual Report, Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) (July 2023 – June 2024) |date=23 September 2024 |publisher=National Sample Survey Office, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of India |pages=A-10 |chapter=Appendix-A: Detailed tables, Table (7): Literacy rate (in per cent) of persons of different age groups for each State/UT (persons, age-group (years): 7 & above, rural+urban (column 6))}}</ref>
| literacy_year = 2024
| literacy_rank = 34th
| sex_ratio = 970[[female|♀]]/1000 [[male|♂]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sex ratio of State and Union Territories of India as per National Health survey (2019–2021)|url=https://main.mohfw.gov.in/basicpage-14|website=Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, India|access-date=8 January 2023|archive-date=8 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230108164803/https://main.mohfw.gov.in/basicpage-14|url-status=live}}</ref>
| sexratio_year = 2011
| sexratio_rank = 15th
| iso_code = IN-MP
| registration_plate = MP
| website = mp.gov.in
| mammal = [[Barasingha]]
| bird = [[Indian paradise flycatcher]]
| fish = [[Mahseer]]
| flower = [[Butea monosperma|White lily]]
| tree = [[Banyan|Banyan Tree]]
| fruit = [[Mango]]
| image_highway = SH IN-MP.png
| SH_numbers = [[List of state highways in Madhya Pradesh|MP SH1 – MP SH53]]
}}

'''Madhya Pradesh''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|m|ɑː|d|j|ə|_|p|r|ə|ˈ|d|ɛ|ʃ}};<ref>{{MW|Madhya Pradesh}}</ref> {{IPA|hi|ˈmədʱjə pɾəˈdeːʃ|lang|MadhyaPradesh.ogg}}; {{lit|Central Province}}) is a [[States and union territories of India|state]] in [[central India]]. Its capital is [[Bhopal]]. Other major cities include [[Indore]], [[Gwalior]], [[Jabalpur]], [[Chhindwara]], and [[Sagar, Madhya Pradesh|Sagar]]. Madhya Pradesh is the [[List of states and union territories of India by area|second largest Indian state by area]] and the [[List of states and union territories of India by population|fifth largest state by population]] with over 72 million residents. It borders the states of [[Rajasthan]] to the northwest, [[Uttar Pradesh]] to the northeast, [[Chhattisgarh]] to the east, [[Maharashtra]] to the south, [[Gujarat]] to the west.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://fsi.nic.in/cover_2011/madhyapradesh.pdf |title=Indian State of Forest Department Report 2011 - Madhya Pradesh |work=[[Forest Survey of India]] |access-date=30 October 2019 |archive-date=5 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200205231100/http://fsi.nic.in/cover_2011/madhyapradesh.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>

The area covered by the present-day Madhya Pradesh includes the area of the ancient [[Avanti (India)|Avanti]] [[Mahajanapada]], whose capital [[Ujjain]] (also known as Avantika) arose as a major city during the second wave of Indian urbanisation in the sixth century BCE. Subsequently, the region was ruled by the major dynasties of India. The [[Maratha Confederacy|Maratha Empire]] dominated the majority of the 18th century. After the [[Third Anglo-Maratha War]] in the 19th century, the region was divided into several [[princely states]] under the [[British Empire|British]] and incorporated into [[Central Provinces and Berar]] and the [[Central India Agency]]. After India's independence, the [[Central Provinces and Berar]] was renamed as Madhya Pradesh with [[Nagpur]] as its capital, this state included the southern parts of the present-day Madhya Pradesh and northeastern portion of today's Maharashtra while [[Central India Agency]] was renamed as [[Madhya Bharat]] which includes parts of present day north western Madhya Pradesh became a separate state with [[Gwalior]] as its capital and [[Jiwajirao Scindia]] as [[Rajpramukh]] (Governor). In 1956, these states were [[States Reorganisation Act|reorganised]] and its parts were combined with the states of [[Vindhya Pradesh]] and [[Bhopal State (1949–56)|Bhopal]] to form the new Madhya Pradesh state, the Marathi-speaking [[Vidarbha]] region was removed and merged with the [[Bombay State]]. This state was the largest in India by area until 2000, when its southeastern Chhattisgarh region was designated a separate state.

[[Economy of Madhya Pradesh|Madhya Pradesh's economy]] is the [[List of Indian states and union territories by GDP|10th-largest]] in India, with a gross state domestic product (GSDP) of {{INRConvert|9.17|t|lk=r}} and has the country's 26th highest per-capita income of {{INR}}109,372 (US$1272).<ref name="MOSPI" /> Madhya Pradesh [[List of Indian states and territories by Human Development Index|ranks 23rd]] among Indian states in [[human development index]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.sbi.co.in/documents/13958/14472/Ecowrap_20190308.pdf |title=Human Development Index Across Indian States: Is the Glass Still Half Empty? |access-date=9 June 2021 |archive-date=9 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210609140639/https://www.sbi.co.in/documents/13958/14472/Ecowrap_20190308.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> Rich in mineral resources, Madhya Pradesh has the largest reserves of [[diamond]] and [[copper]] in India. 25.14% of its area is under forest cover.<ref>{{cite web |title=India State of Forest Report 2019 |url=https://fsi.nic.in/isfr19/vol2/isfr-2019-vol-ii-madhya-pradesh.pdf |access-date=17 July 2022 |archive-date=17 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220317054904/https://fsi.nic.in/isfr19/vol2/isfr-2019-vol-ii-madhya-pradesh.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Madhya Pradesh has posted country’s highest agricultural growth rate which had averaged above 20 per cent over last four years. The state leads the country in production of pulses, oilseeds, soya bean, gram, pea, garlic, guava, and medicinal and aromatic herbs. Horticulture is being promoted in a big way.<ref>{{cite web |title=Action Plan, States/UTs, 2024-25 |url=https://rural.gov.in/sites/default/files/Annual_Action_Plan_2024-2025_22102024.pdf |website=Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India |access-date=26 December 2024 |archive-date=7 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241207113854/https://rural.gov.in/sites/default/files/Annual_Action_Plan_2024-2025_22102024.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Its tourism industry has seen considerable growth, with the state topping the National Tourism Awards in 2010–11.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jagranjosh.com/current-affairs/madhya-pradesh-topped-the-national-tourism-awards-201011-1330588154-1 |title=Madhya Pradesh topped the National Tourism Awards 2010–11 |date=1 January 2012 |publisher=jagranjosh.com |access-date=14 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120619153447/http://www.jagranjosh.com/current-affairs/madhya-pradesh-topped-the-national-tourism-awards-201011-1330588154-1 |archive-date=19 June 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> In recent years, the state's GDP growth has been above the national average.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/indicators/madhya-pradesh-topples-bihar-new-no-1-in-economic-growth/articleshow/19286431.cms |title=Madhya Pradesh topples Bihar, new No 1 in economic growth |date=30 March 2013 |access-date=30 March 2013 |work=The Economic Times |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130402150505/http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/indicators/madhya-pradesh-topples-bihar-new-no-1-in-economic-growth/articleshow/19286431.cms |archive-date=2 April 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2019–20, state's GSDP was recorded at 9.07%.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Madhya Pradesh Presentation and Economy Growth Report {{!}} IBEF |url=https://www.ibef.org/states/madhya-pradesh-presentation |access-date=26 February 2021 |website=ibef.org |archive-date=28 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170228082037/http://www.ibef.org/states/madhya-pradesh-presentation |url-status=live}}</ref>

==Etymology==
''Madhya Pradesh'' name comes from the sanskrit words ''madhya'' (middle, central) and ''pradeś'' (state, province). It literally means "central province".

== History ==
{{Main|History of Madhya Pradesh}}

Isolated remains of ''[[Homo erectus]]'' found in Hathnora in the [[Narmada River|Narmada Valley]] indicate that Madhya Pradesh might have been inhabited in the [[Middle Pleistocene]] era.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.portal.gsi.gov.in/gsiDoc/pub/cs_hathnora.pdf |title=The Hathnora Skull Fossil from Madhya Pradesh, India |access-date=8 September 2012 |date=20 September 2005 |publisher=[[Geological Survey of India]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120916043423/http://www.portal.gsi.gov.in/gsiDoc/pub/cs_hathnora.pdf |archive-date=16 September 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Painted pottery, dated to the later [[Mesolithic]] period has been found in the [[Bhimbetka rock shelters]].<ref name="Kenneth2000">{{cite book |author=Kenneth A. R. Kennedy |title=God-Apes and Fossil Men: Paleoanthropology of South Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W6zQHNavWlsC&pg=PA206 |access-date=8 September 2012 |year= 2000 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-0-472-11013-1 |pages=206– |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130607050919/http://books.google.com/books?id=W6zQHNavWlsC&pg=PA206 |archive-date=7 June 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Chalcolithic]] sites belonging to the [[Kayatha]] culture ({{BCE|2100–1800|link=y}}) and [[Malwa culture]] (1700–1500 BCE) have been discovered in the western part of the state.<ref name="Srivastava2008">{{cite book |author=Vinod Chandra Srivastava |title=History of Agriculture in India, Up to C. 1200 A.D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FvjZVwYVmNcC&pg=PA309 |access-date=8 September 2012 |date=2 January 2008 |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |isbn=978-81-8069-521-6 |pages=309–317 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606105715/http://books.google.com/books?id=FvjZVwYVmNcC&pg=PA309 |archive-date=6 June 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> Madhya Pradesh is also the world's ninth-most populous [[Administrative division|subnational entity]].

The city of [[Ujjain]] arose as a major centre in the region, during the second wave of Indian urbanisation in the sixth century BCE. It has served as the capital of the [[Avanti (India)|Avanti kingdom]]. Other kingdoms mentioned in ancient epics{{snd}}[[Malava Kingdom|Malava]], [[Karusha Kingdom|Karusha]], [[Dasarna Kingdom|Dasarna]] and [[Nishada Kingdom|Nishada]]{{snd}}have also been identified with parts of Madhya Pradesh.

[[Chandragupta Maurya]] [[conquered]] northern [[India]] around 320 BCE, establishing the [[Mauryan Empire]], which included all of modern-day Madhya Pradesh. [[Ashoka]] the greatest of Mauryan rulers, [[conquered]] it, bringing the region under firmer control. After the decline of the Maurya empire, the region was contested among the [[Saka]]s, the [[Kushana]]s, the [[Satavahana dynasty|Satavahanas]], and several local dynasties during the 1st to 3rd centuries CE. Heliodorus, the Greek Ambassador to the court of the Shunga King Bhagabhadra erected the [[Heliodorus pillar]] near Vidisha.

[[Ujjain]] emerged as the predominant commercial centre of western India from the {{CE|first century|link=y}}, located on the trade routes between the [[Ganges]] plain and India's [[Arabian Sea]] ports. The [[Satavahana]] dynasty of the northern [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] and the Saka dynasty of the [[Western Satraps]] fought for the control of Madhya Pradesh during the 1st to 3rd centuries CE.

The [[Satavahana dynasty|Satavahana]] King [[Gautamiputra Satakarni]] inflicted a crushing defeat upon the [[Saka]] rulers and conquered parts of [[Malwa]] and [[Gujarat]] in the 2nd century CE.<ref>''Ancient India'' by Ramesh Chandra Majumdar: p. 134.</ref>

Subsequently, the region was [[conquered]] by the [[Gupta Empire]] in the 4th and 5th centuries, and their southern neighbours, the [[Vakataka]]s. The rock-cut temples at [[Bagh Caves]] in the Kukshi tehsil of the Dhar District show the presence of the Gupta dynasty in the region, supported by the testimony of a Badwani inscription dated to the year of 487 CE.<ref>Verma, Archana (2007). ''Cultural and Visual Flux at Early Historical Bagh in Central India'', Oxford: Archaeopress, {{ISBN|978-1-4073-0151-8}}, p. 19.</ref> The attacks and the subsequent seize of [[Gwalior]] by the [[Hephthalite]]s or [[White Huns]] brought about the collapse of the Gupta empire, which broke up into smaller states. The King [[Yasodharman]] of [[Malwa]] defeated the Huns in 528, ending their expansion. Later, [[Harsha]] (c. 590–647) ruled the northern parts of the [[States and union territories of India|state]]. [[Malwa]] was ruled by the south Indian [[Rashtrakuta Dynasty]] from the late 8th century to the 10th century.<ref>''A Journey through India's Past (Great Hindu Kings after Harshavardhana)'', by Chandra Mauli Mani: p. 13.</ref> When the south Indian Emperor [[Govinda III]] of the [[Rashtrakuta dynasty]] annexed Malwa, he set up the family of one of his subordinates there, who took the name of [[Paramara dynasty|Paramara]].<ref>''A Brief History of India'' by Alain Daniélou p. 185.</ref>

The Medieval period saw the rise of the [[Rajput]] clans, including the [[Paramara dynasty|Paramaras]] of [[Malwa]] and the [[Chandela]]s of [[Bundelkhand]] along with the [[Lodhi (caste)|Lodhis]]. The Chandellas built the majestic Hindu-Jain temples at [[Khajuraho Group of Monuments|Khajuraho]], which represent the culmination of Hindu temple architecture in Central India. The [[Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty]] also held sway in [[Gwalior]] and western Madhya Pradesh at this time. It also left some monuments of architectural value in [[Gwalior]]. Southern parts of Madhya Pradesh like [[Malwa]] were several times invaded by the south Indian [[Western Chalukya Empire]] which imposed its rule on the Paramara kingdom of Malwa.<ref>''History of India'' by N. Jayapalan pp. 149–151.</ref> The Paramara King [[Bhoja]] (c. 1010–1060) was claimed to be a renowned [[polymath]]. The small Gond kingdoms emerged in the [[Gondwana (India)|Gondwana]] and [[Mahakoshal]] regions of the state.

In early 10th century [[Gwalior]] and northern Madhya Pradesh came under the rule of [[Kachchhapaghata dynasty]], they belongs to the rajput clan. Gwalior was attacked and conquered by the [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] [[Delhi Sultanate]] in the 12th century. Around [[Kachchhapaghata dynasty|1500 Kachchhapaghata]] women along with the ladies of royal family committed jauhar at [[Gwalior Fort]]. The Kachchhapaghata later shifted to [[Jaipur|Amer]] (Jaipur). After the collapse of the [[Delhi Sultanate]] at the end of the 14th century, independent regional kingdoms re-emerged, including the [[Tomaras of Gwalior|Tomara]] kingdom of [[Gwalior]] and the Muslim Sultanate of [[Malwa Sultanate|Malwa]], with its capital at [[Mandu, Madhya Pradesh|Mandu]].

The [[Malwa Sultanate]] was conquered by the [[Sultanate of Gujarat]] in 1531. In the 1540s, most parts of the state fell to [[Sher Shah Suri]], and subsequently to the [[Hindu king]] [[Hemu]]. Hemu, who had earlier served as the [[General]] of the [[Islamic]] [[Suri dynasty]], operated from the [[Gwalior Fort]] during 1553–56 and became the ruler of Delhi as a Vikramaditya king winning 22 battles continuously from Bengal to Gujarat and defeating Akbar's forces in the [[Battle of Tughlaqabad|Battle of Delhi]] on 7 October 1556. However, he chose Delhi as his capital after his formal Coronation in [[Gwalior]]. After Hemu's defeat by [[Akbar]] at the [[Second Battle of Panipat]] in 1556, Akbar seized [[Gwalior]] along with this most of Madhya Pradesh came under the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] rule. Gondwana and Mahakoshal remained under the control of Gond kings, who acknowledged [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] [[suzerainty]] but enjoyed virtual [[autonomy]].

The Mughal control weakened considerably after the death of [[Emperor]] [[Aurangzeb]] in 1707. [[Gwalior]] came under the rule of [[Jats]] and [[Bhim Singh Rana]] become ruler. However, he was defeated by the Scindias in 1735. Between 1720 and 1760, the [[Marathas]] [[conquered]] most of Madhya Pradesh, resulting in the establishment of semi-autonomous states under the nominal control of the [[Peshwa]] of [[Pune]]: the [[House of Holkar|Holkar]]s of [[Indore]] ruled much of Malwa, [[Pawars]] ruled [[Dewas State (Maratha Confederacy)|Dewas]] and [[Dhar State|Dhar]], the [[Bhonsle]]s of [[Nagpur kingdom|Nagpur]] dominated Mahakoshal-Gondwana area, while the [[Scindia]]s of [[Gwalior State|Gwalior]] controlled the vast northern parts of the state along with [[Ajmer]] and [[Agra]]. [[Later mughals]] accepted the surzenity of the [[House of Scindia|Scindia dynasty]]. The most notable Maratha rulers of the region were [[Mahadji Scindia]], [[Daulat Rao Sindhia|Daulat Rao Scindia]], [[Ahilyabai Holkar]] and [[Yashwantrao Holkar]]. Besides these, there were several other [[:Category:Princely states of Madhya Pradesh|small states]], including [[Bhopal State|Bhopal]], [[Orchha State|Orchha]], and [[Rewa (princely state)|Rewa]]. The [[Bhopal state]], which paid [[tribute]] to both the [[Marathas]] and the [[Nizam of Hyderabad]], was founded by [[Dost Mohammad Khan, Nawab of Bhopal|Dost Mohammed Khan]], a former General in the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] army.

After the [[Third Anglo-Maratha War]], the [[British Empire|British]] [[conquered]] the entire region. All the sovereign states in the region became [[princely state]]s of [[British India]], governed by the [[Central India Agency]]. The Mahakoshal region became a British province: the [[Saugor and Nerbudda Territories]]. In 1861, the British merged the [[Nagpur Province]] with the Saugor and Nerbudda Territories to form the [[Central Provinces]].

During the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857|1857 uprising]], rebellions happened in the northern parts of the state, led by leaders like [[Tatya Tope]], [[Avantibai|Rani Avantibai Lodhi]]. However, these were crushed by the [[British Empire|British]] and the princes loyal to them. The state witnessed a number of anti-British activities and protests during the [[Indian independence movement]].<ref name="DwarkaPrasad1956">{{cite book |editor=Dwarka Prasad Misha |title=The History of freedom movement in Madhya Pradesh |year=1956 |publisher=Govt. Print., Madhya Pradesh}}</ref> Several notable leaders such as [[Chandra Shekhar Azad]], [[B. R. Ambedkar]], [[Shankar Dayal Sharma]], [[Atal Bihari Vajpayee]], [[Vijaya Raje Scindia|Rajmata Vijaya Raje Scindia]], [[Arjun Singh (former politician)|Arjun Singh]] and [[Madhavrao Scindia]] were born in what is now Madhya Pradesh.
[[File:Madhya Pradesh in India (1951).svg|thumb|Madhya Pradesh in 1951]]
[[File:Bhopal in India.png|thumb|Madhya Padesh after [[States Reorganisation Act, 1956]] with Bhopal as its capital]]
After the independence of India, Madhya Pradesh was created in 1950 from the former British [[Central Provinces and Berar]] and the [[princely states]] of [[Makrai]] and [[Chhattisgarh States Agency|Chhattisgarh]], with [[Nagpur]] as the capital of the state. The new states of [[Madhya Bharat]], [[Vindhya Pradesh]], and [[Bhopal State (1949–56)|Bhopal]] were formed out of the Central India Agency. In 1956, the states of Madhya Bharat, [[Vindhya Pradesh]], and [[Bhopal]] were merged into Madhya Pradesh, and the [[Marathi language|Marathi]]-speaking southern region [[Vidarbha]], which included Nagpur, was ceded to [[Bombay state]]. [[Jabalpur]] was chosen to be the capital of the state but at the last moment, due to political interference [[Jabalpur]] sacrificed his place of Capital but then [[Bhopal]] was made the state capital.<ref>{{cite news |last=Sen |first=Abha |url=http://www.patrika.com/news/madhya-pradesh/that-s-why-jabalpur-could-not-make-capital-of-mp-3323/ |title=जबलपुर के हाथ से बस इसलिए निकल गई राजधानी की प्रबल दावेदारी |work=Patrika.com |access-date=25 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115083131/https://www.patrika.com/news/madhya-pradesh/that-s-why-jabalpur-could-not-make-capital-of-mp-3323/ |archive-date=15 November 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref> In November 2000, as part of the Madhya Pradesh Reorganization Act, the southeastern portion of the state split off to form the new state of [[Chhattisgarh]].
<gallery mode="packed" heights="134">
File:Rock painting, Bhimbetka, Raisen district, MP.jpg|Mesolithic rock painting, [[Bhimbetka rock shelters]], a UNESCO World Heritage Site in [[Raisen district|Raisen]]
File:Khajuraho - Kandariya Mahadeo Temple.jpg|[[Kandariya Mahadeva Temple]], [[Khajuraho (town)|Khajuraho]]
File:Bateswar (6).JPG|[[Bateshwar Hindu temples, Madhya Pradesh|Bateshwar temple complex]], Padavli, [[Morena district|Morena]]
File:Chausath Yogini Temple, Mitavli, Morena.jpg|Ekatarso Mahadeva Temple, Mitaoli, Morena
File:262 Gwalior.jpg|[[Sasbahu Temple, Gwalior|Saas and Bahu Temples]], Gwalior Fort
File:Teli Ka Mandir, Gwalior.jpg|[[Teli ka Mandir|Teli Temple]], Gwalior Fort
File:Shiva Temple, Bhojpur 01.jpg|Shiva Temple, [[Bhojpur, Madhya Pradesh|Bhojpur]]
File:Lakshmi Temple, Orchha.jpg|Lakshmi Temple, [[Orchha]]
File:A Hindu temple, Amarkantak Madhya Pradesh India.jpg|Brahma statue with various deities at [[Amarkantak]]
File:Gorgeous Gwalior Fort.jpg|[[Gwalior Fort|Man Mandir]], Gwalior Fort
File:Gwalior Madhya Pradesh India.jpg|Assi Khambo ki Baoli, Gwalior Fort
File:Maa Chamunda Mata Temple, Tekri Dewas.jpg|Maa Chamunda Mata Temple, [[Dewas]]
File:Mahakal Temple Ujjain.JPG|Mahakaleshwar Temple, [[Ujjain]]
File:0102321 Maheshwar Ghats and Fort, Ahilya Bai Monuments, Madhya Pradesh 055.jpg|Maheshwar Ghats and Fort, Maheshwar, [[Khargone]]
File:Omkareshwar Temple 02.jpg|Omkareshwar Temple, [[Khandwa]]
</gallery>

== Geography ==
=== Location in India ===
Madhya Pradesh literally means "Central Province", and is located in the geographic heart of India in between the latitude of 21.6°N–26.30°N and longitude of 74°9'E–82°48'E. The state straddles the [[Narmada River]], which runs east and west between the [[Vindhya Range|Vindhya]] and [[Satpura Range|Satpura]] ranges; these ranges and the Narmada are the traditional boundaries between the north and south of India. The highest point in Madhya Pradesh is [[Dhupgarh]], with an elevation of 1,350 m (4,429 ft).<ref>{{cite book
| title = Madhya Pradesh for sight-seeing and shikar
| publisher = Directorate of Information and Publicity, Madhya Pradesh
| year = 1964
| oclc = 8112689
}}</ref>

The state is bordered on the west by [[Gujarat]], on the northwest by [[Rajasthan]], on the northeast by [[Uttar Pradesh]], on the east by [[Chhattisgarh]], and on the south by [[Maharashtra]].

{{Geographic location
|Centre = Madhya Pradesh
|North = [[Rajasthan]] – [[Uttar Pradesh]]
|Northeast = [[Uttar Pradesh]]
|East = [[Chhattisgarh]]
|Southeast = [[Chhattisgarh]]
|South = [[Maharashtra]]
|Southwest = [[Maharashtra]]
|West = [[Gujarat]]
|Northwest = [[Rajasthan]]
}}
[[File:India Madhya Pradesh physical.svg|thumb|left|Physical map of Madhya Pradesh village Tumen Ashoknagar]]

=== Climate ===
Madhya Pradesh also has three major seasons – Summer, Monsoon, and Winter. During summer (March–June), the temperature in the entire state ranges above 34.6 it has increased as it is all-time high in Madhya Pradesh. In general, the eastern parts of Madhya Pradesh are hotter than the western parts. The regions like Gwalior, Morena and Datia record temperatures of over 42 °C in May. The humidity is relatively very low and the region usually experiences frequent mild dust storms. The southwest Monsoon usually breaks out in mid-June and the entire state receives a major share of its rainfall between June and September. The south and south-east regions tend to experience a higher rainfall whereas the parts of the north-west receive less. Jabalpur, Mandla, Balaghat, Sidhi, and other extreme eastern parts receive more than 150 cm of rainfall. The districts of western Madhya Pradesh receive less than 80 cm of rainfall.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://mp.gov.in/state-profile |title=Government of Madhya Pradesh (M.P.) |access-date=9 June 2021 |archive-date=9 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210609142930/https://mp.gov.in/state-profile |url-status=live}}</ref>

The winter season starts in November. The temperature remains low in the northern parts of the state in comparison to the southern parts. The daily maximum temperature in most of the northern part of January remains between 15 and 18 °C. The climate is generally dry and pleasant with a clear sky. The average rainfall is about {{convert|1194|mm|in|1|abbr=on}}. The southeastern districts have the heaviest rainfall, some places receiving as much as {{convert|2150|mm|in|1|abbr=on}}, while the western and northwestern districts receive {{convert|1000|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} or less.

=== Ecology ===
According to the 2011 figures, the recorded forest area of the state is {{convert|94689|km2|mi2|abbr=on}} constituting 30.7% of the geographical area of the state.<ref name="FSI_2011">{{cite book |title=State of Forest Report |year=2011 |publisher=Forest Survey of India (Ministry of Environment & Forests) |url=http://www.fsi.org.in/cover_2011/madhyapradesh.pdf |access-date=10 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512234452/http://www.fsi.org.in/cover_2011/madhyapradesh.pdf |archive-date=12 May 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> It constitutes 12.3% of the forest area of India. Legally this area has been classified into "Reserved Forest" (65.3%), "Protected Forest" (32.8%) and "Unclassified Forest" (0.2%). Per capita forest area is {{convert|2400|m2|acre|2|abbr=on}} as against the national average of {{convert|700|m2|acre|2|abbr=on}}. The forest cover is less dense in the northern and western parts of the state, which contain the major urban centres. Variability in climatic and [[edaphic]] conditions brings about significant difference in the forest types of the state. In January 2019 1.5 million volunteers in the state planted 66 million trees in 12 hours along the [[Narmada River]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/india-plant-66-million-trees-12-hours-environment-campaign-madhya-pradesh-global-warming-climate-a7820416.html |title=India planted 66 million trees in 12 hours |date=3 July 2017 |website=The Independent |language=en |access-date=5 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190207080825/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/india-plant-66-million-trees-12-hours-environment-campaign-madhya-pradesh-global-warming-climate-a7820416.html |archive-date=7 February 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The major types of soils found in the state are:
* Black soil, most predominantly in the [[Malwa]] region, [[Mahakoshal]] and in southern [[Bundelkhand]]
* Red and yellow soil, in the [[Baghelkhand]] region
* Alluvial soil, in Northern Madhya Pradesh
* [[Laterite]] soil, in highland areas
* Mixed soil, in parts of the [[Gwalior]] [[Chambal Division|Chambal]] region.

=== Flora and fauna ===
{{Main|Flora and fauna of Madhya Pradesh}}

Madhya Pradesh is home to eleven [[National parks of India|National Parks]]; [[Kuno National Park]], [[Bandhavgarh National Park]], [[Kanha National Park]], [[Satpura National Park]], [[Sanjay National Park]], [[Madhav National Park]], [[Van Vihar National Park]], [[Mandla Plant Fossils National Park]], [[Panna National Park]], [[Pench National Park]] and Dinosaur National Park, Dhar.<ref>[http://www.mpforest.org/wildlife.html Wild Life] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121113174659/http://mpforest.org//wildlife.html |date=13 November 2012}}. Forest Department, Madhya Pradesh.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ummid.com/news/2010/December/19.12.2010/national_dinosaur_fossil_in_mp.htm |title=MP Govt. to set up National Dinosaur Fossil Park in Dhar district |website=Ummid.com |access-date=5 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180214092303/http://www.ummid.com/news/2010/December/19.12.2010/national_dinosaur_fossil_in_mp.htm |archive-date=14 February 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

There are also a number of nature reserves, including [[Amarkantak]], [[Bagh Caves]], [[Balaghat]], Bori Natural Reserve, Ken Gharial, [[Ghatigaon]], [[Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary|Kuno Palpur]], [[Narwar]], [[Chambal River|Chambal]], Kukdeshwar, Chidi Kho, [[Nauradehi Wildlife Sanctuary|Nauradehi]], [[Pachmarhi]], [[Panpatha Wildlife Sanctuary|Panpatha]], Shikarganj, Patalkot, and [[Tamia]]. [[Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve]] in Satpura Range, [[Achanakmar-Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve|Amarkantak biosphere reserve]] and Panna National Park are three of the 18 biosphere reserves in India. Most of them are located in eastern Madhya Pradesh near [[Jabalpur]].

<gallery mode="packed" heights="100">
File:Human Langur monkeys, Orchha, India.jpg|Langur monkey (Semnopithecus dussumieri), Orchha
File:Tigress with cubs in Kanha Tiger reserve.jpg|Tigress with cubs in Kanha Tiger Reserve
File:Tickell's Blue Flycatcher (Cyornis tickelliae).jpg|[[Tickell's blue flycatcher]], Bandhavgarh National Park
File:Vultures in the nest, Orchha, MP, India edit.jpg|Vultures in the nest, Orchha
File:Nilgais fighting, Lakeshwari, Gwalior district, India.jpg|Male [[nilgai]]s fighting, Lakeshwari, Gwalior district
Namibian Cheetah at Kuno.jpg|Namibian Cheetah at Kuno National Park
</gallery>

Kanha, Bandhavgarh, Pench, Panna, and Satpura National Parks are managed as [[Project Tiger]] areas. The [[National Chambal Sanctuary]] is managed for conservation of [[gharial]] and [[mugger crocodile|mugger]], [[river dolphin]], [[smooth-coated otter]] and a number of turtle species. Ken-gharial and Son-gharial sanctuaries are managed for conservation of [[gharial]] and mugger. The [[barasingha]] is the state animal and the [[dudhraj]] is the state bird of Madhya Pradesh.

Based on composition, the [[teak]] and [[sal tree|sal]] forests are the important forest formations in the state. Bamboo-bearing areas are widely distributed.

==== State symbols of Madhya Pradesh ====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! style="width:90px;"|Title
! style="width:300px;" |Symbol
! style="width:100px;"|Image
|-
|State animal
|[[Rucervus duvaucelii|Barasingha]]<ref name="kimp">{{cite web |url=http://knowindia.gov.in/knowindia/national_symbols.php?id=16#mp |title=Symbols of Madya Pradesh |publisher=knowindia.gov.in |access-date=18 October 2013 |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131112080035/http://knowindia.gov.in/knowindia/national_symbols.php?id=16#mp |archive-date=12 November 2013}}</ref><ref name="mp">{{cite web |url=http://www.balaghat.nic.in/images/GOVT/tourist.htm |title=Symbols of Madya Pradesh |access-date=18 October 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019091527/http://www.balaghat.nic.in/images/GOVT/tourist.htm |archive-date=19 October 2013}}</ref> (''Rucervus duvaucelii'')
| style="text-align:center;" |[[File:The barasingha.jpg|100x100px]]
|-
|State bird
|[[Indian paradise flycatcher]] (''Terpsiphone paradisi'')<ref name="mpsbb">{{cite web |url=http://www.mpsbb.nic.in/symbol.html |title=State Symbols of MP |website=Madhya Pradesh State Biodiversity Board |access-date=25 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160725091913/http://www.mpsbb.nic.in/symbol.html |archive-date=25 July 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"|[[File:Terpsiphone paradisi -near Amaya Lake, Dambulla, Sri Lanka-8.jpg|150x150px]]
|-
|State tree
|[[ficus bengalensis|banyan tree]] (''ficus bengalensis'')<ref>{{cite web |url=http://bsienvis.nic.in/State_trees/Madhya%20Pradesh%20State%20Tree%20-%20Final%20-%2030.1.2014.pdf |title=Madhya Pradesh |publisher=ENVIS Centre on Floral Diversity |access-date=16 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160224075612/http://bsienvis.nic.in/State_trees/Madhya%20Pradesh%20State%20Tree%20-%20Final%20-%2030.1.2014.pdf |archive-date=24 February 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"|[[File:Acharya Jagadish Chandra Bose Indian Botanic Garden - Howrah 2011-01-08 9797.JPG|151x151px]]
|-
|State fish
|[[Tor tor|Mahasheer]] (''Tor tor'')<ref name="mpsbb" />
| style="text-align:center;"|[[File:Tor tor Bhavani.jpg|100x100px]]
|-
|State Flower
|[[Lilium candidum|Madonna lily]] (''Lilium candidum'')<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.frienvis.nic.in/KidsCentre/State-Animals-Birds-Trees-Flowers-of-India_1500.aspx |title=State Animals, Birds, Trees and Flowers of India |publisher=ENVIS Centre on Forestry |access-date=10 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308180415/http://www.frienvis.nic.in/KidsCentre/State-Animals-Birds-Trees-Flowers-of-India_1500.aspx |archive-date=8 March 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
|[[File:Lilium-candidum-001-Zachi-Evenor.jpg|119x119px]]
|}

=== Rivers ===
<gallery mode="packed" heights="134" caption="[[File:Kuno River.jpg|thumb|314x314px|Kuno River, Sheopur District ]]">
File:JhansiGhat.jpg|Narmada River
File:Son River, Umaria district, MP, India.jpg|Son River, Umaria district
File:Dhuandhar falls4.JPG|The River Narmada flows through a gorge of marble rocks in Bhedaghat, Jabalpur
File:Shri Ram Ghat 01.jpg|The Shri Ram Ghat on the Shipra River in Ujjain
File:Betwa in Ashoknagar.JPG|Betwa in the Ashoknagar district
</gallery>
The [[Narmada River|Narmada]] is the longest river in Madhya Pradesh. It flows westward through a rift valley, with the Vindhya ranges sprawling along its northern bank and the Satpura range of mountains along the southern. Its tributaries include the Banjar, the [[Tawa River|Tawa]], the [[Machna]], the [[Shakkar River|Shakkar]], the [[Denwa]] and the [[Sonbhadra]] rivers. The [[Tapti River]] runs parallel to Narmada, and also flows through a rift valley. The Narmada–Tapti systems carry an enormous volume of water and provide drainage for almost a quarter of the land area of Madhya Pradesh. The Narmada river is considered very sacred and is worshipped throughout the region. It is the main source of water and acts as a lifeline to the state.

The [[Vindhyas]] form the southern boundary of the Ganges basin, with the western part of the Ganges basin draining into the [[Yamuna]] and the eastern part directly into the Ganges itself. All the rivers, which drain into the Ganges, flow from south to north, with the [[Chambal River|Chambal]], [[Shipra River|Shipra]], [[Kali Sindh River|Kali Sindh]], [[Parbati River (Madhya Pradesh)|Parbati]], [[Kuno River|Kuno]], [[Sind River|Sind]], [[Betwa River|Betwa]], [[Dhasan River|Dhasan]], [[Ken River|Ken]] and [[Sunar River|Sunar]]rivers being the main tributaries of the Yamuna. Shipra River is one of the most sacred rivers of Hinduism. It is the site of the [[Ujjain Simhastha|Simhastha Kumbh Mela]], which is held every 12 years. Shipra is stretched across Indore, Ujjain and Dewas. The land drained by these rivers is agriculturally rich, with the natural vegetation largely consisting of grass and [[dry deciduous forest]] types, largely thorny. The eastern part of the Ganges basin consists of the [[Son River|Son]], the [[Tons River|Tons]] and the [[Rihand]] Rivers. Son, which arises in the Maikal hills around [[Amarkantak]], is the largest tributary that goes into the Ganges on the south bank and that does not arise from the [[Himalayas]]. Son and its tributaries contribute the bulk of the monsoon flow into the Ganges, because the north bank tributaries are all snow fed. The forests in their basins are much richer than the thorn forests of the northwestern part of Madhya Pradesh.

After the formation of [[Chhattisgarh]] State, the major portion of [[Mahanadi]] basin now lies in Chhattisgarh. Presently, only 154 km2 basin area of Hasdeo River in Anuppur District lies in Madhya Pradesh.

The [[Satpura]]s, in the [[Gawilgarh]] and [[Mahadeo Hills]], also contain a watershed, which is south facing. The [[Wainganga River|Wainganga]], the [[Wardha River|Wardha]], the Pench, the [[Kanhan River|Kanhan]] rivers, discharge an enormous volume of water into the [[Godavari River]] system. The Godavari basin consists of [[sub-tropical]], semi-moist forests, mainly in the valley of the Indrawati. There are many important multi-state irrigation projects in development, including the [[Godavari River Basin Irrigation Projects]].

=== Regions ===
Madhya Pradesh is divided into the following agro-climatic zones:
{{div col}}
* [[Kaimur Range|Kaimur]] Plateau and [[Satpura]] Hills
* [[Vindhya]]n Plateau (Hills)
* [[Narmada River|Narmada]] valley
* [[Wainganga]] valley
* [[Chambal River|Chambal]] valley
* [[Gird, India|Gwalior]] Region
* [[Bundelkhand]] Region
* [[Satpura]] Plateau (Hills)
* [[Malwa]] Plateau
* [[Nimar]] Plateau
* [[Jhabua]] Hills
{{div col end}}

=== Administration ===
{{Main|List of districts of Madhya Pradesh}}

Madhya Pradesh is divided into 55 districts for administrative purposes. The district is the main unit of administration. These districts are arranged in 10 divisions, listed below:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mponline.gov.in/Portal/Content/mpprofile.aspx?langid=hi-in |title=MPOnline: Contact Government |website=Mponline.gov.in |access-date=26 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180802102010/http://www.mponline.gov.in/Portal/Content/mpprofile.aspx?langid=hi-in |archive-date=2 August 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref>

{{div col}}
* [[Bhopal Division]]
* [[Jabalpur Division]]
* [[Chambal Division]]
* [[Gwalior Division]]
* [[Indore Division]]
* [[Narmadapuram Division]]
* [[Rewa Division]]
* [[Sagar Division]]
* [[Shahdol Division]]
* [[Ujjain Division]]
{{div col end}}

=== Cities ===
{{Main|List of cities in Madhya Pradesh by population}}

{{Largest cities
| country = Madhya Pradesh
| stat_ref = As of the [[List of cities in Madhya Pradesh by population|2011 Census]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/India2/Table_3_PR_UA_Citiees_1Lakh_and_Above.pdf |title=Urban Agglomerations/Cities having population 1 lakh and above |work=Provisional Population Totals, Census of India 2011 |access-date=13 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111113152754/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/India2/Table_3_PR_UA_Citiees_1Lakh_and_Above.pdf |archive-date=13 November 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| list_by_pop = Largest cities
| div_name = District
| div_link = List of districts of Madhya Pradesh{{!}}District

| city_1 = Indore
| div_1 = Indore district{{!}}Indore
| pop_1 = 2,167,447

| city_2 = Bhopal
| div_2 = Bhopal district{{!}}Bhopal

| pop_2 = 1,883,381

| city_3 = Jabalpur
| div_3 = Jabalpur district{{!}}Jabalpur
| pop_3 = 1,267,564

| city_4 = Gwalior
| div_4 = Gwalior district{{!}}Gwalior
| pop_4 = 1,101,981

| city_5 = Ujjain
| div_5 = Ujjain district{{!}}Ujjain
| pop_5 = 593,368

| city_6 = Sagar, Madhya Pradesh{{!}}Sagar
| div_6 = Sagar district{{!}}Sagar
| pop_6 = 370,296

| city_7 = Dewas
| div_7 = Dewas district{{!}}Dewas
| pop_7 = 289,438

| city_8 = Satna
| div_8 = Satna district{{!}}Satna
| pop_8 = 283,004

| city_9 = Ratlam
| div_9 = Ratlam district{{!}}Ratlam
| pop_9 = 273,892

| city_10 = Rewa, Madhya Pradesh{{!}}Rewa
| div_10 = Rewa district{{!}}Rewa
| pop_10 = 235,422
}}

== Demographics ==

=== Population ===
{{Historical population
| source = [[Census of India]]<ref name="Census Population">{{cite web |url=http://indiabudget.nic.in/es2006-07/chapt2007/tab97.pdf |title=Census Population |work=Census of India |publisher=Ministry of Finance India |access-date=18 December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081219073658/http://indiabudget.nic.in/es2006-07/chapt2007/tab97.pdf |archive-date=19 December 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
| 1951 | 18615000
| 1961 | 23218000
| 1971 | 30017000
| 1981 | 38169000
| 1991 | 48566000
| 2001 | 60348000
| 2011 | 72597565
}}
The population of Madhya Pradesh consists of a number of [[ethnic group]]s and [[tribe]]s, [[caste]]s and communities. The [[scheduled castes]] and the [[scheduled tribes]] constitute a significant portion of the [[Population (human biology)|population]] of the State 15.6% and 21.1% respectively.

The main tribal groups in Madhya Pradesh are [[Gondi people|Gond]], [[Bhil]], [[Baiga (tribe)|Baiga]], [[Korku people|Korku]], [[Bharia people|Bhadia]] (or Bhariya), Halba, [[Kaul]], [[Madia Gond|Mariya]], [[Malto people|Malto]] and [[Sahariya]]. The districts of [[Mandla district|Mandla]], [[Dhar district, India|Dhar]], [[Dindori district|Dindori]], [[Barwani district|Barwani]], [[Jhabua district|Jhabua]] and [[Alirajpur district|Alirajpur]] have more than 50% tribal population, with Jhabua and Alirajpur having nearly 90% tribal population. In [[Khargone]], [[Khandwa district|Khandwa]], [[Burhanpur district|Burhanpur]], [[Betul district|Betul]], [[Chhindwara district|Chhindwara]], [[Seoni district|Seoni]], [[Anuppur district|Anuppur]], [[Umaria district|Umaria]], [[Shahdol district|Shahdol]] and [[Singrauli district|Singrauli]] districts 30–50% of the population is tribal. According to the 2011 census, the [[adivasi|tribal]] population in Madhya Pradesh was 15.34 million, constituting 21.1% of the total population. There were 46 recognised Scheduled Tribes and three of them have been identified as "Special Primitive Tribal Groups" in the State.<ref>[http://www.mp_gov_in_sc_st_welfare_2001/tribal/]{{dead link|date=January 2018|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}.</ref>

Madhya Pradesh ranks 33rd on the [[Human Development Index]] with a value of 0.606 (2018).<ref name="UNDP_HDI_2011">[http://www.undp.org/content/dam/india/docs/madhyapradesh_factsheet.pdf Madhya Pradesh: Economic and Human Development Indicators] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120916043423/http://www.undp.org/content/dam/india/docs/madhyapradesh_factsheet.pdf |date=16 September 2012}}, UNDP (2011).</ref> The state's per-capita [[Gross state product|gross state domestic product]] (nominal GDP) is the 26th highest in the country (2018–19). According to the SDG India Index 2020–21 compiled by the [[NITI Aayog]], Madhya Pradesh ranks 21st on sustainable development goals, 9th on gender equality, and 10th on clean water and sanitation.<ref name=FinalReport>{{Cite web |url=https://niti.gov.in/writereaddata/files/SDG_3.0_Final_04.03.2021_Web_Spreads.pdf |title=SDG INDIA – Index & Dashboard 2020–21 – Partnerships in the Decade of Action |website=NITI Aayog|access-date=9 June 2021 |archive-date=12 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210612135413/https://niti.gov.in/writereaddata/files/SDG_3.0_Final_04.03.2021_Web_Spreads.pdf}}</ref>

Madhya pradesh ranked ninth in the Fiscal Health Index (FHI) 2025, with a score of 42.2.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Gupta |first=Cherry |date=28 January 2025 |title=India’s top 10 best-performing states in the Fiscal Health Index 2025 |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/trending/top-10-listing/indias-top-10-best-performing-states-in-the-fiscal-health-index-2025-9801341/ |work=The Indian Express |access-date=20 February 2025}}</ref>

{{See also|Tribals in Madhya Pradesh}}

<gallery mode="packed" heights="134">
File:Children in Raisen district, MP, India.jpg|Children in Raisen district, Bhil tribe
File:Shepherds, Chambal, India.jpg|Shepherds in Chambal
File:Ploughing paddy field with oxen, Umaria district, MP, India.jpg|A young farmer in Umaria district
File:Young Baiga women, India.jpg|Young [[Baiga (tribe)|Baiga]] women
File:Village Street of mehta (India).jpg|Village Street of mehta in seoni district
</gallery>

=== Languages ===
[[File:Language Map of Madhya Pradesh (2011 Census).svg|thumb|Languages spoken by district 
'''Hindi'''
{{legend|#ffe0d1|30–40%}}
{{legend|#ffcfb8|40–50%}}
{{legend|#ffac85|50–60%}}
{{legend|#ff8952|60–70%}}
{{legend|#eb5600|80–90%}}
{{legend|#cc4b00|90–100%}}
'''Rajasthani languages'''
{{legend|#b5b5d9|40–50%}}
{{legend|#9393c8|50–60%}}
{{legend|#303060|90–100%}}
'''Bhil languages'''
{{legend|#cdafdf|40–50%}}
{{legend|#6c378b|80–90%}}
'''Bundeli'''
{{legend|#ba9e97|60–80%}}
{{legend|#a58279|70–80%}}
{{legend|#8d675e|80–90%}}
'''Bagheli'''
{{legend|#e5766c|60–70%}}
{{legend|#dd4e41|70–80%}}
]]

{{Pie chart| thumb = right| caption = Languages in Madhya Pradesh (2011)<ref name="census2011-langreport">{{cite web |title=Language – India, States and Union Territories |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/C-16_25062018_NEW.pdf |work=Census of India 2011 |publisher=Office of the Registrar General |pages=13–14 |access-date=15 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181114073412/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/C-16_25062018_NEW.pdf |archive-date=14 November 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref>
|label1 = [[Hindi]] |value1 = 67.96 |color1 = orange
|label2 = [[Malvi language|Malvi]] |value2 = 6.44 |color2 = deeppink
|label3 = [[Bundeli language|Bundeli]] |value3 = 5.92 |color3 = tomato
|label4 = [[Bagheli language|Bagheli]] |value4 = 3.62 |color4 = indianred
|label5 = [[Nimadi language|Nimadi]] |value5 = 3.16 |color5 = mediumvioletred
|label6 = [[Bhili language|Bhili]] |value6 = 2.50 |color6 = khaki
|label7 = [[Marathi language|Marathi]] |value7 = 1.70 |color7 = red
|label8 = [[Gondi language|Gondi]] |value8 = 1.60 |color8 = steelblue
|label9 = [[Pauri Bareli language|Bareli]] |value9 = 1.36 |color9 = palegoldenrod
|label10 = [[Urdu]] |value10 = 1.26 |color10 = green
|label11 = [[Bhilali language|Bhilali]] |value11 = 1.03 |color11 = lightyellow
|label12 = Others |value12 = 3.45 |color12 = grey
}}
[[File:Non-Hindi_language_in_Madhya_Pradesh_(2011).jpg|thumb|Largest language in Madhya Pradesh besides Hindi, 2011 census]]
The official language of the state is [[Hindi]], which is spoken by over two-thirds of the population and is used for all government business.<ref name="langoff" /> In urban areas Standard Hindi is the main language, while [[Urdu]] is spoken by Muslims. In rural areas, however, most speak varieties counted as dialects of Hindi in the census, although most are quite distinct. In the west are [[Malvi language|Malvi]] and [[Nimadi language|Nimadi]] in the [[Malwa]] and [[Nimar]] regions, which are more closely related to the [[Rajasthani languages]]. In [[Bundelkhand]] in the north and [[Bagelkhand|Baghelkhand]] in the east are spoken [[Bundeli language|Bundeli]] and [[Bagheli language|Bagheli]] which are eastern varieties of the Hindi languages, similar to [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]] or [[Chhattisgarhi language|Chhattisgarhi]]. In the southeast is spoken Chhattisgarhi and [[Powari language|Powari]] is the language of the far south, both Eastern Hindi languages. Most speakers of these languages consider them to be dialects of Hindi and so report their language as 'Hindi' on the census.<ref name="census2011-langreport"/>

[[Marathi language|Marathi]] is another significant language. Due to [[Maratha Empire|Maratha]] rule over much of what is now Madhya Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh is home to the largest number of Marathis outside Maharashtra. Although large numbers of Marathis can be found in urban centres like Indore, the highest concentrations are in the southern areas of the state adjoining Maharashtra. Marathi is the most-spoken language in Burhanpur district, while it is a major minority language in the southern parts of Mahakoshal especially Betul, Chhindwara and Balaghat districts.<ref name="census2011-langreport"/>

There are several languages spoken by the Adivasis. The various [[Bhil languages]] are Indo-Aryan languages spoken by 50 lakh Bhils of western Madhya Pradesh. Although many, especially in the eastern parts of their range, have adopted the regional languages as mother tongue, the languages are still strong in the far-western hills especially Barwani, Jhabua and Alirajpur districts where they are in the majority. [[Bhili language|Bhili]], the [[Pauri Bareli language|Bareli languages]] and [[Bhilali language|Bhilali]] are the major varieties spoken in the state.

[[Gondi language|Gondi]] is the second-largest Adivasi language, spoken by 11 lakh Gonds in the state. A [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian language]] related to [[Telugu language|Telugu]], it is mainly spoken in the southern Satpura highlands of Mahakoshal, where it is spoken with the regional languages. Some in the more remote valleys of the Satpuras speak a poorly-described Dravidian dialect called [[Bharia language|Bharia]]. Smaller minorities of Gondi speakers can be found in Khandwa and Dewas districts in the west as well as Anuppur, Sidhi and Singrauli districts in the east. Elsewhere in the state, the Gonds have almost totally abandoned their original language.

[[Korku language|Korku]], a [[Munda languages|Munda language]], has over 400,000 speakers in the central highlands of the state. In the far-southeast of Burhanpur can be found some speakers of the language isolate [[Nihali language|Nihali]] who live among the Korku. All speakers of tribal languages face significant pressure to switch to the dominant regional languages while their own tongues are considered 'backward' and 'rural'.<ref name="census2011-langreport" />

The following languages are taught in schools in Madhya Pradesh under the Three Language Formula:<ref>{{cite web |title=51st Report of the Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities in India |url=http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM51stReport.pdf |website=nclm.nic.in |publisher=[[Ministry of Minority Affairs]] |date=15 July 2015 |access-date=15 February 2018 |page=64 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180216025959/http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM51stReport.pdf |archive-date=16 February 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

First language: Any [[Languages with official status in India|Scheduled Language]]

Second language: Hindi, Urdu or English

Third language: Another Scheduled Language, [[Arabic]], [[Persian language|Persian]], [[French language|French]], [[Russian language|Russian]]

=== Religion ===
{{Pie chart
| thumb = right
| caption = Religion in Madhya Pradesh (2011)<ref name=census2011/>
| label1 = [[Hinduism]]
| value1 = 90.89
| color1 = darkorange
| label2 = [[Islam]]
| value2 = 6.57
| color2 = green
| label3 = [[Jainism]]
| value3 = 0.78
| color3 = pink
| label4 = [[Buddhism]]
| value4 = 0.30
| color4 = Yellow
| label5 = [[Christianity]]
| value5 = 0.29
| color5 = blue
| label6 = [[Sikhism]]
| value6 = 0.21
| color6 = Gold
| label7 = Others
| value7 = 1.07
| color7 = grey
}}

According to the census of 2011, 90.9% of residents followed [[Hinduism]], while minorities are [[Muslim]] (6.6%), [[Jain]] (0.8%), [[Buddhists]] (0.3%), Christians (0.3%), and [[Sikhs]] (0.2%). Madhya Pradesh is home to several pilgrimage sites including [[Amarkantak]] at the source of the Narmada and the Ghats of [[Omkareshwar Temple|Omkareshwar]], also on the Narmada. Temples can be found throughout the state. Buddhism and Jainism were once prominent religions in the state, especially in the central plateau near Raisen and Bhopal. Malwa is still home to a significant Jain minority. Jains are particularly concentrated in the urban centres of the Malwa region. Islam arrived with Muslim rule in the 14th century, although its influence was and is limited to major urban centres. Islam is a major religion in Bhopal and Burhanpur, and Bhopal is home to many prominent Islamic shrines. Buddhism in modern times is mainly practised by Marathis in the south. Most respondents who answered 'Other' self-identified as following Adivasi religions such as Koya Punem of the Gonds.<ref name=census2011>{{cite news |title=Percentage of Hindus, Sikhs in MP declines, of Muslims rises |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/bhopal/percentage-of-hindus-sikhs-in-mp-declines-of-muslims-rises/story-Zxm66rsuByqHAaAxg6blNO.html |access-date=22 February 2020 |work=Hindustan Times |date=1 January 2016 |language=en |archive-date=29 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200129172304/https://www.hindustantimes.com/bhopal/percentage-of-hindus-sikhs-in-mp-declines-of-muslims-rises/story-Zxm66rsuByqHAaAxg6blNO.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

== Culture ==
<gallery mode="packed" heights="134">
File:Traditional Bagh hand block print master craftsman-artisan-artist Mohammed Bilal Khatri, Madhya Pradesh, India.jpg|[[Bagh Print]] Traditional hand block print craft in [[Bagh, Dhar|Bagh]].
File:Flute player in Orccha.jpg|A man playing flute in [[Orchha]], with a white [[tilak]] on his forehead, and holy saffron-coloured clothes.
File:Sand sculpture at Bandrabhan,Hoshangabad.JPG|Sand sculpture by [[Sudarshan Pattnaik]] at Bandrabhan near Narmadapuram
</gallery>
Three sites in Madhya Pradesh have been declared [[World Heritage Site]]s by [[UNESCO]]: the [[Khajuraho]] Group of Monuments (1986) including [[Devi Jagadambi temple]], [[Khajuraho (town)|Khajuraho]], [[Sanchi|Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi]] (1989) and the [[Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka]] (2003). Other architecturally significant or scenic sites include
[[Ajaigarh]], [[Amarkantak]], [[Asirgarh]], [[Bandhavgarh]], [[Bawangaja]], [[Bhopal]], [[Vidisha]], [[Chanderi]], [[Chitrakoot, Madhya Pradesh|Chitrakuta]], [[Dewas district|Dewas]], [[Dhar]], [[Gwalior]], [[Indore]], [[Nemavar]], [[Jabalpur]], [[Burhanpur]], [[Maheshwar]], [[Mandleshwar]], [[Mandu, Madhya Pradesh|Mandu]], [[Omkareshwar]], [[Orchha]], [[Pachmarhi]], [[Shivpuri]], [[Sonagiri]], [[Mandla]] and [[Ujjain]].

Madhya Pradesh is noted for its classical and folk music. In 2023, UNESCO declared Gwalior as the [[Gwalior|City of Music]]. Some of the noted [[Hindustani classical music]] [[gharana]]s in Madhya Pradesh include the [[Gwalior gharana]], the [[Maihar gharana]] and [[Aashish Khan|Senia gharana]]. Gwalior is also known as the capital of Hindustani classical Music. Many of the medieval India's most noted sufi and mustic singers like [[Muhammad Ghawth|Muhammed Ghaus Gwaliori]], [[Tansen]] and [[Baiju Bawra]], were born in Gwalior. Noted [[Dhrupad]] exponents [[Aminuddin Dagar]] (Indore), [[Gundecha Brothers]] (Ujjain) and [[Uday Bhawalkar]] (Ujjain) were also born in present-day Madhya Pradesh.<ref name="SimonMark2000">{{cite book |author1=Simon Broughton |author2=Mark Ellingham |author3=Richard Trillo |title=World Music: Latin and North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QzX8THIgRjUC&pg=PA91 |access-date=13 September 2012 |year=2000 |publisher=Rough Guides |isbn=978-1-85828-636-5 |pages=91– |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606122902/http://books.google.com/books?id=QzX8THIgRjUC&pg=PA91 |archive-date=6 June 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> Renowned classical singer [[Kumar Gandharva]] spent his life at Dewas. The birthplaces of noted [[playback singer]]s [[Kishore Kumar]] (Khandwa) and [[Lata Mangeshkar]] (Indore) and singer and composer Aadesh Shrivastava (Jabalpur) are also located in MP. The local styles of folk singing are Faga, Bhartahari, Sanja geet, [[Bhopa]], [[Kalbelia]], Bhat, Bhand, Vasdeva, Videsia, Kalgi Turra, Nirgunia, Alha, Pandwani Gayan and [[Garba (dance)|Garba]] Garbi Govalan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mp.gov.in/en/web/guest/folksongs |title=Folk Songs – govt-of-mp-india |publisher=Government of Madhya Pradesh |access-date=14 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170814104544/http://www.mp.gov.in/en/web/guest/folksongs |archive-date=14 August 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Annual Tansen Music Festival is organised by the MP Tourism Board in Gwalior.

The major folk dances of MP are [[Rai (dance)|Rai]], Karma, Saila, Matki, Gangaur, [[Badhai]], Baredi, Naurata, Ahiri and Bhagoria.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mp.gov.in/en/web/guest/folkdances |title=Folk Dances – govt-of-mp-india |publisher=Government of Madhya Pradesh |access-date=14 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170814110514/http://www.mp.gov.in/en/web/guest/folkdances |archive-date=14 August 2017 |url-status=live |df= dmy-all}}</ref>

== Economy ==
{{Main|Economy of Madhya Pradesh}}

[[File:Vehicle Factory Jabalpur (VFJ)'s Matang Truck for the Indian Army.jpg|Matang was completely developed and manufactured by [[Vehicle Factory Jabalpur]]|thumb|right]]

Madhya Pradesh's [[Gross state product|gross state domestic product]] (nominal GDP) for 2013–14 was {{INR}} 4,509 billion (approximately {{USD}} 72,726,000,000). The per-capita figure was {{USD}} 871.45 in 2013–14, the sixth-lowest in the country.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://planningcommission.nic.in/data/datatable/data_2312/DatabookDec2014%20160.pdf |title=Per Capita Net State Domestic Product at Current Prices |access-date=25 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141225101510/http://planningcommission.nic.in/data/datatable/data_2312/DatabookDec2014%20160.pdf |archive-date=25 December 2014| url-status=dead }}</ref> Between 1999 and 2008, the annualised growth rate of the state was very low: 3.5%.<ref name="lakshmi">{{Cite news |url=http://www.economist.com/surveys/displaystory.cfm?story_id=12749719&fsrc=rss |title=A special report on India: Ruled by Lakshmi 11 Dec 2008 from ''The Economist'' print edition |newspaper=The Economist |access-date=4 January 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100310214943/http://www.economist.com/surveys/displaystory.cfm?story_id=12749719&fsrc=rss |archive-date=10 March 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> Subsequently, the state's GDP growth rate has improved significantly, rising to 8% during 2010–11 and 12% during 2011–12.<ref name="TOI_2012_GDP_12pc">{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Madhya-Pradeshs-GDP-goes-up-to-12-per-cent/articleshow/14502670.cms |title=Madhya Pradesh's GDP goes up to 12 per cent |author=Lemuel Lall |date=29 June 2012 |access-date=10 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130502174841/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-06-29/india/32471751_1_growth-rate-agriculture-growth-negative-growth |archive-date=2 May 2013 |url-status=live |newspaper=[[The Times of India]] }}</ref>

Madhya Pradesh is also famous for honey production in district Morena.

The state has an [[agrarian economy]].<ref name="TOI_2012_GDP_12pc" /> The major crops of Madhya Pradesh are wheat, soybean, gram, sugarcane, rice, maize, cotton, rapeseed, mustard and arhar.<ref name="IBEF_2011" /> [[Non-timber forest product|Minor Forest Produce]] (MFP), such as [[Diospyros melanoxylon|tendu]] leaves used to roll [[beedi]], sal seed, teak seed, and lak also contribute to state's rural economy.
[[File:Woman harvesting wheat, Raisen district, Madhya Pradesh, India ggia version.jpg|thumb|left|Woman harvesting wheat, Raisen district]]
Madhya Pradesh has 5 [[Special Economic Zones]] (SEZs): 3 [[Information technology in India|IT/ITeS]] (Indore, [[Gwalior]]), 1 mineral-based ([[Jabalpur]]) and 1 agro-based ([[Jabalpur]]). In October 2011, approval was given to 14 proposed SEZs, out of which 10 were IT/ITeS-based.<ref name="IBEF_2011" /> [[Indore]] is the major commercial centre of the state. Because of the state's central location, a number of [[consumer goods]] companies have established manufacturing bases in MP.<ref name="IBEF_2011">{{cite web |url=http://www.ibef.org/download/Madhya_Pradesh_271211.pdf |title=Madhya Pradesh : The Land of Diamonds |date=November 2011 |website=Ibef.org |access-date=26 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180927114553/https://www.ibef.org/download/Madhya_Pradesh_271211.pdf |archive-date=27 September 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

The Industrial Belts of [[Indore]]-[[Dewas]]-[[Pithampur]] and [[Mandideep]] (Bhopal) are the prominent Industrial Hubs of Madhya Pradesh. Numerous industrial units and factories are present there such as Mechanical and Industrial Parts (gears, cables), Chemical Production Units, Pharmaceutical Units, Food Processing & FMCG Industries, Textile Production, Food Grain Processing Units, Leather Industry and Sanitary Products etc.

Madhya Pradesh has natural white stone production in [[Gwalior]], which is exported worldwide.

The state has the largest reserves of diamond and copper in India. Other major mineral reserves include those of coal, [[coalbed methane]], [[manganese]] and [[Dolomite (mineral)|dolomite]].<ref name="IBEF_2011" />

Madhya Pradesh has six [[Ordnance Factories]], four of which are located at [[Jabalpur]] ([[Vehicle Factory Jabalpur|Vehicle Factory]], Grey Iron Foundry, [[Gun Carriage Factory Jabalpur|Gun Carriage Factory]], [[Ordnance Factory Khamaria]]) and one each at Katni and Itarsi. The factories are run by the [[Ordnance Factories Board]], and manufacture a variety of products for the [[Indian Armed Forces]].

There are two major Security Press Units of [[Security Printing and Minting Corporation of India|Security Printing and Minting Corporation of India Limited]] presently operating in the state. The first unit is situated in [[Dewas]]. Also known as Bank Note Press (BNP). It is an industrial unit of SPMCIL, established in the year 1974 is wholly owned by [[Government of India]], [[Ministry of Finance (India)|Ministry of Finance]] and [[Department of Economic Affairs (India)|Department of Economic Affairs]]. BNP Dewas prints Indian Currency Notes (known as [[Indian rupee]] or INR; Symbol: '₹') of denominations ₹50, ₹100, ₹500 and ₹2000 and is capable of printing Bank Notes of any denomination. There is also a specialised Security Ink Factory at BNP Dewas which supplies specialised inks for currency and other government approved documents.

The second unit is a Security Paper Mill was established in 1968 at [[Hoshangabad]]. It produces papers for banknotes and non–judicial stamps and further prints with new enhanced unit.

Madhya Pradesh won the 10th National Award for excellent work in Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, 2005.

The state's tourism industry is growing, fuelled by wildlife tourism and a number of places of historical and religious significance. [[Gwalior]], [[Sanchi]] and [[Khajuraho]] are frequented by external tourists. Alongwith cities like [[Bhedaghat]], [[Jabalpur]], [[Bhimbetka]], [[Bhojpur, Madhya Pradesh|Bhojpur]], [[Maheshwar]], [[Mandu, Madhya Pradesh|Mandu]], [[Orchha]], [[Pachmarhi]], [[Kanha National Park|Kanha]], [[Amarkantak]] and [[Ujjain]], Tumen Vindhyavasini temple ancient temple. This south facing Ashok Nagar district located in Tuman (Tumvn).

== Infrastructure ==
=== Energy ===
{{Bar chart
| table_width = 10
| title = Power generation in MP (31 March 2024)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://cea.nic.in/wp-content/uploads/installed/2024/03/IC_Mar_2024_allocation_wise.pdf |title=All India Installed Capacity (in MW) Of Power Stations (as on 31.03.2024)) |website=cea.nic.in |publisher=Central Electricity Authority, Government of India |access-date=25 April 2024}}</ref>
| float = right
| data_max = 25064.53
| label_type = Power
| data_type = Capacity (MW)
| label1 = Thermal
| data1 = 16387.09
| label2 = Renewable
| data2 = 7098.37
| label3 = Hydro
| data3 = 3223.66
| label4 = Nuclear
| data4 = 273.0
}}
The state has a total installed power generation capacity of 27108.55 MW as of 31 March 2024. The Madhya Pradesh Electric Board is located at [[Jabalpur]]. The [[Rewa Ultra Mega Solar]] project is a photovoltaic solar park spread over an area of 1,590 acres (6.4 km2) in the Gurh tehsil of Rewa District of Madhya Pradesh.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Electricity {{!}} District Rewa, Government of Madhya Pradesh {{!}} India |url=https://rewa.nic.in/en/district-produce/electricity/ |access-date=10 July 2020 |language=en-US |archive-date=10 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200710150628/https://rewa.nic.in/en/district-produce/electricity/ |url-status=live}}</ref> The project was commissioned with 750 MW capacity.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pv-magazine-india.com/2018/07/09/750-mw-rewa-solar-project-starts-supplying-power/ |title=750 MW Rewa solar project starts supplying power |website=pv magazine India |date=9 July 2018 |access-date=12 July 2020 |archive-date=12 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200712131255/https://www.pv-magazine-india.com/2018/07/09/750-mw-rewa-solar-project-starts-supplying-power/ |url-status=live}}</ref> 97% households have electricity access in the state.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://energy.mp.gov.in/en/about-us |title=About Us | Energy Department, Government of Madhya Pradesh |access-date=9 June 2021 |archive-date=9 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210609142927/http://energy.mp.gov.in/en/about-us |url-status=live}}</ref>

The Singrauli region on the eastern end of Madhya Pradesh is a major energy producer enclave for the country. The region has vast reserves of coal mines, which are excavated by Northern Coalfields Limited, a subsidiary of Coal India Limited, which is in turn used in local power plants of NTPC, Sasan Power and Hindalco. The area has more than 10,000 MW installed capacity for energy production.

The region of Malwa were selected to establish Wind Energy Production units by State Government. Constant wind flows in the region are suitable for harvesting wind energy. There are more than 100 wind mills on a series of hills 13 km (8.1 mi) from [[Dewas]], generating more than 30 megawatts of power. These were financed by a few private companies which sought a reliable power supply.
[[File:Mehta in night.png|thumb|The beautiful night view of village mehta]]

=== Transport ===
{{Bar chart
| table_width = 10
| title = Road network of Madhya Pradesh<ref name="IBEF_2011" />
| float = right
| data_max = 20000
| label_type = Road type
| data_type = Length (in km)
| label1 = National Highways
| data1 = 8772
| label2 = State Highways
| data2 = 11000
| label3 = Major District Roads
| data3 = 19241
}}

Bus and train services cover most of Madhya Pradesh. The {{convert|99,043|km|mi|adj=mid|-long}} road network of the state includes 20 [[List of National Highways in India|national highways]].<ref name="IBEF_2011" /> A {{convert|4,948|km|mi|adj=mid|-long}} rail network criss-crosses the state, with [[Jabalpur]] serving as headquarters for the [[West Central Railway]] Zone of the [[Indian Railways]]. The [[Central Railway zone|Central Railway]] and the [[Western Railway zone|Western Railway]] also cover parts of the state. Most of the western Madhya Pradesh comes under [[Ratlam Rail Division]] of [[Western Railways]], including cities like Indore, Ujjain, Dewas, Mandsaur, Khandwa, [[Neemuch]] and Bairagarh in Bhopal. The state has a total of 20 major railway junctions. More than 455 trains transit through Madhya Pradesh daily. 220 trains transit through the State's capital Bhopal alone. North–South & East–West corridors cut across Madhya Pradesh, including the [[New Delhi–Chennai main line]].

The [[Inter State Bus Terminals|inter-state bus terminals]] are located in [[Bhopal]], [[Gwalior]], [[Indore]] and [[Jabalpur]]. More than 2,000 buses are conducted daily from these four cities. The intra-city transit systems mostly consist of buses, private [[auto rickshaw|autos]] and taxis.
There is convenient access to major ports such as Kandla port and Jawaharlal Nehru port in the state<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.slbcmadhyapradesh.in/infrastructure.aspx |title=Infrastructure |access-date=9 June 2021 |archive-date=9 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210609145309/http://www.slbcmadhyapradesh.in/infrastructure.aspx |url-status=live}}</ref>

The state does not have a coastline, but is home to 5 functional ICD's (Inland/Dry Ports) which provide facilities to clear and load cargoes directly for dispatch within the state, they are located in [[Bhopal]], [[Indore]] and [[Gwalior]]. Most of the sea trade happens through the [[Kandla]] and [[Jawaharlal Nehru Port]] (Nhava Sheva) in the neighbouring states, which are well-connected to MP by road and rail networks.

[[Devi Ahilyabai Holkar Airport]] in [[Indore]] is the busiest airport in Madhya Pradesh, followed by [[Raja Bhoj International Airport]] in the state capital of [[Bhopal]].

[[Gwalior Airport|Rajmata Vijayaraje Scindia Airport]], [[Gwalior]] is the largest airport of Madhya Pradesh having two take off runways.

[[Dumna Airport]] in [[Jabalpur]] and [[Khajuraho Airport]] also have scheduled commercial passenger services. [[Rewa district|Rewa]] Airport is under construction with operations expected to start by 2025. Besides these, minor [[airstrip]]s are located at [[Chhindwara]], [[Dhana Airport|Sagar]], [[Neemuch]], [[Ratlam]], [[Mandsaur]], [[Ujjain]], [[Khandwa Airport|Khandwa]], [[Guna, India|Guna]] and [[Satna Airport|Satna]].

=== Other ===
The state has 55 districts hospitals, 333 community health centres, 1,155 primary health centres and 8,860 sub-centres.<ref name="IBEF_2014">{{cite web |url=http://www.ibef.org/download/Madhya-Pradesh-March-2014.pdf |title=Madhya Pradesh: The Land of Diamonds |publisher=India Brand Equity Foundation |date=March 2014 |access-date=15 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140810070105/http://www.ibef.org/download/Madhya-Pradesh-March-2014.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bhopal/mp-govt-clears-proposal-for-52nd-district/articleshow/64875306.cms |title=MP govt clears proposal for 52nd district |date=5 July 2018 |first=Rajendra |last=Sharma|work=The Times of India |language=en |access-date=3 November 2019 |archive-date=17 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180917004908/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bhopal/mp-govt-clears-proposal-for-52nd-district/articleshow/64875306.cms |url-status=live}}</ref>

The urban infrastructure has improved considerably in the past decade. 22 projects costing above $500 million have been sanctioned under the [[Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission]] for the development of Bhopal, Indore, [[Jabalpur]] and Ujjain.<ref name="IBEF_2011" />

Seven Cities of Madhya Pradesh [[Smart City Bhopal|Bhopal]], [[Indore]], [[Gwalior]], [[Jabalpur]], [[Satna]], [[Ujjain]], and [[Sagar, Madhya Pradesh|Sagar]] have been selected under [[Smart Cities Mission]]<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/centre-releases-list-of-98-cities-for-smart-city-project/article7586751.ece |title=Centre unveils list of 98 smart cities; UP, TN strike it rich |last=Jeelani|first=Mehboob|date=27 August 2015 |work=The Hindu |access-date=4 September 2018 |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171230030144/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/centre-releases-list-of-98-cities-for-smart-city-project/article7586751.ece |archive-date=30 December 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Full-list-of-98-smart-cities/articleshow/48694723.cms |title=Full list of 98 smart cities – Times of India ► |work=The Times of India |access-date=4 September 2018 |archive-date=19 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211119202334/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Full-list-of-98-smart-cities/articleshow/48694723.cms |url-status=live}}</ref>

Indore has been part of the [[Swachh Survekshan]] Cleanliness Program initiated by Government of India. It has been ranked as [[List of cleanest cities in India|India's cleanest city]] seven years in a row as per the Swachh Survekshan for the years 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021, 2022 and 2023.

Gwalior has been globally recognised by the UNESCO as the City of Music of India. This is considered as a remarkable and significant milestone putting Madhya Pradesh as music tourism hub worldwide.

=== Media ===

[[Dainik Bhaskar]], [[Dainik Jagran]], The Indian Observer, Nava Bharat, [[Deshbandhu (newspaper)|Deshbandhu]], Nai Duniya, [[Rajasthan Patrika]], Raj Express and Dainik Dabang Dunia are the leading [[Hindi]] newspapers. Other local newspapers are published in the cities. In English Times of India, [[Hindustan Times]], The Hitavada, Central Chronicle and ''[[The Free Press Journal|Free Press]]'' have editions from Bhopal with The Hitavada also being in [[Jabalpur]]. A Sindhi daily, i.e., Challenge (Now also in Hindi) is published from Bhopal is the only Sindhi newspaper in state.

== Government and politics ==
{{Main|Government of Madhya Pradesh|Legislative Assembly of Madhya Pradesh}}

{{See also|List of Chief Ministers of Madhya Pradesh|List of Governors of Madhya Pradesh}}
Madhya Pradesh has a 230-seat state legislative assembly. The state also sends 40 members to the [[Parliament of India]]: 29 are elected to the [[Lok Sabha]] (Lower House) and 11 to the [[Rajya Sabha]] (Upper House). The constitutional head of the state is the [[List of Governors of Madhya Pradesh|Governor]], appointed by the [[President of India]]. The executive powers lie with the [[Chief Minister (India)|Chief Minister]], who is the elected leader of the state legislature. The current governor is Mangubhai C. Patel, and the current chief minister is [[Mohan Yadav]] of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP).

The political scenario of Madhya pradesh can be defines as below:

Post-Independence (1950s–1970s): The Indian National Congress (INC) held power for a significant period, with leaders like Ravishankar Shukla and Kailash Nath Katju as Chief Ministers. However, parties like Bharatiya Jana Sangh (BJS) – the precursor to BJP – started gaining ground in the 1960s.

Shifting Tides (1980s–1990s): This era saw a rise in regional parties and national alternatives. Janata Party (JP), Janata Dal (JD), and Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) challenged the INC's dominance for a while.

Bi-polar Politics (2000s–present): Since the early 2000s, a two-party system has emerged. BJP and INC have become the main contenders, with occasional forays by smaller parties.

The dominant political parties in the state are the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP) and the [[Indian National Congress]] (INC).

== Administration ==
{{See also|List of districts of Madhya Pradesh|List of cities in Madhya Pradesh by population}}
Madhya Pradesh state is made up of 55 [[List of districts of Madhya Pradesh|Districts]], which are grouped into 10 divisions. As of 2023, the state has 55 jila (district) [[Panchayati raj in India|panchayat]]s, 376 tehsil, 313 janpad panchayats/[[community development block in India|blocks]], and 23043 gram (village) [[Gram panchayat|panchayats]] for rural governance. The municipalities in the state include 18 [[Nagar Nigam]]s, 100 [[Nagar Palika]]s and 264 [[Nagar Panchayat]]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mpsbb.info/BMCInfo.aspx |title=Madhya Pradesh State Biodiversity Board |website=Mpsbb.info|access-date=15 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130317094034/http://www.mpsbb.info/BMCInfo.aspx |archive-date=17 March 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

The following is the list of Nagar Nigams (''[[Municipal corporation (India)|Municipal Corporations]]''), which govern urban areas in Madhya Pradesh;

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! style="width:05%;" |S/N
! style="width:30%;" |Corporation Name
! style="width:10%;" |City
! style="width:20%;" |District(s)
! style="width:05%;" |Area (km2)
! style="width:05%;" |Population (2011)
! style="width:05%;" |No. of Wards
! style="width:05%;" |Year Established
! style="width:05%;" |Last Election
! style="width:05%;" |Ruling Party
! style="width:05%;" |Website
|-
|1
|[[Bhopal Municipal Corporation]]
|[[Bhopal]]
|[[Bhopal district|Bhopal]]
|463
|1,886,100
|85
|
|2022<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=17 July 2022 |title=Phase 1 Madhya Pradesh Municipal Election Result 2022 |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/bhopal-news/madhya-pradesh-municipal-election-result-2022-winners-list-indore-bhopal-jabalpur-satna-chhindwara-singrauli-gwalior-101658059075902.html |access-date=18 July 2022 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en |archive-date=26 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230426213033/https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/bhopal-news/madhya-pradesh-municipal-election-result-2022-winners-list-indore-bhopal-jabalpur-satna-chhindwara-singrauli-gwalior-101658059075902.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bhopal Municipal Corporation |url=http://bhopalmunicipal.com/ |access-date=18 July 2022 |website=Bhopal Municipal Corporation |language=en |archive-date=2 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161202060148/http://bhopalmunicipal.com/ |url-status=usurped }}</ref>
|-
|2
|[[Burhanpur Municipal Corporation]]
|[[Burhanpur]]
|[[Burhanpur district|Burhanpur]]
|181.06
|300,892
|
|
|2022<ref name=":3" />
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
|
|-
|3
|[[Chhindwara Municipal Corporation]]
|[[Chhindwara]]
|[[Chhindwara District|Chhindwara]]
|110
|234,784
|48
|
|2022<ref name=":3" />
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chhindwara Municipal Corporation |url=https://chhindwaranagarnigam.com/ |access-date=19 June 2022 |language=en-US |archive-date=29 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129141903/https://chhindwaranagarnigam.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
|4
|[[Dewas Municipal Corporation]]
|[[Dewas]]
|[[Dewas district|Dewas]]
|50
|289,438
|
|
|2022<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=Phase 2 Madhya Pradesh Municipal Election Result 2022 |url=https://www.freepressjournal.in/bhopal/mp-municipal-polls-cong-bjp-win-two-mayoral-posts-each-in-second-phase |access-date=20 July 2022 |website=Free Press Journal |language=en |archive-date=3 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230503001717/https://www.freepressjournal.in/bhopal/mp-municipal-polls-cong-bjp-win-two-mayoral-posts-each-in-second-phase |url-status=live }}</ref>
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dewas Municipal Corporation |url=https://dmcdewas.com/ |access-date=18 July 2022 |website=Dewas Municipal Corporation |language=en-US |archive-date=17 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240217074013/https://dmcdewas.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
|5
|[[Gwalior Municipal Corporation]]
|[[Gwalior]]
|[[Gwalior district|Gwalior]]
|414<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gwalior District |first=Government of Madhya Pradesh |date=24 January 2025 |title=District Gwalior |url=https://gwalior.nic.in/en/ |access-date=24 February 2025 |website=Gwalior}}</ref>
|20,32,036
|66
|
|2022<ref name=":3" />
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|
|-
|6
|[[Indore Municipal Corporation]]
|[[Indore]]
|[[Indore district|Indore]]
|530
|2,167,447
|85
|
|2022<ref name=":3" />
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Indore Municipal Corporation |url=https://imcindore.mp.gov.in/ |access-date=18 July 2022 |language=en-AU |archive-date=6 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220206221704/https://imcindore.mp.gov.in/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
|7
|[[Jabalpur Municipal Corporation]]
|[[Jabalpur]]
|[[Jabalpur district|Jabalpur]]
|263
|1,268,848
|
|
|2022<ref name=":3" />
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|
|-
|8
|Katni Municipal Corporation
|[[Katni]]
|[[Katni district|Katni]]
|
|221,875
|
|
|2022<ref name=":4" />
|[[Independent politician|Independent]]
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Katni Municipal Corporation |url=https://www.kmckatni.org/ |access-date=18 July 2022 |website=kmckatni.org |archive-date=1 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220201234728/https://kmckatni.org/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
|9
|[[Khandwa Municipal Corporation]]
|[[Khandwa]]
|[[Khandwa district|Khandwa]]
|
|259,436
|
|
|2022<ref name=":3" />
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Khandwa Municipal Corporation |url=https://khandwakmc.org/ |access-date=19 June 2022 |website=Municipal Corporation Khandwa |language=en-US |archive-date=17 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240217074014/https://khandwakmc.org/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
|-
|10
|Morena Municipal Corporation
|[[Morena, Madhya Pradesh|Morena]]
|[[Morena District|Morena]]
|80
|218,768
|
|
|2022<ref name=":4" />
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|
|-
|11
|Ratlam Municipal Corporation
|[[Ratlam]]
|[[Ratlam district|Ratlam]]
|39
|273,892
|49
|
|2022<ref name=":4" />
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ratlam Municipal Corporation |url=https://rmcratlam.in/ |access-date=18 July 2022 |website=rmcratlam.in |archive-date=1 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230501133846/https://rmcratlam.in/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
|12
|[[Rewa Municipal Corporation]]
|[[Rewa, Madhya Pradesh|Rewa]]
|[[Rewa district|Rewa]]
|69
|235,422
|45
|
|2022<ref name=":4" />
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rewa Municipal Corporation |url=https://mcrewa.com/ |access-date=18 July 2022 |language=en-US |archive-date=18 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230118171636/https://mcrewa.com/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
|-
|13
|[[Sagar Municipal Corporation]]
|[[Sagar, Madhya Pradesh|Sagar]]
|[[Sagar District|Sagar]]
|49.76
|370,296
|
|
|2022<ref name=":3" />
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
|
|-
|14
|Satna Municipal Corporation
|[[Satna]]
|[[Satna district|Satna]]
|71
|283,004
|
|
|2022<ref name=":3" />
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
|
|-
|15
|Singrauli Municipal Corporation
|[[Singrauli]]
|[[Singrauli District|Singrauli]]
|
|225,676
|
|
|2022<ref name=":3" />
|[[Aam Aadmi Party|AAP]]
|
|-
|16
|[[Ujjain Municipal Corporation]]
|[[Ujjain]]
|[[Ujjain district|Ujjain]]
|151.83
|515,215
|54
|
|2022<ref name=":3" />
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ujjain Municipal Corporation |url=http://nagarnigamujjain.org/ |access-date=18 July 2022 |website=nagarnigamujjain.org |archive-date=25 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151125123834/http://nagarnigamujjain.org/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|}

=== Villages ===


*[[Dhekal Badi]]

== Education ==
{{See also|List of Engineering Colleges in Madhya Pradesh}}

According to the 2011 census, Madhya Pradesh had a literacy rate of 69.32%. According to the 2009–10 figures, the state had 105,592 primary schools, 6,352 high schools, and 5,161 higher secondary schools. The state has 208 engineering and architecture colleges, 208 management institutes, and 12 medical colleges.<ref name="IBEF_2011" />

The state is home to some of the premier scientific educational and research institutions of India including [[IIT Indore]], [[Indian Institute of Management Indore|IIM Indore]], [[All India Institute of Medical Sciences|AIIMS Bhopal]], [[Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology|NIT Bhopal]], [[Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Bhopal|IISER Bhopal]], [[School of Planning and Architecture, Bhopal|SPA Bhopal]], [[Indian Institute of Information Technology, Design and Manufacturing, Jabalpur|IIIT Jabalpur]], [[Indian Institute of Information Technology and Management, Gwalior|IIIT Gwalior]].

Other premier institutes include [[Indian Institute of Tourism and Travel Management|Indian Institute of Tourism and Travel Management (IITTM Gwalior)]], [[Indian Institute of Forest Management|Indian Institute of Forest Management (IIFM) Bhopal]], [[Institute of Hotel Management|Institute of Hotel Management (IHM) Gwalior]], [[National Law Institute University|National Law Institute University (NLIU) Bhopal]], [[Lakshmibai National Institute of Physical Education|Lakshmi Bai National Institute of Physical Education, (LNIPE) Gwalior]], [[Jabalpur Engineering College]], [[Dharmashastra National Law University, Jabalpur]] and [[Vellore Institute of Technology|VIT University Bhopal]].

The state has two central universities namely [[Dr. Hari Singh Gour University]] ([[Sagar, Madhya Pradesh|Sagar]]) and [[Indira Gandhi National Tribal University]] ([[Amarkantak]], [[Anuppur district|Anuppur]]), while former being the first university of Madhya Pradesh.

There are 500 degree colleges, which are affiliated with one of the universities in the state. The specialised universities include [[Rajiv Gandhi Technical University]], [[Madhya Pradesh Medical Science University]], and [[Nanaji Deshmukh Veterinary Science University]]. The general universities are [[Barkatullah University]] (Bhopal), [[Devi Ahilya Vishwavidyalaya]] ([[Indore]]), [[Rani Durgavati University]] ([[Jabalpur]]), [[Vikram University]] ([[Ujjain]]), [[Mansarovar Global University|Masarovar Global University]], [[Jiwaji University]] ([[Gwalior]]), [[Dr. Hari Singh Gour University]] ([[Sagar, Madhya Pradesh|Sagar]]), [[Indira Gandhi National Tribal University]] ([[Amarkantak]], [[Anuppur district|Anuppur]]), [[Makhanlal Chaturvedi National University of Journalism and Communication]] (Bhopal).

Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh is home to [[Scindia School|the Scindia School]] (all boys private residential school) and [[Scindia Kanya Vidyalaya|the Scindia Kanya Vidyalaya]] (all girls private boarding school), which are among India's most expensive schools.

The Professional Examination Board was initialised as Pre Medical Test Board by Government of Madhya Pradesh in the year 1970. After some year in 1981, Pre Engineering Board was constituted. Then after, in the year 1982 both these boards were amalgamated and named as [[Madhya Pradesh Professional Examination Board]] (MPPEB).
<gallery mode="packed" heights="110">
File:UIT RGPV Bhopal's Main Gate.jpg|[[Rajiv Gandhi Technical University]]'s main gate
File:IIM Indore pano.jpg|IIM Indore's aerial panoramic view
File:St. Aloysius Senior Secondary School.jpg|[[St. Aloysius Senior Secondary School|St. Aloysius Senior Secondary School, Jabalpur]], established in the year 1868 is among the oldest schools in India
File:Scindia School.jpg|The [[Scindia School]], one among the most expensive elite schools in India situated in Gwalior
Sardars School.jpg|The Scindia School, Fort Gwalior
</gallery>

== Tourism ==

[[Madhya Pradesh Tourism]] promotes the central Indian state known as the “Heart of India” for its rich cultural heritage, wildlife, and natural beauty. It offers diverse attractions including [[UNESCO World Heritage Sites]] like [[Khajuraho]], [[Bhimbetka]] and [[Sanchi]], tiger reserves, historic forts like the Gwalior Fort, stunning Saas Bahu temples, Gwalior, and vibrant festivals, making it a major travel destination.<ref>{{cite web |title=Madhya Pradesh Tourism |url=https://www.mptourism.com/ |website=MP Tourism |access-date=26 August 2025}}</ref>

== Notable people ==
{{Main|List of people from Madhya Pradesh}}

== Sports ==
[[File:Performing mallakhamb.jpg|thumb|Performing [[Mallakhamba]]]]
In 2013, state govt declared [[Mallakhamba]] as the state sport.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Singhi |first1=Ramendra| title=State sport status to malkhamb |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/more-sports/others/State-sport-status-to-malkhamb/articleshow/20006539.cms |newspaper=The Times of India |date=11 May 2013 |access-date=24 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170521202109/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/more-sports/others/State-sport-status-to-malkhamb/articleshow/20006539.cms |archive-date=21 May 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Cricket]], [[kabaddi]], [[field hockey|hockey]], [[association football|football]], [[basketball]], [[volleyball]], [[cycle sport|cycling]], [[Swimming (sport)|swimming]], [[badminton]], and [[table tennis]] are the popular sports in the state. Traditional games like [[kho kho]], [[gilli danda]], [[sitoliya]], [[kanche]], and [[Hopscotch|langdi]] are popular in the rural areas.

[[Snooker]], a cue sport, generally regarded as having been invented in [[Jabalpur]] by [[British Army]] officers, is popular in many of the English-speaking and Commonwealth countries, with top professional players attaining multimillion-pound career earnings from the game.

[[File:Maharani Usha Raje Cricket Stadium Indore - panoramio.jpg|thumb|[[Holkar Stadium]] in [[Indore]].]]
Cricket is the most popular sport in Madhya Pradesh.{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}} There are three international [[cricket]] stadiums in the state – [[Nehru Stadium, Indore|Nehru Stadium]] (Indore), [[Roop Singh Stadium|Captain Roop Singh Stadium]] (Gwalior), [[Holkar Cricket Stadium]] (Indore) and [[Shrimant Madhavrao Scindia Cricket Stadium|Madhavrao Scindia Cricket Stadium]] (Gwalior). [[Madhya Pradesh cricket team]]'s best performances in [[Ranji Trophy]] was in 1998–99, when the [[Chandrakant Pandit]]-led team ended as the runner-up. Its predecessor, the Indore-based [[Holkar cricket team]], had won the Ranji Trophy four times. In year 2022, [[Chandrakant Pandit]] coached [[Madhya Pradesh cricket team]] defeated 41-time champion Mumbai Cricket Team in [[Ranji Trophy]] 2021–22 season. It is Madhya Pradesh's maiden title at [[M. Chinnaswamy Stadium]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Purohit |first1=Abhishek |title=Madhya Pradesh end long wait to win Ranji Trophy; beat Mumbai by 6 wickets |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/sports/cricket/madhya-pradesh-ends-long-wait-to-win-ranji-trophy-beat-mumbai-by-6-wickets-7992449/ |access-date=28 June 2022 |work=The Indian Express |date=27 June 2022 |language=en |archive-date=27 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220627203357/https://indianexpress.com/article/sports/cricket/madhya-pradesh-ends-long-wait-to-win-ranji-trophy-beat-mumbai-by-6-wickets-7992449/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Aishbagh Stadium]] in Bhopal is the home ground for [[World Series Hockey]] team [[Bhopal Badshahs]]. The state also has a [[Madhya Pradesh football team|football team]] that participates in the [[Santosh Trophy]].

[[MP United FC (India)|MP United FC]] is an Indian football that played in the [[I-League 2|2nd Division I-League]].

On 6 December 2017, the Madhya Pradesh [[Chief Minister]] [[Shivraj Singh Chouhan]] announced that players from the state would be given government jobs on winning medals in international events.

[[Madhu Yadav]], the former Captain of the [[India women's national field hockey team]], a 1982 [[Asian Games]] gold medallist and an Arjuna Award recipient, is from [[Jabalpur]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.freepressjournal.in/bhopal/madhya-pradesh-former-indian-womens-hockey-team-captain-celebrates-indias-victory-against-australia |title=Madhya Pradesh: Former Indian women's hockey team captain celebrates India's victory against Australia |website=Free Press Journal |access-date=7 August 2021 |archive-date=7 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210807184708/https://www.freepressjournal.in/bhopal/madhya-pradesh-former-indian-womens-hockey-team-captain-celebrates-indias-victory-against-australia |url-status=live}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Outline of Madhya Pradesh]]
* [[Directorate Sports and Youth Welfare]]
* [[Districts of Madhya Pradesh]]
* [[List of forts in Madhya Pradesh]]
* [[List of people from Madhya Pradesh]]
* [[2025 Indore drinking water contamination]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* Gyanendra Singh. ''Farm Mechanization in Madhya Pradesh''. Bhopal: Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering, 2000.
* Madhya Pradesh (India). The Madhya Pradesh Human Development Report 2002: Using the Power of Democracy for Development. [Bhopal: Govt. of Madhya Pradesh, 2002].
* [[Guru Radha Kishan]] ''Swatantrata Sangraam Senani from Madhya Pradesh'': Archives [[Nehru Memorial Museum & Library|Nehru Memorial Museum and Library]], New Delhi.
* Rag, Pankaj. ''Vintage, Madhya Pradesh: A Collection of Old Photographs''. Bhopal: Madhya Pradesh Madhyam jointly with the Directorate of Archaeology, Archives, and Museums, 2005. {{ISBN|81-902702-7-3}}
* Parmar, Shyam. ''Folk Tales of Madhya Pradesh''. Folk tales of India series, 12". New Delhi: Sterling Publishers, 1973.
* Rag, Pankaj, and O. P. Misra. ''Masterpieces of Madhya Pradesh''. Bhopal: Directorate of Archaeology, Archives & Museums, Government of Madhya Pradesh, 2005.
* Sampath, M. D., H. V. Trivedi, and Mandan Trivedi. ''Epigraphs of Madhya Pradesh''. New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India, 2001.
* Sati, Vishwambhar Prasad. ''Madhya Pradesh, a Geo-Economic Appraisal''. Delhi: Abhijeet, 2004. {{ISBN|81-88683-43-4}}
* Shah, Shampa, and Aashi Manohar. ''Tribal Arts and Crafts of Madhya Pradesh. Living traditions of India''. Ahmedabad: Mapin Pub./in Association with Vanya Prakashan, Bhopal, 1996. {{ISBN|0-944142-71-0}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Sister project links|voy=Madhya Pradesh|d=Q1188|c=Category:Madhya Pradesh|n=Category:Madhya Pradesh|q=no|s=no|b=no|v=no}}
; Government
* {{official website}}
; General information
* {{GovPubs|Madhya%20Pradesh}}
* {{Britannica|355793|Madhya Pradesh}}
* {{Wikiatlas|Madhya Pradesh}}
* {{osmrelation-inline|1950071}}

{{State of Madhya Pradesh|state=expanded}}
{{States and Union Territories of India}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Madhya Pradesh| ]]
[[Category:States and union territories of India]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1956]]
[[Category:1956 establishments in India]]

Jagadish filmography

2026-05-03T04:35:07Z

AhmedSturgis: new new stub

{{Short description|Indian actor}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2024}}
'''P. V. Jagadish Kumar''', known as [[Jagadish]], is an Indian actor, screenwriter, and television presenter. He has starred in over 400 Malayalam films.

== Actor ==
=== 1980s ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Title !! Role !! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| rowspan=2 | 1984 || ''[[My Dear Kuttichathan]]'' || Cabaret Announcer ||
|-
| ''[[Odaruthammava Aalariyam]]'' || Kora ||
|-
| rowspan=3 | 1985 || ''[[Oru Naal Innoru Naal]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Mutharamkunnu P.O.]]'' || Vasu ||
|-
| ''[[Akkare Ninnoru Maran]]'' || Vishwan ||
|-
| rowspan=4 | 1986 || ''[[Ponnum Kudathinu Pottu]]'' || College Student ||
|-
| ''[[Mazha Peyunnu Madalam Kottunnu]]'' || Sub-Inspector of Police ||
|-
| ''[[Love Story (1986 film)|Love Story]]'' || Hameed ||
|-
| ''[[Nandi Veendum Varika]]'' || ||
|-
| rowspan=7 | 1987 || ''[[Veendum Lisa]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Irupatham Noottandu]]'' || Balakrishnan ||
|-
| ''[[Bhoomiyile Rajakkanmar]]'' || Babu ||
|-
| ''[[Sarvakalashala]]'' || Najeeb ||
|-
| ''[[Ayitham]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Jaalakam]]'' || Kuzhuveli ||
|-
| ''[[Manivathoorile Aayiram Sivarathrikal]]'' || Neena's Cousin ||
|-
| rowspan=10 | 1988 || ''[[Sanghunadam]]'' || SI Rajappan Achari ||
|-
| ''[[Witness (1988 film)|Witness]]'' || Podiyan ||
|-
| ''[[Vellanakalude Naadu]]'' || Kumaran ||
|-
| ''Samvalsarangal'' || ||
|-
| ''Oozham'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Sangham (1988 film)|Sangham]]'' || Palunni ||
|-
| ''[[August 1 (film)|August 1]]'' || Martin Varghese ||
|-
| ''[[Oru Muthassi Katha]]'' || Thankappan ||
|-
| ''[[Orkkappurathu]]'' || Producer ||
|-
| ''[[Chithram]]'' || Jayan ||
|-
| rowspan=11 | 1989 || ''[[Varavelpu]]'' || Valsan ||
|-
| ''[[Vandanam]]'' || ASI Puroshotaman Nair ||
|-
| ''[[Peruvannapurathe Visheshangal]]'' || Balan ||
|-
| ''[[Kandathum Kettathum]]'' || Varghese ||
|-
| ''[[The News (film)|News]]'' || Chandu ||
|-
| ''[[Kireedam (1989 film)|Kireedam]]'' || Suresh ||
|-
| ''[[Vadakkunokkiyantram]]'' || Vinod Kumar Alleppey ||
|-
| ''Pooram'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Swagatham (1989 film)|Swagatham]]'' || Hirosh ||
|-
| ''[[Chanakyan]]'' || Tea Shop Owner ||
|-
| ''[[Adikkurippu]]'' || Bappootty ||
|-
|}

=== 1990s ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Title !! Role !! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| rowspan=20 | 1990 || ''[[Shubhayathra]]'' || Rajendran ||
|-
| ''[[Abhimanyu]]'' || Manikandon ||
|-
| ''[[Aye Auto]]'' || Sreekrishnan ||
|-
| ''[[Thalayana Manthram]]'' || Bhasurachandran || Cameo appearance
|-
| ''[[Minda Poochakku Kalyanam]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Pavam Pavam Rajakumaran]]'' || Sujanapalan ||
|-
| ''[[Kadathanadan Ambadi]]'' || Brahmin ||
|-
| ''[[Subhayathra]]'' || Rajendran ||
|-
| ''Superstar'' || Kuttappan Thampuran ||
|-
| ''[[Vidhyarambham]]'' || Natarajan ||
|-
| ''[[Saandram]]'' || Markosekutty ||
|-
| ''[[Malayogom]]'' || Gangadharan ||
|-
| ''[[In Harihar Nagar]]'' || Appukuttan ||
|-
| ''[[His Highness Abdullah]]'' || Gupthan Thampuran ||
|-
| ''[[Gajakesariyogam]]'' || Parasuraman ||
|-
| ''[[Ee Kanni Koodi]]'' || Mani ||
|-
| ''[[Dr. Pasupathy]]'' || Society Balan ||
|-
| ''[[Akkare Akkare Akkare]]'' || Peter ||
|-
| ''[[No.20 Madras Mail]]'' || Hari ||
|-
| ''[[Kuttettan]]'' || Gopalakrishnan ||
|-
| rowspan=27 | 1991 || ''[[Sundhari Kakka]]'' || Thomson ||
|-
| ''[[Nayam Vyakthamakkunnu]]'' || Kurudimannil Sasi ||
|-
| ''[[Mookilla Rajyathu]]'' || Police Inspector ||
|-
| ''Post Box No. 27'' || ||
|-
| ''Agni Nilavu'' || Sekharankutty ||
|-
| ''Kalari'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Apoorvam Chilar]]'' || Subhramaniam ||
|-
| ''Marathon'' || ||
|-
| ''Irikku M.D. Akathundu'' || John ||
|-
| ''[[Amina Tailors]]'' || Manjeri Majeed ||
|-
| ''[[Parallel College]]'' || Vasu ||
|-
| ''[[Nettippattam]]'' || Jocky ||
|-
| ''[[Ennum Nanmakal]]'' || Ulpalakshan ||
|-
| ''[[Nagarathil Samsara Vishayam]]'' || Gopinatha Menon ||
|-
| ''[[Kadinjool Kalyanam]]'' || Anthony D'Silva ||
|-
| ''[[Mukha Chithram]]'' || M. K. Pushkaran ||
|-
| ''[[Mimics Parade]]'' || Unni ||
|-
| ''[[Vishnulokam]]'' || Tharakan ||
|-
| ''[[Kizhakkunarum Pakshi]]'' || Anandhu's Friend ||
|-
| ''[[Koodikazhcha]]'' || Skariya ||
|-
| ''[[Godfather (1991 film)|Godfather]]'' || Mayeenkutty ||
|-
| ''[[Georgootty C/O Georgootty]]'' || Cheerankandathu Anto ||
|-
| ''[[Ganamela]]'' || Mukundan ||
|-
| ''Cheppu Kilukkana Changathi'' || Krishnankutty ||
|-
| ''[[Kilukkam]]'' || Photographer || Cameo appearance
|-
| ''[[Abhimanyu (1991 film)|Abhimanyu]]'' || Manikandan ||
|-
| ''[[Inspector Balram]]'' || Sudhakaran ||
|-
| rowspan=20 | 1992 || ''[[Welcome to Kodaikanal]]'' || James Kutty ||
|-
| ''[[Thiruthalvaadi]]'' || Krishnankutty ||
|-
| ''[[Thalastaanam]]'' || Siddharth ||
|-
| ''[[Priyapetta Kukku]]'' || ||
|-
| ''Mr & Mrs'' || ||
|-
| ''Ponnaramthottathe Raajaavu'' || Unnikrishna Menon ||
|-
| ''[[Pandu Pandoru Rajakumari]]'' || Appukuttan Pillai ||
|-
| ''[[Oru Kochu Bhoomikulukkam]]'' || Constable Purushothaman ||
|-
| ''Mughamudra'' || Varghese Valavil ||
|-
| ''[[Manyanmaar]]'' || CI Vincent D'Souza ||
|-
| ''[[Makkal Mahatmyam]]'' || Manikantan ||
|-
| ''[[Manthrikacheppu]]'' || Raju ||
|-
| ''[[Kunukkitta Kozhi]]'' || Unnikrishnan ||
|-
| ''[[Aardram]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Kingini]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Kasarkode Khaderbai]]'' || Unni ||
|-
| ''[[Kallan Kappalil Thanne]]'' || Appavi Appukuttan/Ananthan Gurukkal ||
|-
| ''Gruhapravesam'' || Kannan ||
|-
| ''First Bell'' || Pindimala Paulraj ||
|-
| ''Congratulations Miss Anitha Menon'' || Police Inspector Rajan ||
|-
| rowspan=14 | 1993 || ''[[Addeham Enna Iddeham]]'' || Josy Perera ||
|-
| ''[[Vakkeel Vasudev]]'' || Adv.Vasudev ||
|-
| ''[[Uppukandam Brothers]]'' || Uppukandam Josekutty ||
|-
| ''Sthreedhanam'' || Shanthan ||
|-
| ''[[Sthalathe Pradhana Payyans]]'' || Gopalakrishnan ||
|-
| ''[[Sakshal Sreeman Chathunni]]'' || Unnikrishnan ||
|-
| ''[[Sowbhagyam]]'' || Balachandran ||
|-
| ''[[Naaraayam (film)|Naaraayam]]'' || ||
|-
| ''Journalist'' || Unnikrishnan ||
|-
| ''[[Jackpot (1993 film)|Jackpot]]'' || David ||
|-
| ''[[Janam (1993 film)|Janam]]'' || Harikrishnan ||
|-
| ''[[Injakkadan Mathai & Sons]]'' || Roy ||
|-
| ''[[Butterflies (1993 film)|Butterflies]]'' || Vettikkal Sadashivan ||
|-
| ''[[Paalayam]]'' || Mani ||
|-
| rowspan=9 | 1994 || ''[[Vendor Daniel State Licency]]'' || Adv. Balagopalan Menon ||
|-
| ''[[Bhaagyavaan]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Sainyam]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Santhanagopalam]]'' || Vinayachandran ||
|-
| ''Pavam I.A. Ivachan'' || Harischandran ||
|-
| ''[[Njan Kodiswaran]]'' || Gopi ||
|-
| ''[[Kudumba Vishesham]]'' || Chinna Thampy ||
|-
| ''Pradakshinam'' || ||
|-
| ''Bharya'' || ||
|-
| rowspan=9 | 1995 || ''Chaithanyam'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Thakshashila]]'' || Charlie ||
|-
| ''[[Simhavalan Menon]]'' || Hariprasad / Giriprasad ||
|-
| ''[[Prayikkara Pappan]]'' || Shivan ||
|-
| ''[[Nirnayam (1995 film)|Nirnnayam]]'' || Dr. V. D. Iyer ||
|-
| ''[[Minnaminuginum Minnukettu]]'' || Unni ||
|-
| ''[[Avittam Thirunaal Aarogya Sriman]]'' || Sahadevan ||
|-
| ''[[Maanthrikam]]'' || Jobi D'Costa / Subedar Teddy Lopez ||
|-
| ''[[Agnidevan]]'' || Murukan ||
|-
| rowspan=12 | 1996 || ''[[Tom & Jerry (1996 film)|Tom & Jerry]]'' || Kuttikrishnan ||
|-
| ''Kireedamillatha Rajakkanmar'' || Shankar ||
|-
| ''Kinnam Katta Kallan'' || Sub Inspector V.C. Bhagyanathan ||
|-
| ''[[Kathapurushan]]'' || Thomas Tharakan ||
|-
| ''[[Kumkumacheppu]]'' || Mani ||
|-
| ''Soorya Puthrikal'' || ||
|-
| ''Mimics Super 1000'' || Balakrishnan ||
|-
| ''[[Kalyana Sougandhikam (1996 film)|Kalyana Sowgandhikam]]'' || Premadasan ||
|-
| ''[[Kaliveedu]]'' || Ulahannan ||
|-
| ''[[Kaathil Oru Kinnaram]]'' || Hari ||
|-
| ''[[Hitler (1996 film)|Hitler]]'' || Hrudayabhanu ||
|-
| ''[[Azhakiya Ravanan]]'' || Himself ||
|-
| rowspan=15 | 1997 || ''[[Superman (1997 film)|Superman]]'' || SI Balachandran ||
|-
| ''[[Krishnagudiyil Oru Pranayakalathu]]'' || George Abraham ||
|-
| ''My Dear Kuttichathan Part 2'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Junior Mandrake]]'' || Pradeep Nambiar ||
|-
| ''Moonu Kodiyum Munnooru Pavanum'' || ||
|-
| ''Kilikurissiyile Kudumbamela'' || Thommikunju ||
|-
| ''Raajathanthram'' || ||
|-
| ''Nagarapuraanam'' || Manikuttan ||
|-
| ''[[Anubhoothi]]'' || Appukuttan Nair ||
|-
| ''Ishtadanam'' || Ananthakrishnan Thambi ||
|-
| ''Gajaraja Manthram'' || Anantha Padmanabhan ||
|-
| ''[[Five Star Hospital]]'' || Adipoli Aymooti ||
|-
| ''[[Arjunan Pillayum Anchu Makkalum]]'' || Uthaman ||
|-
| ''Ancharakalyanam'' || Unnikrishnan Panicker ||
|-
| ''[[Varnapakittu]]'' || Pylee ||
|-
| rowspan=14 | 1998 || ''[[Nakshatratharattu]]'' || M. K. Swaminathan ||
|-
| ''Malabar Ninnoru Manimaaran'' || ||
|-
| ''British Market'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Sreekrishnapurathe Nakshathrathilakkam]]'' || SI 'Idivettu' Indrajith ||
|-
| ''[[Sooryaputhran]]'' || Shatrughnan ||
|-
| ''[[Sidhartha (1998 film)|Sidhartha]]'' || Pavithran Sidharthan's assistant ||
|-
| ''[[Manthrikumaran]]'' || Ramanan ||
|-
| ''[[Mangalya Pallakku]]'' || Govindankutty ||
|-
| ''[[Aalibabayum Aarara Kallanmarum]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Achaammakkuttiyude Achaayan]]'' || Kattungal Johnny ||
|-
| ''[[Kudumba Vaarthakal]]'' || Devadas ||
|-
| ''[[Harikrishnans]]'' || Public Prosecutor ||
|-
| ''[[Gramapanchayath (film)|Gramapanchayath]]'' || Chakrapani ||
|-
| ''[[Ayal Kadha Ezhuthukayanu]]'' || Sainuddin ||
|-
| rowspan=11 | 1999 || ''[[Ezhupunna Tharakan]]'' || Muhammad Ali ||
|-
| ''[[Deepasthambham Mahascharyam]]'' || Susheelan ||
|-
| ''[[Chandranudikkunna Dikkil]]'' || Sasi ||
|-
| ''Auto Brothers'' || Babu ||
|-
| ''[[Pallavur Devanarayanan]]'' || Kumaran ||
|-
| ''[[Swastham Grihabharanam]]'' || Appu ||
|-
| ''[[Stalin Sivadas]]'' || Vishwam ||
|-
| ''[[Aayiram Meni]]'' || Abdutty ||
|-
| ''[[Aakasha Ganga]]'' || Krishnan Thampuran ||
|-
| ''Thennali Raman'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Sparsham]]'' || Shivadasan ||
|-
|}

=== 2000s ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Title !! Role !! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| rowspan=12 | 2000 || ''[[Summer Palace (2000 film)|Summer Palace]]'' || Mega Bhagyaraj Andipallikavu ||
|-
| ''[[Ee Mazha Then Mazha]]'' || Chakkochen ||
|-
| ''[[Sahayathrikakku Snehapoorvam]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Mimics 2000]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Aanamuttathe Aangalamar]]'' || Rajeevan ||
|-
| ''[[Vinayapoorvam Vidhyaadharan]]'' || Alex Paul ||
|-
| ''[[Dreams (2000 film)|Dreams]]'' || Servant ||
|-
| ''[[The Gang (film)|The Gang]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[The Warrant]]'' || Thomas Kora ||
|-
| ''[[Devadoothan]]'' || Ithakk ||
|-
| ''[[Sathyam Sivam Sundaram (2000 film)|Sathyam Sivam Sundaram]]'' || Pankajakshan ||
|-
| ''[[Ingane Oru Nilapakshi]]'' || Adiyodi ||
|-
| rowspan=10 | 2001 || ''[[Ennum Sambhavami Yuge Yuge]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Unnathangalil]]'' || Seban ||
|-
| ''[[Mutholakottaram]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Bhadra]]'' || Jayadevan ||
|-
| ''[[Kakkakuyil]]'' || Tyootty ||
|-
| ''[[Sharjah to Sharjah]]'' || Kuwait Kochunni ||
|-
| ''[[Raavanaprabhu]]'' || Guruswamy ||
|-
| ''[[House Owner]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Nariman (film)|Nariman]]'' || Gopi Pillai ||
|-
| ''[[Bharthavudyogam]]'' || Unnikrishnan Namboothiri ||
|-
| rowspan=14 | 2002 || ''[[India Gate (film)|India Gate]]'' || CI Mohandas ||
|-
| ''[[Kakki Nakshatram]]'' || Balan ||
|-
| ''[[Kalachakram]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Aabharanacharthu]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Grand Mother]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Nandanam (film)|Nandanam]]'' || Elder son of Sankaran Moosari ||
|-
| ''[[Onnaman]]'' || Krishnankutty ||
|-
| ''[[Thandavam]]'' || Murugan ||
|-
| ''[[Oomappenninu Uriyadappayyan]]'' || Karunan ||
|-
| ''[[Jagathi Jagathish in Town]]'' || Unnikrishnan, Jagadish ||
|-
| ''[[Puthooramputhri Unniyarcha]]'' || Kunjamarar ||
|-
| ''[[Chirikkudukka]]'' || Sumukhan ||
|-
| ''[[Chathurangam (2002 film)|Chathurangam]]'' || Mathen Chethimattom ||
|-
| ''[[Videsi Nair Swadesi Nair]]'' || Vindhyan ||
|-
| rowspan=12 |2003 || ''[[Thilakkam]]'' || Venu ||
|-
| ''[[Saudhamini]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[The Fire (2003 film)|The Fire]]'' || Salim ||
|-
| ''[[Vasanthamalika]]'' || Madhavan ||
|-
| ''[[Thillana Thillana]]'' || K. P. Omanakuttan ||
|-
| ''[[Sahodharan Sahadevan]]'' || Appukuttan ||
|-
| ''[[Mr. Brahmachari]]'' || Rajappan ||
|-
| ''[[War and Love (2003 film)|War and Love]]'' || [[Havildar#Indian Army|Hav.]] Kurian ||
|-
| ''[[Koodariyaathe]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Hariharan Pilla Happy Aanu]]'' || SI Vinod Kumar ||
|-
| ''[[Hungama (2003 film)|Hungama]]'' || Pandu Rajan || Hindi debut film
|-
| ''[[Chithrakoodam]]'' || Bhaskaran ||
|-
| rowspan=11 | 2004 || ''[[Kottaram Vaidyan]]'' || Sukumaran ||
|-
| ''[[Koottu (film)|Koottu]]'' || Xavier ||
|-
| ''[[Maniyarakkallan]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Vamanapuram Bus Route]]'' || Kumaran ||
|-
| ''[[Sethurama Iyer CBI]]'' || Tailor Mani ||
|-
| ''[[KakkaKarumban]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Symphony (film)|Symphony]]'' || Manoharan ||
|-
| ''[[Vellinakshatram (2004 film)|Vellinakshathram]]'' || Kochuraman ||
|-
| ''[[Jalolsavam]]'' || Soman ||
|-
| ''Govindankutty Thirakkilanu'' || Thomaskutty ||
|-
| ''[[Vettam]]'' || Hotel Waiter Sugunan ||
|-
| rowspan=5 | 2005 || ''[[Junior Senior (2005 film)|Junior Senior]]'' || Balagangadharan ||
|-
| ''[[Athbhutha Dweepu]]'' || Joseph ||
|-
| ''[[Chandrolsavam]]'' || Kuttiraman ||
|-
| ''[[Kalyana Kurimanam]]'' || Madhavan ||
|-
| ''[[Boyy Friennd]]'' || Vigneshwaran ||
|-
| rowspan=8 | 2006 || ''Baalyam'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Pakal (film)|Pakal]]'' || Ummachan ||
|-
| ''[[Vaasthavam]]'' || Shibhu Vattappara ||
|-
| ''[[Aanachandam]]'' || Santhosh ||
|-
| ''[[Narakasuran]]'' || Vasu ||
|-
| ''[[Mahasamudram]]'' || Hamsa ||
|-
| ''[[Balram vs. Tharadas]]'' || [[Assistant Sub-Inspector of Police#India|ASI]] Sudhakaran ||
|-
| ''[[Bhargavacharitham Moonam Khandam]]'' || Velayudhan ||
|-
| rowspan=8 | 2007 || ''[[Black Cat (2007 film)|Black Cat]]'' || Vakkachan ||
|-
| ''[[Payum Puli]]'' || SI Sreenivasan ||
|-
| ''[[Paradesi (2007 film)|Paradesi]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Hallo (film)|Hallo]]'' || Adv. Thomas Jacob ||
|-
| ''[[Naalu Pennungal]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Ali Bhai]]'' || Kallankari Dasappan ||
|-
| ''[[Katha Parayumpol]]'' || Sarasan ||
|-
| ''[[Flash (2007 film)|Flash]]'' || ||
|-
| rowspan=8 | 2008 || ''[[Oru Pennum Randaanum]]'' || Advocate ||
|-
| ''[[Kaalchilambu]]'' || ||
|-
| ''Anthiponvettam'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Cycle (2008 film)|Cycle]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[One Way Ticket (2008 film)|One Way Ticket]]'' || Salahudeen ||
|-
| ''Sanmanassullavan Appukuttan'' || Sugunan ||
|-
| ''[[Gulmohar (2009 film)|Gulmohar]]'' || Samuel ||
|-
| ''[[Twenty:20 (film)|Twenty:20]]'' || Police Constable Nakulan ||
|-
| rowspan=13 | 2009 || ''[[Orkkuka Vallappozhum]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Billu Barber]]'' || 'Modern' Madan || Hindi film
|-
| ''[[Samastha Keralam PO]]'' || Chandy ||
|-
| ''[[Kancheepurathe Kalyanam]]'' || C.M. Premachandran ||
|-
| ''[[Decent Parties]]'' || Sudheendran ||
|-
| ''[[Paribhavam]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Red Chillies (film)|Red Chillies]]'' || Surendran ||
|-
| ''[[Seetha Kalyanam (2009 film)|Seetha Kalyanam]]'' || Thampi ||
|-
| ''[[Puthiya Mukham]]'' || Harishankar ||
|-
| ''Mayoori'' || ||
|-
| ''[[2 Harihar Nagar]]'' || Appukuttan ||
|-
| ''[[Kappal Muthalaali]]'' || Thulasidharan ||
|-
| ''[[Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja (film)|Pazhassi Raja]]'' || Bhandari ||
|-
|}

