Satavahana dynasty

2026-05-03T19:04:22Z

2409:40C2:743B:FD8:8000:0:0:0: Improved

{{Short description|Indian dynasty (2nd century BCE – 3rd century CE)}}
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{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2025}}
{{Infobox Former Country
| conventional_long_name = Satavahana dynasty
| common_name = Satavahana dynasty
| native_name =
| era = [[Classical India]]
| government_type = Monarchy
| year_start = {{Circa|late 2nd cent. BCE}}
| year_end = {{Circa|224 CE}}
| p1 = Maurya Empire
| p2 = Kanva dynasty
| s1 = Western Kshatrapas
| s3 = Andhra Ikshvaku
| s4 = Chutu dynasty
| s5 = Vakataka dynasty
| s6 = Pallava dynasty
| s7 = Abhira dynasty
| image_map = {{Location map+
|South Asia
|overlay_image=Map of the Satavahanas.png
| width=280 
| float = center
| border =none
| nodiv = 1
| mini = 1
| relief = yes
| places =
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{{Annotation|text-align=center|160|130|[[Mahameghavahana dynasty|MAHAMEGHA- VAHANAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|200|115|[[Samatata|SAMATATAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|65|35|[[Indo-Scythians|INDO- SCYTHIANS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
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{{Annotation|text-align=center|115|192|[[Chutu dynasty|CHUTUS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|100|70|[[Northern Satraps|NORTHERN SATRAPS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|150|100|[[Mitra dynasty (Kosambi)|MITRAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|45|95|[[Western Satraps|WESTERN SATRAPS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|20|20|[[Yuezhi|YUEZHIS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|20|60|[[Indo-Parthian kingdom|INDO- PARTHIANS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|115|220|[[Pandyan dynasty|PANDYAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|115|205|[[Chola dynasty|CHOLAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|252|240|[[Template:South Asia in 150 BCE| ◁ ]] [[Template:South Asia in 125 CE| ▷ ]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=12|color=#000000}}
|caption=
}}
| image_map_alt = The Satavahana (Andhra) Empire in the 1st century AD
| image_map_caption = {{center|Approximate extent of the Satavahana Empire, in the early 1st century CE.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |date=1978 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |page=145, map XIV.1 (e)|isbn=0226742210 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/reference/schwartzberg/query.py?object=182&display_type=image_display#gsc.tab=0}}</ref>}}
| capital = [[Pratishthana]] [[Amaravathi village, Guntur district|Amaravati]] [[Pauni]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dr. Vasudev Vishnu Mirashi |url=https://archive.org/details/the-history-and-inscriptions-of-the-satavahanas-and-the-western-kshatrapas/page/n208/mode/1up?q=Pratik+ |title=The History And Inscriptions Of The Sātavāhanas And The Western Kshatrapas |date=1981 |pages=23}}</ref> [[Junnar]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Lenyadri Group of Caves, Junnar - Ticketed Monument - ArchaeologicalSurvey of India|url=http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_tktd_maha_junnarcaves.asp|website=Asi.nic.in|publisher=Archaeological Survey of India|access-date=30 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410125940/http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_tktd_maha_junnarcaves.asp|archive-date=10 April 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| common_languages = [[Maharashtri Prakrit]] (literature) [[Sanskrit]] (literature) 
| official_languages = [[Maharashtri Prakrit]]<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gE7udqBkACwC&q=Maharashtri+Prakrit+was+the+official+language+of+the+Satavahana+dynasty |title=A Comprehensive History Of Ancient India (3 Vol. Set) |date=1 December 2003 |publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd |isbn=978-81-207-2503-4 |pages=103 |language=en|quote=The use of Prakrit in Ashokan inscriptions and its continuance under the Satavahanas as the official language raised Maharashtri Prakrit from a common local dialect to the stature of a literary idiom. The most important work is Satasati or Gathasaptasati-an anthology of 700 erotic verses in Maharashtri Prakrit and in the Arya metre. Gunadhya's Brihatkatha (Great Romance) probably belonged to this period.}}</ref>(official, court, literature, inscriptions)
| religion = [[Brahmanism]]{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|p=172}} [[Buddhism]] [[Vaishnavism]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Digambar Janardhan Sonawane |url=https://archive.org/details/cultural-contribution-of-satvahanas-in-the-history-of-deccan/page/n23/mode/1up |title=Cultural Contribution Of Satvahanas In The History Of Deccan |pages=23}}</ref><ref name="academic.oup.com">{{cite web | title=The Satavahana Phase | website=academic.oup.com | date=2007 | doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195687859.003.0021 | url=https://academic.oup.com/book/27690/chapter-abstract/197831152?redirectedFrom=fulltext | access-date=29 October 2022 | last1=Sharma | first1=R.S. | pages=203–210 | isbn=978-0-19-568785-9 }}</ref> [[Shaivism]]<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gBJuAAAAMAAJ&q=%22satavahana+rulers+were+staunch+devotees+of+saivism%22 |title=The Andhra Pradesh Journal of Archaeology |date=1995 |publisher=Director of Archaeology and Museums, Government of Andhra Pradesh. |pages=106 |language=en |quote=An inscription from Sthanakundür and coins with images of Skanda and bull, issued by Siri Satakani indicate that the early Satavahanas were devotees of Siva. Though, the early Satavāhana rulers were staunch devotees of Saivism, their religious edifices have not been traced so far in coastal Andhra Desa.}}</ref> [[Jainism]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dr. Vasudev Vishnu Mirashi |url=https://archive.org/details/the-history-and-inscriptions-of-the-satavahanas-and-the-western-kshatrapas/page/n208/mode/1up?q=Pratik+ |title=The History And Inscriptions Of The Sātavāhanas And The Western Kshatrapas |date=1981 |pages=180–181}}</ref>
| title_leader = [[List of Satavahana kings|Raja]]
| leader1 = [[Simuka]] (first)
| year_leader1 = c. 2nd/1st cent. BCE
| leader2 = Pulumavi IV (last)
| year_leader2 = 217–224 CE
| today = [[India]]<ref>{{Cite news|last=K.M.|first=Dayashankar|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/Koti-Lingala-a-major-pilgrim-destination/article11148987.ece|title=Koti Lingala, a major pilgrim destination|date=26 September 2014|work=The Hindu|access-date=25 February 2020}}</ref>
| demonym =
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}}
{{Satavahana}}

The '''Satavahanas''' ({{IPAc-en|,|s|a:|t|@|'|v|a:|h|@|n|@}}; ''Sādavāhana'' or ''Sātavāhana'',<ref name="auto3" /> [[International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration|IAST]]: {{IAST|Sātavāhana}}),were an [[ancient India]]n [[dynasty]]. Most modern scholars believe that the Satavahana rule began in the late 2nd century BCE and lasted until the early 3rd century CE, although some assign the beginning of their rule to as early as the 3rd century BCE based on the [[Puranas]], but uncorroborated by archaeological evidence. The Satavahana kingdom mainly comprised the present-day [[Maharashtra]], [[Telangana]], and [[Andhra Pradesh]]. At different times, their rule extended to parts of modern [[Gujarat]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], and [[Karnataka]]. The dynasty had different capital cities at different times, including [[Paithan|Pratishthana]] (Paithan) and [[Amaravathi village, Guntur district|Amaravati]] ([[Dharanikota]]).

The origin of the dynasty is uncertain, but according to the [[Purana]]s, their first king overthrew the [[Kanva dynasty]]. In the post-[[Mauryan Empire|Maurya]] era, the Satavahanas established peace in the Deccan region and resisted the onslaught of foreign invaders. In particular their struggles with the [[Indo-Scythians|Saka]] ([[Western Satraps]]) went on for a long time. The dynasty reached its zenith under the rule of [[Gautamiputra Satakarni]] and his successor [[Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi|Vasisthiputra Pulamavi]]. The kingdom had fragmented into smaller states by the early 3rd century CE.

The Satavahanas were early issuers of Indian state [[coin]]age struck with images of their rulers. They formed a cultural bridge and played a vital role in trade and the transfer of ideas and culture to and from the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]] to the [[South India|southern tip of India]].

== Origins ==

The date and place of origin of the Satavahanas, as well as the meaning of the dynasty's name, are a matter of debate among historians. Some of these debates have happened in the context of [[Regionalism (politics)|regionalism]], with the present-day [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Telangana]] and [[Maharashtra]], being variously claimed as the original homeland of the Satavahanas.{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|p=168}}

=== Etymology ===
[[File:Coin of Satkarni.jpg|thumb|Early coin of [[Satakarni I]] (70-60 BCE). Obverse legend: '''{{script|Brah|(𑀲𑀺𑀭𑀺) 𑀲𑀸}}'''[[File:Gupta_ashoka_t.svg|9px]] [[File:Gupta_allahabad_k.svg|9px]]'''{{script|Brah|𑀡𑀺(𑀲)}}''', ''(Siri) Sātakaṇi(sa)''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=356387|title=CNG: eAuction 417. INDIA, Post-Mauryan (Deccan). Satavahanas (Andhras). Śri Satakarṇi. Circa 70-60 BC. BI Karshapana (19mm, 3.44 g).|website=www.cngcoins.com|access-date=11 December 2019}}</ref>]]
{{IAST|Śātavāhana, Śālivāhana, Śātakarṇi}} seem to be [[Sanskritised]] versions of the indigenous name {{IAST|Sātakaṇi}}, which appear as {{IAST| Sālavāhaṇa}} in [[Prakrit]] vernacular.<ref name="sat"/>

