Western Satraps

2022-05-17T05:55:36Z

27.5.59.167:

{{short description|Indo-Scythian rulers of western and central India (35-415 CE)}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Use Indian English}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Western Satraps
| common_name = Western Satraps
| era = [[ancient history|Antiquity]]
| status =
| year_start = 35
| year_end = 415 CE
| p1 = Indo-Scythians
| flag_p1 = Map_of_the_Indo-Scythians.png
| p2 = Malavas
| flag_p2 = South_Asia_historical_AD375_EN.svg
| p3 = Satavahana dynasty
| flag_p3 = Map_of_the_Satavahanas.png
| s1 = Gupta Empire
| flag_s1 = Map_of_the_Gupta_Empire.png
| s2 = Vakataka dynasty
| flag_s2 = Map_of_the_Vakatakas.png
| s3 = Kalachuri dynasty
| flag_s3 = Map_of_the_Early_Kalachuris.png
| s4 = Traikutaka dynasty
| flag_s4 = Map_of_ancient_India_during_Gupta_emperor_Kumaragupta_I's_reign.jpg
| s5 = Maitraka dynasty
| flag_s5 = Arab-Gujarat_campaigns_724-740_CE.png
| image_map =
{{Location map+
|South Asia
|overlay_image=Map_of_the_Western_Satraps.png
| width=290 
| float = center
| border =none
| nodiv = 1
| mini = 1
| relief = yes
| places =
{{Annotation|225|100|[[Varman dynasty|KAMARUPAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|215|113|[[Gauda Kingdom|GAUDA]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|225|5|South-Asia {{Circa|350 CE}}|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=10|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|140|178|[[Andhra Ikshvaku|IKSHVAKUS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|115|220|[[Kalabhra dynasty|KALABHRAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}{{Annotation|115|200|[[Western Ganga dynasty|WESTERN GANGAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|95|185|[[Kadamba dynasty|KADAMBAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|130|192|[[Pallava dynasty|PALLAVAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|95|54|[[Kushan Empire|LITTLE KUSHANS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|50|70|[[Hind (Sasanian province)|SASANIAN HIND]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|150|150|[[Mahameghavahana dynasty|MAHAMEGHA- VAHANAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|200|125|[[Samatata|SAMATATAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|100|160|[[Abhira dynasty|ABHIRAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|110|170|[[Vakatakas|VAKATAKAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|160|100|[[Gupta Empire|GUPTA EMPIRE]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=9|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|5|5|[[Kidarites|KIDARITES]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|20|20|[[Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom|KUSHANO- SASANIANS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|1|55|[[Sasanian Empire|SASANIAN EMPIRE]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=9|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|262|250|[[Template:South Asia in 125 CE| ◁ ]] [[Template:South Asia in 500 CE| ▷ ]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=12|color=#000000}}
|caption=
}}
| image_map_caption = {{center|Approximate territory of the Western Satraps (35–415) circa 350 CE.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |date=1978 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |page=145, map XIV.1 (h)|isbn=0226742210 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=182}}</ref>}}
| capital = [[Ujjain]] [[Barygaza]] [[Minnagara]]
| common_languages = [[Pali]] ([[Kharoshthi]] script) [[Sanskrit]], [[Prakrit]] ([[Brāhmī script|Brahmi]] script)
| religion = [[Buddhism]] [[Hinduism]]
| government_type = Monarchy
| leader1 = [[Abhiraka]]
| year_leader1 = {{Circa|35}}
| leader2 = [[Rudrasimha III]]
| year_leader2 = 388–415
| title_leader = [[Indo-Scythians#Western Satraps|Satrap, King]]
| today = [[India]] [[Pakistan]]
}}
The '''Western Satraps''', or '''Western Kshatrapas''' ([[Brahmi]]:[[File:Gupta ashoka m.svg|13px]][[File:Gupta ashoka h.svg|13px]][[File:Gupta ashoka kss.jpg|13px]][[File:Gupta ashoka tr.jpg|13px]][[File:Gupta ashoka p.svg|11px]], ''Mahakṣatrapa'', "Great [[Satrap]]s") were [[Indo-Scythian]] ([[Saka]]) rulers of the western and central parts of India (extending from [[Saurashtra (region)|Saurashtra]] in the south and [[Malwa]] in the east, covering modern-day [[Sindh]], [[Gujarat]], [[Maharashtra]], [[Rajasthan]] and [[Madhya Pradesh]] states), between 35 and 415 CE. The Western Satraps were contemporaneous with the [[Kushan]]s who ruled the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, and were possibly vassals of the Kushans. They were also contemporaneous with the [[Satavahana]] ([[Andhra in Indian epic literature|Andhra]]) who ruled in Central India. They are called "Western Satraps" in modern historiography in order to differentiate them from the "[[Northern Satraps]]", who ruled in [[Punjab]] and [[Mathura]] until the 2nd century CE.

The power of the Western Satraps started to decline in the 2nd century CE after the Saka rulers were defeated by the Emperor [[Gautamiputra Satakarni]] of the [[Satavahana dynasty]].<ref>World history from early times to A D 2000 by B .V. Rao: p.97</ref> After this, the Saka kingdom revived, but was ultimately destroyed by [[Chandragupta II]] of the [[Gupta Empire]] in the 4th century CE.<ref>Ancient India by Ramesh Chandra Majumdar p. 234</ref> The Western Satraps, having been defeated by the [[Abhiras]]/[[Ahir]]s, declined rapidly during the second half of the third century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Madanjeet |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LfHVAAAAMAAJ&q=kushan+were+abhiras |title=The Cave Paintings of Ajanta |publisher=Thames and Hudson |language=en}}</ref>

Altogether, there were 27 independent Western Satrap rulers during a period of about 350 years.

==Name==
[[File:Mahakhatapa.jpg|thumb|The rulers of the Western Satraps were called {{transliteration|pra|Mahākhatapa}} (𑀫𑀳𑀸𑀔𑀢𑀧, "Great Satrap") in their [[Brahmi script]] inscriptions, as here in a dedicatory inscription by Prime Minister Ayama in the name of his ruler [[Nahapana]], [[Manmodi Caves]], circa 100 CE. Nahapana was also attributed the titles of {{transliteration|pra|Raño}} ("King") and {{transliteration|pra|Sāmi}} ("Lord") conjointly.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Burgess|first1=Jas|title=Archaeological Survey Of Western India|page=103|url=https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.35775}}</ref>]]
They are named Western Satraps in contrast to the "[[Northern Satraps]]" who ruled around [[East Punjab]] and the area of [[Mathura]], such as [[Rajuvula]], and his successors under the Kushans, the "Great Satrap" Kharapallana and the "Satrap" Vanaspara.<ref name="ReferenceA">Kharapallana and Vanaspara are known from an inscription discovered in [[Sarnath]], and dated to the third year of [[Kanishka]], in which they were paying allegiance to the Kushanas. Source: "A Catalogue of the Indian Coins in the British Museum. Andhras etc." Rapson, p ciii</ref>

Although they called themselves "Satraps" on their coins, leading to their modern designation of "Western Satraps", [[Ptolemy]] in his 2nd century "[[Geographia (Ptolemy)|Geographia]]" still called them "Indo-Scythians".<ref>Ptolemy, "Geographia", Chap 7</ref> The word {{transliteration|sa|Kṣatrapa}} has the same origin as the word ''[[satrap]]'' and are both descended from [[Median language|Median]] ''{{lang|xme|xšaθrapāvan-}}'', which means viceroy or governor of a province, and according to John Marshall, the word {{transliteration|sa|kṣatrapa}} means the viceroy of the "King of kings". The title of the {{transliteration|sa|Mahakṣatrapa}} or the "Great Satrap" was given to the ruling Satrap, and the title of {{transliteration|sa|kṣatrapa}} was given to the heir apparent. The western Kshatrapas were also known as Sakas to Indians.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marshall|first1=John|title=A guide to Sanchi|publisher=Eastern book House|location=Patna|isbn=978-81-85204-32-1|page=16}}</ref>

The title {{transliteration|pra|Kṣaharāta}} by which the Western Satraps styled themselves is a derivation of a [[Saka language]] term ''{{lang|xsc|*xšaθrapati}}'', meaning "lord of the country", and was likely the Saka synonym for the Indian title {{transliteration|sa|Kṣatrapa}}, which had itself been borrowed from the Iranian [[Median language]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Harmatta |first=János |author-link=János Harmatta |editor-last1=Harmatta |editor-first1=János |editor-link1=János Harmatta |editor-last2=Puri |editor-first2=B. N. |editor-link2=Baij Nath Puri |editor-last3=Etemadi |editor-first3=G. F. |chapter=Languages and scripts in Graeco-Bactria and the Saka Kingdoms |title=History of civilizations of Central Asia |volume=2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DguGWP0vGY8C |location=Delhi |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass|Motilal Banarsidass Publishing House]] |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9U6RlVVjpakC&pg=PA410 410] |isbn=978-8-120-81408-0}}</ref>

The Sakas of Western India spoke the Saka language, also known as [[Khotanese language|Khotanese]] as it is first attested in the [[Tarim Basin]].<ref name="DD350">{{cite book |last1=Diringer |first1=David |title=Alphabet A Key To The History Of Mankind |page=350 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.57042/page/n351/mode/2up}}</ref>

==First expansion: Kshaharata dynasty (1st century CE)==
[[File:Coin of Bhumaka.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|left|Coin of [[Bhumaka]] (?–119). '''Obv:''' Arrow, pellet, and thunderbolt. [[Kharoshthi]] inscription ''Chaharasada Chatrapasa Bhumakasa'': "Ksaharata Satrap Bhumaka". '''Rev:''' Capital of a pillar with seated lion with upraised paw, and wheel ([[dharmachakra]]). [[Brāhmī script|Brahmi]] inscription: ''Kshaharatasa Kshatrapasa Bhumakasa''.]]
The Western Satraps are thought to have started with the rather short-lived ''Kshaharata'' dynasty (also called ''Chaharada'', ''Khaharata'' or ''Khakharata'' depending on sources).<ref>Rapson, p. CVII</ref> The term ''Kshaharata'' is also known from the 6 CE [[Taxila copper plate]] inscription, in which it qualifies the Indo-Scythian ruler [[Liaka Kusulaka]]. The [[Nasik]] inscription of the 19th year of [[Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi|Sri Pulamavi]] also mentions the ''Khakharatavasa'', or ''Kshaharata'' race.<ref>"Kharoshthi inscription, Taxila copper plate of Patika", [[Sten Konow]], p25</ref>

The earliest Kshaharata for whom there is evidence is [[Abhiraka]], whose rare coins are known. He was succeeded by [[Bhumaka]], father of [[Nahapana]], who only used on his coins the title of Satrap, and not that of ''Raja'' or ''Raño'' (king). Nahapana's rule is variously dated to 24-70 CE, 66-71 CE, or 119–124 CE, according to one of his coins, which bear [[Buddhist]] symbols, such as the eight-spoked wheel ([[dharmachakra]]), or the lion seated on a capital, a representation of a pillar of [[Ashoka]].