=== 2010s ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Title !! Role !! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| rowspan=14 | 2010 || ''[[Senior Mandrake]]'' || Pradeep ||
|-
| ''[[In Ghost House Inn]]'' || Appukuttan ||
|-
| ''[[April Fool (2010 film)|April Fool]]'' || C. R. Krishnanunni / Unni ||
|-
| ''[[Cheriya Kallanum Valiya Policum]]'' || K P Kumaran ||
|-
| ''[[Advocate Lakshmanan – Ladies Only]]'' || Degree Govindan ||
|-
| ''[[Paattinte Palazhy]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Karayilekku Oru Kadal Dooram]]'' || Doctor ||
|-
| ''[[Sakudumbam Shyamala]]'' || Subram ||
|-
| ''[[Fiddle (film)|Fiddle]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Thoovalkattu]]'' || Vanduran ||
|-
| ''[[Vandae Maatharam]]'' || Sheshadri || Bilingual film; also shot in Tamil
|-
| ''[[Alexander the Great (2010 film)|Alexander the Great]]'' || Sree Ramakrishnan ||
|-
| ''[[T. D. Dasan Std. VI B]]'' || Madhavan ||
|-
| ''[[Again Kasargod Khader Bhai]]'' || Unni ||
|-
| rowspan=11 | 2011 || ''[[Sarkar Colony]]'' || Lambodharan ||
|-
| ''[[Makeup Man]]'' || Adv. Mathai ||
|-
| ''[[Nadakame Ulakam]]'' || Pappan ||
|-
| ''[[Ithu Nammude Katha]]'' || Satheesh ||
|-
| ''[[City of God (2011 film)|City of God]]'' || C.I. Pavamani ||
|-
| ''[[Manikyakkallu]]'' || Vasudevan Cheruvancherry a.k.a. V.D.C ||
|-
| ''Kottarathil Kutty Bhootham'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Lucky Jokers]]'' || Pisharadi ||
|-
| ''[[Uppukandam Brothers Back in Action]]'' || Josekutty / Joy ||
|-
| ''[[Theja Bhai and Family]]'' || Govindan Nair ||
|-
| ''[[Bombay Mittayi]]'' || ||
|-
| rowspan=7 | 2012 || ''Red Alert'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Kochi]]'' || Vishwanathan ||
|-
| ''[[No. 66 Madhura Bus]]'' || Police Officer ||
|-
| ''Pulival Pattanam'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Kunjaliyan]]'' || Sukumaran ||
|-
| ''[[Achante Aanmakkal]]'' || Nandagopan ||
|-
| ''[[Ozhimuri]]'' || Madhupal ||
|-
| rowspan=14 | 2013 || ''Players'' || ||
|-
| ''Pakaram'' || ||
|-
| ''White Paper'' || Asokan ||
|-
| ''[[Rose Guitarinaal]]'' || Thara's father ||
|-
| ''[[Lisammayude Veedu]]'' || Utthaman ||
|-
| ''[[Left Right Left (film)|Left Right Left]]'' || S.I. Raju ||
|-
| ''One'' || Team Leader ||
|-
| ''At Once'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Kadal Kadannu Oru Mathukkutty]]'' || Himself ||
|-
| ''[[Ginger (2013 film)|Ginger]]'' || Sethumadhavan ||
|-
| ''Malayala Nadu'' || ||
|-
| ''Parankimala'' || ||
|-
| ''On The Way'' || ||
|-
| ''Color Balloon'' || 'Member' Panikkar ||
|-
| rowspan=8 | 2014 || ''One Day Jokes'' || ||
|-
| ''Mazhayariyaathe'' || ||
|-
| ''Maayaapuri 3D'' || ||
|-
| ''Education Loan'' || ||
|-
| ''Christmas Cake'' || ||
|-
| ''Nayana'' || Balan ||
|-
| ''Gamer'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Jalamsham]]'' || Kunjukunju || <ref>{{Cite web |last=Sudhish |first=Navamy |date=March 27, 2014 |title=Jalamsham: Of Organic Bonds |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/malayalam/2014/Mar/27/jalamsham-of-organic-bonds-591403.html |access-date=2025-10-07 |website=[[The New Indian Express]]}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=5 | 2015 || ''[[Female Unnikrishnan]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Rasam (film)|Rasam]]'' || Abdhu ||
|-
| ''[[Buddhanum Chaplinum Chirikkunnu]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[John Honai]]'' || Banker Vasudeva Kammath ||
|-
| ''[[Two Countries]]'' || Ujwal ||
|-
| rowspan=3 | 2016 || ''[[Leela (2016 film)|Leela]]'' || Thankappan Nair ||
|-
| ''[[Kasaba (2016 film)|Kasaba]]'' || S. I. Mukundan ||
|-
| ''[[Karinkunnam 6's]]'' || Narayanan, Commentator ||
|-
| 2017 || ''[[C/O Saira Banu]]'' || Advocate ||
|-
| 2018 || ''Shirk'' || ||
|-
| 2019 || ''Swapnarajyam'' || Sumesh ||
|}

=== 2020s ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Title !! Role !! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| rowspan=4 | 2021 || ''[[One (2021 film)|One]]'' || P. Sugunan ||
|-
| ''[[The Priest (2021 film)|The Priest]]'' || Adv. Sadasivam K A ||
|-
| ''[[Bhramam]]'' || Dr. Swamy ||<ref>{{cite news |url=https://m.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/videos/2021/sep/28/bhramam-trailer-presents-a-dark-comedy-with-amusing-characters-26937.amp |title=Bhramam trailer presents a dark comedy with amusing characters |date=28 September 2021 |work=Cinema Express |access-date=30 September 2021 |archive-date=30 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210930102652/https://m.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/videos/2021/sep/28/bhramam-trailer-presents-a-dark-comedy-with-amusing-characters-26937.amp |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Madhuram]]'' || Kevin's father ||
|-
| rowspan=10 | 2022 || ''[[Bro Daddy]]'' || Dr. Samuel Mathew ||
|-
| ''[[Pada (film)|Pada]]'' || P. Krishnakumar I.A.S. ||
|-
| ''Thattukada Muthal Semitheri Vare'' || Mathews ||
|-
| ''Head Master'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Gold (2022 Indian film)|Gold]]'' || Head constable Prince ||
|-
| ''[[Veekam]]'' || Dr. Krishnakumar ||
|-
| ''Marathakam'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Kaapa]]'' || Jabbar ||
|-
| ''[[Rorschach (film)|Rorschach]]'' || Head Constable Ashraf ||
|-
| ''[[Mukundan Unni Associates]]'' || Judge Sanghameshwaran ||
|-
| rowspan=10 | 2023 || ''[[Dear Vaappi]]'' || Himself ||<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-02-19 |title='Dear Vaappi' Twitter review: Here's what netizens have to say about the Lal starrer |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/dear-vaappi-twitter-review-heres-what-netizens-have-to-say-about-the-lal-starrer/articleshow/98060097.cms |access-date=2023-11-20 |issn=0971-8257 |archive-date=20 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231120193829/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/dear-vaappi-twitter-review-heres-what-netizens-have-to-say-about-the-lal-starrer/articleshow/98060097.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Khali Purse of Billionaires]]'' || Nidhi's Father ||
|-
| ''[[Purusha Pretham]]'' || CPO Dileep ||<ref>{{Cite web |title=Purusha Pretham Movie Review: Gritty procedural with an even blend of the comic and morbid |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/review/2023/mar/24/purusha-pretham-movie-review-gritty-procedural-with-an-even-blend-of-the-comic-and-morbid-41450.html |access-date=2023-03-24 |website=[[Cinema Express]] |date=24 March 2023 |language=en |archive-date=24 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324095151/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/review/2023/mar/24/purusha-pretham-movie-review-gritty-procedural-with-an-even-blend-of-the-comic-and-morbid-41450.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Pookkaalam]]'' || Kochouseph ||<ref>{{Cite web |title=It's a wrap for Pookkaalam |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2022/dec/16/its-a-wrap-for-pookkaalam-37807.html |access-date=2023-11-26 |website=[[Cinema Express]] |date=16 December 2022 |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Ayalvaashi]]'' || Celine's father ||<ref>{{Cite web |title=Soubin Shahir's Ayalvaashi gets a release date |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2023/feb/21/soubin-shahirs-ayalvaashi-gets-a-release-date-40218.html |access-date=2023-03-15 |website=[[Cinema Express]] |date=21 February 2023 |language=en |archive-date=15 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315074359/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2023/feb/21/soubin-shahirs-ayalvaashi-gets-a-release-date-40218.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Pappachan Olivilanu]]'' || Advocate Pauly ||<ref>{{Cite web |title=Saiju Kurupp's Pappachan Olivilanu trailer is out |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2023/jul/21/saiju-kuruppspappachan-olivilanutrailer-is-out-45856.html |access-date=2023-11-26 |website=[[Cinema Express]] |date=21 July 2023 |language=en |archive-date=3 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803110739/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2023/jul/21/saiju-kuruppspappachan-olivilanutrailer-is-out-45856.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Theeppori Benny]]'' || Vattakuttayil Chettayi ||<ref>{{Cite web |title=Arjun Ashokan's Theeppori Benny clears censorship formalities |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2023/sep/19/arjun-ashokans-theeppori-benny-clears-censorship-formalities-47774.html |access-date=2023-09-29 |website=[[Cinema Express]] |date=19 September 2023 |language=en |archive-date=1 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231001174440/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2023/sep/19/arjun-ashokans-theeppori-benny-clears-censorship-formalities-47774.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Garudan (2023 film)|Garudan]]'' || Salam Kaiperi ||<ref>{{Cite news |date=26 June 2023 |title='Garudan' teaser: Suresh Gopi bashes up goons with a motorbike helmet |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/garudan-teaser-suresh-gopi-bashes-up-goons-with-a-motorbike-helmet/article67011474.ece |access-date=18 October 2023 |issn=0971-751X |archive-date=17 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231017203456/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/garudan-teaser-suresh-gopi-bashes-up-goons-with-a-motorbike-helmet/article67011474.ece |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Falimy]]'' || Chandran ||<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 October 2023 |title=Basil Joseph's Falimy teaser is here |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2023/oct/18/basil-josephs-falimy-teaser-is-here-48741.html |access-date=21 October 2023 |website=[[Cinema Express]] |language=en |archive-date=18 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231018131933/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2023/oct/18/basil-josephs-falimy-teaser-is-here-48741.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Neru (film)|Neru]]'' ||Muhammad ||<ref>{{Cite web |title=Filming of Mohanlal's Neru wraps up |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2023/oct/05/filming-of-mohanlals-neru-wraps-up-48335.html |access-date=2023-11-26 |website=[[Cinema Express]] |date=5 October 2023 |language=en |archive-date=26 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231126173224/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2023/oct/05/filming-of-mohanlals-neru-wraps-up-48335.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=7 | 2024 || ''[[Abraham Ozler]]'' || Dr. Xavi Punnoose||<ref>{{Cite web |title=Jayaram's Abraham Ozler gets a release date |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2023/dec/04/jayarams-abraham-ozler-gets-a-release-date-50114.html |access-date=2023-12-07 |website=[[Cinema Express]] |date=4 December 2023 |language=en |archive-date=7 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231207180717/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2023/dec/04/jayarams-abraham-ozler-gets-a-release-date-50114.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Guruvayoor Ambalanadayil]]'' || Sudevan||<ref>{{Cite web |title=Guruvayoor Ambala Nadayil first look out |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2024/jan/16/guruvayoor-ambala-nadayil-first-look-out-51281.html |access-date=2024-01-16 |website=[[Cinema Express]] |date=16 January 2024 |language=en |archive-date=16 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240116200155/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2024/jan/16/guruvayoor-ambala-nadayil-first-look-out-51281.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Vaazha – Biopic of a Billion Boys]]'' ||Vishwam's father||<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-08-15 |title=Vaazha-Biopic Of A Billion Boys Review: A Relatable And Entertaining Story Told Differently |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment-news/reviews/malayalam/vaazha-biopic-of-a-billion-boys-review-a-relatable-and-entertaining-story-told-differently-review-112548571 |access-date=2024-09-04 |website=Times Now |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Ajayante Randam Moshanam]]'' || Kollan Nanu ||<ref>{{Cite web |last=Features |first=C. E. |date=2024-07-29 |title=Makers share date for the next update on Tovino Thomas' ARM |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2024/Jul/29/makers-share-date-for-the-next-update-on-tovino-thomas-arm |access-date=2024-09-11 |website=Cinema Express |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Kishkindha Kaandam]]'' || Sumadathan ||<ref>{{Cite web |last=Features |first=C. E. |date=2024-08-22 |title=Asif Ali-starrer Kishkindha Kaandam gets a release date |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2024/Aug/22/asif-ali-starrer-kishkindha-kaandam-gets-a-release-date |access-date=2024-08-23 |website=Cinema Express |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Hello Mummy]]'' || Samuel ||
|-
| ''[[Marco (2024 film)|Marco]]'' || Tony Issac ||
|-
| rowspan="6" | 2025 || ''[[Rekhachithram]]'' ||Himself ||Cameo appearance<ref>{{Cite web |last=Madhu |first=Vignesh |date=2024-12-24 |title=Rekhachithram trailer has Asif Ali as a cop trying to unravel past mysteries |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2024/Dec/24/rekhachithram-trailer-has-asif-ali-as-a-cop-trying-to-unravel-past-mysteries |access-date=2025-01-09 |website=Cinema Express |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Officer on Duty]]'' || Chandrababu ||<ref>{{Cite web |last=Santhosh |first=Vivek |date=2025-01-17 |title=Kunchacko Boban's Officer on Duty gets a release date |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2025/Jan/17/kunchacko-bobans-officer-on-duty-gets-a-release-date |access-date=2025-01-18 |website=Cinema Express |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Pariwar (film)|Pariwar]]'' || Sahadevan||<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-03-05 |title=Cinema and violence: Actor Jagadish urges parents to monitor children |url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/movies-music/news/actor-jagadish-parental-responsibility-film-promotion-pariwar-1.10397271 |access-date=2025-03-07 |website=English.Mathrubhumi |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Aabhyanthara Kuttavaali]]''|| Advocate Vishwanathan ||<ref>{{Cite web |last=Santhosh |first=Vivek |date=2025-02-28 |title=Asif Ali's Abhyanthara Kuttavali confirms release date, teaser out |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2025/Feb/28/asif-alis-abhyanthara-kuttavali-confirms-release-date-teaser-out |access-date=2025-02-28 |website=Cinema Express |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Dheeran (2025 film)|Dheeran]]'' || Abbas||<ref>{{Cite web |last=Features |first=C. E. |date=2025-03-06 |title=First look of Dheeran unveiled |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2025/Mar/06/first-look-of-dheeran-unveiled |access-date=2025-03-06 |website=Cinema Express |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[The Chronicles of the 4.5 Gang]]'' || Maithreyan||[[SonyLIV]] series<ref>{{Cite web |last=Features |first=C. E. |date=2025-08-23 |title=‘4.5 Gang’ OTT Release: When and where to watch THIS Malayalam crime comedy |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/4-5-gang-ott-release-when-and-where-to-watch-this-malayalam-crime-comedy/articleshow/123473057.cms |access-date=2025-08-23 |website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=7 | 2026 || ''Appuram'' || Venu ||<ref>{{Cite web |last=Desk |first=Cinema Express |date=2026-01-01 |title=IFFK award-winning Jagadish-Anagha Ravi starrer Appuram gets direct-to-digital premiere date |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2026/Jan/01/iffk-award-winning-jagadish-anagha-ravi-starrer-appuram-gets-direct-to-digital-premiere-date |access-date=2026-01-02 |website=Cinema Express |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| ''Sukhamano Sukhamanu'' || ||<ref>{{Cite web |title=From ‘Sukhamano Sukhamanu’ to ‘Pennum Porattum’: What’s releasing in theatres this Friday |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/entertainment/entertainment-news/2026/02/11/movies-hitting-theatres-this-weekend-febrary-13-malayalam-hindi-english-films.html |access-date=2026-02-13 |website=@onmanorama |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Masthishka Maranam (film)|Masthishka Maranam]]'' || Inspector Praveen Shashank ||<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-02-09 |title=Krishand’s Masthishka Maranam gets a release date, teaser out |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2026/Feb/09/krishands-masthishka-maranam-gets-a-release-date-teaser-out |access-date=2026-02-10 |website=Cinema Express |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Bharathanatyam 2 Mohiniyattam]]'' || Eapen || <ref>{{cite news |title=Saiju Kurup's Mohiniyattam shooting wrapped up |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/malayalam/2026/Jan/07/malayalamnews2026jan07saiju-kurups-mohiniyattam-shooting-wrapped-up |work=The New Indian Express |date=7 January 2026 |access-date=10 January 2026}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Madhuvidhu (2026 film)|Madhuvidhu]]'' || Rajkumar ||<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-02-15 |title=Sharaf U Dheen-Kalyani Panicker starrer Madhuvidhu gets a new release date |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2026/Feb/15/sharaf-u-dheen-kalyani-panicker-starrer-madhuvidhu-gets-a-new-release-date |access-date=2026-02-15 |website=Cinema Express |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| {{Pending film| Dose}} || {{TableTBA}} ||<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-04-01 |title=Siju Wilson-starrer Dose gets a release date, second look unveiled |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2026/Apr/01/siju-wilson-starrer-dose-gets-a-release-date-second-look-unveiled |access-date=2026-04-03 |website=Cinema Express |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| {{Pending film| [[Kattalan]]}} || {{TableTBA}} ||<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-04-30 |title=Antony Varghese Pepe’s Kattalan gets a new release date |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2026/Apr/30/antony-varghese-pepes-kattalan-gets-a-new-release-date |access-date=2026-05-03 |website=Cinema Express |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|}

== Writer ==

# ''[[Mutharamkunnu P.O.]]'' (1985) (story)
# ''[[Akkare Ninnoru Maran]]'' (1985) (story)
# ''[[Mazha Peyyunnu Maddalam Kottunnu]]'' (1986) (story)
# ''[[Ponnum Kudathinum Pottu|Ponnukudathinu Pottu]]'' (1986) (story)
# ''[[Nandi Veendum Varika]]'' (1986) (story)
# ''[[Manivatharile Aayiram Sivarathrikal]]'' (1987) (dialogue)
# ''[[Oru Muthassi Katha]]'' (1988) (story)
# ''[[The News (film)|News]]'' (1989) (screenplay and dialogue)
# ''[[Adhipan]]'' (1989) (screenplay and dialogue)
# ''[[Minda Poochakku Kalyanam]]'' (1990) (screenplay and dialogue)
# ''[[Ganamela]]'' (1991) (story and screenplay)
# ''[[April Fool (2010 film)|April Fool]]'' (2010) (screenplay and dialogue)

== Television ==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year !! Serial/program !! Channel !! Role!! Notes!! Show format
|-
|1995||''Kairali Vilasam Lodge''||[[Doordarshan]]|| ||TV debut||Serial
|-
|2000||''Saregama''|| rowspan="2" |[[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]]|| rowspan="2" |Host||||Musical show
|-
|2001||''Jagadish TV''|| ||
|-
|2002||''Chila Kudumba Chithrangal''||[[Kairali TV]]|| rowspan="2" |Vishwanathan ||Replaced [[Siddique (actor)|Siddique]]||rowspan=2|Serial
|-
|2002-2004||''Life is Beautiful'' || rowspan="4" |[[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]]||Sequel of Chila Kudumba Chitrangal
|-
|2006-2008||''Minnum Tharam''||Host || ||Game show
|-
|2010-2013||''Comedy Stars''||Judge |||| Reality show
|-
|2011||''Nammal Thammil''
||Host||Replaced [[Sreekandan Nair]]||Talk show
|-
|2012-2013||''[[Lunars Comedy Express]]'' ||[[Asianet Plus]]|| rowspan="2" |Judge||Later left the show|| rowspan="2" |Reality show
|-
|2013–2021||''Comedy Stars Season 2''||[[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]]||
|-
|2016-2017||''Rahasya Sancharangal''||[[Asianet Plus]]||Host ||Replaced [[Shankar Ramakrishnan]]||Crime Series
|-
|rowspan=2|2017 ||'' Oru Cilma Kadha'' || rowspan="2" |[[Amrita TV]]||Various roles|| ||Serial
|-
|''Great Magical Circus''|| Judge|| ||Reality show
|-
|2020||''Veendum Chila Veetuviseshangal''|| rowspan="3" |[[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]]||Host||||Comedy Talk show
|-
|Rowspan=2|2021||''Onamamankam Bigg Boss''|| rowspan="2" |Co-Host|| ||rowspan=2|Onam Special show
|-
|Comedy Mamankam||
|-
|2022–2023||''Panam Tharum Padam''||[[Mazhavil Manorama]]||Host||||Game show
|-
|2023||[[Star Singer]]||Rowspan=3|Asianet||Guest Jury||||Reality show
|-
|Rowspan=2|2025||''Enkile Ennodu Para''||Guest||||Reality show<ref>{{cite web|title=ഏഷ്യാനെറ്റിലെ ജനപ്രിയ ഗെയിം ഷോ 'എങ്കിലേ എന്നോട് പറ' 25 ന്‍റെ നിറവിൽ|url=https://www.asianetnews.com/entertainment-news/enkile-ennodu-para-game-shows-25th-episode-on-asianet-sq6y09|date=16 January 2025|website=[[Asianet News]]}}</ref>
|-
|''[[Bigg Boss (Malayalam season 7)|Bigg Boss Malayalam season 7]]''||Performer in a skit||||Reality show<ref>{{cite web|title=Bigg Boss Malayalam 7 Grand Finale Highlights: TV actress Anumol crowns the winner of the season|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/malayalam/bigg-boss-malayalam-7-grand-finale-live-updates-winner-price-money-host-mohanlal-bigg-boss-malayalam-season-7-winner-finalist-contestants-aneesh-anumol/liveblog/125199323.cms|date=9 November 2025|website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref>
|}

== Playback singer ==

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year !! Film/album !! Song(s) !! Lyricist !! Music director
|-
|1995 ||''[[Prayikkara Pappan|Praayikkara Paappaan]]'' || "Kokkum Poonchirakum" ||Bichu Thirumala||SP Venkitesh
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1998 || ''British Market'' || "Kuchipudi Kuchipadi Aadi Varum" ||Gireesh Puthenchery||Rajamani
|-
| ''[[Achaammakkuttiyude Achaayan]]''|| "Cheppu Kilukki Nadakkana Rappayi" ||Sarath Vayalar|| Kalavoor Balan
|-
| 2005||''Kalyaanakkurimaanam'' || "Keralam Oru" ||Bichu Thirumala, S Ramesan Nair, Joy Thamalam, Suresh Krishnamoorthy||Ronnie Raphael
|-
| 2009|| ''The Stars'' || "Idamvalam Thiinju"|| ||K A Latheef
|}

== Dubbing ==

{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Year !! Film !! For Whom !!Character
|-
|1982 ||''[[Idavela]]'' || ||
|-
|2003 ||''[[Magic Magic 3D]]'' || Owen Burke ||Villain's assistant
|-
|2010 ||''[[Kushti]]'' || ||
|}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb name|0415538}}
*[http://en.msidb.org/displayProfile.php?category=actors&artist=Jagadeesh&limit=249 Jagadeesh at MSI]
{{Subject bar
|commons = yes
|commons-search =
|d = yes
|d-search =
|portal1 = Biography
|portal2 =
}}
{{authority control}}

[[Category:Kerala Film Critics Awards winners]]
[[Category:Indian male film actors]]
[[Category:Male actors from Thiruvananthapuram]]
[[Category:1955 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Male actors in Malayalam cinema]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Kerala]]
[[Category:Male actors in Malayalam television]]
[[Category:Indian male television actors]]
[[Category:Indian actor-politicians]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian politicians]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:Malayalam comedians]]
[[Category:Indian male comedians]]
[[Category:Politicians from Thiruvananthapuram]]
[[Category:Malayalam screenwriters]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:Screenwriters from Thiruvananthapuram]]
[[Category:Singers from Thiruvananthapuram]]
[[Category:Malayalam-language playback singers]]
[[Category:Indian male playback singers]]

Palair, Khammam

2026-04-25T06:52:31Z

AhmedSturgis: Made new post

{{Short description|Village in Khammam district, Telangana, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2022}}
{{Infobox settlement
|name = Palair
|settlement_type = Village
|pushpin_map = India Telangana
|pushpin_map_alt = Location of Palair within Telangana
|pushpin_map_caption = Location of Palair within Telangana
|coordinates = {{coord|17.208|79.923|display=inline,title}}
|subdivision_type = Country
|subdivision_name = [[India]]
|subdivision_type1 = State
|subdivision_name1 = [[Telangana]]
|subdivision_type2 = District
|subdivision_name2 = [[Khammam district|Khammam]]
|subdivision_type3 = Tehsil
|subdivision_name3 = Kusumanchi
|government_footnotes =
|government_type =
|governing_body =
|leader_party =
|leader_title = [[Telangana Legislative Assembly|MLA]]
|leader_name = [[Ponguleti Srinivas Reddy]]
|leader_title1 = Member of [[Lok Sabha|Parliament]]
|leader_name1 = [[Nama Nageswara Rao]]
|unit_pref = Metric


|population_footnotes = <ref name=census2011/>
|population_as_of = 2011
|population_total = {{formatnum:5143}}
|population_density_km2 = auto
|timezone1 = IST
|utc_offset1 = +5:30
|postal_code_type =
|postal_code =
|iso_code =
|module =
|footnotes =
}}
'''Palair''' or '''Paleru''' is a village in Kusumanchi tehsil, [[Khammam district]], in the state of [[Telangana]], India. It is located on the [[Khammam]] to [[Suryapet]] road, about {{cvt|30|km}} from the district headquarters of [[Khammam]], on the banks of the [[Paleru Lake|Paleru lake]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://khammam.telangana.gov.in/tourist-place/palairlake/ |title=Palair Lake |access-date= 20 February 2022}}</ref> As of the [[2011 Census of India]], Palair had a population of {{formatnum:5143}}, spread over {{formatnum:1204}} households. Of these, {{formatnum:2625}} were males while females numbered {{formatnum:2518}}.<ref name=census2011>{{cite web |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/pca/SearchDetails.aspx?Id=655557 |title=Census of India: Search Details - Palair|access-date= 20 February 2022}}</ref>

==Government and politics==
At the state level, Palair is a part of [[Palair Assembly constituency]] of the [[Telangana Legislative Assembly]]. As of 2023, it is represented in the assembly by [[Ponguleti Srinivas Reddy]] of the [[Indian National Congress]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.indiatvnews.com/elections/telangana-assembly-elections/khammam/constituencies-palair |title=Palair Election Results 2023, Palair Assembly Seat Leading Candidates with names |date= |author= |access-date= 21 December 2023}}</ref>{{update after|2029|2}}

At the national level, Palair is a part of [[Khammam Lok Sabha constituency]] of the [[Lok Sabha]]. As of 2019, it is represented in the parliament by [[Nama Nageswara Rao]] of the [[Telangana Rashtra Samithi]].<ref name=election2019>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/13539-33-constituency-wise-detailed-result/ |title=General Election 2019 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date= 22 October 2021}}</ref>{{update after|2024}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Khammam district}}

[[Category:Villages in Khammam district]]

List of Tulu films of 2026

2026-04-23T06:12:06Z

AhmedSturgis: New some post w/ sources

{{Short description|none}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2026}}
This is a list of [[Tulu language|Tulu]] films that are scheduled to be released in 2026.

== Releases ==

=== January – June ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! colspan="2" style="width:9%;" |Opening
!Name
!Director
!Cast
!Ref
|-
| rowspan="1" style="text-align:center;background:#ffdabf;" |'''{{Vertical text|JAN}}'''
| rowspan="1" style="text-align:center;background:#ffdacc;" |'''16'''
|''Kattemar''
|Sachin Katla
|Swaraj Shetty, [[J. P. Thuminad]], Harshitha Kulal, Aakansha Rao, Lanchulal K S
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kattemar (2026) - Movie {{!}} Reviews, Cast & Release Date |url=https://in.bookmyshow.com/movies/kattemar/ET00481701?utm_source=FBLIKE&fbrefresh=1 |access-date=2026-01-15 |website=BookMyShow |language=en-IN}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#bf87f7; textcolor:#000;" |'''{{Vertical text|FEBRUARY}}'''
| rowspan="1" style="text-align:center;background:#dfc7f7;" |'''6'''
| ''Non Veg''
| K Sooraj Shetty
| Atharva Prakash, Sanjana Burli, [[Prakash Thuminad]], [[Naveen D. Padil]]
| <ref>{{Cite web |title=Non Veg (2026) - Movie {{!}} Reviews, Cast & Release Date |url=https://in.bookmyshow.com/movies/non-veg/ET00453257?utm_source=FBLIKE&fbrefresh=1 |access-date=2026-02-03 |website=BookMyShow |language=en-IN}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="1" style="text-align:center;background:#dfc7f7;" |27
|''Birdudaa Kambalaa''
|[[Rajendra Singh Babu]]
|[[Aditya (Kannada actor)|Adithya]], [[Prakash Raj]], [[P. Ravi Shankar]], [[Radhika Narayan]], [[Naveen D. Padil]], Usha Bhandary
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Birdudaa Kambalaa (2026) - Movie {{!}} Reviews, Cast & Release Date |url=https://in.bookmyshow.com/movies/birdudaa-kambalaa/ET00488681?utm_source=FBLIKE&fbrefresh=1 |access-date=2026-03-06 |website=BookMyShow |language=en-IN}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;background:#ffdabf;" |'''{{Vertical text|APR}}'''
| rowspan="1" style="text-align:center;background:#ffdacc;" |'''10'''
|''90ML: Kullugana''
|Ranjith C Bajal
|Vineeth Kumar, Ruhani Shetty, Roshan S Shetty, [[Aravind Bolar]]
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=90ML: Kullugana (2026) - Movie {{!}} Reviews, Cast & Release Date |url=https://in.bookmyshow.com/movies/90ml-kullugana/ET00494577?utm_source=FBLIKE&fbrefresh=1 |access-date=2026-04-23 |website=BookMyShow |language=en-IN}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="1" style="text-align:center;background:#ffdacc;" |'''24'''
|''Dev Das Na Leela''
|Tejesh Poojary
|Devadas Kapikad, Adhvithi Shetty, Aravind bolar, Elton Jeff
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dev Das Na Leela (2026) - Movie {{!}} Reviews, Cast & Release Date |url=https://in.bookmyshow.com/movies/dev-das-na-leela/ET00496086?utm_source=FBLIKE&fbrefresh=1 |access-date=2026-04-23 |website=BookMyShow |language=en-IN}}</ref>
|-
|}

=== July – December ===

== See also ==

* [[List of Tulu-language films]]
* [[List of Tulu films of 2025]]
* [[Tulu cinema]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}{{Indian film list|state=collapsed}}{{2026 films|state=collapsed}}

[[Category:Lists of Tulu films by year]]
[[Category:2026 in Indian cinema|Tulu]]

Sujith Vaassudev

2026-04-21T09:49:46Z

AhmedSturgis:

{{Short description|Indian cinematographer (born 1974)}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{BLP sources|date=July 2016}}
{{Lead too short|date=August 2021}}
}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2018}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Sujith Vaassudev
| image =
| imagesize =
| caption =
| birth_name =
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [[Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala]], India
| occupation = {{hlist|Photographer|[[Cinematographer]]|Film director
}}
| years active = 2009–present
| spouse = {{hlist|{{Marriage|[[Manju Pillai]]|2000|2024|end=div}}}}
| awards = [[Kerala State Film Award|Kerala State Film Award for Best Cinematographer]] (2013)
}}

'''Sujith Vaassudev''' {{small|[[Indian Society of Cinematographers|ISC]]}} is an Indian cinematographer and film director who works predominantly in [[Malayalam cinema|Malayalam]] films. He has also worked in several [[Tamil cinema|Tamil]] and [[Telugu cinema|Telugu]] films. He is best known for his works in ''[[Memories (2013 film)|Memories]]'' (2013), ''[[7th Day (film)|7th Day]]'' (2014), ''[[Drishyam]]'' (2014), ''[[Lucifer (2019 Indian film)|Lucifer]]'' (2019), ''[[L2: Empuraan]]'' (2025). He was the recipient of the [[Kerala State Film Awards|Kerala State Film Award for Best Cinematographer]] in 2013.

==Career==
Started his career as a camera assistant in a studio called Sangeetha Vision in Thiruvananthapuram. From there he gradually built his knowledge in cinematography by assisting many cameramen.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/topic/Sujith-Vasudev/news|title = Sujith Vasudev News | Latest News on Sujith Vasudev – Times of India|website = [[The Times of India]]}}</ref>
He started his first independent works for television in 1998.
He has done more than 1000 episodes for television for various Malayalam channels.
He assisted Raja Rathinam for a while in cinematography.
Sujith made his debut with ''[[Chekavar (film)|Chekavar]]'' a 2010 Malayalam film. His best works include ''[[Drishyam]]'', ''[[7th Day (film)|7th Day]]'', ''[[Memories (2013 film)|Memories]]'', ''[[Ayaal]]'', ''[[Anarkali (2015 film)|Anarkali]]''.

Sujith Vaassudev won the 2013 [[Kerala State Film Award for Best Cinematography]] for the films ''[[Ayaal]]'' and ''[[Memories (2013 film)|Memories]]''.

In 2016 he debuted as a director through the film ''[[James & Alice]]'' starring [[Prithviraj Sukumaran]] and [[Vedhika]].

==Personal life==

Sujith married actress [[Manju Pillai]] on 23 December 2000. The couple has a daughter. Sujith and Manju Pillai have been separated since 2020 and divorced in 2024.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/movies-music/news/actress-manju-pillai-and-sujith-vaassudev-break-up-1.9451258 | title=Manju Pillai ends 24 years of marriage with Sujith Vaassudev | date=April 2024 }}</ref>

== Filmography ==

* ''All films are in Malayalam, unless mentioned otherwise.''
{{Pending films key}}

=== As cinematographer ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Film !! Notes
|-
|2009 ||''[[Kerala Cafe]]''
| Segment : ''Lalitham Hiranmayam''
|-
| rowspan="2" |2010 || ''[[Chekavar (film)|Chekavar]]'' ||
|-
| ''[[College Days (2010 film)|College Days]]'' ||
|-
| 2011 || ''[[City of God (2011 film)|City of God]]'' ||
|-
| rowspan="2" |2012 || ''[[Mullamottum Munthiricharum]]'' ||
|-
| ''[[Molly Aunty Rocks!]]'' ||
|-
| rowspan="4" |2013 || ''[[Ayaal]]'' || {{ubl|[[Kerala State Film Award for Best Cinematography|Kerala State Film Award for Best Cinematographer]]|Nominated – [[South Indian International Movie Awards|SIIMA Award for Best Cinematographer]]}}
|-
| ''[[Memories (2013 film)|Memories]]'' || [[Kerala State Film Award for Best Cinematography|Kerala State Film Award for Best Cinematographer]]
|-
| ''[[Punyalan Agarbattis]]'' ||
|-
| ''[[Drishyam]]'' ||<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Menon |first=Neelima |date=2018-11-20 |title=Nirmalyam Can Still Be Considered A New Generation Film: Sujith Vaassudev |url=https://www.filmcompanion.in/interviews/nirmalyam-can-still-be-considered-a-new-generation-film-sujith-vaassudev |access-date=2025-03-17 |website=www.filmcompanion.in |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| 2014 || ''[[7th Day (film)|7th Day]]'' ||
|-
| rowspan="3" |2015 || ''[[Papanasam (film)|Papanasam]]'' || [[Tamil Nadu|Tamil]] film
|-
| ''[[Amar Akbar Anthony (2015 film)|Amar Akbar Anthony]]'' ||
|-
| ''[[Anarkali (2015 film)|Anarkali]]'' ||<ref name=":0" />
|-
| rowspan="2" |2017 || ''[[Ezra (2017 film)|Ezra]]'' ||<ref name=":0" />
|-
| ''[[1971: Beyond Borders]]'' ||
|-
| 2019 || ''[[Lucifer (2019 Indian film)|Lucifer]]'' ||<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shriijth |first=Sajin |date=2019-04-02 |title=Every director should be hands-on like Prithviraj: Sujith Vaassudev |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/stories/interviews/2019/Apr/02/every-director-should-be-hands-on-like-prithviraj-sujith-vaassudev-10847.html |access-date=2025-03-17 |website=Cinema Express |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=2 | 2020 || ''[[Anveshanam]]'' ||
|-
| ''[[Miss India (film)|''Miss India'']]'' ||<ref>{{Cite web |last=FC |first=Team |date=2020-10-24 |title=Miss India Trailer Talk: Keerthy Suresh’s Netflix Debut Is About A ‘Badass’ Girl Who Dreams Of Making It Big In Business |url=https://www.filmcompanion.in/trailer-talk/miss-india-trailer-keerthy-sureshs-netflix-debut-looks-promising |access-date=2025-03-17 |website=www.filmcompanion.in |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=2 | 2022 || ''[[Khiladi (2021 film)|Khiladi]]'' || [[Telugu language|Telugu]] film
|-
| ''[[The Warriorr]]'' || Bilingual film
|-
| 2023 || ''[[Bro (2023 film)|Bro]]'' || Telugu film
|-
| 2024 || ''[[Manorathangal]]'' || Anthology series
|-
| 2025 || ''[[L2: Empuraan]]'' ||<ref>{{Cite web |last=Service |first=Express News |date=2023-10-31 |title=First schedule of 'Empuraan' wrapped up |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/malayalam/2023/Oct/31/first-schedule-of-empuraan-wrapped-up-2628442.html |access-date=2025-03-17 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| 2026 || {{Pending film| Magic Mushrooms}} ||<ref>{{Cite web |last=Desk |first=Cinema Express |date=2025-11-30 |title=Vishnu Unnikrishnan's Magic Mushrooms gets a release date |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2025/Nov/30/vishnu-unnikrishnans-magic-mushrooms-gets-a-release-date |access-date=2025-12-06 |website=Cinema Express |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|}

=== As director ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Film !! Language !! Notes
|-
| 2016 || ''[[James & Alice]]'' || rowspan="2" | [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]] || rowspan="2" | Also cinematographer<ref>{{Cite news |date=2016-04-28 |title=Cinematographer Sujith Vaassudev on making debut as a director |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/cinematographer-sujith-vaassudev-on-making-debut-as-a-director/article8528348.ece |access-date=2025-03-17 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref name=":0" />
|-
| 2018 || ''[[Autorsha]]''
|}

=== As actor ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Film !! Role!! Language
|-
| 2015 || ''[[Amar Akbar Anthony (2015 film)|Amar Akbar Anthony]]'' || Himself|| [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]]
|-
| 2020 || ''[[Anveshanam]]'' ||Channel Head|| Malayalam
|}

==Awards==
{|class = "wikitable"
!Year
!Award
!Category
!Film(s)
!Result
|-
|2012
|Kerala State Television Award
|rowspan="5"|Best Cinematographer
|''Nizhalum Nilaavum Parayunnathu''
|{{Won}}
|-
|rowspan="2|2013
|[[Kerala State Film Award]]
|rowspan="2"|''[[Ayaal]]'', ''[[Memories (2013 film)|Memories]]''
|{{Won}}
|-
|[[3rd South Indian International Movie Awards|South Indian International Movie Award]]
|{{Nom}}
|-
|2014
|Minnalai Film TV Awards
|''[[Drishyam]]'', ''[[Memories (2013 film)|Memories]]''
|{{Won}}
|-
|2016
|[[Kerala Film Critics Association Awards|Kerala Film Critics Association Award]]
|''[[James & Alice]]''
|{{Won}}
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb name|nm4140478}}

{{Kerala State Film Award Best Cinematography}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Vaassudev, Sujith}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Malayalam film cinematographers]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian photographers]]
[[Category:Malayalam film directors]]
[[Category:Male actors in Malayalam cinema]]
[[Category:Artists from Thiruvananthapuram]]
[[Category:Cinematographers from Kerala]]
[[Category:1973 births]]

Ulta Palta (1998 film)

2026-04-19T05:48:23Z

AhmedSturgis:

{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2017}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Ulta Palta
| image = Ulta Palta (1998 film).jpg
| caption = Title card
| writer = Omkaar
| story = N. S. Shankar
| screenplay = Relangi Narasimha Rao Shankar Omkaar
| producer = P. Balaram
| director = [[Relangi Narasimha Rao]]
| starring = [[Rajendra Prasad (actor)|Rajendra Prasad]] Srikanya [[Reshma (Tamil actress)|Reshma]] [[Rani (Tamil actress)|Raksha]]
| music = [[M. M. Srilekha]]
| cinematography = M. Nagendra Kumar
| editing = Murali-Ramayya
| based_on = [[Ulta Palta (1997 film)|Ulta Palta]] (1997)
| studio = Sri Anupama Productions<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thecinebay.com/movie/index/id/3567?ed=Tolly |title=Ulta Palta (Overview) |work=The Cine Bay |access-date=11 May 2016 |archive-date=13 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160513073947/http://www.thecinebay.com/movie/index/id/3567?ed=Tolly |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| released = {{Film date|df=y|1998||}}
| runtime = 123 mins
| country = India
| language = Telugu
| budget =
| gross =
}}

'''''Ulta Palta''''' ({{translation|'' Straight and Reverse''}}) is a 1998 Indian [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-language [[comedy film]] produced by P. Balaram under the Sri Anupama Productions banner and directed by [[Relangi Narasimha Rao]]. It stars [[Rajendra Prasad (actor)|Rajendra Prasad]], Srikanya, [[Reshma (Tamil actress)|Reshma]], [[Rani (Tamil actress)|Raksha]] and music composed by [[M. M. Srilekha]]. The film is a remake of the [[Kannada]] film [[Ulta Palta (1997 film)|of the same name]] (1997), which itself is a remake of the 1963 [[Bengali language|Bengali]] film ''[[Bhranti Bilas]]'' (1963). Unlike the Kannada original, the Telugu version failed at box-office.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.andhraonline.com/archives/tollywood/long24.htm|title=Where's Rajendra Prasad|website=Andhra Online|access-date=18 November 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000526231258/http://www.andhraonline.com/archives/tollywood/long24.htm|archive-date=26 May 2000}}</ref>

==Plot==
The film is a tale of two sets of identical twins as owners & acolytes whose names are also the same, Raja & Ramu, whom destiny detaches in childhood. One pair settled in the city, another in the village; both are conscious of their siblings but fail to find their whereabouts. Raja-1 is the proudest industrialist and is well-known to the entire city. He resides with his spouse Radha & sister-in-law Swati with Ramu-1. Anyhow, Raja-1 is constantly haunted by Radha because an amour Mohini clutches him for his wealth. Raja-1, vexed, walks out with hunger and reaches Mohini. On the contrary, her cousin Kumar sincerely loves Mohini, but she detests him, and he is determined to win her. The story shifts to a political party office where arch-rivalry is between President Bala Tripura Sundari & Vice President Narayana's wife, Baby. Currently, it is high time to elect a new president. Raja-1 is under consideration, so Bala Tripura & Baby will proceed to uphold him.

Meanwhile, Raja-2 & Ramu-2 land, and the two get perplexed since everyone is addressing them, as noted. From there, the two sets swap interacts with each other, which ends humorously. Raja-1 vows to bestow Mohini with a gold chain, which he has already instructed. So, he sets foot at the jewel store to take delivery, and Marwadi Seth asks for a while, which he grants Raja-2. VP first contacts Raja-2 and divulges about the elections, but he chases him away. Next, he follows Baby, and they meet Raja-1, who takes the word to contest. Swati sends Ramu-1 to Raja-1 to bring him for lunch to fix the problem. He passes it to Raja-2 and receives his slap. Hearing it, Radha wipes when Swati soothes her, and the sisters advance towards Raja-1 to plead with him. Sulk Ramu-1 goes to a film. Midway, Radha & Swati trespass on Raja-2 & Ramu-2, who are forcibly carrying them, and they are utterly bewildered about the happening. After reaching home, Bala Tripura Sundari communicates with Raja-2, whom he says not to contest with an absent mind. Simultaneously, Raja-1 arrives home with his mate, and the women close the doors as Raja-2 is present inside. Hence, he walks out and gets mortified by his Buddy.

Amidst all this, Raja-2's crushes for Swati to be romantic with her, which she misconstrues. Following this, they quietly abscond and encounter Mohini, furious about Raja-2's silly words, who feels he is ditching her. Accordingly, she approaches Radha when Swati makes her eat a humble pie. Kumar wholeheartedly accepts her, and she regretfully seeks his pardon. Parallelly, Bala Tripura Sundari & Baby becomes intricate by repeated Yes & No's of similar Rajas. Raja-1 returns to the shop for the chain when Seth claims he has handed it over, and the issue hits the Police case. Halfway, Raja-1 mandates Ramu-2 to come to the Police Station with the jewel amount from home, and he does so despite a muddle. En route back, Raja-2 crosses him, undertakes a stupid state, and decides to quit. Due to the delay, Raja-1 moves, spots Ramu-1 returning from the movie, and batters accuse him of theft. Here, the complete house speaks about all the events from the morning. Ergo, the ladies affirm Raja & Ramu became insane and locked up in the room. However, catching their attendance outdoors, Radha & Swati rush, assuming they flee, and the other two break the bars. At last, they all touch down at the Police Station when the split siblings unite. Raja-1 apologizes to Radha, & Raja-2 proposes to Swati. Finally, the movie ends happily.

==Cast==
{{colbegin}}
*[[Rajendra Prasad (actor)|Rajendra Prasad]] as Raja & Raja (Dual Role)
*Srikanya as Radha
*[[Reshma (Tamil actress)|Reshma]] as Swathi
*[[Rani (Tamil actress)|Raksha]] as Mohini
*[[Ali (actor)|Ali]] as Kumar
*[[Babu Mohan]] as Ramu & Ramu (Dual Role)
*[[Tanikella Bharani]] as Raja's friend
*[[Mallikarjuna Rao (actor)|Mallikarjuna Rao]] as S.I.
*[[Amanchi Venkata Subrahmanyam|A.V.S.]] as Marvadi Seth
*[[M. S. Narayana]] as Vice President Narayana
*K. K. Sarma as Venkatrao
*[[Chitti Babu (Telugu actor)|Chitti Babu]] as Party President's PA
*[[Ashok Kumar (Telugu actor)|Ashok Kumar]] as Raja's secretary
*[[Jayalalita]] as Baby
*Krishnaveni as Ramulamma
*[[Kalpana Rai]] as Dr. Kanya Kumari
*[[Y. Vijaya]] as Party President Bala Tripura Sundari
{{colend}}

==Soundtrack==
{{Infobox album
| name = Ulta Palta
| type = film
| artist = [[M. M. Srilekha]]
| cover =
| alt =
| released = 1998
| recorded =
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = Soundtrack
| length = 21:48
| label = Supreme Music
| producer = [[M. M. Srilekha]]
| prev_title = Sivaiah
| prev_year = 1998
| next_title = [[Preyasi Rave]]
| next_year = 1999
}}

Music composed by [[M. M. Srilekha]]. Music released on Supreme Music Company.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cineradham.com/telugu-audio/movie/2186/Ulta%20Palta(1998)/ |title=Ulta Palta (Songs) |work=Cineradham}}</ref>
{{Track listing
| collapsed =
| headline =
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| total_length = 21:48
| all_writing =
| all_lyrics =
| all_music =
| title1 = Chamaku Chamaka
| lyrics1 = [[Bhuvana Chandra]]
| extra1 = [[Mano (singer)|Mano]], [[K. S. Chithra|Chitra]]
| length1 = 4:37

| title2 = Kashmirunundi Kanyakumari
| lyrics2 = Ramakrishna
| extra2 = Mano, [[S. P. Sailaja]]
| length2 = 4:31

| title3 = Rajamendri Ramba
| lyrics3 = [[Vennelakanti]]
| extra3 = Mano, M. M. Srilekha
| length3 = 4:19

| title4 = Painavundi Moonu
| lyrics4 = Bhuvana Chandra
| extra4 = Pranai, M. M. Srilekha, Swetha Naga
| length4 = 4:26

| title5 = Mushtikala
| lyrics5 = Polishetty
| extra5 = Pranai, S. P. Sailaja
| length5 = 3:55

| title6 =
| lyrics6 =
| extra6 =
| length6 =
}}

== See also ==
* {{Section link|The Comedy of Errors|Adaptations}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Relangi Narasimha Rao}}
{{The Comedy of Errors}}

[[Category:Modern adaptations of works by William Shakespeare]]
[[Category:Films based on The Comedy of Errors]]
[[Category:Twins in Indian films]]
[[Category:Telugu remakes of Kannada films]]
[[Category:Indian comedy films]]
[[Category:1998 comedy films]]
[[Category:1998 films]]
[[Category:1998 Telugu-language films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Relangi Narasimha Rao]]
[[Category:Films scored by M. M. Srilekha]]
[[Category:Films about twin brothers]]
[[Category:Indian films based on plays]]
[[Category:Telugu remakes of Bengali films]]

Cyclone Asani

2026-04-17T06:36:54Z

AhmedSturgis:

{{Short description|North Indian Ocean cyclone in 2022}}
{{Distinguish|Typhoon Atsani|Subtropical Storm Arani}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2022}}
{{Infobox weather event
| name = Severe Cyclonic Storm Asani
| image = Asani 2022-05-09 0740Z.jpg
| caption = Cyclone Asani near peak intensity on 9 May
| formed = 7 May 2022
| dissipated = 12 May 2022
}}{{Infobox weather event/IMD
| winds = 55
| pressure = 982
}}{{Infobox weather event/JTWC
| winds = 65
| pressure = 976
}}{{Infobox weather event/Effects
| year = 2022
| damage = 323000000
| fatalities = 3 total
| areas = [[India]] ([[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Karnataka]], [[Odisha]], [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]])
| refs = <ref name="IMD BT">{{cite report |title=Tracks of Cyclones and Depressions for the period of Jan-Dec 2022 |url=https://rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/download.php?path=uploads/report/33/33_d79c2f_Best%20track%202022.pdf |publisher=India Meteorological Department |access-date=August 5, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Trackfile of 02B.ASANI |url=https://science.nrlmry.navy.mil/geoips/tcdat/tc2022/IO/IO022022/txt/trackfile.txt |publisher=U.S. Naval Research Laboratory |access-date=August 5, 2023}}</ref>
}}{{Infobox weather event/Footer
| season = [[2022 North Indian Ocean cyclone season]]
}}
'''Severe Cyclonic Storm Asani'''{{efn|The name ''Asani'' ([[Sinhala language|Sinhala]]: අසනි, [[Help:IPA/Sinhala|[asani]]]) was contributed by [[Sri Lanka]] and means "thunderbolt" in [[Sinhala language|Sinhala]].<ref>{{cite web |author=Simran Kashyap |date=May 6, 2022 |title=How Cyclone Asani got its name? Why naming is important? |url=https://www.oneindia.com/india/how-cyclone-asani-got-its-name-why-naming-is-important-3404803.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220509060836/https://www.oneindia.com/india/how-cyclone-asani-got-its-name-why-naming-is-important-3404803.html |archive-date=May 9, 2022 |access-date=May 8, 2022 |work=[[Oneindia]] |location=New Delhi, India}}</ref>}} was a strong tropical cyclone that made landfall in India in May 2022. It was the strongest storm of [[2022 North Indian Ocean cyclone season]]. The third depression and deep depression, and the first named storm of the 2022 North Indian Ocean cyclone season, Asani originated from a depression that the Indian Meteorological Department first monitored on 7 May. Conditions rapidly favored development as the system became a deep depression by that day before intensifying to a Cyclonic Storm Asani. On the next day it further intensified and peak to a severe cyclonic storm, before making landfall as a deep depression system over Andhra Pradesh. It degenerated into a well marked low-pressure on 12 May.

== Meteorological history ==
{{storm path|Asani 2022 track.png}}
During the first week of May, a strong pulse of [[Madden–Julian oscillation]] (MJO) and [[Equatorial Rossby wave]] (ERW) prevailed in this basin. These two conditions led to a formation, of a cyclonic circulation, over the southern Andaman Sea on 4 May.<ref name="imd1">{{cite web|url=https://rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/uploads/archive/2/2_8f8c5a_Tropical%20Weather%20Outlook%20based%20on%200300%20UTC%20of%2004.05.2022.pdf|title=North Indian Ocean Extended Range Outlook for Cyclogenesis|website=rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in|publisher=[[India Meteorological Department]]|location=New Delhi, India|date=May 5, 2022|access-date=May 7, 2022|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220507060518/https://rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/uploads/archive/24/24_1854dd_Extended%20Range%20Outlook_05052022.pdf|archive-date=May 7, 2022|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="imd2">{{cite web|url=https://rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/uploads/archive/2/2_8f8c5a_Tropical%20Weather%20Outlook%20based%20on%200300%20UTC%20of%2004.05.2022.pdf|title=Tropical Weather Outlook for the North Indian Ocean (the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea)|website=rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in|publisher=[[India Meteorological Department]]|location=New Delhi, India|date=May 6, 2022|access-date=May 6, 2022|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220507060518/https://rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/uploads/archive/24/24_1854dd_Extended%20Range%20Outlook_05052022.pdf|archive-date=May 7, 2022|url-status=live}}</ref> At the same day, a [[Westerly wind burst]] occurred which resulted in formation of twin cyclones over the Indian Ocean, the southern hemisphere counterpart being [[Tropical Cyclone Karim]] and the northern hemisphere counterpart being this cyclonic circulation.<ref name="imd1" /><ref name="imd2" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Twin Cyclones — Asani and Karim — Form Over Indian Ocean; Satellite Images Capture Twins on Opposite Sides of Equator {{!}} The Weather Channel - Articles from The Weather Channel {{!}} weather.com |url=https://weather.com/en-IN/india/news/news/2022-05-09-twin-cyclones-asani-and-karim-form-over-indian-ocean-satellite-images |access-date=May 21, 2022 |website=The Weather Channel |language=en-IN |archive-date=May 20, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220520072754/https://weather.com/en-IN/india/news/news/2022-05-09-twin-cyclones-asani-and-karim-form-over-indian-ocean-satellite-images |url-status=live }}</ref> The United States [[Joint Typhoon Warning Center]] (JTWC){{efn|The Joint Typhoon Warning Center is a joint [[United States Navy]] – [[United States Air Force]] task force that issues tropical cyclone warnings for the Northern Indian Ocean and other regions.}} followed the suit and designated as ''Invest 92B'' on the next day.<ref>{{Cite JTWC|date=May 5, 2022|type=abio|designation=92B|time=0230Z|url=https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/abioweb.txt|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180213123248/http://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/abioweb.txt|url-status=live|archive-date=2018-02-13|reissued=1}} [https://wiki.chlod.net/jtwc/text/2022-05-05-0430-abioweb.txt Alt URL]</ref>

During 6 May, under the influence of the disturbance, a low pressure system formed off the coast of [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/uploads/archive/2/2_dc2b33_Special%20Tropical%20Weather%20Outlook%20based%20on%200300%20UTC%20of%2006.05.2022.pdf|title=Tropical Weather Outlook for the North Indian Ocean (the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea)|website=rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in|author=Monica Sharma|publisher=[[India Meteorological Department]]|location=New Delhi, India|date=May 6, 2022|access-date=May 6, 2022|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220506080531/https://rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/uploads/archive/2/2_dc2b33_Special%20Tropical%20Weather%20Outlook%20based%20on%200300%20UTC%20of%2006.05.2022.pdf|archive-date=May 6, 2022|url-status=dead}}</ref> Subsequently, the JTWC issued its [[Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert]] (TCFA), as it had rapidly consolidated its convective structure for the past few hours, along with development a well-defined low-level centre.<ref>{{Cite JTWC|date=May 6, 2022|type=tcfa|designation=92B|time=1330Z|url=https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/io9222web.txt|url-status=dead|archive-date=2022-10-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221022152211/https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/io9222web.txt}} [https://wiki.chlod.net/jtwc/text/2022-05-06-1300-io9222web.txt Alt URL]</ref>

Late on 7 May, the system developed into a well-marked low pressure area over the same region.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/uploads/archive/2/2_dc2b33_Special%20Tropical%20Weather%20Outlook%20based%20on%200300%20UTC%20of%2006.05.2022.pdf|title=Special Tropical Weather Outlook for the North Indian Ocean (the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea)|website=rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in|author=Monica Sharma|publisher=[[India Meteorological Department]]|location=New Delhi, India|date=May 7, 2022|access-date=May 7, 2022|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220507080557/https://rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/uploads/archive/47/47_f659fe_Special%20Tropical%20Weather%20Outlook%20based%20on%200300%20UTC%20of%2007.05.2022.pdf|archive-date=May 7, 2022|url-status=dead}}</ref> At 09:00 UTC, the JTWC initiated advisories on the system and classified it as ''Tropical Cyclone 02B'', while [[India Meteorological Department]] (IMD){{efn|The India Meteorological Department is the official [[Regional Specialized Meteorological Center]] for the Northern Indian Ocean.}} simultaneously designated it as ''Depression BOB 03.''<ref>{{Cite JTWC|date=May 7, 2022|type=prog|category=TC|designation=02B|no=1|name=Two
|url=https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/io0222prog.txt|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220507143928/https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/io0222prog.txt|url-status=dead|archive-date=May 7, 2022}} [https://wiki.chlod.net/jtwc/prog/2022-05-07-0940-io0222prog.txt Alt URL]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/uploads/archive/2/2_3b8862_Special%20Tropical%20Weather%20Outlook%20based%20on%200600%20UTC%20of%2007.05.2022.pdf|title=Special Tropical Weather Outlook for the North Indian Ocean (the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea)|website=rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in|author=Monica Sharma|publisher=[[India Meteorological Department]]|location=New Delhi, India|date=May 7, 2022|access-date=May 7, 2022|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220507130541/https://rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/uploads/archive/2/2_3b8862_Special%20Tropical%20Weather%20Outlook%20based%20on%200600%20UTC%20of%2007.05.2022.pdf|archive-date=May 7, 2022|url-status=dead}}</ref> Three hours later, the system was further upgraded to a deep depression status by the IMD as it tracked over warm [[sea surface temperature]]s of {{convert|30|–|31|C|F}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/uploads/archive/2/2_5c7e4f_Special%20Tropical%20Weather%20Outlook%20based%20on%201200%20UTC%20of%2007.05.2022.pdf|title=Special Tropical Weather Outlook for the North Indian Ocean (the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea)|website=rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in|author=R.K Jenamani|publisher=[[India Meteorological Department]]|location=New Delhi, India|date=May 7, 2022|access-date=May 7, 2022|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220507170540/https://rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/uploads/archive/2/2_5c7e4f_Special%20Tropical%20Weather%20Outlook%20based%20on%201200%20UTC%20of%2007.05.2022.pdf|archive-date=May 7, 2022|url-status=dead}}</ref> By 00:00 UTC the next day, the system intensified into cyclonic storm and was assigned the named ''Asani'', becoming the first cyclone of the season.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/uploads/archive/2/2_15849c_1.Tropical%20Cyclone%20Advisory%20No.1%20based%20on%200000%20UTC%20of%20%2008.05.2022.pdf|title=Tropical Cyclone Advisory No. 1 for the North Indian Ocean (the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea)|website=rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in|author=R.K Jenamani|publisher=[[India Meteorological Department]]|location=New Delhi, India|date=May 8, 2022|access-date=May 8, 2022|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220508040504/https://rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/uploads/archive/2/2_15849c_1.Tropical%20Cyclone%20Advisory%20No.1%20based%20on%200000%20UTC%20of%20%2008.05.2022.pdf|archive-date=May 8, 2022|url-status=dead}}</ref> Nine hours later, the JTWC upgraded it to a Category 1-equivalent system on the [[Saffir–Simpson scale|Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale]] (SSHWS).<ref>{{Cite JTWC|date=May 8, 2022|type=prog|category=TC|designation=02B|no=5|name=Asani|time=09Z|url=https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/io0222prog.txt|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220507143928/https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/io0222prog.txt|url-status=dead|archive-date=May 7, 2022}} [https://wiki.chlod.net/jtwc/prog/2022-05-08-0820-io0222prog.txt Alt URL]</ref> At 12:00 UTC, the IMD further upgraded it to a severe cyclonic storm, as the [[Microwave imaging]] shows well-organized system.<ref>{{cite web |author=R.K Jenamani |date=May 8, 2022 |title=Tropical Cyclone Advisory No. 5 for the North Indian Ocean (the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea) |url=https://rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/uploads/archive/2/2_4adfc9_5.Tropical%20Cyclone%20Advisory%20No.5%20based%20on%201200%20UTC%20of%20%2008.05.2022%20(2).pdf |archive-date=May 9, 2022 |access-date=May 8, 2022 |website=rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in |publisher=[[India Meteorological Department]] |location=New Delhi, India |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220509050517/https://rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/uploads/archive/2/2_4adfc9_5.Tropical%20Cyclone%20Advisory%20No.5%20based%20on%201200%20UTC%20of%20%2008.05.2022%20(2).pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

The cyclone began to encounter high wind shear due to which the JTWC downgraded it as a tropical storm on 10 May, while the IMD continue to maintain it as a severe cyclonic storm.<ref>{{Cite JTWC|date=May 8, 2022|type=prog|category=TC|designation=02B|no=4|name=Asani
|url=https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/io0222prog.txt|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220507143928/https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/io0222prog.txt|url-status=dead|archive-date=May 7, 2022}} [https://wiki.chlod.net/jtwc/prog/2022-05-08-0220-io0222prog.txt Alt URL]</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=R.K Jenamani |date=May 10, 2022 |title=Tropical Cyclone Advisory No. 17 for the North Indian Ocean (the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea) |url=https://rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/uploads/archive/2/2_daec40_17.Tropical%20Cyclone%20Advisory%20No.17%20based%20on%200000%20UTC%20of%20%2010.05.2022.pdf |access-date=May 10, 2022 |website=rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in |publisher=[[India Meteorological Department]] |location=New Delhi, India |archive-date=May 10, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220510045401/https://rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/uploads/archive/2/2_daec40_17.Tropical%20Cyclone%20Advisory%20No.17%20based%20on%200000%20UTC%20of%20%2010.05.2022.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> it began to make a sudden westward jog and mild decrease in wind shear made the JTWC to upgrade it again into a Category 1-equivalent tropical cyclone.<ref>{{Cite JTWC|date=May 10, 2022|type=prog|category=TC|designation=02B|no=13|name=Asani
|url=https://wiki.chlod.net/jtwc/text/2022-05-11-1420-io0222web.txt}}</ref> Nine hours later, Cyclone Asani was further downgraded into a tropical storm, it began to weaken due to higher wind shear as well as dry air intrusion.<ref>{{Cite JTWC|date=May 10, 2022|type=prog|category=TC|designation=02B|no=14|name=Asani|url=https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/io0222prog.txt|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220507143928/https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/io0222prog.txt|url-status=dead|archive-date=May 7, 2022}} [https://wiki.chlod.net/jtwc/prog/2022-05-10-0850-io0222prog.txt Alt URL]</ref> Thereafter, storm rapidly weakened into a cyclonic storm on 11 May.<ref>{{cite web |author=Monica Sharma |date=May 11, 2022 |title=Tropical Cyclone Advisory No. 25 for the North Indian Ocean (the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea) |url=https://rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/uploads/archive/2/2_df4343_25.Tropical%20Cyclone%20Advisory%20No.25%20based%20on%200000%20UTC%20of%20%2011.05.2022.pdf |url-status=live |access-date=May 11, 2022 |website=rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in |publisher=[[India Meteorological Department]] |location=New Delhi, India |archive-date=May 11, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220511040901/https://rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/uploads/archive/2/2_df4343_25.Tropical%20Cyclone%20Advisory%20No.25%20based%20on%200000%20UTC%20of%20%2011.05.2022.pdf }}</ref> At 12:00 UTC it further degenerated into a deep depression as made landfall in Indian State of Andhra Pradesh.<ref>{{cite web |author=Dr R.K. Jenamani |date=May 11, 2022 |title=Special Tropical Weather Outlook for North Indian Ocean (the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea) |url=https://rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/uploads/archive/2/2_1d8cfb_29.%20Special%20Tropical%20Weather%20Outlook%20based%20on%201200%20UTC%20of%2011.05.2022.pdf |access-date=May 11, 2022 |website=rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in |publisher=[[India Meteorological Department]] |location=New Delhi, India |url-status=live |archive-date=May 22, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220522021703/https://rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/uploads/archive/2/2_1d8cfb_29.%20Special%20Tropical%20Weather%20Outlook%20based%20on%201200%20UTC%20of%2011.05.2022.pdf }}</ref> The JTWC discontinue advisories for the system, at 15:00 UTC <ref>{{Cite JTWC|date=May 11, 2022|type=warn|category=TC|designation=02B|no=18|name=Asani
|url=https://wiki.chlod.net/jtwc/text/2022-05-11-1420-io0222web.txt}}</ref> The next day, The IMD reported that the system had weakened into a depression while moving inlands.<ref>{{cite web |author=Amit Bhardwaj |date=May 12, 2022 |title=Special Tropical Weather Outlook for North Indian Ocean (the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea) |url=https://rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/uploads/archive/2/2_459470_31.%20Special%20Tropical%20Weather%20Outlook%20based%20on%200000%20UTC%20of%2012.05.2022.pdf |access-date=May 12, 2022 |website=rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in |publisher=[[India Meteorological Department]] |location=New Delhi, India |url-status=live |archive-date=May 22, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220522021702/https://rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/uploads/archive/2/2_459470_31.%20Special%20Tropical%20Weather%20Outlook%20based%20on%200000%20UTC%20of%2012.05.2022.pdf }}</ref> Asani eventually degenerated into a well-marked low pressure area and IMD issued its last advisory.<ref>{{cite web |author=R.K Jenamani |date=May 12, 2022 |title=Special Tropical Weather Outlook for North Indian Ocean (the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea) |url=https://rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/uploads/archive/2/2_4d67f4_32.%20Special%20Tropical%20Weather%20Outlook%20based%20on%200300%20UTC%20of%2012.05.2022.pdf |access-date=May 12, 2022 |website=rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in |publisher=[[India Meteorological Department]] |location=New Delhi, India |url-status=live |archive-date=May 22, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220522021703/https://rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/uploads/archive/2/2_4d67f4_32.%20Special%20Tropical%20Weather%20Outlook%20based%20on%200300%20UTC%20of%2012.05.2022.pdf }}</ref>
{{clear}}

== Preparations and impact ==
[[File:Asani 2022-05-11 0805Z.jpg|thumb|Cyclonic Storm Asani off the [[Andhra Pradesh]] coast on the afternoon of 11 May, 2022.]]

=== India ===
The [[Government of India]]'s Union Home Secretary [[Ajay Kumar Bhalla]] had reviewed preparation for the cyclone, deployed nine teams and kept seven teams reserved in [[Andhra Pradesh]] and [[Odisha]] aided by the [[National Disaster Response Force]] (NDRF); additional teams also had been readied.<ref name="ani">{{cite web|title=Home Secretary reviews cyclone Asani preparedness, around 50 NDRF teams on ground|website=www.aninews.com|url=https://www.aninews.in/news/national/general-news/home-secretary-reviews-cyclone-asani-preparedness-around-50-ndrf-teams-on-ground20220510202015/?amp=1|access-date=May 10, 2022|archive-date=May 21, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220521013041/https://www.aninews.in/news/national/general-news/home-secretary-reviews-cyclone-asani-preparedness-around-50-ndrf-teams-on-ground20220510202015/?amp=1|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="pragativadi">{{cite web|title=Union Home Secy Reviews Cyclone Asani Preparedness; NDRF Deployed In Andhra, Odisha, Bengal|website=Pragativadi News Service|date=May 10, 2022 |url=https://pragativadi.com/union-home-secy-reviews-cyclone-asani-preparedness-ndrf-deployed-in-andhra-odisha-bengal/|access-date=May 10, 2022|archive-date=May 11, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220511181429/https://pragativadi.com/union-home-secy-reviews-cyclone-asani-preparedness-ndrf-deployed-in-andhra-odisha-bengal/|url-status=live}}</ref> The IMD issued the cyclone's warnings over Andhra Pradesh.<ref>{{cite web |author=Shobhit Katiyar) |date=May 11, 2022 |title=National Bulletin NO.28 (BOB/03/2022) |url=https://rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/uploads/archive/1/1_bffd23_28.%20National%20Bulletin%2020220510_0000.pdf |url-status=live |access-date=May 10, 2022 |website=rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in |publisher=[[India Meteorological Department]] |location=New Delhi, India |archive-date=May 11, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220511040904/https://rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/uploads/archive/1/1_bffd23_28.%20National%20Bulletin%2020220510_0000.pdf }}</ref> In [[West Bengal]], [[Kolkata Municipal Corporation]] prepared their teams to start work immediately after the damage by the cyclone.<ref>{{Cite web |date=May 8, 2022 |title=Leaves of all Kolkata corporation staff to be cancelled amid cyclone Asani alert |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/kolkata-news/leaves-of-all-kolkata-corporation-staff-to-be-cancelled-amid-cyclone-asani-alert-101652001995414.html |access-date=May 22, 2022 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en |archive-date=May 21, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220521013724/https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/kolkata-news/leaves-of-all-kolkata-corporation-staff-to-be-cancelled-amid-cyclone-asani-alert-101652001995414.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:Asani cyclone.jpg|thumb|Strong wind in Konasema district due Cyclone Asani]]

In [[Visakhapatnam]], [[Indian Navy]] has prepared six diving teams and 19 flood relief teams for assistance to civil authorities, along with five Indian Navy ships with relief material, and diving teams along the coast of Andhra Pradesh and Odisha.<ref>{{cite web|title=Cyclone Asani: Navy's Eastern Command in Visakhapatnam steps up with aid|website=The Indian Express|date=May 10, 2022 |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/hyderabad/cyclone-asani-navys-eastern-command-in-visakhapatnam-steps-up-with-aid-7910099/|access-date=May 10, 2022|archive-date=May 10, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220510143459/https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/hyderabad/cyclone-asani-navys-eastern-command-in-visakhapatnam-steps-up-with-aid-7910099/|url-status=live}}</ref> The cyclone's associated strong wind caused very heavy rain over [[Kerala]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], and [[Odisha]].<ref>{{cite web |author=TWC India Edit Team |date=May 11, 2022 |title=Cyclone Asani LIVE: Asani Weakens into Deep Depression; Landfall Completed Between Machilipatnam and Narsapur |url=https://weather.com/en-IN/india/news/news/2022-05-11-cyclone-asani-live-severe-storm-weakens-to-cyclone-strength-possible |archive-date=May 12, 2022 |access-date=May 13, 2022 |website=www.weather.com |publisher=Weather |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220512064911/https://weather.com/en-IN/india/news/news/2022-05-11-cyclone-asani-live-severe-storm-weakens-to-cyclone-strength-possible |url-status=live }}</ref> IndiGo cancelled 23 flights from Visakhapatnam International Airport. four Air Asia flights were also cancelled at the place for the day, 10 flights at the Chennai airport, including those from Hyderabad, Visakhapatnam, Jaipur and Mumbai, also had been canceled.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Cyclone Asani: 23 flights cancelled in Andhra's Visakhapatnam, 10 in Chennai |work=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/india/cyclone-asani-23-flights-cancelled-in-andhras-visakhapatnam-10-in-chennai/articleshow/91461508.cms |access-date=May 21, 2022 |archive-date=May 12, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220512010543/http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/india/cyclone-asani-23-flights-cancelled-in-andhras-visakhapatnam-10-in-chennai/articleshow/91461508.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> About 30,225 estimate crops were affected.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Samaritan |first=Sampat G. |date=May 12, 2022 |title=Cyclone Asani affects crops in 30,000 hectares in Andhra Pradesh |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/current-affairs/120522/asani-affects-crops-in-30000-ha-in-ap.html |access-date=May 22, 2022 |website=Deccan Chronicle |language=en |archive-date=May 14, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220514190518/https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/current-affairs/120522/asani-affects-crops-in-30000-ha-in-ap.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Damage in [[Andhra Pradesh]] was estimated to be [[Indian rupee|Rs]]25 billion (US$323 million).<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kurian |first=Vinson |date=May 13, 2022 |title=Asani causes loss of ₹2,500 cr in AP, agriculture bears brunt bl-premium-article-image |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/economy/agri-business/asani-causes-loss-of-2500-cr-in-ap-agriculture-bears-brunt/article65410061.ece |access-date=May 22, 2022 |website=The Hindu Business Line }}</ref>

Three fatalities were confirmed from the cyclone as of 19 May. A Mandal Parishad Territorial Constituency (MPTC) from [[YSR Congress Party]] was killed after a Palmyra tree fell over him. A 43-year-old man was killed as a wall collapsed over him in the house of Kamanagaruvu village in [[Amalapuram]]. Another man was killed by a lightning strike at Jalandaki in [[Nellore district]].<ref>{{cite web |date=May 12, 2022 |title=Three Killed as Cyclone Asani Hits Coastal Andhra, Heavy Winds Damage Crop |url=https://menglish.sakshi.com/news/andhrapradesh/three-killed-cyclone-asani-hit-coastal-andhra-heavy-winds-damage-crop-155013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220522080511/https://menglish.sakshi.com/news/andhrapradesh/three-killed-cyclone-asani-hit-coastal-andhra-heavy-winds-damage-crop-155013 |archive-date=May 22, 2022 |access-date=May 12, 2022 |publisher=[[Sakshi Post]] |location=[[Vijayawada, Andhra Pradesh]] }}</ref>

=== Bangladesh ===
4,915 cyclone shelter centres has been prepared by [[Barisal division]]al administration in five coastal districts, two million people in livestock.<ref>{{cite web|title=Cyclone 'Asani': Five coastal districts on alert|website=The Business Standard|date=May 9, 2022 |url=https://www.tbsnews.net/bangladesh/environment/cyclone-asani-five-coastal-districts-alert-416218?amp|access-date=May 10, 2022|archive-date=May 10, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220510144348/https://www.tbsnews.net/bangladesh/environment/cyclone-asani-five-coastal-districts-alert-416218?amp|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Five coastal districts on alert over cyclone 'Asani'|website=The Financial Express|url=https://thefinancialexpress.com.bd/national/five-coastal-districts-on-alert-over-cyclone-asani-1652096246?amp=true|access-date=May 10, 2022|archive-date=May 21, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220521013045/https://thefinancialexpress.com.bd/national/five-coastal-districts-on-alert-over-cyclone-asani-1652096246?amp=true|url-status=live}}</ref> District Administration of [[Cox's Bazar]] has also taken necessary measures for [[2015 Rohingya refugee crisis|refugee Rohingyas]] in [[Ukhia Upazila|Ukhia]] and [[Teknaf Upazila|Teknaf]] camps.<ref>{{cite web|title=Preparations underway at Rohingya camps in Cox's Bazar to tackle Cyclone Asani|website=The Daily Star|date=May 7, 2022 |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/environment/climate-crisis/natural-disaster/news/preparations-ongoing-rohingya-camps-coxs-bazar-deal-possible-cyclone-asani-3018416?amp|access-date=May 7, 2022|archive-date=May 7, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220507131538/https://www.thedailystar.net/environment/climate-crisis/natural-disaster/news/preparations-ongoing-rohingya-camps-coxs-bazar-deal-possible-cyclone-asani-3018416?amp|url-status=live}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Tropical cyclones|India}}
*[[Weather of 2022]]
*[[Tropical cyclones in 2022]]
*[[Cyclone Lehar]] – a tropical cyclone that affected the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh.
*[[Cyclone Laila]] – last cyclone to hit [[Andhra Pradesh]] during the month of May.
*[[Cyclone Yaas]] – a strong tropical cyclone that made landfall in Odisha during May 2021.
*[[Cyclone Phailin]] – an intense tropical cyclone during October 2013.
*[[Cyclone Bijli]] – a weak tropical cyclone that impacted Myanmar.
*[[Cyclone Jawad]] – a tropical cyclone during December 2021
{{clear}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Cyclone Asani}}

{{2022 North Indian Ocean cyclone season buttons}}
{{Disasters in India in 2022}}

[[Category:Tropical cyclones in 2022|Asani]]
[[Category:2022 North Indian Ocean cyclone season]]
[[Category:Severe cyclonic storms]]
[[Category:Tropical cyclones in India]]
[[Category:Meteorological events in 2022]]
[[Category:2022 disasters in India]]
[[Category:May 2022 in India]]

Telugu Wikipedia

2026-04-16T09:03:04Z

AhmedSturgis: Added The Data Basic Info

{{Short description|Telugu-language edition of Wikipedia}}
{{More citations needed|date=January 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2017}}
{{Expand Telugu|తెలుగు వికీపీడియా |date=August 2011}}

{{Infobox website
| name = {{Wiki favicon}} Telugu Wikipedia
| screenshot = Telugu Wikipedia main page screenshot 15.12.2013.png
| logo = Wikipedia-logo-v2-te.svg
| logo_size = 140px
| caption = Telugu Wikipedia main page
| url = [http://te.wikipedia.org/ te.wikipedia.org]
| commercial = No
| location = [[Miami]], [[Florida]]
| type = [[Internet encyclopedia project]]
| language = [[Telugu language|Telugu]]
| registration = Optional
| owner = [[Wikimedia Foundation]]
| launch_date = {{Start date and age|2003|12|10|df=yes}}
| current_status = Online
| content_license = {{nobr|[[Creative Commons licenses|Creative Commons Attribution/ Share-Alike]] 4.0}} (most text also dual-licensed under [[GFDL]]) Media licensing varies
}}

The '''Telugu Wikipedia''' ({{langx|te| తెలుగు వికీపీడియా|Telugu Vikīpīḍiyā
}}) is the [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-language version of [[Wikipedia]]. It had begun on 10 December 2003 by Nagarjuna Venna, who is known for Padma (a system for transforming text in [[Indic scripts]] among open-source and proprietary formats). On 26 September 2024, its article count reached the 100k milestone and it is the fifth largest Indian-language Wikipedia by article count, after [[Urdu Wikipedia|Urdu]], [[Tamil Wikipedia|Tamil]], [[Hindi Wikipedia|Hindi]], and [[Bengali Wikipedia|Bengali]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=List of Wikipedias - Meta |url=https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/List_of_Wikipedias#All_Wikipedias_ordered_by_number_of_articles |access-date=2024-09-28 |website=meta.wikimedia.org |language=en}}</ref>

<gallery>
[[File:No?Noel|thumb]]
[[File:C?CJ|thumb]]
</gallery>
=={{anchor|Initial growth}}Background==
In 2005, the Telugu Wikipedia received a boost when Chava Kiran, Makineni Pradeep, Vyzasatya, Veeven and Chaduvari joined; Chaduvari later spearheaded the Telugu campaign. Satya planned and executed a project to add stubs for districts, [[Tehsil|mandals]] and Telugu films with the aid of a bot. The stubs were expanded into articles with the help of volunteers from the Telugu online and blogging communities. Chaduvari translated and drafted many of the initial policies, Pradeep wrote scripts automating mundane tasks and the article count increased to 6,000.

=={{anchor|Promotion|Page Views}}History==
A symbiotic relationship between the early Telugu blogger-Wikipedians with the larger Telugu [[online community]] was a big boon for the Telugu Wikipedia. Its initial momentum was furthered by committed members such as Kasubabu, Dr Rajasekhar, Chandrakantha Rao, Ravichandra, Veeven, Kasyap, Rahamtulla and Sujatha. Wikipedia was promoted at book fairs in [[Hyderabad]] and [[Vijayawada]] and supported by the e-Telugu organization and the local-language media, sparking interest from the general public.{{fact|date=November 2022}}

Telugu Wiktionary has had a major contribution from Sujatha. [[Charles Phillip Brown]]'s English-Telugu dictionary was added to the Telugu Wiktionary in its entirety with a bot script written by Telugu Wikipedian Makineni Pradeep.{{fact|date=November 2022}}

Telugu wiki-academies were established in 2009 to heighten awareness at engineering and [[Master of Science in Information Technology|MCA]] colleges in small towns in [[Andhra Pradesh]]. ''[[:te:తెవికీ వార్త|Tewiki Vartha]]'', an e-zine, was created in 2010 to share behind-the-scenes stories of Telugu Wikipedia pages and editors. In 2012, another effort was made to revitalize the Telugu Wikipedia. The community organized a two-day celebration in [[Hyderabad]] on 10–11 April 2013, coinciding with the Telugu New Year.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20131221002401/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/telugu-wiki-crosses-50000-articles/243450-60-121.html IBN report on the event]</ref>

The Telugu Wikipedia is now available offline in [[Kiwix]]. [[HMTV]] broadcast a documentary about Wikipedia celebrations,<ref>[http://cis-india.org/news/hmtv-may-30-2013-wikipedia-and-telugu-wikipedians Blogpost on CIS website with video link for the feature program on Wikipedia]</ref> and Rajasekhar, Rahimanuddin, Malladi and Vishnuvardhan participated in a phone-in program about the encyclopedia.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oVNJtsURl2A The first part of Phone in the program on 1 Jun 2013, by HMTV]</ref><ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mr1Tk82EdKE. Second part of phone in program on 1 Jun 2013, by HMTV]</ref> In October 2013, the Telugu Wikipedia had 2.1 million page views. The greatest number of page views was 4.5 million, recorded in February 2010.

Telugu Wikipedian Pranayraj Vangari wrote 365 Wiki Articles in 365 days under ''WikiVastaram'' concept. He started on 8 September 2016, writing a wiki article every day, he completed ''WikiVastaram'' on 7 September 2017.<ref name="రోజుకో వ్యాసం... ఏడాది యజ్ఞం!">{{cite news|last1=ఈనాడు| first1= ఆదివారం అనుబంధం సంచిక|title=రోజుకో వ్యాసం... ఏడాది యజ్ఞం!|url=http://www.eenadu.net/magazines/sunday-magazine/sunday-magazineinner.aspx?catfullstory=16749 |access-date=12 September 2020|date=15 October 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20171015051625/http://www.eenadu.net/magazines/sunday-magazine/sunday-magazineinner.aspx?catfullstory=16749| archive-date=15 October 2017}}</ref><ref name="వికీ వ్యాసాల ప్రణయ్">{{cite news|last1=నమస్తే తెలంగాణ|first1=జిందగీ న్యూస్|title=వికీ వ్యాసాల ప్రణయ్|url=https://www.ntnews.com/Zindagi/వికీ-వ్యాసాల-ప్రణయ్-7-2-420557.aspx|access-date=12 September 2020|date=19 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170919025615/https://www.ntnews.com/zindagi/%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%80-%E0%B0%B5%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B2-%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%A3%E0%B0%AF%E0%B1%8D-7-2-420557.aspx|archive-date=19 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Pranayraj Vangari has written a new Wikipedia article every day for the last year">{{cite web|first1=Samir |last1=Elsharbaty|title=Pranayraj Vangari has written a new Wikipedia article every day for the last year|url= https://blog.wikimedia.org/2017/09/07/pranayraj-wikiyear-challenge/|website=blog.wikimedia.org|date=7 September 2017|access-date=12 September 2020}}</ref> On this occasion, [[Vice President of India]] [[Venkaiah Naidu]] congratulated Pranayraj through his Twitter Account.<ref>{{cite tweet|number=905985266011127808|user=VPSecretariat|title=తెలంగాణా యాదాద్రి భువనగిరి జిల్లా...|date=8 September 2017}}</ref> Telangana State Minister [[K. T. Rama Rao|K.T.R]] along with congratulating him through his Twitter and Facebook Account, felicitated Pranayraj in his chamber at [[Pragathi Bhavan]].<ref name="KTR congratulates Telugu Wikipedia Volunteer">{{cite news|last1=telanganatoday|title=KTR congratulates Telugu Wikipedia Volunteer|url=https://telanganatoday.com/ktr-congratulates-telugu-wikipedia-volunteer|access-date=12 September 2020|date=12 September 2017}}</ref> Continuing that trend, he completed 1000 articles in 1000 days as of 4 June 2019.

== Fonts and input methods ==
[[File:Type in Telugu on Telugu Wikimedia projects.webm|thumb|alt=Video on typing in Telugu|300px|Learn to type in Telugu on Telugu Wikimedia projects in this video.]]

Any Unicode Telugu font input system may be used for the Telugu Wikipedia. Although some editors use the [[InScript keyboard]], many use [[Google transliteration|Google phonetic transliteration]] or the Telugu Wikipedia's [[:MW:Universal Language Selector|Universal Language Selector]]. The latter offers phonetic and InScript keyboards.

==References==

{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wikimedia_India_Community_Newsletter_2010_September.pdf Wikimedia India Community Newsletter]

{{Wikipedias}}
{{Wikipedias in Dravidian languages}}

[[Category:Wikipedias in Dravidian languages]]
[[Category:Telugu-language websites|Wikipedia]]
[[Category:Indian encyclopedias]]
[[Category:Wikipedias by languages of India]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]

Wasiullah Abbas

2026-04-16T04:38:46Z

AhmedSturgis:

{{Short description|Indian Islamic scholar and Hadith professor (b. 1948)}}
{{Infobox religious biography
| honorific prefix = [[Sheikh]] Dr.
| name = Wasiullah Abbas
| image =
| caption =
| birth_name = Wasiullah ibn Muhammad Abbas ibn Ahmad Abbas
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1948|3|11}}
| birth_place = Bibra, [[Basti District]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[India]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Biography of Allamah Dr Wasiullah Abbas {{!}} Umm-Ul-Qura Publications |url=https://umm-ul-qura.org/2015/08/17/biography-of-allamah-dr-wasiullah-abbas-2/ |access-date=2025-12-31 |language=en-US}}</ref>
| death_date =
| death_place =
| death_cause =
| occupation = [[Cleric]], [[Professor]]
| title =
| predecessor =
| successor =
| party =
| religion = [[Islam]]
| denomination = [[Sunni]]
| children = 10 (5 Sons, 5 Daughters)<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-31 |title=Shaikh Dr Wasiullah Abbas |url=https://barakahinsider.com/shaikh-dr-wasiullah-abbas/|access-date=2025-12-31 |website=Barakah Insider |language=en}}</ref>
| relations =
| alma_mater = [[Islamic University of Madinah]], [[Umm al-Qura University]]
| website = {{URL|https://wasiullahabbas.wordpress.com/}}
| native_name =
| native_name_lang = ar
| influences = [[Ibn Baz]], [[Syed Nazeer Husain|Syed Nazeer Husain Dehlawi]], [[Ibn Taymiyyah]], [[Ahmad ibn Hanbal]], [[al-Uthaymin]]
| nationality = [[India]]n
| jurisprudence = [[Non-denominational_Muslim#Ghayr_Muqallid|Ghayr Muqallid]]
| creed = [[Athari]]
| movement = [[Salafi]], [[Ahl-i Hadith]]<ref name=":0" />
| module2 =
}}

'''Wasiullah Abbas''' is an Indian Islamic scholar and teacher born on 11 March 1948. He holds a PhD and master's degree in [[Hadith sciences]], and currently resides and has taught in [[Mecca]] at [[Umm al-Qura University]] as a professor.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Advisory Board - The Faculty of Hadith of Toronto |url=https://facultyofhadith.ca/en/advisory-board-en/ |access-date=2025-12-31 |language=en-CA}}</ref> He is regarded as one of the main [[Ahl-i Hadith]] scholars active in Mecca and [[Saudi Arabia]] as a whole.

== Early life ==
Wasiullah Abbas is an Indian Islamic scholar and teacher born on 11 March 1948. He began his Islamic education in a [[Madrasa]] in his local village. Later, he transferred to Darul Huda School in [[Yusufpur, Ghazipur|Yusufpur]] which was run by students of the [[Ahl-i Hadith]] scholar [[Syed Nazeer Husain|Syed Nazeer Husain Dehlawi]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" /> In these schools, he studied the Arabic language, [[fiqh]], and issues of [[Aqidah|Aqeedah]], including primary texts of the [[Maturidism|Māturīdī]] school, examined through a critical lens of their interpretation of the attributes of Allah. After completing his studies at Darul Huda, he was transferred to Jaamiah Rahmaniyyah in [[Varanasi|Banaras]] in 1963.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" />

== Education and scholarship in Saudi Arabia ==
Later in his life, Abbas was selected by the administration of Jaamiah Rahmaniyyah to receive higher education in [[Saudi Arabia]] during the inauguration of a new school, Jaamiah Salafiyyah Banaras, where [[Ibn Baz]] directed his repersentative at the event, [[Abdul Qadir Shaibatul Hamd]], to request that some exemplery students travel to Saudi Arabia and study at the [[Islamic University of Madinah]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=وصى الله عباس - المكتبة الشاملة |url=https://shamela.ws/author/1574 |access-date=2025-12-31 |website=shamela.ws}}</ref> This led to Abbas going to Saudi Arabia in 1967 with him getting a high school degree in 2 years from the Islamic university and a bachelor's degree in the Dawah/Usool ad-Deen and Tafseer/Hadith Departments four years later.<ref name=":0" /> After this, he transferred to [[Umm al-Qura University]], where he completed a master's degree and PhD on topics of the [[Hadith]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" />

While completing his PhD, the Grand Mosque Institute of [[Masjid al-Haram]] was in need of a lecturer for Hadith and Tafsir and so chose him to teach at the institute starting from 1979. In 1989, he left and became an assistant professor at Umm al-Qura<ref name=":2" /> where he became a professor in 2011. In 1999, he was appointed as a lecturer inside the Grand Mosque by then [[General Presidency of Haramain|President of the Affairs of the Two Holy Mosques]], Sheikh [[Mohammad Al Subail]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Wasiullah Abbas |url=https://makkahscholars.org/scholars/39 |access-date=31 December 2025 |website=Makkah Scholars}}</ref> He has also taught classes and given lectures internationally, with [[Dawah]] trips in [[Egypt]], [[Yemen]], [[India]], [[United Kingdom|the United Kingdom]], [[France]], and [[Bahrain]]. Additionally, he teaches and publishes lessons and lectures in Arabic, Urdu, and English.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Wasiullah Abbas |url=https://www.mimham.net/che-26 |access-date=31 December 2025 |website=Mimham}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=العلامة وصي الله عباس -المدرس بالمسجد الحرام- ضيفا على البحرين |url=https://www.alayam.com/alayam/multaqa/805265/News.html |access-date=2025-12-31 |website=Alayam.com |language=en}}</ref>

==Selection of major works==
<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":5" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":6" />

* ''Following and the Principles of Jurisprudence of the Salaf''
* ''An Investigation into the Obligation of Reciting Behind the Imam''
* ''Investigating Part of the Book “Lisan al-Mizan”''
* ''Imitation and Its Ruling in Light of the Quran and Sunnah''
* ''The Defects and Knowledge of Men''
* ''The Science of Hadith Defects and Its Role in Preserving the Sunnah''
* ''Redemption in Khula’''
* ''The Virtues of the Companions''
* ''Following and the Principles of the Jurisprudence of the Salaf'' (Urdu edition)
* ''Islam is the Solution for Humanity'' (Urdu edition)
* The Weak, the Unknown and the Abandoned in Sunan Al-Nasa’i (Master's Thesis)
* The Virtues of the Companions of Imam Ahmad Ibn Hanbal (Doctoral Thesis)

== References ==
<references />

{{DEFAULTSORT:Abbas, Wasiullah}}
[[Category:1948 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Basti district]]
[[Category:Islamic University of Madinah alumni]]
[[Category:Umm al-Qura University alumni]]
[[Category:Academic staff of Umm al-Qura University]]
[[Category:Islamic scholars]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian Muslims]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian Muslims]]
[[Category:Indian Sunni Muslim scholars of Islam]]
[[Category:Ahl-i Hadith people]]
[[Category:Salafis]]
[[Category:Atharis]]

Tirthahalli Assembly constituency

2026-04-14T03:49:34Z

AhmedSturgis: Added The Pg Initial Version

{{short description|Legislative Assembly constituency in Karnataka State, India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2021}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Tirthahalli
| type = SLA
| constituency_no = 114
| map_image = 114-Tirthahalli constituency.svg
| state = [[Karnataka]]
| district = [[Shimoga district|Shimoga]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Shimoga Lok Sabha constituency|Shimoga]]
| reservation = None
| established = 1956
| electors = {{formatnum:188267}}<ref name=election2023>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/15163-karnataka-2023/ |title=Karnataka Legislative Assembly Election - 2023 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |website=eci.gov.in |access-date=24 July 2023}}</ref>{{update after|2028|7}}
| incumbent_image = Araga Jnanendra.JPG
| mla = [[Araga Jnanendra]]
| latest_election_year = [[2023 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|2023]]
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| preceded_by = [[Kimmane Rathnakar]]
}}

'''Tirthahalli Assembly constituency''' is one of the 224 [[Karnataka Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]] constituencies of [[Karnataka]] in [[India]].<ref name=electors2019>{{cite web |url=https://www.ceokarnataka.kar.nic.in/PCELE2019/GE2019_VOTERS_COUNT.pdf |title=Karnataka Loksabha Elections - 2019 - Voters Count |website=ceokarnataka.kar.nic.in |accessdate= 10 February 2021}}</ref>

It is part of [[Shimoga district]].

==Members of the Legislative Assembly==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Election
! Member
! colspan=2|Party
|-
| bgcolor="#FFF58A" | [[1957 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election|1957]] || A. R. Badri Narayan || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| bgcolor="#FFF58A" | [[1962 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election|1962]] || rowspan="2" | [[Shantaveri Gopala Gowda]] || {{Full party name with color|Socialist Party (India)}}
|-
| bgcolor="#FFF58A" | [[1967 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election|1967]] || {{Full party name with color|Sanghata Socialist Party}}
|-
| bgcolor="#FFF58A" | [[1972 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election|1972]] || Konandur Lingappa || {{Full party name with color|Samyukta Socialist Party}}
|-
| [[1978 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|1978]] || Kadilal Divakar || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress (I)}}
|-
| [[1983 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|1983]] || [[D. B. Chandregowda]] || {{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|-
| [[1985 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|1985]] || Patamakki Rathnakara || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[1989 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|1989]] || [[D. B. Chandregowda]] || {{Full party name with color|Janata Dal}}
|-
| [[1994 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|1994]] || rowspan="3" | [[Araga Jnanendra]] || {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=3}}
|-
| [[1999 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|1999]]
|-
| [[2004 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|2004]]
|-
| [[2008 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|2008]] || rowspan="2" | [[Kimmane Rathnakar]] || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
| [[2013 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|2013]]
|-
| [[2018 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|2018]] || rowspan="2" | [[Araga Jnanendra]] || {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=2}}
|-
| [[2023 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|2023]]
|}

==Election results==
=== Assembly Election 2023 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[2023 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Tirthahalli <ref name=election2023/><ref name="Karnataka Assembly Elections 2023: Tirthahalli">{{cite news |title=Karnataka Assembly Elections 2023: Tirthahalli |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenMay2023/ConstituencywiseS10114.htm?ac=114 |access-date=6 May 2025 |work= |publisher=Election Commission of India |date=13 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250506080922/https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenMay2023/ConstituencywiseS10114.htm?ac=114 |archive-date=6 May 2025}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[Araga Jnanendra]] |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 84,563 |percentage = 52.28% |change = {{increase}}9.25 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = [[Kimmane Rathnakar]] |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 72,322 |percentage = 44.71% |change = {{increase}}15.67 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Yadur Rajaram |party = Janata Dal (Secular) |votes = 2,710 |percentage = 1.68% |change = {{decrease}}23.89 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = None of the above |party = None of the above |votes = 1,164 |percentage = 0.72% |change = {{decrease}}0.04 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 12,241 |percentage = 7.57% |change = {{decrease}}6.42 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 161,852 |percentage = 85.97% |change = {{increase}}0.71 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 161,756}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 188,267 |ref = |change = {{increase}}2.21 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Bharatiya Janata Party |swing = {{increase}}9.25 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 2018 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[2018 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Tirthahalli <ref name=election2018>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/6933-karnataka-2018/ |title=Karnataka Legislative Assembly Election - 2018 |website=Election Commission of India |accessdate= 4 February 2021}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[Araga Jnanendra]] |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 67,527 |percentage = 43.03% |change = {{increase}}18.17 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = [[Kimmane Rathnakar]] |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 45,572 |percentage = 29.04% |change = {{increase}}2.22 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = R. M. Manjunatha Gowda |party = Janata Dal (Secular) |votes = 40,127 |percentage = 25.57% |change = {{increase}}10.20 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = None of the above |party = None of the above |votes = 1,195 |percentage = 0.76% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 21,955 |percentage = 13.99% |change = {{increase}}13.02 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 157,044 |percentage = 85.26% |change = {{increase}}3.29 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 156,920}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 184,189 |ref = |change = {{increase}}8.43 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Bharatiya Janata Party |loser = Indian National Congress |swing = {{increase}}16.21 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 2013 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[2013 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Tirthahalli <ref>{{cite web |title=Statistical Report on General Election, 2013 : To the Legislative Assembly of Karnataka |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/AE2013/StatReports2013.pdf |website=eci.nic.in |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date=2014-04-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131220034253/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/AE2013/StatReports2013.pdf |archive-date=2013-12-20 |url-status=dead}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[Kimmane Rathnakar]] |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 37,160 |percentage = 26.82% |change = {{decrease}}19.80 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = R. M. Manjunatha Gowda |party = Karnataka Janata Paksha |votes = 35,817 |percentage = 25.85% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = [[Araga Jnanendra]] |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 34,446 |percentage = 24.86% |change = {{decrease}}18.68 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = R. Madan |party = Janata Dal (Secular) |votes = 21,295 |percentage = 15.37% |change = {{increase}}12.61 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Ashokamurthy |party = Badavara Shramikara Raitara Congress |votes = 5,161 |percentage = 3.72% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = H. B. Kiran Kumar |party = Independent politician |votes = 1,627 |percentage = 1.17% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Jadugar Nischal. V. Shetty |party = Independent politician |votes = 1,363 |percentage = 0.98% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Kunaje Manjunatha Gowda |party = Bahujan Samaj Party |votes = 1,062 |percentage = 0.77% |change = {{decrease}}0.04 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 1,343 |percentage = 0.97% |change = {{decrease}}2.11 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 139,246 |percentage = 81.97% |change = {{increase}}3.01 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 138,566}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 169,867 |ref = |change = {{increase}}7.85 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |swing = {{decrease}}19.80 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 2008 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[2008 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Tirthahalli <ref>{{cite web |title=General Election Karnataka Legislative Assembly 2008 Election Statistics |url=https://www.ceokarnataka.kar.nic.in/PDFS/Previous%20Elections/Election%20Statistics%202008%20Final.pdf |publisher=Government of Karnataka |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201232433/https://www.ceokarnataka.kar.nic.in/PDFS/Previous%20Elections/Election%20Statistics%202008%20Final.pdf |archive-date=1 February 2021 |url-status=dead}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[Kimmane Rathnakar]] |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 57,932 |percentage = 46.62% |change = {{decrease}}0.28 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = [[Araga Jnanendra]] |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 54,106 |percentage = 43.54% |change = {{decrease}}4.75 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Kadthuru Dinesh |party = Samajwadi Party |votes = 4,649 |percentage = 3.74% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = M. G. Mani Hegade |party = Janata Dal (Secular) |votes = 3,435 |percentage = 2.76% |change = {{decrease}}0.05 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Sitharama Bhatta. T. S |party = Independent politician |votes = 2,344 |percentage = 1.89% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Umesha D. Gowda |party = Bahujan Samaj Party |votes = 1,001 |percentage = 0.81% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = S. Shivananda Tudur |party = Rashtriya Hindustan Sena Karnataka |votes = 810 |percentage = 0.65% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 3,826 |percentage = 3.08% |change = {{increase}}1.69 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 124,364 |percentage = 78.96% |change = {{increase}}1.95 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 124,277}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 157,503 |ref = |change = {{increase}}22.28 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Indian National Congress |loser = Bharatiya Janata Party |swing = {{decrease}}1.67 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 2004 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[2004 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Tirthahalli <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 2004 to the Legislative Assembly of Karnataka |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2004/StatisticalReports_KT_2004.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006204912/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2004/StatisticalReports_KT_2004.pdf|archive-date=6 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[Araga Jnanendra]] |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 47,843 |percentage = 48.29% |change = {{increase}}10.40 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = [[Kimmane Rathnakar]] |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 46,468 |percentage = 46.90% |change = {{increase}}18.09 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Rama Manohar Shantaveri |party = Janata Dal (Secular) |votes = 2,786 |percentage = 2.81% |change = {{decrease}}30.48 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Umesha D. Gowda |party = Janata Party |votes = 1,025 |percentage = 1.03% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Ramesha Karki |party = Independent politician |votes = 958 |percentage = 0.97% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 1,375 |percentage = 1.39% |change = {{decrease}}3.21 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 99,191 |percentage = 77.01% |change = {{increase}}0.89 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 99,080}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 128,808 |ref = |change = {{increase}}7.24 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Bharatiya Janata Party |swing = {{increase}}10.40 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1999 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1999 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Tirthahalli <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1999 to the Legislative Assembly of Karnataka |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1999/StatisticalReport-KT99.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006053217/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1999/StatisticalReport-KT99.pdf|archive-date=6 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[Araga Jnanendra]] |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 33,778 |percentage = 37.89% |change = {{increase}}2.28 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = [[Kimmane Rathnakar]] |party = Janata Dal (Secular) |votes = 29,676 |percentage = 33.29% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Kadilal Divakar |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 25,682 |percentage = 28.81% |change = {{increase}}11.39 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 4,102 |percentage = 4.60% |change = {{increase}}1.26 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 91,425 |percentage = 76.12% |change = {{increase}}0.07 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 89,136}}
{{Election box rejected |votes = 2,212 |percentage = 2.42% |change = {{increase}}1.41 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 120,112 |ref = |change = {{increase}}2.31 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Bharatiya Janata Party |swing = {{increase}}2.28 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1994 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1994 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Tirthahalli <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1994 to the Legislative Assembly of Karnataka |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1994/StatisticalReport-KT94.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006211324/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1994/StatisticalReport-KT94.pdf|archive-date=6 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[Araga Jnanendra]] |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 31,440 |percentage = 35.61% |change = {{increase}}14.04 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = [[D. B. Chandregowda]] |party = Janata Dal |votes = 28,488 |percentage = 32.26% |change = {{decrease}}5.39 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Kadilal Divakar |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 15,378 |percentage = 17.42% |change = {{decrease}}16.49 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = D. Laxmana |party = Karnataka Pradesh Congress Committee |votes = 8,321 |percentage = 9.42% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = G. S. Rajendra |party = Karnataka Rajya Raitha Sangha |votes = 3,813 |percentage = 4.32% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 2,952 |percentage = 3.34% |change = {{decrease}}0.40 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 89,274 |percentage = 76.05% |change = {{increase}}2.00 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 88,298}}
{{Election box rejected |votes = 904 |percentage = 1.01% |change = {{decrease}}2.01 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 117,396 |ref = |change = {{increase}}0.20 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Bharatiya Janata Party |loser = Janata Dal |swing = {{decrease}}2.04 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1989 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1989 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Tirthahalli <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1989 to the Legislative Assembly of Karnataka |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1989/Statistical%20Report%20karnataka%201989.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101007070737/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1989/Statistical%20Report%20karnataka%201989.pdf|archive-date=7 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[D. B. Chandregowda]] |party = Janata Dal |votes = 31,671 |percentage = 37.65% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Kadilal Divakar |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 28,526 |percentage = 33.91% |change = {{decrease}}8.93 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = [[Araga Jnanendra]] |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 18,142 |percentage = 21.57% |change = {{increase}}8.97 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Hugalavalli Surendra |party = Janata Party |votes = 5,078 |percentage = 6.04% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 3,145 |percentage = 3.74% |change = {{increase}}3.63 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 86,751 |percentage = 74.05% |change = {{decrease}}1.67 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 84,127}}
{{Election box rejected |votes = 2,624 |percentage = 3.02% |change = {{increase}}1.80 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 117,156 |ref = |change = {{increase}}28.04 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Janata Dal |loser = Indian National Congress |swing = {{decrease}}5.19 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1985 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1985 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Tirthahalli <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1985 to the Legislative Assembly of Karnataka |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1985/Statistical%20Report%20Karnataka%201985.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006143216/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1985/Statistical%20Report%20Karnataka%201985.pdf |archive-date=6 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Patamakki Rathnakara |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 29,322 |percentage = 42.84% |change = {{increase}}10.03 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = [[D. B. Chandregowda]] |party = Janata Party |votes = 29,248 |percentage = 42.74% |change = {{increase}}5.85 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = [[Araga Jnanendra]] |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 8,624 |percentage = 12.60% |change = {{decrease}}17.12 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Jagadish |party = Independent politician |votes = 641 |percentage = 0.94% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = S. T. Devaraja |party = Independent politician |votes = 461 |percentage = 0.67% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 74 |percentage = 0.11% |change = {{decrease}}3.97 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 69,287 |percentage = 75.72% |change = {{increase}}6.94 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 68,440}}
{{Election box rejected |votes = 847 |percentage = 1.22% |change = {{decrease}}0.49 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 91,503 |ref = |change = {{increase}}6.41 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Indian National Congress |loser = Janata Party |swing = {{increase}}5.95 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1983 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1983 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Tirthahalli <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1983 to the Legislative Assembly of Karnataka |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1983/Statistical%20Report%201983%20karnatkaa.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101007124742/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1983/Statistical%20Report%201983%20karnatkaa.pdf |archive-date=7 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[D. B. Chandregowda]] |party = Janata Party |votes = 21,442 |percentage = 36.89% |change = {{increase}}11.35 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Kadilal Divakar |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 19,071 |percentage = 32.81% |change = {{increase}}26.44 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = [[Araga Jnanendra]] |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 17,278 |percentage = 29.72% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 2,371 |percentage = 4.08% |change = {{decrease}}26.46 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 59,139 |percentage = 68.78% |change = {{decrease}}9.38 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 58,128}}
{{Election box rejected |votes = 1,011 |percentage = 1.71% |change = {{decrease}}0.20 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 85,988 |ref = |change = {{increase}}12.73 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Janata Party |loser = Indian National Congress (I) |swing = {{decrease}}19.19 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1978 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1978 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Tirthahalli <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1978 to the Legislative Assembly of Karnataka |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1978/Statistical%20Report%20Karnataka%201978.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101007164123/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1978/Statistical%20Report%20Karnataka%201978.pdf |archive-date=7 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Kadilal Divakar |party = Indian National Congress (I) |votes = 32,798 |percentage = 56.08% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Konandur Lingappa |party = Janata Party |votes = 14,938 |percentage = 25.54% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = K. M. Sreenivas Kalammanagudi |party = Independent politician |votes = 5,708 |percentage = 9.76% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = B. N. Rangappa |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 3,727 |percentage = 6.37% |change = {{decrease}}24.24 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = K. T. Danamma |party = Independent politician |votes = 484 |percentage = 0.83% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Narayana |party = Independent politician |votes = 445 |percentage = 0.76% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = T. P. Sreenath |party = Independent politician |votes = 386 |percentage = 0.66% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 17,860 |percentage = 30.54% |change = {{increase}}24.43 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 59,622 |percentage = 78.16% |change = {{increase}}10.40 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 58,486}}
{{Election box rejected |votes = 1,136 |percentage = 1.91% |change = {{increase}}1.91 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 76,281 |ref = |change = {{increase}}19.93 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Indian National Congress (I) |loser = Samyukta Socialist Party |swing = {{increase}}19.36 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1972 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1972 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election]] : Tirthahalli <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1972 to the Legislative Assembly of Mysore |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1972/StatisRep_Mysore_72.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006074555/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1972/StatisRep_Mysore_72.pdf |archive-date=6 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Konandur Lingappa |party = Samyukta Socialist Party |votes = 15,425 |percentage = 36.72% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = K. T. Danamma |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 12,859 |percentage = 30.61% |change = {{decrease}}11.93 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = B. N. Appanna Hegde |party = Communist Party of India (Marxist) |votes = 12,243 |percentage = 29.14% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Susheelamma |party = Indian National Congress (Organisation) |votes = 1,483 |percentage = 3.53% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 2,566 |percentage = 6.11% |change = {{decrease}}8.80 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 43,101 |percentage = 67.76% |change = {{decrease}}6.94 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 42,010}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 63,606 |ref = |change = {{increase}}18.48 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Samyukta Socialist Party |loser = Sanghata Socialist Party |swing = {{decrease}}20.74 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1967 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1967 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election]] : Tirthahalli <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1967 to the Legislative Assembly of Mysore |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1967/Statistical%20Report%20Mysore%201967.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006083645/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1967/Statistical%20Report%20Mysore%201967.pdf |archive-date=6 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[Shantaveri Gopala Gowda]] |party = Sanghata Socialist Party |votes = 21,963 |percentage = 57.46% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = B. S. Viswanath |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 16,262 |percentage = 42.54% |change = {{increase}}24.19 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 5,701 |percentage = 14.91% |change = {{decrease}}22.99 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 40,105 |percentage = 74.70% |change = {{increase}}12.45 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 38,225}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 53,686 |ref = |change = {{decrease}}9.21 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Sanghata Socialist Party |loser = Socialist Party (India) |swing = {{increase}}1.21 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1962 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1962 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election]] : Tirthahalli <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1962 to the Legislative Assembly of Mysore |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1962/StatRep_Mysore_1962.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006093153/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1962/StatRep_Mysore_1962.pdf |archive-date=6 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[Shantaveri Gopala Gowda]] |party = Socialist Party (India) |votes = 18,649 |percentage = 56.25% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = K. T. Danamma |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 6,085 |percentage = 18.35% |change = {{decrease}}43.02 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Swamy Rao |party = Independent politician |votes = 3,685 |percentage = 11.12% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Virupakshappa Gowda |party = Independent politician |votes = 1,751 |percentage = 5.28% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Venkappa Heggade |party = Independent politician |votes = 1,645 |percentage = 4.96% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Ramakrishna Prabhu |party = Bharatiya Jana Sangh |votes = 1,338 |percentage = 4.04% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 12,564 |percentage = 37.90% |change = {{increase}}15.15 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 36,812 |percentage = 62.25% |change = {{decrease}}11.60 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 33,153}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 59,133 |ref = |change = {{increase}}15.87 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Socialist Party (India) |loser = Indian National Congress |swing = {{decrease}}5.12 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1957 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1957 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election]] : Tirthahalli <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1957 to the Legislative Assembly of Mysore |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1957/StatRep_Mysore_1957.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111195053/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1957/StatRep_Mysore_1957.pdf |archive-date=11 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = A. R. Badri Narayan |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 23,131 |percentage = 61.37% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = J. S. Gopala Gouda |party = Independent politician |votes = 14,557 |percentage = 38.63% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 8,574 |percentage = 22.75% |change = }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 37,688 |percentage = 73.85% |change = }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 37,688}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 51,034 |ref = |change = }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner = Indian National Congress |swing = }}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
* [[List of constituencies of the Karnataka Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Shimoga district]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Karnataka}}

{{coord|13.69|75.25|display=title}}

[[Category:Shimoga district]]
[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Karnataka]]
[[Category:Politics of Karnataka]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1956]]
[[Category:1956 establishments in Mysore State]]

Dharampur, Gujarat Assembly constituency

2026-04-14T03:25:12Z

AhmedSturgis: made some post more to come

{{short description|Legislative Assembly constituency in Gujarat State, India}}
{{Other places|Dharmpur (disambiguation){{!}}Dharmpur}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2021}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Dharampur
| state = Gujarat
| district = [[Valsad district|Valsad]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Valsad Lok Sabha constituency|Valsad]]
| established = 1951
| reservation = ST
| type= SLA
| constituency_no = 178
| mla = Arvindbhai Chhotubhai Patel
| party = [[Bhartiya Janata Party]]
| latest_election_year = [[2022 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election|2022]]
| electors = {{formatnum:251137}}<ref name=election2022>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/14750-gujarat-general-legislative-election-2022/ |title=Gujarat General Legislative Election 2022 |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date= 18 April 2023}}</ref>{{update after|2028|2}}
}}
'''Dharampur''' is one of the 182 assembly constituencies of Gujarat.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.news18.com/assembly-elections-2017/gujarat/dharampur-st-election-result/|title=Dharampur St Election Result 2017 Live: Dharampur St Assembly Elections Result Live Update, Vidhan Sabha Election Result & Live News|website=News18|access-date=2019-11-17}}</ref> It is located in [[Valsad district]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.electionsinindia.com/gujarat/dharampur-assembly-vidhan-sabha-constituency-elections|title=Dharampur (ST) Vidhan Sabha Election - Dharampur (ST) Assembly Election Results, Polling Stations, Voters, Candidates|website=www.electionsinindia.com|access-date=2019-11-17}}</ref> This seat is reserved for members of [[Scheduled Tribes]].

==List of segments==

This assembly seat represents the following segments,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/delim/Final_Publications/Gujarat/gujarat.pdf|title=Gujarat: Order No. 33: Table-A: Assembly Constituency and Their Extent|date=12 December 2006|website=Election Commission of India|publisher=Delimitation Commission of India|pages=2–31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305015941/http://eci.nic.in/delim/Final_Publications/Gujarat/gujarat.pdf|archive-date=5 March 2016|url-status=dead|access-date=12 February 2017}}</ref>

# Dharampur Taluka
# Valsad Taluka (Part) Villages – Gorgam, Panchlai, Bhanji Falia, Sonwada, Tighara, Dhanori, Endergota, Khajurdi, Palan, Fanaswada, Atgam, Segva, Muli, Ovada, Kochwada, Kalwada, Pitha, Marala, Sarangpur, Kanjan Ranchhod, Thakkarwada, Kanjan Hari, Gadaria, Kaparia, Dulsad, Bhutsar, Ronvel, Bhoma Pardi, Anjlav, Rabada, Navera, Bodlai, Valandi, Vankal, Ozar, Kachigam, Kakadmati, Faldhara, Kosamkuwa, Velvach, Chinchai

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!
!Year
!Member
!colspan="2"|Party
!Cite
|-
| rowspan="2" |[[Bombay Legislative Assembly]]
|[[1952 Bombay Legislative Assembly election|1952]]
|Atara Bhikha Zina
|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|
|-
|[[1957 Bombay Legislative Assembly election|1957]]
| rowspan="2" |Ramubhai Jadav
| rowspan="2" |
| rowspan="2" |[[Praja Socialist Party|PJP]]
|
|-
| rowspan="14" |[[Gujarat Legislative Assembly]]
|[[1962 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election|1962]]
|
|-
|[[1967 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
|K.R. Patel
|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|
|-
|[[1972 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election|1972]]
| rowspan="2" |Ramubhai Jadav
| rowspan="2" |
| rowspan="2" |[[Indian National Congress (Organisation)|INC(O)]]
|
|-
|[[1975 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election|1975]]
|
|-
|[[1980 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election|1980]]
| rowspan="2" |Shankarbhai Patel
|
|[[Indian National Congress (R)|INC(R)]]
|
|-
|[[1985 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election|1985]]
| rowspan="5" |
| rowspan="4" |[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|
|-
|[[1990 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election|1990]]
| rowspan="2" |Manibhai Chaudhary
|
|-
|[[1995 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election|1995]]
|
|-
|[[1998 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election|1998]]
|Ramjibhai Chaudhary
|
|-
|[[2002 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election|2002]]
|[[Kishanbhai Vestabhai Patel]]
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|
|-
|[[2007 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election|2007]]
|Chhanabhai Chaudhary
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|[[2012 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election|2012]]
|Ishwarbhai Patel
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|[[2017 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election|2017]]
| rowspan="2" | [[Arvind Patel|Arvindbhai Patel]]
|{{Full party name with color|Bhartiya Janata Party | rowspan=2}}
|
|-
|[[2022 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election|2022]]
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-12-07 |title=BJP retain its Dharampur seat while Congress came third behind AAP |url=https://www.cnbctv18.com/politics/dharampur-election-result-2022-live-check-winner-losers-vote-margin-news-updates-15341851.htm |access-date=2022-12-08 |website=cnbctv18.com |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|}

==Election results==
===2022===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2022 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election|Gujarat Legislative Assembly Election, 2022]]: Dharampur}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|candidate = [[Arvind Patel]]
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = 83,544
|percentage = 42.24
|change =
}}{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Kamlesh Patel|party=Aam Aadmi Party|votes=50,217|percentage=25.39|change=}}

{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Kishan Patel|party=Indian National Congress|votes=33,507|percentage=16.94|change=}}

{{Election box majority||votes=33,327|percentage=16.85|change=}}
{{Election box turnout||votes=197,802|percentage=78.32|change=}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|swing =Hold
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2017 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2017 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election|Gujarat Legislative Assembly Election, 2017]]: Dhangadhra<ref name=election2017>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3841-gujarat-general-legislative-election-2017/ |title=Gujarat General Legislative Election 2017 |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date= 11 July 2021}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|candidate = Arvind Chhotubhai Patel
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = 94,944
|percentage = 53.53
|change = +12.27
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Ishvarbhai Dhedhabhai Patel
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = 72,698
|percentage = 40.98
|change = -9.7
}}

{{Election box majority|
|votes = 22,246
|percentage = 12.55
|change = +3.13
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 1,77,380
|percentage = 78.39
|change = -0.91
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|loser = Indian National Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2012===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2012 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election]]: Dharampur (ST)}}<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://ceo.gujarat.gov.in/download/Detail_Report_AC2012.pdf |title=Statistical Report on General Election, 2012 to the Legislative Assembly of Gujarat |access-date=29 October 2014 |archive-date=26 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131126215052/http://ceo.gujarat.gov.in/download/Detail_Report_AC2012.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Ishwarbhai Patel
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = 82,319
|percentage = 50.68
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Sumitraben Chaudhari
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = 67,021
|percentage = 41.26
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 15,298
|percentage = 9.42
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 1,62,426
|percentage = 79.30
|change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Indian National Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
* [[List of constituencies of the Gujarat Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Valsad district]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cite web |title=Results of Gujarat Assembly Elections |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/category/72-gujarat/ |website=eci.gov.in |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=15 March 2022}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Gujarat}}
{{Gujarat elections|state=collapsed}}

{{coord|22.99|71.47|display=title}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Gujarat]]
[[Category:Valsad district]]
[[Category:Politics of Gujarat]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1951]]

Communist involvement in the Indian independence movement

2026-04-12T17:10:30Z

AhmedSturgis: made initial post first draft

{{Short description|None}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2024}}
{{Revolution sidebar}}
{{communism sidebar}}
{{Marxism–Leninism sidebar}}
{{Marxism sidebar}}
[[Communism|Communists]] were actively involved in [[Indian independence movement]] through multiple series of protests, strikes and other activities. It was a part of [[revolutionary movement for Indian independence]]. Their main thrust was on organising [[peasants]] and [[working class]]es across India against the British and Indian [[capitalists]] and [[landlords]].<ref name="newsclick.in">{{cite web |url=https://www.newsclick.in/Communists-During-India-Freedom-Struggle?amp |title=Where Were Communists During India's Freedom Struggle? |date=15 August 2020}}</ref>

==Communist organizations during independence movement==
Following the independence movements, many militant underground communist organizations were formed.