According to one theory, the word "Satavahana" ([[Brahmi script]]: '''{{script|Brah|𑀲𑀸𑀤𑀯𑀸𑀳𑀦}}''' ''Sādavāhana'' or '''{{script|Brah|𑀲𑀸𑀢𑀯𑀸𑀳𑀦}}''' ''Sātavāhana'',<ref name="auto3">{{cite book |last1=Burgess |title=Epigraphia Indica Vol 8 |page=93 |url=https://archive.org/details/EpigraphiaIndica/page/n127}}</ref> [[International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration|IAST]]: {{IAST|Sātavāhana}}) is a [[Prakrit]] form of the Sanskrit ''Sapta-Vahana'' ("driven by seven"; in [[Hindu mythology]], the chariot of the [[Surya|sun god]] is drawn by seven horses). This would indicate that the Satavahanas originally claimed association with the legendary [[solar dynasty]], as was common in ancient India.{{sfn|Shastri|1998|pp=20–21}} According to [[Inguva Kartikeya Sarma]], the dynasty's name is derived from the words ''sata'' ("sharpened", "nimble" or "swift") and ''vahana'' ("vehicle"); the expression thus means "one who rides a nimble horse".{{sfn|Sarma|1980|p=3}}

Another theory connects their name to the earlier Satiyaputa dynasty. Yet another theory derives their name from the [[Munda languages|Munda]] words ''Sadam'' ("horse") and ''Harpan'' ("son"), implying "son of the performer of a [[ashvamedha|horse sacrifice]]".{{sfn|Sen|1999|pp=172–176}} Several rulers of the dynasty bear the name or title "Satakarni". Satavahana, Satakarni, Satakani and [[Shalivahana]] appear to be variations of the same word. [[Damodar Dharmanand Kosambi]] theorised that the word "Satakarni" is derived from the Munda words ''sada'' ("horse") and ''kon'' ("son").{{sfn|Kosambi|1975|p=243}}

The [[Puranas]] use the name "Andhra" for the Satavahanas. The term "Andhra" may refer to the ethnicity or territory of the dynasty (see [[#Original homeland|Original homeland]] below). It does not appear in the dynasty's own records.{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|p=166}}

The [[Five Great Epics|Tamil epic]] ''[[Silappatikaram|Cilappatikaram]]'' mentions a "Nurruvar Kannar", who helped [[Chera dynasty|Chera]] king [[Senguttuvan]] during his Himalayan campaign. The direct translation of the term Nurruvar Kannar is "the hundred Karnas" or "Satakarni"; Nurruvar Kannar has therefore been identified with the Satavahana dynasty.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature|last=Zvelebil|first=Kamil|year=1992|pages=118}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Tamil literature|last=Zvelebil|first=Kamil|year=1975|pages=42}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date=1991|title=The Journal of the Numismatic Society of India|journal=Numismatic Society of India|volume=53}}</ref>

The [[Kathasaritsagara]] ascribes a mythical etymology in which a widowed, childless king named Deepakarni was prophesied to find a lion-riding child as his heir. During a jungle hunt, he found such a child riding a [[yaksha]]-turned-lion named Sāta. After adoption, the child became the king eventually and came to be known as Sātavāhana or Sāta-supported.{{citation needed|date=November 2021}}

=== Original homeland ===
[[File:Pillar with Naga Muchalinda over the throne of the Buddha. Pauni (Bhandara District). Railing pillar from Jagannath Tekri. 2nd-1st century BCE.jpg|thumb|Early sculpture from [[Pauni]], ancient [[Vidarbha]], where coins of [[Satakarni]] were also found.<ref>"Pauni : (Vidarbha) The latest site which contributed valuable numismatic evidence confirming, once and for all, ancient Vidarbha's early Satavahana affiliation is Pauni, in district Bhandara. Two seasons of joint excavation (1968-70) by the Nagpur University and the Archaeological Survey of India yielded reliable coin data from both the Stupa sites." in {{harvnb|Sarma|1980|p=38}}</ref><ref>"Coins of a number of Satavahana rulers from Gautamiputra Satakarni onward have been discovered in large numbers in the Vidarbha region. However, no coin of any earlier king has been reported so far. The present coin is, therefore, the first coin of Sri-Satakarni to be reported from Vidarbha. Another potin coin of Sri-Satakarni has been recently discovered at Pauni 2. The discovery of these coins indicates for the first time the possibility of the rule of the early Satavahanas over the Vidarbha region." {{cite book |last1=Deo |first1=Shantaram Bhalchandra |last2=Joshi |first2=Jagat Pati |title=Pauni Excavation, 1969-70 |date=1972 |publisher=Nagpur University |page=99 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZAc8AAAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref> Pillar with Naga [[Mucalinda]] protecting the throne of the Buddha at [[Pauni]] (Bhandara District). 2nd-1st century BCE. [[National Museum of India]].<ref>"The bas-relief at Pauni or Bharhut in India, which dates back to about the second century B.C., represents a vacant throne protected by a naga with many heads. It also bears an inscription of the Naga Mucalinda (Fig. 3)" {{cite book |title=SPAFA Digest: Journal Of SEAMEO Project in Archaeology and Fine Arts (SPAFA). |date=1987 |publisher=SPAFA Co-ordinating Unit |page=4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s1FuAAAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref>]]
The use of the names "Andhra" and "Andhra-Jatiya" in the Puranas has led some scholars, such as [[E. J. Rapson]] and [[R. G. Bhandarkar|R.G Bhandarkar]], to believe that the dynasty originated in the eastern Deccan region (the historic [[Andhra in Indian epic literature|Andhra]] region, present-day [[Andhra Pradesh]] and [[Telangana]]).{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|p=167}}<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U-p8Zg62USYC|title=Indian Heritage and Culture|last1=Staff|first1=Rao P. R.|last2=Rao|first2=P. Raghunadha|date=1989|publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd|isbn=9788120709300|pages=24|language=en}}</ref> At [[Kotilingala]] in Telangana, coins bearing the legend "Rano Siri Chimuka Satavahanasa" were found.{{sfn|Ray|1986|p=43}} Epigraphist and numismatist P. V. P. Sastry initially identified Chimuka with the dynasty's founder Simuka,{{sfn|Shastri|1999|p=306}} Coins attributed to Simuka's successors [[Kanha (Satavahana dynasty)|Kanha]] and [[Satakarni I]] were also discovered at Kotilingala.{{sfn|Rao|1993|p=5}} Based on these discoveries, historians such as Ajay Mitra Shastri, D. R. Reddy, S. Reddy, and Shankar R. Goyal theorised that Kotlingala was the original home of the Satavahanas. [[Ajay Mitra Shastri]] stated that the finding of the coins at Kotilingala give "a clear pointer to the region where we have to locate the original center of the Satavahana political authority."<ref name="auto4">Shastri, Ajay Mitra. "Sātavāhanas: Original Home and Nomenclature.” ''Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute'', 54/55, 1994, p. 381</ref> However, the coin samples from Kotlingala are small, and it is not certain if these coins were minted there or reached there from somewhere else.{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|p=169}} Moreover, the identification of Chimuka of Kotilingala with the dynasty's founder Simuka has been contested by several scholars including P. L. Gupta and [[I. K. Sarma]], who identified Chimuka as a later ruler.{{sfn|Sarma|1980|pp=126–130}}{{sfn|Shimada|2012|p=45}} P. V. P. Sastry also later changed his view and stated that the two kings were different.{{sfn|Shastri|1999|p=306}} In addition to the Kotilinga find, a coin of the Satavahana prince Saktikumara, who was in the fourth generation of the founder, has been reported as a stratified find from the [[Kurnool district]] of Andhra Pradesh.<ref name="auto4" /> As for the Puranas, these texts could have been compiled at a later date and it is not certain if the Satavahanas were referred to as Andhras during their time.{{sfn|Shimada|2012|p=45}}<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n0-4RJh5FgoC&q=978-3447025225.|title=The Purāṇas|last=Rocher|first=Ludo|date=1986|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=9783447025225|pages=249|language=en}}</ref>

Another section of scholars believe that the Satavahanas originated in western Deccan (present-day [[Maharashtra]]).{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|p=167}} All four extant inscriptions from the early Satavahana period (c. 1st century BCE) have been found in and around this region. One of the earliest known Satavahana inscriptions was that found at [[:File:Nasik cave 19.jpg|Cave No.19]] of the [[Pandavleni Caves]] in [[Nashik district]], which was issued during the reign of Kanha (100–70 BCE).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Brancaccio|first1=Pia|title=The Buddhist Caves at Aurangabad: Transformations in Art and Religion|date=2010|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-9004185258|page=61|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m_4pXm7dD78C&pg=PA61|language=en}}</ref> An inscription found at [[Naneghat]] was issued by Nayanika (or Naganika), the widow of [[Satakarni I]]; another inscription found at Naneghat has been dated to the same period on a paleographic basis. A slightly later inscription dated to the reign of Satakarni II has been found at [[Sanchi]] in [[Madhya Pradesh]], located to the north of Maharashtra.{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|p=168}} The majority of the other Satavahana inscriptions have also been found in western Deccan.{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|p=169}} On the other hand, the epigraphic evidence from eastern Deccan does not mention the Satavahanas before the 4th century CE.{{sfn|Shimada|2012|p=45}} At [[Nevasa]], a seal and coins attributed to Kanha have been discovered.{{sfn|Rao|1976|p=8}} Coins attributed to Satakarni I have also been discovered at Nashik, Nevasa, and [[Pauni]] in Maharashtra (besides places in eastern Deccan and present-day Madhya Pradesh).{{sfn|Ray|1986|p=43}} Based on this evidence, some historians argue that the Satavahanas initially came to power in the area around their capital [[Pratishthana]] (modern Paithan, Maharashtra) and then expanded their territory to eastern Deccan.{{sfn|Singh|2008|pp=381–382}} Carla Sinopoli cautions that the inference about the western Deccan origin of the Satavahanas is "tentative at best" given the small sample of early inscriptions.{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|pp=168–170}}