[[File:Silver coin of Nahapana British Museum.jpg|thumb|Coin of [[Nahapana]] (whose rule is variously dated to 24-70 CE, 66-71 CE, or 119–124 CE), a direct derivation from [[Indo-Greek]] coinage. [[British Museum]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Alpers |first1=Edward A. |last2=Goswami |first2=Chhaya |title=Transregional Trade and Traders: Situating Gujarat in the Indian Ocean from Early Times to 1900 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199096138 |page=99 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2lyNDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT100 |language=en}}</ref>]]
[[File:RANNIO MAHAPATA on Nahapana coinage.jpg|thumb|The [[Greek script|Greco]]-[[Prakrit]] title "RANNIO KSAHARATA" ("ΡΑΝΝΙ<big>ω</big> ΞΑΗΑΡΑΤΑ(Ϲ)", Prakrit for "King Kshaharata" rendered in corrupted Greek letters) on the obverse of the coinage of Nahapana.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cribb |first1=Joe |title=Indian Ocean In Antiquity |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781136155314 |page=310 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PtzWAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA310 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Alpers |first1=Edward A. |last2=Goswami |first2=Chhaya |title=Transregional Trade and Traders: Situating Gujarat in the Indian Ocean from Early Times to 1900 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199096138 |page=99 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2lyNDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT99 |language=en}}</ref>]]
{{Location map+
|South Asia
|float = right
|width = 220 
|caption = Location of Western Satrap inscriptions in Buddhist rock-cut caves, indicating the southern extent of their territory, circa 120 CE,<ref name="Tripathi"/> and main neighbouring polities at that time.<ref name="JES">{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |date=1978 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |page=145, map XIV.1 (e)|isbn=0226742210 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=182}}</ref>
|nodiv = 1
|mini = 1
|relief = yes
|places =
{{Annotation|180|5|South-Asia c.120 CE|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}}
{{location map~ |South Asia |lat=19.2|N |long=73.88|E |label=[[Manmodi Caves|Junnar]]|position=right |label_size=60}}
{{location map~ |South Asia |lat=19.94|N |long=73.75|E |label=[[Nasik Caves|Nasik]]|position=top |label_size=60 }}
{{location map~ |South Asia |lat=18.78|N |long=73.47|E |label=[[Karla Caves|Karli]]|position=left |label_size=60}}
{{Annotation|75|130|[[Satavahana Empire|SATAVAHANAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|100|170|[[Pandyan dynasty|PANDYAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|90|155|[[Chola dynasty|CHOLAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|80|65|[[Kushan Empire|KUSHAN EMPIRE]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|55|84|WESTERN SATRAPS|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|45|50|[[Paratarajas|PARATA RAJAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|115|100|[[Mahameghavahana dynasty|MAHAMEGA- VAHANA]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|2|50|[[Indo-Parthians|INDO- PARTHIANS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|110|5|[[Han dynasty|HAN DYNASTY]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
}}

Nahapana succeeded him, and became a very powerful ruler. He occupied portions of the [[Satavahana Empire]] in western and central India. Nahapana held sway over [[Malwa]], Southern [[Gujarat]], and Northern [[Konkan]], from [[Bharuch]] to [[Sopara]] and the [[Nasik]] and [[Poona]] districts.<ref>"The Satavahanas did not hold the western Deccan for long. They were gradually pushed out of the west by the Sakas
(Western Khatrapas). The Kshaharata Nahapana's coins in
the Nasik area indicate that the Western Kshatrapas controlled this region by the 1st century CE. By becoming master of wide regions including Malwa, Southern Gujarat, and Northern Konkan, from Broach to Sopara and the Nasik and Poona districts, Nahapana rose from the status of a mere Kshatrapa in the year 41 (58 AD) to that of Mahakshatrapa in the year 46 (63 AD)." in "History of the Andhras"</ref> At that time, the area northwest of the Western Satraps in [[Baluchistan]] was ruled by the [[Paratarajas]], an [[Indo-Parthian]] polity, while the [[Kushans]] were expanding their empire in the North.<ref name="PA37">"New light on the Paratarajas" Pankaj Tandon [http://people.bu.edu/ptandon/Paratarajas.pdf p.37]</ref>

His son-in-law, the Saka [[Ushavadata]] (married to his daughter Dakshamitra), is known from inscriptions in [[Nasik]] and [[Karla Caves|Karle]] and [[Junnar]] ([[Manmodi Caves]], inscription of the year 46) to have been viceroy of Nahapana, ruling over the southern part of his territory.<ref>"Catalogue of Indian coins of the British Museum. Andhras etc." Rapson. p. LVII</ref><ref name="Tripathi">{{cite book|last1=Tripathi|first1=Rama Shankar|title=History of Ancient India|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=9788120800182|page=216|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rOVpOG6MPMcC|language=en}}</ref>

Nahapana established the silver coinage of the Kshatrapas.

Circa 120 CE, the Western Satraps are known to have allied with the [[Uttamabhadras]] in order to repulse an attack by the [[Malavas]], whom they finally crushed.<ref>Ancient Indian History and Civilization by Sailendra Nath Sen [https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA188 p.188]</ref> The claim appears in an inscription at the [[Nashik Caves]], made by the [[Nahapana]]'s viceroy [[Ushavadata]]:

{{blockquote|...And by order of the lord I went to release the chief of the Uttamabhadras, who had been besieged for the rainy season by the Malayas, and those Malayas fled at the mere roar (of my approaching) as it were, and were all made prisoners of the Uttamabhadra warriors.|Inscription in Cave No.10 of the [[Nashik Caves]].<ref>Epigraphia Indica Vol.8 [https://archive.org/details/EpigraphiaIndica p.78-79]</ref>}}

===Support of Indian religions===
An important inscription related to [[Nahapana]] in the Great Chaitya at [[Karla Caves]]<ref>Valukura is thought to be an ancient name for Karla Caves</ref> shows his support of Buddhism and Hinduism:
[[File:Karla Caves inscription 13 of Nahapana.jpg|thumb|left|[[Karla Caves]], inscription of Nahapana.]]
{{clear left}}
{{blockquote|Success!! By [[Ushabadata]], the son of Dinaka and the son-in-law of the king, the Kshaharata, the [[Kshatrapas|Kshatrapa]] [[Nahapana]], who gave three hundred thousand cows, who made gifts of gold and a [[Tirtha (Hinduism)|tirtha]] on the river Banasa, who gave to the Devas and [[Brahmanas]] sixteen villages, who at the pure tirtha Prabhasa gave eight wives to the Brahmanas, and who also fed annually a hundred thousand Brahmanas- there has been given the village of Karajika for the support of the ascetics living in the caves at [[Karla Caves|Valuraka]] without any distinction of sect or origin, for all who would keep the [[Ritu (Indian season)|varsha]].|Inscription of Nahapana, Karla Caves.<ref>Epigraphia Indica Vol.7, Hultzsch, E. [https://archive.org/details/epigraphiaindica014351mbp p.58]</ref>}}
{{clear left}}

===Construction of Buddhist caves===
The Western Satraps are known for the construction and dedication of numerous Buddhist caves in Central India, particularly in [[Maharashtra]] and [[Gujarat]].<ref name="WH"/><ref name="FI">Foreign Influence on Ancient India, Krishna Chandra Sagar, Northern Book Centre, 1992 [https://books.google.com/books?id=0UA4rkm9MgkC&pg=PA150 p.150]</ref> It is thought that Nahapana ruled at least 35 years in the region of [[Karla, Ratnagiri|Karla]], [[Junnar]] and [[Nasik]], giving him ample time for construction work there.<ref>{{cite book|title=Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bombay|publisher=Asiatic Society of Bombay|page=219|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5zgUAQAAMAAJ|language=en|quote=If Konow is right, then the length of time for Ksatrapa rule in the Nasik-Karla-Junnar region would be at least thirty-fire years.}}</ref>

Numerous inscriptions in the caves are known, which were made by the family of Nahapana: six inscriptions in [[Nasik Caves]], one inscription at [[Karla Caves]], and one by Nahapana's minister in the [[Manmodi Caves]] at [[Junnar]].<ref>Cultural and Religious Heritage of India: Zoroastrianism, Suresh K. Sharma, Usha Sharma, Mittal Publications, 2004 [https://books.google.com/books?id=bmu3vZOSp_IC&pg=PA112 p.112]</ref><ref>The Dynastic Arts of the Kushans, John M. Rosenfield [https://books.google.com/books?id=udnBkQhzHH4C&pg=PA131 p.131]</ref> At the same time, "[[Yavana]]s", Greeks or [[Indo-Greeks]], also left donative inscriptions at the Nasik Caves, Karla Caves, [[Lenyadri]] and [[Manmodi Caves]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Religions and Trade: Religious Formation, Transformation and Cross-Cultural Exchange between East and West|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9789004255302|page=97|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AXdfAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA97|language=en}}</ref>

====Great Chaitya hall at Karla Caves====
{{see also|Karla Caves}}
In particular, the [[chaitya]] cave complex of the Karla Caves, the largest in [[South Asia]], was constructed and dedicated in 120 CE by the Western Satraps ruler Nahapana.<ref name="WH">World Heritage Monuments and Related Edifices in India, Volume 1 ʻAlī Jāvīd, Tabassum Javeed, Algora Publishing, 2008 [https://books.google.com/books?id=fg-lGID3WpQC&pg=PA42 p.42]</ref><ref name="SA">Southern India: A Guide to Monuments Sites & Museums, by George Michell, Roli Books Private Limited, 1 mai 2013 [https://books.google.com/books?id=GdBbBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT72 p.72]</ref><ref name="GM">"This hall is assigned to the brief period of [[Kshatrapas]] rule in the western Deccan during the 1st century." in Guide to Monuments of India 1: Buddhist, Jain, Hindu - by George Michell, Philip H. Davies, Viking - 1989 Page 374</ref>

<gallery mode="packed" heights="150" caption="Great Chaitya hall at Karla" style="border:1px #aaa solid">
File:Karla Amit R Mahadik 01.jpg|Hall of the Great Chaitya Cave at Karla (120 CE)<ref name="WH" />
Karla Caves,Pune,Maharashtra - panoramio (14).jpg|Right row of columns
File:Caves, Temple and inscription (Karla Caves).jpg|Chaitya roof
File:Fine carvings 2.jpg|Capitals
File:Karla Amit R Mahadik 02.jpg|Donative inscription by a [[Yavana]] ("[[Indo-Greek]]") named Vitasamghata.<ref>Epigraphia Indica Vol.18 [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.367557 p.326 Inscription No1]</ref>
</gallery>

====Cave No.10 of Nasik, the 'Nahapana Vihara'====
{{see also|Nasik Caves|Nasik inscription of Ushavadata}}
Parts of the Nasik Caves, also called Pandavleni Caves, were also carved during the time of Nahapana.<ref name="FI"/>

The inscriptions of cave no.10 in the Nasik Caves near [[Nasik]], reveal that in 105-106 CE, Kshatrapas defeated the Satavahanas after which Kshatrapa [[Nahapana]]’s son-in-law and Dinika's son- [[Ushavadata]] donated 3000 gold coins for this cave as well as for the food and clothing of the monks. Usabhdatta's wife (Nahapana's daughter), Dakshmitra also donated one cave for the Buddhist monks. Cave 10 - 'Nahapana Vihara' is spacious with 16 rooms.

