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Ananya Rao

2023-10-05T10:11:32Z

Adam Kassab: Created page with '{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2023}} {{Short description|Indian television personality and model}} {{Indian name|Ananya|Rao}} {{Infobox person | name = Ananya Rao | image = | birth_name = Ananya S Rao | birth_date = | birth_place = | years_active = 2023{{endash}}present | occupation = {{hlist|Model|Television personality}} | nationality = | spouse = | known_for = ''IRL: In Real Love'' <br /> ''Bigg Boss (Tamil season 7)...'

{{notability|1=Biographies|date=October 2023}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2023}}
{{Short description|Indian television personality and model}}
{{Indian name|Ananya|Rao}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Ananya Rao
| image =
| birth_name = Ananya S Rao
| birth_date =
| birth_place =
| years_active = 2023{{endash}}present
| occupation = {{hlist|Model|Television personality}}
| nationality =
| spouse =
| known_for = ''IRL: In Real Love'' <br /> ''[[Bigg Boss (Tamil season 7)|Bigg Boss 7]]''
| relatives = {{ubl|Apoorva Rao (sister)}}
| website =
}}

'''Ananya Rao''' is an Indian television personality and model who predominantly works in Indian television. Ananya is the twin sister of content creator Apoorva Rao, she is best known for her appearance in the [[Netflix]] series, ''IRL: In Real Love'' in 2023.<ref>{{Cite news|url= https://www.harpersbazaararabia.com/culture/celebrity/who-is-ananya-rao-from-irl|title= Who Is Ananya Rao From IRL: In Real Love?|website=Arabia Bazzar|date=13 April 2023 }}</ref> She is also known for her participation in the reality show ''[[Bigg Boss (Tamil season 7)|Bigg Boss 7]]'' as a contestant.<ref>{{Cite news|url= https://newsd.in/who-is-ananya-rao-unraveling-the-mystery-behind-bigg-boss-tamil-7-contestant/|title= Who is Ananya Rao: Unraveling the Mystery Behind Bigg Boss Tamil 7 Contestant |website=Newsd|date=1 October 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url= https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/bigg-boss-tamil-7-highlights-october-2-aishu-and-ananya-rao-getting-maximum-nominations-for-eviction-heres-a-look-at-the-major-events-of-the-episode/articleshow/104119428.cms|title= Bigg Boss Tamil 7 highlights, October 2: Aishu and Ananya Rao get most votes|website=Times Of India|date=3 October 2023 }}</ref>

Rao also appeared in many modelling competitions around the world and known for appearing in various different ramp walks around India.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.harpersbazaararabia.com/culture/celebrity/irl-in-real-loves-ananya-rao-exclusive|title= IRL: In Real Love’s Ananya Rao: “I Didn’t Like Dhruv On the First Speed Date” - Exclusive |website=Arabia Bazzar|date=13 April 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.cosmopolitanme.com/celebs/ananya-s-rao-irl-interview |title= Ananya S Rao from In Real Love thought she could “never fall in love”|website=Cosmos|date=13 April 2023 }}</ref>

She also won Karnataka Chethna award alongside her sister Apoorva Rao in 2013.<ref>{{Cite news|url= http://www.coastaldigest.com/news/58507-twin-sisters-receive-karnataka-chethana-award?page=3|title=http://www.coastaldigest.com/news/58507-twin-sisters-receive-karnataka-chethana-award?page=3 |website=Coastal Digest|date=21 October 2013 }}</ref>
== Filmography ==
=== Television ===

{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background:#b0c4de; text-align:center;"
! Year !! Show/series !! Role
!Notes
|-
|-
| 2023
|''IRL: In Real Love'' || Contestant
|
|-
|2023
| ''[[Bigg Boss (Tamil season 7)|Bigg Boss 7]]'' || Contestant
|
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{Instagram|id=_ananyasrao_|name=Ananya Rao}}
* {{IMDb name|12733749}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rao, Ananya}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian television personalities]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Bigg Boss (Tamil TV series) contestants]]

Isra' and Mi'raj

2023-09-29T23:16:56Z

Adam Kassab: removed honorific per BP:ISLAMHON

{{Short description|Night journey undertaken by Muhammad in Islamic tradition}}
{{for|the 17th chapter of the Quran|al-Isra'}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}
[[File: Miraj by Sultan Muhammad.jpg|thumb|'' Ascent of Muhammad to Heaven'' (c. 1539–1543), from the [[Nizami Ganjavi#Quinary ("Panj Ganj" or "Khamsa")|Khamseh of Nizami]]]]
[[File:Temple Mount (Aerial view, 2007) 05.jpg|alt=|thumb|[[Al-Aqsa|Al-Aqsa Mosque compound]], also known as the Temple Mount]]
{{Muhammad|miracles}}
[[File: Isra and Mihraj.png|thumb|Isra and Mihraj calligraphy for all descriptive purposes]]

The '''Israʾ and Miʿraj''' ({{lang-ar|الإسراء والمعراج}}, ''{{transl|ar|al-’Isrā’ wal-Miʿrāj}}'') are the two parts of a '''Night Journey''' that, according to [[Islam]], the Islamic prophet [[Muhammad]] ([[AD]] 570–632) took during a single night around the year AD 621 (1 [[Hijri year|BH]] – 0 BH). Within Islam, it signifies both a physical and spiritual journey.<ref name=enc>{{cite book |editor1-first=Richard C. |editor1-last=Martin |editor2-first=Saïd Amir |editor2-last=Arjomand |editor2-link=Saïd Amir Arjomand|editor3-first=Marcia |editor3-last=Hermansen |editor4-first=Abdulkader |editor4-last=Tayob |editor5-first=Rochelle |editor5-last=Davis |editor6-first=John Obert |editor6-last=Voll |title=Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World |year=2003 |publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers (United States)|Macmillan Reference USA]] |isbn=978-0-02-865603-8 | page = 482}}</ref> A brief sketch of the story is in the 17th chapter of the [[Quran]], called ''[[al-Isra']]'',<ref name="alisra">{{qref|17|1|c=y}}</ref> while greater detail is found in the ''[[hadith]]''; later collections of the reports, teachings, deeds and sayings of Muhammad.

In the ''Israʾ'' part of the journey, Muhammad is said to have traveled on the back of [[Buraq]] to [[Al-Aqsa]] (i.e. the [[Temple Mount]]), where he led other prophets in prayer.<ref>Jerusalem and Its Role in Islamic Solidarity, Y. Reiter, Springer, 26 May 2008, p.30</ref> In the next part of the journey, the ''Miʿraj'', he [[Entering heaven alive|ascended into heaven]], where he individually greeted the prophets and later spoke to God, who gave Muhammad instructions to take back to the Muslims regarding the details of prayer. The journey and ascent are marked as one of the most celebrated dates in the [[Islamic calendar]].<ref name="times">{{Cite news|title=A night journey through Jerusalem |date=18 August 2007|access-date=27 March 2011|author=Bradlow, Khadija|work=[[The Times|Times Online]] |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/a-night-journey-through-jerusalem-zxxb7n0bbpn |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==Islamic sources==
The events of Isra and Miʿraj are mentioned briefly in the Quran and then further expanded and interpreted within the supplements to the Quran, the literary corpus known as [[hadith]], which contain the reported sayings of Muhammad. Two of the best hadith sources are by [[Anas ibn Malik]] and [[Abd Allah ibn Abbas|Ibn ʿAbbas]]. Both were young boys at the time of Muhammad's journey of Mi'raj.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Colby|first1=Frederick S.|title=Narrating Muhammad's Night Journey: Teaching the Development of the Ibn 'Abbas Ascension Discourse|date=2008|publisher=State University of New York Press|location=Albany|isbn=978-0-7914-7518-8}}</ref>

===The Quran===
{{Islamic Culture}}

Within the [[Quran]], chapter ({{transliteration|ar|[[surah]]}}) 17 {{transliteration|ar|[[al-Isra]]}}, was named after the Isra', and the first verse contains a brief description. There is also some information in a later verse, and some scholars<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Colby |first=Frederick S.|date=2002|title=The Subtleties of the Ascension: al-Sulamī on the Mi'rāj of the Prophet Muhammad|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1596216 |journal=Studia Islamica |issue=94 |pages=167–183 |doi=10.2307/1596216 |jstor=1596216 |issn=0585-5292}}</ref> say a verse in {{transliteration|ar|surah [[an-Najm]]}} also holds information on the Isra and Miʿraj.

{{bq|Glory be to the One Who took His servant ˹Muḥammad˺ by night from the Sacred Mosque to the Farthest Mosque whose surroundings We have blessed, so that We may show him some of Our signs. Indeed, He alone is the All-Hearing, All-Seeing.|{{qref|17|1|c=y}}}}

{{bq|And ˹remember, O Prophet˺ when We told you, "Certainly your Lord encompasses the people." And We have made what We brought you to see as well as the cursed tree ˹mentioned˺ in the Quran only as a test for the people. We keep warning them, but it only increases them greatly in defiance.|{{qref|17|60|c=y}}}}

{{bq|And he certainly saw that ˹angel descend˺ a second time{{pb}}at the [[Sidrat al-Muntaha|Lote Tree]] of the most extreme limit ˹in the seventh heaven˺—{{pb}}near which is the Garden of ˹Eternal˺ Residence—{{pb}}while the Lote Tree was overwhelmed with ˹heavenly˺ splendours!{{pb}}The ˹Prophet's˺ sight never wandered, nor did it overreach.{{pb}}He certainly saw some of his Lord's greatest signs.|{{qref|53|13-18|c=y}}}}

==={{transliteration|ar|Ahadith}}===
Various hadiths contain much greater detail. The {{transliteration|ar|Israʾ}} is the part of the journey of Muhammad from Mecca to the farthest place of worship, though the city is not explicitly mentioned. The journey began when Muhammad was in the Great Mosque in Mecca, and the [[Holy Spirit in Islam|Archangel Jibrīl]] (or Jibrāʾīl, [[Gabriel]]) came to him, and brought [[Buraq]], the traditional heavenly mount of the prophets. Buraq carried Muhammad to the "farthest place of worship". Muhammad alighted, tethered Buraq and performed prayer, where on God's command he was tested by Gabriel.<ref>{{cite web|author=Momina|title=isra wal miraj|url=http://www.chowrangi.com/al-isra-wal-miraj-the-night-journey-and-the-ascension-of-prophet-muhammad-peace-and-blessings-be-upon-him.html|publisher=chourangi|access-date=16 June 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120615232240/http://www.chowrangi.com/al-isra-wal-miraj-the-night-journey-and-the-ascension-of-prophet-muhammad-peace-and-blessings-be-upon-him.html|archive-date=15 June 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.duas.org/articles/merajarticle.htm|title=Meraj Article|work=duas.org|access-date=12 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025042431/http://www.duas.org/articles/merajarticle.htm|archive-date=25 October 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> It was told by [[Anas ibn Malik]] that Muhammad said: "Jibra'il brought me a vessel of wine, a vessel of water and a vessel of milk, and I chose the milk. Jibra'il said: 'You have chosen the [[Fitra]]h (natural instinct).'" In the second part of the journey, the {{transliteration|ar|Miʿraj}} (an Arabic word that literally means "ladder"), Jibra'il took him to the heavens, where he toured the [[Seven Heavens|seven stages of heaven]], and spoke with the earlier prophets such as [[Abraham]] ([[Abraham in Islam|ʾIbrāhīm]]), [[Moses]] ([[Moses in Islam|Musa]]), [[John the Baptist]] ([[John the Baptist in Islam|Yaḥyā ibn Zakarīyā]]), and [[Jesus]] ([[Jesus in Islam|Isa]]).<ref>{{Href|bukhari|3430|b=y}}</ref><ref>{{Href|bukhari|3437|b=y}}</ref> Muhammad was then taken to [[Sidrat al-Muntaha]] – a holy tree in the seventh heaven that Gabriel was not allowed to pass. According to Islamic tradition, God instructed Muhammad that [[Muslim]]s must pray fifty times per day; however, Moses told Muhammad that it was very difficult for the people and urged Muhammad to ask for a reduction, until finally it was reduced to five times per day.<ref name=times/><ref>IslamAwareness.net – [http://www.islamawareness.net/Isra/isra.html Isra and Mi'raj, The Details] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090724113028/http://www.islamawareness.net/Isra/isra.html |date=24 July 2009 }}</ref><ref>[[About.com]] – [http://islam.about.com/od/otherdays/a/isra-miraj.htm The Meaning of Isra' and Miʿraj in Islam] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090506001455/http://islam.about.com/od/otherdays/a/isra-miraj.htm |date=6 May 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book| last = Vuckovic| first = Brooke Olson| title = Heavenly Journeys, Earthly Concerns: The Legacy of the Mi'raj in the Formation of Islam (Religion in History, Society and Culture)| date = 30 December 2004| publisher = [[Routledge]]| isbn = 978-0-415-96785-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| last = Mahmoud| first = Omar| title = Muhammad: an evolution of God| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=hqiQwmTDYBUC&q=isra+and+miraj&pg=PA56 | access-date = 27 March 2011| date = 25 April 2008| publisher = [[AuthorHouse]]| isbn = 978-1-4343-5586-7| page = 56| chapter = The Journey to Meet God Almighty by Muhammad—Al-Isra}}</ref>

====The Miraj ====
There are different accounts of what occurred during the Miʿraj, but most narratives have the same elements: Muhammad ascends into heaven with the angel Gabriel and meets a different prophet at each of the seven levels of heaven; first [[Adam in Islam|Adam]], then [[John the Baptist#Islam|John the Baptist]] and [[Jesus in Islam|Jesus]], then [[Joseph in Islam|Joseph]], then [[Idris (prophet)|Idris]], then [[Aaron]], then [[Moses in Islam|Moses]], and lastly [[Abraham in Islam|Abraham]]. After Muhammad meets with Abraham, he continues on to meet God without Gabriel. God tells Muhammad that his people must pray 50 times a day, but as Muhammad descends back to Earth, he meets Moses who tells Muhammad to go back to God and ask for fewer prayers because 50 is too many. Muhammad goes between Moses and God nine times, until the prayers are reduced to the five daily prayers, which God will reward tenfold.<ref>{{cite book|last1=al-Tabari|title=The History of al-Tabari volume VI: Muhammad at Mecca|date=1989|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=0-88706-706-9}}</ref> To that again, Moses tells Muhammad to ask for even fewer but Muhammad feels ashamed and says that he is thankful for the five.<ref>{{Href|bukhari|7517|b=y}}</ref>

[[Al-Tabari]] is a classic and authentic source for Islamic research. His description of the Miʿraj is just as simplified as the description given above, which is where other narratives and hadiths of the Miʿraj stem from, as well as word of mouth. While this is the simplest description of the Miʿraj, others include more details about the prophets that Muhammad meets. In accounts written by Muslims, [[Muhammad al-Bukhari|Bukhari]], [[Ibn Ishaq]], Ahmad b. Hanbal and others, physical descriptions of the prophets are given. [[Adam]] is described first as being Muhammad's father, which establishes a link between them as first and last prophets.<ref name="Routledge">{{cite book|last1=Vuckovic|first1=Brooke Olsen|title=Heavenly Journeys, Earthly Concerns: The Legacy of the Miʿraj in the Formation of Islam|date=2005|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0-415-96785-6}}</ref> Physical descriptions of Adam show him as tall and handsome with long hair. Idris, who is not mentioned as much as the other prophets Muhammad meets, is described as someone who was raised to a higher status by God. Joseph is described as the most beautiful man who is like the moon. His presence in the Miʿraj is to show his popularity and how it relates to Muhammad's. Aaron is described as Muhammad's brother who is older and one of the most beautiful men that Muhammad had met. Again, the love for Aaron by his people relates to Muhammad and his people. Abraham is described with likeness to Muhammad in ways that illustrate him to be Muhammad's father. Jesus is usually linked to John the Baptist, who is not mentioned much. Moses is different than the other prophets that Muhammad meets in that Moses stands as a point of difference rather than similarities.<ref name="Routledge"/>

Some narratives also record events that preceded the heavenly ascent. Some scholars{{who?|date=October 2021}} believe that the opening of Muhammad's chest was a cleansing ritual that purified Muhammad before he ascended into heaven. Muhammad's chest was opened up and water of Zamzam was poured on his heart giving him wisdom, belief, and other necessary characteristics to help him in his ascent. This purification is also seen in the trial of the drinks. It is debated when it took place—before or after the ascent—but either way it plays an important role in determining Muhammad's spiritual righteousness.<ref name="Routledge"/>

====Ibn ʿAbbas Primitive Version====
[[Ibn ʿAbbas]]' Primitive Version narrates all that Muhammad encounters throughout his journey through heaven. This includes seeing other angels, and seas of light, darkness, and fire. With Gabriel as his companion, Muhammad meets four key angels as he travels through the heavens. These angels are the Rooster angel (whose call influences all earthly roosters), [[Ishim (angel)#In Islam|Half-Fire Half-Snow angel]] (who provides an example of God's power to bring fire and ice in harmony), the [[Azrael|Angel of Death]] (who describes the process of death and the sorting of souls), and the [[Maalik|Guardian of Hellfire]] (who shows Muhammad what hell looks like). These four angels are met in the beginning of Ibn ʿAbbas' narrative. They are mentioned in other accounts of Muhammad's ascension, but they are not talked about with as much detail as Ibn ʿAbbas provides. As the narrative continues, Ibn ʿAbbas focuses mostly on the angels that Muhammad meets rather than the prophets. There are rows of angels that Muhammad encounters throughout heaven, and he even meets certain deeply devoted angels called [[cherub]]im. These angels instill fear in Muhammad, but he later sees them as God's creation, and therefore not harmful. Other important details that Ibn ʿAbbas adds to the narrative are the Heavenly Host Debate, the Final Verses of the Cow Chapter, and the Favor of the Prophets.<ref name="State University of New York Press">{{cite book|last1=Colby|first1=Frederick S|title=Narrating Muhammad's Night Journey: Tracing the Development of the Ibn 'Abbas Ascension Discourse|date=2008|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-7518-8}}</ref> These important topics help to outline the greater detail that Ibn ʿAbbas uses in his Primitive Version.

In an attempt to reestablish Ibn ʿAbbas as authentic, it seems as though a translator added the descent of Muhammad and the meeting with the prophets. The narrative only briefly states the encounters with the prophets, and does so in a way that is in chronological order rather than the normal order usually seen in ascension narratives. Ibn ʿAbbas may have left out the meeting of the prophets and the encounter with Moses that led to the reduction of daily prayers because those events were already written elsewhere. Whether he included that in his original narrative or if it was added by a later translator is unknown, but often a point of contention when discussing Ibn ʿAbbas's Primitive Version.<ref name="State University of New York Press"/>

==== Sufi interpretations ====
The belief that Muhammad made the heavenly journey bodily was used to prove the unique status of Muhammad.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Schimmel|first=Annemarie|title=And Muhammad Is His Messenger: The Veneration of the Prophet in Islamic Piety|publisher=The University of North Carolina Press|year=1985|isbn=978-0-8078-1639-4}}</ref> One theory among [[Sufism|Sufis]] was that Muhammad's body could reach God to a proximity that even the greatest saints could only reach in spirit.<ref name=":0" /> They debated whether Muhammad had really seen the Lord and if he did, whether he did so with his eyes or with his heart.<ref name=":0" /> Nevertheless, Muhammad's superiority is again demonstrated in that even in the extreme proximity of the Lord, "his eye neither swerved nor was turned away," whereas Moses had fainted when the Lord appeared to him in a burning bush.<ref name=":0" /> Various thinkers used this point to prove the superiority of Muhammad.<ref name=":0" /> (The source for Moses' having fainted is in surah [[al-A'raf]]:143. In the Biblical narrative ([[Book of Exodus|Exodus]] 3:4–4:17), the texts for verse 3:6 state simply that Moses "hid his face" ([[Masoretic]] [[Hebrew]], [[Targum]] [[Aramaic]], and [[Samaritan Pentateuch|Samaritan]]) or "averted his face" ([[Septuagint]] [[Greek language|Greek]]).)

The Subtleties of the Ascension by Abu ʿAbd al-Rahman al-Sulami includes repeated quotations from other mystics that also affirm the superiority of Muhammad.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Colby|first=Frederick|date=2002|title=The Subtleties of the Ascension: al-Sulami on the Miraj of the Prophet Muhammad|journal=Studia Islamica|issue=94|pages=167–183|doi=10.2307/1596216|jstor=1596216}}</ref> Many Sufis interpreted the Miʿraj to ask questions about the meaning of certain events within the Miʿraj, and drew conclusions based on their interpretations, especially to substantiate ideas of the superiority of Muhammad over other prophets.<ref name=":0" />

[[Muhammad Iqbal]], a self-proclaimed intellectual descendant of [[Rumi]] and the poet-scholar who personified poetic Sufism in South Asia, used the event of the Miʿraj to conceptualize an essential difference between a prophet and a Sufi.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Schimmel|first=Annemarie|title=And Muhammad Is His Messenger: The Veneration of the Prophet in Islamic Piety|publisher=The University of North Carolina Press|year=1985|isbn=978-0-8078-1639-4|pages=247–248}}</ref> He recounts that Muhammad, during his Miʿraj journey, visited the heavens and then eventually returned to the temporal world.<ref name=":1" /> Iqbal then quotes another South Asian Muslim saint by the name of '[[Abdul Quddus Gangohi]] who asserted that if he (Gangohi) had had that experience, he would never have returned to this world.<ref name=":1" /> Iqbal uses Gangohi's spiritual aspiration to argue that while a saint or a Sufi would not wish to renounce the spiritual experience for something this-worldly, a prophet is a prophet precisely because he returns with a force so powerful that he changes world history by imbuing it with a creative and fresh thrust.<ref name=":1" />

==European sources==
[[File:Muhammad's ladder, from Livre de l'eschiele Mahomet.png|thumb|upright|Illustration of Muhammad on a ladder, from the sole copy of the French ''Book of Muhammad's Ladder'']]
In the 13th century AD, an account of the Isra' and Mi'raj was translated into several European languages—[[Latin]], [[Old Spanish|Spanish]] and [[Old French|French]]. Known as the ''[[Book of Muhammad's Ladder]]'', this account purports to be the words of Muhammad himself as recorded by Ibn Abbas. It was translated by [[Abraham of Toledo]] and [[Bonaventura da Siena|Bonaventure of Siena]]. It may have influenced [[Dante Alighieri]]'s account of an ascent to heaven and descent to hell in the ''[[Divine Comedy]]''.<ref>Ana Echevarría, "Liber scalae Machometi", in David Thomas; Alex Mallett (eds.), ''Christian–Muslim Relations: A Bibliographical History'', Vol. 4 (Brill, 2012), pp. 425–428.</ref>

==Modern Muslim observance==
The ''Lailat al-Miʿraj'' ({{lang-ar|لیلة المعراج}}, {{transl|ar|Lailatu 'l-Miʿrāj}}), also known as ''Shab-e-Mi'raj'' ({{lang-bn|শবে মেরাজ|Šobe Meraj}}, {{lang-fa|شب معراج}}, {{transl|fa|Šab-e Mi'râj}}) in Iran, [[Pakistan]], [[India]] and [[Bangladesh]], and ''Miraç Kandili'' in [[Turkish language|Turkish]], is the [[Muslim holidays|Muslim holiday]] celebrating the Isra and Miʿraj. Another name for the holiday is ''Mehraj-ul-Alam'' (also spelled ''Meraj-ul-Alam''). Some Muslims celebrate this event by offering optional prayers during this night, and in some Muslim countries, by illuminating cities with electric lights and candles. The celebrations around this day tend to focus on every Muslim who wants to celebrate it. Worshippers gather into mosques and perform prayer and supplication. Some people may pass their knowledge on to others by telling them the story on how Muhammad's heart was purified by the [[Gabriel|archangel Gabriel]], who filled him with knowledge and faith in preparation to enter the seven levels of heaven. After [[salah]], food and treats are served.<ref name=times/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/holydays/lailatalmiraj.shtml|title=BBC – Religions – Islam: Lailat al Miraj|work=bbc.co.uk|access-date=17 August 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071016102122/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/holydays/lailatalmiraj.shtml|archive-date=16 October 2007|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wrmea.com/backissues/0191/9101056.htm|title=WRMEA – Islam in America|work=Washington Report on Middle East Affairs|access-date=17 August 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927190002/http://www.wrmea.com/backissues/0191/9101056.htm|archive-date=27 September 2007|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/j-k/meraj-ul-alam-observed-753553|title=Meraj-ul-Alam observed|work=[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)|Tribune India]]|date=4 April 2019|accessdate=13 March 2021}}</ref>{{bsn|date=June 2022}}

In Jerusalem on the Temple Mount, the structure of the [[Dome of the Rock]], built several decades after Muhammad's death, marks the place from which Muhammad is believed to have ascended to [[heaven]]. The exact date of the Journey is not clear, but is celebrated as though it took place before the [[Hijrah]] and after Muhammad's visit to the people of [[Ta'if]]. The normative view amongst Sunni Muslims who ascribe a specific date to the event is that it took place on the 27th of Rajab, slightly over a year before Hijrah. <ref>Reiter, Yitzhak. "The Elevation in Sanctity of al-Aqsa and al-Quds." Jerusalem and Its Role in Islamic Solidarity. Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2008. 11-35.</ref> This would correspond to the 26th of February 621 in the [[Western calendar]]. In [[Twelver]] [[Iran]], Rajab 27 is the day of Muhammad's first calling or ''Mab'as''. The al-Aqsa Mosque and surrounding area is now the third-holiest place on earth for Muslims.<ref name="BloomBlair2009">{{cite book|author1=Jonathan M. Bloom|author2=Sheila Blair|title=The Grove encyclopedia of Islamic art and architecture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC&pg=PA76|access-date=26 December 2011|year=2009|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-530991-1|page=76|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130615020218/http://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC&pg=PA76|archive-date=15 June 2013|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Grabar2006">{{cite book|author=Oleg Grabar|title=The Dome of the Rock|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OeIOowshe6EC&pg=PA14|access-date=26 December 2011|date=1 October 2006|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-02313-0|page=14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130615020045/http://books.google.com/books?id=OeIOowshe6EC&pg=PA14|archive-date=15 June 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>

Many sects and offshoots belonging to Islamic mysticism interpret Muhammad's night ascent – the Isra and Miʿraj – to be an out-of-body experience through nonphysical environments,<ref>Brent E. McNeely, [http://www.bhporter.com/Porter%20PDF%20Files/The%20Miraj%20of%20Muhammad%20in%20an%20Asceneion%20Typology.pdf "The Miraj of Prophet Muhammad in an Ascension Typology"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120530231238/http://www.bhporter.com/Porter%20PDF%20Files/The%20Miraj%20of%20Muhammad%20in%20an%20Asceneion%20Typology.pdf |date=30 May 2012 }}, p3</ref><ref>Buhlman, William, "The Secret of the Soul", 2001, {{ISBN|978-0-06-251671-8}}, p111</ref> unlike the Sunni Muslims or mainstream Islam. The mystics claim Muhammad was transported to the farthest place of worship and then onward to the [[Seven Heavens]], even though "the apostle's body remained where it was."<ref>{{cite book| last1= Brown| first1= Dennis| last2= Morris| first2= Stephen| series= Rhinegold Eeligious Studies Study Guide| title= A Student's Guide to A2 Religious Studies: for the AQA Specification| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=7OkAqYod1CgC| access-date= 10 January 2012| year= 2003| publisher= Rhinegold| location= London, UK| oclc= 257342107| isbn= 978-1-904226-09-3| page= 115| chapter= Religion and Human Experience| chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=7OkAqYod1CgC&pg=PA115| quote= The revelation of the Qur'an to Muhammad [includes] his Night Journey, an out-of-body experience where the prophet was miraculously taken to Jerusalem on the back of a mythical bird (buraq)....| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160210074350/https://books.google.com/books?id=7OkAqYod1CgC| archive-date= 10 February 2016| url-status= live}}</ref>

==Historical issues==
===Jerusalem site===
The general consensus of modern Muslim scholars is that the Isra' and Mi'raj were specific to a physical place called ''al-Masjid al-Aqsā'' ("the Far Mosque") and that Muhammad did indeed go to a physical location. Minority Muslim groups have also regarded the journey as an out-of-body experience.

It is traditionally associated with the [[Temple in Jerusalem|Temple]] in [[Jerusalem]] (both the structure and the city being called ''Bayt al-Maqdis'' in Islamic tradition calquing the Jewish name for the Temple) as well as the general area of the site, i.e. the [[Temple Mount]], analogous to how the term ''al-Masjid al-Harām'' "the Sacred Mosque" refers to both the [[Kaaba]] and the [[Masjid al-Haram|Al Haram Mosque]] built after Muhammad's death in its vicinity.

