Pearl millet

2022-06-23T19:08:58Z

2603:8001:B202:3294:75BF:6FDA:50F1:F29A:

{{Short description|Species of cultivated grass}}
{{More citations needed|date=June 2021}}
{{Speciesbox
|name=Pearl millet
|image=Grain millet, early grain fill, Tifton, 7-3-02.jpg
|image_caption=Pearl millet hybrid for grain
|genus=Cenchrus
|species=americanus
|authority=([[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]) Morrone
|synonyms_ref={{r|powo}}
|synonyms={{Collapsible list|{{Species list
|Alopecurus typhoides |Burm.f.
|Andropogon racemosus |(Forssk.) Poir. ex Steud.
|Cenchrus paniceus |B.Heyne ex Wall.
|Cenchrus pycnostachyus |Steud.
|Cenchrus spicatus |(L.) Cav.
|Chaetochloa glauca |(L.) Scribn.
|Chaetochloa lutescens |Stuntz
|Chamaeraphis glauca |(L.) Kuntze
|Holcus paniciformis |Roxb. ex Hook.f.
|Holcus racemosus |Forssk.
|Holcus spicatus |L.
|Ixophorus glaucus |(L.) Nash
|Panicum alopecuroides |J.Koenig ex Trin.
|Panicum americanum |L.
|Panicum coeruleum |Mill.
|Panicum compressum |Balb. ex Steud.
|Panicum glaucum |L.
|Panicum holcoides |Trin.
|Panicum indicum |Mill.
|Panicum involucratum |Roxb.
|Panicum spicatum |(L.) Roxb.
|Penicillaria arabica |A.Braun
|Penicillaria deflexa |Andersson ex A.Braun
|Penicillaria elongata |Schrad. ex Schltdl.
|Penicillaria involucrata |(Roxb.) Schult.
|Penicillaria nigritarum |Schltdl.
|Penicillaria plukenetii |Link
|Penicillaria roxburghii |A.Braun
|Penicillaria solitaria |Stokes
|Penicillaria spicata |(L.) Willd.
|Pennisetum albicauda |Stapf & C.E.Hubb.
|Pennisetum americanum convar. spicatum |(L.) Tzvelev
|Pennisetum americanum convar. typhoides |Tzvelev
|Pennisetum ancylochaete |Stapf & C.E.Hubb.
|Pennisetum aureum |Link
|Pennisetum cereale |Trin.
|Pennisetum cinereum |Stapf & C.E.Hubb.
|Pennisetum echinurus |(K.Schum.) Stapf & C.E.Hubb.
|Pennisetum gambiense |Stapf & C.E.Hubb.
|Pennisetum gibbosum |Stapf & C.E.Hubb.
|Pennisetum giganteum |Ten. ex Steud.
|Pennisetum glaucum |(L.) R.Br.
|Pennisetum leonis |Stapf & C.E.Hubb.
|Pennisetum maiwa |Stapf & C.E.Hubb.
|Pennisetum malacochaete |Stapf & C.E.Hubb.
|Pennisetum megastachyum |Steud.
|Pennisetum nigritarum |(Schltdl.) T.Durand & Schinz
|Pennisetum plukenetii |(Link) T.Durand & Schinz
|Pennisetum pycnostachyum |Stapf & C.E.Hubb.
|Pennisetum spicatum |(L.) Körn.
|Phleum africanum |Lour.
|Setaria glauca |(L.) P.Beauv.
|Setaria rufa |Chevall.
|Setaria sericea |(Aiton) P.Beauv.
|Setariopsis glauca |(L.) Samp.
}}}}
}}

'''Pearl millet''' (''Cenchrus americanus'', commonly known as the synonym ''Pennisetum glaucum''; also known as 'Bajra' in Hindi, 'Sajje' in Kannada, 'Kambu' in Tamil, 'Bajeer' in Kumaoni and 'Maiwa' in Hausa) is the most widely grown type of [[millet]]. It has been grown in [[Africa]] and the [[Indian subcontinent]] since prehistoric times. The center of diversity, and suggested area of [[domestication]], for the crop is in the [[Sahel]] zone of [[West Africa]]. Recent archaeobotanical research has confirmed the presence of domesticated pearl millet on the Sahel zone of northern [[Mali]] between 2500 and 2000 BC.<ref>Manning, Katie, Ruth Pelling, Tom Higham, Jean-Luc Schwenniger and Dorian Q Fuller (2010) 4500-year-old domesticated pearl millet (''Pennisetum glaucum'') from the Tilemsi Valley, Mali: new insights into an alternative cereal domestication pathway. Journal of Archaeological Science 38 (2): 312-322</ref><ref>Fuller, D.Q. (2003). African crops in prehistoric South Asia: a critical review. in Neumann, K., Butler, A., Kahlheber, S. (ed.) Food, Fuel and Fields. Progress in Africa Archaeobotany. Africa Praehistorica 15 series. Cologne: Heinrich-Barth-Institut, 239-271.</ref>

