Indian classical music

2022-04-17T15:42:42Z

2603:6011:5100:7D:1D5D:B317:7A9F:96B1: robot: Update article

{{short description|Classical music from the Indian subcontinent}}
{{Hatnote|Indian classical music is one of the many forms of art music that have their roots in particular regional cultures. For other "classical" and art music traditions, see [[List of classical and art music traditions]].}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2013}}
{{Indian classical music}}
{{Indian music|state=collapsed}}

'''Indian classical music''' is the [[art music|classical music]] of the [[Indian subcontinent]].{{sfn|Nettl et al.|1998|pp=573–574}} It has two major traditions: the North Indian classical music known as ''[[Hindustani classical music|Hindustani]]'' and the South Indian expression known as ''[[Carnatic classical music|Carnatic]]''.{{Sfn|Sorrell|Narayan|1980|pp=3–4}} These traditions were not distinct until about the 15th century. During the period of Mughal rule of the Indian subcontinent, the traditions separated and evolved into distinct forms. Hindustani music emphasizes improvisation and exploration of all aspects of a [[raga]], while Carnatic performances tend to be short composition-based.{{Sfn|Sorrell|Narayan|1980|pp=3–4}} However, the two systems continue to have more common features than differences.{{Sfn|Sorrell|Narayan|1980|pp=4–5}}

The roots of the classical music of India are found in the [[Vedas|Vedic]] literature of [[Hinduism]] and the ancient ''[[Natyashastra]]'', the classic Sanskrit text on performing arts by [[Bharata Muni]].{{Sfn|Rowell|2015|pp=9–10, 59–61}}<ref name="Beck1995p107">{{harvnb|Beck|2012|pages=107–108}}, Quote: "The tradition of Indian classical music and dance known as ''Sangeeta'' is fundamentally rooted in the sonic and musical dimensions of the Vedas (Sama veda), Upanishads and the Agamas, such that Indian music has been nearly always religious in character".</ref> The 13th century Sanskrit text ''Sangeeta-Ratnakara'' of [[Sarangadeva]] is regarded as the definitive text by both the [[Hindustani music]] and the [[Carnatic music]] traditions.<ref name=bod116>{{cite book|author=Rens Bod|title=A New History of the Humanities: The Search for Principles and Patterns from Antiquity to the Present|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=321oAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA116| year=2013|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-164294-4|page=116}}</ref><ref name="MasseyMassey1996">{{cite book|author1=Reginald Massey|author2=Jamila Massey|author2-link=Jamila Massey|title=The Music Of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yySNDP9XVggC&pg=PA42|access-date=23 July 2013|year= 1996|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-332-8|page=42}}</ref>

Indian classical music has two foundational elements, ''[[raga]]'' and ''[[Tala (music)|tala]]''. The ''raga'', based on a varied repertoire of ''[[swara]]'' (notes including microtones), forms the fabric of a deeply intricate melodic structure, while the ''tala'' measures the time cycle.{{Sfn|Sorrell|Narayan|1980|pp=1–3}} The ''raga'' gives an artist a palette to build the melody from sounds, while the ''tala'' provides them with a creative framework for rhythmic improvisation using time.{{Sfn|Nettl|2010}}<ref>{{cite book|author=James B. Robinson|title=Hinduism| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GmQ_yp4vVhsC&pg=PA104| year=2009|publisher =Infobase Publishing| isbn=978-1-4381-0641-0|pages=104–106}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Vijaya Moorthy|title=Romance of the Raga|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2s2xJetsy0wC |year=2001|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-382-3|pages=45–48, 53, 56–58}}</ref> In Indian classical music the space between the notes is often more important than the notes themselves, and it traditionally eschews Western classical concepts such as [[harmony]], counterpoint, chords, or modulation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.austinifa.org/AboutIndianMusic/carnaticmusic.htm|title=Austin IFA : Introduction to Carnatic Music|website=www.austinifa.org|access-date=30 July 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ravishankar.org/-music.html|title=Music|website=Ravi Shankar|access-date=30 July 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.trinity.nottingham.sch.uk/music/gcse/indianClassicalAndGamelan.aspx|title= Music (GCSE – Indian music and Gamelan)|website=www.trinity.nottingham.sch.uk|access-date=30 July 2018}}</ref>

==History==
The root of music in ancient India are found in the Vedic literature of Hinduism. The earliest Indian thought combined three arts, syllabic recital (''vadya''), melos (''gita'') and dance (''nrtta'').{{Sfn|Rowell|2015|p=9}} As these fields developed, ''sangeeta'' became a distinct genre of art, in a form equivalent to contemporary music. This likely occurred before the time of [[Yāska]] (c. 500 BCE), since he includes these terms in his [[nirukta]] studies, one of the six [[Vedanga]] of ancient Indian tradition. Some of the ancient texts of Hinduism such as the ''[[Samaveda]]'' (c. 1000 BCE) are structured entirely to melodic themes,<ref name="Thompson1694">{{cite book|author=William Forde Thompson|title =Music in the Social and Behavioral Sciences: An Encyclopedia|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=kpmlBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT1694| year=2014 |publisher=Sage Publications|isbn=978-1-4833-6558-9|pages=1693–1694}}</ref>{{Sfn|Beck|1993|pages=107–109, Quote: "it is generally agreed that Indian music indeed owes its beginnings to the chanting of the ''Sama–Veda'', the vast collection of verses (Sama), many from the Rig–veda itself, set to melody and sung by singer–priests known as udgata".}} it is sections of ''[[Rigveda]]'' set to music.<ref>Frits Staal (2009), Discovering the Vedas: Origins, Mantras, Rituals, Insights, Penguin, {{ISBN|978-0-14-309986-4}}, pp. 4–5</ref>

The ''Samaveda'' is organized into two formats. One part is based on the musical meter, another by the aim of the rituals.{{Sfn|Rowell|2015|pp=59–61}} The text is written with embedded coding, where ''swaras'' (octave notes) are either shown above or within the text, or the verse is written into ''parvans'' (knot or member); in simple words, this embedded code of swaras is like the skeleton of the song. The swaras have about 12 different forms and different combinations of these swaras are made to sit under the names of different ragas. The specific code of a song clearly tells us what combination of swaras are present in a specific song. The lyrical part of the song is called "sahityam" and sahityam is just like singing the swaras altogether but using the lyrics of the song. The code in the form of swaras have even the notation of which note to be sung high and which one low. The hymns of ''Samaveda'' contain melodic content, form, rhythm and metric organization.{{Sfn|Rowell|2015|pp=59–61}} This structure is, however, not unique or limited to ''Samaveda''. The ''Rigveda'' embeds the musical meter too, without the kind of elaboration found in the ''Samaveda''. For example, the [[Gayatri mantra]] contains three metric lines of exactly eight syllables, with an embedded ternary rhythm.{{Sfn|Rowell|2015|pp=62–63}}