<gallery mode="packed" heights="120" caption="[[Nasik Caves]], cave No. 10" style="border:1px #aaa solid">
036 Cave 10, Front (33928302236).jpg|Front
037 Cave 10, Verandah (33125843084).jpg|Veranda
038 Cave 10, Interior (33928438936).jpg|Interior
039 Cave 10, Chaitya and Umbrellas (33928437976).jpg|Chaitya and Umbrellas
040 Cave 10, Inscription (33928437016).jpg|Inscription
</gallery>

Two inscriptions in Cave 10 mention the building and the gift of the whole cave to the [[Samgha]] by [[Ushavadata]], the [[Saka]]<ref>Ushavadata also presents himself as a [[Saka]] in inscription 14a of Cave No.10 of the [[Nasik Caves]]: "[Success !] By permanent charities of Ushavadata, the Saka, [son of Dinika], son-in-law of king Nahapana, the [Kshahara]ta Kshatrapa...." in Epigraphia Indica [https://archive.org/stream/EpigraphiaIndica/Epigraphia_Indica p.85-86]</ref> son-in-law and viceroy of Nahapana:

[[File:Nasik_Cave_inscription_No_10.jpg|thumb|[[Nasik Caves|Nasik Cave]] inscription No.10. of Nahapana, Cave No.10.]]
[[File:Pillar_built_by_Ushavadata_circa_120_CE_Pandavleni_Caves_caves_No10.jpg|thumb|upright|One of the pillars built by [[Ushavadata]], viceroy of [[Nahapana]], circa 120 CE, [[Nasik Caves]], cave No10.]]
{{blockquote|Success! [[Ushavadata]], son of Dinika, son-in-law of king Nahapana, the Kshaharata Kshatrapa, (...) inspired by (true) religion, in the Trirasmi hills at [[Govardhan Hill|Govardhana]], has caused this cave to be made and these cisterns.|[[:File:Nasik_Cave_inscription_No_10.jpg|Inscription No.10 of Nahapana]], Cave No.10, Nasik<ref>Epigraphia Indica [https://archive.org/stream/EpigraphiaIndica/Epigraphia_Indica p.78-79]</ref>}}
{{blockquote|Success! In the year 42, in the month Vesakha, [[Ushavadata]], son of Dinika, son-in-law of king Nahapana, the Kshaharata Kshatrapa, has bestowed this cave on the [[Samgha]] generally....|[[:File:Nasik Cave inscription No 12.jpg|Inscription No.12 of Nahapana]], Cave No.10, Nasik<ref>Epigraphia Indica [https://archive.org/stream/EpigraphiaIndica/Epigraphia_Indica p.82-83]</ref>}}

According to the inscriptions, Ushavadata accomplished various charities and conquests on behalf of his father-in-law. He constructed rest-houses, gardens and tanks at Bharukachchha ([[Bharuch|Broach]]), Dashapura ([[Mandasor]] in [[Malva]]), [[Govardhan Hill|Govardhana]] (near [[Nasik]]) and Shorparaga ([[Sopara]] in the [[Thane|Thana]] district).

====Junnar dedication====
A dedication in the [[Lenyadri|Lenyadri complex]] of the [[Junnar]] caves (inscription No. 26 in Cave VI of the Bhimasankar group of caves), mentions a gift by Nahapana's prime minister Ayama in the "year 46":

{{blockquote|The meritorious gift.... of Ayama of the Vachhasagotra, prime minister of the King Mahakshatrapa the lord Nahapana|Junnar inscription No. 26, 124 CE<ref name="Sharma">Cultural and Religious Heritage of India: Zoroastrianism, by Suresh K. Sharma, Usha Sharma [https://books.google.com/books?id=bmu3vZOSp_IC&pg=PA114 p.114]</ref>}}

This inscription, the last one of the reign of Nahapana, suggests that Nahapana may have become an independent ruler since he is described as a King.<ref name="Sharma"/>

===International trade: the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea===
Nahapana is mentioned in the [[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]] under the name ''Nambanus'',<ref>"History of the Andhras", Durga Prasad [https://web.archive.org/web/20060422120411/http://202.41.85.234:8000/gw_44_5/hi-res/hcu_images/G2.pdf Source]</ref> as ruler of the area around [[Barigaza]]:

{{blockquote|Beyond the [[Gulf of Kutch|gulf of Baraca]] is that of [[Bharuch|Barygaza]] and the coast of the country of [[Ariaca]], which is the beginning of the Kingdom of Nambanus and of all India. That part of it lying inland and adjoining Scythia is called [[Abiria]], but the coast is called [[Syrastrene]]. It is a fertile country, yielding [[wheat]] and [[rice]] and [[sesame]] oil and clarified butter, [[cotton]] and the Indian cloths made therefrom, of the coarser sorts. Very many cattle are pastured there, and the men are of great stature and black in color. The metropolis of this country is [[Minnagara]], from which much cotton cloth is brought down to Barygaza.|Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Chap. 41 <ref>[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/periplus.html Source]</ref>}}

[[File:Nahapana coin hoard.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Nahapana coin hoard.]]
Under the Western Satraps, Barigaza was one of the main centers of [[Roman trade with India]]. The Periplus describes the many goods exchanged:

{{blockquote|There are imported into this market-town (Barigaza), wine, Italian preferred, also [[Laodicea on the Lycus|Laodicean]] and [[Arabia]]n; [[copper]], [[tin]], and [[lead]]; [[coral]] and [[topaz]]; thin clothing and inferior sorts of all kinds; bright-colored girdles a cubit wide; storax, sweet clover, flint glass, [[realgar]], [[antimony]], gold and silver coin, on which there is a profit when exchanged for the money of the country; and ointment, but not very costly and not much. And for the King there are brought into those places very costly vessels of silver, singing boys, beautiful maidens for the harem, fine wines, thin clothing of the finest weaves, and the choicest ointments. There are exported from these places [[spikenard]], [[costus]], [[bdellium]], [[ivory]], [[agate]] and [[carnelian]], [[lycium]], cotton cloth of all kinds, [[silk]] cloth, mallow cloth, yarn, long pepper and such other things as are brought here from the various market-towns. Those bound for this market-town from [[Egypt]] make the voyage favorably about the month of July, that is Epiphi.|Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Chapter 49.<ref name="Source">[http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/periplus/periplus.html Source]</ref>}}

[[File:Map of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.5|The Western Satraps under Nahapana, with their harbour of Barigaza, were among the main actors of the 1st century CE international trade according to the [[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]].]]
Goods were also brought down in quantity from [[Ujjain]], the capital of the Western Satraps:

{{blockquote|Inland from this place and to the east, is the city called Ozene, formerly a royal capital; from this place are brought down all things needed for the welfare of the country about Barygaza, and many things for our trade: agate and carnelian, Indian muslins and mallow cloth, and much ordinary cloth.|Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Chapter 48.<ref name="Source"/>}}

Some ships were also fitted out from Barigaza, to export goods westward across the Indian Ocean:

{{blockquote|Ships are also customarily fitted out from the places across this sea, from Ariaca and Barygaza, bringing to these far-side market-towns the products of their own places; wheat, rice, clarified butter, sesame oil, cotton cloth (the monache and the sagmatogene), and girdles, and honey from the reed called sacchari. Some make the voyage especially to these market-towns, and others exchange their cargoes while sailing along the coast.|Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Chapter 14.<ref name="Source"/>}}

====Pompei Lakshmi====
An Indian statuette, the [[Pompeii Lakshmi]], was found in the ruins of [[Pompei]] and is thought to have been the result of [[Indo-Roman trade relations]] in the 1st century CE.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Pollard|first=Elizabeth Ann|title=Indian Spices and Roman "Magic" in Imperial and Late Antique Indomediterranea|journal=Journal of World History|volume=24|issue=1|pages=1–23|doi=10.1353/jwh.2013.0012|s2cid=145360753|issn=1527-8050}}</ref> There is a possibility that the statuette found its way to the west during the rule of [[Western Satrap]] [[Nahapana]] in the [[Bhokardan]] area, and was shipped to [[Rome]] from the port of [[Barigaza]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Brancaccio |first1=Pia |title=The Buddhist Caves at Aurangabad: Transformations in Art and Religion |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-9004185258 |page=64 Note 94 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m_4pXm7dD78C&pg=PA64 |language=en}}</ref>

===Defeat by Gautamiputra Satakarni===
[[File:Saka-Yavana-Palhava inscription in the Nasik cave 3 inscription of Queen Gotami Balasiri.jpg|thumb|The "Saka-[[Indo-Greeks|Yavana]]-[[Indo-Parthians|Palhava]]" ([[Brahmi script]]: 𑀲𑀓 𑀬𑀯𑀦 𑀧𑀮𑁆𑀳𑀯) defeated by [[Gautamiputra Satakarni]], mentioned in the [[Nasik Caves|Nasik cave]] 3 inscription of Queen Gotami Balasiri (end of line 5 of the inscription).<ref name="EI60">{{cite book |last1=Hultzsch |first1=E. |title=Epigraphia Indica Vol.8 |page=60 |url=https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.56654#page/n75/mode/2up}}</ref>]]
[[File:Gautamiputra Yajna Satakarni over Nahapana.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Coin of [[Gautamiputra Yajna Satakarni]] struck over a drachm of Nahapana. Circa 167-196 CE. [[Ujjain]] symbol and three arched mountain symbol struck respectively on the obverse and reverse of a drachm of Nahapana.]]
Nahapana and Ushavadata were ultimately defeated by the powerful Satavahana king [[Gautamiputra Satkarni|Gautamiputra Satakarni]]. Gautamiputra drove the Sakas from Malwa and Western Maharashtra, forcing Nahapana west to Gujarat. His victory is known from the fact that Gautamiputra restruck many of Nahapana's coins (such a hoard was found in Jogalthambi, [[Nashik]] District),<ref>{{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Upinder |title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=9788131711200 |page=383 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&pg=PA383 |language=en}}</ref>) and that he claimed victory on them in an inscription at [[Pandavleni Caves#Cave No.3, "Gautamiputra vihara" (circa 150 CE)|Cave No. 3]] of the [[Pandavleni Caves]] in [[Nashik]]:

{{blockquote|[[Gautamiputra Satkarni|Gautamiputra Satakarni]] (…) who crushed down the pride and conceit of the [[Kshatriyas]]; who destroyed the [[Saka]]s (Western Satraps), [[Yavana]]s ([[Indo-Greek]]s) and [[Pahlava]]s ([[Indo-Parthians]]),<ref>{{cite book |last1=V.D |first1=Mahajan |title=Ancient India |date=2016 |publisher=S. Chand Publishing |isbn=9789352531325 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7TJlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA315 |language=en}}</ref> who rooted out the Khakharata family (the Kshaharata family of Nahapana); who restored the glory of the Satavahana race.|Inscription of Queen Mother Gautami Balashri at [[Pandavleni Caves#Cave No. 3, "Gautamiputra vihara" (2nd century CE)|Cave No. 3]] of the [[Pandavleni Caves]] in [[Nashik]].}}

===Colonization of Java and Sumatra===
It seems that the Indian colonization of the islands of [[Java]] and [[Sumatra]] took place during the time of the Western Satraps.<ref name="KCS"/> People may have fled the sub-continent due to the conflicts there. Some foundation legends of Java describe the leader of the colonists as [[Aji Saka]], a prince from [[Gujarat]], at the beginning of the [[Shaka era]] (which is also the Java era).<ref name="KCS">Foreign Influence on Ancient India, Krishna Chandra Sagar, Northern Book Centre, 1992 [https://books.google.com/books?id=0UA4rkm9MgkC&pg=PA131 p.131]</ref>

==Kardamaka dynasty, family of Castana (1st–4th century)==
[[File:Coin of Chastana.jpg|thumb|left|Coin of the Western Satrap [[Chastana]] ({{Circa|130 CE}}). ''Obv:'' King in profile. The legend typically reads "PANNIΩ IATPAΠAC CIASTANCA" (corrupted Greek script), transliteration of the Prakrit ''Raño Kshatrapasa Castana'': "King and Satrap Castana".]]
A new dynasty, called the Bhadramukhas or Kardamaka dynasty, was established by the "Satrap" [[Chastana|Castana]]. The date of Castana is not certain, but many believe his reign started in the year 78 CE, thus making him the founder of the [[Saka era]].<ref>A. Jha and D. Rajgor: ''Studies in the Coinage of the Western Ksatraps'', Nashik: Indian Institute of Research in Numismatic Studies, 1992, p. 7.</ref> This is consistent with the fact that his descendants (who we know used the Saka era on their coins and inscriptions) would use the date of their founder as their era. Castana was satrap of [[Ujjain]] during that period. A statue found in Mathura together with statues of the [[Kushan]] king [[Kanishka]] and [[Vima Taktu]], and bearing the name "Shastana" is often attributed to Castana himself, and suggests Castana may have been a feudatory of the Kushans. Conversely, the [[Rabatak inscription]] also claims Kushan dominion over Western Satrap territory (by mentioning Kushan control over the capital [[Ujjain]]) during the reign of [[Kanishka]] ({{Circa|127}}–150 CE).