==Description==
[[File:Pennisetum glaucum MHNT.BOT.2013.22.56.jpg|thumb|Fruiting]]

Pearl millet has [[ovoid]] grains of 3 – 4 mm length, the largest kernels of all varieties of millet (not including [[sorghum]]). These can be nearly white, pale yellow, brown, grey, slate blue or purple. The 1000-seed weight can be anything from 2.5 to 14 g with a mean of 8 g.

The height of the plant ranges from 0.5 – 4 m.<ref name=fao>{{cite web|title=Sorghum and millet in human nutrition|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|year=1995|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/T0818E/T0818E00.htm|access-date=2016-11-04|archive-date=2018-10-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181001231759/http://www.fao.org/docrep/T0818e/T0818E00.HTM|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Cultivation==
Pearl millet is well adapted to growing areas characterized by [[drought]], low soil fertility, and high temperature. It performs well in soils with high salinity or low pH. Because of its tolerance to difficult growing conditions, it can be grown in areas where other [[cereal]] crops, such as [[maize]] or [[wheat]], would not survive. Pearl millet is a summer annual crop well-suited for double cropping and rotations.

Today pearl millet is grown on over 260,000 km<sup>2</sup> of land worldwide. It accounts for about 50% of the total world production of millets.<ref>[http://www.cgiar.org/impact/research/millet.html Millet] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070711031948/http://www.cgiar.org/impact/research/millet.html |date=2007-07-11 }}. [[Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research]].</ref>

==Culinary use==
[[File:Bajhar ji maani.jpg|alt=Bajhar ji maani prepared in Tharparkar, Sindh is served with various types of Kadhi and Bhaaji in meal|thumb|Flatbreads made of pearl millet flour, known as {{lang|raj|Bajhar ji [[Roti|maani]]|italic=yes}} or {{lang|raj|Bajre ki roti|italic=yes}} (बाजरे की रोटी) in [[Punjab]], [[Rajasthan]] and [[Haryana]], bajrichi bhakri (बाजरीची भाकरी) in [[Maharashtra]] & Bajra no rotlo (બાજરા નો રોટલો) in [[Gujarat]], India, are served with various types of [[Kadhi]] and [[Curry|Bhaaji]] in meals.]]
Pearl millet is commonly used to make ''[[bhakri]]'' flatbread. It is also boiled to make a [[Tamils|Tamil]] porridge called ''kamban choru'' or "kamban koozh".

In [[Rajasthani cuisine]] {{lang|raj|bajre ki khatti rabdi|italic=yes}} is a traditional dish made with pearl millet flour and [[yogurt]]. It is usually made in summers to be served along with meals.

==Around the world==
===India===
[[India]] is the largest producer of pearl millet. India began growing pearl millet between 1500 and 1100 BCE.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://books.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/propylaeum/reader/download/180/180-30-76304-1-10-20161130.pdf|title=The origin and dispersal of millet cultivation in India|last=Singh|first=Purushottam|date=1996|access-date=October 9, 2017}}</ref> It is currently unknown how it made its way to India.<ref name=":0" /> Rajasthan is the highest-producing state in India. The first hybrid of pearl millet developed in India in 1965 is called the HB1.

Sajje is the local name of the Pearl Millet in Karnataka and is mostly grown in the semi-arid districts of North Karnataka. Sajje is milled and used for making flatbread called 'Sajje Rotti' and is eaten with Yennegai (stuffed brinjal) and yogurt.

Kambu is the Tamil name of pearl millet and is an important food across the [[Indian state]] of Tamil Nadu. It is the second important food for Tamil people consumed predominantly in the hot humid summer months from February through May every year. It is made into a [[gruel]] and consumed along with buttermilk or consumed as [[Dosa (food)|dosa]] or [[Idli|idly]].