[[File:Five Celestial Musicians LACMA AC1992.254.1-.5.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Five Gandharvas (celestial musicians) from 4th–5th century CE, northwest South Asia, carrying the four types of musical instruments. Gandharvas are discussed in Vedic era literature.{{Sfn|Rowell|2015|pp=11–14}}]]
In the ancient traditions of Hinduism, two musical genre appeared, namely ''Gandharva'' (formal, composed, ceremonial music) and ''Gana'' (informal, improvised, entertainment music).{{Sfn|Rowell|2015|pp=11–12}} The ''Gandharva'' music also implied celestial, divine associations, while the ''Gana'' also implied singing.{{Sfn|Rowell|2015|pp=11–12}} The Vedic Sanskrit musical tradition had spread widely in the Indian subcontinent, and according to Rowell, the ancient Tamil classics make it "abundantly clear that a cultivated musical tradition existed in South India as early as the last few pre-Christian centuries".{{Sfn|Rowell|2015|pp=12–13}}

The classic Sanskrit text ''[[Natya Shastra]]'' is at the foundation of the numerous classical music and dance traditions of India. Before ''Natyashastra'' was finalized, the ancient Indian traditions had classified musical instruments into four groups based on their acoustic principle (how they work, rather than the material they are made of) for example flute which works with gracious in and out flow of air.{{Sfn|Rowell|2015|pp=13–14}} These four categories are accepted as given and are four separate chapters in the ''Natyashastra'', one each on stringed instruments (chordophones), hollow instruments (aerophones), solid instruments (idiophones), and covered instruments (membranophones).{{Sfn|Rowell|2015|pp=13–14}} Of these, states Rowell, the idiophone in the form of "small bronze cymbals" were used for ''tala''. Almost the entire chapter of ''Natyashastra'' on idiophones, by Bharata, is a theoretical treatise on the system of ''tala''.{{Sfn|Rowell|2015|p=14}} Time keeping with idiophones was considered a separate function than that of percussion (membranophones), in the early Indian thought on music theory.{{Sfn|Rowell|2015|p=14}}

The early 13th century Sanskrit text ''[[Sangita Ratnakara|Sangitaratnakara]]'' (literally, "Ocean of Music and Dance"), by Sarngadeva patronized by King Sighana of the Yadava dynasty in [[Maharashtra]], mentions and discusses ''ragas'' and ''talas''.<ref>S.S. Sastri (1943), [https://archive.org/stream/SangitaRatnakara/SangitaRatnakaraChapter1#page/n7/mode/2up Sangitaratnakara of Sarngadeva], Adyar Library Press, {{ISBN|0-8356-7330-8}}, pp. v–vi, ix–x (English), for ''talas'' discussion see pp. 169–274 (Sanskrit)</ref> He identifies seven ''tala'' families, then subdivides them into rhythmic ratios, presenting a methodology for improvization and composition that continues to inspire modern era Indian musicians.<ref name="Bod2013p116"/> ''Sangitaratnakara'' is one of the most complete historic medieval era Hindu treatises on this subject that has survived into the modern era, that relates to the structure, technique and reasoning behind ''ragas'' and ''talas''.{{Sfn|Rowell|2015|pp=12–14}}<ref name="Bod2013p116">{{cite book|author=Rens Bod|title=A New History of the Humanities: The Search for Principles and Patterns from Antiquity to the Present |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=321oAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA116 |year=2013|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-164294-4|page=116}}</ref>

The centrality and significance of music in ancient and early medieval India is also expressed in numerous temple and shrine [[relief]]s, in Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism, such as through the carving of musicians with cymbals at the fifth century Pavaya temple sculpture near [[Gwalior]],{{sfn|Nettl et al.|1998|p=299}} and the [[Ellora Caves]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Lisa Owen|title=Carving Devotion in the Jain Caves at Ellora|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vHK2WE8xAzYC&pg=PA76 |year= 2012| publisher=Brill Academic|isbn=978-90-04-20629-8|pages=76–77}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Madhukar Keshav Dhavalikar|title= Ellora|url=https://archive.org/details/ellora0000dhav|url-access=registration| year=2003|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-565458-5|page=[https://archive.org/details/ellora0000dhav/page/35 35]}}</ref>

===Texts===
The post-Vedic era historical literature relating to Indian classical music has been extensive. The ancient and medieval texts are primarily in Sanskrit (Hinduism), but major reviews of music theory, instruments and practice were also composed in regional languages such as Braj, Kannada, Odia, Pali (Buddhism), Prakrit (Jainism), Tamil and Telugu.{{Sfn|Gautam|1993|pp=1–10}} While numerous manuscripts have survived into the modern era, many original works on Indian music are believed to be lost, and are known to have existed only because they are quoted and discussed in other manuscripts on classical Indian music.{{Sfn|Gautam|1993|pp=1–10}}{{sfn|Nettl et al.|1998|pp=37–46}} Many of the encyclopedic [[Purana]]s contain large chapters on music theory and instruments, such as the ''Bhagavata Purana'', the ''Markandeya Purana'', the ''Vayu Purana'', the ''Linga Purana'', and the ''Visnudharmottara Purana''.{{Sfn|Te Nijenhuis|1974|pp=3–4}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Ludo Rocher|author-link=Ludo Rocher|title=The kakkas Purāṇas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n0-4RJh5FgoC&pg=PA151|year=1986|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-02522-5|pages=151–152}}</ref><ref>A. A. Bake (1962), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/24646645 Review: Textes des Purāṇas sur la Théorie musicale by Alain Daniélou, N. R. Bhatt], ''Indo-Iranian Journal'', BRILL Academic, Volume 5, Number 2 (1961–62), pp. 157–160</ref>

The most cited and influential among these texts are the ''Sama Veda'', ''[[Natya shastra]]'' (classic treatise on music theory, Gandharva), ''[[Dattilam]]'', ''[[Brihaddeshi|Brihaddesi]]'' (treatise on regional classical music forms), and ''[[Sangita Ratnakara]]'' (definitive text for Carnatic and Hindustani traditions).<ref name=bod116/>{{Sfn|Gautam|1993|pp=1–10}}{{Sfn|Randel|2003|p=813}} Most historic music theory texts have been by Hindu scholars. Some classical music texts were also composed by Buddhists and Jain scholars, and in 16th century by Muslim scholars. These are listed in the attached table.