===Territory under Chastana===
[[File:Chastana with costume details.jpg|thumb|Statue of Chastana, with costume details. The belt displays designs of horsemen and [[Triton (mythology)|tritons]]/[[anguiped]]s, the coat has a highly ornate hem. Inscription "Shastana" ([[Brahmi script|Middle Brahmi script]]: [[File:Gupta ashoka ss.svg|10px]][[File:Gupta ashoka sta.jpg|13px]][[File:Gupta ashoka n.svg|10px]] ''Ṣa-sta-na'').<ref name="JBO"/> [[Mathura Museum]].<ref>The Dynastic Art of the Kushans, John Rosenfield, University of California Press, xxxiv</ref>]]
The territory of the Western Satraps at the time of Chastana is described extensively by the geographer [[Ptolemy]] in his "Geographia", where he qualifies them as "Indo-Scythians". He describes this territory as starting from [[Patalene]] in the West, to [[Ujjain]] in the east ("Ozena-Regia Tiastani", "Ozene/Ujjain, capital of king [[Chastana]]"),<ref>{{cite book|last1=Allchin|first1=F. R.|last2=Erdosy|first2=George|title=The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521376952|page=279|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5kI02_zW70C&pg=PA279|language=en}}</ref> and beyond [[Barigaza]] in the south.

{{blockquote|Moreover the region which is next to the western part of India, is called Indoscythia. A part of this region around the (Indus) river mouth is [[Patalena]], above which is [[Abiria]]. That which is about the mouth of the Indus and the Canthicolpus bay is called [[Saurashtra (region)|Syrastrena]]. (...) In the island formed by this river are the cities Pantala, [[Barbarikon|Barbaria]]. (...) The Larica region of Indoscythia is located eastward from the swamp near the sea, in which on the west of the [[Narmada river|Namadus river]] is the interior city of [[Barygaza]] emporium. On the east side of the river (...) [[Ujjain|Ozena]]-Regia Tiastani (...) [[Minnagara]].|Ptolemy, ''Geographia'', Book Seven, Chapter I}}

===Rudradaman I (130-150 CE)===
====Victory against the Satavahanas====
[[File:Coin of Rudradaman.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Silver coin of [[Rudradaman I]] (130–150). '''Obv:''' Bust of Rudradaman, with corrupted Greek legend "OVONIΛOOCVΛCHΛNO". '''Rev:''' Three-arched hill or [[Chaitya]] with river, crescent and sun. [[Brāhmī script|Brahmi]] legend: ''Rajno Ksatrapasa Jayadamasaputrasa Rajno Mahaksatrapasa Rudradamasa'': "King and Great Satrap Rudradaman, son of King and Satrap [[Jayadaman]]" 16mm, 2.0 grams.]]
[[File:Ashoka Rock Edict at Junagadh.jpg|thumb|The [[Junagadh]] rock contains inscriptions of [[Ashoka]] (fourteen of the [[Edicts of Ashoka]]), [[Rudradaman I]] (the [[Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman]])and [[Skandagupta]].<ref name="Guha">Artefacts of History: Archaeology, Historiography and Indian Pasts, Sudeshna Guha, SAGE Publications India, 2015 [https://books.google.com/books?id=jhqJCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA50 p.50]</ref>]]
Around 130 CE, [[Rudradaman I]], grandson of [[Chastana]], took the title "Mahakshatrapa" ("Great Satrap"), and defended his kingdom from the [[Satavahanas]]. The conflict between Rudradaman and Satavahanas became so gruelling, that in order to contain the conflict, a matrimonial relationship was concluded by giving Rudradaman's daughter to the Satavahana king [[Vashishtiputra Satakarni]]. The inscription relating the marriage between Rudradaman's daughter and [[Vashishtiputra Satakarni]] appears in a cave at [[Kanheri]]:

{{blockquote|Of the queen ... of the illustrious [[Vashishtiputra Satakarni|Satakarni Vasishthiputra]], descended from the race of Karddamaka kings, (and) daughter of the Mahakshatrapa Ru(dra)....... .........of the confidential minister Sateraka, a water-cistern, the meritorious gift.|Kanheri inscription of Rudradaman I's daughter.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Burgess|first1=James|last2=Bühler|first2=Georg|title=Report on the Elura cave temples and the Brahmanical and Jaina caves in western India; completing the results of the fifth, sixth, and seventh seasons' operations of the Archaeological survey, 1877-78, 1878-79, 1879-80. Supplementary to the volume on "The cave temples of India."|date=1883|publisher=London, Trübner & Co.|page=78|url=https://archive.org/stream/reportoneluraca00bhgoog}}</ref>}}

The Satavahanas and the Western Satraps remained at war however, and Rudradaman I defeated the Satavahanas twice in these conflicts, only sparing the life of Vashishtiputra Satakarni due to their family alliance:

{{blockquote|Rudradaman (...) who obtained good report because he, in spite of having twice in fair fight completely defeated Satakarni, the lord of [[Dakshinapatha]], on account of the nearness of their connection did not destroy him.|[[Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman]]<ref name="projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu">[http://projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu/Docs/HISTORY/PRIMARYDOCS/EPIGRAPHY/JunagadhRockInscription.htm Source] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090223182107/http://projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu/Docs/HISTORY/PRIMARYDOCS/EPIGRAPHY/JunagadhRockInscription.htm }}</ref>}}

Rudradaman regained all the previous territories held by Nahapana, probably with the exception of the southern areas of [[Poona]] and [[Nasik]] (epigraphical remains in these two areas at that time are exclusively Satavahana):<ref name="Sircar">{{cite book|last1=Sircar|first1=D. C.|title=Studies in Indian Coins|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=9788120829732|page=118|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m1JYwP5tVQUC&pg=PA118|language=en}}</ref>

{{blockquote|Rudradaman (...) who is the lord of the whole of eastern and western Akaravanti ([[Dasharna|Akara]]: [[Malwa|East Malwa]] and [[Avanti (India)|Avanti]]: [[Malwa|West Malwa]]), the [[Anupa]] country, [[Anarta]], [[Surashtra]], Svabhra (northern [[Gujarat]]), Maru ([[Marwar]]), Kachchha ([[Cutch State|Cutch]]), [[Sindhu]]-[[Sauvira]] ([[Sindh]] and [[Multan]] districts), Kukura (Eastern [[Rajputana]]), [[Aparanta]] ("Western Border" – Northern [[Konkan]]), [[Nishada]] (an aboriginal tribe, [[Malwa]] and parts of [[Central India]]) and other territories gained by his own valour, the towns, marts and rural parts of which are never troubled by robbers, snakes, wild beasts, diseases and the like, where all subjects are attached to him, (and) where through his might the objects of (religion), wealth and pleasure (are duly attained).|[[Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman]].<ref name="projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu"/> Geographical interpretations in parentheses from Rapson.<ref>Rapson, "Indian coins of the British Museum" p.lx</ref>}}

====Victory against the Yaudheyas====
Later, the Junagadh rock inscription ({{Circa|150 CE}}) of [[Rudradaman I]]<ref>[http://projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu/Docs/HISTORY/PRIMARYDOCS/EPIGRAPHY/JunagadhRockInscription.htm Junagadh Rock Inscription of Rudradaman I] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090223182107/http://projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu/Docs/HISTORY/PRIMARYDOCS/EPIGRAPHY/JunagadhRockInscription.htm }}, accessed on 23 March 2007.</ref> acknowledged the military might of the [[Yaudheyas]] "who would not submit because they were proud of their title 'heroes among the Kshatriyas'", before explaining that they were ultimately vanquished by Rudradaman I.<ref>Rosenfield, "The dynastic art of the Kushans", p132</ref><ref>Rapson, "A catalogue of the Indian coins in the British Museum", p.lx</ref>

{{blockquote|Rudradaman (...) who by force destroyed the Yaudheyas who were loath to submit, rendered proud as they were by having manifested their title of 'heroes among all Kshatriyas'.|[[Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman]]<ref name="projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu"/>}}

Recently discovered pillar inscriptions describe the presence of a Western Satrap named ''Rupiamma'' in the [[Bhandara district|Bhandara]] district of the area of [[Vidarbha]], in the extreme northeastern area of [[Maharashtra]], where he erected the pillars.<ref>"Vidarbha also was under the rule of another Mahakshatrapa named Rupiamma, whose pillar inscription was recently discovered at [[Pavni]] in the [[Bhandara district|Bhandara]] district [Mirashi, Studies in Indology, Vol. IV, p. 109 f.]. It records the erection of a chhaya-stambha or sculptured pillar at the place. The Satavahanas had, Therefore, to leave Western Maharashtra and Vidarbha. They seem to have repaired to their capital Pratishthana where they continued to abide waiting for a favourable opportunity to oust the Shaka invaders." [http://www.maharashtra.gov.in/english/gazetteer/nasik/005%20History/001%20AncientPeriod.htm Source]</ref>

Rudradarman is known for his sponsoring of the arts. He is known to have written poetry in the purest of Sanskrit, and made it his court language. His name is forever attached to the inscription by Sudharshini lake.

He had at his court a Greek writer named [[Yavanesvara]] ("Lord of the Greeks"), who translated from Greek to Sanskrit the [[Yavanajataka]] ("Saying of the Greeks"), an astrological treatise and India's earliest Sanskrit work in horoscopy.<ref>Mc Evilley "The shape of ancient thought", p385 ("The Yavanajataka is the earliest surviving Sanskrit text in astrology, and constitute the basis of all later Indian developments in horoscopy", himself quoting [[David Pingree]] "The Yavanajataka of Sphujidhvaja" p5)</ref>

====Jivadaman (178-181 CE, 197-198 CE)====
[[File:Jivadaman Saka Era 100 coin.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|A coin dated to the beginning of the first reign of [[Jivadaman]], in the year 100 ([[File:One hundred in the Brahmi script of the Western Satraps.jpg|15px|One hundred in the Brahmi script of the Western Satraps]]) of the [[Saka Era]] (corresponding to 178 CE).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rapson |first1=Edward James |title=Catalogue Of The Indian Coins In The British Museum |page=83 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.533728/page/n295/mode/1up}}</ref>]]
King [[Jivadaman]] became king for the centenary of the [[Saka Era]], in the year 100 (corresponding to 178 CE). His reign is otherwise undocumented, but he is the first Western Satrap ruler who started to print the minting date on his coins, using the [[:File:Brahmi numeral signs.svg|Brāhmī numerals]] of the [[Brāhmī script]] behind the king's head.<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/catalogueofcoins00brit#page/82/mode/2up Rapson, p.cxxiv]</ref> This is of immense value to date precisely Western Satrap rulers, and to clarify perfectly the chronology and succession between them, as they also mention their predecessor on their coins. According to his coins, Jivadaman seems to have ruled two times, once between [[Saka Era]] 100 and 103 (178-181 CE), before the rule of [[Rudrasimha I]], and once between Saka Era 119 and 120 (197-198 CE).