Pearl Millet is called Bajra in Northern Indian states. There was a time when Bajra along with [[Jowar]] were the staple food crops in these states but it reduced to mere cattle fodder crop after the [[Green Revolution]] in the 1960s.

===Africa===
The second largest producer of pearl millet and the first to start cultivation, Africa has been successful in bringing back this lost crop.

====Sahel====
Pearl millet is an important food across the [[Sahel]] region of Africa. It is a main staple (along with [[sorghum]]) in a large region of northern [[Nigeria]], [[Niger]], [[Mali]] and [[Burkina Faso]]. In Nigeria it is usually grown as an [[intercrop]] with sorghum and [[cowpea]], the different growth habits, growth period and drought vulnerability of the three crops maximising total productivity and minimising the risk of total crop failure. It is often ground into a flour, rolled into large balls, parboiled, liquefied into a watery paste using fermented milk, and then consumed as a beverage. This beverage, called "fura" in Hausa, is a popular drink in northern Nigeria and southern Niger. Pearl millet is a food widely used in [[Borno state]] and its surrounding states, it is the most widely grown and harvested crop. There are many products that are obtained from the processing of the crop.

====Namibia====
In [[Namibia]], pearl millet is locally known as "mahangu" and is grown mainly in the north of that country, where it is the [[staple food]]. In the dry, unpredictable climate of this area it grows better than alternatives such as [[maize]].

Mahangu is usually made into a [[porridge]] called "oshifima" (or "oshithima"), or [[fermentation (food)|ferment]]ed to make a drink called "ontaku" or "oshikundu".

Traditionally the mahangu is pounded with heavy pieces of wood in a 'pounding area'. The floor of the pounding area is covered with a concrete-like coating made from the material of [[termite]] mounds. As a result, some sand and grit gets into the pounded mahangu, so products like oshifima are usually swallowed without chewing.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.holidaytravel.com.na/index.php?fArticleId=222 |title=Archived copy |access-date=2006-05-19 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130221062826/http://www.holidaytravel.com.na/index.php?fArticleId=222 |archive-date=2013-02-21 }}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=November 2007}} After pounding, [[winnowing]] may be used to remove the [[chaff]].

Some industrial grain processing facilities now exist, such as those operated by [[Namib Mills]]. Efforts are also being made to develop smaller scale processing using [[food extrusion]] and other methods. In a food extruder, the mahangu is milled into a paste before being forced through metal [[die (manufacturing)|die]]. Products made this way include breakfast cereals, including [[puffed grain]]s and [[porridge]], pasta shapes, and "rice".<ref>{{cite web|title=Enhancing food security in Namibia through value-added products|url=http://www.csir.co.za/biochemtek/newsletter/mar/food_security.html|publisher=Council for Scientific and Industrial Research|access-date=4 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051206060459/http://www.csir.co.za/biochemtek/newsletter/mar/food_security.html|archive-date=6 December 2005|date=March 2003}}</ref>

==Research and development==
Recently more productive varieties of pearl millet have been introduced, enabling farmers to increase production considerably.<ref>{{cite book |author=Board on Science and Technology for International Development|author2=Office of International Affairs |author3=National Research Council |title=Lost Crops of Africa: Volume I: Grains |url=http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=2305 |access-date=2007-11-07 |series=Lost Crops of Africa |volume=1 |date=1996-02-14 |publisher=National Academies Press |isbn=978-0-309-04990-0 |chapter=Pearl Millet: Subsistence Types |chapter-url=http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=2305&page=93 |page=108 }}</ref>

To combat the problem of micronutrient malnutrition in Africa and Asia, a study of serving iron-[[Biofortification|biofortified]] pearl millets which is bred conventionally without [[genetic modification]] to a control group is proved to have higher level of iron absorbance by the group.<ref>{{cite news|last=Munyaradzi|first=Makoni|title=Biofortified pearl millet 'can combat iron deficiency'|url=http://www.scidev.net/sub-saharan-africa/nutrition/news/biofortified-pearl-millet-can-combat-iron-deficiency.html|access-date=29 August 2013|newspaper=SciDev Net|date=29 August 2013}}</ref>