===Hindustan Socialist Republican Association===
{{Main article|Hindustan Socialist Republican Association}}
Following the [[Non-cooperation movement (1919–1922)|Non-cooperation movement]] of 1919, Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) was formed by [[Sachindra Nath Sanyal]], [[Jadugopal Mukherjee]] and [[Jogesh Chandra Chatterjee]] after a meeting in [[Cawnpore]]. The HRA had branches in [[West Bengal]], [[Agra]], Allahabad, [[Varanasi|Benares]], Cawnpore, [[Lucknow]], [[Saharanpur]] and Shahjahanpur. Afterwards it became Hindustan Socialist Republican Association by influence of [[Bhagat Singh]] and decided that the new organization would work in cooperation with the [[Communist International]].

They were also involved in manufacturing bombs in [[Kolkata|Calcutta]] – at [[Dakshineswar]] and Shovabazar – and at [[Deoghar]] in [[Jharkhand]] (then [[Bihar]] province). [[Kakori train robbery]] was the most prominent efforts, where they looted government money from a train around {{convert|10|mi|km}} from [[Lucknow]]. Significant members of the HRSA were arrested and tried for their involvement in that incident and others which had preceded it. The outcome was that four leaders – [[Ashfaqullah Khan]], [[Ram Prasad Bismil]], [[Roshan Singh]] and [[Rajendra Lahiri]] – were hanged in December 1927 and a further 16 imprisoned for lengthy terms. The result of the trial, in which the HRSA participants sang patriotic songs and displayed other forms of defiance, seriously damaged the leadership of the HRSA and dealt a major blow to its activities. Many associated with the HRSA who escaped trial found themselves placed under surveillance or detained for various reasons. [[Chandra Shekhar Azad]] was the only one of the principal leaders who managed to escape arrest whereas Banwari Lal became an approver.{{sfnp|Gupta|1997|ps=}}

HRSA was in protest against the [[Simon Commission]]. They bombed the members of the Simon Commission. Following the death of [[Lala Lajpat Rai]], who died due to lathicharge while leading a [[peaceful protest]] against the commission, they bombed the [[Central Legislative Assembly]] in [[Delhi]]. They demonstrated [[protest]] against the introduction of the Public Safety Bill and the Trade Disputes Bill, both of which had been drafted in an attempt to counter the effects of [[revolutionary]] activities and [[trade unionism]].{{sfnp|Gupta|1997|ps=}}{{sfnp|Singh|Lala|Hooja|2007|pp=16-18|ps=}} The Assembly Bomb case and the Saunders murder case trial followed and Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru were hanged on 23 March 1931 for their actions.{{sfnp|Gupta|1997|ps=}}{{sfnp|Singh|Lala|Hooja|2007|pp=16-18|ps=}}

===Communist Consolidation===
{{Main article|Communist Consolidation}}
On 12 May 1933, some of the prisoners of [[Cellular Jail]] gathered and started a [[hunger strike]], causing the deaths of [[Mahavir Singh (revolutionary)|Mahavir Singh]], [[Mohan Kishore Namadas]], and [[Mohit Moitra]]. The [[British Raj]] acceded to the demands of the freedom fighters to stop the hunger strike and finally after 46 days hunger strike end on 26 June 1933. This marked the beginning of the revolutionary communist group. It was the largest resistance group against [[British Raj|British rule]] in the Jail.

In 1935, Communist Consolidation was founded by 39 inmates, and led by communist leader [[Hare Krishna Konar]]. The maximum of its members believed on the concept of [[Marxism]] and [[Communism|Communist]] or [[Jugantar]] part of [[Anushilan Samiti]]. Although this was a secret revolutionary group and the members of this organization swelled higher and higher.<ref name="majumdar">{{Cite book |last=Majumdar |first=Ramesh Chandra |title=Penal Settlement in Andamans |publisher=Government of India |year=1975 |location=Delhi |pages=339 |language=English |author-link=R. C. Majumdar}}</ref><ref name="acjhistory">{{Cite web|date=|title=History of Andaman Cellular Jail|url=http://www.andamancellularjail.org/History.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070113111037/http://www.andamancellularjail.org/History.htm|archive-date=2007-01-13|access-date=2022-02-10|url-status=usurped|website=Andaman Cellular Jail}}</ref>

This organization again led the historical 36-days [[hunger strike]] in 1937 where the [[Government of the United Kingdom|British government]] had to bow before the demands of the political prisoners.<ref name="sanyal">{{Cite book|last=Sanyal|first=Sachindranath|title=Bandi Jeevan|date=2017-01-01|publisher=[[Sachindra Nath Sanyal]]|isbn=978-8184408973|language=Hindi}}</ref>

They used [[Political slogan|slogans]] like "[[Inquilab Zindabad]]" and "[[Workers of the world, unite!|Duniya ke Mazdooron ek ho]]".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Saha|first=Murari Mohan|title=Documents of the Revolutionary Socialist Party|publisher=Lokayata Chetana Bikash Society|year=2001|location=Agartala|pages=21}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2007-03-11|title=The legend who survived Saaza-E-Kaalapani|url=http://tripurainfo.com/cgi-bin/news/display.cgi?MODE=ShowDetails&ID=27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070311111509/http://tripurainfo.com/cgi-bin/news/display.cgi?MODE=ShowDetails&ID=27|archive-date=2007-03-11|access-date=2022-02-10|website=www.tripurainfo.com}}</ref> Gradually The organization's membership expanded rapidly to more than 800 inmates.

Some of its notable members were:
*[[Hare Krishna Konar]], Founder of this organization, in April 1935<ref>{{Cite web|date=|title=Revolutionaries: Section 'K'|url=http://www.andamancellularjail.org/K1.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060714121042/http://www.andamancellularjail.org/K1.htm|archive-date=2006-07-14|access-date=2022-02-10|url-status=usurped|website=Andaman Cellular Jail}}</ref>
*[[Niranjan Sengupta]]
*[[Sudhangshu Dasgupta]]
*[https://mayday.leftword.com/blog/post/the-photo-of-nalini-gupta Nalini Dasgupta]
*[[Shiv Verma]]
*[[Ganesh Ghosh]]
*[[Batukeshwar Dutt]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=2006-05-03 |title=Revolutionaries: Section 'D' |url=http://www.andamancellularjail.org/D1.htm |access-date=2022-02-10 |website= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060503013636/http://www.andamancellularjail.org/D1.htm |archive-date=3 May 2006 |url-status=usurped}}</ref>
*[[Jaidev Kapoor]]
*[[Ambika Chakrabarty]]
*[[Sachindra Nath Sanyal]]
*[[Subodh Roy]]
*[[Bejoy Kumar Sinha]]
*[[Jatindra Nath Das]]
*[[Manmath Nath Gupta]]

===Communist Party of India===
{{Main article|Communist Party of India}}
The Communist Party of India, one of the major communist party, which is still in existence, was formed on 26 December 1925 in [[Kanpur]]. [[Sachchidanand Vishnu Ghate|S.V. Ghate]] was the first General Secretary of CPI. There were many communist groups formed by Indians with the help of foreigners in different parts of the world, Tashkent group of Contacts were made with [[Anushilan]] and [[Jugantar]] the groups in [[Bengal]], and small communist groups were formed in [[Bombay Presidency|Bombay]] (led by [[S.A. Dange]]), [[Madras Presidency|Madras]] (led by [[Malayapuram Singaravelu Chettiar|Singaravelu Chettiar]]), [[United Provinces of British India|United Provinces]] (led by [[Shaukat Usmani]]), [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab]], [[Sindh]] (led by [[Ghulam Hussain Hidayatullah|Ghulam Hussain]]) and [[Bengal]] (led by [[Muzaffar Ahmed (politician)|Muzaffar Ahmed]]).
During the 1920s and the early 1930s the party was badly organised, and in practice there were several communist groups working with limited national co-ordination. The British colonial authorities had banned all communist activity, which made the task of building a united party very difficult. Between 1921 and 1924 there were three conspiracy trials against the communist movement; First [[Peshawar Conspiracy Case]], [[Meerut Conspiracy Case]] and the [[S.A. Dange#Kanpur Bolshevik conspiracy case|Kanpur Bolshevik Conspiracy Case]]. In the first three cases, [[Russians|Russian]]-trained muhajir communists were put on trial. However, the Cawnpore trial had more political impact. On 17 March 1924, [[Shripad Amrit Dange]], [[M.N. Roy]], Muzaffar Ahmed, Nalini Gupta, Shaukat Usmani, [[Malayapuram Singaravelu|Singaravelu Chettiar]], Ghulam Hussain and R.C. Sharma were charged, in Cawnpore (now spelt Kanpur) Bolshevik Conspiracy case. The specific pip charge was that they as communists were seeking "to deprive the King Emperor of his sovereignty of British India, by complete separation of India from Britain by a violent revolution." Pages of newspapers daily splashed sensational communist plans and people for the first time learned, on such a large scale, about communism and its doctrines and the aims of the Communist International in India.<ref name="Ralhan, O.P.2">Ralhan, O.P. (ed.) ''Encyclopedia of Political Parties'' New Delhi: Anmol Publications p. 336, Rao. p. 89-91.</ref>

Singaravelu Chettiar was released on account of illness. M.N. Roy was in [[Germany]] and R.C. Sharma in French [[Puducherry (union territory)|Pondichéry]], and therefore could not be arrested. Ghulam Hussain confessed that he had received money from the Russians in [[Kabul]] and was pardoned. Muzaffar Ahmed, Nalini Gupta, Shaukat Usmani and Dange were sentenced for various terms of imprisonment. This case was responsible for actively introducing communism to a larger Indian audience.<ref name="Ralhan, O.P.2"/> Dange was released from prison in 1927. Rahul Dev Pal was a prominent communist leader

On 25 December 1925 a communist conference was organised in Kanpur.<ref>{{cite web|title=Historical Moments in Kanpur|url=http://genieforcity.com/kanpur/history-kanpur.html|access-date=14 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160821203425/http://genieforcity.com/kanpur/history-kanpur.html|archive-date=21 August 2016|url-status = live}}</ref> Colonial authorities estimated that 500 persons took part in the conference. The conference was convened by a man called [[Satya Bhakta]]. At the conference Satyabhakta argued for a '[[National communism]]' and against subordination under Comintern. Being outvoted by the other delegates, Satyabhakta left the conference venue in protest. The conference adopted the name 'Communist Party of India'. Groups such as [[Labour Kisan Party of Hindustan]] (LKPH) dissolved into the CPI.<ref>M.V. S. Koteswara Rao. ''Communist Parties and United Front – Experience in Kerala and West Bengal''. [[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]]: Prajasakti Book House, 2003. p. 92-93</ref> The émigré CPI, which probably had little organic character anyway, was effectively substituted by the organisation now operating inside India.

Soon after the 1926 conference of the [[Workers and Peasants Party (India)|Workers and Peasants Party]] of Bengal, the underground CPI directed its members to join the provincial Workers and Peasants Parties. All open communist activities were carried out through Workers and Peasants Parties.<ref>M.V. S. Koteshwar Rao. ''Communist Parties and United Front – Experience in Kerala and West Bengal''. [[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]]: Prajasakti Book House, 2003. p. 111</ref>

The sixth congress of the Communist International met in 1928. In 1927 the [[Kuomintang]] had turned on the Chinese communists, which led to a review of the policy on forming alliances with the national bourgeoisie in the colonial countries. The Colonial theses of the 6th Comintern congress called upon the Indian communists to combat the 'national-reformist leaders' and to 'unmask the national reformism of the [[Indian National Congress]] and oppose all phrases of the Swarajists, Gandhists, etc. about passive resistance'.<ref name="saha">Saha, Murari Mohan (ed.), ''Documents of the Revolutionary Socialist Party: Volume One 1938–1947''. Agartala: Lokayata Chetana Bikash Society, 2001. p. 21-25</ref> The congress did however differentiate between the character of the Chinese Kuomintang and the Indian [[Swaraj Party|Swarajist Party]], considering the latter as neither a reliable ally nor a direct enemy. The congress called on the Indian communists to utilise the contradictions between the national bourgeoisie and the British imperialists.<ref>M.V. S. Koteswara Rao. ''Communist Parties and United Front – Experience in Kerala and West Bengal''. [[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]]: Prajasakti Book House, 2003. p. 47-48</ref> The congress also denounced the WPP. The Tenth Plenum of the executive committee of the Communist International, 3 July 1929{{spaced ndash}}19 July 1929, directed the Indian communists to break with WPP. When the communists deserted it, the WPP fell apart.<ref>M.V. S. Koteswara Rao. ''Communist Parties and United Front – Experience in Kerala and West Bengal''. [[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]]: Prajasakti Book House, 2003. p. 97-98, 111–112</ref>

On 20 March 1929, arrests against WPP, CPI and other labour leaders were made in several parts of India, in what became known as the Meerut Conspiracy Case. The communist leadership was now put behind bars. The trial proceedings were to last for four years.<ref>Ralhan, O.P. (ed.). ''Encyclopaedia of Political Parties – India – Pakistan – Bangladesh – National -Regional – Local. Vol. 23. Revolutionary Movements (1930–1946)''. New Delhi: Anmol Publications, 2002. p. 689-691</ref><ref>M.V. S. Koteswara Rao. ''Communist Parties and United Front – Experience in Kerala and West Bengal''. [[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]]: Prajasakti Book House, 2003. p. 96</ref>

As of 1934, the main centres of activity of CPI were Bombay, Calcutta and Punjab. The party had also begun extending its activities to Madras. A group of Andhra and Tamil students, amongst them [[P. Sundarayya]], were recruited to the CPI by [[Dada Amir Haider Khan|Amir Hyder Khan]].<ref name="ems7">[[E.M.S. Namboodiripad]]. ''The Communist Party in Kerala – Six Decades of Struggle and Advance''. New Delhi: National Book Centre, 1994. p. 7</ref>

The party was reorganised in 1933, after the communist leaders from the Meerut trials were released. A central committee of the party was set up. In 1934 the party was accepted as the Indian section of the Communist International.<ref>[[Harkishan Singh Surjeet|Surjeet, Harkishan Surjeet]]. ''March of the Communist Movement in India – An Introduction to the Documents of the History of the Communist Movement in India''. [[Calcutta]]: National Book Agency, 1998. p. 25</ref>

When Indian left-wing elements formed the [[Congress Socialist Party]] in 1934, the CPI branded it as [[Social fascism|Social Fascist]].<ref name="saha"/>

The [[League Against Gandhism]], initially known as the Gandhi Boycott Committee, was a political organisation in [[Calcutta]], founded by the underground Communist Party of India and others to launch militant [[Anti-imperialism|anti-Imperialist]] activities. The group took the name ‘League Against Gandhism’ in 1934.<ref>Roy Subodh, Communism in India – Unpublished Documents 1925-1934. [[Calcutta]]: National Book Agency, 1998. p. 338-339, 359-360</ref>

In connection with the change of policy of the [[Comintern]] toward [[Popular Front]] politics, the Indian communists changed their relation to the Indian National Congress. The communists joined the Congress Socialist Party, which worked as the left wing of Congress. Through joining CSP, the CPI accepted the CSP demand for a Constituent Assembly, which it had denounced two years before. The CPI however analysed that the demand for a Constituent Assembly would not be a substitute for [[soviet (council)|soviets]].<ref name="mnroy">Roy, Samaren. ''M.N. Roy: A Political Biography''. [[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]]: Orient Longman, 1998. p. 113, 115</ref>

In July 1937, clandestine meeting held at [[Kozhikode|Calicut]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/other/article30224225.ece|title=A man and a movement|first=R. KRISHNAKUMAR in|last=Thiruvananthapuram|website=Frontline|date=26 August 2004 }}</ref> Five persons were present at the meeting, [[P. Krishna Pillai]], [[K. Damodaran]], [[E.M.S. Namboodiripad]], [[N. C. Sekhar]] and [[S.V. Ghate]].
The first four were members of the CSP in Kerala. The CPI in [[Kerala]] was formed on 31 December 1939 with the Pinarayi Conference.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cpimkerala.org/eng/founders-98.php?n=1|title=Founders|website=CPIM Kerala|access-date=2022-08-08|archive-date=2020-12-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201208202135/https://www.cpimkerala.org/eng/founders-98.php?n=1|url-status=dead}}</ref>
The latter, Ghate, was a CPI Central Committee member, who had arrived from Madras.<ref>[[E.M.S. Namboodiripad]]. ''The Communist Party in Kerala – Six Decades of Struggle and Advance''. New Delhi: National Book Centre, 1994. p. 6</ref> Contacts between the CSP in Kerala and the CPI had begun in 1935, when P. Sundarayya (CC member of CPI, based in Madras at the time) met with EMS and Krishna Pillai. Sundarayya and Ghate visited Kerala at several times and met with the CSP leaders there. The contacts were facilitated through the national meetings of the Congress, CSP and [[All India Kisan Sabha]].<ref name="ems7"/>

In 1936–1937, the co-operation between socialists and communists reached its peak. At the 2nd congress of the CSP, held in [[Meerut]] in January 1936, a thesis was adopted which declared that there was a need to build 'a united Indian Socialist Party based on [[Marxism-Leninism]]'.<ref>[[E.M.S. Namboodiripad]]. ''The Communist Party in Kerala – Six Decades of Struggle and Advance''. New Delhi: National Book Centre, 1994. p. 44</ref> At the 3rd CSP congress, held in [[Faizpur]], several communists were included into the CSP National Executive Committee.<ref>[[E.M.S. Namboodiripad]]. ''The Communist Party in Kerala – Six Decades of Struggle and Advance''. New Delhi: National Book Centre, 1994. p. 45</ref>

In Kerala communists won control over CSP, and for a brief period controlled Congress there.

Two communists, E.M.S. Namboodiripad and [[Z.A. Ahmed]], became All India joint secretaries of CSP. The CPI also had two other members inside the CSP executive.<ref name="mnroy"/>

On the occasion of the 1940 Ramgarh Congress Conference CPI released a declaration called ''Proletarian Path'', which sought to utilise the weakened state of the British Empire in the time of war and gave a call for [[general strike]], no-tax, no-rent policies and mobilising for an armed revolutionary uprising. The National Executive of the CSP assembled at [[Ramgarh Cantonment|Ramgarh]] took a decision that all communists were expelled from CSP.<ref>Ralhan, O.P. (ed.). ''Encyclopedia of Political Parties – India – Pakistan – Bangladesh – National -Regional – Local. Vol. 24. Socialist Movement in India''. New Delhi: Anmol Publications, 1997. p. 82</ref>

In July 1942, the CPI was legalised, as a result of Britain and the Soviet Union becoming allies against Nazi Germany.<ref>[[Harkishan Singh Surjeet|Surjeet, Harkishan Surjeet]]. ''March of the Communist Movement in India – An Introduction to the Documents of the History of the Communist Movement in India''. [[Calcutta]]: National Book Agency, 1998. p. 55</ref> Communists strengthened their control over the All India Trade Union Congress. At the same time, communists were politically cornered for their opposition to the [[Quit India Movement]].

The Communist Party of India [[opposition to the partition of India|opposed the partition of India]] and did not participate in the [[Independence Day (India)|Independence Day]] celebrations of 15 August 1947 in protest of the division of the country.<ref name="Bandyopadhyay2009">{{cite book |last1=Bandyopadhyay |first1=Sekhar |title=Decolonization in South Asia: Meanings of Freedom in Post-independence West Bengal, 1947–52 |date=2009 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-01823-9 |language=en |quote=As a protest against Partition, the Hindu Mahasabha and the Communist Party of India (CPI) did not participate in the celebrations of 15 August.}}</ref>

===Naujawan Bharat Sabha===
{{Main article|Naujawan Bharat Sabha}}

Naujawan Bharat Sabha (NBS) was founded by revolutionary [[Bhagat Singh]] in March 1926.{{sfnp|Gupta|1997|ps=}}{{sfnp|Mittal|Habib|1979|ps=}} It was a [[left-wing]] [[Marxist]] association that sought to foment revolution against the [[British Raj]].{{sfnp|Singh|2008|p=236|ps=}} NBS was radical in its ideas relating to religion, to agrarian reform and movement. The organisation was noted for the involvement of its members in killing of [[John P. Saunders]] in December 1928. After that NBS organised protest against the [[Simon Commission]] in [[Lahore]].

The association was banned in July 1929 during a period when the government had imposed [[Section 144]] to control gatherings as public support burgeoned for the imprisoned Singh and his fellow hunger-strikers. NBS members were involved in the campaign.{{sfnp|Nair|2009|ps=}}

NBS activist [[Sohan Singh Josh]], was imprisoned for his role in the [[Meerut Conspiracy Case]]. NBS became one of the three significant left-wing groups in [[Punjab (British India)|Punjab]], the others being the outlawed [[Communist Party of India]] and the [[Workers and Peasants Party (India)|Kirti Kisan Party]]. These three attempted an alliance and sought also to gather together various smaller left wing organisations. All associations considered to be left-wing were declared illegal under the [[Criminal Law Amendment Act#India|Criminal Law Amendment Act (1908)]] in September 1934.{{sfnp|Mukherjee|2004|pp=45, 115-119|ps=}}

Notable leaders of NBS include [[Bhagat Singh]], Karam Singh Mann, [[Sohan Singh Josh]] and others.

===Kirti Kisan Party===
{{Main article|Workers and Peasants Party (India)}}
The Workers and Peasants Party or Kirti Kisan party was founded in [[Bengal]] in 1925, as the ''Labour Swaraj Party of the Indian National Congress'' by [[Kazi Nazrul Islam]], [[Hemanta Kumar Sarkar]], Qutubuddin Ahmad and Shamsuddin Hussain.<ref name="op209">Ralhan, O.P. (ed.). ''Encyclopaedia of Political Parties - India - Pakistan - Bangladesh - National -Regional - Local. Vol. 14. Communist Party of India''. [[New Delhi]]: Anmol Publications, 2002. p. 209</ref><ref>[http://www.cpim.org/marxist/198602_marxist_peasantmov_hks.htm 50 years of peasant movement]</ref><ref name="rao95">M.V.S. Koteswara Rao. ''Communist Parties and United Front - Experience in Kerala and West Bengal''. [[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]]: Prajasakti Book House, 2003. p. 95</ref> The WPPs had much influence in [[Bombay]], [[Punjab]], [[Uttar Pradesh]] and [[Bengal]]. The WPP representatives together with Nehru were able to convince the AICC to make the Indian National Congress an associate member of the [[League against Imperialism]].<ref name="rao95"/>
WPP was successful in mobilising trade union work. It built unions amongst printing press, municipal and dock workers. It gained influence amongst the workers of the [[Great Indian Peninsular Railway]]. During 1928 the WPP led a [[general strike]] in Bombay, which lasted for months. At the time of the strike, the [[Girni Kamgar Union]] was founded.<ref name="rao95"/> During the protests against the [[Simon Commission]], the WPP played a major role in organising manifestations in Calcutta and Bombay. In Bombay it also mobilised '[[hartal]]' (general strike) in protest against the Simon Commission.<ref name="rao95"/> The party also worked for the abolishment of '[[zamindari]]' system in agriculture.<ref>[[Harkishan Singh Surjeet|Surjeet, Harkishan Surjeet]]. ''March of the Communist Movement in India - An Introduction to the Documents of the History of the Communist Movement in India''. [[Calcutta]]: National Book Agency, 1998. p. 29</ref>

On 20 March 1929, arrests against WPP, CPI and other labour leaders were made in several parts of India, in what became known as the [[Meerut Conspiracy Case]]. Most of the WPP leadership was now put behind bars. The trial proceedings were to last for four years, thus outliving the WPP. Tengdi, the WPP of Bombay president, died whilst the trial was still going on. After the arrests of its main leaders, the WPP was dissolved.<ref>Ralhan, O.P. (ed.). ''Encyclopaedia of Political Parties - India - Pakistan - Bangladesh - National -Regional - Local. Vol. 23. Revolutionary Movements (1930-1946)''. [[New Delhi]]: Anmol Publications, 2002. p. 689-691</ref><ref>M.V.S. Koteswara Rao. ''Communist Parties and United Front - Experience in Kerala and West Bengal''. [[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]]: Prajasakti Book House, 2003. p. 96</ref>

Notable leaders of this party were [[Nares Chandra Sen-Gupta]], [[Hemanta Kumar Sarkar]], Qutubuddin Ahmad, [[S.S. Mirajkar]], [[Philip Spratt]] and many others.
ref>[[Harkishan Singh Surjeet|Surjeet, Harkishan Surjeet]]. ''March of the Communist Movement in India – An Introduction to the Documents of the History of the Communist Movement in India''. [[Calcutta]]: National Book Agency, 1998. p. 25

==First demand for Purna Swaraj==
Congress leader and famous poet [[Hasrat Mohani]] and [[Communist Party of India]] leader [[Swami Kumaranand]] were the first activists to demand complete independence (Purna Swaraj) from the British in 1921 resolution from an All-India Congress Forum at the [[Ahmedabad]] Session of [[All India Congress Committee|AICC]].<ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/thiruvananthapuram-communists-first-to-demand-poorna-swaraj-says-sitaram-yechury/articleshow/78729733.cms | title=Thiruvananthapuram: Communists first to demand Poorna Swaraj, says Sitaram Yechury | Kochi News - Times of India | website=[[The Times of India]]| date=18 October 2020 }}</ref><ref name=MilliGazette>{{Cite web|url=http://www.milligazette.com/news/4146-hasrat-mohani-Syed-Fazlul-Hasan|title=Profile: Maulana Hasrat Mohani|website=The Milli Gazette (newspaper)|language=en|date=6 October 2012|access-date=11 March 2019|archive-date=29 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200329175410/http://www.milligazette.com/news/4146-hasrat-mohani-Syed-Fazlul-Hasan|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Maghfoor Ahmad Ajazi]] supported the 'Purna Swaraj' motion demanded by Hasrat Mohani.<ref name="Azadi ka Amrit Mahotsav">{{cite web|last1=Ministry of Culture|first1=Government of India|title=Maghfoor Ahmad Ajazi|url=https://amritmahotsav.nic.in/unsung-heroes-detail.htm?138|website=amritmahotsav.nic.in}}</ref>

==Kakori Train Robbery==
{{Main article|Kakori conspiracy}}
One of the successful efforts of [[Hindustan Socialist Republican Association]] (then known as HRA) was Kakori Train Robbery in [[Kakori]], a village near [[Lucknow]], on 9 August 1925, during the [[Indian Independence Movement]] against the [[British Raj]]. The robbery plan was executed by [[Ram Prasad Bismil]], [[Ashfaqullah Khan]], [[Rajendra Lahiri]], [[Chandrashekhar Azad]], [[Sachindra Bakshi]], [[Keshab Chakravarty]], [[Manmathnath Gupta]], [[Mukundi Lal]], [[Murari Sharma|Murari Lal Gupta]] and [[Banwari Lal (revolutionary)|Banwari Lal]].<ref>Dr. Mahaur Bhagwandas ''Kakori Shaheed Smriti'' page 30</ref><ref>Sharma Vidyarnav ''Yug Ke Devta: Bismil Aur Ashfaq'' page 118</ref>

On 9 August 1925, the Number 8 Down Train on the Saharanpur Railway lines<ref>Dr. Mehrotra N. C. ''Swatantrata Andolan Mein Shahjahanpur Ka Yogdan'' page 117.</ref> was travelling from [[Shahjahanpur]] to [[Lucknow]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Kakori Conspiracy: 12 quick facts you need to know | url=https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-current-affairs/story/kakori-conspiracy-334170-2016-08-09 | website=India Today| language=en | date=9 August 2016 | accessdate=19 May 2021}}</ref> When it passed [[Kakori]] one of the revolutionaries, [[Rajendra Lahiri]], pulled the emergency chain to stop the train and subsequently, the other revolutionaries overpowered the guard. They looted only these bags (which were present in the guards' cabin and contained about ₹ 4600) which belonged to the Indians and were being transferred to the British government treasury. One passenger was killed unintentionally.

Following the incident, the British administration started an intense [[Manhunt (law enforcement)|manhunt]] and arrested several of the revolutionaries who were members or part of the HRA. Their leader, Ram Prasad Bismil was arrested at [[Shahjahanpur]] on 26 October 1925 and Ashfaqullah Khan was arrested on 7 December 1926 at [[Delhi]].

==Peshawar Conspiracy Case (1922–1927)==
{{Main article|Peshawar Conspiracy Cases}}

The colonial government feared that the defendants were entering India with the purpose of spreading [[Socialism|socialist]] and [[Communism|communist ideas]] and supporting the [[Indian independence movement|emerging independence movement]].<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41854654|jstor = 41854654 |last1=Lieten |first1=Georges Kristoffel |title=Reviewed work: Documents of the History of the Communist Party of India, 1917-1922, Vol. I Documents of the History of the Communist Party of India, 1923-35, Vol. II, G. Adhikari |journal=The Indian Journal of Political Science |year=1975 |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=95–100}}</ref> Five legal cases which took place between 1922 and 1927 which are known as the Peshawar Conspiracy Cases.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/list-of-famous-conspiracy-case-during-british-rule-in-india-1528455239-1|title=List of Famous Conspiracy Cases during British Rule in India |date=8 December 2020}}</ref> British government cased against 40 to 50 muhajirs, who had formed the CPI in 1920 in Tashkent of Soviet Union where they gained political and military training at the Communist University of the Toilers of the East in Moscow. The muhajirs were mainly Khilafatis who intended to go to Turkey to fight the British, but they met [[M.N. Roy]] in Tashkent and with him laid the foundation of the first Communist Party of India. They were charged under section 121-A, and accused of fermenting "a proletarian revolution against the British imperialist oppressors to restore freedom to the masses".<ref name="newsclick.in"/> This became popular and galvanized the imagination of the young population of the Indian subcontinent.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://cpiml.org/library/communist-movement-in-india/introduction-communist-movement-in-india/peshawar-and-kanpur-conspiracy-cases/ |title=Peshawar and Kanpur Conspiracy Cases}}</ref>

==Kanpur Bolshevik Conspiracy Case (1924–1925)==
{{Main article|Kanpur Bolshevik Conspiracy Case}}

In March 1924, [[S. A. Dange]], [[M. N. Roy]], [[Muzaffar Ahmad|Muzaffar Ahmed]], Nalini Bhushan Dasgupta, [[Shaukat Usmani]], [[Singaravelu Chettiar]], Ghulam Hussain, Rafiq Ahmad, Shaukat Usmani and other communists were charged with seeking "to deprive the King Emperor of his sovereignty of British India, by complete separation of India from imperialistic Britain by a violent revolution". It was called the [[Cawnpore]] (now spelt Kanpur) Bolshevik Conspiracy case, and was initiated in 1924. It brought scrutiny of an alleged Comintern plan to foment revolution in India: "Pages of newspapers daily splashed sensational communist plans and people for the first time learned such a large scale about communism and its doctrines and the aims of the Communist International in India".<ref name="Ralhan, O.P.">Ralhan, O.P. (ed.) ''Encyclopedia of Political Parties''. New Delhi: Anmol Publications, p. 336</ref> The case was considered a key factor in introducing communism to the Indian masses.<ref name="Ralhan, O.P."/>

Britain triumphantly declared that the Kanpur case had "finished off the communists".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Communist Biographies |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411070304/https://grahamstevenson.me.uk/2008/09/20/shaukat-pron-shavkat-usmani/ |url=https://grahamstevenson.me.uk/2008/09/20/shaukat-pron-shavkat-usmani/ |publisher=[[Graham Stevenson (trade union leader)|Graham Stevenson]] |title=Shaukat Usmani |archive-date=11 April 2021 |date=20 September 2008}}</ref> But the industrial town of Kanpur, in December 1925, witnessed a conference of different communist groups, under the chairmanship of Singaravelu Chettiar. Dange, Muzaffar Ahmed, Nalini Gupta, Shaukat Usmani were among the organizers of the conference. It adopted a resolution for the formation of the Communist Party of India with its headquarters in [[Bombay]].

==Lahore Conspiracy Case==
{{Main article|Bhagat Singh#Delhi Assembly bombing and arrest|Bhagat Singh#Assembly case trial}}
Influenced by [[Auguste Vaillant]], a French anarchist who had bombed the [[Chamber of Deputies of France|Chamber of Deputies]] in Paris,{{sfnp|Bakshi|Gajrani|Singh|2005|p=334|ps=}} Bhagat Singh made a plan to explode a bomb inside the [[Central Legislative Assembly]]. On 8 April 1929, Singh, accompanied by Batukeshwar Dutt, threw two bombs into the Assembly chamber from its public gallery while it was in session.{{sfnp|Gaur|2008|pp=100–101|ps=}} The bombs had been designed not to kill,<ref name=Nair>{{citation |last=Nair |first=Neeti |title=Changing Homelands |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sbqF0z3d7cUC |year=2011 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-06115-6}}</ref> but some members, including [[George Ernest Schuster]], the finance member of the [[Viceroy's Executive Council]], were injured.<ref>{{cite news|title=Bombs Thrown into Assembly|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=vf0YIhSwahgC&dat=19290408&printsec=frontpage |page=1 |access-date=29 August 2013 |newspaper=Evening Tribune |date=8 April 1930}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> The smoke from the bombs filled the Assembly so that Singh and Dutt could probably have escaped in the confusion had they wished. Instead, they stayed shouting the slogan "[[Inquilab Zindabad]]!" ("Long Live the Revolution") and threw leaflets. The two men were arrested and subsequently moved through a series of jails in Delhi.{{sfnp|Gaur|2008|p=101|ps=}} Trials began in the first week of June, following a preliminary hearing in May. On 12 June, both men were sentenced to life imprisonment for: "causing explosions of a nature likely to endanger life, unlawfully and maliciously."{{sfnp|Gaur|2008|p=101|ps=}}{{sfnp|Nayar|2000|pp=76–78|ps=}} Dutt had been defended by [[Asaf Ali]], while Singh defended himself.<ref name=Lal>{{citation |last=Lal |first=Chaman |title=April 8, 1929: A Day to Remember |date=11 April 2009 |url=http://www.mainstreamweekly.net/article1283.html |work=Mainstream |access-date=14 December 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151001142556/http://www.mainstreamweekly.net/article1283.html|archive-date=1 October 2015}}</ref> On 15 April 1929, the Lahore bomb factories in Lahore and [[Saharanpur]] were discovered by the police, leading to the arrest of other members of HSRA, including Sukhdev, [[Pandit Kishori Lal|Kishori Lal]], Jai Gopal, Rajguru, and 21 others.<ref name=Dam>{{citation |title=Presidential Legislation in India: The Law and Practice of Ordinances |first=Shubhankar |last=Dam |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-107-72953-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RvxGAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA44|page=44}}</ref> Singh was re-arrested for murdering Saunders and Chanan Singh based on substantial evidence against him, including statements by his associates, [[Hans Raj Vohra]] and Jai Gopal.<ref name=ILJ>{{citation |title=The Trial of Bhagat Singh |journal=India Law Journal |url=http://www.indialawjournal.com/volume1/issue_3/bhagat_singh.html |volume=1 |issue=3 |date=July–September 2008 |access-date=11 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151001142717/http://indialawjournal.com/volume1/issue_3/bhagat_singh.html|archive-date=1 October 2015}}</ref> His life sentence in the Assembly Bomb case was deferred until the Saunders case was decided.{{sfnp|Nayar|2000|p=81|ps=}} He was sent to [[Central Jail Mianwali]] from the Delhi jail.<ref name=Lal /> There he witnessed discrimination between European and Indian prisoners. They demanded equality in food standards, clothing, toiletries, and other hygienic necessities, as well as access to books and a daily newspaper. They argued that they should not be forced to do manual labour or any undignified work in the jail and started hunger strike.{{sfnp|Nayar|2000|pp=83–89|ps=}}<ref name=Nair /> The hunger strike inspired a rise in public support for Singh and his colleagues from around June 1929. ''[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)|The Tribune]]'' newspaper was particularly prominent in this movement and reported on mass meetings in places such as Lahore and Amritsar. The government had to apply [[Section 144]] of the criminal code in an attempt to limit gatherings.<ref name=Nair /> [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] and [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]] both talked in favour of [[Central Jail Mianwali]].{{sfnp|Nayar|2000|p=85|ps=}}<ref>{{cite news |title=When Jinnah defended Bhagat Singh |date=8 August 2005 |url=http://www.hindu.com/2005/08/08/stories/2005080801672000.htm |access-date=2011-10-11 |location=Chennai, India|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150930150234/http://www.thehindu.com/2005/08/08/stories/2005080801672000.htm|work=[[The Hindu]] |archive-date=30 September 2015}}</ref> Since the activities of the hunger strikers had gained popularity and attention amongst the people nationwide, the government decided to advance the start of the Saunders murder trial, which was henceforth called the Lahore Conspiracy Case. Singh was transported to Borstal Jail, Lahore,{{sfnp|Nayar|2000|p=89|ps=}} and the trial began there on 10 July 1929. In addition to charging them with the murder of Saunders, Singh and the 27 other prisoners were charged with plotting a conspiracy to murder Scott, and waging a war against the King.<ref name=ILJ /> Singh, still on hunger strike, had to be carried to the court handcuffed on a stretcher; he had lost {{convert|14|lb|kg}} from his original weight of {{convert|133|lb|kg}} since beginning the strike.{{sfnp|Nayar|2000|p=89|ps=}}
[[File:Hunger strike poster of Bhagat Singh and Batukeshswar Dutt.jpg|thumb|Hunger strike poster of Bhagat Singh and Batukeshswar Dutt]]
[[File:Daily milap poster of the Lahore conspiracy case 1930.Death sentence of Bhagat Singh ,Sukhdev and Rajguru.jpg|thumb|Daily milap poster of the Lahore conspiracy case 1930.Death sentence of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru.]]
A Crown prosecution team was created comprising C. H. Carden-Noad, Kalandar Ali Khan, Jai Gopal Lal, and the prosecuting inspector, Bakshi Dina Nath.<ref name=ILJ /> The defence was composed of eight lawyers. Prem Dutt Verma, the youngest amongst the 27 accused, threw his slipper at Gopal when he turned and became a prosecution witness in court. As a result, the magistrate ordered that all the accused should be handcuffed.<ref name=ILJ /> Singh and others refused to be handcuffed and were subjected to brutal beating.<ref name=rare>{{cite news |first=Chaman |last=Lal |title=Rare documents on Bhagat Singh's trial and life in jail |date=15 August 2011 |url=http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/article2356959.ece |work=The Hindu |access-date=31 October 2011 |location=Chennai, India|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150930151706/http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/article2356959.ece|archive-date=30 September 2015}}</ref> The revolutionaries refused to attend the court and Singh wrote a letter to the magistrate citing various reasons for their refusal.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hmg-AQAAIAAJ&q=9780195796674 |title=The Trial of Bhagat Singh |author-link=A. G. Noorani|author= Noorani, A.G.|publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-19-579667-4 |page=339}}</ref><ref name="refusaltoattend">{{cite news |title=Reasons for Refusing to Attend the Court |url=http://www.shahidbhagatsingh.org/index.asp?link=refusing_court |access-date=16 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150930150741/http://www.shahidbhagatsingh.org/index.asp?link=refusing_court|archive-date=30 September 2015}}</ref> The magistrate ordered the trial to proceed without the accused or members of the HSRA. This was a setback for Singh as he could no longer use the trial as a forum to publicise his views.{{sfnp|Nayar|2000|p=96|ps=}} To speed up the slow trial, the Viceroy, Lord Irwin, declared an emergency on 1 May 1930 and introduced an ordinance to set up a special tribunal composed of three high court judges for the case. This decision cut short the normal process of justice as the only appeal after the tribunal was to the Privy Council located in England.<ref name=ILJ /> On 2 July 1930, a ''[[habeas corpus]]'' petition was filed in the High Court challenging the ordinance on the grounds that it was ''ultra vires'' and, therefore, illegal; the Viceroy had no powers to shorten the customary process of determining justice.<ref name=ILJ /> The petition argued that the [[Defence of India Act 1915]] allowed the Viceroy to introduce an ordinance, and set up such a tribunal, only under conditions of a breakdown of law-and-order, which, it was claimed in this case, had not occurred. However, the petition was dismissed as being premature.{{sfnp|Nayar|2000|p=103|ps=}} Carden-Noad presented the government's charges of conducting robberies, and the illegal acquisition of arms and ammunition among others.<ref name=ILJ /> The evidence of G. T. H. Hamilton Harding, the Lahore superintendent of police, shocked the court. He stated that he had filed the [[first information report]] against the accused under specific orders from the chief secretary to the governor of Punjab and that he was unaware of the details of the case. The prosecution depended mainly on the evidence of P. N. Ghosh, Hans Raj Vohra, and Jai Gopal who had been Singh's associates in the HSRA. On 10 July 1930, the tribunal decided to press charges against only 15 of the 18 accused and allowed their petitions to be taken up for hearing the next day. The trial ended on 30 September 1930.<ref name=ILJ /> The three accused, whose charges were withdrawn, included Dutt who had already been given a life sentence in the Assembly bomb case.{{sfnp|Nayar|2000|p=117|ps=}} The ordinance (and the tribunal) would lapse on 31 October 1930 as it had not been passed by the Central Assembly or the British Parliament. On 7 October 1930, the tribunal delivered its 300-page judgement based on all the evidence and concluded that the participation of Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru in Saunder's murder was proven. They were sentenced to death by hanging.<ref name=ILJ /> Of the other accused, three were acquitted (Ajoy Ghosh, Jatindra Nath Sanyal and Des Raj), Kundan Lal received seven years' [[Penal labour|rigorous imprisonment]], Prem Dutt received five years of the same, and the remaining seven (Kishori Lal, Mahabir Singh, [[Vijay Kumar Sinha|Bijoy Kumar Sinha]], [[Shiv Verma]], [[Gaya Prasad Katiyar|Gaya Prasad]], Jai Dev and Kamalnath Tewari) were all sentenced to transportation for life.{{sfnp|Nayar|2000|p=118|ps=}}
In [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab province]], a defence committee drew up a plan to appeal to the Privy Council. Singh was initially against the appeal but later agreed to it in the hope that the appeal would popularise the HSRA in Britain. The appellants claimed that the ordinance which created the tribunal was invalid while the government countered that the Viceroy was completely empowered to create such a tribunal. The appeal was dismissed by [[Andrew Murray, 1st Viscount Dunedin|Judge Viscount Dunedin]].{{sfnp|Rana|2005a|pp=95–100|ps=}}

After the rejection of the appeal to the Privy Council, Congress party president [[Madan Mohan Malaviya]] filed a mercy appeal before Irwin on 14 February 1931.{{sfnp|Rana|2005a|p=98|ps=}} Some prisoners sent Mahatma Gandhi an appeal to intervene.<ref name=ILJ /> In his notes dated 19 March 1931, the Viceroy recorded: "While returning Gandhiji asked me if he could talk about the case of Bhagat Singh because newspapers had come out with the news of his slated hanging on March 24th. It would be a very unfortunate day because on that day the new president of the Congress had to reach Karachi and there would be a lot of hot discussion. I explained to him that I had given a very careful thought to it but I did not find any basis to convince myself to commute the sentence. It appeared he found my reasoning weighty."{{sfnp|Rana|2005a|p=103|ps=}}
The [[Communist Party of Great Britain]] expressed its reaction to the case: "The history of this case, of which we do not come across any example in relation to the political cases, reflects the symptoms of callousness and cruelty which is the outcome of bloated desire of the imperialist government of Britain so that fear can be instilled in the hearts of the repressed people."{{sfnp|Rana|2005a|p=98|ps=}}

A plan to rescue Singh and fellow HSRA inmates from the jail failed. HSRA member Durga Devi's husband, Bhagwati Charan Vohra, attempted to manufacture bombs for the purpose, but died when they exploded accidentally.<ref name=pragoti>{{cite web |url=http://www.pragoti.org/node/2114 |title=Bhagat Singh: A Perennial Saga Of Inspiration |access-date=28 October 2011 |date=27 September 2008 |publisher=Pragoti|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150930151107/http://www.pragoti.org/node/2114|archive-date=30 September 2015}}</ref>

==Meerut Conspiracy Case (1929-1933)==
{{Main article|Meerut Conspiracy Case}}
The [[British Raj|British government]] was clearly worried about the growing influence of the [[Communist International]] and all infiltration of communist and socialist ideas was propagated to the workers by the [[Communist Party of India]] (CPI).<ref name="Working Class Movement Library">{{Cite web |url=http://www.wcml.org.uk/Main/en/contents/international/india/meerut/ |title=Meerut - the trial |access-date=2 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102125813/http://www.wcml.org.uk/Main/en/contents/international/india/meerut/ |archive-date=2 November 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
The government's immediate response was to foist yet another conspiracy case, the [[Meerut]] Conspiracy Case.

In more than one way, the trial helped the [[Communist Party of India]] to consolidate its position among workers. Dange, along with 32 other persons, was arrested on or about 20 March 1929 <ref name="Working Class Movement Library"/> and put on trial under Section 121A of the [[Indian Penal Code]]: <blockquote>Whoever within or without [[British Raj|British India]] conspires to commit any of the offenses punishable by Section 121 or to deprive the King of the sovereignty of British India or any part thereof, or conspires to overawe, by means of criminal force or the show of criminal force, the Government of India or any local Government, shall be punished with transportation for life,<ref>During the British rule, a severe form of punishment was banishing convicts to a penal settlement in [[Andaman Islands]].</ref> or any shorter term, or with imprisonment of either description which may extend to ten years.</blockquote>

==Hunger strikes in Andaman==
On 12 May 1933, some of the prisoners of [[Cellular Jail]] gathered and started a [[hunger strike]], causing the deaths of [[Mahavir Singh (revolutionary)|Mahavir Singh]], [[Mohan Kishore Namadas]], and [[Mohit Moitra]]. The [[British Raj]] acceded to the demands of the freedom fighters to stop the hunger strike and finally after 46 days hunger strike end on 26 June 1933. This marked the beginning of the [[Communist Consolidation]]. It was the largest resistance group against [[British Raj|British rule]] in the Jail. They led the historical 36-days [[hunger strike]] in 1937 where the [[Government of the United Kingdom|British government]] had to bow before the demands of the political prisoners.<ref name="sanyal"/>
==Royal Indian Navy mutiny==
{{Main article|Royal Indian Navy mutiny}}

== Intellectual history and Colonial publication ==
Communist ideas were introduced to the Indian intelligentsia through the popularity of the [[October Revolution|Bolshevik Revolution]]. [[Bipin Chandra Pal]] and [[Bal Gangadhar Tilak]] were among the most prominent Indian freedom fighters who expressed their admiration for [[Vladimir Lenin]]. The spread of ideas and intellectual advances in Communism was primarily made through a network of publications. One of the first books about Communism was ''Lenin'', published in 1921, by Phanibhushan Ghosh.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rāẏa |first=Anurādhā |url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/890282858 |title=Bengal Marxism: early discourses and debates |date=2014 |publisher=Samya |isbn=978-93-81345-02-3 |location=Kolkata |oclc=890282858}}</ref> A Bengali translation of [[Bertrand Russell]]'s ''Theory and practice of Bolshevism'' was published in 1924 by Shaileshnath Bishi.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rāẏa |first=Anurādhā |url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/890282858 |title=Bengal Marxism: early discourses and debates |date=2014 |publisher=Samya |isbn=978-93-81345-02-3 |location=Kolkata |oclc=890282858}}</ref> [[S. A. Dange]] published a pamphlet in 1921 titled ''Gandhi Vs. Lenin'', a comparative study of the approaches of both the leaders with Lenin coming out as better of the two. Communist critiques of [[Gandhism]] had begun to spread around the nation with the publication of the pamphlet. '[[League Against Gandhism|League against Gandhism]]' was founded as an organisation of the underground [[Communist Party of India]] in Calcutta, initially called the Gandhi Boycott Committee, the organisation adopted this name in 1934.

==Notable communist revolutionaries==
Some notable communist revolutionaries were:
*[[Bhagat Singh]], known for killing of [[John P. Saunders]] and assembly bomb case
*[[Ashfaqulla Khan]], co-founder of the [[Hindustan Republican Association]]
*[[Muzaffar Ahmad]], politician, journalist and co-founder of the [[Communist Party of India|Communist party of India]], arrested in the [[Kanpur Bolshevik Conspiracy Case]]
*[[Saumyendranath Tagore]], Founder of the [[Revolutionary Communist Party of India]] and Grand-nephew of [[Rabindranath Tagore]], arrested in Germany for alleged plot to assassinate Hitler
*[[M. N. Roy|Manabendranath Roy]], founder of [[Communist Party of India]] and [[Communist Party of Mexico (1994)|Communist party of Mexico]]
*[[Bhupendranath Datta]], Anthropologist and member of the [[Communist International|Comintern]], younger brother of [[Swami Vivekananda]]

*[[A. K. Hangal]], later became a successful Indian actor
*[[Hare Krishna Konar]], Marxist revolutionary, radical activist, founder of [[Communist Consolidation]]
*[[Utpal Dutt]], playwright, Communist activist, director and popular actor, founder of the Little Theatre Group
*[[Sohan Singh Bhakna]], founding president of the [[Ghadar Party]]
*[[Ram Prasad Bismil]], involved in Manipuri conspiracy and Kakori conspiracy, one of the founding members of [[Hindustan Republican Association]]
*[[Roshan Singh]], participated in Bamrauli dacoity
*[[Rajendra Lahiri]], involved in Kakori conspiracy and Dakshineshwar bombing
*[[Rahul Sankrityayan]], Marxist revolutionary and author, imprisoned at [[Buxar]] and [[Hazaribagh]]
*[[Chandra Shekhar Azad]], involved in the Kakori Train Robbery of 1925, the shooting of John P. Saunders at Lahore in 1928 and at last, in the attempt to blow up the Viceroy of India's train in 1929
*[[Niranjan Sengupta]], leader of the Barisal branch of [[Dhaka Anushilan Samiti]], one of the seven members of an inner committee set up by the Communist Party of India Politburo
*[[Sudhangshu Dasgupta]], involved in the Mechuabazar Bomb Case, worked in the worker's movements
*[[Shiv Verma]], marxist revolutionary and a member of the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association
*[[Ganesh Ghosh]]
*[[Batukeshwar Dutt]]
*[[Jaidev Kapoor]]
*[[Ambika Chakrabarty]]
*[[Sachindra Nath Sanyal]]
*[[Subodh Roy]]
*[[Bejoy Kumar Sinha]]
*[[Jatindra Nath Das]]
*[[Manmath Nath Gupta]]

==See also==
*[[Indian independence movement]]
*[[Revolutionary movement for Indian independence]]
*[[Royal Indian Navy mutiny]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

===Works cited===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{citation |last1=Bakshi |first1=S.R. |last2=Gajrani |first2=S. |last3=Singh |first3=Hari |title=Early Aryans to Swaraj |volume=10: Modern India |publisher=Sarup & Sons |location=New Delhi |year=2005 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7fXK3DiuJ5oC |isbn=978-8176255370}}
* {{citation |last=Gaur |first=I.D. |title=Martyr as Bridegroom |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PC4C3KcgCv0C |year=2008 |publisher=Anthem Press|isbn=978-1-84331-348-9}}
* {{Citation |last=Gupta |first=Amit Kumar |title=Defying Death: Nationalist Revolutionism in India, 1897–1938 |journal=Social Scientist |volume=25 |issue=9/10 |year=1997 |pages=3–27 |doi=10.2307/3517678 |jstor=3517678}}
* {{citation |last1=Mittal |first1=S. K. |last2=Habib |first2=Irfan |authorlink2=Irfan Habib |title=Towards Independence and Socialist Republic: Naujawan Bharat Sabha: Part One |journal=Social Scientist |year=1979 |pages=18–29 |volume=8 |issue=2 |jstor=3516698 |doi=10.2307/3516698}}
* {{citation |last=Mukherjee |first=Mridula |title=Peasants in India's Non-Violent Revolution: Practice and Theory |publisher=SAGE Publications India |year=2004 |isbn=978-8-13210-289-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s8iGAwAAQBAJ}}
* {{citation |last=Nair |first=Neeti |title=Bhagat Singh as 'Satyagrahi': The Limits to Non-violence in Late Colonial India |journal=Modern Asian Studies |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=May 2009 |volume=43 |issue=3 |pages=649–681 |jstor=20488099 |doi=10.1017/s0026749x08003491|s2cid=143725577 }}
* {{citation |last=Nayar |first=Kuldip |author-link=Kuldip Nayar |year=2000 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bG9lA6CrgQgC |title=The Martyr Bhagat Singh: Experiments in Revolution |publisher=Har-Anand Publications |isbn=978-81-241-0700-3}}
* {{citation |last=Rana |first=Bhawan Singh |year=2005a |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PEwJQ6_eTEUC |title=Bhagat Singh |publisher=Diamond Pocket Books (P) Ltd. |isbn=978-81-288-0827-2}}
* {{citation |last=Singh |first=Ujjwal Kumar |chapter=Penal Strategies and Resistance in Colonial and Independent India |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yreGAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA236 |title=Challenging The Rules(s) of Law: Colonialism, Criminology and Human Rights in India |editor1-first=Kalpana |editor1-last=Kannabiran |editor2-first=Ranbir |editor2-last=Singh |publisher=SAGE Publications |year=2008 |isbn=978-8-13210-027-0}}
* {{Citation |last1=Singh |first1=Bhagat |last2=Lala |first2=Chaman |last3=Hooja |first3=Bhupendra |title=The jail notebook and other writings |publisher=Left Word Books |year=2007 |location=New Delhi |isbn=978-81-87496-72-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OAq4N60oopEC}}
{{refend}}

{{portalbar|India|Politics|Communism|Socialism|Anarchism|Organized Labour}}
{{Indian independence movement}}
{{Indian Revolutionary Movement}}
{{Socialism}}
{{Communism}}
{{Marxism–Leninism}}

[[Category:Indian independence movement]]
[[Category:Communist Party of India]]
[[Category:Communism in India]]
[[Category:Decolonization]]
[[Category:British India]]
[[Category:Political movements in India]]
[[Category:History of social movements]]
[[Category:Maoism in India]]
[[Category:Left-wing politics in India]]
[[Category:Far-left politics in India]]
[[Category:Revolutions]]
[[Category:Revolutionary movement for Indian independence]]

Kethavath Shankar Naik

2026-04-10T04:50:06Z

AhmedSturgis: new new article...

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Infobox Indian politician
| name = Kethavath Shankar Nayak
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| image =
| image_size =
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| alt =
| caption =
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| office = [[Telangana Legislative Council|Member of Legislative Council Telangana]]
| term_start = 30 March 2025
| term_end =
| constituency = [[Telangana Legislative Council|Elected by MLAs]]
| predecessor =
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| pronunciation =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1972|04|14}}
| birth_place = Ketavath Thanda, [[Dameracherla]], [[Nalgonda]], [[Telangana]], [[India]]
| death_date =
| death_place =
| death_cause =
| resting_place =
| resting_place_coordinates =
| party = [[Indian National Congress]]
| other_party =
| education = degree
| alma_mater =
| occupation = Politician
| profession =
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| spouse = KETHAVATH LALITHA
| relatives =
| children = KETHAVATH SONU& KETHAVATH AKHIL
}}
'''Kethavath Shankar Naik''' (born 14 April 1972) is an Indian politician from [[Telangana]]. He was elected unanimously as Member of [[Telangana Legislative Council]] on 13 March 2025.<ref name="Telangana: Five MLCs elected unanimously under MLA quota">{{cite news |last1= |first1= |date=13 March 2025 |title=Telangana: Five MLCs elected unanimously under MLA quota |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/southern-states/telangana/telangana-five-mlcs-elected-unanimously-under-mla-quota-1866696 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250313150415/https://www.deccanchronicle.com/southern-states/telangana/telangana-five-mlcs-elected-unanimously-under-mla-quota-1866696 |archive-date=13 March 2025 |access-date=13 March 2025 |work= |publisher=Deccan Chronicle |language=en}}</ref>

==Political career==
Shankar Naik started his political career with [[Indian National Congress]] and in 2001 he was appointed as Dameracherla congress mandal president. He was elected as ZPTC from [[Dameracherla]] in 2001, [[Damarcherla mandal|Dameracherla MPP]] in 2006, Congress block committee president in 2011. Shankar Naik was re-elected as ZPTC in 2018 from [[Dameracherla|Damaracharla]] and was appointed as [[Nalgonda district]] Congress committee president in 2018.

Shankar Naik was announced as MLC candidate under the MLAs quota on 9 March 2025<ref name="MLC polls: Vijayashanti in 3 Cong picks; CPI to contest 1">{{cite news |title=MLC polls: Vijayashanti in 3 Cong picks; CPI to contest 1 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/mlc-polls-vijayashanti-in-3-cong-picks-cpi-to-contest-1/articleshow/118824811.cms |access-date=13 March 2025 |publisher=The Times of India |date=10 March 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250313152013/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/mlc-polls-vijayashanti-in-3-cong-picks-cpi-to-contest-1/articleshow/118824811.cms |archive-date=13 March 2025}}</ref><ref name="Congress picks three names for MLC seats, leaves one for CPI">{{cite news |last1= |first1= |title=Congress picks three names for MLC seats, leaves one for CPI |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/news/congress-announces-candidates-for-telangana-mlc-polls-1865857 |access-date=13 March 2025 |work= |publisher=Deccan Chronicle |date=9 March 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250313152818/https://www.deccanchronicle.com/news/congress-announces-candidates-for-telangana-mlc-polls-1865857 |archive-date=13 March 2025 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Congress names three MLC candidates, gives fourth one to CPI">{{cite news |last1= |first1= |title=Congress names three MLC candidates, gives fourth one to CPI |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/congress-names-three-mlc-candidates-gives-fourth-one-to-cpi/article69310139.ece |access-date=13 March 2025 |publisher=The Hindu |date=9 March 2025 |language=en-IN}}</ref> and filed his nomination on March 10th<ref name="Five MLC candidates file nominations in Telangana">{{cite news |last1= |first1= |title=Five MLC candidates file nominations in Telangana |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/telangana/2025/Mar/11/five-mlc-candidates-file-nominations-in-telangana |access-date=13 March 2025 |publisher=The New Indian Express |date=11 March 2025 |archive-date= |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Telangana MLC polls: Congress, CPI and BRS candidates to file nominations">{{cite news |last1= |first1= |title=Telangana MLC polls: Congress, CPI and BRS candidates to file nominations |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/congress-cpi-and-brs-candidates-to-file-nominations-for-telangana-mlc-polls-today/article69312475.ece |access-date=13 March 2025 |publisher=The Hindu |date=10 March 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250313153533/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/congress-cpi-and-brs-candidates-to-file-nominations-for-telangana-mlc-polls-today/article69312475.ece |archive-date=13 March 2025 |language=en-IN}}</ref> and was elected unanimously as Member of [[Telangana Legislative Council]] on 13 March 2025.<ref name="5 MLCs under MLA quota elected unanimously">{{cite news |last1= |date=14 March 2025 |title=5 MLCs under MLA quota elected unanimously |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/news/cities/hyderabad/5-mlcs-under-mla-quota-elected-unanimously-953749 |archive-date= |access-date=14 March 2025 |work= |publisher=The Hans India |language=en}}</ref><ref name="MLC poll: 3 from Cong, 1 each of CPI & BRS win unopposed">{{cite news |date=14 March 2025 |title=MLC poll: 3 from Cong, 1 each of CPI & BRS win unopposed |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/mlc-poll-3-from-cong-1-each-of-cpi-brs-win-unopposed/articleshow/118991525.cms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250314070909/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/mlc-poll-3-from-cong-1-each-of-cpi-brs-win-unopposed/articleshow/118991525.cms |archive-date=14 March 2025 |access-date=14 March 2025 |publisher=The Times of India}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Shankar Naik, Kethavath}}
[[Category:Telugu politicians]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1972 births]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Telangana]]
[[Category:People from Nalgonda district]]
[[Category:Members of the Telangana Legislative Council]]

Gadhinglaj Assembly constituency

2026-04-09T18:20:38Z

AhmedSturgis: made a pg basic info

{{Short description|Constituency of the Maharashtra legislative assembly in India}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Gadhinglaj
| type= SLA
| state = Maharashtra
| established = 1962
| abolished = 2008<ref>{{cite web |url=https://upload.indiacode.nic.in/showfile?actid=AC_CEN_3_20_00030_200233_1517807324510&type=order&filename=Delimitation%20Order,2008.pdf |title=Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 2008 |date=26 November 2008 |access-date= 24 June 2021}}</ref>
| electors = 177,008
| mla = Desai Krishnarao Rakhamajirao
| party = {{Party index link|Nationalist Congress Party}}
| constituency_no =
| latest_election_year = [[2004 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|2004]]
| district =
| loksabha_cons =
| reservation =
}}
Gadhinglaj Assembly constituency was an assembly constituency in the [[India]] [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[Maharashtra]].
==Members of the Legislative Assembly==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Election
! Member
! colspan=2|Party
|-
| bgcolor="#FFB2B2" | [[1952 Bombay State Legislative Assembly election|1952]] || Shreshti Mahadeo Dundappa || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| bgcolor="#FFB2B2" | [[1957 Bombay State Legislative Assembly election|1957]] || Narwekr Dnyandeo Santram || {{Full party name with color|Peasants and Workers Party of India}}
|-
| [[1962 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1962]] || Nalawade Pandurang Alias Appasaheb Ramrao || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[1967 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1967]] || T. K. Kolekar || {{Full party name with color|Peasants and Workers Party of India}}
|-
| [[1972 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1972]] || Patil Baburao Satgauda || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[1978 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1978]] || rowspan="2" | Ghali Shivaling Shivayogi || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress (I)|rowspan=2}}
|-
| [[1980 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1980]]
|-
| [[1985 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1985]] || rowspan="2" | Shinde Shripatrao Dinkarrao || {{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|-
| [[1990 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1990]] || {{Full party name with color|Janata Dal}}
|-
| [[1995 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1995]] || rowspan="3" | Desai Krishnarao Rakhamajirao || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[1999 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1999]] || {{Full party name with color|Nationalist Congress Party|rowspan=2}}
|-
| [[2004 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|2004]]
|}

==Election results==
=== Assembly Election 2004 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[2004 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Gadhinglaj }}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Desai Krishnarao Rakhamajirao |party = Nationalist Congress Party |votes = 74,503 |percentage = 55.39% |change = {{increase}}7.17 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Chavan Prakash Bhimrao |party = Jan Surajya Shakti |votes = 27,216 |percentage = 20.23% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Shivaji Shrishailappa Hidadugi |party = Shiv Sena |votes = 3,526 |percentage = 2.62% |change = {{decrease}}18.08 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Prop. Ramchandra Baburao Kambale |party = Bahujan Samaj Party |votes = 2,390 |percentage = 1.78% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 47,287 |percentage = 35.15% |change = {{increase}}17.40 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 134,514 |percentage = 75.99% |change = {{increase}}0.17 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 134,511}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 177,008 |ref = |change = {{increase}}14.24 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Nationalist Congress Party |swing = {{increase}}7.17 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1999 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1999 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Gadhinglaj <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1999 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1999/StatisticalReport-MH99.pdf|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120117044316/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1999/StatisticalReport-MH99.pdf|archive-date=17 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Desai Krishnarao Rakhamajirao |party = Nationalist Congress Party |votes = 54,645 |percentage = 48.22% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Hattarki Rajkumar Shankarrao |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 34,532 |percentage = 30.47% |change = {{decrease}}12.09 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Shahapurkar Prakash Shripad |party = Shiv Sena |votes = 23,457 |percentage = 20.70% |change = {{increase}}19.40 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Patil Shivgonda Malgonda |party = Communist Party of India (Marxist) |votes = 702 |percentage = 0.62% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 20,113 |percentage = 17.75% |change = {{increase}}8.91 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 117,480 |percentage = 75.82% |change = {{decrease}}8.37 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 113,336}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 154,940 |ref = |change = {{decrease}}0.57 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Nationalist Congress Party |loser = Indian National Congress |swing = {{increase}}5.66 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1995 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1995 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Gadhinglaj <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1995 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1995/StatisticalReport-MH95.pdf|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120117121534/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1995/StatisticalReport-MH95.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Desai Krishnarao Rakhamajirao |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 54,761 |percentage = 42.56% |change = {{decrease}}1.24 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Shinde Shripatrao Dinkarrao |party = Janata Dal |votes = 43,384 |percentage = 33.72% |change = {{decrease}}10.73 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Hattarki Rajkumar Shankarrao |party = Independent politician |votes = 27,576 |percentage = 21.43% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Hidadugi Shivaji Shrishailappa |party = Shiv Sena |votes = 1,673 |percentage = 1.30% |change = {{decrease}}7.30 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Desai Sujata Shamrao |party = Independent politician |votes = 952 |percentage = 0.74% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 11,377 |percentage = 8.84% |change = {{increase}}8.19 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 131,205 |percentage = 84.19% |change = {{increase}}9.82 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 128,653}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 155,836 |ref = |change = {{increase}}10.27 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |loser = Janata Dal |swing = {{decrease}}1.89 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1990 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1990 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Gadhinglaj <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1990 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1990/StatRep_MT_90.pdf |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120117080722/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1990/StatRep_MT_90.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Shinde Shripatrao Dinkarrao |party = Janata Dal |votes = 45,901 |percentage = 44.45% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Krishnarao Rakhamajirao Desai Alias Babasaheb Kupekar |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 45,227 |percentage = 43.80% |change = {{increase}}4.31 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Desai Bhagyeshrao Rakhamajirao Alias Bhayyasaheb Kupekar |party = Shiv Sena |votes = 8,883 |percentage = 8.60% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Banne Virthal Siddappa |party = Independent politician |votes = 2,085 |percentage = 2.02% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Shirur Bhimappa Gursidda |party = Independent politician |votes = 736 |percentage = 0.71% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 674 |percentage = 0.65% |change = {{decrease}}18.39 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 105,099 |percentage = 74.37% |change = {{decrease}}4.20 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 103,267}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 141,326 |ref = |change = {{increase}}21.77 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Janata Dal |loser = Janata Party |swing = {{decrease}}14.08 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1985 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1985 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Gadhinglaj <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1985 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1985/Statistical%20Report%20Maharashtra%201985.pdf |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120117075119/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1985/Statistical%20Report%20Maharashtra%201985.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Shinde Shripatrao Dinkarrao |party = Janata Party |votes = 52,285 |percentage = 58.53% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Ghali Shivaling Shivayogi |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 35,277 |percentage = 39.49% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Mali Ishwarrao Parshuram |party = Independent politician |votes = 1,306 |percentage = 1.46% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 17,008 |percentage = 19.04% |change = {{increase}}10.54 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 91,186 |percentage = 78.57% |change = {{increase}}6.72 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 89,323}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 116,057 |ref = |change = {{increase}}10.26 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Janata Party |loser = Indian National Congress (I) |swing = {{increase}}16.02 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1980 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1980 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Gadhinglaj <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1980 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1980/Statistical%20Report%201980%20Maharashtra.pdf |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120117083555/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1980/Statistical%20Report%201980%20Maharashtra.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Ghali Shivaling Shivayogi |party = Indian National Congress (I) |votes = 31,395 |percentage = 42.51% |change = {{increase}}10.44 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Shinde Shripatrao Dinkarrao |party = Janata Party |votes = 25,114 |percentage = 34.00% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Desai Krishnarao Rakhamajirao |party = Indian National Congress (U) |votes = 17,345 |percentage = 23.49% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 6,281 |percentage = 8.50% |change = {{increase}}7.18 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 75,622 |percentage = 71.85% |change = {{decrease}}8.84 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 73,854}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 105,253 |ref = |change = {{increase}}4.69 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Indian National Congress (I) |swing = {{increase}}10.44 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1978 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1978 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Gadhinglaj <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1978 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1978/Statistical%20Report%201978%20Maharashtra.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629182050/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1978/Statistical%20Report%201978%20Maharashtra.pdf|archive-date=29 June 2017|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Ghali Shivaling Shivayogi |party = Indian National Congress (I) |votes = 25,432 |percentage = 32.07% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Batkadli Nagapa Gurlingapa |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 24,389 |percentage = 30.76% |change = {{decrease}}15.52 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Shinde Shripatrao Dinkarrao |party = Janata Party |votes = 23,302 |percentage = 29.39% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Patade Dhondiram Bahurao |party = Peasants and Workers Party of India |votes = 6,173 |percentage = 7.78% |change = {{decrease}}9.92 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 1,043 |percentage = 1.32% |change = {{decrease}}8.94 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 81,121 |percentage = 80.69% |change = {{increase}}2.46 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 79,296}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 100,538 |ref = |change = {{increase}}14.33 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Indian National Congress (I) |loser = Indian National Congress |swing = {{decrease}}14.21 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1972 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1972 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Gadhinglaj <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1967 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1972/StatReport_MT_72.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170519183024/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1972/StatReport_MT_72.pdf|archive-date=19 May 2017|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Patil Baburao Satgauda |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 30,994 |percentage = 46.28% |change = {{increase}}6.49 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Batkadli Nagapa Gurlingapa |party = Independent politician |votes = 24,121 |percentage = 36.02% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Kolekar Tukaram Krishna |party = Peasants and Workers Party of India |votes = 11,850 |percentage = 17.70% |change = {{decrease}}29.71 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 6,873 |percentage = 10.26% |change = {{increase}}2.64 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 68,792 |percentage = 78.23% |change = {{increase}}7.43 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 66,965}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 87,935 |ref = |change = {{increase}}16.82 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |loser = Peasants and Workers Party of India |swing = {{decrease}}1.13 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1967 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1967 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Gadhinglaj <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1967 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=https://www.eci.nic.in/eci_main/statisticalreports/SE_1967/Statistical%20Report%20Maharashtra%201967.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180926233227/https://www.eci.nic.in/eci_main/statisticalreports/SE_1967/Statistical%20Report%20Maharashtra%201967.pdf|archive-date=26 September 2018|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = T. K. Kolekar |party = Peasants and Workers Party of India |votes = 23,687 |percentage = 47.41% |change = {{increase}}21.86 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = P. R. Nalawaderao |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 19,881 |percentage = 39.79% |change = {{decrease}}16.27 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = D. K. Daddikar |party = Independent politician |votes = 4,760 |percentage = 9.53% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = B. M. Chaugale |party = Independent politician |votes = 1,636 |percentage = 3.27% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 3,806 |percentage = 7.62% |change = {{decrease}}22.89 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 53,294 |percentage = 70.80% |change = {{increase}}6.54 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 49,964}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 75,272 |ref = |change = {{increase}}15.50 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Peasants and Workers Party of India |loser = Indian National Congress |swing = {{decrease}}8.65 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1962 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1962 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Gadhinglaj <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1962 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1962/StatRep_Maharastra_1962.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117085627/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1962/StatRep_Maharastra_1962.pdf|archive-date=17 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Nalawade Pandurang Alias Appasaheb Ramrao |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 22,074 |percentage = 56.06% |change = {{increase}}16.11 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Daynandeo Santram Narvekar |party = Peasants and Workers Party of India |votes = 10,059 |percentage = 25.55% |change = {{decrease}}21.51 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Shrishailappa Mallappa Khanna |party = Praja Socialist Party |votes = 7,242 |percentage = 18.39% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 12,015 |percentage = 30.51% |change = {{increase}}23.40 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 41,883 |percentage = 64.26% |change = {{increase}}4.51 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 39,375}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 65,173 |ref = |change = {{increase}}7.46 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |loser = Peasants and Workers Party of India |swing = {{increase}}9.00 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1957 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1957 Bombay State Legislative Assembly election]] : Gadhinglaj <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1957 to the Legislative Assembly of Bombay |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1957/StatRep_Bombay_1957.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114093455/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1957/StatRep_Bombay_1957.pdf|archive-date=14 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Narwekr Dnyandeo Santram |party = Peasants and Workers Party of India |votes = 17,056 |percentage = 47.06% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Patil Baburao Satgonda |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 14,478 |percentage = 39.95% |change = {{decrease}}6.14 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Shinde Dinkarrao Annasaheb |party = Independent politician |votes = 4,706 |percentage = 12.99% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 2,578 |percentage = 7.11% |change = {{decrease}}12.12 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 36,240 |percentage = 59.75% |change = {{decrease}}9.49 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 36,240}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 60,651 |ref = |change = {{increase}}5.09 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Peasants and Workers Party of India |loser = Indian National Congress |swing = {{increase}}0.97 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1952 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1952 Bombay State Legislative Assembly election]] : Gadhinglaj <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1951 to the Legislative Assembly of Bombay |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/StatReport_51_BOMBAY.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114083220/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/StatReport_51_BOMBAY.pdf |archive-date=14 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Shreshti Mahadeo Dundappa |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 18,419 |percentage = 46.09% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Desai Rakhamajirao Bapujirao |party = Independent politician |votes = 10,733 |percentage = 26.86% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Narvekar Diayandeo Shantaram |party = Independent politician |votes = 5,514 |percentage = 13.80% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Mane Baburao Appaya |party = Socialist Party (India, 1948) |votes = 4,871 |percentage = 12.19% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Charati Shankar Gurlingappa |party = Independent politician |votes = 425 |percentage = 1.06% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 7,686 |percentage = 19.23% |change = }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 39,962 |percentage = 69.24% |change = }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 39,962}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 57,712 |ref = |change = }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner = Indian National Congress |swing = }}
{{Election box end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Assembly constituencies of Maharashtra}}

{{coord missing|Maharashtra}}

[[Category:Former assembly constituencies of Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Long stubs with short prose]]
{{Maharashtra-geo-stub}}

Badri

2026-04-07T08:44:14Z

AhmedSturgis:

'''Badri''' may refer to:

==Films==
* [[Badri (2000 film)|''Badri'' (2000 film)]], an Indian Telugu-language romantic drama film starring Pawan Kalyan
* [[Badri (2001 film)|''Badri'' (2001 film)]], an Indian Tamil-language sports action film starring Vijay

==Military==
*[[Badri 313 Battalion]] in Afghanistan

==People==
===Surname===
* Omar el-Badri, Libyan politician, 7th [[Secretary General of OPEC]]
* [[Abdallah Salem el-Badri]], Libyan politician, 20th and 27th Secretary General of OPEC
* [[Abdul Qadir al-Badri]], former Prime Minister of Libya
* [[Balghis Badri]], Sudanese feminist activist and social anthropologist
* [[Haitham al-Badri]], Al-Qaeda in Iraq member
*[[Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi]], born Ibrahim al-Badri
*[[Abd al-Aziz al-Badri]], Iraqi Islamic scholar
*[[Saleh al-Badri]], Iraqi poet
*[[Faisal Al Badri]], Libyan footballer
*[[Salem Amer Al-Badri]], Kenyan middle-distance runner
*[[Anice Badri]], Tunisian professional footballer
*[[Hossam El Badry]], Egyptian football coach and former player

===Given name===
* [[Badri Patarkatsishvili]], Georgian businessman
* [[Badri Kvaratskhelia]], Georgian-Azerbaijani footballer
* [[Badri (director)]], Indian film director in Tamil cinema

== See also ==
* [[Badr (disambiguation)]]

{{disambig|given name|surname}}

[[Category:Arabic-language surnames]]

Vidivelli

2026-04-01T05:10:03Z

AhmedSturgis:

{{short description|1960 film by C. V. Sridhar}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2021}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2021}}
{{Infobox film
| image = Vidivelli poster.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[C. V. Sridhar]]
| writer = C. V. Sridhar
| producer = [[Sivaji Ganesan]]
| starring = Sivaji Ganesan [[B. Saroja Devi]]
| cinematography = [[A. Vincent]]
| editing = N. M. Shankar
| music = [[A. M. Rajah]]
| studio = Prabhuram Pictures
| distributor = [[Sivaji Productions|Sivaji Films]]<ref>{{Cite news |date=25 December 1960 |title=Vidi Velli |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=P9oYG7HA76QC&dat=19601225&printsec=frontpage&hl=en |access-date=17 August 2021 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |pages=3 |language=en |via=[[Google News Archive]]}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
| released = {{film date|1960|12|31|df=y}}
| runtime = 126 minutes
| country = India
| language = Tamil
}}

'''''Vidivelli''''' ({{Translation|The Morning Star}})<ref>{{Cite book |last=Baskaran |first=S. Theodore |author-link=S. Theodore Baskaran |title=Sivaji Ganesan: Profile of An Icon |publisher=Wisdom Tree |year=2008 |isbn=978-81-8328-396-0 |pages=89 |language=en}}</ref> is a 1960 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language film written and directed by [[C. V. Sridhar]]. The film stars [[Sivaji Ganesan]], [[B. Saroja Devi]] and [[M. N. Rajam]]; Ganesan also produced it under Prabhuram Pictures, a subsidiary of his own company [[Sivaji Productions|Sivaji Films]]. The film focuses on a brother who steals a diamond necklace for his sister's happy life, but the necklace itself becomes a problem. The rest of the story deals with what is the secret of the necklace and how the brother solves this puzzle.

''Vidivelli'' was released on 31 December 1960. The film was a critical and commercial success, running for over 100 days in theatres.

== Plot ==
{{More plot|date=October 2022}}
Chandru has a sister Meena who is married to Ravi. But her in-laws insist on a diamond necklace, sans which she cannot join her husband. Hence, Chandru steals a diamond necklace with a locket and then Meena joins her husband. He and his mother move to [[Chennai|Madras]], where the former obtains employment. Chandru falls in love with his boss's daughter Chitra. One day, the necklace falls down and the locket opens, revealing the photograph of a man. Ravi and his family want to know who he is. Meena says she has never seen him before. But suspecting the worst, she is sent back to her old home.

After Chandru saves his boss from a large loss, the boss gives him a large sum of money in gratitude. Chandru purchases another necklace using that money and Meena goes back to her husband. However, Chandru's boss dismisses him to keep him away from Chitra. Chandru surrenders to the police station for the theft. He later realises that the earlier necklace belongs to Chitra, and the man in the locket is her brother who died at war. However, Chitra's father denies ever having had a son. The rest of the film deals with how the puzzle is solved.

== Cast ==
{{Col-begin|width=60%}}
{{col-break|width=50%}}
;Male cast
* [[Sivaji Ganesan]] as Chandru<ref name="Randor Guy" />
* [[S. V. Ranga Rao]] as the boss<ref name="Randor Guy" />
* [[K. Balaji|Balaji]] as Ravi<ref name="Randor Guy" />
* [[T. R. Ramachandran]] as Babu<ref name="Randor Guy" />
* [[M. R. Santhanam]] as Devit
{{col-break|width=50%}}
;Female cast
* [[B. Saroja Devi]] as Chithra<ref name="Randor Guy" />
* [[M. N. Rajam]] as Meena<ref name="Randor Guy" />
* [[Santha Kumari]] as Chandru's mother<ref name="Randor Guy" />
* [[Padmini Priyadarshini]] as Rosie<ref name="Randor Guy" />
{{col-end}}

== Production ==
In 1953, [[M. G. Ramachandran]] intended to produce a film titled ''Vidivelli'' with [[M. Karunanidhi]] writing; however, the project was dropped after Karunanidhi's arrest for participating in the [[Kallakudi demonstration]] that year.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sri Kantha |first=Sachi |author-link=Sachi Sri Kantha |date=6 March 2015 |title=MGR Remembered – Part 25 {{!}} Nadodi Mannan aka The Vagabond King |url=https://sangam.org/mgr-remembered-part-25/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403102842/https://sangam.org/mgr-remembered-part-25/ |archive-date=3 April 2019 |access-date=3 April 2019 |website=[[Ilankai Tamil Sangam]] |language=en}}</ref> The title was later used for an unrelated film written and directed by [[C. V. Sridhar]] and produced by [[Sivaji Ganesan]] under Prabhuram Pictures, a subsidiary of his company [[Sivaji Productions|Sivaji Films]]. Cinematography was handled by [[A. Vincent]], editing by N. M. Shankar, and art direction by Ganga.<ref name="poster">{{Cite news |date=31 December 1960 |title=Vidivelli |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=P9oYG7HA76QC&dat=19601231&printsec=frontpage&hl=en |access-date=5 March 2019 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |pages=10 |via=[[Google News Archive]]}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="Randor Guy">{{Cite news |last=Guy |first=Randor |author-link=Randor Guy |date=24 August 2013 |title=Vidivelli (1960) |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/cinema-columns/vidivelli-1960/article5055579.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250416225648/https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/cinema-columns/vidivelli-1960/article5055579.ece |archive-date=16 April 2025 |access-date=5 March 2019 |work=[[The Hindu]] |language=en}}</ref>

== Soundtrack ==
The soundtrack was composed by [[A. M. Rajah]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vidivelli (1960) |url=http://www.raaga.com/channels/tamil/moviedetail.asp?mid=t0001895 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140317195157/http://www.raaga.com/channels/tamil/moviedetail.asp?mid=T0001895 |archive-date=17 March 2014 |access-date=11 July 2016 |website=[[Raaga.com]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/download/sok.VidiVelli_Sridhar_1960/88.%20VidiVelli_Sridhar_1960.pdf |title=விடிவெள்ளி |publisher=Prabhuram Pictures |year=1960 |language=ta |type=[[song book]] |access-date=22 July 2022 |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref>

{{Track listing
| headline = Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Idai Kai Irandil Aadum
| extra1 = [[A. M. Rajah]], [[P. Susheela]]
| lyrics1 = [[Kannadasan]]
| length1 = 03:20
| title2 = Koduthu Paar
| extra2 = A. M. Rajah, P. Susheela, [[Thiruchi Loganathan]], [[Jikki]]
| lyrics2 = [[A. Maruthakasi]]
| length2 = 03:29
| title3 = Naan Vaazhndhadhum
| extra3 = Jikki
| lyrics3 = Kannadasan
| length3 = 03:11
| title4 = Ninaithaal Inikkum
| extra4 = Jikki
| lyrics4 = A. Maruthakasi
| length4 = 02:40
| title5 = Pannodu Pirandhadhu
| extra5 = [[P. B. Sreenivas]], Jikki
| lyrics5 = Kannadasan
| length5 = 03:48
| title6 = Aadamal Aadugiren
| extra6 = P. Susheela
| lyrics6 = A. Maruthakasi
| length6 = 04:05
| title7 = Ennaalum
| note7 = Pathos
| extra7 = P. Susheela
| lyrics7 = A. Maruthakasi
| length7 = 03:21
| title8 = Ennaalum Vaazhviley
| note8 = Happy
| extra8 = P. Susheela
| lyrics8 = A. Maruthakasi
| length8 = 04:00
| title9 = Kaaru Savarijhoru
| extra9 = Jikki, Thiruchi Loganathan
| lyrics9 = Ku. Ma. Balasubramanian
| length9 = 03:33
| total_length = 31:27
}}

== Release and reception ==
''Vidivelli'' was released on 31 December 1960.<ref name="poster" /> In a review published on 8 January 1961, the critic from ''[[The Indian Express]]'' praised the performances of the cast, particularly Ganesan, Saroja Devi, Balaji and Santhakumari, and Vincent's cinematography.<ref>{{Cite news |date=8 January 1961 |title=Vidi Velli |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=P9oYG7HA76QC&dat=19610108&printsec=frontpage&hl=en |access-date=5 March 2019 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |pages=3 |language=en |via=[[Google News Archive]]}}{{cbignore}}</ref> ''[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]]'' also appreciated the film for various aspects, including the story, direction and cast performances.<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=22 January 1961 |title=விடிவெள்ளி |url=https://archive.org/details/kalki1961-01-22/page/n51/mode/2up |access-date=13 February 2024 |magazine=[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]] |page=51 |language=ta |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref> The film was a critical and commercial success,<ref>{{Cite news |last=நரசிம்மன் |first=டி.ஏ. |date=27 April 2018 |title=சி(ரி)த்ராலயா 15: காஷ்மீரில் கட்டிப்போட்ட சலுகை! |url=https://www.hindutamil.in/news/supplements/hindu-talkies/127496-15.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180428044030/http://tamil.thehindu.com/cinema/cinema-others/article23684150.ece |archive-date=28 April 2018 |access-date=9 May 2018 |work=[[Hindu Tamil Thisai]] |language=ta}}</ref> running for over 100 days in theatres.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ganesan |first1=Sivaji |author-link=Sivaji Ganesan |title=Autobiography of an Actor: Sivaji Ganesan, October 1928 – July 2001 |title-link=Autobiography of an Actor |last2=Narayana Swamy |first2=T.S. |publisher=Sivaji Prabhu Charities Trust |year=2007 |location=Chennai |pages=241 |language=en |oclc=297212002 |orig-date=2002}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title}}
{{C. V. Sridhar}}

[[Category:1960 films]]
[[Category:1960 Indian films]]
[[Category:1960 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:Films directed by C. V. Sridhar]]
[[Category:Films scored by A. M. Rajah]]
[[Category:Films with screenplays by C. V. Sridhar]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]

{{Improve categories|date=March 2024}}

Mutthinantha Hendathi

2026-03-30T14:21:04Z

AhmedSturgis: New a stub added tags

{{short description|Indian Kannada-language, drama film}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2026}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Mutthinantha Hendathi
| image = Mutthinantha Hendathi.jpg
| caption = VCD cover
| writer = Perala
| producer = [[Ramu (producer)|Ramu]]
| director = Perala
| starring = [[P. Sai Kumar|Saikumar]] [[Malashri]] [[Vinaya Prasad]]
| music = [[Hamsalekha]]
| cinematography = Manohar
| editing = Janardhan
| studio = Ramu Enterprises
| distributor = Ramu Enterprises
| released = {{Film date|df=y|1995|02|03}}
| runtime = 137 mins
| country = India
| language = Kannada
| budget =
| gross =
}}

'''''Mutthinantha Hendathi''''' is a 1995 [[Kannada language|Kannada]]-language, [[drama film]] written, directed by Perala and produced by [[Ramu (producer)|Ramu]]. It stars [[P. Sai Kumar|Saikumar]], [[Malashri]] in lead roles along with [[Vinaya Prasad]], Divyavani, [[Ramesh Bhat]], [[Srinivasa Murthy]], among others in key supporting roles.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://chiloka.com/movie/mutthinantha-hendathi-1995|title=Mutthinantha Hendathi (1995) Kannada movie: Cast & Crew |work=Chiloka}}</ref> The music is composed by [[Hamsalekha]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://open.spotify.com/track/695rkgCEBMrjDEGjK3lui1|title=Muttinantha Hendathi - song and lyrics by Mano, ... - Spotify|work=Spotify}}</ref>

==Premises==
The film revolves around the story of Vinod, who is believed to bring death to the girl who marries him due to a curse. Despite this, Gowri decides to marry him.

==Cast==
{{cast listing|
*[[P. Sai Kumar|Saikumar]] as Vinod
*[[Malashri]] as Gowri
*Divyavani
*[[Vinaya Prasad]]
*[[K. R. Vijaya]]
*[[Ramesh Bhat]]
*[[Gundu Kalyanam]]
*[[J. V. Somayajulu]]
*[[Srinivasa Murthy]]
*[[Ashok (Kannada actor)|Ashok]]
*[[Sanketh Kashi]]
*[[Tennis Krishna]]
*[[Doddanna]]
*Anuja
*[[Uma Shivakumar]]
*[[Lokanath]]
}}

==Soundtrack==
{{Infobox album
| name = Mutthinantha Hendathi
| type = film
| artist = [[Hamsalekha]]
| cover =
| alt =
| released = 1995
| recorded =
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = Soundtrack
| length = 25:46
| label =
| producer = [[Hamsalekha]]
| prev_title =
| prev_year =
| next_title =
| next_year =
}}

The film's music composed and lyrics written by [[Hamsalekha]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://music.apple.com/us/album/muttinantha-hendathi-original-motion-picture-soundtrack/850270914|title=Muttinantha Hendathi (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack)|work=Apple Music}}</ref>

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!S. No.!!Song title !!Lyrics !!Singers !!length
|-
|1
|"Kaleya Baleyolage"
|[[Hamsalekha]]
|[[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]], [[S. Janaki]]
|4:54
|-
|2
|"Shivashankara Poojaphala"
|Hamsalekha
|S. P. Balasubrahmanyam
|4:44
|-
|3
|"Mutthinantha Hendathi"
|Hamsalekha
|[[Mano (singer)|Mano]]
|3:34
|-
|4
|"Nava Maasa Thumbida"
|Hamsalekha
|S. Janaki
|3:55
|-
|5
|"Teenageinida College"
|Hamsalekha
|Mano
|4.05
|-
|6
|"Namo Murudesha Lingaya"
|Hamsalekha
|Kusuma
|4.03
|-
|7
|"Thayiye Daivagala"
|Hamsalekha
|S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, S. Janaki
|5:02
|-
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Rotten Tomatoes|Muttinantha_Hendathi}}
* {{IMDb title}}

[[Category:1995 drama films]]
[[Category:1995 Indian films]]
[[Category:Indian drama films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Hamsalekha]]
[[Category:1995 Kannada-language films]]

Gaddam Vinod Kumar

2026-03-29T17:39:15Z

AhmedSturgis: made initial bio from scratch

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| image =
| image_size = 220px
| name = Gaddam Vinod Kumar
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1956|09|16|df=y}}
| birth_place =
| constituency = [[Bellampalli Assembly constituency|Bellampalli]]
| office = [[Telangana Legislative Assembly|Member of Telangana Legislative Assembly]]
| term_start = December 2023
| 1blankname = Chief Minister
| 1namedata = [[Revanth Reddy]]
| predecessor = [[Durgam Chinnaiah]]
| successor =
| party = [[Indian National Congress]] (2023-present)
| other political affiliation =
| spouse =
| children =
| website =
| footnotes =
| date =
| year =
| source =
| parents = [[Gaddam Venkatswamy]] (father), Kalavathi (mother)
| relations = [[Gaddam Vivek Venkatswamy]] (brother)
}}
'''Gaddam Vinod Venkataswamy''' (born 16 September 1956) is an Indian politician from Telangana. He is an MLA from [[Bellampalli Assembly constituency|Bellampalli Assembly Constituency]] in Mancherial District. He won the 2023 Telangana Legislative Assembly election.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-03 |title=Bellampalli Assembly Election Results 2023 Highlights: INC's Gaddam Vinod wins Bellampalli with 82217 votes |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/elections/story/bellampalli-assembly-election-results-2023-live-2470915-2023-12-03 |access-date=2024-07-17 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=ABN |title=బెల్లంపల్లి Constituency Election 2023: Live Results, Winning Candidates - Telangana Assembly Polls |url=https://www.andhrajyothy.com/telangana/assembly-elections |access-date=2024-07-17 |website=Andhrajyothy Telugu News |language=en}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
Vinod is born to [[Gaddam Venkatswamy|Gaddam Venkataswamy]] and Kalavati. He has a brother and three sisters. He did his schooling at [[All Saints High School (Hyderabad)|All Saints High School]] in Hyderabad and later, completed his Class 10 from [[The Hyderabad Public School, Begumpet|Hyderabad Public School]]. He did his intermediate at Nrupatunga Junior College before completing his graduation at [[Nizam College]] in 1975.

He is a businessman. He started '''[https://www.zaubacorp.com/company/VEENUS-TOBACCO-CO-PVT-LTD/U16001TG1975PTC001938 Veenus Tobacco]''' in 1976. He also started a Cement factory in Vikarabad, which he later sold to [[India Cements]].

He served as vice-president of the [[Hyderabad Cricket Association]] and then became its president from 1996 to 2004. His brother Vivek leads Visakha Industries which got a nod to construct the [[Rajiv Gandhi International Cricket Stadium]] in Uppal, Hyderabad.

He was also the President of the [[Hyderabad Cricket Association]] from 2004 to 2010 and again from 2012 to 2014.

== Political life ==
He entered politics in 1999, but lost [[Chennur Assembly constituency|Chennur Assembly Constituency]] representing [[Indian National Congress]] to [[Telugu Desam Party|Telugu Desam Party’s]] [[Boda Janardhan]]. He came back and defeated him in 2004 election. He served as Minister for Labour and Textiles in Andhra Pradesh from 2004 to 2009 in the Y. S. Rajasekhar Reddy ministry.<ref name="4 Ministers from Chennur Have Served in Telangana Cabinet">{{cite news |last1= |first1= |title=4 Ministers from Chennur Have Served in Telangana Cabinet |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/southern-states/telangana/4-ministers-from-chennur-have-served-in-telangana-cabinet-1884322 |access-date=10 June 2025 |work= |publisher=Deccan Chronicle |date=10 June 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250610061027/https://www.deccanchronicle.com/southern-states/telangana/4-ministers-from-chennur-have-served-in-telangana-cabinet-1884322 |archive-date=10 June 2025 |language=en}}</ref>

Then, he lost the [[2009 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2009 Assembly Elections]] to Nalla Odellu from the [[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]]. Later, he lost the 2010 by-election and the 2014 Assembly election from Chennur against Odellu. He shifted to [[Bahujan Samaj Party]], but lost the 2018 Assembly election from [[Bellampalli Assembly constituency|Bellampalli Assembly Constituency]] against [[Durgam Chinnaiah]] of the BRS.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Bellampalli Constituency Election Results 2023: Bellampalli Assembly Seat Details, MLA Candidates & Winner |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/assembly-elections/telangana/constituency-show/bellampalli |access-date=2024-07-17 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref> In 2023, he returned to [[Telangana Pradesh Congress Committee|Congress]] and won the Bellampalli Constituency against [[Durgam Chinnaiah]] of the BRS polling 82,217 votes with a vote share of 57.96%.<ref>https://results.eci.gov.in/AcResultGenDecNew2023/ConstituencywiseS293.htm</ref><ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-03 |title=Telangana Results 2023: Winners from Chennur, Bellampalli, Mancherial, Dharmapuri, Ramagundam, Manthani, Peddapalle |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/telangana-results-2023-winners-from-chennur-bellampalli-mancherial-dharmapuri-ramagundam-manthani-peddapalle-101701451108226.html |access-date=2024-07-17 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!Election
!Constituency
!Party
!Outcome
!Opponent
!Opponent Party
|-
|1999
| rowspan="7" |[[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]]
| rowspan="5" |[[Chennur Assembly constituency|Chennur constituency]]
| rowspan="5" |[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|{{Lost}}
|[[Boda Janardhan]]
|[[Telugu Desam Party|TDP]]
|-
|2004
|{{Won}}
|[[Boda Janardhan]]
|[[Telugu Desam Party|TDP]]
|-
|2009
|{{Lost}}
|[[Nallala Odelu]]
|[[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|TRS]]
|-
|2010 'By-election'
|{{Lost}}
|[[Nallala Odelu]]
|[[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|TRS]]
|-
|2014
|{{Lost}}
|[[Nallala Odelu]]
|[[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|TRS]]
|-
|2018
| rowspan="2" |[[Bellampalli Assembly constituency|Bellampalli constituency]]
|[[Bahujan Samaj Party|BSP]]
|{{Lost}}
|[[Durgam Chinnaiah]]
|[[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|TRS]]
|-
|2023
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|{{Won}}
|[[Durgam Chinnaiah]]
|[[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]]
|}

== References ==
<references />
[[Category:Living people]]

[[Category:Telangana MLAs 2023–2028]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Telangana]]
[[Category:State cabinet ministers of Telangana]]
[[Category:Andhra Pradesh MLAs 2004–2009]]
[[Category:1956 births]]
[[Category:Bahujan Samaj Party politicians from Telangana]]

Mannar, Alappuzha

2026-03-29T17:06:03Z

AhmedSturgis: quick update

{{Short description|Town in Kerala, India}}
{{Other uses|Mannar (disambiguation)}}
{{multiple issues|
{{More citations needed|date=May 2009}}
{{cleanup|date=February 2011}}
{{Too many sections|date=September 2024}}
}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2020}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Mannar
| other_name =
| nickname = The Bell Metal Town
| settlement_type = [[Census Town]]
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Kerala#India
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Kerala, India
| coordinates = {{coord|9|18|0|N|76|32|0|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Kerala]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Alappuzha district|Alappuzha]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body = Panchayat
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 = 8
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 17,067
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes = <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.citypopulation.de/en/india/kerala/|title = Kerala (India): Districts, Cities and Towns - Population Statistics, Charts and Map}}</ref>
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]], English
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 689622
| registration_plate = KL-30
| blank1_name_sec1 = Nearest city
| blank1_info_sec1 =
[[Thiruvalla]]
| blank2_name_sec1 = [[Lok Sabha]] constituency
| blank2_info_sec1 = [[Mavelikara]]
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Mannar''' is a [[census town]] in [[Chengannur]] Taluk in [[Alappuzha District]] of [[Kerala]] state, India, on State Highway 6. It is also known as the Bell Metal Town.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.keralatourism.org/destination/mannar-metal-products/299|title=Mannar - the bell metal town near Alappuzha Town - Kerala Tourism|work=keralatourism.org}}</ref>

==Location==
Mannar is located on the banks of the [[Pampa River|Pamba River]], [[Manimala River]] and [[Achankovil River|Achankovil river]]. Mannar is 11 km from Chengannur, Thiruvalla, Haripad and 8 km from Mavelikara. It is connected by four railway stations (Chengannur, Thiruvalla, Harippad and Mavelikara) at a distance of 8 to 9 km each on four sides. Parumala Jn:, Kuttiyil Jn:, Muttel Jn:, Aalum moottil Jn:, Koyickal Jn: and Store Jn: are the main junctions in Mannar.

==Historical Importance of Mannar==
Mannar was the venue for the famous [[Treaty of Mannar]] (Mannar Harmony Deed) signed between Maharaja of Travancore Marthanda Varma and Kayamkulam King in 1742. After this deed Kayamkulam and a major portion of central travancore became the part of Travancore Kingdom.
[[File:Inside Of Nair Samajam School Mannar.JPG|thumb|NSS School, Mannar]]
[[File:A medical camp conducted as part of the public information campaign organized by PIB Thiruvananthapuram, at Mannar, in Alappuzha district, Kerala on August 23, 2011.jpg|thumb|A medical camp at Mannar, 2011]]

==Demographics==
As of [[2011 Census of India|2011 Census]], Mannar had a population of 17,067 with 7,869 males and 9,198 females. Mannar census town has an area of {{cvt|8|km2}} with 4,564 families residing in it. The average female sex ratio was 1169 higher than the state average of 1084. 8% of the population was under 6 years of age. Mannar had an average literacy of 96.4% higher than the state average of 94%; male literacy was 97.7% and female literacy was 95.2%.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kerala |first1=Directorate of Census Operations |title=District Census Handbook, Alappuzha |publisher=Directorate of Census Operations, Kerala |location=Thiruvananthapuram |page=182,183 |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/3211_PART_B_ALAPPUZHA.pdf |access-date=14 July 2020}}</ref>

==Industry==

===Traditional bronze metal industry===
Mannar is well known for its [[bronze]] industry, as well as other metals. There are hundreds of traditional 'ALA'S'(kilns or furnaces)[http://www.indiavideo.org/kerala/heritage/craft/bronze-artifacts-from-mannar-258.php] in Mannar. There are many small-scale manufacturing establishments engaged in this business, employing traditional workers, where prospective buyers can visit, observe the making and then purchase the artefacts produced. The most important household utensil they used to make are kinnan (plates for taking foods like kanji and boiled rice), nilavilakk, uruli, chempi (for par boiling paddy), kindi (a vessel for taking water for washing hands and feet). The most famous utensil makers were Chinkili Achari and Kollan Neelakantan Achari. There was an expert craftsman Kurattiyil Neelakantan Achari, who made the minutest gold ornaments. Later industry shifted to manufacturing big size artefacts and craftsmen from this town created many well known artefacts, such as a Varpu displayed at Delhi Museum, the lamp at Kuravilangad Church, the lamp of Chettikulangara Devi Temple, the bell at Simla Temple, the bell at Cathedral Church, New Delhi and a replica of famous tree of life and knowledge. This town is second only to market leader manufacturing city Moradabad.<ref>Mannaar dEsaperumayute kathha by Dr.K.Balakrishna Pillai</ref>

===Alind Switchgear Division===
The Aluminium Industries Limited came into existence, on 2 January 1946, promoted by then Seshasayee Group with its Conductor Division set up in Kundra, Kerala under technical collaboration from the world-renowned ALCAN, Canada, The Aluminium Development Laboratories U.K. and ALCAN S.A., Zurich, Switzerland. Since then, Alind has produced more than a million kilometres of AAC, ACSR and AAAC conductors building the lifelines of power in India and aboard, and hence Alind could rightly call itself "The Power Movers."

Presently Alind with its Corporate Office in Mumbai has manufacturing units located in the three states of [[Kerala]], [[Odisha]] and [[Andhra Pradesh]] manufacturing cables and conductors, steel wires, wire-working machinery, high-voltage switchgears and static relays, Export Division, Consultancy and Engineering Services Division.<ref>[http://alindrelay.com/switchgear.html Alind's Switchgear Division] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111122024216/http://alindrelay.com/switchgear.html |date=22 November 2011 }}</ref>

==Temples==
===Parumala Valiya Panayannarkavu Devi Temple===

[[Parumala Valiya Panayannarkavu Devi Temple]] is an ancient Hindu temple dedicated to Sri Badrakali and Lord Shiva is situated on the banks of the Pampa river at Parumala of Pathanamthitta District in Kerala state in India.

The Panaynararkavu Temple is one of the three most important Bhadrakali temples in Kerala. Thirumandhamkunnu Temple in Malabar, Kodungallur Temple in Cochin and Panayannarkavu Temple in Travancore is almost equally important.

The ancient Panayannar Kavu Devi temple, worshipping "Saptha Matha", is famous for its Sarpa kavu and mural painting<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.keralamurals.com/mural-paintings/important-murals.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120729105513/http://www.keralamurals.com/mural-paintings/important-murals.htm | archive-date=29 July 2012 | title=Kerala Murals - A close study of Kerala Mural Paintings }}</ref> drawn on Sricovil. One of these paintings became the cover page for Sri. E.M.S. Nampoothripad's biography (veteran Communist leader and ex-chief minister of Kerala). The annual Vishu Festival attracts many pilgrims.

===Parumala Pally===
The [[St. Peter and St. Paul's Church, Parumala]]<ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-12-03|title="50 Stars of Christmas" :Parumala Church,Kerala - Symbol of Syrian Orthodox Traditions Religion World|url=https://www.religionworld.in/50-stars-christmas-parumala-churchkerala-symbol-syrian-orthodox-traditions/|access-date=2020-09-01|website=Religion World|language=English}}</ref> is famous pilgrim centre in India due to the Tomb of St [[Gregorios of Parumala]], who was the first declared saint in India.<ref>{{Cite web |title=St. Gregorios Of Parumala – Metropolitan Geevarghese Mar Gregorios. {{!}} |url=https://mosc.in/saints/st-gregorios-of-parumala-metropolitan-geevarghese-mar-gregorios |access-date=20 September 2023 |website=mosc.in}}</ref> 1 and 2 November is the Feast of St Gregorios Parumala will attract pilgrims from across the world. The church is one of the biggest churches in India. The Parumala Seminary was started by St Gregorios of Parumala.

===Thrikkuratti Mahadeva Temple===
[[File:Krishna temple trkkurutti temple, mannar.JPG|thumb|Krishna Temple, Mannar]]
[[File:Mannar.jpg|thumb|Mahadheva Temple, Mannar]]
Thrikkuratti Mahadeva Temple is one of the 108 sivalays built by Lord Parasurama. It is believed that the mammoth temple compound wall was built by a troupe of Bhootas of Lord Paramasiva in one night. The unique festivities of Thrikkuratti temple (Sahasra kalasam, Maikatti puja and Sivarathri Nritham) attract many pilgrims. The antique wooden carving of Thrikkuratti mahadeva temple Sricovil was featured in visual media, attracting lot of art lovers including foreigners. At a special Nada (gate) on the east side of the Thrikkuratti temple compound wall, other religious members, in particular, Muslims, present offerings on a daily basis. This practice is believed to be centuries old and is considered to be a true embodiment of religious harmony. The Thrikkuratti Mahasivarathri Festival, second only to Aluva Sivarathri in terms of mass congregation, attracts thousands of devotees. The West Nada (Parvathi) will be open for ten minutes during Sivarathri Nritham on Sivarathri day only. All other days during the year it remains closed. The Srikovil of Thrikkuratti Mahavishnu temple is built on typical kerala style Architecture.

===Other temples and churches===

Religious sites in and around Mannar include
*the famous Panayannar Kavu Devi temple<ref>[http://www.panyannarkavu.org Panayannar kavu devi temple]{{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
*Mannar Puthenpally Juma Masjid (Town masjid)
*Thrikkuratti Mahadeva Temple
*Mannar Juma Masjid
*Kurattikkadu Pattambalam Devi Temple<ref>{{Cite web | title=Pattambalam Devi Temple | url=http://www.pattambalam.org/ | access-date=2025-10-04 | website=www.pattambalam.org}}</ref>
*[[Pattambalam]]
*Eramathoor Mahadeva temple
*Eramathoor Pattambalam Devi Temple
*Eramathoor Suryadeva Temple
*Oorumadom Bhadrakaali Temple
*Vishavarsherikkara Subrahmanya Swami Temple
*Thirppavor Mahavishnu Temple
*Pothuvoor Bhadrakaali Temple
*Viruppil Devi Temple
*553-no SNDP Pavukkara Temple
*Edayadi Bhadrkaali Temple
*Chakkulathu Kavu Devi Temple<ref>{{Cite web | title=HOME - Chakkulathukavu Sree Bhagavathy Temple | url=http://www.chakkulathukavutemple.org | access-date=2025-10-04 | website=www.chakkulathukavutemple.org}}</ref>
*Kunnathoor Devi Temple
*Kottarkavu Devi temple
*Kurattikkadu Vilayil Mahadeva Temple
*72-No.SNDP Kurattikkadu Temple
*Kurattikkadu Thevarickal Mahadeva Temple
*Memadom Sreekrishnaswami Temple
*Kurattikkadu Sree Dharam Shastha Temple
*Kurattikkadu Mutharamman Devi Temple
*Kurattikkadu Valiyachan Temple
*Kurattikkadu Tevarmannam Temple
*Kaleeckal Valiyachan Temple
*[[Parumala Church]]
*St. Thomas church Pavukkara
*St. Peter's Catholic church Pavukkara
*Valyachan Kavu Muttumpattu
*Orthodox church Muttel Jn
*The Aalthara Ganapathy temple at Kannamkavil Muthaaramman Temple, near Thrikkuratti temple attracts many devotees, in particular motorists. Vinayaga Chathurthy Festival is the major festival celebrated at Aalthara Ganapathy Temple. Manjal Neerattu conducted during Kumbha Bharani festival at Kannamkavil Mutharamman temple is a major attraction for many devotees.
*The Eramathoor Soorya temple is believed to centuries old and is known for being one of the three known temples in Kerala dedicated to deity "[[Surya]]" (Sun God). The Adithya Ponkala conducted at this temple attracts many female devotees from South Kerala.
*Kurattikadu Pattambalam Devi Temple<ref>{{Cite web | title=Pattambalam Devi Temple | url=http://pattambalam.org/ | access-date=2025-10-04 | website=pattambalam.org}}</ref>
*Kurattikkadu Mutharamman Devi Temple
*Thrippavoor MahaVishnu Temple<ref>{{Cite web | title=Thrippavoor MahaVishnu Temple | url=https://www.facebook.com/ThrippavoorMahaVishnuTemple/ | access-date=2025-10-04 | website=www.facebook.com}}</ref>
*The famous Parumala church or St.Peter's and St.Paul's Church is dedicated to Saint Gregorios of Parumala ([[Gheevarghese Mar Gregorios of Parumala]]), who is also popularly known as 'Parumala Thirumeni'. [[Parumala Church]] or St.Paul's and St.Peter's Church is located in east Mannar.
*Valyachan kavu situated beside Muttumpattu road.

==Events==
Thrikkuratti Mahadeva temple Shivarathri is celebrated as the biggest and famous event held in Mannar every year, attracting thousands of devotees.

The Anpoli conducted as part of festival in Devi temples are another attraction and unique one. Among the Anpoli festivals Anpoli Areeppara Mahothsavam of [http://www.pattambalam.org/ Kurattikkadu Pattambalam Devi Kshethram] is the most famous, attracting thousands of devotees on Medam 24th (7 May). Here [[Bhadra kali]] is worshipped is called valiyamma by devotees. The festival at [[Pattambalam]] starts on Medam 10th (23 April) and ends on Medam 25th (8 May). The festival includes several rituals like AttilChattam, Changayilottam, Vithideel which aren't practised anywhere else in the world. Among these, Attil Chattam attracts Muslim devotees and kalamezhuthum pattum is conducted every malayalamasam on thiruvathira nakshatra as well.
The annual Mahathma Boat Race, conducted during [[Onam]] festival season, attracts lot of visitors and water sports lovers including foreigners.

==Education==

Mannar has well known educational institutions like Dewaswom Board Pampa College, Nair Samajam Higher Secondary School, Nair Samajam Teacher Training Institute, Nair Samajam High Schools (one of the oldest schools in Central Travancore), Sree Bhuvaneswari English Medium School and Good Shepherd School. The Mannar Library at Kuttiyil Junction is a full-fledged library, equipped with many reference books.

Mannar Nair Samajam School was started in the year 1903. It was established by the initiative of Vechooreth V S Krishna Pillai who had stated it first in his house with 20 pupils in 1902. Old stalwarts like Puthuppally Krishna Pillai, Kainikara Brothers, Makkappuzha Vasudevan Pillai and many great leaders studied there. K P Krishna Menon was the Second Headmaster of the School, the First being Cherian Sar, father of erstwhile Minister George. There was no discrimination between the high class and harijans for studying in the schools. Fees concessions were also given to the poor students.

===Sree Bhuvaneswari Higher Secondary School===
[http://sreebhuvaneswarischools.org/ Sree Bhuvaneswari Higher Secondary School], managed by the Kurattikadu Pattambalam Devaswam, was founded in 1974 with LKG classes and has now grown into a cluster of schools comprising the Sree Bhuvaneswari Sisu Vidyalayam: the nursery, Sree Bhuvaneswari English Medium High School, Sree Bhuvaneswari Higher Secondary School and Sree Bhuvaneswari CBSE School.

===N.S.H.S. For Boys, Mannar===
Nair Samajam High School For Boys, Mannar Panchayat, Mannar, Alleppy Dist. Kerala State
Syllabus: STATE
Medium: Malayalam
class: 5–10

===N.S.H.S. For Girls, Mannar===
Nair Samajam High School For Girls, Mannar Panchayat, Mannar, Alleppy Dist. Kerala State
Syllabus: STATE
Medium: Malayalam

===M.D.L.P.School, Muttel Junction===
Mannar Syrian Lower Primary School, [[Muttel Junction]], Kuttemperoor P.O., Mannar, Alleppy Dist. Kerala
Syllabus: STATE
Medium: Malayalam

===K.U.P.School, Pavukkara===
Pavukkara PO, Mannar, Alleppy Dist. Kerala
Syllabus: STATE
Medium: Malayalam
class: 1–7

===M.D.L.P.School, Pavukkara===
Pavukkara PO, Mannar, Alleppy Dist. Kerala
Syllabus: STATE
Medium: Malayalam

===D.B College Parumala Mannar===
Devaswom Board Pampa College, Parumala, is a government-aided private college managed by the Travancore Devaswom Board. It offers graduate and postgraduate degrees in various arts and science subjects.
[https://dbpc.ac.in/ D.B College Parumala Mannar]

==Government Services in Mannar==

* Grama Panchayat Office

* Police station

* Village Office

* Post Office

* Telephone Exchange

==Government Hospitals==

* Govt. General Hospital

* Govt. Ayurveda Hospital

==References==
<references />

==Related links==

* [[Pathanamthitta]]
* [http://www.frontierlifeline.com Parumala St. Gregorious Cardiovascular Centre]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20181214220138/http://www.thesaintofparumala.com/ (THE SAINT OF PARUMALA) History of Parumala Thirumeni]
* [http://www.sghospital.org/ Parumala St. Gregorious Hospital]
* [http://www.chakkulathukavutemple.org/ Chakkulathu Kavu Devi Temple]

{{Alappuzha district}}
{{Central Travancore}}

[[Category:Cities and towns in Alappuzha district]]

Nautanki

2026-03-28T17:11:49Z

AhmedSturgis:

{{short description|Folk art}}
{{more footnotes|date=April 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2019}}
[[File:DevendraSharma SultanaDaku.jpg|thumb|Dr. Devendra Sharma as Sultana Daku and Palak Joshi as Phoolkunwar in ''Sultana Daku'']]
'''Nautanki''' is one of the most popular folk performance forms of [[South Asia]], particularly in [[North India|northern India]]. Before the advent of [[Hindi cinema|Bollywood]] (the Hindi film industry), Nautanki was the biggest entertainment medium in the villages and towns of northern India. Nautanki's rich musical compositions and humorous, entertaining storylines hold a strong influence over rural people's imagination. Even after the spread of mass media (such as television, [[DVD|DVDs]], and [[Streaming media|online streaming]]), a crowd of 10,000 to 15,000 can be seen at the top Nautanki performances. Nautanki's origins lie in the Saangit, Bhagat, and Swang [[musical theatre]] traditions of Northern India. One Saangit called ''Saangit Rani Nautanki Ka'' became so popular that the whole genre's name became Nautanki. Nautanki is most famous in the states of [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Rajasthan]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Haryana]], and [[Bihar]].