The [[Solomon's Temple|first]] and [[second temple]]s were destroyed by the [[Siege of Jerusalem (587 BCE)|Babylonians]] and the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)|Romans]], respectively, the latter more than five centuries before Muhammad's life. After the initially successful [[Jewish revolt against Heraclius]], the Jewish population resettled in Jerusalem for a short period of time from AD 614 to 630 and immediately started to restore the temple on the Temple Mount and build synagogues in Jerusalem.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Jerusalem Today: What Future for the Peace Process?|last=Ghada|first=Karmi|year=1997|pages=115–116}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=History of the Byzantine Jews: A Microcosmos in the Thousand Year Empire|last=Kohen|first=Elli|pages=36|chapter=5}}</ref> After the Jewish population was expelled a second time from Jerusalem and shortly before Heraclius retook the city (AD 630), a small synagogue was already in place on the Temple Mount. This synagogue was reportedly demolished after Heraclius retook Jerusalem.<ref>{{Cite book|title= The Armenian History Attributed to Sebeos|url= https://archive.org/details/armenianhistorya00thom|url-access= limited|isbn=9780853235644| pages=[https://archive.org/details/armenianhistorya00thom/page/n288 208]–212|author=R. W. Thomson |publisher= Liverpool University Press|year=1999}}</ref>

A small prayer hall ([[musalla]]), what would later become the [[Al-Aqsa Mosque]], was built by [[Umar]], the second caliph of the [[Rashidun Caliphate]]. This was rebuilt and expanded by the [[caliph]] [[Abd al-Malik]] in AD 690 along with the [[Dome of the Rock]].<ref name="Elad"/><ref name="le Strange">le Strange, Guy. (1890). ''Palestine under the Moslems'', pp. 80–98.</ref> In the reign of the caliph [[Mu'awiyah I]] of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] (founded in AD 661), a quadrangular mosque for a capacity of 3,000 worshipers is recorded somewhere on the Haram ash-Sharif.<ref name="Elad">Elad, Amikam. (1995). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=CDz_yctbQVgC&pg=PA29 Medieval Jerusalem and Islamic Worship. Holy Places, Ceremonies, Pilgrimage]'' BRILL, pp. 29–43. {{ISBN|90-04-10010-5}}.</ref>

A [[hadith]] reports Muhammad's account of the experience:

''"Then Gabriel brought a horse (Burraq) to me, which resembled lightning in swiftness and lustre, was of clear white colour, medium in size, smaller than a mule and taller than a (donkey), quick in movement that it put its feet on the farthest limit of the sight. He made me ride it and carried me to Jerusalem. He tethered the Burraq to the ring of that Temple to which all the Prophets in Jerusalem used to tether their beasts..."'' <ref>Siddiqui, Abdul Hameed. ''The Life of Muhammad''. Islamic Book Trust: Kuala Lumpur. 1999. p. 113. {{ISBN|983-9154-11-7}}</ref>

== Similarities to other Abrahamic traditions ==
Traditions of living persons ascending to heaven are also found in early Jewish and Christian literature.<ref>Bremmer, Jan N. "Descents to hell and ascents to heaven in apocalyptic literature." JJ Collins (Hg.), The Oxford Handbook of Apocalyptic Literature, Oxford (2014): 340-357.</ref> In the [[Books of Kings|Book of Kings]] of the [[Hebrew Bible]]/[[Old Testament]], the prophet [[Elijah]] is said to have [[Entering_heaven_alive|entered heaven alive]] "by fire".<ref name="2 Kings 2:11">[[2 Kings 2:11]]</ref> The [[Book of Enoch]], a late [[Second Temple Judaism|Second Temple]] Jewish [[Jewish apocrypha|apocryphal work]], describes a tour of heaven given by an angel to the patriarch [[Enoch]], the great-grandfather of [[Noah]]. According to Brooke Vuckovic, early Muslims may have had precisely this ascent in mind when interpreting Muhammad's night journey.<ref>Vuckovic, Brooke Olson. Heavenly journeys, earthly concerns: the legacy of the mi'raj in the formation of Islam. Routledge, 2004, 46.</ref> In the [[Testament of Abraham]], from the first century CE, [[Abraham]] is shown the final judgement of the righteous and unrighteous in heaven.

==See also==
* [[Islamic view of miracles]]
* [[Entering heaven alive]] - view of the belief in various religions
* [[Transfiguration of Jesus]]
* [[Miraj Nameh]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
*{{Cite book |last = Asad |first = Muhammad |author-link = Muhammad Asad |year = 1980 |title = The Message of the Qu'rán | section = Appendix IV: The Night Journey |publisher = Dar al-Andalus Limited |location = Gibraltar, Spain |isbn = 1904510000 |title-link = The Message of the Qu'rán }}
*Colby, Frederick, "Night Journey (Isra & Mi'raj)'', in Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God'' (2 vols.), Edited by C. Fitzpatrick and A. Walker, Santa Barbara, ABC-CLIO, 2014, Vol II, pp. 420–425.{{ISBN?}}
*Schimmel, Annemarie, "The Prophet's Night Journey and Ascension", in ''And Muhammad Is His Messenger: The Veneration of the Prophet in Islamic Piety'', University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 1985.{{ISBN?}}

==External links==
* Author Unknown, "[http://www.sunnah.org/ibadaat/fasting/ascen3.htm Commemorating The Prophet's Rapture And Ascension To His Lord] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180420143025/http://www.sunnah.org/ibadaat/fasting/ascen3.htm |date=20 April 2018 }}" in ''Sunnah.org'' (last accessed 24 September 2017)
* "[http://lasjan.page.tl/Isra-and-Miraj.htm Isra and Miraj: The Miraculous Night Journey] in ''Daiyah'' (last accessed 24 September 2017)
* [http://www.learndeen.org/cms/english-blog/seerah/israa-and-miraj Israa and Miraj] in ''Learn Deen'' (last accessed 24 September 2017)
* A. Bevan, ''Muhammad's Ascension to Heaven,'' in "Studien zu Semitischen Philologie und Religionsgeschichte Julius Wellhausen," (Topelman, 1914, pp. 53–54.)
* B. Schrieke, "Die Himmelsreise Muhammeds," Der Islam 6 (1915–16): 1–30
* Colby, Frederick. [https://web.archive.org/web/20070531165603/http://www.fonsvitae.com/ascension.html The Subtleties of the Ascension]: Lata'if Al-Miraj: Early Mystical Sayings on Muhammad's Heavenly Journey. City: Fons Vitae, 2006.
* [http://ahadith.co.uk/searchresults.php?q=ascended+to+heaven Hadith On Isra and Mi'raj] from [[Sahih Muslim]]
* [https://beinquran.com/isra-wal-miraj/ Isra Wal Miraj The Full Story Of The Night Journey]

{{Muslimholidays}}
{{Public holidays in Indonesia}}
{{Public holidays in Malaysia}}
{{Public holidays in Pakistan}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Isra' and Mi'raj}}
[[Category:Angelic apparitions]]
[[Category:Entering heaven alive]]
[[Category:Gabriel]]
[[Category:Islamic mythology]]
[[Category:Islamic terminology]]
[[Category:Kandil]]
[[Category:Life of Muhammad]]
[[Category:Miracles attributed to Muhammad]]
[[Category:Quran]]
[[Category:Quranic verses]]
[[Category:Shia days of remembrance]]
[[Category:Sunni Islam]]
[[Category:Katabasis]]

Censorship by Google

2023-09-22T13:25:30Z

Adam Kassab: Censorship by Google

{{Multiple issues|
{{Blacklisted-links|1=
*https://www.google.com/adsense/static/en_US/Terms.html
*:''Triggered by <code>\bgoogle\.com\/ad(senseƔword)</code> on the global blacklist''|bot=Cyberbot II}}
{{Update|date=January 2021}}
}}
[[Google]] and its subsidiary companies, such as [[YouTube]], have removed or omitted information from its services in order to comply with company policies, legal demands, and government [[censorship]] laws.<ref name=gatekeepers/>

Numerous governments have asked Google to censor content. In 2012, Google ruled in favor of more than half the requests they received via court orders and phone calls. This did not include [[China Central Television|China]] or [[Iran]], who completely blocked the site or one of its subsidiary companies.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702303836404577472571954977012|title=Google's Censorship Juggle|last=Sonne|first=Paul|date=June 18, 2012|website=The Wall Street Journal|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170731022847/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702303836404577472571954977012|archive-date=2017-07-31|url-status=dead|access-date=January 25, 2018}}</ref>

==Google AdSense==
{{See also|AdSense}}
In February 2003, Google stopped showing advertisements from [[Oceana (non-profit group)|Oceana]], a non-profit organization protesting against a major cruise ship operation's sewage treatment practices. Google, citing its editorial policy, stated that "Google does not accept advertising if the ad or site advocates against other individuals, groups, or organizations."<ref>{{cite web|date=May 17, 2004|title=Google Somewhat Lifts Oceana Ad Ban|publisher=webpronews.com|url=http://www.webpronews.com/topnews/2004/05/17/google-somewhat-lifts-oceana-ad-ban|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090130095413/http://www.webpronews.com/topnews/2004/05/17/google-somewhat-lifts-oceana-ad-ban|archive-date=2009-01-30|access-date=2007-05-09|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In April 2014, Google accepted ads from the pro-choice abortion lobbying group [[NARAL Pro-Choice America|NARAL]], but removed ads for some anti-abortion [[crisis pregnancy centers]]. Google removed the web search ads after an investigation by NARAL found evidence that the ads violated Google's policy against deceptive advertising. According to NARAL, people using Google to search for abortion clinics found advertisements for [[anti-abortion]] pregnancy crisis centers. Google stated that it had followed company procedures in applying its ad policy standards related to ad relevance, clarity, and accuracy.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/the-switch/wp/2014/04/28/naral-successfully-lobbies-google-to-take-down-deceptive-pregnancy-center-ads/|title=Google removes "deceptive" pregnancy center ads|author=Hayley Tsukayama|newspaper=Washington Post|date=April 28, 2014|access-date=August 29, 2017}}</ref>

In September 2018, Google removed a paid advertisement from YouTube made by supporters of Russian opposition who urged Russians to participate in a protest set on September 9. Russia's [[Central Election Commission of the Russian Federation|Central Election Commission]] earlier sent a request to Google to remove the advertisement, saying it violated election laws that call for a "day of silence" on election matters ahead of voting, but the advertisement was blocked even in regions with no voting set on September 9 and in regions where authorities had authorized the pension-reform protests.<ref>{{cite news|title=Google Reportedly Removes Navalny Ad After Russian Government Complains|publisher=[[Radio Liberty]]|location=Moscow|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/google-reportedly-removes-navalny-ad-after-russian-government-complains/29478844.html }}</ref>

==Google Maps==
{{See also|Google Maps}}

In March 2007, the lower-resolution [[satellite imagery]] on [[Google Maps]] showing post-[[Hurricane Katrina]] damage in [[Louisiana]], US, was allegedly replaced with higher resolution images from before the storm.<ref>{{cite news|agency=Associated Press|date=March 30, 2007|title=Google accused of airbrushing Katrina history|work=NBS News|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/17880969/ns/technology_and_science-tech_and_gadgets/t/google-accused-airbrushing-katrina-history/|access-date=September 26, 2013}}</ref> Google's official blog post in April revealed that the imagery was still available in [[KML]] format on [[Google Earth]] or Google Maps.<ref>{{cite web|date=September 2, 2005|title=Post-Katrina images of New Orleans on Google Maps|url=http://googleblog.blogspot.com/2005/09/post-katrina-images-of-new-orleans-on.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=April 2, 2007|title=About the New Orleans imagery in Google Maps and Earth|url=http://googleblog.blogspot.com/2007/04/about-new-orleans-imagery-in-google.html}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2007-06-08|title=Google Earth - Hurricane Katrina Imagery|url=http://earth.google.com/katrina.html|access-date=2021-01-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070608175835/http://earth.google.com/katrina.html|archive-date=2007-06-08}}</ref>

In March 2008, Google removed [[Street View]] and 360º images of military bases per [[the Pentagon]]'s request.<ref name="Zeman-2008">{{cite news|last=Zeman|first=Eric|date=March 7, 2008|title=Google Caves To Pentagon Wishes|publisher=Information Week|url=http://www.informationweek.com/applications/google-caves-to-pentagon-wishes/d/d-id/1065435}}</ref>

To protect the privacy and anonymity of individuals, Google selectively blurred photographs containing car license number plates and faces in [[Google Street View]]. Users may request further blurring of images that feature them, their family, their car, or their home. Users can also request the removal of images that feature what Google terms "inappropriate content," which falls under their categories of intellectual property violations; sexually explicit content; illegal, dangerous, or violent content; child endangerment; hate speech; harassment and threats; and personal or confidential information.<ref>[https://www.google.com/intl/en_us/streetview/privacy/ "Image Acceptance & Privacy Policies"], Goggle Inc. Retrieved 2014-07-4.</ref> In some countries (e.g. Germany), Google modifies images of specific buildings.<ref>[http://www.dw.de/german-foreign-minister-joins-criticism-of-googles-mapping-program/a-5910738 "German foreign minister joins criticism of Google's mapping program"], Catherine Bolsover, ''Deutsche Welle'', August 14, 2010. Retrieved August 12, 2014.</ref> In the United States, Google Street View adjusts or omits certain images deemed of interest to national security by the federal government.<ref name="Zeman-2008"/>

==Google Search==
{{see also|Google Search}}
{{anchor|SafeSearch}}

In the United States, Google commonly filters search results to comply with [[Digital Millennium Copyright Act]]-related legal complaints.<ref>[http://www.chillingeffects.org/keyword.cgi?KeywordID=2 "Keyword: Google and the DMCA"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080620060248/http://www.chillingeffects.org/keyword.cgi?KeywordID=2 |date=2008-06-20 }}, [[Lumen (website)|Chilling Effects Clearinghouse]]</ref>

In the United Kingdom, it was reported that Google had "delisted" Inquisition 21, a website that claims to challenge moral authoritarian and sexually absolutist ideas in the United Kingdom. Google later released a press statement suggesting Inquisition 21 had attempted to manipulate search results.<ref name=Gdelists>{{cite news |last=Sherriff |first=Lucy |date=September 21, 2006 |title=Google erases Operation Ore campaign site |publisher=The Register |url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2006/09/21/google_delists_inq21/}}</ref> In Germany and France, a study reported that approximately 113 [[white nationalism|white nationalist]], [[Nazism|Nazi]], [[Antisemitism|antisemitic]], [[Islamic extremism|Islamic extremist]], and other similar websites had been removed from the German and French versions of Google.<ref name="cyber.law.harvard.edu">Zittrain, Jonathan; Edelman, Benjamin. "[http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/filtering/google Localized Google search result exclusions: Statement of issues and call for data]." ''[[Harvard Law School]]: Berkman Center for Internet & Society.'' October 22, 2002.</ref> Google has complied with these laws by not including sites containing such material in its search results. However, Google does list the number of excluded results at the bottom of the search result page and links to [[Lumen (website)|Lumen]] (formerly, Chilling Effects) for an explanation.<ref name=gatekeepers/>

===Lolicon content===
{{as of|2010|April|18}}, Google censors "[[lolicon]]", a Japanese term meaning "attractive young girls",{{sfn|Galbraith|2016|pp=113–114|ps=: "Given its importance, it is not surprising that ''lolicon'' has been well researched in Japan over the course of decades, which has led to numerous insights. [...] Characters are not compensating for something more 'real,' but rather are in their fiction the object of affection. This has been described as 'finding sexual objects in fiction in itself', which in discussions of ''lolicon'' is made explicitly distinct from desire for and abuse of children."}}<ref>{{harvnb|McLelland|2011b|p=16|ps=: "Japanese scholarship has, on the whole, argued that, in the case of Japanese fans, neither the Loli nor the [[Boys' Love|BL]] fandom represent the interests of paedophiles since moe characters are not objectified in the same manner that actual images of children can be, rather they express aspects of their creators' or consumers' own identities."}}</ref>{{sfn|Kittredge|2014|p=524|ps=: "The majority of the cultural critics responding to the Japanese ''otaku''{{'s}} erotic response to ''lolicon'' images emphasize, like Keller, that no children are harmed in the production of these images and that looking with desire at a stylized drawing of a young girl is not the same as lusting after an actual child."}} on its search results, hiding results regarding lolicon material, even if the user types words along with the term which would typically lead to explicit content results; the terms "loli" and "lolita" also suffer from censorship in regards to this content.<ref name="google censors lolita cnet news">{{cite news|last1=Matyszczyk|first1=Chris|title=Google censors 'Lolita' but not 'bestiallity'|url=https://www.cnet.com/news/google-censors-lolita-but-not-bestiality/|access-date=2 March 2017|work=CNET News|date=January 31, 2010|ref=Google censors lolita CNET News|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170302183111/https://www.cnet.com/news/google-censors-lolita-but-not-bestiality/|archive-date=2 March 2017}}</ref><ref name="google censors lolicon sites anime gerad">{{cite web|author1=Jura|title=Google censors lolicon sites|url=http://animegerad.com/google-censors-lolicon-sites/|website=Anime Gerad|access-date=2 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100422144110/http://animegerad.com/google-censors-lolicon-sites/|archive-date=22 April 2010|date=18 April 2010}}</ref>

===Removal of SafeSearch options===
{{main|SafeSearch}}
{{as of|2012|December|12}}, in countries like the U.S., U.K., and Australia, Google removed the option to turn off the [[SafeSearch]] image filter entirely, forcing users to enter more specific search queries to get adult content. Prior to this change, three SafeSearch settings—"on", "moderate", and "off"—were available to users; after the change, they were replaced with two "Filter explicit results" settings—" on" and "off". The former and new "on" settings are similar and exclude explicit images from search results, while the new "off" setting still permits explicit images to appear in search results, but users need to enter more specific search requests, and no direct equivalent of the old "off" setting exists because adding additional explicit search terms alters search results. The change brings image search results in line with Google's existing settings for web and video search.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.cnet.com/8301-1023_3-57558795-93/google-tweaks-image-search-to-make-porn-harder-to-find/|title=Google tweaks image search to make porn harder to find|date=December 12, 2012|publisher=CNET News|author=Casey Newton|access-date=February 3, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://thenextweb.com/google/2012/12/12/google-changes-search-image-safesearch-explicit/|title=Google tweaks image search algorithm and SafeSearch option to show less explicit content|date=December 12, 2012|publisher=TNW|author=Matthew Panzarino|access-date=February 3, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.webpronews.com/google-preventing-u-s-users-from-disabling-safesearch-2012-12|title=Google No Longer Allows You to Disable SafeSearch, and That Makes Google Search Worse|date=December 16, 2012|publisher=Web Pro News|author=Josh Wolford|access-date=February 3, 2013}}</ref>

Some users have stated that the lack of a completely unfiltered option amounts to censorship by Google. A Google spokesperson disagreed, saying that Google is "not censoring any adult content," but "want to show users exactly what they are looking for—but [Google policies] aim not to show sexually-explicit results unless a user is specifically searching for them.".<ref>{{cite web |last=Whittaker |first=Zack |date=December 12, 2012 |title=Google.com now 'censors' explicit content from image searches |publisher=ZDNet |url=http://www.zdnet.com/google-com-now-censors-explicit-content-from-image-searches-7000008705/ |access-date=June 14, 2013}}</ref>

===Online pharmacies===
Following a settlement with the [[United States Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) ending [[Google Adwords]]' advertising of Canadian pharmacies that permitted Americans to access cheaper prescriptions, Google agreed to several compliances and reporting measures to limit the visibility of "rogue pharmacies". Google and other members of the Center for Safe Internet Pharmacies are collaborating to remove illegal pharmacies from search results and participating in "Operation Pangea" with the FDA and Interpol.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationaljournal.com/health-care/how-google-is-trying-to-protect-your-drug-supply-20140305|title=How Google Is Trying to Protect Your Drug Supply|date=March 5, 2014|publisher=NationalJournal|author=Sophie Novack}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.interpol.int/Crime-areas/Pharmaceutical-crime/Operations/Operation-Pangea|title=Pharmaceutical Crime/Operations|publisher=Interpol|access-date=2014-03-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160613071343/http://www.interpol.int/Crime-areas/Pharmaceutical-crime/Operations/Operation-Pangea|archive-date=2016-06-13|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Search suggestions===
{{see also|Search suggest drop-down list|Criticism of Google#Web search}}
In January 2010, Google was reported to have stopped providing automatic suggestions for any search beginning with the term "Islam is", while it continued to do so for other major religions. According to [[Wired.com]], a Google spokesperson stated, "This is a bug and we're working to fix it as quickly as we can."<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.wired.com/epicenter/2010/01/google-islam-censorship/|title=Is Google Censoring Islam Suggestions? | Wired Business|last=Singel|first=Ryan|date=March 28, 2013|publisher=Wired.com|access-date=June 15, 2013}}</ref> Suggestions for "Islam is" were available later that month. The word "[[Bilderberg Group|Bilderberg]]" and the family name "[[Buchanan (surname)|Buchanan]]" were also reportedly censored in the autocomplete results<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.google.com/support/forum/p/Web+Search/thread?tid=4a89411ff9f1d459|title=Google Discussiegroepen|access-date=June 15, 2013}}</ref> but were available by February 2010 as well. Nonetheless, Google continues to filter certain words from autocomplete suggestions,<ref>[http://www.slate.com/articles/technology/future_tense/2013/08/words_banned_from_bing_and_google_s_autocomplete_algorithms.html "Sex, Violence, and Autocomplete Algorithms: What words do Bing and Google censor from their suggestions?"], Nicholas Diakopoulos, Future Tense (Slate), August 2, 2013. Retrieved December 3, 2013.</ref> describing them as "potentially inappropriate".<ref>[https://support.google.com/websearch/answer/186645 "Google Instant doesn't work"], Google Search Help. Retrieved December 3, 2013.</ref>

The publication ''[[2600: The Hacker Quarterly]]'' has compiled a list of words that are restricted by [[Google Instant]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.2600.com/googleblacklist/ |title=Google Blacklist – Words That Google Instant Doesn't Like |publisher=2600.com |access-date=August 4, 2012}}</ref> These are terms that the company's Instant Search feature will not search.<ref>{{cite news|author=Samuel Axon, Mashable |url=http://www.cnn.com/2010/TECH/web/09/29/google.instant.blacklist.mashable/index.html |title=Which words does Google Instant blacklist? |publisher=CNN |date=September 29, 2010 |access-date=August 4, 2012}}</ref><ref name="huffingtonpost.com">{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/09/29/google-instant-censorship_n_743203.html|title=Google Instant Censorship: The Strangest Terms Blacklisted By Google|date=September 29, 2010|work=The Huffington Post|access-date=August 4, 2012}}</ref> Most terms are often vulgar and derogatory in nature, but some apparently irrelevant searches including "Myleak" are removed.<ref name="huffingtonpost.com"/>

{{as of|2011|January|26}}, Google's Autocomplete feature would not complete certain words such as "BitTorrent," "Torrent," "uTorrent," "Megaupload," and "Rapidshare", and Google actively censored search terms or phrases that its algorithm considered likely constituting spam or intending to manipulate search results.<ref>[http://torrentfreak.com/google-starts-censoring-bittorrent-rapidshare-and-more-110126/ "Google Starts Censoring BitTorrent, RapidShare and More"], Torrent Freak, January 26, 2011</ref>

In September 2012, multiple sources reported that Google had removed "[[bisexual]]" from its list of blacklisted terms for Instant Search.<ref>[http://www.advocate.com/society/technology/2012/09/11/google-removes-bisexual-its-list-dirty-words "Google Removes 'Bisexual' From Its List of Dirty Words"], Michelle Garcia, Advocate.com, September 11, 2012. Retrieved March 14, 2014.</ref>

In December 2022, Google was reported to have stopped providing automatic suggestions for any search with the term "protests in China", while it continued to do so for other countries.

===Ungoogleable===
In 2013, the [[Swedish Language Council]] included the [[Swedish language|Swedish]] version of the word ''ungoogleable'' (''{{ill|ogooglebar|sv}}'') in its list of new words.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-21944834|title=Google gets ungoogleable off Sweden's new word list|last=Fanning|first=Sean|date=March 26, 2013|work=[[BBC News]]|publisher=BBC|access-date=April 5, 2013}}</ref> It had "defined the term as something that cannot be found with any search engine".<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-21956743|title=Who, What, Why: What is 'ungoogleable'?|date=2013-03-27|work=BBC News|access-date=2017-04-18|language=en-GB}}</ref> Google objected to this definition, wanting it to only refer to Google searches, and the Council removed it in order to avoid a legal confrontation,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/ungoogleable-removed-from-list-of-swedish-words-after-row-over-definition-with-google-8550096.html|title='Ungoogleable' removed from list of Swedish words after row over definition with Google: California based search engine giant asked Swedish to amend definition|last=Williams|first=Rob|date=March 26, 2013|newspaper=[[The Independent]]|location=London|access-date=April 5, 2013}}</ref> and accused Google of trying to "control the Swedish language".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/google/9954990/Sweden-rows-with-Google-over-term-ungoogleable.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/google/9954990/Sweden-rows-with-Google-over-term-ungoogleable.html |archive-date=2022-01-12 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Sweden rows with Google over term 'ungoogleable'|last=Irvine|first=Chris|date=March 25, 2013|newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|location=London|access-date=April 5, 2013}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

===Leaked celebrity content===
{{main|iCloud celebrity-photo leaks}}
On 31 August 2014, almost 200 private pictures of various celebrities containing nudity and explicit content were [[August 2014 celebrity photo leaks|made public on certain websites]]. Google removed most search results that linked users directly to such content shortly after.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.glamourmagazine.co.uk/news/celebrity/2014/09/01/celebrity-nude-photo-leaks-phone-hacking-fear/|title=J-Law's pictures to be displayed at an art gallery|first=Sagal|last=Mohammed|magazine=[[Glamour Magazine UK]]|publisher=[[Condé Nast]]|location=New York City|date=September 1, 2014|access-date=September 6, 2014}}</ref>

===International===

====Australia====
In January 2010, Google Australia removed links to satirical website [[Encyclopedia Dramatica|Encyclopedia Dramatica's]] "Aboriginal" article, citing it as a violation of Australia's [[Racial Discrimination Act 1975|Racial Discrimination Act]].<ref>
{{citation
| title = Aus Media Gets Encyclopedia Dramatica Story Wrong, Only Some Search Links Removed
| publisher = The Inquisitr
| first = Duncan
| last = Riley
| url = http://www.inquisitr.com/57105/aus-media-gets-ed-story-wrong/
| date = January 14, 2010
| access-date = February 12, 2014}}.</ref> After the website's domain change in 2011, the article resurfaced in Google Australia's search results.

====Canada====
{{Main|Google Inc v Equustek Solutions Inc}}
On 19 June 2014, Google was ordered by the [[Supreme Court of British Columbia]] to remove search results that linked to websites of a company called Datalink. The websites in question sell network device technology that Datalink is alleged to have stolen from Equustek Solutions. Google voluntarily removed links from google.ca, the main site used by Canadians, but the court granted a temporary injunction applying to all Google sites across the world.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bccourts.ca/jdb-txt/SC/14/10/2014BCSC1063.htm|title=2014 BCSC 1063 Equustek Solutions Inc. v. Jack|website=www.bccourts.ca}}</ref> Google argued that Canadian law could not be imposed across the world but was given until June 17, 2014, to comply with the court's ruling.<ref name="BusinessETC-27June2014">[http://businessetc.thejournal.ie/canada-google-court-1525607-Jun2014/ "This company will no longer show up on Google's search results after court ruling"], Business ETC, June 19, 2014.</ref>

====China====
{{Main|Google China}}

Google adhered to the [[Internet censorship in China|Internet censorship policies of China]],<ref name="bbc1">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/4645596.stm|title=Google censors itself for China|date=January 25, 2006|work=BBC News|access-date=January 31, 2008}}
</ref> enforced by means of filters colloquially known as "The [[Great Firewall]]," until March 2010. Google.cn search results were filtered to not display any results perceived to be harmful to the [[Chinese Communist Party]] (CCP).{{citation needed|date=December 2014}} Google claimed that some censorship was necessary in order to keep the [[Government of China|Chinese government]] from blocking Google entirely, which had happened in 2002.<ref>[http://www.groveatlantic.com/#page=isbn9780802142979 ''The Great Wall: China Against the World, 1000 BC–AD 2000''] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150314220758/http://www.groveatlantic.com/#page=isbn9780802142979 |date=March 14, 2015 }}, Julia Lovell, Grove/Atlantic, March 2007, {{ISBN|978-0-8021-4297-9}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=January 2021}}

Google claimed it did not plan to give the government information about users who searched for blocked content and would inform users that content had been restricted if they attempt to search for it.<ref name="Google move 'black day' for China">"[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/4647398.stm Google move 'black day' for China]." ''[[BBC News]].'' January 25, 2006.</ref> {{As of|2009|}}, Google was the only major China-based search engine to explicitly inform the user when search results were blocked or hidden. {{as of|2012|December|}}, Google no longer informs the user of possible censorship for certain queries during a search.<ref>"[https://www.engadget.com/2013/01/04/google-china-search-message-gone Google quietly removed search warning message in China in early December 2012]." ''[[Engadget]].'' January 4, 2013</ref> The Chinese government had restricted citizens' access to popular search engines such as [[Altavista]], [[Yahoo!]], and [[Google (search engine)|Google]] in the past, though the complete ban has since been lifted{{When|date=January 2010}}. However, the government remains active in filtering Internet content. In October 2005, the [[Blogger (service)|Blogger]] platform and access to the Google [[Web cache|cache]] was made available in mainland China; however, in December 2005, some mainland Chinese Blogger users reported that their access to the site was once again restricted{{Who|date=January 2010}}.