{{multiple image
| align = right
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| header=Inscription of king Kanha (100–70 BCE)
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| image1 = Nasik cave 19.jpg
| caption1 = Cave No.19 of Satavahana king [[Kanha (Satavahana dynasty)|Kanha]] at the [[Nasik Caves]], 1st century BCE.
| image2 = Inscription Cave 19 Nasik.jpg
| caption2 = Inscription of king [[Kanha (Satavahana dynasty)|Kanha]] in cave No.19, Nasik Caves. This is one of the oldest known Satavahana inscription, circa 100–70 BCE.{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|p=168}} [[Brahmi script]]: '''{{script|Brah|𑀲𑀸𑀤𑀯𑀸𑀳𑀦𑀓𑀼𑀮𑁂 𑀓𑀦𑁆𑀳𑁂𑀭𑀸𑀚𑀺𑀦𑀺 𑀦𑀸𑀲𑀺𑀓𑁂𑀦}}''' '''{{script|Brah|𑀲𑀫𑀡𑁂𑀦 𑀫𑀳𑀸𑀫𑀸𑀢𑁂𑀡 𑀮𑁂𑀡 𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀢}}''' ''Sādavāhanakule Kanhe rājini Nāsikakena Samaṇena mahāmāteṇa leṇa kārita'' "Under King Kanha of the Satavahana family this cave has been caused to be made by the officer in charge of the [[Sramana]]s at [[Nasik]]".<ref name="auto3"/>
| footer=
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[[File:Complete view of Inscription in cave at Naneghat.jpg|thumb|290px|[[Naneghat]] inscription. Dated to 70-60 BCE, in the reign of [[Satakarni I]].{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|p=168}}]]
Kanha's Pandavleni mentions the term ''maha-matra'' (officer-in-charge), which indicates that the early Satavahanas followed the [[Mauryan Empire|Mauryan]] administrative model.{{sfn|Chattopadhyaya|1974|pp=17–56}} C. Margabandhu theorised that the Satavahanas were called Andhras because they were natives of eastern Deccan (the Andhra region), although they first established their empire in western Deccan after having served as Mauryan subordinates. Himanshu Prabha Ray (1986) opposes this theory, stating that the Andhra was originally an ethnic term, and did not come to denote the geographical region of eastern Deccan until well after the Satavahana period.{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|p=168}} According to [[Vidya Dehejia]], the writers of the Puranas (which could have been written after the Satavahana period) mistook the Satavahana presence in eastern Deccan as evidence for their origin in that region, and wrongly labelled them as "Andhra".{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|pp=167–168}}

Puranas called the Satavahana kings as [[Andhras]], Andhra-bhṛtya, or Andhra-jatiya. Andhras is both a tribal and a territorial name.<ref>{{Cite book |last=V.D |first=Mahajan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7TJlDwAAQBAJ&dq=Megasthenes+Andhras&pg=PA297 |title=Ancient India |publisher=S. Chand Publishing |isbn=978-93-5253-132-5 |pages=297 |language=en}}</ref> The term ''Andhrabhrityas'' (Andhra servants) may imply two things, one being that the Andhras were originally servants of the Mauryas or the Sungas. The other one, as per some scholars is that the expression is taken to indicate the servants of some other Andhra rulers. These scholars also suggest Kannada origin for the Satavahanas meaning that the dynasty originated in present-day [[Karnataka]], and initially owed allegiance to some Andhra rulers.{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=172}} A Satavahana inscription found on a slab of the upper drum (medhi) of the [[Kanaganahalli]] mahastupa mentions year 16 of Vasisthiputra Sri Chimuka Satavahana's reign, which can be dated from ca. 110 BCE.{{sfn|Ollett|2017|p=194}}<ref name="auto7"/><ref name="auto"/> [[Vishnu Sitaram Sukthankar|V. S. Sukthankar]] theorised that the territorial division Satavahani-Satahani (Satavahanihara or Satahani-rattha), in present-day [[Bellary district]], was the homeland of the Satavahana family.{{sfn|Raychaudhuri|2006|pp=342, 360, 363–364}} However, Dr. Gopalchari challenged Sukthankar's theory by pointing out that not a single inscription of the early Satavahanas is found in Bellary District and that the only Satavahana inscription in Bellary District was that of Pulumavi, who belongs to the later-phase of Satavahana history.<ref>Ranade, P. V. "A New Interpretation—The Origin of The Satavahanas." ''Proceedings of the Indian History Congress'', vol. 26, 1964, p. 62</ref> A stupa in [[Kanaganahalli]] village of Karnataka, dated between the first century BCE and first century CE, features limestone panels depicting portraits of Chimuka (Simuka), Satakani (Satakarni) and other Satavahana rulers.{{sfn|Shimada|2012|p=43}} As per historian Parmanand Gupta, in the medieval times, Srisailam region or the Sriparvata area was known as ''Kannadu'' and ''Kannavisaya'' which is the contracted form of ''Satakarninadu'' and ''Satakarnivisaya'', which seem to be identical with the territorial indicator ''Satavahanihara'' of the Myakadoni inscription of Pulumayi or the ''Satavahaniratta'' of the Hirahadagalli grant consisting of the [[Bellary district|Ballari]] region indicated to be the original homeland of the Satavahanas as per another historian V. S. Sukthankar.{{sfn|Shrimali|1992|p=151}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gupta |first=Parmanand |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LzHpZ5N5MhcC&q=pulumavi&pg=PA23 |title=Geography from Ancient Indian Coins & Seals |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |year=1989 |isbn=978-81-7022-248-4 |pages=22–23 |language=en}}</ref>

According to [[Vasudev Vishnu Mirashi]], the Satavahanas, likely originated in Western Maharashtra. [[Jain literature]] traces the Pratishthāna (present-day [[Paithan]] in the [[Marathwada]] region of Maharashtra) as the early Satvahana ruler's capital, Saktikumara.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Dr. Vasudev Vishnu Mirashi |url=https://archive.org/details/the-history-and-inscriptions-of-the-satavahanas-and-the-western-kshatrapas |title=The History And Inscriptions Of The Sātavāhanas And The Western Kshatrapas |date=1981 |pages=12}}</ref> Similarly, the ancient geographer [[Ptolemy]] mentioned a king called Puļumāvi ruled from the same city sometime in around 140 CE. Now, the question is, why are these rulers referred to as "Andhra"? This can be explained through the dynastic lists recorded in the [[Puranas]], which were likely compiled around 320 CE.<ref name=":1" /> He infers that these lists do not reference dynasties or rulers after this period, and the Satavahanas had already declined by circa 230 CE. By the time of their decline, the center of Satvahana power had shifted to the [[Andhradesa|Andhra region]]. An inscription of the later king Gautamiputra Vijaya [[Satakarni]] was found at [[Nagarjunakonda]] in Andhra Pradesh, where he is said to have made Vijayapuri, the city mentioned as [[Nagarjunakonda]], his capital. His coins also do not exist in [[Desh region|Western Maharashtra]], which was then the dominion of another king known as Chutukula [[Satakarni II|Satakarni]].<ref name=":1" />

=== Varna ===

The [[varna (Hinduism)|varna]] of the dynasty is debated by modern scholars, who have variously argued for [[Shudra]], [[Kshatriya]], and [[Brahmin|Brahmana]] origins of the dynasty.<ref>{{cite book |author=B. S. L. Hanumantha Rao |title=The Age of Satavahanas |year=1976 |publisher=Andhra Pradesh Sahitya Akademi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ppc8AAAAMAAJ |page=10 |quote=Arguments are put forth trying to prove differently that they were Sudras, Kshatriyas and Brahmins. }}</ref>

The [[Puranas]] call the founder of the Satavahana family a ''vṛṣala'' (Shudra or low-born).<ref>{{cite book |author=Dineschandra Sircar |title=The Guhilas of Kiṣkindhā |year=1965 |publisher=Sanskrit College |location=Calcutta |oclc=161579 |page=9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6VzRAAAAMAAJ }}</ref>

The Nashik inscription of Gautami Balashri describes her son Gautamiputra Satakarni as ''eka-bamhana'' (Sanskrit: ''eka-brahmana''). Some scholars, such as [[Vasudev Vishnu Mirashi|V.V. Mirashi]], have interpreted the term as "sole Brahmana", and argued that Satavahanas were Brahmanas.<ref name="VSRS_1990">{{cite journal |author=V. Sundara Rama Sastry |title=Social Significance of Metronymic Epithets in Early Indian Ruling Dynasties : A Study |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=51 |year=1990 |publisher=Indian History Congress |jstor=4414819 |pages=117–118 }}</ref> [[Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri]] interprets the term as "unique Brahmana", and notes that the inscription also describes Gautamiputra as "the destroyer of the pride and conceit of Kshatriyas", which according to him strongly suggests that Gautamiputra claimed to be a Brahmana.<ref>{{cite book |author=Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri |title=Political History of Ancient India |date=23 February 2024 |edition=Seventh |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.12916/page/n413/mode/1up?q=Satavahana&view=theater |pages=365–366 |publisher=University of Calcutta,Kolkata }}</ref>