==Performances==
Nautanki performances are operas based on a popular folk theme derived from romantic tales, [[mythologies]], or [[biographies]] of local heroes. The performance is often punctuated with individual songs, dances, and skits, which serve as breaks and comic relief for audiences.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=Devendra Sharma Nautanki Folk Opera Ensemble and Devendra Sharma |url=https://hewlett.org/recipient/devendra-sharma-nautanki-folk-opera-ensemble-and-devendra-sharma/ |access-date=2022-04-20 |website=Hewlett Foundation |language=en-US}}</ref> Audiences sometimes use the breaks to go to the toilet or pick up food from their homes or nearby shops. Nautanki performances involve a lot of community participation from audiences. For instance, community members provide logistical support, financial support, and talented actors for Nautanki performances. Audience members choose what script will be performed and often intervene during the performance to demand a repeat of a song or skit.
[[File:DevendraSharma PunditSharma.png|thumb|Legendary Nautanki artist and [[Sangeet Natak Akademi]] awardee Pandit [[Ramdayal Sharma]] as Amar Singh Rathore and Dr. Devendra Sharma as Ram Singh in ''Amar Singh Rathore'']]
Nautanki performances can take place in any open space available in or around a village that can accommodate audiences in hundreds or thousands. Sometimes this space is made available by the village Chaupal (village community center). Other times, the playground of the local school becomes the performance site. A Nautanki stage is elevated above the ground and is made up of wooden cots (usually provided by local villagers). Until a few decades back, there was no electricity in Indian villages, so light was provided either by big lanterns or Petromax (a device run by kerosene oil).

The pleasure of Nautanki lies in the intense mellifluous exchanges between two or three performers; a chorus is used sometimes.

Traditional Nautanki performances usually start late at night, often around 10 P.M., and go all night until sunrise the next morning (for a total of 8–10 hours). There is no intermission in Nautanki performances.

==Repertoires==
Repertoire of traditional Nautankis range from mythological and folk tales to stories of contemporary heroes. For instance, while Nautanki plays such as ''Satya-[[Harishchandra]]'' and ''Bhakt [[Mordhwaj|Moradhwaj]]'' are based on mythological themes, ''Indal Haran'' and ''[[Puranmal]]'' originated from folklore. In the first half of the 20th century, contemporary sentiment against British rule and feudal landlords found expression in Nautankis such as ''Sultana Daku'', ''[[Jallianwala Bagh]]'', and ''[[Amar Singh Rathore]]''.

In the last four decades, Pandit Ramdayal Sharma (a renowned Nautanki maestro) and later Dr. Devendra Sharma have co-authored many new Nautankis. These new Nautankis are centered on contemporary social messages such as health, HIV/AIDS, women empowerment, dowry, immigration, and family planning. They are of a much shorter duration — around two hours. This is to give audiences an opportunity to watch performances during a break in their daily routine. These contemporary Nautankis have been performed extensively in India and America and met with resounding popularity.

Some popular traditional Nautankis are ''Syah-Posh (Pak Mohabbat)'', ''Sultana Daku'', ''Indal Haran'', ''Amar Singh Rathore'', ''Bhakt Puranmal'', and ''Harischandra-Taramati''. Some popular contemporary ones are ''Mission Suhani'', ''Subah ka Bhoola'', ''Behkaani and Muskaani'', and ''Beti ka Byah'' (all of these contemporary Nautankis are written by Pandit Ram Dayal Sharma).

==Performers==
Some famous performers are Gokul Korea, Ghasso, Ram Swarup Sharma of Samai-Khera, Manohar Lal Sharma
and Giriraj Prasad of Kaman District Bharatpur, Pandit Ram Dayal Sharma,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bharatpur के नौटंकी कलाकार रामदयाल शर्मा को पद्मश्री अवार्ड, प्रदेश का नाम किया रोशन |url=https://zeenews.india.com/hindi/india/rajasthan/bharatpur/padma-shri-award-to-bharatpur-gimmick-artist-ramdayal-sharma-illuminated-state-name/1080602 |access-date=2022-04-20 |website=Zee News |language=hi}}</ref> Chunni Lal, Puran Lal Sharma, Amarnath, Gulab Bai, and Krishna Kumari.

== Overseas ==
In 2002, Nautanki was introduced in [[United States|America]] and [[Europe]] by Dr. Devendra Sharma, a Nautanki artist, singer, writer, director, and scholar of communication and performance. The participants in Sharma's productions are engineers, doctors, students and other members of the [[Indian diaspora]] living in [[America]], and Europe who are given a rare opportunity to connect with their cultural roots. At the same time, these performances have exposed other communities in America to Indian culture.

One such Nautanki is ''Mission Suhani'', an original Nautanki co-authored by Sharma and Pandit Ram Dayal Sharma that communicates a contemporary and controversial social issue concerning Indians and Indian immigrants in America. It critically examines the phenomenon of some Indian men who come to America to study or work but go back to India and get married — either because of parental pressure or to get a big dowry (cash given to the groom's family by the bride's side). Many of these men leave their wives in India and never bring them to America, where they often have another wife or a girlfriend. One of the unique aspects of this Nautanki is that it is bilingual (Hindi and English). This protects the traditional operatic and artistic elements of Nautanki while effectively communicating the story and contemporary social issue to a diverse audience. Nautankis such as ''Mission Suhani'' involving global social issues help to update Nautanki to emerging issues in [[India]] and around the world.

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
* {{cite book | last=Sharma | first=Devendra | title=Nautanki | publisher=Methuen Drama | publication-place=London | date=2025-02-06 | isbn=978-1-350-29672-5}}
* {{cite book | title=Grounds for Play: The Nautanki Theatre of North India | publisher=University of California Press | author=Kathryn Hansen | year=1991 | pages=354 | isbn=9780520910881}}
* Ramnarayan Agrawal (1976). ''Saangit:Ek Lok Natya.'' Rajpal and Sons. Delhi
* Devendra Sharma (2006). ''Performing Nautanki: Popular Community Folk Performances as Sites of Dialogue and Social Change.'' Ohio University.

==External links==
* www.devnautanki.com

[[Category:Uttar Pradesh folklore]]
[[Category:Performing arts in India]]
[[Category:Theatre of India]]
[[Category:Musical theatre]]

Road tax

2026-03-27T19:51:32Z

AhmedSturgis: improved article

{{Short description|Tax paid for use of a vehicle on roads}}
{{Taxation}}
'''Road tax''', known by various names around the world, is a [[tax]] which has to be paid on, or included with, a motorised vehicle to use it on a [[public road]]. The first Road tax was introduced by [[Charles II of England|King Charles II]] of England in 1637, 300 years later it was said to be collecting £600 million annually by governments across the globe.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article169445041 |title=FIRST ROAD TAX. |newspaper=[[Daily Mercury]] |volume=71, |issue=245 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=14 October 1937 |accessdate=25 March 2026 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref>

==National implementations==
===Australia===
[[Road tax in Australia]] was a charge calculated on a per ton, per mile basis on goods vehicles until the [[Razorback Blockade]] which occurred in April 1979. Road tax was abolished in response to the blockade and was replaced by fuel excise and changes to the vehicle registration costs.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article229694368 |title=Road Tax |newspaper=[[The Sun]] |issue=11,720 |location=New South Wales, Australia |date=19 August 1947 |accessdate=24 March 2026 |page=4 (Late final extra) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Razorback Blockade |url=https://www.roadtransporthall.com/razorback-blockade |website=National Road Transport Museum |access-date=24 March 2026 |language=en-AU}}</ref>

All states and territories require an annual vehicle registration fee to be paid in order to use a vehicle on public roads; the cost of which varies from state to state and is dependent on the type of vehicle. The fee is known colloquially as 'rego' (pronounced with a [[Hard and soft g|soft g]], short for registration).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britzinoz.com/car-registration-in-australia |title=Vehicle Registration costs |quote="All vehicles need to be registered annually, in the same way as British vehicles have to pay for Road Fund Licence. Here it is called registration or REGO." |work=BritinOz|date=18 May 2011 }}</ref> [[Queensland]] road tax is based on the number of cylinders or rotors the vehicle's engine has. There is also a small traffic improvement fee. [[New South Wales]] road tax is paid based on the vehicle's tare weight.

===Belgium===
Passenger cars pay a registration fee based on the engine displacement and power output (degressive towards 2014 (66% in 2012, 33% in 2013, 0% in 2014) and environmental criteria such as CO2 g/km output (increasingly towards 2014). The more CO2 g/km the car produces, the higher the fee will be.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://belastingen.fenb.be/vfp-portal-pub2-web/simulatieVerkeersbelasting.html#/q/top |title= Belastingportaal Vlaanderen|website=belastingen.fenb.be |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120625084534/https://belastingen.fenb.be/vfp-portal-pub2-web/simulatieVerkeersbelasting.html |archive-date=2012-06-25}}</ref>

Every year, the plate number owner has to pay the annual road tax contribution. This tax is based on the engine displacement (0-799cc = fiscal HP 4, above 800cc each 200cc is one class higher).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://koba.minfin.fgov.be/commande/pdf/Fold_verkeersbelast_2010_2011.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2012-08-14 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100821155239/http://koba.minfin.fgov.be/commande/pdf/Fold_verkeersbelast_2010_2011.pdf |archive-date=2010-08-21 }}</ref> Due to CO2-based regulations, diesel cars with above average displacement (>2,000cc) are favoured, and petrol cars with bigger displacements are put at a disadvantage). A supplementary annual fee has to be paid for cars that run on LPG/CNG (0-799cc: €84/year, 800–2,499cc; €148/year and >2,500cc: €208/year) to compensate financial loss for the state due to the absence of excise at the pump.

===Brazil===
In Brazil, the states may collect an annual '''Vehicle Licensing Fee''' ({{Lang|pt|Taxa de Licenciamento Veicular}}) which has a fixed value for each vehicle category determined by each state. In addition, each state may impose a Vehicle Property Tax ({{Lang|pt|Imposto sobre a Propriedade de Veículos Automotores}}), with a rate up to 4%.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Assobrav|date=2021-01-07|title=Quanto se paga de IPVA em cada um dos estados do Brasil|url=https://www.assobrav.com.br/destaques/quanto-se-paga-de-ipva-em-cada-um-dos-estados-do-brasil/|access-date=2021-12-14|website=Assobrav|language=pt-BR}}</ref>

===Costa Rica===
The Costa Rican car property tax, commonly referred to as {{Lang|es|Marchamo}}, is among the highest in Latin America, with rates that can go up to 3.5% of the fiscal value of the vehicle yearly. When compared to the Costa Rican minimum wage (₡331,516.22 a month, equivalent to US$597.33), the tax on an average US$15,000 (₡8,600,000) car can be ₡302,000 (US$525), or 80% to 120% of a month's pay. Even though Costa Ricans receive a yearly bonus equivalent to a month's salary, the property tax negates this for most car owners, which has led to calls for tax law reform.

Opponents to the car property tax argue that common cars already pay 100% tariff when imported, meaning that a car in Costa Rica is twice as expensive as in the country of origin. Additionally, gas refills include 65% fuel tax. Owning a car that would cost US$7,500 to purchase (in the United States) for seven years can result in the owner paying up to US$29,595 in total taxes (around US$4,227.85 a year). The Ministry of Finance also has the right to step up the fiscal value of a car, effectively a negative depreciation.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.crhoy.com/archivo/hacienda-corrige-valor-fiscal-en-20-de-los-vehiculos-acepta-error-en-costo-de-mercado/nacionales/|title=Hacienda corrige valor fiscal en 20% de los vehículos, acepta error en costo de mercado {{!}} Crhoy.com|work=CRHoy.com {{!}} Periodico Digital {{!}} Costa Rica Noticias 24/7|access-date=2018-01-07|language=es-ES|archive-date=2017-08-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824215312/http://www.crhoy.com/archivo/hacienda-corrige-valor-fiscal-en-20-de-los-vehiculos-acepta-error-en-costo-de-mercado/nacionales/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hacienda.go.cr/contenido/12436-impuesto-a-la-propiedad-de-vehiculos-automotores-aeronaves-y-embarcaciones|title=Impuesto a la propiedad de vehículos automotores, aeronaves y embarcaciones|website=Hacienda.go.cr|access-date=7 January 2018}}</ref>

=== Estonia ===
The yearly motor vehicle tax ({{Lang|et|Mootorsõidukimaks}}) was implemented in 2025. Vehicles first registered at least 20 years ago to the date are only taxed at the flat basic rate of €50 per year, tax for newer vehicles is in addition to the €50 calculated based on CO2 emission per WLTP standards (€3 per gramme between 118-150 grammes, €3.50 per gramme between 151-200 grammes and €4 per gramme for over 201 grammes) and GVWR (€0.40 for every kilogramme over 2000 kilogrammes, up to €400). If the CO2 emission is instead given in NEDC standards, the price based on emission will be multiplied with a coefficient of 1.21. If the CO2 emission is not given, then the tax rate will be calculated by adding the engine power in kilowatts multiplied by 0.29 and the vehicle's curb weight in kilogrammes multiplied by 0.07.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mootorsõidukimaksu seadus–Riigi Teataja |url=https://www.riigiteataja.ee/akt/117082024001 |access-date=2025-03-19 |website=www.riigiteataja.ee}}</ref>

===France===
{{see also|Tax horsepower#France}}
In France, the [[vignette (road tax)|vignette]] was abolished for private vehicles in 2001 and was replaced by a tax on toll-road operators<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cfe-eutax.org/taxation/road-tax/france |title=Road Tax, Road Tolls and Fees in France | CFE portal |publisher=Cfe-eutax.org |access-date=2011-11-23}}</ref> at a rate of €6.85 per 1,000 kilometres travelled. In addition, a tax is levied on vehicles registered to companies. Since 2006, the tax is levied according to CO2 emissions ranging from €2 per gramme to €19 per gramme.

===Germany===
In Germany, the Motor Vehicle tax ({{Lang|de|Kraftfahrzeugsteuer}}) is an annual tax on all vehicles. It ranges from €5 per 100cc to €25 per 100cc for petrol engines and €13 to €37 for diesel engines.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pkw-steuer.de/kfz-steuer_diesel.html |title=tax rates for diesel engines (in german) |publisher=Pkw-steuer.de |access-date=2011-11-23}}</ref> Vehicles first registered before June 30, 2009 are taxed according to [[engine displacement]] and national/European ''emission class'', whereas vehicles which were registered after that date are taxed solely based on CO2 emission in grams per km (g CO2/km). An on-line tax calculator has been made available.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bundesfinanzministerium.de/Web/DE/Service/Apps_Rechner/KfzRechner/KfzRechner.html?ct1=00PKWvor04112008&ct1backup=00PKWvor04112008&ct3=Otto&ct4=Euro1vergl&ct6=2200&submitButton=Berechnen|title=Kfz-Steuer-Rechner - Bundesfinanzministerium - Service|website=Bundesministerium der Finanzen|access-date=7 January 2018}}</ref> The CO2 Price is up to 4 Euros per gram.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.kfz-steuer-rechner.de/|title=Kfz-Steuer-Rechner |access-date=10 July 2023}}</ref>

===Hong Kong===
In Hong Kong, the licence fee is according to the category (passenger cars, goods vehicles, taxis, etc.) of the vehicle first. Then, for passenger cars (known as private cars), it is calculated by the engine size. The lowest tax band is under 1500 cc, then the tax band changes at 2500 cc, 3500 cc and 4500 cc. Due to this system of license fee, most of 1600 cc to 1800 cc car models do not sell well. Most people prefer 1500 cc for compact cars. Due to this reason, some manufacturers provide only the 1500 cc version of their compact cars to Hong Kong market such as [[Toyota Corolla]] and [[Nissan Tiida]]. Both of these two cars only have 1500 cc version available.

By engine displacement:
* ≤ 1500 cc = HK$3,929
* 1501 cc- 2500 cc = HK$5,794
* 2501 cc- 3500 cc = HK$7,664
* 3501 cc- 4500 cc = HK$9,534
* >4500 cc = HK$11,329

===Hungary===
In Hungary, since 2009, this tax is based on the vehicle's engine performance and the vehicle's age. Before this so-called performance tax, this tax was based on the vehicle's weight and unofficially it was called a weight tax.{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}}

===India===
In India, road tax is imposed by the respective state governments (lifetime and also annual for commercial vehicles) also, further there could be toll for specific usage of roads (charge depends on distance, type, etc.). At the time of purchase of the vehicle, the government levies GST (Goods & Services Tax) at the rate of 28% and additional cess is levied based on the cubic capacity of the engine of the vehicle(1% for small cars with CC< 1200 CC, 3% for CC between 1200 and 1500 CC, 15% for above 1500 CC). Electric cars are levied lower tax of 5%.

The motor vehicles tax (called road tax) is calculated on the basis of various factors including engine capacity, seating capacity, [[Tare weight|unladen weight]] and cost price. Each state has different rules and regulations for charging the road tax.

There is proposal to have uniform rules and also tariffs across the country in line with the government's initiative of having "One Nation-One Tax".

In India, there is a movement called "Digital India" for digitalizing labor in every department and the [[Ministry of Road Transport and Highways|Ministry of Road Transport & Highways]] has created a portal called "Vahan" for online road tax payment to ease the payment of taxes.<ref>{{Citation|last=Techie Prem|title=How to pay Road Tax Online Latest Video in Hindi by Techie Prem {{!}} online road tax payment {{!}}Road tax|date=2019-04-13|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hc9H-4eufJg|access-date=2019-05-15}}</ref>

===Ireland===
[[Vehicle registration tax (Ireland)|Vehicle registration tax]] applies to all new car registrations as well as imports. VRT for private cars is based on CO2 emissions as well as {{NOx}} emissions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.revenue.ie/en/importing-vehicles-duty-free-allowances/guide-to-vrt/vehicle-registration-tax/general-information-on-registration.aspx|title=General information about registration}}</ref>

[[Motor tax in the Republic of Ireland|Motor tax]] is payable as an annual duty (subject to exemptions) in [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]].
Prior to 2008, the annual tax levy was based on the engine size, and was ranging from €199 pa for <1,000 [[Cubic centimetres|cc]] to €1,809 for >3,001 [[Cubic centimetres|cc]].
Private cars registered after July 2008 are taxed at the tax rates based on the vehicle's [[carbon dioxide emissions]]. The tax bands for CO2 emissions range from €120 [[Per annum|pa]] for 0-80 g/km to €2,350 [[Per annum|pa]] for >225 g/km.
Commercial vehicle tax is based on [[Gross vehicle weight|GVW]], regardless of engine size or CO2 emissions, and range from €333 to €900 [[Per annum|pa]]. Vintage vehicles are taxed at €56 [[Per annum|pa]]; a vehicle is considered vintage 30 years after the date of its first registration.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gov.ie/en/publication/41c9cc-motor-tax-rates/|title=Motor Tax Rates}}</ref>

===Israel===
Combustion engine cars base purchase tax is 83% plus 7% customs tax for manufacturers from countries with no treaty with Israel plus VAT of 17% and optional "prestige tax" of 2.9% to 18% for high cost cars. This brings total tax on a new car to around 100%.
Hybrid engine cars base tax is 45%, and electric cars base tax is 10%. {{cite news|title=How come Tesla is so cheap|url=https://thecar.co.il/טסלה-בתכלס-איך-זה-שהמחירים-כל-כך-זולים}}

===Italy===
As of 2023, road taxes in Italy are classified by [[Tax horsepower#Italy|tax horsepower]] and [[European emission standards]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.agenziaentrate.gov.it/portale/web/english/nse/services/vehicle-tax |title=Vehicle Tax |publisher=Agenzia Entrate/Revenue Agency }}</ref>

===Japan===
A tax is collected under the Local Tax Act of 1950 that is paid every May based on the vehicle's [[Engine displacement|engine's displacement]]. The tax is then determined by whether the vehicle is for [[company car|business]] or personal use. Brackets are determined based on exterior dimensions and engine displacement as defined under the [[Vehicle size class#Japan|dimension regulations]]. The tax to be paid is then based on the engine's displacement starting with engines below 1,000 cc, and increasing at 500 cc intervals to a top bracket of 6,000 cc and above.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://okinawa.stripes.com/base-info/2014-road-tax-collections-start-may-2|title=2014 Road Tax collections to start May 2 - Stripes Okinawa|date=28 April 2014|website=Okinawa.stripes.com |access-date=7 January 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://okinawa.stripes.com/news/road-tax-season-returns|title=Road tax season returns - Stripes Okinawa|date=9 May 2013 |website=Okinawa.stripes.com |access-date=7 January 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://okinawajp.blogspot.com/2014/04/2014-road-tax-collection-schedule.html|title=Moving To & Living in Okinawa, Japan: 2014 Road Tax Collection Schedule|last=Djbert|date=20 April 2014|website=Okinawajp.blogspot.com |access-date=7 January 2018}}</ref>

Personal vehicles pay more than vehicles identified as business use. If the car has been certified as a low-emissions vehicle, under the Japanese [[Emission standard#Japan|low-emission vehicle certification system]], the tax obligation is reduced. [[Kei car]]s (Japanese vehicles with 660 cc engines and reduced exterior dimensions) have significant tax advantages because their tax is about a quarter of that of a 1,000 cc car.

The legislation is similar to a European approach to [[Tax horsepower|taxing engine horsepower]], while the Japanese approach taxes engine displacement.

====Automobile Tax (exterior dimensions)====
*Road Tax for regular 4-wheel vehicles (Metropolitan/Prefectural Tax) vehicle plates and taxes
**40/400 and 50/500 Japan license plates: ¥7,500
**33/300 license plates (4.5-litre engines and below): ¥19,000
**33/300 license plates (4.6-litre engines and above): ¥22,000
**11/100 license plates: ¥32,000
Light Motor Vehicle Tax
*Road Tax for mini-cars and motorcycles (city/ward tax)
**Kei car: ¥3,000
**Motorcycles up to 125 cc: ¥500
**Motorcycles 125 and above cc: ¥1,000

====Automobile Weight Tax====
On 31 May 1971 until 31 March 2010, the Japanese government passed a law creating the [[:ja:自動車重量税法|Automobile Weight Tax]] {{in lang|ja}}. It was modified on 31 March 2010, and the next day, on 1 April 2010. The tax is paid every year in conjunction with the engine displacement based road tax. The weight determination is made in [[tonne]]s.

{| class=wikitable
|-
! Vehicle class!! Tax amount
|-
| motorcycle
| ¥1,500
|-
| kei car
| ¥2,500
|-
| passenger car
| ¥5,000 per tonne
|-
| truck
| ¥2,500 per tonne
|}

As of 1 April 2010, the tax requirements are as follows. The determination of whether the vehicle is for business or personal use has been added, similar to the engine displacement regulations:

{| class=wikitable
|-
! Vehicle class!! Personal use !! Business use
|-
| motorcycle
| ¥2,200|| ¥1,600
|-
| kei car (125~250cc)
| ¥5,500||¥4,300
|-
| new kei car
| ¥11,300 ||¥8,100
|-
| renewal kei car
| ¥3,800 ||¥2,700
|-
| passenger car
| ¥10,000 per tonne||¥5,400 per tonne
|-
| truck (commercial vehicle)
| ¥3,800 per tonne||¥5,400 per tonne
|-
| bus
| ¥5,000 per tonne||¥2,700 per tonne
|}

====31 March 2010====

{| class=wikitable
|-
! Vehicle class!! Personal use !! Business use
|-
| motorcycle
| ¥2,500||¥1,700
|-
| kei two wheel(126~250cc)
| ¥6,300||¥4,500
|-
| new kei car
| ¥13,200||¥8,400
|-
| renewal kei car
| ¥4,400||¥2,800
|-
| passenger car
| ¥12,600 per tonne||¥5,600 per tonne
|-
| truck (commercial vehicle)
| ¥4,400 per tonne||¥2,800 per tonne
|-
| bus
| ¥6,300 per tonne||¥2,800 per tonne
|}

====Road Tax increments====
The following is the tax rates for [[car|passenger vehicles]] used for both personal and business use, incremented by 500 cc engine displacement.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.accessj.com/2013/05/annual-automobile-tax-in-japan.html |title=Annual Automobile Tax in Japan |website=Accessj.com |access-date=2018-01-07}}</ref>

{| class=wikitable
|-
! Total displacement!! Personal use !! Business use
|-
| under 1-litre
| ¥29,500||¥7,500
|-
| 1-litre–1.4-litres
| ¥34,500||¥8,500
|-
| 1.5-litres–1.9-litres
| ¥39,500||¥9,500
|-
| 2.0-litres–2.4-litres
| ¥45,000||¥13,800
|-
| 2.5-litres–2.9-litres
| ¥51,000||¥15,700
|-
| 3.0-litres–3.4-litres
| ¥58,000||¥17,900
|-
| 3.5-litres–3.9-litres
| ¥66,500||¥20,500
|-
| 4.0-litres-4.4-litres
| ¥76,500||¥23,600
|-
| 4.5-litres–5.9-litres
| ¥88,000||¥27,200
|-
| 6-litres and larger
| ¥111,000||¥40,700
|}

The following table is the tax bracket for [[lorries]] or vehicles built with a load carrying section without seats and a single bench seat in the front of the vehicle in an enclosed passenger compartment.

{| class=wikitable
|-
! Load capacity!! Personal use !! Business use
|-
| under 1 [[tonne]]
| ¥8,000|| ¥6,500
|-
| 1 ton - under 2 tonnes
| ¥11,500||¥9,500
|-
| 2 tons - under 3 tonnes
| ¥16,000 ||¥12,000
|-
| 3 tons - under 4 tonn3s
| ¥20,500 ||¥15,000
|-
| 4 tons - under 5 tonnes
| ¥25,500||¥18,500
|-
| 5 tons - under 6 tonnes
| ¥30,000 ||¥22,000
|-
| 6 tons - under 7 tones
| ¥35,000 ||¥25,500
|-
| 7 tons - under 8 tonnes
| ¥40,500||¥29,500
|-
| over 8 tonnes
| ¥40,500 + ¥6,300 for each additional tonne||¥29,500 + ¥4,700 for each additional tonne
|}

The following table is the tax bracket for [[bus]]es, or vehicles designed to carry many passengers.

{| class=wikitable
|-
! Load capacity!! Personal use !! Business use
|-
| 30 or less
| ¥33,000|| ¥12,000
|-
| under 40
| ¥41,000||¥14,500
|-
| under 50
| ¥49,000 ||¥17,500
|-
| under 60
| ¥57,000 ||¥20,000
|-
| under 70
| ¥65,500||¥22,500
|-
| under 80
| ¥74,000 ||¥25,500
|-
| 80 and over
| ¥83,000||¥29,000
|}

===Latvia===
The vehicle operating tax on cars first registered after January 1, 2005 that have registration certificates with information on total weight, engine volume and engine maximum power, shall be paid by summing up tax rates according to total weight, engine volume and engine maximum power of the car as follows:
*By total weight
**≤1500 kg €14,23
**1501 kg - 1800 kg €29,88
**1801 kg - 2100 kg €51,22
**2101 kg - 2600 kg €65,45
**2601 kg - 3000 kg €78,26
**3001 kg - 3500 kg €91,06
**> 3500 kg €102,45
*By engine volume
**≤ 1500cc €8,54
**1501cc- 2000cc €21,34
**2001cc- 2500cc €34,15
**2501cc- 3000cc €51,22
**3001cc- 3500cc €85,37
**3501cc- 4000cc €149,40
**4001cc- 5000cc €213,43
**>5000cc €277,46
*By engine maximum power
**≤ 55 kW €8,54
**56 kW - 92 kW €21,34
**93 kW - 129 kW €34,15
**130 kW - 166 kW €51,22
**167 kW - 203 kW €85,37
**204 kW - 240 kW €149,40
**241 kW - 300 kW €213,43
**> 300 kW €277,46

===Luxembourg===
An annual tax is applied to each vehicle. In 2013, as an example, the annual tax for a BMW 330D 2004 model was €224.

===Malaysia===
In Malaysia, the latest road tax information and calculations is different in East Malaysia and West Malaysia, which the former in general has lower rate than the latter because of the poor geographical condition and road surface. Besides, within both the two areas, the tax amount also varies according to car variants as well as engine capacity.

Private cars are classified as ‘saloon’ vehicles such as hatchbacks, convertibles and sedans, whose road tax rate<ref name=":0" /> is different from non-saloon vehicles such as MPV, SUV or pickup trucks.

Also, "company-registered saloon" will have to pay higher tax than the "private-registered saloon" for the same engine displacement. Which does not applied to 'non-saloon'.

===Mexico===
Until 2011, the federal government charged an annual vehicle tax, '''{{Lang|es|Tenencia Vehicular}}''', depending on the value and other vehicle characteristics. Although the tax was federal, the states collected the tax. This tax was created in 1961 and in 2006 represented about 1.6% of the total tax income (around 13 billion pesos).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.el-universal.com.mx/notas/336480.html |title=żQué es la tenencia vehicular? - El Universal Online - México |publisher=El-universal.com.mx |access-date=2010-05-01 |archive-date=2012-07-31 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120731134943/http://www.el-universal.com.mx/notas/336480.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In 2012, vehicle tax became a state matter with some states charging the tax, others charging a partial tax (mostly on cars above a certain value) and others such as Morelos and Querétaro, charging no tax.

===Netherlands===
In the Netherlands, a tax is applied to the vehicle based on its weight and fuel type, and the region.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.belastingdienst.nl/wps/wcm/connect/nl/auto-en-vervoer/content/hulpmiddel-motorrijtuigenbelasting-berekenen |title=Motorrijtuigenbelasting berekenen |language=nl |trans-title=Calculate motor vehicle tax |website=belastingdienst.nl}}</ref> Electric vehicles and [[classic car]]s over forty years old are exempt from road tax.

===Nepal===
In Nepal, vehicle tax is collected by Transport Management Offices and Transport Management Service Offices.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://mopid.bagamati.gov.np/ |website=Bagmati State Government |title=Ministry of Physical Infrastructure Development}} {{nonspecific|date=August 2022}}</ref> These offices come under Province governments. Hence vehicle tax is charged in different provinces in different rates. However, the basic criteria are set by federal law, which is same for all provinces. Owner has to pay tax in every fiscal year as per the rates determined in fiscal act passed by Province Assembly for that fiscal year. The owner has to pay tax before the renewal date or April 15 of every fiscal year, whichever comes first. There is no penalty for paying tax within 3 months after deadline. Then, 5% fine is applied within one month, 10% for subsequent one and half month, then 20% for the fiscal year and 32% after the fiscal year. Vehicle tax rate is dependent on displacement capacity (cc) of engine, Vehicle type (private, government, rented, corporate, or tourist use) and size of vehicle (Motorcycle, Car, Jeep, delivery Van and so on.)

Income tax is also collected from vehicle registered for rent every year. The rate is determined by Income Tax Act. Vehicle Registration fee, renew fee, vehicle fitness test fee, pollution test fee, route permit fee and other applicable fees are also collected as per the vehicle and transport management act of related provinces.

===New Zealand===
In New Zealand, Road tax is collected in two major ways.

Motorized vehicles to be used on public roads are required to hold a time based vehicle license that can be purchased for period of 3 to 12 months. Cost varies by vehicle type, fuel and usage. In the case of motorcycles the cost varies by engine size also.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nzta.govt.nz/vehicles/licensing-rego/ |title=Vehicle licensing (rego) |publisher=NZTA/Waka Kotahi }}</ref>

Petroleum (incl ethanol bends), Automotive LPG & Automotive CNG (Which is now largely unavailable), have road tax collected at source, and as such, the retail price of such fuels contains Road tax.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.mbie.govt.nz/building-and-energy/energy-and-natural-resources/energy-generation-and-markets/liquid-fuel-market/duties-taxes-and-direct-levies-on-motor-fuels-in-new-zealand/ |title=Duties, taxes and direct levies on motor fuels in New Zealand |publisher=MBIE }}</ref> Refunds are available on the tax component of fuel used commercially offroad (i.e. Commercial lawnmowing), and fuel used in vehicles paying RUC's (i.e. USA sourced motorhome over 3500kg with petrol engine). Of note, refunds are not available for most non commercial use (such as recreational boating).

Fuels (Petroleum (incl ethanol belnds), Diesel & Biodiesel), sold in the Auckland region have an additional regional fuel tax applied.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.mbie.govt.nz/building-and-energy/energy-and-natural-resources/energy-generation-and-markets/liquid-fuel-market/duties-taxes-and-direct-levies-on-motor-fuels-in-new-zealand/ |title=Duties, taxes and direct levies on motor fuels in New Zealand |publisher=MBIE }}</ref> This is proposed to be removed on 30 June 2024.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.1news.co.nz/2024/02/08/luxon-confirms-when-auckland-regional-fuel-tax-will-end/ |title=Auckland's regional fuel tax is set to end at the end of June, Prime Minister Christopher Luxon announced today |publisher=1 News }}</ref>

Non exempt vehicles using fuels not taxed at source (such as Diesel & Hydrogen), or over 3500kg Gross Laden Weight pay [[Road user charges (New Zealand)|road user charges]] (RUC) by distance travelled and vehicle weight & configuration band. All light vehicles are in the same 3500kg or Less GVM are in same weight band, but rates are highly varied for heavy vehicles based on vehicle type, weight and axle configuration.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nzta.govt.nz/vehicles/road-user-charges/ |title=Road user charges (RUC) |publisher=NZTA/Waka Kotahi }}</ref>

Several exemptions apply to RUC's above

* Light electric vehicles (incl Plug in Hybrids) are exempt until 31 March 2024. (When it is proposed that Pure EV's will pay the full light vehicle RUC rate, and PHEV's will pay a discounted rate of NZD53 per 1000km unit (+Admin fee). It is proposed that PHEV's will not be allowed to claim back road tax in the petroleum they burn, in contrast to other vehicle types liable for RUC's)
* Heavy electric vehicles, incl PHEV are exempt until 32 December 2025.
* Vehicles unsuitable for regular road use (such as forklifts)
* Vehicles used almost exclusively offroad (such as an industrial vehicle)

New Zealand has three toll roads. These are publicly owned, and a per use fee is collected via an electronic free flow tolling system (Number plate detection).

A Clean Car Standard is in place, which charges fees to importers of road vehicles which exceed a defined fleet average emissions value.

Previously, a Clean Car Discount was levied on high fuel consumption vehicles, nicknamed a "ute tax", to cross-subsidise electric and fuel-efficient vehicles. This was discontinued at the end or the 2023 year.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/the-whole-truth/132086902/the-whole-truth-did-the-ute-tax-stop-us-buying-gas-guzzlers |title=The Whole Truth: Did the 'ute tax' stop us buying gas guzzlers? |author=Olivia Wannan |date=2023-05-28 |publisher=Stuff }}</ref>

===Norway===
In Norway, a one-off registration tax must be paid upon initial registration of any motor vehicle in Norway. The fee is calculated according to the vehicle's tax group, kerb weight, emissions (CO2 and {{Chem2|NO_{{(}}x{{)}}}}) and engine volume.<ref>{{Cite web|title=One-off registration tax|url=https://www.skatteetaten.no/en/business-and-organisation/vat-and-duties/car/one-off-registration-tax/|access-date=2021-11-09|website=The Norwegian Tax Administration|language=en}}</ref>

Historically, cars in Norway were taxed annually according to an annual motor vehicle tax stipulated by the [[Norwegian Tax Administration]] according to the vehicle's type and weight class. The annual motor vehicle tax was replaced by the road traffic insurance tax which came into effect on 1 January 2018 and is paid through the yearly compulsory liability insurance for motor vehicles.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Special taxes - Annual motor vehicle tax|url=https://www.skatteetaten.no/en/rates/special-taxes---annual-motor-vehicle-tax/|access-date=2021-11-09|website=The Norwegian Tax Administration|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Road traffic insurance tax|url=https://www.skatteetaten.no/en/business-and-organisation/vat-and-duties/excise-duties/about-the-excise-duties/road-traffic-insurance/|access-date=2021-11-09|website=The Norwegian Tax Administration|language=en}}</ref>

While commonly referred to as a "{{Lang|no|veiavgift|italic=unset}}" ("road tax"), no road tax has ever existed in Norway.
{| class="wikitable"
|+'''Tax rate for 2020'''
''The tax must be paid in the following amounts (NOK) per day:''
!Vehicle type
!NOK per day
|-
|Car w/ weight below 7500 kg
|8,12
|-
|Car w/ weight below 7500 kg, diesel engine without factory installed particle filter
|9,47
|-
|Motorcycle
|5,65
|-
|Veteran, moped, tractor, taxi (registered), and others
|1,31
|}

=== Romania ===

==== Annual Vehicle Property Tax ====
In Romania, every owner that owns a registered vehicle owes a yearly property tax, '{{Lang|ro|Impozit}}', on that vehicle which is mainly based on the engine's [[Cubic capacity]] for passenger cars and buses. Regarding [[Truck]]s and [[Semi-trailer truck]]s, it is also affected by the number of [[Axle|Axles.]]

Although the template for the collection of vehicle property tax depending on the vehicle's type is drafted by the national government, the property tax is owed to the local government in which the vehicle is currently registered and the local council can vote to reduce or to increase the tax owed by a margin (for example, in the year 2018, the local council of the Municipality of Timișoara voted to increase the owed vehicle property tax by 50%, effectively making it the highest in the country)

The framework for calculating the basic vehicle property tax is the following:<ref>{{Cite web|title=Agenția Națională de Administrare Fiscală|url=https://static.anaf.ro/static/10/Anaf/legislatie/Cod_fiscal_norme_11022020.htm#A470|access-date=2021-02-06|archive-date=2022-12-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207140626/http://static.anaf.ro/static/10/Anaf/legislatie/Cod_fiscal_norme_11022020.htm#A470|url-status=dead}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+
National Template for Vehicle Property Tax collection
!
!I. Vehicles Registered Nationally (almost all vehicles fit into this category)
!Amount owed in RON per each 200 cc
|-
|1.
|Motorcycles, three-wheeled vehicles, [[quadracycle]]s, and regular vehicles with a cubic capacity < 1600 cc
|8
|-
|2.
|Motorcycles, three-wheeled vehicles, quadracycles with a cubic
capacity ≥ 1600 cc
|9
|-
|3.
|Regular vehicles with a cubic capacity between 1601 cc and 2000 cc
|18
|-
|4.
|Regular vehicles with a cubic capacity between 2001 cc and 2600 cc
|72
|-
|5.
|Regular vehicles with a cubic capacity between 2601 cc and 3000 cc
|144
|-
|6.
|Regular vehicles with a cubic capacity ≥ 3001 cc
|290
|-
|7.
|Buses and minibuses
|24
|-
|8.
|Other mechanically powered vehicles having a Maximum Authorized Mass not exceeding 12 tons. (Utility Vehicles, mainly small vehicles designed to also transport goods like pickup trucks, small platform trucks and others which don't fit the definition of a regular vehicle)
|30
|-
|9.
|Tractors
|18
|-
|
!II. Vehicles Registered with the Local Commune (mainly farming vehicles, these vehicles cannot travel outside the commune limits)
!Amount owed in RON per each 200 cc
|-
|1.
|Vehicles with a cubic capacity ≤ 4800 cc
|2 - 4
|-
|2.
|Vehicles with a cubic capacity ≥ 4801 cc
|4 - 6
|-
|3.
|Vehicles for which the cubic capacity is not known or specified
|50 - 150 RON/year
|}
For example: The owner of a normal [[gasoline]]-powered vehicle with an engine of 2000 cc, registered in the mun. of Cluj-Napoca (where there is a 0% markup) will have to pay a yearly vehicle property tax of 180 RON. (Rate: 18 RON/200cc, 2000 / 200 = 10, 18 ⋅ 10 = 180 RON). Meanwhile, someone who lives in the Mun. of Timișoara and owns a vehicle that has the same capacity will pay 274 RON (Timișoara has a 50% markup).

Another example of a vehicle with a cubic capacity of 3000, registered in Alba county, which has a 16.05% markup: Rate: 144 RON/200cc, 3000 / 200 = 15. Normal Tax owed: 15 ⋅ 144 = 2160. Tax owed in Alba county (16.05% markup): 2160 ⋅ 116.05/100 ≈ 2507 RON.

This system of taxation results in incredibly high taxes for vehicles with engines bigger than 3000 cc (Upwards of 6000 RON per year), and low taxes for engines smaller than 2000 cc. As a result, many people have tried to dodge the system either by registering their vehicles in another EU country with smaller taxes, or by converting their vehicles to fit the legal definition of a Utility Vehicle, which is included in category 8 and have a rate of only 30 RON / 200cc instead of 290 RON / 200cc. For example, the owner of a vehicle that has a cubic capacity of 4000 cc will have to pay 5800 RON per year, compared to 480 RON per year owed by someone who owns a pickup truck (also a Utility Vehicle) with the same cubic capacity of 4000. The main legal requirement for a vehicle to be considered a Utility Vehicle is that it must have a cargo area that is separated from the passengers and cannot be accessed from within the vehicle. Many passenger cars (especially SUVs) can easily be modified to fit this requirement by installing a barrier between the trunk area and the back seats.

Hybrid vehicles owners will pay a reduced tax (50% to 100% reduction). Electric vehicle and [[Classic car]] owners will pay no tax at all. All vehicle owners get a 10% reduction if they pay the tax before May 1 (which is the deadline for paying the vehicle tax). Physically impaired people and war veterans do not owe any vehicle property tax no matter the vehicle type.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Agenția Națională de Administrare Fiscală|url=https://static.anaf.ro/static/10/Anaf/legislatie/Cod_fiscal_norme_11022020.htm#A469|access-date=2021-02-06|archive-date=2022-12-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207140626/http://static.anaf.ro/static/10/Anaf/legislatie/Cod_fiscal_norme_11022020.htm#A469|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==== {{Lang|ro|Rovinieta|italic=unset}} ====
On top of paying an annual Vehicle Property Tax, all vehicles that travel outside of city limits must pay the "{{Lang|ro|Rovinieta}}", including internationally registered vehicles that travel temporarily on Romanian roads which ranges from 28 Euros a year for passenger cars to 1210 Euros for Trucks that have a Maximum Authorized Mass greater than 12 t and more than 4 axles. Classic cars are exempt from the {{Lang|ro|Rovinieta|italic=unset}}.

===Spain===
In Spain two taxes apply to motor vehicles:
# The '''registration tax''' ({{Lang|es|impuesto de matriculation}}) applies at purchase time to the purchase price. It is a national tax and the rate varies from 0% to 14.75% depending on CO2 emissions. In some cases regions may fix their own rates.
# The '''mechanical vehicle circulation tax''' ({{Lang|es|Impuesto sobre Vehículos de Tracción Mecánica}} or {{Lang|es|IVTM}}) is an annual tax. The tax is a municipal tax whose rate varies widely across the country. The tax is calculated according to the [[tax horsepower]] of the vehicle. In Madrid and Barcelona the rates for 2011 ranged from €22 for up to 8 HP to €224 for vehicles with over 20 HP.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://w3.bcn.es/fitxers/ajuntament/of1.1.02.611.pdf |title=Barcelona vehicle tax|website=3.bcn.es |language=ca|access-date=2011-11-23}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.madrid.es/portales/munimadrid/es/Inicio/Ayuntamiento/Hacienda/Portal-del-Contribuyente/Impuesto-sobre-Vehiculos-de-Traccion-Mecanica-%28IVTM%29.-Calculo-de-Tarifa?vgnextfmt=default&vgnextoid=cc561a0367ac8210VgnVCM1000000b205a0aRCRD&vgnextchannel=7c4c9ad016e07010VgnVCM100000dc0ca8c0RCRD&idioma=es&idiomaPrevio=es&rmColeccion=6b03046f7a4c7110VgnVCM1000000b205a0aRCRD |title=Madrid vehicle tax |language=es |publisher=Madrid.es |date=1999-01-26 |access-date=2011-11-23}}</ref>

===United Kingdom===
{{Main|Vehicle Excise Duty}}
In the United Kingdom it is a requirement to pay Vehicle Excise Duty (VED), which is commonly called road tax or vehicle tax, this is paid annually to the government for a [[vehicle licence]].<ref name=DirectGov>{{cite web|url=http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Motoring/OwningAVehicle/HowToTaxYourVehicle/DG_4022118|title=The cost of vehicle tax|work=DirectGov|access-date=2010-03-31}}</ref> Previously, vehicle licences in the form of paper tax discs were required to be displayed on vehicles, and this licence would remain valid until its expiry date even if the vehicle was transferred to another keeper. The paper tax discs were abolished in October 2014, meaning that the licence is merely an entry in the centralised database; moreover, following this change the tax is cancelled if the vehicle is transferred.<ref name=gov.uk>{{cite web |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/vehicle-tax-changes |title=Vehicle tax changes |website=Gov.uk |access-date=2014-10-01}}</ref> Vehicles that are not used or kept on public roads must be the subject of a Statutory Off-Road Notification (SORN) if they are unlicensed.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Motoring/OwningAVehicle/UntaxedVehicle/DG_4022058 |title=How to make a SORN (Statutory Off Road Notification) |work=Direct Gov |quote=If you are the registered owner of a vehicle which is not being taxed and is kept off the road you must make a SORN (Statutory Off Road Notification). |access-date=2010-04-29}}</ref>

In 1937, the direct relationship that existed between the tax and government expenditure on public roads was cut, the proceeds being treated as general taxation.<ref>{{cite news |last=Harrabin |first=Roger |title=The BBC explains "Road Tax" |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-23694438 |access-date=15 August 2013 |newspaper=BBC.co.uk |date=15 August 2013}}</ref> In the 2015 budget, the government announced that the revenue would once again be used directly to maintain the roads, for the first time since 1937.<ref>{{cite news |title=The five key questions answered |newspaper=The Economist |author=C.R. |location=London |date=8 July 2015 |url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/freeexchange/2015/07/britains-summer-budget}}</ref> In the 2018 budget, the government announced a National Roads Fund which would ring-fence VED in England for the improvement of roads.<ref>{{cite web |website=Gov.uk |title=Budget 2018 |date=29 October 2018 |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/budget-2018-documents/budget-2018 |access-date=2020-07-02 }}</ref> However, it was announced in 2024 that this policy had been cancelled.<ref>{{cite web |website=highwaysindustry.com |title=Conservative Pledge to Ring-fence Vehicle Tax for Roads Withdrawn |date=4 March 2024 |url=https://www.highwaysindustry.com/conservative-vehicle-tax-u-turn-road-funding/ |access-date=2024-04-11}}</ref>

===United States===
Each state requires an annual [[motor vehicle registration]] fee which varies from state to state.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.justlanded.com/english/USA/USA-Guide/Travel-Leisure/Vehicle-regulations|title=registration, road tax and safety in the US|quote="Registration fees are usually paid annually"|website=Just Landed|access-date=2010-03-30|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100225035453/http://www.justlanded.com/english/USA/USA-Guide/Travel-Leisure/Vehicle-regulations|archive-date=2010-02-25}}</ref>

Additionally, in [[Illinois]], municipalities are allowed to also impose a vehicle registration fee (known alternatively as a ''vehicle license'', ''vehicle sticker'' or a ''wheel tax'' depending on the municipality) and collect the funds directly. [[Chicago]],<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.chicityclerk.com/chicago-city-vehicle-sticker-faq | title=Chicago City Sticker FAQs }}</ref> Evanston,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cityofevanston.org/residents/parking/wheel-tax | title=Wheel Tax }}</ref> Skokie,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.skokie.org/294/Vehicle-Licensing | title=Vehicle Licensing }}</ref> and a number of suburbs in Chicagoland have their own annual vehicle registration fee. The annual fees vary by municipality and type of vehicle. As of 2025, most of the municipalities with required vehicle registration fees in Illinois require a municipality-specific sticker to be affixed to the front windshield if the vehicle has one. [[Cook County, Illinois]] had taxed vehicles that were registered in unincorporated areas until the tax was repealed in 2023.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cookcountyil.gov/service/wheel-tax-vehicle-license | title=Wheel Tax/ Vehicle License }}</ref> More than forty municipalities in Illinois, mostly in Chicagoland, have eliminated or suspended vehicle registration programs since 1990.

In [[Massachusetts]], the excise tax is billed separately from registration fees, by the town or city in which the vehicle is registered, and was set at the rate of $25 per $1,000 of valuation by a 1980 law called [[Proposition 2½]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.sec.state.ma.us/divisions/cis/tax/motor-excise.htm | title=Wheel Tax/ Vehicle License }}</ref> The towns and cities are required by state law to bill and collect the excise tax.

The state of Wisconsin allows counties and municipalities to collect an annual municipal or county vehicle registration fee (known as a wheel tax) also, but not directly. These fees are collected by the state of Wisconsin on behalf of the counties and municipalities at the time of registration renewal.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://wisconsindot.gov/Pages/dmv/vehicles/title-plates/wheeltax.aspx | title=Municipal or county vehicle registration fee (wheel tax) }}</ref>

Within some states, the fees may vary from county to county, as some counties have surcharges per vehicle; an example of this is [[Virginia]]'s personal property tax.{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}} [[New York State]], on the other hand, charges a tax based on the vehicle's weight, rather than on its value, which is charged at the time of registration renewal.<ref>{{cite web|website=dmv.ny.gov|url=https://dmv.ny.gov/registration/register-and-title-vehicle|title=New York DMV: Register a vehicle|date=22 November 2013 |access-date=October 15, 2019}}</ref>

In [[California]]{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}} and [[New Hampshire]],{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}} the registration tax is calculated by the current value of the vehicle. As a result, older and more inexpensive vehicles will have a low registration fee, whereas newer and more expensive vehicles will have fees in the hundreds of dollars.

There is also a federal Heavy Vehicle Use Tax (HVUT) or truck tax, for vehicles with gross weights of 55,000 pounds or more, including trucks, truck tractors and buses. Generally, [[van]]s, [[pickup trucks]], [[panel trucks]] and the like are not subject to this tax. The tax does not apply to vehicles that are used for 5,000 miles or less (7,500 miles or less for agricultural vehicles) on public highways during a tax period.<ref>{{cite web|website=[[Federal Highway Administration|Federal Highway Administration (FHWA)]]|url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/policyinformation/hvut/mod1/whatishvut.cfm|title=Heavy Vehicle Use Tax (HVUT)}}</ref>

Additionally, "New York State imposes a highway use tax (HUT) on motor carriers operating certain motor vehicles on New York State public highways (excluding toll-paid portions of the New York State Thruway). The tax rate is based on the weight of the motor vehicle and the method that you choose to report the tax."<ref name=":0">{{cite web |last=Sang |first=Zara |title=Road Tax Fees in Malaysia |url=https://sanglah.com/harga-roadtax-kereta/ |website=Sanglah.com}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Car costs]]
* [[Congestion pricing]]
* {{section link|Taxation in Germany|Tax on benefits in kind}}, taxation of company cars used privately
* [[Toll road]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Vehicle taxes]]
[[Category:Car costs]]

Suti I

2026-03-25T10:46:20Z

AhmedSturgis: cleanup lead for consistency and cleaned formatting for clarity

{{Infobox settlement
| name = Suti I
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = Community development block
| image_skyline = File:Suti-I in Murshidabad.svg
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map =
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in West Bengal, India
| coordinates = {{coord|24.510412|N|88.029329|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[West Bengal]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Murshidabad district|Murshidabad]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type = [[Federalism in India|Federal democracy]]
| governing_body =
| leader_title2 = Administrative Division
| leader_name2 = [[Malda division|Malda]]
| leader_title3 = Headquarters
| leader_name3 = [[Ahiran]]
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 = 138.84
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 25
| population_total = 179,908
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[English language|English]]
| demographics_type2 = Literacy
| demographics2_title2 = [[Literacy]] (2011)
| demographics2_info2 = 58.40%
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 742234 (Ahiran) 742223(Jangipur Barrage)
| area_code_type = Telephone/[[Subscriber trunk dialling|STD]] code
| area_code = 03483
| registration_plate = [[List of RTO districts in India#WB.E2.80.94West Bengal|WB]]-57, [[List of RTO districts in India#WB.E2.80.94West Bengal|WB]]-58
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[Lok Sabha]] constituency
| blank1_info_sec1 = [[Jangipur (Lok Sabha constituency)|Jangipur]]
| blank2_name_sec1 = [[Vidhan Sabha]] constituency
| blank2_info_sec1 = [[Suti (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Suti]], [[Jangipur, West Bengal Assembly constituency|Jangipur]], [[Raghunathganj (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Raghunathganj]]
| website = {{URL|murshidabad.nic.in/}}
| iso_code = [[ISO 3166-2:IN|IN-WB]]
| footnotes =
}}
'''Suti I''' is a [[Community development block in India|community development block]] that forms an administrative division in the [[Jangipur subdivision]] of [[Murshidabad district]] in the [[India]]n [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[West Bengal]].

==Geography==
Suti I is located at {{coord|24.510412|N|88.029329|E|format=dms|}}

Suti I CD block lies in the [[Rarh]] region in Murshidabad district. The [[Hooghly River|Bhagirathi River]] splits the district into two natural physiographic regions – Rarh on the west and Bagri on the east. The [[Padma River]] separates Murshidabad district from [[Malda district]] and [[Chapai Nawabganj District|Chapai Nawabganj]] and [[Rajshahi District|Rajshahi]] districts of Bangladesh in the north. The Rarh region is undulating and contains mostly [[clay]] and [[laterite|lateritic]] clay based soil. As the [[Rajmahal hills]] slopes gently down from adjoining [[Jharkhand]] it forms the Nabagram plain at the lowest edge of its elevation in this region. The eastern slope of the region is characterised by the existence of numerous [[cliff]]s and [[Beach ridge|bluffs]].<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_A/19/1907_PART_A_DCHB_MURSHIDABAD.pdf |title = District Census Handbook: Murshidabad, Series 20 Part XII A | work= Physiography, Page 13 |publisher= Directorate of Census Operations, West Bengal, 2011 | access-date = 24 July 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = http://murshidabad.gov.in/About.aspx#2 | title= Murshidabad | work= Geography | publisher= Murshidabad district authorities| access-date = 24 July 2017}}</ref>

Suti I CD block is bounded by [[Suti II]] CD block in the north, [[Chapai Nawabganj Sadar Upazila]] in [[Chapai Nawabganj District]] of Bangladesh, across the Ganges, in the east, [[Raghunathganj I]] and [[Raghunathganj II]] CD blocks in the south, and [[Maheshpur block|Maheshpur]] and [[Pakuria block|Pakuria]] CD blocks in Pakur district of Jharkhand in the west.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.mapsofindia.com/maps/westbengal/tehsil/murshidabad.html |title = Tehsil Map of Murshidabad |work = CD Block/ Tehsil | publisher= Maps of India | access-date = 6 August 2017}}</ref>

Murshidabad district has a 125.35 km long international border with Bangladesh of which 42.35 km is on land and the remaining is riverine. There are 9 blocks – Samserganj, Suti I, Suti II, Raghunathganj II, Lalgola, Bhagawangola I, Bhagawangola II, Raninagar II and Jalangi - along the [[Bangladesh-India border]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://murshidabad.nic.in/About.aspx | title = Egiye Bangla Murshidabad | publisher = Murshidabad district authorities | access-date = 25 July 2017}}</ref>

The Rarh region or the western part of the district is drained by the right bank tributaries of the Bhagirathi, flowing down from the hilly / plateau region of [[Santhal Pargana division]] in neighbouring Jharkhand. The [[Farakka Barrage]] regulates the flow of water into the Bhagirathi through the feeder canal. Thereafter, it is fed with the discharge from the Mayurakshi system. About 1,800 km2 of area in the neighbourhood of [[Kandi, Murshidabad|Kandi]] town is flooded by the combined discharge of the [[Mayurakshi River|Mayurakshi]], [[Dwarka River|Dwarka]], [[Brahmani River (Birbhum)|Brahmani]], Gambhira, [[Kopai River|Kopai]] and [[Bakreshwar River|Bakreshwar]] – the main contributor being the Mayurakshi. Certain other areas in the western sector also get flooded.<ref name=river>{{cite web | url = http://gangawaterway.in/assets/7-murshidabad.pdf | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170820073737/http://gangawaterway.in/assets/7-murshidabad.pdf | url-status = dead | archive-date = 20 August 2017 | title = Types and sources of floods in Murshidabad, West Bengal | work = Swati Mollah | publisher = Indian Journal of Applied Research, February 2013 | access-date = 15 August 2017 }}</ref>

The 38.38 km long [[Feeder Canal (Farakka)|feeder canal]] takes off upstream of the Farakka Barrage and links with the [[Hooghly River|Bhagirathi River]] just below the Jangipur Barrage.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://fbp.gov.in/ | title = Farakka Barrage Project | publisher = FBP | access-date = 25 July 2017}}</ref> The feeder canal was constructed across the flow of the small flashy rivers such as Gumani, Trimohini and Kanloi. The discharges of the Trimohini and Kanloi were designed to flow into the feeder canal, and whenever the discharges of these rivers exceed the design capacity, they cause problems. The discharge of the Bagmari was designed to flow into the Ganga along its course through a siphone across the feeder canal. With the choking of the outlet to the Ganges, the flood discharge spills over to the basins of the Pagla and the Bansloi and floods around 100 km2<ref name=river/><ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/multipurpose-river-valley-projects-1292061339-1 |title = Multipurpose river-valley projects | work= 12. Farakka Barrage |publisher= Jagran Josh | access-date = 24 July 2017 }}</ref>

A major problem in Murshidabad district is [[River bank failure|river bank erosion]]. As of 2013, an estimated 2.4 million people reside along the banks of the Ganges alone in Murshidabad district. Between 1931 and 1977, 26,769 hectares have been eroded and many villages have been fully submerged. 1980-1990 was a decade of erosion for this district and during the decade Giria, Sekhalipur, Khejustala, Mithipur, Fajilpur, Rajapur, Akheriganj, Parashpur villages were badly affected.<ref name=river/>

See also - [[River bank erosion along the Ganges in Malda and Murshidabad districts]]

Suti I CD block has an area of 143.68 km2. It has 1 [[Panchayat Samiti (Block)|panchayat samity]], 6 [[gram panchayat]]s, 106 gram sansads (village councils), 61 [[mouza]]s and 46 inhabited villages. [[Suti#Police station|Suti]] police station serves this block.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://wbpspm.gov.in/publications/District%20Statistical%20Handbook | title = District Statistical Handbook 2014 Murshidabad, Tables 2.1, 2.2 | publisher = Department of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of West Bengal | access-date = 21 November 2018}}</ref> Headquarters of this CD block is at [[Ahiran]].<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_A/19/1907_PART_A_DCHB_MURSHIDABAD.pdf |title = District Census Handbook: Murshidabad, Series 20 Part XII A | work= Map of Murshidabad with CD Block HQs and Police Stations (on the fourth page) |publisher= Directorate of Census Operations, West Bengal, 2011 | access-date = 24 July 2017 }}</ref>

[[Gram panchayat]]s in Suti I block/ [[panchayat samiti]] are: [[Ahiran]], [[Bahutali]], [[Bansabati]], [[Harua]], [[Nurpur, Murshidabad|Nurpur]] and [[Sadikpur, Murshidabad|Sadikpur]].<ref>{{cite web| url = http://wbprd.gov.in/HtmlPage/PANCHAYATS.aspx |title = Directory of District, Subdivision, Panchayat Samiti/ Block and Gram Panchayats in West Bengal |work = Murshidabad - Revised in March 2008 | publisher= Panchayats and Rural Development Department, Government of West Bengal | access-date = 15 August 2017}}</ref>

==Demographics==

===Population===
According to the [[2011 Census of India]], Suti I CD block had a total population of 179,908, of which 150,803 were rural and 29,105 were urban. There were 91,905 (51%) males and 88,803 (49%) females. Population in the age range 0–6 years was 31,398. [[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes|Scheduled Castes]] numbered 25,860 (14.37%) and [[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes|Scheduled Tribes]] numbered 261 (0.15%).<ref name=census2011>{{cite web| url = http://censusindia.gov.in/pca/cdb_pca_census/Houselisting-housing-WB.html |title = C.D. Block Wise Primary Census Abstract Data(PCA) | work= West Bengal – District-wise CD Blocks|publisher= Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India | access-date = 14 October 2015}}</ref>

As per 2001 census, Suti I block has a total population of 139,419, out of which 70,554 were males and 68,865 were females. Suti I block registered a population growth of 25.03 per cent during the 1991-2001 decade. Decadal growth for the district was 23.70 per cent.<ref name=census>{{cite web|url= http://web.cmc.net.in/wbcensus/DataTables/02/Table4_7.htm |title=Provisional Population Totals, West Bengal. Table 4 |access-date= 8 June 2016 |work=Census of India 2001 – Mushidabad district |publisher=Census Commission of India |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110928205646/http://web.cmc.net.in/wbcensus/DataTables/02/Table4_7.htm |archive-date=September 28, 2011 }}</ref> Decadal growth in West Bengal was 17.84 per cent.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wbcensus.gov.in/DataTables/02/Table4_1.htm |title=Provisional Population Totals, West Bengal. Table 4 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=Census of India 2001 |publisher=Census Commission of India |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927041813/http://www.wbcensus.gov.in/DataTables/02/Table4_1.htm |archive-date=27 September 2007 }}</ref>

'''Decadal [[Population growth|Population Growth]] Rate (%)'''
{{ #invoke:Chart | bar-chart
| group 1 = 0 : 0 : 25.03 : 29.02
| group 2 = 25.5 : 28.2 : 23.8 : 21.1
| group 3 = 23.2: 24.6 : 17.84 : 13.9

| colors = olive : yellow : violet
| group names = Suti I CD block : Murshidabad district : West Bengal
| x legends = 1971-1981 : 1981-1991: 1991-2001: 2001-2011
}}

Sources:<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_A/19/1907_PART_A_DCHB_MURSHIDABAD.pdf | title = District Census Handbook: Murshidabad, Series 20 Part XII A | work= Growth Rate, Page 44 |publisher= Directorate of Census Operations, West Bengal, 2011| access-date = 25 July 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_A/19/1907_PART_A_DCHB_MURSHIDABAD.pdf |title = District Census Handbook: Murshidabad, Series 20 Part XII A | work= Brief Analysis of Inset Tables based on Primary Census Abstract 2011 (Inset Tables 1-35), Table I: Decadal change in population of Tahsils (Sub-district) by Residence, 2001-2011, Page 50 |publisher= Directorate of Census Operations, West Bengal, 2011 | access-date = 24 July 2017 }}</ref><ref name="Decadal Growth Rate"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wbcensus.gov.in/DataTables/02/Table4_1.htm |title=Provisional Population Totals, West Bengal. Table 4 |access-date=2012-04-12 |work=Census of India 2001 |publisher=Census Commission of India |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927041813/http://www.wbcensus.gov.in/DataTables/02/Table4_1.htm |archive-date=September 27, 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.voiceofdharma.org/books/tfst/appii1.htm | title = Population explosion in West Bengal: a survey | work = Table 1.1 Population in West Bengal 1941-1991 | publisher = South Asian Research Society | access-date = 15 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.wbdma.gov.in/PDF/census2001/Population_Decadal_Growth_Rate_Density_and_General_Sex.pdf | title = Final Population Totals West Bengal | work = Census of India 2001 | publisher = Census Commission of India | access-date = 15 August 2017}}</ref>

The decadal growth of population in Suti I CD block in 2001-2011 was 29.02%.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_A/19/1907_PART_A_DCHB_MURSHIDABAD.pdf |title = District Census Handbook: Murshidabad, Series 20 Part XII A | work= Brief Analysis of Inset Tables based on Primary Census Abstract 2011 (Inset Tables 1-35), Table I: Decadal change in population of Tahsils (Sub-district) by Residence, 2001-2011, Page |publisher= Directorate of Census Operations, West Bengal, 2011 | access-date = 24 July 2017 }}</ref>

In the Murshidabad district, the population grew at a decadal growth rate of 33.5% from 1951 to 1961, 28.6% from 1961 to 1971, 25.5% from 1971 to 1981, 28.2% from 1981 to 1991, 23.8% from 1991 to 2001, and 21.1% from 2001 to 2011.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_A/19/1907_PART_A_DCHB_MURSHIDABAD.pdf | title = District Census Handbook: Murshidabad, Series 20 Part XII A | work= Growth Rate, Page 44 |publisher= Directorate of Census Operations, West Bengal, 2011| access-date = 25 July 2017}}</ref> The decadal growth rate for West Bengal in 2001-11 was 13.93%.<ref name="Decadal Growth Rate">{{cite web | url = http://www.mapsofindia.com/census2011/decadal-growth-rate.html | title = Decadal Growth Rate | publisher = Mps of India | access-date = 25 July 2017}}</ref>

The decadal growth rate of population in neighbouring [[Chapai Nawabganj District]] in Bangladesh was 15.59% for the decade 2001–2011, down from 21.67% in the decade 1991–2001.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://203.112.218.65:8008/WebTestApplication/userfiles/Image/PopCenZilz2011/Zila_ChapaiNawabganj.pdf |title = Bangladesh Population and Housing Census 2011: Zila Report – Chapai Nawabganj | work= Page 17: Table PT 02 Population and Growth Rate, 1974-2011|publisher= Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS), Ministry of Planning, Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh | access-date = 19 December 2018 }}</ref>

There are reports of [[Illegal immigration to India|Bangladeshi infiltrators]] entering Murshidabad district.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.dailypioneer.com/columnists/oped/bangladeshi-infiltration-the-reality-check.html|title = Bangladeshi Infiltration: The Reality Check |publisher= The Pioneer, 27 June 2015 | access-date = 23 July 2017}}</ref><ref name=telegraph>{{cite web| url = https://www.telegraphindia.com/1050823/asp/nation/story_5136259.asp | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20051205225003/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1050823/asp/nation/story_5136259.asp | url-status = dead | archive-date = December 5, 2005 |title = Report taking shape amid infiltration buzz |publisher= The Telegraph, 23 August 2005 | access-date = 23 July 2017}}</ref>

===Census towns and villages===
[[Census towns]] in Suti I CD block were (2011 population figures in brackets): [[Madna, West Bengal|Madna]] (6,312), [[Ramakantapur]] (6,347), [[Nayabahadurpur]] (9,239) and [[Fatellapur]] (7,207).<ref name=census2011/>

Large villages in Suti I CD block were (2011 population figures in brackets): Kadoa (5,159), [[Bahutali]] (15,963), Sidhari (5,362), Hilora (7,667), Raturi (4,518), [[Bansabati]] (6,378), Gambhira (7,097), [[Harua]] (9,012), Gotha (4,486), Fatehpur (4,875), Fatullapur (4,291), [[Sadikpur, Murshidabad|Sadikpur]] (5,245), Ghorapakhiagangin (4,550), [[Ahiran]] (17,079), Alampur (4,206) and Ajagarpara (4,521).<ref name=census2011/>

===Literacy===
As per the 2011 census, the total number of literate persons in Suti I CD block was 86,225 (58.06% of the population over 6 years) out of which males numbered 47,623 (62.84% of the male population over 6 years) and females numbered 38,602 (53.08% of the female population over 6 years). The [[Literacy#Gender disparities|gender disparity]] (the difference between female and male literacy rates) was 9.76%.<ref name=census2011/>

See also – [[List of West Bengal districts ranked by literacy rate]]

{{Literacy in CD Blocks of Murshidabad district|collapsible=y}}

===Language and religion===

{{bar box
|title=Religion in Suti I CD block (2011)<ref name="religion"/>
|titlebar=#FCD116
|left1=
|float=right
|bars=
{{bar percent|[[Islam in West Bengal|Islam]]|green|58.15}}
{{bar percent|[[Hinduism in West Bengal|Hinduism]]|darkorange|41.62}}
{{bar percent|Other or not stated|black|0.23}}
}}
In the 2011 census, Muslims numbered 104,616 and formed 58.15% of the population in Suti I CD block. Hindus numbered 74,884 and formed 41.62% of the population. Others numbered 408 and formed 0.23% of the population.<ref name="religion">{{Cite web |date=2011 |title=Table C-01 Population by Religion: West Bengal |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/11396/download/14509/DDW19C-01%20MDDS.XLS |website=censusindia.gov.in |publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}}</ref> In Suti I and Suti II CD blocks taken together, while the proportion of Muslims increased from 60.93% in 1991 to 63.73% in 2001, the proportion of Hindus declined from 39.02% in 1991 to 36.07% in 2001.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://wbpspm.gov.in/publications/District%20Statistical%20Handbook | title = District Statistical Handbook 2014 Murshidabad | work = Table 17.1, Population by religion in the blocks of Murshidabad | publisher = Department of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of West Bengal | access-date = 21 November 2018}}</ref>

Murshidabad district had 4,707,573 Muslims who formed 66.27% of the population, 2,359,061 Hindus who formed 33.21% of the population, and 37, 173 persons belonging to other religions who formed 0.52% of the population, in the 2011 census. While the proportion of Muslim population in the district increased from 61.40% in 1991 to 63.67% in 2001, the proportion of Hindu population declined from 38.39% in 1991 to 35.92% in 2001.<ref name=censusreligion2011>{{cite web| url = http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/c-01.html |title = C1 Population by Religious Community | work= West Bengal |publisher= Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India | access-date = 20 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://wbpspm.gov.in/publications/District%20Statistical%20Handbook | title = District Statistical Handbook 2014 Murshidabad | work = Table 2.10, Population by religion in the district of Murshidabad, 1991 and 2001 | publisher = Department of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of West Bengal | access-date = 21 November 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Bengal-beats-India-in-Muslim-growth-rate/articleshow/48675987.cms |title = Bengal beats India in Muslim growth rate| work=The Times of India | date=26 August 2015 |publisher= The Times of India, 26 August 2015 | access-date = 23 July 2017}}</ref>

Murshidabad was the only Muslim majority district in West Bengal at the time of [[partition of India]] in 1947. The proportion of Muslims in the population of Murshidabad district in 1951 was 55.24%.<ref name=telegraph/> The [[Radcliffe Line]] had placed Muslim majority Murshidabad in India and the Hindu majority [[Khulna District|Khulna]] in Pakistan, in order to maintain the integrity of the Ganges river system In India.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FjQ0iWSq2R0C&q=murshidabad+khulna&pg=PA45|title=The Spoils of Partition: Bengal and India, 1947–1967|last=Chatterji|first=Joya|work=pages 42-60|date=15 November 2007|publisher= University of Cambridge, first published 2007|isbn= 978-0-521-87536-3|access-date = 23 July 2017}}</ref>

{{Pie chart
|caption = Languages of Suti I CD block (2011)<ref name="languages"/>
|label1 = [[Bengali language|Bengali]] |value1 = 95.82 |color1 = orchid
|label2 = [[Khotta Bhasha|Khotta]] |value2 = 4.07 |color2 = purple
|label3 = Others |value3 = 0.11 |color3 = grey
}}

At the time of the 2011 census, 95.82% of the population spoke [[Bengali language|Bengali]] and 4.07% [[Khotta Bhasha|Khotta]] as their first language.<ref name="languages">{{Cite web |title=Table C-16 Population by Mother Tongue: West Bengal |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/10226/download/13338/DDW-C16-STMT-MDDS-1900.XLSX |website=www.censusindia.gov.in |publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}}</ref>

==Rural poverty==
As per the Human Development Report 2004 for West Bengal, the rural poverty ratio in Murshidabad district was 46.12%. Purulia, Bankura and Birbhum districts had higher rural poverty ratios. These estimates were based on Central Sample data of NSS 55th round 1999–2000.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.planningcommission.gov.in/plans/stateplan/sdr_pdf/shdr_wb04.pdf|title = West Bengal Human Development Report 2004 | work= Page 80: Table 4.5 Per capita consumption in rural and urban areas by district |publisher= Development and Planning Department, Government of West Bengal | access-date = 20 November 2018 }}</ref>

==Economy==
===Livelihood===
{{Pie chart
|caption= '''Livelihood in Suti I CD block'''
|value1 = 7.02
|label1 = Cultivators
|value2 = 25.69
|label2 = Agricultural labourers
|value3 = 35.90
|label3 = Household industries
|value4 = 31.39
|label4 = Other Workers}}

In Suti I CD block in 2011, amongst the class of total workers, cultivators numbered 5,540 and formed 7.02%, agricultural labourers numbered 20,268 and formed 25.69%, household industry workers numbered 28,330 and formed 35.90% and other workers numbered 24,765 and formed 31.39%.<ref name=handbook2014>{{cite web | url = http://wbpspm.gov.in/publications/District%20Statistical%20Handbook | title = District Statistical Handbook 2014 Murshidabad | work = Tables 2.7, 17.2, 16.1, 18.1, 18.2, 20.1, 21.2, 4.4, 3.1, 3.3 – arranged as per use | publisher = Department of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of West Bengal | access-date = 21 November 2018 }}</ref>

===Infrastructure===
There are 46 inhabited villages in Suti I CD block. 100% villages have power supply and 45 villages (76.09%) have drinking water supply. 13 villages (28.26%) have post offices. 40 villages (86.96%) have telephones (including landlines, public call offices and mobile phones). 27 villages (58.70%) have a pucca approach road and 23 villages (50.00%) have transport communication (includes bus service, rail facility and navigable waterways). 7 villages (15.22%) have agricultural credit societies and 5 villages (10.07%) have banks.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_A/19/1907_PART_A_DCHB_MURSHIDABAD.pdf | title = District Census Handbook, Murshidabad, 2011, Series 20, Part XII A | work = Pages 96-97 Table 36: Distribution of villages according to availability of different amenities,2011 | publisher = Directorate of Census Operations, West Bengal. | access-date = 4 August 2017}}</ref>

===Agriculture===
From 1977 onwards major land reforms took place in West Bengal. Land in excess of land ceiling was acquired and distributed amongst the peasants.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://wbplan.gov.in/HumanDev/DHDR/24%20pgsSouth/s24prg_main.htm | title=District Human Development Report: South 24 Parganas | work= (1) Chapter 1.2, South 24 Parganas in Historical Perspective, pages 7-9 (2) Chapter 3.4, Land reforms, pages 32-33|publisher= Development & Planning Department, Government of West Bengal, 2009 | access-date = 7 August 2016}}</ref> Following [[Land reform in India|land reforms]] land ownership pattern has undergone transformation. In 2013–14, persons engaged in agriculture in Suti I CD block could be classified as follows: [[bargadar]]s 872 (2.07%,) patta (document) holders 6,337 (15.02%), small farmers (possessing land between 1 and 2 hectares) 3,069 (7.28%), marginal farmers (possessing land up to 1 hectare) 11,635 (27.58%) and agricultural labourers 20,268 (48.05%).<ref name=handbook2014/>

Suti I CD block had 25 fertiliser depots and 37 [[Public distribution system|fair price shops]] in 2013–14.<ref name=handbook2014/>

In 2013–14, Suti I CD block produced 2,103 tonnes of [[Rice#Ecotypes and cultivars|Aman paddy]], the main winter crop from 748 hectares, 988 tonnes of Boro paddy (spring crop) from 368 hectares, 122 tonnes of wheat from 57 hectares, 16,314 tonnes of jute from 871 hectares, 3,796 tonnes of potatoes from 154 hectares and 1,359 tonnes of sugar cane from 19 hectares. It also produced pulses and oilseeds.<ref name=handbook2014/>

In 2013–14, the total area irrigated in Suti I CD block was 4,521 hectares, out of which 1,360 hectares were irrigated with canal water, 1,050 hectares with tank water, 91 hectares with river lift irrigation, 20 hectares with deep tube wells and 2,000 hectares by other means.<ref name=handbook2014/>

===Beedi industry===
As of 2003, around 400,000 workers were engaged in the prime area locations of [[beedi]] making, a household industry, in Farakka, Samserganj, Suti I, Suti II, Raghunathganj I and Raghunathganj II CD blocks. The majority of those working are women and children. Almost all households are engaged in this activity.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in:8080/jspui/bitstream/10603/28080/6/06_chapter%201.pdf| title = Child workers in household industry: a study of beedi industry in Murshidabad district of West Bengal | first= Sunirmal| last= Kar| work = Viswa Bharati University thesis, page 5 | publisher = Shodhganga | access-date = 28 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.thestatesman.com/features/the-poor-man-s-cigarette-1485045757.html | title = The 'Poor man's cigarette' | work = Gurvinder Singh | publisher = The Statesman, 22 January 2017 | access-date = 28 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/Beedi-workers-of-Jangipur-hold-key/article16588097.ece#! | title = Beedi workers of Jangipur hold key | work = Indrani Dutta | date = 30 April 2009 | publisher = The Hindu, 1 May 2009 | access-date = 28 August 2017}}</ref>

===Silk and handicrafts===
Murshidabad is famous for its silk industry since the Middle Ages. There are three distinct categories in this industry, namely (1) [[Mulberry]] cultivation and silkworm rearing (2) Peeling of raw silk (3) Weaving of silk fabrics.<ref name=handicrafts>{{cite web | url = http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_A/19/1907_PART_A_DCHB_MURSHIDABAD.pdf | title = District Census Handbook, Murshidabad, 2011, Series 20, Part XII A | work = Pages 22-23: Industry | publisher = Directorate of Census Operations, West Bengal. | access-date = 4 August 2017}}</ref>

Ivory carving is an important cottage industry from the era of the Nawabs. The main areas where this industry has flourished are Khagra and Jiaganj. 99% of ivory craft production is exported. In more recent years sandalwood etching has become more popular than ivory carving. Bell metal and Brass utensils are manufactured in large quantities at Khagra, Berhampore, Kandi and Jangipur.<ref name=handicrafts/><ref>{{cite web | url = http://murshidabad.gov.in/About.aspx#4 | title = Egiye Bangla Murshidabad district | work = Handicrafts and Silk Industry | publisher = Murshidabad district administration | access-date = 17 August 2017}}</ref>

===Banking===
In 2013–14, Suti I CD block had offices of 4 commercial banks and 3 [[Regional Rural Bank|gramin banks]].<ref name=handbook2014/>

=== Power supply ===
Ahrion electric bill collection office and mini electronic power supply centers were established at Suti 1 block ([[WBSEDCL]] - AHIRAN CCC) <ref name=wbsedcl>{{cite web| url = https://www.wbsedcl.in/irj/go/km/docs/internet/new_website/pdf/Tenders/RM_MRO-03.pdf |title = Civil works related to modernization of proposed Ahiron CCC under Raghunathganj Division, Dist. Murshidabad|publisher= wbsedcl official site , 11 June 2018 }}</ref>

===Backward Regions Grant Fund===
Murshidabad district is listed as a backward region and receives financial support from the [[Backward Regions Grant Fund]]. The fund, created by the Government of India, is designed to redress regional imbalances in development. As of 2012, 272 districts across the country were listed under this scheme. The list includes 11 districts of West Bengal.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.panchayat.gov.in/documents/10198/0/BRGFFINALGUIDELINES.pdf | title= Backward Regions Grant Funds: Programme Guidelines |publisher= Ministry of Panchayati Raj, Government of India| access-date = 3 November 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=84879 | title= Backward Regions Grant Fund| work= Press Release, 14 June 2012 |publisher= Press Information Bureau, Government of India | access-date = 26 November 2018}}</ref>

==Transport==
{{Barharwa-Azimganj-Katwa loop|collapse=yes}}

Suti I CD block has 11 ferry services and 2 originating/ terminating bus routes.<ref name=handbook2014/>

The [[Barharwa-Azimganj-Katwa loop]] line passes through this block and there is a station at Ahiran.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://indiarailinfo.com/train/timetable/azimganj-barharwa-passenger-53433/16075/1801/1381#st | title = 53433 Azimganj Barharwa Passenger | work = Time Table | publisher = indiarailinfo | access-date = 9 August 2017}}</ref>

[[National Highway 12 (India)|National Highway 12]] (old number NH 34) passes through this block.<ref name="renumber">{{cite web|url=http://dorth.gov.in/writereaddata/sublinkimages/finaldoc6143316640.pdf|title=Rationalisation of Numbering Systems of National Highways|publisher=[[Department of Road Transport and Highways]]|access-date= 10 February 2017|location=New Delhi}}</ref>

==Education==
In 2013–14, Suti I CD block had 73 primary schools with 14,215 students, 6 middle schools with 826 students, 1 high school with 664 students and 9 higher secondary schools with 21,609 students. Suti I CD block had 310 institutions special and non-formal education with 15,038 students.<ref name=handbook2014/>

In Suti I CD block, amongst the 46 inhabited villages, 3 villages did not have a school, 22 villages have more than 1 primary school, 18 villages have at least 1 primary and 1 middle school and 11 villages had at least 1 middle and 1 secondary school.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_A/19/1907_PART_A_DCHB_MURSHIDABAD.pdf | title = District Census Handbook, Murshidabad, 2011, Series 20, Part XII A | work = Pages 901-902, Appendix I A: Villages by number of Primary Schools and Appendix I B: Villages by Primary, Middle and Secondary Schools, 2011 | publisher = Directorate of Census Operations, West Bengal. | access-date = 4 August 2017}}</ref>

'''Schools'''

* Ahiran Hemangini Vidyaytan School (H.S.), [[Ahiran]],
* Ahiran Schinananda Girl High School, [[Ahiran]],
* Bangabari High School - H.S,
* Bahutali High School, [[Bahutali]],
* Banshabati High School, [[Bansabati]],
* Gotha A. Rahman High School,
* Harowa High School, [[Harua]],
* Nayagram Y. M. High School, &
* Sadikpur B.K. High School, [[Sadikpur, Murshidabad|Sadikpur]].
* Ahiran Model School, Ahiran - Suti I

==Healthcare==
In 2014, Suti I CD block had 1 block primary health centre and 2 [[Primary Health Centre (India)|primary health centres]], with total 35 beds and 4 doctors (excluding private bodies). It had 22 family welfare subcentres. 6,246 patients were treated indoor and 123,665 patients were treated outdoor in the hospitals, health centres and subcentres of the CD Block.<ref name=handbook2014/>

Suti I CD Block has Ahiran block Primary Health Centre at [[Ahiran]] (with 15 beds), Bahutali [[Primary Health Centre (India)|Primary Health Centre]] (with 10 beds) and Hilora PHC (with 10 beds).<ref name=medical>{{cite web | url = https://www.wbhealth.gov.in/ | title = Health & Family Welfare Department | work= Health Statistics | publisher = Government of West Bengal |access-date = 19 September 2017}}</ref>

Suti I CD block is one of the areas of Murshidabad district where ground water is affected by a high level of [[Arsenic contamination of groundwater|arsenic contamination]]. The [[World Health Organization|WHO]] guideline for arsenic in drinking water is 10 mg/ litre, and the Indian Standard value is 50 mg/ litre. All but one of the 26 blocks of Murshidabad district have arsenic contamination above the WHO level, all but two of the blocks have arsenic concentration above the Indian Standard value and 17 blocks have arsenic concentration above 300 mg/litre. The maximum concentration in Suti I CD block is 700 mg/litre.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.soesju.org/arsenic/wb1.htm | title = Groundwater Arsenic contamination in West Bengal-India (20 years study )| publisher = SOES | work = Murshidabad| access-date = 4 August 2017}}</ref>

==External links==
{{Wikivoyage inline|Murshidabad}}

==References==
{{reflist|3}}

{{Murshidabad topics}}
{{Murshidabad District}}
{{Municipalities of West Bengal}}
{{Districts of West Bengal}}

[[Category:Community development blocks in Murshidabad district]]

Baabul (2006 film)

2026-03-20T15:15:10Z

AhmedSturgis: basic fix page per sources further and fixed typos to improve readability

{{Short description|2006 film by Ravi Chopra}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Baabul
| image = Baabul 2006 poster.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[Ravi Chopra]]
| producer = [[B. R. Chopra]]
| writer = Achala Nagar
| screenplay =
| narrator =
| story = Ravi Chopra
| based_on =
| starring = {{ubl|[[Amitabh Bachchan]]|[[Hema Malini]]|[[Salman Khan]]|[[Rani Mukerji]]|[[John Abraham]]}}
| music = [[Aadesh Shrivastava]]
| cinematography = [[Barun Mukherjee (cinematographer)|Barun Mukherjee]]
| editing = Godfrey Gonsalves
| studio = B. R. Films
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|2006|12|08|df=yes}}
| runtime = 169 minutes
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| budget = {{INR}}26 crore<ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=https://boxofficeindia.com/movie.php?movieid=279|title=Baabul – Movie|publisher=[[Box Office India]]}}</ref>
| gross = {{INR}}39 crore<ref name="auto"/>
}}

'''''Baabul''''' ({{translation|Father's affection to daughter}}) is a 2006 Indian [[Hindi]]-language [[drama film]] directed by [[Ravi Chopra]] and produced by [[B. R. Chopra]]. The film stars [[Amitabh Bachchan]], [[Hema Malini]], [[Salman Khan]], [[Rani Mukerji]], and [[John Abraham]]. It focuses on a father's efforts to rebuild his widowed daughter-in-law’s life by encouraging her to find love again.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Baabul Turns 18: Amitabh Bachchan’s Musical Contribution; Ravi Chopra And Rani Mukerji’s Role In Promoting Widow Remarriage And Family Values |url=https://www.freepressjournal.in/entertainment/amitabh-bachchans-musical-contribution-ravi-chopras-baabul-and-rani-mukerjis-role-in-promoting-widow-remarriage-and-family-values |access-date=2025-06-16 |website=Free Press Journal |language=en}}</ref>

[[Principal photography]] took place across [[Mumbai]] and [[London]]. The film's music was composed by [[Aadesh Shrivastava]], with lyrics written by [[Sameer Anjaan|Sameer]].

''Baabul'' was released theatrically on 8 December 2006, and received mixed reviews from critics. Despite its high-profile ensemble cast, the film underperformed at the box-office, grossing approximately ₹27.75 crore (US$6.2 million).<ref>{{cite web |title=Box office: Hits and misses of this week |url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/2007/jan/29box.htm |access-date=25 June 2016 |website=Rediff.com}}</ref>

== Plot ==
Balraj Kapoor, a wealthy and respected businessman, lives a content life with his wife, Shobhna, while eagerly awaiting the return of their only son, Avinash, from the [[United States]] after completing his studies. Upon his return, Avinash joins the family business and soon falls in love with Malvika, affectionately called Millie, an independent and spirited artist. Although her childhood friend Rajat harbors unspoken feelings for her, he gracefully steps aside when Millie confesses her love for Avinash.

Avinash and Millie marry and are soon blessed with a son, Ansh. The family lives in bliss until tragedy strikes: on Ansh’s birthday, while returning from a business trip in London, Avinash dies in a road accident. The loss devastates Millie and shatters the family's peace.

Determined to restore joy in Millie’s life, Balraj reaches out to Rajat, who now lives in London, and proposes the idea of marriage between him and Millie. Rajat returns to India and gradually develops a bond with Ansh, rekindling his affection for Millie. However, Balraj’s progressive vision faces resistance from Shobhna, who fears losing her grandson, and Balraj’s conservative elder brother, Balwant, who deems widow remarriage unacceptable.

Despite familial opposition, Balraj remains steadfast. He persuades the family to embrace change and prioritizes Millie’s happiness and future. Eventually, Rajat and Millie marry with the family's blessings. Towards the end, Avinash’s spirit appears, offering his father gratitude and blessing the new union.

==Cast==
{{Cast listing|* [[Amitabh Bachchan]] as Balraj Kapoor
* [[Hema Malini]] as Shobhna Kapoor, Balraj's wife; Avinash's mother
* [[Salman Khan]] as Avinash "Avi" Kapoor, Balraj and Shobhna's son; Milli's deceased husband
* [[Rani Mukerji]] as Malvika "Milli" Kapoor, Avinash's widow
* [[John Abraham]] as Rajat Verma, Milli's childhood friend; later husband
* [[Om Puri]] as Balwant Kapoor, Balraj's elder brother
* [[Sarika]] as Pushpa Kapoor, Balraj and Balwant's widowed sister
* [[Aman Verma (actor)|Aman Verma]] as Shobhna's brother
* [[Parmeet Sethi]] as Khushi Kapoor, Balwant's son
* [[Rajpal Yadav]] as Paanchi
* [[Sharat Saxena]] as Jeet Talwar, Milli's father
* [[Smita Jaykar]] as Suman Talwar, Milli's mother
* [[Beena Banerjee]] as Balwant's wife
* [[Avtar Gill]] as Avinash's advovcate
* [[Vijay Patkar]] as Peon
* Master Dhairya as Ansh A. Kapoor
* [[Shriya Saran]] as bride in the opening credits (uncredited cameo appearance)}}

== Soundtrack ==
{{Infobox album
| name = Baabul
| type = [[Soundtrack album]]
| artist = [[Aadesh Shrivastava]]
| cover =
| alt =
| released = 4 November 2006
| recorded =
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Film soundtrack|Feature film soundtrack]]
| length =
| label = [[T-Series (company)|T-Series]]
| producer =
| prev_title =
| prev_year =
| next_title =
| next_year =
}}
The film's soundtrack was composed by [[Aadesh Shrivastava]], with lyrics written by [[Sameer Anjaan|Sameer]]. It features a total of eleven tracks. The song "Baabul Bidaai Hai" sung by [[Richa Sharma (singer)|Richa Sharma]] was the longest track in a Hindi film with a length of 15 minutes (a 2-3 trimmed version was used in the film).<ref>{{Cite web |last=K. Jha |first=Subhash |date=5 December 2006 |title=Richa Sharma sings Bollywood's longest track |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140826115704/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movies/news/type/view/id/1174751/Richa+Sharma+sings+Bollywood%27s+longest+track |access-date=16 June 2025 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]]}}</ref>

{{Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| all_lyrics = [[Sameer]]
| title1 = Gaa Re Maan
| length1 = 5:54
| extra1 = [[Kavita Krishnamurthy]], [[Alka Yagnik]], [[Sudesh Bhosle]], [[Kailash Kher]]
| title2 = Come On Come On
| length2 = 4:37
| extra2 = [[Amitabh Bachchan]], [[Sonu Nigam]], [[Vishal Dadlani]], [[Aadesh Shrivastava]], [[Ranjit Barot]]
| title3 = Har Manzar
| length3 = 4:38
| extra3 = [[Kunal Ganjawala]]
| title4 = Baawri Piya Ki
| length4 = 7:25
| extra4 = [[Sonu Nigam]]
| title5 = Berbasi Dard Ke Alam
| length5 = 5:15
| extra5 = Kunal Ganjawala
| title6 = Keh Raha Hai Dil Deewana
| length6 = 5:19
| extra6 = Sonu Nigam, [[Shreya Ghoshal]]
| title7 = Kehta Hai Baabul
| note7 = Film version sung by Amitabh Bachchan
| length7 = 2:47
| extra7 = [[Jagjit Singh]]
| title8 = Baabul Bidaai
| length8 = 2:07
| extra8 = [[Richa Sharma (singer)|Richa Sharma]]
| title9 = Vaada Raha Hai
| length9 = 3:10
| extra9 = Sonu Nigam
}}

== Reception ==

=== Box office ===
''Baabul'' opened to approximately 75% occupancy in [[Mumbai]], a figure considered low for a [[Salman Khan]]-led film, and collections declined rapidly due to negative word-of-mouth. In other regions of India, the film opened poorly and failed to gain momentum, ultimately being declared a commercial failure in the domestic market.<ref>{{cite web |title=Box office: Hits and misses this week |url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/2007/jan/29box.htm |access-date=25 June 2016 |website=Rediff.com}}</ref> While performance in smaller centers remained weak, it was categorized as an above-average grosser overall in India.<ref>{{cite web |date=27 January 2007 |title=Box Office 2006 |url=http://www.boxofficeindia.com/2006.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070127102402/http://www.boxofficeindia.com/2006.htm |archive-date=27 January 2007 |work=Box office india}}</ref> Internationally, the film fared significantly better, debuting at the eighth position on the UK box office chart in its first week and performing strongly in overseas markets.<ref>{{cite web |date=30 September 2007 |title='Baabul' superb in U.K., decent in Australia! |url=http://www.indiafm.com/trade/overseas_boxoffice/135.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930204602/http://www.indiafm.com/trade/overseas_boxoffice/135.html |archive-date=30 September 2007 |work=India FM}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=23 April 2007 |title=Overseas gross |url=http://www.boxofficeindia.com/overseas.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070423033052/http://www.boxofficeindia.com/overseas.htm |archive-date=23 April 2007 |work=Box Office India}}</ref>

=== Critical response ===
The film received mixed reviews from critics. [[The Times of India|''The Times Of India'']] rated it 3 out of 5 stars, noting that the "first half [was] completely dead and totally listless." Samrat Sharma of ''Full Hyderabad'' described it as "a film made for the more traditional generation or social class," adding that while it may not be highly effective, it remained "sufficiently well-crafted."<ref>{{cite web |title=Baabul review: Baabul (Hindi) Movie Review |url=http://www.fullhyderabad.com/scripts/profiles.php3?section=Movies&name=Baabul&ID=4186 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927031304/http://www.fullhyderabad.com/scripts/profiles.php3?section=Movies&name=Baabul&ID=4186 |archive-date=27 September 2007 |access-date=2012-07-16 |publisher=Fullhyderabad.com}}</ref> [[Namrata Joshi]] of ''[[Outlook (Indian magazine)|Outlook India]]'' awarded it two out of four stars, writing, "Despite the failings in his character, Big B [[Amitabh Bachchan]]] lends it gravitas and dignity," though she criticized his "self-conscious cute couple act with [[Hema Malini]]" as tiresome, suggesting "it's time to get over ''[[Baghban (2003 film)|Baghban]]'' (2003)."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Baabul |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/magazine/story/baabul/233497 |accessdate=6 April 2023}}</ref>

== Accolades ==
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
! scope="col" |Award
! scope="col" |Date of the ceremony
! scope="col" |Category
! scope="col" |Recipients
! scope="col" |Result
! class="unsortable" scope="col" |{{Refh}}
|-
|[[Screen Awards]]
|[[13th Screen Awards|6 January 2007]]
|Jodi No. 1
|[[Rani Mukerji]] and [[Salman Khan]]
| {{nom}}
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Winners: 13th Annual Star-Screen Awards |url=http://www.indiafm.com/features/2007/01/07/2046/index.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080105062224/http://www.indiafm.com/features/2007/01/07/2046/index.html |archive-date=2008-01-05 |access-date=2025-06-01 |website=IndiaFM}}</ref>
|-
| scope="row" |[[Filmfare Awards]]
|[[52nd Filmfare Awards|17 February 2007]]
|[[Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor|Best Supporting Actor]]
| rowspan="2" |[[John Abraham]]
| {{nom}}
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=52nd FairOne Filmfare Awards 2006 winners |url=http://www.indiafm.com/features/2007/02/24/2298/index.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070306034628/http://www.indiafm.com/features/2007/02/24/2298/index.html |archive-date=2007-03-06 |access-date=2025-06-01 |website=IndiaFM}}</ref>
|-
|[[Bollywood Movie Awards]]
|26 May 2007
|[[Bollywood Movie Awards#Best Supporting Actor|Best Supporting Actor]]
| {{nom}}
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=2007-05-29 |title=Bollywood Movie Awards '07 |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/pictures/bollywood-movie-awards-07/ |access-date=2025-06-01 |website=CBS News |language=en-US}}</ref>
|}

==See also==
*[[Babul (Hindi word)]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|0419468}}

{{B. R. Chopra}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Baabul (2006 Film)}}
[[Category:2006 films]]
[[Category:2006 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:Rajshri Productions films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Aadesh Shrivastava]]
[[Category:Films directed by Ravi Chopra]]
[[Category:Golden jubilees]]
[[Category:2006 drama films]]
[[Category:Hindi-language drama films]]
[[Category:Indian romantic drama films]]
[[Category:Indian family films]]
[[Category:Films about businesspeople]]
[[Category:Films about road accidents and incidents]]
[[Category:Foreign films set in the United States]]
[[Category:Films set in London]]
[[Category:Films shot in London]]
[[Category:Films about widowhood in India]]
[[Category:Films about remarriage]]
[[Category:Indian ghost films]]
[[Category:Films about artists]]
[[Category:Films about depression]]

Cartel (TV series)

2026-03-18T10:38:37Z

AhmedSturgis: made some entry basic info.

{{Short description|2021 Hindi Web Series}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2022}}
{{Infobox television
| image = Cartel web series poster.jpg
| genre = Crime Action Drama
| based_on =
| creator =
| director = Ankkitha Maithy
| starring = {{Plainlist|
*[[Tanuj Virwani]]
*[[Supriya Pathak]]
* [[Rithvik Dhanjani]]
* [[Divya Agarwal]]
* [[Jitendra Joshi]]
*[[Monica Dogra]]
* [[Samir Soni]]
}}
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| location = [[India]]
| screenplay = Sambit Mishra Monish Talpade
| cinematography = Rajiv Singh
| editor = Prashant Panda
| network = [[AltBalaji]]
| first_aired = {{Start date|df=y|2021|08|20}}
| company = [[Balaji Telefilms]]
| executive_producer =
| producer = [[Ekta Kapoor]]
| runtime = 40 minutes
| num_seasons = 1
| num_episodes = 14
}}

'''''Cartel''''' is an Indian [[streaming television]] series produced by [[Ekta Kapoor]] under the banner of [[Balaji Telefilms]]. It stars [[Supriya Pathak]], [[Rithvik Dhanjani]], [[Jitendra Joshi]], [[Tanuj Virwani]] and [[Divya Agarwal]]. It was released on 20 August 2021.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-08-08|title=A story of revenge and power - Meet the 'Angre Family' of 'Cartel'|url=https://www.mid-day.com/entertainment/web-series/article/a-story-of-revenge-and-power-meet-the-angre-family-of-cartel-23186868|access-date=2021-08-18|website=www.mid-day.com|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Pranati Rai Prakash and Rithvik Dhanjani unveil the poster of their action drama 'Cartel' - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/web-series/news/hindi/pranati-rai-prakash-and-ritvik-dhanjani-unveil-the-poster-of-their-action-drama-cartel/articleshow/84894007.cms|access-date=2021-08-18|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref>

== Plot ==
The story revolves around 5 gang-lords of [[Mumbai]]. Khan, Anna, Angre, Gajraj and a mysterious movie producer form 5 gangs who rule the low-profile underworld in the city of dreams. While all 5 gangs operate in different parts of the city, order and harmony is ensured only due to one Iron lady, Rani Maai who sits on a throne and looks over the smooth functioning of events.

==Cast==
* [[Supriya Pathak]] as Rani Mai<ref>{{Cite news|title='Cartel' star Pranati Rai Prakash on working with Supriya Pathak: She would tell us about her theatre activities - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/web-series/news/cartel-star-pranati-rai-prakash-on-working-with-supriya-pathak-she-would-tell-us-about-her-theatre-activities/articleshow/85487907.cms|access-date=2021-10-06|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref>
* [[Rithvik Dhanjani]] as Abhay Angre
* [[Tanuj Virwani]] as Ex-Major Arjun Mhatre/ Major Bhau<ref>{{Cite news|title=Tanuj Virwani opens up on playing the role of a gangster in Cartel - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/web-series/news/tanuj-virwani-opens-up-on-playing-the-role-of-a-gangster-in-cartel/articleshow/85484828.cms|access-date=2021-10-06|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref>
* [[Divya Agarwal]] as Grizzey
* [[Jitendra Joshi]] as Madhukar Mhatre/ Madhu Mhatre
* [[Monica Dogra]] as Maya
* [[Samir Soni]] as Dorabjee
* Shubhrajyoti Barat as Gajraj
* Sushrii Mishra as Vaidehi
* [[Tannishtha Chatterjee]] as Romilla
* [[Girija Oak]] as Rama
* [[Pranati Rai Prakash]] as Sumi<ref>{{Cite news|title='Cartel' star Pranati Rai Prakash on working with Supriya Pathak: She would tell us about her theatre activities - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/web-series/news/cartel-star-pranati-rai-prakash-on-working-with-supriya-pathak-she-would-tell-us-about-her-theatre-activities/articleshow/85487907.cms|access-date=2021-10-06|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref>
* Krishna Kaul as Javed
* [[Aditi Vasudev]] as Shweta
* Mayur More as Chiru
* Gaurav Sharma as ACP Dixit
* Kannan Arunachalam as Anna
* [[Vibhav Roy]]
* Nabeel Ahmed
* Aanchal Goswami
* [[Amey Wagh]] as Dhawal
* Riya Subodh
* [[Sanaya Pithawalla]] as Shreya
* [[Mrinal Dutt]] as Yograj
* Anil George as Khan
* Ashwath Bhatt as Chairman
* [[Mrinal Das]] as Suraj

==Release==
The official trailer of the web series was launched on 1 August 2021 by [[MX Player]] on [[YouTube]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-08-13|title=Cartel Trailer: Witness the ruthless power game that rules city of Mumbai|url=https://www.mid-day.com/entertainment/web-series/article/cartel-trailer-witness-the-ruthless-power-game-that-rules-city-of-mumbai-23187636|access-date=2021-08-18|website=www.mid-day.com|language=en}}</ref>

== Reception ==
Joginder Tuteja for ''[[ABP News]]'' rated 4 stars out of 5 and wrote "Cartel is an impressive show and rest assured, the work would have begun on the sequel due to the inherent dramatic quotient that it carries. An epic gangster drama, it works immensely due to the family set up which makes it different from usual underworld affairs."<ref>{{cite news |last=Tuteja |first=Joginder |title=Review: Cartel Is A Gangster Drama With A Difference, Works Quite Well Due To Its Family Setup |url=https://news.abplive.com/movie-review/entertainment/movies-review-cartel-is-a-gangster-drama-with-a-difference-works-quite-well-due-to-its-family-setup-1478792 |access-date=15 December 2022 |work=[[ABP News]] |date=27 August 2021 |language=en}}{{rating|4|5}}</ref> Sukanya Verma of ''[[Rediff.com|Rediff]]'' rated only 1 star out of 5 stars and wrote "There's no tension, no thrills, no logic, no humour, no darkness and not an iota of entertainment."<ref>{{cite news |last=Verma |first=Sukanya |title=Cartel review |url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/review/cartel-review/20210820.htm |access-date=15 December 2022 |work=[[Rediff.com]] |date=August 20, 2021 |language=en}}{{rating|1|5}}</ref> Bharathi Pradhan for ''[[Lehren]]'' gave 3 stars out of 5 and wrote "A starlet’s death which evokes remarks that followed the suicide of a famous star last year, a birthday party held at gun point, a wedding anniversary, family celebrations and loss of lives at every turn, keep the story moving."<ref>{{cite news |last=Pradhan |first=Bharathi |title=Cartel Review: Supriya Pathak Starrer Is About Curses, Crime & Killings |url=https://lehren.com/entertainment/movie-reviews/cartel-review-supriya-pathak-starrer-is-about-curses-crime-killings/92736/ |access-date=15 December 2022 |work=[[Lehren]] |date=24 August 2021}}{{rating|3|5}}</ref> Archika Khurana for ''[[The Times of India]]'' "In a nutshell, if the gang wars are your thing, ‘Cartel’ will provide plenty of murder, slaughter and gunfights."<ref>{{cite news |last=Khurana |first=Archika |title=Cartel Season 1 Review: A gripping gang-war saga laced with some outstanding performances |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/web-series/reviews/hindi/cartel/season-1/seasonreview/85367657.cms |access-date=15 December 2022 |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=August 21, 2021}}{{rating|3.5|5}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb title|tt15134202}}
*''[https://altt.co.in/shows/cartel-the-first-family-of-the-business/11260 Cartel]'' at [[ALTBalaji]]

[[Category:ALTBalaji original programming]]
[[Category:Indian drama web series]]
[[Category:2021 web series debuts]]
[[Category:Hindi-language web series]]
[[Category:Indian crime drama television series]]

{{ALT Balaji Shows}}

Vaidyeswaran Rajaraman

2026-03-16T12:14:59Z

AhmedSturgis: Added Basic Info Needs Work

{{Short description|Indian computer scientist (1933–2025)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2025}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Vaidyeswaran Rajaraman
| image = Vaidyeswaran_Rajaraman.png
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1933|09|08}}
| birth_place = [[Erode]], [[Madras Presidency]], [[British Raj|British India]](now [[Tamil Nadu]], India)
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|2025|11|08|1933|09|08}}
| death_place = [[Bengaluru]], Karnataka, India
| alma_mater = [[St Stephen's College, Delhi]] [[Delhi University]] [[MIT]] [[IISc Bangalore]] [[University of Wisconsin-Madison]]
| occupation = Computer scientist Academic Author
| yearsactive = Since 1961
| known for = Computer science academics and literature
| awards = [[Padma Bhushan]] [[Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize]] [[Om Prakash Bhasin Award]] Homi Bhabha Prize [[Indian Institute of Science|IISc]] Rustom Choksi Award [[Indian National Academy of Engineering|INAE]] Lifetime Contribution Award [[Indian Institute of Science|IISc]] Distinguished Alumnus Award [[Computer Society of India|CSI]] Lifetime Achievement Award
}}

'''Vaidyeswaran Rajaraman''' (8 September 1933 – 8 November 2025) was an Indian computer scientist, academic and writer known for his pioneering efforts in the field of Computer Science Education in India.<ref name="Sixty years of IT in India">{{cite news | url=http://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/sixty-years-of-it-in-india/article4435223.ece | title=Sixty years of IT in India | newspaper=The Hindu | date=20 February 2013 | access-date=25 May 2016| last1=Balasubramanian | first1=D. }}</ref><ref name="Professor Vaidyeswaran Rajaraman on IT History Society">{{cite web | url=http://www.ithistory.org/members/professor-vaidyeswaran-rajaraman | title=Professor Vaidyeswaran Rajaraman on IT History Society | publisher=IT History Society | date=2016 | access-date=24 May 2016}}</ref> He is credited with the establishment of the first academic program in computer science in India, which he helped initiate at the [[Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur]] in 1965.<ref name="Indian Fellow">{{cite web | url=http://www.insaindia.res.in/detail.php?id=N82-0589 | title=Indian Fellow | publisher=Indian National Science Academy | date=2016 | access-date=24 May 2016}}</ref> An elected fellow of all the Indian science academies, he was a recipient of [[Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize]], the highest Indian award in Science and Technology category for young scientists and several other honors including [[Om Prakash Bhasin Award]] and Homi Bhabha Prize. The Government of India awarded him the third highest civilian honor of the [[Padma Bhushan]], in 1998, for his contributions to science.<ref name="Padma Awards">{{cite web | url=http://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/LST-PDAWD-2013.pdf | title=Padma Awards | publisher=Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India | date=2016 | access-date=3 January 2016 | archive-date=15 October 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015193758/http://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/LST-PDAWD-2013.pdf | url-status=dead }}</ref>

== Life and career ==
[[File:IIT_Kanpur_Computer_Center.png|thumb|right|Computer Centre at IIT Kanpur]]
Born on 8 September 1933 to Ramaswami Vaidyeswaran and Sarada at [[Erode]] in a part of [[Madras Presidency]] that is now the south Indian state of [[Tamil Nadu]], Rajaraman married Dharma in 1964. He passed the HSC examination as a student of first batch of Madras Education Association (now known as DTEA) Higher Secondary School, New Delhi, in 1949. Rajaraman was awarded a scholarship by Delhi University after passing the All India Entrance Scholarship Examination and graduated with BSc (Hon) in Physics from [[St. Stephen's College, Delhi|St. Stephen's College]] of [[University of Delhi]] in 1952 and continued his higher studies at [[Indian Institute of Science]], [[Bangalore]] (IISc) to obtain a Diploma of IISc (Electrical Communication Engineering) in 1955.<ref name="Recipients of Life Time Contribution Award in Engineering">{{cite web | url=http://inae.in/life-time-contribution-award-for-engineering/ | title=Recipients of Life Time Contribution Award in Engineering | publisher=Indian National Academy of Engineering | date=2016 | access-date=24 May 2016}}</ref> He stayed on at IISc and designed and constructed non-linear units for an analogue computer and applied it for solving a number of engineering problems for which he was awarded an associateship by IISc in 1957. He was awarded an overseas scholarship by the government of India and joined [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], Cambridge from which he obtained his MSc degree in Electrical Engineering in 1959.<ref name="Indian Graduates from MIT Who Have Changed the Face of Technology">{{cite web | url=http://indiaculturelab.org/blog/11-indian-mit-graduates-that-you-must-know-about/ | title=Indian Graduates from MIT Who Have Changed the Face of Technology | publisher=Godrej India Culture Lab | author=Ross Bassett | date=2016}}</ref><ref name="The Technological Indian">{{cite web | title=The Technological Indian | author=Ross Bassett | publisher=Harvard University Press | date=2016}}</ref> Thereafter, he enrolled himself at [[University of Wisconsin-Madison]] and did research on adaptive control systems, obtaining a PhD in 1961. He started his career as an Assistant Professor of Statistics at the [[University of Wisconsin-Madison]].<ref name="An Eye for Excellence">{{cite web | title=An Eye for Excellence | author=E.C.Subbarao | publisher=Harper Collins, New Delhi | date=2000}}</ref> In 1962, he returned to India to work as an Assistant Professor of Electrical Engineering at [[Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur]] (IITK). He went as a visiting Assistant Professor of Electrical Engineering at [[University of California, Berkeley]] during period 1965–66.It was during this time that he shifted his focus to then nascent discipline of computer science.<ref name="Indian Fellow" />
[[File:SERC_Building_IISc.png|thumb|right|Supercomputer Education and Research Centre, IISc, Bangalore]]
In early 1965, with encouragement by H. K. Kesavan, Head of Electrical Engineering Dep't at IIT Kanpur, Rajaraman and his colleagues initiated a new MTech program with Computer Science as an option, the first time the subject was offered as an academic discipline in India.<ref name="Indian Fellow" /> Later, he helped introduce a doctoral program, and a group led by him pioneered the use of [[decision tables]]<ref name="Publications of Prof. V. Rajaraman">{{cite web | url=http://dblp.uni-trier.de/pers/hd/r/Rajaraman:V= | title=Publications of Prof. V. Rajaraman}}</ref> in development, debugging, and optimization of complex computer programs. He initiated the first BTech program at IITKanpur in 1978 with an initial batch of 20 students. He became a Senior Professor at IITKanpur in 1974 and stayed there till 1982. He moved to [[Indian Institute of Science]], Bangalore and developed low-cost parallel computers and a supercomputing facility of which he served as chairman from 1982 to 1994.<ref name="INAE profile">{{cite web | url=http://inae.in/expert-search/index.php/vaidyeswaran-rajaraman | title=INAE profile | publisher=Indian National Academy of Engineering | date=2016 | access-date=24 May 2016}}</ref> During his tenure at IITKanpur and IISc, he guided 30 students in their doctoral studies. He published over 70 scientific papers in national and international peer-reviewed journals<ref name="Indian Fellow" /><ref name="IEEE Explore Digital Library Search">{{cite web | url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/search/searchresult.jsp?rowsPerPage=50&searchWithin=%22Authors%22:.QT.V.%20Rajaraman.QT. | title=IEEE Explore Digital Library Search | publisher=IEEE Explore Digital Library | date=2016 | access-date=25 May 2016}}</ref> and 23 text books, including the first on computer programming published in India titled
*''Principles of Computer Programming''
*''Computer Programming in FORTRAN 90 and 95''<ref name="Computer Programming in FORTRAN 90 and 95">,{{cite book|author=Vaidyeswaran Rajaraman|title=Computer Programming in FORTRAN 90 and 95|url=https://www.phindia.com/Books/BookDetail/OTc4LTgxLTIwMy0xMTgxLTc|year=1997|publisher=PHI Learning}}{{Dead link|date=October 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref>
*''Computer Oriented Numerical Methods, 3rd ed.'',<ref name="Rajaraman1993">{{cite book|author=Vaidyeswaran Rajaraman|title=Computer Oriented Numerical Methods, 3rd ed.|url=https://www.phindia.com/Books/BookDetail/OTc4LTgxLTIwMy0wNzg2LTU|year=1993|publisher=PHI Learning}}{{Dead link|date=October 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref>
*''Analog Computation and Simulation'',<ref name="Rajaraman00114">{{cite book|author=Vaidyeswaran Rajaraman|title=Analog Computation and Simulation|url=https://www.phindia.com/Books/BookDetail/ODEtMjAzLTAwMTEtNA|publisher=PHI Learning}}{{Dead link|date=October 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref>
*''Analysis and Design of Information Systems, 3rd ed.'',<ref name="Rajaraman43849">{{cite book|author=Vaidyeswaran Rajaraman|title=Analysis and Design of Information Systems, 3rd ed.|url=https://www.phindia.com/Books/BookDetail/OTc4LTgxLTIwMy00Mzg0LTk|publisher=PHI Learning}}{{Dead link|date=October 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref>
*''Computer Basics and C Programming'',<ref name="Rajaraman33437">{{cite book|author=Vaidyeswaran Rajaraman|title=Computer Basics and C Programming|url=https://www.phindia.com/Books/BookDetail/OTc4LTgxLTIwMy0zMzQzLTc|publisher=PHI Learning}}{{Dead link|date=October 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref>
*''Computer Programming in C'',<ref name="Rajaraman08596">{{cite book|author=Vaidyeswaran Rajaraman|title=Computer Programming in C|url=https://www.phindia.com/Books/BookDetail/OTc4LTgxLTIwMy0wODU5LTY|publisher=PHI Learning}}{{Dead link|date=October 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref>
*''Computer Programming in FORTRAN 77 (With an Introduction to FORTRAN 90), 4th ed.'',<ref name="Rajaraman11725">{{cite book|author=Vaidyeswaran Rajaraman|title=Computer Programming in FORTRAN 77 (With an Introduction to FORTRAN 90), 4th ed.|url=https://www.phindia.com/Books/BookDetail/OTc4LTgxLTIwMy0xMTcyLTU|publisher=PHI Learning}}{{Dead link|date=October 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref>
*''Essentials of E-Commerce Technology'',<ref name="Rajaraman39378">{{cite book|author=Vaidyeswaran Rajaraman|title=Essentials of E-Commerce Technology|url=https://www.phindia.com/Books/BookDetail/OTc4LTgxLTIwMy0zOTM3LTg|publisher=PHI Learning}}{{Dead link|date=October 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref>
*''Introduction to Information Technology, 3rd ed.'',<ref name="Rajaraman87472297">{{cite book|author=Vaidyeswaran Rajaraman|title=Introduction to Information Technology, 3rd ed.|url=https://www.phindia.com/Books/BookDetail/OTc4LTkzLTg3NDcyLTI5LTc|publisher=PHI Learning}}{{Dead link|date=October 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref>
*''Fundamentals of Computers, 6th ed.'',<ref name="Rajaraman50670">{{cite book|author=Vaidyeswaran Rajaraman & Adabala|title=Fundamentals of Computers, 6th ed.|url=https://www.phindia.com/Books/BookDetail/OTc4LTgxLTIwMy01MDY3LTA|publisher=PHI Learning}}{{Dead link|date=October 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref>
*''Parallel Computers—Architecture and Programming, 2nd ed.'',<ref name="Rajaraman52629">{{cite book|author=Vaidyeswaran Rajaraman & Murthy|title=Parallel Computers—Architecture and Programming, 2nd ed.|url=https://www.phindia.com/Books/BookDetail/OTc4LTgxLTIwMy01MjYyLTk|publisher=PHI Learning}}{{Dead link|date=October 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref>
*''Computer Organization and Architecture'',<ref name="Rajaraman32003">{{cite book|author=Vaidyeswaran Rajaraman & Radhakrishnan|title=Computer Organization and Architecture|url=https://www.phindia.com/Books/BookDetail/OTc4LTgxLTIwMy0zMjAwLTM|publisher=PHI Learning}}{{Dead link|date=October 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref>
*''Digital Logic and Computer Organization'',<ref name="Rajaraman29799">{{cite book|author=Vaidyeswaran Rajaraman & Radhakrishnan|title=Digital Logic and Computer Organization|url=https://www.phindia.com/Books/BookDetail/OTc4LTgxLTIwMy0yOTc5LTk|publisher=PHI Learning}}{{Dead link|date=October 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref>
*''Introduction to Digital Computer Design, An, 5th ed.'',<ref name="Rajaraman34090">{{cite book|author=Vaidyeswaran Rajaraman & Radhakrishnan|title=Introduction to Digital Computer Design, An, 5th ed.|url=https://www.phindia.com/Books/BookDetail/OTc4LTgxLTIwMy0zNDA5LTA|publisher=PHI Learning}}{{Dead link|date=October 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref>
*''Fundamentals of Computers''

among others. His PhD thesis was on the ''Theory of parameter-perturbation adaptive and optimizing control systems''<ref name="Rajaraman1961">{{cite book|author=Vaidyeswaran Rajaraman|title=Theory of parameter-perturbation adaptive and optimizing control systems|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xyFSAAAAMAAJ|year=1961|publisher=University of Wisconsin--Madison}}</ref> and S.M. thesis was on ''Effects of Parameter Variations in Linear Amplifiers''.<ref name="Rajaraman1959">{{cite book|author=Vaidyeswaran Rajaraman|title=Effects of Parameter Variations in Linear Amplifiers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M2_7NwAACAAJ|year=1959|publisher=Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Electrical Engineering}}</ref> He wrote a monograph, ''History of Computing in India: 1955-2010'',<ref name="History of Computing in India: 1955-2010">{{cite journal | url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273474743 | title=History of Computing in India: 1955-2010 | author=Vaidyeswaran Rajaraman | journal=IEEE Annals of the History of Computing | date=January 2015 | volume=37 | issue=1 | pages=24–35 | doi=10.1109/MAHC.2015.10| citeseerx=10.1.1.371.8740 | s2cid=14708533 }}</ref> on the invitation of IEEE Computer Society in 2014.<ref name="Sixty years of IT in India" /> It details the history of Information Technology in India.