Around 1000 pearl millet genotypes, including 31 wild genotypes are sequenced to grasp the genetic diversity of this staple crop to aid breeding by enriching the genetic material. A reference genotype of pearl millet (Tift 23D2B1-P1-P5) has been fully sequenced, which holds around 38,579 genes. Some of these genes are for wax biosynthesis, which is known to be involved in tolerance to abiotic stresses in pearl millet.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=K Varshney|first1=Rajeev|last2=Shi|first2=Chengcheng|last3=Thudi|first3=Mahendar|last4=Cedric|first4=Mariac|last5=Wallace|first5=Jason|last6=Qi|first6=Peng|last7=Zhang|first7=He|last8=Zhao|first8=Yusheng|last9=Wang|first9=Xiyin|date=2018-04-05|title=Erratum: Pearl millet genome sequence provides a resource to improve agronomic traits in arid environments|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/324250226|journal=Nature Biotechnology|volume=36|issue=4|pages=368|doi=10.1038/nbt0418-368d|s2cid=4608024|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics|ICRISAT]] is currently evaluating [https://www.cwrdiversity.org/partnership/pearl-millet-pre-breeding-project/?lang=de crop wild relatives] and will introgress abiotic tolerant traits into cultivated genotypes and make them available for pearl millet improvement.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sharma|first=Shivali|last2=Sharma|first2=Rajan|last3=Govindaraj|first3=Mahalingam|last4=Mahala|first4=Rajendra Singh|last5=Satyavathi|first5=C. Tara|last6=Srivastava|first6=Rakesh K.|last7=Gumma|first7=Murali Krishna|last8=Kilian|first8=Benjamin|date=2021|title=Harnessing wild relatives of pearl millet for germplasm enhancement: Challenges and opportunities|url=https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/csc2.20343|journal=Crop Science|language=en|volume=61|issue=1|pages=177–200|doi=10.1002/csc2.20343|issn=1435-0653}}</ref>

==Pests==
{{See also|List of pearl millet diseases}}
Insect pests include:<ref name="Kalaisekar">{{cite book|last=Kalaisekar|first=A|title=Insect pests of millets: systematics, bionomics, and management|publisher=Elsevier|publication-place=London|year=2017|isbn=978-0-12-804243-4|oclc=967265246}}</ref>

;Seedling pests
*shoot fly ''[[Atherigona approximata]]'' (major seedling pest)
*''[[Atherigona soccata]]'', ''[[Atherigona oryzae]]'', ''[[Atherigona punctata]]'', ''[[Atherigona ponti]]'', and ''[[Atherigona yorki]]''
*anthomyiid flies ''[[Delia arambourgi]]'' and ''[[Delia flavibasis]]'' (Ethiopia)

;Stem borers
*lepidopteran borers: ''[[Chilo partellus]]'', ''[[Chilo infuscatellus]]'', ''[[Sesamia calamistis]]'', ''[[Sesamia cretica]]'', ''[[Sesamia inferens]]'', ''[[Diatraea grandiosella]]'', ''[[Coniesta ignefusalis]]'', ''[[Busseola fusca]]'', ''[[Eldana saccharina]]'', ''[[Ostrinia furnacalis]]'', and ''[[Ostrinia nubilalis]]''

;Leaf feeders
*lepidopteran caterpillars: ''[[Amsacta moorei]]'', ''[[Mythimna loreyi]]'', ''[[Mythimna separata]]'', ''[[Cnaphalocrocis medinalis]]'', ''[[Cnaphalocrocis patnalis]]'', ''[[Spodoptera exigua]]'', ''[[Spodoptera frugiperda]]'', ''[[Spodoptera mauritia]]'', ''[[Autoba silicula]]''
*grasshoppers: ''[[Diabolocatantops axillaris]]'', ''[[Hieroglyphus banian]]'', ''[[Hieroglyphus daganensis]]'', ''[[Oedaleus senegalensis]]'', and ''[[Schistocerca gregaria]]''

;Sucking pests
*bugs: ''[[Blissus leucopterus]]'', ''[[Nysius niger]]''
*hoppers: ''[[Cicadulina mbila]]'', ''[[Cicadulina storeyi]]'', and ''[[Pyrilla perpusilla]]''
*aphids: ''[[Rhopalosiphum maidis]]'', ''[[Sitobion miscanthi]]'', and ''[[Hyalopterus pruni]]''