The critics of this theory point out that Gautamiputra's family had matrimonial relations with the non-Brahmana [[Western Satraps|Shakas]], and the Satavahanas could not have been Brahmanas because the same inscription also describes Gautamiputra as the one who stopped admixture of varnas (''vinivatita chatu vana sankara'').<ref>{{cite journal |author=P. Krishna Mohan Reddy |title=God, Trade and Worship: A Glimpse into the Religion of Early Āndhradeśa |journal=East and West |volume=48 |issue=3/4 |year=1998 |page=298 |publisher=Istituto Italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente (IsIAO) |jstor=29757390 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=B. S. L. Hanumantha Rao |title=Address of the Sectional President: Religion, Politics and Society in Early Deccan |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=53 |year=1992 |jstor=44142769 |page=50 }}</ref> Historian V. Sundara Rama Sastry argues that the interpretation of the term "eka-bamhana" as "the only Brahmana" does not make sense as the king was obviously not the only member of his varna: instead, he interprets the term as an epithet indicating that the king "excelled even the Brahmans".<ref name="VSRS_1990"/> Historian [[R. G. Bhandarkar]] interprets the term "the only protector" of the Brahmanas.{{sfn|Sen|1999|pp=173–174}}

Some [[Jain literature|Jain]] works and the ''[[Singhasan Battisi|Dvātriṃśat-Puttalikā]]'' represent [[Shalivahana]] (whom some modern scholars identify as a Satavahana king) as of mixed Brahmana and Naga origin. Based on this, some scholars, such as [[Dineshchandra Sircar|D.C. Sircar]], theorise that the Satavahanas were originally non-Brahmanas who started claiming Brahmana status after establishing matrimonial relations with some Brahmana families.<ref>{{cite book |author=Dineschandra Sircar |title=Ancient Malwa and the Vikramāditya Tradition |year=1969 |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal |isbn=9788121503488 |pages=67–68 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Occ9AAAAMAAJ }}</ref>

== History ==
Information about the Satavahanas comes from the [[Puranas]], some Buddhist and Jain texts, the dynasty's inscriptions and coins, and foreign (Greek and Roman) accounts that focus on trade.{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|pp=162–163}} The information provided by these sources is not sufficient to reconstruct the dynasty's history with absolute certainty. As a result, there are multiple theories about the Satavahana chronology.{{sfn|Dhavalikar|1996|p=133}}

=== Foundation ===
{{South Asia in 150 BCE}}
[[Simuka]] is mentioned as the first king in a list of royals in a Satavahana inscription at [[Naneghat]]. The various [[Puranas]] state that the first king of the dynasty ruled for 23 years, and mention his name variously as Sishuka, Sindhuka, Chhismaka, Shipraka, etc. These are believed to be corrupted spellings of Simuka, resulting from copying and re-copying of manuscripts.{{sfn|Shastri|1998|p=42}} Simuka cannot be dated with certainty based on available evidence. Based on the following theories, the beginning of the Satavahana rule is dated variously from 271 BCE to 30 BCE.{{sfn|Singh|2008|pp=381–384}} According to the Puranas, the first Andhra king overthrew the [[Kanva dynasty|Kanva]] rule. He is named as Balipuccha in some texts.{{sfn|Thapar|2013|p=296}} D. C. Sircar dated this event to c. 30 BCE, a theory supported by many other scholars.{{sfn|Dhavalikar|1996|p=133}}

The ''Matsya Purana'' mentions that the Andhra dynasty ruled for around 450 years. As the Satavahana rule ended in the early 3rd century, the beginning of their rule can be dated to the 3rd century BCE. The ''[[Indica (Megasthenes)|Indica]]'' of [[Megasthenes]] (350 – 290 BCE) mentions a powerful tribe named "Andarae", whose king maintained an army of 100,000 infantry, 2,000 cavalry and 1,000 elephants. If Andarae is identified with the Andhras, this can be considered additional evidence of Satavahana rule starting in the 3rd century BCE. The ''[[Brahmanda Purana]]'' states that "the four Kanvas will rule the earth for 45 years; ''then'' (it) will ''again'' go to the Andhras". Based on this statement, the proponents of this theory argue that the Satavahana rule began immediately after the [[Maurya]] rule, followed by a Kanva [[interregnum]], and then, a revival of the Satavahana rule. According to one version of the theory Simuka succeeded the Mauryans. A variation of the theory is that Simuka was the person who restored the Satavahana rule by overthrowing the Kanvas; the compiler of the Puranas confused him with the founder of the dynasty.{{sfn|Chattopadhyaya|1974|pp=17–56}}

Most modern scholars believe that the Satavahana ruler began in the 1st century BCE and lasted until the 2nd century CE. This theory is based on Puranic records as well as archaeological and numismatic evidence. The theory that dates their rule to an earlier period is now largely discredited because the various Puranas contradict each other, and are not fully supported by epigraphic or numismatic evidence.{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|p=166}}

The oldest Satavahana inscription is the one found on a slab of the upper drum (medhi) of the [[Kanaganahalli]] Great Stupa mentioning year 16 of Vasisthiputra Sri Chimuka Satavahana's reign, which can be dated from ca. 110 BCE.<ref name="auto7">Poonacha, K.P., (2013). Excavations at Kanaganahalli, Archaeological Survey of India, Delhi</ref><ref name="auto">Nakanishi, Maiko, and Oskar von Hinuber, (2014). Kanaganahalli Inscriptions (Supplement to the Annual Report of the International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at Soka University for the Academic Year 2013, Vol. 17., Tokyo.</ref>{{sfn|Ollett|2017|p=194}}

{{Blockquote|𑀭𑀸𑀜𑁄 𑀲𑀺𑀭𑀺 𑀙𑀺𑀫𑀼𑀓 𑀲𑀸𑀢𑀯𑀸𑀳𑀦𑀲 𑀲𑁄𑀟𑁂 𑀯𑀙𑀭𑁂 𑁛𑁗 𑀫𑀸𑀢𑀺𑀲𑁂𑀓 
''Rano siri chimu(ka) sātavāhanasa soḍe vachare 10 6 mātiseka'' 
"In the year sixteen 16 of King Siri Chimuka Sātavāhana"|Kanaganahalli inscription of the 16th year of Simuka.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zin |first1=Monika |title=Kanaganahalli in Satavahana art and Buddhism |journal=Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies |date=2018 |volume=41 |page=540, note 7 |url=https://www2.gko.uni-leipzig.de/fileadmin/user_upload/indologie/pdf/Mitarbeiter_Akademie_Zin/Zin2018_KanaganahalliInSatavahanaArtAndBuddhism-KingAshaokaAInFrantOfTheBodhiTree__JIABS41b.pdf |archive-date=2 October 2021 |access-date=19 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002150218/https://www2.gko.uni-leipzig.de/fileadmin/user_upload/indologie/pdf/Mitarbeiter_Akademie_Zin/Zin2018_KanaganahalliInSatavahanaArtAndBuddhism-KingAshaokaAInFrantOfTheBodhiTree__JIABS41b.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>}}

On another stone slab at Kanaganahalli, the king is possibly shown together with a [[Nagaraja]], and the inscription reads:

{{Blockquote|𑀭𑀸𑀚𑀸 𑀲𑀺𑀭𑀺 𑀙𑀺𑀫𑀼𑀓𑁄 𑀲𑀸𑀤𑀯𑀸𑀳𑀦𑁄 𑀦𑀸𑀕𑀭𑀸𑀬 𑀲𑀔𑀥𑀸𑀪𑁄 ''Rājā Siri Chimuko Sādavāhano nāgarāya Sakhadhābho'' "Lord King Simuka the Satavahana, [[Nagaraja]] Sakhadhābho"|Kanaganahalli inscription of Simuka.<ref>"Looking at that one slab from Kanaganahalli (fig. 14), 40 in the upper panel, we see a king. We do not know exactly what the lower part showed because its large part is missing; in any case it is a male person of rank. The label of the inscription reads: rājā Siri Chimuko Sādavāhano nāgarāya Sakhadhābho (?). The inscription lets us believe that it is the historical person of Śrī Simuka founder of the Sātavāhana dynasty who is depicted here, and that he was portrayed on the slab together with a nāgarāja." in {{cite journal |last1=Zin |first1=Monika |title=The Buddha's Relics and the Nāgas an Attempt to Throw Light on Some Depictions in the Amaravati School |journal=South Asian Archaeology and Art |date=2012 |volume=2 |page=763, and fig.14 |url=https://www.academia.edu/36090116 |language=en}}</ref>}}

=== Early expansion ===
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = horizontal
| header = Sanchi donations (50 BCE- 0 CE)
| total_width = 400
| caption_align = center
| image1 = South Gateway - Rear Side - Stupa 1 - Sanchi Hill 2013-02-21 4383 with arrow.jpg
| caption1 = The southern gateway of the Great Stupa at [[Sanchi]] was, according to an inscription (see arrow), donated under the rule of "King Satakarni", probably [[Satakarni II]].Sinopoli{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|p=169}}
| image2 = Siri-Satakani inscription Sanchi Stupa 1 Southern Gateway Rear of top architrave.jpg
| caption2 = The inscription appears on the relief of a stupa at the center of the top architrave, at the rear. It is written in three lines in early [[Brahmi script]] over the dome of the stupa in this relief.<ref name="auto6">John Marshall, "A guide to Sanchi", [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.459148 p.48]</ref> Dated circa 50 BCE- 0 CE.
| footer = Text of the inscription: {{Script|Brah|𑀭𑀸𑀜𑁄 𑀲𑀺𑀭𑀺 𑀲𑀸𑀢𑀓𑀡𑀺𑀲}} / {{Script|Brah|𑀆𑀯𑁂𑀲𑀡𑀺𑀲 𑀯𑀸𑀲𑀺𑀣𑀻𑀧𑀼𑀢𑀲}} / {{Script|Brah|𑀆𑀦𑀁𑀤𑀲 𑀤𑀸𑀦𑀁}} ''Rāño Siri Sātakaṇisa'' / ''āvesaṇisa vāsitḥīputasa'' / ''Ānaṁdasa dānaṁ'' "Gift of Ananda, the son of Vasithi, the foreman of the artisans of [[Raja|rajan]] [[Satakarni II|Siri Satakarni]]"<ref name="auto6"/>
| footer_align = center
}}