Rajaraman, besides developing parallel computers, contributed in the development of real-time control system for [[Bhilai Steel Plant]], designed the training modules for [[Tata Consultancy Services]] (TCS), and designed computer science curriculum for [[All India Council for Technical Education]] (AICTE), the national council for technical education in India. He was a member of the ''Electronics Commission'' during 1979–82. During his tenure in the Electronics Commission he chaired a committee which recommended the introduction of a new academic programme called Master of Computer Applications(MCA)<ref name="Computer Education in India-Past, Present, and Future">{{cite web | title=Computer Education in India-Past, Present, and Future | author=Utpal K. Bannerjee | publisher=Concept Publishing Co., New Delhi | date=1996 | pages=411–438}}</ref> for BSc and BCom students foreseeing the impending human resource shortage for the IT industry. This was a unique program in India. He was a council member of the [[Indian National Science Academy]] (INSA) from 1986 to 1988.<ref name="Indian Fellow" /> He served as a consultant to [[Bharat Electronics]] (BEL), TCS, [[Electronics Corporation of India Limited]] (ECIL), [[Steel Authority of India Limited]] (SAIL) and Kerala Venture Capital. He chaired a committee set up by the Science Advisory Council to the Prime Minister in 1987 that recommended establishing Centre for the Development of Advanced Computing (CDAC)<ref name="CSI Communications">{{cite web | title=CSI Communications | publisher=Computer Society of India | date=September 2014 | volume=38 | issue=6 | pages=8–12 }}</ref> to design and develop supercomputers in India using [[parallel computing]] technology. He was a member of CDAC's governing council in its formative years. He was TataChem professor at IISc from 1991 to 1994 and the [[IBM]] Professor of Information Technology at [[Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research]] (JNCASR) from 1994 to 2001.<ref name="INAE profile" /> He was a member of the board of directors of CMC Ltd., Canbank Computer Services Ltd., Encore Software Ltd., and IIIT, Kerala. He was a member of the Technical Advisory Panel of the Government of Karnataka from 1985 to 2014. During his tenure he advised the government on computerization of land registration (Bhoomi Project), Kaveri project of the stamps and registration department for computerising registration of urban properties, computerizing the court systems and many important e-governance projects. His hobbies included listening to classical Karnatik and Western music and reading fiction and non-fiction books.

Rajaraman died in Bengaluru on 8 November 2025, at the age of 92.<ref>[https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/prof-rajaraman-pitamah-of-indias-computer-science-education-dies-at-92/articleshow/125193582.cms Prof Rajaraman, 'Pitamah' of India's computer science education, dies at 92]</ref>

== Awards and honours ==
Rajaraman received Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize, the highest Indian science and technology award for young scientists, in 1976, for his contributions in optimizing the use of [[decision tables]] and his pioneering work in computer science.<ref name="SSB Prize">{{cite web | url=http://ssbprize.gov.in/Content/Detail.aspx?AID=250 | title=SSB Prize | publisher=Council of Scientific and Industrial Research | date=2016 | access-date=25 May 2016}}</ref> This was followed by Homi Bhabha Prize in 1984 and the Indian Society of Technical Education Award for Excellence in Teaching in 1988.<ref name="Indian Fellow" /> He was awarded [[Om Prakash Bhasin Award]] of the Shri Om Prakash Bhasin Foundation<ref name="Om Prakash Bhasin Award">{{cite web | url=http://www.opbfawards.com/electronic.html | title=Om Prakash Bhasin Award | publisher=Shri Om Prakash Bhasin Foundation | date=2016 | access-date=25 May 2016 | archive-date=20 February 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230220144251/https://www.opbfawards.com/electronic.html | url-status=dead }}</ref> and Rustom Choksi Award of the [[Indian Institute of Science]] in 1993.<ref name="Indian Fellow" /> The Government of India included him in the [[Indian honours system|Republic Day Honours]] list in 1998 for the civilian award of the [[Padma Bhushan]].<ref name="Padma Awards" /> The [[Indian National Academy of Engineering]] honored him with the Lifetime Contribution Award in Engineering in 2005<ref name="Recipients of Life Time Contribution Award in Engineering" /> and he received the Distinguished Alumnus Award of the Indian Institute of Science in 2014.<ref name="News">{{cite web | url=http://www.csa.iisc.ernet.in/news/news.php | title=News | publisher=Indian Institute of Science | date=August 2014 | access-date=25 May 2016}}</ref> He had also delivered several award orations including the ''S.H. Zaheer Medal'' (1998) of the [[Indian National Science Academy]] and is a recipient of the Lifetime Achievement Award of the [[Computer Society of India]],<ref name="Professor Vaidyeswaran Rajaraman on IT History Society" /> Dataquest,<ref name="Dataquest Awards">{{cite web | url=http://www.dqindia.com/dataquest-awards/ | title=Dataquest Awards| date=24 September 2009}}</ref> and Systems Society of India.

The [[Indian Academy of Sciences]] elected Rajaraman as its fellow in 1974<ref name="Fellow Profile">{{cite web | url=http://www.ias.ac.in/describe/fellow/Rajaraman,_Prof._Vaidyeswaran | title=Fellow Profile | publisher=Indian Academy of Sciences | date=2016 | access-date=25 May 2016}}</ref> and the [[Indian National Science Academy]]<ref name="INSA Fellows">{{cite web | url=http://www.iitk.ac.in/dofa/INSA.html | title=INSA Fellows | publisher=IIT Kanpur | date=2016 | access-date=25 May 2016}}</ref> and the [[National Academy of Sciences, India]] followed suit in 1982 and 1990 respectively.<ref name="NASI Fellows">{{cite web | url=http://www.nasi.org.in/fellows.asp?RsFilter=R | title=NASI Fellows | publisher=National Academy of Sciences, India | date=2016 | access-date=25 May 2016 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315130140/http://nasi.org.in/fellows.asp?RsFilter=R | archive-date=15 March 2016 }}</ref> He was also an elected fellow of the [[Indian National Academy of Engineering]],<ref name="Fellows Engineering">{{cite web | url=http://inae.in/engineering-section-ii-computer-and-information-technology/ | title=Fellows Engineering | publisher=Indian National Academy of Engineering | date=2016 | access-date=25 May 2016}}</ref> and has held the fellowships of the [[Computer Society of India]] (1974) and the Institute of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineers. The [[Bengal Engineering and Science University]] and the Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur<ref name="Doctor of Science honoris causa IITK">{{cite web | url=http://www.iitk.ac.in/doaaold/convocation2014/m2mpg.pdf | title=Doctor of Science hororis causa IITK | publisher=IIT Kanpur}}</ref> have conferred the degree of Doctor of Science ([[honoris causa]]) on Rajaraman.

== See also ==
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Supercomputers]]
* [[Decision table]]
* [[List of University of Wisconsin–Madison people]]
* [[List of alumni of St. Stephen's College, Delhi]]
* [[List of Massachusetts Institute of Technology alumni]]
{{div col end}}
{{Portal|India|Science}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
* {{cite journal | url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284950095 | title=Steve Jobs — Who blended art with technology | author=V. Rajaraman | journal=Resonance | date=October 2014 | volume=19 | issue=10 | pages=917–935 | doi=10.1007/s12045-014-0108-9| s2cid=121837107 }}
* {{cite journal | title=IEEE standard for floating point numbers | author=V. Rajaraman | journal=Resonance | date=January 2016 | volume=21 | issue=1 | pages=11–30 | url=http://www.ias.ac.in/describe/article/reso/021/01/0011-0030| doi=10.1007/s12045-016-0292-x | s2cid=124867516 | url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite journal | title=James N.Gray - an e-science evangelist | author=V. Rajaraman | journal=Resonance | date=August 2016 | volume=21 | issue=8 | pages=677–693 | url=http://www.ias.ac.in/article/fulltext/reso/021/08/0677-0694| doi=10.1007/s12045-016-0375-8 | s2cid=125738226 | url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite journal | title=Big Data Analytics | author=V. Rajaraman | journal=Resonance | date=August 2016 | volume=21 | issue=8 | pages=695–716 | url=http://www.ias.ac.in/article/fulltext/reso/021/08/0695-0716| doi=10.1007/s12045-016-0376-7 | s2cid=125371736 | url-access=subscription }}

{{PadmaBhushanAwardRecipients 1990–99}}
{{SSBPST recipients in Engineering Science}}
{{Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Laureates of Tamil Nadu}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rajaraman, Vaidyeswaran}}
[[Category:1933 births]]
[[Category:2025 deaths]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Bhushan in science & engineering]]
[[Category:Engineers from Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Indian computer scientists]]
[[Category:St. Stephen's College, Delhi alumni]]
[[Category:Delhi University alumni]]
[[Category:Indian Institute of Science alumni]]
[[Category:Academic staff of the Indian Institute of Science]]
[[Category:MIT School of Engineering alumni]]
[[Category:University of Wisconsin–Madison alumni]]
[[Category:Academic staff of IIT Kanpur]]
[[Category:University of California, Berkeley faculty]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Award in Engineering Science]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Indian Academy of Sciences]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy]]
[[Category:Fellows of the National Academy of Sciences, India]]
[[Category:University of Wisconsin–Madison faculty]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian engineers]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Indian National Academy of Engineering]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian educational theorists]]
[[Category:Indian technology writers]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian non-fiction writers]]

Fatimid Caliphate

2026-03-13T21:11:49Z

AhmedSturgis: updated

{{Short description|Fourth Islamic caliphate (909–1171)}}
{{Redirect|Fatimids|the ruling dynasty of the Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid dynasty}}
{{EngvarB|date= March 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date= March 2017}}
{{Infobox country
| native_name = {{native name|ar|الخلافة الفاطمیّة}} {{transliteration|ar|Al-Khilāfa al-Fāṭimiyya}}
| conventional_long_name = Fatimid Caliphate
| common_name = Fatimid Caliphate
| image_map = Fatimid Caliphate.PNG
| image_map_caption = Evolution of the Fatimid Caliphate
| government_type = [[Hereditary monarchy]]
| area_km2 = 4,100,000<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Turchin |first1=Peter |last2=Adams |first2=Jonathan M. |last3=Hall |first3=Thomas D |date=December 2006 |title=East-West Orientation of Historical Empires |journal=Journal of World-Systems Research |volume=12 |issue=2 |page=223 |issn=1076-156X |doi=10.5195/JWSR.2006.369|doi-access=free }}</ref>
| era = Early Middle Ages
| event_start = [[Fatimid revolution|Overthrow of the Aghlabids]]
| year_start = 909
| date_start =
| event1 = [[Fatimid conquest of Egypt]] and foundation of Cairo
| date_event1 = 969
| event_end = [[Saladin in Egypt|Abolished by Saladin]]
| year_end = 1171
| date_end = 17 September
| p1 = Abbasid Caliphate
| p2 = Aghlabid Emirate
| p3 = Ikhshidid Wilayah
| p4 = Emirate of Tahert
| s1 = Zengids
| s2 = Ayyubid Sultanate
| s3 = Crusader States
| s4 = Emirate of Sicily
| s5 = Zirid Emirate
| s6 = Hammadid Emirate
| s7 = Sulayhids
| s8 = Sharifate of Mecca
| capital = {{Plainlist}}
* [[Raqqada]] (909–921)
* [[Mahdia]] (921–948)
* [[Mansouria, Tunisia|al-Mansuriya]] (948–973)
* [[Cairo]] (973–1171)
{{Endplainlist}}
| common_languages = {{plainlist|
* [[Arabic]]
* [[Berber languages]]
* [[Coptic language|Coptic]]
}}
| religion = [[Isma'ilism|Isma'ili]] [[Shi'a]] [[Islam]] {{small|([[State religion]])}}
| currency = [[Fatimid coinage]]
| leader1 = [[Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah]]
| year_leader1 = 909–934 (first)
| leader2 = [[Al-Adid]]
| year_leader2 = 1160–1171 (last)
| title_leader = [[List of Fatimid caliphs|Caliph]]
| stat_year1 = 969<ref>{{cite journal|last1= Turchin|first1= Peter|last2= Adams|first2= Jonathan M.|last3= Hall|first3= Thomas D|title= East-West Orientation of Historical Empires|journal= Journal of World-Systems Research|date= December 2006|volume= 12|issue= 2|page= 222|url= http://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/jwsr/article/view/369/381|access-date= 12 September 2016|issn= 1076-156X|archive-date= 20 May 2019|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190520161830/http://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/jwsr/article/view/369/381|url-status= live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date= September 1997|title= Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia|journal= [[International Studies Quarterly]]|volume= 41|issue= 3|page= 495|doi= 10.1111/0020-8833.00053|author= Rein Taagepera|author-link= Rein Taagepera|jstor= 2600793|url= http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/3cn68807|access-date= 1 July 2019|archive-date= 19 November 2018|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181119114740/https://escholarship.org/uc/item/3cn68807|url-status= live|url-access= subscription}}</ref>
| stat_area1 =
| footnotes =
}}

The '''Fatimid Caliphate''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|f|æ|t|ɪ|m|ɪ|d}}; {{langx|ar|الخلافة الفاطمیّة|al-Khilāfa al-Fāṭimiyya}}), also known as the '''Fatimid Empire''', was a [[caliphate]] that existed from the tenth to the twelfth centuries CE under the rule of the [[Fatimid dynasty|Fatimids]], an [[Isma'ili Shi'a]] dynasty. Spanning a large area of [[North Africa]] and [[West Asia]], it ranged from the western [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] in the west to the [[Red Sea]] in the east. The Fatimids traced their ancestry to the Islamic prophet [[Muhammad]]'s daughter [[Fatima]] and her husband [[Ali]], the first [[Shia|Shi'a]] imam. The Fatimids were acknowledged as the rightful imams by different Isma'ili communities as well as by denominations in many other Muslim lands and adjacent regions.<ref>{{harvnb|Daftary|1990|pp=144–273, 615–59}}; {{harvnb|Canard|1965||pp=850–862}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h8BmAAAAMAAJ&dq=Kabylia&pg=PA67 |title=Ibn Khaldun: The Birth of History and the Past of the Third World |page=67 |isbn=978-0860917892 |author1=Lascoste |year=1984 |publisher=Verso |access-date=20 October 2022 |archive-date=16 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240916020841/https://books.google.com/books?id=h8BmAAAAMAAJ&dq=Kabylia&pg=PA67 |url-status=live }}</ref> Starting in [[Ifriqiya]] during the [[Abbasid Caliphate]], the Fatimids overthrew the [[Aghlabids]] and extended their rule across the Mediterranean coast and ultimately made [[Egypt]] the center of the caliphate. At its height, the caliphate included—in addition to Egypt—varying areas of the [[Maghreb]], [[Sicily]], the [[Levant]], and the [[Hejaz]].

Between 902 and 909, the foundation of the Fatimid state was realized under the leadership of ''[[da'i]]'' (missionary) [[Abu Abdallah al-Shi'i|Abu Abdallah]], who led [[Kutama]] forces in establishing an Isma'ili state and then conquering [[Aghlabid]] Ifriqiya, thus paving the way for the establishment of the Caliphate.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Governance and Pluralism under the Fatimids (909–996 CE) |publisher=The Institute of Ismaili Studies |url=https://www.iis.ac.uk/academic-article/governance-and-pluralism-under-fatimids-909-996-ce |access-date=2022-03-12 |archive-date=23 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210523132649/https://www.iis.ac.uk/academic-article/governance-and-pluralism-under-fatimids-909-996-ce |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Nanjira 2010 92">{{Cite book|last=Nanjira|first=Daniel Don|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LZuxGsXVPoMC&pg=PA92|title=African Foreign Policy and Diplomacy from Antiquity to the 21st Century|date=2010|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-37982-6|page=92|language=en|access-date=3 May 2021|archive-date=15 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315191212/https://books.google.com/books?id=LZuxGsXVPoMC&pg=PA92|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Fage 1958 11">{{Cite book|last=Fage|first=J. D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MN4EAQAAIAAJ&q=%22the+kutama+berbers+from+little+kabylia,+conquered+ifriqiya%22|title=An Atlas of African History|date=1958|publisher=E. Arnold|page=11|language=en|access-date=3 May 2021|archive-date=15 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315191155/https://books.google.com/books?id=MN4EAQAAIAAJ&q=%22the+kutama+berbers+from+little+kabylia,+conquered+ifriqiya%22|url-status=live}}</ref> After the conquest, [[Abdallah al-Mahdi Billah]] was retrieved from [[Sijilmasa]] and then accepted as the Imam of the movement, becoming the first Caliph and founder of the dynasty in 909.<ref name="Gale">{{Cite book|last1=Gall|first1=Timothy L.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=07dZAAAAYAAJ|title=Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life: Africa|last2=Hobby|first2=Jeneen|date=2009|publisher=Gale|isbn=978-1-4144-4883-1|page=329|language=en|access-date=3 May 2021|archive-date=15 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315191156/https://books.google.com/books?id=07dZAAAAYAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Studies 1979 15">{{Cite book|author=American University Foreign Area Studies|location=Washington, D.C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ALHjoSJm-PsC&pg=PA15|title=Algeria, a Country Study|date=1979|publisher=Department of Defense, Department of the Army|page=15|language=en|access-date=3 May 2021|archive-date=15 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315191210/https://books.google.com/books?id=ALHjoSJm-PsC&pg=PA15|url-status=live}}</ref> In 921, the city of [[al-Mahdiyya]] was established as the capital. In 948, they shifted their capital to [[Mansouria, Tunisia|al-Mansuriyya]], near [[Kairouan]]. In 969, during the reign of [[Al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah|al-Mu'izz]], they [[Fatimid conquest of Egypt|conquered Egypt]], and in 973, the caliphate was moved to the newly founded Fatimid capital of [[Cairo]]. Egypt became the political, cultural, and religious centre of the empire and it developed a new and "indigenous Arabic culture".<ref name="AshtianyJohnstone1990">{{cite book|editor1= Julia Ashtiany|editor5= G. Rex Smith|editor2= T.M. Johnstone|editor3= J.D. Latham|editor4= R.B. Serjeant|title= Abbasid Belles Lettres|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=4sFzGGqA6uoC&pg=PA13|year= 1990|publisher= Cambridge University Press|isbn= 978-0-521-24016-1|page= 13|quote= ... it was at this time that an indigenous Arabic culture was developed in Egypt, and Arab Egypt, so to speak, came of age to the extent that it was able to rival older centres like Baghdad as a seat of learning and intellectual activity.|access-date= 24 May 2018|archive-date= 16 September 2024|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240916020844/https://books.google.co.id/books?id=4sFzGGqA6uoC&pg=PA13&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status= live}}</ref> After its initial conquests, the caliphate often allowed a degree of [[religious tolerance]] towards non-Shi'a sects of Islam, as well as to Jews and Christians.<ref>{{Cite book | last = Wintle | first = Justin| title = History of Islam| publisher = Rough Guides |date=2003| location = London| pages = 136–37| isbn = 978-1-84353-018-3 }}</ref> However, its leaders made little headway in persuading the Egyptian population to adopt its religious beliefs.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Robert|first=Tignor|title=Worlds Together, Worlds Apart
|publisher=W. W. Norton & Co., Inc.|year=2011|isbn=978-0-393-11968-8|edition=3rd|location=New York|page=338|display-editors=etal}}</ref>

After the reigns of [[al-Aziz Billah|al-'Aziz]] and [[al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah|al-Hakim]], the long reign of [[al-Mustansir Billah|al-Mustansir]] entrenched a regime in which the caliph remained aloof from state affairs and [[vizier]]s took on greater importance.{{Sfn|Brett|2017}} Political and ethnic factionalism within the army led to a civil war in the 1060s, which threatened the empire's survival.{{Sfn|Halm|2014}} After a period of revival during the tenure of the vizier [[Badr al-Jamali]], the Fatimid caliphate declined rapidly during the late eleventh and twelfth centuries.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=207}} In addition to internal difficulties, the caliphate was weakened by the encroachment of the [[Seljuk dynasty|Seljuk Turks]] into Syria in the 1070s and the arrival of the [[Crusades|Crusaders]] in the Levant in 1097.{{Sfn|Halm|2014}} In 1171, [[Saladin]] abolished the dynasty's rule and founded the [[Ayyubid dynasty]], which incorporated Egypt back into the nominal sphere of authority of the Abbasid Caliphate.<ref>{{cite book|last= Baer|first= Eva|title= Metalwork in Medieval Islamic Art|year= 1983|publisher= [[SUNY Press]]|isbn= 978-0791495575|page= xxiii|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=s__yi4pD-VEC|quote= In the course of the later eleventh and twelfth century, however, the Fatimid caliphate declined rapidly, and in 1171 the caliphate was dissolved and the Fatimid dynasty was overthrown by [[Saladin|Ṣalāḥ ad-Dīn]], the founder of the [[Ayyubid dynasty]]. He restored Egypt as a political power, reincorporated it in the [[Abbasid caliph]]ate and established Ayyubid suzerainty not only over Egypt and Syria but, as mentioned above, temporarily over northern Mesopotamia as well.|access-date= 13 August 2015|archive-date= 17 January 2023|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230117131631/https://books.google.com/books?id=s__yi4pD-VEC|url-status= live}}</ref>{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=294}}

== Name ==
The [[Fatimid dynasty]] claimed descent from [[Fatimah]], the daughter of the [[Prophets and messengers in Islam|Islamic prophet]] [[Muhammad]]. The dynasty legitimized its claim through descent from Muhammad by way of his daughter and her husband [[Ali]], the first [[Imamate in Shia doctrine|Shi'a imam]], hence the dynasty's name, ''faṭimiyy'' ({{Langx|ar|فَاطِمِيّ|translit=}}), the Arabic [[Arabic nouns and adjectives#Nisba|relative adjective]] for ''Fāṭima''.{{sfn|Dachraoui|1986|pp=1242–44}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Hitti, Philip K.|title=History of The Arabs|title-link=History of the Arabs (book)|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=1970|isbn=0-06-106583-8|pages=|chapter=A Shi'ite Caliphate- Fatimids|author-link=Philip K. Hitti}}</ref><ref name="Nanjira 2010 92"/><ref name="Fage 1958 11"/>

Emphasizing its [[Alid]] descent, the dynasty named itself simply the 'Alid dynasty' ({{transliteration|ar|al-dawla al-alawiyya}}),{{sfn|Canard|1965|p=852}} but many hostile [[Sunni]] sources only refer to them as the Ubaydids ({{transliteration|ar|Banu Ubayd}}), after the diminutive form Ubayd Allah for the name of the first Fatimid caliph.{{sfn|Canard|1965|p=852}}

==History==
{{Caliphate}}
===Origins===
The Fatimid dynasty came to power as the leaders of [[Isma'ilism]], a revolutionary [[Shi'a]] movement "which was at the same time political and religious, philosophical and social," and which originally proclaimed nothing less than the arrival of an Islamic [[messiah]].{{sfn|Canard|1965|p=850}} The origins of that movement, and of the dynasty itself, are obscure prior to the late ninth century.{{sfn|Canard|1965|p=850}}

The [[List of Fatimid caliphs|Fatimid rulers]] were Arab in origin, starting with its founder, the [[Isma'ilism|Isma'ili]] Shi'a caliph [[Abdallah al-Mahdi Billah]].{{sfn|Dachraoui|1986|pp=1242–44}} The caliphate's establishment was accomplished by [[Kutama]] [[Berbers]] from [[Petite Kabylie|Little Kabylia]], who converted to the Fatimid cause early and made up its original military forces.<ref name="Nanjira 2010 92"/><ref name="Fage 1958 11"/><ref name="Gale"/><ref name="Studies 1979 15"/>

====Early Shi'ism and the roots of Isma'ilism====
The Shi'a opposed the [[Umayyad]] and [[Abbasid]] caliphates, whom they considered usurpers. Instead, they believed in the exclusive right of the descendants of [[Ali]] through Muhammad's daughter [[Fatimah|Fatima]], to lead the Muslim community. This manifested itself in a line of [[Imamate in Shia doctrine|imams]], descendants of Ali via [[al-Husayn]], whom their followers considered as the true representatives of God on earth.{{sfn|Madelung|1971|pp=1163–64, 1167}} At the same time, there was a widespread messianic tradition in Islam concerning the appearance of a ''[[mahdi]]'' ("the Rightly Guided One") or ''[[Qa'im Al Muhammad|qa'im]]'' ("He Who Arises"), who would restore true Islamic government and justice and usher in the [[Islamic eschatology|end times]]. This figure was widely expected{{snd}}not just among the Shi'a{{snd}}to be a descendant of Ali.{{sfn|Madelung|1986|pp=1230–34}} Among Shi'a, however, this belief became a core tenet of their faith, and was applied to several Shi'a leaders who were killed or died; their followers believed that they had gone into "[[occultation (Islam)|occultation]]" ({{transliteration|ar|ghayba}}) and would return (or be resurrected) at the appointed time.{{sfn|Madelung|1986|pp=1235–37}}

These traditions manifested themselves in the succession of the sixth imam, [[Ja'far al-Sadiq]]. Al-Sadiq had appointed his son [[Isma'il ibn Ja'far]] as his successor, but Isma'il died before his father, and when al-Sadiq himself died in 765, the succession was left open. Most of his followers followed al-Sadiq's son [[Musa al-Kazim]] down to a [[Muhammad al-Mahdi|twelfth and final imam]] who supposedly went into occultation in 874 and would one day return as the {{transliteration|ar|mahdī}}. This branch is hence known as the "Twelvers".{{sfn|Brett|2017|p=18}}{{sfn|Daftary|2007|p=89}} Others followed other sons, or even refused to believe that al-Sadiq had died, and expected his return as the {{transliteration|ar|mahdī}}.{{sfn|Daftary|2007|pp=88–89}} Another branch believed that Ja'far was followed by a seventh imam, who had gone into occultation and would one day return; hence this party is known as the "Seveners". The exact identity of that seventh imam was disputed, but by the late ninth century had commonly been identified with [[Muhammad ibn Isma'il|Muhammad]], son of Isma'il and grandson of al-Sadiq. From Muhammad's father, Isma'il, the sect, which gave rise to the Fatimids, receives its name of "Isma'ili".{{sfn|Brett|2017|p=18}}{{sfn|Halm|1991|pp=27–28}}{{sfn|Daftary|2007|pp=89–90}} Due to the harsh Abbasid persecution of the Alids, the Ismaili Imams went into hiding and neither Isma'il's nor Muhammad's lives are well known, and after Muhammad's death during the reign of [[Harun al-Rashid]] ({{reign|786|809}}), the history of the early Isma'ili movement becomes obscure.{{sfn|Daftary|2007|pp=90–96}}

====The secret network====
While the awaited ''mahdi'' Muhammad ibn Isma'il remained hidden, however, he would need to be represented by agents, who would gather the faithful, spread the word (''[[da'wa]]'', "invitation, calling"), and prepare his return. The head of this secret network was the living proof of the imam's existence, or "seal" (''hujja'').{{sfn|Halm|1991|pp=29–30}} It is in this role that the ancestors of the Fatimids are first documented. The first known ''hujja'' was a certain [[Ahmad al-Wafi|Abdallah al-Akbar]] ("Abdallah the Elder"), a wealthy merchant from [[Khuzestan]], who established himself at the small town of [[Salamiya]] on the western edge of the [[Syrian Desert]].{{sfn|Halm|1991|pp=16–20}} Salamiya became the centre of the Isma'ili ''da'wa'', with Abdallah al-Akbar being succeeded by his son and grandson as the secret "grand masters" of the movement.{{sfn|Halm|1991|pp=22–24}}{{sfn|Daftary|2007|p=100}}

In the last third of the ninth century, the Isma'ili ''da'wa'' spread widely, profiting from the collapse of Abbasid power in the [[Anarchy at Samarra]] and the subsequent [[Zanj Revolt]], as well as from dissatisfaction among Twelver adherents with the [[Political quietism in Islam|political quietism]] of their leadership and the recent disappearance of the twelfth imam.{{sfn|Daftary|2007|p=108}} Missionaries (''[[da'i]]''s) such as [[Hamdan Qarmat]] and [[Ibn Hawshab]] spread the network of agents to the area round [[Kufa]] in the late 870s, and from there to [[Yemen]] (882) and thence India (884), [[Bahrayn (historical region)|Bahrayn]] (899), [[Persia]], and the [[Maghreb]] (893).{{sfn|Madelung|1978|p=198}}{{sfn|Halm|1991|p=47}}{{sfn|Daftary|2007|pp=108–10}}

====The Qarmatian schism and its aftermath====
In 899, Abdallah al-Akbar's great-grandson, [[Abdallah al-Mahdi Billah|Abdallah]],{{efn|The mostly hostile Sunni sources call him with the diminutive "Ubayd Allah", probably intended to be pejorative; and his dynasty is hence often called the "Ubaydid" dynasty ({{transliteration|ar|Banū ʿUbayd}}).{{sfn|Canard|1965|p=852}}{{sfn|Halm|2014}}}} became the new head of the movement, and introduced a radical change in the doctrine: no longer was he and his forebears merely the stewards for Muhammad ibn Isma'il, but they were declared to be the rightful imams, and Abdallah himself was the awaited ''mahdi''.{{sfn|Halm|1991|pp=63–64}} Various genealogies were later put forth by the Fatimids to justify this claim by proving their descent from Isma'il ibn Ja'far, but even in pro-Isma'ili sources, the succession and names of imams differ, while [[Sunni]] and Twelver sources of course reject any Fatimid descent from the Alids altogether and consider them impostors.{{sfn|Canard|1965|pp=850–51}}{{sfn|Daftary|2007|pp=100–07}} Abdallah's claim caused a rift in the Isma'ili movement, as Hamdan Qarmat and other leaders denounced this change and held onto the original doctrine, becoming known as the "[[Qarmatians]]", while other communities remained loyal to Salamiya.{{sfn|Madelung|1978|p=198}}{{sfn|Halm|2014}} Shortly after, in 902–903, pro-Fatimid loyalists began a great uprising in [[Syria (region)|Syria]]. The large-scale Abbasid reaction it precipitated and the attention it brought on him, forced Abdallah to abandon Salamiya for Palestine, Egypt, and finally for the [[Maghreb]], where the ''da'i'' [[Abu Abdallah al-Shi'i]] had made great headway in converting the Kutama Berbers to the Isma'ili cause. Unable to join his ''da'i'' directly, Abdallah instead settled at [[Sijilmasa]] sometime between 904 and 905.{{sfn|Canard|1965|p=852}}{{sfn|Daftary|2007|pp=122–23}}{{Sfn|Halm|1996|pp=108–09}}

===Rise to power===

==== Establishment of the Isma'ili State ====
Prior to the Fatimid rise to power, a large part of the Maghreb including [[Ifriqiya]] was under the control of the [[Aghlabids]], an Arab dynasty who ruled nominally on behalf the Abbasids but were ''de facto'' independent.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Anderson |first1=Glaire D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9Sk_DwAAQBAJ |title=The Aghlabids and their Neighbors: Art and Material Culture in Ninth-Century North Africa |last2=Fenwick |first2=Corisande |last3=Rosser-Owen |first3=Mariam |publisher=Brill |year=2017 |isbn=978-90-04-35604-7 |editor-last=Anderson |editor-first=Glaire D. |language=en |chapter=The Aghlabids and Their Neighbors: An Introduction |editor-last2=Fenwick |editor-first2=Corisande |editor-last3=Rosser-Owen |editor-first3=Mariam}}</ref> In 893 the {{transliteration|ar|dā'ī}} Abu Abdallah al-Shi'i first settled among the Banu Saktan tribe (part of the larger Kutama tribe) in [[Ikjan]], near the city of [[Mila (city)|Mila]] (in northeastern Algeria today).{{Sfn|Halm|1996|p=102}} However, due to hostility from the local Aghlabid authorities and other Kutuma tribes, he was forced to leave Ikjan and sought the protection of another Kutama tribe, the Banu Ghashman, in Tazrut (two miles southwest of Mila). From there, he began to build support for a new movement.{{Sfn|Halm|1996|p=103}}{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1987|p=61}} Shortly after, the hostile Kutama tribes and the Arab lords of the nearby cities (Mila, [[Sétif|Setif]], and [[Ksar Bellezma|Bilizma]]) allied together to march against him, but he was able to move quickly and muster enough support from friendly Kutama to defeat them one by one before they were able to unite. This first victory brought Abu Abdallah and his Kutama troops valuable loot and attracted more support to the {{transliteration|ar|dā'ī}}'s cause. Over the next two years Abu Abdallah was able to win over most of the Kutama tribes in the region through either persuasion or coercion.{{Sfn|Halm|1996|p=103}} This left much of the countryside under his control, while the major cities remained under Aghlabid control. He established an Isma'ili theocratic state based in Tazrut, operating in a way similar to previous Isma'ili missionary networks in Mesopotamia but adapted to local Kutama tribal structures. He adopted the role of a traditional Islamic ruler at the head of this organization while remaining in frequent contact with Abdallah. He continued to preach to his followers, known as the ''Awliya' Allah'' ('Friends of God'), and to initiate them into Isma'ili doctrine.{{Sfn|Halm|1996|pp=103–06}}{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1987|p=61}}

==== Conquest of Aghlabid Ifriqiya ====
{{See also|Al-Muqtadir}}
[[File:Fall of the Aghlabid Emirate.svg|left|thumb|upright=1.2|Map of Abu Abdallah's campaigns and battles during the overthrow of the Aghlabids]]

In 902, while the Aghlabid emir [[Ibrahim II of Ifriqiya|Ibrahim II]] was away on campaign in [[Sicily]], Abu Abdallah struck the first significant blow against Aghlabid authority in [[North Africa]] by attacking and capturing the city of Mila for the first time.{{Sfn|Halm|1996|p=106}} This news triggered a serious response from the Aghlabids, who sent a punitive expedition of 12,000 men from Tunis in October of the same year. Abu Abdallah's forces were unable to resist this counterattack and after two defeats they evacuated Tazrut (which was largely unfortified) and fled to Ikjan, leaving Mila to be retaken. Ikjan became the new center of the Fatimid movement and the {{transliteration|ar|dā'ī}} reestablished his network of missionaries and spies.{{Sfn|Halm|1996|p=107}}

Ibrahim II died in October 902 while in [[southern Italy]] and was succeeded by [[Abdallah II of Ifriqiya|Abdallah II]]. In early 903 Abdallah II set out on another expedition to destroy Ikjan and the Kutama rebels, but he ended the expedition prematurely due to troubles at home arising from disputes over his succession. On 27 July 903, he was assassinated and his son [[Ziyadat Allah III of Ifriqiya|Ziyadat Allah III]] took power in Tunis.{{Sfn|Halm|1996|pp=107–08}} These internal Aghlabid troubles gave Abu Abdallah the opportunity to recapture Mila and then go on to capture Setif, another fortified city, by October or November 904.{{Sfn|Halm|1996|p=108}}{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1987|p=61}} In 905 the Aghlabids sent a third expedition to try and subdue the Kutama. They based themselves in [[Constantine, Algeria|Constantine]] and in the fall of 905, after receiving further reinforcements, set out to march against Abu Abdallah. However, they were surprised by Kutama forces on the first day of their march, which caused a panic and scattered their army. The Aghlabid general fled and the Kutama captured a large booty.{{Sfn|Halm|1996|pp=108–09}} Another Aghlabid military expedition organized the next year (906) failed when the soldiers mutinied. Around the same time or soon after, Abu Abdallah's forces besieged and captured the fortified cities of [[Tobna|Tubna]] and Bilizma. The capture of Tubna was significant as it was the first major commercial center to come under Abu Abdallah's control.{{Sfn|Halm|1996|pp=109–11}}

[[File:Rock Crystal Ewer.jpg|thumb|upright|Fatimid ewer, 10th century CE<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rock Crystal Ewer from the Keir Collection {{!}} DMA Content Management System |url=https://cms.dma.org/art/exhibitions/rock-crystal-ewer-keir-collection |access-date=2024-07-20 |website=cms.dma.org |archive-date=16 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240916020842/https://cms.dma.org/art/exhibitions/rock-crystal-ewer-keir-collection |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
Meanwhile, Ziyadat Allah III moved his court from Tunis to [[Raqqada]], the palace-city near [[Kairouan]], in response to the growing threat. He fortified Raqqada in 907.{{Sfn|Halm|1996|p=111}} In early 907 another Aghlabid army marched westwards again against Abu Abdallah, accompanied by Berber reinforcements from the [[Aurès Mountains]]. They were again scattered by Kutama cavalry and retreated to [[Baghai|Baghaya]], the most fortified town on the old southern Roman road between Ifriqiya and the central Maghreb. The fortress, however, fell to the Kutama without a siege when local notables arranged to have the gates opened to them in May or June 907.{{Sfn|Halm|1996|pp=112–13}} This opened a hole in the wider defensive system of Ifriqiya and created panic in Raqqada. Ziyadat Allah III stepped up anti-Fatimid propaganda, recruited volunteers, and took measures to defend the weakly fortified city of Kairouan.{{Sfn|Halm|1996|pp=113–15}} He spent the winter of 907–908 with his army in [[al-Aribus]] ([[Ancient Rome|Roman]]-era Laribus, between present-day [[El Kef]] and [[Maktar]]), expecting an attack from the north. However, Abu Abdallah's forces had been unable to capture the northerly city of Constantine and therefore they instead attacked along the southern road from Baghaya in early 908 and captured [[Haïdra|Maydara]] (present-day Haïdra). An indecisive battle subsequently occurred between the Aghalabid and Kutama armies near Dar Madyan (probably a site between [[Sbeitla]] and [[Kasserine]]), with neither side gaining the upper hand.{{Sfn|Halm|1996|pp=115–17}} During the winter of 908–909 Abu Abdallah campaigned in the region around [[Chott el Djerid|Chott el-Jerid]], capturing the towns of [[Tozeur|Tuzur (Tozeur)]], [[Nefta, Tunisia|Nafta]], and [[Gafsa|Qafsa (Gafsa)]] and taking control of the region. The Aghlabids responded by besieging Baghaya soon afterward in the same winter, but they were quickly repelled.{{Sfn|Halm|1996|p=117}}

On 25 February 909, Abu Abdallah set out from Ikjan with an army of 200,000 men for a final invasion of Kairouan.{{Sfn|Halm|1996|p=118}} The remaining Aghlabid army, led by an Aghlabid prince named Ibrahim Ibn Abi al-Aghlab, met them near al-Aribus on 18 March. The battle lasted until the afternoon, when a contingent of Kutama horsemen managed to outflank the Aghlabid army and finally caused a rout.{{Sfn|Halm|1996|p=118}} When news of the defeat reached Raqqada, Ziyadat Allah III packed his valuable treasures and fled towards Egypt. The population of Kairouan looted the abandoned palaces of Raqqada and resisted Ibn Abi al-Aghlab's calls to organise a last-ditch resistance.{{Sfn|Halm|1996|pp=119–20}} Upon hearing of the looting, Abu Abdallah sent an advance force of Kutama horsemen who secured Raqqada on 24 March. On 25 March 909 (Saturday, 1 [[Rajab]] 296), Abu Abdallah himself entered Raqqada and took up residence here.{{Sfn|Halm|1996|pp=120–21}}{{sfn|Halm|2014}}

==== Establishment of the Caliphate ====
Upon assuming power in Raqqada, Abu Abdallah inherited much of the Aghlabid state's apparatus and allowed its former officials to continue working for the new regime.{{Sfn|Halm|1996|pp=121–22}} He established a new, Isma'ili Shi'a regime on behalf of his absent, and for the moment unnamed, master. He then led his army west to Sijilmasa, whence he led Abdallah in triumph to Raqqada, which he entered on 15 January 910. There Abdallah publicly proclaimed himself as [[caliph]] with the [[laqab|regnal name]] of {{transliteration|ar|al-Mahdī}}, and presented his son and heir, with the regnal name of [[Al-Qa'im (Fatimid caliph)|al-Qa'im]].{{sfn|Canard|1965|p=852}}{{sfn|Halm|2014}} Al-Mahdi quickly fell out with Abu Abdallah: not only was the {{transliteration|ar|dā'ī}} over-powerful, but he demanded proof that the new caliph was the true {{transliteration|ar|mahdī}}. The elimination of Abu Abdallah al-Shi'i and his brother led to an uprising among the Kutama, led by a child-{{transliteration|ar|mahdī}}, which was suppressed. At the same time, al-Mahdi repudiated the millenarian hopes of his followers and curtailed their [[Naskh (tafsir)|antinomian]] tendencies.{{sfn|Canard|1965|p=852}}{{sfn|Halm|2014}}

The new regime regarded its presence in Ifriqiya as only temporary: the real target was [[Baghdad]], the capital of the Fatimids' Abbasid rivals.{{sfn|Canard|1965|p=852}} The ambition to carry the revolution eastward had to be postponed after the failure of two successive invasions of Egypt, led by al-Qa'im, in [[Fatimid invasion of Egypt (914–915)|914–915]] and [[Fatimid invasion of Egypt (919–921)|919–921]].{{sfn|Halm|2014}} In addition, the Fatimid regime was as yet unstable. The local population were mostly adherents of [[Maliki]] Sunnism and various [[Kharijite]] sects such as [[Ibadism]],{{sfn|Canard|1965|p=852}} so that the real power base of Fatimids in Ifriqiya was quite narrow, resting on the Kutama soldiery, later extended by the [[Sanhaja]] Berber tribes as well. The historian [[Heinz Halm]] describes the early Fatimid state as being, in essence, "a hegemony of the Kutama and Sanhaja Berbers over the eastern and central Maghrib".{{sfn|Halm|2014}}

[[File:Islamic_Section_Mahdia_Museum_12082020_002.jpg|thumb|Fragments of [[mosaic]] pavement from the palace of [[Al-Qa'im (Fatimid caliph)|al-Qa'im]] in [[Mahdia|al-Mahdiyya]] (Mahdia), on display at the [[Mahdia Museum]]]]
In 912, al-Mahdi began looking for the site of a new capital along the Mediterranean shore.<ref name=":8" /> Construction of the new fortified palace city, [[Mahdia|al-Mahdiyya]], began in 916.{{sfn|Halm|2014}} The new city was officially inaugurated on 20 February 921, though construction continued after this.<ref name=":8" /> The new capital was removed from the Sunni stronghold of Kairouan, allowing for the establishment of a secure base for the Caliph and his Kutama forces without raising further tensions with the local population.{{sfn|Canard|1965|p=852}}<ref name=":8" />

The Fatimids also inherited the Aghlabid province of [[Emirate of Sicily|Sicily]], which the Aghlabids had [[Muslim conquest of Sicily|gradually conquered]] from the [[Byzantine Empire]] starting in 827. The conquest was generally completed when the last [[Christians|Christian]] stronghold, [[Taormina]], was conquered by Ibrahim II in 902.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Davis-Secord |first=Sarah |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RYUlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1 |title=Where Three Worlds Met: Sicily in the Early Medieval Mediterranean |publisher=Cornell University Press |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-5017-1258-6 |pages=119–20 |language=en |access-date=14 April 2022 |archive-date=16 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240916020842/https://books.google.com/books?id=RYUlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Sfn|Halm|1996|p=107}} However, some Christian or Byzantine resistance continued in some spots in the northeast of Sicily until 967, and the Byzantines still held territories in southern Italy, where the Aghlabids had also campaigned.{{sfn|Daftary|2007|p=143}}<ref name=":05222">{{Cite book |last=Metcalfe |first=Alex |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three |publisher=Brill |year= |editor-last=Fleet |editor-first=Kate |location= |pages= |chapter=Italy, Islam in premodern |journal=The Encyclopaedia of Islam |issn=1873-9830 |editor-last2=Krämer |editor-first2=Gudrun |editor-last3=Matringe |editor-first3=Denis |editor-last4=Nawas |editor-first4=John |editor-last5=Rowson |editor-first5=Everett}}</ref>{{Sfn|Halm|1996|p=107}}<ref name=":2" /> This ongoing confrontation with the traditional foe of the Islamic world provided the Fatimids with a prime opportunity for propaganda, in a setting where geography gave them the advantage.{{sfn|Lev|1995|pp=194–95}} Sicily itself proved troublesome, and only after a rebellion under [[Ibn Qurhub]] was subdued, was Fatimid authority on the island consolidated.{{sfn|Canard|1965|p=853}}

=== Consolidation and western rivalry ===
For a large part of the tenth century the Fatimids also engaged in a rivalry with the [[Caliphate of Córdoba|Umayyads of Cordoba]], who ruled [[Al-Andalus]] and were hostile to the Fatimids' pretensions in an effort to establish domination over the western Maghreb.{{sfn|Canard|1965|p=852}} In 911, [[Tahert]], which had been briefly captured by Abu Abdallah al-Shi'i in 909, had to be retaken by the Fatimid general Masala ibn Habus of the [[Miknasa]] tribe.{{sfn|Canard|1965|pp=852–53}} The first Fatimid expeditions to what is now northern Morocco occurred in 917 and 921 and were primarily aimed at the [[Emirate of Nekor|Principality of Nakur]], which they subjugated on both occasions. Fez and Sijilmasa were also captured in 921. These two expeditions were led by Masala ibn Habus, who had been made governor of [[Tiaret|Tahert]].{{Sfn|Halm|1996|pp=266–67|p=}}{{sfn|Canard|1965|pp=852–53}} Thereafter, the weakened [[Idrisid dynasty|Idrisids]] and various local [[Zenata]] and [[Sanhaja]] leaders acted as proxies whose formal allegiances oscillated between the Umayyads or the Fatimids depending on the circumstances.<ref name=":0522">{{Cite book |last=Eustache |first=D. |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam|edition=2nd |publisher=Brill |year=2012 |editor-last=Bearman |editor-first=P. |chapter=Idrīsids |editor-last2=Bianquis |editor-first2=Th. |editor-last3=Bosworth |editor-first3=C.E. |editor-last4=van Donzel |editor-first4=E. |editor-last5=Heinrichs |editor-first5=W.P.}}</ref>{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1987|pp=63–64, 74–75}} As a result of the political instability in the western Maghreb, effective Fatimid control did not extend much beyond the former territory of the Aghlabids.{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1987|p=64}} Masala's successor, [[Musa ibn Abi'l-Afiya]], captured Fez from the Idrisids again, but in 932 defected to the Umayyads, taking the western Maghreb with him.{{sfn|Canard|1965|p=853}} The Umayyads gained the upper hand again in northern Morocco during the 950s, until the Fatimid general [[Jawhar (general)|Jawhar]], on behalf of Caliph [[Al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah]], led another major [[Fatimid Expedition to Morocco|expedition to Morocco]] in 958 and spent two years subjugating most of northern Morocco.{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1987|p=64}} He was accompanied by [[Ziri ibn Manad]], the leader of the [[Zirid dynasty|Zirids]]. Jawhar took Sijilmasa in September or October 958 and then, with the help of Ziri, his forces took Fez in November 959. He was unable, however, to dislodge the Umayyad garrisons in [[Salé|Sala]], [[Ceuta|Sebta]] (present-day Ceuta) and [[Tangier]], and this marked the only time that the Fatimid army was present at the [[Strait of Gibraltar]].{{Sfn|Halm|1996|pp=397–99}} Jawhar and Ziri returned to al-Mansuriyya in 960. The subjugated parts of Morocco, including Fez and Sijilmasa, were left under the control of local vassals while most of the central Maghreb (Algeria), including Tahert, was given to Ziri ibn Manad to govern on the caliph's behalf.{{Sfn|Halm|1996|pp=399, 401}}

All this warfare in the Maghreb and Sicily necessitated the maintenance of a strong army, and a [[Fatimid navy|capable fleet]] as well.{{sfn|Canard|1965|p=852}} Nevertheless, by the time of al-Mahdi's death in 934, the Fatimid Caliphate "had become a great power in the Mediterranean".{{sfn|Halm|2014}} The reign of the second Fatimid imam-caliph, al-Qa'im, was dominated by the Kharijite rebellion of [[Abu Yazid]]. Starting in 943/4 among the [[Zenata]] Berbers, the uprising spread through Ifriqiya, taking Kairouan and blockading al-Qa'im at al-Mahdiyya, which was besieged in January–September 945. Al-Qa'im died during the siege, but this was kept secret by his son and successor, Isma'il, until he had defeated Abu Yazid; he then announced his father's death and proclaimed himself imam and caliph as [[al-Mansur bi-Nasr Allah|al-Mansur]].{{sfn|Canard|1965|p=852}}{{sfn|Halm|2014}} While al-Mansur was campaigning to suppress the last remnants of the revolt, a new palace city was being constructed for him south of Kairouan. Construction began around 946 and it was only fully completed under al-Mansur's son and successor, al-Mu'izz.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Barrucand |first1=Marianne |last2=Rammah |first2=Mourad |date=2009 |title=Sabra Al-Mansuriyya And Her Neighbors During The First Half Of The Eleventh Century: Investigations Into Stucco Decoration |journal=Muqarnas |volume=26 |pages=349–76|doi=10.1163/22118993-90000154 |jstor=27811145 |doi-access=free }}</ref> It was named [[Mansouria, Tunisia|al-Mansuriyya]] (also known as Sabra al-Mansuriyya) and became the new seat of the caliphate.{{sfn|Halm|2014}}<ref name=":7" />

=== Apogee ===

==== Conquest of Egypt and transfer of the Caliphate to Cairo ====
[[File:Egypt, Cairo, The courtyard of Al-Azhar.jpg|thumb|[[Al-Azhar Mosque]] in [[Cairo]], built by the Fatimids between 970 and 972{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|p=44}}]]
In 969, Jawhar launched a carefully prepared and successful [[Fatimid conquest of Egypt|invasion of Egypt]], which had been under the control of the [[Ikhshidid dynasty|Ikhshidids]], another regional dynasty whose formal allegiance was to the Abbasids.{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|pp=42–43}}{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=77}} Al-Mu'izz had given Jawhar specific instructions to carry out after the conquest, and one of his first actions was to found a new capital named ''al-Qahira'' ([[Cairo]]) in 969.{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|pp=43–44}}<ref>{{Cite journal |url= http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/196905/cairo-a.millennial.htm |title= Cairo, a Millennial |access-date= 9 August 2007 |first= Irene |last= Beeson |pages= 24, 26–30 |date= September–October 1969 |journal= [[Saudi Aramco World]] |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070930163720/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/196905/cairo-a.millennial.htm |archive-date= 30 September 2007 |url-status= dead |df= dmy-all }}
</ref> The name ''al-Qahira'', meaning "the Vanquisher" or "the Conqueror", referenced the planet [[Mars]], "The Subduer",<ref name="gold84">{{cite book|last=Goldschmidt|first=Arthur|title=A concise history of the Middle East|year=2002|publisher= Westview Press|location=Boulder, Colorado|isbn=0-8133-3885-9|pages=84–86}}</ref> rising in the sky at the time when the construction of the city started.{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|pp=43–44}} The city was located several miles northeast of [[Fustat]], the older regional capital founded by the [[Muslim conquest of Egypt|Arab conquerors]] in the seventh century.{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|p=}}

Control of Egypt was secured with relative ease and soon afterward, in 970, Jawhar sent a force to invade Syria and remove the remaining Ikhshidids who had fled there from Egypt. This Fatimid force was led by a Kutama general named [[Ja'far ibn Fallah|Ja'far ibn Falah]]. This invasion was successful at first and many cities, including Damascus, were occupied that same year.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|pp=81–83}} Ja'far's next step was to attack the Byzantines, who had captured [[Antioch]] and subjugated [[Aleppo]] in 969 (around the same time as Jawhar was arriving in Egypt), but he was forced to call off the advance in order to face a new threat from the east. The Qarmatis of Bahrayn, responding to the appeal of the recently defeated leaders of Damascus, had organized a large coalition of Arab tribesmen to attack him. Ja'far chose to confront them in the desert in August 971, but his army was surrounded and defeated and Ja'far himself was killed.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=83}} A month later the Qarmati imam Hasan al-A'ṣam led the army, with new reinforcements from [[Transjordan (region)|Transjordan]], into Egypt, seemingly without opposition. The Qarmatis spent time occupying the Nile Delta region, which gave Jawhar time to organize a defense of Fustat and Cairo. The Qarmati advance was halted just north of the city and eventually routed. A [[Kalbids|Kalbid]] relief force arriving by sea secured the expulsion of the Qarmatis from Egypt. [[Ramla]], the capital of [[Jund Filastin|Palestine]], was retaken by the Fatimids in May 972, but otherwise the progress in Syria had been lost.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|pp=83–84}}

[[File:Seated drinker, Fatimid art (cropped).jpg|thumb|Architectural fragment from a bathhouse in [[al-Fustat]], 11th century CE (pre-1168 CE). Museum of Islamic Art, Cairo, 12880.<ref>{{cite book |last1=McWilliams |first1=Mary |url=https://www.academia.edu/107394377 |title=Social Fabrics: Inscribed Textiles from Medieval Egyptian Tombs |last2=Sokoly |first2=Jochen |year=2021 |page=23, Fig. 7 |access-date=8 February 2024 |archive-date=16 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240916020843/https://www.academia.edu/107394377 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hillenbrand |first1=Robert |url=https://archive.org/details/islamicartarchit0000hill/page/71/mode/1up?view=theater |title=Islamic art and architecture |date=1999 |publisher=London : Thames and Hudson |isbn=978-0-500-20305-7 |page=71, Figure 51}}</ref>]]
Once Egypt was sufficiently [[Pacification (military action)|pacified]] and the new capital was ready, Jawhar sent for al-Mu'izz in Ifriqiya. The caliph, his court, and his treasury, departed from al-Mansuriyya in fall 972, traveling by land but shadowed by the Fatimid navy sailing along the coast. After making triumphant stops in major cities along the way, the caliph arrived in Cairo on 10 June 973.{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|p=46}}{{Sfn|Brett|2017|pp=80, 84}} Like other royal capitals before it, Cairo was constructed as an administrative and palatine city, housing the [[Fatimid Great Palaces|palaces of the caliph]] and the official state mosque, [[Al-Azhar Mosque]]. In 988, the mosque also became an academic institution that was central in the dissemination of Isma'ili teachings.<ref name=":4532">{{Cite book |last=Daftary |first=Farhad |title=The World of the Fatimids |publisher=Aga Khan Museum; The Institute of Ismaili Studies; Hirmer |year=2018 |isbn=978-1926473123 |editor-last=Melikian-Chirvani |editor-first=Assadullah Souren |location=Toronto; Munich |page=27 |chapter=The Fatimid Caliphs: Rise and Fall}}</ref> Until the last years of the Fatimid Caliphate, the economic centre of Egypt remained Fustat, where most of the general population lived and traded.{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|pp=38–85}}

Under the Fatimids, Egypt became the centre of an empire that included at its peak parts of North Africa, Sicily, the [[Levant]] (including Transjordan), the [[Red Sea]] coast of Africa, [[Tihamah]], [[Hejaz]], [[Upper Yemen|Yemen]], with its most remote territorial reach being [[History of Multan#Ismailis|Multan (in modern-day Pakistan)]].<ref name="SettonBaldwin1969">{{cite book|author1=Kenneth M. Setton|author2=Marshall W. Baldwin|title=A History of the Crusades: The First Hundred Years|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RfO1J6hjcdgC&pg=PA104|access-date=26 February 2019|year=1969|publisher=Univ of Wisconsin Press|isbn=978-0-299-04834-1|page=104|quote=The Fatimid caliphate at its height included Egypt, Syria, the Hejaz, the Yemen, North Africa, and Sicily, and commanded the allegiance of countless followers in the eastern lands still subject to the Abbasids of Baghdad.|archive-date=16 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240916020842/https://books.google.com/books?id=RfO1J6hjcdgC&pg=PA104#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Daftary|2007|p=167}}<ref name="Trawinski2017">{{cite book|author=Allan Trawinski|title=The Clash of Civilizations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L2glDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT185|access-date=26 February 2019|year=2017|publisher=Page Publishing Inc|isbn=978-1-63568-712-5|page=185|quote=Originally based in Tunisia, the Fatimid Dynasty extended their rule across the Mediterranean coast of Africa and ultimately made Egypt the center of their caliphate. At its height, in addition to Egypt, the caliphate included varying areas of the Maghreb, Sicily, the Levant, and the Hijaz.|archive-date=16 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240916020843/https://books.google.com/books?id=L2glDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT185#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> Egypt flourished, and the Fatimids developed an extensive trade network both in the Mediterranean and in the Indian Ocean. Their trade and diplomatic ties, extending all the way to China under the [[Song Dynasty]] ({{reign | 960 | 1279}}), eventually determined the economic course of Egypt during the [[High Middle Ages]]. The Fatimid focus on agriculture further increased their riches and allowed the dynasty and the Egyptians to flourish. The use of cash crops and the propagation of the [[flax]] trade allowed Fatimids to import other items from various parts of the world.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cortese|first=Delia|date=January 2015|title=The Nile: Its Role in the Fortunes and Misfortunes of the Fatimid Dynasty During its Rule of Egypt (969–1171)|journal=History Compass|volume=13|issue=1|pages=20–29|doi=10.1111/hic3.12210|issn=1478-0542|url=https://eprints.mdx.ac.uk/14012/1/14012HCThe_Nile_and_Fatimids_final.pdf|access-date=2 December 2019|archive-date=20 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191220124721/https://eprints.mdx.ac.uk/14012/1/14012HCThe_Nile_and_Fatimids_final.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Fatimids built upon some of the bureaucratic foundations laid by the Ikhshidids and the old Abbasid imperial order. The office of the ''wazir'' ([[vizier]]), which existed under the Ikhshidids, was soon revived under the Fatimids. The first to be appointed to this position was the [[Jews|Jewish]] convert [[Ya'qub ibn Killis]], who was elevated to this office in 979 by al-Mu'izz's successor [[Al-Aziz Billah|al-Aziz]]. The office of the vizier became progressively more important over the years, as the vizier became the intermediary between the caliph and the large bureaucratic state that he ruled.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|pp=89–90, 103}}{{Sfn|Canard|1965}}

==== Campaigns in Syria ====
[[File:Image of two standing soldiers, Museum of Islamic Art, Cairo, inv. no. 13703.jpg|thumb|Image of two standing soldiers. 11th century, Fatimid period, from [[Fustat]] near [[Cairo]]. Museum of Islamic Art, Cairo, inv. no. 13703.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Liebrenz |first1=Boris |title=Talking Hats: What Documents and Textiles Can Tell Us about Each Other |journal=Journal of Material Cultures in the Muslim World |date=14 July 2023 |volume=3 |issue=2 |page=185 |doi=10.1163/26666286-12340031 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/374473936|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hillenbrand |first1=Robert |title=Islamic art and architecture |date=1999 |publisher=London : Thames and Hudson |isbn=978-0-500-20305-7 |page=71, Figure 52 |url=https://archive.org/details/islamicartarchit0000hill/page/71/mode/1up?view=theater}}</ref> Attribution to the Fatimid period is sometimes questioned.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bloom |first1=Jonathan M. |title=Painting in the Fatimid Period: A Reconsideration |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society |date=October 2022 |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=730–742, Fig.3 |doi=10.1017/S1356186322000359 |language=en |issn=1356-1863|doi-access=free }}</ref>]]
In 975, the Byzantine emperor [[John I Tzimiskes|John Tzimisces]] retook most of Palestine and Syria, leaving only [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]] in Fatimid control. He aimed to capture [[Jerusalem]], but he died in 976 on his way back to [[Constantinople]], thus staving off the Byzantine threat to the Fatimids.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=94}} Meanwhile, the [[Turkic peoples|Turkish]] ''[[Ghulman|ghulam]]'' (plural: ''ghilman'', meaning soldiers recruited as slaves) [[Alptakin|Aftakin]], a [[Buyid dynasty|Buyid]] refugee who had fled an unsuccessful rebellion in Baghdad with his own contingent of Turkish soldiers, became the protector of Damascus. He allied with the Qarmatis and with Arab [[Bedouin]] tribes in Syria and invaded Palestine in the spring of 977.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=94}} Jawhar, once again called into action, repelled their invasion and besieged Damascus. However, he suffered a rout during the winter and was forced to hold out in [[Ascalon]] against Aftakin. When his Kutama soldiers mutinied in April 978, Caliph al-Aziz himself led an army to relieve him. Instead of returning to Damascus, Aftakin and his Turkish ''ghilman'' joined the Fatimid army and became a useful instrument in the Syrian effort.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|pp=94–95}}

After Ibn Killis became vizier in 979, the Fatimids changed tactics. Ibn Killis was able to subjugate most of Palestine and southern Syria (the former Ikhshidid territories) by paying off the Qarmatis with an annual tribute and making alliances with local tribes and dynasties, such as the [[Jarrahids]] and the [[Banu Kilab]].{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=95}} Following another failed attempt by a Kutama general, Salman, to take Damascus, the Turkish ''ghulam'' Bultakin finally succeeded in occupying the city for the Fatimids in 983, demonstrating the value of this new force.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=96}} Another ''ghulam'', Bajkur, was appointed governor of Damascus at this time. That same year he tried and failed to take Aleppo, but he was soon able to conquer [[Raqqa]] and [[Al-Rahba|Rahba]] in the [[Euphrates]] valley (present-day northeast [[Syria]]).{{Sfn|Brett|2017|pp=96, 121}} Cairo eventually judged him to be a little too popular as governor of Damascus and he was forced to move to Raqqa while Munir, a eunuch in the caliph's household (like Jawhar before him), took direct control in Damascus on behalf of the caliph.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=96}} Further north, Aleppo remained out of reach and under [[Hamdanid dynasty|Hamdanid]] control.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=96}}

The incorporation of the Turkish troops into the Fatimid army had long-term consequences. On the one hand, they were a necessary addition to the military in order for the Fatimids to compete militarily with other powers in the region.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=95}} The Fatimids began to recruit ''ghilman'' much as the Abbasids had done before them. They were soon joined by recruited [[Daylamites|Daylamis]] (footmen from the Buyid homeland in [[Iran]]). [[Black people|Black Africans]] from the [[The Sudans|Sudan]] (upper Nile valley) were also recruited afterward.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=95}} In the short term the Kutama warriors remained the most important troops of the Caliph, but resentment and rivalry eventually grew between the different ethnic components of the army.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=95}}

Bajkur, based in Raqqa, made another unsuccessful attempt against Aleppo in 991 which resulted in his capture and execution.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=121}} That same year, Ibn Killis died and Munir was accused of conducting treasonous correspondence with Baghdad. These difficulties triggered a strong response in Cairo. A major military campaign was prepared to impose Fatimid control over all of Syria. Along the way, Munir was arrested in Damascus and sent back to Cairo.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|pp=121–22}} Circumstances were favourable to the Fatimids as the Byzantine emperor [[Basil II]] was campaigning far away in the [[Balkans]] and the Hamdanid ruler [[Sa'd al-Dawla of Aleppo|Sa'd al-Dawla]] died in late 991.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=122}} Manjutakin, the Turkish Fatimid commander, advanced methodically north along the Orontes valley. He took Homs and Hama in 992 and defeated a combined force from Hamdanid Aleppo and Byzantine-held Antioch. In 993 he took Shayzar and in 994 he began the siege of Aleppo.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=122}} In May 995, however, Basil II unexpectedly arrived in the region after a [[Loaded march|forced march]] with his army through Anatolia, forcing Manjutakin to lift the siege and return to Damascus. Before another Fatimid expedition could be sent, Basil II negotiated a one-year truce with the caliph, which the Fatimids used to recruit and build new ships for their fleet.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|pp=122–23}} In 996 many of the ships were destroyed by a fire at al-Maqs, the port on the Nile near Fustat, further delaying the expedition. Finally, in August 996 al-Aziz died and the objective of Aleppo became secondary to other concerns.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|pp=123–24}}

==== The Zirids in the Maghreb ====
Before leaving for Egypt, al-Mu'izz had installed [[Buluggin ibn Ziri]], the son of Ziri bn Manad (who died in 971), as his viceroy in the Maghreb. This established a dynasty of viceroys, with the title of "amir", who ruled the region on behalf of the Fatimids.{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1987|p=75}}<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Bosworth |first=Clifford Edmund |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=maQxEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA35 |title=The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0748696482 |location= |pages=35–36 |language=en |chapter=The Zirids and Hammadids }}</ref> Their authority remained disputed in the western Maghreb, where the rivalry with the Umayyads and with local Zenata leaders continued. After Jawhar's successful western expedition, the Umayyads returned to northern Morocco in 973 to reassert their authority. Buluggin launched one last [[Zirid conquest of the western Maghreb|expedition in 979–980]] that reestablished his authority in the region temporarily, until a final decisive Umayyad intervention in 984–985 put an end to further efforts.<ref name=":0522"/>{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1987|p=75}} In 978 the caliph also gave [[Tripolitania]] to Buluggin to govern, though Zirid authority there was later replaced by the local [[Banu Khazrun]] dynasty in 1001.{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1987|p=67}}

In 988, Buluggin's son and successor al-Mansur moved the Zirid dynasty's base from [[Achir|Ashir]] (central Algeria) to the former Fatimid capital al-Mansuriyya, cementing the status of the Zirids as more or less ''de facto'' independent rulers of Ifriqiya, while still officially maintaining their allegiance to the Fatimid caliphs. Caliph al-Aziz accepted this situation for pragmatic reasons to maintain his own formal status as universal ruler. Both dynasties exchanged gifts and the succession of new Zirid rulers to the throne was officially sanctioned by the caliph in Cairo.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|pp=113–14}}

==== The reign of al-Hakim ====
{{Continental Asia in 1000 CE|right|The Fatimid Caliphate and main Asian polities {{circa|1000}}|{{location map~|Continental Asia|lat=28|N|long=34|E|label=|position=|label_size=|mark=Orange dot (semi-transparent).png|marksize=30}}}}
After al-Aziz's unexpected death, his young son al-Mansur, 11 years old, was installed on the throne as [[Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah|al-Hakim]]. Hasan ibn Ammar, the leader of the Kalbid clan in Egypt, a military veteran, and one of the last remaining members of al-Mu'izz's old guard, initially became regent, but he was soon forced to flee by Barjawan, the eunuch and tutor of the young al-Hakim, who took power in his stead.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|pp=125–26}} Barjawan stabilized the internal affairs of the empire but refrained from pursuing al-Aziz's policy of expansion towards Aleppo.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|pp=126–28}} In the year 1000, Barjawan was assassinated by al-Hakim, who now took direct and autocratic control of the state.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=129}}{{Sfn|Halm|2014}} His reign, which lasted until his mysterious disappearance in 1021, is the most controversial in Fatimid history. Traditional narratives have described him as either eccentric or outright insane, but more recent studies have tried to provide more measured explanations based on the political and social circumstances of the time.<ref>{{harvnb|Brett|2017|pp=130–31}}: "All this [...] and has been variously explained as eccentricity amounting to madness—the verdict of Yahya al-Antaki, who had it from al-Hakim's physician. Such a diagnosis, at such a distance in time and in the absence of any agreed definition of insanity, is unacceptable except as a confession of bafflement, a bafflement which al-Antaki observed in the faithful when they explained his actions as the product of the inscrutable inspiration of the Imam. But it has contributed to the black legend of a murderous maniac which was recounted at the beginning of the twentieth century by Stanley Lane-Poole in his ''History of Egypt in the Middle Ages''. Since then the effort has gone into finding more plausible explanations in the political and religious circumstances in which al-Hakim took charge of the dynasty's fortunes."</ref>

Among other things, al-Hakim was known for executing his officials when unsatisfied with them, seemingly without warning, rather than dismissing them from their posts as had been traditional practice. Many of the executions were members of the financial administration, which may mean that this was al-Hakim's way of trying to impose discipline in an institution rife with corruption.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|pp=134, 139}} He also opened the ''Dar al-'Ilm'' ("House of Knowledge"), a library for the study of the sciences, which was in line with al-Aziz's previous policy of cultivating this knowledge.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=134}} For the general population, he was noted for being more accessible and willing to receive petitions in person, as well as for riding out in person among the people in the streets of Fustat. On the other hand, he was also known for his capricious decrees aimed at curbing what he saw as public improprieties.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|pp=130–33}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tillier |first=Mathieu |date=2022 |title=Droit et messianisme chez les Fatimides de l'an 1000 |url=https://shs.hal.science/halshs-04070338v1/document |journal=L'Eurasie autour de l'an 1000. Cultures, religions et sociétés d'un monde en développement |pages=205–36 |doi=10.2307/jj.1357315.11 |isbn=978-90-429-4894-5 |access-date=27 April 2023 |archive-date=27 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230427084126/https://shs.hal.science/halshs-04070338v1/document |url-status=live }}</ref> He also unsettled the plurality of Egyptian society by imposing new restrictions on Christians and Jews, particularly on the way they dressed or behaved in public. He ordered or sanctioned the destruction of a number of churches and monasteries (mostly [[Coptic Orthodox Church|Coptic]] or [[Melkite]]), which was unprecedented, and in 1009, for reasons that remain unclear, he ordered the demolition of the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre|Church of the Holy Sephulchre]] in Jerusalem.{{Sfn|Halm|2014}}{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=138}}

Al-Hakim greatly expanded the recruitment of Black Africans into the army, who subsequently became another powerful faction to balance against the Kutama, Turks, and Daylamis.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=160}} In 1005, during his early reign, a dangerous uprising led by [[Abu Rakwa]] was successfully put down but had come within striking distance of Cairo.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|pp=136–37}} In 1012 the leaders of the Arab [[Tayy|Tayyi tribe]] occupied Ramla and proclaimed the [[Sharif of Mecca|sharif]] of [[Mecca]], [[Abu'l-Futuh al-Hasan ibn Ja'far|al-Hasan ibn Ja'far]], as the Sunni anti-caliph, but the latter's death in 1013 led to their surrender.{{Sfn|Halm|2014}} Despite his policies against Christians and his demolition of the church in Jerusalem, al-Hakim maintained a ten-year truce with the Byzantines that began in 1001.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|pp=127, 140–41}} For most of his reign, Aleppo remained a buffer state that paid tribute to Constantinople. This lasted until 1017, when the Fatimid [[Armenians|Armenian]] general [[Aziz al-Dawla|Fatāk]] finally occupied Aleppo at the invitation of a [[Fath al-Qal'i|local commander]] who had expelled the Hamdanid ''ghulam'' ruler [[Mansur ibn Lu'lu']].{{Sfn|Halm|2014}} After a year or two, however, Fatak made himself effectively independent in Aleppo.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=156}}

[[File:Mosquee al-akim le caire 1.jpg|thumb|The [[Al-Hakim Mosque]] in Cairo, commissioned by [[Al-Aziz Billah|al-Aziz]] in 990 and completed by [[Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah|al-Hakim]] in 1013 (later renovated in the 1980s by the [[Dawoodi Bohra]]){{Sfn|O'Kane|2016|pp=17–18}}]]
Al-Hakim also alarmed his Isma'ili followers in several ways. In 1013 he announced the designation of two great-great-grandsons of al-Mahdi as two separate heirs: one, Abd al-Rahim ibn Ilyas, would inherit the title of caliphate as the role of political ruler, and the other, Abbas ibn Shu'ayb, would inherit the imamate or religious leadership.{{Sfn|Halm|2014}} This was a serious departure from a central purpose of the Fatimid Imam-Caliphs, which was to combine these two functions in one person.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=149}} In 1015 he also suddenly halted the Isma'ili doctrinal lectures of the ''majalis al-hikma'' ("sessions of wisdom") which had taken place regularly inside the palace.{{Sfn|Halm|2014}} In 1021, while wandering the desert outside Cairo on one of his nightly excursions, he disappeared. He was purportedly murdered, but his body was never found.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=151}}{{Sfn|Halm|2014}}

===Decline===
==== Losses, successes, and civil war ====
After al-Hakim's death his two designated heirs were killed, putting an end to his succession scheme, and his sister [[Sitt al-Mulk]] arranged to have his 15-year-old son Ali installed on the throne as [[Al-Zahir li-i'zaz Din Allah|al-Zahir]]. She served as his regent until her death in 1023, at which point an alliance of courtiers and officials ruled, with [[Ali ibn Ahmad al-Jarjara'i|al-Jarjara'i]], a former finance official, at their head.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|pp=157–60}}{{Sfn|Halm|2014}} Fatimid control in Syria was threatened during the 1020s. In Aleppo, Fatak, who had declared his independence, was killed and replaced in 1022, but this opened the way for a coalition of Bedouin chiefs from the Banu Kilab, Jarrahids, and [[Banu Kalb]] led by [[Salih ibn Mirdas]] to take the city in 1024 or 1025 and to begin imposing their control on the rest of Syria. Al-Jarjara'i sent [[Anushtakin al-Dizbari]], a Turkish commander, with a force that defeated them in 1029 at the [[Battle of Uqḥuwāna|Battle of Uqhuwana]] near Lake Tiberias.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|pp=162–63}}{{Sfn|Halm|2014}} In 1030 the new Byzantine emperor [[Romanos III Argyros|Romanos III]] broke a truce to [[Battle of Azaz (1030)|invade northern Syria]] and forced Aleppo to recognize his suzerainty. His death in 1034 changed the situation again and in 1036 peace was restored. In 1038 Aleppo was directly annexed by the Fatimids state for the first time.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=173}}

[[File:Khalili Collection Islamic Art av 272.jpg|thumb|Fatimid [[gold dinar]] minted during the reign of [[al-Mustansir Billah]] (1036–1094)]]
Al-Zahir died in 1036 and was succeeded by his son, [[al-Mustansir Billah|al-Mustansir]], who had the longest reign in Fatimid history, serving as caliph from 1036 to 1094. However, he remained largely uninvolved in politics and left the government in the hands of others.{{Sfn|Halm|2014}} He was seven years old at his accession and thus al-Jarjara'i continued to serve as vizier and his guardian. When al-Jarjara'i died in 1045 a series of court figures ran the government until [[Abu Muhammad al-Yazuri|al-Yazuri]], a [[Ulama|jurist]] of Palestinian origin, took and kept the office of vizier from 1050 to 1058.{{Sfn|Halm|2014}}

In the 1040s (possibly in 1041 or 1044), the Zirids declared their independence from the Fatimids and recognized the Sunni Abbasid caliphs of Baghdad, which led the Fatimids to launch the devastating [[Banu Hilal]] invasions of North Africa.{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1987|pp=68–69}}<ref name=":0" /> Fatimid suzerainty over Sicily also faded as the Muslim polity there fragmented and external attacks increased. By 1060, when the [[Italo-Norman]] [[Roger I of Sicily|Roger I]] began his conquest of the island (completed in 1091), the Kalbid dynasty, along with any Fatimid authority, were already gone.{{Sfn|Halm|2014}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bosworth |first=Clifford Edmund |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=maQxEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA33 |title=The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0748696482 |location= |pages=33 |language=en |chapter=The Kalbids }}</ref>

There was more success in the east, however. In 1047, the Fatimid ''da'i'' [[Ali al-Sulayhi|Ali Muhammad al-Sulayhi]] in Yemen built a fortress and recruited tribes with which he was able to capture [[Sanaa|San'a]] in 1048. In 1060, he began a campaign to conquer all of Yemen, capturing [[Aden]] and [[Zabid]]. In 1062 he marched on Mecca, where [[Shukr ibn Abi al-Futuh]]'s death in 1061 provided an excuse. Along the way he forced the [[Zaydism|Zaydi]] Imam in [[Saada|Sa'da]] into submission. Upon arriving in Mecca, he installed [[Abu Hashim Muhammad ibn Ja'far]] as the new sharif and custodian of the holy sites under the suzerainty of the Fatimids. He returned to San'a where he established his family as rulers on behalf of the Fatimid caliphs. His brother founded the city of [[Taiz|Ta'izz]], while the city of Aden became an important hub of trade between Egypt and [[Indian subcontinent|India]], which brought Egypt further wealth.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|pp=183, 197–98}}{{Sfn|Halm|2014}} His rise to power established the [[Sulayhid dynasty]] which continued to rule Yemen as nominal vassals of the Fatimids after this.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bosworth |first=Clifford Edmund |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=maQxEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA102 |title=The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=1996 |isbn=9780748696482 |location= |pages=102 |language=en |chapter=The Sulayhids}}</ref>

Events degenerated in Egypt and Syria, however. Starting in 1060, various local leaders began to break away or challenge Fatimid dominion in Syria.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|pp=198–99}} While the ethnic-based army was generally successful on the battlefield, it had begun to have negative effects on Fatimid internal politics. Traditionally, the Kutama element of the army had the strongest sway over political affairs, but as the Turkish element grew more powerful it began to challenge this. In 1062, the tentative balance between the different ethnic groups within the Fatimid army collapsed and they quarreled constantly or fought each other in the streets. At the same time, Egypt suffered a seven-year period of drought and famine known as the [[Mustansirite Hardship]].{{Sfn|Halm|2014}} Viziers came and went in a flurry, the bureaucracy broke down, and the caliph was unable or unwilling to assume responsibilities in their absence.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=199}} Declining resources accelerated the problems among the different ethnic factions and outright civil war began, primarily between the Turks under [[Nasir al-Dawla ibn Hamdan]], a scion of the Hamdanids of Aleppo, and Black African troops, while the Berbers shifted alliance between the two sides.{{sfn|Sanders|1998|p=155}}{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=201}} The Turkish faction under Nasir al-Dawla seized partial control of Cairo but their leader was not given any official title. In 1067–1068, they plundered the state treasury and then looted any treasures they could find in the palaces.{{Sfn|Halm|2014}}{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=202}} The Turks turned against Nasir al-Dawla in 1069 but he managed to rally Bedouin tribes to his side, took over most of the Nile Delta region, and blocked supplies and food from reaching the capital from this region. Things degenerated further for the general population, especially in the capital, which relied on the countryside for food. Historical sources of this period report extreme hunger and hardship in the city, even to the point of [[Human cannibalism|cannibalism]].{{Sfn|Brett|2017|pp=202–03}} The depredations in the Nile Delta may have also been a turning point that accelerated the long-term decline of the Coptic community in Egypt.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=220}}

==== Badr al-Jamali and the Fatimid revival ====
[[File:Juyushi Mosque,Cairo (1).jpg|thumb|[[Juyushi Mosque|Al-Juyushi Mosque]], Cairo, overlooking the city from the [[Mokattam|Muqattam]] Hills]]
[[File:Cairo, porte settentrionali, 01.JPG|thumb|[[Bab al-Futuh]], one of the gates of Cairo dating from [[Badr al-Jamali]]'s reconstruction of the city walls (1987)]]
By 1072, in a desperate attempt to save Egypt, al-Mustansir recalled general [[Badr al-Jamali]], who was at the time the governor of [[Acre, Israel|Acre]]. Badr led his troops into Egypt, entered Cairo in January 1074, and successfully suppressed the different groups of the rebelling armies.{{Sfn|Halm|2014}} As a result, Badr was made vizier, becoming one of the first military viziers (''amir al-juyush'' 'commander of the armies') who would dominate late Fatimid politics.{{Sfn|Halm|2014}} In 1078 al-Mustansir formally abdicated responsibility for all state affairs to him.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=207}} His ''de facto'' rule initiated a temporary and limited revival of the Fatimid state, although it was now faced with serious challenges.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|pp=207–09}}{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|p=78}} Badr reestablished Fatimid authority in the [[Hejaz]] (Mecca and [[Medina]]) and the Sulayhids were able to hold on in Yemen.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=201}} Syria, however, saw the advance of the Sunni-aligned [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuk Turks]], who had conquered much of the Middle East and had become the guardians of the Abbasid Caliphs, as well as independent Turkmen groups. [[Atsiz ibn Uwaq]], a Turkmen of the Nawaki tribe,<ref name=Gil1997>{{cite book|last=Gil|first=Moshe|author-link=Moshe Gil|date=1997|title=A History of Palestine, 634–1099|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=409–12|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M0wUKoMJeccC|isbn=978-0521599849|access-date=23 September 2020}}</ref> conquered Jerusalem in 1073 and Damascus in 1076 before attempting to invade even Egypt itself.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|pp=203–06}}{{Sfn|Halm|2014}} After defeating him at a battle close to Cairo,<ref name="HaKohenGreenstone">{{cite journal |last1=ben Joseph Ha-Kohen |first1=Solomon |last2=Greenstone |first2=Julius H. |title=The Turkoman Defeat at Cairo |journal=The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures |date=January 1906 |jstor= 527656 |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=144–75 |doi= 10.1086/369565 |s2cid= 170839031 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/527656 |access-date=7 April 2022|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Badr was able to start a counter-offensive to secure coastal cities, such as [[Gaza City|Gaza]] and Ascalon, and later [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]], [[Sidon]], and [[Byblos]] further north in 1089.{{Sfn|Halm|2014}}

Badr made major reforms to the state, updating and simplifying the administration of Egypt.{{Sfn|Halm|2014}} As he was of Armenian background, his term also saw a large influx of Armenian immigrants, both Christian and Muslim, into Egypt. The [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenian church]], patronised by Badr, established itself in the country along with a clerical hierarchy.{{Sfn|Halm|2014}} He commanded a large contingent of Armenian troops, many (if not all) of whom were also Christian.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=220}} Badr also used his relations and influence with the Coptic Church for political advantage. In particular, he enlisted [[Pope Cyril II of Alexandria|Cyril II]] ([[Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church|Coptic Pope]] from 1078 to 1092<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Angold |first=Michael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1xUV-nMxNGsC&dq=cyril+ii+cairo+alexandria&pg=PA375 |title=The Cambridge History of Christianity: Volume 5, Eastern Christianity |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-81113-2 |volume=5 |page=375 |language=en |access-date=14 April 2022 |archive-date=7 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230507152133/https://books.google.com/books?id=1xUV-nMxNGsC&dq=cyril%20ii%20cairo%20alexandria&pg=PA375 |url-status=live }}</ref>) to secure the allegiance of the Christian kingdoms of [[Nubia]] (specifically [[Makuria]]) and [[Ethiopia]] (specifically the [[Zagwe dynasty]]) as vassals to the Fatimid state.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|pp=220–23}}

The [[Juyushi Mosque]] ('the Mosque of the Armies'), was commissioned by Badr and completed in 1085 under the patronage of the caliph.<ref>{{cite book|title=al Juyushi: A Vision of the Fatemiyeen|date=2002|publisher=Graphico Printing Ltd|isbn=978-0953927012}}</ref> The mosque, identified as a ''[[Mazar (mausoleum)|mashhad]]'', was also a victory monument commemorating vizier Badr's restoration of order for al-Mustansir.{{Sfn|O'Kane|2016|p=22}} Between 1087 and 1092, the vizier also replaced the mudbrick walls of Cairo with new stone walls and slightly expanded the city. Three of its monumental gates still survive today: [[Bab Zuweila]], [[Bab al-Futuh]], and [[Bab al-Nasr (Cairo)|Bab al-Nasr]].{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|pp=62–63}}

==== Final decline ====
As the military viziers effectively became heads of state, the Caliph himself was reduced to the role of a figurehead. The reliance on the [[Iqta|''iqta'']] system also ate into Fatimid central authority, as more and more the military officers at the further ends of the empire became semi-independent.{{Citation needed|date=March 2022}}

Badr al-Jamali died in 1094, along with Caliph al-Mustansir that same year, and his son [[Al-Afdal Shahanshah]] succeeded him in power as vizier.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=228}}{{Sfn|Halm|2014}} After al-Mustansir, the Caliphate passed on to [[al-Musta'li]]; after his death in 1101, it passed to the 5-year-old [[Al-Amir bi-Ahkam Allah|al-Amir]]. Another of al-Mustansir's sons, [[Nizar ibn al-Mustansir|Nizar]], attempted to take the throne after his father's death and organized a rebellion in 1095, but he was defeated and executed that same year.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|pp=228–29}} This resulted in a schism with Isma'ili missionaries in Iran, led by the ''da'i'' [[Hasan-i Sabbah]], who founded the [[Nizari]] sect and went on to form the [[Order of Assassins]].{{Sfn|Halm|2014}}{{Sfn|Brett|2017|pp=229–230, 248–249}} Al-Afdal arranged for his sister to marry al-Musta'li and later for his daughter to marry al-Amir, hoping in this way to merge his family with that of the caliphs. He also attempted to secure the succession of his son to the vizierate as well, but this ultimately failed.{{Sfn|Halm|2014}}

During al-Afdal's tenure (1094–1121), the Fatimids faced a new external threat: the [[First Crusade]]. Although initially both sides intended to reach an agreement and an alliance against the Seljuk Turks, these negotiations would eventually break down. First contact seems to have been established by the crusaders who sent in May or June 1097, on suggestion of Byzantine Emperor [[Alexios I Komnenos|Alexios Komnenos]], an embassy to al-Afdal.{{sfn|Köhler|2013|p=44}}{{Sfn|Runciman|1951|p=229}} In return the Fatimids dispatched an embassy to the crusading forces which arrived in February 1098 during their [[siege of Antioch]], witnessing and congratulating the crusaders on their [[Battle of the Lake of Antioch|victory]] against the Seljuk emirs [[Ridwan of Aleppo]] and [[Sökmen (Artuqid)|Sökmen]] of Jerusalem as well as stressing their friendly attitude towards Christians.{{sfn|Köhler|2013|p=44}} The Fatimid embassy stayed for a month with the crusading forces before returning via the harbour of [[Latakia]] with gifts as well as Frankish ambassadors. It is uncertain whether an agreement was reached but it seems that the parties expected to reach a conclusion in Cairo.{{sfn|Köhler|2013|p=45}} Al-Afdal took then advantage of the crusader [[Battle of Antioch (1098)|victory at Antioch]] to reconquer Jerusalem in August 1098, possibly to be in a better position in the negotiations with the crusaders.{{sfn|Köhler|2013|pp=48–50}} The next time both parties met was at [[Arqa]]h in April 1099 where an impasse was reached in regard to the question of ownership over Jerusalem. Following this, the crusaders crossed into Fatimid territory and [[Siege of Jerusalem (1099)|captured Jerusalem]] in July 1099 while al-Afdal was leading a relief army trying to reach the city. The two forces finally clashed in the [[Battle of Ascalon]] in which al-Afdal was defeated.{{sfn|Runciman|1951|p=296}} Nevertheless, the initial negotiations were held against the Fatimids and Ibn al-Athir wrote that it was said that the Fatimids had invited the crusaders to invade Syria.<ref>{{harvnb|Richards|2017}}: "It has been said that the Alid rulers of Egypt became fearful when they saw the strength and power of the Saljuq state, that it had gained control of Syrian lands as far as Gaza, leaving no buffer state between the Saljuqs and Egypt to protect them, and that Aqsis had entered Egypt and blockaded it. They therefore sent to the Franks to invite them to invade Syria, to conquer it and separate them and the [other] Muslims, but God knows best."</ref>

This defeat established the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] as a new regional rival and although many crusaders returned to Europe, having fulfilled their vows, the remaining forces, often aided by the [[Italian maritime republics]], overran much of the coastal Levant, with [[Tripoli, Lebanon|Tripoli]], [[Beirut]], and Sidon falling to them between 1109 and 1110. The Fatimids retained Tyre, Ascalon, and Gaza with the help of their fleet.{{Sfn|Halm|2014}}{{sfn|Runciman|1951|p=303}} After 1107, a new rising star rose through the ranks of the regime in the form of Muhammad Ali bin Fatik, better known as [[al-Ma'mun al-Bata'ihi]]. He managed to carry out various administrative reforms and infrastructural projects in the later years of al-Afdal's term, including the construction of an astronomical observatory in 1119.{{Sfn|Halm|2014}} Al-Afdal was assassinated in 1121, an act blamed on the Nizaris or Assassins, though the truth of this is unconfirmed.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=251}}
[[File:Cairo, moschea di al-aqmar, 04.JPG|thumb|[[Aqmar Mosque|Al-Aqmar Mosque]] built in 1125-6, under the [[Al-Amir bi-Ahkam Allah|Caliph al-Amir]]]]
Al-Bata'ihi took al-Afdal's place as vizier, but unlike his predecessors he had less support in the army and was ultimately reliant on the caliph for power.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=257}} In 1124, he lost Tyre to the Crusaders.{{Sfn|Halm|2014}} He was also responsible for constructing a small but notable mosque in Cairo, the [[Aqmar Mosque|Al-Aqmar Mosque]], which was completed in 1125 and has largely survived to the present day.{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|p=65}}<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |title=Al-Aqmar Mosque |url=https://egymonuments.gov.eg/monuments/al-aqmar-mosque/ |access-date=2025-04-05 |website=egymonuments.gov.eg |language=en}}</ref> That same year, however, Caliph al-Amir had him arrested, probably due to his failure to resist the Crusaders or due to the caliph's resentment of his wealth and power. Three years later he was executed.{{Sfn|Halm|2014}}{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=257}} Al-Amir then ruled the Caliphate personally, briefly interrupting the long period of ''de facto'' rule by the caliph's viziers. Al-Amir himself was assassinated in 1130, probably by the [[Order of Assassins|Nizari Assassins]].{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=261}}{{Sfn|Halm|2014}}<ref name=":10" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Fatimid Al-Aqmar mosque in Cairo |url=https://egyptian-gazette.com/entertainment/arts/fatimid-al-aqmar-mosque-in-cairo-reopens/ |access-date=2025-04-05 |website=egyptian-gazette.com}}</ref>

Al-Amir did not leave an adult heir but apparently had a son born shortly before his death, known as al-Ṭayyib. One of Al-Amir's cousins (a grandson of al-Mustansir), Abd al-Majid, had himself appointed regent. Under pressure from the army, one of al-Afdal's sons, Abu Ali Ahmad (known as Kutayfat), was appointed vizier with titles similar to al-Afdal and Badr al-Jamali.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=|pp=262–263}}{{Sfn|Halm|2014}} Kutayfat attempted to depose the Fatimid dynasty by imprisoning Abd al-Majid and by declaring himself to be the representative of [[Muhammad al-Mahdi|Muhammad al-Muntazar]], the "hidden" Imam awaited by [[Twelver Shi'ism|Twelver Shi'as]].{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=260}} The coup did not last long, as Kutayfat was assassinated in 1131 by al-Amir's followers in the Fatimid establishment.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=265}}{{Sfn|Halm|2014}} Abd al-Majid was released and resumed his role as regent. In 1132, however, he declared himself to be the new Imam-Caliph, taking the title of [[al-Hafiz]], sidelining the infant al-Ṭayyib and breaking with the tradition of the succession passing directly from father to son. Most of the Fatimid lands acknowledged his succession, but the Sulayhids in Yemen did not and broke away from the Caliphate in Cairo, recognizing al-Ṭayyib as the true Imam. This caused another schism between the [[Hafizi Isma'ilism|Hafizi]] and [[Tayyibi Isma'ilism|Tayyibi]] branches of the [[Musta'li Ismailism|Musta'li Isma'ilis]].{{Sfn|Brett|2017|pp=265–66}}{{Sfn|Halm|2014}}

In 1135, al-Hafiz was pressured by the Fatimid Armenian troops into appointing [[Bahram al-Armani|Bahram]], a Christian Armenian, to the office of vizier. Opposition from Muslim troops forced him to leave in 1137, when [[Ridwan ibn Walakhshi|Ridwan]], a Sunni Muslim, was appointed vizier.{{Sfn|Halm|2014}} When Ridwan began to plot the deposition of al-Hafiz, he was expelled from Cairo and later defeated in battle. He accepted a pardon from the caliph and remained at the palace. Al-Hafiz chose not to appoint another vizier, and instead took direct control of the state until his death in 1149.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|pp=275–76}}{{Sfn|Halm|2014}} During this time, the fervor of the Isma'ili religious cause in Egypt had significantly faded, and political challenges to the caliph became more common. Sunni Muslims were also increasingly appointed to high posts. The Fatimid dynasty largely continued to survive due to the established common interests that many factions and elites had in maintaining the current system of government.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|pp=276–77}}

[[File:Mosque of Salih Talai from above.jpg|thumb|[[Al-Salih Tala'i Mosque]] in Cairo, built by [[Tala'i ibn Ruzzik]] in 1160 and originally intended to house the head of [[Husayn ibn Ali|Husayn]] (the head ended up being interred instead at the present-day [[al-Hussein Mosque]]){{sfn|O'Kane|2016|p=38}}]]
Al-Hafiz was the last Fatimid caliph to rule directly and the last one to ascend to the throne as an adult. The last three caliphs, [[al-Zafir]] (r. 1149–1154), [[Al-Fa'iz bi-Nasr Allah|al-Fa'iz]] (r. 1154–1160), and [[al-Adid]] (r. 1160–1171), were all children when they came to the throne.{{Sfn|Halm|2014}} Under al-Zafir, an elderly Berber named Ibn Masal was initially vizier, per the instructions left by Al-Hafiz. The army, however, supported a Sunni named Ibn Sallar instead, whose supporters managed to defeat and kill Ibn Masal in battle. After negotiating with the women of the palace, Ibn Sallar was installed as vizier in 1150.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|pp=280–81}} In January 1153, the Crusader king [[Baldwin III of Jerusalem|Baldwin III]] of [[Kingdom of Jerusalem|Jerusalem]] besieged Ascalon, the last remaining Fatimid foothold in the Levant. In April, Ibn Sallar was murdered in a plot organized by Abbas, his stepson, and Abbas's son, Nasr. As no relieving force arrived, Ascalon surrendered in August, on the condition that the inhabitants could leave safely for Egypt. It was on this occasion that the head of [[Husayn ibn Ali|Husayn]] was allegedly brought from Ascalon to Cairo, where it was housed in what is now the [[al-Hussein Mosque]].{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=282}} The next year (1154), Nasr murdered al-Zafir, and Abbas, now vizier, declared his 5-year-old son Isa (al-Fa'iz) the new caliph.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=282}} The women of the palace intervened, calling on [[Tala'i ibn Ruzzik]], a Muslim Armenian governor in [[Upper Egypt]], to help. Tala'i drove out Abbas and Nasr from Cairo and became vizier that same year. Afterwards he also conducted renewed operations against the Crusaders, but he could do little more than harass them by sea.{{Sfn|Halm|2014}} Al-Fa'iz died in 1160 and Tala'i was assassinated in 1161 by [[Sitt al-Qusur]], a sister of al-Zafir. Tala'i's son, Ruzzik ibn Tala'i, held the office of vizier until 1163, when he was overthrown and killed by [[Shawar]], the governor of [[Qus]].{{Sfn|Halm|2014}}

As vizier, Shawar came into conflict with his rival, the Arab general [[Dirgham]]. The internal disorder of the Caliphate attracted the attention and meddling of the Sunni [[Zengid]] ruler [[Nur ad-Din Zangi|Nur ad-Din]], who was now in control of Damascus and a large part of Syria, and of the King of Jerusalem, [[Amalric of Jerusalem|Amalric I]]. The Crusaders had already forced Tala'i ibn Ruzzik to pay them a tribute in 1161 and had made an attempt to invade Egypt in 1162.{{Sfn|Halm|2014}} When Shawar was driven out of Cairo by Dirgham in 1163, he sought refuge and help with Nur al-Din. Nur al-Din sent his general, [[Shirkuh|Asad al-Din Shirkuh]], to seize Egypt and reinstall Shawar as vizier. He accomplished this task in the summer of 1164, when Dirgham was defeated and killed.{{Sfn|Halm|2014}}

Shawar's remaining years continued in chaos as he made shifting alliances with either the King of Jerusalem or with Nur al-Din, depending on circumstances. In 1167, the Crusaders pursued Shirkuh's forces into Upper Egypt.{{Sfn|Halm|2014}} In 1168, Shawar, worried about the possible Crusader capture of Cairo, infamously set fire to Fustat in an attempt to deny the Crusaders a base from which to besiege the capital.{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|pp=83–85, 103}} After forcing the Crusaders to leave Egypt again, Shirkuh finally had Shawar murdered in 1169, with the agreement of Caliph al-Adid. Shirkuh himself was appointed as al-Adid's vizier, but he died unexpectedly two months later.{{Sfn|Halm|2014}} The position passed to his nephew, [[Saladin|Salah ad-Din Yusuf ibn Ayyub]] (known in the West as Saladin). Salah ad-Din was openly pro-Sunni and suppressed the Shi'a call to prayer, ended the Isma'ili doctrinal lectures (the ''majalis al-hikma''), and installed Sunni [[Qadi|judges]].{{Sfn|Halm|2014}} He finally and officially deposed al-Adid, the last Fatimid caliph, in September 1171. This ended the Fatimid dynasty and began the [[Ayyubid dynasty|Ayyubid Sultanate of Egypt and Syria]].{{Sfn|Halm|2014}}<ref name=":1" />

==Dynasty==
{{main|Fatimid dynasty}}

White was the dynastic colour of the Fatimids, in opposition to Abbasid black, while red and yellow banners were associated with the Fatimid caliph's person.<ref>{{cite book | last = Hathaway | first = Jane | title = A Tale of Two Factions: Myth, Memory, and Identity in Ottoman Egypt and Yemen | publisher = SUNY Press | year = 2012 | isbn = 978-0791486108 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=L-lPC7DgepEC | page = 97 | access-date = 2 April 2018 | archive-date = 17 March 2024 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240317174144/https://books.google.com/books?id=L-lPC7DgepEC | url-status = live }}</ref> Green is also cited as their dynastic colour, based on a tradition that the Islamic prophet Muhammad wore a green cloak.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Podeh |first=Elie |date=2011 |title=The symbolism of the Arab flag in modern Arab states: between commonality and uniqueness*: The Symbolism of the Arab Flag |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1469-8129.2010.00475.x |journal=Nations and Nationalism |language=en |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=419–42 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-8129.2010.00475.x |access-date=8 August 2023 |archive-date=16 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240916023007/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1469-8129.2010.00475.x |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

===Caliphs===
{{main|List of Fatimid caliphs}}

# [[Abdallah al-Mahdi Billah|Abu Muhammad Abdallah al-Mahdi bi'llah]] (909–934), founder of the Fatimid dynasty<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Bosworth |first=Clifford Edmund |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mKpz_2CkoWEC&q=new+islamic+dynasties |title=The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0748696482 |location= |pages=63–65 |language=en |chapter=The Fatimids }}</ref>
# [[Al-Qa'im (Fatimid caliph)|Abu'l-Qasim Muhammad al-Qa'im bi-Amr Allah]] (934–946)<ref name=":1" />
# [[Al-Mansur bi-Nasr Allah|Abu Tahir Isma'il al-Mansur bi-Nasr Allah]] (946–953)<ref name=":1" />
# [[Al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah|Abu Tamim Ma'add al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah]] (953–975). Egypt is conquered during his reign.<ref name=":1" />
# [[al-Aziz Billah|Abu Mansur Nizar al-'Aziz bi-llah]] (975–996)<ref name=":1" />
# [[Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah|Abu Ali al-Mansur al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah]] (996–1021). The [[Druze]] religion is founded during his lifetime.<ref name=":1" />
# [[al-Zahir li-i'zaz Din Allah|Abu'l-Hasan Ali al-Zahir li-I'zaz Din Allah]] (1021–1036)<ref name=":1" />
# [[Al-Mustansir Billah|Abu Tamim Ma'add al-Mustansir bi-llah]] (1036–1094).<ref name=":1" /> Quarrels over his succession led to the Nizari split.
# [[Al-Musta'li|Abu'l-Qasim Ahmad al-Musta'li bi-llah]] (1094–1101)<ref name=":1" />
# [[Al-Amir bi-Ahkam Allah|Abu Ali Mansur al-Amir bi-Ahkam Allah]] (1101–1130).<ref name=":1" /> The Fatimid rulers of Egypt after him are not recognized as Imams by Mustaali/Taiyabi Ismailis.
# [[Al-Hafiz|Abu'l-Maymun Abd al-Majid al-Hafiz li-Din Allah]] (1130–1149).<ref name=":1" /> The Hafizi sect is founded with Al-Hafiz as Imam.
# [[Al-Zafir|Abu Mansur Isma'il al-Zafir bi-Amr Allah]] (1149–1154)<ref name=":1" />
# [[Al-Fa'iz bi-Nasr Allah|Abu'l-Qasim Isa al-Fa'iz bi-Nasr Allah]] (1154–1160)<ref name=":1" />
# [[Al-Adid|Abu Muhammad Abdallah al-'Adid li-Din Allah]] (1160–1171)<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IiBCAAAAIAAJ&q=%22the+last+Fatimid+Caliph+al-Adid+%281160-1171%29%22 |quote=Nevertheless, the Seljuqs of Syria kept the Crusaders occupied for several years until the reign of the last Fatimid Caliph al-Adid (1160–1171) when, in the face of a Crusade threat, the caliph appointed a warrior of the Seljuq regime by the name of Shirkuh to be his chief minister. |title=Islamic History of the Middle East: Backgrounds, Development, and Fall of the Arab Empire |author=Wilson B. Bishai |publisher=Allyn and Bacon |year=1968 |access-date=11 November 2020 |archive-date=29 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210829023515/https://books.google.com/books?id=IiBCAAAAIAAJ&q=%22the+last+Fatimid+Caliph+al-Adid+%281160-1171%29%22 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":1" />

===Consorts===
{{See also|Fatimid harem}}
# [[Rasad]], wife of the seventh caliph Ali al-Zahir and mother of the eighth caliph al-Mustansir bi-llah.<ref>Delia Cortese and Simonetta Calderini (2006), ''Women and the Fatimids in the World of Islam'', pp. 111–14.</ref>

===Burial place===
The Fatimid caliphs were buried in a mausoleum known as ''Turbat az-Za'faraan'' ("the Saffron Tomb"), located at the southern end of the eastern Fatimid palace in Cairo on the site now occupied by the [[Khan el-Khalili]] market.{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|p=57}}<ref>Lev, Y. 2001. "Aspects of the Egyptian Society in the Fatimid Period". In Vermeulen, Urbain & J. van Steenbergen (eds.). ''Egypt and Syria in the Fatimid, Ayyubid, and Mamluk Eras III: Proceedings of the 6th, 7th and 8th International Colloquium Organized at the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven in May 1997, 1998, and 1999''. Peeters Publishers. p. 20.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Torky |first=Tarek |title=Khan al-Khalili |url=https://islamicart.museumwnf.org/database_item.php?id=monument;ISL;eg;Mon01;18;en |access-date=2022-03-11 |website=Discover Islamic Art, Museum With No Frontiers |archive-date=16 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240916022857/https://islamicart.museumwnf.org/database_item.php?id=monument;ISL;eg;Mon01;18;en |url-status=live }}</ref> The remains of the early Fatimid caliphs in Ifriqiya were also transferred here when al-Mu'izz moved his capital to Cairo.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Behrens-Abouseif |first=Doris |title=The World of the Fatimids |publisher=Aga Khan Museum; The Institute of Ismaili Studies; Hirmer |year=2018 |editor-last=Melikian-Chirvani |editor-first=Assadullah Souren |location=Toronto; Munich |pages=44–67 |chapter=The Fatimid Dream of a New Capital: Dynastic Patronage and Its Imprint on the Architectural Setting}}</ref> However, the mausoleum was completely demolished by the [[Mamluk Sultanate|Mamluk]] amir Jaharkas al-Khalili in 1385 to make way for the construction of a new merchant building (which gave its name to the present-day market).<ref name=":12">{{Cite book |title=Le Khan al-Khalili et ses environs: Un centre commercial et artisanal au Caire du XIIIe au XXe siècle |publisher=Institut français d'archéologie orientale |year=1999 |editor-last=Denoix |editor-first=Sylvie |location=Cairo |editor-last2=Depaule |editor-first2=Jean-Charles |editor-last3=Tuchscherer |editor-first3=Michel}}</ref><ref name=":13">{{Cite book |last=Williams |first=Caroline |title=Islamic Monuments in Cairo: The Practical Guide |publisher=The American University in Cairo Press |year=2018 |edition=7th |location=Cairo |pages=211}}</ref> During the demolition, Jaharkas reportedly desecrated the bones of the Fatimid royal family by having them dumped into the rubbish hills east of the city.{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|p=57}}

==Society==

=== Religious communities ===
Fatimid society was highly pluralistic. Isma'ili Shi'ism was the religion of the state and the caliph's court, but most of the population followed different religions or denominations. Most of the Muslim population remained Sunni, and a large part of the population remained Christian.<ref name=":452">{{Cite book |last1=Den Heijer |first1=Johannes |title=The World of the Fatimids |last2=Immerzeel |first2=Mat |last3=Boutros |first3=Naglaa Hamdi D. |last4=Makhoul |first4=Manhal |last5=Pilette |first5=Perrine |last6=Rooijakkers |first6=Tineke |publisher=Aga Khan Museum; The Institute of Ismaili Studies; Hirmer |year=2018 |isbn=978-1926473123 |editor-last=Melikian-Chirvani |editor-first=Assadullah Souren |location=Toronto; Munich |pages=190–217 |chapter=Christian Art and Culture}}</ref>{{Sfn|Halm|2014}} Jews were a smaller minority.<ref name=":45">{{Cite book |last=Sanders |first=Paula |title=The World of the Fatimids |publisher=Aga Khan Museum; The Institute of Ismaili Studies; Hirmer |year=2018 |isbn=978-1926473123 |editor-last=Melikian-Chirvani |editor-first=Assadullah Souren |location=Toronto; Munich |pages=218–29 |chapter=Jewish Books in Fatimid Egypt}}</ref> As in other Islamic societies of the time, non-Muslims were classified as [[Dhimmi|''dhimmi''s]], a term which implied both certain restrictions and certain liberties, though the practical circumstances of this status varied from context to context. As elsewhere in the historic Muslim world, they were required to pay the ''[[jizya]]'' tax.<ref name=":452" />{{Rp|pages=194–95}} Scholars generally agree that, on the whole, Fatimid rule was highly tolerant and inclusive towards different religious communities.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fierro |first=Maribel |date=2015 |title=Dhimmīs in Fatimid Egypt: A View from the Islamic West |journal=Medieval Encounters: Jewish, Christian, and Muslim Culture in Confluence and Dialogue |volume=21 |issue=4–5 |pages=516–23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yarbrough |first=Luke |date=2019 |title=Medieval Sunni historians on Fatimid policy and non-Muslim influence |journal=Journal of Medieval History |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=331–46|doi=10.1080/03044181.2019.1612186 |s2cid=164922323 }}</ref><ref name=":452" />{{Rp|page=195}}

Unlike western European governments of the era, advancement in Fatimid state offices was more [[meritocracy|meritocratic]] than hereditary.{{Citation needed|date=March 2022}} Members of other branches of Islam, like the Sunnis, were just as likely to be appointed to government posts as Shiites. Tolerance was extended to non-Muslims, such as Christians and Jews,<ref name="gold84" /> who occupied high levels in government based on ability, and this policy of tolerance ensured the flow of money from non-Muslims in order to finance the Caliphs' large army of [[Mamluks]] brought in from Circassia by Genoese merchants.{{Citation needed|date=September 2008}}

There were exceptions to this general attitude of tolerance, however, most notably by al-Hakim, though this has been highly debated, with Al-Hakim's reputation among medieval Muslim historians conflated with his role in the [[Druze|Druze faith]].<ref name="gold84" /> Christians in general and [[Persecution of Copts|Copts]] in particular were persecuted by Al-Hakim;<ref name="Robert Ousterhout 1989 pp. 66-78">Robert Ousterhout, "Rebuilding the Temple: Constantine Monomachus and the Holy Sepulchre" in ''The Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'', Vol. 48, No. 1 (March, 1989), pp. 66–78</ref><ref name="Saunders2002">{{cite book |author=John Joseph Saunders |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_d2KAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT109 |title=A History of Medieval Islam |year=2002 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-93005-0 |pages=109– |access-date=8 November 2020 |archive-date=19 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231219082630/https://books.google.com/books?id=_d2KAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT109#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Rustow2014">{{cite book |author=Marina Rustow |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MGWsBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT219 |title=Heresy and the Politics of Community: The Jews of the Fatimid Caliphate |year=2014 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-5529-2 |pages=219– |author-link=Marina Rustow |access-date=8 November 2020 |archive-date=16 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240916021910/https://books.google.com/books?id=MGWsBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT219#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> the [[Persecution of Christians|persecution of the Christians]] included closing and demolishing churches and [[forced conversion]] to Islam.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lyster |first=William |title=The Cave Church of Paul the Hermit at the Monastery of St. Pau |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-9774160936 |quote=Al Hakim Bi-Amr Allah (r. 996–1021), however, who became the greatest persecutor of Copts.... within the church that also appears to coincide with a period of forced rapid conversion to Islam}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=N. Swanson |first=Mark |title=The Coptic Papacy in Islamic Egypt (641–1517) |publisher=American Univ in Cairo Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-9774160936 |page=54 |quote=By late 1012 the persecution had moved into high gear with demolitions of churches and the forced conversion of Christian ...}}</ref><ref>ha-Mizraḥit ha-Yiśreʼelit, Ḥevrah (1988). Asian and African Studies, Volume 22. Jerusalem Academic Press. Muslim historians note the destruction of dozens of churches and the forced conversion of dozens of people to Islam under al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah in Egypt ...These events also reflect the Muslim attitude toward forced conversion and toward converts.</ref> With the succession of Caliph al-Zahir, the [[Druze]] faced a mass persecution,<ref>{{cite book |last=Parsons |first=L. |title=The Druze between Palestine and Israel 1947–49 |publisher=Springer |year=2000 |isbn=978-0230595989 |page=2 |quote=With the succession of al-Zahir to the Fatimid caliphate a mass persecution (known by the Druze as the period of the ''mihna'') of the Muwaḥḥidūn was instigated ...}}</ref> which included large massacres against the Druze in Antioch, Aleppo, and other cities.<ref name="RebeccaE">{{cite encyclopedia |title=The Druze |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of New Religious Movements |url=http://www.sacredtribesjournal.org/images/Encyclopedia/The_Druze.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518085757/http://www.sacredtribesjournal.org/images/Encyclopedia/The_Druze.pdf |archive-date=18 May 2015 |author=Rebecca Erickson |url-status=dead}}</ref>

==== Isma'ilis ====
{{Further|Isma'ilism}}
[[File:Al-Azhar 2019-11-02q.jpg|thumb|The original Fatimid-period [[mihrab]] inside the [[al-Azhar Mosque]]{{Sfn|O'Kane|2016|pp=11–14}}]]
It's unclear what number or percentage of the population inside the caliphate were actually Isma'ilis, but they always remained a minority.{{Sfn|Walker|1998|p=140}} Historical chronicles report large numbers of enthusiastic converts in Egypt during the reign of al-'Aziz, but this trend dropped significantly around the middle of al-Hakim's reign.{{Sfn|Walker|1998|p=140}} The Fatimid state promoted Isma'ili doctrine (the ''da'wa'') through a hierarchical organization. The Imam-Caliph, as successor to the Prophet Muhammad, was both the political and religious leader. Below the Imam-Caliph, the top of this hierarchy was headed by the ''da'i l-du'at'' or "supreme missionary".{{Sfn|Halm|2014}} Newcomers to the doctrine were initiated by attending the ''majalis al-hikma'' ("Sessions of Wisdom"), lectures and lessons that were delivered in a special hall inside the palaces of Cairo. The doctrine was kept secret from those who were not initiated.{{Sfn|Halm|2014}} Additionally, Isma'ili doctrines were disseminated through the lectures hosted at Al-Azhar Mosque in Cairo, which became an intellectual center hosting teachers and students.<ref name=":4532"/> Beyond the borders of the Fatimid Caliphate, recruitment to the ''da'wa'' continued to be performed in secret as it had been before the caliphate's establishment, though the many missionaries maintained contact with the leadership in Ifriqiya or Egypt.{{Sfn|Halm|2014}}{{Sfn|Walker|1998|p=141}} Some of the ''da'i''s (missionaries) abroad sometimes came to Cairo and became important figures in the state, as with the example of [[Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani|al-Kirmani]] during al-Hakim's reign.{{Sfn|Walker|1998|p=143}}

Isma'ili unity was weakened over time by several schisms after the establishment of the caliphate (in addition to the Qarmatian schism before its establishment). The Druze, who believed in the divinity of Caliph al-Hakim, were suppressed in Egypt and elsewhere, but eventually found a home in the region of [[Mount Lebanon]].{{Sfn|Walker|1998|p=143}} After the death of Caliph al-Mustansir, a succession crisis resulted in the breakaway of the Nizaris, who supported the claim of his oldest son Nizar, as opposed to the Musta'lis who supported the successful enthronement of al-Musta'li. The Nizaris were also suppressed inside the Caliphate's borders, but continued to be active outside it, mostly in Iran, Iraq, and parts of Syria.{{Sfn|Walker|1998|pp=148–49}} After the death of Caliph al-Amir, al-Hafiz, his cousin, successfully claimed the title of Imam-Caliph at the expense of al-Amir's infant son, al-Tayyib. Those who recognized al-Hafiz in Cairo were known as the al-Hafizi branch, but those who opposed this unusual succession and supported the succession of al-Tayyib were known as the al-Tayyibi branch. This particular schism resulted in the loss of Fatimid support in Yemen.{{Sfn|Walker|1998|pp=148–49}}

==== Other Muslims ====
In Ifriqiya, the Sunni Muslims of the cities largely followed the [[Maliki]] school or ''[[madhhab]]''. The Maliki school had become predominant here during the eighth century at the expense of the [[Hanafi]] school, which had generally been favoured by the Aghlabids.{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|p=69}} In Egypt, the majority of Muslims were Sunni and remained so throughout the Fatimid period. Cognizant of this, the Fatimid authorities introduced Shi'a changes to religious rituals only gradually after Jawhar's conquest.{{Sfn|Walker|1998|p=139}} It was also in this era that the followers of the Hanafi, [[Shafiʽi school|Shafi'i]], [[Hanbali]], and Maliki schools were beginning to think of themselves collectively, to one extent or another, as Sunni, which undermined the universalism that the Shi'a Isma'ilis promoted.{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|p=69}} Some Shi'as, including some [[Hasanids|Hasanid]] and [[Husaynids|Husaynid]] families, were also present in Egypt and welcomed the Fatimids as fellow Shi'as or as blood relatives, but without necessarily converting to Isma'ilism.{{Sfn|Walker|1998|p=139}} Many non-Isma'ili Muslims also accepted the Fatimid caliphs as having legitimate rights to lead the Muslim community but did not accept the more absolute Shi'a beliefs in the concept of the [[Imamate]].{{Sfn|Walker|1998|p=139}}

==== Christians ====
[[File:Cairo, chiesa sospesa, interno, iconostasi.JPG|thumb|Side chapel in the [[Hanging Church]] in [[Old Cairo]], including [[fresco]]es (partly visible behind the screen here) dating from the late 12th or 13th century, before the church's later renovation<ref name=":33">{{Cite book |last1=Gabra |first1=Gawdat |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UOxcBgAAQBAJ |title=The History and Religious Heritage of Old Cairo: Its Fortress, Churches, Synagogue, and Mosque |last2=van Loon |first2=Gertrud J.M. |last3=Reif |first3=Stefan |last4=Swelim |first4=Tarek |publisher=American University in Cairo Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-9774167690 |editor-last=Ludwig |editor-first=Carolyn |pages=80–93 |editor-last2=Jackson |editor-first2=Morris |access-date=14 March 2022 |archive-date=16 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240916021908/https://books.google.com/books?id=UOxcBgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
Christians may have still constituted a majority of the population in Egypt during the Fatimid period, although scholarly estimates on this issue are tentative and vary between authors.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brett |first=Michael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sk6tAUL5ZWYC |title=Egypt and Syria in the Fatimid, Ayyubid and Mamluk Eras IV: Proceedings of the 9th and 10th International Colloquium Organized at the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven in May 2000 and May 2001 |publisher=Peeters Publishers |year=2005 |isbn=978-90-429-1524-4 |editor-last=Vermeulen |editor-first=Urbain |pages=1–32 |language=en |chapter=Population and Conversion to Islam in Egypt in the Mediaeval Period |editor-last2=Steenbergen |editor-first2=J. Van}}</ref><ref name=":452" />{{Rp|page=194}} The proportion of Christians would have likely been greater in the rural population than in the main cities.<ref name=":452" /> Among Christians, the largest community were [[Copts]], followed by Melkite Christians.<ref name=":452" /> A large number of Armenian immigrants also arrived in Egypt during the late 11th and early 12th centuries when Armenian viziers like Badr al-Jamali dominated the state, which led to the Armenian church establishing a foothold in the country as well.<ref name=":452" />{{Sfn|Halm|2014}} In addition to churches in towns and cities, Christian [[Monastery|monasteries]] also dotted the countryside. Some regions, like [[Wadi El Natrun|Wadi al-Natrun]], were ancient centres of [[Coptic monasticism]].<ref name=":452" /> Italian traders, led by [[Amalfi]]tans, were also present in Fustat and Alexandria, moving goods between Egypt and the rest of the Mediterranean world.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|pp=93, 123–24}}

Within the Christian communities, and especially among Copts, there emerged a relatively affluent class of notables who served as scribes or administrators in the Fatimid regime. These [[Laity|laymen]] used their wealth to patronize, and in turn influence, their churches.<ref name=":452" />{{Rp|pages=198}} The state also had influence on the church, as demonstrated by the transfer of the Coptic Patriarchate from [[Alexandria]] to Fustat (specifically what is now [[Old Cairo]]) during the patriarchate of Cyril II (1078–1092), due to the demands of Badr al-Jamali, who wished for the Coptic pope to stay close to the capital.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":452" />{{Rp|page=202}} The Church of the Virgin, now known as the [[Hanging Church]], became the new seat of the Patriarchate, along with an alternative church compound built on the upper floor of the [[Saint Mercurius Church in Coptic Cairo|St. Mercurius Church]]. Until the 14th century (when the seat was moved to the [[Church of the Virgin Mary (Haret Zuweila)|Church of the Virgin Mary in Harat Zuwayla]]), both churches were residences of the Coptic pope and served as venues for the consecrations of new popes and other important religious events.<ref name=":452" />{{Rp|page=202}}<ref name=":33" />

==== Jews ====
[[File:Leningrad Codex Folio 474a.jpg|thumb|Cover page of the [[Leningrad Codex]], a manuscript of the [[Hebrew Bible]] copied in Cairo/Fustat in the early 11th century<ref name=":45" />]]
Jewish communities existed across the territories under Fatimid control and also enjoyed a degree of self-governance.<ref name=":6" /> Although a smaller minority compared to Christians and Muslims, their history is relatively well documented thanks to the [[Cairo Geniza|Genizah documents]].<ref name=":45" /> The community was divided between [[Rabbinic Judaism|Rabbanites]] and [[Karaite Judaism|Karaites]].<ref name=":45" /> Traditionally, up until the late 11th century, the most powerful head of the Jewish community was the ''ga'on'' or leader of the ''[[yeshiva]]'' of Jerusalem, who appointed judges and other Jewish community officials across the region. The Fatimids formally charged the ''ga'on'' of Jerusalem with responsibilities as representative of the community.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Cohen |first=Mark R. |title=Jewish Self-Government in Medieval Egypt: The Origins of the Office of the Head of the Jews, ca. 1065–1126 |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0691615424}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Rustow |first=Marina |date=2021 |title=Jews and the Fāṭimid Caliphate |journal=Al-Masāq |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=169–87|doi=10.1080/09503110.2021.1899548 |s2cid=237271659 }}</ref> By 1100, however, a new position was established by Egyptian Jews in Fustat, known as the "Head of the Jews" or as the ''nagid''. This official in the Egyptian capital became recognized afterward as the head and representative of the Jewish community in its dealings with the Fatimid state. This shift was likely due to the Jerusalem ''ga'on''<nowiki/>'s own loss of influence and to the Jewish community's engagement with the centralizing politics that Badr al-Jamali pursued around this time (which had already resulted in the transfer of the Coptic Patriarchate to Fustat).<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" />

=== Language ===
Religious diversity notwithstanding, the spread of Arabic as the main language of the population had already progressed rapidly before the Fatimid period. In parts of Egypt, Copts and possibly also some Muslim communities were still speaking [[Coptic language|Coptic]] when the Fatimids arrived on the scene. It is during the Fatimid period, however, that Coptic religious culture began to be translated into Arabic. By the end of the Fatimid period (12th century), many Coptic Christians could no longer understand the Coptic language, and eventually its usage was reduced to a [[Sacred language|liturgical language]].<ref name=":452" />{{Rp|page=194}}

==Military system==
{{Further|Fatimid army|Fatimid navy}}
{{See also|Slavery in the Fatimid Caliphate}}
[[File:Panel hunters Louvre OA 6265-1.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Men hunting, on ivory panel, 11th century]]
The Fatimid military was based largely on the [[Kutama]] [[Berber people|Berber]] tribesmen brought along on the march to Egypt, and they remained an important part of the military even after Ifriqiya began to break away.{{sfn|Sanders|1998|p=154}}

A fundamental change occurred when the Fatimid Caliphate attempted to push into Syria in the latter half of the tenth century. The Fatimids were faced with the now Turkish-dominated forces of the Abbasid Caliphate and began to realize the limits of their current military. Thus during the reign of [[al-Aziz Billah]] and [[al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah]], the Caliph began incorporating armies of [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] and, later, black Africans (even later, other groups such as Armenians were also used).{{sfn|Sanders|1998|p=155}} The army units were generally separated along ethnic lines: the Berbers were usually the light cavalry and foot skirmishers, while the Turks were the [[horse archers]] or [[heavy cavalry]] (known as ''[[Mamluks]]''). The black Africans, Syrians, and Arabs generally acted as the [[heavy infantry]] and foot [[archer]]s. This ethnic-based army system, along with the partial slave status of many of the imported ethnic fighters, would remain fundamentally unchanged in Egypt for many centuries after the fall of the Fatimid Caliphate.{{Citation needed|date=May 2015}}

The Fatimids focused their military on the defence of the empire as threats presented, which they were able to repel. In the mid-10th century, the [[Byzantine Empire]] was ruled by [[Nikephoros II Phokas]], who had destroyed the Muslim [[Emirate of Crete]] in 961 and conquered Tartus, al-Masaisah, Ain Zarbah, among other areas, gaining complete control of Iraq and the Syrian borders, and earning the sobriquet "The Pale Death of the Saracens". With the Fatimids, however, he proved less successful. After renouncing his payments of tribute to the Fatimid caliphs, he sent an expedition to [[Sicily]], but was forced by defeats on land and sea to evacuate the island completely. In 967, he made peace with the Fatimids and turned to defend himself against their common enemy, [[Otto I]], who had proclaimed himself Roman Emperor and had attacked Byzantine possessions in Italy.{{Citation needed|date=May 2015}}

== Capital cities ==
[[File:Porte_Grande_Mosquée_El_Mehdi_Mahdia.JPG|thumb|Entrance portal of the [[Great Mosque of Mahdiya|Great Mosque of Mahdia]] (10th century)]]

=== Al-Mahdiyya ===
Al-Mahdiyya, the first capital of the Fatimid dynasty, was established by its first caliph, Abdullah al-Mahdi (297–322 AH/909–934 CE) in 300 AH/912–913 CE. The caliph had been residing in nearby Raqqada but chose this new and more strategic location in which to establish his dynasty. The city of al-Mahdiyya is located on a narrow peninsula along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, east of Kairouan and just south of the Gulf of Hammamet, in modern-day Tunisia. The primary concern in the city's construction and locale was defense. With its peninsular topography and the construction of a wall 8.3 m thick, the city became impenetrable by land. This strategic location, together with a navy that the Fatimids had inherited from the conquered Aghlabids, made the city of al-Mahdiyya a strong military base where Abdullah al-Mahdi consolidated power and planted the seeds of the Fatimid caliphate for two generations. The city included two royal palaces—one for the caliph and one for his son and successor al-Qa'im—as well as a mosque, many administrative buildings, and an arsenal.<ref>Talbi, M., "al-Mahdiyya", in: ''Encyclopaedia of Islam'', 2nd ed., edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs. {{ISBN?}} {{page needed|date=September 2024}}</ref>

=== Al-Mansuriyya ===
{{Main|Mansouria, Tunisia}}
Al-Mansuriyya (also known as Ṣabra al-Mansuriyya<ref name=":7" />) was established between 334 and 336 AH (945 and 948 CE) by the third Fatimid caliph al-Mansur (334–41 AH/946–53 CE) in a settlement known as Ṣabra, located on the outskirts of Kairouan in modern-day Tunisia. The new capital was established in commemoration of the victory of al-Mansur over the Kharijite rebel Aba Yazid at Ṣabra.<ref name=":9" /> Construction of the city was not quite finished when al-Mansur died in 953, but his son and successor, al-Mu'izz, finished it and completed the city's mosque that same year.<ref name=":7" /> Like Baghdad, the plan of the city of Al-Mansuriyya is round, with the caliphal palace at its center. Due to a plentiful water source, the city grew and expanded a great deal under al-Mansur. Archaeological evidence suggests that there were more than 300 [[hammam]]s built during this period in the city as well as numerous palaces.<ref name=":9" /> When al-Mansur's successor, al-Mu'izz, moved the caliphate to Cairo he left his deputy, Buluggin ibn Ziri, as regent of Ifriqiya, marking the beginning of the city's Zirid period. In 1014–15 the Zirid ruler Badis ibn al-Mansur ordered merchants and artisans of Kairouan to be transferred to al-Mansuriyya, which may have helped provoke a revolt in 1016 which damaged the city. In 1057, under pressure from the Banu Hilal invasions, the Zirids abandoned al-Mansuriyya for Mahdiyya and the city was devastated. Unlike Kairouan, it remained in ruins afterwards and was never revived. The site was pillaged over time. Modern archeological excavations here began in 1921.<ref name=":9">Talbi, M., "Ṣabra or al-Manṣūriyya", in: ''Encyclopaedia of Islam'', 2nd ed., Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs. {{ISBN?}} {{page needed|date=September 2024}}</ref>

=== Cairo ===
Cairo was established by the fourth Fatimid caliph, al-Mu'izz, in 359 AH/970 CE and remained the capital of the Fatimid caliphate for the duration of the dynasty. The city was officially named ''al-Qahirah al-Mu'izziyya'', which can be translated as the "Victorious City of al-Mu'izz", known afterward simply as ''al-Qahira'' and giving us the modern English name "Cairo".{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=80}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jiwa |first=Shainool |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=89SLDwAAQBAJ&dq=cairo+al-mu%27izziya+al-qahira&pg=PT108 |title=The Fatimids: 1 – The Rise of a Muslim Empire |publisher=I.B. Tauris (in association with the Institute of Ismaili Studies) |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-78672-174-7 |language=en}}</ref> Cairo can thus be considered the capital of Fatimid cultural production. Though the original Fatimid palace complex, including administrative buildings and royal residents, no longer exists, modern scholars can glean a good idea of the original structure based on the Mamluk-era account of al-Maqrizi. Perhaps the most important of Fatimid monuments outside the palace complex is the mosque of al-Azhar (359–61 AH/970–72 CE) which still stands today, though the building was significantly expanded and modified in later periods. Likewise, the important Fatimid mosque of al-Hakim, built from 380 to 403 AH/990–1012 CE under two Fatimid caliphs, was significantly rebuilt and renovated in the 1980s. Cairo remained the capital for, including al-Mu'izz, eleven generations of caliphs, after which the Fatimid Caliphate finally fell to Ayyubid forces in 567 AH/1171 CE.<ref>Rogers, J.M., J.M. Rogers and J. Jomier, "al-Ḳāhira", in: ''Encyclopaedia of Islam'', 2nd ed., Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs. {{ISBN?}} {{page needed|date=September 2024}}</ref>{{Sfn|O'Kane|2016}}

== Art and architecture ==
{{Main|Fatimid art|Fatimid architecture}}
[[File:Egyptian - Lusterware Plate with Bird Motif - Walters 482036.jpg|thumb|[[Lustreware]] Plate with Bird Motif, 11th century. Archaeological digs have found many kilns and ceramic fragments in [[al-Fustat]], and it was likely an important production location for Islamic ceramics during the Fatimid period.<ref>{{cite news |author1=Mason, Robert B. |author2=Keall, Edward J. |date=1990 |title=Petrography of Islamic pottery from Fustat |work=Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt |pages=165–84 |volume=27 |jstor=40000079}}</ref>]]
The Fatimids were known for their exquisite arts. The Fatimid period is important in the history of [[Islamic art]] and [[Islamic architecture|architecture]] as it is one of the earliest Islamic dynasties for which enough materials survive for a detailed study of their evolution.<ref name=":05223">{{Cite book |last=Bloom |first=Jonathan M. |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three |publisher=Brill |year= |editor-last=Fleet |editor-first=Kate |location= |pages= |chapter=Fāṭimid art and architecture |journal=The Encyclopaedia of Islam |issn=1873-9830 |editor-last2=Krämer |editor-first2=Gudrun |editor-last3=Matringe |editor-first3=Denis |editor-last4=Nawas |editor-first4=John |editor-last5=Rowson |editor-first5=Everett}}</ref> The stylistic diversity of Fatimid art was also a reflection of the wider cultural environment of the Mediterranean world at this time.<ref name=":05223" /> The most notable characteristics of their decorative arts are the use of lively [[Figurative art|figurative]] motifs and the use of an angular, floriated [[Kufic]] script for [[Arabic]] inscriptions.<ref name=":05223" /> Among the best-known art forms that flourished are a type of ceramic [[lustreware]] and the crafting of objects carved in solid [[Quartz|rock crystal]]. The dynasty also sponsored the production of [[linen]] textiles and a ''[[tiraz]]'' workshop. A vast collection of different luxury objects once existed within the caliph's palaces, but few examples of them have survived to the present day.<ref name=":05223" />

Many traces of [[Fatimid architecture]] exist in both Egypt and Tunisia, particularly in the former capitals of Mahdia (al-Mahdiyya) and Cairo (al-Qahira). At Mahdia, the most important surviving monument is [[Great Mosque of Mahdiya|Great Mosque]].<ref name=":8">{{Cite book |last=Bloom |first=Jonathan M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IRHbDwAAQBAJ&q=Islamic+Palace+Architecture+in+the+Western+Mediterranean&pg=PP1 |title=Architecture of the Islamic West: North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, 700–1800 |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2020 |isbn=978-0300218701 |location= |pages=47–51 |access-date=12 March 2022 |archive-date=15 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115132432/https://books.google.com/books?id=IRHbDwAAQBAJ&q=Islamic+Palace+Architecture+in+the+Western+Mediterranean&pg=PP1 |url-status=live }}</ref> In Cairo, prominent examples include the [[Al-Azhar Mosque]] and the [[Al-Hakim Mosque]], as well as the smaller monuments of [[Aqmar Mosque|al-Aqmar Mosque]], the [[Mashhad of Sayyida Ruqayya]], and the [[Al-Salih Tala'i Mosque|Mosque of al-Salih Tala'i]].<ref name=":42">{{Cite book |last=Behrens-Absouseif |first=Doris |title=Islamic Architecture in Cairo: An Introduction |publisher=Brill |year=1989 |location=Leiden, the Netherlands |pages=}}</ref>{{Sfn|O'Kane|2016}} Al-Azhar Mosque, which was also a center of learning and teaching known today as [[al-Azhar University]], was named in honour of Fatimah (the daughter of Muhammad from whom the Fatimids claimed descent), who was called ''Az-Zahra'' (the brilliant).<ref>Halm, Heinz. ''The Fatimids and their Traditions of Learning''. London: The Institute of Ismaili Studies and I.B. Tauris. 1997.</ref> There were two main [[Fatimid Great Palaces|Fatimid palaces]] in Cairo, covering a huge area around [[Bayn al-Qasrayn]], near Khan el-Khalili.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|pp=49–52}} Parts of the city walls constructed by Badr al-Jamali—most notably three of its gates—also survive.