In January 2006, Google agreed that China's version of Google, [[Google.cn]], would filter certain keywords given to it by the Chinese government.<ref name="Jan2006">[http://www.cnn.com/2006/BUSINESS/01/25/google.china/ Google to censor itself in China], CNN (January 26, 2006).</ref> Google pledged to tell users when search results are censored and said that it would not "maintain any services that involve personal or confidential data, such as [[Gmail]] or [[Blogger]], on the mainland".<ref name="Lau">Justine Lau, [http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/faf86fbc-0009-11df-8626-00144feabdc0.html?ft_site=falcon A history of Google in China], ''Financial Times'' (July 9, 2010).</ref> Google said that it does not plan to give the government information about users who search for blocked content and will inform users that content has been restricted if they attempt to search for it. Searchers may encounter a message which states: "In accordance with local laws and policies, some of the results have not been displayed."<ref name="Google move 'black day' for China"/> Google issued a statement saying that "removing search results is inconsistent with Google's mission" but that the alternative — being shut down entirely and thereby "providing no information (or a heavily degraded user experience that amounts to no information) is more inconsistent with our mission."<ref name="Jan2006"/> Initially, both the censored Google.cn and the uncensored Chinese-language Google.com were available. In June 2006, however, China blocked Google.com again.<ref name="Lau"/>

Some Chinese Internet users were critical of Google for assisting the Chinese government in repressing its own citizens, particularly those dissenting against the government and advocating for human rights.<ref name="TellGoogle">[https://groups.yahoo.com/group/admirersofhhthedalailama/message/4117 "Google: Stop participating in China's Propaganda"], Students for a Free Tibet, Yahoo! Groups, February 1, 2006</ref> Furthermore, Google had been denounced and called hypocritical by [[Free Media Movement]] and [[Reporters Without Borders]] for agreeing to China's demands while simultaneously fighting the United States government's requests for similar information.<ref name="Googlebows">{{cite news |url=https://www.forbes.com/home/feeds/afx/2006/01/25/afx2474703.html |title=Google bows to Chinese censorship with new search site |author=AFX News |work=Forbes |date=January 25, 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081121012157/http://www.forbes.com/home/feeds/afx/2006/01/25/afx2474703.html|archive-date=November 21, 2008}}</ref> Google China had also been condemned by [[Reporters Without Borders]],<ref name="Googlebows" /> [[Human Rights Watch]],<ref>[https://www.hrw.org/reports/2006/china0806/5.htm#_Toc142395827 "3. Google, Inc."] in ''Race to the Bottom': Corporate Complicity in Chinese Internet Censorship, Part IV. How Multinational Internet Companies assist Government Censorship in China'', Human Rights Watch, Vol. 18 No. 8(C), August 2006</ref> and [[Amnesty International]].<ref>[https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/pol30/015/2006/en/ "<s>Google does not censor:</s> take action to defend freedom of information"], Amnesty International, May 10, 2006</ref>

On 14 February 2006, protesters organized a "mass breakup with Google" whereby users agreed to boycott Google on [[Valentine's Day]] to show their disapproval of the Google China policy.<ref>Fung, Amanda. "[http://www.newyorkbusiness.com/news.cms?id=12962 Midtown protest targets Google's China site] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060627104354/http://www.newyorkbusiness.com/news.cms?id=12962 |date=2006-06-27 }}." ''New York Business.'' February 14, 2006.</ref><ref>[http://www.noluv4google.com/ NO LUV 4 Google Website].</ref>

In June 2009, Google was ordered by the Chinese government to block various overseas websites, including some with sexually explicit content. Google was criticized by the China Illegal Information Reporting Center (CIIRC) for allowing search results that included content that was sexual in nature, and claimed the company was a dissemination channel for a "huge amount of [[porn]] and lewd content".<ref>[http://www.tgdaily.com/content/view/42933/118/ "Beijing blocks Google search results over pornography row"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090624015149/http://www.tgdaily.com/content/view/42933/118 |date=2009-06-24 }}, Aharon Etengoff, ''TG Daily'' (Velum Media), 19 June 2009. Retrieved 27 September 2013.</ref>

On 12 January 2010, in response to an [[Operation Aurora|apparent hacking of Google's servers]] in an attempt to access information about Chinese dissidents, Google announced that "we are no longer willing to continue censoring our results on Google.cn, and so over the next few weeks we will be discussing with the Chinese government the basis on which we could operate an unfiltered search engine within the law, if at all."<ref>Official Google Blog. "[http://googleblog.blogspot.com/2010/01/new-approach-to-china.html A new approach to China]" January 12, 2010</ref>

On 22 March 2010, after talks with Chinese authorities failed to reach an agreement, the company redirected its censor-complying [[Google China]] service to its Google Hong Kong service, which is outside the jurisdiction of Chinese censorship laws. However, at least as of March 23, 2010, "The Great Firewall" continues to censor search results from the Hong Kong portal, www.google.com.hk (as it does with the US portal, www.google.com) for controversial terms such as "[[Falun gong]]" and "the [[1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre|June 4th incident]]" (1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre).<ref>Official Google Blog. "[http://googleblog.blogspot.com/2010/03/new-approach-to-china-update.html A new approach to China: an update]" March 22, 2010</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/google-pulls-out-of-china-2010-3|title=BREAKING: Google Pulls Search Engine Out Of China|date=March 22, 2010|access-date=March 22, 2010|work=Business Insider}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601087&sid=a.8ttSrfS4DE&pos=1|title=Google's Chinese Site Redirects to Hong Kong Version|date=March 22, 2010|access-date=March 22, 2010|publisher=[[Bloomberg News]]}}</ref>

In August 2018, it was revealed that Google was working on a version of its search engine for use in China, which would censor content according to the restrictions placed by the Chinese government. This project was worked on by a small percentage of the company and was codenamed [[Dragonfly (search engine)|Dragonfly]]. A number of Google employees expressed their concern about the project, and several resigned.<ref>{{cite news |last=Gallagher |first=Ryan |date=16 August 2018 |title=Google Staff Tell Bosses China Censorship is "Moral and Ethical" Crisis |url=https://theintercept.com/2018/08/16/google-china-crisis-staff-dragonfly/ |work=The Intercept |access-date=16 August 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=O'Donovan |first=Caroline |url=https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/carolineodonovan/google-project-dragonfly-employees-quitting |title=Google Employees Are Quitting Over Dragonfly, The Company's Search Project For China |work=BuzzFeed News |date=September 13, 2018 |access-date=September 15, 2018}}</ref> In 2019, Google's vice president of public policy, [[Karan Bhatia]], testified before the [[U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee]] that the Dragonfly project had been terminated.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/news/google-china-ban-project-dragonfly-search-engine-project-a9007956.html|title=Google finally says it will kill censored Chinese search engine Project Dragonfly|date=2019-07-17|website=The Independent|language=en|access-date=2019-07-20}}</ref>

In February 2023, [[Radio Free Asia]] reported that YouTube content satirizing [[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party|CCP General Secretary]] [[Xi Jinping]] is routinely targeted for takedowns using YouTube's copyright infringement reporting system.<ref>{{Cite news |date=February 21, 2023 |title=YouTube shuts down satirical spoof video channel targeting Chinese leader Xi Jinping |work=[[Radio Free Asia]] |url=https://www.rfa.org/english/news/china/youtube-xijinping-02212023162711.html |access-date=26 February 2023}}</ref>

====European Union====

In July 2014, Google began removing certain search results from its search engines in the [[European Union]] in response to requests under the [[right to be forgotten]]. Articles whose links were removed, when searching for specific personal names, included a 2007 blog by the BBC journalist [[Robert Peston]] about [[Stanley O'Neal]], a former chairman of investment bank [[Merrill (company)|Merrill Lynch]], being forced out after the bank made huge losses.<ref name="rp1">{{cite web|author=[[Robert Peston]]|work=BBC News|date=29 October 2007|title=Peston's Picks:Merrill's Mess|access-date=11 August 2014|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/legacy/thereporters/robertpeston/2007/10/merrills_mess.html|archive-date=2 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140702190348/http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/legacy/thereporters/robertpeston/2007/10/merrills_mess.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Peston criticized Google for "...cast[ing him] into oblivion".<ref name="rp2">{{cite web|author=[[Robert Peston]]|work=BBC News|date=2 July 2014|title=Why has Google cast me into oblivion ?|access-date=11 August 2014|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-28130581}}</ref>

''The Guardian'' reported that six of its articles, including three relating to a former Scottish football referee, had been "hidden".<ref name="ball">{{cite web|author=[[James Ball (journalist)|James Ball]]|work=The Guardian|date=2 July 2014|title= EU's right to be forgotten:Guardian articles have been hidden|access-date=11 August 2014|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/jul/02/eu-right-to-be-forgotten-guardian-google}}</ref> Other articles, including one about French office workers using post-it notes and another about a collapsed fraud trial of a solicitor standing for election to the Law Society's ruling body, were affected.<ref name="postit">{{cite web|author=Jon Healey|work=The Guardian|date=30 August 2011|title= Paris's Post-it wars|access-date=11 August 2014|url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2011/aug/30/paris-post-it-wars-french}}</ref><ref name="dyer">{{cite web|author=Clare Dyer|work=The Guardian|date=28 June 2002|title=Accused solicitor stands for office|access-date=11 August 2014|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2002/jun/28/claredyer}}</ref>

[[Sky News Australia]] reported that a story about [[Kelly Osbourne]] falling ill on the set of ''[[Fashion Police]]'' in 2013 had been removed.<ref>[https://uk.news.yahoo.com/kelly-osbourne-leaves-hospital-seizure-233542091.html "Kelly Osbourne Leaves Hospital After Seizure"], Sky News via Yahoo! News, 13 March 2013.</ref><ref>[https://news.sky.com/story/1294197/google-starts-erasing-disputed-search-results "Google Starts Erasing Disputed Search Results"], Sky News, 3 July 2014.</ref>

The ''Oxford Mail'' reported that its publishers had been notified by Google about the removal of links to the story of a conviction for shoplifting in 2006. The paper said it was not known who had asked Google to remove the search result, but there had been a previous complaint to the [[Press Complaints Commission]] (PCC) in 2010 concerning its accuracy, claimed that the report was causing "embarrassment", and requested that the story be taken off the paper's website. The paper said two factual amendments were made to the article and the PCC dismissed the complaint.<ref name="Oxford1">{{cite web|work=The Oxford Mail|date=5 May 2006|title=Archaeology specialist tried to steal from shop|access-date=11 August 2014|url=http://www.oxfordmail.co.uk/news/yourtown/oxford/750076.Archaeology_specialist__tried_to_steal_from_shop_/}}</ref><ref name="Oxford2">{{cite web|author=Jason Collie|work=The [[Oxford Mail]]|date=3 July 2014|title=Google removes first Oxford story about Robert Daniels-Dwyer's conviction for shoplifting under Right to be Forgotten ruling|access-date=11 August 2014|url=http://www.oxfordmail.co.uk/news/11318318.Google_removes_first_Oxford_story_about_man_caught_shoplifting_under_Right_To_Be_Forgotten_ruling/ }}</ref>

An article about the conversion to Islam of the brother of [[George Osborne]], the [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]], was removed after a request to Google from an unknown person under the right-to-be-forgotten ruling.<ref name="Hhouse">{{cite web|author1=Matthew Holehouse |author2=Rhiannon Williams|work=The Telegraph|date=4 July 2014|title=Google's right to be forgotten hides Islamic marriage of Osborne's brother|access-date=11 August 2014|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/google/10947009/Googles-right-to-be-forgotten-hides-Islamic-marriage-of-Osbornes-brother.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/google/10947009/Googles-right-to-be-forgotten-hides-Islamic-marriage-of-Osbornes-brother.html |archive-date=2022-01-12 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

''The Telegraph'' reported that links to a report on its website about claims that a former Law Society chief faked complaints against his deputy were hidden.<ref name="Pook">{{cite web|author=Sally Pook|work=The Telegraph|date=8 August 2003|title=Law Society chief 'faked claims against Asian deputy'|access-date=11 August 2014|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1438268/Law-Society-chief-faked-claims-against-Asian-deputy.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1438268/Law-Society-chief-faked-claims-against-Asian-deputy.html |archive-date=2022-01-12 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="RWilliams">{{cite web|author=Rhiannon Williams|work=The Telegraph|date=4 July 2014|title=Google restores links to Telegraph's deleted articles|access-date=11 August 2014|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/google/10945812/Google-restores-links-to-Telegraphs-deleted-articles.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/google/10945812/Google-restores-links-to-Telegraphs-deleted-articles.html |archive-date=2022-01-12 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live}}{{cbignore}}</ref> The search results for the articles for the same story in the Guardian and ''[[The Independent]]'' were also removed.<ref name="Verkaik">{{cite web|author=Robert Verkaik|work=The Independent|date=13 July 1999|title='Foul-mouthed' new head of Law Society|access-date=11 August 2014|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/foulmouthed-new-head-of-law-society-1106108.html|archive-date=15 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140715193503/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/foulmouthed-new-head-of-law-society-1106108.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="LCheek">{{cite web|author=Alex Aldridge|publisher=Legal Cheek|date=3 July 2014|title='Right to be forgotten' ruling sees article about 'foul-mouthed ex Law Society President removed from Google|access-date=11 August 2014|url=http://www.legalcheek.com/2014/07/eus-right-to-be-forgotten-ruling-sees-article-about-foul-mouthed-ex-law-society-president-removed-from-google/}}</ref> ''The Independent'' reported that its article, together with an article on the Indian Ocean tsunami in 2004 and one on new trends in sofa design in 1998, had been removed.<ref name="Vincent">{{cite web|author=James Vincent|work=The Independent|date=3 July 2014|title=Critics outraged as Google removes search results about top UK lawyer and US banker|access-date=11 August 2014|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/critics-outraged-as-google-removes-search-results-about-top-uk-lawyer-and-us-banker-9581446.html|archive-date=29 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140829045738/http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/critics-outraged-as-google-removes-search-results-about-top-uk-lawyer-and-us-banker-9581446.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> ''The Telegraph'' also reported that links to articles concerning a student's 2008 drink-driving conviction and a 2001 case that resulted in two brothers each receiving nine-month jail terms for affray had been removed.<ref name="MSpark">{{cite web |author=Matthew Sparkes|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/google/11037089/The-EUs-Right-to-be-Forgotten-Google-removes-link-to-Telegraph-story-about-drunk-Italian-Job-stunt.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/google/11037089/The-EUs-Right-to-be-Forgotten-Google-removes-link-to-Telegraph-story-about-drunk-Italian-Job-stunt.html |archive-date=2022-01-12 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=The EU's 'Right to be Forgotten': Google removes link to Telegraph story about drunk 'Italian Job' stunt |date=18 August 2014|access-date=18 August 2014|work=The Telegraph}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

The Spanish newspaper ''El Mundo'' reported that some results were hidden over a 2008 news report<ref>[http://www.elmundo.es/elmundo/2008/09/16/valencia/1221525337.html "Prisión bajo fianza para dos directivos de Riviera"] ["Prison on bail for two directors of Riviera"] {{in lang|es}}, El Mundo, 16 September 2008. [https://translate.google.com/translate?&sl=es&u=http://www.elmundo.es/elmundo/2008/09/16/valencia/1221525337.html&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dhttp://www.elmundo.es/elmundo/2008/09/16/valencia/1221525337.html%26client%3Dfirefox-a%26hs%3D0CE%26rls%3Dorg.mozilla:en-GB:official%26channel%3Dsb English translation].</ref> of a Spanish Supreme Court ruling involving executives of Riviera Coast Invest who were involved in a mortgage mis-selling scandal.<ref>[http://www.elmundo.es/tecnologia/2014/07/03/53b5132dca4741b1068b456e.html "ELMUNDO.es recibe su primer aviso de eliminación de resultados en Google por el 'derecho al olvido' "] ["ELMUNDO.es receive your first notice of removal results in Google for the 'right to be forgotten' "] {{in lang|es}}, Pablo Romero, El Mundo, 16 July 2014. [https://translate.google.com/translate?hl=&sl=auto&tl=en&u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.elmundo.es%2Ftecnologia%2F2014%2F07%2F03%2F53b5132dca4741b1068b456e.html&sandbox=1 English translation].</ref>

On 5 July 2014, German news magazine ''Der Spiegel'' reported removal of a search result to an article about [[Scientology]].<ref>[http://www.spiegel.de/netzwelt/netzpolitik/recht-auf-vergessen-google-entfernt-spiegel-artikel-aus-treffern-a-979255.html "Recht auf Vergessen: Google entfernt SPIEGEL-Artikel aus Suchergebnissen"] [Right to be forgotten: Google removed SPIEGEL article from search results] {{in lang|de}}, Ole Reißmann, ''Spiegel Online'', 4 July 2014. [https://translate.google.com/translate?hl=&sl=de&tl=en&u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.spiegel.de%2Fnetzwelt%2Fnetzpolitik%2Frecht-auf-vergessen-google-entfernt-spiegel-artikel-aus-treffern-a-979255.html&sandbox=1 English translation]. Retrieved 12 August 2014.</ref><ref>[http://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/print/d-9183695.html "Wie tausend Metastasen"] [Like a thousand metastases] {{in lang|de}}, ''Der Spiegel'', 15 May 1995. [https://translate.google.com/translate?hl=&sl=auto&tl=en&u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.spiegel.de%2Fspiegel%2Fprint%2Fd-9183695.html&sandbox=1 English translation]. Retrieved 14 August 2014.</ref>

On 19 August 2014, the BBC reported that Google had removed 12 links to stories on BBC News.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-28851366 "Google removes 12 BBC News links in 'right to be forgotten' "], Edwin Lane, ''BBC News'', 19 August 2014.</ref>

====Germany and France====
On 22 October 2002, a study reported that approximately 113 Internet sites had been removed from the German and French versions of Google.<ref name="cyber.law.harvard.edu"/> This [[censorship]] mainly affected [[White Nationalism|White Nationalist]], [[Nazism|Nazi]], [[antisemitic]], Islamic extremist websites, and at least one [[Christian Fundamentalism|fundamentalist Christian]] website.<ref>[https://www.google.com/#hl=en&source=hp&q=site%3Ajesus-is-lord.com&btnG=Recherche+Google&meta=&aq=f&oq=site%3Ajesus-is-lord.com&fp=f25d641c6f119a4d Error page], Google France, {{in lang|fr}}, "Aucun document ne correspond aux termes de recherche spécifiés (site:jesus-is-lord.com). En réponse à une demande légale adressée à Google, nous avons retiré 391 résultat(s) de cette page. Si vous souhaitez [http://www.chillingeffects.org/notice.cgi? en savoir plus sur cette demande], vous pouvez consulter le site ChillingEffects.org." ("No documents match the specified search (site: jesus-is-lord.com). In response to a legal request submitted to Google, we have removed 391 result(s) from this page. If you want to [http://www.chillingeffects.org/notice.cgi? know more about this application], you can consult the ChillingEffects.org site."). Retrieved 27 September 2013.</ref> Under French and German law, [[hate speech]] and [[Holocaust denial]] are illegal. In the case of Germany, violent or sex-related sites such as [[YouPorn]] and [[BME (website)|BME]] that the ''[[Bundesprüfstelle für jugendgefährdende Medien]]'' deems harmful to youth are also censored.

Google has complied with these laws by not including sites containing such material in its search results. However, Google does list the number of excluded results at the bottom of the search result page and links to [[Lumen (website)|Lumen]] (formerly known as Chilling Effects) for explanation.<ref name="gatekeepers">{{cite news |last=Rosen |first=Jeffrey |date=November 30, 2008 |title=Google's Gatekeepers |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/30/magazine/30google-t.html |access-date=October 15, 2016}}</ref>

====Sweden====

In March 2018, Google delisted a WordPress hosted site from search results in Sweden,<ref name="lumen-sweden">{{cite web|title=Local Law Complaint to Google|url=https://www.lumendatabase.org/notices/16081374|website=Lumen|access-date=13 April 2018}}</ref> following an intense media frenzy targeted against Google, YouTube, and Facebook by the tabloid ''[[Expressen]]'' and the daily newspaper ''[[Dagens Nyheter]]''.<ref name="dn-sweden">{{cite news|title=Antisemitisk lista på svenska judar sprids via Google|url=https://www.dn.se/nyheter/antisemitisk-lista-pa-svenska-judar-sprids-via-google/|website=Dagens Nyheter|date=6 March 2018|access-date=13 April 2018}}</ref> The WordPress site lists Swedish Jews in the public sphere, and also agitates against the dominant publishing house [[Bonnier Group]], the owner of both newspapers.

Although perfectly legal in Sweden, the WordPress site was described as [[antisemitic]].<ref name="expressen-hatlista">{{cite web|title=Google stoppar hatlista – men allt ligger kvar på Wordpress|url=https://www.expressen.se/nyheter/google-stoppar-hatlista-men-allt-ligger-kvar-pa-wordpress/|website=Expressen|date=13 March 2018 |access-date=13 April 2018}}</ref> The Bonnier papers argued that Google should not promote such content and above all not at a high rank. Ministers in the Swedish green-left government agreed with this sentiment, and threatened with national and EU regulation unless Google adapt its algorithms and delist contents of "threats and hate" ''(hot och hat)''.<ref name="expressen-lagstiftning">{{cite web|title=Peter Eriksson öppnar för lagstiftning mot nätjättarna|url=https://www.expressen.se/nyheter/peter-eriksson-oppnar-for-lagstiftning-mot-natjattarna-/|website=Expressen|date=26 March 2018 |access-date=13 April 2018}}</ref> Google eventually delisted the site in Sweden due to copyright claims.{{when|date=August 2023}}

Said papers also targeted the YouTube channel Granskning Sverige (Scrutiny Sweden) for its alleged extreme right-wing contents.<ref name="expressen-google">{{cite web|title=Kravet från medierna: Google måste ta ansvar|url=https://www.expressen.se/nyheter/kravet-fran-medierna-google-maste-ta-ansvar/|website=Expressen|date=4 March 2018 |access-date=13 April 2018}}</ref> The channel was described as a "troll factory", where members called authorities, journalists and other public figures, and recut the recorded interviews to make them fit the channel's right-wing extremist world view.<ref name="nyheter-24">{{cite web|title=Här är allt du vil veta om trollfabriken Granskning Sverige|url=https://nyheter24.se/nyheter/924162-har-ar-allt-du-vill-veta-om-trollfabriken-granskning-sverige|website=Nyheter24|date=18 March 2019|access-date=16 July 2019}}</ref> The interviews were broadcast against a black backdrop with the channel logotype, and the occasional use of screen dumps from newspaper articles related to the interviews.<ref name="granskning-sverige">{{cite web|title=Granskning Sverige|url=https://www.granskningsverige.se|website=Granskning Sverige|access-date=13 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180414011515/https://www.granskningsverige.se/|archive-date=14 April 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> Google eventually complied with the demands,{{when|date=August 2023}} and closed the channel, citing copyright infringement and violation of terms of agreement.<ref name="expressen-sweden">{{cite web|title=Google stänger ner Granskning Sveriges huvudkonto på Youtube|url=https://www.expressen.se/nyheter/google-stanger-ner-granskning-sveriges-huvudkonto-pa-youtube/|website=Expressen|date=6 March 2018 |access-date=13 April 2018}}</ref>

On April 13, 2018, Google took part in a meeting with the Swedish government, to discuss the search company's role in the media landscape.<ref name="svt-google-sweden">{{cite news|title=Regeringen i möte med internetgiganter och Tidningsutgivarna|url=https://www.svt.se/nyheter/inrikes/morgan-johansson-i-mote-med-internetjattar-och-tidningsutgivarna|newspaper=SVT Nyheter|date=13 April 2018|access-date=13 April 2018|last1=Nyheter|first1=S. V. T.|last2=Larsson|first2=Ylva|last3=Allen|first3=Axel}}</ref> Minister of Justice, [[Morgan Johansson]] (Social Democrats), and Minister of Digitization, [[Peter Eriksson (politician)|Peter Eriksson]] (Green Party), expressed concerns that "unlawful" and "harmful" content was facilitated by Google, and that "trolls" could have a negative impact on the upcoming Swedish parliamentary election. Google agreed to refine its algorithms, and also hire more staff to make sure "threats and hate" are eliminated from Google search and YouTube videos.<ref name="dn-google-sweden">{{cite news|title=Googles löfte: Ta ett större ansvar mot hot och hat|url=https://www.dn.se/nyheter/politik/ministrarna-i-med-google-och-twitter/|website=Dagens Nyheter|date=13 April 2018|access-date=13 April 2018}}</ref> Critics have voiced concerns that private international companies are mandated to put censorship into effect to comply with local regulations without guidance from courts, and that free speech is deteriorating at an accelerating rate.<ref name="gp-kritik">{{cite web|title=Boström: Hatet mot Google|url=http://www.gp.se/ledare/boström-hatet-mot-google-1.5406944|website=Göteborgs-Posten|date=19 March 2018 |access-date=13 April 2018}}</ref><ref name="ya-kritik">{{cite web|title=Rensa nätet försiktigt|url=http://www.ystadsallehanda.se/ledare/rensa-natet-forsiktigt/|website=Ystads Allehanda|date=12 March 2018|access-date=13 April 2018}}</ref><ref name="affarsvarlden">{{cite web|title=Publicistiskt haveri|url=https://www.affarsvarlden.se/kronikor/erik-horstadius/publicistiskt-haveri-6907405|website=Affärsvärlden|date=4 April 2018|access-date=13 April 2018}}</ref>

====India====
In September 2016, the [[Ministry of Health and Family Welfare]] revealed that Google had agreed to censor search results and advertising of [[prenatal sex discernment]], which is illegal in India.<ref name="bloomberg-sexdetermban">{{cite news|title=Google, Microsoft, Yahoo Will Block Indian Gender-Selection Ads|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-09-19/google-microsoft-yahoo-will-block-indian-gender-selection-ads|newspaper=Bloomberg.com|date=19 September 2016|access-date=19 September 2016}}</ref>

====Israel====
Since 2015, Google removed certain search results that were defamatory in nature<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ami Savir v. Google|url=https://globalfreedomofexpression.columbia.edu/cases/ami-savir-v-google-israel/|access-date=2021-01-13|website=Global Freedom of Expression|language=en}}</ref> from its search engine in [[Israel]] following [[gag order]]s.<ref>Articles in [[HaAyin HaShevi'it]] (in Hebrew): [http://www.the7eye.org.il/173901], [http://www.the7eye.org.il/184435], [http://www.the7eye.org.il/246132], [https://www.the7eye.org.il/336798].</ref>

====United Kingdom====
On 21 September 2006,<ref name=Gdelists/> it was reported that Google had "delisted" Inquisition 21, a website that claims to challenge moral authoritarian and sexually absolutist ideas in the United Kingdom. According to Inquisition 21, Google was acting "in support of a campaign by law enforcement agencies in the US and the UK to suppress emerging information about their involvement in major malpractice", allegedly exposed by their own investigation of any legal action against those who carried out [[Operation Ore]], a far-reaching and much-criticized law enforcement campaign against the viewers of child pornography.<ref>[http://www.inquisition21.com/index.php?module=pagemaster&PAGE_user_op=view_page&PAGE_id=12&MMN_position=13:13 "Contact and about"], Inquisition 21st century, 8 May 2009. Retrieved 27 September 2013.</ref><ref>[http://www.inquisition21.com/index.php?module=pagemaster&PAGE_user_op=view_page&PAGE_id=129 "Chapter 16. Our raid on Texas"], Inquisition 21st century, 11 March 2011. Retrieved 27 September 2013.</ref> Google released a press statement suggesting Inquisition 21 had attempted to manipulate search results.<ref name=Gdelists/>'

====United States====
Google commonly removes search results to comply with [[Digital Millennium Copyright Act]] (DMCA)-related legal complaints.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lumendatabase.org/topics/1?KeywordID=2|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080620060248/http://www.chillingeffects.org/keyword.cgi?KeywordID=2|url-status=dead|title=Lumen :: Topics :: Lumen|archive-date=June 20, 2008|website=www.lumendatabase.org}}</ref>