{| class="wikitable" align=center style = " background: transparent; "
|-
| colspan=5 |
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed"
! colspan=5 style="background: #ffcd66;" | Classical Indian music texts{{Sfn|Gautam|1993|pp=1–10}}
|-style="text-align: center;"
| style="background: #ffcd66;" | Title
| Author
| Century
| Religion
| Notability{{Sfn|Gautam|1993|pp=1–10}}
|-
| ''Samaveda''
| Vyasa
| c. 1000 BCE
| [[Hinduism]]
| Scripture set to music
|-
| ''Dattilam''
| Dattila
| c. 4th century BCE-2nd century CE
| [[Hinduism]]
| The text marks the transition from the sama-gayan (ritual chants), to gandharva music
|-
| ''Natyasastra''
| Bharata Muni
| c. 200 BCE–200 CE
| Hinduism
| Oldest surviving complete Hindu text on music theory and performance arts
|-
| (Lost texts)
| Vishakhila, Sardula, Visnudharmottara
| c. 300–500 CE
| Hinduism
| Cited by medieval authors
|-
| (Lost text)
| Rahul
| c. 5th century CE
| [[Buddhism]]
| Cited by medieval authors
|-
| ''Brihaddesi''
| Matanga
| c. 800–900 CE
| Hinduism
| Survives in parts, theory of regional music forms (entertainment), Murchana system
|-
| ''Abhinavabharati''
| Abhinavagupta
| c. 900–1000 CE
| Hinduism
| Theory of rasa{{Sfn| Schwartz|2004}}
|-
| ''Sarasvati Hridyalankara''
| Nanyadeva
| c. 1080 CE
| Hinduism
| Music theory, appendix on Natyashastra bhasya
|-
| ''Sangita Sudhakara''
| Haripala
| c. 1175 CE
| Hinduism
|
|-
| ''Abhilasitartha Cintamani''
| Somesvara
| c. 12th century CE
| Hinduism
| Survives in parts, Murchana system, ragas
|-
| ''Sangita Ratnavali''
| Somabhupala
| c. 1180 CE
| Hinduism
|
|-
| ''Sangita Samayasara''
| Parsvadeva
| c. 1200 CE
| Hinduism
| Theory of gamakas
|-
| ''Sangita Ratnakara''
| Sarngadeva
| c. 1230 CE
| Hinduism
| Systematizes raga, prakirnaka, prabandha, tala, vadya and nritya;{{Sfn|Sastri|1943}} Definitive text to Carnatic and Hindustani classical music
|-
| ''Sringarahara''
| Raja Sakambhari
| c. 1300 CE
| Hinduism
| Directory of ancient ragas, 89 derivative ragas and 120 talas
|-
| ''Rasatatvasamuccaya''
| Allaraja
| c. 1300 CE
| Hinduism
| Four chapters to classical music
|-
| ''Sangitopanisadasara''
| Suddhakalasa
| c. 1350 CE
| [[Jainism]]
| Music theory, includes rare talas
|-
| ''Balabodhan''
| unknown
| c. 1350 CE
| Hinduism
| Review and quotes music texts believed to be lost
|-
| ''Visvapradip''
| Bhuvanananda
| c. 1350 CE
| Hinduism
| A major review on raga, tala, musical instruments
|-
| ''Sangitacandra''
| Allaraja
| c. 14th century CE
| Hinduism
| Commented by 17th century [[Nepal]]ese king Jyotirmal
|-
| ''Sangita Dipika''
| Madhava Bhatta
| c. 1400 CE
| Hinduism
| Raga-ragini system
|-
| ''Sangita Raj''
| Kumbhakarna
| c. 1449 CE
| Hinduism
| A review
|-
| ''Svaramelakalanidhi''
| Ramamatya
| c. 16th century CE
| Hinduism
| Carnatic music, mela system
|-
| ''Raga Mala'', ''Raga Manjari'', ''Sadraga Candrodaya''
| Pundarika Vittala
| c. 16th century CE
| Hinduism
| Carnatic music, mentions [[Persian traditional music|Persian]] maqam
|-
| ''Lahjat-i Sikandar Shahi''
| Umar Sama Yahya
| c. 16th century CE
| [[Islam]]
| Hindustani music, includes a review of Natya Shastra and Sangita Ratnakara{{Sfn|Te Nijenhuis|1974|p=7}}
|-
| ''Rasakaumudi''
| Srikantha
| c. 16th century CE
| Jainism
| A review of music systems
|-
| ''Sangita Sudha''
| Raghunatha Thanjavur
| c. 1620 CE
| Hinduism
| Carnatic, Three languages, musical instruments, 264 ragas, 50 popular ragas
|-
| ''Sangita Cudamani''
| Govinda
| c. 1680 CE
| Hinduism
| Carnatic, 72 melakartas, musical instruments innovations
|}
|-
|}

==Major traditions==
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The classical music tradition of the ancient and medieval Indian subcontinent (modern Bangladesh, India, Pakistan) were a generally integrated system through the 14th century, after which the socio-political turmoil of the [[Delhi Sultanate]] era isolated the north from the south. The music traditions of the North and South India were not considered distinct until about the 16th century, but after that the traditions acquired distinct forms.{{Sfn|Sorrell|Narayan|1980|pp=3–4}} North Indian classical music is called ''Hindustani'', while the South Indian expression is called ''Carnatic'' (sometimes spelled as ''Karnatic''). According to [[Nazir Ali Jairazbhoy]], the North Indian tradition acquired its modern form after the 14th or the 15th century.{{Sfn|Jairazbhoy|1995|pages=16–17}}

Indian classical music has historically adopted and evolved with many regional styles, such as the Bengali classical tradition. This openness to ideas led to assimilation of regional folk innovations, as well as influences that arrived from outside the subcontinent. For example, Hindustani music assimilated Arabian and Persian influences.{{Sfn|Te Nijenhuis|1974|p=80}} This assimilation of ideas was upon the ancient classical foundations such as ''raga'', ''tala'', ''matras'' as well as the musical instruments. For example, the Persian ''Rāk'' is probably a pronunciation of ''Raga''. According to Hormoz Farhat, ''Rāk'' has no meaning in modern Persian language, and the concept of ''raga'' is unknown in Persia.<ref>{{cite book|author=Hormoz Farhat|title=The Dastgah Concept in Persian Music|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NiMhWnYDuQMC&pg=PA97|year=2004|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-54206-7|pages=97–99}}</ref>