;Other pests
*beetle ''[[Chiloloba acuta]]''
*millet midge ''[[Geromyia penniseti]]''
*''[[Euproctis]]'' spp., ''[[Orvasca subnotata]]'', and ''[[Helicoverpa armigera]]''
*''[[Spodoptera exempta]]'', ''[[Spilarctia obliqua]]'', ''[[Pachnoda interrupta]]'', ''[[Phyllophaga]]'' spp., ''[[Thrips hawaiiensis]]'', ''[[Myllocerus]]'' spp., and ''[[Peregrinus maidis]]''
*''[[Holotrichia consanguinea]]'' and ''[[Holotrichia serrata]]''

===Africa===
The larvae of several insect species, primarily belonging to the orders [[Coleoptera]], [[Lepidoptera]], [[Diptera]], and [[Hemiptera]], as well as [[Orthoptera]] adults, are persistent pearl millet pests in the [[Sahel]].<ref>S. Krall, O. Youm, and S. A. Kogo. ''[http://ispi-lit.cirad.fr/text/Krall95a.htm Panicle insect pest damage and yield loss in pearl millet]''.</ref><ref>Jago, N. D. 1993. ''Millet pests of the Sahel: biology, monitoring and control''. Chatham UK: Natural Resources Institute. 66 pp. {{ISBN|0-85954-349-8}}.</ref><ref>Matthews, M. and N. D. Jago. 1993. ''Millet pests of the Sahel: an identification guide''. Chatham UK: Natural Resources Institute. (80 p.) {{ISBN|0-85954-331-5}}.</ref> The following pest species are reported for northern Mali.<ref name=insects>{{cite web| last=Heath |first=Jeffrey |author-link=Jeffrey Heath |title=Guide to insects, arthropods, and molluscs of northern Dogon country |url=https://dogonlanguages.org/sources/insectarthropodmolluscnotesmalijh}}</ref><ref>Ruparao T. Gahukar, Gadi V. P. Reddy. Management of Economically Important Insect Pests of Millet. ''Journal of Integrated Pest Management'' (2019) 10(1): 28; 1–10 https://doi.org/10.1093/jipm/pmz026</ref>

*''[[Coniesta ignefusalis]]'' (pearl millet stem-borer; Lepidoptera, [[Crambidae]]) attacks pearl millet, and also sorghum and maize, especially in the Sahel. It is the main pearl millet pest in [[Senegal]].
*''[[Heliocheilus albipunctella]]'' (pearl millet head-miner; Lepidoptera, [[Noctuidae]]) attacks pearl millet. The larvae bore in a spiral path, destroying florets or grain.
*''[[Geromyia penniseti]]'' (millet grain midge): The larvae eat the developing grain and form white pupal cases attached to the tips of spikelets. Reported losses in Senegal are as high as 90 percent.
*''[[Pachnoda interrupta]]'' (millet beetle)
*''[[Psalydolytta fusca]]'' and ''[[Psalydolytta vestita]]'' (pearl millet blister beetle; Coleoptera, [[Meloidae]]) attack pearl millet. They are major millet pests in Mali.
*''[[Rhinyptia infuscata]]'' (Scarabaeidae, Rutelinae, [[Anomalini]]) is a nocturnal beetle, recorded as a locally important pest on millet flowers in [[Niger]]. Farmers in Niger often fight the species using fires set at night. It is also reported as sorghum pest in [[Senegal]], and as a pest on maize, where the larvae attack the roots.
*''[[Sesamia calamistis]]'' (pink stem borer), especially in lowland forests. This species and the sugarcane borer (''[[Eldana saccharina]]'') are the primary pests of the pearl millet in [[Ivory Coast]].<ref>Bekoye, B. M., and A. Dadie. 2015. Evaluation des pertes en grains de mil dues aux insectes. Eur. Sci. J. 11: 266–275.</ref>
*[[gall midge]]s (Diptera, [[Cecidomyiidae]]): millet grain midge (''[[Geromyia penniseti]]''), sorghum midge (''[[Contarinia sorghicola]]''), and African rice gall midge (''[[Orseolia oryzivora]]'').
*''[[Dysdercus volkeri]]'' (cotton-stainer; Hemiptera, [[Pyrrhocoridae]]) attacks flowers.