In 2002, "in an apparent response to criticism of its handling of a threatening letter from a [[Church of Scientology]] lawyer," Google began to make DMCA "takedown" letters public, posting such notices on the Chilling Effects archive (now [[Lumen (website)|Lumen]]), which archives legal threats made against Internet users and Internet sites.<ref>{{cite web |last=Marti |first=Don |title=Google Begins Making DMCA Takedowns Public |work=[[Linux Journal]]|url=http://www.linuxjournal.com/article/5997|date=April 12, 2002}}</ref>

In mid-2016, Google conducted a two-month standoff with writer [[Dennis Cooper]] after deleting his Blogger and Gmail accounts without warning or explanation following a single anonymous complaint. The case drew worldwide media attention, and finally resulted in Google returning Cooper's content to him.<ref>{{cite news |last=Gay |first=Roxane |date=July 29, 2016|title=The Blog That Disappeared |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |location=New York City|issn=0362-4331 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/30/opinion/sunday/the-blog-that-disappeared.html |access-date=August 28, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Sidahmed |first=Mazin |date=July 14, 2016|title=Dennis Cooper fears censorship as Google erases blog without warning |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |location=Lon don, England|issn=0261-3077 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/jul/14/dennis-cooper-google-censorship-dc-blog |access-date=August 28, 2016}}</ref>

In mid-2018, Google permanently barred conspiracy theorist [[Alex Jones]] from using its subsidiary company [[YouTube]]. Jones' channel [[Infowars]] responded by "accusing the companies of censorship".<ref>{{cite news |last=Chappell|first=Bill|date=August 6, 2018 |title=YouTube, Apple and Facebook Ban Infowars, Which Decries 'Mega Purge' |website=[[NPR]]| url=https://www.npr.org/2018/08/06/636030043/youtube-apple-and-facebook-ban-infowars-which-decries-mega-purge |access-date=May 3, 2019}}</ref>

In mid-2019, Google allegedly suspended [[Tulsi Gabbard]]'s advertisements for her presidential campaign, while the candidate was at the height of public interest.<ref>{{cite news |last=Wu|first=Nicholas | date=July 25, 2019|title=Tulsi Gabbard sues Google, claims 'election interference' over suspension of ad account |newspaper=USA Today| url=https://eu.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/elections/2019/07/25/tulsi-gabbard-democrat-candidate-sues-google/1828271001/ |access-date=2019-12-04}}</ref> Gabbard sued Google for $50 million in damages.<ref>{{cite news|title=Tulsi Gabbard, Democratic Presidential Candidate, Sues Google for $50 Million|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/25/technology/tulsi-gabbard-sues-google.html|date=July 25, 2019|access-date=December 4, 2019|first=Daisuke|last=Wakabayashi|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|location=New York City}}</ref>

===International===
{{See also|Comparison of web search engines}}
In June 2017, the [[Supreme Court of Canada|Canadian supreme court]] ruled that Google can be forced to remove search results worldwide. Civil liberties groups including [[Human Rights Watch]], the [[BC Civil Liberties Association]], and the [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]] argue that this would set a precedent for Internet censorship. In an appeal, Google argued that the global reach of the order was unnecessary and that it raised concerns over freedom of expression. While the court writes that "[They] have not, to date, accepted that freedom of expression requires the facilitation of the unlawful sale of goods", [[OpenMedia]] spokesman, David Christopher, warns that "there is great risk that governments and commercial entities will see this ruling as justifying censorship requests that could result in perfectly legal and legitimate content disappearing off the web because of a court order in the opposite corner of the globe".<ref>{{cite news|title=Google can be forced to pull results globally, Canada supreme court rules|url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/jun/28/canada-google-results-supreme-court|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|agency=[[Reuters]]|location=London, England|date=28 June 2017|access-date=29 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Deahl|first1=Dani|title=Canada's Supreme Court rules Google must block certain search results worldwide|url=https://www.theverge.com/2017/6/28/15888408/canada-supreme-court-google-block-search-results-equustek-datalink|website=[[The Verge]]|publisher=[[Vox Media]]|location=New York City|date=June 28, 2017|access-date=June 29, 2017}}</ref>

== Google Play ==
{{See also|Google Play}}
On September 17, 2021, Google removed from its store the [[Smart Voting]] app used by the [[Russian opposition]] to coordinate its voting strategy against the ruling [[United Russia]] party during elections. The app was removed following threats from the Russian government.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Roth|first=Andrew|date=2021-09-17|title=Apple and Google accused of 'political censorship' over Alexei Navalny app|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/sep/17/apple-and-google-accused-of-political-censorship-over-alexei-navalny-app|access-date=2021-09-17|website=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last1=Zverev|first1=Anton|last2=Marrow|first2=Alexander|last3=Kiselyova|first3=Maria|date=2021-09-17|editor-last=Birsel|editor-first=Robert|title=Google, Apple remove Navalny app from stores as Russian elections begin|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/google-apple-remove-navalny-app-stores-russian-elections-begin-2021-09-17/|access-date=2021-09-17|website=[[Reuters]]|publication-place=Moscow}}</ref>

==YouTube==
{{see also|Criticism of Google#YouTube}}
[[YouTube]], a [[Video hosting service|video sharing]] website and subsidiary of Google, in its [[Terms of Service]], prohibits the posting of videos which violate [[copyright]]s or depict [[pornography]], illegal acts, gratuitous violence, [[hate speech]], and what it deems to be misinformation about COVID-19.<ref>{{cite web |title=YouTube Community Guidelines |publisher=[[YouTube]] |url=https://www.youtube.com/t/community_guidelines |access-date=2007-05-09}}</ref> User-posted videos that violate such terms may be removed and replaced with a message that reads, "This video has been removed due to a violation of our Terms of Service."

===General censorship===
In September 2007, YouTube blocked the account of [[Wael Abbas]], an Egyptian activist who posted videos of police brutality, voting irregularities and antigovernmental demonstrations under the Mubarak regime.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cnn.com/2007/WORLD/meast/11/29/youtube.activist/ |title=YouTube shuts down Egyptian anti-torture activist's account |publisher=[[CNN]] |date=November 29, 2007}}</ref> Shortly afterward, his account was subsequently restored,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-egypt-youtube-idUSL0316580920071203 |title=YouTube restores account of Egypt anti-torture blogger |publisher=[[Reuters]] |first=Cynthia |last=Johnston |date=December 3, 2007 |access-date=June 30, 2017 |archive-date=June 20, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620094928/http://www.reuters.com/article/2007/12/03/us-egypt-youtube-idUSL0316580920071203?feedType=RSS&feedName=worldNews |url-status=live }}</ref> along with 187 of his videos.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/12/16/AR2007121601559.html |title=Egypt's YouTube Democrats |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |first=Jackson |last=Diehl|date=December 17, 2007}}</ref>

In 2006, Thailand blocked access to YouTube after identifying 20 offensive videos it ordered the site to remove.<ref name=gatekeepers/> In 2007, a Turkish judge ordered YouTube to be blocked in the country due to videos insulting [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], the founder of the Republic of Turkey (which falls under [[Article 301 (Turkish Penal Code)|Article 301 prohibitions on insulting the Turkish nation]]).<ref name=gatekeepers/>

In February 2008, the [[Pakistan Telecommunication Authority|Pakistan Telecommunications Authority]] banned YouTube in the country, but the manner in which it performed the block accidentally prevented access to the website worldwide for several hours.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnet.com/news/how-pakistan-knocked-youtube-offline-and-how-to-make-sure-it-never-happens-again/|title=How Pakistan knocked YouTube offline (and how to make sure it never happens again)|last=McCullagh|first=Declan|website=[[CNET]]|language=en|access-date=2019-02-20}}</ref> The ban was lifted after YouTube removed controversial religious comments made by a Dutch government official concerning Islam.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2008/02/25/tech/main3876322.shtml|title=Pakistan Drops YouTube Ban|work=[[CBS News]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.news.com/8301-10784_3-9879513-7.html|title=Pakistan welcomes back YouTube|date=26 February 2008|access-date=26 February 2008|archive-date=15 October 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081015213222/http://www.news.com/8301-10784_3-9879513-7.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In October 2008, YouTube removed a video by [[Pat Condell]] titled "Welcome to Saudi Britain"; in response, his fans re-uploaded the video themselves and the [[National Secular Society]] wrote to YouTube in protest.<ref>{{cite news |last=Beckford |first=Martin |date=October 3, 2008 |title=YouTube censors comedian's anti-Sharia video called 'Welcome to Saudi Britain' |work=The Daily Telegraph |location=London |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/3130883/YouTube-censors-comedians-anti-Sharia-video-called-Welcome-to-Saudi-Britain.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/3130883/YouTube-censors-comedians-anti-Sharia-video-called-Welcome-to-Saudi-Britain.html |archive-date=2022-01-12 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=April 14, 2010}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

In 2016, YouTube launched a localized Pakistani version of its website for the users in Pakistan in order to censor content considered blasphemous by the Pakistan government as a part of its deal with the latter. As a result, the three-year ban on YouTube by the Pakistan government was subsequently lifted.<ref>{{Cite web
| url = http://technology.inquirer.net/46459/youtube-back-vague-transparency
| title = YouTube back in Pakistan with vague transparency
| last = Network
| first = The Dawn/Asia News
| website = technology.inquirer.net
| date = 31 January 2016
| access-date = 2016-03-01
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web
| url = http://www.deccanherald.com/content/527559/what-pakistanis-see-youtube.html
| title = What will Pakistanis see on YouTube?
| website = Deccan Herald
| date = 7 February 2016
| access-date = 2016-03-01
}}</ref>

In July 2017, YouTube began modifying suggested videos to debunk terrorist ideologies.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hatmaker|first1=Taylor|title=YouTube launches its counter-terrorism experiment for would-be ISIS recruits|url=https://techcrunch.com/2017/07/20/google-jigsaw-redirect-method-launch-youtube-isis/|website=TechCrunch|date=20 July 2017 |access-date=16 September 2017|language=en}}</ref> In August 2017, YouTube wrote a blog post explaining a new "limited state" for religious and controversial videos, which would not allow comments, likes, monetization, and suggested videos.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Brown|first1=Jennings|title=YouTube Has a New Naughty Corner for Controversial Religious and Supremacist Videos|url=https://gizmodo.com/youtube-has-a-new-naughty-corner-for-controversial-reli-1797429910|website=Gizmodo|date=August 2017 |access-date=16 September 2017}}</ref>

In October 2017, [[PragerU]] sued YouTube, alleging violations of their [[freedom of speech]] under the [[First Amendment]] via YouTube's "arbitrary and capricious use of 'restricted mode' and 'demonetization' viewer restriction filters" to suppress their content. A U.S. district appeals court threw out the suit in February 2020, stating that despite "[its] ubiquity and its role as a public-facing platform", YouTube was still considered a private platform (the First Amendment only applies to [[state actor]]s).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2020/02/first-amendment-doesnt-apply-on-youtube-judges-reject-prageru-lawsuit/|title=First Amendment doesn't apply on YouTube; judges reject PragerU lawsuit|last=Brodkin|first=Jon|date=2020-02-26|website=Ars Technica|language=en-us|access-date=2020-02-26}}</ref>

In December 2017, what YouTubers referred to as the "AdPocalypse" took place, with YouTube's automated content policing tool began demonetizing content that ran afoul of the company's very-broad "Not Advertiser-Friendly" category.<ref name="vice">{{cite news|url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/9kg8v3/gun-vloggers-are-flipping-out-at-youtubes-crackdown-on-their-videos|title=Gun vloggers are flipping out at YouTube's crackdown on their videos|last=Turton|first=William|work=Vice News|access-date=26 December 2020}}</ref> The following April, numerous firearm-related channels began encountering additional policing by YouTube when new rules restricting videos "that facilitate private gun sales or link to websites that sell guns" were enacted.<ref name="vice"/> As a result, popular firearms vlogger [[Hickok45]]'s account was deleted (and subsequently reinstated after an outcry).<ref name="OH">{{cite web |last1=staff |title=Video: Hickok45 Explains Why He Was Banned from YouTube |url=https://www.outdoorhub.com/news/2016/01/08/video-hickok45-explains-banned-youtube/ |website=Outdoor Hub |access-date=2 January 2021 |date=January 8, 2016}}</ref>

In March 2018, ''[[The Atlantic]]'' found that YouTube had delisted a video where journalist Daniel Lombroso reported a speech by white nationalist [[Richard B. Spencer]] at the 2016 annual conference of the [[National Policy Institute]], where they celebrated Donald Trump's win at the presidential election.<ref>[https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2018/03/youtube-removes-the-atlantics-hail-trump-video-from-search/555941/ YouTube Removes the 'Hail, Trump' Video From Search] - Robinson Meyer, The Atlantic, 20 March 2018</ref> YouTube relisted the video after ''The Atlantic'' sent a complaint.

In June 2019, YouTube updated its hate speech policy to prohibit hateful and supremacist work, and limit the spread of violent extremist content online. The policy extends to content that justifies discrimination, segregation, or exclusion based on qualities like age, gender, race, caste, religion, sexual orientation, or veteran status. It covers videos that, for example, include [[Nazism|Nazi ideology]], [[Holocaust denial]], [[Sandy Hook conspiracy theories]], or [[flat Earth]] theories. The policy also aims at reducing borderline content and harmful misinformation, such as videos promoting [[Quackery|phony miracle cures]] for serious illnesses.<ref>{{cite news |title=Our ongoing work to tackle hate |url=https://youtube.googleblog.com/2019/06/our-ongoing-work-to-tackle-hate.html |access-date=3 July 2019 |work=Official YouTube Blog |date=5 June 2019}}</ref>

In February 2020, YouTube reportedly began censoring any content related to the [[Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2|novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2)]] by removal or demonetization of the channel, citing the "sensitive topics" advertiser-friendly content guideline on Twitter.<ref>{{cite web |title=TeamYouTube on Twitter |url=https://twitter.com/TeamYouTube/status/1230425469541023748 |website=Twitter |access-date=16 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=YouTube reportedly censors videos about novel coronavirus by removal or demonetization, company says they fall under "sensitive topics" |url=https://www.business-humanrights.org/en/youtube-reportedly-censors-videos-about-novel-coronavirus-by-removal-or-demonetization-company-says-they-fall-under-%E2%80%9Csensitive-topics%E2%80%9D |access-date=16 March 2020}}</ref>

In 2020, Republican Senator [[Rand Paul]] criticized YouTube for removing a video of his floor speech which named the [[Trump–Ukraine scandal|alleged Ukraine whistleblower]].<ref>
{{cite news
| last = Tobin
| first = Ben
| date = 2020-02-13
| title = YouTube censors Rand Paul by removing Trump impeachment question, and he's not happy
| url = https://www.courier-journal.com/story/news/politics/rand-paul/2020/02/13/youtube-removes-video-rand-paul-naming-whistleblower-trump-impeachment/4747330002/
| work = The Courier-Journal
| location = Louisville KY
| access-date = 2020-05-06}}
</ref>

At least since October 2019, YouTube has been automatically deleting any comments that contain the Chinese terms for "[[50 Cent Party]]" (五毛党) and its shortened version "50 Cent" (五毛). They have also been deleting any comments referring to the [[Chinese Communist Party]] (CCP) as "bandits" (共匪). In May 2020, YouTube made a statement to ''[[The Verge]]'' that these deletions were made "in error".<ref>{{cite web
|url=https://www.taiwannews.com.tw/en/news/3933777
|title=YouTube automatically deletes Chinese epithet 'communist bandit': YouTube bans term used during Taiwan's martial law era to describe communist Chinese
|first=Keoni
|last=Everington
|publisher=[[Taiwan News]]
|date=2020-05-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theverge.com/2020/5/26/21270290/youtube-deleting-comments-censorship-chinese-communist-party-ccp |title=YouTube is deleting comments with two phrases that insult China's Communist Party |first=James |last=Vincent |date=26 May 2020 |publisher=The Verge }}</ref>

In October 2020, [[PewDiePie]] was allegedly [[shadow banned|shadow-banned]] by YouTube, which led to his channel and videos becoming unavailable on search results. However, YouTube denied shadow-banning him, although the human review was restricted due to the [[COVID-19 pandemic]]. YouTube was criticized by PewDiePie himself, his fans, other [[YouTubers]], and [[netizens]] over this.<ref>{{cite web
| url = https://www.sportskeeda.com/esports/pewdiepie-allegedly-gets-shadowbanned-youtube-internet-happy
| last = Periwal
| first = Saahil
| title = PewDiePie allegedly got shadowbanned on YouTube, and the internet is not happy
| date = October 23, 2020
| website = Sportskeeda}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
| last = Wynne
| first = Kelly
| title = YouTube Allegedly Shadowbanned Its Biggest Creator PewDiePie and People Aren't Happy
| publisher = [[Newsweek]]
| date = October 22, 2020
| url = https://www.newsweek.com/youtube-allegedly-shadowbanned-its-biggest-creator-pewdiepie-people-arent-happy-1541498}}</ref>

In early February 2021, YouTube removed raw footage taken of the [[2021 storming of the United States Capitol]] by independent journalists like [[Ford Fischer]] from News2Share or from progressive media outlets such as ''[[Status Coup]]'' citing that the videos violated its policies on misinformation.<ref name="Wulfsohnde"/><ref name="Wulfsohnre"/><ref name="Sandler"/> The same footage from the outlets was reused by large media organizations and still up on their YouTube accounts.<ref name="Wulfsohnre"/><ref name="Sandler">{{cite news|last=Sandler|first=Rachel|title=YouTube Is Taking Down Raw Footage From The Capitol Riot As It Tries To Crack Down On Misinformation|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/rachelsandler/2021/02/04/youtube-is-taking-down-raw-footage-from-the-capitol-riot-as-it-tries-to-crack-down-on-misinformation/|agency=Forbes|date=4 February 2021|accessdate=9 February 2021|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Some independent journalists including Fischer and other progressive outlets like ''The Progressive Soap Box'' (host Jamarl Thomas), ''Political Vigilante'' (Graham Elwood), ''Franc Analysis'' and ''The Convo Couch'' were demonetized by YouTube with some having their superchat feature blocked.<ref name="Wulfsohnde">{{cite news|last=Wulfsohn|first=Joseph A.|title=YouTube's 'dangerous' crackdown on independent journalists: 'It defies all logic and reason'|url=https://www.foxnews.com/media/youtube-cracking-down-on-independent-journalists|agency=Fox News|date=4 February 2021|accessdate=12 February 2021|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="Wulfsohnre"/> Fischer was later remonetized by YouTube after it acknowledged "over-enforcement".<ref name="Wulfsohnre">{{cite news|last=Wulfsohn|first=Joseph A.|title=YouTube remonetizes independent journo's account hours after Fox News runs story on its 'dangerous' actions|url=https://www.foxnews.com/media/youtube-remonetizes-independent-journos-account-hours-after-fox-news-runs-story-on-its-dangerous-actions|agency=Fox News|date=4 February 2021|accessdate=12 February 2021|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

In June 2021, ''[[MIT Technology Review]]'' and [[Reuters]] reported that YouTube removed videos of a human rights group documenting testimonies of the [[Uyghur genocide]].<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Waldersee|first1=Victoria|last2=Dave|first2=Paresh|date=June 25, 2021|title=YouTube takes down Xinjiang videos, forcing rights group to seek alternative|work=[[Reuters]]|url=https://www.reuters.com/technology/exclusive-youtube-takes-down-xinjiang-videos-forces-rights-group-seek-2021-06-25/|access-date=June 25, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Guo|first=Eileen|date=June 24, 2021|title=How YouTube's rules are used to silence human rights activists|work=[[MIT Technology Review]]|url=https://www.technologyreview.com/2021/06/24/1027048/youtube-xinjiang-censorship-human-rights-atajurt/|access-date=June 25, 2021}}</ref>

===Advertiser-friendly content===
YouTube policies restrict certain forms of content from being included in videos being monetized with advertising, including strong violence, language, sexual content, and "controversial or sensitive subjects and events, including subjects related to wars, political conflicts, natural disasters, and tragedies, even if graphic imagery is not shown", unless the content is "usually newsworthy or comedic and the creator's intent is to inform or entertain".<ref name="verge-advertiserfriendly">{{cite news|last1=Robertson|first1=Adi|title=Why is YouTube being accused of censoring vloggers?|url=https://www.theverge.com/2016/9/1/12753108/youtube-is-over-party-advertising-monetization-censorship|access-date=March 19, 2017|work=The Verge|date=September 1, 2016}}</ref>

In August 2016, YouTube introduced a new system to notify users of violations of the "advertiser-friendly content" rules, and allow them to appeal. Following its introduction, many prominent YouTube users began to accuse the site of engaging in ''de facto'' censorship, arbitrarily disabling monetization on videos discussing various topics such as skincare, politics, and [[LGBT history]]. [[Philip DeFranco]] argued that not being able to earn money from a video was "censorship by a different name", while [[Vlogbrothers]] similarly pointed out that YouTube had flagged both "[[Zaatari refugee camp|Zaatari]]: thoughts from a refugee camp" and "Vegetables that look like penises" (although the flagging on the former was eventually overturned).<ref name="verge-advertiserfriendly"/> The hashtag "#YouTubeIsOverParty" was prominently used on Twitter as a means of discussing the controversy. A YouTube spokesperson stated that "[w]hile [their] policy of demonetizing videos due to advertiser-friendly concerns hasn't changed, [they've] recently improved the notification and appeal process to ensure better communication to [their] creators."<ref name="usatoday-advertiserfriendly">{{cite web|title=YouTubers protest 'advertiser friendly' policy|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/news/2016/09/01/youtube-creators-advertisers-controversy/89728728/|website=USA Today|access-date=September 2, 2016}}</ref><ref name="bi-adfriendly">{{cite web|title=A bunch of famous YouTubers are furious at YouTube right now – here's why|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/youtube-stars-advertiser-friendly-content-guidelines-2016-9|website=Business Insider|access-date=September 2, 2016}}</ref><ref name="cnet-overparty">{{cite web|title=Pause the #YouTubeIsOverParty: YouTube isn't pulling more ads from stars' videos|url=http://www.cnet.com/news/pause-the-youtubeisoverparty-youtube-isnt-pulling-more-ads-from-stars-videos/|website=CNET|access-date=September 2, 2016}}</ref>

In March 2017, a number of major advertisers and prominent companies began to pull their advertising campaigns from YouTube over concerns that their ads were appearing on objectionable and/or extremist content, in what the YouTube community began referring to as a "[[boycott]]".<ref name="bloomberg-adsextremist">{{cite news|title=Google Ad Crisis Spreads as Biggest Marketers Halt Spending|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-03-22/at-t-halts-spending-on-some-google-ads-after-youtube-controversy|newspaper=Bloomberg.com|date=22 March 2017|access-date=March 23, 2017}}</ref><ref name="bbc-youtubeadsuk">{{cite news|title=YouTube: UK government suspends ads amid extremism concerns|work=BBC News|date=17 March 2017|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-39301712|access-date=March 23, 2017}}</ref> YouTube personality PewDiePie described these boycotts as an "adpocalypse", noting that his video revenue had fallen to the point that he was generating more revenue from [[YouTube Red]] subscription profit sharing (which is divided based on views by subscribers) than advertising.<ref name="adage-pewdiepietwitch">{{cite web|title=New YouTube Rules Restrict Ads to Vetted Channels as PewDiePie Declares The 'Adpocalypse'|url=http://adage.com/article/digital/pewdiepie-declares-adpocalypse-youtube-makes-rules/308591/|website=Advertising Age|date=6 April 2017|access-date=April 9, 2017}}</ref> On 6 April 2017, YouTube announced planned changes to its Partner Program, restricting new membership to vetted channels with a total of at least 10,000 video views. YouTube stated that the changes were made in order to "ensure revenue only flows to creators who are playing by the rules".<ref name="verge-10kviewsrule">{{cite web|title=YouTube will no longer allow creators to make money until they reach 10,000 views|url=https://www.theverge.com/2017/4/6/15209220/youtube-partner-program-rule-change-monetize-ads-10000-views|website=The Verge|date=6 April 2017|publisher=Vox Media|access-date=April 6, 2017}}</ref>

===Censorship of sexual content in Restricted Mode===
In March 2017, the "Restricted Mode" feature was criticized by [[List of LGBT YouTubers|YouTube's LGBT community]] for filtering videos that discuss issues of [[human sexuality]] and [[sexual identity|sexual]] and [[gender identity]], even when there is no explicit references to [[sexual intercourse]] or otherwise inappropriate content.<ref name="kotaku">{{cite news|last1=Hernandez|first1=Patricia|title=YouTubers Are Freaking Out About Money and 'Censorship'|url=http://kotaku.com/why-youtubers-are-freaking-out-about-money-and-censorsh-1786032317|access-date=March 19, 2017|work=Kotaku|date=September 1, 2016}}</ref><ref name="verge-advertiserfriendly" /><ref name="guardian">{{cite news|last1=Taylor|first1=Trey|title=Battle of the bulge: how streaming censorship is affecting queer musicians|url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2016/dec/16/mykki-blanco-censorship-youtube-perfume-genius-lgbt|access-date=March 19, 2017|work=The Guardian|date=December 16, 2016}}</ref> Rapper [[Mykki Blanco]] told ''[[The Guardian]]'' that such restrictions are used to make LGBT vloggers feel "policed and demeaned" and "sends a clear homophobic message that the fact that my video displays unapologetic [[queer]] imagery means it's slapped with an 'age restriction', while other [[Cisgender|cis]], overly sexualised [[heteronormative]] work" remain uncensored.<ref name="guardian" /> Musicians [[Tegan and Sara]] similarly argued that LGBT people "shouldn't be restricted", after acknowledging that the mode had censored several of their music videos.<ref>{{cite web|last1=The Guardian|title=YouTube changes restrictions on gay-themed content following outcry|url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2017/mar/21/youtube-changes-restrictions-gay-lgbtq-themed-content-tegan-sarah|work=The Guardian|date=21 March 2017|access-date=March 31, 2017}}</ref>

YouTube later stated that a technical error on Restricted Mode wrongfully impacted "hundreds of thousands" LGBT-related videos.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Duffy|first1=Nick|title=YouTube tech error censored 'hundreds of thousands' of LGBT videos|url=http://www.pinknews.co.uk/2017/04/22/youtube-says-tech-error-censored-hundreds-of-thousands-of-lgbt-videos/|access-date=April 24, 2017|work=PinkNews|date=April 22, 2017}}</ref>

=== False positives ===
In February 2019, automated filters accidentally flagged several channels with videos discussing the AR mobile game ''[[Pokémon Go]]'' and the [[massively multiplayer online game]] ''[[Club Penguin]]'' for containing prohibited sexual content, as some of their videos contained references to "CP" in their title. In ''Pokémon Go'', "CP" is an abbreviation of "Combat Power"—a level system in the game, and "CP" is an abbreviation of ''Club Penguin'', but it was believed that YouTube's filters had accidentally interpreted it as referring to [[child pornography]]. The affected channels were restored, and YouTube apologized for the inconvenience.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-47278362|title=YouTube in Pokemon child abuse images row|last=Gerken|first=Tom|date=2019-02-18|access-date=2019-02-20|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.polygon.com/2019/2/18/18229640/pokemon-go-youtube-channels-banned-trainer-tips-mystic7-cp|title=Huge Pokémon Go YouTube channels deleted, restored after being mistaken for child pornography|last=Frank|first=Allegra|date=2019-02-18|website=[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]]|access-date=2019-02-20}}</ref>

In August 2019, YouTube mistakenly took down [[robot combat|robot fighting]] videos for violating its policies against [[cruelty to animals|animal cruelty]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gizmodo.com/youtube-says-it-messed-up-removing-robot-fight-videos-u-1837428914|title=YouTube Concedes Robot Fight Videos Are Not Actually Animal Cruelty After Removing Them by Mistake|last=McKay|first=Tom|date=2019-08-21|website=[[Gizmodo]]|access-date=2019-08-21}}</ref>

==2007 anti-censorship shareholder initiative==
On May 10, 2007, shareholders of Google voted down an anti-censorship proposal for the company. The text of the failed proposal submitted by the [[New York City Comptroller|New York City comptroller's office]], which controls a significant number of shares on behalf of retirement funds, stated that:

#Data that can identify individual users should not be hosted in [[Internet censorship|Internet-restricting]] countries, where political speech can be treated as a crime by the legal system.
#The company will not engage in pro-active censorship.
#The company will use all legal means to resist demands for censorship. The company will only comply with such demands if required to do so through legally binding procedures.
#Users will be clearly informed when the company has acceded to legally binding government requests to filter or otherwise censor content that the user is trying to access.
#Users should be informed about the company's [[data retention]] practices and the ways in which their data is shared with third parties.
#The company will document all cases where legally-binding censorship requests have been complied with, and that information will be publicly available.