===Carnatic music===
{{Main|Carnatic Music}}
[[Purandara Dasa]] (1484–1564) was a Hindu composer and musicologist who lived in [[Hampi]] of the [[Vijayanagara Empire]].<ref name="Rao2015p70"/><ref name="Swain2016p228">{{cite book|author=Joseph P. Swain|title=Historical Dictionary of Sacred Music|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ad7dDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA228 |year=2016|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1-4422-6463-2|pages=228–229}}</ref> He is considered ''Pithamaha'' (literally, "grandfather") of the Carnatic music. Purandara Dasa was a monk and a devotee of the Hindu god [[Krishna]] (Vishnu, [[Vittal]] avatar).<ref name="Rao2015p70">{{cite book|author1=Ramesh N. Rao|author2=Avinash Thombre|title=Intercultural Communication: The Indian Context|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yfCICwAAQBAJ&pg=PT70|year=2015|publisher=Sage Publications|isbn=978-93-5150-507-5|pages=69–70}}</ref> He systematised classical Indian music theory and developed exercises for musicians to learn and perfect their art. He travelled widely sharing and teaching his ideas, and influenced numerous South Indian and Maharashtra [[Bhakti movement]] musicians.<ref name="Smith1982p153"/> These exercises, his teachings about ''raga'', and his systematic methodology called ''Suladi Sapta Tala'' (literally, "primordial seven talas") remains in use in contemporary times.<ref name="Swain2016p228"/>{{sfn|Nettl et al.|1998|pp=139–141}} The efforts of [[Purandara Dasa]] in the 16th century began the Carnatic style of Indian classical music.<ref name="Smith1982p153">{{cite book|author=Bardwell L. Smith|title=Hinduism: New Essays in the History of Religions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IY8fAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA153 |year=1982|publisher=Brill Academic |isbn=978-90-04-06788-2|pages=153–154}}</ref>

[[File:Saraswati.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|[[Saraswati]] is the goddess of music and knowledge in the Indian tradition.]]
Carnatic music, from [[South India]], tends to be more rhythmically intensive and structured than Hindustani music. Examples of this are the logical classification of [[raga]]s into [[melakarta]]s, and the use of fixed compositions similar to Western classical music. Carnatic raga elaborations are generally much faster in tempo and shorter than their equivalents in Hindustani music. In addition, accompanists have a much larger role in Carnatic concerts than in Hindustani concerts. Today's typical concert structure was put in place by the vocalist [[Ariyakudi Ramanuja Iyengar]]. The opening piece is called a [[varnam]], and is a warm-up for the musicians. A devotion and a request for a blessing follows, then a series of interchanges between [[ragam]]s (unmetered melody) and [[Tanam]] (the ornamentation within a melorhythmic cycle, equivalent to the ''[[Jor (music)|jor]]''). This is intermixed with [[hymn]]s called [[krithi]]s. The [[pallavi]] or theme from the raga then follows. Carnatic pieces also have notated lyrical poems that are reproduced as such, possibly with embellishments and treatments according to the performer's ideology, referred to as Manodharmam.{{citation needed|date=December 2016}}

Primary themes include worship, descriptions of temples, philosophy, and nayaka-nayika (Sanskrit "hero-heroine") themes. [[Tyagaraja]] (1759–1847), [[Muthuswami Dikshitar]] (1776–1827) and [[Syama Sastri]] (1762–1827) have been the important historic scholars of Carnatic music. According to [[Eleanor Zelliot]], Tyagaraja is known in the Carnatic tradition as one of its greatest composers, and he reverentially acknowledged the influence of Purandara Dasa.<ref name="Smith1982p153"/>

A common belief in South India is that Carnatic music represents a more ancient approach to classical music, whereas Hindustani music has evolved by external influences.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The rāgas of Northern Indian music|last=Daniélou|first=Alan|date=2014|publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal|isbn=978-81-215-0225-2|location=New Delhi|page=5|oclc=39028809}}</ref>

===Hindustani music===
{{Main|Hindustani classical music}}
[[File:Tansen of Gwalior. (11.8x6.7cm) Mughal. 1585-90. National Museum, New Delhi..jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|The 16th century musician [[Tansen]], who about the age of 60 joined the Mughal [[Akbar]] court. For many Hindustani music gharanas (schools), he is their founder.]]
It is unclear when the process of differentiation of Hindustani music started. The process may have started in the 14th century courts of the Delhi Sultans. However, according to Jairazbhoy, the North Indian tradition likely acquired its modern form after the 14th or after the 15th century.{{Sfn|Jairazbhoy|1995|pages=15–17}} The development of Hindustani music reached a peak during the reign of [[Akbar]]. During this 16th century period, [[Tansen]] studied music and introduced musical innovations, for about the first sixty years of his life with patronage of the Hindu king Ram Chand of [[Gwalior]], and thereafter performed at the Muslim court of Akbar.<ref name="Wade1998p108">{{cite book|author=Bonnie C. Wade|title=Imaging Sound: An Ethnomusicological Study of Music, Art, and Culture in Mughal India|url=https://archive.org/details/imagingsoundethn0000wade|url-access=registration|year=1998|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-86841-7|pages=[https://archive.org/details/imagingsoundethn0000wade/page/108 108]–114}}</ref><ref name="Babineau1979p54">{{cite book|author=Edmour J. Babineau|title=Love of God and Social Duty in the Rāmcaritmānas|url=https://archive.org/details/loveofgodsociald0000babi|url-access=registration|year=1979|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-0-89684-050-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/loveofgodsociald0000babi/page/54 54]}}</ref> Many musicians consider Tansen as the founder of Hindustani music.<ref>{{cite book|author=Bruno Nettl|title=Heartland Excursions: Ethnomusicological Reflections on Schools of Music|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wZZ1_pQJnKEC&pg=PA68 |year=1995|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=978-0-252-06468-5|page=68}}, Quote: "This is a recital of the identities of their teachers, perhaps the teachers' own teachers and association with gharanas, or schools, of musicianship, and often an attempt to link the main performer of the day through student-teacher genealogies to one of the early great figures of music, such as the revered Tansen, the mythical culture hero and founder of Hindustani music".</ref>

Tansen's style and innovations inspired many, and many modern ''gharanas'' (Hindustani music teaching houses) link themselves to his lineage.<ref name=stanton125>{{cite book|author1=Andrea L. Stanton|author2=Edward Ramsamy|author3=Peter J. Seybolt|display-authors=etal|title=Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nVN2AwAAQBAJ |year=2012|publisher=Sage Publications|isbn=978-1-4522-6662-6|page=125}}</ref> The Muslim courts discouraged Sanskrit, and encouraged technical music. Such constraints led Hindustani music to evolve in a different way than Carnatic music.<ref name=stanton125/><ref name="Basham1975p212">{{cite book|author=Nazir Ali Jairazbhoy|editor=Arthur Llewellyn Basham|title=A Cultural History Of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=juU8AAAAMAAJ|year=1975|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-821914-9|pages=212–215}}</ref>