====Rudrasimha I (180-197)====
[[File:Western Satrap Coin of Rudrasimha I .jpg|thumb|250px|Coin of the Western Kshatrapa ruler [[Rudrasimha I]] (178–197).
'''Obv:''' Bust of Rudrasimha, with corrupted Greek legend "..OHIIOIH.." ([[Indo-Greek]] style).
'''Rev:''' Three-arched hill or [[Chaitya]], with river, crescent and sun, within [[Prakrit]] legend in [[Brāhmī script|Brahmi]] script: {{center|[[File:Rudrasimha_I,_Brahmi_legend_on_coinage.jpg|250px|Rudrasimha I, Brahmi legend on coinage.]] "King and Great Satrap Rudrasimha, son of King and Great Satrap [[Rudradaman I|Rudradaman]]".<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/catalogueofcoins00brit#page/92/mode/2up Rapson p.92]</ref>]]}}
An inscription of [[Rudrasimha I]] (178-197) was recently found at Setkhedi in [[Shajapur district]], dated to 107 [[Saka Era]], that is 185 CE, confirming the expansion of the Western Satraps to the east at that date.<ref name="Misra">{{cite book|last1=Misra|first1=Om Prakash|title=Archaeological Excavations in Central India: Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh|publisher=Mittal Publications|isbn=9788170998747|page=6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o0ISjDDWJwQC&pg=PA6|language=en}}</ref> There is also an earlier inscription related to Saka rule in [[Ujjain]],<ref name="Misra"/> as well as a later one, the [[Kanakerha inscription]], related to Saka rule in the area of [[Vidisha]], [[Sanchi]] and [[Eran]] in the early 4th century.<ref name="Misra"/>

====Great Satrap Rupiamma (2nd century CE)====
{{main|Rupiamma}}
A memorial pillar with an inscription in the name of "Mahakshatrapa Kumara [[Rupiamma]]" has been recovered in [[Pauni]] in the central region of [[Vidharba]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Siddham. The Asian Inscription Database, Pauni (पवनी Bhandara district). Memorial Pillar (OBNAG0032) with Inscription (INNAG0031) of Rupiamma |url=https://siddham.network/object/obnag0032/ |language=en}}</ref> and is dated to the 2nd century CE.<ref name="VVM">{{cite journal |last1=Mirashi |first1=V. V. |title=A Pillar Inscription of Mahakshatrapa Rupiamma from Pawni |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=27 |pages=51–54 |issn=2249-1937|jstor=44140583 }}</ref> Although this Great Satrap is not otherwise known from coinage, this memorial pillar is thought to mark the southern extent of the conquests of the Western Satraps, much beyond the traditionally held boundary of the [[Narmada River]].<ref name="VVM"/> The use of the word "Kumara" may also mean that Rupiamma was the son of a Great Satrap, rather than holding the title himself.<ref>"The pillar inscription of Rupiamma from Pauni (1-41) may present a similar example. In it, Rupiamma is described as Mahakhattava-kumära; he is a son or prince of the mahäksatrapa; the title in itself is felt to be sufficient identification" {{cite book |title=Vienna Journal of South Asian Studies |publisher=E.J. Brill |page=21 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uF5OAAAAYAAJ |language=de}}</ref>

===Loss of southern territories to the Satavahanas (end of 2nd century CE)===
The south Indian ruler [[Yajna Sri Satakarni]] (170-199 CE) of the [[Satavahana dynasty]] defeated the Western Satraps in the late 2nd century CE, thereby reconquering their southern regions in western and central India, which led to the decline of the Western Satraps.<ref>"later Satavahana named Yajna Satakarni seems to have conquered the Southern Dominions of the Western Satraps. His coins contain figures of ships, probably indicating the naval power of the Andras. He not only ruled Aparanta, but probably also the eastern part of the Central Provinces". Majumdar, p. 135</ref>

Yajna Sri Satakarni left inscriptions in [[Nasik Caves]], [[Kanheri]] and [[Guntur]], testifying to the renewed extent of Satavahana territory.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sen|first1=Sailendra Nath|title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization|publisher=New Age International|isbn=9788122411980|page=174|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA174|language=en}}</ref> There are two inscriptions of Yajna Sri Satakarni at [[Kanheri]], in cave No. 81,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Burgess|first1=James|last2=Bühler|first2=Georg|title=Report on the Elura cave temples and the Brahmanical and Jaina caves in western India; completing the results of the fifth, sixth, and seventh seasons' operations of the Archaeological survey, 1877-78, 1878-79, 1879-80. Supplementary to the volume on "The cave temples of India."|publisher=London, Trübner & Co.|page=79|url=https://archive.org/stream/reportoneluraca00bhgoog}}</ref> and in the Chaitya cave No. 3.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Burgess|first1=James|last2=Bühler|first2=Georg|title=Report on the Elura cave temples and the Brahmanical and Jaina caves in western India; completing the results of the fifth, sixth, and seventh seasons' operations of the Archaeological survey, 1877-78, 1878-79, 1879-80. Supplementary to the volume on "The cave temples of India."|publisher=London, Trübner & Co.|page=75|url=https://archive.org/stream/reportoneluraca00bhgoog}}</ref> In the [[Nasik Caves]], there is one inscription of [[Sri Yajna Satakarni]], in the 7th year of his reign.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Burgess|first1=Jas|title=Archaeological Survey Of Western India|page=114|url=https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.35775/2015.35775.Archaeological-Survey-Of-Western-India}}</ref>

There is a possibility, however, that the areas of [[Poona]] and [[Nasik]] had remained in the hands of the Satavahanas since the time of [[Gautamiputra Satakarni]] after his victory over [[Nahapana]], as there are no epigraphical records of the Kardamakas in this area.<ref name="Sircar"/>

===Rudrasena II (256–278)===
[[File:Rudrasena II Circa 256-278 CE.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|right|[[Rudrasena II (Western Satrap)|Rudrasena II]] (256-278 CE). Head right, wearing close-fitting cap / Three-arched hill; group of five pellets to right.<ref>CNG Coins [https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=322826 Coin image]</ref>]]
{{Location map+
|India
|float = right
|width = 250
|caption = Western Satrap territory extended from the west coast of [[India]] to [[Vidisha]]/ [[Sanchi]] and [[Eran]], from the time of [[Rudrasena II]] (256–278) well into the 4th century.<ref name="Shaw 58"/> Marital alliances with the [[Andhra Ikshvaku|Ikshvaku]] of southern India are mentioned in inscriptions at [[Nagarjunakonda]] (3rd century CE).<ref name="books.google.com">"Another queen of Virapurusha was Rudradhara-bhattarika. According to D.C. Sircar she might have been related to Rudrasena II (c. a.d. 254-74) the Saka ruler of Western India" in {{cite book |last1=Rao |first1=P. Raghunadha |title=Ancient and medieval history of Andhra Pradesh |publisher=Sterling Publishers |isbn=9788120714953 |page=[https://archive.org/details/ancientmedievalh0000ragh/page/23 23] |url=https://archive.org/details/ancientmedievalh0000ragh |url-access=registration |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Government Central Press">{{cite book |last1=(India) |first1=Madhya Pradesh |title=Madhya Pradesh District Gazetteers: Ujjain |publisher=Government Central Press |page=26 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lo5hAAAAIAAJ |language=en}}</ref>
|nodiv = 1
|mini = 1
|relief = yes
|places =
{{location map~ |India |lat=23.53|N |long=77.82|E |label=[[Vidisha]]/ [[Sanchi]]|position=right |label_size=60}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=24.09|N |long=78.16|E |label=[[Eran]]|position=top |label_size=60 }}
{{location map~ |India |lat=23.17|N |long=75.79|E |label=[[Ujjain]]|position=bottom |label_size=60 }}
{{location map~ |India |lat=21.71|N |long=72.99|E |label=[[Bharuch|Barigaza]]|position=left |label_size=60 }}
{{location map~ |India |lat=23.54|N |long=73.12|E |label=[[Devnimori]]|position=top |label_size=60 }}
{{location map~ |India |lat=16.521894|N |long=79.24285|E |label=[[Nagarjunakonda]] (Alliances)|position=bottom |label_size=60|mark=Purple pog.svg }}
{{location map~ |India |lat=20.553333|N |long=75.700278|E |label=[[Ajanta Caves|Ajanta (Viśvasena coinage)]]|position=bottom |label_size=60 |mark=Blue pog.svg}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=20.78|N |long=79.63|E |label=[[Pauni]] ([[Rupiamma|Rupiamma pillar]])|position=right |label_size=60 |mark=Blue pog.svg}}
}}
The Kshatrapa dynasty seems to have reached a high level of prosperity under the rule of [[Rudrasena II (Western Satrap)|Rudrasena II]] (256–278), 19th ruler of Kshatrapa.

A marital alliance between the [[Andhra Ikshvaku]] and the Western Satraps seems to have occurred during the time of Rudrasena II, as the Andhra Ikshvaku ruler Māṭharīputra Vīrapuruṣadatta (250-275 CE) seems to have had as one of his wives Rudradhara-bhattarika, the daughter of "the ruler of [[Ujjain]]", possibly king Rudrasena II.{{sfn|K. Krishna Murthy|1977|p=6}}<ref name="books.google.com">"Another queen of Virapurusha was Rudradhara-bhattarika. According to D.C. Sircar she might have been related to Rudrasena II (c. a.d. 254-74) the Saka ruler of Western India" in {{cite book |last1=Rao |first1=P. Raghunadha |title=Ancient and medieval history of Andhra Pradesh |publisher=Sterling Publishers |isbn=9788120714953 |page=[https://archive.org/details/ancientmedievalh0000ragh/page/23 23] |url=https://archive.org/details/ancientmedievalh0000ragh |url-access=registration |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Subramanian |first1=K. R. |title=Buddhist Remains in Andhra and the History of Andhra Between 225 and 610 A.D. |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=9788120604445 |page=82 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vnO2BMPdYEoC&pg=PA82 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Motilal Banarsidass Publ">{{cite book |last1=Majumdar |first1=Ramesh Chandra |title=Vakataka - Gupta Age Circa 200-550 A.D. |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=9788120800267 |page=66 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OswUZtL1_CUC&pg=PA66 |language=en}}</ref> According to an inscription at Nagarjunakonda, Iksvaku king Virapurushadatta had multiple wives,{{sfn|K. Krishna Murthy|1977|p=5}} including Rudradhara-bhattarika, the daughter of the ruler of [[Ujjain]] (''Uj(e)nika mahara(ja) balika'').{{sfn|K. Krishna Murthy|1977|p=6}}<ref name="books.google.com"/><ref name="Government Central Press">{{cite book |last1=(India) |first1=Madhya Pradesh |title=Madhya Pradesh District Gazetteers: Ujjain |publisher=Government Central Press |page=26 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lo5hAAAAIAAJ |language=en}}</ref>

The region of [[Sanchi]]-[[Vidisha]] was again captured from the Satavahanas during the rule of Rudrasena II (255-278 CE), as shown by finds of Rudrasena II's coinage in the area.<ref name="Shaw 58" /> The region would then remain under Western Satrap rule until the 4th century CE, as attested by the [[Kanakerha inscription]].<ref name="Shaw 58" />

The last Kshatrapa ruler of the Chastana family was [[Visvasena]] (Vishwasen, r.293–304 CE), brother and successor to [[Bhratadarman|Bhartrdaman]] and son of Rudrasena II. A coin of Visvasena was found in excavations at the [[Ajanta Caves]], in the burnt-brick monastery facing the caves on the right bank of the river [[Waghora]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mitra |first1=Debala |title=Ajanta |publisher=Archaeological Survey of India |pages=[https://archive.org/details/ajanta00mitr/page/94 94]–95 |url=https://archive.org/details/ajanta00mitr}}</ref>

== Rudrasimha II dynasty (c. 304–396 CE) ==
[[File:Head of Buddha Shakyamuni LACMA M.79.8.jpg|thumb|Head of Buddha Shakyamuni, [[Devnimori]], [[Gujarat]] (375-400). Derived from the [[Greco-Buddhist art]] of [[Gandhara]], an example of the Western Indian art of the Western Satraps.<ref name="JIABS"/><ref>[http://collections.lacma.org/node/242276 Los Angeles County Museum of Art description]</ref>]]
A new family took over, started by the rule of [[Rudrasimha II]] (r. 304–348 CE). He declared on his coins to be the son of a Lord (Svami) Jivadaman.<ref>Catalogue of the coins of the Andhra dynasty, the Western Ksatrapas, the Traikutaka dynasty, and the "Bodhi" dynasty, by British Museum. Dept. of Coins and Medals; Rapson, E. J. (Edward James) [https://archive.org/details/catalogueofcoins00brit p.170]</ref> His rule is partly coeval with that of other rulers, who were his sons as written on their coins and may have been sub-kings: [[Yasodaman II]] (r. 317–332 CE) and [[Rudradaman II]] (r. 332–348 CE).