[[David Drummond (businessman)|David Drummond]], senior vice president for corporate development, said "Pulling out of China, shutting down Google.cn, is just not the right thing to do at this point... but that's exactly what this proposal would do."<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.pcworld.com/article/id,131745-pg,1/article.html|title= Google Shareholders Vote Against Anti-Censorship Proposal|author= Larkin, Erik|date= 2007-05-10|publisher= PC World|access-date= 2007-05-11|archive-date= 2007-05-13|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070513020041/http://www.pcworld.com/article/id,131745-pg,1/article.html|url-status= dead}}</ref>

CEO [[Eric Schmidt]] and founders [[Larry Page]] and [[Sergey Brin]] recommended that shareholders vote against the proposal. Together they hold 66.2 percent of Google's total shareholder voting power, meaning that they could themselves have declined the anti-censorship proposal.<ref>PC World:[http://www.pcworld.com/article/id,131519-page,1/article.html Google Asks Shareholders to Permit Censorship] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070519063825/http://www.pcworld.com/article/id,131519-page,1/article.html |date=2007-05-19 }}</ref>

==Russian invasion of Ukraine==
In early March 2022, contractors who were working for Google and preparing translations for the Russian market received an update from Google: "Effective immediately, the ongoing Russian war against Ukraine could no longer be referred to as a war but rather only vaguely as 'extraordinary circumstances.'"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://fudzilla.com/news/ai/54605-google-translators-forbidden-to-use-the-word-war|title = Google translators forbidden to use the word "war"}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.protocol.com/bulletins/google-censors-war|title = Google ordered translators to censor the word 'war' in Russia|date = 28 March 2022}}</ref> Thus, Google was trying to protect itself from Russian sanctions, as well as its employees from persecution within Russia, in connection with the new law, which provided up to 15 years in prison for any information about the war against Ukraine, except when officially announced by the Kremlin.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/russia-introduce-jail-terms-spreading-fake-information-about-army-2022-03-04/|title=Russia fights back in information war with jail warning|newspaper=Reuters|date=4 March 2022}}</ref>

Since the beginning of the Russo-Ukrainian conflict, Google has been blocking Russian state-funded media such as RT and Sputnik,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-03-12 |title=YouTube blocks Russian state-funded media, including RT and Sputnik, around the world |url=https://www.france24.com/en/europe/20220312-youtube-blocks-russian-state-funded-media-including-rt-and-sputnik-around-the-world |access-date=2022-05-14 |website=France 24 |language=en}}</ref> and has also extended its censorship to non state-funded media outlets such as RBK by banning them entirely from the video-hosting platform YouTube. Thus said, Google has been blocking all Russian news outlets, citing that it represents a violation of their terms of services. Note that YouTube is a privately owned forum and freedom of speech does not necessarily apply,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2020-02-27 |title=YouTube 'not a public forum' with guaranteed free speech |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-51658341 |access-date=2022-05-14}}</ref> which means that Google decided to use its capabilities in this case of Russian aggression. Google also acted upon a request of the European Union.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://lumendatabase.org/notices/26927483|title=lumendatabase|date=4 March 2022}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Criticism of Google]]
*{{slink|YouTube Red|Licensing terms and content blocking}}
*[[Discontinued Google services]]
*[[Internet censorship]]
*[[Network neutrality]]
*[[Dragonfly (search engine)]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
* {{cite book |last=Galbraith |first=Patrick W. |date=2016 |editor-last=McLelland |editor-first=Mark |title=The End of Cool Japan: Ethical, Legal, and Cultural Challenges to Japanese Popular Culture |chapter='The lolicon guy': Some observations on researching unpopular topics in Japan |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/28693090 |pages=109–133 |location=London and New York |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-26937-3}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Kittredge |first=Katharine |date=2014 |title=Lethal Girls Drawn for Boys: Girl Assassins in Manga/Anime and Comics/Film |journal=[[Children's Literature Association Quarterly]] |volume=39 |issue=4 |pages=506–532 [524] |doi=10.1353/chq.2014.0059|s2cid=143630310 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=McLelland |first1=Mark |title=Australia's 'child-abuse material' legislation, internet regulation and the juridification of the imagination |journal=[[International Journal of Cultural Studies]] |date=2011b |volume=15 |issue=5 |pages=467–483 |doi=10.1177/1367877911421082 |s2cid=41788106 |url=https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2166&context=artspapers |access-date=2021-10-01 |archive-date=2021-09-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210923070347/https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2166&context=artspapers |url-status=live}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20180519012106/http://hiddenfromgoogle.com/ hiddenfromgoogle.com] A list of links affected by the EU "Right to be Forgotten" ruling
* [http://www.linkedin.com/today/post/article/20140620140349-53089235-blogspot-down-in-pakistan Pakistan v/s Google Products] Blogspot Down in Pakistan.
{{Clear}}

{{Censorship}}
{{Google LLC}}
{{Censorship and websites}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Censorship By Google}}
[[Category:Internet censorship by organization|Google]]
[[Category:Google]]
[[Category:Internet law]]
[[Category:Criticism of Google]]

Kinjal Rajpriya

2023-09-15T08:32:02Z

Adam Kassab: Designed a fresh article layout.

{{Short description|Indian film actress}}

{{Infobox person
| name = Kinjal Rajpriya
| image =
| image_size =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1989|9|23}}
| birth_place = [[Ahmedabad]], Gujarat, India
| occupation = Actress
| years_active = 2015–present
}}

'''Kinjal Rajpriya''' (born 23 September 1989)<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/gujarati/movies/news/happy-birthday-kinjal-rajpriya-fans-shower-the-actress-with-love-on-social-media/articleshow/71259425.cms |title=Happy Birthday, Kinjal Rajpriya: Fans shower the actress with love on social media
|date=2019-09-23|work=Times of India|access-date=2023-09-13}}</ref> is an Indian actress primarily working in the [[Gujarati cinema|Gujarati film]] industry. She made her acting debut in the Gujarati film [[Chhello Divas]] in 2015. She is known for [[Kem Chho?]] (2020), 53 Mu Panu (2022), Nava Pappa (2023) and [[3 Ekka]] (2023).

==Career==

Rajpriya debuted in [[Gujarati cinema]] in 2015 with ''[[Chhello Divas]]'' directed by [[Krishnadev Yagnik]] which was declared hit.<ref name="CD">{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/gujarati/movies/news/four-years-of-chhello-divas-and-the-film-continues-to-win-hearts/articleshow/72169342.cms |title=Four years of "Chhello Divas" and the film continues to win hearts
|date=2019-11-21|work=Times of India|access-date=2023-09-13}}</ref> In 2016, she debuted in [[Bollywood]] with [[Days of Tafree]], the Hindi remake of Gujarati film [[Chhello Divas]]. She later appeared in [[Shu Thayu?]] (2018), [[Saheb (film)|Saheb]] (2019) opposite [[Malhar Thakar]], and [[ Short Circuit (2019 film) | Short Circuit]] (2019) a first ever [[Gujarati cinema|Gujarati]] [[science fiction film|science fiction]] film based on the concept of [[time loop]].<ref name="Short Circuit">{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/gujarati/movies/news/a-star-studded-premiere-for-short-circuit/articleshow/67501723.cms |title=A star-studded premiere for Short Circuit
|date=2019-01-12|work=Times of India|access-date=2023-09-13}}</ref> In 2020, she won Gujarat State Awards 2020 for best actress for film [[Kem Chho?]].<ref name="Kem Chho">{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/gujarati/movies/news/kinjal-rajpriya-congratulates-the-entire-team-of-kem-chho-for-the-big-win-at-gujarat-state-awards-2020/articleshow/102393629.cms?from=mdr |title=Kinjal Rajpriya congratulates the entire team of ‘Kem Chho’ for the big win at Gujarat State Awards 2020
|date=2023-08-03|work=Times of India|access-date=2023-09-13}}</ref> In 2023, she appeared in Nava Pappa, [[Var Padharavo Saavdhan]] a first ever Gujarati film to dub in Kannada language,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/gujarati/movies/news/kinjal-rajpriya-on-var-padharavo-saavdhan-the-simultaneous-release-of-my-film-in-kannada-brings-me-immense-joyexclusive/articleshow/101275992.cms?from=mdr |title=Kinjal Rajpriya on "Var Padharavo Saavdhan": The simultaneous release of my film in Kannada brings me immense joy—exclusive!
|date=2023-06-26|work=Times of India|access-date=2023-09-13}}</ref><ref name="TNIE">{{cite news|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/kannada/2023/jun/07/var-padharavo-saavdhan-becomes-the-first-gujarati-film-to-release-in-kannada-2582507.html |title=Var Padharavo Saavdhan becomes the first Gujarati film to release in Kannada
|date=2023-06-07|work=The New Indian Express|access-date=2023-09-13}}</ref> and [[3 Ekka]].

== Filmography ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Key
| style="background:#FFFFCC;" |
|Denotes film(s) that have not yet been released
|}
{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!Title
!Role
!Director
!Language
!Notes
|-
|2015
|''[[Chhello Divas]]''
|Nisha
|[[Krishnadev Yagnik]]
|[[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]
|Debut Film <ref name="CD"/>
|-
|2016
|''[[Days of Tafree]]''
|Nisha
|[[Krishnadev Yagnik]]
|[[Bollywood|Hindi]]
|[[Bollywood|Debut In Bollywood]]
|-
|2018
|''[[Shu Thayu?]]''
|Deepali
|[[Krishnadev Yagnik]]
| rowspan="10" | [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]
|<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/gujarati/movies/news/kinjal-rajpriya-creates-some-excitement-for-the-release-of-shu-thayu/articleshow/65517663.cms |title=Kinjal Rajpriya creates some excitement for the release of ‘Shu Thayu’
|date=2018-08-23|work=Times of India|access-date=2023-09-13}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2019
|''[[ Short Circuit (2019 film) | Short Circuit]]''
|Seema
|Faisal Hashmi
|<ref name="Short Circuit"/>
|-
|''[[Saheb (film)|Saheb]]''
|Mahek
|Shailesh Prajapati
|<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/gujarati/movies/news/kiss-day-2020-when-kinjal-rajpriya-and-malhar-thakar-shared-a-romantic-lip-lock-in-saheb/articleshow/74116251.cms |title=Kiss Day 2020: When Kinjal Rajpriya and Malhar Thakar shared a romantic lip-lock in "Saheb"
|date=2020-02-13|work=Times of India|access-date=2023-09-13}}</ref>
|-
|2020
|''[[Kem Chho?]]''
|Morani
|Vipul Sharma
| Best Actress Award at Gujarat States Award<ref name="Kem Chho"/>
|-
|2021
|''Dhummas''
|Niyati
|rowspan="2" | Kartavya Shah
|<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.gujaratimidday.com/entertainment-news/dhollywood-news/article/gujarati-movie-named-dhummas-shooting-started-ojas-rawal-kinjal-rajpriya-and-jayesh-more-and-other-will-be-there-in-film-125634 |title=ટૂંક સમયમાં ગુજરાતી ફિલ્મ ધુમ્મસમાં એકસાથે જોવા મળશે આ લોકપ્રિય કલાકારો
|date=2020-09-19|work=Gujarati Mid-day|access-date=2023-09-13}}</ref>
|-
|rowspan="2" | 2022
|''53 Mu Panu''
| Rutu
|<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/gujarati/movies/news/kinjal-rajpriya-to-play-rutu-mehta-in-53mu-panu/articleshow/92764755.cms |title=Kinjal Rajpriya to play Rutu Mehta in "53mu Panu"
|date=2022-07-09|work=Times of India|access-date=2023-09-13}}</ref>
|-
|''[[Medal (film)|Medal]]''
|Anjali
|Dhaval Jitesh Shukal
|<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.gujaratimidday.com/entertainment-news/dhollywood-news/article/jayesh-more-starrer-gujarati-film-medal-trailer-release-full-of-suspense-and-motivation-179285 |title=Medal: સસ્પેન્સ અને મોટિવેશનનો ડોઝ આપતી ગુજરાતી ફિલ્મ મેડલનું ટ્રેલર રિલીઝ, જુઓ
|date=2022-10-19|work=Gujarati Mid-Day|access-date=2023-09-13}}</ref>
|-
|rowspan="3" | 2023
|''Nava Pappa''
|Akshara
|Ashok Patel
|<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/videos/entertainment/regional/gujarati/parth-oza-and-kinjal-rajpriyas-romantic-song-rang-rang-bhinu-will-make-you-fall-in-love/videoshow/98862230.cms |title=Parth Oza and Kinjal Rajpriya's romantic song 'Rang Rang Bhinu' will make you fall in love
|date=2023-03-21|work=Times of India|access-date=2023-09-13}}</ref>
|-
|''[[Var Padharavo Saavdhan]]''
|Aanal
|Vipul Sharma
| Film also released in Kannada Language<ref name="TNIE"/>
|-
|''[[3 Ekka]]''
|Mansi
|Rajesh Sharma
|<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/gujarati/music/kinjal-rajpriya-grooves-to-the-rhythms-of-tehunk-from-3-ekka/articleshow/102268247.cms?from=mdr |title=Kinjal Rajpriya grooves to the rhythms of 'tehunk' from '3 Ekka'
|date=2023-07-31|work=Times of India|access-date=2023-09-13}}</ref>
|-
|}

== Awards ==

Rajpriya received Best Actress Award at the 2020 Gujarati State Awards for her outstanding performance in the film "[[Kem Chho?]]".<ref name="Kem Chho"/>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{IMDb name|nm7630836}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rajpriya, Kinjal}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian film actresses]]
[[Category:Actresses from Ahmedabad]]
[[Category:Actresses in Gujarati cinema]]
[[Category:Gujarati people]]
[[Category:1989 births]]

Dayal Kaur Khalsa

2023-08-21T00:00:18Z

Adam Kassab: Created page with ''''Dayal Kaur Khalsa''' (April 17, 1943 - July 17, 1989) was the American-born author and illustrator of numerous award-winning children's books. She disco...'

{{Infobox person
|image=File:Dayal Kaur Khalsa.jpg
|caption=Dayal Kaur Khalsa at her studio in Montreal in the 1980s
|birth_date=April 17, 1943
|birth_place=[[Queens]], [[New York (state)|New York]], U.S.
|death_place=[[Vancouver]], [[British Columbia]], Canada
|death_date={{death date and age|1989|07|17|1943|04|17}}
|occupation=author, illustrator
|alma_mater=[[City College of New York]]
}}

'''Dayal Kaur Khalsa''' (April 17, 1943 – July 17, 1989) was the American-born author and illustrator of numerous award-winning [[children's books]]. She discovered her talent in [[Canada]], where she had moved in 1970. Over the span of four short years before her death at the age of 46, she managed to write and illustrate eight [[picture books]], three of them published posthumously.

==Biography==
Born Marcia Schonfeld in [[Queens]], [[New York (state)|New York]], young Dayal Kaur spent her days with her Grandma Shapiro while both her parents worked. Her childhood with her grandmother formed the basis of her works, especially ''Tales of a Gambling Grandma''. Grandma Shapiro's death in 1951 when Dayal Kaur was nine was devastating to her.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://epe.lac-bac.gc.ca/100/206/301/lac-bac/celebrating_dk_khalsa-ef/3/7/t7-265-e.html |title=Disclaimer - Electronic Collection |publisher=Epe.lac-bac.gc.ca |date= |accessdate=2015-08-12}}</ref>

Dayal Kaur graduated from the [[City College of New York]] in 1963 and attended The Arts Students League from 1964 to 1965. Though she still lived at home, Dayal Kaur had a loft space in Lower Manhattan and associated with mutually influential avant-garde artists, teachers, and students, including [[Roy Lichtenstein]] and his friends. In 1966, her mother became ill with [[breast cancer]]. She died the following year leaving Dayal Kaur with an apprehension of the agony she might experience if she were to become ill.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://epe.lac-bac.gc.ca/100/206/301/lac-bac/celebrating_dk_khalsa-ef/3/7/t7-266-e.html |title=Disclaimer - Electronic Collection |publisher=Epe.lac-bac.gc.ca |date= |accessdate=2015-08-12}}</ref>

Around the time of her mother's illness, Dayal Kaur Khalsa was active in the [[civil rights movement]] in New York and in the American South. Afterwards, she toured Mexico with her father, brother and his wife, then stayed in San Miguel Allende for a time with fellow artist Brian Grison.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://epe.lac-bac.gc.ca/100/206/301/lac-bac/celebrating_dk_khalsa-ef/3/7/t7-208-e.html |title=Disclaimer - Electronic Collection |publisher=Epe.lac-bac.gc.ca |date= |accessdate=2015-08-12}}</ref>

In 1970, Dayal Kaur moved to Canada with Grison and stayed on when their relationship ended, supporting herself in desultory work that included cleaning other people's houses. In 1974, she moved to a farm near Millbrook, Ontario with her artist friend, [[Yvonne Lammerich]]. That farm provided the setting for her book ''Julian''.<ref name="umanitoba1943">{{cite web|url=http://www.umanitoba.ca/cm/cmarchive/vol17no6/dayalkaurkhalsa.html |title=CM Archive |publisher=Umanitoba.ca |date= |accessdate=2015-08-12}}</ref>

In 1975, Dayal Kaur left the farm and joined a women's health collective in Toronto. When all the other members of the collective moved into the [[3HO]] Kundalini Yoga Ashram, she moved along with them. In time, she adopted the [[Sikh]] lifestyle and asked for and received her new name from [[Yogi Bhajan]], meaning "princess of kindness and purity."

While living in the Ashram, Dayal Kaur became responsible for designing the 3HO's various promotional materials. This led to her business involvement in the late 1970s with the graphic design studio "Intermedia Associates" and other small business ventures with local artist/entrepreneur [[Brian Irving]].

It was during this period Dayal received a series of parcels from New York City containing items from her former life as, "Marcia." In an abandoned art portfolio Brian discovered several vibrant drawings and story ideas (which Dayal later incorporated into her books). Despite his enthusiasm for these echos of her former life as an artist and writer, it was Dayal's belief that these former personal interests might be at odds with her commitment to a spartan spiritual lifestyle at the Ashram.

In the early 1980s, she moved to the 3HO live-in yoga centre in Montreal.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://epe.lac-bac.gc.ca/100/206/301/lac-bac/celebrating_dk_khalsa-ef/3/7/t7-267-e.html |title=Disclaimer - Electronic Collection |publisher=Epe.lac-bac.gc.ca |date= |accessdate=2015-08-12}}</ref>

Although she published a short story in the ''Carolina Quarterly'' as Marcia Schonfeld<ref>{{cite web |title=About Us|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019064040/http://cqonline.web.unc.edu/about-us/ |archivedate=October 19, 2011 |url=http://cqonline.web.unc.edu/about-us/ |work=Carolina Quarterly}}</ref> in 1972, her first entry into the publishing world as Dayal Kaur Khalsa took place when she was introduced to [[May Cutler]], publisher and president of [[Tundra Books]]. In Cutler's word's: "I met her in 1982 when she brought illustrations to show us. They did not impress for idea, content, or technical proficiency, but they had one quality that is less common than you would think: strong colour sense. She could mix garish colours together - rather like the Berber women of Morocco -- and come up with a vibrant and united whole."

Dayal Kaur's first project with Tundra was twelve object-recognition board books for infants done in her typically vibrant colours. Her first book for older children, ''Tales of a Gambling Grandma'', was a runaway success, winning her a lucrative American contract and a number of awards. But before the accolades began to pour in, Dayal Kaur was beset by her father's suicide and her own diagnosis of breast cancer. She toiled tirelessly and seven more books followed in close succession. Her Canadian publisher remarked: "She was extremely generous with her art. Her books have as many as twenty-five paintings – in contrast to half that many in many children's books – plus endleaves that are as caringly crafted as the interiors. I asked her once where she got the energy and time to develop the stories and do fifty or sixty illustrations a year. (That was between operations, hospital visits, chemotherapy, and all the accompanying discomfort.) She grinned: "It's easy, May. I've got a deadline."<ref name="umanitoba1943"/>

Dayal Kaur Khalsa died of breast cancer at the age of 46 in [[Vancouver]], British Columbia, Canada.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/07/21/obituaries/dayal-kaur-khalsa-author-is-dead-at-46.html |title=Dayal Kaur Khalsa, Author, Is Dead at 46 |work=The New York Times |date=1989-07-21 |accessdate=2015-08-12}}</ref>

==Works==
*''In the Eyes of the Women'', a short story she published as Marcia Schonfeld (Carolina Quarterly, Winter 1972, pp. 15–22)
*''The Baabee Books'', Series I and II (Tundra, 1983)
*''The Baabee Books'', Series III (Tundra, 1984)
*''Tales of a Gambling Grandma'' (Clarkson N. Potter and Tundra, 1986)
*''Tales of a Gambling Grannie ''(In UK: MacDonald, 1988)
*''[[I Want a Dog]]'' (Clarkson N. Potter and Tundra, 1987)
*''Sleepers'' (Clarkson N. Potter and Tundra, 1988)
*''My Family Vacation'' (Clarkson N. Potter and Tundra, 1988)
*''How Pizza Came to Queens'' (Clarkson N. Potter, 1989)
*''How Pizza Came to Our Town'' (In Canada: Tundra, 1989)
*''Julian'' (Clarkson N. Potter and Tundra, 1989 - posthumous)
*''Cowboy Dreams'' (Clarkson N. Potter and Tundra, 1990 - posthumous)
*''Snow Cat'' (Clarkson N. Potter and Tundra, 1992 – posthumous)

==Awards and honours==
*''[[The New York Times]]'' Notable Children's Book 1986: Tales of a Gambling Grandma
*[[New York Public Library]]'s Best Children's Book 1986: Tales of a Gambling Grandma
*[[Canada Council]] Children's Literature Prize Honourable Mention for Illustration 1987
*[[Amelia Frances Howard-Gibbon Illustrator's Award]] Finalist 1987
*[[American Institute of Graphic Arts]] Show Winner's List 1987: I Want a Dog
*[[American Booksellers Association]]/[[Children's Book Council (United States)]] Children's Bestseller List 1988: I Want a Dog
*[[Canadian Children's Book Centre]] 1988-89: I Want a Dog
*[[Governor-General's Awards]] for Children's Illustration Finalist 1988: Sleepers
*[[Parent's Choice Award]] for Book Illustration 1988: Sleepers
*[[Booklist]] One of the Most Outstanding Picture Books of the Year 1988: My Family Vacation

==Film adaptations==
*''[[I Want a Dog (film)|I Want a Dog]]''
*''Snow Cat'' by [[Sheldon Cohen (artist)|Sheldon Cohen]], National Film Board of Canada <ref>{{cite web|author=Sheldon Cohen |url=http://www.nfb.ca/film/snow_cat/ |title=Snow Cat by Sheldon Cohen - NFB |publisher=Nfb.ca |date= |accessdate=2015-08-12}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{LCAuth|n85130641|Dayal Kaur Khalsa|8|ue}}
* Archives of Dayal Kaur Khalsa [http://central.bac-lac.gc.ca/.redirect?app=fonandcol&id=3671978&lang=eng (Dayal Kaur Khalsa fonds, R11759)] are held at [[Library and Archives Canada]]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Khalsa, Dayal Kaur}}
[[Category:1943 births]]
[[Category:1989 deaths]]
[[Category:Canadian children's book illustrators]]
[[Category:Canadian children's writers]] 
[[Category:Deaths from breast cancer]]

Navtej Singh Rehal

2023-02-15T17:29:05Z

Adam Kassab: Created page with ''''Navtej Singh Rehal''' is the lead singer of the group Bombay Rockers. {{music-bio-stub}} {{Denmark-bio-stub}} Category:Danish musicians [[Category:Indi...'

{{Cleanup bare URLs|date=August 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Infobox person
| honorific_prefix =
| name = Navtej Singh Rehal
| honorific_suffix =
| image =
| alt =
| caption =
| native_name = ਨਵਤੇਜ ਸਿੰਘ ਰੈਹਲ
| native_name_lang =
| birth_name =
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [[Denmark]]
| nationality = [[Danish people|Danish]] / Indian
| other_names = Naf
| citizenship = [[Copenhagen]], Denmark
| education =
| alma_mater =
| occupation = Singer, lyricist
| years_active = 2002–present
| employer =
| organization = [[Bombay Rockers]]
| known_for = [[Pop rock]], [[Bhangra (music)|bhangra]], [[hip hop music|hip hop]]
| notable_works = [[Crash and Burn (Bombay Rockers album)|Crash and Burn]], [[Introducing (Bombay Rockers album)|Introducing]], [[Outsourced (film)|Outsourced]]
| style = [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] [[Bhangra (music)|Bhangra]]
| height =
| television =
| title =
| term =
| predecessor =
| successor =
| party =
| movement =
| opponents =
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| spouse =
| partner =
| children =
| parents =
| relatives =
| awards =
| signature =
| signature_alt =
| signature_size =
| website =
| footnotes =
}}

'''Navtej Singh Rehal''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|r|æ|h|əl}}), popularly known as '''Naf''', is the lead singer of the [[India|Indo]]-Danish music band named [[Bombay Rockers]]. His co-partner is [[Thomas Sardorf]].
''Rehal'' delivers the [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] vocals and plays guitar and keyboards in the band.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://archive.deccanherald.com/Deccanherald/jan12007/metromon18534520061231.asp |title=The Bhangra edge - Deccan Herald - Internet Edition |access-date=21 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821211045/http://archive.deccanherald.com/Deccanherald/jan12007/metromon18534520061231.asp |archive-date=21 August 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
His debut album ''[[Introducing (Bombay Rockers album)|Introducing]]'' has gone five times [[platinum album|platinum]] with sales of over 100,000 albums. It was No.1 for 15 consecutive weeks on the Indian album charts.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://archive.deccanherald.com/Deccanherald/jan12007/metromon18534520061231.asp |title=The Bhangra edge - Deccan Herald - Internet Edition |access-date=21 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821211045/http://archive.deccanherald.com/Deccanherald/jan12007/metromon18534520061231.asp |archive-date=21 August 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Rehal along with [[Thomas Sardorf|Sardorf]] performed for the first time in front of 25,000 people at [[Roskilde Festival]] in Denmark.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://themusiciris.com/22/bombay-rockers-talk-about-everything/ | title=Bombay Rockers talk about their past/Present/Future, and the Desi music scene | date=22 February 2012 }}</ref> His band ''[[Bombay Rockers]]'' achieved worldwide fame with the song ''Rock the Party''.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/the-new-beats-of-bombay-rockers/782975/ | title=The new beats of Bombay Rockers - Indian Express }}</ref>

==Early life==
Rehal was born in [[Copenhagen]], [[Denmark]], to Indian parents, and as such, he has his roots in [[India]]. He grew up in the multicultural suburb [[Nørrebro]] and went through the whole public school system – from nursery to high school in Denmark, except for two years, where he went to school in [[India]] and, as he states it: "experienced his own culture". At the age of 13, he began to dance [[Hip-hop dance|hiphop]], funk, breakdance and Indian [[bhangra (music)|bhangra]].