== Important figures ==
{{See also|List of Fatimid caliphs}}
List of important figures:
* [[Abu Abdallah al-Shi'i]] (d. After 911)
* [[Abu Yaqub al-Sijistani]] (d. After 971)
* [[Al-Qadi al-Nu'man]] (d. 974)
* [[Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani]] (d. After 1020)
* [[Nasir Khusraw|Hakim Nasir-i Khusraw]] (d. After 1070)
* [[Al-Mu'ayyad fi'l-Din al-Shirazi]] (d. 1078)
* [[Al-Sayyida al-Mu'iziyya]] (also known as Durzan)

==Legacy==
After Al-Mustansir Billah, his sons [[Nizar (Fatimid Imam)|Nizar]] and Al-Musta'li both claimed the right to rule, leading to a split into the Nizari and Musta'li factions respectively. Nizar's successors eventually came to be known as the ''[[Aga Khan]]'', while Musta'li's followers eventually came to be called the ''[[Dawoodi bohra]]''.

The Fatimid dynasty continued and flourished under Al-Musta'li until [[Al-Amir bi-Ahkami'l-Lah]]'s death in 1130. Leadership was then contested between [[At-Tayyib Abu'l-Qasim]], Al-Amir's two-year-old son, and [[Al-Hafiz]], Al-Amir's cousin whose supporters ([[Hafizi]]) claimed Al-Amir died without an heir. The supporters of At-Tayyib became the [[Tayyibi]] Isma'ilis. At-Tayyib's claim to the imamate was endorsed by [[Arwa al-Sulayhi]], Queen of Yemen. In 1084, Al-Mustansir had Arwa designated a ''hujjah'' (a holy, pious lady), the highest rank in the Yemeni [[Da'wah]]. Under Arwa, the ''Da'i al-Balagh'' (the imam's local representative) [[Lamak ibn Malik]] and then Yahya ibn Lamak worked for the cause of the Fatimids. After At-Tayyib's disappearance, Arwa named [[Dhu'ayb bin Musa]] the first ''[[Da'i al-Mutlaq]]'' with full authority over Tayyibi religious matters. Tayyibi Isma'ili missionaries (in about 1067 AD (460 AH)) spread their religion to India,<ref>{{cite book |title=The Tribes and Castes of Bombay |volume=1 |first=R.E. |last=Enthoven |page=199 |year=1922 |isbn=978-81-206-0630-2 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FoT6gPrbTp8C&pg=PA199}}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=2duQAAAAMAAJ ''The Bohras''], By: Asgharali Engineer, Vikas Pub. House, pp. 109, 101</ref> leading to the development of various Isma'ili communities, most notably the [[Alavi Bohra|Alavi]], [[Dawoodi Bohra|Dawoodi]], and [[Sulaymani Bohra]]s. [[Syedi Nuruddin]] went to Dongaon to look after southern India and [[Syedi Fakhruddin]] went to East [[Rajasthan]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r_FExBRnC3YC&pg=PA139 |isbn=0226056767 |title=Mullahs on the Mainframe |first=Jonah |last=Blank |page=139 |year=2001 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |access-date=12 August 2019 |archive-date=16 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240916021909/https://books.google.com/books?id=r_FExBRnC3YC&pg=PA139#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kQGlyZAy134C&pg=PA299 |isbn=0521429749 |title=The Isma'ilis: Their History and Doctrines |first=Farhad |last=Daftary |page=299 |year=1992 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |access-date=12 August 2019 |archive-date=16 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240916021909/https://books.google.com/books?id=kQGlyZAy134C&pg=PA299#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>

{{chart top|Family tree of Fatimid Caliphs|width=100%|collapsed=yes}}
{{tree chart/start|align=center|style=font-size:80%;}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | MAH | | | | | | | | |MAH='''1. [[Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah|Al-Mahdi Billāh]]'''}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | |}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | QAI | | | | | | | | |QAI='''2. [[al-Qa'im (Fatimid caliph)|Al-Qā'im]]'''}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | |}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | MAN | | | | | | | | |MAN='''3. [[Al-Mansur bi-Nasr Allah|Al-Mansur]]'''}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | |}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | MUI | | | | | | | | |MUI='''4. [[Al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah|Al-Mu'izz]]'''}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | |}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | AZI | | | | | | | | |AZI='''5. [[Al-Aziz Billah|Al-Aziz]]'''}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | |}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | HAK | | | | | | | | |HAK='''6. [[Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah|Al-Hakim]]'''}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | |}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | ZAH | | | | | | | | |ZAH='''7. [[al-Zahir li-i'zaz Din Allah|Al-Zahir]]'''}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | |}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | MUS | | | | | | | | |MUS='''8. [[Al-Mustansir Billah|'''Al-Mustansir''']]'''}}
{{tree chart| | |,|-|-|-|+|-|-|-|.| | | |}}
{{tree chart| | NIZ | | MUH | | MUS | | | | | | | | | |NIZ=[[Nizar (Fatimid Imam)|Nizār al-Muṣṭafá]] ''([[Nizārī Ismā'īlī|Nizārīyyah]])''|MUS='''9. [[Al-Musta'li|Al-Mustā'lī]]''' ''([[Mustaali|Mustā'līyyah]])''|MUH=Muhammad}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | |!| | | |!| | | | | |}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | HAF | | MAA | | | | |HAF='''11. [[Al-Hafiz|Al-Ḥāfīz]]''' ''([[Hafizi|Ḥāfīzīyyah]])''|MAA='''10. [[Mansur al-Amir Bi-Ahkamillah|Al-Āmīr]]'''}}
{{tree chart| | |,|-|-|-|(| | | |!| | | | | |}}
{{tree chart| | ZAF | | YUS | | TAY | | | | |ZAF='''12. [[Al-Zafir|Al-Zāfīr]]'''|YUS=Yūssuf|TAY=[[At-Tayyib Abu'l-Qasim|Aṭ-Ṭāyyīb]] ''([[Tayyibi|Ṭāyyībīyyah]])''}}
{{tree chart| | |!| | | |!| | | | | | | | | |}}
{{tree chart| | FAZ | | ADD | | | | | | | | |FAZ='''13. [[Al-Faiz|Al-Fā'īz]]'''|ADD='''14. [[Al-Adid|Al-'Āḍīd]]'''}}
{{tree chart/end}}
{{chart bottom}}

==See also==
{{Ismailis}}
{{Historical Arab states and dynasties}}
{{History of Algeria}}
{{History of Tunisia}}
{{History of Egypt}}
{{Portal|Fatimid Caliphate}}
* [[List of Shia dynasties]]
* [[Slavery in the Fatimid Caliphate]]
{{Clear}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{reflist|group=pron}}

==Sources==
{{Sfn whitelist |CITEREFWalker1998}}
* {{Cite book |last=Abun-Nasr |first=Jamil |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jdlKbZ46YYkC&pg=PP1 |title=A history of the Maghrib in the Islamic period |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1987 |isbn=0521337674 |location=Cambridge |pages=}}
* {{cite book | last = Brett | first = Michael | title = The Rise of the Fatimids: The World of the Mediterranean and the Middle East in the Fourth Century of the Hijra, Tenth Century CE | series = The Medieval Mediterranean | volume = 30 | publisher = Brill | location = Leiden | year = 2001 | isbn = 978-9004117419 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=BqCdfhW3nVwC }}
* {{cite book |last=Brett | first=Michael | title=The Fatimid Empire |series=The Edinburgh History of the Islamic Empires |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |location=Edinburgh | year=2017 | isbn=978-0-7486-4076-8 }}
* {{EI2 | last = Canard | first = Marius | author-link = Marius Canard | title = Fāṭimids | volume = 2 | pages = 850–62| url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0218}}
* Cortese, Delia, "Fatimids", in ''Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God'' (2 vols.), Edited by C. Fitzpatrick and A. Walker, Santa Barbara, ABC-CLIO, 2014, Vol I, pp. 187–91.
* {{EI2 | last = Dachraoui | first = F. |author-link=:fr:Farhat Dachraoui | title = al-Mahdī ʿUbayd Allāh | volume = 5 | pages = 1242–44 | url = http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_4783 }}
* {{Daftary-The Ismailis}}
* {{Encyclopaedia Iranica | volume = 9 | fascicle = 4 | title = Fatimids | last = Daftary | first = Farhad | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/fatimids | pages = 423–26 }}
* {{cite book |last=Halm |first=Heinz |author-link=Heinz Halm |title=Das Reich des Mahdi: Der Aufstieg der Fatimiden |language=de |publisher=C.H. Beck |location=Munich |year=1991 |isbn=978-3-406-35497-7}}
** '''English translation:''' {{cite book |last=Halm | first=Heinz |title=The Empire of the Mahdi: The Rise of the Fatimids | language = en | publisher = Brill | location = | year = 1996 | isbn = 9004100563 |translator-last=Bonner|translator-first=Michael}}
* {{EI3|last=Halm|first=Heinz|title=Fāṭimids|year=2014|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_27045}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Hofer |first1=Nathan |title=Sufism in Fatimid Egypt and The Problem of Historiographical Inertia |journal=Journal of Islamic Studies |year=2017 |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=28–67 |doi=10.1093/jis/etw042}}
* {{The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates|edition=2nd}}
* {{cite book |last1=Köhler |first1=Michael A. |author-link1=:de:Michael Köhler (Islamwissenschaftler) |title=Alliances and Treaties between Frankish and Muslim Rulers in the Middle East |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden |language=en |translator-last=Holt |translator-first=Peter M. |translator-link=Peter Holt (historian) |year=2013 |isbn=978-90-04-24890-8 |editor-last=Hirschler |editor-first=Konrad |editor-link=:de:Konrad Hirschler}}
* {{cite journal | last = Lev | first = Yaacov |author-link=:ru:Лев, Яаков | s2cid = 162310414 | title = Army, Regime, and Society in Fatimid Egypt, 358–487/968–1094 | journal = International Journal of Middle East Studies | volume = 19 | issue = 3 | year = 1987 | pages = 337–365 | jstor = 163658| doi = 10.1017/S0020743800056762 }}
* {{cite journal | last = Lev | first = Yaacov | title = The Fatimids and Byzantium, tenth–12th Centuries | journal = Graeco-Arabica | volume = 6 | year = 1995 | pages = 190–208 | oclc = 183390203 }}
* {{EI2 | last = Madelung | first = W. | author-link = Wilferd Madelung | title = Imāma | pages = 1163–69 | volume = 3 | url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0369 }}
* {{EI2 | last=Madelung | first=Wilferd | author-link = Wilferd Madelung | title = Ismāʿīliyya | volume = 4 | pages = 198–206 | url = http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0390 }}
* {{EI2 | last = Madelung | first = W. | author-link = Wilferd Madelung | title = al-Mahdī | pages = 1230–38 | volume = 5 | url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0618 }}
* {{Cite book |last=O'Kane |first=Bernard |author-link=Bernard O'Kane (scholar) |title=The Mosques of Egypt |publisher=American University of Cairo Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-9774167324}}
* {{Cite book |last=Raymond |first=André |author-link=:fr:André Raymond |title=Le Caire |publisher=Fayard |year=1993 |language=fr}}
*  {{cite book |last1=Raymond |first1=André |title=Cairo |date=2000 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-00316-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tdLALt9AbQQC&pg=PA49 |language=en}}
* {{cite book |last1=Richards |first1=Donald Sidney |title=The Chronicle of Ibn al-Athir for the Crusading Period from al-Kamil fi'l-Ta'rikh. Part 1: The Years 491–541/1097–1146: The Coming of the Franks and the Muslim Response |date=2017 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1351892872 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nkhBDgAAQBAJ |access-date=3 February 2023}}
* {{citation |last=Runciman |first=Steven |author-link=Steven Runciman |title=The History of the Crusades Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1951}}
* {{cite book | last = Sanders | first = Paula | title = Ritual, Politics, and the City in Fatimid Cairo | publisher = State University of New York Press | location = Albany | year = 1994 | isbn = 0-7914-1781-6 | url = {{Google Books|jH-57_-auocC|plainurl=yes}}}}
* {{The Cambridge History of Egypt | volume = 1 | last = Sanders | first = Paula | author-link = | chapter = The Fāṭimid state, 969–1171 | pages = 151–174| chapter-page = 151 }}
* {{The Cambridge History of Egypt | volume = 1 | last = Walker | first = Paul E. | author-link = | chapter = The Ismā'īlī Da'wa and the Fātimid caliphate | pages = 120–150| chapter-page = 120 }}
* {{cite book|last=Walker|first=Paul E.|title=Exploring an Islamic Empire: Fatimid History and its Sources|year=2002|publisher=I.B. Tauris|location=London|isbn=978-1860646928|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sDO2v_YsmmUC}}
* {{Encyclopaedia Islamica|last=Walker|first=Paul E.|title=Fāṭimids|year=2018|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-islamica/*-COM_036112}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Fatimid Caliphate}}
* [http://lexicorient.com/e.o/fatimids.htm "Fatimids" entry in the ''Encyclopaedia of the Orient''] ({{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101101223930/http://lexicorient.com/e.o/fatimids.htm |date=1 November 2010 }})
* [http://iis.ac.uk/ The Institute of Ismaili Studies, London]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100616060639/http://imamreza.net/eng/imamreza.php?id=574 The Shia Fatimid Dynasty in Egypt] (archived 16 June 2010)

{{Fatimid Caliphate|state=expanded}}
{{Muslim dynasties in Maghreb region}}{{Muslim dynasties in Mashriq region}}
{{Islam topics|state=collapsed}}
{{Egypt topics}}
{{Libya topics}}
{{Malta topics}}
{{Empires|state=collapsed}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Fatimid Caliphate| ]]
[[Category:Caliphates]]
[[Category:Emirate of Sicily]]

[[Category:Former monarchies of West Asia]]
[[Category:Former monarchies of Africa]]
[[Category:Former Islamic monarchies in Europe]]
[[Category:Former theocracies]]
[[Category:Former transcontinental empires]]
[[Category:History of North Africa]]
[[Category:Medieval countries in the Middle East]]
[[Category:History of the Mediterranean]]
[[Category:10th century in Ifriqiya]]
[[Category:Ismailism]]
[[Category:Medieval history of Egypt]]
[[Category:Shia Islam in Algeria]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1171]]
[[Category:909 establishments]]
[[Category:States and territories established in the 900s]]

Mano (singer)

2026-03-09T18:04:04Z

AhmedSturgis: improved article

{{Short description|Indian singer}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2017}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Nagoor Babu
| honorific_prefix = Dr.
| alias = Mano
| image = File:Playback singer Mano.JPG
| birth_name = Nagoor Babu
| birth_date = {{birth-date and age|26 October 1965}}
| birth_place = [[Sattenapalli]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], India
| father = Rasool Babu
| mother = Shaheeda Babu
| relatives = {{hlist|Shukur Babu (brother) | Shahid Babu (brother)}}
| spouse = Jameela Babu (1985-present)
| children = 3
| known_for = {{hlist|[[Nayakan]]|[[Roja (film)|Roja]]|[[Josh]]|[[Kadhalan]]}}
| television = {{flatlist|
* [[Star Singer]]
* [[Super Singer (Tamil reality show)|Super Singer]] (multiple seasons)
* [[Super Singer Junior]]
* [[Manathodu Mano]]
* [[Kalyanam Kamaneeyam (TV series)|Kalyanam Kamaneeyam]]
}}

| module = {{Infobox musical artist
|embed = yes

| genre = [[playback singing]], [[carnatic music]]
| occupation = Playback Singer, actor, producer, voice dubbing artist, music composer
| years_active = 1977–present

| awards = {{hlist|Kalaimaamani Award|TN State Film Awards Best Male Playback Singer 1991| Filmfare Best Male Playback Singer - Telugu 1997|Ghantasala Award}}
| website =

}}

}}
'''Nagoor Babu''', known by his stage name '''Mano''', is an Indian [[playback singer]], [[voice-over artist]], [[actor]], and [[composer]].<ref name="T">{{Cite news|last=Kamath|first=Sudhish|date=2013-03-28|title=Tune into Mano|work=[[The Hindu]]|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/tune-into-mano/article4557843.ece|access-date=2021-09-30}}</ref> Mano has recorded more than 35,000 songs for film and private various [[Telugu language|Telugu]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Kannada]], [[Malayalam]], [[Hindi]], [[Tulu language|Tulu]], [[Konkani language|Konkani]] and [[Assamese language|Assamese]] films.<ref name="T"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/society/MANO-for-MUSIC/article17277809.ece|title=MANO for MUSIC|date=9 February 2017|work=[[The Hindu]]|first=Neeraja|last=Murty}}</ref> He has also performed for over 3000 live concerts across the continents.<ref name="T"/> He has recorded many songs for music director [[Ilaiyaraaja]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/music/mano-and-music/article3893259.ece|title=Mano and music|last=Jeshi|first=K.|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=13 September 2013}}</ref> Mano is also recognized for being as the full-fledged dubbing artist for [[Rajinikanth]] in Telugu from [[Muthu (film)|''Muthu'']] (1995) onwards.<ref name="H"/>

== Career ==
===Early days and debut===
[[File:Mano (singer).jpg|250px|right|Mano at a concert |alt=]]
He learned Carnatic Music from [[Nedunuri Krishnamurthy]], and acted in a number of stage plays before debuting as an actor, where he acted in 15 films in total, with Rangoon Rowdy being one of them.

His debut as a playback singer was in 1979, when he went to Madras to work with music director [[M. S. Viswanathan]], with whom he worked for 3 years as an assistant.

He worked with director Chakaravarthy in 1982, producing dummy versions of songs, before the actual singers came in to do the recording. In 1984, he worked with [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]] and Susheela as the song needed a third voice for the film [[Karpoora Deepam]]. Shortly thereafter he worked on a hit Kannada film for [[Hamsalekha]], and subsequently sang in a film for [[Ilaiyaraaja]], after which his independent career took off.<ref name=ib>{{Cite web|url=http://www.idlebrain.com/celeb/interview/nagurbabu.html|title = Nagur Babu (Mano) interview - Telugu Cinema interview - Telugu film singer and music director|work=[[Idlebrain.com]]}}</ref>

It was Ilaiyaraaja who urged him to use the name, Mano, instead of his birth name - Nagoor Babu - as there already was a popular artist by the name of [[Nagore E. M. Hanifa|Nagore Hanifa]], and this would prevent any mixups.

Taking the criticism in his stride, Mano went on recording as many as 500 songs with Ilaiyaraaja and slowly branched out to sing for other Tamil composers as well.

===Voice-over dubbing===
The year 1995 also saw another face of Mano as the voice-over dubbing artist in the Tamil film industry. He dubbed his voice for almost all [[Rajinikanth]] starrers in Telugu. His voice became almost synonymous with Rajinikanth and was in great demand by all the directors and producers.<ref name="H">{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/mano-the-voice-of-rajini/article24096201.ece|title=Mano : The voice of Rajini|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|date=6 June 2018|last1=Nadadhur|first1=Srivathsan}}</ref> He also dubbed his voice for [[Kamal Haasan]] in some movies in Telugu.<ref name="H"/>

===Television works===
Mano has worked on various television programs, most notably as judge and host for a variety of singing shows. Notable among them are [[Super Singer (Tamil reality show)|Super Singer]], [[Super Singer Junior]], [[Star Singer]], [[Pillalu Piduglu]] (as host) and more.

Mano also hosts ''Manathodu Mano'' – a musical talk show on [[Jaya TV]].<ref name="T"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/shot-cuts-double-treat/article3896845.ece|title=Shot Cuts: Double treat|date=14 September 2012|work=[[The Hindu]]|first=S. R. Ashok|last=Kumar}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Mano was born into a Telugu speaking Muslim family from [[Andhra Pradesh]]. He is married to Jameela in 1985. His son Shakir is an actor and has starred in ''[[Naanga]]'' (2012).<ref name="T"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/showbitz/article3205773.ece|title=SHOWBITZ|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=23 March 2012|first=S. R. Ashok|last=Kumar}}</ref>

==Filmography==

===As actor===
;Telugu
* 1979: ''Needa''
* 1979: ''[[Rangoon Rowdy]]'' as Raju
* 1980: ''Ketugadu''
* 1982: ''O Adadi O Magadu''
* 1983: ''Kalyana Veena''
*1992: ''Hello Darling''
*1999: ''Vichithram'' as Narada
* 2003: ''[[Nee Manasu Naaku Telusu]]'' as himself
* 2015: ''[[Shivam (2015 Telugu film)|Shivam]]'' as Tanu's father
* 2021: ''[[Crazy Uncles]]'' as Reddy

;Tamil
* 1991: ''[[Sigaram]]'' as himself
* 1992: ''[[Singaravelan]]'' as Mano<ref name="T"/>
* 1993 ''[[Porantha Veeda Puguntha Veeda]]'' as singer in song "Veettukku Vilakku"
* 2003: ''[[Enakku 20 Unakku 18]]'' as himself
* 2014: ''[[Vetri Selvan]]'' as Ananthakrishnan<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2012/nov/22/singer-mano-returns-to-acting-427209.html|title=Singer Mano returns to acting|date=22 November 2012|work=[[The New Indian Express]]|first=Venkadesan|last=S.}}</ref>
*2023: ''[[Single Shankarum Smartphone Simranum]]'' as Bhaskaran <ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2021/sep/20/shivas-next-single-shankarum-smartphone-simranum-26752.html | title=Shiva's next Single Shankarum Smartphone Simranum | website=[[Cinema Express]] | date=20 September 2021 }}</ref>
*2025: ''[[Kadhalikka Neramillai (2025 film)|Kadhalikka Neramillai]]'' as Chandramohan
*2025: ''[[Vattakhanal]]''<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kumar |first1=Akshay |title=Singer Mano's son Duruvan headlines Vattakanal |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2025/Sep/15/singer-manos-son-duruvan-headlines-vattakanal |website=Cinema Express |language=en |date=15 September 2025}}</ref>

===Television===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!year
!program
!Role
!Original language
!Notes
|-
|2008||[[Star Singer]]||rowspan=3|Judge||[[Malayalam]]||rowspan=3|reality show
|-
|2009||[[Super Singer Junior (season 2)]]||rowspan=2|[[Tamil language|Tamil]]
|-
|2011-2012||[[Super Singer Junior (season 3)]]
|-
|2013||Pillalu Pidugulu||Host||[[Telugu language|Telugu]]
|
|-
|2013-2014||[[Super Singer 4]]||rowspan=6|Judge||rowspan=4|[[Tamil language|Tamil]]||rowspan="6"|reality show
|-
|2014-2015||Super Singer Junior (season 4)
|-
|2015-2016||[[Super Singer 5]]
|-
|2016-2017||Super Singer Junior (season 5)
|-
|2019-2023|| ''[[Jabardasth (TV programme)|Jabardasth]]''||rowspan=2|[[Telugu language|Telugu]]<ref name="E">{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/telugu/jabardasth-judge-mano-to-play-a-lead-role-in-kalyanam-kamaneeyam/articleshow/89094329.cms|title=Jabardasth judge Mano to play a lead role in 'Kalyanam Kamaneeyam'|date=24 January 2022|work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref>
|-
|2019-2022||''[[Extra Jabardasth]]''<ref name="E"/>
|-
|2021-2023||''Manathodu Mano''||Host||[[Tamil language|Tamil]]||talk show
|-
|2022-2023||''[[Kalyanam Kamaneeyam (TV series)|Kalyanam Kamaneeyam]]''||Govardhan||[[Telugu language|Telugu]]||TV serial<ref name="E"/>
|-
|2023-2024
|[[Super Singer 10|Super Singer Season 10]]
| rowspan="2" |Judge
| rowspan="2" |[[Tamil language|Tamil]]
| rowspan="2" |Reality Show
|-
|2024
|[[Super Singer Junior#Super Singer Junior Season 10|Super Singer Junior (season 10)]]
|}

===As dubbing artist===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Actor
!Film
!Original language
!Notes
|-
|[[Rajinikanth]]<ref name="H"/>
|''[[Muthu (film)|Muthu]]'', ''[[Arunachalam (film)|Arunachalam]]'', ''[[Padayappa|Narasimha]]'', ''[[Baba (2002 film)|Baba]]'', ''[[Chandramukhi]]'', ''[[Sivaji]]'', ''[[Enthiran|Robo]]'', ''[[Athisaya Piravi|Yamudiki Mogudu]]'', ''[[Vikramasimha |Kochadaiiyaan]]'', ''[[Lingaa]]'', ''[[Veera (1994 film)|Veera]]'', ''[[Kabali]]'', ''[[Kaala (2018 film)|Kaala]]'', ''[[Petta (film)|Petta]]'', ''[[Darbar (film)|Darbar]]'', ''[[Annaatthe|Peddanna]]'', ''[[Jailer (2023 Tamil film)|Jailer]]'', ''[[Vettaiyan|Vettaiyan - The Hunter]]'', ''[[Coolie (2025 film)|Coolie]]''
|Tamil
| Only for Telugu dubbed versions
|- robo
|[[Kamal Haasan]]<ref name="H"/>
|''[[Sathi Leelavathi (1995 film)|Sathi Leelavathi]]'', ''[[Pammal K. Sambandam|Brahmachari]]'', ''[[Virumaandi|Pothuraju]]'', ''[[Manmadan Ambu|Manmadha Banam]]''
|Tamil
| Telugu version
|-
|[[Anupam Kher]]
|''[[Little John (film)|Little John]]''
|Tamil/Hindi/English
| Tamil version
|-
|[[Sarath Kumar]]
|''[[Bunny (2005 film)|Bunny]]''
|Telugu
|
|-
|[[Akshay Kumar]]
|''[[Atrangi Re|Galatta Kalyanam]]''
|Hindi
|Tamil version
|-
|[[Babloo Prithiveeraj]]
|''[[Pelli (film)|Pelli]]'', ''[[Pelli Pandiri]]''
|Telugu
|
|-
|[[Mammootty]]
|''[[Madhura Raja]]''
|Malayalam
|Telugu dubbed version
|}

==Discography==

=== Telugu discography ===
==== 1980s ====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
!Film
!Song
!Composer(s)
!Writer(s)
!Co-singer(s)
|-
|1986
|[[Vikram (1986 Telugu film)|''Vikram'']]
|"Ding Dong"
|[[K. Chakravarthy]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="11" |1987
|''[[Agni Putrudu]]''
|"Yerra Yerrani Bugga"
|[[K. Chakravarthy]]
|
|
|-
|[[Aha Naa-Pellanta! (1987 film)|''Aha Naa-Pellanta!'']]
|"Swagatham"
|[[Ramesh Naidu]]
|
|
|-
|''[[Collector Gari Abbai]]''
|"Sannayi Apaku Bava"
| rowspan="6" |[[K. Chakravarthy]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="4" |''[[Gundamma Gari Krishnulu]]''
|"How Are You"
|
|
|-
|"Jamale Idi Intele"
|
|
|-
|"Poddu Valapu Vaddu"
|
|
|-
|"Hai Krishna"
|
|
|-
|''[[Kaboye Alludu]]''
|"Sai Sai Sara Kotto"
|
|
|-
|''[[Manmadha Leela Kamaraju Gola]]''
|"Nannu Cheera Chesuko"
|Vasu Rao
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |''[[Trimurtulu]]''
|"Ee Jeevitham"
| rowspan="2" |[[Bappi Lahiri]]
|
|
|-
|"Bye Bye Bye"
|
|
|-
| rowspan="16" | 1988
|''[[Asthulu Anthasthulu]]''
|"Thulli Thulli"
| rowspan="2" |[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|
|
|-
|[[Rudraveena (film)|''Rudraveena'']]
|"Randi Randi"
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |''[[Donga Kollu]]''
|"Seethammo Mayammo"
| rowspan="2" |Vasu Rao
|
|
|-
|"Ravoyi Maayintiki"
|
|
|-
|[[Donga Ramudu (1988 film)|''Donga Ramudu'']]
|"Taku Chiku Taku Chiku"
| rowspan="2" |[[K. Chakravarthy]]
|
|
|-
|''[[Inspector Pratap]]''
|"Takadhim"
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |[[Jeevana Jyothi (1988 film)|''Jeevana Jyothi'']]
|"Samsara Jeevitham"
| rowspan="2" |[[Raj–Koti]]
|
|
|-
|"Muddiche Bulbul Pitta"
|
|
|-
|[[Jhansi Rani (1988 film)|''Jhansi Rani'']]
|"Repo Mapo Pellanta"
|[[K. Chakravarthy]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |''[[Raktabhishekam]]''
|"Bandaru Chinnadana"
| rowspan="2" |[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|
|
|-
|"Cheye Cheye"
|
|
|-
|''[[Raktha Tilakam]]''
|"Guppedu Mallelu"
| rowspan="4" |[[K. Chakravarthy]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |[[Station Master (1988 film)|''Station Master'']]
|"Parugulu Teese"
|
|
|-
|"Kottara Chappatlu"
|
|
|-
|"Gangolamandi"
|
|
|-
|''[[Yamudiki Mogudu (1988 film)|Yamudiki Mogudu]]''
|"Ekku Bendekku Maava"
|[[Raj–Koti]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="20" |1989
|[[Siva (1989 Telugu film)|''Siva'']]
|"Sarasalu Chalu"
|[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|
|[[S. Janaki]]
|-
| rowspan="2" |''[[Koduku Diddina Kapuram]]''
|"Bahu Paarak O Maharani"
| rowspan="2" |[[Raj–Koti]]
|
|
|-
|"Aalu Ledu"
|
|
|-
|''[[Paila Pachchees]]''
|"Teenage Team Maadi"
|[[Ramesh Vinayakam]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |''Poola Rangadu''
|"Yedekokkate"
| rowspan="9" |[[Raj–Koti]]
|
|
|-
|"Cheerapettu Poolupettu"
|
|
|-
|"Ottarulaara"
|
|
|-
| rowspan="4" |[[Preminchi Choodu (1989 film)|''Preminchi Choodu'']]
|"Ugaali Gaali Uyyala"
|
|
|-
|"Aakasadesana"
|
|
|-
|"Kokilamma"
|
|
|-
|"Raja Raja"
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |''Sakshi''
|"Andhamaina Batalaga"
|
|
|-
|"Jhummani Manasimmani"
|
|
|-
|''[[Sutradharulu]]''
|"Maharaja Rajasri"
|[[K. V. Mahadevan]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |''[[Swathi Chinukulu]]''
|"Cham Cham Chalaaki"
| rowspan="3" |[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|
|
|-
|"Ninnu Kanna"
|
|
|-
|"Midisi Midisi Padina Vayasu"
|
|
|-
|''[[Two Town Rowdy]]''
|"Vaddura Niddara"
| rowspan="2" |[[Raj–Koti]]
|
|
|-
|''[[Vicky Daada]]''
|"O Baby Neemeeda"
|
|
|-
|''[[Vijay (1989 film)|Vijay]]''
|"Ayyayyo Chetilo Dabbulu"
|[[K. Chakravarthy]]
|
|
|}

==== 1990s ====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
!Film
!Song
!Composer(s)
!Writer(s)
!Co-singer(s)
|-
| rowspan="26" |1990
| rowspan="2" |''[[Dagudumuthala Dampathyam]]''
|"Gonthemma"
| rowspan="2" |[[M. M. Keeravaani]]
|
|
|-
|"Madiloni Mata"
|
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |''[[Idem Pellam Baboi]]''
|"Darling Darling"
| rowspan="4" |[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|
|
|-
|"Godavari Pongalle"
|
|
|-
|"Rammante Raadaaye"
|
|
|-
|''[[Kokila (1990 film)|Kokila]]''
|"Thalluku"
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |''[[Aggiramudu]]''
|"Haayile Haayile"
| rowspan="2" |[[K. Chakravarthy]]
|
|
|-
|"Savaal Chestaava"
|
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |[[Anna Thammudu (1990 film)|''Anna Thammudu'']]
|"Oosuponi"
| rowspan="3" |[[Raj–Koti]]
|
|
|-
|"Puttu Puttu Aa"
|
|
|-
|"Kadupaara"
|
|
|-
|''[[Chevilo Puvvu]]''
|"Doraka Doraka"
|[[K. Chakravarthy]]
|
|
|-
|''[[Iddaru Iddare]]''
|"Abbayilu Cheppana"
| rowspan="3" |[[Raj–Koti]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |''[[Kodama Simham]]''
|"Gum Gumainchu"
|
|
|-
|"Pillo Jaabillo"
|
|
|-
| rowspan="5" |''[[Mama Alludu]]''
|"Edi Manmadha Samrajyam"
| rowspan="5" |Vasu Rao
|
|
|-
|"Mangalyam Tantunanena"
|
|
|-
|"Gundelo Gusagusalu"
|
|
|-
|"Seetapati Chapegathi"
|
|
|-
|"Mama Alludu"
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |''[[Master Kapuram]]''
|"Mallelo Manchamesuko"
| rowspan="2" |[[Raj–Koti]]
|
|
|-
|"Neeve Prema Neede Prema"
|
|
|-
|''[[Prananiki Pranam]]''
|"Eeshwar Alla Terenaam"
|[[K. Chakravarthy]]
|
|
|-
|''[[Prema Zindabad]]''
|"Anandam Ajantha"
| rowspan="3" |[[Madhavapeddi Suresh]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |''[[Rambha Rambabu]]''
|"Rambha Ramba"
|
|
|-
|"Balamani Raave"
|
|
|-
| rowspan="16" |1991
|''[[Sathruvu]]''
|"Maata Vintara"
|[[Raj–Koti]]
|
|
|-
|''[[Amma Rajinama]]''
|"Cheekatlo Aadapilla"
|[[K. Chakravarthy]]
|
|
|-
|''[[Thalapathi|Dalpathi]]''
|"Muddabanthi Poochenule"
| rowspan="2" |[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|
|
|-
|[[Nirnayam (1991 film)|''Nirnayam'']]
|"Mila Mila Merisenu"
|
|
|-
| rowspan="4" |''[[Pandirimancham]]''
|"Chilakamma Paluku"
| rowspan="4" |[[Raj–Koti]]
|
|
|-
|"Pillo Pidugo"
|
|
|-
|"Rowdygaaru"
|
|
|-
|"Amma Nee"
|
|
|-
|''[[Stuartpuram Police Station]]''
|"Fantastic"
|[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |''[[Parishkaram]]''
|"Kanya Kumarini"
| rowspan="3" |[[Vidyasagar (composer)|Vidyasagar]]
|
|
|-
|"Chemanthi Chempalo"
|
|
|-
|"Illantha Uyyalavuthundi"
|
|
|-
|''[[Kshana Kshanam]]''
|"Jumbaare"
|[[M. M. Keeravaani]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |''[[April 1 Vidudala]]''
|"Chukkalu Temmanna"
| rowspan="2" |[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|
|
|-
|"Nijamante"
|
|
|-
|''[[Teneteega]]''
|"Gitcham Gitcham"
|[[Vidyasagar (composer)|Vidyasagar]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="16" |1992
| rowspan="3" |''[[Allari Pilla]]''
|"Bhale Chance"
| rowspan="3" |[[Vidyasagar (composer)|Vidyasagar]]
|
|
|-
|"Alakalaku Laalijo"
|
|
|-
|"Inta Inta"
|
|
|-
|''[[Antham]]''
|"Oohalevo Regey"
|[[R. D. Burman]]
|
|
|-
|''[[Asadhyulu]]''
|"Kanapade Daarilo"
|[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |''[[Chittemma Mogudu]]''
|"Hello Hello Lady Doctor"
| rowspan="2" |[[K. V. Mahadevan]]
|
|
|-
|"Boddulo Rupayibilla"
|
|
|-
|''[[Killer (1992 film)|Killer]]''
|"Priya Priyathama"
|[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|
|
|-
|[[Roja (film)|''Roja'']]
|"Vinara Vinara"
|[[A. R. Rahman]]
|
|
|-
|''[[Dharma Kshetram]]''
|"Kora Meenu Komalam"
|[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|
|
|-
|[[Sahasam (1992 film)|''Sahasam'']]
|"Sahasam"
| rowspan="3" |[[M. M. Keeravaani]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |''[[Gharana Mogudu]]''
|"Kitukulu Thelisina"
|
|
|-
|"Hey Pilla Hello Pilla"
|
|
|-
|''Golmaal Govindam''
|"Yem Tapamo"
| rowspan="2" |[[K. Chakravarthy]]
|
|
|-
|[[Mother India (1992 film)|''Mother India'']]
|"Lajja Gummadi"
|
|
|-
|''[[Pellaniki Premalekha Priyuraliki Subhalekha]]''
|"Kannugotti Raa"
|[[J. V. Raghavulu]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="17" |1993
|''[[Bangaru Bullodu (1993 film)|Bangaru Bullodu]]''
|"Thathiginathom"
|[[Raj–Koti]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |''[[Donga Donga]]''
|"Veera Bobbili"
| rowspan="3" |[[A. R. Rahman]]
|
|
|-
|"Kotha Bangaru"
|
|
|-
|"Kanulu Kanulanu"
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |''[[Kondapalli Raja]]''
|"Guvvamgudug"
| rowspan="2" |[[M. M. Keeravaani]]
|
|
|-
|"Ammamma"
|
|
|-
|[[Money (1993 film)|''Money'']]
|"Paadu Kaburu"
|[[Sri Kommineni]]
|
|
|-
|''[[Pudhiya Mugam|Padmavyuham]]''
|"July Maasam"
|[[A. R. Rahman]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |[[Aadarsam (1993 film)|''Aadarsam'']]
|"Lavva Lakidi Laati"
| rowspan="3" |[[M. M. Keeravaani]]
|
|
|-
|"Eedu Korinadi"
|
|
|-
|"Chikati Musirina"
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |''[[Gaayam]]''
|"Nizam Pori"
| rowspan="2" |[[Sri Kommineni]]
|
|
|-
|"Cheli Mida Chitikedu"
|
|
|-
|[[Major Chandrakanth (1993 film)|''Major Chandrakanth'']]
|"Neekkavalisindi"
|[[M. M. Keeravaani]]
|
|
|-
|''[[Mutha Mestri]]''
|"Chickchick Cham"
|[[Raj–Koti]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |''[[Pillalu Diddina Kapuram]]''
|"Mangala Gowri"
| rowspan="2" |[[Vidyasagar (composer)|Vidyasagar]]
|
|
|-
|"Malakpeta Pori"
|
|
|-
| rowspan="29" |1994
|''[[Parugo Parugu]]''
|"Kindaninchi Paiki"
|[[Raj–Koti]]
|
|
|-
|''[[Alibaba Aradajanu Dongalu]]''
|"Nee Paita Jaripothe"
| rowspan="5" |[[Vidyasagar (composer)|Vidyasagar]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="4" |''[[Allarodu]]''
|"Teacher Teacher"
|
|
|-
|"Sarangaa Srirangaa"
|
|
|-
|"Vakitlo Chali Chali"
|
|
|-
|"Agadha Allari Vaana"
|
|
|-
|''[[Bhale Pellam]]''
|"Maapatela Mallelabasthi"
|[[Deva (composer)|Deva]]
|
|
|-
|''[[Bobbili Simham]]''
|"Maayadaari Pillada"
|[[M. M. Keeravaani]]
|
|
|-
|''[[Captain (1994 film)|Captain]]''
|"Paaliyyave Hai"
|[[Sirpy]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |''[[Lucky Chance]]''
|"Aaja Aaja Raja"
| rowspan="2" |[[Sri Kommineni]]
|
|
|-
|"Vudutha Vudutha Huch"
|
|
|-
|''[[Madam (1994 film)|Madam]]''
|"Navallakaadu"
|[[Madhavapeddi Suresh]]
|
|
|-
|''[[Mugguru Monagallu (1994 film)|Mugguru Monagallu]]''
|"Aaja Aaja"
|[[Vidyasagar (composer)|Vidyasagar]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |''[[Palnati Pourusham]]''
|"Raagala Chilaka"
| rowspan="10" |[[A. R. Rahman]]
|
|
|-
|"Idigo Peddapuram"
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |''[[Super Police]]''
|"Teku Kuttina Tenalilo"
|
|
|-
|"Mukkambe Mukkambe"
|
|
|-
| rowspan="4" |[[Gangmaster (film)|''Gangmaster'']]
|"Nagu Monu Nagma"
|
|
|-
|"Baddaragiri"
|
|
|-
|"Kila Kilala"
|
|
|-
|"Aa Siggu Eggu Enthavaraku"
|
|
|-
|''[[Karuththamma|Vanitha]]''
|"Koodu Pettebhoomi"
|
|
|-
|''[[Premikudu]]''
|"Mukkala Mukkabula"
| Rajasri
| Swarnalatha
|-
| rowspan="6" |''[[Aladdin (1992 Disney film)|Aladdin]]''
|"A Whole New World"(Reprise)
| rowspan="6" |[[Alan Menken]]
|
|
|-
|"Prince Ali"
|
|
|-
|"Friend Like Me"
|
|
|-
|"One Jump Ahead"(Reprise)
|
|
|-
|"One Jump Ahead"
|
|
|-
|"A Whole New World"
|
|
|-
| rowspan="28" |1995
| rowspan="3" |''[[Vaddu Bava Thappu]]''
|"My Dear Maradaluji"
| rowspan="3" |[[Vidyasagar (composer)|Vidyasagar]]
|
|
|-
|"O Prema Sastri"
|
|
|-
|"Orayyo Yo Yo"
|
|
|-
|''[[Tapassu]]''
|"Talukumannadi Kulukula Tara"
"Nuvvante Nenani"
|[[Raj–Koti]]
|
|
|-
|'' [[Om (1995 film)|Om]]''
|"College Kumaru"
"Mehbooba"

"Amruthavanthe Premada"
|[[Hamsalekha]]
|
|
|-
|''[[Aayanaki Iddaru]]''
|"Arera Kothaga Undiro"
|[[Koti (composer)|Koti]]
|
|
|-
|[[Muthu (film)|''Muthu'']]
|"Thillana Thillana"
|[[A. R. Rahman]]
|
|
|-
|[[Money Money (film)|''Money Money'']]
|"Em Kompa"
| rowspan="3" |[[Sri Kommineni]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |''[[Ammoru]]''
|"Dandalu"
|
|
|-
|"Emani Piluvanu"
|
|
|-
|''[[Rangeela (1995 film)|Rangeli]]''
|"Yemi Cheyavachu"
|[[A. R. Rahman]]
|
|
|-
|''[[Big Boss (film)|Big Boss]]''
|"Sudiki Daaram"
|[[Bappi Lahiri]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="4" |''[[Gharana Bullodu]]''
|"Vangi Vangi"
| rowspan="4" |[[M. M. Keeravaani]]
|
|
|-
|"Emkasi Emkasi"
|
|
|-
|"Adirendiro"
|
|
|-
|"Chukkalo"
|
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |''[[Maato Pettukoku]]''
|"Maaghamaasam"
| rowspan="4" |[[Madhavapeddi Suresh]]
|
|
|-
|""Mazare Gajjala"
|
|
|-
|"Ammamte Elelo"
|
|
|-
|''Maya Bazaar''
|"Tholi Valapula"
|
|
|-
| rowspan="5" |''[[Mummy Mee Aayanochadu]]''
|"Dhintanana Vennela Chilaka"
| rowspan="5" |[[Vidyasagar (composer)|Vidyasagar]]
|
|
|-
|"Chali Gaali Chengu Chaatu"
|
|
|-
|"Gampalo Kodenta"
|
|
|-
|"Maharani Manjulavani"
|
|
|-
|"Hye Hye Madana"
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |''[[Sisindri]]''
|"Ori Naayano"
| rowspan="2" |[[Raj–Koti|Raj]]
|
|
|-
|"Kya Scene Hai"
|
|
|-
|''[[Gulabi (1995 film)|Gulabi]]''
|"Meghalalo"
|[[Shashi Preetam]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="23" |1996
|''[[Akkada Ammayi Ikkada Abbayi]]''
|"Chaligali Jummandi"
|[[Koti (composer)|Koti]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |''[[Deyyam (1996 film)|Deyyam]]''
|"Alli Billi Kurra Cheera"
| rowspan="3" |Vishwanatha Sathyanarayana
|
|
|-
|"Ee Kulasaala Gulabi"
|
|
|-
|"Hello Hello O Missu"
|
|
|-
|[[Love Birds (1996 film)|''Love Birds'']]
|"Come On Come On"
|[[A. R. Rahman]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |''[[Little Soldiers]]''
|"Maa Father O Tiger"
| rowspan="2" |[[Sri Kommineni]]
|
|
|-
|"Yevadandi Veedu"
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |''[[Kadhal Desam|Prema Desham]]''
|"Vennela Vennela"
| rowspan="2" |[[A. R. Rahman]]
|
|
|-
|"College Style"
|
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |''[[Family (1996 film)|Family]]''
|"Aalumagalu"
| rowspan="3" |Prasanna Swaraj
|
|
|-
|"Cheeraleni Sundarangeevi"

|
|
|-
|"Kothapelli Koothuru"
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |''[[Intlo Illalu Vantintlo Priyuralu]]''
|"Paapato Pap"
| rowspan="2" |[[Koti (composer)|Koti]]
|
|
|-
|"Olammi Timmirekkinde"
|
|
|-
|''[[Jabilamma Pelli]]''
|"Boddupai Vadanam"
|[[M. M. Keeravaani]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |''[[Ladies Doctor]]''
|"O Aakashavaani"
| rowspan="3" |[[Vidyasagar (composer)|Vidyasagar]]
|
|
|-
|"Chali Gaali Chengu Chaatu"
|
|
|-
|"Yennenno Nomu"
|
|
|-
|''[[Pavitra Bandham]]''
|"O My Daddy"
| rowspan="4" |[[M. M. Keeravaani]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |''[[Rayudugaru Nayudugaru]]''
|"Naa Kantiki Choopuvu"
|
|
|-
|"Monna Choopu Kalisindi"
|
|
|-
|''[[Sahasa Veerudu Sagara Kanya]]''
|"Pettamandi Pettamandi"
|
|
|-
|''[[Topi Raja Sweety Roja]]''
|"Alluku Pora"
|[[Rajendra Prasad (actor)|Rajendra Prasad]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="49" |1997
| rowspan="2" |''[[Aaro Pranam]]''
|"Pedaviki Pedavi"
| rowspan="2" |Veeru K
|
|
|-
|"Makhana"
|
|
|-
| rowspan="4" |''[[Devudu]]''
|"Ra Chilaka Kulukula"
| rowspan="4" |[[Sirpy]]
|
|
|-
|"Tanantu Nanu"
|
|
|-
|"Made in China"
|
|
|-
|"Gullo Ramayyo"
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |[[Dongaata (1997 film)|''Dongaata'']]
|"O Priya Edo Tamasha"
| rowspan="2" |[[Ramani Bharadwaj]]
|
|
|-
|"Lallaguda Sahiti Mallesha"
|
|
|-
|''[[Egire Paavurama]]''
|"This Is The Rhythm"
|[[S. V. Krishna Reddy]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |''[[Gokulamlo Seeta]]''
|"Andala Sermaloni"
| rowspan="7" |[[Koti (composer)|Koti]]
|
|
|-
|"Hey Papa"
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |''[[Hitler (1997 film)|Hitler]]''
|"Koosindi Kanne"
|
|
|-
|"Prema Johar"
|
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |''Jai Bajarangabhali''
|"Nee Lipstick Pedavulu"
|
|
|-
|"Ghallu Ghallu"
|
|
|-
|"O Sokula Diamond Rani"
|
|
|-
|''[[Mama Bagunnava]]''
|"Chinnari Cheekatela"
|[[Vidyasagar (composer)|Vidyasagar]]
|
|
|-
|''[[Minsara Kanavu|Merupu Kalalu]]''
|"Strawberry Kanne"
|[[A. R. Rahman]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="5" |''[[Anaganaga Oka Roju]]''
|"Ema Kopama"
| rowspan="5" |[[Sri Kommineni]]
|
|
|-
|"Edo Taha Taha"
|
|
|-
|"Love Is Blind"
|
|
|-
|"Oopa Lenayyo"
|
|
|-
|"Endhammo"
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |''[[Iddaru]]''
|"Adhukonadam"
| rowspan="2" |[[A. R. Rahman]]
|
|
|-
|"Odalu Mannata"
|
|
|-
| rowspan="4" |[[Annamayya (film)|''Annamayya'']]
|"Padaharu Kalalaku"
| rowspan="4" |[[M. M. Keeravaani]]
|
|
|-
|"Sobhaname Sobhaname"
|
|
|-
|"Asmadeeya"
|
|
|-
|"Nanati Bathuku"
|
|
|-
|''[[Oka Chinna Maata]]''
|"Abbo Oyabbo"
|[[Ramani Bharadwaj]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |''[[Omkaram]]''
|"College Kurrodu"
| rowspan="2" |[[Hamsalekha]]
|
|
|-
|"Bullemma"
|
|
|-
|''[[Osey Ramulamma]]''
|"Addalori Buddayya"
| rowspan="3" |[[Vandemataram Srinivas]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |''[[Vandemataram Srinivas|Maa Aayana Bangaram]]''
|"Chummare Chumma"
|
|
|-
|"Bul Bul Basthi Lady"
|
|
|-
|''[[Pelli (film)|Pelli]]''
|"Rukku Rukku Rukkumini"
|[[S. A. Rajkumar]]
|
|
|-
|''[[Pelli Chesukundam]]''
|"O Laila Laila"
|[[Koti (composer)|Koti]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |''[[Preminchukundam Raa]]''
|"Pellikala Vachesinde"
| rowspan="2" |[[Mani Sharma]]
|
|
|-
|"O Panaipothundi" 
|
|
|-
|''[[Subhakankshalu]]''
|"Panchavannela Chilaka"
|[[Koti (composer)|Koti]]
|
|
|-
|''[[Surya Putrulu]]''
|"Peesu Peesu Polisu"
|[[M. M. Keeravaani]]
|
|
|-
|''[[Thaali (1997 film)|Thaali]]''
|"Guppu Guppu Ghallumandi"
|[[Vidyasagar (composer)|Vidyasagar]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="6" |''[[Veedevadandi Babu]]''
|"Rama Hey Rama"
| rowspan="6" |[[Sirpy]]
|
|
|-
|"Chamak Chamak"
|
|
|-
|"Chitti Chitti Guvvapilla"
|
|
|-
|"I Love You Love You"
|
|
|-
|"O Cheele Cheele"
|
|
|-
|"Aoura Laila"
|
|
|-
|''[[Ugadi (1997 film)|Ugadi]]''
|"Brathukaina Neede Kada"
|[[S. V. Krishna Reddy]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="27" |1998
|''[[Pelli Pandiri]]''
|"Dosth Mera Dosth"
|[[Vandemataram Srinivas]]
|
|
|-
|[[All Rounder (1998 film)|''All-rounder'']]
|"Golkonda Chowrastha"
|[[Swaraveenapani]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |''[[Bavagaru Bagunnara?]]''
|"Chalnedo Gaadi"
| rowspan="2" |[[Mani Sharma]]
|
|
|-
|"Sorry Sorry"
|
|
|-
|''[[Daddy Daddy]]''
|"Jaangri Lanti Pilla"
|[[Vandemataram Srinivas]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |''[[Ganesh (1998 film)|Ganesh]]''
|"Aadabarse"
| rowspan="2" |[[Mani Sharma]]
|
|
|-
|"Hindilona Chumma"
|
|
|-
|''[[Dil Se..|Prematho]]''
|"O Priyathama"
|[[A. R. Rahman]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="4" |''[[Mee Aayana Jagratha]]''
|"Vaana Vaana"
| rowspan="2" |[[Koti (composer)|Koti]]
|
|
|-
|"Andam Debba Kottinde"
|
|
|-
|"Naa Holi Rangeli"
| rowspan="2" |Vinayak Rao
|
|
|-
|"Tyte Jeans Vesi"
|
|
|-
|''[[Antahpuram]]''
|"Chhamaku Chhamaku"
|[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |''Navvulata''
|"Chik Chikladki"
| rowspan="2" |[[M. M. Srilekha]]
|
|
|-
|"Eevela Anividala"
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |''[[Pandaga]]''
|"Bagundammo"
| rowspan="2" |[[M. M. Keeravaani]]
|
|
|-
|"Mudda Banthulu"
|
|
|-
|''[[Pelli Peetalu]]''
|"Pelli Peetalu"
|[[S. V. Krishna Reddy]]
|
|
|-
|''[[Premante Idera]]''
|"Nizam Babulu"
|[[Ramana Gogula]]
|
|
|-
|''[[Sri Sita Ramula Kalyanam Chootamu Raarandi]]''
|"Evamma Computeramma"
|[[M. M. Keeravaani]]
|
|
|-
|''[[Suryavamsam (1998 film)|Suryavamsam]]''
|"Chukkalanni"(Version ll)
| rowspan="3" |[[S. A. Rajkumar]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |''[[Suswagatham]]''
|"Happy Happy"
|
|
|-
|"Figure Maata"
|
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |[[Ulta Palta (1998 film)|''Ulta Palta'']]
|"Chamaku Chamaku"
| rowspan="3" |[[M. M. Srilekha]]
|
|
|-
|"Kashmirunundi Kanyakumari"
|
|
|-
|"Rajamandri Ramba"
|
|
|-
|''[[W/o V. Vara Prasad]]''
|"Peru Cheppave Papa"
|[[M. M. Keeravaani]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="32" |1999
| rowspan="4" |''[[Harischandraa]]''
|"Muvva Gopala"
| rowspan="4" |Aghosh
|
|
|-
|"Premante Thenela"
|
|
|-
|"Chinna Saayam Cheyaana"
|
|
|-
|"Vinudu Vinudu Antha"
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |''[[Vadde Naveen|Naa Hrudayamlo Nidurinche Cheli]]''
|"Ninne Premincha"
| rowspan="2" |[[Sri Kommineni]]
|
|
|-
|"Ayyo Ayyo"
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |''[[Preminche Manasu]]''
| "Mumbai Minku Bangaru"
| rowspan="2"|[[S. A. Rajkumar]]
| ||Swarnalatha
|-
| "Maaloni Maata Paata Aata" || ||
|-
|''[[List of Telugu films of 1999|Neeli Meghalu]]''
|"Punnami Vennelaki"
|Duggiraala
|
|
|-
|''[[Nee Kosam]]''
|"Konte Baapu"
|[[Devi Sri Prasad]]
|
|
|-
|''[[Ilaiyaraaja|Preminchedi Endukamma]]''
|"Manasu Koyila Paata"
|[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|
|
|-
|''[[Prema Katha]]''
|"Sunday Sunday"
|[[Sandeep Chowta]]
|
|
|-
|''[[Premaku Velayera]]''
|"Inter Chadive"
|[[S. V. Krishna Reddy]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |''[[Chinni Chinni Aasa]]''
|"Mallepulla Jallule"
| rowspan="2" |[[Raj–Koti|Raj]]
|
|
|-
|"Aa Vankachusuko"
|
|
|-
|''[[Padayappa|Narasimha]]''
|"Kikku Ekkele"
|[[A. R. Rahman]]
|
|
|-
|''[[Ravoyi Chandamama]]''
|"Naa Kosmae"
|[[Mani Sharma]]
|
|
|-
|''[[Raja (1999 film)|Raja]]''
|"Mallela Vaana"
|[[S. A. Rajkumar]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |''[[Samarasimha Reddy]]''
|"Lady Lady"
| rowspan="3" |[[Mani Sharma]]
|
|
|-
|"Adees Abbabba"
|
|
|-
|[[Iddaru Mitrulu (1999 film)|''Iddaru Mitrulu'']]
|"Nootokka Jillalo"
|
|
|-
| rowspan="5" |''[[Speed Dancer]]''
|"Janedo Janedo"
| rowspan="5" |[[Ramesh Vinayakam]]
|
|
|-
|"Meethali Meethali Hai"
|
|
|-
|"Hai Ooru Vaada"
|
|
|-
|"Andhra Jyothi Choosa"
|
|
|-
|"Dikkulne Dee Kotte"
|
|
|-
|''[[Sneham Kosam]]''
|"Ayyagaru Avunandi"
|[[S. A. Rajkumar]]
|
|
|-
|''[[Jodi (1999 film)|Jodi]]''
|"Andhala Jeeva"
|[[A. R. Rahman]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |[[Sultan (1999 film)|''Sultan'']]
|"Aakasham Gundello"
| rowspan="2" |[[Koti (composer)|Koti]]
|
|
|-
|"Chima Chima"
|
|
|-
|[[Swayamvaram (1999 film)|''Swayamvaram'']]
|"Pellichesukora"
| rowspan="2" |[[Vandemataram Srinivas]]
|
|
|-
|''Yamajathakudu''
|"Nee Chevulaki"
|
|
|}

==== 2000s ====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
!Film
!Song
!Composer(s)
!Writer(s)
!Co-singer(s)
|-
| rowspan="6" |2000
|''[[Choosoddaam Randi]]''
|"Emani Cheppanuraa"
|[[M. M. Keeravaani]]
|
|
|-
|''[[Manasunna Maaraju]]''
|"Oodala Oodala"
|[[Vandemataram Srinivas]]
|
|[[Sujatha Mohan]], [[Malgudi Subha]], [[Tippu (singer)|Tippu]]
|-
|''[[Maa Annayya]]''
|"Thajaga Maa Intlo"
|[[S. A. Rajkumar]]
|
|[[K. S. Chithra]], [[Sujatha Mohan]]
|-
|''[[Kshemamga Velli Labhamga Randi]]''
|"Aadavallamandi Memu"
|[[Vandemataram Srinivas]]
|
|[[K. S. Chithra]]
|-
|[[Bachi (film)|''Bachi'']]
|"Habibi"
|[[Chakri (composer)|Chakri]]
|Kulashekar
|[[Gopika Poornima]], [[Singer Usha|Usha]]
|-
|''[[Moodu Mukkalaata]]''
|"Chinavaada Chinavaada"
|[[M. M. Srilekha]]
|[[Chandrabose (lyricist)|Chandrabose]]
|[[Nithyasree Mahadevan]]
|-
| rowspan="8" |2001
|''[[Narasimha Naidu]]''
|"Chilakapacha Koka"
|[[Mani Sharma]]
|[[Bhuvana Chandra]]
|Radhika
|-
| rowspan="2" |''[[Soori (2001 film)|Soori]]''
|"Kottu Kottu Tenkaaya"
| rowspan="2" |[[Vidyasagar (composer)|Vidyasagar]]
| rowspan="2" |Kaluva Krishna Sai
|
|-
|"Gumma Saradaaga"
|[[Sujatha Mohan]]
|-
|''[[Kushi (2001 film)|Kushi]]''
|"Holi Holi"
|[[Mani Sharma]]
|[[Suddala Ashok Teja]]
|[[Swarnalatha]]
|-
|[[Hanuman Junction (film)|''Hanuman Junction'']]
|"Golumaalu Golumaalu"
|[[Suresh Peters]]
|[[Veturi Sundararama Murthy|Veturi Sundararamurty]]
|[[K. S. Chithra]], [[M. G. Sreekumar]]
|-
| rowspan="2" |''[[Subbu]]''
|"Janani Janma Bhoomi"
| rowspan="2" |[[Mani Sharma]]
|Jaladi
|
|-
|"Hari Hara"
|Kulashekar
|[[Sunitha Upadrashta|Sunitha]]
|-
|''[[Naalo Unna Prema]]''
|"O Naa Priyathama"
|[[Koti (composer)|Koti]]
|
|[[K. S. Chithra]]
|-
|2002
|''[[Seema Simham]]''
|"Pori Hoosharu"
|[[Mani Sharma]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="7" |2003
|''[[Raghavendra (film)|Raghavendra]]''
|"Boothulu Tittakuraa"
|[[Mani Sharma]]
|
|
|-
|''[[Vijayam (film)|Vijayam]]''
| "Ee Ooji Sunoji"
| [[Koti (composer)|Koti]]
|
|
|-
|[[Simhadri (2003 film)|''Simhadri'']]
|"Chinnadame"
| rowspan="2" |[[M. M. Keeravaani]]
|
|
|-
|[[Gangotri (2003 film)|''Gangotri'']]
|"Maavayyadi"
|
|
|-
|''[[Kalyana Ramudu]]''
|"Parigetti Pothundi"
|[[Mani Sharma]]
|
|
|-
|''[[Tagore (film)|Tagore]]''
|"Gappuchippu"
|[[Mani Sharma]]
|
|
|-
|''[[Palnati Brahmanayudu]]''
|"Palaka Balapam"
|[[Mani Sharma]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="5" |2004
|''[[Puttintiki Ra Chelli]]''
|"Seethakoka Chilakala Chelli"
|[[S. A. Rajkumar]]
|
|
|-
|''[[Swarabhishekam]]''
|"Nee Chente Oka"
|[[Vidyasagar (composer)|Vidyasagar]]
|[[Sirivennela Seetharama Sastry|Sirivennela Sitaramasastry]]
|[[K. S. Chithra]]
|-
|''[[Shankar Dada M.B.B.S.]]''
|"Shankar Dada M.B.B.S"
| rowspan="2" |[[Devi Sri Prasad]]
|
|
|-
|''[[Mars (2004 film)|Mass]]''
|"Maama Mass"
|
|
|-
|''[[Samba (2004 film)|Samba]]''
|"Kita Kitalu Pettamaaku"
|[[Mani Sharma]]
|
|
|-
|2005
|''[[Naa Alludu]]''
|"Pilla Choodu"(Film Version)
|[[Devi Sri Prasad]]
|
|
|-
|2006
|''[[Style (2006 film)|Style]]''
|"Chiru Cheyyesthe"
|[[Mani Sharma]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="4" |2007
|''[[Shankar Dada Zindabad]]''
|"Jagadeka Veerudiki"
|[[Devi Sri Prasad]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |''[[Yamadonga]]''
|"Young Yama"
| rowspan="3" |[[M. M. Keeravaani]]
|
|
|-
|"Srikara Karunda"
|
|
|-
|"Bambharala Chumbhanala"
|
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |2008
| rowspan="2" |[[Gorintaku (2008 film)|''Gorintaku'']]
|"Rajugari Thotalona"
| rowspan="2" |[[S. A. Rajkumar]]
|
|
|-
|"Karuna Kuriyu"
|
|
|-
|''[[Krishnarjuna]]''
|"Pedda Marrikemo"
|[[M. M. Keeravaani]]
|
|
|-
|2009
|''[[Billa (2009 film)|Billa]]''
|"Hariloranga Hari"
|[[Mani Sharma]]
|
|
|}

==== 2010s ====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
!Film
!Song
!Composer(s)
!Writer(s)
!Co-singer(s)
!Notes
|-
| rowspan="2" |2010
|''[[Simha (film)|Simha]]''
|"Simhamanti"
|[[Chakri (composer)|Chakri]]
|[[Chandrabose (lyricist)|Chandrabose]]
|[[Sravana Bhargavi]]
|
|-
|''[[Panchakshari]]''
|"Nagendra Haraya"
|Chinna
|
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |2013
|''[[Iddarammayilatho]]''
|"Shankara Bharanamtho"
|[[Devi Sri Prasad]]
|
|
|
|-
|''[[Gundello Godari]]''
|"Ekkadundi Ekkadundi"
|[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|
|
|
|-
|''[[Iddarammayilatho]]''
|"Shankara Bharanamtho"
|[[Devi Sri Prasad]]
|
|
|
|-
|rowspan="2"|2014
|''[[Amrutham Chandamamalo]]''
| "Bahuparak", "Yarukaga"
| Shree
| ||
|
|-
|''[[Lingaa]]''
|"Mona Mona"
|[[A. R. Rahman]]
|
|
|Dubbed version
|-
| 2017
|[[Gayatri (2018 film)|''Gayatri'']]
|"Ravana Bramha"
|[[S. Thaman]]
|
|
|
|-
| rowspan="4" |2019
|[[Petta (film)|''Petta'']]
|"Mass Maranam"
|[[Anirudh Ravichander]]
|
|
|Dubbed version
|-
| rowspan="2" |[[Kurukshetra (2019 film)|''Kurukshetram'']]
|"Jhumma Jhumma"
| rowspan="2" |[[V. Harikrishna]]
|
|
|
|-
|"Bharata Vamshaja"
|
|
|
|-
|[[The Lion King (2019 film)|''The Lion King'']]
|"Siddhama"
|[[Hans Zimmer]]
|
|
|Dubbed version
|}

==== 2020s ====
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Year
!Film
!Song
!Composer(s)
!Writer(s)
!Co-singer(s)
|-
| 2023
|''[[Veera Simha Reddy]]''
|"Mass Mogudu"
|[[S. Thaman]]
|[[Ramajogayya Sastry]]
|[[Ramya Behara]]
|-
| rowspan="4" |2024
|''[[Pekamedalu]]''
|"Boom Boom Lacchanna"
|Smaran
|Bhargava Karthik
|
|-
|''[[Veeranjaneyulu Viharayatra]]''
|"AyyAyyo"
|RH Vikram
|Sanapati Bharadwaj Patrudu
|
|-
|[[Swag (film)|''Swag'']]
|"Guvva Gootilo"
|[[Vivek Sagar]]
|[[Bhuvana Chandra]]
|[[Geetha Madhuri]], Snigdha Sharma
|-
|''[[Keshava Chandra Ramavath]]''
|"Telangana Tejam"
|Charan Arjun
|[[Goreti Venkanna]]
|[[Goreti Venkanna]], [[Kalpana Raghavendar|Kalpana]], Veeha, Charan Arjun
|-
|2025
|''[[Patang (2025 film)|Patang]]''
|"Oh Ranga"
|Jose Jimmy
|Praneeth Prattipati
|
|}

===Tamil discography===
====1980s====
{{Inc-musong|date=October 2021}}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Year
!Film
!Song
!Composer(s)
!Writer(s)
!Co-singer(s)
|-
|1986
|''[[Poovizhi Vasalile]]''
|"Anne Anne"
|[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|
|-
| rowspan="7" |1987
| rowspan="2" |''[[Velaikkaran (1987 film)|Velaikkaran]]''
|"Velai Illadhavan"
|[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|
|
|-
|"Vaa Vaa Kanna"
|Ilaiyaraaja
|
|[[K. S. Chithra]]
|-
| rowspan="4" |''[[Enga Ooru Pattukaran]]''
|"Shenbagame Shenbagame"
| Ilaiyaraaja
|
|
|-
|"Pechi Pechi"
|Ilayaraja
|
|
|-
|"Jinjinaku Janakku"
|Ilayaraja
|
|
|-
|"Madurai Marikozhundhu"
|Ilayaraja
|
|
|-
|''[[Nayakan]]''
|"Nee Oru Kaadhal"
|Ilayaraja
|K. S. Chithra
|
|-
|rowspan=7|1988
|''[[Soora Samhaaram]]''
|"Vedhalam Vandhirukuthu"
|Ilayaraja
|
|
|-
|''[[Guru Sishyan (1988 film)|Guru Sishyan]]''
|"Jingidi Jingidi"
|Ilayaraja
|
|
|-
|''[[Solla Thudikuthu Manasu]]''
|"Thenmozhi"
|Ilayaraja
|
|
|-
|''[[En Jeevan Paduthu]]''
|"Mounam Yen"
|Ilayaraja
|
|
|-
|''[[Ennai Vittu Pogaathe]]''
|"Vaalaattum"
|Ilayaraja
|
|
|-
|''[[Raasave Unnai Nambi]]''
|"Raasathi Manasula"
|Ilayaraja
|[[P. Susheela]]
|
|-
|''[[Poonthotta Kaavalkaaran]]''
|"Paaramal Partha Nenjam"
|Ilayaraja
|[[Gangai Amaran]]
|[[K. S. Chithra]]
|-
| rowspan="9" |1989
|''[[En Purushanthaan Enakku Mattumthaan]]''
|"Kaathu Kaathu"
|
|
|
|-
|rowspan="2"|''[[Karakattakkaran]]''
|"Kudagu Malai"
|Ilayaraja
|
|
|-
|"Mundhi Mundhi"
|Ilayaraja
|
|
|-
|''[[Paandi Nattu Thangam]]''
|''Un Manasila Paatuthaan''
|Ilayaraja
|[[Gangai Amaran]]
|[[K. S. Chithra]]
|-
|rowspan=4|''[[Rajadhi Raja (1989 film)|Rajadhi Raja]]''
|"Meenamma"
|Ilayaraja
|
|
|-
|"Malayala Karaiyoram"
|Ilayaraja
|
|
|-
|"Enkitta Modhathe"
|Ilayaraja
|
|
|-
|"Vaa Vaa Manjal"
|Ilayaraja
|
|
|-
|''[[Raja Chinna Roja]]''
|"Poo Poopol manam"
|Illaiyaraaja
|
|[[K. S. Chithra]]
|}
====1990s====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Year
!Film
!Song
!Composer(s)
!Writer(s)
!Co-singer(s)
|-
| rowspan="6" |1990
|''[[Paattukku Naan Adimai]]''
|"Thaalattu Ketkaatha"
|
|
|
|-
|rowspan=2|''[[Kavalukku Kettikaran]]''
|"Idhazenum"
|
|
|
|-
|"Solai Ilanguyil"
|
|
|
|-
|''[[Amman Kovil Thiruvizha]]''
|"Naan Sonnal"
|
|
|
|-
|''[[Panakkaran]]''
|"Nooru Varusham"
|
|
|
|-
|''[[Arangetra Velai]]''
|"Gundu Onnu"
|
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1991
|''[[Sami Potta Mudichu]]''
|"Ponneduthu"
| rowspan="2" |[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|[[Gangai Amaran]]
|[[K. S. Chithra]]
|-
|''[[Eeramana Rojave]]''
|"Adho Mega Oorvalam"
|[[Pulamaipithan]]
|[[Sunanda (singer)|Sunanda]]
|-
| rowspan="6" |1992
|''[[Chembaruthi]]''
|"Nila Kayum"
|
|[[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]]
|[[S. Janaki]]
|-
| rowspan="5" |''[[Thanga Manasukkaran]]''
|"Manikuyil Isaikkuthadi"
| rowspan="5" |[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|[[Piraisoodan]]
|
|-
|"Paatukulle Pattu"
|Kamakodian
| rowspan="2" |[[S. Janaki|S Janaki]]
|-
|"Poothathu Poonthoppu"
|[[Gangai Amaran]]
|-
|"Udakkachatham"
|[[Gangai Amaran]]
|
|-
|"Maaney Mayanguvathu"
|[[Piraisoodan]]
|
|-
| rowspan="5" |1993
| rowspan="2" | ''[[Uzhaippali]]''
|"Uzhaippali Illatha"
| rowspan=2 | [[Ilaiyaraaja]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]]
|
|-
|"Oru Maina Maina Kuruvi"
|[[K. S. Chithra]]
|-
|''Kizhakku Cheemayile''
|Aathangara Marame
|[[A. R. Rahman]]
|[[Vairamuthu]]
|Sujatha
|-
|''[[Ponnumani]]''
|"Aadi Pattam"
|[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|[[R. V. Udayakumar]]
|
|-
|''[[Senthoorapandi]]''
|"Chinna Chinna Sethi Solli"
|[[Deva (composer)|Deva]]
|[[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]]
|[[Swarnalatha]]
|-
|1994
|''[[Kaadhalan]]''
|"Mukabala"
|[[A. R. Rahman|A.R.Rahman]]
| [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]]
|[[Swarnalatha]]
|-
| rowspan="1" |1995
|''[[Ellame En Rasathan]]''
|"Azhagana Manja Pura"
|
|
|K. S. Chithra
|-
|1996
|[[Ullathai Allitha]]
|All songs
|[[Sirpy]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |1997
|''Nerukku Ner''
|"Thudikindra Kadhal"
|Deva
|
|Bhavatharini
|-
|[[Suryavamsam (1997 film)|''Suryavamsam'']]
|"Natchathira Jannalil"
|S. A. Rajkumar
|Mu. Metha
|Sunandha
|-
| rowspan="1" |1998
|''[[Ilaignar Ani]]''
|"Rukku Rukku Mani"
|
|
|
|-
| rowspan="5" |1999
|''Oru Kadhal Vasantham''
|"Laila Oh Laila - Bit"
|
|
|
|-
|rowspan=2|''Ganesh''
|Ayyamare
|Mani Sharma
|
|
|-
|Kadhal Konden
|Mani Sharma
|
|
|-
|''Padayappa''
|Kick Erudhe
|A. R. Rahman
|
|
|-
|''Ninaivirukkum Varai''
|Thirupathi Ezhumalai
|Deva
|
|
|-
|}

====2000s====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Year
!Film
!Song
!Composer(s)
|-
| rowspan="10" |2000
|''[[Kadhal Rojave]]''
|Chinna Vennila
|Ilayaraja
|-
|''[[Vaanathaippola]]''
|Rojapoo Maalaiyile
|S. A. Rajkumar
|-
|''Eazhaiyin Sirippil''
|Yappa Yappa Ayyappa
|Deva
|-
|''Eazhaiyin Sirippil''
|Pacha Kallu Mookuthi
|Deva
|-
|''Thai Porandachu''
|Gopala Gopala
|Deva
|-
|''Kakkai Siraginile''
|Nenavu Therinja
|Ilayaraja
|-
|''Rajakali Amman''
|Kalyanam Thevaiyillai
|S. A. Rajkumar
|-
|''James Pandu''
|Nikkatuma Nadakatuma
|S. A. Rajkumar
|-
|''Kandha Kadamba Kathirvela''
|Kandha Kadamba
|S. A. Rajkumar
|-
|''Kandha Kadamba Kathirvela''
|Nalla paasamulla
|S. A. Rajkumar
|-
| rowspan="2" |2001
|''123''
|Kanchivaram Povom
|Deva
|-
|''Ullam Kollai Poguthae''
|Kingda
|Karthik Raja
|-
|2009
|''Aadhavan''
|Maasi Maasi
|Harris Jayaraj
|-
|}
====2010s====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Year
!Film
!Song
!Composer(s)
!Writer(s)
!Co-singer(s)
!Notes
|-
|2011
|''[[Panchamukhi]]''
|"Nagendre Haraya"
|Chinna
|
|
|Dubbed version
|-
|2011
|''[[Mankatha]]''
|"Machi Open the Bottle"
|Yuvan Shankar Raja
|
|
|
|-
|2014
|''Lingaa''
|Mona Gasolina
|A. R. Rahman
|
|
|
|-
|2015
|''[[Puli (2015 film)|Puli]]''
|Puli Puli
|Devi Sri Prasad
|
|
|
|-
|2016
|''[[Kadhalum Kadandhu Pogum]]''
|"Akkam Pakkam Paar"
|[[Santhosh Narayanan]]
|[[Thamarai]]
|[[Santhosh Narayanan]]
|
|}

===Malayalam discography===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Year
!Film
!Song
!Writer(s)
!Composer(s)
!Co-singer(s)
!Notes
|-
|rowspan=2|1992||''Manyanmar''||Theeratha Dahamo||Chunakkara Ramankutty ||SP Venkitesh||K.S.Chitra||
|-
|''[[Soorya Manasam]]''||Kanil Nila||Kaithapra||MM Keeravani||||
|-
|Rowspan=4|1994||''[[Sainyam]]''||Mercury||Shibu Chakravarthy||SP Venkitesh||Malgudi Subha,Sujatha Mohan||
|-
|''[[Sainyam]]''||Baggy Jeans||Shibu Chakravarthy||SP Venkitesh||Krishnachandran||
|-
|''Manathe Vellitheru''||Moovanthi||Shibu Chakravarthy||Johnson||Malgudi Subha||
|-
|''[[Sopanam (film)|Sopanam]]''||Nagumomu||Thyagaraja|| SP Venkitesh||||
|}

===Kannada discography===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Year
!Film
!Song
!Composer(s)
!Writer(s)
!Co-singer(s)
!Notes
|-
|1986
|''[[Brahma Vishnu Maheshwara]]''
|"Chinna Naale Chinnu"
|Vijayanand
|
|K. S. Chithra
|
|-
|rowspan="3"|1991
|rowspan="3"|''[[Ramachaari]]''
|"Yaarivalu"
|rowspan=11|Hamsalekha
|
|
|
|-
|"Aakashadaage"
|
|
|
|-
|"Burude Burude"
|
|
|
|-
|rowspan="8"|1995
|rowspan="3"|''[[Om (1995 film)|Om]]''
|"College Kumaru"
|
|
|
|-
|"Amruthavanthe"
|
|
|
|-
|"Mehbooba"
|
|
|
|-
|rowspan="5"|''[[Putnanja]]''
|"Puttamalli"
|
|
|
|-
|"Nammamma"
|
|
|
|-
|"Haadiro"
|
|
|
|-
|"Naanu Putnanja"
|
|
|
|-
|"Dasara Gombe"
|
|
|
|-
|rowspan="4"|1996
|rowspan="4"|''[[Shiva Sainya]]''
|"O Mere Pyare"
|rowspan="4"|[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|
|[[K. S. Chithra]]
|
|-
|"Are Laila Laila"
|
|
|
|-
|"Raja Namma"
|
|
|
|-
|"Jailali Hutti"
|
|Ilaiyaraaja
|
|-
|rowspan="4"|1997
|rowspan="4"|''[[Simhada Mari]]''
|"Ninna Kannu"
|rowspan="4"|Hamsalekha
|
|K. S. Chithra
|
|-
|"Ushe Bandalamma"
|
|
|
|-
|"Kannada Nadina"
|
|
|
|-
|"Dekhore"
|
|
|
|-
|1999
|''[[Upendra (film)|Upendra]]''
|"Masthu Masthu"
|Gurukiran
|Upendra
|
|
|-
|rowspan="2"|2001
|rowspan="2"|''[[Kurigalu Saar Kurigalu]]''
|"Ayyo Hogi Saar"
|rowspan="2"|Hamsalekha
|
|Hemanth Kumar, Badri Prasad
|
|-
|"Nidire Baradire"
|
|
|
|-
|}

===Hindi discography===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Year
!Film
!Song
!Composer(s)
!Writer(s)
!Co-singer(s)
!Notes
|-
|1994
|''[[Kaadhalan (soundtrack)#Hindi version (Humse Hai Muqabla)|Humse Hain Muqabla]]''
|"Muqabla"
|[[A. R. Rahman]]
|[[P. K. Mishra]]
|[[Swarnalatha]]
|
|-
|1995
|''Priyanka (Hindi Dubbed of Indira )''
|"Koi Yahan Bhanumati Koi Yahan Roopmati"
"Barasnewali Hai Barkha"
|[[A. R. Rahman]]
|[[P. K. Mishra]]
|Udit Narayan
[[Swarnalatha]]
|
|-
|1996
|''[[Aur Ek Prem Kahani]]''
|"Hona Hain Toh", "Monday To Utkar"
|Ilayaraja
|
|
|
|-
|1998
|''[[Satya (1998 film)|Satya]]''
|"Golimaar"
|[[Vishal Bharadwaj]]
|
|
|
|-
|2000
|''[[Josh (2000 film)|Josh]]''
|"Sailaro Sailare"
|[[Anu Malik]]
|
|[[Suresh Peters]]
|
|-
|2019
|''[[Petta (film)|Petta]]''
|"Mass Marudan"
|[[Anirudh Ravichander]]
|
|Anirudh
|Dubbed version
|}

===Television serial songs===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Year
!Series
!Song
!Composer(s)
|-
|1996
|''Jenmam X''
|"Jenmam X"
|
|-
|2001
|''Mandhira Vaasal''
|"Mandhira Vaasal"
|D. Imman
|-
|}

==Awards==
* Mano received the "[[Kalaimamani|Kalaimaamani]]" Award from the Government of Tamil Nadu also State Award of Tamil Nadu for the song "Thuliyela" from ''[[Chinna Thambi]]''.<ref>{{Cite news |date=30 October 1992 |title=Chinnathambi bags six awards |pages=3 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=P9oYG7HA76QC&dat=19921030&printsec=frontpage&hl=en |access-date=14 February 2021}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
* 1991 – [[Tamil Nadu State Film Award for Best Male Playback]] – For Various films.
* 1997 – [[Filmfare Award for Best Male Playback Singer – Telugu]] – "Ruku Ruku Rukmini" – ''[[Pelli (film)|Pelli]]''
* He got [[Ghantasala (musician)|Dr.Ghantasala]] award from Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb name|0543508|Mano}}
{{Filmfare Award for Best Male Playback Singer – Telugu}}{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mano}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1965 births]]
[[Category:Indian male playback singers]]
[[Category:Telugu-language playback singers]]
[[Category:Tamil-language playback singers]]
[[Category:Kannada-language playback singers]]
[[Category:Hindi-language playback singers]]
[[Category:Singers from Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Male actors from Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:People from Guntur district]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian singers]]
[[Category:Male actors in Tamil cinema]]
[[Category:Indian male voice actors]]
[[Category:Indian male film actors]]
[[Category:Film producers from Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:Male actors in Telugu cinema]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian male singers]]

Vasthuhara

2026-03-03T21:23:33Z

AhmedSturgis: added info

{{Short description|1991 film by G. Aravindan}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Vasthuhara
| image = Vasthuhara.jpg
| alt =
| caption =
| director = [[G. Aravindan]]
| producer = T. Ravindranath
| screenplay = G. Aravindan '''Dialogues:''' [[C. V. Sreeraman]] G. Aravindan N. Mohanan
| story = C. V. Sreeraman
| based_on = {{Based on|''Vasthuhara''|C. V. Sreeraman}}
| starring = [[Mohanlal]] [[Neena Gupta]] [[Shobana]] Neelanjana Mitra
| narrator =
| music = [[Salil Chowdhury]]
| cinematography = [[Sunny Joseph]]
| editing = K. R. Bose
| studio = Paragon Movie Makers
| distributor = Chandrakanth Release
| released = {{Film date|1991|06|03|df=yes}}
| runtime = 101 minutes
| country = India
| language = Malayalam
| budget =
| gross =
}}

'''''Vaasthuhara''''' ({{Translation|The dispossessed}}) is a 1991 Indian [[Malayalam]]-language [[Social problem film|social drama film]] written and directed by [[G. Aravindan]]. It is based on the [[short story]] of the same name by [[C. V. Sreeraman]]. The film looks into the lives of partition refugees from [[East Bengal]] to [[West Bengal]]. At a larger level, it's the universal story of refugees. The film stars [[Mohanlal]], [[Neena Gupta]], Neelanjana Mitra and [[Shobana]]. The dialogues were written by Sreeraman, Aravindan, and N. Mohanan.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Gopalakrishnan |first1=Aswathy |title=Legacy Of The Partition: Vasthuhara, A Tale Of The Dispossessed |url=https://silverscreen.in/features/legacy-of-the-partition-vasthuhara-a-tale-of-the-dispossessed/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190730112728/https://silverscreen.in/features/legacy-of-the-partition-vasthuhara-a-tale-of-the-dispossessed/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=30 July 2019 |publisher=Silverscreen.in |access-date=30 July 2019 |date=16 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Venkiteswaran |first1=C. S. |title=The mastery of Aravindan |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/remembering-master-filmmaker-g-aravindan/article8218692.ece |access-date=30 July 2019 |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=11 February 2016}}</ref>

The story is told through the eyes of Venu, a [[Malayali]] government officer send for a mission in [[Calcutta]] to rehabilitate refugees to the [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]].<ref>{{cite web |title=#FaceOfTheWeek @Mohanlal & #NeenaGupta from #GAravindan's #Vasthuhara.|url=https://twitter.com/nfaiofficial/status/1000285034673131525?lang=en |website=[[Twitter]] |publisher=[[National Film Archive of India]]|access-date=30 July 2019 |date=26 May 2018}}</ref> ''Vaasthuhara'' was released on 3 June 1991 to widespread critical acclaim. The film won the [[National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Malayalam]] and three [[Kerala State Film Awards]]—[[Kerala State Film Award for Best Film|Best Film]], [[Kerala State Film Award for Best Director|Best Director]], and [[Kerala State Film Award for Best Story|Best Story]] (Sreeraman). ''Vasthuhara'' was the last work of Aravindan before his death.<ref>{{cite web |title=Vasthuhara – a Lament & a Celebration |url=http://stancemagazine.in/Article/183/VasthuharaandndashaLamentandampaCelebrationandnbsp |website=stancemagazine.in |access-date=30 July 2019 |archive-date=17 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191017051043/http://stancemagazine.in/Article/183/VasthuharaandndashaLamentandampaCelebrationandnbsp |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== Plot ==
The film takes place in Calcutta in 1971. The story begins with rehabilitation official Venu ([[Mohanlal]]) coming to Calcutta on one of his regular visits to shift nearly 35 to 40 refugee families to the [[Andaman Islands]]. The current rehabilitation plan is for only those who fall under the category of scheduled caste farmers. People in Andaman, too, are not happy about taking in refugees. All the refugees have been staying in a Permanent Liability Camp in Rana Ghat, West Bengal, for the past two decades. Experiencing the shattered lives of poor displaced people deeply hurts Venu in his silent moments alone in his small lodge room. He frequently finds himself lost in the thoughts about the lives of the refuge seekers he meets during the day. Living an oppressed life, their only hope being the occasional promises of land, cattle, and other grants by the bureaucratic state.

Aravindan takes us closer into the life of a refugee when Venu realizes that the sorrow of one refugee family is his own. One day, an old lady, Arthi Panicker (Neelanjana Mitra), comes to meet Venu in his lodge. She speaks broken Malayalam which surprises Venu. She's a refugee from East Bengal. She desperately wants to move out of the wretched Calcutta for a better future for her children, a daughter (who's completed her MA but never appeared for the examination) and a son about whom she's sad. Her daughter Damayanti ([[Neena Gupta]]) quit her studies and is a communist revolutionary on parole. Venu realizes that they are no one but his own uncle's family, his uncle Kunjunni Panicker whom he admired so much. He was a poet and revolutionary who left home long back (probably to join Bose's INA) when Venu was a child.

Venu visits home in Kerala, a typical matrilineal Nair household, to discuss his chance meeting with Kunjunni uncle's family and also to secure their rightful share for them. Venu's mother has no sympathies for Arthi Panicker and her kids. Kunjunni uncle's land is in possession of Venu's aunt, Bhavani (Padmini), who, as a beautiful teenager, had loved Kunjunni. Venu remembers his childhood days when he used to run secret errands for a young Bhavani played by Shobana. Aunt Bhavani is more sympathetic towards Arthi. Having never met the wife and children of the man she once loved, she's curious about them. She agrees to give them the land or money, whatever is convenient to them. (One gets the impression that at the late time of her life, Bhavani is leading a lonely, guilt-ridden life, having destroyed the lives of both the brothers — she married Anandan who commits suicide, probably due to an unhappy marriage.)

Venu returns to Calcutta and reveals his identity to Aunt Arthi. She is pleasantly surprised; she and Damayanti finally feel a sense of security and belonging in their lives. But Arthi rejects the financial help from her husband's family who hadn't allowed her to enter the compound of the house when she visited them years back. Arthi narrates the humiliation of having to return on a hot summer afternoon from the locked gates of her husband's ancestral house, she and Kunjunni breaking down on their way back. Immediately after their return to East Bengal, the country gained independence and in the consequent partition, they sought refuge on the Indian side. Kunjunni dies of cholera in the refugee camp and a pregnant Arthi is left on her own in abject poverty, with two-year-old Damayanti by her side.

Venu meets Damayanti's brother who is also a communist revolutionary hiding from the police. Venu's arrival into their life brings long-lost hope and happiness. But it's short-lived as Venu has to return to the Andaman Islands with the selected refugees. As the rest of Calcutta celebrates Durga puja, a few bunch of refugee families are packed in the back of a goods truck and offloaded at the harbor. Arthi and Damayanti arrive at the harbor to see him off. Damayanti is not able to control her emotions and breaks down inconsolably as Venu hugs her, himself overcome by sadness. Arthi Panicker looks on emotionless, her face hardened by years of victimization.

The film ends tragically as Venu has to rush hastily into the ship about to depart, abruptly ending his goodbye to his uncle's family. As Venu rushes through the crowded stairways of the ship, a crying Damayanti shouts from behind, "Write to me Dada... Damayanti Panicker, Apilore Central Jail, Calcutta".

The ship moves towards Andaman, beginning a new journey, a new era for a few Vasthuharas, towards the green shores of a new promised land somewhere in the eastern islands, a land of new hope. But even as a handful of them find hope, another wave of exodus begins, which ends in the Indo-Pak Bangladesh liberation war in December 1971.

Displaced from their homes, unwanted outsiders in their land of refuge, doing sundry small-time jobs, working in abject conditions as bonded laborers, some wait to return to their land, some simply give up, and some others like Damayanti and her brother, become rebels.

==Cast==
*[[Mohanlal]] as Venu
*Neelanjana Mitra as Arathi Panikkar
*[[Neena Gupta]] as Damayanthi
*[[Padmini (actress)|Padmini]] as Bhavani
*[[Shobana]] as Young Bhavani

*[[Lekshmi Krishnamoorthy|Lakshmi Krishnamurthy]] as Devaki
*Shyama as Shantha

*[[N. L. Balakrishnan]] as Man at the Lodge

*[[C. V. Sreeraman]]

==Production==
The film is based on the short story of the same name, written by [[C. V. Sreeraman]]. It was shot in [[Calcutta]] in 1990.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kumar |first1=P. K. Ajith |title=An actor's thoughts on the real world |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/an-actors-thoughts-on-the-real-world/article7221805.ece |access-date=30 July 2019 |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=19 May 2015}}</ref>

==Release==
''Vasthuhara'' was released on 3 June 1991 to widespread critical acclaim. Despite being an [[art film]], ''Vasthuhara'' was a commercial success at the box office.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.khaleejtimes.com/uae-india-ties/malayalam-cinema-pushes-its-boundaries |title=Malayalam cinema pushes its boundaries |last=Gauri |first=Deepa |date=25 January 2017 |work=[[Khaleej Times]] |access-date=30 July 2019}}</ref> The film is regarded as a classic in Malayalam cinema.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://upperstall.com/film/vasthuhara/ |title=Vasthuhara |last=Venkiteswaran |first=C. S. |date=15 March 2016 |website=Upperstall.com |access-date=30 July 2019}}</ref> [[Khalid Mohamed]] wrote in ''[[The Times of India]]'', "''Vasthuhara'' (The Dispossessed) is a moving, thought-out masterwork, clear and crystalline."<ref>{{Cite tweet |number=1187655718003859456 |user=NFAIOfficial |title=Revisit this #NewsArticle, published in Times of India, March 1991, featuring review of G. Aravindan's last film #Vasthuhara (1990), starring #Mohanlal. @Mohanlal @Jhajhajha @timesofindia |author=National Film Archive of India |author-link=National Film Archive of India |date=25 October 2019}}</ref> Film critic [[Kozhikodan]] included the film on his list of the 10 best Malayalam movies of all time.<ref>{{cite book |author=Kozhikodan |author-link=Kozhikodan |year=2001 |title=മലയാള സിനിമയിലെ എക്കാലത്തെയും മികച്ച പത്ത് ചിത്രങ്ങൾ [Malayala Cinemayile Ekkalatheyum Mikacha Pathu Chithrangal: 10 Best Films of All Time in Malayalam Cinema] |location=[[Calicut]], India |publisher=Poorna Publications }}</ref>

==Major awards==
;[[National Film Awards]]
* [[National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Malayalam|Best Feature Film in Malayalam]] – G. Aravindan, T. Ravindranath

;[[Kerala State Film Awards]]
*[[Kerala State Film Award for Best Film|Best Film]] – G. Aravindan, T. Ravindranath
*[[Kerala State Film Award for Best Director|Best Director]] – G. Aravindan
*[[Kerala State Film Award for Best Story|Best Story]] – C. V. Sreeraman

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|0155334|Vasthuhara}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20181230144749/http://www.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2b7bc9db87 ''Vasthuhara'' on British Film Institute]

{{G. Aravindan}}
{{KeralaStateFilmAwardBestFilm}}
{{National Film Award Best Feature Film Malayalam}}

[[Category:1991 Malayalam-language films]]
[[Category:1991 drama films]]
[[Category:1991 films]]
[[Category:Indian drama films]]
[[Category:Films directed by G. Aravindan]]
[[Category:Films based on Indian short stories]]
[[Category:Films set in 1971]]
[[Category:Films set in Kolkata]]
[[Category:Films scored by Salil Chowdhury]]
[[Category:Best Malayalam Feature Film National Film Award winners]]
[[Category:Films set in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands]]

Valmiki National Park

2026-02-25T03:52:48Z

AhmedSturgis: small improved details per sources and fixed typos for clarity

{{Short description|National park in Bihar, India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2015}}
{{Infobox protected area
| name = Valmiki National Park
| iucn_category = II
| image =
| image_caption =
| location = [[West Champaran District]], [[Bihar]], [[India]]
| nearest_city = [[Bettiah]]
| map = India Bihar#India
| relief = 1
| mapframe = Yes
| coordinates = {{coord|27|19|54|N|84|9|45|E|display=inline, title}}
| area_km2 = 898.45
| established = 1978
| alt_name = Valmiki Tiger Reserve and Wildlife Sanctuary
| website = https://www.valmikitigerreserve.com/
| governing_body = [[Government of Bihar]]
}}

'''Valmiki National Park''' is a [[national park]] and [[tiger reserve]] in the [[West Champaran District]] of [[Bihar]], [[India]] covering {{cvt|898.45|km2}}. It is the only [[List of national parks of India|national park]] in Bihar.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Srivastava |first=Priya |date=15 December 2024 |title=Want to see untamed wilderness and tigers? Visit Valmiki National Park in Bihar |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/travel/destinations/want-to-see-untamed-wilderness-and-tigers-visit-valmiki-national-park-in-bihar/articleshow/116330421.cms |access-date=2025-01-24 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

== History ==
The extensive forest area of Valmikinagar was owned by the [[Bettiah Raj]] and Ramanagar Raj until the early 1950s.<ref name="valmikitigerreserve.com">{{Cite web |title=History {{!}} Valmiki Tiger Reserve |work=Valmiki Tiger Reserve |url=https://www.valmikitigerreserve.com/conservation-history.php |access-date=2021-05-30 |archive-date=17 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517004215/https://www.valmikitigerreserve.com/conservation-history.php |url-status=dead }}</ref> It was declared a Wildlife Sanctuary in 1978. Valmiki National Park was established in 1990. Valmiki Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park is the 18th [[Tiger reserves of India|Tiger Reserve of the country]].<ref name="valmikitigerreserve.com"/>

== Geography==
{{Unreferenced section|date=April 2023}}
Valmiki National Park is located in [[West Champaran district]]. In the north, it is bordered by Nepal's [[Chitwan National Park]] and in the west by [[Uttar Pradesh]]. Its total forest area comprises about {{cvt|900|km2}}, out of which the Valmiki Wildlife Sanctuary is {{cvt|880|km2}} and spread of the National Park is about {{cvt|335|km2}} area.{{cn|date=January 2025}}

[[File:Himalayan Foot Hills, Valmikinagar, Bihar, India.jpg|thumb|Himalayan foothills of Valmikinagar, Bihar]]
The landscape of Valmiki National Park encompasses foothills of the [[Sivalik Hills]] with a mosaic of the [[cliffs]], [[ridges]] and gorges, [[hills]], [[streams]] and [[valleys]], dense forests, open woodlands, grasslands, swamps and riverine fringe. Situated in [[Gangetic plains]] bio-geographic zone of the country, the forest has combination of [[bhabar]] and terai tracts. Boulder and pebble deposits by the Himalayan rivers in foothills characterized the Bhabar tract while the finer sediments deposits feature Terai lands.

Older [[alluvium]] with sandy soil with variegated clay and loose boulder deposits and [[Artesian aquifer|artesian]] flows; [[lateritic]] formations on higher [[Contour line|contours]] and newer Alluvium on southern parts with reissuing springs akin to artesian flows.

Criss-crossing and meandering rivers, streams and rivulets, man-made canals; swamps and grasslands are featured on these lands.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Landscape & Biodirversity – Valmiki Tiger Reserve |url=https://valmikitigerreserve.com/?page_id=2060 |access-date=2023-09-18}}</ref> [[River Gandak]] forms the western boundary of Valmiki wildlife sanctuary. It enters in India at Valmikinagar, where two rivulets Sonha and Pachnad joins it, forming a holy confluence ‘Triveni’. Harha – Masan River system originates from the Valmiki Forests and forms [[Burhi Gandak River]] further south. River Pandai flows into Bihar from Nepal in the eastern end of the Sanctuary and meets Masan.

==Flora==
[[File:A lake in Darua Bari near Valmiki Tiger Researve.jpg|thumb|A lake in Darua Bari, Valmiki Tiger Reserve]]
[[File:Madanpur Jungle Bagaha, Champaran.jpg|thumb|Jungle in Valmiki National Park]]
{{unreferenced section|date=June 2024}}
As per Champion and Seth classification, there are seven forest types:
* Bhabar – Dun Sal Forest
* Dry Siwalik Sal Forest
* West Gangetic Moist Mixed Deciduous Forest
* Khair – [[Dalbergia sissoo|Sissoo]] Forest
* Cane Brakes
* Eastern Wet Alluvial Grassland
* ''[[Barringtonia]]'' Swamp Forest

Due to diverse topographical and edaphic factors, the reserve harbors varied vegetation types. The Botanical Survey of India has categorized seven vegetation types within the limits of the national park:
* Moist mixed deciduous
* Open – land vegetation
* Sub-mountainous semi-evergreen formation
* Freshwater swamps
* Riparian fringes
* Alluvial grasslands and high hill savannah
* Wetlands

The important tree species are sal ''([[Shorea robusta]])'', karam ''([[Adina cordifolia]])'', asan ''([[Terminalia tomentosa]])'', bahera ''([[Terminalia bellirica]])'', asidh ''([[Lagerstroemia parviflora]])'', simal ''([[Bombax ceiba]])'' and satsal ''([[Dalbergia latifolia]])''.
In hilly regions, piyar ''([[Buchanania lanzan]])'', mandar ''([[Dillenia aurea]])'', banjan ''([[Anogeissus latifolia]])'', bhelwa ''([[Semecarpus anacardium]])'', harra ''([[Terminalia chebula]])'', bodera ''(Eugenia operculata)'' occur. There is a special attraction of cane brakes in Madanpur Forest block.
There is a small isolated patch of chir pine ''([[Pinus roxburghii]])'' forest in Raghia Forest block at the elevation of {{cvt|1000|-|1700|ft|order=flip}}.
Grasses are represented by munj (''[[Tripidium bengalense]]''), kans ''([[Saccharum spontaneum]])'', elephant grass ''([[Typha elephantina]])'', narkat ''([[Phragmites karka]])'', ''[[Vitiveria zizanioides]]'', ''[[Imperata cylindrica]]'', choranth ''([[Heteropogon contortus]])'', sabai ''([[Eulaliopsis binata]])''. Common climbers are mahulan ''([[Phanera vahlii]])'', mahai ''([[Butea parviflora]])'', panilat ''([[Vitis repanda]])'', ramdatwan ''([[Smilax parviflora]])'' and arar ''([[Acacia pinnate]])''.
Medicinal plants include satawar ''([[Asparagus racemosus]])'', safed [[Musli (plant)|Musli]], dudhkoraiya (''[[Wrightia antidysenterica]]''), amla ''([[Phyllanthus emblica]])'' and piper ''([[Piper longum]])''.

==Fauna==

===Mammals===
The wildlife in the forest of Valmiki National Park are the [[Bengal tiger]],<ref name="Jhaletal2011">[[Yadvendradev Vikramsinh Jhala|Jhala]], Y. V., Qureshi, Q., Sinha, P. R. (Eds.) (2011). [https://web.archive.org/web/20120120232451/http://www.projecttiger.nic.in/whtsnew/Tiger_Status_oct_2010.pdf ''Status of tigers, co-predators and prey in India, 2010.''] National Tiger Conservation Authority, Govt. of India, New Delhi, and Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun. TR 2011/003 pp-302</ref> [[Indian rhinoceros]], [[Asian elephant]], [[Asiatic black bear]] and [[sloth bear]].<ref name=Garshelis_al2011>{{cite book |date=2011 |author1=Garshelis, D. L. |author2=Joshi, A. R. |author3=Smith, J. L. D. |author4=Rice, C. G. |name-list-style=amp |title=Sloth Bear Conservation Action Plan |publisher=IUCN |place=Gland |url=http://wildlife1.wildlifeinformation.org/000ADOBES/Bears/Bears_IUCN_ActionPlan/bearsAP_chapter12.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723235317/http://wildlife1.wildlifeinformation.org/000ADOBES/Bears/Bears_IUCN_ActionPlan/bearsAP_chapter12.pdf |archive-date=23 July 2011 |access-date=2011-04-18 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>

===Reptiles===
The reptiles in Valmiki National Park are [[pythons]], [[king cobra]], [[banded krait]] and [[sand boa]]. [[Gharial]]s occur in River Gandak.<ref name="Jhaletal2011"/>

===Birds===
{{Unreferenced section|date=June 2024}}
At present 241 [[bird]] species have been reported to be present in Valmiki National Park, including [[kalij pheasant]], [[quail]], [[paradise flycatcher]], [[grey shrike]], [[tree pipit]], [[green barbet]], [[wader]]s, [[ibis]]es, [[storks]], [[pitta]], [[plovers]], [[snipe]]s, [[Oriental pied hornbill]], [[white-eared night heron]], [[emerald dove]], several [[owl]]s, [[spotted owlet]] and [[nightjar]]s. There are five species of [[green pigeon]]s and [[common wood pigeon]].