;Contributions to Buddhism
Under Rudrasimha II, the Western Satraps are known to have maintained their presence in the [[Central India]]n areas of [[Vidisha]]/[[Sanchi]]/[[Eran]] well into the 4th century: during his rule, in 319 CE, a Saka ruler inscribed the [[Kanakerha inscription]],<ref>Marshall, The Monuments of Sanchi [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.532798 p.392]</ref> on the hill of [[Sanchi]] mentioning the construction of a well by the Saka chief and "righteous conqueror" (''dharmaviyagi mahadandanayaka'') [[Sridharavarman]] (339-368 CE).<ref name="Shaw 58"/> Another inscription of the same Sridhavarman with his military commander is known from [[Eran]].<ref name="Shaw 58"/> These inscriptions point to the extent of Saka rule as of the time of Rudrasimha II.

The construction of Buddhist monuments in the area of [[Gujarat]] during the later part of Western Satrap rule is attested with the site of [[Devnimori]], which incorporates [[vihara]]s and a [[stupa]]. Coins of Rudrasimha were found inside the [[Buddhist]] [[stupa]] of Devnimori.<ref name="Schastok 28">{{cite book|last1=Schastok|first1=Sara L.|title=The Śāmalājī Sculptures and 6th Century Art in Western India|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-9004069411|pages=23–31|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jh1fF8HvJmMC&pg=PA24|language=en}}</ref> The Buddha images in Devnimori clearly show the influence of the [[Greco-Buddhist art]] of [[Gandhara]],<ref name="JIABS">The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, Volume 4 1981 Number I [https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/jiabs/article/viewFile/8536/2443 An Exceptional Group of Painted Buddha Figures at Ajanṭā, p.97 and Note 2]</ref> and have been described as examples of the Western Indian art of the Western Satraps.<ref name="JIABS"/> It has been suggested that the art of Devnimori represented a Western Indian artistic tradition that was anterior to the rise of [[Gupta Empire]] art, and that it may have influenced not only the latter, but also the art of the [[Ajanta Caves]], [[Sarnath]] and other places from the 5th century onward.<ref name="Schastok 28"/>

Overall, the Western Satraps may have played a role in the transmission of the [[Gandhara art|art of Gandhara]] to the western [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] region.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Brancaccio|first1=Pia|title=The Buddhist Caves at Aurangabad: Transformations in Art and Religion|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-9004185258|page=107|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m_4pXm7dD78C&pg=PA107|language=en}}</ref>

===Sasanian expansion in the northwest===
[[File:Location map of the Sasanian coinage of Sindh.jpg|thumb|Location of the [[Sasanian coinage of Sindh]], circa 400 CE, in relation with the other polities of the time.]]
After a period of control of the areas as far as [[Gandhara]] by the [[Kushano-Sasanians]], the [[Sasanian Empire]] further expanded into the northwest of the subcontinent, particularly in the regions of Gandhara and [[Punjab]], from the time of [[Shapur II]] circa 350 CE.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ghosh |first1=Amalananda |title=Taxila |publisher=CUP Archive |pages=790–791 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0NA3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA787 |language=en}}</ref> Further south, as far as the mouth of the [[Indus river]], the Sasanians exerted some sort of control or influence, as suggested by the [[Sasanian coinage of Sindh]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schindel |first1=Nikolaus |last2=Alram |first2=Michael |last3=Daryaee |first3=Touraj |last4=Pendleton |first4=Elizabeth |title=The Parthian and Early Sasanian Empires: adaptation and expansion |publisher=Oxbow Books |isbn=9781785702105 |pages=127–128 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GqONDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA127 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="RCS">{{cite journal |last1=Senior |first1=R.C. |title=The Coinage of Sind from 250 AD up to the Arab Conquest |journal=Oriental Numismatic Society |volume=129 |issue=June–July 1991 |pages=3–4 |url=http://orientalnumismaticsociety.org/JONS/Files/ONS_129.pdf |access-date=27 September 2019 |archive-date=26 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190926175600/http://orientalnumismaticsociety.org/JONS/Files/ONS_129.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> It is probable that the Sasanian expansion in India, which put an end to the remnants of [[Kushan Empire|Kushan]] rule, was also made in part at the expense of the Western Satraps.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mahajan |first1=Vidya Dhar |title=Ancient India |publisher=S. Chand Publishing |isbn=9789352531325 |page=335 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7TJlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA335 |language=en}}</ref>

===Conquered by the Guptas (c. 335–415 CE)===
{{main|Gupta Empire}}

====Central India conquered by [[Samudragupta]] (r. 336–380 CE)====
The Central Indian region around [[Vidisha]]/ [[Sanchi]] and [[Eran]] had been occupied by a Saka ruler named [[Sridharavarman]], who his known from the [[Kanakerha inscription]] at Sanchi, and another inscription with his Naga general at Eran.<ref name="Shaw 58">Buddhist Landscapes in Central India: Sanchi Hill and Archaeologies of Religious and Social Change, c. Third Century BC to Fifth Century AD, Julia Shaw, Routledge, 2016 [https://books.google.com/books?id=IUbUDAAAQBAJ&pg=PR58 p58-59]</ref> At [[Eran]], it seems that Sridharavarman's inscription is succeeded by a monument and an inscription by [[Gupta Empire]] [[Samudragupta]] (r.336-380 CE), established "for the sake of augmenting his fame", who may therefore have ousted Sridharavarman's Sakas in his campaigns to the West.<ref>"During the course of this expedition he is believed to have attacked and defeated the Saka Chief Shridhar Varman, ruling over Eran-Vidisha region. He then annexed the area and erected a monument at Eran (modern Sagar District) "for the sake cf augmenting his fame"." in {{cite book |last1=Pradesh (India) |first1=Madhya |last2=Krishnan |first2=V. S. |title=Madhya Pradesh: District Gazetteers |publisher=Government Central Press |page=28 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7CYLAQAAIAAJ |language=en}}</ref> Sridharavarman is probably the "Saka" ruler mentioned in the [[Allahabad pillar]] inscription of Samudragupta, as having "paid homage" to the Gupta Emperor,<ref name="CII4">{{cite book |last1=Mirashi |first1=Vasudev Vishnu |title=Corpus inscriptionum indicarum vol.4 pt.2 Inscriptions of the Kalachuri Chedi Era |publisher=Archaeological Society of India |pages=605–611 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.3725/page/n321}}</ref> forced to "self-surrender, offering (their own) daughters in marriage and a request for the administration of their own districts and provinces".<ref>Lines 23-24 of the [[Allahabad pillar]] inscription of Samudragupta: "Self-surrender, offering (their own) daughters in marriage and a request for the administration of their own districts and provinces through the Garuḍa badge, by the [[Kushan Empire|Dēvaputra-Shāhi-Shāhānushāhi]] and the Śaka lords and by (rulers) occupying all Island countries, such as Siṁhala and others."</ref>

==== Gujarat campaign of [[Ramagupta]] ====
[[File:Bhadramukhas ruler Rudrasimha III Circa 385-415 CE.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Coin of the last Western Satrap ruler [[Rudrasimha III]] (388–395).]]
[[Rudrasimha III]] seems to have been the last of the Western Satrap rulers.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Cambridge Shorter History of India |publisher=CUP Archive |page=93 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9_48AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA93 |language=en}}</ref> A fragment from the [[Indian classical dance|Natya-darpana]] mentions that the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]] king [[Ramagupta]], the elder brother of [[Chandragupta II]], decided to expand his kingdom by attacking the Western Satraps in [[Gujarat]].

The campaign soon took a turn for the worse and the Gupta army was trapped. The Saka king, Rudrasimha III, demanded that Ramagupta hand over his wife Dhruvadevi in exchange for peace. To avoid the ignominy, the Guptas decided to send Madhavasena, a courtesan and a beloved of Chandragupta, disguised as the queen. However, Chandragupta changed the plan and himself went to the Saka King disguised as the queen. He then killed Rudrasimha and later his own brother, Ramagupta. Dhruvadevi was then married to Chandragupta.

====Conquests of [[Chandragupta II]] (r. 380–415 CE)====
[[File:Sanchi, Inscription of Candragupta II..JPG|thumb|The victorious [[Sanchi inscription of Chandragupta II]] (412-413 CE).]]
The Western Satraps were eventually conquered by emperor Chandragupta II. Inscriptions of a victorious [[Chandragupta II]] in the year 412-413 CE can be found on the railing near the Eastern Gateway of the Great Stupa in [[Sanchi]].<ref>Marshall, The Monuments of India [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.532798 p.388]</ref>

{{blockquote|The glorious Candragupta (II), (...) who proclaims in the world the good behaviour of the excellent people, namely, the dependents (of the king), and who has acquired banners of victory and fame in many battles|[[Sanchi inscription of Chandragupta II]], 412-413 CE.<ref>Marshall, The Monuments of India [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.532798 p.388 inscription 833]</ref>}}

The Gupta ruler [[Skandagupta]] (455-467 CE) is known for a long inscription where he describes himself as "the ruler of the earth" on a large rock at [[Junagadh]], in [[Gujarat]], next to the older inscriptions of [[Ashoka]] and [[Rudradaman I]], confirming the Gupta hold on the western regions.<ref>[http://projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu/Docs/HISTORY/PRIMARYDOCS/EPIGRAPHY/JunagadhRockInscription.htm "Junagadh Rock Inscription of Rudradaman", ''Project South Asia''.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090223182107/http://projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu/Docs/HISTORY/PRIMARYDOCS/EPIGRAPHY/JunagadhRockInscription.htm}}</ref>

Following these conquests, the silver coins of the Gupta kings [[Chandragupta II]] and his son [[Kumaragupta I]] adopted the Western Satrap design (itself derived from the [[Indo-Greeks]]) with bust of the ruler and pseudo-Greek inscription on the obverse, and a royal eagle ([[Garuda]], the dynastic symbol of the Guptas) replacing the [[chaitya]] hill with star and crescent on the reverse.<ref name="CIC">"Evidence of the conquest of [[Saurashtra (region)|Saurastra]] during the reign of [[Chandragupta II]] is to be seen in his rare silver coins which are more directly imitated from those of the Western Satraps... they retain some traces of the old inscriptions in Greek characters, while on the reverse, they substitute the Gupta type ... for the [[chaitya]] with crescent and star." in Rapson "A catalogue of Indian coins in the British Museum. The Andhras etc.", p.cli</ref>
<gallery mode="packed" heights="110" caption="Gupta Empire coins on the model of the Western Satraps" style="border:1px #aaa solid">
File:Silver_Coin_of_Chandragupta_II.jpg|Coin of Gupta ruler [[Chandragupta II]] (r.380–415) in the style of the Western Satraps.<ref name="CIC"/>
File:Silver Coin of Kumaragupta I.jpg|Coin of Gupta ruler [[Kumaragupta I]] (r.414–455) (Western territories).<ref name="CIC"/>
File:Gupta Kings. Skandagupta. AD 455-467.jpg | Coin of Gupta ruler [[Skandagupta]] (r.455-467), in the style of the Western Satraps.<ref name="CIC"/>
</gallery>

The campaigns of Chandragupta II brought an end to nearly four centuries of Saka rule on the subcontinent. This period also corresponds to the wane of the very last [[Kushan]] rulers in the [[Punjab]] and the arrival of the [[Kidarites|Kidarite Huns]], the first [[Huna people|Huna]] invaders from the steppes of [[Central Asia]]. Less than a century later, the [[Alchon Huns]] in turn invaded northern India, bringing an end to the [[Gupta Empire]] and the Classical period of India.