Simuka was succeeded by his brother [[Kanha (Satavahana dynasty)|Kanha]] (also known as Krishna), who extended the kingdom up to Nashik in the west.{{sfn|Higham|2009|p=299}}{{sfn|Chattopadhyaya|1974|pp=17–56}} His successor [[Satakarni|Satakarni I]] conquered western [[Malwa]], [[Anupa kingdom|Anupa]] ([[Narmada]] valley) and [[Vidarbha]], taking advantage of the turmoil caused by [[Indo-Greek Kingdom|Greek]] invasions of northern India. He performed [[Vedic sacrifice]]s including [[Ashvamedha]] and [[Rajasuya]]. Instead of the Buddhists, he patronised Brahmins and donated a substantial amount of wealth to them.{{sfn|Sen|1999|pp=172–176}} The [[Hathigumpha inscription]] of the [[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]] king [[Kharavela]] mentions a king named "Satakani" or "Satakamini", who some{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=382}} identify with Satakarni I. The inscription describes dispatching of an army and Kharavela's threat to a city. Since the inscription is only partially legible, different scholars interpret the events described in the inscription differently. According to R. D. Banerji and Sailendra Nath Sen, Kharavela sent out an army against Satakarni.{{sfn|Sen|1999|pp=176–177}} According to Bhagwal Lal, Satakarni wanted to avoid an invasion of his kingdom by Kharavela. So, he sent horses, elephants, chariots and men to Kharavela as a tribute.<ref name="Bhagwan_1883">{{cite book |title=Proceedings of the Leyden International Oriental Congress for 1883 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=womFcFAtU7MC&pg=PA144 |year=1885 |author=Bhagwanlal Indraji |chapter=The Hâtigumphâ and three other inscriptions in the Udayagiri caves near Cuttack |pages=144–180 |author-link = Bhagwanlal Indraji}}</ref> According to Sudhakar Chattopadhyaya, Kharavela's army diverted its course after failing to advance against Satakarni.{{sfn|Chattopadhyaya|1974|pp=44–50}} According to Alain Daniélou, Kharavela was friendly with Satakarni, and only crossed his kingdom without any clashes.<ref name="Alan_2003">{{cite book |author=Alain Daniélou |title=A Brief History of India |url=https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofin00dani |url-access=registration |date=11 February 2003 |publisher=Inner Traditions / Bear & Co |isbn=978-1-59477-794-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofin00dani/page/139 139]–141}}</ref>

Satakarni's successor [[Satakarni II]] ruled for 56 years, during which he captured eastern [[Malwa]] from the [[Shunga Empire|Shungas]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Indian History |publisher=Tata McGraw-Hill Education |isbn=9781259063237 |page=251 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ORnlAAAAQBAJ&pg=SL1-PA251 |language=en}}</ref> This allowed him access to the Buddhist site of [[Sanchi]], in which he is credited with the building of the decorated gateways around the original [[Mauryan Empire]] and [[Sunga]] [[stupa]]s.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jain |first1=Kailash Chand |title=Malwa Through The Ages |date=1972 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |isbn=9788120808249 |page=154 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_3O7q7cU7k0C&pg=PA154 |language=en}}</ref> Satakarni II is known from a dedicatory inscription at [[Sanchi]].{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|p=169}} He was succeeded by Lambodara. The coins of Lambodara's son and successor Apilaka have been found in eastern Madhya Pradesh.{{sfn|Sen|1999|pp=172–176}} However, Andrew Ollett argues that there is only one Satakarni, as the alleged first Satakarni is assigned ten years, and the second, fifty years by other scholars, but the only dated inscription of this king is Candankheda seal from his reign's year 30, around 60 BCE, and he ruled ca. 88–42 BCE.{{sfn|Ollett|2017|pp=190, 195}}<ref>[https://www.academia.edu/8133768/Two_dated_S%C4%81tav%C4%81hana_epigraphs Falk, Harry, (2009). "Two Dated Satavahana Epigraphs"], in Indo-Iranian Journal 52, pp. 197-200.</ref>

==== Art of Sanchi ====
The Satavahanas contributed greatly to the embellishment of the Buddhist stupa of [[Sanchi]]. It was heavily repaired under King Satakarni II. The gateways and the balustrade were built after 70 BCE, and appear to have been commissioned by the Satavahanas. An inscription on the Southern Gateway records that it was the work of Satakarni II's royal architect Ananda.{{sfn|Dhavalikar|2004|p=19}} An inscription records the gift of one of the top [[architrave]]s of the Southern Gateway by the artisans of the Satavahana Emperor [[Satakarni]]:

{{Blockquote|Gift of Ananda, the son of Vasithi, the foreman of the artisans of rajan Siri Satakarni<ref>Original text "L1: Rano Siri Satakarnisa L2: avesanisa Vasithiputasa L3: Anamdasa danam", {{cite book |first=John |last=Marshall |author-link=John Marshall (archaeologist) |title=A guide to Sanchi |page=52}}</ref>}}

{| class="wikitable" style="margin:0 auto;" align="center" colspan="3" cellpadding="3" style="font-size: 80%; width: 100%;"
|-
|align=center colspan=3 style="background:#FFDAB9; font-size: 100%;"| '''Sanchi under the Satavahanas''' 1st century BCE/CE.
|-
|colspan=2 align="center"style="font-size: 100%; width: 1%;"|[[File:East Gateway - Stupa 1 - Sanchi Hill 2013-02-21 4398.JPG|250px]]
|<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
File:Sanchi 6-09.jpg|Architrave
File:Sanchi2 N-MP-220.jpg|Architrave
File:Yakshini Sanchi Stupa 1 Eastern Gateway.jpg|[[Yakshini]].
File:Elephants Eastern Gateway Stupa 1 Sanchi.jpg|Pillar capital.
File:Sanchi lion pillar with flame palmette.jpg|Lion pillar capital.
</gallery> 
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
File:Chankrama Sanchi Stupa 1 Eastern Gateway Left pillar Front top panel.jpg|The Miracle of Walking in the air at Savrasti.
File:Pipal tree temple of Bodh Gaya depicted in Sanchi Stupa 1 Eastern Gateway.jpg|[[Pipal tree]].
File:Miracle of the Buddha walking on a River - East Face - South Pillar - East Gateway - Stupa 1 - Sanchi.jpg|Miracle of the Buddha walking on the River [[Nairanjana]]
File:Bimbisara with his royal cortege issuing from the city of Rajagriha to visit the Buddha.jpg|[[Bimbisara]] with his royal cortege issuing from the city of [[Rajagriha]] to visit the Buddha.
File:Foreigners making a dedication to Stupa 1at the Northern Gateway of Stupa 1 Sanchi.jpg|Foreigners making a dedication to the Great Stupa at Sanchi.
File:Procession of king Suddhodana from Kapilavastu in full Sanchi Stupa 1 Eastern Gateway.jpg|Procession of king [[Suddhodana]] from [[Kapilavastu (ancient city)|Kapilavastu]].
</gallery>
|}

=== First Western Satraps invasion under Nahapana ===
{{Main|Western Satraps}}
{{see also|Saka-Satavahana Wars}}

Little is known about Apilaka's successors, except cryptic references to one Kuntala Satakarni. The next well-known ruler of the dynasty was [[Hāla]], who composed ''[[Gaha Sattasai]]'' in Maharashtri Prakrit. Like Hala, his four successors also ruled for very short periods (a total of 12 years), indicating troubled times for the Satavahanas.{{sfn|Sen|1999|pp=172–176}}

Epigraphic and numismatic evidence suggests that the Satavahanas earlier controlled the northern [[Deccan Plateau]], the northern [[Konkan]] coastal plains, and the mountain passes connecting these two regions. During 15–40 CE, their northern neighbours – the [[Western Kshatrapa]]s – extended their influence into these regions.{{sfn|Fynes|1995|p=43}} The Western Kshatrapa ruler [[Nahapana]] is known to have ruled the former Satavahana territory, as attested by the inscriptions of his governor and son-in-law, [[Rishabhadatta]].{{sfn|Fynes|1995|p=44}}

=== First revival ===
[[File:Gautamiputra Sri Satakarni overstruck on a coin of Nahapana.jpg|thumb|A coin of [[Nahapana]] restruck by the [[Satavahana]] king [[Gautamiputra Satakarni]]. Nahapana's profile and coin legend are still clearly visible.]]
[[File:Saka-Yavana-Pahlava inscription in the Nasik cave 3 inscription of Queen Gotami Balasiri.jpg|thumb|The defeated "[[Western Satraps|Saka]]-[[Indo-Greeks|Yavana]]-[[Indo-Parthians|Palhava]]" ([[Brahmi script]]: '''{{script|Brah|𑀲𑀓 𑀬𑀯𑀦 𑀧𑀮𑁆𑀳𑀯)}}''' mentioned in the [[Nasik Caves|Nasik cave 3]] inscription of Queen Gotami Balasiri (end of line 5 of the inscription).<ref name="EI60">{{cite book |last1=Hultzsch |first1=E. |title=Epigraphia Indica Vol.8 |date=1906 |page=60 |url=https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.56654#page/n75/mode/2up}}</ref>]]