Hindustani music style is mainly found in [[North India]], Pakistan and Bangladesh. It exists in four major forms: [[Dhrupad]], [[Khyal]] (or Khayal), [[Tarana]], and the semi-classical [[Thumri]].{{Sfn|Caudhurī|2000|p=152}} Dhrupad is ancient, Khyal evolved from it, Thumri evolved from Khyal.{{Sfn|Te Nijenhuis|1974|pp=80–81}} There are three major schools of Thumri: Lucknow gharana, Banaras gharana and Punjabi gharana. These weave in folk music innovations.{{Sfn|Caudhurī|2000|p=152}} Tappa is the most folksy, one which likely existed in Rajasthan and Punjab region before it was systematized and integrated into classical music structure. It became popular, with the Bengali musicians developing their own Tappa.{{Sfn|Caudhurī|2000|p=146}}

Khyal is the modern form of Hindustani music, and the term literally means "imagination". It is significant because it was the template for [[Sufi music]]ians among the [[Islam in India|Islamic community of India]], and ''[[Qawwal]]s'' sang their folk songs in the Khyal format.{{Sfn|Caudhurī|2000|pp=54–55}}

Dhrupad (or Dhruvapad), the ancient form described in the Hindu text ''Natyashastra'',{{Sfn|Te Nijenhuis|1974|pp=81–82}} is one of the core forms of classical music found all over the Indian subcontinent. The word comes from ''Dhruva'' which means immovable and permanent.{{Sfn|Caudhurī|2000|pp=33–34}}{{Sfn|Te Nijenhuis|1974|pp=80–81}}

A Dhrupad has at least four stanzas, called Sthayi (or Asthayi), Antara, Sanchari and Abhoga. The Sthayi part is a melody that uses the middle octave's first tetrachord and the lower octave notes.{{Sfn|Te Nijenhuis|1974|pp=80–81}} The Antara part uses the middle octave's second tetrachord and the higher octave notes.{{Sfn|Te Nijenhuis|1974|pp=80–81}} The Sanchari part is the development phase, which builds using parts of Sthayi and Antara already played, and it uses melodic material built with all the three octave notes.{{Sfn|Te Nijenhuis|1974|pp=80–81}} The Abhoga is the concluding section, that brings the listener back to the familiar starting point of Sthayi, albeit with rhythmic variations, with diminished notes like a gentle goodbye, that are ideally mathematical fractions such as ''dagun'' (half), ''tigun'' (third) or ''chaugun'' (fourth).{{Sfn|Te Nijenhuis|1974|pp=80–82}} Sometimes a fifth stanza called Bhoga is included. Though usually related to philosophical or [[Bhakti]] (emotional devotion to a god or goddess) themes, some Dhrupads were composed to praise kings.{{Sfn|Caudhurī|2000|pp=33–34}}{{Sfn|Te Nijenhuis|1974|pp=80–82}}

Improvisation is of central importance to Hindustani music, and each ''gharana'' (school tradition) has developed its own techniques. At its core, it starts with a standard composition (bandish), then expands it in a process called ''vistar''. The improvisation methods have ancient roots, and one of the more common techniques is called ''[[Alap]]'', which is followed by the ''[[Jor (music)|Jor]]'' and ''[[Jhala]]''. The ''Alap'' explores possible tonal combinations among other things, ''Jor'' explores speed or tempo (faster), while ''Jhala'' explores complex combinations like a fishnet of strokes while keeping the beat patterns.{{sfn|Nettl et al.|1998|pp=198–199}} As with [[Carnatic music]], Hindustani music has assimilated various folk tunes. For example, ragas such as Kafi and Jaijaiwanti are based on folk tunes.{{citation needed|date=December 2016}}

====Persian and Arab influences====
Hindustani music has had Arab and Persian music influences, including the creation of new ragas and the development of instruments such as the sitar and sarod.{{Sfn|Te Nijenhuis|1974|p=80}} The nature of these influences are unclear. Scholars have attempted to study Arabic ''[[Arabic maqam|maqam]]'' (also spelled ''makam'') of Arabian peninsula, Turkey and northern Africa, and ''[[dastgah]]'' of Iran, to discern the nature and extent.<ref name="Lewis2016p176"/><ref name="Hast1999p124">{{cite book|author1=Dorothea E. Hast|author2=James R. Cowdery|author3=Stanley Arnold Scott|title=Exploring the World of Music |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=00CwGRwv6XQC&pg=PA124|year=1999|publisher=Kendall/Hunt|isbn=978-0-7872-7154-1|pages=124–126}}</ref> Through the colonial era and until the 1960s, the attempt was to theoretically study ''ragas'' and ''maqams'' and suggested commonalities. Later comparative musicology studies, states Bruno Nettl – a professor of Music, have found the similarities between classical Indian music and European music as well, raising the question about the point of similarities and of departures between the different world music systems.<ref name="Lewis2016p176">{{cite book|author=Bruno Nettl|editor=George E. Lewis and Benjamin Piekut|title=The Oxford Handbook of Critical Improvisation Studies|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=1oTADAAAQBAJ&pg=PA176|year=2016|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-989292-1|pages=176–178}}</ref><ref name="Hast1999p124"/>

One of the earliest known discussions of Persian ''maqam'' and Indian ''ragas'' is by the late 16th century scholar Pundarika Vittala. He states that Persian ''maqams'' in use in his times had been derived from older Indian ''ragas'' (or ''mela''), and he specifically maps over a dozen ''maqam''. For example, Vittala states that the ''Hijaz maqam'' was derived from the ''Asaveri raga'', and ''Jangula'' was derived from the ''Bangal''.{{Sfn|Gautam|1993|pp=8–9}}{{Sfn|Jairazbhoy|1995|pages=94–95}} In 1941, Haidar Rizvi questioned this and stated that influence was in the other direction, Middle Eastern ''maqams'' were turned into Indian ''ragas'', such as ''Zangulah maqam'' becoming ''Jangla raga''.<ref>S.N. Haidar Rizvi (1941), Music in Muslim India, ''Islamic Culture'', Volume XV, Number 3, pp. 331–340</ref> According to John Baily – a professor of Ethnomusicology, there is evidence that the traffic of musical ideas were both ways, because Persian records confirm that Indian musicians were a part of the [[Qajar dynasty|Qajar]] court in [[Tehran]],<ref>{{cite book|author=John Baily|title=Songs from Kabul: The Spiritual Music of Ustad Amir Mohammad|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=KFqz9gXwqbUC |year=2011| publisher=Ashgate Publishing |isbn=978-0-7546-5776-7|pages=6–7}}</ref> an interaction that continued through the 20th century with import of Indian musical instruments in cities such as [[Herat]] near Afghanistan-Iran border.<ref>{{cite book|author=John Baily|title=Music of Afghanistan: Professional Musicians in the City of Herat|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uSE9AAAAIAAJ |year=1988|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-25000-9|pages=18–19}}</ref>