==Career==
In the year 2003<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://themusiciris.com/22/bombay-rockers-talk-about-everything/ | title=Bombay Rockers talk about their past/Present/Future, and the Desi music scene | date=22 February 2012 }}</ref> Rehal and [[Thomas Sardorf|Sardorf]] met each other through a mutual [[friend]] at a record label. After then, they [[collaboration|collaborated]] for the first time for the song called '''Ari Ari'''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.planetradiocity.com/musicreporter/celebrity-interview-details/India-needs-to-get-Indi-pop-back:-Bombay-Rockers/551/2 |title=India needs to get Indi-pop back: Bombay Rockers {{!}} Celebrity Interviews |website=www.planetradiocity.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140826121005/http://www.planetradiocity.com/musicreporter/celebrity-interview-details/India-needs-to-get-Indi-pop-back:-Bombay-Rockers/551/2 |archive-date=2014-08-26}}</ref> This first single became a rage in the Danish dance clubs and got a massive national airplay in [[Denmark]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://archive.deccanherald.com/Deccanherald/jan12007/metromon18534520061231.asp |title=The Bhangra edge - Deccan Herald - Internet Edition |access-date=21 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821211045/http://archive.deccanherald.com/Deccanherald/jan12007/metromon18534520061231.asp |archive-date=21 August 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In 2005, Rehal along with [[Thomas Sardorf|Sardorf]] performed at the major Indian metropolitan cities : [[Bangalore]], [[Kolkata]], [[Mumbai]] and Delhi. They also performed at the ''International Club'' in [[Bangladesh]]. They also performed in the major cities in Germany. During his concert in [[Bangladesh]], Rehal advised the audience not to buy [[copyright infringement|unauthorized]] CDs.<ref>http://archive.thedailystar.net/rising/2005/06/02/special.htm</ref>

Naf and [[Thomas Sardorf|Sardorf]] released the album '''Rock and Dhol''' in the year 2010. The duo worked out for two years for the album.<ref>http://www.planetradiocity.com/musicreporter/celebrity-interview-details/India-needs-to-get-Indi-pop-back:-Bombay-Rockers/551 {{Dead link|date=February 2022}}</ref> It was an electro inspired album.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://dnasyndication.com/dna/article/DNPUN22170 |title=Archived copy |access-date=22 August 2014 |archive-date=26 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140826161925/http://dnasyndication.com/dna/article/DNPUN22170 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The album consisted of 12 tracks and they also shot a video for one of the songs 'Let's dance'.<ref>http://www.realbollywood.com/2011/04/bombay-rockers-groove.html</ref> Eleven songs from this album were brand new while the last one was an electro-mix version of ''Let's Dance''. In this album, they also made the use of traditional Indian sounds like [[Sitar]] and Punjabi beats.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://themusiciris.com/22/bombay-rockers-talk-about-everything/ | title=Bombay Rockers talk about their past/Present/Future, and the Desi music scene | date=22 February 2012 }}</ref>

==Discography==

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Song title !! Language !! Year
|-
|''Teri to Teri ta Hamesha Yaad Satawe'' ||[[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] ||2004
|-
|''Sexy Mama'' || [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] || 2004
|-
|''Substitute'' || [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] || 2004
|-
|''[[Rock Tha Party]]'' || [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] || 2004
|-
|''Wild Rose'' || [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] || 2005
|-
|''Musikk feat Bombay Rockers'' || [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] || 2005
|-
|''Dhola'' || [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] || 2007
|-
|''Out of Control'' || [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] || 2007
|-
| ''Play Me Like Dat'' || [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] || 2007
|-
| ''Kushi'' || [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] || 2007
|-
| ''[[Beautiful (Bombay Rockers song)|Beautiful]]'' || [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] || 2007
|-
| ''Supernatural''|| [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] ||2007
|-
| ''Sajna Ve'' || [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] ||2007
|-
| ''Lullaby'' || [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] ||2007
|-
| ''Amazin' Girl'' || [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] ||2007
|-
| ''Intro'' || [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] ||2007
|-
| ''Lights, Camera, Action'' || [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] ||2007
|-
|''Ladies 2 Tha Floor'' || [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] ||2007
|-
|''Lovesick Part II'' || [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] ||2007
|-
|''Bounce Back'' || [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] ||2007
|-
|''[[Rock Tha Party]]'' || [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] || 2010
|}

==Filmography==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Year !! TV Series !! Role!!Notes
|-
|2004||''[[:da:Snurre Snups Søndagsklub|Snurre Snups Sondagsklub]]''||Himself|| Episode – 20.4<ref>https://www.imdb.com/name/nm1593888/ {{User-generated source|certain=yes|date=March 2022}}</ref>
|-
|2004||''[[:da:Snurre Snups Søndagsklub|Snurre Snups Sondagsklub]]''||Himself|| Episode – 21.3
|-
|2005||''[[:da:Snurre Snups Søndagsklub|Snurre Snups Sondagsklub]]''||Himself|| Episode – 22.11
|-
|2006||''Konzoom''||Himself|| –
|-
|2007||''[[:da:GO' Aften Danmark|GO' Aften Danmark]]'' ||Himself||Episode dated 24 September 2007
|}

==Albums==
===Studio albums===
*''[[Introducing (Bombay Rockers)|Introducing]]'' (2005)
*''[[Crash And Burn (Bombay Rockers)|Crash And Burn]]'' (2007)
*''All Or Nothing ft. Bombay Rockers (Overseas album)'' (2008)
*''Rock And Dhol'' (2011)

===Remix albums===
*''[[Rock Tha Party]]'' (2004)

==Stage shows==
* COLOSSEUM 2010 College of Technology, Pantnagar [[G. B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology]]
* Vivum Twelve, The International School Bangalore, in Whitefield, Bengaluru.
* G-Quasar 2013, Galgotias University, Greater Noida.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb name|1593888}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20061220053656/http://www.egothemag.com/archives/2005/06/index.htm June 2005 Archives] – EGO Magazine
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050524113416/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1050521/asp/calcutta/story_4764660.asp Meet the rockers] The Telegraph, Calcutta – 21 May 2005

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rehal, Navtej Singh}}
[[Category:Danish people of Indian descent]]
[[Category:Danish Sikhs]]
[[Category:Danish male singers]]
[[Category:Danish rock singers]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Danish people of Punjabi descent]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

Separation of powers

2023-01-28T10:43:34Z

Adam Kassab: Drafted new content.

{{short description|Division of a state's government into branches}}
{{redirect|Balance of powers|other uses|Balance of power (disambiguation){{!}}Balance of power}}
{{other uses}}
{{distinguish|Separatism}}
{{use dmy dates}}
{{politics sidebar}}
{{forms of government}}

'''Separation of powers''' refers to the division of a [[state (polity)|state]]'s [[government]] into "branches", each with separate, independent [[power (social and political)|powers]] and responsibilities, so that the powers of one branch are not in conflict with those of the other branches. The typical division into '''three branches of government''', sometimes called the '''{{Lang|la|trias politica}}''' model, includes a [[legislature]], an [[Executive (government)|executive]], and a [[judiciary]]. It can be contrasted with the [[fusion of powers]] in [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] and [[semi-presidential system]]s where there can be overlap in membership and functions between different branches, especially the executive and legislative. In most non-authoritarian jurisdictions, however, the judiciary [[Independent judiciary|almost never overlaps]] with the other branches, whether powers in the jurisdiction are separated or fused.

The intention behind a system of separated powers is to prevent the concentration of power by providing for [[#Checks and balances|checks and balances]]. The separation of powers model is often imprecisely and [[metonymy|metonymically]] used interchangeably with the ''{{Lang|la|trias politica}}'' principle. While the {{Lang|la|trias politica}} model is a common type of separation, there are governments that have more or fewer than three branches.

== History ==
{{Republicanism sidebar}}

=== Antiquity ===

[[Aristotle]] first mentioned the idea of a "mixed government" or hybrid government in his work [[Politics (Aristotle)|''Politics'']], where he drew upon many of the constitutional forms in the [[Polis|city-states of Ancient Greece]]. In the [[Roman Republic]], the [[Roman Senate]], [[Roman consul|Consuls]] and the [[Roman assemblies|Assemblies]] showed an example of a [[mixed government]] according to [[Polybius]] (''Histories'', Book 6, 11–13). It was Polybius who described and explained the system of checks and balances in detail, crediting [[Lycurgus of Sparta]] with the first government of this kind.<ref name="Polibius">Polibius. (~150 B.C.). The Rise of the Roman Empire. Translated by Ian Scott-Kilvert (1979). Penguin Classics. London, England.</ref>

{{cns|text=The Kingdom of Israel, and later Kingdom of Judea, had a separation of powers consisting of the executive/military in the figure of the Melekh/King, legislative/judiciary with the Sanhedrin, and clerical with the Levites and Kohanim (priests). Both the Melekh, Levite, and Kohen positions were hereditary (though there was a procedure to choose the Kohen Gadol, i.e. the High Priest, amongst the priestly caste), while the Sanhedrin was composed of ordained rabbis and judges who merited their position through study and piety.}}

=== Early modern concepts of mixed government ===

[[John Calvin]] (1509–1564) favoured a system of government that divided political power between [[democracy]] and [[aristocracy]] ([[mixed government]]). Calvin appreciated the advantages of [[democracy]], stating: "It is an invaluable gift if God allows a people to elect its own government and magistrates."<ref>Quoted in Jan Weerda, ''Calvin'', in ''Evangelisches Soziallexikon'', Third Edition (1960), Stuttgart (Germany), col. 210</ref> In order to reduce the danger of misuse of political power, Calvin suggested setting up several political institutions that should complement and control each other in a system of [[#Checks and balances|checks and balances]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ward |first=Lee |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YuUaBgAAQBAJ |title=Modern Democracy and the Theological-Political Problem in Spinoza, Rousseau, and Jefferson |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=9781137475053 |series=Recovering Political Philosophy |publication-date=2014 |pages=25–26 |quote=Calvin's republican sympathies derived from his view of human nature as deeply flawed. Compound or mixed governments reflect the reality that human frailty justifies and necessitates institutional checks and balances to the magistrate's presumed propensity to abuse power. It was this commitment to checks and balances that became the basis of Calvin's resistance theory, according to which inferior magistrates have a duty to resist or restrain a tyrannical sovereign. |author-link=Lee Ward}}</ref> In this way, Calvin and his followers resisted [[autocracy|political absolutism]] and furthered the growth of democracy. Calvin aimed to protect the rights and the well-being of ordinary people.<ref>Clifton E. Olmstead (1960), ''History of Religion in the United States'', Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., pp. 9–10</ref>{{qn}}

In 1620 a group of English separatist [[Congregationalists]] and [[Anglicans]] (later known as the [[Pilgrim Fathers]]) founded [[Plymouth Colony]] in North America. Enjoying self-rule, they established a bipartite democratic system of government. The [[Freeman (Colonial)|"freemen"]] elected the [[Plymouth General Court|General Court]], which functioned as legislature and judiciary and which in turn elected a governor, who together with his seven "assistants" served in the functional role of providing executive power.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Fennell |first=Christopher |title=Plymouth Colony Legal Structure |url=http://www.histarch.uiuc.edu/plymouth/ccflaw.html |publisher=Histarch.uiuc.edu |access-date=12 January 2013 |archive-date=29 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120429000512/http://www.histarch.uiuc.edu/plymouth/ccflaw.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]] (founded 1628), [[Rhode Island]] (1636), [[Connecticut]] (1636), [[New Jersey]], and [[Pennsylvania]] had similar constitutions – they all separated political powers. (Except for Plymouth Colony and Massachusetts Bay Colony, these English outposts added [[religious freedom]] to their democratic systems, an important step towards the development of [[human rights]].<ref>[http://www.history.hanover.edu/texts/masslib.html Hanover Historical Texts Project] {{webarchive|url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130112050540/http://history.hanover.edu/texts/masslib.html }}</ref><ref>Clifton E. Olmstead, ''History of Religion in the United States'', pp. 69–76, 99–105, 114–16</ref>)

Books like [[William Bradford (Plymouth Colony governor)|William Bradford]]'s ''[[Of Plymouth Plantation]]'' (written between 1630 and 1651) were widely read in England.{{citation needed}} So the form of government in the colonies was well known in the mother country, including to the philosopher [[John Locke]] (1632–1704). He deduced from a study of the English constitutional system the advantages of dividing political power into the legislative (which should be distributed among several bodies, for example, the [[House of Lords]] and the [[House of Commons]]), on the one hand, and the executive and federative power, responsible for the protection of the country and prerogative of the monarch, on the other hand, as the [[Kingdom of England]] had no written constitution.<ref>Otto Heinrich von der Gablentz, ''Gewalt, Gewaltenteilung'', In ''Evangelisches Soziallexikon'', col. 420</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Galdia |first=Marcus |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wVVXqe0cvYEC |title=Legal Linguistics |publisher=Peter Lang |isbn=9783631594636 |location=Frankfurt am Main |page=249 |quote=[...] in the absence of a written constitution in England it may at times be difficult to determine whether a particular text belongs to the constitutional law, i.e. forms the corpus of legal constitutional acts of England [...].}}</ref>

=== Tripartite System ===

During the [[English Civil War]], the parliamentarians viewed the English system of government as composed of three branches - the King, the [[House of Lords]] and the [[House of Commons]] - where the first should have executive powers only, and the latter two legislative powers. One of the first documents proposing a tripartite system of separation of powers was the [[Instrument of Government]], written by the English general [[John Lambert (general)|John Lambert]] in 1653, and soon adopted as the constitution of England for few years during [[The Protectorate]]. The system comprised a legislative branch (the Parliament) and two executive branches, the [[English Council of State]] and the [[Lord Protector]], all being elected (though the Lord Protector was elected for life) and having checks upon each other.<ref>Vile, M. J. (1967). The separation of powers. In: Greene, J. P., & Pole, J. R. (Eds.). (2008). ''A companion to the American Revolution'', Ch. 87. John Wiley & Sons.</ref>

A further development in English thought was the idea that the judicial powers should be separated from the executive branch. This followed the use of the juridical system by the Crown to prosecute opposition leaders following [[The English Restoration|the Restoration]], in the late years of [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] and during the short reign of [[James II of England|James II]] (namely, during the 1680s).<ref>Marshall J. (2013). Whig Thought and the Revolution of 1688–91. In: Harris, T., & Taylor, S. (Eds.). (2015). ''The final crisis of the Stuart monarchy: the revolutions of 1688-91 in their British, Atlantic and European contexts'', Chapter 3. Boydell & Brewer.</ref>

The first constitutional document to establish the principle of the separation of powers in government between the legislative, executive, and judiciary branches were [[Constitution of Pylyp Orlyk|Pacts and Constitutions of Rights and Freedoms of the Zaporizhian Host]] written in 1710 by [[Ukraine|Ukrainian]] Hetman [[Pylyp Orlyk]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Embassy of Ukraine in the Republic of Iraq - the constitution of Philip Orlik in 1710 |url=https://iraq.mfa.gov.ua/en/news/constitution-philip-orlik-1710}}</ref>{{verify source|reason=Source is in French, but I see no mention of Pylyp Orlyk in it and, looking at [[The Spirit of the Laws]] article, it seems an odd source to cite in support of this assertion.}}

=== John Locke's legislative, executive and federative powers ===

[[File:John Locke by John Greenhill.jpg|thumb|[[John Locke]]]]

An earlier forerunner to Montesquieu's tripartite system was articulated by [[John Locke]] in his work ''[[Two Treatises of Government]]'' (1690).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kurland |first=Phillip |title=The Rise and Fall of the "Doctrine" of Separation of Powers |url=https://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/journal_articles/8021 |journal=Michigan Law Review |volume=85 |issue=3 |page=595 |doi=10.2307/1288758 |jstor=1288758}}</ref> In the ''Two Treatises'', Locke distinguished between legislative, executive, and federative power. Locke defined legislative power as having "... the right to direct how the force of the commonwealth shall be employed" (2nd Tr., § 143), while executive power entailed the "execution of the laws that are made, and remain in force" (2nd Tr., § 144). Locke further distinguished federative power, which entailed "the power of war and peace, leagues and alliances, and all transactions with all persons and communities without [outside] the commonwealth" (2nd Tr., § 145), or what is now known as [[foreign policy]]. Locke distinguishes between separate powers but not discretely separate institutions, and notes that one body or person can share in two or more of the powers.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tuckness |first=Alex |title=Locke and the Legislative Point of View: Toleration, Contested Principles, and the Law |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2002 |isbn=0691095043 |page=133 |chapter=Institutional Roles, Legislative View |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i-YA3RtI5boC&pg=PA133}}</ref> Within these factors Locke heavily argues for "Autry for Action" as the scope and intensity of these campaigns are extremely limited in their ability to form concentrations of power. For instance, Locke noted that while the executive and federative powers are different, they are often combined in a single institution (2nd Tr., § 148).

Locke believed that the legislative power was supreme over the executive and federative powers, which are subordinate.<ref>Tuckness, ''Locke and the Legislative Point of View: Toleration, Contested Principles, and the Law'', at p. 126</ref> Locke reasoned that the legislative was supreme because it has law-giving authority; "[F]or what can give laws to another, must needs be superior to him" (2nd Tr., §150). According to Locke, legislative power derives its authority from the people, who have the right to make and unmake the legislature:<ref>{{Cite book |last=Locke |first=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K1UBAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA215 |title=Two Treatises of Government |publisher=C. and J. Rivington |year=1824 |publication-date=1824 |page=215 |author-link=John Locke}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|And when the people have said we will submit to rules, and be governed by laws made by such men... nobody else can say other men shall make laws for them; nor can the people be bound by any laws but as such as are enacted by those whom they have chosen, and authorized to make laws for them.}}

Locke maintains that there are restrictions on the legislative power. Locke says that the legislature cannot govern arbitrarily, cannot levy taxes or confiscate property without the [[consent of the governed]] (cf. "[[No taxation without representation]]"), and cannot transfer its law-making powers to another body, known as the [[nondelegation doctrine]] (2nd Tr., §142).

=== Montesquieu's separation of powers system ===
[[File:Montesquieu 1.png|thumb|[[Montesquieu]]]]

The term "tripartite system" is commonly ascribed to French [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] [[political philosopher]] [[Montesquieu]], although he did not use such a term but referred to "distribution" of powers. In ''[[The Spirit of Law]]'' (1748),<ref name="Espritdeslois3">{{Cite web |title=Esprit des lois (1777)/L11/C6 - Wikisource |url=https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Esprit_des_lois_(1777)/L11/C6 |access-date=2018-03-11 |website=fr.wikisource.org |language=fr}}</ref> Montesquieu described the various forms of distribution of [[political power]] among a [[legislature]], an [[executive (government)|executive]], and a [[judiciary]]. Montesquieu's approach was to present and defend a form of government whose powers were not excessively centralized in a single monarch or similar ruler (a form known then as "aristocracy"). He based this model on the [[Constitution of the Roman Republic]] and the [[Constitution of the United Kingdom|British constitutional system]]. Montesquieu took the view that the Roman Republic had powers separated so that no one could usurp complete power.<ref>{{Citation |last=Price |first=Sara |title=The Roman Republic in Montesquieu and Rousseau – Abstract |ssrn=1766947}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Schindler |first=Ronald |title=Montesquieu's Political Writings |url=http://www.rschindler.com/montesquieu.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012023735/http://www.rschindler.com/montesquieu.htm |access-date=19 November 2012 |archive-date=12 October 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Lloyd |first=Marshall Davies |title=Polybius and the Founding Fathers: the separation of powers |url=http://mlloyd.org/mdl-indx/polybius/intro.htm |access-date=17 November 2012}}</ref> In the British constitutional system, Montesquieu discerned a separation of powers among the monarch, Parliament, and the courts of law.<ref>Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu, ''The Spirit of Laws'', trans. by Thomas Nugent, revised ed. (New York: Colonial Press, 1899), Book 11, s. 6, pp. 151–162 at 151.</ref>

{{Blockquote|
In every government there are three sorts of power: the legislative; the executive in respect to things dependent on the law of nations; and the executive in regard to matters that depend on the civil law.

By virtue of the first, the prince or magistrate enacts temporary or perpetual laws, and amends or abrogates those that have been already enacted. By the second, he makes peace or war, sends or receives embassies, establishes the public security, and provides against invasions. By the third, he punishes criminals, or determines the disputes that arise between individuals. The latter we shall call the judiciary power, and the other simply the executive power of the state.
| |source=}}

Montesquieu argues that each Power should only exercise its own functions. He was quite explicit here:<ref>Montesquieu, ''The Spirit of Laws'', at pp. 151–52.</ref>

{{Blockquote|
When the legislative and executive powers are united in the same person, or in the same body of magistrates, there can be no liberty; because apprehensions may arise, lest the same monarch or senate should enact tyrannical laws, to execute them in a tyrannical manner.

Again, there is no liberty, if the judiciary power be not separated from the legislative and executive. Were it joined with the legislative, the life and liberty of the subject would be exposed to arbitrary control; for the judge would be then the legislator. Were it joined to the executive power, the judge might behave with violence and oppression.

There would be an end of everything, were the same man or the same body, whether of the nobles or of the people, to exercise those three powers, that of enacting laws, that of executing the public resolutions, and of trying the causes of individuals. || source=}}

Separation of powers requires a different source of legitimization, or a different act of legitimization from the same source, for each of the separate powers. If the legislative branch appoints the executive and judicial powers, as Montesquieu indicated, there will be no separation or division of its powers, since the power to appoint carries with it the power to revoke.<ref>Montesquieu, ''The Spirit of Laws'', at p. 156.</ref>

{{Blockquote|
The executive power ought to be in the hands of a monarch, because this branch of government, having need of despatch, is better administered by one than by many: on the other hand, whatever depends on the legislative power is oftentimes better regulated by many than by a single person.

But if there were no monarch, and the executive power should be committed to a certain number of persons selected from the legislative body, there would be an end then of liberty; by reason the two powers would be united, as the same persons would sometimes possess, and would be always able to possess, a share in both.

| |source=}}

Montesquieu actually specified that the independence of the judiciary has to be real, and not merely apparent.<ref name="Przeworski 26">Stephen Holmes, "Lineages of the Rule of Law", in Adam Przeworski & José María Maravall, eds., ''Democracy & the Rule of Law'', Cambridge Studies in the Theory of Democracy Series, № 5 (Cambridge University Press, 2003), pp. 19–61 at 26, {{ISBN|0-521-53266-3}}.</ref> The judiciary was generally seen as the most important of the three powers, independent and unchecked.<ref name="Przeworski 13">Przeworski 2003, p.13</ref>

=== Checks and balances ===
{{redirect|Checks and balances|the conservative-libertarian organization|Checks and Balances (organization)}}
{{See also|Divide and rule}}

According to the principle of checks and balances, each of the branches of the state should have the power to limit or check the other two, creating a balance between the three separate powers of the state. Each branch's efforts to prevent either of the other branches becoming supreme form part of an eternal conflict, which leaves the people free from government abuses. [[Immanuel Kant]] was an advocate of this, noting that "the problem of setting up a state can be solved even by a nation of devils" so long as they possess an appropriate constitution to pit opposing factions against each other.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |title=Political Writings |publisher=Cambridge U.P. |year=1971 |isbn=9781107268364 |editor-last=Reiss |editor-first=Hans |location=Cambridge, England |pages=112–13 |chapter=Perpetual Peace |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v7v3CwAAQBAJ&pg=PT79}}</ref>
Checks and balances are designed to maintain the system of separation of powers keeping each branch in its place. The idea is that it is not enough to separate the powers and guarantee their independence but the branches need to have the constitutional means to defend their own legitimate powers from the encroachments of the other branches.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Avalon Project : Federalist No 48 |url=http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/fed48.asp |access-date=2018-03-28 |website=avalon.law.yale.edu}}</ref> They guarantee that the branches have the same level of power (co-equal), that is, are balanced, so that they can limit each other, avoiding the abuse of power. The origin of checks and balances, like separation of powers itself, is specifically credited to [[Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu|Montesquieu]] in the Enlightenment (in [[The Spirit of the Laws]], 1748). Under this influence it was implemented in 1787 in the [[Constitution of the United States]]. In [[Federalist No. 78]], [[Alexander Hamilton]], citing Montesquieu, redefined the judiciary as a separate branch of government coequal with the legislative and the executive branches.<ref name="Wood">{{cite journal |last1=Wood |first1=Gordon S. |author-link1=Gordon S. Wood |editor1-last=Scalia |editor1-first=Antonin |title=Comment |journal=A Matter of Interpretation: Federal Courts and the Law |pages=49–64 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l3CYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA54 |access-date=12 December 2020|publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton|doi=10.2307/j.ctvbj7jxv.6 }}</ref> Before Hamilton, many colonists in the American colonies had adhered to British political ideas and conceived of government as divided into executive and legislative branches (with judges operating as appendages of the executive branch).<ref name="Wood" />

The following example of the separation of powers and their mutual checks and balances from the experience of the [[United States Constitution]] (specifically, [[Federalist No. 51]]) is presented as illustrative of the general principles applied in [[presidential system|similar forms of government]] as well:<ref name="federalistNo51">{{cite web |url = http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/fed51.asp |title = The Avalon Project : Federalist No. 51 |last=James|first=Madison|website=avalon.law.yale.edu|access-date=2018-03-24}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|
But the great security against a gradual concentration of the several powers in the same department, consists in giving to those who administer each department the necessary constitutional means and personal motives to resist encroachments of the others. The provision for defense must in this, as in all other cases, be made commensurate to the danger of attack. Ambition must be made to counteract ambition. The interest of the man must be connected with the constitutional rights of the place. It may be a reflection on human nature, that such devices should be necessary to control the abuses of government. But what is government itself, but the greatest of all reflections on human nature? If men were angels, no government would be necessary. If angels were to govern men, neither external nor internal controls on government would be necessary. In framing a government which is to be administered by men over men, the great difficulty lies in this: you must first enable the government to control the governed; and in the next place oblige it to control itself.

A dependence on the people is, no doubt, the primary control on the government; but experience has taught mankind the necessity of auxiliary precautions. This policy of supplying, by opposite and rival interests, the defect of better motives, might be traced through the whole system of human affairs, private as well as public. We see it particularly displayed in all the subordinate distributions of power, where the constant aim is to divide and arrange the several offices in such a manner as that each may be a check on the other that the private interest of every individual may be a sentinel over the public rights. These inventions of prudence cannot be less requisite in the distribution of the supreme powers of the State.
}}

{|
|-
! style="width:33%;"| [[Legislature|Legislative]] ([[United States Congress|Congress]])
! style="width:33%;"| [[Executive (government)|Executive]] ([[President of the United States|President]])
! style="width:33%;"| [[Judiciary|Judicial]] ([[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]])
|-
| valign="top" |

* Passes bills; has broad [[Taxing and Spending Clause|taxing and spending power]]; regulates inter-state commerce; controls the [[United States federal budget|federal budget]]; has power to borrow money on the credit of the United States (may be vetoed by President, but [[Veto override|vetoes may be overridden]] with a two-thirds vote of both houses)
* Has sole power to [[Declaration of war by the United States|declare war]], as well as to raise, support, and regulate the [[U.S. Military|military]].
* Oversees, investigates, and makes the rules for the government and its officers.
* Defines by law the jurisdiction of the federal judiciary in cases not specified by the Constitution.
* Ratification of treaties signed by the President and gives [[advice and consent]] to presidential appointments to the [[United States federal courts|federal judiciary]], [[United States federal executive departments|federal executive departments]], and other posts (Senate only).{{NoteTag|All presidential appointments are subject to advice and consent of solely the Senate, with the exception of the appointment of a [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] under the [[Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Twenty-fifth Amendment]], which also requires a majority vote of the House of Representatives.}}
* Has sole power of [[Federal impeachment in the United States|impeachment]] (House of Representatives) and trial of impeachments (Senate); can remove federal executive and judicial officers from office for [[high crimes and misdemeanors]]

| valign="top" |

* Is the [[commander-in-chief]] of the [[United States armed forces|armed forces]]
* Executes the instructions of Congress.
* May veto bills passed by Congress (but the veto may be overridden by a two-thirds majority of both houses)
* Executes the spending authorized by Congress.
* Declares states of emergency and publishes [[regulations]] and [[Executive order (United States)|executive orders]].
* Makes executive agreements (does not require ratification) and signs treaties (ratification requiring approval by two-thirds of the Senate)
* Makes appointments to the federal judiciary, [[United States federal executive departments|federal executive departments]], and other posts with the advice and consent of the Senate. Has power to make [[Recess appointment|temporary appointment during the recess of the Senate]]
* Has the power to grant "reprieves and pardons for offenses against the United States, except in cases of impeachment."

| valign="top" |

* Determines which laws Congress intended to apply to any given case
* Exercises [[Judicial review in the United States|judicial review]], reviewing the constitutionality of laws
* Determines how Congress meant the law to apply to disputes
* Determines how a law acts to determine the disposition of prisoners
* Determines how a law acts to compel testimony and the production of evidence
* Determines how laws should be interpreted to assure uniform policies in a top-down fashion via the [[Appeal (law)|appeals]] process, but gives discretion in individual cases to low-level judges. The amount of discretion depends upon the [[standard of review]], determined by the type of case in question.

|}

== Comparison between tripartite and bipartite national systems ==

[[Constitution]]s with a high degree of separation of powers are found worldwide. A number of [[Latin America]]n countries have [[electoral branch]]es of government.

The [[Westminster system]] is distinguished by a particular entwining of powers,<ref>See [https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/government-accused-of-waging-war-on-parliament-by-forcing-through-key-legal-changes-without-debate-a6820176.html ''Government accused of 'waging war' on Parliament by forcing through key law changes without debate''], Independent, 19 January 2016.</ref> such as in [[Politics of New Zealand|New Zealand]]. New Zealand's [[Constitution of New Zealand|constitution]] is based on the principle of separation of powers through a series of constitutional safeguards, many of which are tacit. The Executive's ability to carry out decisions often depends on the Legislature, which is elected under the single member representative or [[mixed-member proportional representation|mixed member proportional]] systems. This means that government may be of a single party or a coalition of parties. The Judiciary is also free of government interference. If a series of judicial decisions result in an interpretation of the law which the Executive considers does not reflect the intention of the policy, the Executive can initiate changes to the legislation in question through the Legislature. The Executive cannot direct or request a judicial officer to revise or reconsider a decision; decisions are final. Should there be a dispute between the Executive and Judiciary, the Executive has no authority to direct the Judiciary, or its individual members and vice versa.

Complete separation of powers systems are almost always [[Presidential system|presidential]], although theoretically this need not be the case. There are a few historical exceptions, such as the [[French Directory|Directoire]] system of revolutionary France. [[Swiss politics|Switzerland]] offers an example of non-Presidential separation of powers today: It is run by a seven-member executive branch, the [[Swiss Federal Council|Federal Council]]. However, the Federal Council is appointed by parliament (but not dependent on parliament) and, although the judiciary has no power of review, the judiciary is still separate from the other branches.