==Coinage==
The Kshatrapas have a very rich and interesting coinage. It was based on the coinage of the earlier [[Indo-Greek]] Kings, with Greek or pseudo-Greek legend and stylized profiles of royal busts on the obverse. The reverse of the coins, however, is original and typically depict a thunderbolt and an arrow, and later, a chaitya or three-arched hill and river symbol with a crescent and the sun, within a legend in Brahmi. These coins are very informative, since they record the name of the King, of his father, and the date of issue, and have helped clarify the early history of India.

===Regnal dates===
[[File:Western Satrap Damasena year 153.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Coin of [[Damasena]]. The minting date, here 153 (100-50-3 in [[:File:Brahmi numeral signs.svg|Brahmi script numerals]]) of the [[Saka era]], therefore 232 CE, clearly appears behind the head of the king.]]
From the reigns of [[Jivadaman]] and [[Rudrasimha I]], the date of minting of each coin, reckoned in the [[Saka era]], is usually written on the obverse behind the king's head in [[Brahmi numerals]], allowing for a quite precise datation of the rule of each king.<ref>Rapson CCVIII</ref> This is a rather uncommon case in Indian numismatics. Some, such as the numismat R.C Senior considered that these dates might correspond to the much earlier [[Azes era]] instead.

Also the father of each king is systematically mentioned in the reverse legends, which allows reconstruction of the regnal succession.

===Languages===
[[Kharoshthi]], a script in use in more northern territories (area of [[Gandhara]]), is employed together with the [[Brāhmī script|Brahmi]] script and the [[Greek alphabet|Greek]] script on the first coins of the Western Satraps, but is finally abandoned from the time of [[Chastana]].<ref>Rapson p. CIV</ref> From that time, only the Brahmi script would remain, together with the pseudo-Greek script on the facing, to write the [[Prakrit]] language employed by the Western satraps. Occasionally, the legends are in [[Sanskrit]] instead.

The coins of [[Nahapana]] bear the Greek script legend "PANNIΩ IAHAPATAC NAHAΠANAC", transliteration of the Prakrit "Raño Kshaharatasa Nahapanasa": "In the reign of Kshaharata Nahapana". The coins of [[Chastana|Castana]] also have a readable legend "PANNIΩ IATPAΠAC CIASTANCA", transliteration of the Prakrit "Raño Kshatrapasa Castana": "In the reign of the Satrap Castana". After these two rulers, the legend in Greek script becomes denaturated, and seems to lose all signification, only retaining an aesthetic value. By the 4th century, the coins of [[Rudrasimha II]] exhibit the following type of meaningless legend in corrupted Greek script: "...ΛIOΛVICIVIIIΛ...".<ref>Rapson, "A Catalogue of Indian coins in the British Museum. Andhras etc.", p.cxcii</ref>

===Influences===
[[File:Dharasena, Traikutaka Dynasty.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|An imitation of Western Satrap coinage: silver coin of king [[Dharasena (ruler)|Dahrasena]] (c. 415–455 CE), of the [[Traikutaka dynasty]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rapson |first1=E. J. (Edward James) |title=Catalogue of the coins of the Andhra dynasty, the Western Ksatrapas, the Traikutaka dynasty, and the "Bodhi" dynasty |publisher=London : Printed by order of the Trustees |page=198 |url=https://archive.org/details/catalogueofcoins00brit/page/198/mode/2up?view=theater}}</ref>]]
The coins of the Kshatrapas were also very influential and imitated by neighbouring or later dynasties, such as the Satavahanas, and the [[Gupta Empire|Guptas]]. Silver coins of the Gupta kings [[Chandragupta II]] and his son [[Kumaragupta I]] adopted the Western Satrap design (itself derived from the [[Indo-Greeks]]) with bust of the ruler and pseudo-Greek inscription on the obverse, and a royal eagle ([[Garuda]], the dynastic symbol of the Guptas) replacing the [[chaitya]] hill with star and crescent on the reverse.<ref name="CIC"/>

The Western Satrap coin design was also adopted by the subsequent dynasty of the [[Traikutakas]] (388–456) or the [[Maitraka dynasty|Maitrakas]] (475–776).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Virji |first1=krishnakumari J. |title=Ancient History Of Saurashtra |page=225 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.57287/page/n249/mode/2up}}</ref>

==Monuments==
Sudarshan Lake of the Satrap period is mentioned in major rock edicts of [[Junagadh]] but no trace of it remains. Six inscription-stones called ''[[Paliya|Lashti]]''s of 1st century were recovered from a hillock near Andhau village in the Khavda region of [[Kutch]] and were moved to the [[Kutch Museum]] in [[Bhuj]]. They are the earliest dated monuments of the Satrap period and were erected in the time of Rudradaman I.<ref name="Sankalia1941">{{cite book|author=Hasmukh Dhirajlal Sankalia|title=The Archaeology of Gujarat: Including Kathiawar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fvAdAAAAMAA|year=1941|publisher=Natwarlal & Company|pages=46}}{{Dead link|bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} [http://www.dli.ernet.in/handle/2015/51876 Alt URL] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170803130738/http://www.dli.ernet.in/handle/2015/51876 }}</ref>

The large number of stone inscriptions from Kutch and Saurastra as well as hundreds of coins throughout Gujarat are found belonging to the Satrap period. The earlier caves at [[Sana Caves|Sana]], [[Junagadh Buddhist Cave Groups|Junagadh]], [[Dhank Caves|Dhank]], [[Talaja Caves|Talaja]], Sidhasar, Prabhas Patan and Ranapar in the Barada Hills are mostly plain and austere in looks except some carvings in the [[Bava Pyara Caves]] of Junagadh. They are comparable to Andhra-Satrap period caves in Deccan. As they have almost no carvings, the determination of their date and chronology is difficult. The [[Uparkot Caves]] of Junagadh and the [[Khambhalida Caves]] belong to the later years of the Satraps.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Nanavati|first1=J. M.|last2=Dhaky|first2=M. A.|title=The Maitraka and the Saindhava Temples of Gujarat|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.321094|journal=Artibus Asiae. Supplementum|volume=26|pages=15–17|doi=10.2307/1522666|jstor=1522666}}</ref> The ''stupas'' excavated at Boria and Intwa near Junagadh belonged to the Satrap period. The ''stupa'' excavated at Shamlaji probably belonged to this period or to the Gupta period.<ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.280444|title=Journal Of Oriental Institute Baroda Vol.10|last=Nanavati|first=J. M.|publisher=Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda|editor-last=Sandesara|editor-first=B. J.|volume=X|pages=223–224|chapter=A Kshatrapa Head from Saurashtra|issue=3}}</ref>

==Contribution to Sanskrit epigraphy==
[[File:Inscription No.10 Cave No.10 Nasik caves (longitudinal).jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|The inscription of [[Ushavadata]], son-in-law of [[Nahapana]], runs the length of the entrance wall of one of the Nasik caves, over the doors, and is here visible in parts between the pillars. Actual image, and corresponding rubbing. Cave No.10, [[Nasik Caves]].]]
{{main|Sanskrit}}
In what has been described as "the great linguistical [[paradox]] of India", [[Sanskrit]] inscriptions first appeared much later than [[Prakrit]] inscriptions, although Prakrit is considered as a descendant of the Sanskrit language.{{sfn|Salomon|1998|pp=86-87}} This is because Prakrit, in its multiple variants, had been favoured since the time of the influential [[Edicts of Ashoka]] (circa 250 BCE).{{sfn|Salomon|1998|pp=86-87}}

Besides a few examples from the 1st century BCE, most of the early Sanskrit inscriptions date to the time of the [[Indo-Scythian]] rulers, either the [[Northern Satraps]] around [[Mathura]] for the earliest ones, or, slightly later, the closely related Western Satraps in western and central India.{{sfn|Salomon|1998|pp=87-88}}{{sfn|Salomon|1998|pp=93-94}} It is thought that they became promoters of Sanskrit as a way to show their attachment to Indian culture: according to Salomon "their motivation in promoting Sanskrit was presumably a desire to establish themselves as legitimate Indian or at least Indianized rulers and to curry the favor of the educated Brahmanical elite".{{sfn|Salomon|1998|pp=93-94}}

[[File:Junagadh_inscription_of_Rudradaman_(complete).jpg|thumb|left|The [[Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman|Junagadh rock inscription]], inscribed by [[Rudradaman I]] circa 150 CE, is "the first long inscription recorded entirely in more or less standard Sanskrit".{{sfn|Salomon|1998|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=XYrG07qQDxkC&pg=PA89 89]}}]]
In western India, the first known inscription in Sanskrit appears to have been made by [[Ushavadata]], son-in-law of the Western Satrap ruler [[Nahapana]], at the front of Cave no.10 in the [[Nasik Caves]]. The inscription dates to the early 2nd century CE, and has hybrid features.{{sfn|Salomon|1998|p=89}}

{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=300|caption_align=center
| align = right
| direction =horizontal
| header=Scythian warriors
| image1 = Nagarjunakonda Scythian soldier Palace site.jpg
| image2 = Nagarjunakonda Scythian warrior, 2nd century CE.jpg
| footer="[[Indo-Scythian|Scythian]]" soldier, [[Nagarjunakonda]] Palace site, circa 2nd century CE.<ref name=CS>"In Nagarjunakonda Scythian influence is noticed and the cap and coat of a soldier on a pillar may be cited as an example.", in {{cite book |last1=Sivaramamurti |first1=C. |title=Indian Sculpture |date=1961 |publisher=Allied Publishers |page=51 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HL81AAAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref><ref name=AR>"A Scythian dvarapala standing wearing his typical draperies, boots and head dress. Distinct ethnic and sartorial characteristics are noreworthy.", in {{cite book |last1=Ray |first1=Amita |title=Life and Art of Early Andhradesa |publisher=Agam |page=249 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uQXqAAAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=National Portal and Digital Repository: Record Details |url=http://museumsofindia.gov.in/repository/record/nat_del-50-23-25222 |website=museumsofindia.gov.in |language=en}}</ref>
}}
The [[Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman|Junagadh rock inscription]] of Western Satraps ruler [[Rudradaman I]] (c. 150 AD, [[Gujarat]]) is the first long inscription in fairly standard Sanskrit that has survived into the modern era. It represents a turning point in Sanskrit epigraphy, states Salomon, being "the first extensive record in the poetic style" in "more or less standard Sanskrit".{{sfn|Salomon|1998|p=89}} The Rudradaman inscription is "not pure classical Sanskrit", but with few epic-vernacular Sanskrit exceptions, it approaches high classical Sanskrit.{{sfn|Salomon|1998|p=89}} It is important because it is likely the prototype of the extensive Sanskrit inscriptions of the [[Gupta Empire]] era.{{sfn|Salomon|1998|p=89}} These inscriptions are also in the [[Brahmi script|''Brāhmī'' script]].<ref name="Salomon 1998">{{harvnb|Salomon|1998|pp=10, 86–90}}</ref>
During the reign of Rudradaman, circa 150 CE, it is also known that the Greek writer [[Yavanesvara]] translated the [[Yavanajataka]] from Greek to Sanskrit, for "the use of those who could not speak Greek", a translation which became an authority for all later astrology works in India.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Selin |first1=Helaine |title=Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Westen Cultures |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=9789401714167 |page=906 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GzjpCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA906 |language=en}}</ref>