The Satavahana power was revived by [[Gautamiputra Satakarni]], who is considered the greatest of the Satavahana rulers.{{sfn|Higham|2009|p=299}} Charles Higham dates his reign {{circa|103|127 CE}}.{{sfn|Higham|2009|p=299}} S. Nagaraju dates it 106–130 CE,<ref name="RKS_2013">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZXwcAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA16 |title=Ajanta Paintings: 86 Panels of Jatakas and Other Themes |author=Rajesh Kumar Singh |publisher=Hari Sena |year=2013 |isbn=9788192510750 |pages=15–16 }}</ref> the new consensus is shared by Shailendra Bhandare, Akira Shimada, and Oskar von Hinuber, who regard [[Gautamiputra Satakarni]]'s reign was ca. 60–85 CE, as it is evident from history that "Gautamiputra Saatakarni" in the year 78 CE defeated Vikramaditya of Ujjain, which in turn was celebrated and named "Yug Aadi" means Beginning of New Era (New Year for Andhra, Karnataka, Maharashtra (Gudi padwa), Telangana states). Ever since these states people followed Saatavaahana calendar.<ref name="auto2">Bhandare, Shailendra, (1999). Historical Analysis of the Satavahana Era: A study of Coins, University of Mumbai, pp. 168-178.</ref><ref>Shimada, Akira, (2012). Early Buddhist Architecture in Context: The Great Stupa at Amaravati (ca 300 BCE - 300 CE), Brill, p. 51.</ref><ref>von Hinuber, Oskar, (2016). "Buddhist Texts and Buddhist Images: New Evidence from Kanaganahalli (Karnataka/India)", ARIRIAB Vol. XIX (March 2016), p. 16.</ref> Andrew Ollett considers it as 60–84 CE.{{sfn|Ollett|2017|p=189}} The king defeated by him appears to have been the Western Kshatrapa ruler [[Nahapana]], as suggested by Nahapana's coins overstuck with names and titles of Gautamiputra.{{sfn|Fynes|1995|p=44}} The [[Nashik]] ''[[prashasti]]'' inscription of Gautamiputra's mother Gautami Balashri, dated to the 20th year after his death, records his achievements. The most liberal interpretation of the inscription suggests that his kingdom extended from the present-day Rajasthan in the north to Krishna river in the south, and from Saurashtra in the west to Kalinga in the east. He assumed the titles ''Raja-Raja'' (King of Kings) and ''Maharaja'' (Great King), and was described as the Lord of [[Vindhya range|Vindhya]].{{sfn|Sen|1999|pp=172–176}}

During the last years of his reign, his administration was apparently handled by his mother, which could have been a result of an illness or military preoccupation.{{sfn|Sen|1999|pp=172–176}} According to the Nasik inscription made by his mother Gautami Balashri, he was the one ...<ref>Inscription of Queen Mother Gautami Balashri at [[Pandavleni Caves#Cave No.3, "Gautamiputra vihara" (circa 150 CE)|Cave No.3]] of the [[Pandavleni Caves]] in [[Nashik]]</ref>

{{Blockquote|… who crushed down the pride and conceit of the [[Kshatriyas]]; who destroyed the [[Saka]]s ([[Western Satraps]]), [[Yavana]]s ([[Indo-Greek]]s) and [[Pahlava]]s ([[Indo-Parthians]]),... who rooted out the Khakharata family (the Kshaharata family of [[Nahapana]]); who restored the glory of the Satavahana race.|Inscription of Queen Mother Gautami Balashri at [[Pandavleni Caves#Cave No.3, "Gautamiputra vihara" (circa 150 CE)|Cave No.3]] of the [[Pandavleni Caves]] in [[Nashik]].}}

Gautamiputra was succeeded by his son [[Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi]] (or Pulumayi). According to Sailendra Nath Sen, Pulumavi ruled from 96 to 119 CE.{{sfn|Sen|1999|pp=172–176}} According to Charles Higham, he ascended the throne around 110 CE,{{sfn|Higham|2009|p=299}} according to Shailendra Bhandare, Akira Shimada, and Oskar von Hinuber [[Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi]] ruled ca. 85–125 CE,<ref name="auto2"/><ref>Shimada, Akira, (2012). Early Buddhist Architecture in Context: The Great Stupa at Amaravati (ca 300 BCE - 300 CE), Brill, p. 52.</ref><ref>von Hinuber, Oskar, (2016). "Buddhist Texts and Buddhist Images: New Evidence from Kanaganahalli (Karnataka/India)", ARIRIAB Vol. XIX (March 2016), p. 15.</ref> and Andrew Ollett considers it to be ca. 84–119 CE.{{sfn|Ollett|2017|p=189}} Pulumavi features in a large number of Satavahana inscriptions and his coins have been found distributed over a wide area. This indicates that he maintained Gautamiputra's territory, and ruled a prosperous kingdom. He is believed to have added the Bellary region to Satakarni's kingdom. His coins featuring ships with double mast have been found on the [[Coromandel Coast]], indicating involvement in maritime trade and naval power. The old [[Amaravati Stupa|stupa at Amaravati]] was perhaps renovated during his reign.{{sfn|Sen|1999|pp=172–176}} though recent scholarship tends to spread the dates of this wider.

=== Second Western Satraps invasion under Rudradaman I ===
[[File:Vashishtiputra Sri Satakarni.jpg|thumb|Coin of [[Vashishtiputra Satakarni]].]]
Pulumavi's successor was his brother [[Vashishtiputra Satakarni]]. According to S. N. Sen he ruled during 120–149 CE;{{sfn|Sen|1999|pp=172–176}} according to Charles Higham, his regnal years spanned 138–145 CE.{{sfn|Higham|2009|p=299}} He entered into a marriage alliance with the Western Satraps, marrying the daughter of [[Rudradaman I]].{{sfn|Sen|1999|pp=172–176}}

The [[Junagadh]] inscription of Rudradaman I states that he defeated Satakarni, the lord of Dakshinapatha (Deccan), twice. It also states that he spared the life of the defeated ruler because of close relations:{{sfn|Higham|2009|p=299}}

{{Blockquote|"Rudradaman (...) who obtained good report because he, in spite of having twice in fair fight completely defeated Satakarni, the lord of [[Dakshinapatha]], on account of the nearness of their connection did not destroy him."|Junagadh rock inscription}}

According to [[D. R. Bhandarkar]] and [[Dineshchandra Sircar]], the ruler defeated by Rudradaman was Gautamiputra Satakarni. However, [[E. J. Rapson]] believed that the defeated ruler was his son [[Vasishthiputra Pulumavi]].{{sfn|Dutta|1990|p=52}} Shailendra Nath Sen and [[Charles Higham (archaeologist)|Charles Higham]] believe that the defeated ruler was Vashishtiputra's successor Shivaskanda or Shiva Sri Pulumayi (or Pulumavi).{{sfn|Higham|2009|p=299}}{{sfn|Sen|1999|pp=172–176}}

As a result of his victories, Rudradaman regained all the former territories previously held by Nahapana, except for the extreme south territories of [[Pune]] and [[Nasik]]. Satavahana dominions were limited to their original base in the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] and eastern central India around [[Amaravathi village, Guntur district|Amaravati]].

=== Second revival ===
[[File:Gautamiputra Rajni Shri Satakarni.jpg|thumb|Coin of [[Yajna Sri Satakarni]], [[British Museum]].]]

[[Sri Yajna Sātakarni]], the last person belonging to the main Satavahana dynastic line, briefly revived the Satavahana rule. According to S. N. Sen, he ruled during 170–199 CE.{{sfn|Sen|1999|pp=172–176}} Charles Higham dates the end of his reign to 181 CE. His coins feature images of ships, which suggest naval and marine trade success.{{sfn|Higham|2009|p=299}} Wide distribution of his coins, and inscriptions at Nashik, Kanheri and Guntur indicate that his rule extended over both eastern and western parts of Deccan. He recovered much of the territory lost the Western Kshatrapas, and issued silver coinage, imitating them. During the last years of his reign, the [[Abhira dynasty#Abhira Sivadatta|Abhiras]] captured the northern parts of the kingdom, around Nashik region.{{sfn|Sen|1999|pp=172–176}}

=== Decline ===
After Yajna Satakarni, the dynasty was soon extinguished following the rise of its feudatories, perhaps on account of a decline in central power.<ref>""The different branches of the Satavahana family, which ruled in different parts of the kingdom after the decline in central authority, were soon ousted by new powers some of which were probably feudatories at the outset." {{cite book |last=Majumdar |first=Ramesh Chandra |title=Ancient India |location=Delhi |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=2003}}</ref> On the other hand, the Western Satraps would continue to prosper for the next two centuries, until their extinction by the [[Gupta Empire]]. Yajna Sri was succeeded by Madhariputra Swami Isvarasena. The next king Vijaya ruled for 6 years. His son Vasishthiputra Sri Chadha Satakarni ruled for 10 years.{{sfn|Sen|1999|pp=172–176}} Pulumavi IV, the last king of the main line, ruled until {{circa|225 CE}}. During his reign, several Buddhist monuments were constructed at sites including [[Nagarjunakonda]] and [[Amaravati Stupa|Amaravati]].{{sfn|Higham|2009|p=299}} Madhya Pradesh was also part of his kingdom.{{sfn|Sen|1999|pp=172–176}}

After the death of Pulumavi IV, the Satavahana empire fragmented into five smaller kingdoms:{{sfn|Sen|1999|pp=172–176}}

# Northern part, ruled by a collateral branch of the Satavahanas (which ended in early 4th century{{sfn|Higham|2009|p=299}})
# Western part around [[Nashik]], ruled by the [[Abhira dynasty]]
# Eastern part ([[Krishna district|Krishna]]-[[Guntur district|Guntur]] region), ruled by the [[Andhra Ikshvaku]]s
# South-western parts (northern Karanataka), ruled by the [[Chutu dynasty|Chutus]] of [[Banavasi]]
# South-eastern part, ruled by the [[Pallava dynasty|Pallavas]]