==Features==
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Classical Indian music is a genre of [[South Asia]]n music, the other being film, various varieties of pop, regional folk, religious and devotional music.{{sfn|Nettl et al.|1998|pp=573–574}}

In Indian classical music, the ''[[raga]]'' and the ''[[tala (music)|tala]]'' are two foundational elements. The ''raga'' forms the fabric of a melodic structure, and the ''tala'' keeps the time cycle.{{Sfn|Sorrell|Narayan|1980|pp=1–3}} Both ''raga'' and ''tala'' are open frameworks for creativity and allow a very large number of possibilities, however, the tradition considers a few hundred ''ragas'' and ''talas'' as basic.<ref name=raorao26>{{cite journal | last1=Rao | first1=Suvarnalata | last2=Rao | first2=Preeti | title=An Overview of Hindustani Music in the Context of Computational Musicology | journal=Journal of New Music Research | volume=43 | issue=1 | year=2014 | pages=26–28 | doi=10.1080/09298215.2013.831109 | citeseerx=10.1.1.645.9188 | s2cid=36631020 }}</ref> ''Raga'' is intimately related to ''tala'' or guidance about "division of time", with each unit called a ''matra'' (beat, and duration between beats).{{Sfn|van der Meer|2012|pp=6–8}}

===Raga===
{{main|Raga}}
A ''raga'' is a central concept of Indian music, predominant in its expression. According to Walter Kaufmann, though a remarkable and prominent feature of Indian music, a definition of ''raga'' cannot be offered in one or two sentences.{{Sfn|Kaufmann|1968|p=v}} ''Raga'' may be roughly described as a musical entity that includes note intonation, relative duration and order, in a manner similar to how words flexibly form phrases to create an atmosphere of expression.{{Sfn|van der Meer|2012|pp=3–5}} In some cases, certain rules are considered obligatory, in others optional. The ''raga'' allows flexibility, where the artist may rely on simple expression, or may add ornamentations yet express the same essential message but evoke a different intensity of mood.{{Sfn|van der Meer|2012|pp=3–5}}

A ''raga'' has a given set of notes, on a scale, ordered in melodies with musical motifs.{{Sfn|Nettl|2010}} A musician playing a ''raga'', states [[Bruno Nettl]], may traditionally use just these notes, but is free to emphasize or improvise certain degrees of the scale.{{Sfn|Nettl|2010}} The Indian tradition suggests a certain sequencing of how the musician moves from note to note for each ''raga'', in order for the performance to create a ''rasa'' (mood, atmosphere, essence, inner feeling) that is unique to each ''raga''. A ''raga'' can be written on a scale. Theoretically, thousands of ''raga'' are possible given 5 or more notes, but in practical use, the classical Indian tradition has refined and typically relies on several hundred.{{Sfn|Nettl|2010}} For most artists, their basic perfected repertoire has some forty to fifty ''ragas''.{{Sfn|van der Meer|2012|p=5}} ''Raga'' in Indian classical music is intimately related to ''tala'' or guidance about "division of time", with each unit called a ''matra'' (beat, and duration between beats).{{Sfn|van der Meer|2012|pp=6–8}}

A ''raga'' is not a tune, because the same ''raga'' can yield a very large number of tunes.{{sfn|Nettl et al.|1998|p=67}} A ''raga'' is not a scale, because many ''ragas'' can be based on the same scale.{{sfn|Nettl et al.|1998|p=67}}{{Sfn|Martinez|2001|pp=95–96}} A ''raga'', states Bruno Nettl and other music scholars, is a concept similar to mode, something between the domains of tune and scale, and it is best conceptualized as a "unique array of melodic features, mapped to and organized for a unique aesthetic sentiment in the listener".{{sfn|Nettl et al.|1998|p=67}} The goal of a ''raga'' and its artist is to create ''rasa'' (essence, feeling, atmosphere) with music, as [[classical Indian dance]] does with performance arts. In the Indian tradition, classical dances are performed with music set to various ''ragas''.{{Sfn|Mehta|1995|pp=xxix, 248}}

===Tala===
{{main|Tala (music)}}
According to David Nelson – an Ethnomusicology scholar specializing in Carnatic music, a ''tala'' in Indian music covers "the whole subject of musical meter".{{sfn|Nettl et al.|1998|pp=138–139}} Indian music is composed and performed in a metrical framework, a structure of beats that is a ''tala''. A ''tala'' measures musical time in Indian music. However, it does not imply a regular repeating accent pattern, instead its hierarchical arrangement depends on how the musical piece is supposed to be performed.{{sfn|Nettl et al.|1998|pp=138–139}}

The ''tala'' forms the metrical structure that repeats, in a cyclical harmony, from the start to end of any particular song or dance segment, making it conceptually analogous to meters in Western music.{{sfn|Nettl et al.|1998|pp=138–139}} However, ''talas'' have certain qualitative features that classical European musical meters do not. For example, some ''talas'' are much longer than any classical Western meter, such as a framework based on 29 beats whose cycle takes about 45 seconds to complete when performed. Another sophistication in ''talas'' is the lack of "strong, weak" beat composition typical of the traditional European meter. In classical Indian traditions, the ''tala'' is not restricted to permutations of strong and weak beats, but its flexibility permits the accent of a beat to be decided by the shape of musical phrase.{{sfn|Nettl et al.|1998|pp=138–139}}

The most widely used ''tala'' in the South Indian system is ''[[adi tala]]''.{{Sfn|Randel|2003|pp=816–817}} In the North Indian system, the most common ''tala'' is ''[[teental]]''.<ref name=koskoff938/> In the two major systems of classical Indian music, the first count of any ''tala'' is called ''sam''.<ref name=koskoff938>{{cite book|author=Ellen Koskoff|title=The Concise Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, Volume 2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hzIt6ZL5lY0C |year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-09602-0|pages=938–939}}</ref>