Grasshoppers that frequently attack millets in the [[Dogon country]] of Mali are ''[[Oedaleus senegalensis]]'', ''[[Kraussaria angulifera]]'', ''[[Cataloipus cymbiferus]]'', and ''[[Diabolocatantops axillaris]]''.<ref name=insects/>

In northern Ghana, ''[[Poophilus costalis]]'' (spittle bug) is reported as a millet pest, as well as ''[[Dysdercus volkeri]]'', ''[[Heliocheilus albipunctella]]'', ''[[Coniesta ignefusalis]]'', and caterpillars of ''[[Amsacta moloneyi]]'' and ''[[Helicoverpa armigera]]''.<ref>Tanzubil, Paul B. & Emmanuel A. Yakubu (1997). Insect pests of millet in Northern Ghana. 1. Farmers' perceptions and damage potential. ''International Journal of Pest Management'', 43:2, 133-136. {{doi|10.1080/096708797228825}}</ref>

In northern Nigeria, heavy infestations of ''[[Hycleus]]'' species, including ''[[Hycleus terminatus]]'' (syn. ''[[Mylabris afzelli]]''), ''[[Hycleus fimbriatus]]'' (syn. ''[[Mylabris fimbriatus]]''), ''[[Hycleus hermanniae]]'' (syn. ''[[Coryna hermanniae]]''), and ''[[Hycleus chevrolati]]'' (syn. ''[[Coryna chevrolati]]''), have affected early plantings of pearl millet crops.<ref>Lale, N. E. S., and B. M. Sastawa. 2000. Evaluation of host plant resistance, sowing date modification and intercropping as methods for the control of ''Mylabris'' and ''Coryna'' species (Coleoptera: Meloidae) infesting pearl millet in the Nigerian Sudan savanna. ''J. Arid Environ.'' 46: 263–280.</ref>

===Other regions===
In South India, pests include the shoot fly ''[[Atherigona approximata]]''.<ref>Natarajan, V. S., V. D. G. Raja, and S. Anavardham. 1973. Extent of damage caused by shoot fly (''Atherigona approximate'') on bajra hybrid. ''Madras Agric. J.'' 60: 584–585.</ref>

In North America, regular pests include the chinch bug ''[[Blissus leucopterus]]''.<ref>Buntin, G. D., X. Ni, and J. P. Wilson. 2007. Chinch bug control in pearl millet for grain production. Arthropod. Manag. Tests 32: F41.</ref><ref>Ni, X., J. P. Wilson, J. A. Rajewski, G. D. Buntin, and I. Dweikat. 2007. Field screening of pearl millet for chinch bug (Heteroptera: Blissidae) resistance. ''J. Entomol. Sci.'' 42: 467–480.</ref><ref>Rajewski, J. A., X. Ni, J. P. Wilson, and I. Dweikat. 2009. Evaluation of resistance to chinch bug in pearl millet in temperate and subtropical environments.</ref><ref>Starks, K. J., A. J. Cassady, O. G. Merkle, and D. Boozaya-Angoon. 1982. Chinch bug resistance in pearl millet. ''J. Econ. Entomol.'' 75: 337–339.</ref><ref>Wilson, J. P., B. Ouendeba, and W. W. Hanna. 2008. Diallel analysis of chinch bug damage to pearl millet. ''International Sorghum Millets Newsletter'' 41: 78–79.</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Checking pearl millet crop.jpg|A scientist in [[Zimbabwe]] checks a pearl millet crop
File:Mahangu poundin.jpg|Mahangu pounding in [[Namibia]]
File:Mahangu pounding.jpg|Mahangu pounding in [[Namibia]]
File:Making dough from flour (10692692875).jpg|This flour mill in [[Tanzania]] mills pearl millet.
</gallery>

==References==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name=powo>{{cite web |title=''Cenchrus americanus'' (L.) Morrone|url=http://plantsoftheworldonline.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:77105978-1 |website=Plants of the World Online |publisher=[[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]] |access-date=15 November 2020}}</ref>
}}

==Further reading==
*[http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=2305&page=77 ''Lost Crops of Africa: Volume I: Grains'', Chapters 4-6] - released by the National Research Council in 1996

{{Taxonbar|from=Q654332}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Cenchrus]]
[[Category:Grasses of Africa]]
[[Category:Millets]]
[[Category:Crops originating from Africa]]
[[Category:Fodder]]
[[Category:Sahel]]
[[Category:Cereals]]

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