== Territorial extent ==
{{Continental Asia in 100 BCE}}
The Satavahana territory included northern [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] region, spanning the present-day [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Maharashtra]] and [[Telangana]] states. At times, their rule also extended to present-day [[Gujarat]], [[Karnataka]] and [[Madhya Pradesh]]. The Nashik ''[[prashasti]]'' inscription issued by Gautami Balashri, the mother of [[Gautamiputra Satakarni]], claims that her son ruled an extensive territory that stretched from [[Gujarat]] in the north to [[North Karnataka|northern Karnataka]] in the south. It is not clear if Gautamiputra had effective control over these claimed territories. In any case, historical evidence suggests that his control over these territories did not last long.{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|p=170}} Moreover, this realm was not continuous: many areas in this region remained under the control of the hunter-gatherers and other tribal communities.{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|p=439}}

As per historian [[M. Govinda Pai]], Ptolemy (100–170 CE) states that when Siro Polemaios ([[Vasishthiputra Pulumavi|Vasishthiputra Sri Pulumayi]]) was ruling from his capital Paithan in the north (reign c. 85-125 CE), another Satavahana prince called Baleokouros or Baleokoura (Vilivayakura) was ruling from Hippokoura ([[Huvina Hipparagi]]) of Basavana Bagewadi taluk of [[Vijayapura district]] of present Karnataka in the south who was none other than his own son. Pai identifies this prince Vilivaya-kura as another form of Vilivaya Kumara (meaning the son of Vilivaya), and he goes on to prove that Vilivaya is indeed merely another rendering of Pulumayi which was transformed as per [[Prakrit]] rules, the spoken form of this language during that period, and due to common parlance. Thus, Vilivayakura means a son of [[Vasishthiputra Pulumavi|Pulumayi]] who was ruling from Huvina Hipparagi in present Karnataka. Pai identifies all the 10 cities mentioned by Ptolemy as lying between the river Benda (or Binda) or [[Bhima River|Bhima river]] in the north and Banaouasei ([[Banavasi]]) in the south, viz. Nagarouris (Nagur), Tabaso (Tavasi), Inde ([[Indi, Karnataka|Indi]]), Tiripangalida ([[Gadhinglaj]]), Hippokoura ([[Huvina Hipparagi]]), Soubouttou ([[Savadi, Gadag|Savadi]]), Sirimalaga ([[Malkheda|Malkhed]]), Kalligeris ([[Kalkeri]]), Modogoulla ([[Mudgal]]) and Petirgala ([[Pattadakal]]), as being located in Northern Karnataka.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pai |first=M. Govinda |date=1942 |title=THE VIḶIVĀYAKURAS AND SIVALAKURA OF THE KOLHAPUR COINS |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44002572 |journal=Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute |volume=23 |issue=1/4 |pages=319–329 |jstor=44002572 |issn=0378-1143}}</ref>

The Satavahana capital kept shifting with time. The Nashik inscription describes Gautamiputra as the lord of Benakataka, suggesting that this was the name of his capital. [[Ptolemy]] (2nd century CE) mentioned [[Pratishthana]] (modern [[Paithan]]) as the capital of Pulumavi.{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|p=170}} At other times, the Satavahana capitals included [[Dharanikota]] and [[Junnar]].<ref name="sat">{{citation |last=Kosambi|first=Damodar Dharmanand|title=Introduction to the study of India history|publisher=Popular Prakashan |location=Mumbai|year=1956|edition=second 1975|pages=243, 244|chapter=Satavahana Origins|isbn=978-81-7154-038-9}}</ref> [[M. K. Dhavalikar]] theorised that the original Satavahana capital was located at Junnar, but had to be moved to Pratishthana because of [[Western Kshatrapa|Saka]]-[[Kushana]] incursions from the north-west.{{sfn|Dhavalikar|2004|p=22}}

Several Satavahana-era inscriptions record grants to religious monasteries. The settlements most frequently mentioned as the residences of donors in these inscriptions include the sea ports of [[Sopara]], [[Kalyan]], [[Bharuch]], Kuda (unidentified), and [[Chaul]]. The most frequently mentioned inland settlements include Dhanyakatakam/[[Dharanikota]], Junnar, [[Nashik]], Paithan, and [[Karad]].{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|p=170}}

Other important Satavahana sites in western Deccan include Govardhana, Nevasa, [[Ter, Maharashtra|Ter]], and Vadgaon-Madhavpur. The ones in eastern Deccan include Amaravati, Dhulikatta, Kotalingala and Peddabankur.{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|p=171}}

== Administration ==
[[File:Kanaganahalli Asoka with inscription.jpg|thumb|upright|Ashoka with his Queens, at [[Sannati]] ([[Kanaganahalli|Kanaganahalli Stupa]]), 1st-3rd century CE. The inscription "Rāya Asoko" ('''{{script|Brah|𑀭𑀸𑀬 𑀅𑀲𑁄𑀓𑁄}}''', "King Ashoka") in [[Brahmi script]] is carved on the relief.<ref name="auto8">{{cite book |last1=Thapar |first1=Romila |title=Aśoka and the Decline of the Mauryas |date=2012 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199088683 |page=27 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NoAyDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT27 |language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=333}}{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|p=176}}]]
The Satavahanas followed the administration guidelines of the [[Shastra]]s. Their government was less top-heavy than that of the Mauryans, and featured several levels of feudatories:{{sfn|Sen|1999|pp=172–176}}

* Rajan, the hereditary rulers
* Rajas, petty princes who struck coins in their own names
* Maharathis, hereditary lords who could grant villages in their own names and maintained matrimonial relations with the ruling family
* Mahabhojas
* Mahasenapati (civil administrator under Pulumavi II; governor of a [[janapada]] under Pulumavi IV)
* Mahatalavara ("great watchman")

The royal princes (''kumara''s) were appointed as viceroys of the provinces.{{sfn|Sen|1999|pp=172–176}}

The {{transliteration|pra|ahara}} appears to have been the largest geographical subdivision of the Satavahana polity. Several inscriptions refer to {{transliteration|pra|aharas}} named after the governors appointed to rule them (e.g. Govardhanahara, Mamalahara, Satavanihara and Kapurahara).{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|p=170}} This suggests that the Satavahanas attempted to build a formal administrative and revenue collection structure.{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|p=173}}

The inscriptions of Gautamiputra Satakarni suggest the existence of a bureaucratic structure, although it is not certain how stable and effective this structure was. For example, two inscriptions from Nashik Cave 11 record donations of agricultural land to ascetic communities. They state that the ascetics would enjoy tax exemption and non-interference from the royal officials. The first inscription states that the grant was approved by Gautamiputra's minister Sivagupta on the king's verbal orders, and preserved by the "great lords". The second inscription records a grant by Gautamiputra and his mother, and mentions Syamaka as the minister of the Govardhana {{transliteration|pra|ahara}}. It states that the charter was approved by a woman named Lota, who according to archaeologist [[James Burgess (archaeologist)|James Burgess]]' interpretation, was the chief [[lady-in-waiting]] of Gautamiputra's mother.{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|p=177}}

The Satavahana-era inscriptions mention three types of settlements: ''nagara'' (city), ''nigama'' (market town) and ''gāma'' (village).{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|p=170}}

According to Sastri, "the Satavahanas were described as 'lords of the three oceans' and promoted overseas colonization and trade. Under them, Buddhist art attained the superb forms of beauty and elegance preserved to this day in the cave-temples of western India and the survivals from the stupa of Amaravati, Goli, Nagarjunikonda".<ref name="kans-ahosi">{{cite book |last1=Sastri|first1=Nilakanta K. A. |title=A History of South India |date=1955|publisher=Oxford University Press |page=3|url=https://archive.org/stream/K.A.NilakantaSastriBooks/K.%20A.%20Nilakanta%20Sastri/A-History-of-South-India#page/n11/mode/2up |language=en}}</ref> This tradition was followed by successors of Satavahana in the eastern and western Deccan.<ref name="kans-ahosi"/>

== Economy ==

[[File:Indian ship on lead coin of Vashishtiputra Shri Pulumavi.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Indian ship on lead coin of [[Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi]], testimony to the naval, seafaring and trading capabilities of the Satavahanas during the 1st–2nd century CE.]]

The Satavahanas participated in (and benefited from) economic expansion through intensification of agriculture, increased production of other commodities, and trade within and beyond the Indian subcontinent.{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|p=178}}

During the Satavahana period, several large settlements emerged in the fertile areas, especially along the major rivers. The amount of land under agricultural use also expanded significantly, as a result of forest clearance and construction of irrigation reservoirs.{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|p=173}}

The exploitation of sites with mineral resources may have increased during the Satavahana period, leading to the emergence of new settlements in these areas. Such sites facilitated commerce and crafts (such as ceramic ware). The increased craft production during the Satavahana period is evident from archaeological discoveries at sites such as [[Kotalingala]], as well as epigraphic references to artisans and [[guild]]s.{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|p=173}}

The Satavahanas controlled the Indian sea coast, and as a result, they dominated the growing Indian trade with the Roman Empire. The ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]'' mentions two important Satavahana trade centres: Pratishthana and Tagara. Other important urban centres included Kondapur, Banavasi and Madhavpur. [[Nanaghat]] was the site of an important pass that linked the Satavahana capital Pratishthana to the sea.{{sfn|Higham|2009|p=299}}