===Instruments===
{{Main|Indian musical instruments|Vadya}}
{{multiple image|perrow = 2|total_width=240|align=right
| image1 = Veena.png | alt1=Veena |width1=600|height1=400
| image2 = Banshri.jpg | alt2= Flute |width2=165|height2=215
| image3 = Wiki-mridangam.jpg | alt3= Tabla (drums) |width3=460|height3=434
| image4 = Khartal1.jpg | alt4= Cymbals |width4=900 |height4= 598
| footer = Musical instrument types mentioned in the ''Natyashastra''.<ref name="BaumerBrandon1993p117">{{cite book|author1=Rachel Van M. Baumer|author2=James R. Brandon|title=Sanskrit Drama in Performance|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ix-RShGgZUAC |year=1993|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0772-3 |pages=117–118 }}</ref>{{Sfn|Rowell|2015|pp=13–14}}
}}
Instruments typically used in Hindustani music include the [[sitar]], [[sarod]], [[surbahar]], [[esraj]], [[Rudra veena|veena]], [[tanpura]], [[bansuri]], [[shehnai]], [[sarangi]], [[violin]], [[santoor]], [[pakhavaj]] and [[tabla]]. Instruments typically used in Carnatic music include [[veena]], [[venu]], [[gottuvadyam]], [[Pump organ|harmonium]], [[mridangam]], [[kanjira]], [[ghatam]], [[nadaswaram]] and [[violin]].{{citation needed|date=December 2016}}

Players of the [[tabla]], a type of drum, usually keep the rhythm, an indicator of time in Hindustani music. Another common instrument is the [[string instrument|stringed]] [[tanpura]], which is played at a steady tone (a drone) throughout the performance of the [[raga]], and which provides both a point of reference for the musician and a background against which the music stands out. The tuning of the tanpura depends on the raga being performed. The task of playing the tanpura traditionally falls to a student of the soloist. Other instruments for accompaniment include the [[sarangi]] and the [[harmonium]].{{citation needed|date=December 2016}}

===Notation system===
Indian classical music is both elaborate and expressive. Like [[Western classical music]], it divides the octave into 12 [[semitone]]s of which the 7 basic notes are, in ascending tonal order, ''Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni '' for [[Hindustani music]] and ''Sa Ri Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni '' for [[Carnatic music]], similar to Western music's ''Do Re Mi Fa So La Si ''. However, Indian music uses [[just intonation|just-intonation]] tuning, unlike some modern Western classical music, which uses the [[equal temperament|equal-temperament]] tuning system. Also, unlike modern Western classical music, Indian classical music places great emphasis on improvisation.{{citation needed|date=December 2016}}

The underlying scale may have [[tetratonic scale|four]], [[pentatonic|five]], [[hexatonic|six]] or [[heptatonic|seven tones]], called ''[[swara]]s'' (sometimes spelled as ''svaras''). The ''swara'' concept is found in the ancient ''Natya Shastra'' in Chapter 28. It calls the unit of tonal measurement or audible unit as ''Śhruti'',{{Sfn|Te Nijenhuis|1974|p=14}} with verse 28.21 introducing the musical scale as follows,<ref>Nazir Ali Jairazbhoy (1985), [http://ethnomusicologyreview.ucla.edu/sites/default/files/prevol2.pdf Harmonic Implications of Consonance and Dissonance in Ancient Indian Music], ''Pacific Review of Ethnomusicology'' 2:28–51. Citation on pp. 28–31.</ref>

{{Quote|
<poem>
तत्र स्वराः –
षड्‍जश्‍च ऋषभश्‍चैव गान्धारो मध्यमस्तथा ।
पञ्‍चमो धैवतश्‍चैव सप्तमोऽथ निषादवान् ॥ २१॥
</poem>
|''Natya Shastra''|28.21<ref>Sanskrit: [http://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_z_misc_major_works/natya28.html?lang=sa Natyasastra Chapter 28], नाट्यशास्त्रम् अध्याय २८, ॥ २१॥</ref>{{Sfn|Te Nijenhuis|1974|pp=21–25}}}}

These seven degrees are shared by both major ''raga systems'', that is the North Indian (Hindustani) and South Indian (Carnatic) systems.{{Sfn|Randel|2003|pp=814–815}} The [[solfege]] (''sargam'') is learnt in abbreviated form: ''sa, ri (Carnatic) or re (Hindustani), ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa''. Of these, the first that is ''"sa"'', and the fifth that is ''"pa"'', are considered anchors that are unalterable, while the remaining have flavors that differs between the two major systems.{{Sfn|Randel|2003|pp=814–815}}

Contemporary Indian music schools follow notations and classifications (see [[melakarta]] and [[thaat]]). These are generally based on a flawed but still useful notation system created by [[Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande]].{{citation needed|date=December 2016}}

==Reception outside India==
According to Yukteshwar Kumar, elements of Indian music arrived in China in the 3rd century, such as in the works of Chinese lyricist [[Li Yannian (musician)|Li Yannian]]. <ref>A History of Sino-Indian Relations: 1st Century A.D. to 7th Century A.D. by Yukteshwar Kumar, APH Publishing, p. 76, {{ISBN | 978-8176487986}}</ref>
In 1958, [[Ravi Shankar]] came to the US and started making albums. These started a 1960s penchant for Indian classical music in the States. By 1967 Shankar and other artists were performing at rock music festivals alongside Western rock, blues, and soul acts. This lasted until the mid-1970s. Ravi Shankar performed at Woodstock for an audience of over 500,000 in 1969.
In the 1980s, 1990s and particularly the 2000s onwards, Indian Classical Music has seen rapid growth in reception and development around the globe, particularly in [[North America]], where immigrant communities have preserved and passed on classical music traditions to subsequent generations through the establishment of local festivals and music schools.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Bennett|first=Geetha Ramanathan|date=2010-12-23|title=Carnatic music in America -then and now|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/music/Carnatic-music-in-America-then-and-now/article15605571.ece|access-date=2021-02-05|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> Numerous musicians of American origin, including [[Ramakrishnan Murthy]], [[Sandeep Narayan]], [[Abby V]], and [[Mahesh Kale]] have taken professionally to Indian Classical Music with great success. In his 2020 released video, Canadian singer [[Abby V]] demonstrated 73 different Indian Classical ragas in a live rendering, which went viral on the internet; further establishing the growing prominence of Indian Classical Music around the globe. <ref>Abby V: Carnatic Ragas have so much versatility, https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/music/carnatic-ragas-have-so-much-versatility-abby-v/articleshow/74243055.cms </ref>

==Organizations==
[[SPIC MACAY]], established in 1977, has more than 500 chapters in India and abroad. SPIC MACAY claims to hold around 5000 events every year related to Indian classical music and dance.<ref>{{cite web|title=About Spic Macay and Indian classical music|url=http://www.spicmacay.com/about|publisher=SPIC MACAY}}</ref>

[[Prayag Sangeet Samiti]] is also a well established organizastion promoting Indian Classical Music.