=== Typical branches ===

* [[Executive (government)|Executive]]
* [[Legislature]]
* [[Judiciary]]

==== Additional branches ====

* [[Supreme audit institution|Auditory]]
* [[Central bank]]
* [[Civil service commission]]
* [[Constitutional court]]<ref>Some of constitutional courts are outside of conventional judiciary according to their judicial tradition, although they exercise power of [[judicial review]] as [[constitutional review|review]] on [[constitutionality]]. For example, [[Constitutional Court (Austria)|Austrian constitutional court]], which is world's first constitutional court established in 1919, constitutes [[Judiciary of Austria|Austrian judiciary]]. Also, [[Federal Constitutional Court|German constitutional court]] is placed at the top of [[Judiciary of Germany|German judiciary]]. However, [[Constitutional Court of Spain|Spanish constitutional court]] is not a part of [[Judiciary of Spain|Spanish judiciary]].</ref>
* [[Election commission|Electoral]]<ref>Sometimes election commissions, tribunals or courts are maintained separately from other branches according to nation's constitutional tradition. For example, [[Politics of Bolivia#Electoral branch|Bolivia]] has separate [[Plurinational Electoral Organ|electoral branch]] from other branches of government.</ref>
* [[Moderating power (Empire of Brazil)|Moderating]]
* [[National human rights institution|Human rights commission]]
* [[Ombudsman]]
* [[Attorney general|Prosecutory]]

=== Three branches ===

==== Australia ====
{{Main|Separation of powers in Australia}}

[[Australia]] does not maintain a strict separation between the legislative and executive branches of government—indeed, government ministers are required to be members of parliament—but the federal judiciary strictly guards its independence from the other two branches. However, under influence from the U.S. constitution, the Australian constitution does define the three branches of government separately, which has been interpreted by the judiciary to induce an implicit separation of powers.<ref>See ''Australian Communist Party v Commonwealth'' [1951] HCA 5, [http://www.austlii.edu.au/cgi-bin/disp.pl/au/cases/cth/HCA/1951/5.html?stem=0&synonyms=0&query=communist%20party%20v%20commonwealth AustLII]{{dead link|bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> State governments have a similar level of separation of power but this is generally on the basis of convention, rather than constitution.

==== Austria ====
{{context|section}}

{{expand section}}

The [[Constitution of Austria]] was originally written by [[Hans Kelsen]], a prominent constitutional scholar in Europe at that time. Kelsen was to serve as a part of the judicial court of review for Austria as part of its tripartite government.

==== Brazil ====

The ''[[Constitution of Brazil]]'', in its second article, establishes that there are three "powers of the Union, independent and harmonic, the [[federal government of Brazil|Executive]], the [[National Congress of Brazil|Legislative]] and the [[Judiciary of Brazil|Judiciary]]".<ref>{{cite web| url= https://constituicao.stf.jus.br/dispositivo/cf-88-parte-1-titulo-1-artigo-2 | title = ''Constituição da República Federativa do Brasil de 1988, Article 2'' | date = 15 April 2022}}</ref>

==== Canada ====

The ''[[Constitution Act, 1867]]'' provides that there shall be an executive, a legislature, and the judiciary. At the federal level, the executive power is assigned to the [[monarch of Canada]], acting through their representative, the [[Governor General of Canada]].<ref>{{cite web| url = https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/const/page-1.html| title = ''Constitution Act, 1867'', Part III. Executive Power, ss. 9, 10.| date = 7 August 2020}}</ref> The legislative function is assigned to the [[Parliament of Canada]], composed of the monarch, the [[Senate of Canada|Senate]] and the [[House of Commons of Canada|House of Commons]].<ref>{{cite web| url = https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/const/page-1.html| title = ''Constitution Act, 1867'', Part IV. Legislative Power, s. 17.| date = 7 August 2020}}</ref> The judicial powers are primarily assigned to the provincial superior courts,<ref>{{cite web| url = https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/const/page-1.html| title = ''Constitution Act, 1867'', Part VII. Judicature.| date = 7 August 2020}}</ref> but provision was made for the creation of federal courts by Parliament.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/const/page-1.html| title = ''Constitution Act, 1867'', s. 101.| date = 7 August 2020}}</ref> The federal courts now include the [[Supreme Court of Canada]], the [[Federal Court of Appeal]], and the [[Federal Court of Canada]].

The Supreme Court of Canada has repeatedly emphasised that the separation of powers is an important structural element of the Constitution of Canada. For example, in giving the majority judgment in ''Ontario v Criminal Lawyers' Association of Ontario'',<ref>[https://scc-csc.lexum.com/scc-csc/scc-csc/en/item/13191/index.do ''Ontario v Criminal Lawyers' Association of Ontario''], [2013] 3 SCR 3, para. 29.</ref> Justice Karakatsanis stated:

{{Blockquote
| text=All three branches have distinct institutional capacities and play critical and complementary roles in our constitutional democracy. However, each branch will be unable to fulfill its role if it is unduly interfered with by the others. In ''New Brunswick Broadcasting Co. v. Nova Scotia (Speaker of the House of Assembly)'', [1993] 1 S.C.R. 319, McLachlin J. affirmed the importance of respecting the separate roles and institutional capacities of Canada's branches of government for our constitutional order, holding that "[i]t is fundamental to the working of government as a whole that all these parts play their proper role. It is equally fundamental that no one of them overstep its bounds, that each show proper deference for the legitimate sphere of activity of the other".
| author=Justice Karakatsanis
}}

Canada, like other parliamentary countries using the [[Westminster system]], has a fusion between the executive and the legislative branches, with the [[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]] and other [[Cabinet of Canada|Cabinet ministers]] being members of Parliament. However, the two branches have distinct roles, and in certain instances can come into conflict with each other. For example, in June 2021, the [[Speaker of the House of Commons (Canada)|Speaker of the House of Commons]] directed a member of the public service to comply with an order of the House of Commons to share certain documents with the Commons, and the public servant refused to do so. The federal government announced that it would challenge the Speaker's ruling in the Federal Court.<ref>{{cite news| url = https://www.theglobeandmail.com/politics/article-liberal-government-asks-court-to-stop-commons-obtaining-full-records/| title = Robert Fife, "Liberals take House Speaker to court to block release of unredacted records about fired scientists", ''Globe and Mail'', June 23, 2021.| newspaper = The Globe and Mail| date = 23 June 2021| last1 = Fife| first1 = Robert}}</ref>

The separation of powers is much stricter between the judicial branch, on the one hand, and the elected legislative and executive branches, on the other hand. The Supreme Court has held that judicial independence is a fundamental principle of the Constitution of Canada.<ref>[https://scc-csc.lexum.com/scc-csc/scc-csc/en/item/1541/index.do ''Reference re Remuneration of Judges of the Provincial Court (P.E.I.)''], [1997] 3 SCR 3.</ref> The courts are independent from the elected branches in fulfilling their duties and reaching their decisions.

Similar structural principles apply with provincial and territorial governments, including the strong separation between the judiciary and the elected branches.

==== Commonwealth of Nations ====
The Commonwealth (Latimer House) Principles have been adopted in [[Abuja]], Nigeria, in 2003.

==== Czech Republic ====
{{Main|Constitution of the Czech Republic}}

The Constitution of the Czech Republic, adopted in 1992 immediately before the [[dissolution of Czechoslovakia]], establishes the traditional tripartite division of powers<ref name=CzechConst>{{cite web |url=http://www.psp.cz/cgi-bin/eng/docs/laws/1993/1.html |title=Constitution of the Czech Republic |publisher=Parliament of the Czech Republic |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120530041428/http://www.psp.cz/cgi-bin/eng/docs/laws/1993/1.html |archive-date=30 May 2012}}</ref> and continues the tradition of its predecessor constitutions. The [[Czechoslovak Constitution of 1920]], which replaced the provisional constitution adopted by the newly independent state in 1918, was modelled after the constitutions of established [[democracy|democracies]] such as those of the United Kingdom, United States and France, and maintained this division,<ref name="office">{{cite web|url=http://www.vlada.cz/en/media-centrum/aktualne/constitution-1920-68721/|title=The 1920 Constitution – 90th anniversary of the adoption of the first Czechoslovak Constitution|publisher=The Office of the Government of the Czech Republic}}</ref> as have subsequent changes to the constitution that followed in 1948 with the [[Ninth-of-May Constitution]], the [[1960 Constitution of Czechoslovakia]] as well as the [[Constitutional Act on the Czechoslovak Federation]] of 1968.

==== Denmark ====
{{Main|Constitution of Denmark|Government of Denmark}}

* [[Folketing|Parliament]] – legislature
* [[Prime Minister of Denmark|Prime Minister]], [[Cabinet of Denmark|Cabinet]], Government Departments and Civil Service – executive
* [[Courts of Denmark|High Courts and lower courts]] – judiciary

==== France ====
{{Main|Political system of France}}

According to the [[Constitution of the Fifth Republic]], the government of France<ref>Duguit, Leon (1911). ''Traite de droit constitutionnel'', vol. 1, ''La regle du droit: le probleme de l'Etat'', Paris: de Boccard, p. 645.</ref> is divided into three branches:

* Executive. This includes the popularly elected [[President of France|president]] as well as the [[Prime minister of france|prime minister]] and cabinet. The French Prime minister is nominated by the president, but the government is responsible to the lower house of the legislature, the [[National Assembly of France|National Assembly]].
* [[Parliament of France|Legislature]]. A bicameral legislature that includes the [[French Senate|Senate]] (upper house) and the [[National Assembly of France|National Assembly]] (lower house). The relationship between the two houses is asymmetric, meaning that in case of dispute, the National Assembly has the final word according to Article 45<ref>{{cite web|title=Constitution du 4 octobre 1958|url=http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/Droit-francais/Constitution/Constitution-du-4-octobre-1958|access-date=11 October 2013}}</ref> of the Constitution.
* [[Judiciary of France|Judiciary]]. This includes the judicial and administrative orders. It also includes a [[Constitutional Council of France|constitutional court]].

==== Hong Kong ====
{{main|Separation of powers in Hong Kong}}
[[Hong Kong]] is a [[Special administrative regions of China|Special Administrative Region]] established in 1997 pursuant to the [[Sino-British Joint Declaration]], an international treaty made between Britain and China in 1984, registered with the [[United Nations]]. The [[Hong Kong Basic Law]], a national law of China that serves as the ''de facto'' constitution, divides the government into Executive, Legislative, and Judicial bodies.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.basiclaw.gov.hk/en/basiclawtext/chapter_4.html|title=Tha Basic Law : Chapter IV : Political Structure|access-date=May 7, 2020|website=basiclaw.gov.hk|archive-date=20 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200720020006/https://www.basiclaw.gov.hk/en/basiclawtext/chapter_4.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

However, according to the former [[Secretary for Security]], [[Regina Ip]], also a current member of the [[Executive Council of Hong Kong|Executive Council]](ExCo) and [[Legislative Council of Hong Kong]], Hong Kong never practices Separation of Powers after the handover of Hong Kong back to China.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.facebook.com/RTHKVNEWS/videos/566107990702099/?vh=e&d=n|title=Legislative Council Meeting May 7, 2020|access-date=May 7, 2020|website=RTHK LegCo Meeting Live Broadcast, 01:06:20}}</ref>

Nevertheless, Hong Kong's policy was decided by the Governor in Council before 1997, and it became the Chief Executive in Council afterwards. No matter when, some members of the Executive Council are also members of the Legislative Council. When the same person holds positions in the executive and legislative branches at the same time, the two powers are integrated rather than separated, and so it does not constitute a strict separation of powers, it is because checks and balances has been lost. This institutional practice existed long before 1997 during the British rule and has been followed ever since.{{citation needed}}

==== India ====
{{Main|Lawmaking procedure in India|Constitution of India|Supreme Court of India}}
India follows [[constitutional democracy]] which offers a clear separation of powers. The judiciary is independent of the other two branches with the power to interpret the constitution. [[Parliament of India|Parliament]] has the legislative powers. Executive powers are vested in the [[President of India|President]] who is advised by the [[Union Council of Ministers]] headed by the [[Prime Minister of India|Prime Minister]]. The constitution of India vested the duty of protecting, preserving and defending the constitution with the President as common head of the executive, parliament, armed forces, etc.—not only for the [[Government of India|union government]] but also the various [[State governments of India|state governments]] in a [[Federalism in India|federal structure]]. All three branches have "checks and balances" over each other to maintain the balance of power and not to exceed the constitutional limits.<ref name="MP Jain">{{cite book |last=Jain |first=M.P. |title=Indian Constitutional Law |publisher=LexisNexis Butterworths Wadhwa Nagpur |page=921 |year=2010 |isbn=978-81-8038-621-3 }}</ref>

* President can [[President of India#President versus Prime minister|set aside a law]] passed by the legislative or an advice given by the [[Union Council of Ministers]] when it is inconsistent with the constitution of India.
* Even if the president accepts a law passed duly by the legislative, it can be [[President of India#President versus Chief Justice|repealed by the Supreme Court]] after a fair trial if it is against the [[Basic structure doctrine|Basic structure of the constitution]]. Any citizen of India can [[Fundamental rights in India#Right to constitutional remedies|approach the Supreme Court]] directly to repeal the unconstitutional laws made by the legislative or executive.
* President can be removed from office for unconstitutional decisions after an [[impeachment trial]] conducted by the parliament.
* President can be removed by [[Supreme Court of India]] under article 71(1) for electoral malpractice or on the grounds of losing eligibility for the position.
* Parliament can impeach judges of Supreme Court and High Courts of states for their incompetence and ''[[mala fides]]''. A higher bench of judges can set aside the incorrect judgements of a smaller bench of judges to uphold the constitution.

==== Iran ====
{{Main|Government of Islamic Republic of Iran#Political Structure}}
Absolute Guardian of Islamist Jurist - [[Supreme leader of Iran|Supreme leader]]
** Government – Executive
** The legislature of Islamic Republic of Iran – Legislative
** Judicial system – Judicial

==== Ireland ====
{{Main|Constitution of Ireland}}
* [[Oireachtas]] – legislature
* [[Taoiseach]], [[Government of Ireland|Cabinet]], Government Departments – executive
* [[High Court (Ireland)|High Court]] and [[Courts of the Republic of Ireland|lower courts]] – judiciary

==== Italy ====
{{Main|Constitution of Italy}}

In [[Politics of Italy|Italy]] the powers are separated, even though the Council of Ministers needs a [[vote of confidence]] from both chambers of Parliament (which represents a large number of members, around 600).

Like every parliamentary form of government, there is no complete separation between Legislature and Executive, rather a ''continuum'' between them due to the confidence link. The balance between these two branches is protected by Constitution<ref>The parliamentary dialectic is a legally significant and a protected value, as evidenced by the decision no. 32 of 2014 and the favor with which you see in it the maintenance "within the constitutional framework" of "institutional relations between the Government, Parliament and President of the Republic in the performance of the legislative function": {{cite journal|last1=Buonomo|first1=Giampiero|title=Governo e revisione costituzionale|journal=Mondoperaio Edizione Online|year=2014|url=https://www.questia.com/projects#!/project/89410258|access-date=10 April 2016|archive-date=11 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211140818/https://www.questia.com/projects#!/project/89410258|url-status=dead}}</ref> and between them and the judiciary, which is really independent.

==== Japan ====
{{Main articles|Politics of Japan|Government of Japan|National Diet}}

Based on [[popular sovereignty]], the [[Government of Japan]] is divided into the legislative, executive and judicial branches. All of the branches of government operate under the framework set by the post-[[World War II|WWII]] [[Constitution of Japan|Constitution]] ratified in 1947.

Legislative power is vested in the bicameral parliament of Japan, the [[National Diet]] (国会, ''Kokkai''). The Diet consists of the [[House of Councillors]] (参議院, ''Sangiin'') as the upper house and the [[House of Representatives (Japan)|House of Representatives]] (衆議院, ''Shugiin'') as the lower house. Members of both houses are elected under a [[Parallel voting|parallel voting system]].

The executive power of the state is vested in the [[Cabinet of Japan]] (内閣, ''Naikaku''). The Prime Minister (内閣総理大臣, ''Naikaku Sōri-Daijin'') serves as the head of the Cabinet and is designated from among the members of the Diet.{{cite act|type=Constitution|1946-11-03|dmy}}|article=67|legislature=National Diet|title=日本国憲法|script-title=ja:日本国憲法|trans-title=Constitution of Japan|url=https://www.japaneselawtranslation.go.jp/en/laws/view/174#je_ch5|language=ja}} As a [[parliamentary democracy]], the Prime Minister and Cabinet ministers are responsible to parliament and can be dismissed by a [[motion of no confidence]].

Judicial power is vested in the [[Supreme Court of Japan|Supreme Court]] (最高裁判所, ''Saikō-Saibansho''). It is the ultimate judicial authority on matters of constitutional and national law interpretation. It also has the power of [[judicial review]], allowing it to review the constitutionality of laws.

==== Malaysia ====
{{Main|Constitution of Malaysia|Government of Malaysia}}

* Parliament – legislature
* Prime Minister, Cabinet, Government Departments and Civil Service – executive
* Federal Courts and lower courts – judiciary

==== Mexico ====
{{Main|Constitution of Mexico}}

Article 49 of the Mexican Constitution establishes that the [[Federal government of Mexico|Supreme Power of the Federation]] is divided in three Powers, the [[President of Mexico|Executive]], the [[Congress of the Union|Legislative]] and the [[Judiciary of Mexico|Judiciary]].

==== Netherlands ====

* [[States General of the Netherlands|States General]]
* Government - executive
* [[Supreme Court of the Netherlands|Supreme Court]]

==== Nepal ====
{{Main|Constitution of Nepal|Government of Nepal}}

* Legislative Parliament – Legislature
* Prime Minister, Cabinet of Minister and Government Departments – Executive
* Supreme Court – Judiciary

==== Norway ====
{{Main|Constitution of Norway|Government of Norway|Politics of Norway}}

* [[Storting|Parliament]] – legislature
* The King, [[Prime Minister of Norway|Prime Minister]], [[Council of State (Norway)|Cabinet of Norway]], Government Departments and Civil Service – executive
* The Supreme Court, [[Courts of Norway|High Courts and lower courts]] – judiciary

A note on the status of separation of power, checks and balances, and [[Balance of power (parliament)|balance of power]] in Norway today.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Norwegian parliament description on Separation of powers|url=https://www.stortinget.no/no/Stortinget-og-demokratiet/Storting-og-regjering/Fordeling-av-makt/|publisher=Stortinget}}</ref>

In the original constitution of 1814 the Montesquieu concept was enshrined, and the people at the time had the same skepticism about political parties as the American founding fathers and the revolutionaries in France. Nor did people really want to get rid of the king and the Council of State (privy council). King and council was a known concept that people had lived with for a long time and for the most part were comfortable with. The 1814 constitution came about as a reaction to external events, most notable the [[Treaty of Kiel]] (see [[1814 in Norway]]). There was no revolution against the current powers, as had been the case in the U.S. and France.

As there was no election of the executive, the king reigned supremely independent in selecting the members of the Council of State, no formal political parties formed until the 1880s. A conflict between the executive and legislature started developing in the 1870s and climaxed with the legislature impeaching the entire Council of State in 1884 (see [[:no:Statsrådssaken|Statsrådssaken [Norwegian Wikipedia page]]]). With this came a switch to a [[parliamentary system]] of government. While the full process took decades, it has led to a system of [[parliamentary sovereignty]], where the Montesquieu idea of separation of powers is technically dead even though the three branches remain important institutions.

This ''does not'' mean that there are no checks and balances. With the introduction of a parliamentary system, political parties started to form quickly, which led to a call for electoral reform that saw the introduction of [[Party-list proportional representation]] in 1918. The peculiarities of the Norwegian election system generate 6–8 parties and make it extremely difficult for a single party to gain an absolute majority. It has only occurred for a brief period in the aftermath of World War II where the [[Labour Party (Norway)|Labour Party]] had an absolute majority.

A [[multi-party system]] parliament that must either form a minority executive or a coalition executive functions as a perfectly good system of checks and balances even if it was never a stated goal for the introduction of multiparty system. The multiparty system came about in response to a public outcry of having too few parties and a general feeling of a lack of representation. For this reason, very little on the topic of separation of powers or checks and balances can be found in the works of Norwegian political sciences today.

==== Pakistan ====
{{Main|Constitution of Pakistan|Government of Pakistan}}

* [[Parliament of Pakistan|Parliament]] – [[Legislative]]
* [[Prime Minister of Pakistan|Prime Minister]] and their [[Cabinet of Pakistan|Cabinet]] – [[Executive (government)|Executive]]
* [[Supreme Court of Pakistan|Supreme Court]] and [[Judiciary of Pakistan|lower courts]] – [[Judicial]]

==== Philippines ====
{{Main|Government of the Philippines|Politics of the Philippines}}

* Legislative Department: bicameral [[Congress of the Philippines|Congress]] ([[Senate of the Philippines|Senate]], [[House of Representatives of the Philippines|House of Representatives]])
* Executive Department: [[President of the Philippines|President]], [[Vice President of the Philippines|Vice President]], and the [[Cabinet of the Philippines|Cabinet]]
* Judicial Department: [[Supreme Court of the Philippines|Supreme Court]] and other [[Judiciary of the Philippines|courts]]

In addition, the 1987 Philippine Constitution provides for three independent Constitutional Commissions:

* [[Civil Service Commission (Philippines)|Civil Service Commission]]
* [[Commission on Elections (Philippines)|Commission on Elections]]
* [[Commission on Audit (Philippines)|Commission on Audit]]

Other Independent Constitutional Bodies:

* [[Ombudsman of the Philippines|Office of the Ombudsman]]
* [[Commission on Human Rights (Philippines)|Commission on Human Rights]]
* [[National Economic and Development Authority]]
* [[Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas]] (Central Bank of the Philippines)

==== South Korea ====
{{Main|Politics of South Korea}}

* [[National Assembly of South Korea]] – Legislature
* [[Government of South Korea#Executive branch|Executive branch of South Korea]] - Executive
* [[Judiciary of South Korea]] – Judiciary

==== Turkey ====
{{Main|Constitution of Turkey|Government of Turkey}}

* [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|Parliament]] – legislature
* [[President of Turkey|President]], [[Cabinet of Turkey|Council of Ministers]] and Government Departments – executive
* [[Judicial system of Turkey|High Courts and lower courts]] – judiciary

==== United Kingdom ====
{{Main|Separation of powers in the United Kingdom}}
{{See also|History of the constitution of the United Kingdom}}

* Parliament – legislature
* Prime Minister, Cabinet, Government Departments and Civil Service – executive
* Courts – judiciary

The development of the British constitution, which is not a [[Codification (law)|codified]] document, is based on fusion in the person of the Monarch, who has a formal role to play in the legislature (Parliament, which is where legal and political sovereignty lies, is the Crown-in-Parliament, and is summoned and dissolved by the Sovereign who must give his or her Royal Assent to all Bills so that they become Acts), the executive (the Sovereign appoints all ministers of His/Her Majesty's Government, who govern in the name of the Crown) and the judiciary (the Sovereign, as the fount of justice, appoints all senior judges, and all public prosecutions are brought in his or her name).

Although the [[doctrine]] of separation of power plays a role in the United Kingdom's constitutional life, the constitution is often described as having "a weak separation of powers" ([[A. V. Dicey]]) despite it being the one to which Montesquieu originally referred. For example, the executive forms a subset of the legislature, as did—to a lesser extent—the judiciary until the establishment of the [[Supreme Court of the United Kingdom]]. The Prime Minister, the Chief Executive, sits as a member of the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]], either as a peer in the [[House of Lords]] or as an elected member of the [[British House of Commons|House of Commons]] (by convention, and as a result of the supremacy of the Lower House, the Prime Minister now sits in the [[British House of Commons|House of Commons]]). Furthermore, while the courts in the United Kingdom are amongst the most independent in the world,{{citation needed}} the [[Law Lords]], who were the final arbiters of most judicial disputes in the U.K. sat simultaneously in the [[House of Lords]], the upper house of the legislature, although this arrangement ceased in 2009 when the [[Supreme Court of the United Kingdom]] came into existence. Furthermore, because of the existence of Parliamentary sovereignty, while the theory of separation of powers may be studied there, a system such as that of the U.K. is more accurately described as a "[[fusion of powers]]".{{citation needed}}

Until 2005, the [[Lord Chancellor]] fused in his person the Legislature, Executive and Judiciary, as he was the ex officio [[Lord Speaker|Speaker of the House of Lords]], a Government Minister who sat in [[Cabinet of the United Kingdom|Cabinet]] and was head of the [[Lord Chancellor's Department]], which administered the courts, the justice system and appointed judges, and was the head of the Judiciary in England and Wales and sat as a judge on the [[Judicial Committee of the House of Lords]], the highest domestic court in the entire United Kingdom, and the [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council]], the senior tribunal court for parts of the Commonwealth. The [[Lord Chancellor]] also had certain other judicial positions, including being a judge in the Court of Appeal and President of the Chancery Division. The [[Lord Chancellor]] combines other aspects of the constitution, including having certain ecclesiastical functions of the [[Church of England|established state church]], making certain church appointments, nominations and sitting as one of the thirty-three Church Commissioners. These functions remain intact and unaffected by the [[Constitutional Reform Act 2005|Constitutional Reform Act]]. In 2005, the [[Constitutional Reform Act 2005|Constitutional Reform Act]] separated the powers with Legislative functions going to an elected [[Lord Speaker]] and the Judicial functions going to the [[Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales|Lord Chief Justice]]. The [[Lord Chancellor's Department]] was replaced with a [[Ministry of Justice]] and the [[Lord Chancellor]] currently serves in the position of [[Secretary of State for Justice]].

The judiciary has no power to strike down primary legislation, and can only rule on secondary legislation that it is invalid with regard to the primary legislation if necessary.

Under the concept of [[parliamentary sovereignty]], [[Lords Spiritual and Temporal and Commons|Parliament]] can enact any primary legislation it chooses. However, the concept immediately becomes problematic when the question is asked, "If parliament can do anything, can it bind its successors?" It is generally held that parliament can do no such thing.

Equally, while statute takes precedence over precedent-derived common law and the judiciary has no power to strike down primary legislation, there are certain cases where the supreme judicature has effected an injunction against the application of an act or reliance on its authority by the civil service. The seminal example of this is the [[Factortame litigation|Factortame case]], where the House of Lords granted such an injunction preventing the operation of the ''Merchant Shipping Act 1988'' until litigation in the European Court of Justice had been resolved.

The House of Lords ruling in Factortame (No. 1), approving the European Court of Justice formulation that "a national court which, in a case before it concerning Community law, considers that the sole obstacle which precludes it from granting interim relief is a rule of national law, must disapply that rule", has created an implicit tiering of legislative reviewability; the only way for parliament to prevent the supreme judicature from injunctively striking out a law on the basis of incompatibility with Community law is to pass an act specifically removing that power from the court, or by repealing the ''European Communities Act 1972''.

The British legal systems are based on [[common law]] traditions, which require:

* [[Police]] or [[Regulatory agency|regulators]] cannot initiate complaints under [[criminal law]] but can only investigate (prosecution is mostly reserved for the [[Crown Prosecution Service]]), which prevents [[selective enforcement]]—e.g., the "[[fishing expedition]]," which is often specifically forbidden.
* [[Prosecutor]]s cannot withhold evidence from [[Lawyer|counsel]] for the [[defendant]]; to do so results in [[Mistrials|mistrial]] or dismissal. Accordingly, their relation to police is no advantage.
* [[Defendant]]s convicted can [[appeal (law)|appeal]], but only fresh and compelling evidence not available at trial can be introduced, restricting the power of the [[court of appeal]] to the process of law applied.

==== United States ====
{{Main|Separation of powers under the United States Constitution}}
[[File:Washington Constitutional Convention 1787.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|[[George Washington]] at [[Constitutional Convention (United States)|Constitutional Convention]] of 1787, signing of U.S. Constitution]]
[[File:Justice Antonin Scalia on Separation of Powers and Checks and Balances.webm|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Supreme Court of the United States|U.S. Supreme Court]] Justice [[Antonin Scalia]] testified before the [[United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary|Senate Judiciary Committee]] about separation of powers and checks and balances of the U.S. Government]]

Separation of powers was first established in the [[United States Constitution]], wherein the founders included features of many new concepts, including hard-learned historical lessons about the checks and balances of power. Similar concepts were also prominent in the state governments of the United States. As colonies of Great Britain, the founders considered that the American states had suffered an abuse of the broad power of parliamentarism and monarchy. As a remedy, the United States Constitution limits the powers of the federal government through various means—in particular, the three branches of the federal government are divided by exercising different functions. The executive and legislative powers are separated in origin by separate elections, and the judiciary is kept independent. Each branch controls the actions of others and balances its powers in some way.