===Butterflies===
The jungle of Valmiki National Park abounds in [[moth]]s, caterpillars and [[Butterfly|butterflies]], including the [[Papilio polytes|common Mormon]], [[Papilio memnon|great Mormon]], [[Parantica aglea|glassy tiger]], [[Hypolimnas bolina|great eggfly]], [[Libythea myrrha|club beak]], [[Junonia atlites|grey pansy]], [[Papilio demoleus|lime butterfly]] and [[Euploea core|common crow]].{{cn|date=June 2024}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==

{{Protected areas of Bihar}}
{{National Parks of India}}
{{Tiger Reserves Of India}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Tiger reserves of India]]
[[Category:National parks in Bihar]]
[[Category:Lower Gangetic Plains moist deciduous forests]]
[[Category:Himalayan subtropical broadleaf forests]]
[[Category:West Champaran district]]
[[Category:1976 establishments in Bihar]]
[[Category:Protected areas established in 1976]]

Tamil literature

2026-02-24T19:57:48Z

AhmedSturgis: content fix

{{Short description|South-Indian Literature by language}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2020}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{excessive examples|date=July 2020}}
{{More footnotes needed|date=July 2020}}
{{More citations needed|date=July 2020}}
}}
[[File:தமிழ்த் தாய் திருக்கோயிலில் அகத்தியர் சிலை.JPG|thumb|Sage [[Agastya]], Chairman of the first [[Tamil language|Tamil]] [[Sangam literature|Sangam]], [[Madurai]], [[Pandiya]] Kingdom. Statue in [[Tamil Thai]] temple, [[Karaikudi]], Tamil Nadu. ]]
{{Indian literature}}
'''Tamil literature''' includes a collection of literary works that have come from a tradition spanning more than two thousand years. The oldest extant works show signs of maturity indicating an even longer period of evolution. Contributors to the Tamil literature are mainly from [[Tamil people]] from south India, including the land now comprising [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Kerala]], [[Sri Lankan Tamil people|Eelam Tamils]] from [[Sri Lanka]], as well as the [[Tamil diaspora]].

The history of Tamil literature follows the [[history of Tamil Nadu]], closely following the social, economical, political and cultural trends of various periods. The early [[Sangam literature]], dated before 300 BCE, contain anthologies of various poets dealing with many aspects of life, including love, war, social values and religion.<ref name=sangam_before_300_bc>Akananuru (1, 15, 31, 55, 61, 65, 91, 97, 101, 115, 127, 187, 197, 201, 211, 233, 251, 265, 281, 311, 325, 331, 347, 349, 359, 393, 281, 295), Kurunthogai (11), and Natrinai (14, 75) are dated before 300 BCE.</ref> This was followed by the early epics and moral literature, authored by [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnavite]], [[Shaivism|Shaivite]], [[Ājīvika]], [[Jainism|Jain]] and [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] authors and poets lasting up to the 5th century CE. From the 6th to 12th century CE, the Tamil devotional poems written by [[Alvars]] (sages of [[Vaishnavism]]) and [[Nayanmars]] (sages of [[Shaivism]]) and, heralded the great [[Bhakti movement]] which later engulfed the entire Indian subcontinent. During the medieval era some of the grandest of Tamil literary classics like [[Kambaramayanam]] and [[Periya Puranam]] were authored and many poets were patronized by the imperial [[Chola]] and [[Pandya]] empires. The later medieval period saw many assorted minor literary works and also contributions by a few [[Tamil Muslim|Muslim]] and European authors.{{citation needed|date=August 2023}}

A revival of Tamil literature took place from the late 19th century when works of religious and philosophical nature were written in a style that made it easier for the common people to enjoy. The modern Tamil literary movement started with [[Subramania Bharathi]], the multifaceted Indian nationalist poet and author, and was quickly followed up by many who began to utilize the power of literature in influencing the masses. With growth of literacy, Tamil prose began to blossom and mature. Short stories and novels began to appear. Modern Tamil literary criticism also evolved. The popularity of [[Tamil cinema]] has also interacted with Tamil literature in some mutually enriching ways.{{citation needed|date=August 2023}}

== Sangam age ==
{{Sangam literature}}
{{Main|Sangam literature}}
{{See also|Sangam period|Tolkaappiyam|Kumari Kandam|Sangam landscape| Vaishnavism in Ancient Tamilakam}}Sangam literature comprises some of the oldest extant Tamil literature, and deals with love, traditions, war, governance, trade and bereavement. Unfortunately much of the Tamil literature belonging to the Sangam period has been lost.<ref name="majumdar193">See Majumdar, p 193</ref> The literature currently available from this period is perhaps just a fraction of the wealth of material produced during this golden age of Tamil civilization. The available literature from this period has been broadly divided in antiquity into three categories based roughly on chronology. These are: the [[Eighteen Greater Texts|Eighteen Greater Text Series]] (''Pathinenmaelkanakku'') comprising the [[Eight Anthologies]] (''Ettuthokai'') and the [[Ten Idylls]] (''Pattupattu''), the [[The Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature|Five Great Epics]] and the [[Five Minor Epics]]. ''[[Tolkaappiyam]]'', a commentary on [[grammar]], [[phonetics]], [[rhetoric]] and [[poetics]] is dated from this period.<ref name="majumdar193" />[[File:Ilango Adigal statue at Marina Beach closeup.jpg|thumb|[[Ilango Adigal]] (c. 100 CE) wrote [[Silappatikaram|Silappathikaaram]], one of the [[The Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature|Five great epics]].]]
[[File:Thiruvalluvar Statue of kanyakumari.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Thiruvalluvar]] wrote [[Tirukkural|Thirukkural]] (c. 300s BCE), taught in schools today.]]

{{Verse translation|italicsoff=y|lang=ta|
'''குறிஞ்சி – தலைவன் கூற்று'''
யாயும் ஞாயும் யாரா கியரோ
எந்தையும் நுந்தையும் எம்முறைக் கேளிர்
யானும் நீயும் எவ்வழி யறிதும்
செம்புலப் பெயனீர் போல
அன்புடை நெஞ்சம் தாங்கலந் தனவே.
-செம்புலப் பெயனீரார்.
|attr1=''([[Kuruntokai]] – 40)'', a poem from the ''[[Ettuthokai|Eight Anthologies]]''
|attr2=Translated by [[A. K. Ramanujan]]|
'''Red earth and pouring rain'''<ref>See ''[[Kuruntokai]]'' for a commentary on this poem.</ref>
What could my mother be to yours?
What kin is my father to yours anyway?
And how
Did you and I meet ever?
But in love our hearts have mingled
like red earth and pouring rain.}}

Tamil legends hold that these were composed in three successive poetic assemblies (''[[Legendary Tamil Sangams|Sangam]]'') that were held in ancient times on a now vanished [[Kumari Kandam|continent]] far to the south of [[India]].<ref>See Zvelebil, pp. 45–47</ref> A significant amount of literature could have preceded ''Tolkappiyam'' as grammar books are usually written after the existence of literature over long periods. Tamil tradition holds the earliest ''Sangam'' poetry to be over twelve millennia old. Modern [[linguistics|linguistic]] scholarship places the poems between the 3rd century BCE and the 2nd century CE.<ref>The age of Sangam is established through the correlation between the evidence on foreign trade found in the poems and the writings by ancient Greek and Romans such as ''[[Periplus]]''. See Nilakanta Sastri, K.A., History of South India, p. 106</ref>

The Sangam age is considered by the Tamil people as the golden era of the [[Tamil language]].{{Cn|date=December 2024}} This was the period when the Tamil country was ruled by the three 'crowned kings' the [[Chera dynasty|Cheras]], [[Pandyas]], and the [[Cholas]]. The land was at peace with no major external threats.{{Cn|date=December 2024}} [[Ashoka]]'s conquests had no impact on the Tamil land and the people were able to indulge in literary pursuits. The poets had a much more casual relationship with their rulers than can be imagined in later times.{{Cn|date=December 2024}} They could chide them when they are perceived to wander from the straight and narrow. The greatness of the Sangam age poetry may be ascribed not so much to its antiquity, but due to the fact that their ancestors were indulging in literary pursuits and logical classification of the habitats and society in a systematic manner with little to draw from precedents domestically or elsewhere. The fact that these classifications were documented at a very early date in the grammatical treatise ''[[Tolkappiyam]]'', demonstrates the organized manner in which the Tamil language has evolved. ''Tolkappiyam'' is not merely a textbook on Tamil [[grammar]] giving the inflection and syntax of words and sentences but also includes classification of habitats, animals, plants and human beings. The discussion on human emotions and interactions is particularly significant. Tolkappiyam is divided into three chapters: [[orthography]], [[etymology]] and subject matter (''Porul''). While the first two chapters of Tolkappiyam help codify the language, the last part, ''Porul'' refers to the people and their behavior. The grammar helps to convey the literary message on human behavior and conduct, and uniquely merges the language with its people.

The literature was classified into the broad categories of 'subjective' (''akam'') and 'objective' (''puram'') topics to enable the poetic minds to discuss any topic under the sun, from grammar to love, within the framework of well prescribed, socially accepted conventions.

Recognizing that human activities cannot take place in vacuum and are constantly influenced by environmental factors, human experiences, in general, and subjective topics in particular, are assigned to [[Sangam landscape|specific habitats]]. Accordingly, land was classified into five genres (''thinai''): ''mullai'' (forests), ''kurinji'' (mountainous regions), ''marutham'' (agricultural lands), ''neithal'' (seashore), ''paalai'' (wasteland). The images associated with these landscapes – birds, beasts, flowers, gods, music, people, weather, seasons – were used to subtly convey a mood, associated with an aspect of life. ''[[Kuruntokai]]'', a collection of poems belonging to the ''[[Ettuthokai]]'' anthology demonstrates an early treatment of the [[Sangam landscape]]. Such treatments are found to be much refined in the later works of ''[[Akananuru]]'' and ''[[Paripaatal]]''. ''Paripaatal'' takes its name from the musical ''[[Paripaatal]] meter'' utilised in these poems. This is the first instance of a work set to music. ''Akaval'' and ''kalippa'' were the other popular meters used by poets during the [[Sangam period|Sangam]] age.{{citation needed|date=August 2023}}

===Religion in the Sangam age===
{{main|Religion in ancient Tamilakam}}

Religion in the Sangam age was an important reason for the increase in Tamil literature. Ancient Tamils primarily followed the [[Vaishnavism]] tradition (which considered Vishnu as the supreme deity) and [[Kaumaram]] (who worshiped Murugan as the supreme god). According to [[Kamil Zvelebil]], [[Vishnu]] was considered ageless (the god who stays forever) and was regarded as the supreme god of Tamils, whereas [[Kartikeya|Skanda]] was considered to be young and was regarded as a personal god of Tamils.{{sfn|Zvelebil|1974|pp=48–49}}

[[Perumal (deity)|Mayon]] is indicated to be the deity associated with the ''mullai tiṇai'' (pastoral landscape) in the ''[[Tolkāppiyam]]''.<ref name="Hardy 156">{{Cite book |last=Hardy |first=Friedhelm |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XY42EAAAQBAJ&dq=mayon+mullai&pg=PA156 |title=Viraha Bhakti: The Early History of Krsna Devotion |date=2015-01-01 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-3816-1 |pages=156 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Clothey 34">{{Cite book |last=Clothey |first=Fred W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PC2aDwAAQBAJ&dq=Tirum%C4%81l&pg=PA34 |title=The Many Faces of Murukan: The History and Meaning of a South Indian God. With the Poem Prayers to Lord Murukan |date=2019-05-20 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG |isbn=978-3-11-080410-2 |pages=34 |language=en}}</ref> Tolkappiyar{{clarify|reason=Not broadly accepted as author of ''Tolkāppiyam'', if that's the work in question|date=June 2024}} mentions [[Vishnu|Mayon]] first when he made reference to deities in the different land divisions.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ckrishnamurti.tripod.com/chap2a.html|title=2. The Sangam Period|author=Dr.C.R.Krishnamurti|work=tripod.com}}</ref> The ''Paripādal'' ({{langx|ta|பரிபாடல்}}, meaning ''the paripadal-metre anthology'') is a classical [[Tamil language|Tamil]] poetic work and traditionally the fifth of the [[Eight Anthologies]] (''Ettuthokai'') in the [[Sangam literature]].{{sfn|Zvelebil|1973|pp=123–124}} According to Tolkāppiyam, ''Paripadal'' is a kind of verse dealing only with love (''akapporul'') and does not fall under the general classification of verses. [[Sangam literature]] (200 BCE to 500 CE) mentions [[Vishnu|Mayon]] or the "dark one", as the supreme deity who creates, sustains, and destroys the universe and was worshipped in the Plains and mountains of [[Tamilakam]].The earliest verses of [[Paripāṭal|''Paripadal'']] describe the glory of Perumal in the most poetic of terms. Many poems of the ''Paripadal'' consider [[Vishnu|Perumal]] as the supreme god of Tamils.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/religion/in-praise-of-vishnu/article6245959.ece|title=In praise of Vishnu|newspaper=The Hindu |date=24 July 2014|via=www.thehindu.com}}</ref> He is regarded to be the only deity who enjoyed the status of ''Paramporul'' (achieving oneness with [[Paramatman|Paramatma]]) during the [[Sangam period|Sangam age]]. He is also known as Māyavan, Māmiyon, Netiyōn, and Māl in [[Sangam literature]] and considered as the most mentioned god in the [[Sangam literature]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Padmaja |first=T. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pzgaS1wRnl8C&dq=mayon+sangam&pg=PA27 |title=Temples of Kr̥ṣṇa in South India: History, Art, and Traditions in Tamilnāḍu |date=2002 |publisher=Abhinav Publications |isbn=978-81-7017-398-4 |pages=27 |language=en}}</ref>

''[[Muruga|Cēyōṉ]]'' "the red one", who is identified with [[Murugan]], whose name is literally ''Murukaṉ'' ("the youth") in the ''[[Tolkāppiyam]]''; extant works of [[Sangam literature]], dated between the third century BCE and the fifth century CE, glorified Murugan, "the red god seated on the blue peacock, who is ever young and resplendent", as "the favoured god of the Tamils".<ref name="sangam">Kanchan Sinha, Kartikeya in Indian art and literature, Delhi: Sundeep Prakashan (1979).</ref> There are no mentions of [[Shiva]] in [[Tolkāppiyam|Tolkappiyam]].<ref name="Journal of Tamil Studies, Volume 1">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZjoRAAAAYAAJ&q=tolkappiyam+varuna |title=Journal of Tamil Studies, Volume 1 |date=1969 |publisher=International Institute of Tamil Studies |page=131 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171113060321/https://books.google.no/books?id=ZjoRAAAAYAAJ&q=tolkappiyam+varuna&dq=tolkappiyam+varuna&hl=no&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiloMXV6bnXAhXiDZoKHXyuDMAQ6AEILTAB |archive-date=13 November 2017 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all}}</ref> [[Shiva]] and [[Brahma]] are said to be forms of [[Vishnu|Maha Vishnu]] and considers Vishnu as the supreme god in [[Paripāṭal]].<ref>Paripāṭal Poem 1 Line 50 to 56 ஐந்தலை உயிரிய அணங்குடை அருந்திறல் மைந்துடை ஒருவனும்– you are the one with five heads who causes great fear and is one of great ability and strength – Sivan, மடங்கலும்நீ – one where all lives end, நலம் முழுது அளைஇய – with all benefits, புகர்அறு காட்சிப் புலமும்– faultless learning – Vēdās, பூவனும் – you are Brahman who appeared on a flower, நாற்றமும்நீ – you are creation created by Brahman, வலன் உயர் எழிலியும் – clouds that rise up with strength, மாக விசும்பும் – wide sky, நிலனும்– land, நீடிய இமயமும்– and the tall Himalayas, நீ– you, அதனால் – so, இன்னோர் அனையை– like so and so, இனையையால்– like somebody, என– thus, அன்னோர் – those, யாம் இவண் காணாமையின் – I have not seen here, பொன் அணி நேமி – wheels decorated with gold, வலம் கொண்டு ஏந்திய – lifting on your right side or lifting with strength, மன்னுயிர் முதல்வனை – you are supreme to all the living beings on the Earth.</ref>

There are two poems depicted as example of [[Bhakti]] in ancient [[Tamil Nadu]], one in the praise of [[Maha Vishnu]] and other of [[Murugan]].

To Tirumal ([[Vishnu|Maha Vishnu]]):

{{Verse translation|italicsoff=y|
{{lang|ta|தீயினுள் தெறல் நீ;
பூவினுள் நாற்றம் நீ;
கல்லினுள் மணியும் நீ;
சொல்லினுள் வாய்மை நீ;
அறத்தினுள் அன்பு நீ;
மறத்தினுள் மைந்து நீ;
வேதத்து மறை நீ;
பூதத்து முதலும் நீ;
வெஞ் சுடர் ஒளியும் நீ;
திங்களுள் அளியும் நீ;
அனைத்தும் நீ;
அனைத்தின் உட்பொருளும் நீ;}}
|attr1=''Paripadal, iii: 63-68''|
In fire, you are the heat;
in blossoms, the fragrance;
among the stones, you are the diamond;
in speech, truth;
among virtues, you are love;
in valour—strength;
in the Veda, you are the secret;
among elements, the primordial;
in the burning sun, the light;
in moonshine, its sweetness;
you are all,
and you are the substance and meaning of all.
|attr2=F Gros, K Zvelebil<ref name=kz49>{{harvnb|Zvelebil|1974|p=49}}</ref>}}

To Seyyon ([[Murugan|Skandha]]):
{{Blockquote|
<poem>
We pray you not for wealth,
not for gold, not for pleasure;
But for your grace, for love, for virtue,
these three,
O god with the rich garland of ''kaṭampu'' flowers
with rolling clusters!
</poem>
– ''Pari. v.: 78–81''<ref name=kz49/>
}}

The other gods also referred to in the ''[[Tolkāppiyam|Tolkappiyam]]'' are ''Vēntaṉ'' "the sovereign" (identified with [[Indra]]) and ''[[Korravai]]'' "the victorious" (identified with [[Durga]]) and [[Varuna|''Varunan'']] "the sea god".<ref name="Journal of Tamil Studies, Volume 1"/>

== Post-Sangam period ==
=== Didactic age ===
The three centuries after the Sangam age marks the [[Didacticism|didactic]] age. The invaders{{who|date=September 2019}} replaced number of words and concepts relating to [[ethics]], [[philosophy]] and [[religion]] of [[Tamil language|Tamil]]. Around 300 CE, the Tamil land was under the influence of a group of people known as the [[Kalabhra dynasty|Kalabhras]]. Although the religious identification of the Kalabhras is unknown, they were patrons of [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]], and [[Ājīvika]].<ref>{{citation |last=Peterson |first=Indira |title=Open Boundaries: Jain Communities and Cultures in Indian History |pages=166–167 |year=1998 |editor-last=Cort |editor-first=John E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yoHfm7BgqTgC |publisher=[[SUNY Press]] |isbn=0-7914-3785-X |ref={{harvid|Indira Peterson|1998}} |editor-link=John E. Cort}}</ref> Possibly as a result, a number of Buddhist authors flourished during this period. [[Tamil Jain|Jainism]] and [[Buddhism]] saw rapid growth. These authors, perhaps reflecting the austere nature of their faiths, created works mainly on morality and ethics. A number of [[Tamil Jain|Jain]] and Buddhist poets contributed to the creation of these didactic works as well as grammar and lexicography. The collection the [[Eighteen Lesser Texts|Eighteen Lesser Text series]] (''Pathinenkilkanakku'') was of this period.{{citation needed|date=August 2023}}

{| style="float:right; width:325px; border:1px #aaa solid; border-collapse:collapse; background:#f9f9f9; margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size:90%;"
|
எப்பொருள் யார்யார்வாய்க் கேட்பினும் அப்பொருள் 
மெய்ப்பொருள் காண்ப தறிவு. 
"The mark of wisdom is to discern the truth 
From whatever source it is heard." 
– ''([[Tirukkural]] – 423)''<ref name='kur
al423'>{{cite web |url=http://acharya.iitm.ac.in/cgi-bin/show_kural_ad.pl?43 |title=Text of Tirukkural: Adhikaram 43 |access-date=2008-04-24 |author=Thiruvalluvar |others=Rev. G.U. Pope (translation) |work=IITM Software and Multilingual Application Development |publisher=IIT Madras |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230225516/http://acharya.iitm.ac.in/cgi-bin/show_kural_ad.pl?43 |archive-date=2007-12-30 }}</ref>
|}

The best known of these works on ethics is the ''[[Tirukkural]]'' by [[Thiruvalluvar]]. The book is a comprehensive manual of ethics, polity and love, containing 1,330 [[Couplet|distichs]] or ''kural'' divided into chapters of ten distichs each: the first thirty-eight on ethics, the next seventy on polity and the remainder on love.<ref name=majumdar194>See Majumdar, p 194</ref>

Other famous works of this period are ''[[Kaḷavaḻi Nāṟpatu]]'', ''[[Nalatiyar]]'', ''[[Inna Narpathu]]'' and ''[[Iniyavai Narpathu]]''. The Jain texts ''Nalatiyar'' and ''[[Pazhamozhi Nanuru]]'' each consist of four hundred poems, each of which cites a [[proverb]] and then illustrates it with a story.

=== Devotional period ===
{{See also|Naalayira Divya Prabandham|Tirumurai}}
The fall of the Kalabhras around 500 CE saw a reaction from the thus suppressed Hindus. The Kalabhras were replaced by the [[Pandyas]] in the south and by the Pallavas in the north. Even with the exit of the Kalabhras, the [[Tamil Jain|Jain]] and Buddhist influence still remained in Tamil Nadu. The early Pandya and the Pallava kings were followers of these faiths. The Hindu reaction to this apparent decline of their religion was growing and reached its peak during the later part of the 7th century. There was a widespread Hindu revival during which a huge body of [[Vaishnava]] and [[Saiva]] literature was created . Many Vaishnava [[Alvars]] provided a great stimulus to the growth of popular devotional literature . Vaishnava [[Alvars]] were producing devotional hymns and their songs were collected later into the Four Thousand Sacred Hymns (''[[Naalayira Divyap Prabhandham]]'') by ''Nathamunigal'' . It is considered as the Tamil Vedam equal to the Sanskrit vedas . The three earliest Alvars were [[Poigai Alvar]], [[Bhoothath Alvar]] and [[Pey Alvar]] . Each of these wrote one hundred ''[[Venpa]]s'' on the glory of [[Maha Vishnu]] in [[Tirukoilur]] . [[Thirumazhisai Aazhwar|Tirumalisai Alwar]] who was a contemporary of the [[Pallava]] [[Mahendravarman I]] wrote such works as ''Naanmugantiruvadiandadi''. [[Tirumangai Alvar]] who lived in the 8th century CE was a more prolific writer and his works constitute about a third of the Diyaprabhandam. [[Periyalvar]] and his adopted daughter [[Andal]] contributed nearly 650 hymns to the Vaishnava canon. Andal symbolised purity and love for the God and wrote her hymns addressing [[Vishnu]] as a lover. The hymn of Andal which starts with ''Vaaranam Aayiram'' (One Thousand Elephants) tells of her dream wedding to Vishnu and is sung even today at Tamil Vaishnava weddings. Nammalvar, who lived in the 9th century, wrote ''Tiruvaimoli''. It comprises 1,101 stanzas and is held in great esteem for its elucidation of the [[Upanishads]]. This corpus was collected by [[Nathamuni]], around 950 CE and formed the classical and vernacular basis for [[Sri Vaishnavism]]. These hymns ''Naalayira Divya Prabhandham'' is respected at par with Vedas by Sri Vaishnavites in sanctity and holiness and hence referred to as ''Dravida Vedam'' or ''Tamil Vedam''.{{citation needed|date=August 2023}}

Along with the Vaishnava Alvars, Many [[Saiva]] Nayanmars were also producing devotional hymns and their songs were collected later into Periya Puranam . [[Karaikal Ammaiyar]] who lived in the 6th century CE was the earliest of these Nayanmars. The celebrated Saiva hymnists Sundaramoorthy, Thirugnana Sambanthar and [[Thirunavukkarasar]] (also known as Appar) were of this period. Of Appar's verses 3066 have survived. [[Sambandar]] sang 4,169 verses. Together these form the first six books of the Saiva canon, collected by Nambi Andar Nambi in the 10th century. [[Sundarar]] wrote Tiruttondartokai which gives the list of sixty-two Nayanmars. This was later elaborated by [[Sekkilar]] in his [[Periyapuranam]] (4,272 verses) . [[Manikkavasagar]], who lived around the 8th century CE was a minister in the Pandya court. His [[Tiruvasakam]] consisting of over 600 verses is noted for its passionate devotion. These Saivite hymns collectively called Thirumurai.{{citation needed|date=August 2023}}

=== Narrative epics ===
''[[Cilappatikaram]]'' is one of the outstanding works of general literature of this period. The authorship and exact date of the classic ''Cilappatikaram'' are not definitely known. Ilango Adigal, who is credited with this work was reputed to be the brother of the Sangam age [[Chera dynasty|Chera]] king Senguttuvan. However there is no surviving information of such a brother in the numerous poems sung about the Chera king. The ''Cilappatikaram'' is unique in its vivid portrayal of the ancient Tamil land. This is unknown in other works of this period. ''Cilappatikaram'' and its companion epic ''[[Manimekalai]]'' are Jain and Buddhist philosophy. ''Manimekalai'' was written by Sattanar who was a contemporary of Ilango Adigal. Manimekalai contains a long exposition of fallacies of logic. Kongu Velir, a Jain author wrote ''Perunkathai''. ''[[Valayapathi]]'' and ''[[Kundalakesi]]'' are the names of two other narrative poems of this period written by a Jain and a Buddhist author respectively. These works have been lost and only a few poems of ''Valayapathi'' have been found so far.{{citation needed|date=August 2023}}

== Medieval literature ==
{{See also|Chola literature}}

[[File:MarinaBeach Kambar cropped.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Kambar (poet)|Kambar]] (c.1100 CE) wrote the Tamil '[[Ramavataram|Raamaayanam]]'.]]
The medieval period was the period of the [[Chola Empire]] when the entire south India was under a single administration. The period between the 11th and the 13th centuries, during which the Chola power was at its peak, there were relatively few foreign incursions and the life for the Tamil people was one of peace and prosperity. It also provided the opportunity for the people to interact with cultures beyond their own, as the Cholas ruled over most of the South India, Sri Lanka and traded with the kingdoms in southeast Asia. The Cholas built numerous temples, mainly for their favourite god [[Shiva]], and these were celebrated in numerous hymns. The ''[[Naalayira Divya Prabandham|Prabhanda]]'' became the dominant form of poetry. The religious canons of [[Shaiva]] and [[Vaishnava]] sects were beginning to be systematically collected and categorised. Nambi Andar Nambi, who was a contemporary of [[Rajaraja Chola I]], collected and arranged the books on Saivism into eleven books called ''Tirumurais''. The hagiology of [[Saivism]] was standardised in ''[[Periyapuranam]]'' (also known as ''Tiruttondar Puranam'') by Sekkilar, who lived during the reign of [[Kulothunga Chola II]] (1133–1150 CE). Religious books on the Vaishnava sect were mostly composed in [[Sanskrit]] during this period. The great Vaishnava leader [[Ramanuja]] lived during the reigns of [[Athirajendra Chola]] and [[Kulothunga Chola I]], and had to face religious persecution from the Cholas who belonged to the Saiva sect. One of the best known Tamil works of this period is the ''[[Kambaramayanam|Ramavatharam]]'' by [[Kambar (poet)|Kamban]] who flourished during the reign of Kulottunga III. ''Ramavatharam'' is the greatest epic in Tamil Literature, and although the author states that he followed Valmiki, his work is not a mere translation or even an adaptation of the Sanskrit epic. Kamban imports into his narration the colour and landscape of his own time. A contemporary of Kamban was the famous poet [[Avvaiyar (12th-century poet)|Auvaiyar]] who found great happiness in writing for young children. Her works, ''Athichoodi'' and ''Konraiventhan'' are even now generally read and taught in schools in Tamil Nadu. Her two other works, ''Mooturai'' and ''Nalvali'' were written for slightly older children. All the four works are didactic in character. They explain the basic wisdom that should govern mundane life.{{citation needed|date=August 2023}}

Of the books on the [[Buddhist]] and the [[Tamil Jain|Jain]] faiths, the most noteworthy is the ''[[Jivaka-chintamani]]'' by the [[Tamil Jain|Jain]] ascetic Thirutakkadevar composed in the 10th century. ''[[Viruttam]]'' style of poetry was used for the first time for the verses in this book. The five Tamil epics ''Seevaka-chintamani'', ''[[Silappatikaram]]'', ''[[Manimekalai]]'', ''[[Kundalakesi]]'' and ''[[Valayapathi]]'' are collectively known as [[The Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature]]. There were a number of books written on Tamil grammar. ''Yapperungalam'' and ''Yapperungalakkarigai'' were two works on [[Prosody (linguistics)|prosody]] by the [[Tamil Jain|Jain]] ascetic Amirtasagara. Buddamitra wrote ''Virasoliyam'', another work on Tamil grammar, during the reign of [[Virarajendra Chola]]. ''Virasoliyam'' attempts to find synthesis between Sanskrit and Tamil grammar. Other grammatical works of this period are ''Nannul'' by Pavanandi, ''Vaccanandi Malai'' by Neminatha, and the annotations on the puram theme, ''Purapporul Venpamalai'' by Aiyanaridanar.{{citation needed|date=August 2023}}

There were biographical and political works such as Jayamkondar's [[Kalingattuparani]], a semi-historical account on the two invasions of [[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]] by [[Kulothunga Chola I]]. Jayamkondar was a poet-laureate in the Chola court and his work is a fine example of the balance between fact and fiction the poets had to tread. Ottakuttan, a close contemporary of [[Kambar (poet)|Kambar]], wrote three ''Ulas'' on [[Vikrama Chola]], [[Kulothunga Chola II]] and [[Rajaraja Chola II]].{{citation needed|date=August 2023}}

== Vijayanagar and Nayak period ==
The period from 1300 CE to 1650 was a period of constant change in the political situation of Tamil Nadu. The Tamil country was invaded by the armies of the [[Delhi Sultanate]] and raided the [[Pandya]] kingdom. This overstretched the Delhi Sultanate to such an extent it collapsed soon after which triggered the rise of the [[Bahmani]] Sultans in the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]]. [[Vijayanagar empire]] rose from the ashes of the kingdoms of [[Hoysalas]] and [[Chalukyas]] and eventually conquered the entire south India. The Vijayanagar kings appointed regional governors to rule various territories of their kingdom and Tamil Nadu was ruled by the [[Madurai Nayaks]], [[Thanjavur Nayaks]] and [[Gingee Nayaks]]. This period saw a large output of philosophical works, commentaries, epics and devotional poems. A number of monasteries (''Mathas'') were established by the various Hindu sects and these began to play a prominent role in educating the people. Numerous authors were of either the Saiva or the Vaishnava sects. The Vijayanagar kings and their Nayak governors were ardent Hindus and they patronised these ''mathas''. Although the kings and the governors of the Vijayanagar empire spoke Kannada and [[Telugu language|Telugu]] they encouraged the growth of Tamil literature as we find no slowing down in the literary output during this period.

There was a large output of works of philosophical and religious in nature, such as the ''Sivananabodam'' by Meykandar. At the end of the 14th century Svarupananda Desikar wrote two anthologies on the philosophy of ''[[Advaita]]'', the ''Sivaprakasapperundirattu''. [[Arunagirinathar]] who lived in [[Tiruvannamalai]] in the 14th century wrote ''[[Thiruppugazh|Tiruppugal]]''. Around 1360 verses of unique lilt and set to unique metres these poems are on the god [[Muruga]]. Madai Tiruvengadunathar, an official in the court of the Madurai Nayak, wrote ''Meynanavilakkam'' on the [[Advaita Vedanta]]. [[Siva prakasar]], in the early 17th century wrote a number of works on the Saiva philosophy. Notable among these is the ''Nanneri'' which deals with moral instructions. A considerable par to the religious and philosophical literature of the age took the form of ''Puranas'' or narrative epics. A number of these were written on the various deities of the temples in Tamil Nadu and are known as Sthala Puranas, based on legend and folklore. One of the most important of the epics was the [[Mahabharatam]] by Villiputturar. He translated [[Vyasa]]'s epic into Tamil and named it ''Villibharatam''. ''Kanthapuranam'' on the god [[Murugan]] was written by Kacchiappa Sivachariyar who lived in the 15th century. This work was based broadly on the Sanskrit ''[[Skanda Purana|Skandapurana]]''. Varatungarama Pandya, a [[Pandya]] king of the period was a littérateur of merit and wrote ''Paditrruppattanthathi''. He also translated into Tamil the erotic book known as ''Kokkoha'' from Sanskrit.

This period also an age of many [[Commentaries in Tamil literary tradition|commentaries of ancient Tamil works]]. Adiyarkunallar wrote an annotation on [[Cilappatikaram]]. Senavaraiyar wrote a commentary on the [[Tolkappiyam]]. Then came the famous Parimelalagar whose commentary on the [[Tirukkural]] is still considered one of the best available. Other famous annotators such as Perasiriyar and Naccinarikiniyar wrote commentaries on the various work of Sangam literature. The first Tamil dictionary was attempted by Mandalapurusha who compiled the lexicon ''Nigandu Cudamani''. [[Thayumanavar]], who lived in the early 18th century, is famous for a number of short poems of philosophical nature.

The 17th-century altruist Syed Khader, known colloquially as [[Seethakaathi]], was a great patron of all Tamil poets. He commissioned [[Umaru Pulavar|Umaruppulavar]] to pen the first biography of [[Muhammad|Nabi]]. The collection of poems was called ''Seerapuranam''.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.international.ucla.edu/cisa/article/27779 | title=The Diversity in Indian Islam | via=UCLA Center for India and South Asia | first=Sanjay | last=Subrahmanyam | newspaper=The Times of India | date=10 August 2002 | access-date=21 August 2020 }}</ref> The 17th century also saw for the first time literary works by Christian authors. Costanzo Giuseppe Beschi (1680–1746), better known as [[Veeramamunivar]], compiled the first dictionary in Tamil. His ''Chathurakarathi'' was the first to list the Tamil words in alphabetical order.

== Modern era ==
{{See also|Tamil Renaissance}}
[[File:பாரதி, அபூர்வ புகைப்படம் (cropped).JPG|thumb|150px|[[Subramanya Bharathi]] (1882–1921) Tamil writer, poet, Indian freedom fighter.]]
[[File:Bharathidasan (cropped).jpg|thumb|150px|''[[Pure Tamil Movement|Thani Tamil Iyakkam's]]'' [[Bharathidasan]], freedom fighter, Tamil writer, poet.]]
During the 18th and the 19th century, Tamil Nadu witnessed some of the most profound changes in the political scene. The traditional Tamil ruling clans were superseded by European colonists and their sympathisers. The Tamil society underwent a deep cultural shock with the imposition of Western cultural influences. The Hindu religious establishments attempted to stem the tide of change and to safeguard the Tamil cultural values. Notable among these were the Saiva monasteries at Tiruvavaduthurai, Dharmapuram, Thiruppananthal and Kundrakudi. [[Meenakshi Sundaram Pillai]] (1815–1876) was a Tamil scholar who taught Tamil at one of these monasteries. He wrote more than eighty books consisting of over 200,000 poems.{{Citation needed|date=April 2008}} He is more famous however for encouraging [[U. V. Swaminatha Iyer]] to go search for Tamil books that have been lost for centuries.

[[Gopalakrishna Bharati|Gopalakrishna Bharathi]] lived during the early 19th century. He wrote numerous poems and lyrics set to tune in [[Carnatic music]]. His most famous work is the ''Nandan Charitam'' on the life of Nandanar who, having been born in a sociologically lower caste, faces and overcomes the social obstacles in achieving his dream of visiting the [[Chidambaram]] temple. This work is a revolutionary social commentary considering the period in which it was written, although Gopalakrishna Bharati expanded on the story in ''[[Periyapuranam]]''. [[Jothi Ramalinga Swamigal|Ramalinga Adigal]] (Vallalar) (1823–1874) wrote the devotional poem ''Tiruvarutpa'' is considered to be a work of great beauty and simplicity. [[Maraimalai Adigal]] (1876–1950) advocated for the purity of Tamil and wanted to clean it of words with Sanskrit influences.

One of the great Tamil poets of this period was [[Subramanya Bharathi]]. His works are stimulating in their progressive themes like freedom and feminism. Bharathy introduced a new poetic style into the somewhat rigid style of Tamil poetry writing, which had followed the rules set down in the ''[[Tolkaappiyam]]''. His ''puthukkavithai'' (Lit.:new poetry) broke the rules and gave poets the freedom to express themselves. He also wrote Tamil prose in the form of commentaries, editorials, short stories and novels. Some of these were published in the Tamil daily ''[[Swadesamitran]]'' and in his Tamil weekly ''India''. Inspired by Bharathi, many poets resorted to poetry as a means of reform. [[Bharathidasan]] was one such poet. [[U.V.Swaminatha Iyer]], was instrumental in the revival of interest in the Sangam age literature in Tamil Nadu. He travelled all over the Tamil country, collecting, deciphering and publishing ancient books such as ''[[Cilappatikaram]]'', ''[[Kuruntokai]]'', etc. He published over 90 books and wrote ''En caritham'', an autobiography.

=== Tamil novel ===
The novel as a genre of literature arrived in Tamil in the third quarter of the 19th century, more than a century after it became popular with [[English language|English]] writers. Its emergence was perhaps facilitated by the growing population of Tamils with a western education and exposure to popular English fiction. [[Samuel Vedanayagam Pillai|Mayavaram Vedanayagam Pillai]] wrote the first Tamil novel ''[[Prathapa Mudaliar Charithram]]'' in 1879. This was a romance with an assortment of fables, folk tales and even Greek and Roman stories, written with the entertainment of the reader as the principal motive. It was followed by ''Kamalambal Charitram'' by B. R. Rajam Iyer in 1893 and ''Padmavathi Charitram'' by A. Madhaviah in 1898. These two portray the life of [[Brahmins]] in 19th-century rural Tamil Nadu, capturing their customs and habits, beliefs and rituals. Although it was primarily a powerful narration of the common man's life in a realistic style spiced with natural humour, Rajam Iyer's novel has a spiritual and philosophical undertone. Madhaviah tells the story in a more realistic way with a searching criticism of the upper caste society, particularly the sexual exploitation of girls by older men. [[Jayakanthan|D. Jayakanthan]] has enriched the high traditions of literary traditions of Tamil language and contributed towards the shaping of Indian literature. His literature presents a deep and sensitive understanding of complex human nature and is an authentic and vivid index of Indian reality. One famous novel of his is ''[[Sila Nerangalil Sila Manithargal (novel)|Sila Nerangalil Sila Manithargal]]''. Since the 1990s the post-modernist writers emerged as a major figures, including [[Jeyamohan]], [[S.Ramakrishnan]], [[Charu Nivedita]],<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://tehelka.com/story_main41.asp?filename=hub201208style_as.asp
|title = Style as Substance
|access-date = 2008-12-14
|author = Kala Krishnan Ramesh
|date = 2008-12-20
|archive-date = 19 December 2008
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081219013536/http://tehelka.com/story_main41.asp?filename=hub201208style_as.asp
|url-status = dead
}}</ref> and [[Konangi]], who mixes classical Tamil inflections with experimental sound poets.

There are other less appreciated works involving those translated from other languages, which are often unrecognized by Tamil pundits. The works include "Urumaatram" (translation of [[Franz Kafka]]'s ''[[The Metamorphosis]]''), ''Siluvayil Thongum Saathaan'' (translation of "[[Devil on the Cross]]" by [[Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o]]), ''Thoongum azhagigalin Illam'' (translation of "[[The House of the Sleeping Beauties]]" by [[Yasunari Kawabata]]). Writers like Amarantha, Latha Ramakrishnan are responsible for these works.{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}

=== Popular fiction ===
[[Crime fiction|Crime]] and [[detective fiction]] has enjoyed wide popularity in Tamil Nadu since the 1930s. Popular authors in the years before independence included Kurumbur Kuppusami and [[Vaduvur Duraisami Iyengar]]. In the 1950s and 1960s, [[Tamilvanan]]'s detective hero Shankarlal carried readers to a variety of foreign locales, while using a pure Tamil with very few Hindi or English loan words. These writers are often extremely prolific, with hundreds or even thousands of short novels to their credit, and one or more short novel published in a monthly periodical. [[Indra Soundar Rajan]], another popular modern author, writes supernatural crime thrillers usually based around Hindu mythology.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Chakravarthy
| first = Pritham
| title = The Blaft Anthology of Tamil Pulp Fiction
| year = 2008
| publisher = Blaft Publications
| location = Chennai, India
| isbn = 978-81-906056-0-1
| page = 46}}</ref>

=== Modern Tamil novelists ===
{{AI-generated|partial=y|section=Modern|date=February 2026|reason=the text added Jan 2024 [[Special:Diff/1191852758|here]]; note [[WP:AISIGNS]], most obviously markdown (in the original diff), plus undue emphasis on significance, promotional tone etc}}
In the 1940s and 1950s [[Kalki Krishnamurthy]] was notable for his historical and social fiction.

In the 1950s and 60s, [[Chandilyan]] wrote a number of very popular historical romance novels set in medieval India or on medieval trade routes with Malaysia, Indonesia and Europe.

From the 1950s, spanning six decades, [[Jayakanthan]] authored around 40 novels, 200 short stories, apart from two autobiographies. Outside literature, he made two films. In addition, four of his other novels were adapted into films by others. His works revolve around the lives of underclass people like rickshaw-pullers, prostitutes and rag-pickers.

[[Arunaa Nandhini]] is one of recent Tamil novelists who has entered the hearts of many Tamil readers, and her story covers family subject, romance, reality, with some humor added for the readers to enjoy their leisure.

Though sales of Tamil pulp fiction have declined since the hey-day of the mid-1990s, and many writers have turned to the more lucrative television serial market, there remains a thriving scene.

The rise of the [[Internet]] has triggered a dramatic growth in the number of Tamil [[blog]]s and specialist portals catering to political and social issues.<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 October 2007 |title=The Hindu : Tamil Nadu / Chennai News : Tamil bloggers' 'unconference' to take place on Sunday |url=http://hindu.com/2007/08/04/stories/2007080450970200.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071019020558/http://hindu.com/2007/08/04/stories/2007080450970200.htm |archive-date=19 October 2007}}</ref> Tamil literature is even available in the form of e-books.
Tamil literature boasts a rich tradition of novel writing, with many talented authors contributing to the literary landscape. Some prominent Tamil writers include:

* [[Kalki Krishnamurthy]] (1899–1954)
* [[S. Ramakrishnan]] (1937–)
* [[Jayakanthan]] (1934–2015)
* [[Akilan]] (1922–1988)
* [[R. K. Narayan]] (1906–2001)
* [[C. Rajagopalachari]] (1878–1972)
* [[Pudhumaipithan]] (1906–1948)
* [[Sivasankari]] (1942–)
* [[R. Chudamani]] (1931–2010)

These writers have played a crucial role in shaping Tamil literature through their diverse themes and narrative styles.

=== Periodicals ===
{{Unreferenced section|date=December 2024}}
The increasing demand of the literate public caused a number of journals and periodicals to be published and these in turn provided a platform for authors to publish their work. ''Rajavritti Bodhini'' and ''Dina Varthamani'' in 1855 and Salem Pagadala Narasimhalu Naidu's fortnightlies, Salem ''Desabhimini'' in 1878 and ''Coimbatore Kalanidhi'' in 1880, were the earliest Tamil journals. In 1882, G. Subramaniya Iyer started the newspaper ''Swadesamitran''. It became the first Tamil daily in 1889. This was the start of many journals to follow and many novelists began to serialise their stories in these journal. The humour magazine ''[[Ananda Vikatan]]'' started by S.S. Vasan in 1929 was to help create some of the greatest Tamil novelists. [[Kalki Krishnamurthy]] (1899–1954) serialised his short stories and novels in ''Ananda Vikatan'' and eventually started his own weekly ''Kalki'' for which he wrote the enduringly popular novels ''[[Parthiban Kanavu]]'', ''[[Sivagamiyin Sabadham]]'' and ''[[Ponniyin Selvan]]''. [[Pudhumaipithan]] (1906–1948) was a great writer of short stories and provided the inspiration for a number of authors who followed him. The 'new poetry or ''pudukkavithai'' pioneered by Bharathi in his prose-poetry was further developed by the literary periodicals ''manikkodi'' and ''ezhuttu'' (edited by Si Su Chellappa). Poets such as [[Mu. Metha]] contributed to these periodicals. [[Tamil Muslim]] poets like [[S. Abdul Rahman|Kavikko Abdul Rahman]], [[Inkulab|Pavalar Inqulab]], [[Manushyaputhiran]] and [[Salma (writer)|Rajathi Salma]] too have made significant contributions to social reforms. The pioneering fortnightly journal ''Samarasam'' was established in 1981 to highlight and cater to the ethnic Tamil Muslim community's issues.
Another remarkable work was done in Tamil novel field by Mu.Varatharasanar.[Agal vilakku] [Karithundu]. And last but not least [[Akilan]] the unique Tamil novelist, short story writer and a social activist is famous for his works like 'Chithirapavai' 'Vengayinmaindan' 'Pavaivilaku'.

== Tamil journalism ==
{{Unreferenced section|date=December 2024}}
The first Tamil periodical was published by the Christian Religious Tract Society in 1831 – ''The Tamil Magazine''.

The increasing demand of the literate public caused a number of journals and periodicals to be published and these in turn provided a platform for authors to publish their work. Rajavritti Bodhini and Dina Varthamani in 1855 and Salem Pagadala Narasimhalu Naidu's fortnightlies, Salem Desabhimini in 1878 and Coimbatore Kalanidhi in 1880, were the earliest Tamil journals.

The first regular newspaper in Tamil was Swadesamitran in 1882, started by G.Subramaniya Iyer, editor and sponsor of The Hindu and founding member of the Indian National Congress. He created a whole new Tamil political vocabulary. He was conscious that those with a knowledge of English are fewer in number and those with a knowledge of Indian languages make the vast majority. He felt that unless the people were told about the objectives of British rule and its merits and defects in the Indian languages, their political knowledge would never develop. When Subramania Aiyer quit The Hindu 1898, he made the Swadesamitran his full-time business. In 1899, the first Tamil daily. It was to enjoy this status for 17 years.

Subramania Aiyer's "pugnacious style, never qualifying words to soften the sharp tenor of a sentence," his use of words "dipped in a paste of extra pungent green chillies," made the Swadesamitran sought by Tamils wherever they lived in the world. And the daily became even more popular when Subramania Bharati joined it in 1904. The next year, when Lala Lajpat Rai was arrested and agitation followed in the Punjab, Subramania Aiyer's attitude to the British changed and he became a trenchant political critic of the Raj. His whole political mantra can be summed up in these words: `Peaceful but tireless and unceasing effort.' Let us sweat ourselves into Swaraj, he would seem to say." Swadesamitran is credited for coining new Tamil words to deal with science, politics and administration. It had the most comprehensive budget of news among all the regional language papers of that time.

In 1917, ''Desabhaktan'', another Tamil daily began with T.V. Kalyansundara Menon as editor. He was succeeded by V.V.S. Iyer, a colleague of the Savarkar brothers. These two editors were scholars with a natural, highly readable but polished style of writing.

The freedom movement and the advent of Gandhi also impacted Tamil journalism. Navasakthi, a Tamil periodical edited by Tamil scholar and freedom fighter V. Kalyanasundaram. [[C. Rajagopalachari|C.Rajagopalachari]] began Vimochanam, a Tamil journal devoted to propagating prohibition at the Gandhi Ashram in Tiruchengode in Salem district.

In 1926, [[P. Varadarajulu Naidu]], who was conducting a Tamil news-cum-views weekly 'Tamil Nadu' started a daily with the same name. Its forceful and colloquial style gained it a wide readership but after the paper failed to take sides with the 1930 Civil Disobedience Movement, the Congress Party decided to bring out a new Tamil daily – India, edited by renowned poet Subramania Bharati. India showed great promise but could not establish itself financially, and folded up soon after Bharati was exiled to Pondicherry. All these papers were published from Madras.

In 1933, the first Tamil tabloid – the 8 page Jayabharati began at a price of {{frac|1|4}} anna. It closed in 1940 as the price could not sustain even its postage.

In September 1934, [[S. Sadanand]] (who was running [[The Free Press Journal]]) started the Tamil daily Dinamani with T.S. Chockalingam as editor. It was priced at 6 pies, contained bright features and was fearlessly critical. It was highly successful and its circulation eclipsed the total circulation of all other Tamil dailies. Soon 'India' was incorporated into Dinamani. Dinamani made a studied and conscious effort to make the contents of a newspaper intelligible even to the newly literate.
In 1935, [[Viduthalai (Tamil daily)|Viduthalai]] was begun, but it was more of a views-paper than a newspaper.
The Non-Brahman Movement also gave an impetus to Tamil journalism. Newspapers like the ''Bharat Devi'' were strong supporters of this movement.

Many magazines began in Tamil Nadu during the 1920s and '30s. The humour magazine Ananda Vikatan started by S.S. Vasan in 1929 was to help create some of the greatest Tamil novelists. It is still running successfully after 80 years and the Vikatan group today also publishes Chutti Vikatan, Junior Vikatan, Motor Vikatan and other special interest magazines. R. Krishnamurthy serialised his short stories and novels in Ananda Vikatan and eventually started his own weekly Kalki. The name Kalki denotes the impending tenth Avatar of Lord Vishnu in the Hindu religion, who it is said, will bring to an end the Kali Yuga and reinstate Dharma or righteousness among the worldly beings. He used the name because he wanted to bring about liberation of India.

In 1942, [[Dina Thanthi]] (''Daily Telegraph'') was started in Madurai with simultaneous editions in Madras, Salem and Tiruchirappalli. It was founded by S.P. Adithanar, a lawyer trained in Britain. He modeled Thanthi on the style of an English tabloid- The Daily Mirror. He aimed to bring out a newspaper that ordinary people would read, and which would encourage a reading habit even among the newly literate. In the past, the daily newspaper which was printed in Madras reached the southern Tamil region after at least one day. Thanthi used the public bus system to distribute the paper throughout the south Tamil region and capitalized on the hunger for war news that arose after Singapore fell to the Japanese. Due to financial constraints, its Salem and Tiruchirappalli editions had to be closed down for a while. Thanthi emphasized local news, especially crime and the courts. It used photographs extensively and brought banner headlines to Tamil journalism. It could fit one story on an entire broadsheet page, mainly filled with large easy-to-read headlines. One of its biggest scoops was the murder of the editor of a scandalous film magazine by two actors. Thanthi covered the trial in Madras in detail, and its reporters phoned the daily account to the printing centre in Madurai. Thanthi was the first Tamil paper to understand the people’s fascination with crime and film stars. The paper was popular and it was said that Tamils learned to read in order to read the newspaper.

Dina Thanthi became one of the largest Tamil language dailies by circulation within a few years; it has been a leading Tamil daily since the 1960s. It has today 14 editions. It is the highest circulated Tamil daily in Bangalore and Pondicherry. It issues a book called 10th, +2 Vina Vidai Book, on every Wednesday during the second part of the year. The model question papers of all the subjects of Standard 10 and 12 are provided with answers along with the question papers of board exams that are conducted previous year.

== See also ==

* [[Project Madurai]]: open access Tamil literature repository
* [[List of Indian poets#Tamil|List of Tamil poets]]
* [[Sri Lankan Tamil Literature]]
* [[Tamil Heritage Foundation]], digitalization of ancient Tamil literature
* [[Tamil historical novels]]
* [[Tamil mythology]]
* [[Tamil_language#Legal_status|Legal status of Tamil]]
* {{Section link|Dalit literature|Dalit literature in Tamil|nopage=y}}

== Further reading ==
* Neild, S. (1968). [http://www.jstor.org/stable/40874203 A Select Bibliography of Books and Articles on Tamil Literature in English]. ''Mahfil'', ''4''(3/4), pp. 107–112

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

== References ==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |first=George L. |last=Hart |year=1975 |title=The poems of ancient Tamil: their milieu and their Sanskrit counterparts |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |isbn=0-520-02672-1 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/poemsofancientta00hart }}
* {{cite book|first=R. C. |last=Majumdar |year=1987 |title=Ancient India |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publications |location=India |isbn=81-208-0436-8}}
* {{cite web|title=The beginning of Tamil journalism |first=S. |last=Muthiah |work=The Hindu |date=23 July 2003 |url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/mp/2003/07/23/stories/2003072300090200.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030819174748/http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/mp/2003/07/23/stories/2003072300090200.htm |url-status=usurped |archive-date=19 August 2003 | access-date=2006-05-23}}
* {{cite book|first=K. A. |last=Nilakanta Sastri |year=2000 |title=A History of South India |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New Delhi |isbn=0-19-560686-8}}
* {{cite book|first1=K. A. |last1=Nilakanta Sastri |last2=Srinivasachari |first2=G. |year=2000 |title=Advanced History of India |publisher=Allied Publishers Ltd |location= New Delhi}}
* {{cite journal|title=Portrait of a novelist as a social reformer |first=S. |last=Viswanathan |journal=Frontline |volume=22 |issue=17 |date=Aug 13–26, 2005 |url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2217/stories/20050826000807700.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061130085216/http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2217/stories/20050826000807700.htm |url-status=usurped |archive-date=30 November 2006 |access-date=2006-05-23}}
* {{cite book|first=Kamil V. |last=Zvelebil |year=1973 |title=The smile of Murugan: on Tamil literature of South India |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden |isbn=90-04-03591-5}}
* {{cite book|first=Kamil V. |last=Zvelebil |year=1974 |title=Tamil Literature |series=A History of Indian Literature |volume=X |editor=Jan Gonda |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz |location=Wiesbaden |isbn=3447015829 |url={{GBurl|OQ33i496MsIC}} }}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
*[https://ilakkiyam.com/ தமிழ் இலக்கியம் – A repository of Tamil Literature]
*[https://www.valaitamil.com/literature Largest Collections of Tamil Literature Articles]
*[http://thamizhilakkiyam.com/ Tamil Literature Collection – தமிழ் மொழி ஆர்வலர்களுக்காக] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161022095909/http://thamizhilakkiyam.com/ |date=22 October 2016 }}
*[https://tamilnation.org/literature/index.htm Tamil Language & Literature]
*[https://ngmtamil.in KALANJIYAM - Tamil Journal]

{{Tamil language}}
{{Tamil Nadu}}

[[Category:Tamil-language literature| ]]
[[Category:Literature by language]]
[[Category:Indian literature by language]]

Boroline

2026-02-21T05:15:40Z

AhmedSturgis:

{{Short description|Indian antiseptic cream}}
{{good article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2023}}
{{Infobox brand
| name = Boroline
| logo = Boroline Antiseptic Cream.jpg
| logo_upright =
| logo_alt =
| logo_caption =
| image =
| image_upright =
| alt =
| caption =
| producttype = [[Antiseptic]]
| currentowner = G.D. Pharmaceuticals Private Limited, [[Kolkata]]
| producedby =
| country = [[India]]
| introduced = {{Start date and age|1929}}
| discontinued =
| related =
| markets =
| ambassadors = [[Raima Sen]], [[Sakshi Tanwar]], [[Vidya Balan]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1160317/jsp/t2/story_74837.jsp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160331074400/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1160317/jsp/t2/story_74837.jsp |url-status=dead |archive-date=31 March 2016 |title=Fashion |publisher=Telegraphindia.com |date=2016-03-17 |access-date=2016-10-14}}</ref>
| tagline =
| website = {{URL|boroline.com}}
}}

'''Boroline''' is an [[Over-the-counter drug|over-the-counter]] [[antiseptic]] cream sold in [[India]] by G. D. Pharmaceuticals. The cream is marketed as a natural and [[Ayurveda|ayurvedic]] solution for various skin issues such as cuts, cracked lips, rough skin, and [[infection]]s.

The product traces its origins to the [[Swadeshi movement]] prevalent in India in the 1920s. First produced in 1929 by [[Gour Mohan Dutta]], the product gained popularity since it was one of the first antiseptic creams to be made in India. Dutta strategically marketed Boroline as a reflection of [[Culture of Bengal|Bengali culture]], tapping into [[Bengali nationalism|nationalistic]] sentiments. The packaging of the cream in green tubes featuring an elephant logo allowed it to be easily identified by [[consumer]]s, especially those in rural areas. Post-independence, the company faced competition but adapted through branding and marketing efforts, including event sponsorship. Despite challenges such as production halts, Boroline is still in circulation {{As of|2024|lc=yes}}, and the brand accounted for over 60% of the parent company's revenue in 2016. It maintains a significant presence in Bengali culture and is known to evoke a sense of nostalgia amongst members of the community.

== History ==
The history of Boroline traces back to the 1920s in India, during the height of the [[Swadeshi movement]], which advocated for [[Autarky|self-sufficiency]] and reduced reliance on [[British Empire|British]] imports. Gour Mohan Dutta, a [[Bengalis|Bengali]] merchant who dealt in imported cosmetics, embraced the Swadeshi movement to create locally made alternatives with the assistance of his wife.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Sriram |first=Malathy |date=2017-11-03 |title=Boroline: Soothing skin since 1929 |url=https://bloncampus.thehindubusinessline.com/columns/brand-basics/boroline-soothing-skin-since-1929/article9942044.ece |access-date=2024-04-27 |website=BLoC |language=en |archive-date=27 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240427225557/https://bloncampus.thehindubusinessline.com/columns/brand-basics/boroline-soothing-skin-since-1929/article9942044.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> One of his concoctions, an antiseptic cream made from a blend of boric acid and oil, garnered significant attention and quickly sold out in the [[Burrabazar]] markets where he sold his products. Recognizing the potential of his formulation, Dutta officially founded G. D. Pharmaceuticals in 1929 and named the product Boroline. The name is derived from ''boro'' (short for [[boric acid]]) and ''-oline'' from the Latin {{lang|la|oleum}} ({{Translation|'oil'}}).<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Boroline Story: স্বদেশী আন্দোলন থেকে বঙ্গ জীবনের অঙ্গ হয়ে ওঠা! বোরোলিনের অজানা কাহিনি জেনে নিন.. |url=https://eisamay.com/business/business-news/boroline-a-cream-born-out-of-the-swadeshi-movement-under-british-rule-a-place-made-in-every-indians-home/articleshow/88078306.cms |access-date=2024-04-27 |website=Eisamay |date=3 December 2021 |language=bn |archive-date=27 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240427225509/https://eisamay.com/business/business-news/boroline-a-cream-born-out-of-the-swadeshi-movement-under-british-rule-a-place-made-in-every-indians-home/articleshow/88078306.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> Marketed in distinctive green tubes adorned with an elephant logo, symbolizing strength, prosperity and inspired by the Hindu deity [[Ganesha]], Boroline swiftly gained popularity among Indian consumers, becoming a staple in households across Bengal and rest of India.<ref name=":0" />

== Marketing ==
[[File:Boroline advertisment.jpg|thumb|Boroline advertisement in 1962]]
Early on, Dutta positioned Boroline as a product that was integral to [[Bengali culture]]. He only ran ads for the product in the [[Bengali language]] and targeted major Bengali events like [[Durga Puja]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Boroline, the Bengali Miracle Cream |url=https://www.thejuggernaut.com/bengali-antiseptic-cream-boroline-swadeshi-movement/ |access-date=2024-04-27 |website=The Juggernaut |language=en |archive-date=27 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240427225640/https://www.thejuggernaut.com/bengali-antiseptic-cream-boroline-swadeshi-movement |url-status=live }}</ref> As a result, the product became associated with the nationalistic sentiments prevalent during the time. During the early 1920s, it was considered a matter of pride to be using the locally made Boroline over other similar foreign creams.<ref name=":0" /> In 1947, during the [[Independence Day (India)|Independence Day]] celebrations, G. D. Pharmaceuticals ran an ad in national newspapers that distributed coupons for free tubes of Boroline. Over {{Lakh|1}} tubes of the antiseptic cream were reported to have been distributed as part of the promotion.<ref name=":1" />

After India's independence, the product experienced significant competition from homegrown counterfeits and knockoff products. Indian multinational conglomerate [[Emami]] released a product called BoroPlus that was endorsed by the actor [[Amitabh Bachchan]] and his wife [[Jaya Bachchan]] ({{née|Bhaduri}}). In response, G. D. Pharmaceuticals invested heavily in advertising. During the same time company also aggressively altered their branding to keep up with the times. A focus was made on establishing Boroline as the "original" antiseptic cream in India. An ad agency was contracted to write a jingle for the advertisement of Boroline across both [[West Bengal]] and India.<ref name=":2" /> The resulting [[jingle]], written by [[Rituparno Ghosh]], was the "Bongo jiboner ongo" ({{lang|bn|বঙ্গ জীবনের অঙ্গ}}), which implied that the cream was an integral part of Bengali life.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2013-05-31 |title=Rituparno Ghosh's jumpcut from fleeting ad films to meaningful cinema |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/rituparno-ghoshs-jumpcut-from-fleeting-ad-films-to-meaningful-cinema/articleshow/20357942.cms |access-date=2024-04-28 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257 |archive-date=25 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125062609/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/Rituparno-Ghoshs-jumpcut-from-fleeting-ad-films-to-meaningful-cinema/articleshow/20357942.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>

Since the 1950's, the company was run by the founder's son Murari Mohan Dutta. Dutta poineered the idea of sponsoring sporting events and festivals in India.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Boroline |url=https://in.superbrands.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/Boroline.pdf |url-status= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231010115811/https://in.superbrands.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/Boroline.pdf |archive-date=2023-10-10 |access-date=2024-04-27 |website=Superbrands India}}</ref><ref name=":2" /> In 1982, Boroline became one of the first sponsors for the Jawaharlal Nehru International Football Gold Cup (which went on to become the [[Nehru Cup]]), one of the first events to be broadcast in colour across India.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kapadia |first=Novy |title=Nehru Cup aims to build brand Team India |url=http://archive.asianage.com/football/nehru-cup-aims-build-brand-team-india-353 |access-date=2024-04-27 |website=The Asian Age |language=en}}</ref> The company became a permanent fixture in sporting events and festivals, cheering on players and organizing campaigns on the streets during festivals.<ref name=":2" /> As a result of these marketing efforts, Boroline's sales doubled and the brand gained a significant amount of recognition and brand loyalty. Even in rural areas, where most people were unable to read the advertisements, the cream was known as a {{lang|bn|haatiwala}} cream ({{Translation|cream with the elephant}}) due to the company's iconic packaging and elephant logo.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=The Boroline Saga: From a Symbol of the Swadeshi Movement to a Bengali Household Staple |url=https://thewire.in/business/the-boroline-saga-from-a-symbol-of-the-swadeshi-movement-to-a-bengali-household-staple |access-date=2024-04-27 |website=The Wire |language=en |archive-date=12 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240212010745/https://thewire.in/business/the-boroline-saga-from-a-symbol-of-the-swadeshi-movement-to-a-bengali-household-staple |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Product==
Boroline is a combination of the antiseptic [[boric acid]], the [[astringent]] and sunscreen [[zinc oxide]], and the emollient [[lanolin]], and is marketed by G. D. Pharmaceuticals as a natural and [[Ayurveda|ayurvedic]] solution for various skin issues such as cuts, cracked lips, rough skin, and [[infection]]s.<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Smith |first1=P. R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gHXADwAAQBAJ&pg=PA587 |title=Marketing Communications: Integrating Online and Offline, Customer Engagement and Digital Technologies |last2=Zook |first2=Ze |date=2019-12-03 |publisher=Kogan Page Publishers |isbn=978-0-7494-9865-8 |pages=587 |language=en |access-date=28 April 2024 |archive-date=28 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240428142237/https://books.google.com/books?id=gHXADwAAQBAJ&pg=PA587#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> Despite a temporary production halt in the 1990s due to government price regulations, Boroline continues to be available to consumers {{As of|2025|lc=y}} retaining its iconic green packaging.<ref name=":2" /> During [[World War II]], the company temporarily transitioned to alternate packaging, however the company included a note in these containers reassuring customers on each package that despite the change, the quality and quantity of ingredients remained consistent.<ref name=":3" />

The company operates two manufacturing facilities in [[Chakbagi]], West Bengal, and the Mohan Nagar Industrial Area, [[Ghaziabad]], responsible for producing Boroline. In 2016, Boroline contributed to over 60% of its sales of the company.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Paul |first=Aniek |date=2016-10-13 |title=It's business as usual for 87-year-old Boroline |url=https://www.livemint.com/Home-Page/lPdtZPKn9F1l2OZogkJSoJ/Its-business-as-usual-for-87yearold-Boroline.html |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=Mint |language=en |archive-date=28 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240428002524/https://www.livemint.com/Home-Page/lPdtZPKn9F1l2OZogkJSoJ/Its-business-as-usual-for-87yearold-Boroline.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2021, the company recorded over $31.7 million in sales and $10.1 million in profits.<ref name=":2" />

== In popular culture ==
Boroline is considered a staple of Bengali culture.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Seth |first=Suhel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T9Eou4KwJx4C&pg=PT12 |title=Get to the Top |date=2011-10-01 |publisher=Random House India |isbn=978-81-8400-242-3 |pages=12 |language=en |access-date=28 April 2024 |archive-date=28 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240428033302/https://books.google.com/books?id=T9Eou4KwJx4C&pg=PT12 |url-status=live }}</ref> The product has been used by multiple generations of people in the Bengali community, leading to an inside joke claiming that Boroline can cure almost anything.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Conner |first1=Lesley |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3duYEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA58 |title=Apex Magazine Issue 134 |last2=Sizemore |first2=Jason |date=2022-11-01 |publisher=Apex Publications |pages=58 |language=ar |access-date=28 April 2024 |archive-date=28 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240428033300/https://books.google.com/books?id=3duYEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA58 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2016, [[Sawan Dutta]] published a [[vlog]] titled an "Ode to Boroline" where she sung about the various ways in which Bengalis use the cream.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jha |first=Fiza |date=2019-11-24 |title=Boroline — the cure-all that is stuck in time but still brings joy, especially to Bengalis |url=https://theprint.in/feature/brandma/boroline-the-cure-all-that-is-stuck-in-time-but-still-brings-joy-especially-to-bengalis/324448/ |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=ThePrint |language=en-US |archive-date=28 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240428033301/https://theprint.in/feature/brandma/boroline-the-cure-all-that-is-stuck-in-time-but-still-brings-joy-especially-to-bengalis/324448/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Pal |first=Chandrima |date=2019-11-21 |title=Boroline turns 90 |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/blink/know/boroline-turns-90/article30036915.ece |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=BusinessLine |language=en |archive-date=28 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240428033514/https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/blink/know/boroline-turns-90/article30036915.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> Many of the commercials and associated products sold by G. D. Pharmaceuticals have been said to evoke a sense of nostalgia amongst members of the community.<ref name=":2" />

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Official website|https://boroline.com/}}

[[Category:Pharmaceutical companies established in 1929]]
[[Category:Pharmaceutical companies of India]]
[[Category:Antiseptics]]
[[Category:Indian brands]]
[[Category:Companies based in Kolkata]]
[[Category:Indian companies established in 1929]]
[[Category:Products introduced in 1929]]
[[Category:Culture of Bangladesh]]

Fasihuddin Balkhi

2026-02-13T01:56:01Z

AhmedSturgis: made initial pg basic info

{{Short description|Indian author and historian (1885–1962)}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}

{{Infobox person
| honorific_prefix = [[Sayyid]]
| name = Fasihuddin Balkhi
| native_name = فصیح الدین بلخی
| native_name_lang = ur
| other_names = Fasihuddin Balkhi Azimabadi
| birth_name = Syed Fasihuddin Balkhi
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1885|02|10|df=yes}}
| birth_place = Bakhshi Muhalla, [[Patna City]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|1962|03|14|1885|02|10|df=yes}}
| alma_mater = [[Calcutta University]]
| occupation = Writer, Historian
}}

'''Fasihuddin Balkhi''' (10 February 1885 – 14 March 1962)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Furog̲ẖ |first=Bashārat |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kcRjAAAAMAAJ |title=Wafiyat Mashahir Urdu |date=2000 |publisher=Basharat Ali Khan |pages=472 |language=ur}}</ref> was an Indian author and historian. He belonged to the Khanqah Balkhia Firdausia, [[Fatuha]], [[Patna]]. He was a contemporary of [[Ata Kakwi]], [[Taqi Rahim]], [[Shad Azimabadi]] and Shah Mohsin Danapuri.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ashrafī |first=Vahāb |author-link=Wahab Ashrafi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pMZjAAAAMAAJ |title=Tareekh Adab Urdu: Ibtida Se 2000 Tak |date=2005 |publisher=Educational Publishing House |isbn=978-81-8223-226-6 |pages=547–549 |language=ur}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ārvī |first=Ṣābir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MfHU16PD7r0C |title=Matāʻ-yi iḥsās: majmūʻah-yi kalām : manẓūmāt, g̲h̲azaliyāt, qat̤ʻāt, va rubāʻīyāt |date=1996 |publisher=Taqsīmkār Sardār Buk Ḍipo |pages=5, 62 |language=ur}}</ref> He was an active participant in the Non-cooperation Movement. His works include ''"Tarikh-e-Magadh"'', ''"Tazkira-e-Hindu Shora-e-Bihar"'' and ''"Wahabi Movement."''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hussain |first=Syed Amjad |title=Fasihuddin Balkhi's Scholarship: Rediscovering Bihar's Historical Gems |url=https://sufinama.org/articles/fasihuddin-balkhi-s-scholarship-rediscovering-bihar-s-historical-gems-syed-amjad-hussain-articles |access-date=5 October 2024|website=Sufinama |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ganie |first=Mohd Hussain |date=12 August 2022 |title=Fasihuddin Balkhi: the forgotten historian of Bihar |url=https://twocircles.net/fasihuddin-balkhi-historian-bihar/html#:~:text=Fasihuddin%20Balkhi%20was%20born%20in,to%20history-writing%20in%20Urdu. |access-date=5 October 2024|website=TwoCircles.net |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Early life ==
Fasihuddin Balkhi was born as Syed Fasihuddin Balkhi at Bakhshi Muhalla, [[Patna City]] on 10 February 1885.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HT-ebKorTZUC |title=K̲h̲udā Bak̲h̲sh Lāʼibreri jarnal |date=2012 |publisher=K̲h̲udā Bak̲h̲sh Oriyanṭal Pablik Lāʼibreri |location=Patna |pages=307–308 |language=ur}}</ref> He was brother of Azizuddin Balkhi.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sinha |first=Bindeshwari Prasad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zUpDAAAAYAAJ |title=Comprehensive History of Bihar |date=1976 |publisher=Kashi Prasad Jayaswal Research Institute |pages=502 |language=en}}</ref>

== Scholarly works ==

* {{Cite book |last=Balkhi |first=Fasihuddin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8kJuAAAAMAAJ |title=Wahabi Movement |date=1983 |publisher=Classical Publishing Company |isbn=978-81-7054-013-7 |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |last=Balkhi |first=Fasihuddin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cSVuAAAAMAAJ |title=Patna inscriptions |date=1993 |publisher=[[Khuda Bakhsh Oriental Library|K̲h̲udā Bak̲h̲sh Oriyanṭal Pablik Lāʼibrerī]] |language=ur}}
* Golden Jadeed Farsi Translation Wa Composition
* {{Cite book |last=Balkhi |first=Fasihuddin |url=https://www.rekhta.org/ebooks/detail/hindu-shora-e-bihar-tazkira-ebooks/ |title=Tazkira-e-Hindu Shora-e-Bihar |publisher=National Book Center |year=1962 |location=Daltanganj Palamu |language=ur}}
* {{Cite book |last=Balkhi |first=Fasihuddin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jyc3zwEACAAJ |title=Tareekhe-Magadh: Suba-e-Bihar Ki Muqammal Tareekh, 642-1943 |date=2001 |publisher=Khuda Baksh Oriental Library |language=ur}}
* {{Cite book |last=Balkhi |first=Fasihuddin |url=https://www.rekhta.org/ebooks/detail/golden-jadeed-farsi-translation-wo-compostion-fasihuddin-balkhi-ebooks/ |title=Golden Jadeed Farsi Translation Wa Composition |publisher=Iqbal Publishing House |location=Patna |language=ur}}
* {{Cite book |last=Balkhi |first=Fasihuddin |url=https://www.rekhta.org/ebooks/detail/tazkira-e-niswan-e-hind-ebooks/ |title=Tazkira-e-Niswan-e-Hind |publisher=Shamsi Press |year=1956 |location=Patna |language=ur}}
*
* Inshad-e-Shad
* Aasaar-e-Balkhia
* Aasaar-e-Qadima
* Dastoor-e-Sukhan
* Ilm-e-Nujoom

== Notes ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Bibliography ===

* {{Cite book |last=Balḵẖī |first=Muẓaffar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OckgAAAAIAAJ |title=Faṣīhuddīn Balḵẖī: ḥayāt aur kārnāme |date=1988 |publisher=The Azad Press |location=Sabzi Bagh, Patna |language=ur |trans-title=Fasihuddin Balkhi: Life and Achievements}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hussain |first=Syed Abbas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Uyu0zQEACAAJ |title=Idraak Gopalpur: Fasiḥuddīn Balkhī Number |date=2015 |publisher=zer-i ihtimām, Markaz-i Taḥqīqāt-i Urdū va Fārsī |language=ur}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Balkhi, Fasihuddin}}
[[Category:1885 births]]
[[Category:1962 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Patna district]]
[[Category:20th-century Urdu-language writers]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian Muslims]]
[[Category:Writers from Bihar]]

D. P. Sawant

2026-02-12T01:48:43Z

AhmedSturgis:

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2017}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = D. P. Sawant
|office = Member of the [[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly]]
| term_start = (2009-2014), (2014
| term_end = 2019)
| predecessor = Anusayatai Prakash Khedkar
| successor = [[Balaji Kalyankar]]
| constituency = [[Nanded North (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Nanded North]]
}}
'''Dr. Dattatraya Sawant''' is a member of the 13th [[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly]]. He represents the [[Nanded North (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Nanded North]] Assembly Constituency. He belongs to the [[Indian National Congress]].<ref name="IT-20141103">{{cite news|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/assembly-elections-2015/story/maharashtra-assembly-poll-results-bjp-shiv-sena-ncp-congress-223847-2014-10-19|title=Results of Maharashtra Assembly polls 2014 |work=India Today|access-date=2015-07-17}}</ref> He has been the Minister of State(MoS) for Higher and Technical education.<ref name="Ex-min & aide of Ashok Chavan says he remains ‘with Congress’">{{cite news |title=Ex-min & aide of Ashok Chavan says he remains ‘with Congress’ |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/aurangabad/ex-minister-and-aide-of-ashok-chavan-reaffirms-loyalty-to-congress/articleshow/112388723.cms |access-date=16 December 2024 |publisher=The Times of India |date=9 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240810013437/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/aurangabad/ex-minister-and-aide-of-ashok-chavan-reaffirms-loyalty-to-congress/articleshow/112388723.cms |archive-date=10 August 2024}}</ref> He is considered to be a trusted associate of former Maharashtra Chief Minister [[Ashok Chavan]].<ref name="TOI-20140927">{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/aurangabad/Parties-go-looking-for-strong-nominees/articleshow/43570961.cms|title=Parties go looking for 'strong' nominees|last=Rizwanullah|first=Syed|date=2014-09-27|work=Times of India|accessdate=17 July 2015}}</ref>
He was Guardian Minister of [[Nanded District]] for years 2010-14.

==Controversy==
He has been the subject of controversy in relation to air travel expenses incurred by him as minister in October 2013 at the time when his government was in the middle of an austerity campaign.<ref name="FP-2013-10-18">{{cite news|url=http://www.firstpost.com/politics/what-austerity-maharashtra-ministers-run-up-rs-6-crore-air-fare-bill-1179921.html|title=What austerity? Maharashtra ministers run up Rs 6 crore air fare bill|last= Iyer |first= Kavitha|date=2013-10-18|work=First Post|accessdate=17 July 2015}}</ref> In December, 2014, he was amongst 22 ex-ministers who hadn't vacated their official bungalows.<ref name="IE-20141103">{{cite news|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/cities/mumbai/22-ex-ministers-yet-to-vacate-official-bungalows/|title=22 ex-ministers yet to vacate official bungalows|last=Nair|first=Shalini|date=2014-11-03|work=The Indian Express|accessdate=17 July 2015}}</ref>

On 22 March 2017, Sawant was suspended along with 18 other MLAs until 31 December for interrupting Maharashtra Finance Minister [[Sudhir Mungantiwar]] during a state budget session and burning copies of the budget outside the assembly four days earlier.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/maharashtra-assembly-ruckus-speaker-suspends-19-mlas-till-december-31/|title = Maharashtra Assembly ruckus: Speaker suspends 19 MLAs till December 31|date = 22 March 2017}}</ref>

== Also read ==

* [[:mr:पी.के._सावंत|Marathi Wikipedia of P.K. Sawant]]

* [[P. K. Sawant]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sawant, D P}}
[[Category:Maharashtra MLAs 2014–2019]]
[[Category:People from Nanded district]]
[[Category:Marathi politicians]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Maharashtra]]

{{Maharashtra-INC-politician-stub}}

Khargone, Raisen

2026-02-06T15:41:15Z

AhmedSturgis: new a data

{{short description|Town in Madhya Pradesh, India}}
{{Unreliable sources|date=March 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2025}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Khargone
| settlement_type = [[Town]]
| pushpin_map = India Madhya Pradesh
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Madhya Pradesh, India
| coordinates = {{coord|23.09|N|78.31|E|display=inline,title}}
}}
'''Khargone''' is a small town in the [[Raisen District]] of [[Madhya Pradesh]]. It belongs to [[Baraily tehsil]].

==Geography==
Khargone is located at 23.09°N, 78.31°E. It has an average elevation of {{convert|508|m|ft}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fallingrain.com/world/IN/35/Khargaon2.html|title=Maps, Weather, and Airports for Khargaon, India|website=www.fallingrain.com}}</ref> The Tendoni River flows near the town.{{fact|date=May 2025}}

==Demographics==
Khargone town has population of 5047 of which 2664 are males while 2383 are females as Census 2011.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.census2011.co.in/data/village/484550-khargone-madhya-pradesh.html|title=Khargone Village Population - Baraily - Raisen, Madhya Pradesh|website=www.census2011.co.in}}</ref>

==Tourist places==
* Jamvant caves, Jaamgarh<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://indiasthan.com/place/madhya-pradesh/356300/cave-of-jamwant-ji|title=Cave of Jamwant Ji, Raisen, madhya pradesh, India|date=5 December 2020|website=indiasthan.com}}</ref>
* Chhind Dham, Chhind
* Khonawale baba, Khargone<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://indiasthan.com/place/madhya-pradesh/1056219/khona-wale-baba-adhinath-jain-mainder|title=Khona Wale Baba Adhinath Jain Mainder, Bareli, madhya pradesh, India|date=4 February 2022|website=indiasthan.com}}</ref>

==Transportation==
Khargone is well connected from other city of District.
Its situated on NH 45. its connect it Jabalpur to Bhopal.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Extarnal links==
* [https://www.indiatvnews.com/pincode/madhya-pradesh/raisen/khargone Pin Code]

{{Bhopal Division}}

[[Category:Cities and towns in Raisen district]]
[[Category:Raisen]]

{{Bhopal-geo-stub}}

Munna Khalid

2026-01-22T21:03:49Z

AhmedSturgis: New new bio basic info

{{Short description|Indian para-badminton athlete}}

{{Infobox badminton player
| name = Munna Khalid
| country =India {{IND}}
| years_active = 2016-present
| retired =
| handedness =
| coach =
| event =
| career_record =
| titles =
| played =
| highest_ranking = 9
| highest_ranking_date =17-11-2025
| current_ranking = 9
| current_ranking_date =17-11-2025
| medals =
| updated =
| module =
| image = Munnakhalid33333333333.jpg
| birth_date = 16 January 1995
| birth_place = Uttar Pradesh, India
| height = 5.10"
| weight = 77 kg
| bwf_id = P61557
| honours = Delhi State Award 2023 (Best Sports Person)}}

'''Munna Khalid''' is an Indian para-badminton athlete.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sachdeva |first=Nihit |date=2024-02-20 |title=Munna Khalid: From Jamia Millia Islamia to BWF Para Badminton World Championships |url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/badminton/munna-khalid-bwf-para-badminton-world-championships-khelo-india-para-games-news/article67865936.ece |access-date=2024-07-15 |website=Sportstar |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=9 March 2024 |title=Fighting the odds to become a champion - The Patriot |url=https://thepatriot.in/sport/fighting-the-odds-to-become-a-champion-46492 |access-date=2024-07-15 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2024-07-08 |title=India secure 49 medals at the Uganda Para-Badminton International 2024 |url=https://thebridge.in/para-sports/indian-players-dominate-uganda-para-badminton-international-2024-48271 |access-date=2024-07-15 |website=thebridge.in |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-31 |title=Jamia Student Wins Two Bronze Medals in National Para Badminton Championship |url=https://www.news18.com/news/education-career/jamia-student-wins-two-bronze-medals-in-national-para-badminton-championship-4611305.html |access-date=2024-07-15 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref>

== Education and background ==
Khalid was born in Khanpur, [[Bulandshahr district]], Uttar Pradesh. He contracted [[polio]] just six months after his birth. He is the third eldest of seven siblings. He relocated to Delhi for his higher education, earning a BA (Hons) and a master's in social work, and is currently pursuing a PhD in Hindi Literature—all from [[Jamia Millia Islamia|Jamia Millia Islamia University]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Deka |first=Mridusmita |date=2021-12-31 |title=Jamia Millia Islamia Student Wins Two Bronze Medals In National Para Badminton Championship |url=https://www.ndtv.com/education/jamia-millia-islamia-student-wins-two-bronze-medals-in-national-para-badminton-championship-2681239 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240720164449/https://www.ndtv.com/education/jamia-millia-islamia-student-wins-two-bronze-medals-in-national-para-badminton-championship-2681239 |archive-date=2024-07-20 |access-date=2024-07-15 |website=[[NDTV]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Sachdeva |first=Nihit |date=2024-02-20 |title=Munna Khalid: From Jamia Millia Islamia to BWF Para Badminton World Championships |url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/badminton/munna-khalid-bwf-para-badminton-world-championships-khelo-india-para-games-news/article67865936.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240715115621/https://sportstar.thehindu.com/badminton/munna-khalid-bwf-para-badminton-world-championships-khelo-india-para-games-news/article67865936.ece |archive-date=2024-07-15 |access-date=2024-08-09 |website=[[Sportstar]] |language=en}}</ref>

== Achievements ==
'''International Level'''

* Year 2025 – Indonesia Para Badminton International 2025, held at Solo, Indonesia, 29 Oct - 02 Nov 2025– Bronze Medal (MD).<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-11-06 |title=O3+ athlete Munna Khalid wins bronze at Indonesia Para-Badminton International 2025 |url=https://mediabrief.com/o3-athlete-munna-khalid-wins-bronze-at-indonesia-para-badminton-2025/ |access-date=2025-11-17 |website=MediaBrief |language=en-US}}</ref>
* Year 2025 – Asia Para Badminton Championship 2025, held at Korat, Thailand, 17-22 June 2025–Quarter Finalist (MS)

* Year 2024 – Bahrain Para Badminton International 2024 (Level-1), held at Manama, Bahrain, 10-15 December 2024–Bronze Medal (MS).<ref>{{Cite web |title=मुन्ना खालिद का शानदार प्रदर्शन: बहरीन पैरा बैडमिंटन में दो कांस्य पदक, दुनिया में दसवें स्थान पर |url=https://www.hindi.awazthevoice.in/-news/munna-khalid-s-stellar-performance-two-bronze-medals-in-bahrain-para-badminton-ranked-tenth-in-the-world-53085.html |access-date=2025-11-17 |website=hindi.awazthevoice.in |language=hi}}</ref>

* Year 2024 – Bahrain Para Badminton International 2024 (Level-1), held at Manama, Bahrain, 10-15 December 2024–Bronze Medal (XD).<ref>{{Cite web |last=theokhlatimes |date=2024-12-20 |title=Munna Khalid’s journey to stardom in sports world - The Okhla Times |url=https://www.theokhlatimes.com/munna-khalid-sports/ |access-date=2025-11-17 |language=en-US}}</ref>

* Year 2024 – Indonesia Para Badminton International 2024, held at Solo, Indonesia, 17-22 September 2024– Bronze Medal (MD).<ref>{{Cite news |title=पिता ड्राइवर...कभी फल बेचे तो कभी मजाक बने, पर 20 साल की उम्र में हुआ कुछ ऐसा कि बन गए टॉप पैरा खिलाड़ी |url=https://hindi.news18.com/news/sports/who-is-munna-khalid-indian-para-badminton-player-inspiring-story-local18-8881573.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250701080221/https://hindi.news18.com/news/sports/who-is-munna-khalid-indian-para-badminton-player-inspiring-story-local18-8881573.html |archive-date=2025-07-01 |access-date=2025-11-17 |work=News18 हिंदी |language=hi-IN |url-status=live }}</ref>

*Year 2024 – Indonesia Para Badminton International 2024, held at Solo, Indonesia, 17-22 September 2024– Bronze Medal (XD).<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-10-01 |title=JMI Student Munna Khalid Bags Two Bronze Medals at Indonesia Para Badminton International |url=https://radiancenews.com/jmi-student-munna-khalid-bags-two-bronze-medals-at-indonesia-para-badminton-international/ |access-date=2025-11-17 |website=Radiance News |language=en-US}}</ref>
* Year 2024 – BWF Para Badminton World Championship 2024, held at Pattaya, Thailand 20–25 February 2024 – Pre-Quarter Finalist.<ref>{{Cite web| title=जािमया के छाũ मुɄा खािलद का िवʷ पैरा बैडिमंटन चœ िपयनिशप 2024 मŐ Šआ चयन | language=hi | trans-title=Jamia student Mufti Khalid selected for World Para Badminton Championships 2024 | url=https://jmi.ac.in/upload/publication/pr1_Hindi_2024February05.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240715120503/https://jmi.ac.in/upload/publication/pr1_Hindi_2024February05.pdf | archive-date=2024-07-15}}</ref>
* Year 2024 – Uganda Para Badminton International 2024, held at Kampala, Uganda, 01-7 July 2024– Gold Medal (MS).<ref>{{Cite web |title=جامعہ کے طالب علم منا خالد نے اگانڈا پیرا بیڈمنٹن انٹرنیشنل 2024 میں طلائی،نقرئی اور کانسے کے تمغے جیتے |url=https://urdu.hindusthansamachar.in/Encyc/2024/7/11/Jamia-Student-win-gold-medal.php |access-date=2024-07-15 |website=urdu.hindusthansamachar.in |language=ur}}</ref>
* Year 2024 – Uganda Para Badminton International 2024, held at Kampala, Uganda, 01-7 July 2024– Silver Medal (MD).<ref>{{Cite web |title=जामिया के पीएचडी छात्र मुन्ना खालिद को युगांडा पैरा बैडमिंटन इंटरनेशनल में स्वर्ण, रजत और कांस्य पदक |url=https://www.hindi.awazthevoice.in/sports-news/jamia-millia-s-phd-student-munna-khalid-won-gold-silver-and-bronze-medals-in-uganda-para-badminton-international-46288.html |access-date=2024-07-15 |website=awazthevoice.in |language=hi}}</ref>
* Year 2024 – Uganda Para Badminton International 2024, held at Kampala, Uganda, 01-7 July 2024– Bronze Medal (XD).<ref>{{Cite web| title=JMI student Munna Khalid wins Gold, Silver and Bronze Medals at Uganda Para - Badminton International 2024 | url=https://jmi.ac.in/upload/publication/pr1_English_2024July11.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240715121118/https://jmi.ac.in/upload/publication/pr1_English_2024July11.pdf | archive-date=2024-07-15}}</ref>
* Year 2022 – Uganda Para Badminton International 2022, held at Kampala, Uganda, 11–18 September 2022 – Gold Medal (MD).<ref>{{Cite web |last=strike |first=the news |date=2024-03-28 |title=JMI student Munna Khalid wins Silver Medal in 6th National Para Badminton Championship |url=https://thenewsstrike.com/jmi-student-munna-khalid-wins-silver-medal-in-6th-national-para-badminton-championship |access-date=2024-07-15 |website=The News Strike |language=en-US}}</ref>
* Year 2022 – Uganda Para Badminton International 2022, held at Kampala, Uganda, 11–18 September 2022– Silver Medal (MS).<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-31 |title=Jamia Millia Islamia student wins 2 bronze medals in National Para-Badminton Championship |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/news/story/jamia-millia-islamia-student-wins-2-bronze-medals-in-national-para-badminton-championship-1894585-2021-12-31 |access-date=2024-07-15 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref>
* Fox Indonesia Para Badminton International 2023 held at Solo, Indonesia, 05-10 September 2023 – Pre-Quarter Finalist.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-03-28 |title=JMI student Khalid wins bronze medals at 5th national para badminton championship |url=https://news.careers360.com/jmi-student-khalid-clinches-two-bronze-medals-at-5th-national-para-badminton-championship-2022-23 |access-date=2024-07-15 |website=Careers360 |language=en}}</ref>
* Year 2023 – Thailand Para Badminton International 2023, held at Pattaya, Thailand, 09-14 May 2023– Pre-Quarter Finalist
* Year 2022 – Bahrain Para Badminton International 2023, held at Manama, Bahrain, 17–23 May 2023 – Round-2.
* Year 2022 – 4th Fazza Dubai Para Badminton International 2022, held at Dubai, 23–29 May 2022 - Pre-Quarter Finalist.
* Year 2022 – Bahrain 1st International Para Badminton Tournament 2022, held at Bahrain, 23–29 May 2022 – Round-2.

'''National Level'''

* Year 2024- 6th National Para Badminton Championship 2023-24, held at Jamshedpur, Jharkhand. Obtained Silver Medal https://jmi.ac.in/upload/publication/pr1_English_2024March28.pdf
* Year 2023 - 1st [[Khelo India]] Para Games 2023, held at I.G. Stadium, New Delhi. Obtained Bronze Medal. December 10–17, 2023
* Year 2023- 5th National Para Badminton Championship 2022-23, held at Dr. Shakuntala Misra Rehabilitation University, Lucknow, U.P. Obtained 2 Bronze in Singles and Doubles respectively.<ref>{{Cite web |title=JMI student wins two bronze medals in the 5th National Para-Badminton Championship 2022-23 |url=https://eduadvice.in/educational-news-details/jmi-student-wins-two-bronze-medals-in-the-5th-national-parabadminton-championship-202223/4468 |access-date=2025-11-17 |website=eduadvice.in}}</ref>
* Year 2021- 4th National Para Badminton Championship 2020, held at Bhubaneswar, Odisha, Obtained 2 Bronze in Singles and Doubles respectively.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Jamia Student Wins Two Bronze Medals in National Para Badminton Championship - News18 |url=https://www.news18.com/news/education-career/jamia-student-wins-two-bronze-medals-in-national-para-badminton-championship-4611305.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250125094727/https://www.news18.com/news/education-career/jamia-student-wins-two-bronze-medals-in-national-para-badminton-championship-4611305.html |archive-date=2025-01-25 |access-date=2025-11-17 |work=News18 |language=en-US |url-status=live }}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Khalid, Munna}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian male badminton players]]
[[Category:Indian male para-badminton players]]
[[Category:Jamia Millia Islamia alumni]]
[[Category:Polio survivors]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

Hubli taluk

2026-01-18T22:39:51Z

AhmedSturgis: new a data...

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
{{refimprove|date=May 2025}}

{{Infobox settlement
| name =
| native_name =
| native_name_lang = 
| settlement_type =
| image_skyline =
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| coordinates = {{Coord|format=dms|display=it}}
| coor_pinpoint =
| coordinates_footnotes =
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and union territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = Karnataka
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of Karnataka|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Dharwad district]]
| subdivision_type3 =
| subdivision_name3 =
| established_title =
| established_date =
| founder =
| seat_type = Headquarters
| seat = [[Hubli]]
| government_footnotes =
| government_type = Taluka Panchayat
| governing_body = Hubli Taluka Panchayat
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| unit_pref = Metric

| area_footnotes =
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| area_blank2_title = 
| area_total_km2 = 623
| area_land_km2 =
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| population_as_of = 2021
| population_total = 177081
| population_density_km2 = 229
| population_note =
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| timezone1 =
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}}

'''Hubli Taluka''' is a taluka located in [[Dharwad District]] of the Indian state of [[Karnataka]].<ref>{{cite web |author= |date=2011 |title=Basic Population Figures of India, States, Districts, Sub-District and Village, 2011 |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/42554/download/46180/2011-IndiaStateDistSbDistVill-0000.xlsx |website=censusindia.gov.in |publisher=[[Ministry of Home Affairs (India)|Ministry of Home Affairs]] |access-date=May 2, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220711042331/https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/42554/download/46180/2011-IndiaStateDistSbDistVill-0000.xlsx |archive-date=2022-07-11}}</ref>

==Village name and code==
# [[A. Timmasagar]] 602385
# [[Adargunchi]] 602410
# [[Agadi, Dharwad|Agadi]] 602431
# Amargol 602374
# [[Anchatgeri]] 602406
# [[B.Aralikatti|B. Aralikatti]] 602427
# [[Belegali]] 602418
# [[Bengeri]] 602378
# Bhairidevarakop 602375
# [[Bhandiwad]] 602394
# [[Bommapur]] 602384
# [[Bommasamudra]] 602422
# [[Budarsingi]] 602408
# [[Byahatti]] 602389
# [[Channapur]] 602413
# [[Chavargudd]] 602414
# [[Chebbi]] 602426
# [[Devargudihal]] 602402
# [[Gabbur]] 602386
# [[Gangiwal]] 602405
# [[Giriyal]] 602417
# [[Gokul]] 602383
# [[Gopankop]] 602377
# [[Halyal]] 602396
# [[Hebsur]] 602390
# [[Inam-Veerapur]] 602416
# [[Ingalhalli]] 602393
# [[Kamplikop]] 602425
# [[Karadikop]] 602423
# [[Katnur]] 602412
# Keshawpur 602380
# [[Kirasur]] 602391
# [[Koliwad]] 602400
# [[Kotgondhunshi]] 602409
# Kurdikeri 602424
# [[Kusugal]] 602392
# Malligwad 602401
# [[Mantur]] 602395
# [[Mavanur]] 602407
# [[Murarhalli]] 602411
# [[Nagarhalli]] 602397
# Nagashettikop 602379
# [[Nulvi]] 602419
# Pale 602421
# [[Palikop]] 602429
# [[Parasapur]] 602403
# [[Ramapur]] 602415
# [[Rayanal]] 602404
# [[Revadihal]] 602382
# [[Sherewad|Sgerewad]] 602420
# [[Shirguppi]] 602398
# [[Sulla]] 602388
# [[Tarihal]] 602381
# [[Tirumalkoppa]] 602430
# [[Umachigi]] 602399
# [[Unkal lake|Unkal]] 602376
# [[Warur]] 602428
# [[Yellapura]] 602387

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Taluks of Karnataka]]
[[Category:Geography of Dharwad district]]

{{Dharwad-geo-stub}}

Ghantasala mandal

2026-01-02T17:36:11Z

AhmedSturgis: Revised and enhanced article content

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2018}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Ghantasala
| native_name =
| native_name_lang = te
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = [[Mandal]]
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption = Mandal map of Krishna district showing Ghantasala mandal (in Rose Colour)
| pushpin_map = India Andhra Pradesh
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Andhra Pradesh, India
| coordinates = {{coord|16|10|9.62|N|80|56|39.38|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = [[India]]
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Andhra Pradesh]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Krishna district|Krishna]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| seat_type = [[Headquarters]]
| seat = [[Ghantasala, Krishna district|Ghantasala]]
| parts_type = [[Administrative divisions of India|Major villages]]
| parts_style = para
| parts =
| government_type =
| governing_body = [[Panchayat Samiti (Block)|Mandal Parishad]]
| leader_title = [[Tehsildar]]
| leader_name =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 = 118.53
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 40,098
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes = <ref name=population>{{cite web|title=Census 2011|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/2816_PART_B_DCHB_KRISHNA.pdf|publisher=The Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India|pages=448|accessdate=6 November 2017}}</ref>
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Telugu language|Telugu]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code =
| registration_plate = AP 16
| website =
| footnotes =
| mapframe = yes
| mapframe-point = none
}}
'''Ghantasala mandal''' is one of the 25 [[mandal]]s in the [[Krishna district]] of the [[India]]n state of [[Andhra Pradesh]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.census2011.co.in/data/subdistrict/5033-Ghantasala-krishna-andhra-pradesh.html|title=Ghantasala Mandal - Krishna|accessdate=6 November 2017}}</ref> The headquarters of this [[mandal]] is located in the town of [[Ghantasala, Krishna district|Ghantasala]].

== Geography ==
The mandal is bordered by [[Pamidimukkala mandal|Pamidimukkala]] and [[Movva mandal|Movva]] to the north, [[Guduru mandal]] to the east, [[Mopidevi mandal]] to the south, and [[Krishna River]] to the west.<ref>{{cite web|title=Krishna Mandal Map|url=https://www.mapsofindia.com/maps/andhrapradesh/tehsil/krishna.html|publisher=Maps of India|accessdate=6 November 2017}}</ref>

== Demographics ==
As at the 2011 [[Census of India|census]], the population was 40,098 people residing in 12,946 households, divided into 20,182 males and 19,916 females, for a gender ratio of 987 females per 1000 males.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indiagrowing.com/Andhra_Pradesh/Krishna/Ghantasala|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130801011614/http://www.indiagrowing.com/Andhra_Pradesh/Krishna/Ghantasala|url-status=usurped|archive-date=1 August 2013|title=Population of Ghantasala mandal|publisher=India Growing|accessdate=6 November 2017}}</ref> 3,251 children were 0–6 years, of which 1,783 were boys and 1,468 were girls for a gender ratio of 823 females per 1000 males. The average literacy rate stands at 73.85%. 14,693 residents were members of [[Scheduled Caste]]s and 1,155 of [[Scheduled Tribe]]s.

==Economy==
In 2011, the Census of India reported that 21,664 citizens were engaged in work activities including 12,566 were males and 9,105 females. 19,547 workers described their occupations, including 2,277 cultivators, 13,391 agricultural laborers, 927 in the household industry, and 2,952 with other types of work. In the last group, 2,124 were marginal workers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.censusindia.co.in/subdistrict/Ghantasala-mandal-krishna-andhra-pradesh-5033|title=Ghantasala Mandal Population, Caste, Religion Data|publisher=Census 2011|accessdate=6 November 2017}}</ref>

== Administration ==
The mandal is administered under the [[Avanigadda (Assembly constituency)|Avanigadda Assembly constituency]] of the [[Machilipatnam (Lok Sabha constituency)|Machilipatnam Lok Sabha constituency]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 2008|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf
|publisher=Election Commission of India|accessdate=6 November 2017|pages=20, 31|format=pdf}}</ref> It is one of the 7 mandals in [[Machilipatnam revenue division|Vuyyuru revenue division]].

== Towns and villages ==
{{As of|2011}} [[Census of India|census]], 22 settlements were in Ghantasala mandal. [[Ghantasala, Krishna district|Ghantasala]] is the largest and Birudugadda is the smallest in population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://vlist.in/sub-district/05033.html|title=Villages in Ghantasala mandal|accessdate=6 November 2017}}</ref>

The settlements in the mandal are:
{{Columns-list|colwidth=30em|style=width:750px;|
#Birudugadda
#Bollapadu
#Chilakalapudi
#China Kallepalle
#Chitturpu
#Chitturu
#Daliparru
#Devarakota
#Elikala Kuduru
#Endakuduru
#Ghantasala
#Kodali
#Kothapalle
#Lankapalle
#Mallampalle
#Pushadam
#Srikakulam
#Tadepalle
#Teluguraopalem
#Vrudravaram
#Vemulapalle
}}

== Education ==
Ghantasala mandal plays a major role in education for rural students of nearby villages. Primary and secondary school education is imparted by government, aided by private schools under the School Education Department.<ref>{{cite web|title=School Education Department|url=http://rmsaap.nic.in/Notification_TSG_2015.pdf|publisher=School Education Department, Government of Andhra Pradesh|accessdate=6 November 2017|format=PDF|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151227185018/http://rmsaap.nic.in/Notification_TSG_2015.pdf|archive-date=27 December 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> For the academic year 2015–16, the mandal had more than 2,489 students enrolled in over 56 schools.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cse.ap.gov.in/DSE/totalSchoolReport.xls#|title=R1.1 SCHOOL INFORMATION|accessdate=6 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161108154343/http://cse.ap.gov.in/DSE/totalSchoolReport.xls|archive-date=8 November 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Student Information Report|url=http://cse.ap.gov.in/DSE/districtStudentReport.do?mode=getMandalReportsList&dist=2816&distname=KRISHNA|website=Commissionerate of School Education|publisher=Child info 2015-16, District School Education - Andhra Pradesh|accessdate=6 November 2017|archive-date=16 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180316010417/http://cse.ap.gov.in/DSE/districtStudentReport.do?mode=getMandalReportsList&dist=2816&distname=KRISHNA|url-status=dead}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[List of mandals in Andhra Pradesh]]
* [[Vijayawada]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Krishna district}}

[[Category:Mandals in Krishna district]]

Koraput district

2025-12-29T01:31:28Z

AhmedSturgis:

{{About|the district|its eponymous headquarters|Koraput}}
{{More citations needed|date=July 2023}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Koraput district
| other_name =
| settlement_type = [[List of districts of Odisha|District]] of [[Odisha]]
| image_skyline = {{Photomontage
|size = 250
|photo1a = Durbar Mahal of Jeypore Rajabhavana Palace.jpg
|photo1b = Duduma Waterfalls.jpg
|photo2a = Jagannath Trmple at Koraput.JPG
|photo2b = Kolab dam - panoramio.jpg
|photo3a = Deomali peak.jpg
}}
| image_alt =
| image_caption = Clockwise from top-left: Monument at Jeypore, [[Duduma Waterfalls]], [[Kolab Dam]], [[Deomali (mountain)|Deomali]], [[Jagannath Temple, Koraput|Jagannath Temple]] at [[Koraput]]
| nickname =
| image_map = Koraput in Odisha (India).svg
| image_map1 =
| map_alt =
| map_caption = Location in Odisha
| coordinates = {{coord|18.8083|N|82.7083|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = {{flagicon image|Orissa Flag(INDIA).png}} [[Odisha]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| seat_type = Headquarters
| seat = [[Koraput]]
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| leader_title = [[District collector|Collector & District Magistrate]]
| leader_name = V. Keerthi Vasan, IAS
| leader_title2 =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 = 8807
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 1379647
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Odia language|Odia]]
| demographics1_title2 = Local
| demographics1_info2 = [[Kui language (India)|Kui]], [[Kuvi language|Kuvi]], [[Desia language|Desia]], [[Bodo Parja language|Bodo Parja]], [[Gutob language|Gutob]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 764 020
| registration_plate = OD-10
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[Human sex ratio|Sex ratio]]
| blank1_info_sec1 = 1.038 [[male|♂]]/[[female|♀]]
| blank2_name_sec1 = Literacy
| blank2_info_sec1 = 49.21%
| blank3_name_sec1 = [[Lok Sabha]] constituency
| blank3_info_sec1 = [[Koraput (Lok Sabha constituency)|Koraput (ST)]]
| blank4_name_sec1 = [[Odisha Legislative Assembly|Vidhan Sabha]] constituency
| blank4_info_sec1 = 5{{collapsible list|title={{nbsp}}|141-[[Laxmipur (Odisha Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Laxmipur (ST)]] 142-[[Kotpad (Odisha Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Kotpad (ST)]] 143-[[Jeypore (Odisha Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Jeypore]] 144-[[Koraput (Odisha Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Koraput (SC)]] 145-[[Pottangi (Odisha Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Pottangi (ST)]]}}
| blank1_name_sec2 = [[Climate of India|Climate]]
| blank1_info_sec2 = [[Climatic regions of India|Aw]] ([[Köppen climate classification|Köppen]])
| blank2_name_sec2 = [[Precipitation (meteorology)|Precipitation]]
| blank2_info_sec2 = {{convert|1522|mm|in}}
| blank3_name_sec2 = Avg. summer temperature
| blank3_info_sec2 = {{convert|38|°C|°F}}
| blank4_name_sec2 = Avg. winter temperature
| blank4_info_sec2 = {{convert|12|°C|°F}}
| website = {{URL|https://koraput.nic.in/}}
| footnotes =
}}
'''Koraput district''' is a [[districts of India|district]] of [[India]] in southern [[Odisha]], with its headquarters at the town of [[Koraput]]. The district is located in the [[Eastern Ghats]] and is known for its hilly terrain, rich and diverse mineral deposits and its tribal culture. The district headquarters town of Koraput and its largest city, [[Jeypore]] are major centres of trade and commerce for South Odisha and located on an important road connecting [[Visakhapatnam]] to [[Raipur]].

== Etymology ==
Koraput district derives its name from its headquarters, the town of Koraput. According to Mr. R.C.S. Bell, the name of the town is ''Kora''-''Putti'' or “the hamlet of the [[Strychnos nux-vomica|''Nux-vomica'']]".<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Home: District Portal of, Odisha, India|url=http://www.ordistricts.nic.in/spotlight.php?sid=220|access-date=2016-09-11|website=www.ordistricts.nic.in}}</ref>

Some opine that the word is derived from "Khora," a tribal people who still inhabit nearby villages. According to the second theory, Koraput is a corrupted form of ‘Karaka-Pentho’. Karaka literally means ‘hail-stone’. Another opinion is often found that the term Kora was the name of a Sun God who was worshipped by the local tribals in ancient times. Hence the town was so named.

It is also believed that one ‘Khora Naiko’ laid foundation of the village during the time of Nandapur kings. He hailed probably from Ranpur and served under the Nandapur kings in the Militia, and for his faithful and meritorious services he was permitted to establish this village which was named after him as Khora Putu, and later on the name has been abbreviated to ‘Koraput.

==Geography==
Koraput district is located between 18 degree 13’ and 19 degree 10’ North Latitudes and 82 degree 5’ and 83 degree 23’ East Longitudes. It shares its borders with [[Rayagada District]], [[Nabarangpur district]], [[Kalahandi district|Kalanhandi district]] on the north, with [[Bastar district]] of [[Chhattisgarh]] on the west, with [[Malkangiri district|Malkangiri District]] on the south and with [[Alluri Sitharama Raju district|Alluri Sitharama Raju]] and [[Parvathipuram Manyam district|Parvathipuram Manyam]] districts of [[Andhra Pradesh]] on the east. Its area is 8,807&nbsp;km2, making it the third largest district of Odisha after [[Mayurbhanj]] and [[Sundargarh]]. About twenty one villages in the [[Kotia, Koraput|Kotia]] Gram Panchayat are the subject of a long pending territorial dispute with the State of Andhra Pradesh.

==History==
The early history of the district is obscure owing to the absence of written records. Its location in the hills, isolation from means of communication and the dense forests all around served to keep the district politically separate from the nearby plains on both sides. The earliest event that can be fixed with certainty is the acquisition of the tract by the [[Kingdom of Jeypore]] sometime in the 15th century. Before this, it was probably ruled by the Silavamsi Dynasty. Ruins of 10th century [[Jain]] temples in the district point to a presence of that sect as well. The Jeypore Rajas became tributaries to the [[Qutb Shahi Dynasty]] of [[Hyderabad]] by 1580. This suzerainty later passed to the [[Mughals]], the [[Nizam of Hyderabad]] and finally descended to the [[East India Company]] when the [[Northern Circars]] were ceded to them by Emperor [[Shah Alam II|Shah Alam]] in 1765.

After cession, the district formed a part of the [[Madras Presidency]] but was largely left in the hands of the local Zamindars owing to its remote location. For administrative purposes, the entire area from the foothills of the Eastern Ghats to the boundaries of [[Bastar state|Bastar State]] was added to the [[Visakhapatnam District]]. This included the present day [[Rayagada district|Rayagada]], [[Malkangiri district|Malkangiri]] and [[Nabarangpur district|Nabarangpur]] districts as well. The Collector of the District functioned in an additional capacity as Agent to the [[Governor of Madras]] in this area and exercised significant powers of criminal justice, revenue and civil law. The usual Civil and Criminal procedure codes of [[British India]] were not applied and the tract was known as the Agency. In 1863, two Assistant Agents were appointed at Jeypore and [[Parvathipuram, Andhra Pradesh|Parvatipuram]] to aid the Agent in his duties.

Except for a short-lived experiment of clubbing Agency areas of [[Ganjam]], [[East Godavari District]] and Vishakhapatnam under a Commissioner in 1920, the administrative system remained unchanged till 1 April 1936 when almost all of the Agency areas of Vishakhapatnam District along with the associated zamindaris were clubbed together to form the undivided Koraput District. The district, along with [[Sambalpur District]] and the coastal districts of [[Ganjam]], [[Balasore]], [[Puri]], [[Cuttack]] and [[Angul]] together constituted a new [[Orissa Province]] of British India. It was the first linguistic province of India and Koraput became its largest district in size. A [[District Magistrate]] was appointed who was assisted by two Sub Divisional Magistrates at [[Rayagada]] and the headquarters. The district had a total of 8 Talukas - later replaced by Tahsils and Blocks. [[Nabarangpur]] subdivision was created in 1941, followed by [[Gunupur]] and [[Malkangiri]] subdivisions in 1962 and Jeypore some years later. Finally, the district was divided into four new districts in 1992 - the Jeypore and Koraput subdivisions together constituted the new truncated district of Koraput.

The district was severely affected by [[Naxalism]] after 2000, though instances of violence have come down after 2014. It is currently a part of the [[Red Corridor]] and has extensive deployment of police and paramilitary forces at sensitive places.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://intellibriefs.blogspot.com/2009/12/naxal-menace-83-districts-under.html |title=83 districts under the Security Related Expenditure Scheme |publisher=IntelliBriefs |date=2009-12-11 |access-date=2011-09-17 |archive-date=2011-10-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111027115807/http://intellibriefs.blogspot.com/2009/12/naxal-menace-83-districts-under.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Geography and Climate==
Koraput comes under the Eastern Ghat Highland Agro climatic Zone. It is composed of two separate plateaus at an average elevation of 3000 and 2000 feet respectively which are separated from each other and the surrounding plains by a ring of hills.

The 3000 feet plateau forms the boundary of the district with Andhra Pradesh and part of Rayagada district. A line of hills marks its outer boundary to the east reaching a height of 5486 feet at [[Deomali]], the highest peak of Odisha, near Pottangi and 5316 feet at Sinkaram Gutta near [[Araku]] on the [[Andhra Pradesh]] border. Most of the hills have been denuded of forests due to generations of [[shifting cultivation]] and lack any major wildlife. The rainfall averages approximately 160&nbsp;cm and falls in the [[Monsoon]] months of July–August. The plateau itself is marked by undulating hills and valleys through which numerous streams run down to join the [[Indravati]] to the north and the tributaries of the [[Godavari River|Godavari]] to the south. Most of the land is given over to the cultivation of [[Paddy (unmilled rice)|paddy]], [[Finger millet|ragi]] and [[flax]]. Narayanapatna and Bandhugaon blocks of the district are located before the ring of hills as noted above and geographically form a part of the [[Nagavali River]] valley, being located at a significantly lower altitude. The district headquarter town of Koraput is located on this plateau, as are most of the industrial areas of the district.

The Jeypore subdivision is a part of the 2000 feet plateau and forms approximately the western third of the district. It is divided from the 3000 feet plateau by a range of hills that runs from the Malkangiri border to the Indravati river. Low hills, some of them reaching to about 3000 feet mark this plateau. They are occasionally covered with jungle but most of the land is given over to paddy cultivation. The plateau gradually slopes west towards Bastar and falls through another ring of hills to the lower plains of Malkangiri to the south. The rainfall is slightly higher and averages about 190&nbsp;cm annually.

The district overall has a warm and humid type of climate, though significantly more pleasant than the rest of Odisha. Mean Maximum summer temperature is 34.1 C and Mean Minimum Winter temperature is 10.4 C. The temperature on the 3000 feet plateau is often much lower and can approach close to freezing during peak winter at certain places.

Three large rivers flow through Koraput district. The [[Indravati]] rises in [[Kalahandi District]] and is dammed immediately afterwards, forming a large reservoir - the backwaters of which have cut off certain villages in Dasmantapur Block of Koraput. The river then forms the boundary between Koraput and Nabarangpur district throughout before entering Chhattisgarh near Nagarnar, slightly north of the main Jeypore-[[Jagdalpur]] road.

The [[Kolab River]] (known as the [[Sabari River]] in its later course) rises near the Andhra Pradesh border at Sinkaram. It then flows north west in a winding course before reaching the [[Kolab Dam]] slightly south of Koraput town. The massive reservoir has a catchment area of 1630 sq km and spans the Sadar, Semiliguda and Nandapur blocks of the district. After the dam, the river descends onto the 2000 feet plateau at Bagra near Jeypore through a small cataract before flowing north west and then suddenly south in Kundura block. It then enters the Bastar district before turning east again and forming the border with Koraput. It finally flows into Malkangiri and onwards to the Godavari River.

The Machchkund (better known as the [[Sileru River]]) enters the district near Chatwa on the Araku road. It forms the boundary between Odisha and Andhra Pradesh for many kilometers before the [[Jalaput Dam]]. It then continues along the southern boundary of the district in a series of rapids before falling down 540 feet at [[Duduma Waterfalls]]. The river is tapped here for the Machchkund Power Plant. It then flows through a close gorge through Malkangiri before going on to join the [[Sabari River]].

==Administration==
The district administration is headed by a Collector and District Magistrate, usually called the Collector who combines in his office the roles of revenue collection, law and order maintenance and implementation of development programmes. He is assisted at headquarters by an Additional District Magistrate (ADM) and by two Sub Collectors cum Sub Divisional Magistrates posted at Koraput and Jeypore for the first two roles. Below subdivision level, the district is divided into 14 Blocks which are co-terminus with Tahsils. While the former deals with the development aspect, the latter is a revenue unit. The Block Development Officer (BDO) and [[Tahsildar]] cum Executive Magistrate are the respective heads of each. The Collector and one of the Sub Collectors are usually officers of the [[Indian Administrative Service]] while the other officers belong to the Odisha Administrative Service.