The spread of the usage of Sanskrit inscriptions to the south can also probably be attributed to the influence of the Western Satraps, who were in close relation with southern Indian rulers: according to Salomon "a [[Nagarjunakonda]] memorial pillar inscription of the time of King [[Rudrapurusadatta]] attests to a marital alliance between the Western Ksatrapas and the [[Andhra Ikshvaku|Iksvaku]] rulers of Nagarjunakonda".{{sfn|Salomon|1998|pp=93-94}}<ref name="Motilal Banarsidass Publ"/> The [[Nagarjunakonda]] inscriptions are the earliest substantial South Indian Sanskrit inscriptions, probably from the late 3rd-century to early 4th-century CE. These inscriptions are related to Buddhism and to the [[Shaivism]] tradition of Hinduism, and parts of them reflect both standard Sanskrit and hybridized Sanskrit.{{sfn|Salomon|1998|pp=90-91}} An earlier hybrid Sanskrit inscription found on Amaravati slab is dated to the late 2nd-century, while a few later ones include Sanskrit inscriptions along with Prakrit inscriptions related to Hinduism and Buddhism.{{sfn|Salomon|1998|pp=90-91 with footnote 51}} After the 3rd-century CE, Sanskrit inscriptions dominate and many have survived.{{sfn|Salomon|1998|pp=91-93}}

==Possible vassalage to the Kushans==
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction =vertical
| header=Statue of Chastana Mathura Museum
| total_width=180
| image1 = Inscribed Image of Saka King Chstan - Kushan Period - Mat - ACCN 12-212 - Government Museum - Mathura 2013-02-24 5904.JPG
| image2 = Shastana inscription.jpg
| footer=Inscribed statue of Saka King Chastana, with inscription "Shastana" ([[Brahmi script|Middle Brahmi script]]: [[File:Gupta ashoka ss.svg|10px]][[File:Gupta ashoka sta.jpg|13px]][[File:Gupta ashoka n.svg|10px]] ''Sha-sta-na'').<ref name="JBO"/> Kushan period.
}}
It is still unclear whether the Western Satraps were independent rulers or vassals of the [[Kushan Empire]] (30–375 CE). The continued use of the word "[[Satrap]]" on their coin would suggest a recognized subjection to a higher ruler, possibly the Kushan emperor.<ref>"The titles "Kshatrap" and "Mahakshatrapa" certainly show that the Western Kshatrapas were originally feudatories" in Rapson, "Coins of the British Museum", p.cv</ref>

[[File:India 2nd century AD.jpg|thumb|left|The Western Satraps (orange) and the [[Kushan Empire]] (green), in the 2nd century CE]]
Also, a statue of [[Chastana]] was found in [[Mathura, Uttar Pradesh|Mathura]] at the Temple of Mat together with the famous statues of [[Vima Kadphises]] and [[Kanishka]]. The statue has the inscription "Shastana" ([[Brahmi script|Middle Brahmi script]]: [[File:Gupta ashoka ss.svg|10px]][[File:Gupta ashoka sta.jpg|13px]][[File:Gupta ashoka n.svg|10px]] ''Sha-sta-na'').<ref name="JBO">{{cite book |title=Journal of the Bihar and Orissa Research Society |publisher=The Society |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yKZEAQAAMAAJ}} "The three letters give us a complete name, which I read as Ṣastana (vide facsimile and cast). Dr. Vogel read it as Mastana but that is incorrect for Ma was always written with a circular or triangular knob below with two slanting lines joining the knob"</ref> This also would suggest at least alliance and friendship, if not vassalage. Finally Kanishka claims in the [[Rabatak inscription]] that his power extends to [[Ujjain]], the classical capital of the Western Satrap realm. This combined with the presence of the Chastana statue side by side with Kanishka would also suggest Kushan alliance with the Western Satraps.

Finally, following the period of the "[[Northern Satraps]]" who ruled in the area of [[Mathura, Uttar Pradesh|Mathura]], the "Great Satrap" [[Kharapallana]] and the "Satrap" [[Vanaspara]] are known from an inscription in [[Sarnath]] to have been feudatories of the Kushans.<ref name="ReferenceA" />

Generally, the position taken by modern scholarship is that the Western Satraps were vassals of the Kushans, at least in the early period until [[Rudradaman I]] conquered the [[Yaudheyas]], who are usually thought to be Kushan vassals. The question is not considered perfectly settled.
{{clear left}}

==Main rulers==
{{Rulers of the Western Satraps}}
[[File:Genealogical table of the Western Satraps.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Genealogical table of the Western Satraps]]
{{HistoryOfSouthAsia}}
{{History of Gujarat}}

===Kshaharata dynasty===
* [[Yapirajaya]]
* [[Hospises]]
* [[Higaraka]]
* [[Abhiraka]] (Aubhirakes)
* [[Bhumaka]] (?–119) [[File:Coin of Bhumaka.jpg|50px]]
* [[Nahapana]] (119–124) [[File:Silver coin of Nahapana British Museum.jpg|25px]]
:* Viceroy [[Ushavadata]]

===Bhadramukhas or Kardamaka dynasty===
'''Family of Chastana:'''
* [[Chastana]] ({{Circa|78}}–130) [[File:ChastanaCoin.jpg|50px]], son of [[Ysāmotika]]
* [[Jayadaman]], [[File:Jayadaman.jpg|50px]] son of Chastana
* [[Rudradaman I]] ({{Circa|130}}–150) [[File:Coin of Rudradaman.jpg|50px]], son of Jayadaman
* [[Damajadasri I]] (170–175) [[File:Damajadasri.jpg|50px]]
* [[Jivadaman]] (178-181, d. 199) [[File:Jivadaman Saka Era 100 coin.jpg|50px]]
* [[Rudrasimha I]] (180–188, d. 197) [[File:Western Satrap Coin of Rudrasimha I .jpg|50px]]
* [[Rudrasimha I]] (restored) (191–197) [[File:Western Satrap Coin of Rudrasimha I .jpg|50px]]
* [[Satyadaman]] (197-198) [[File:Satyadaman.jpg|50px]]
* [[Jivadaman]] (restored) (197–199) [[File:Coin of Jivadaman 119 Shaka Era 197 CE.jpg|25px]]
* [[Rudrasena I (Saka king)|Rudrasena I]] (200–222) [[File:Coin of Rudrasena.jpg|50px]]
* [[Prthivisena]] (222) [[File:Prthivisena.jpg|50px]]
* [[Samghadaman]] (222–223) [[File:Samghadaman.jpg|50px]]
* [[Damasena]] (223–232) [[File:Western Satrap Damasena.jpg|50px]]
* [[Damajadasri II]] (232–239) [[File:Western Satrap Damajadasri II.jpg|50px]] with
* [[Viradaman]] (234–238) [[File:Western Satrap Viradaman.jpg|50px]]
* [[Isvaradatta]] (236–239) [[File:Western Satrap Isvaradatta.jpg|50px]]
* [[Yasodaman I]] (239) [[File:Western Satrap Yasodaman I.jpg|50px]]
* [[Vijayasena]] (239–250) [[File:I85 drachme Vijayasena MACW270203 1ar (8507423804).jpg|50px]]
* [[Damajadasri III]] (251–255) [[File:Western Satrap Damajadasri III.jpg|50px]]
* [[Rudrasena II (Western Satrap)|Rudrasena II]] (255–277) [[File:Rudrasena II Circa 256-278 CE.jpg|50px]]
* [[Visvasimha]] (277–282) [[File:Western Satrap Visvasimha.jpg|50px]]
* [[Bhartrdaman]] (282–295) [[File:Silver coin of Bhartrdaman.jpg|50px]]
* [[Visvasena]] (293–304) [[File:Western Satrap Visvasena.jpg|50px]]
'''Family of Rudrasimha II:'''
* [[Rudrasimha II]] (304–348) [[File:Rudrasimha II coin.jpg|50px]], son of Lord (Svami) [[Jivadaman]], with
:* [[Yasodaman II]] (317–332) [[File:Yasodaman II.jpg|50px]]
:* [[Rudradaman II]] (332–348) ''No coins known''
* ([[Sridharavarman]] (339-368) [[File:Sridharavarman_pillar_(horserider_detail).jpg|25px]] ''No coins known''
* [[Rudrasena III]] (348–380) [[File:Rudrasena III.jpg|50px]]
* [[Simhasena (Western Satrap)|Simhasena]] (380–384/5) [[File:Simhasena.jpg|50px]]
* [[Rudrasena IV]] (382–388) [[File:Rudrasena IV.jpg|50px]]
* [[Rudrasimha III]] (388–415)[[File:Coin of Rudrasimha III.jpg|50px]]

==Descendants==
The [[Abhira tribe|Abhiras]] called themselves [[Saka]]s and were descended from feudatories of the Western Satraps.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mitchiner |first=Michael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8ExmAAAAMAAJ&q=+Abhiras+ |title=Indo-Greek and Indo-Scythian Coinage |publisher=Hawkins Publications |isbn=978-0-904173-12-3 |language=en}}</ref>{{page needed}}

==See also==
*[[History of India]]
*[[Indo-Greek Kingdom]]
*[[Indo-Scythians]]
*[[Indo-Parthians]]
*[[Kushan Empire]]
*[[Rulers of Malwa]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}
*Rapson, "A Catalogue of Indian coins in the British Museum. Andhras etc."
*John Rosenfield, "The dynastic art of the Kushans", 1976
*Claudius Ptolemy, "The geography", Translated and edited by Edward Luther Stevenson, Dover Publications Inc., New York, {{ISBN|0-486-26896-9}}
{{refend}}

==Sources==
* {{Cite book | last=Salomon | first=Richard | title=Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the Other Indo-Aryan Languages | publisher=Oxford University Press | place=Oxford | year=1998 | isbn=978-0-19-509984-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XYrG07qQDxkC}}
* {{cite book |author=K. Krishna Murthy |title=Nāgārjunakoṇḍā: A Cultural Study |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4gBSWyLTSzkC&pg=PA1 |year=1977 |publisher=Concept |oclc=4541213 }}

==External links==
*[http://www.katragadda.com/articles/HistoryOfTheAndhras.pdf] History of the Andhras, Prasad 1988 With many references to Western Satrap rule
*[http://coinindia.com/galleries-kshatrapas.html Online catalogue of Western Kshatrapa coins]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20051224062028/http://www.grifterrec.com/coins/india/ancientindia3.html Coins of the Western Kshatrapas]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20061209050033/http://www.maharashtra.gov.in/english/gazetteer/nasik/005%20History/001%20AncientPeriod.htm The Kshatrapas in Nasik]
*[https://www.academia.edu/1563408/The_Origins_of_the_Indian_Coinage_Tradition The Origins of the Indian Coinage Tradition] at [[Academia.edu]]
{{Middle kingdoms of India}}
{{Indo-Scythians}}

[[Category:Western Satraps| ]]
[[Category:States and territories established in the 30s]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in the 5th century]]
[[Category:History of Pakistan]]
[[Category:History of Rajasthan]]
[[Category:Dynasties of India]]
[[Category:Satraps]]
[[Category:History of Gujarat]]
[[Category:Ujjain]]

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Western Satraps