==See also==
{{Portal|India|Music}}
* [[List of Indian classical music festivals]]
* [[List of rāgas in Indian classical music]]

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

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*{{citation |first=Tarla|last=Mehta |title=Sanskrit Play Production in Ancient India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l7naMj1UxIkC |year=1995|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1057-0 }}
*{{cite book | last=Moutal | first=Patrick | author-link=Patrick Moutal | title=Hindustani Raga Index. Major bibliographical references (descriptions, compositions, vistara-s) on North Indian Raga-s|isbn=978-2-9541244-3-8 | year=2012}}
*{{cite book | last=Moutal | first=Patrick | author-link=Patrick Moutal | title=Comparative Study of Selected Hindustani Ragas|isbn=978-2-9541244-2-1 | year=2012}}
*{{citation|url=https://www.britannica.com/art/raga| first=Bruno|last=Nettl |title=Raga, Indian Musical Genre| publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|year=2010}}
*{{citation |ref={{sfnref|Nettl et al.|1998}}| first1=Bruno|last1=Nettl | author2= Ruth M. Stone|author3=James Porter|author4=Timothy Rice|title=The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: South Asia : the Indian subcontinent| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOlNv8MAXIEC |year=1998|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-8240-4946-1}}
*{{cite book|first=Don Michael |last= Randel|title=The Harvard Dictionary of Music|edition=fourth|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=02rFSecPhEsC |year=2003|location=Cambridge, MA|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-01163-2}}
*{{cite journal |last=Ries | first=Raymond E. | title=The Cultural Setting of South Indian Music | journal=Asian Music | volume=1 | issue=2 | year=1969 | pages=22–31 | doi=10.2307/833909 | jstor=833909 }}
*{{cite book|first=Lewis |last= Rowell|title=Music and Musical Thought in Early India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h5_UCgAAQBAJ |year=2015|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-73034-9}}
*{{cite book|editor-first=S.S.|editor-last=Sastri|year=1943|url= https://archive.org/stream/SangitaRatnakara/SangitaRatnakaraChapter1#page/n7/mode/2up| title=Sangitaratnakara of Sarngadeva|location=Adyar| publisher=Adyar Library Press|isbn=978-0-8356-7330-3}}
*{{cite book|first=Susan L.|last=Schwartz|title=Rasa: Performing the Divine in India|url=https://archive.org/details/rasa00susa|url-access=registration|year=2004|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-13144-5}}
*{{cite book|first1=Neil| last1= Sorrell|first2=Ram |last2= Narayan|title=Indian Music in Performance: A Practical Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jNhRAQAAIAAJ |year=1980|publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=978-0-7190-0756-9}}
*{{cite book|first=Emmie|last=Te Nijenhuis |author-link=Emmie te Nijenhuis |title=Indian Music: History and Structure |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NrgfAAAAIAAJ |year=1974|publisher= Brill Academic|isbn=978-90-04-03978-0 }}
*{{cite book |first=Michael|last=Tenzer|title=Analytical Studies in World Music|url=https://archive.org/details/analyticalstudie00tenz |url-access=registration|year=2006|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-517789-3}}
*{{cite book| last=van der Meer|first=W.|title=Hindustani Music in the 20th Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-jr6CAAAQBAJ |year=2012|publisher=Springer |isbn=978-94-009-8777-7}}
*{{cite book| first=Kapila|last=Vatsyayan |title=Classical Indian dance in literature and the arts |year=1977 |publisher=Sangeet Natak Akademi |oclc= 233639306|url=http://library.mpib-berlin.mpg.de/toc/z2008_2719.pdf}}
*{{cite book| first=Kapila|last=Vatsyayan |title=Aesthetic theories and forms in Indian tradition |year=2008 |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal |oclc= 286469807| isbn= 978-81-87586-35-7}}
*{{cite book |first1=Annette|last1=Wilke|first2=Oliver|last2= Moebus|title=Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9wmYz_OtZ_gC |year=2011|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-024003-0}}
*{{cite book |first =Maurice|last= Winternitz |author-link= Moriz Winternitz |title=History of Indian Literature Vol 3 (Original in German published in 1922, translated into English by VS Sarma, 1981) |year=2008 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |location=New Delhi |isbn= 978-81-208-0056-4 }}
* Ludwig Pesch, The Oxford Illustrated Companion to South Indian Classical Music, [[Oxford University Press]].
* George E. Ruckert, ''Music in North India: Experiencing Music, Expressing Culture'', [[Oxford University Press]].
* [[T. Viswanathan]] and Matthew Harp Allen; ''Music in South India: The Karnatak Concert Tradition and Beyond Experiencing Music, Expressing Culture''; [[Oxford University Press]].
* Martin Clayton; Time in Indian Music: Rhythm, Metre, and Form in North Indian Rag Performance; [[Oxford University Press]].
* {{cite book|author=Moutal, Patrick|title=Comparative Study of Hindustani Raga-s – Volume I| publisher=Patrick Moutal Publisher. Rouen|year=2012|isbn=978-2-9541244-2-1}}
* {{cite book|author=Moutal, Patrick|title=Hindustāni Rāga-s Index. Major bibliographical references (descriptions, compositions, vistara-s) on North Indian Raga-s| publisher=Patrick Moutal Publisher|place=Rouen|year=2012|isbn = 978-2-9541244-3-8}}
* {{cite book |title=The Music and Musical Instruments of southern India and the Deccan |author=Charles Russel Day |others=William Gibb (lllus.) |publisher=Novello, Ewer & Co., London|date=1891 |url=https://archive.org/stream/musicmusicalinst00dayc#page/n7/mode/2up}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Classical music of India}}
{{Wikiquote}}
*[http://www.parrikar.org Rajan Parrikar Music Archive] includes detailed articles on Indian classical music with analyses and audio extracts from rare recordings.
*[http://www.parrikar.org/vpl/ Vijaya Parrikar Library of Indian Classical Music] Library contains recorded music of India's great music masters of yesteryear, excerpts of old, hard-to-find or unpublished recordings.
* [http://www.moutal.eu/indian-music.html Hindustani Rag Sangeet Online – more than 800 audio and video archives]
* [https://raag-hindustani.com/ Raag Hindustani] – Explanations and examples of Indian Classical (Hindustani) music
* [http://www.spicmacay.com/about Classical Indian music], SPIC MACAY

{{Indian Music}}
{{Indian musical instruments}}

[[Category:Indian classical music| ]]

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Indian classical music