The 14 Blocks/Tahsils in Koraput district under two sub-divisions are listed in the following table.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
|+ 14 Tahasils/Blocks
! # !! [[Koraput|Koraput Sub-Division]] !! [[Jeypore|Jeypore Sub-Division]]
|-
|| 1 || [[Koraput]] || [[Jeypore]]
|-
|| 2 || Bandhugaon || [[Boipariguda]]
|-
|| 3 || Dasamantapur || [[Borigumma]]
|-
|| 4 || Laxmipur || [[Kotpad]]
|-
|| 5 || Machhakund (Lamtaput) || [[Kundura]]
|-
|| 6 || Nandapur ||
|-
|| 7 || Narayanpatna ||
|-
|| 8 || [[Pottangi]] ||
|-
|| 9 || [[Semiliguda|Similiguda]] ||
|}

In addition to the officers noted above, a chief development officer cum executive officer, Zila Parishad, usually belonging to the [[Indian Administrative Service]] is posted at Koraput. He supervises the functioning of the BDOs directly and reports to the Collector who is ex officio Chief Executive Officer of the Zila Parishad. Various line departments like education, health care, agriculture are headed by officers of the rank of Deputy Collectors who are also directly under the operational control of the Collector. All departments also have a parallel setup at the block level with the BDO directly supervising the field level functionaries. Each block is further divided into Gram Panchayats. Koraput has a total of 240 Panchayats which are headed by an elected head called the Sarpanch assisted by an executive officer.

The four urban areas of Koraput, [[Kotpad]], [[Sunabeda]] and [[Jeypore]] are each headed by an executive officer who report to the Collector through the Project Director, District Urban Development Agency.

Maintenance of law and order is supervised by the [[Superintendent of Police]] (SP), an officer of the [[Indian Police Service]]. The SP is technically under the Collector but in practice is almost completely independent except for certain statutory functions. He is assisted by Additional and Deputy SPs at the headquarters and by SDPOs at police subdivision levels. The district has a total of 23 thanas or Police Stations, each headed by an Inspector in-charge. Owing to the Naxalite issue, Koraput has a heavier than usual police presence and companies of [[Border Security Force]], [[Central Reserve Police Force]] and the Special Operations Group of the [[Odisha Police]] are deployed throughout the district.

There are two Divisional Forest Officers posted in the District for each subdivision. They belong to the [[Indian Forest Service]] and are responsible for the preservation of wildlife and management of forests.

The civil and criminal justice system are under the District and Sessions Judge at Jeypore. He is assisted by Additional District Judges, Civil Judges (Senior and Junior) Divisions and Sub Divisional Judicial Magistrates. The Collector, ADM and SDMs are also Executive Magistrates and report to the District and Sessions Judge in that capacity.

The entire district is a designated area under the 5th Schedule of the Indian Constitution. This means that sale of tribal land to non-tribals is prohibited. In addition, there are other legal and cultural protections extended to the tribal population of the district.

==Demographics==
{{historical populations|11=1901|12=2,97,440|13=1911|14=3,57,588|15=1921|16=3,46,438|17=1931|18=4,08,568|19=1941|20=4,84,348|21=1951|22=5,44,286|23=1961|24=5,93,300|25=1971|26=7,15,139|27=1981|28=8,58,506|29=1991|30=10,29,577|31=2001|32=11,80,637|33=2011|34=13,79,647|source=Census of India<ref>[http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/PCA/A2_Data_Table.html Decadal Variation In Population Since 1901]</ref>|align=center}}

According to the [[2011 census of India|2011 census]] Koraput district has a [[Demographics of India|population]] of 1,379,647,<ref name=districtcensus>{{Cite web |title=District Census Handbook 2011 - Koraput|url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/952/download/36676/DH_2011_2129_PART_A_DCHB_KORAPUT.pdf|website=[[Census of India]]|publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}}</ref> roughly equal to the nation of [[Eswatini]]<ref name="cia">{{cite web | author = US Directorate of Intelligence | title = Country Comparison:Population | url = https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2119rank.html | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070613004507/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2119rank.html | url-status = dead | archive-date = June 13, 2007 | access-date = 2011-10-01 | quote =Swaziland 1,370,424}}</ref> or the US state of [[Hawaii]].<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://2010.census.gov/2010census/data/apportionment-pop-text.php
|title=2010 Resident Population Data
|publisher=U. S. Census Bureau
|access-date=2011-09-30
|quote=Hawaii 1,360,301
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019160532/http://2010.census.gov/2010census/data/apportionment-pop-text.php
|archive-date=October 19, 2013
}}</ref> This gives it a ranking of 356th in India (out of a total of [[Districts of India|640]]).<ref name=districtcensus/> The district has a population density of {{convert|156|PD/sqkm|PD/sqmi}}.<ref name=districtcensus/> Its [[Family planning in India|population growth rate]] over the decade 2001-2011 was 16.63%.<ref name=districtcensus/> Koraput has a [[sex ratio]] of 1031 [[Women in India|females]] for every 1000 males, significantly higher than the national average of 940<ref name=districtcensus/> and a [[Literacy in India|literacy rate]] of 49.21%, much lower than the national figure. 16.39% of the population lives in urban areas. Scheduled Castes make up 14.21% of the population while 50.60% of the population hails from Scheduled Tribes.<ref name=districtcensus/> The district has one of the highest tribal populations in Odisha and is a Scheduled District under the [[Constitution of India]]. This prohibits sale and purchase of tribal land by non-tribals. As many as 51 different tribes have been noted in the undivided district - each with its own language and culture.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=http://gopabandhuacademy.gov.in/?q=node/750|title=Gazetteer {{!}} Gopabandhu Academy Of Administration|website=gopabandhuacademy.gov.in|access-date=2016-09-11}}</ref>

The largest tribe in the current district are the Parojas, literally meaning "subject", a generic term applying to many different tribal communities in Koraput. They are a significant population in the south and west, on the higher plateau regions. Almost all speak an Odia dialect as their mother tongue. The community has a population of around 2.2 lakhs.

The second largest community are the Khonds, who mainly live in the eastern mountains and have a population of 2 lakhs. Other major communities include the [[Bhottada]], [[Gadabas|Gadaba]] and Bhumia.

The non tribal population is mostly of the castes and communities common to the rest of Odisha, and the Scheduled Caste population is predominantly from the [[Domba]] community. The only addition here is of a substantial Telugu element. The Telugus form an important commercial class and are also to be found in Government employment.

===Languages===
{{Pie chart
|thumb = right
|caption = Languages of Koraput district (2011)<ref name="census2011-langreport"/>
|label1 = [[Odia language|Odia]] |value1 = 53.88 |color1 = saddlebrown
|label2 = [[Desiya language|Desia]] |value2 = 12.25 |color2 = peru
|label3 = [[Kui language (India)|Kui]] |value3 = 10.21 |color3 = indigo
|label4 = [[Bodo Parja language|Proja]] |value4 = 9.12 |color4 = goldenrod
|label5 = [[Telugu language|Telugu]] |value5 = 3.46 |color5 = steelblue
|label6 = [[Kuvi language|Kuvi]] |value6 = 2.81 |color6 = darkslateblue
|label7 = [[Gutob language|Gadaba]] |value7 =2.10 |color7 = slateblue
|label8 = [[Bhatri language|Bhatri]] |value8 = 1.49 |color8 = sandybrown
|label9 = Bhuiyan |value9 = 1.35 |color9 = chocolate
|label10 = Others |value10 =3.33 |color10 = grey
}}

At the time of the [[2011 Census of India]], 53.88% of the population in the district spoke [[Odia language|Odia]], 12.25% [[Desiya language|Desia]], 10.21% [[Kui language (India)|Kui]], 9.12% [[Bodo Parja language|Proja]], 3.46% [[Telugu language|Telugu]], 2.81% [[Kuvi language|Kuvi]], 2.10% [[Gutob language|Gadaba]], 1.49% [[Bhatri language|Bhatri]] and 1.35% Bhuiyan as their first language.<ref name="census2011-langreport">{{cite web |title=Table C-16 Population by Mother Tongue: Odisha|url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/10217/download/13329/DDW-C16-STMT-MDDS-2100.XLSX|website=Census of India 2011 |publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}}</ref>

As regards the tribal dialects of Koraput district in Orissa, it may be noted that no proper survey has ever been made. But attempts have been made by different individuals to make a study of the various tribal languages of the district. Kui, as noted above, is the mostly widely spoken of the tribal dialects. The percentage of people speaking tribal language in Koraput district has reduced from 37 percent in 1931 census to less than 20 percent today. A large number of tribals of the district have adopted non-tribal languages as Odia is the medium of instruction in Government schools.

Standard Odia as used in the district is the same as that in the rest of the state. However, the spoken Odia, a dialect called [[Desiya language|Desia]], used has significant differences from that of Coastal Odisha. An important marker is the lack of stress on the last consonant of a word. This is spoken rapidly and the [[schwa]] is often dropped. Many words used are now obsolete in Standard Odia or are considered rude. The use of the respectful pronoun ''apana'' is rare and even elders are referred to using the more familiar pronoun ''tume'' used for those similar or younger in age.

Many tribals inhabiting the hills separating the two states speak a mixture of Odia and Telugu. Narayanapatna, located on the other side of the hills, also has a large Telugu speaking population. This language is virtually the same as that spoken in [[Srikakulam district|Srikakulum]].

Another languages include [[Bhatri language|Bhatri]] and [[Halbi language|Halbi]], which falls within the [[Odia language]] group but only shares about 60% [[lexical similarity]] with Oriya. It is spoken along the border with Bastar and is a language that is midway between Odia and [[Marathi language]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | editor = M. Paul Lewis | encyclopedia = Ethnologue: Languages of the World | title = Bhatri: A language of India| url = http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=bgw | access-date = 2011-09-28 | edition = 16th | year = 2009 | publisher = SIL International | location = Dallas, Texas}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia | editor = M. Paul Lewis | encyclopedia = Ethnologue: Languages of the World | title = Bhunjia: A language of India | url = http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=bhu | access-date = 2011-09-30 | edition = 16th | year = 2009 | publisher = SIL International | location = Dallas, Texas}}</ref>

===Religion===
{{bar box
|title=Religions in Koraput district (2011)<ref name="census2011-religion">{{cite web|title=Table C-01 Population by Religious Community: Odisha|url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/11387/download/14500/DDW21C-01%20MDDS.XLS|website=Census of India, 2011|publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}}</ref>
|titlebar=#Fcd116
|left1=Religion
|right1=Percent
|float=left
|bars=
{{bar percent|[[Hinduism in Odisha|Hinduism]]|darkorange|93.80}}
{{bar percent|[[Christianity in Odisha|Christianity]]|dodgerblue|4.97}}
{{bar percent|[[Odia Muslims|Islam]]|green|0.64}}
{{bar percent|Other or not stated|black|0.59}}
}}

Hinduism is the dominant religion of the district with more than 93.8% of the population being returned as Hindus in the Census of 2011. However, in practice, there exist significant differences in the identification with mainstream Hinduism. Almost all tribes have a distinction between a Hindu-ised segment that follows the rites and rituals of Hinduism and another one that still worships the indigenous deities and follows rules of worship that are different from the general practice of the faith. Intermarriage and dining together are often the differentiating markers between these groups. Some of these deities include ''Jakari'' and ''Thakurani'', who are worshipped by animal sacrifice like other folk religions. Most villages will have a stone or tree where the deity of the village is believed to reside.<ref name=":2" />

[[Christianity]] is practiced by approximately 5% of the population, however some figures estimate it to be much more than that. The [[Jeypore Evangelical Lutheran Church]] which was founded by German Missionaries of [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in Northern Germany|The Schleswig Holstein Evangelical Lutheran Mission Society of Germany (SHELM)]] has been active in Koraput since 1882. Adherents mostly belong to the Scheduled Castes. Both Koraput and Jeypore have large churches while smaller ones can be found throughout the district ranging from various [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] and [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]] Congregations, The Jeypore Evangelical Lutheran Church alone has more than 2,50,000 members.

Muslims form a minuscule proportion of the population owing to the district's isolation from the plains. Most Muslims are recent migrants from the rest of Odisha who are employed at Koraput, Jeypore or at the NALCO unit at [[Damanjodi]]. However, the village of Thuba in Nandapur block has a community that is native to the district and is probably descended from demobilised [[Qutb Shahi dynasty|Qutb Shahi]] soldiers who had invaded Koraput around the 16th century. Scattered Islamic shrines can also be found at Narayanapatna which had a small Muslim community till about a century ago.

Minuscule communities of Sikhs, Buddhists and Jains are also found in the towns. Most of them are migrants from North India who are involved in trade and commerce. The Buddhists are Tibetan refugees who deal in woolen clothes.

==Economy==
In 2006 the [[Ministry of Panchayati Raj]] named Koraput one of the country's 250 [[Poverty in India|most backward districts]] (out of a total of [[Districts of India|640]]).<ref name=brgf/> It is one of the 19 districts in [[Odisha]] currently receiving funds from the Backward Regions Grant Fund Programme (BRGF).<ref name=brgf>{{cite web|author=Ministry of Panchayati Raj |date=September 8, 2009 |title=A Note on the Backward Regions Grant Fund Programme |publisher=National Institute of Rural Development |url=http://www.nird.org.in/brgf/doc/brgf_BackgroundNote.pdf |access-date=September 27, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120405033402/http://www.nird.org.in/brgf/doc/brgf_BackgroundNote.pdf |archive-date=April 5, 2012 }}</ref>

=== Agriculture ===
The district economy mainly depends on agriculture and which mainly depends on rainfall. The rainfall depends on South-West monsoon. Out of total cropping area of 296000ha in Koraput, irrigation potential in Kharif is 30.71% and in Rabi is 21.51%. Generally crops grown during Rabi like Paddy, Wheat, Maize, Ragi, Mung, Biri, Groundnut, Mustard, Field Pea, Sunflower etc. needs assured irrigation.<ref name=":0" />

Jeypore tract of the Koraput district is known as one of the centres of origin of rice. The people of Koraput district, notably the adivasis have generated and conserved many indigenous cultivars of rice that are suitable for both dryland and wetland cultivation. The Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) in 2012 recognised the service of the communities of Koraput in ensuring food security by declaring the Koraput district as a [http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/giahs/PDF/Koraput_Traditional_Agricultural_System_to_be_designated_as_GIAHS_site.pdf Global Agricultural Heritage Site]

=== Major Industries ===
There are only five Large Scale industries located in the district manufacturing & Processing Alumina, Paper, Cement, Aeronautical Engine & hydro electricity. The general pattern of non-agricultural employment, however, leans heavily towards small-scale and household industries
* [[Hindustan Aeronautics|Hindustan Aeronautics Limited]](HAL) - [[Sunabeda]]
* [[National Aluminium Company|NALCO]]-[[Damanjodi]]
* [[BILT|BILT PAPERMILL-Jeypore]] (defunct) (company filed for bankruptcy in 2020)
* [[Kolab|Kolab Hydroelectric Power Station]]
* Macha kunda Hydroelectric power station Under Lamptaput Block
* Kodingamali bauxite mines

=== Minerals ===
The principal economic mineral deposits of Koraput district are Limestone & Bauxite, besides this, occurrence of China clay, Nepheline Synite, Gold, Black & Multi colored rocks named as Decorative Stone are also found in this district.<ref name=":0" /> The principal mines in the district are
* Panchpatmali Bauxite Mines of M/s. National Aluminum & Co. Ltd.
* Maliparbat Bauxite Mines of M/s. Hindalco Industries Ltd.,
* Ampavally Limestone Mines of M/s. Odisha Mining Corporation Ltd. and M/s. Industrial Development Corporation of Odisha Ltd.

==Places of interest==
[[File:Subai Jain temple, Koraput district, Odisha.jpg|thumb|Subei Jain temple]]

=== Subai Jain temples ===
[[Subai Jain temples]] complex consists of 5 temples built in 4th century. One temple is famous for its rare images of the [[tirthankara]]s surrounding an image of [[Rishabhanatha]].<ref>{{cite web| url=https://koraput.nic.in/tourist-place/subai | title=Subai | publisher=Government of India }}</ref> An idol of a four-armed Tara (a Jain yakshi) in the temple complex is also noteworthy. A ''Parab festival'' is organised by the temple management every year.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/odisha/2019/dec/14/ancient-jain-monastery-left-to-crumble-in-odisha-2075947.html | publisher=[[The New Indian Express]] | title=Ancient Jain monastery left to crumble in Odisha | date=14 December 2019 | access-date=11 December 2020}}</ref> A {{convert|4|ft|m}} [[Jain]] idol was discovered in 2020 during excavation.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/odisha/2020/dec/18/jain-idol-unearthed-at-banagiri-hills-2237862.html | title=Jain idol unearthed at Banagiri hills | date=18 December 2020 | access-date=19 December 2020 | publisher=[[The New Indian Express]] }}</ref>

==Naxals==
Naxalism is a serious matter of concern in south [[Odisha]], including Koraput district, since around 2000. Earlier, the [[Naxalite]] activities were confined to districts such as [[Malkangiri]], which share its borders with the neighboring states. With time, the Naxal activities has spread to Koraput as well as other tribal-dominated districts like [[Rayagada]] and [[Nabarangpur]]. The inaccessible hilly terrain, dense forests, lack of development, grievances of the tribals and poor, and the absence of administration have been conducive to the spread of left-wing extremism in Odisha. The seriousness of the problem was underlined by a co-ordinated Naxalite attack on the District Headquarters and armoury at Koraput on February 6, 2004.<ref>{{cite web | title = Maoists in Orissa Growing Tentacles and a Dormant State | url = http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/publication/faultlines/volume17/nihar.htm}}</ref> Another prominent leader, Nachika Linga, president of Chasia Mula Adivasi Sangh with Maoist links, organized tribals of Narayanpatna block against moneylenders and landlords who had taken their lands and in 2009 marched on the Narayanpatna police station.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-11-08|title=Robin Hood like Odisha tribal leader walks out of jail after 6 years|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/robinhood-like-odisha-tribal-leader-walks-out-of-jail-after-6-years/story-GDxxAOH7q3b4I8LqdsFtaK.html|access-date=2021-01-29|website=Hindustan Times|language=en}}</ref>

Naxal group, namely People's War Group (PWG), has carried out numerous operations (attacks on rich farmers, police, bureaucrats and politicians, loots from godowns) within last few years in Koraput as well as in its neighboring districts. CoBRA BN of [[Central Reserve Police Force|CRPF]] was deployed here for this purpose and it has helped to reduce Naxal activities to a large extent.<ref>{{cite web | title = Naxalite Consolidation In Orissa | url = http://www.outlookindia.com/article.aspx?220969}}</ref>

==Transport==
Owing to its hilly terrain, transport in Koraput is dependent upon certain trunk roads that climb up the passes on the Eastern Ghats. National Highway 26 takes off from National Highway 16 near [[Vizianagaram]]. It enters the district before Sunki and rises to around 3500 feet at Ralegada through a number of sharp curves. It then descends onto the 3000 feet plateau and passes Pottangi and Kunduli before meeting the alternative road to [[Vishakhapatnam]] through Araku at Similiguda. The road then passes Koraput and descends through a steep ghat to Jeypore before going straight north through [[Borigumma]] to Nabarangpur. NH 63 takes off from this road at Borigumma and proceeds straight west through [[Kotpad]] to Jagdalpur in Bastar. Major District Roads connect the road to other parts of the district.

Secondary major roads include NH 326 that enters from Rayagada before passing through Lakshmipur and Kakirigumma to join NH 26. It then diverges again at Jeypore to pass through Boipariguda before entering Malkangiri district near Mathili.

[[Koraput railway station]] is a junction station on Kirandul-Visakhapatnam railway line that branches towards [[Rayagada railway station]] on the other side. Other main railheads include Jeypore, Kotpad Road Station, Damanjodi, and Lakshmipur Road.

[[Jeypore Airport]] has direct, daily flight connections to [[Bhubaneswar]] and [[Vishakhapatnam]].

==Politics==

===Vidhan sabha constituencies===
{{main|List of constituencies of Odisha Vidhan Sabha}}
The following are the 5 [[Odisha Legislative Assembly|Vidhan sabha]] constituencies<ref>[http://eci.nic.in/delim/Final_Publications/Orissa/orissa.pdf Assembly Constituencies and their EXtent]</ref> of Koraput district and the elected members of that area and are Assembly segments which constitute the [[Koraput Lok Sabha constituency|Koraput Parliament Constituency]]. The current representative to Lok Sabha is [[Saptagiri Sankar Ulaka]].

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!No.
!Constituency
!Reserved
!Extent of the Assembly Constituency (Blocks)
!MLA
![[Political party|Party]]
|-
!141
|[[Laxmipur (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Lakshmipur]]
|ST
|Lakshmipur, Dasamanthapur, Bandhugaon, Narayanpatana
|Pabitra Saunta
|bgcolor="#00BFFF" | [[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-

!142
|[[Kotpad (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Kotpad]]
|ST
|Kotpad (NAC), Kotpad, Kundra, Borigumma (part), [[Boipariguda]] (part)
|[[Rupu Bhatra]]
|bgcolor="orange" | [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
|-
!143
|[[Jeypore (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Jeypore]]
|None
|Jeypore (M), Jeypore, Borigumma (part)
| Tara Prasad Bahinipati
| style="background:#00BFFF"| [[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
!144
|[[Koraput (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Koraput]]
| SC
|Koraput (NAC), Sunabeda (NAC), Lamtaput, Koraput (part), Boipariguda (part)
| Raghu Ram Machha
|bgcolor="orange" | [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
|-
!145
|[[Pottangi (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Pottangi]]
|ST
| Pottangi, Semiliguda, Nandapur, Koraput (part)
|Ram Chandra Kadam
|bgcolor="#00BFFF" | [[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|}

===Local Bodies===
In accordance with the three tier system of [[Panchayati Raj]], the district comprises one Zila Parishad of 29 constituencies (or Zones) further subdivided is divided into 240 [[Gram Panchayats]] in 14 [[Panchayat Samiti]]s. The President, Zila Parishad heads the body while the Collector and CDO function as its CEO and EO respectively. Each Panchayat Samiti is headed by a Chairman with the BDO as the CEO while the Panchayat is headed by a Sarpanch with an executive officer. Like the Zila Parishad, the other two bodies also have constituencies like PS Zones or Wards respectively. Each of these bodies has access to annual grants from the [[Finance Commission]] and are responsible for approving their own budgets in general body meetings.

==Geographical indication==
[[Koraput Kalajeera rice]] was awarded the [[List of geographical indications in India|Geographical Indication]] (GI) status tag from the [[Geographical Indication Registry (India)|Geographical Indications Registry]] under the [[Government of India|Union Government of India]] on 02/01/2024 (valid until 10/01/2032).

Jaivik Sri Farmers Producer Company Limited from Pujariput, proposed the GI registration of Koraput Kalajeera rice. After filing the application in January 2022, the rice was granted the GI tag in 2024 by the Geographical Indication Registry in [[Chennai]], making the name "Koraput Kalajeera rice" exclusive to the rice grown in the region.<ref>{{cite web |title=Koraput Kalajeera Rice |url=https://search.ipindia.gov.in/GIRPublic/Application/Details/814 |website=Intellectual Property India |access-date=25 November 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Row over GI tag for Kala Jeera rice in Odisha’s Koraput district |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/row-over-gi-tag-for-kala-jeera-rice-in-odishas-koraput-district-8929125/ |access-date=25 November 2024 |work=The Indian Express |date=7 September 2023 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Row over GI tag for Kala Jeera rice in Odisha’s Koraput district |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/others/mssrf-objects-to-gi-tag-for-koraput-s-kala-jeera-rice-says-it-could-exclude-local-farmers-from-benefits-101694093723442.html |access-date=25 November 2024 |agency=Hindustan Times}}</ref> It thus became the first rice variety from Odisha and the 25th type of goods from Odisha to earn the GI tag.

The GI tag protects the rice from illegal selling and marketing, and gives it legal protection and a unique identity.

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Bibliography==
Berger, Peter (2002). The Gadaba and the 'non-ST' Desia of Koraput, Orissa. [https://web.archive.org/web/20130525180943/http://theol.eldoc.ub.rug.nl/FILES/root/2002/TheGadaba/Berger-theGadaba2002.pdf Article]

Burrow, T. and S. Bhattacharya (1961). Some notes on the Kui dialect as spoken by the Kuttia Kandhas of North-east Koraput. Indo-Iranian Journal. [https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00180954 5 (2): 118-135]

Franco, Merlin F. and D. Narasimhan (2012). Ethnobotany of Kondh, Poraja, Gadaba and Bonda of the Koraput region of Orissa, India. D.K. Printworld. {{ISBN|978-81-246-0619-3}}

Franco, Merlin F and D. Narasimhan (2009). Plant names and uses as indicators of knowledge patterns. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge. 8: 645-648 [http://nopr.niscair.res.in/bitstream/123456789/6289/1/IJTK%208(4)%20645-648.pdf Article]

Franco, Merlin F., D. Narasimhan and W. Stanley (2009). Relationship between Four Tribal Communities and their Natural Resources in the Koraput Region. Ethnobotany Research & Applications 6: 481-485

Franco, Merlin F and D. Narasimhan (2008). Ecological elements in the songs of the Poraja and the ancient Tamils. Indian Journal of Eco-criticism 1, 49-54

Thusu, Kidar Nath and Jha, Makhan (1972). Ollar Gadba of Koraput. Anthropological Survey of India, Kolkata

Thusu, Kidar Nath (1977). Pengo Parajas of Koraput. Anthropological Survey of India, Kolkata

==External links==
{{wikisource|Vizagapatam/Gazetteer/Koraput Taluk}}
{{Commons category}}
{{Wikivoyage|Koraput}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070404113140/http://www.orissa.net/links/DistrictInfo/Images/koraput.gif Road Map of Koraput District]
* {{Official website|http://koraput.nic.in/}}

{{Geographic location
|Centre = Koraput district
|North = [[Kalahandi district]]
|Northeast = [[Rayagada district]]
|East = [[Vizianagaram district]], [[Andhra Pradesh]]
|Southeast = [[Vizianagaram district]], [[Andhra Pradesh]]
|South = [[Visakhapatnam district]], [[Andhra Pradesh]]
|Southwest = [[Malkangiri district]]
|West = [[Bastar district]], [[Chhattisgarh]]
|Northwest = [[Nabarangapur district]] [[Dantewada district]], [[Chhattisgarh]]
}}
{{Koraput district}}
{{Odisha}}
{{Godavari basin}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Koraput district| ]]
[[Category:Districts of Odisha]]

Tathagatha Buddha

2025-12-20T16:58:48Z

AhmedSturgis: new redirect

#REDIRECT [[The Buddha]]

Tata Power Dholera Solar PV Station

2025-12-15T11:17:53Z

AhmedSturgis: Added A Info W/ Infobox

{{Short description|Photovoltaic power station in Gujarat, India}}
{{Infobox power station
| name = Tata Power Dholera Solar PV Station
| name_official =
| image =
| image_caption =
| image_alt =
| coordinates = {{coord|22.148434|N|72.236085|E|type:landmark|display=inline,title}}
| country = [[India]]
| location = [[Dholera]], [[Gujarat]]
| status =
| construction_began = March 2020
| commissioned = April 2022
| decommissioned =
| cost =
| owner =
| operator = Tata Power Renewable Energy Limited
| solar_type = pv
| ps_units_operational =
| ps_site_area = 1320 acres
| ps_electrical_capacity = 400 [[Megawatt|MW]]
| ps_electrical_cap_fac =
| ps_annual_generation =
| website =
| extra =
}}

'''Tata Power Dholera Solar PV Station''' is a [[photovoltaic power station]] located within the [[Dholera Solar Park]]. It is owned and operated by Tata Power Renewable Energy Limited, a wholly owned subsidiary of [[Tata Power]].<ref>{{Cite news |last= |first= |date=2020-10-14 |title=Tata Power to develop 100 MW solar project at Dholera, Gujarat |url=https://www.thehindu.com/business/Industry/tata-power-to-develop-100-mw-solar-project-at-dholera-gujarat/article32850910.ece |access-date=2024-09-12 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

== History ==
The 300 MW Phase 1 of the plant went online in April 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-05 |title=Tata power venture: 300-MW solar project commissioned in Dholera |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/ahmedabad/tata-power-venture-300-mw-solar-project-commissioned-in-dholera-7853184/ |access-date=2024-09-12 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> At that time, it was the largest single-axis solar tracker system.<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.ETEnergyworld.com |title=Tata Power commissions 300 MW solar plant in Dholera, Gujarat - ET EnergyWorld |url=https://energy.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/renewable/tata-power-commissions-300-mw-solar-plant-in-dholera-gujarat/90636684 |access-date=2024-09-12 |website=ETEnergyworld.com |language=en}}</ref>

During construction, unpredictable weather, including heavy rains, flooded the 33 KV cable trench. Despite this, the EPC team used floaters to install high-tension cables and elevated pre-cast ballasts to position power cables 500 mm above ground, bypassing the conventional underground approach.<ref>{{Cite news |date=4 April 2022 |title=Tata Power Renewables commissions 300MW solar plant in Gujarat |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/companies/tata-power-renewables-commissions-300mw-solar-plant-in-gujarat-122040400472_1.html |access-date=12 September 2024 |work=Business Standard}}</ref>

Currently, the plant is providing electricity to [[Gujarat Urja Vikas Nigam]] under a 25-year power purchase agreement.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Prasad |first=Rachita |date=2020-10-14 |title=Tata Power bags another 100 mw-project at Dholera Solar Park from GUVNL |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/energy/power/tata-power-gets-letter-of-award-from-guvnl-for-100mw-solar-project-at-dholera/articleshow/78654717.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2024-09-12 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2020-10-14 |title=Tata Power to set up 100-MW solar power plant in Gujarat |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/companies/tata-power-to-set-up-100-mw-solar-power-plant-in-gujarat/article32856251.ece |access-date=2024-09-12 |website=BusinessLine |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}
{{authority control}}

{{India-powerstation-stub}}
{{Renewable-power-plant-stub}}

[[Category:Renewable energy power stations in India]]
[[Category:Photovoltaic power stations in India]]
[[Category:2020 establishments in India]]

Varada

2025-11-23T18:19:36Z

AhmedSturgis: slightly enhanced section and corrected details

{{about||the Indian actress|Varada (actress)}}
{{More citations needed|date=September 2007}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2022}}
{{Infobox river
| name = Varada River
| native_name = 
| name_other =
| name_etymology =
| nickname =

| image = Banavasi varadariver side.jpg
| image_size =
| image_caption = Varada river at [[Banavasi]]
| image_alt =

| map =
| map_size =
| map_caption =
| map_alt =
| pushpin_map =
| pushpin_map_size =
| pushpin_map_caption=
| pushpin_map_alt =

| subdivision_type1 = Country
| subdivision_name1 = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type2 = State
| subdivision_name2 = {{flag|Karnataka}}
| subdivision_type3 = Region
| subdivision_name3 = [[Malenadu]]
| subdivision_type4 = Districts
| subdivision_name4 = [[Uttara Kannada]] [[Shivamogga District|Shivamogga]] [[Haveri]]
| subdivision_type5 = Cities
| subdivision_name5 = [[Banavasi]] [[Sagara, Shimoga District|Sagara]]

| length =
| width_min =
| width_avg =
| width_max =
| depth_min =
| depth_avg =
| depth_max =
| discharge1_location=
| discharge1_min =
| discharge1_avg =
| discharge1_max =

| source1 = VaradaMoola
| source1_location =
| source1_coordinates= 
| source1_elevation =
| mouth = [[Tungabhadra River]]
| mouth_location = [[Galaganatha]]
| mouth_coordinates = 
| mouth_elevation =
| progression =
| river_system =
| basin_size =
| basin_landmarks =
| basin_population =
| tributaries_left =
| tributaries_right =
| waterbodies =
| waterfalls =
| bridges =
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| custom_label =
| custom_data =
| extra =
}}

The '''Varada River'''<ref>{{GEOnet2|32FA88229D3D3774E0440003BA962ED3|Varada (Approved)}}, [[National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency|United States National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency]]</ref> ('''Verada River'''<ref>{{GEOnet2|32FA88229D3E3774E0440003BA962ED3|Verada (Variant)}}, United States National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency</ref>) is a [[river]] in central [[Karnataka]], [[India]]. It originates in Varadamoola . It is a tributary of the [[Tungabhadra River]].

== Geography ==
The Varada river originates near [[Vardamoola]] in [[Sagar, Karnataka|Sagara]] of Karnataka. It flows through the [[Western Ghats]] and enters the central districts of Karnataka, ([[Haveri]] and [[Bellary]]). The river joins the Tungabhadra River at [[Galaganath]].<ref>Topographic map [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/ams/india/nd-43-07.jpg "Davangere, India, ND-43-07, 1:250,000"] Series U502, Army Map Service, November 1958</ref> 

It is important to the wellbeing of the [[Kannada]] people along its course. [[Dam]]s have been constructed along the river's course, providing [[water]] for [[irrigation]] and domestic purposes during [[summer]]. There are, however, no major irrigation projects on this river, although the government is considering one.

== Cultural significance ==
The river has [[divinity|divine]] association for Indians.

[[Shringarishi]] was once in deep penance, praying for forgiveness, from Lord vishnu, for committing the Bramhahatyadosha. Sriman Narayana appeared before him and poured gangajal on the rishi's head. This gangajal formed the Varada river.

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
{{Clear}}

{{Hydrology of Karnataka|state=expanded}}
{{coord|14|55|47|N|75|40|56|E|display=title}}

[[Category:Rivers of Karnataka]]
[[Category:Geography of Haveri district]]
[[Category:Geography of Uttara Kannada district]]
[[Category:Geography of Shimoga district]]

Angadi (Kerala)

2025-11-19T05:56:24Z

AhmedSturgis: made pg

{{Infobox settlement
| name = Angadi
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = village
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Kerala#India
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Kerala, India
| coordinates = {{coord|9|22|0|N|76|45|0|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flagu|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Kerala]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Pathanamthitta]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type = [[Panchayati raj (India)]]
| governing_body = [[Gram panchayat]]
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 15873
| population_as_of = 2001
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]], [[English language|English]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code =
| registration_plate = [[List of RTO districts in India#KL.E2.80.94Kerala|KL]]-62
| website =
| footnotes =
}}

'''Angadi''' is a village in Ranni Taluk, [[Pathanamthitta district]] in the state of [[Kerala]], India.<ref name="censusindia">{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Village_Directory/Population_data/Population_5000_and_Above.aspx |title=Census of India : Villages with population 5000 & above |author=Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India |access-date=2008-12-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081208044522/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Village_Directory/Population_data/Population_5000_and_Above.aspx |archive-date=8 December 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Demographics==
At the [[2001 Census of India|2001 census]], Angadi had a population of 15,873, with 7,696 males and 8,177 females.<ref name="censusindia" />

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Pathanamthitta district}}

[[Category:Villages in Pathanamthitta district]]

{{Pathanamthitta-geo-stub}}

Har Dayal

2025-11-15T13:41:47Z

AhmedSturgis:

{{Short description|Indian revolutionary (1884–1939)}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2018}}
{{Infobox writer
|name = Lala Har Dayal
|image = Lala Har Dayal 1987 stamp of India.jpg
|image_size =
|alt =
|caption = Har Dayal on a 1987 stamp of India
|birth_date = {{birth date|df=yes|1884|10|14}}
|birth_place = [[Delhi]], [[British Raj|British India]]
|birth_name = Har Dayal Mathur
|death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|1939|03|04|1884|10|14}}
|death_place = [[Philadelphia]], [[Pennsylvania]], [[United States|USA]]
|notableworks = ''Our Educational Problem'' ''Thoughts on Education'' ''Hints for Self Culture'' ''Glimpses of World Religions'' ''The Bodhisattva Doctrines in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature''
|footnotes =
}}

'''Lala Har Dayal Mathur''' ([[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]: ਲਾਲਾ ਹਰਦਿਆਲ; 14 October 1884 – 4 March 1939) was an [[Indian nationalism|Indian nationalist]] [[Revolutionary movement for Indian independence|revolutionary]] and freedom fighter.<ref name=emily-brown>{{cite book|last=Brown|first=Emily C.|title=Har Dayal: Hindu Revolutionary and Rationalist|year=1975|publisher=University of Arizona Press|location=Tucson|isbn=0-8165-0422-9}}</ref> He was a [[polymath]] who turned down a career in the [[Indian Civil Service]]. His [[simple living]] and intellectual acumen inspired many expatriate Indians living in [[Indo-Canadians|Canada]] and the [[Indian Americans|U.S.]] in their campaign against [[British Raj|British rule in India]] during the [[World War I|First World War]].

==Biography==
Har Dayal Mathur was born in a [[Hindu]] [[Mathur (name)|Mathur Kayastha]] family on 14 October 1884 in Delhi.<ref>{{cite book|last=Sareen|first=Tilakraj|title=Select Documents on the Ghadr Party |year=1994|publisher=Mounto Publishing House|page=20|quote= Hardayal was a Delhi man, a high caste Hindu of the Mathur, Kayastha Community}}</ref> He studied at the Cambridge Mission School and received his [[bachelor's degree]] in [[Sanskrit]] from [[St. Stephen's College, Delhi]] and his [[master's degree]] also in Sanskrit from [[University of the Punjab|Punjab University]]. In 1905, he received two scholarships of [[Oxford University]] for his higher studies in Sanskrit: [[Boden Scholarship]], 1907 and Casberd Exhibitioner, an award from [[St John's College, Oxford|St John's College]], where he was studying.<ref>{{cite web|title=Making of Britain|url=http://www.open.ac.uk/researchprojects/makingbritain/content/lala-har-dayal|publisher=Open University|access-date=24 October 2013}}</ref>

{{Anarchism sidebar}}
He moved to the United States in 1911, where he became involved in [[industrial unionism]]. He had also served as secretary of the [[San Francisco]] branch of the [[Industrial Workers of the World]] alongside [[Fritz Wolffheim]], (later a [[National Bolshevik]] after he had left IWW and joined the [[Communist Workers' Party of Germany]]). In a statement outlining the principles of the ''Fraternity of the Red Flag'', he said they proposed "the establishment of Communism, and the abolition of private property in land and capital through an industrial organization and the [[general strike]], ultimate abolition of the coercive organization of government". A little over a year later, this group was given {{convert|6|acre|m2}} of land and a house in [[Oakland, California|Oakland]], where he founded the ''[[Mikhail Bakunin|Bakunin]] Institute of California'', which he described as "the first [[monastery]] of anarchism".<ref>{{cite book | last = Avrich | first = Paul | author-link=Paul Avrich| title = Anarchist Portraits | url = https://archive.org/details/anarchistportrai00avri | url-access = registration | publisher = Princeton University Press | location = Princeton | year = 1988 | isbn = 0-691-00609-1 |page=[https://archive.org/details/anarchistportrai00avri/page/30 30]}}</ref>

In California, he soon developed contacts with Punjabi Sikh farmers in [[Stockton, California|Stockton]]. Punjabis, a great majority of whom were Sikhs, had started emigrating to the West Coast around the turn of the century. Having experienced hostility by the Canadians in Vancouver, they had already become disaffected with the British. Hardayal tapped into this sentiment of these energetic Sikhs and other Punjabis. Having developed an Indian [[nationalist]] perspective, he encouraged young Indians to gain scientific and [[sociological]] education.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Farquhar|first=J.N.|url=https://archive.org/stream/thecrownofhindui00farquoft/|title=The Crown Of Hinduism|year=1913|pages=36–37|publisher=Creative Media Partners, LLC |quote=Metaphysics has been the curse of India. It has blighted her history and compassed her ruin. ... It has blinded her seers and led them to mistake phantoms for realities. ... ''Young men of India, look not for wisdom in the musty parchments of your metaphysical treatises. There is nothing but an endless round of verbal jugglery there. Read Rousseau and Voltaire, Plato and Aristotle, Haeckel and Spencer, Marx and Tolstoi, Ruskin and Comte, and other European thinkers, if you wish to understand life and its problems.'' India has hundreds of really sincere and aspiring young men and women, who are free from all taint of greed and worldliness, but they are altogether useless for any purpose that one may appreciate. They have established monasteries in remote, nooks in the mountains in order to realize the Brahman.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2012-02-16|title=The Inanity of Brahman and the Vedantic Worldview|url=http://nirmukta.com/2012/02/16/deconstructing-the-inanity-of-brahman-and-the-vedantic-worldview/|access-date=2020-07-26|website=Nirmukta|language=en-GB|quote=We keep moving in the old rut; we edit and re-edit the old books instead of translating the classics of European social thought. Indian pundits and graduates seem to suffer from a kind of mania for what is effete and antiquated. Thus an institution, established by progressive men, aims at leading our youths through Sanskrit grammar to the Vedas via the Six Darshanas! What a false move in the quest for wisdom!}}</ref>

On March 16, 1914, he was arrested by the United States immigration authorities for deportation as an undesirable alien.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Naidis |first=Mark |date=1951 |title=Propaganda of the Gadar Party |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3635701 |journal=Pacific Historical Review |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=251–260 |doi=10.2307/3635701 |issn=0030-8684}}</ref> He skipped bail and fled to Switzerland.<ref name=":0" /> He ended up in [[Berlin]], Germany. In Berlin he became instrumental to the formation of the [[Berlin Committee]] (later: Indian Independence Committee) and cooperated with the German [[Intelligence Bureau for the East]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Liebau|first=Heike|date=2019|title="Unternehmungen und Aufwiegelungen": Das Berliner Indische Unabhängigkeitskomitee in den Akten des Politischen Archivs des Auswärtigen Amts (1914–1920)|url=https://www.projekt-mida.de/reflexicon/unternehmungen-und-aufwiegelungen-das-berliner-indische-unabhaengigkeitskomitee-in-den-akten-des-politischen-archivs-des-auswaertigen-amts-1914-1920/|journal=MIDA Archival Reflexicon|pages=3–4}}</ref>

He died in Philadelphia on 4 March 1939. In the evening of his death, he delivered a lecture as usual where he had said: "I am in peace with all". But a very close friend of Lala Hardayal and the founder member of ''Bharat Mata Society'' (established in 1907), Lala Hanumant Sahai, did not accept the death as natural, he suspected it as poisoning.<ref>{{Cite book|title=''Swadhinta Sangram Ke Krantikari Sahitya Ka Itihas'' (Vol-2)|last=Dr.'Krant'|first=M.L.Verma|year=2006|publisher=Praveen Prakashan|location=New Delhi|page=452|isbn=81-7783-120-8}}</ref>

In 1987, the India Department of Posts issued a commemorative stamp in his honor, within the series of "India's Struggle for Freedom".<ref>{{cite book|author=Jain, Manik|year=2018| title= Phila India Guide Book| publisher= Philatelia| pages=114}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=LALA HARDAYAL |url=http://www.indianpost.com/viewstamp.php/Serial%20Number/1231/LALA%20HARDAYAL |access-date=2022-03-02 |website=www.indianpost.com}}</ref>

== Selected works ==
Some of his books with available references are listed below:<ref>{{Cite book|title=''Swadhinta Sangram Ke Krantikari Sahitya Ka Itihas'' (Vol-2)|last=Dr.'Krant'|first=M.L.Verma|year=2006|publisher=Praveen Prakashan|location=New Delhi (India)|pages=453–458|isbn=81-7783-120-8}}</ref>

# ''Our Educational Problem'': Collection of Lalaji's articles. It was published in ''Punjabi'', from Lahore, as a 1922 book with introduction by [[Lala Lajpat Rai]]
# ''Thoughts on Education'': Lalaji wrote many articles in ''Punjabi'' (published from Lahore) and ''Modern Review'' (published from Calcutta); most of them were against the Education Policy of British Government in India. Mr Hem Chand Kaushik gave to the author this book which he published in July 1969.
# ''Social Conquest of Hindu Race'': A booklet containing 21 pages, proscribed by British Raj and kept in National Archives of India under Acc.No.74. (Ref:Patriotic s Banned by the Raj)
# ''Writings of Lala Har Dayal'': This book was published in 1920 by Swaraj Publishing House, Varanasi, as mentioned in the book by Vishwa Nath Prasad Verma ''Adhunik Bhartiya Rajneetik Chintan'' on page 389.
# {{Cite book |last=Dayal |first=Har |url=http://archive.org/details/fortyfourmonthsi00dayauoft |title=Forty-four months in Germany and Turkey, February 1915 to October 1918, a record of personal impressions |date=1920 |publisher=London, King}}: This book was published in 1920 by P.S. King and Sons in London when Lalaji was living in Sweden. Ganesh Shankar Vidyarthy quoted many references from this book in his ''Kranti Ka Udghosh''.
# ''Lala Har Dayal Ji Ke Swadhin Vichar'': This book was translated into Hindi by Sri Narayan Prasad Arora and was published in Raghunandan Press, Kanpur by Pt. Ganga Narayan Shukla in 1922. It can be seen in Seth [[Soorajmull Jalan]] Library, Calcutta.
# ''Amrit me Vish'': This was the Hindi Translation of above book 'Thoughts on Education'. It was published by Lajpat Rai Prithviraj Sahni from Lohari Gate, Lahore in the year 1922. In the National Library, Calcutta under catalogue no 181.Rc.92.33.
# ''Hints for Self Culture'': This famous book of Lala Har Dayal was published by Hy.S.L.Polak and Co. London (U.K) in 1934. Jaico Publishing House published it in 1977 from Bombay by obtaining copyright from its original publisher in 1961. Its Hindi Translation has also been published from Kitab Ghar, Delhi (India) in 1997 under the title 'Vyaktitva Vikas-Sangharsh aur Safalata'.
# ''Glimpses of World Religions''': It was the presentation of several religions by Lala Har Dayal from so many angles of history, ethics, theology, and religious philosophy. It reflects the individuality of every religion in a rational way of thinking. This book was also published by Jaico Publishing House India from Bombay.
# ''Bodhisattva Doctrines'': Lala Lajpat Rai, who was a mentor of Har Dayal, had suggested him to write an authentic book based on the principles of Gautam Buddha. In 1927 when Har Dayal was not given permission by the British Government to return to India, he decided to remain in London. He wrote this book and presented it to the university as a thesis. The book was approved for Ph.D. and a Doctorate was awarded to him in 1932. It was published from London in the year 1932. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers of India re-published this book in 1970 as ''The Bodhisattva Doctrines in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature''.

===The Bodhisattva Doctrines in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature===

This 392-page work of Lala Hardayal consists of 7 chapters which deal with the [[Bodhisattva]] doctrine as expounded in the principal [[Buddhist Sanskrit]] Literature.

*In Chapter I the nature of the Bodhisattva doctrine is described, with particular emphasis upon the distinct characteristics of arhat, Bodhisattva, and Sravaka.
*Chapter II recounts the different factors which contributed to the rise and growth of the Bodhisattva doctrine including the influences of Persian religio-cult, Greek art, and Christian ethics.
*In Chapter III the production of the thought of [[Enlightenment in Buddhism|Enlightenment]] for the welfare and liberation of all creatures is expounded.
*Chapters IV describes thirty-seven practices and principles conducive to the attainment of Enlightenment.
*In Chapter V ten perfections that lead to welfare, rebirth, serenity, spiritual cultivation, and supreme knowledge are explained.
*Chapter VI defines different stages of spiritual progress in the aspirant's long journey to the goal of final emancipation.
*The last Chapter VII relates the events of the [[Gautama Buddha|Gautama]] Buddha's past lives as Bodhisattva.

This book contains comprehensive notes and references besides a general index appended at the end. This book has been written in a particularly lucid style which exhibits scholarly acumen and the mastery of Lala Hardayal in literary art. It proved influential with [[Edward Conze]], a [[German people|German]] [[Marxist]] refugee from [[Nazi Germany]] who made Har Dayal 's acquaintance in London in the 1930s.<ref name="De Jong">{{cite journal |last1=De Jong |first1=J. W. |title=Edward Conze 1904–1979 |journal=Indo-Iranian Journal |date=1980 |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=143–146 |doi=10.1163/000000080790080729 |jstor=24653324 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24653324 |access-date=5 December 2020 |issn=0019-7246|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==Appreciations==
According to [[Swami Rama Tirtha]], Lala Har Dayal was the greatest Hindu who ever came to America, a great sage and saint, whose life mirrored the highest spirituality as his soul reflected the love of the 'Universal Spirit' whom he tried to realize.<ref>{{Cite book|title=''Thoughts On Education'' by L. Har Dayal|last=Pandit|first=Vardachari|year=1969|publisher=Vivek Swadhyay Mandal|location=New Delhi|page=70}}</ref>

In another appreciation ''Prof. Dharmavira'' has sketched the picture of Lala Har Dayal which is being quoted here in verbatim: {{Quotation|''Har Dayal dedicated his whole life to the sacred cause of the motherland. Surely from such a person alone could one ask: "Good Master, what shall I do to inherit eternal life?" Let us drink deep at this spring and wax glad and strong and brave in every nerve and fibre of our being. He was one of the race of those who wrote the New Era in blood. His course was laborious, truthful, simple, independent, noble; and all these in an eminent degree. His experience of the inward and the outward battle was not inconsiderable and it was not confined to his early manhood, but was spread over his whole life. Lala Har Dayal had the [[Janaka|Janak]] and [[Dadhichi]] touch and his life demonstrated that he had what it takes.''|'''Prof. Dharmavira'''<ref>{{Cite book|title=''Thoughts On Education'' by L. Har Dayal|last=Pandit|first=Vardachari|year=1969|publisher=Vivek Swadhyay Mandal|location=New Delhi|page=76}}</ref> (9 July 1969)}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
*''Ghadar Movement: Ideology, Organisation and Strategy'' by Harish K. Puri, Guru Nanak Dev University Press, 1983
*''Har Dayal: Hindu Revolutionary and Rationalist'' by Emily C. Brown, The University of Arizona Press, 1975
*''Har Dayal: Hindu Revolutionary and Rationalist'', review by [[Mark Juergensmeyer]]. ''The Journal of Asian Studies'', 1976
*''The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature'' by Har Dayal, 1932; Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1970
* Pandit Vardachari ''Thoughts On Education by L. Har Dayal'' 1969 New Delhi-110024 India Vivek Swadhyay Mandal.
* {{Cite web |title=Lala Har Dayal {{!}} Indian revolutionary {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Lala-Har-Dayal |access-date=2022-03-02 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Lala Har Dayal}}

* [http://www.hindustanbooks.com/books/our_educational_problem/OurEducationalProblem.html Our Educational Problem] – collection of Lala Har Dayal's articles published in Punjabi (published from Lahore)
* Sunit Singh: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/dayal_har/ Dayal, Har], in: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html/ 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War].
* [http://www.saadigitalarchive.org/collection/har-dayal Har Dayal materials in the South Asian American Digital Archive (SAADA)]

{{India House}}
{{Ghadar Conspiracy}}
{{Indian independence movement}}
{{Indian Revolutionary Movement}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Har Dayal, Lala}}
[[Category:1884 births]]
[[Category:1939 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century anarchists]]
[[Category:20th-century atheists]]
[[Category:Alumni of SOAS University of London]]
[[Category:American politicians of Indian descent]]
[[Category:American syndicalists]]
[[Category:Anarcho-communists]]
[[Category:Anarcho-syndicalists]]
[[Category:Delhi University alumni]]
[[Category:Ghadar Party]]
[[Category:Hindu–German Conspiracy]]
[[Category:India House]]
[[Category:Indian anarchists]]
[[Category:Indian atheists]]
[[Category:Indian revolutionaries]]
[[Category:Indian syndicalists]]
[[Category:Industrial Workers of the World members]]
[[Category:Left communists]]
[[Category:People from Delhi]]
[[Category:Simple living advocates]]
[[Category:American people of Punjabi descent]]
[[Category:Emigrants from British India to the United States]]

Nag (missile)

2025-10-31T04:45:21Z

AhmedSturgis: basic add lead for clarity and updated info

{{Short description|Indian air-to-surface missile}}
{{see also|Integrated Guided Missile Development Program}}
{{pp-extended|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}
{{Infobox weapon
| name = Nag
| image = Nag missile test on 8 July 2019.jpg
| image_size = 300
| caption = Nag Missile fired from NAMICA-1
| type = [[Anti-tank guided missile]]
| service = {{start date|2019}}–present<ref name=":17">{{Cite web |date=2025-10-17 |title=India’s indigenous Zorawar tank clears crucial missile firing trial, paving way for 2027 induction |url=https://www.businesstoday.in/india/story/indias-indigenous-zorawar-tank-clears-crucial-missile-firing-trial-paving-way-for-2027-induction-498843-2025-10-17 |access-date=2025-10-18 |website=Business Today |language=en}}</ref>
| length = {{convert|1.83|m|ftin|abbr=on}}<ref>{{cite web |title=NAG ATGM |url=https://bdl-india.in/nag |website=Bharat Dynamics Limited |publisher=Ministry of Defence, Government of India |access-date=14 January 2025}}</ref>
| height =
| diameter = {{convert|0.15|m|in|abbr=on}}<ref>{{cite web |title=NAG ATGM |url=https://bdl-india.in/nag |website=Bharat Dynamics Limited |publisher=Ministry of Defence, Government of India |access-date=14 January 2025}}</ref>
| is_missile = yes
| origin = India
| used_by = [[Indian Army]] [[Indian Air Force]]
| designer = [[Defence Research and Development Organisation]]
| manufacturer = [[Bharat Dynamics Limited]]
| unit_cost = {{INRConvert|1|c}}<ref name="The Hindu">{{cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/anti-tank-missile-completes-all-trials/article36556641.ece|title=Anti-tank missile completes all trials|author=Dinakar Peri |website=[[The Hindu]]|date=19 September 2021|access-date=20 September 2021}}</ref>
| propellant = Nitramine smokeless extruded double base
| production_date =
| engine = [[Solid-propellant rocket]] [[Booster (rocketry)|booster]] and [[Sustainer engine|sustainer motor]]<ref name="army-technology">{{cite web|url=https://www.army-technology.com/projects/nag-anti-tank-guided-missile/|title=Nag Anti-Tank Guided Missile|author=Army Technology|date=12 September 2019|access-date=12 September 2019}}</ref>
| weight = {{convert|42|kg|lb|abbr=on}}<ref>{{cite web |title=NAG ATGM |url=https://bdl-india.in/nag |website=Bharat Dynamics Limited |publisher=Ministry of Defence, Government of India |access-date=14 January 2025}}</ref>
| wingspan = {{convert|0.4|m|in|abbr=on}}
| speed = 220-230 m/s (792-828 km/h)<ref>{{cite web |title=NAG ATGM |url=https://bdl-india.in/nag |website=Bharat Dynamics Limited |publisher=Ministry of Defence, Government of India |access-date=14 January 2025}}</ref>
| vehicle_range = *Nag (ProspiNa): 500m–4km <ref>{{cite web |title=NAG ATGM |url=https://bdl-india.in/nag |website=Bharat Dynamics Limited |publisher=Ministry of Defence, Government of India |access-date=14 January 2025}}</ref>
*HELINA/Dhruvastra: 7–10km<ref name="ix182">{{cite news|url=http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/army-opts-for-nag-missile-as-it-enters-final-trials/387858/|title=Army opts for Nag missile as it enters final trials|author=Ajai Shukla|date=8 March 2010|access-date=6 February 2015|newspaper=Business Standard India}}</ref>
*SANT: 15–20km<ref name="toi">{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/jaipur/upgraded-sant-missile-successfully-flight-tested/articleshow/66872743.cms|title=Upgraded SANT missile successfully flight tested|author=TNN|website=[[The Times of India]]|date=30 November 2018|access-date=14 September 2019}}</ref>
| ceiling =
| altitude =
| filling = [[Tandem-charge]] [[High-explosive anti-tank|HEAT]] (Penetration >900 mm in [[Explosive reactive armour|ERA]] + [[Rolled homogeneous armor|RHA]])<ref name="the diplomat">{{cite web|url=https://thediplomat.com/2019/07/india-successfully-test-fires-indigenous-anti-tank-guided-missile/|title=India Successfully Test Fires Indigenous Anti-Tank Guided Missile|last=Gady|first=Franz-Stefan|date=9 July 2019|access-date=12 September 2019}}</ref>
| filling_weight = 8 kg
| guidance = '''Mid-course:''' [[Charge-coupled device|CCD]] + area correlation + two-way [[datalink]] '''Terminal:'''
* [[Imaging infrared|IIR]] homing (HELINA/Dhruvastra)
* [[MmW|MMW]] [[Active radar homing|ARH]] (SANT)<ref>{{cite news |last=Sawhney |first=Pravin |title=Dr G. Satheesh Reddy (DoD R&D), Defence Research and Development Organisation |url=http://forceindia.net/interview/secretary-department-defence-rd-chairman-defence-research-development-organisation-dr-g-satheesh-reddy/ |access-date=20 October 2020 |publisher=Force}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Mallikarjun |first1=Y. |title=DRDO scientists to develop advanced seekers for tactical missiles |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/drdo-scientists-to-develop-advanced-seekers-for-tactical-missiles/article2910934.ece#! |access-date=20 October 2020 |work=The Hindu |date=24 July 2016}}</ref><ref name="IBT">{{cite web|url=https://www.ibtimes.co.in/drdo-successfully-tests-nag-8-facts-about-indias-deadly-anti-tank-missile-762351|title=DRDO successfully tests NAG: 8 facts about India's deadly anti-tank missile|author=Rohit KVN|website=[[International Business Times]]|date=1 March 2018|access-date=12 September 2019}}</ref>
| detonation =
| launch_platform = [[NAMICA]] [[HAL Rudra]] [[HAL Prachand]] [[Mil Mi-24]] [[Zorawar (tank)|Zorawar LT]]
}}
The '''Nag''' missile ({{Lit|[[Nāga|Cobra]]}}), also called '''Prospina''' for the land-attack version, is an Indian third-generation, all-weather, [[fire-and-forget]], [[lock-on after launch]], [[anti-tank guided missile]] (ATGM) with an operational range of 500{{nbsp}}m to 20{{nbsp}}km depending on variant. It has a single-shot hit probability of 90%<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ibtimes.co.in/drdo-successfully-tests-nag-8-facts-about-indias-deadly-anti-tank-missile-762351|title=DRDO successfully tests NAG: 8 facts about India's deadly anti-tank missile|last=KVN|first=Rohit|date=2018-03-01|website=International Business Times, India Edition|language=en|access-date=2019-09-14}}</ref> and a ten-year, maintenance-free shelf life.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://aermech.in/indian-army-nag-vs-us-army-fgm-148-javelin-anti-tank-missile-comparisoncontroversy/|title=Indian Army Nag vs US Army FGM-148 Javelin {{!}}Anti Tank Missile Comparison{{!}}Controversy|date=2015-12-16|website=AerMech.IN|language=en-US|access-date=2019-09-12}}</ref> The Nag has five variants under development: a land version, for a mast-mounted system; the helicopter-launched Nag (HELINA) also known as Dhruvastra; a "man-portable" version ([[MPATGM]]); an air-launched version which will replace the current [[Imaging infrared|imaging infra-red]] (IIR) to [[Millimetric wave|millimetric-wave]] (mmW) [[active radar homing]] seeker;<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Anti-tank-Nag-missile-Helinas-trial-conducted/articleshow/22955349.cms|title=Anti-tank Nag missile 'Helina's' trial conducted |date=24 September 2013|website=The Times of India|language=en|access-date=2019-09-12}}</ref> and the Nag Missile Carrier (NAMICA) "tank buster", which is a modified [[BMP-2]] [[infantry fighting vehicle]] (IFV) produced under license in India by [[Ordnance Factory Medak]] (OFMK).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/Kalams-unrealised-Nag-missile-dream-to-become-reality-next-year/articleshow/48267342.cms|title=Kalam's unrealised 'Nag' missile dream to become reality next year|website=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=30 July 2015|date=30 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=DRDO's 'Nag' missile tests successful; ready for induction |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/newswire/story/drdos-nag-missile-tests-successful-ready-for-induction/596423 |work=Outlook |agency=Press Trust of India |date=6 August 2008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ibtimes.co.in/drdo-successfully-tests-nag-8-facts-about-indias-deadly-anti-tank-missile-762351|title=DRDO successfully tests NAG: 8 facts about India's deadly anti-tank missile|last=KVN|first=Rohit|date=2018-03-01|website=International Business Times, India Edition|language=en|access-date=2019-09-12}}</ref>

Development of the Nag is part of the [[Integrated Guided Missile Development Program]] (IGMDP), run by the [[Defence Research and Development Organisation]] (DRDO). It is manufactured by [[Bharat Dynamics Limited]] (BDL).<ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=https://thediplomat.com/2018/03/indias-new-anti-tank-guided-missile-destroys-2-tanks-in-test/|title=India's New Anti-Tank Guided Missile Destroys 2 Tanks in Test|author=Franz-Stefan Gady|publisher=The Diplomat}}</ref> India's [[Ministry of Defence (India)|Ministry of Defence]] announced on 19 July 2019 that the missile was ready for production.<ref name="Jans">{{Cite web|url=https://www.janes.com/article/89985/india-s-nag-atgm-ready-for-series-production-says-mod|title=India's Nag ATGM ready for series production, says MoD|website=Jane's 360|access-date=2019-08-12}}</ref> The Defence Research and Development Organization (DRDO) successfully completed the final trial of Nag anti-tank missile using a live warhead on a dud tank at Pokhran army ranges at 6.45 am on 21 Oct 2020.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Defence News, Indian Defence News, IDRW, Indian Armed Forces|first=The Indian Hawk|date=21 October 2020|title=India's Anti-Tank Missile Nag Test-Fired in Pokhran, Ready For Ladakh Deployment|work=[[The Indian Hawk]]|url=https://www.theindianhawk.com/2020/10/nag-anti-tank-missile-ready-to-be-inducted-sant-missile-tested-fired-from-balasore.html|access-date=21 October 2020}}</ref>

==Development==

Development of the Nag missile began in 1988<ref name="Bha">{{cite web|url=http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/MISSILES/atgm/na.html|title=Nag ATGM|date=28 February 2009|publisher=Bharat Rakshak|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120307114843/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/MISSILES/atgm/na.html|archive-date=7 March 2012}}</ref> under [[A. P. J. Abdul Kalam]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/national/dac-approves-purchase-naval-guns-worth-rs-3053-cr-667038.html|title=NAG missile for Army, long-range guns for Navy|date=27 April 2018}}</ref> The first tests were conducted in November 1990.<ref name="Bha"/> Development was delayed for several years because of issues with the IIR-based guidance system.<ref name="Bha"/> The Nag missile underwent successful tests in September 1997 and January 2000.<ref name="Bha"/> In 2000, MoD announced that the Nag was likely to enter full-scale production in early 2001.<ref name="Bha"/>{{clarify|reason=What happened between 2001 and 2008?|date=April 2020}} By 2008, the development cost had reached {{INRConvert|300|c|lk=on|year=2008|1}}.<ref name="nag news">{{cite web |date=2008-08-07 |title=Nag test-fired again |url=http://www.hindu.com/2008/08/07/stories/2008080754951400.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080813202819/http://www.hindu.com/2008/08/07/stories/2008080754951400.htm |archive-date=13 August 2008 |access-date=6 February 2015 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> In July 2009, the Nag ATGM was cleared for production.<ref>{{cite web |title=India Clears Anti-Tank Nag Missile for Production |url=http://www.defensenews.com/story.php?i=4177415 |access-date=6 February 2015}}{{dead link|date=August 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> The final user trials were successfully completed in July 2010. The missile was cleared for mass production. BDL planned to produce 100 Nag missiles annually to replace the existing [[Konkurs|Konkours]] and [[MILAN]] second-generation missiles in the arsenal.<ref name="News Archives: The Hindu">{{cite web |date=2010-07-16 |title=Nag's final validation trials completed |url=http://www.hindu.com/2010/07/16/stories/2010071653531500.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100717101429/http://www.hindu.com/2010/07/16/stories/2010071653531500.htm |archive-date=17 July 2010 |access-date=6 February 2015 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> The Nag successfully completed its final validation trials and was expected to join the Indian Army's arsenal in 2011.<ref name=":0">{{cite news |date=16 July 2010 |title=Nag's final validation trials completed |url=http://www.hindu.com/2010/07/16/stories/2010071653531500.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100717101429/http://www.hindu.com/2010/07/16/stories/2010071653531500.htm |archive-date=17 July 2010 |work=[[The Hindu]] |location=Chennai, India}}</ref>

In 2011, the project suffered a one-year delay due to the army's changing of its requirements for the NAMICA at the last moment.<ref name=":3">{{cite news |date=19 April 2011 |title=Nag induction likely to be delayed |url=http://www.hindu.com/2011/04/19/stories/2011041957821000.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110420082425/http://www.hindu.com/2011/04/19/stories/2011041957821000.htm |archive-date=20 April 2011 |work=[[The Hindu]] |location=Chennai, India}}</ref> This was due to the failure of the missile to hit the target at 4 km range during the summer trials of 2011 in Rajasthan. The scientists found a fault in the Europe-imported heat-seeker: it was unable to distinguish between the heat signature of the target and its surroundings during high temperatures at long distances. This led to the development of a better indigenous seeker, with higher resolution and sensitivity, by [[Research Centre Imarat]] (RCI), that could track and distinguish targets at long distances. The first trials of the new seeker were carried out on 29 July 2013 in hot desert conditions in [[Rajasthan]].<ref name=":4">{{cite news |author=Y. Mallikarjun |date=30 July 2013 |title=Seeker evaluation trials for Nag carried out in Rajasthan |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/seeker-evaluation-trials-for-nag-carried-out-in-rajasthan/article4970009.ece |access-date=6 February 2015 |work=The Hindu}}</ref><ref name=":10">{{Cite web |date=2018-04-22 |title=300 Nag anti-tank missiles to be inducted in Indian Army soon |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/mail-today/story/indian-army-in-nag-pose-as-many-as-300-anti-tank-missiles-to-be-inducted-into-force-soon-1217629-2018-04-22 |access-date=2024-09-18 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref> The aerodynamic characterization research was conducted at the [[National Aerospace Laboratories]]' 1.2m Trisonic Wind Tunnel Facility.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-06-06 |title=Bengaluru: 1.2m trisonic wind tunnel at National Aerospace Laboratories completes 55 years of service |url=https://www.aninews.in/news/national/general-news/bengaluru-12m-trisonic-wind-tunnel-at-national-aerospace-laboratories-completes-55-years-of-service20220606001500/ |access-date=2024-11-22 |website=ANI |language=en}}</ref>

The Nag cleared final developmental trials held by [[Indian Army]] in September 2016, making way once again for the weapon system to enter mass production.<ref name=":5">{{Cite news |last=Mallikarjun |first=Y. |date=2016-01-15 |title=Nag missile hits bull's eye with modified seeker |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/Nag-missile-hits-bull%E2%80%99s-eye-with-modified-seeker/article14000033.ece |access-date=2019-09-13 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=BANG ON: NAG Hits Bull's Eye in Final Developmental Trials |url=http://www.indiandefensenews.in/2016/12/bang-on-nag-hits-bulls-eye-in-final.html |access-date=2019-09-13}}</ref> Its single-shot hit probability was initially 77%, which was later improved to 90%.<ref>{{Cite web |last=archive |first=From our online |date=2012-05-16 |title=Army to Conduct Winter Trials of Nag in Pokhran |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/odisha/2011/Oct/13/army-to-conduct-winter-trials-of-nag-in-pokhran-299864.html |access-date=2025-05-17 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Rout |first=Hemant Kumar |date=2020-10-23 |title=User trials over, Nag missile ready for induction in Army |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2020/Oct/23/user-trials-over-nag-missileready-for-induction-in-army-2213993.html |access-date=2025-05-17 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

The missile was again declared ready for induction on 28 February 2018, after successfully destroying 2 tanks in desert conditions in a test.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |date=2018-02-28 |title=Successful Flight Test of ATGM Nag |url=https://pib.gov.in/Pressreleaseshare.aspx?PRID=1522155 |access-date=2018-03-02 |website=pib.nic.in}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite news |last=Gady |first=Franz-Stefan |title=India's New Anti-Tank Guided Missile Destroys 2 Tanks in Test |url=https://thediplomat.com/2018/03/indias-new-anti-tank-guided-missile-destroys-2-tanks-in-test/ |access-date=2018-03-02 |work=The Diplomat |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite news |date=2018-02-28 |title=Anti-tank missile Nag successfully tested, induction-ready now |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/anti-tank-missile-nag-successfully-tested-induction-ready-now/articleshow/63116313.cms |access-date=2018-03-02 |work=The Economic Times}}</ref> In 2018, the DRDO chief claimed that the Nag system would be inducted into the Indian Army by 2019.<ref>{{cite web |date=14 April 2018 |title=Army To Get Nag Anti Tank Guided Missiles In 2019, Says DRDO Chief |url=https://defenceaviationpost.com/army-to-get-nag-anti-tank-guided-missiles-in-2019-says-drdo-chief/}}{{dead link|date=December 2024|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> As of 2019, the missile was ready for induction and was expected to enter mass production by year-end, according to a senior DRDO official.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gady |first=Franz-Stefan |date=25 February 2019 |title=India's New Anti-Tank Guided Missile to Enter Production By End of 2019 |url=https://thediplomat.com/2019/02/indias-new-anti-tank-guided-missile-to-enter-production-by-end-of-2019/ |access-date=2019-08-15 |website=The Diplomat |language=en-US}}</ref>

As of 2018, there was a requirement of around 3,000 Nag missiles for the land-launched variant of the Army.<ref name=":10" />

== Production ==
* '''NAMIS order'''
** '''27 April 2018:''' Defence Acquisition Council, under the aegis of the [[Ministry of Defence (India)|Ministry of Defence]] and chairmanship of the then [[Minister of Defence (India)|Defence Minister]] [[Nirmala Sitharaman]], cleared the Acceptance of Necessity (AoN) of the NAMIS system for the Indian Army at the cost of {{INRConvert|524|c|lk=on|year=2018}}.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-04-27 |title=DAC Approves Capital Acquisition Proposals Worth Rs 3,687 Crore |url=https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1530623 |access-date=2024-09-18 |website=Press Information Bureau}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Gurung |first=Shaurya Karanbir |date=2018-04-27 |title=DAC approves procurement of Nag missile system, 13 guns |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/dac-clears-acquisition-proposals-worth-over-rs-3600-crore/articleshow/63942467.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2024-09-18 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref> The contract included 13 NAMICA carriers and 293 Nag missiles.<ref>{{Citation |last=Tandon |first=P. L. |title=NAG Missile |date=2023-11-30 |url=https://www.flickr.com/photos/13070711@N03/53399591345 |access-date=2025-03-28}}</ref>
** '''2022:''' The deal was cleared by the [[Cabinet Committee on Security]].<ref name=":16" />
** '''27 March 2025:''' [[Ministry of Defence (India)|MoD]] and [[Armoured Vehicles Nigam|Armoured Vehicle Nigam]] signed a {{INRConvert|1801.34|c|lk=on|year=2025}} contract for the purchase of NAMIS (Tr.).<ref name=":16">{{Cite news |date=27 March 2025 |title=Aatmanirbhar Bharat: MoD inks Rs 2,500 crore contracts for NAMIS Tracked version of anti-tank weapon platform & 5,000 Light Vehicles |url=https://pib.gov.in/PressReleseDetailm.aspx?PRID=2115804&reg=3&lang=1 |access-date=27 March 2025 |work=[[Press Information Bureau]] |agency=Ministry of Defence, Government of India}}</ref> The contract includes the procurement of 13 NAMICA carriers and 293 Nag missiles. The system will equip the reconnaissance and support battalions of the [[Mechanised Infantry Regiment]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=27 March 2025 |title=MoD signs deals worth ₹2,500 cr for new anti-tank missile system, light vehicles |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/mod-signs-deals-worth-rs-2-500-cr-for-new-anti-tank-missile-system-light-vehicles-101743082563645.html |access-date=27 March 2025 |work=[[Hindustan Times]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite tweet |number=1905287480531624044 |user=AVANI_PR |title=The Ministry of Defence has signed a contract with Armoured Vehicles Nigam Limited (AVNL) for the procurement of the Nag Missile System (NAMIS) Tracked version, a state-of-the-art anti-tank weapon platform. The contract... |date=2025-03-27 |access-date=2025-03-28}}</ref>
* '''HELINA order'''
** '''15 September 2023:''' The Acceptance of Necessity (AoN), worth {{INRConvert|700|c|lk=on|year=2023}}, for the procurement of more than 200 units of Dhruvastra (Air Force variant) for the [[HAL Rudra]] was cleared by the Defence Acquisition Council (DAC).<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-09-15 |title=Another boost to Aatmanirbharta in Defence: DAC approves AoN for nine capital acquisition proposals for the Armed Forces worth Rs 45,000 crore |url=https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1957703 |access-date=2024-11-08 |website=[[Press Information Bureau|PIB]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-09-16 |title=Nod for Rs 45,000cr defence buys, 12 more Sukhois to fly in |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/mod-approves-12-more-sukhois-800-armoured-vehicles-others-for-rs-45000-crore/articleshow/103698530.cms?ssp=1&darkschemeovr=1&setlang=en-US |access-date=2024-11-08 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
* '''NAMIS Mk II order'''
** '''22 October 2025:''' It was reported that the defence ministry is poised to approve the procurement of 2,408 Nag Mk2 missiles along with 107 NAMICA 2 tank destroyers.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dubey |first=Ajit |date=2025-10-22 |title=Indian Army to buy 2,408 Nag Mark 2 anti-tank guided missiles |url=https://www.aninews.in/news/national/general-news/indian-army-to-buy-2408-nag-mark-2-anti-tank-guided-missiles20251022210243/ |access-date=2025-10-22 |website=ANI News |language=en}}</ref>
** '''23 October 2025:''' Defence Acquisition Council granted the Acceptance of Necessity (AoN) for Nag Missile System (Tracked) Mk-II (NAMIS).<ref>{{Cite press release |title=DAC clears proposals, worth about Rs 79,000 crore, to enhance the capability of the Armed Forces |date=2025-10-23 |publisher=[[Press Information Bureau]] |url=https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2181814 |access-date=2025-10-23}}</ref>

==Design==
[[File:ILA Berlin 2012 PD 016.JPG|thumb|Nag missile (front end view)|alt=|left]] The Nag missile's exterior is made of fibreglass.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://aermech.in/indian-army-nag-vs-us-army-fgm-148-javelin-anti-tank-missile-comparisoncontroversy/|title=Indian Army Nag vs US Army FGM-148 Javelin {{!}} Anti Tank Missile Comparison {{!}} Controversy|date=2015-12-16|website=AerMech.IN|language=en-US|access-date=2019-09-12}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.india.com/education/drdo-successfully-test-fired-its-fire-and-forget-anti-tank-missile-nag-1572330/|title=DRDO successfully test fired its fire-and-forget anti-tank missile Nag|last=Desk|first=India com Education|date=2016-01-15|website=India.com|language=en|access-date=2019-09-13}}</ref>

It is developed for engaging heavily armoured tanks in all-weather conditions during day and night with a minimum range of 500{{nbsp}}m and a maximum range of 4{{nbsp}}km for the land variant. The third-generation fire-and-forget-class ATGM uses an [[imaging infrared]] (IIR) seeker that locks on to the target before launch.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=19 July 2019 |title=Indian Army successfully carries out trials of third generation NAG missiles |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/indian-army-trials-third-generation-nag-missiles-1571425-2019-07-19 |access-date=2019-07-21 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref> The Nag's airframe is constructed from composite materials that exhibit high resistance to enemy countermeasures. The forward dome houses the guidance system, while the middle section of the body accommodates sensor packages and the warhead. A booster rocket is positioned towards the rear end. The Nag features four foldable wings and four tail fins that stabilize it during flight. A real-time image processor, located adjacent to the guidance package, facilitates automatic target detection and tracking capabilities. The digital autopilot assists with guidance, stability, and control after launch.
[[File:ILA Berlin 2012 PD 017.JPG|thumb|Nag missile (side view)]]
An electric actuation system also helps in flight control. The guidance system is based on an imaging infrared (IIR) seeker that ensures a high target accuracy in both top and front attack modes. A CCD camera integrated into the guidance system is useful as it is hard to jam. The initial guidance is provided by area correlation around the target, to which is added a [[centroid]] tracking mechanism. Homing in the terminal phase is done by area correlation around the centroid.

The Nag rises upwards suddenly and then bends at a steep angle to aim for the target.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://defenceupdate.in/nag-missile-indias-indigenous-anti-tank-guided-missile/|title=Nag Missile:-India's indigenous anti tank guided missile|last=defenceupdate|date=2015-12-28|website=Indian Defence Update|language=en-US|access-date=2019-09-12}}</ref>

== Variants ==

=== Missiles ===
* '''Nag/ProspiNa''' - The Nag or ProspiNa missile is the basic variant of the Nag family and is fired from the NAMICA platform.
* '''Nag Mk2''' - The Nag''' '''Mk2 missile is a third-generation [[fire-and-forget]] ATGM. It is an enhanced version of the previous land-based Nag variant with a range of {{convert|4-10|km|mi|abbr=on}}. The variant will feature a [[Jet vane|jet-vane control system]] inherited from the HELINA variant for increased manoeuvrability. The missile will also feature an enhanced range compared to the previous version.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |date=2024-03-25 |title=NAMICA MK2 Prioritizes Battlefield Versatility: Reduced Missile Loadout, Added 30mm Cannon |url=https://defence.in/threads/namica-mk2-prioritizes-battlefield-versatility-reduced-missile-loadout-added-30mm-cannon.4813/ |access-date=2024-09-18 |website=Defence.in |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":14">{{Cite web |date=2024-08-19 |title=चीन-PAK के टैंकों-बख्तरबंद वाहनों को भस्म कर देगा डीआरडीओ का नया हथियार NAG-Mk2 |url=https://www.aajtak.in/defence-news/story/drdo-develops-next-gen-anti-tank-guided-missile-nag-mk-ii-2014694-2024-08-19 |access-date=2024-09-18 |website=आज तक |language=hi}}</ref><ref name=":17" />
* '''[[MPATGM]]''' - The Man Portable Anti-tank Guided Missile (MP-ATGM) is an Indian-made third-generation anti-tank guided missile derived from the Nag missile. Recently, DRDO confirmed its production to start in 2021.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.janes.com/article/86778/aero-india-2019-drdo-details-short-range-mpatgm|title=Aero India 2019: DRDO details short-range MPATGM {{!}} Jane's 360|website=janes.com|access-date=2019-07-08}}</ref> The missile is under user trials phase of development.<ref>{{Cite web |title=DRDO & Indian Army conduct successful trials of indigenous Man Portable Anti-tank Guided Missile Weapon System |url=https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2017876 |access-date=2024-04-14 |website=pib.gov.in}}</ref>
* '''HELINA/Dhruvastra''' - '''HELINA''' (Helicopter-launched Nag) is air-launched version of the Nag with extended range. HELINA has a range of 7 km which will put the enemy tank commanders in curved terrain at severe disadvantages. The missile weighs only 43 kg which will not cause any burden in limiting conditions of the rarefied atmosphere over Ladakh. In terms of firepower, HELINA can penetrate armour as thick as 800mm which is more than enough for penetrating the armour of the light and medium weight tanks operated in the frontier. It is launched from twin-tube stub wing-mounted launchers on board [[HAL Rudra]] helicopters and [[HAL Prachand]] manufactured by [[Hindustan Aeronautics Limited]] (HAL).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://forceindia.net/cover-story/armour-piercer/|title=The DRDO has to develop a MPATGM for the Indian Army|website=Force|language=en-US|access-date=2019-08-14}}</ref> It is structurally different from Nag and is guided by an [[Thermography|imaging infrared]] (IIR) seeker operating in a lock-on-before-launch mode for target engagement.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/helicopter-launched-anti-tank-missile-helina-test-fired/articleshow/67900023.cms|title=Helicopter-launched anti-tank missile 'Helina' test-fired|date=2019-02-08|work=The Economic Times|access-date=2019-09-12}}</ref> It supports both [[top attack]] and [[Direct Attack Guided Rocket|direct attack]] functionality.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-09-20|title=Anti-Tank Guided Missile Helina will soon add to the Indian defence arsenal|url=https://newsonair.com/2021/09/20/anti-tank-guided-missile-helina-will-soon-add-to-the-indian-defence-arsenal/|access-date=2021-09-20|website=NewsOnAIR -|language=en-US}}</ref> HELINA completed all kind of user trials as of 20 September 2021. The Indian Army is ready for the missile acquisition which is expected to cost under {{INRConvert|1|c|lk=on|year=2021}}. The initial demand is of 500 missiles and 40 launcher tubes.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Peri |first=Dinakar |date=2021-09-19 |title=Anti-tank missile completes all trials |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/anti-tank-missile-completes-all-trials/article36556641.ece |access-date=2021-09-20 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>
* '''SANT''' - SANT or Standoff Anti-tank Guided Missile is a fourth generation upgraded variant of HELINA missile developed for long distance airborne [[anti-armour]] role.<ref>{{Cite web|title=SANT missile clears crucial developmental trial off Odisha coast|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2020/oct/19/sant-missile-clears-crucial-developmental-trial-off-odisha-coast-2212400.html|access-date=2020-10-20|website=The New Indian Express}}</ref>
<gallery>
File:Nag missile closeup.JPG|Closeup view of Nag missile with imaging infrared (IIR) seeker
File:Nag MK2 short range target hit.webm|Nag MK2 demonstrating shortest range hit capability.
File:Helina missile successfully test fired from Dhruv helicopter at Pokhran ranges on April 11, 2022 - 2.jpg|HELINA fired from [[HAL Rudra]]
File:Sant Missile.webm|SANT missile fired from [[Mi-24]]
</gallery>

== Platforms ==
As of 2017, the Nag missile's only operational launch platform is the purpose-built NAMICA missile carrier.<ref name="auto2">{{cite web |last=Raghuvanshi |first=Vivek |date=29 September 2017 |title=Indian Army wants more tests before ordering homemade anti-tank missile |url=https://www.defensenews.com/land/2017/09/29/indian-army-wants-more-tests-before-ordering-homemade-anti-tank-missile/}}</ref> A number of other variants were in various stages of development and testing.

=== NAMICA ===
[[File:Nag with NAMICA Defexpo-2008.JPG|thumb|Nag Missile Carrier (NAMICA) is a modified [[BMP-2]] platform license-built in India.]]
The '''NAMICA''' (Nag Missile Carrier) is a stretched, license-built BMP-2 with additional wheels, nicknamed "[[BMP-2#India|BMP-2 Sarath]]" in India. The NAMICA along with the Nag missile is designated as the '''NAMIS''' (Nag Missile System).<ref name="Bha" /> It is classified as a [[Tank destroyer#Modern tank destroyers|tank destroyer]]. It is equipped with various electro-optical systems including a [[thermal imager]] (TI) and a [[laser rangefinder]] (LRF) for target acquisition. As unveiled in DefExpo 2008, the NAMICA carries a total of twelve missiles, with eight in ready-to-fire mode and four in storage.<ref name="Bha" /><ref name=":2">{{cite web |date=2008-08-06 |title=Nag missile testfired |url=http://www.hindu.com/2008/08/06/stories/2008080651801400.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080809041234/http://www.hindu.com/2008/08/06/stories/2008080651801400.htm |archive-date=9 August 2008 |access-date=6 February 2015 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> It has a compact [[auxiliary power unit]] (APU) for silent watch operation, a [[Fire detection system|fire detection]] and [[Fire suppression system|suppression system]] (FDSS) and [[Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents|nuclear]], [[Biological warfare|biological]], and [[Chemical warfare|chemical]] protection system (NBCPS). The carrier weights 14.5 tonnes in full combat load and is capable of moving 7 km/h in water. The carrier was put through transportation trials, covering 155 km during 2008 summer trials.<ref name=":2" /> It has various modes of firing, including top attack and indirect attack mode.<ref name=":1" /> It has a lock-on-before-launch system, where the target is identified and designated before the launch. The range of attack is limited due to its targeting system being based on visual identification. It supports a crew of four including the commander who is equipped with Land Navigation System (LNS).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Joshi |first=Manas |last2= |first2= |date=2020-08-18 |title=NAG Missile Carrier NAMICA boosts Indian Army's firepower |url=https://www.indiatvnews.com/news/india/nag-missile-carrier-namica-india-army-firepower-643061 |access-date=2025-03-28 |website=India TV News |language=en}}</ref>

The NAMICA successfully completed amphibious trials in the [[Indira Gandhi Canal]] at Rajasthan on 8 August 2008.<ref>{{cite web |date=2008-08-08 |title=Namica amphibious trial successful |url=http://www.hindu.com/2008/08/08/stories/2008080856751400.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080815084936/http://www.hindu.com/2008/08/08/stories/2008080856751400.htm |archive-date=15 August 2008 |access-date=6 February 2015 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref>

[[File:NAMIS Republic day parade 2023.jpg|thumb|NAMICA 2 during Republic Day parade 2023]]

Another version of the missile launcher, '''NAMICA-2''', was first tested in 2019. The newer variant was equipped with an improved targeting system and a launcher configuration of six combat-ready missiles against earlier eight. The development received approval in 2018. The launcher was first publicly showcased during the [[Delhi Republic Day parade|Republic Day parade]] in [[Rajpath]] at [[New Delhi]] in 2023.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite web |last=office_zzam |title=Indian army unveils NAMICA new anti-tank tracked armored vehicle |url=https://armyrecognition.com/focus-analysis-conflicts/army/defence-security-industry-technology/indian-army-unveils-namica-new-anti-tank-tracked-armored-vehicle |access-date=2024-09-18 |website=armyrecognition.com |language=en-gb}}</ref>

Guided by NAMICA-2's [[Infrared search and track|Imaging Infra Red]] (IIR) seeker, Nag ATGM has a range of 7.5 kilometres. All the six missiles can be fired within 20 seconds in quick firing mode.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Deshpande |first=Smruti |date=2025-03-28 |title=MoD signs Rs 2,500-cr contracts for Nag anti-tank missile systems & 5,000 Light Vehicles |url=https://theprint.in/defence/mod-signs-rs-2500-cr-contracts-for-nag-anti-tank-missile-systems-5000-light-vehicles/2568601/ |access-date=2025-03-31 |website=ThePrint |language=en-US}}</ref> It carries a crew of four. The total project cost of NAMICA is [[₹]]3,000 [[crore]] and is developed by [[Defence Research and Development Laboratory]] (DRDL) and [[Ordnance Factory Board]] (OFB). Ministry of Defence cleared NAMICA for production as of 14 August 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Joshi |first=Manas |date=2020-08-18 |title=NAG Missile Carrier NAMICA boosts Indian Army's firepower |url=https://www.indiatvnews.com/news/india/nag-missile-carrier-namica-india-army-firepower-643061 |access-date=2020-08-22 |website=indiatvnews.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |author=Staff Writer |date=2020-08-14 |title=Defence Minister Rajnath Singh launches 15 products developed by Defence PSUs |url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/defence-minister-rajnath-singh-launches-15-products-developed-by-defence-psus-11597385301173.html |access-date=2020-08-22 |website=Livemint |language=en}}</ref>

=== NAMICA Mk2 ===
The '''NAMICA Mk2''' is the second generation launch platform for the design which is under development as of September 2024. Though it inherits the BMP-2 as its chassis, it has a different configuration from its predecessor. The system retains the 30mm autocannon turret and is fitted with two twin Nag ATGM launchers on the sides of the turret. The passenger compartment is replaced with a missile storage system. The system is poised to be lighter.<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":14" /> On 13 January 2025, the Field Evaluation Trial of NAMICA Mk2 with Nag Mk2 was successfully carried out at Pokhran Field Range and was ready for induction by the Army.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sharma |first=Shivani |date=2025-01-13 |title=India successfully tests new version of Nag Mark 2 anti-tank guided missile |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/nag-mark-2-anti-tank-guided-missile-successful-test-drdo-pokhran-rajasthan-defence-2664253-2025-01-13 |access-date=2025-01-13 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":15">{{Cite news |date=2025-01-14 |title=Nag Mark 2 aces field trial: Top 5 insights from India's anti-tank missile |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/nag-mark-2-aces-field-trials-5-things-to-know-about-indias-homegrown-anti-tank-missile-101736800653636.html |access-date=2025-01-14 |work=Hindustan Times}}</ref>

=== Zorawar ===
The [[Zorawar (tank)|Zorawar]] light tank was tested in October 2025 to fire the Nag Mk2 missile from canisters on the tank turret.<ref name=":18" /><ref name=":19" /><ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-10-17 |title=Light tank fires Nag anti-tank missile |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/light-tank-fires-nag-anti-tank-missile/articleshow/124637649.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2025-10-19 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref>

== Trials ==

=== Land-based variants ===
*In August 2008, the Nag was successfully test-fired for two consecutive days from the [[Rocket range|test range]] at [[Pokhran]], [[Rajasthan]], marking the completion of developmental tests. The DRDO and the [[Indian Army]] planned to conduct user trials shortly thereafter. These would be the final trials to decide whether the system would go into production.<ref>{{cite web |title=Nag Missile to be tested by Indian Army in July |url=http://frontierindia.net/nag-missile-to-be-tested-by-indian-army-in-july |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120815142305/http://frontierindia.net/nag-missile-to-be-tested-by-indian-army-in-july |archive-date=15 August 2012 |access-date=6 February 2015 |work=Frontier India}}</ref> As of 2008, over 60 developmental trials had been conducted by DRDO.<ref name="nag news" />

* During the user trials, the Nag missile was tested successfully by the Indian Army on 26 December 2008. The Nag missile zeroed in on the precise location of the target tank from a distance of {{convert|3.3|km|abbr=on}}, as required by the Indian Army. The Indian Army was also extremely satisfied with the performance of the warhead of the missile.<ref>{{cite web |date=2008-12-26 |title=Archive News |url=http://www.hindu.com/2008/12/26/stories/2008122655801200.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090628022756/http://www.hindu.com/2008/12/26/stories/2008122655801200.htm |archive-date=28 June 2009 |access-date=6 February 2015 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref>
* Another successful test was conducted on 28 December 2008. During that test, a moving target at {{convert|1.8|km|abbr=on}} was destroyed, along with a stationary target at a distance of {{convert|3.1|km|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web |date=2008-12-29 |title=Two flight tests of Nag missile successful |url=http://www.hindu.com/2008/12/29/stories/2008122959211100.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090215202844/http://hindu.com/2008/12/29/stories/2008122959211100.htm |archive-date=15 February 2009 |access-date=6 February 2015 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref>
* A total of five missiles were fired during day and night against stationary and moving targets. Before the induction of the missile into service, summer trials were carried out in June 2009.<ref>{{cite web |date=2008-12-31 |title=Army may induct Nag missile soon |url=http://www.hindu.com/2008/12/31/stories/2008123155171100.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090628022740/http://www.hindu.com/2008/12/31/stories/2008123155171100.htm |archive-date=28 June 2009 |access-date=6 February 2015 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref>
* On 20 January 2010 field tests of the Nag's thermal sight system, the system identified and locked on to a [[T-54/T-55|T-55]] tank at a range of {{convert|5|km|abbr=on}}. The trials were conducted using an advanced-imaging infrared-seeker head, per the Army's requirements. Another tank was engaged and destroyed at a range of over {{convert|4|km|abbr=on}} in a test of the missile's fire-and-forget capability, using the day version of the IIR passive seeker. In its IIR form, the Nag has limited all-weather capability. This limitation has provided added impetus to development of the mmW active seeker. Efforts were undertaken to provide special embedded on-board hunters that could hunt for targets using 'day seekers' and 'day-&-night seekers'.
* During trials in June 2010, the short-range capability of the missile to hit targets was validated. The Nag missile hit a target at a range of around {{convert|0.5|km|abbr=on}} in just three seconds.<ref>{{cite web |author=Y. Mallikarjun |title=Nag hits target in three seconds after launch |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article448188.ece |access-date=6 February 2015 |work=The Hindu}}</ref> In the follow-on test, a moving target was hit within 3.2 seconds after launch.<ref>{{cite web |date=2010-06-14 |title=Archive News |url=http://www.hindu.com/2010/06/14/stories/2010061455271200.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510083049/http://www.hindu.com/2010/06/14/stories/2010061455271200.htm |archive-date=10 May 2011 |access-date=6 February 2015 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref>
* The final user validation trials were held on 16 July 2010 and successfully completed. A total of four missiles were test fired, two each against a moving target and a "derelict" [[Vijayanta]] tank, respectively. The tests validated validated the missile's ability at varying ranges of {{convert|500-2600|m|abbr=on}}.<ref name=":0" /><ref name="nag validation test">{{cite web |title=India's Nag missile completes final validation test |url=http://www.brahmand.com/news/Indias-Nag-missile-completes-final-validation-test/4473/1/10.html |work=Brahmand News}}</ref>
* Two missiles were launched simultaneously against a moving target, and another two missiles were launched against a stationary [[Vijayanta]] tank in quick succession, and all successfully hit the targets. The Indian Army was satisfied with the performance and was expected to buy 443 missiles for {{INRConvert|335|c|lk=on|1}}.<ref name="News Archives: The Hindu" /> The missiles along with the missile carriers were expected to be added to the Army's arsenal by 2011 with the successful completion of final validation trials in Rajasthan.<ref name=":0" />
* In 2011, the project suffered a one-year delay due to the army's changing of its requirements for the NAMICA at the last moment.<ref name=":3" /> Missile tests during the summer of 2011 in Rajasthan failed to achieve its objective of hitting the target at the intended 4-km range. The scientists found a fault in the heat-seeker which led to the development of a better indigenous seeker, with higher resolution and sensitivity, by [[Research Centre Imarat]] (RCI), that could track and distinguish targets at long distances. The first trials of the new seeker were carried out on 29 July 2013 in hot desert conditions in [[Rajasthan]].<ref name=":4" /> The evaluation trials of the missile with the improved seeker were carried out in August and September 2013 and provided fairly accurate results. Performance trials were expected to begin in early 2014.<ref>{{cite web |title=Nag evaluation trials successful |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/Nag-evaluation-trials-successful/articleshow/21563768.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130824104154/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-08-03/hyderabad/41032611_1_nag-g-satheesh-reddy-drdo |archive-date=2013-08-24 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref>
* Nag scored a "bull's eye", successfully hitting a target 4 km away during a night trial in the Mahajan Field Firing Range, Rajasthan, in January 2016. During the test, the Thermal Target System (TTS) developed by a DRDO laboratory at [[Jodhpur]] was used as target for the missile. The TTS simulated a target similar to an operational tank by generating a thermal signature. The trial validated the enhanced 4-km range capability of the IIR seeker, which guides the missile to the target after its launch.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" />

* The missile was tested successfully on 5 June 2017 at its maximum range of {{convert|4|km|abbr=on}} in hot-desert conditions in a daytime trial at the Chandan Field Firing Range near [[Jaisalmer]], Rajasthan, with a successful follow-up test taking place on 13 June 2017. DRDO shared that the trials which concluded were successful for the extreme-heat daytime conditions of the desert.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Prospina successfully hits 4-km target during trials |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/jaipur/prospina-successfully-hits-4-km-target-during-trials/articleshow/59132335.cms |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref>
* On 8 September 2017, MoD announced that the DRDO had twice successfully flight-tested the missile against two different targets in two tests in the ranges of Rajasthan. The missile successfully hit both targets at different ranges and under different conditions with very high accuracy, as desired by the armed forces. With these two successful flight trials, and the flight test conducted earlier in peak of summer, the complete functionality of the Nag ATGM, along with the NAMICA launcher system, was established, marking the successful completion of development trials of the Nag missile.<ref name="pib">{{Cite press release |title=Successful Flight Test of 3rd Generation Anti Tank Guided Missile – NAG |date=9 September 2017 |publisher=Press Information Bureau |url=https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1502375 |access-date=11 September 2017}}</ref> In 2017, however, the Army said that the developmental trials of Nag carried out earlier had only demonstrated partial success and that many more user trials would be needed.<ref name="auto2" /> In 2017, the DRDO claimed that the Nag missile would be ready within four years.<ref>{{cite news |last=Gurung |first=Shaurya Karanbir |date=27 April 2018 |title=DAC approves procurement of Nag missile system, 13 guns |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/dac-clears-acquisition-proposals-worth-over-rs-3600-crore/articleshow/63942467.cms |newspaper=The Economic Times}}</ref>

[[File:NAG Test.png|thumb|NAMIS at Pokhran Test Range on 28 February 2018.]]

* The missile was again declared ready for induction on 28 February 2018, after a test in which two tanks destroyed in desert conditions.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":9" />
* [[File:Nag missile test on 8 July 2019.jpg|NAMICA firing Nag missile during 2019 trials |thumb|alt=]]On 7 July 2019, the DRDO carried out three successful trials of the Nag missile in the Pokhran firing range. The missiles were tested during both day and night. The missile was reportedly in the final stages of being inducted. The Nag missile was successfully tested 12 times between 7 and 18 July 2019.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nag Missile Successfully Test-Fired 12 Times in 11-Day Period at Pokhran |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/nag-missile-successfully-test-fired-12-times-in-11-day-period-at-pokhran-rajasthan-2072425 |access-date=2019-07-21 |website=NDTV.com}}</ref> It was tested under extreme weather conditions during day and night, in indirect attack mode as well as in top attack mode, and achieved a direct hit on each target. These trials completed the summer user trials and the missile was expected to proceed towards induction into the Indian Army. The trials were conducted from a new launcher NAMICA 2 with six-combat missile launcher configuration. The missile earlier participated in winter trials in February.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":12" />[[File:Summer User Trials of Nag Missile successfully Conducted by Indian Army.webm|thumb|Summer user trials of the Nag missile in 2019|left]]
* On 22 October 2020, India successfully carried out the final trial of the Nag anti-tank guided missile from NAMICA, after which the weapon system is now ready for induction into the Indian Army.<ref>{{cite web |title=Final trial of Nag Missile successful, ready for induction in Army |url=http://businessworld.in/article/Final-trial-of-Nag-Missile-successful-ready-for-induction-in-Army/22-10-2020-334285 |work=BW BusinessWorld}}</ref><ref name=":11">{{Cite web |last=Suciu |first=Peter |date=2020-11-13 |title=Meet the NAG: How Does India's Anti-Tank Missile Stack Up? |url=https://nationalinterest.org/blog/buzz/meet-nag-how-does-india%E2%80%99s-anti-tank-missile-stack-172626 |access-date=2024-09-18 |website=The National Interest |language=en}}</ref>
* The Indian Army successfully tested an upgraded anti-tank guided missile, on 13 February 2024. The missile struck dummy targets at the Pokhran field shooting range, where the army is conducting weapon tests as part of a war game.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-02-14 |title=Indian Army tests improved anti-tank missile Nag in Pokhran |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/jaipur/indian-army-tests-improved-anti-tank-missile-nag-in-pokhran-jaisalmer/articleshow/107675839.cms |access-date=2024-02-15 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
* On 13 January 2025, '''Nag Mk2''' successfully completed field evaluation trials at Pokhran Field Range. The missile was tested three times eliminated every target at both maximum and minimum range. A field evaluation of NAMICA''' '''Mk2 was also conducted. The weapon system consisting of NAMICA Mk2 along with the missile is ready for induction by the Indian Army.<ref>{{cite news |date=13 January 2025 |title=Successful Field Evaluation Trials of indigenously-developed third-generation Anti-Tank Fire-and-Forget Guided Missile ‘Nag Mk 2’ |url=https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2092585 |access-date=13 January 2025 |publisher=Press Information Bureau |agency=Ministry of Defence, Government of India}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-01-13 |title=DRDO successfully tests Nag Mark 2 anti-tank guided missiles in Rajasthan |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/drdo-successfully-tests-nag-mark-2-anti-tank-guided-missiles-in-rajasthan/articleshow/117208460.cms |access-date=2025-01-13 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref name=":15" />
* On 17 October 2025, '''Nag Mk2''' was test fired from the under development [[Zorawar (tank)|Zorawar light tank]] in top attack mode.<ref name=":18">{{Cite web |last=PTI |date=2025-10-17 |title=Light tank fires Nag anti-tank missile |url=https://theprint.in/india/light-tank-fires-nag-anti-tank-missile/2766360/ |access-date=2025-10-18 |website=ThePrint |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":19">{{Cite web |last=Khan |first=Nakshab |date=2025-10-17 |title=India’s indigenous light tank ‘Zorawar’ successfully fires Nag-Mk II Missile {{!}} WATCH |url=https://www.news9live.com/videos/india-videos/indias-indigenous-light-tank-zorawar-successfully-fires-nag-mk-ii-missile-watch-2897976 |access-date=2025-10-18 |website=News9live |language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Air-launched variants ===

*The first ground launch of the missile to check [[lock-on after launch]] (LOAL) capability were conducted in 2011 during which the missile was locked onto a target and launched. While the missile was in flight, a second target was chosen for the missile to hit, which the missile destroyed. This demonstrated the capability of the missile to lock onto and hit a target while in mid-flight.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bhatia |first=Vimal |date=24 September 2013 |title=Anti-tank Nag missile 'Helina's' trial conducted |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Anti-tank-Nag-missile-Helinas-trial-conducted/articleshow/22955349.cms |access-date=2019-09-12 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref> In the ground-launched LOAL test, the missile was launched in the general direction of the target. On approaching the target, images of the area ahead were sent from the missile to the operator via a two-way, radio frequency, command-video data link. The operator identified the target in the images and updated the new target location into the seeker, after which the missile homed in on the target and destroyed it.<ref name="ix182" />
* On 13 July 2015, three trials of '''HELINA''' were conducted by HAL at the Chandhan firing range in [[Jaisalmer]], [[Rajasthan]]. The missiles were test-fired from a [[HAL Rudra]]; two missiles succeeded in hitting the targets at a range of 7 km, while one reportedly missed the target.<ref>{{cite web |title=3 Helinas Test-Fired, 2 Hit Target |url=http://www.defense-aerospace.com/cgi-bin/client/modele.pl?shop=dae&modele=release&prod=165254&cat=3 |website=defense-aerospace.com}}</ref> After successful image capturing trials in Bangalore, DRDO planned to test HELINA with an updated 640×512-pixel resolution IIR seeker instead of the original 128×128-pixel resolution seeker in September 2016 for the [[Army Aviation Corps (India)|Army Aviation Corps]] under hot desert conditions, with moving and static targets, for different range parameters.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tur |first=Jatinder Kaur |date=27 June 2016 |title=HeliNa set for September showdown |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/HeliNa-set-for-september-showdown/articleshow/52942240.cms |access-date=2019-09-14 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref>
* During May–June 2017, '''SANT''' was successfully test-fired from a [[Mi-35]] helicopter.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2017-12-18 |title=Year End Review- 2017: Ministry of Defence |url=https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=1513066 |access-date=2025-06-03 |work=[[Press Information Bureau]]}}</ref>
* On 19 August 2018, '''HELINA''' was successfully test-fired from a [[HAL Prachand]] at the [[Pokhran#Pokhran Test Range|Pokhran Test Range]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 August 2018 |title=Indigenous anti-tank guided missile system HELINA successfully flight tested |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/jaipur/indigenous-anti-tank-guided-missile-system-helina-successfully-flight-tested/articleshow/65507706.cms |access-date=2019-07-08 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref>
* In November 2018, DRDO developed '''SANT''' was successfully tested at Pokhran range.<ref>{{cite news |date=31 December 2018 |title=2018: Landmark year for DRDO |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2018/dec/31/2018-landmark-year-for-drdo-1918538.html |work=The New Indian Express}}</ref> The upgraded version of the missile is equipped with [[Electro-optical guidance|electro-optical]] [[thermal imager]] (EO/IR) and a new nose-mounted [[Millimeter-wave|millimeter wave]] [[active radar homing]] (MMW) seeker with an extended range of up to 15 km to 20 km.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Upgraded SANT missile successfully flight tested |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/jaipur/upgraded-sant-missile-successfully-flight-tested/articleshow/66872743.cms |access-date=2018-12-01 |work=The Times of India}}</ref>
* DRDO and the Indian Army tested '''HELINA''' with a range of 7–8{{nbsp}}km from the Integrated Test Range (ITR) in [[Chandipur, Odisha]], on 8 February 2019 to check the maximum missile range and accuracy.<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 February 2019 |title=Helicopter-Launched Anti-Tank Missile 'Helina' Test-Fired |url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/helicopter-launched-anti-tank-missile-helina-test-fired-2029867.html |access-date=2019-09-14 |website=News18}}</ref> The HELINA user trial was expected to be completed by 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Interview: Youngsters can power India into a defence technology leader: Dr Satheesh Reddy |url=https://english.manoramaonline.com/news/nation/2020/02/14/youngsters-india-defence-technology-satheessh-reddy.html |access-date=2020-02-17 |website=OnManorama |language=en}}</ref>
* On 19 October 2020, '''SANT''' was again test fired by the DRDO at Chandipur test range. It is developed for the Indian Air Force and Army Aviation Corps with [[lock-on after launch]] and lock-on before launch capabilities.<ref>{{cite web |title=India successfully test-fires SANT missile with 'Lock-on After Launch' & 'Lock-on Before Launch' capabilities |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/india/article/india-successfully-test-fires-sant-missile-with-lock-on-after-launch-lock-on-before-launch-capabilities/669661 |work=Times now digital}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=19 October 2020 |title=India successfully tests anti-tank missile 'SANT' from Chandipur test range |url=https://www.orissapost.com/india-successfully-tests-anti-tank-missile-sant-from-chandipur-test-range/ |work=Orissa Post}}</ref>
* The [[Indian Armed Forces]] successfully test fired the helicopter-launched Nag Missile ('''HELINA'''), now named '''Dhruvastra''' anti-tank guided missile in direct and top attack mode that is upgraded with new features. This variant is for the Indian Air Force.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Waje |first1=Hemant |date=23 July 2020 |title=India test fires anti-tank guided missile 'Dhruvastra' |url=https://www.rediff.com/news/report/see-india-test-fires-anti-tank-missile-dhruvastra/20200722.htm |access-date=1 October 2020 |publisher=Rediff |agency=PTI}}</ref> Three developmental flight trials were conducted from 15 to 16 July 2020 at [[Integrated Test Range]], [[Balasore]], [[Odisha]] from a ground based launcher.<ref>{{cite news |title=India successfully test fires Dhruvastra – Helicopter launched anti-tank missile |url=https://www.indiatvnews.com/news/india/india-succesfully-test-fires-dhruvastra-helicopter-launched-anti-tank-missile-video-636125 |access-date=2020-07-22 |work=India TV}}</ref>
* On 19 February 2021, The '''HELINA''' and Air Force variant Dhruvastra were reported to have successfully demonstrated their capabilities in a series of multi-mission user trials from HAL Rudra and were said to be ready for induction into the Indian Armed Forces.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Anti-tank missiles Helina and Dhruvastra successfully tested, ready for induction in armed forces |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2021/feb/19/anti-tank-missiles-helina-and-dhruvastra-successfully-tested-ready-for-induction-in-armed-forces-2266170.html |access-date=2021-02-19 |website=The New Indian Express}}</ref>
* On 11 December 2021, DRDO and IAF flight-tested '''SANT''' from Pokhran ranges. The release mechanism, guidance and tracking algorithms, avionics with integrated software performed well.<ref>{{cite web |last=Rout |first=Hemant Kumar |date=11 December 2021 |title=IAF, DRDO test fire Stand-Off Anti-Tank missile from Pokhran ranges |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2021/dec/11/iaf-drdo-test-fire-stand-off-anti-tank-missile-from-pokhran-ranges-2394481.html |access-date=11 December 2021 |work=The New Indian Express}}</ref>
* On 12 April 2022, '''HELINA''' was test fired from [[HAL Rudra]] in [[Pokhran#Pokhran Test Range|Pokhran]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-11 |title=India carries out successful flight-test of anti-tank guided missile Helina in Pokhran |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-flight-test-anti-tank-guided-missile-helina-pokhran-7864499/ |access-date=2022-04-12 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> This trial has paved the way for the final integration of the HELINA into the HAL Rudra (Dhruv Mk IV/Dhruv WSI) platform of the Army.<ref>{{Cite web |title=DRDO HELINA ATGM Cleared on Indian Rudra Armed Helicopter |url=https://gbp.com.sg/stories/drdo-helina-atgm-cleared-on-indian-rudra-armed-helicopter/ |access-date=2024-08-22 |website=GBP |language=en-US}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|India|Rocketry}}
* {{lwc|SAMHO}}
* {{lwc|MPATGM}}

{{Wepscontent
|similar weapons=
*{{lwc|PARS 3 LR}}
*{{lwc|Spike (missile)|Spike-ER}}
*{{lwc|HJ-10}}
*{{lwc|ALAS (missile)|ALAS}}

|lists=
*[[List of anti-tank guided missiles]]
*[[List of missiles]]

}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Nag missiles}}
* [https://www.mod.gov.in/sites/default/files/MoDAR2018.pdf, Annual Report 2018-19 Ministry of Defence, Government of India]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120307114843/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/MISSILES/atgm/na.html Nag ATGM]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7rWJPi7K1Fc Nag test video]

{{Defence Research and Development Organisation}}
{{Indian missiles}}

[[Category:Anti-tank guided missiles]]
[[Category:Guided missiles of India]]
[[Category:Weapons and ammunition introduced in 2020]]
[[Category:Fire-and-forget weapons]]

Zaki Muradabadi

2025-10-16T17:12:16Z

AhmedSturgis: Added Initial Article First Draft

{{Short description|Indian Urdu poet}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2025}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Zaki Muradabadi
| other_names = Zaki Muradabadi Dehlvi
| birth_date =
| birth_place = Moradabad, Uttar Pradesh, India
| occupation = poet, writer, and critic
}}

'''Zaki Muradabadi''' ({{Langx|ur|ذکی مرادآبادی}}, {{Langx|hi|ज़की मुरादाबादी}}) also known as '''Zaki Muradabadi Dehlvi''', was an Indian Urdu poet, writer, and critic from India.<ref>{{Cite book |title=INTIKHAB-E-DEEWAN-E-ZAKI MURADABADI |publisher=Urdu Press, Aligarh |isbn=9780199061556 |language=Urdu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Trivedi |first=Madhu |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6jjHxObm8jgC&dq=Zaki+Muradabadi&pg=PA314 |title=The Making of the Awadh Culture |date=2010 |publisher=Primus Books |isbn=978-81-908918-8-2 |language=en}}</ref>

== Early life and birth ==
Zaki's father ' Ali and his ancestors belonged to Lucknow, but he was born in Moradabad and lived there for most of his life. He was receiving pension from Rampur state of [[Muhammad Said Khan|Nawab Muhammad Saeed Khan]] for a long time He was born in 1930.<ref>{{Cite book |last=تهرانى، |first=محمد محسن آقا بزرگ |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T6AxAAAAMAAJ&q=%D8%B0%DA%A9%DB%8C+%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AF%DB%8C |title=مصنفات شيعه: ترجمه و تلخيص الذريعة إلى تصانيف الشيعة |date=1994 |publisher=بنياد پژوهشهاى اسلامى، آستان قدس رضوى، |language=fa}}</ref> Zaki belonged to a family with a literary background, which greatly influenced his passion for poetry and literature.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Qadiri |first=Khalid Hasan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5rpjAAAAMAAJ&q=Zaki+Muradabadi |title=Hasrat Mohani |date=1985 |publisher=Idarah-i Adabiyat-i Delli |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zTJuAAAAMAAJ&q=Zaki+Muradabadi |title=Uttar Pradesh District Gazetteers: Moradabad |date=1968 |publisher=Government of Uttar Pradesh |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Khayyāmṕūr |first=ʻA |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_vYLAAAAIAAJ&q=%D8%B0%DA%A9%DB%8C+%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AF%DB%8C |title=فرهنگ سخنوران |date=1990 |publisher=انتشارات طلايه، |language=fa}}</ref>

== Career ==
He was highly regarded for his contributions to [[Urdu literature]], particularly his poetry. He wrote ''[[ghazal]]s'', ''[[nazm]]s'', and other forms of Urdu poetry. His poetry often explored themes such as love, longing, mysticism, and the human condition.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shabīhulḥasan |first=Sayyid |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KPjRAAAAMAAJ&q=%D8%B0%DA%A9%DB%8C+%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AF%DB%8C |title=ناسخ: تجزىه و تقدىر |date=1974 |publisher=Shabīhulḥasan |language=ur}}</ref> Zaki's works were characterized by their depth of emotion, intricate imagery, and linguistic beauty.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Anonymous |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XAP1DwAAQBAJ&dq=%D8%B0%DA%A9%DB%8C+%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AF%DB%8C&pg=PT299 |title=Kitāb shināsi-yi āthār-i Fārsi-yi chāp shuda dar shibh-i qāra (Hind, Pākistān, Banglādish), 1160-1387/1195-1428/1781-2007. Volume 3 |date=2019-05-15 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-40607-0 |language=fa}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Misbahi |first=Muhammad Faheem Jilani Ahsan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LuOUEAAAQBAJ&dq=%D8%B0%DA%A9%DB%8C+%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AF%DB%8C&pg=PA76 |title=Tajalliyaate Ahsan (Jild 1) - Urdu |date=2022-10-14 |publisher=Abde Mustafa Official |language=ur}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mehmood |first=Raja Rasheed |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iIWPBQAAQBAJ&dq=%D8%B0%DA%A9%DB%8C+%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AF%DB%8C&pg=PA17 |title=Poets of Naat: Praises the Islamic Prophet |publisher=Urdu-Books |language=ur}}</ref>

In addition to his poetry, he was also known for his critical essays and literary analyses. He played a significant role in promoting Urdu literature and preserving its rich literary heritage.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pradesh (India) |first=Uttar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WYobAAAAIAAJ&q=Zaki+Muradabadi |title=Uttar Pradesh District Gazetteers: Moradabad |date=1959 |publisher=Government of Uttar Pradesh |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Brelvi |first=Mahmud |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0_42AAAAIAAJ&q=%D8%B0%DA%A9%DB%8C+%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AF%DB%8C |title=Muk̲h̲taṣar tārīk̲h̲-i adab-i Urdū, bā taṣvīr |date=1985 |publisher=Shaik̲h̲ G̲h̲ulām ʻAlī ainḍ Sanz |language=ur}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
* {{Cite book |last=Mohani |first=Hasrat |author-link=Hasrat Mohani |url=https://www.rekhta.org/ebooks/detail/intikhab-e-deewan-e-zaki-muradabadi-ebooks |title=Intikhab-e-Deewan-e-Zaki Muradabadi |publisher=Urdu Press |isbn=9780199061556 |location=Aligarh |language=Urdu}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Muradabadi, Zaki}}
[[Category:People from Moradabad]]
[[Category:Poets from Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian poets]]
[[Category:Urdu-language Indian poets]]
[[Category:Indian male poets]]

Kadiri railway station

2025-09-21T14:17:48Z

AhmedSturgis: new a data

{{Short description|Railway station in Andhra Pradesh}}
{{Infobox station
| name = Kadiri
| style = Indian Railways
| type = [[Indian Railways]] station
| image = Kadiri railway station board.jpg
| caption = Kadiri railway station board
| address = Railway Station Road, Gandhi nagar [[Kadiri]]
| country = India
| owned = [[Indian Railways]]
| operator = [[Guntakal railway division]]
| lines = [[Dharmavaram–Pakala branch line]]
| platforms = 3
| tracks = 4
| connections = Auto Stand
| structure = Standard (on-ground station)
| parking = Yes
| status = Functioning
| code = KRY
| zone = [[South Central Railway Zone]]
| opened = 1892
| electrified = 2020-21
}}
'''Kadiri railway station''' (station code: '''KRY''') is located in the [[Anantapur district]] of [[Andhra Pradesh]], India, and serves the city of [[Kadiri]]. It lies on the [[Dharmavaram–Pakala branch line]] and comes under the jurisdiction of [[Guntakal railway division]] of the [[South Central Railway zone]]. The railway line was constructed in 1891 along with the Railway Station and electrified in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|last=done|first=134 km of electrification done|title=Dharmavaram-Kadiri Line Electrified|website=[[The Hindu]] |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/134-km-of-electrification-done/article34085419.ece}}</ref> The platforms are well-sheltered compared to other stations on the same railway line. It is one of the major railway stations on this line. <ref name="indiarailinfo">{{Cite web|title=Kadiri Railway Station|url=https://indiarailinfo.com/departures/kadiri-kry/6082}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Successfully|first=Kadiri Line Electrified|title=Kadiri Line electrified|url=https://kalingatv.com/business/south-central-railway-commissions-134-km-of-electrified-railway-lines-in-last-few-days/}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{coord|14.1147|78.1654|type:railwaystation_region:IN|display=title}}

[[Category:Railway stations in India opened in 1892]]
[[Category:Railway stations in Anantapur district]]

{{AndhraPradesh-railstation-stub}}