In the Constitution, Article 1 Section I grants Congress only those "legislative powers herein granted" and proceeds to list those permissible actions in Article I Section 8, while Section 9 lists actions that are prohibited for Congress. The vesting clause in Article II places no limits on the Executive branch, simply stating that "The Executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution.html |title=Constitution of the United States |publisher=Archives.gov |access-date=2013-05-05}}</ref> The Supreme Court holds "The judicial Power" according to Article III, and [[judicial review]] was established in ''[[Marbury v. Madison]]'' under the Marshall court.<ref>Madison, James. (8 February 1788) [http://www.foundingfathers.info/federalistpapers/fed51.htm "The Structure of the Government Must Furnish the Proper Checks and Balances Between the Different Departments"] ''The Federalist Papers No. 51''</ref>

The presidential system adopted by the Constitution of the United States obeys the balance of powers sought, and not found, by the constitutional monarchy. The people appoint their representatives to meet periodically in a legislative body, and, since they do not have a king, the people themselves elect a preeminent citizen to perform, also periodically, the executive functions of the State.

The direct election of the head of state or of the executive power is an inevitable consequence of the political freedom of the people, understood as the capacity to appoint and depose their leaders. Only this separate election of the person who has to fulfill the functions that the Constitution attributes to the president, so different by its nature and by its function from the election of representatives of the electors, allows the executive power to be controlled by the legislative and submitted to the demands of political responsibility.<ref>{{Cite book|author-link=Antonio Garcia-Trevijano|title=A Pure Theory of Democracy|last=Garcia-Trevijano|first=Antonio|publisher=[[University Press of America]]|isbn=9780761848561|location=Lanham, Md|language=en|translator-last=Peñaranda|translator-first=Miguel Rodríguez de}}</ref>{{Disputed inline || date=January 2020}}

[[Judicial independence]] is maintained by appointments for life, which remove any dependence on the Executive, with voluntary retirement and a high threshold for dismissal by the Legislature, in addition to a salary that cannot be diminished during their service.

The [[Federal government of the United States|federal government]] refers to the branches as "branches of government", while some systems use "government" exclusively to describe the executive. The Executive branch has attempted<ref>See Bruce P. Frohnen, George W. Carey, ''Constitutional Morality and the Rise of Quasi-Law'', Harvard University Press, 2016.</ref> to claim power arguing for separation of powers to include being the Commander-in-Chief of a standing army since the [[American Civil War]], [[executive order]]s, emergency powers, security classifications since [[World War II]], national security, signing statements, and the scope of the [[Unitary executive theory|unitary executive]].

{{Blockquote|
In order to lay a due foundation for that separate and distinct exercise of the different powers of government, which to a certain extent is admitted on all hands to be essential to the preservation of liberty, it is evident that each department should have a will of its own; and consequently should be so constituted that the members of each should have as little agency as possible in the appointment of the members of the others. Were this principle rigorously adhered to, it would require that all the appointments for the supreme executive, legislative, and judiciary magistracies should be drawn from the same fountain of authority, the people, through channels having no communication whatever with one another. Perhaps such a plan of constructing the several departments would be less difficult in practice than it may in contemplation appear. Some difficulties, however, and some additional expense would attend the execution of it. Some deviations, therefore, from the principle must be admitted. In the constitution of the judiciary department in particular, it might be inexpedient to insist rigorously on the principle: first, because peculiar qualifications being essential in the members, the primary consideration ought to be to select that mode of choice which best secures these qualifications; secondly, because the permanent tenure by which the appointments are held in that department, must soon destroy all sense of dependence on the authority conferring them. It is equally evident, that the members of each department should be as little dependent as possible on those of the others, for the emoluments annexed to their offices. Were the executive magistrate, or the judges, not independent of the legislature in this particular, their independence in every other would be merely nominal.<ref name="federalistNo51" />
| 3=}}

=== Other systems ===

==== Belgium ====

[[Belgium]] is currently a federated state that has imposed the ''{{Lang|la|trias politica}}'' on different governmental levels. The constitution of 1831, considered one of the most liberal of its time for limiting the powers of its monarch and imposing a rigorous system of separation of powers, is based on three principles (represented in the [[Schematic overview of Belgian institutions]]).

''{{Lang|la|Trias politica}}'' (horizontal separation of powers):

* The legislative power is attributed to a parliamentary body elected through a representative general election system (one person, one vote).
* The executive power is attributed to the Council of Ministers. Ministers are formally appointed by the King though in practice the [[prime minister]] decides the composition of his cabinet. The ministers are usually from the elected members of parliament (although non-elected people can also be nominated); however, they must first resign from their elected seat.
* The judicial power is in the hands of the courts. Magistrates are nominated by the minister on proposal from a Council of the Magistrates.
** Magistrates can be nominated to become a judge (sitting magistrates) or instructing judge (investigating judge) of Procureur (public prosecutor) (the standing magistrates).
** The executive branch of the government is responsible for providing the physical means to execute its role (infrastructure, staff, financial means).
** Judges and some other people cannot run for elected office while they are nominated to certain positions (military, police-officers, clergy, notaries, bailiffs).

[[Subsidiarity]] (vertical separation of powers):

* Supranational directives (EU legislation) and international treaties are subjected to approval of the federal level (the federal level being Belgium the nation state)
* The federal level comprises the following:
** A bicameral parliament (House of Representatives and Senate) (in 2014 this will be a directly elected house and an indirectly appointed Senate of the regions)
** A federal government (led by the Prime Minister, ministers and secretaries of state)
*** Tasked with overseeing justice, defence, foreign affairs, social security, and public health
** High Court, Constitutional Court, Cassation Court and Council of State
* The regional level comprises the following:
** A unicameral parliament
** A regional government led by the minister-president (ministers and secretaries of state) is tasked with regional matters
* Provinces also have similar structures:
** A unicameral provincial council
** A nominated provincial governor assisted by deputies is tasked with provincial matters
** Appellate Court, Assizes Court
* An intermediate level of Arrondissements subdivides the provinces
** it has only an executive level with arrondissemental commissars
* City and communal entities (local government):
** A city or communal council
** A mayor, assisted by aldermen, is tasked with local matters
** Magistrates Court, Correctional Court (three judges)
** Justice of the peace and Police Court judges (single judge courts)

Secularism (separation of state and religion):

* The king, the head of state, holds no political authority and requires executive approval by a minister for every action and statement; he nominates the ministers but he does not choose them (his executive powers); he signs and decrees the laws voted in parliament (his legislative powers);
* The head of state is commander in chief of the military (in title only), politically the military depends on the Minister of Defence and the chiefs of staff are responsible towards parliament and take their orders from the Minister of Defence and the government;
* Certain functions are deemed incompatible and people must resign from their function if they want to assume responsibilities in another function (military commanders have never been government ministers, even during a war).

==== China ====

===== Imperial China =====
{{Main|Political systems of Imperial China}}

; [[Three Lords and Nine Ministers]] (ancient)

[[Three Ducal Ministers|Three Lords]]:

# [[Grand chancellor (China)|Chancellor]] – executive leader
# [[Yushi Dafu|Grandee Secretary]] ([[Censorate]] chief and also Deputy Chancellor) – supervisory leader
# [[Grand Commandant]] – military leader

[[Nine Ministers]] / [[Nine Courts]], etc.

; [[Three Departments and Six Ministries]] (medieval)
# [[Department of State Affairs]] – edict execution
## [[Ministry of Personnel]]
## [[Ministry of Revenue (imperial China)|Ministry of Revenue]]
## [[Ministry of Rites]]
## [[Ministry of War (imperial China)|Ministry of War]]
## [[Ministry of Justice (imperial China)|Ministry of Justice]]
## [[Ministry of Works (imperial China)|Ministry of Works]]
# [[Zhongshu Sheng|Secretariat]] – edict formulation
# [[Menxia Sheng|Chancellery]] – edict review
* [[Censorate]] – supervision
* [[Nine Courts]], [[Five Directorates]], etc.

; [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] and [[Qing dynasty|Qing]] dynasties
* [[Emperor of China|Emperor]], via [[Grand Council (Qing dynasty)|Grand Council]] or equivalent
** [[Grand Secretariat]] (cabinet) – edict formulation
** [[Three Departments and Six Ministries|Six Ministries]] – edict execution
** [[Censorate]] – supervision
*** Reviewers of the {{ill|Six Offices of Scrutiny|zh|六科}} – supervising the Six Ministries
*** 13~20 Circuits [[investigating censor]]s –supervising regional officials
** [[Nine Courts|Five Courts]], etc.

; Judicial

{{ill|Three Judicial Offices|zh|三法司}}:

# [[Ministry of Justice (imperial China)|Ministry of Justice]] – case judgement
# [[Censorate]] – case supervision
# [[Court of Judicature and Revision]] – case review

; Military
* [[Emperor of China|Emperor]]
** [[Bureau of Military Affairs|Privy Council]] or equivalent
** [[Ministry of War (imperial China)|Ministry of War]]
** Commands (e.g., Three Commands of the [[Northern Song Dynasty|Northern Song]] [[royal guard]] forces, and {{ill|Five-Army Commands|zh|五军都督府}} of the [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] armies)

===== Republic of China =====
{{Main|Government of the Republic of China}}

According to [[Sun Yat-sen]]'s idea of "[[Five-Power Constitution|separation of the five powers]]", the government of the Republic of China has five branches:

* [[Executive Yuan]] – led by the [[Premier of the Republic of China|premier]] but in actuality it is the [[President of the Republic of China|president]] who sets policy – executive
* [[Legislative Yuan]] – [[unicameral]] – legislature
* [[Judicial Yuan]] – its Constitutional Court (highest) and [[Supreme Court of the Republic of China|Supreme Court]] have different jurisdictions – judiciary
* [[Control Yuan]] – audit branch
* [[Examination Yuan]] – civil service personnel management and human resources

The [[President of the Republic of China|president]] and [[Vice President of the Republic of China|vice president]] as well as the defunct [[National Assembly of the Republic of China|National Assembly]] are constitutionally not part of the above five branches. Before being abolished in 2005, the National Assembly was a standing [[constituent assembly]] and [[electoral college]] for the president and vice president. Its constitutional amending powers were passed to the legislative yuan and its electoral powers were passed to the electorate.

The relationship between the executive and legislative branches are poorly defined. An example of the problems this causes is the near complete political paralysis that results when the president, who has neither the power to veto nor the ability to dissolve the legislature and call new elections, cannot negotiate with the legislature when his party is in the minority.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.fpri.org/enotes/asia.20020418.rigger.taiwanpoliticalparalysis.html |title = E-Notes: Why Taiwan's Political Paralysis PersistsFPRI |publisher=Foreign Policy Research Institute |first=Shelley |last=Rigger |access-date=2008-10-29 |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20050210073526/http://www.fpri.org/enotes/asia.20020418.rigger.taiwanpoliticalparalysis.html |archive-date = 10 February 2005 }}</ref> The examination and control yuans are marginal branches; their leaders as well as the leaders of the executive and judicial yuans are appointed by the president and confirmed by the legislative yuan. The legislature is the only branch that chooses its own leadership. The vice president has practically no responsibilities.

===== People's Republic of China =====
{{Main|Government of China}}

The central government of the People's Republic of China is nominally divided among several state organs:

# [[National People's Congress]] (NPC): the ultimate power of the state that makes the constitution and basic laws, and supervises and elects all following organs;
# [[Standing Committee of the National People's Congress]] (NPCSC): the permanent legislative organ that makes most laws, interprets the constitution and laws, conducts [[judicial review]], and supervises all following organs;
# [[President of the People's Republic of China|President]]: acts as a ceremonial [[head of state]] in compliance with decisions made by the NPCSC but exercises an independent power to nominate the Premier of the State Council;
# [[State Council of the People's Republic of China|State Council]] (synonymous with "Central People's Government"): the executive branch, whose [[Premier of the People's Republic of China|Premier]] is the [[head of government]];
# [[Central Military Commission (China)|Central Military Commission]] (CMC): the military branch, whose [[Chairman of the Central Military Commission (China)|Chairman]] is the [[commander-in-chief]] of the national armed forces including the [[People's Liberation Army]] (PLA), the [[People's Armed Police]] (PAP), and the [[Militia (China)|Militia]];
# [[National Supervisory Commission]] (NSC): the supervisory branch;
# [[Supreme People's Court]] (SPC): the judicial branch;
# [[Supreme People's Procuratorate]] (SPP): the prosecutorial branch.

The [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China|codification]] of the [[Chinese Communist Party]]'s [[one-party system]] renders the division of power amongst these organs a formality. Most practical political power is held by the [[Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party|Politburo Standing Committee]] dominated by the [[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party|General Secretary]], who serves as the country's [[Supreme Leader of China|supreme leader]].{{citation needed}}

==== Costa Rica ====

In the aftermath of the [[Costa Rican Civil War|43-day civil war]] in 1948 (after former [[President of Costa Rica|President]] and incumbent candidate [[Rafael Ángel Calderón Guardia]] tried to take power through [[Voter fraud|fraud]], by not recognising the results of the [[1948 Costa Rican general election|presidential election]] that he had lost), the question of which transformational model the Costa Rican State would follow was the main issue that confronted the victors. A [[Constituent Assembly of Costa Rica|Constituent Assembly]] was elected by popular vote to draw up a new constitution, [[Costa Rican Constitution|enacted in 1949]], and remains in force. This document was an edit of the [[Costa Rican Constitution of 1871|constitution of 1871]], as the constituent assembly rejected more radical corporatist ideas proposed by the ruling [[Junta Fundadora de la Segunda República]] (which, although having come to power by military force, abolished the armed forces). Nonetheless, the new constitution increased centralization of power at the expense of municipalities and eliminated provincial government altogether, and at the time it increased the powers of congress and the judiciary.

It established the three supreme powers as the legislative, executive, and judicial branches, but also created two other autonomous state organs that have equivalent power, but not equivalent rank. The first is the [[Tribunal Supremo de Elecciones de Costa Rica]] (electoral branch), which controls elections and makes unique, unappealable decisions on their outcomes.

The second is the office of the [[Comptroller|Comptroller General]] (audit branch), an autonomous and independent organ nominally subordinate to the unicameral legislative assembly. All budgets of ministries and municipalities must pass through this agency, including the execution of budget items such as contracting for routine operations. The Comptroller also provides financial vigilance over government offices and office holders, and routinely brings actions to remove mayors for malfeasance, firmly establishing this organization as the fifth branch of the Republic.

==== European Union ====

The [[European Union]] is a supranational polity, and is neither a country nor a federation; but as the EU wields political power it complies with the principle of separation of powers. There are seven [[institutions of the European Union]]. In intergovernmental matters, most power is concentrated in the [[Council of the European Union]]—giving it the characteristics of a normal [[international organization]]. Here, all power at the EU level is in one branch. In the latter there are four main actors. The [[European Commission]] acts as an independent executive which is appointed by the Council in conjunction with the European Parliament; but the commission also has a legislative role as the sole initiator of EU legislation.<ref>Bomberg, Elizabeth, Peterson, John, and [[Richard Corbett]], eds. ''The European Union: How Does it Work?'' (3rd ed) (2012, Oxford University Press). {{ISBN|978-0-19-957080-5}} and {{ISBN|0-19-957080-9}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Corbett |first1=Richard |last2=Jacobs |first2=Francis |author2-link=Francis Jacobs |last3=Shackleton |first3=Michael |title=The European Parliament |edition=8th |url=http://www.johnharperpublishing.co.uk/pp007.shtml |publisher=John Harper Publishing |year=2011 |location=London |isbn=978-0-9564508-5-2}}</ref>
<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Craig|first1=Paul|first2=Gráinne|last2=de Búrca|title=EU Law, Text, Cases and Materials |edition=4th|year=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-927389-8}}</ref> An early maxim was: "The Commission proposes and the Council disposes"; and although the EU's lawmaking procedure is now much more complicated, this simple maxim still holds some truth. As well as both executive and legislative functions, the Commission arguably exercises a third, quasi-judicial, function under Articles 101 & 102 TFEU (competition law ); although the ECJ remains the final arbiter. The [[European Parliament]] is one half of the legislative branch and is directly elected. The Council itself acts both as the second half of the legislative branch and also holds some executive functions (some of which are exercised by the related [[European Council]] in practice). The [[European Court of Justice]] acts as the independent judicial branch, interpreting EU law and treaties. The remaining institution, the [[European Court of Auditors]], is an independent audit authority (due to the sensitive nature of fraud in the EU).

* [[Council of the European Union]] – executive and legislative
* [[European Commission]] – executive, legislative and quasi-judicial
* [[European Council]] – executive
* [[European Court of Auditors]] – audit
* [[Court of Justice of the European Union]] and the [[General Court (European Union)|General Court]] – judicial
* [[European Parliament]] – legislative

==== Germany ====

The three branches in German government are further divided into six main bodies enshrined in the [[Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany]]:

* Federal President (''[[President of Germany|Bundespräsident]]'') – formally executive, but mainly ''representative'' in daily politics
* Federal Cabinet (''[[Bundesregierung]]'') – executive
* Federal Diet (''[[Bundestag]]'') & Federal Council (''[[Bundesrat of Germany|Bundesrat]]'') – bicameral legislative
* Federal Assembly (''[[Bundesversammlung (Germany)|Bundesversammlung]]'') – presidential electoral college (consisting of the members of the Bundestag and electors from the [[States of Germany|constituent states]])
* Federal Constitutional Court (''[[Bundesverfassungsgericht]]'') – judiciary

Besides the constitutional court, the judicial branch at the federal level is made up of five supreme courts—one for civil and criminal cases (''Bundesgerichtshof''), and one each for administrative, tax, labour, and social security issues. There are also state-based (''[[States of Germany|Länder / Bundesländer]]'') courts beneath them, and a rarely used [[Joint Senate of the Supreme Courts of Germany|senate of the supreme courts]].

==== Hungary ====
{{Update|inaccurate=yes}}
The four independent branches of power in Hungary (the parliament, the government, the court system, and the office of the public accuser) are divided into six bodies:

* [[National Assembly (Hungary)|Parliament]] (Magyar Országgyűlés): elected every 4 years by the people in a highly complex, one-round voting system
* [[Government of Hungary|Government]] (Magyar Kormány): installed and removed by simple majority vote of the parliament, 4-year terms
* [[Supreme Court of Hungary|Supreme Court]] (Legfelsőbb Bíróság): Chief justice elected by qualified (2/3) majority of the parliament, no government oversight
* [[Constitutional Court of Hungary|Constitutional court]] (Alkotmánybíróság): members elected by qualified majority of the parliament for 8 years, this body nullifies laws and has no government oversight
* [[Chief Prosecutor of Hungary|Chief public accuser]] (Legfőbb ügyész): elected by qualified majority of the parliament, 6-year terms, office budget fixed, no government oversight
* [[List of heads of state of Hungary|The President of the Republic]] (Köztársasági Elnök) is elected by qualified majority of the Hungarian parliament for 5-year terms (cannot be reelected more than once). The President's task is to oversee the functioning of the democracy. Most powers are ceremonial: like signing laws into power and commanding the military in time of peace. The president can also return accepted bills once with advices to the Parliament for reconsideration or can also request nullification in advance from the Constitutional Court. The president can negotiate with civil/professional unions regarding the bills. Without the President's permission, the country can neither declare war nor deploy the armed forces.

The independent pillar status of the Hungarian public accuser's office is a unique construction, loosely modelled on Portugal's system (Portugal has four branches of government; the President, who is the non-executive head of state, the Prime Minister and the Government, the legislative Parliament, and the Constitutional Court), introduced after the 1974 victory of the [[Carnation Revolution]]. The public accuser (attorney general) body has become the fourth column of Hungarian democracy only in recent times: after communism fell in 1989, the office was made independent by a new clause (XI) of the Constitution. The change was meant to prevent abuse of state power, especially with regards to the use of false accusations against opposition politicians, who may be excluded from elections if locked in protracted or excessively severe court cases.

To prevent the Hungarian accuser's office from neglecting its duties, natural human private persons can submit investigation requests, called "pótmagánvád," directly to the courts if the accusers' office refuses to. Courts will decide if the allegations have merit and order police to act in lieu of the accuser's office if warranted. In its decision No. 42/2005, the Hungarian constitutional court declared that the government does not enjoy such privilege and the state is powerless to further pursue cases if the public accuser refuses to do so.

==== Historical ====

Notable examples of states after Montesquieu that had more than three powers include:
{{Incomplete list}}

* Quadripartite Systems:
** The [[Empire of Brazil]] (1822–1889) had, in addition to the three traditional powers, the '''moderating power''', which was exercised solely by the Emperor,<ref>Keith S. Rosenn, [https://repository.law.miami.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1171&context=fac_articles Separation of Powers in Brazil], 47 Duq. L. Rev. 839 (2009).</ref> and whose function was resolving conflicts between the other powers.
** The [[Vermont Republic]] and the [[Commonwealth of Pennsylvania]] both had a collective executive ([[Supreme Executive Council]]), a unicameral legislature ([[House of Assembly|Assembly]]), an elected judiciary ([[Supreme Court]]), and the [[Council of Censors]] this group was responsible for ensuring constitutionality of the Executive, Legislative, and Judiciary branches of government and auditing taxes and could also either censure or impeach any member of government who they had found to have violated the constitution they also had the sole power to both call constitution conventions and amend the constitution

== See also ==
{{columnslist|colwidth=20em|
* [[Arm's length principle]]
* [[Constitutional economics]]
* [[Constitutionalism]]
* [[Corruption Perceptions Index]]
* [[Fourth Estate]]
* [[Fifth power (politics)|Fifth power]]
* [[Fusion of powers]]
* [[Judicial activism]]
* [[Judicial independence]]
* [[Legal reform]]
* [[Philosophy of law]]
* [[Pith and substance]]
* [[Consociationalism|Power sharing]]
* [[Reserve power]]
* [[Rule of Law]]
* [[Rule according to higher law]]
* [[Separation of church and state]]
* [[Separation of duties]]
* [[Signing statement]]
}}

== Notes ==
{{NoteFoot}}

== References ==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

== Further reading ==

* Peter Barenboim, ''[http://www.florentine-society.ru/pdf/Biblical_Roots_of_Separation_of_Powers.pdf Biblical Roots of Separation of Powers]'', Moscow, Letny Sad, 2005. {{ISBN|5-94381-123-0}}, Permalink: [http://lccn.loc.gov/2006400578 LC Catalog - Item Information (Full Record)]
* Biancamaria Fontana (ed.), ''[http://www.cambridge.org/us/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=0521033764 The Invention of the Modern Republic]'' (2007) {{ISBN|978-0-521-03376-3}}
* W. B. Gwyn, ''The Meaning of the Separation of Powers'' (1965) (no ISBN)
* Bernard Manin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=GhAJ2x2coEoC Principles of Representative Government]'' (1995; English version 1997) {{ISBN|0-521-45258-9}} (hbk), {{ISBN|0-521-45891-9}} (pbk)
* José María Maravall and [[Adam Przeworski]] (eds), ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=EMB-F6Forx8C Democracy and the Rule of Law]'' (2003) {{ISBN|0-521-82559-8}} (hbk), {{ISBN|0-521-53266-3}} (pbk)
* Paul A. Rahe, [https://web.archive.org/web/20110716145832/http://www.hillsdalesites.org/personal/prahe/logicofliberty.html ''Montesquieu and the Logic of Liberty''] (2009) {{ISBN|978-0-300-14125-2}} (hbk), {{ISBN|978-0-300-16808-2}} (pbk)
* Iain Stewart, [https://web.archive.org/web/20120319161702/http://www.law.mq.edu.au/research/law_journals/macquarie_law_journal/ "Men of Class: Aristotle, Montesquieu and Dicey on 'Separation of Powers' and 'the Rule of Law'"] 4 ''Macquarie Law Journal'' 187 (2004)
* Iain Stewart, [https://web.archive.org/web/20110408194916/http://ouclf.iuscomp.org/articles/montesquieu.shtml "Montesquieu in England: his 'Notes on England', with Commentary and Translation"] (2002)
* [[Alec Stone Sweet]], ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=61AzsGk7EW0C Governing with Judges: Constitutional Politics in Europe]'' (2000) {{ISBN|978-0-19-829730-7}}
* Reinhold Zippelius, ''Allgemeine Staatslehre/Politikwissenschaft (= Political Science)'', 16th edition, § 31, C.H. Beck, Munich, 2010, {{ISBN|978-3-406-60342-6}}
* Evan C. Zoldan, ''[https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3106780 Is the Federal Judiciary Independent of Congress?]'', 70 Stan. L. Rev. Online 135 (2018).

== External links ==

* [http://www.mlloyd.org/mdl-indx/polybius/intro.htm Polybius and the Founding Fathers: the separation of powers]
* [http://www.bartleby.com/43/9.html Arbitrary Government Described and the Government of the Massachusetts Vindicated from that Aspersion (1644)]

{{Separation of powers}}

[[Category:Separation of powers| ]]
[[Category:Constitutional law]]
[[Category:Philosophy of law]]
[[Category:Political science terminology]]
[[Category:Montesquieu]]
[[Category:Concepts in political philosophy]]

Draft:Adam Kassab

2021-05-13T11:59:55Z

Adam Kassab:

[[File:Adam Lebanon Kassab MEA.png|thumb|229x229px]]{{Infobox person
| name = Adam Kassab
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=y|2005|8|21}}
| birth_place = Stavanger, Norway
| nationality = [[Middle Eastern]]
| occupation = Musical artist, Model
| organization = * Team Acy
| known_for = [[Music]]
| height = 1,75 m
| website = [http://www.instagram.com/adamkssb adamkassab.com]
}}
== General Information ==
[https://www.instagram.com/adamkssb/ Adam Kassab] (21st August 2005) is a young Music Artist, his first song released is called "DON'T GO..".

In-fact, he ain’t only a Music Artist but also a Middle Eastern Model. He is originally from Lebanon but currently lives in Norway.

In November 2020, Kassab made his debut in the Top 50 Models ranking at Team Acy Models. In 2021, he was named The Arab Model of the Year by the UAE Emirates Fashion Council.

== Personal Life ==
[https://www.facebook.com/adamkssb/ Kassab] founded his first company in summer 2019 when he was 14 years of age. The company which is known as [https://www.instagram.com/team.acy/ "Team Acy"]

== Team Acy ==
The Team Acy organization is filled with hard workers and achievers. They are known for recruiting players from all around the world to show off their many skills they know people have.

With recruiting them, Acy guarantee to do things like uploading their gameplays to help them grow their pages. Some of Acy's players even make it to play for tournaments and some even make a huge earning in general.

Currently the Team have a [https://twitter.com/AcyEsports Twitter], [https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCbMf87dq3wfSx40Tn2Lyiqg YouTube] and [https://www.instagram.com/team.acy/ Instagram] that is growing. Their organization is nothing but committed to keep growing!

= External links =
[https://www.facebook.com/adamkssb/ Adam Kassab] on [[Facebook]]

[https://www.instagram.com/adamkssb/ Adam Kassab on] [[Instagram]]

[https://twitter.com/adamkssb Adam Kassab] on [[Twitter]]

[https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCjH9fNHgWjBDyJ45GzyM3QQ Adam Kassab] on [[Youtube|YouTube]]

Draft:Adam Kassab

2021-05-08T16:57:01Z

Adam Kassab: Built a famous person

[[File:Adam Kassab.jpg|thumb|229x229px]]{{Infobox person
| name = Adam Kassab
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=y|2005|8|21}}
| birth_place = Stavanger, Norway
| nationality = [[Middle Eastern]]
| occupation = Musical artist, Model
| organization = * Team Acy
| known_for = [[Music]]
| height = 1,75 m
| website = [http://www.instagram.com/adamkssb adamkassab.com]
}}
== General Information ==
[https://www.instagram.com/adamkssb/ Adam Kassab] (21st August 2005) is a young Music Artist, his first song released is called "DON'T GO..".

In-fact, he ain’t only a Music Artist but also a Middle Eastern Model. He is originally from Lebanon but currently lives in Norway.

In November 2020, Kassab made his debut in the Top 50 Models ranking at Team Acy Models. In 2021, he was named The Arab Model of the Year by the UAE Emirates Fashion Council.

== Personal Life ==
[https://www.facebook.com/adamkssb/ Kassab] founded his first company in summer 2019 when he was 14 years of age. The company which is known as [https://www.instagram.com/team.acy/ "Team Acy"]

== Team Acy ==
The Team Acy organization is filled with hard workers and achievers. They are known for recruiting players from all around the world to show off their many skills they know people have.

With recruiting them, Acy guarantee to do things like uploading their gameplays to help them grow their pages. Some of Acy's players even make it to play for tournaments and some even make a huge earning in general.

Currently the Team have a [https://twitter.com/AcyEsports Twitter], [https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCbMf87dq3wfSx40Tn2Lyiqg YouTube] and [https://www.instagram.com/team.acy/ Instagram] that is growing. Their organization is nothing but committed to keep growing!

= External links =
[https://www.facebook.com/adamkssb/ Adam Kassab] on [[Facebook]]

[https://www.instagram.com/adamkssb/ Adam Kassab on] [[Instagram]]

[https://twitter.com/adamkssb Adam Kassab] on [[Twitter]]

[https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCjH9fNHgWjBDyJ45GzyM3QQ Adam Kassab] on [[Youtube|YouTube]]