== Religion ==

[[File:Statuetta indiana di Lakshmi, avorio, da pompei, 1-50 dc ca., 149425, 02.JPG|thumb|200px|The [[Pompeii Lakshmi]] ivory statuette was found in the ruin of [[Pompeii]] (destroyed in an eruption of [[Mount Vesuvius]] in 79 CE). It is thought to have come from [[Bhokardan]] in the Satavahana realm in the first half of the 1st century CE. It testifies to [[Indo-Roman trade relations]] in the beginning of our era.]]
The Satavahanas patronised [[Brahmanism]] and [[Mahayana Buddhism]], performed Vedic sacrifices, and claimed Brahmanical status.{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|p=172}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Thien |first=Phan Dong |page=128|quote=The Sätavahanas are said to be supporters of Mahayana Buddhism and Brahmanism. A.K. Warder says that Mahāyānism was most prosperous and many stupas, monasteries and caves were built in the Sätavahana empire.|url=https://archive.org/details/shdgnga.an-analytical-study-of-the-emergence-and-growth-of-mahayana-buddhism-in/page/128/mode/1up |title=An Analytical Study of the Emergence and Growth of Mahāyāna Buddhism in India (1st Century B.C. – 6th Century A.D.)|date=31 December 2011 |publisher=Maharshi Dayanand University |language=English}}</ref> They also made generous donations to Buddhist monasteries.{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|p=176}} The lay people in the Satavahana period perhaps generally did not exclusively support a particular religious group .{{sfn|Fynes|1995|p=43}}

The [[Naneghat]] inscription of Nayanika, recorded on the walls of a cave, mentions that her husband Satakarni I performed several [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic]] sacrifices, including ''[[ashvamedha]]'' (horse sacrifice), ''[[rajasuya]]'' (royal consecration), and ''agnyadheya'' (fire ceremony).{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|p=175}} The inscription also records substantial fees paid to Brahmin priests and attendees for these sacrifices. For example, 10,001 cows were granted for the ''Bhagala-Dasaratra'' sacrifice; and 24,400 coins were granted for another sacrifice, whose name is not clear.{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|pp=175–176}}

A number of Buddhist monastic sites emerged in the Deccan region during the Satavahana period. However, the exact relations between these monasteries and the Satavahana government is not clear.{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|p=171}} The [[Pandavleni Caves]] inscription issued during the reign of Kanha states that the cave was excavated by ''maha-matra'' (officer-in-charge) of the [[shramana]]s (non-[[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic]] ascetics). Based on this, Sudhakar Chattopadhyaya concludes that Kanha favoured [[Buddhism]], and had an administrative department dedicated to the welfare of Buddhist monks.{{sfn|Chattopadhyaya|1974|pp=17–56}} The most common among donors were merchants, and many of the monasteries were located along the important trade routes.{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|p=171}} The merchants probably donated to the monasteries, because these sites facilitated trade by serving as rest houses, and possibly by directly participating in the trade.{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|p=172}} The monasteries appear to have been an important venue for displaying charitable donations, including the donations made to non-Buddhists (especially Brahmins).{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|p=176}}

== Language ==
Most of the known Satavahana inscriptions and coin legends are in [[Monumental Prakrit]].{{sfn|Ollett|2017|p=13}} These inscriptions are often termed "[[Prakrit]]", defined broadly to include every [[Middle Indo-Aryan languages|Middle Indo-Aryan language]] that is "not exactly Sanskrit". The language of the inscriptions is actually closer to Sanskrit than to the literary Prakrit, [[Maharashtri Prakrit]],<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gE7udqBkACwC&q=Maharashtri+Prakrit+was+the+official+language+of+the+Satavahana+dynasty |title=A Comprehensive History Of Ancient India (3 Vol. Set) |date=1 December 2003 |publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd |isbn=978-81-207-2503-4 |pages=103 |language=en}}</ref> used in the ''[[Gaha Sattasai]]'' anthology.{{sfn|Ollett|2017|p=38}}
Considered an ancestor language of [[Marathi language|modern Marathi]],<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q3tAqIU0dPsC&q=official+language+Maharashtri+Prakrit+Satavahanas&pg=PA118|title=One Thousand Languages: Living, Endangered, and Lost|last=Austin|first=Peter|publisher=University of California Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0520255609|location=California|pages=118}}</ref> Maharashtri Prakrit was adopted as a courtly,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Karve |first1=Irawati Karmarkar |title=Maharashtra, Land and Its People |date=1968 |publisher=Directorate of Government Printing, Stationery and Publications, Maharashtra State |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oLkLAQAAIAAJ&q=maharashtri+prakrit+was+the+official+language+of+the+satavahana+dynasty |language=en}}</ref> or official,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Daniélou |first1=Alain |title=A Brief History of India |date=11 February 2003 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-1-59477-794-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xlwoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT77 |language=en}}</ref> language by the Satavahana dynasty.

The Satvahanas also used [[Sanskrit]] in political inscriptions, but this was rare.{{sfn|Ollett|2017|p=39}} A fragmentary inscription found close to the Nashik [[prashasti]] of Gautamiputra Satakarni uses Sanskrit verses in ''vasanta-tilaka'' metre to describe a deceased king (probably Gautamiputra). A Sanskrit inscription found at [[Sannati]] probably refers to Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni, one of whose coins also features a Sanskrit legend.{{sfn|Ollett|2017|p=41}}

According to Gunadhya, besides Sanskrit and Prakrit there is another language called 'Desi' which may mean the native language or the language of common man. Commenting on the Desi language Dr.D.C.Sircar remarks "It was apparently Early [[Telugu language|Telugu]] which was in older times very much closer to [[Tamil language|Tamil]] than it is now was the mother tongue of the common people". Later Satavahana kings like Gauthamiputra Satakarni, Vastistiputra pulamovi and Yajna Satakarni had their names in two languages i.e.; Prakrit and Desi (possibly [[Old Tamil]]), a native language.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hanumantha Rao |first=B. S. L. |title=The age of Satavahanas |date=2001 |publisher=Potti Sreeramulu Telugu Univ |isbn=81-86073-86-8 |edition=2. print |location=Hyderabad |oclc=634973239}}</ref>

The Satavahanas also issued bilingual coins featuring Middle Indo-Aryan language on one side, and Desi language (possibly [[Old Tamil]]) on the other.{{sfn|Ollett|2017|p=43}}

== Inscriptions ==
[[File:017 Cave 3, Inscription (33928306816).jpg|thumb|400px|Inscription of [[Gautamiputra Satakarni]], [[Nasik Caves]] No.3, Inscription No.4. Circa 150 CE.]]
Several [[Brahmi script]] inscriptions are available from the Satavahana period, but most of these record donations to Buddhist institutions by individuals, and do not provide much information about the dynasty. The inscriptions issued by the Satavahana royals themselves also primarily concern religious donations, although some of them provide some information about the rulers and the imperial structure.{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|p=163}}

The earliest extant Satavahana inscription is from [[Nasik Caves|Nashik Cave 19]], which states that the cave was commissioned by [[Mahamatra]] Saman of Nashik during the reign of king Kanha.{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|p=168}}

At [[Naneghat]], an inscription issued by Nayanika, the widow of [[Satakarni I]], has been found. It records Nayanika's lineage and mentions the Vedic sacrifices performed by the royal family.{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|p=168}} Another inscription at Naneghat comprises names of Satavahana royals, appearing as labels over their [[bas-relief]] portraits. The portraits are now completely eroded, but the inscription is believed to be contemporary to Nayanika's inscription on a paleographic basis.{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|p=169}}

The next oldest Satavahana-era inscription appears on a sculpted gateway element of Stupa 1 at [[Sanchi]]. It states that the element was donated by Ananda, who was the son of Siri Satakarni's foreman of artisans. This inscription is probably from the reign of [[Satakarni II]].{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|p=169}}

== Coinage ==
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| header = Satavahana bilingual coinage in Prakrit and Dravidian (possibly [[Old Tamil]]) (c.150 CE)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nākacāmi |first1=Irāmaccantiran̲ |last2=Nagaswamy |first2=R. |title=Tamil Coins: A Study |date=1981 |publisher=Institute of Epigraphy, Tamilnadu State Department of Archaeology |page=132 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VjsfAAAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref>
| total_width = 300
| image1 = Satavahanas. Sri Vasisthiputra Pulumavi.jpg
| caption1 =
| image2 = Vasishthiputra Pulumavi coin legend.jpg
| caption2 = Bilingual coinage of Sri [[Vasishthiputra Pulumavi]] in [[Prakrit]] and [[Dravidian language|Dravidian]] (possibly [[Old Tamil]]), and transcription of the obverse [[Prakrit]] legend.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nākacāmi |first1=Irāmaccantiran̲ |last2=Nagaswamy |first2=R. |title=Tamil Coins: A Study |date=1981 |publisher=Institute of Epigraphy, Tamilnadu State Department of Archaeology |page=132 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VjsfAAAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref>
 '''Obverse:''' Portrait of the king. Legend in [[Prakrit]] in the [[Brahmi script]] (starting at 12 o'clock): '''{{script|Brah|𑀭𑀜𑁄 𑀯𑀸𑀲𑀺𑀣𑀺𑀧𑀼𑀢𑀲 𑀲𑀺𑀭𑀺 𑀧𑀼𑀎𑀼𑀫𑀸𑀯𑀺𑀲}}''' ''Raño Vāsiṭhiputasa Siri-Puḷumāvisa'' "Of King Lord Pulumavi, son of Vasishthi" '''Reverse:''' [[Ujjain]] and [[Arched-hill symbol|arched-hill]] symbols. Legend in [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] (much more closer to [[Tamil language|Tamil]],<ref name="Sircar113">{{cite book |last1=Sircar |first1=D. C. |title=Studies in Indian Coins |date=2008 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |isbn=9788120829732 |page=113 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m1JYwP5tVQUC&pg=PA113 |language=en}}</ref> and the Dravidian script,<ref name="Sircar113"/> essentially similar to the Brahmi script<ref name="AEX"/> (starting at 12 o'clock): '''{{script|Brah|𑀅𑀭𑀳𑀡𑀓𑀼 𑀯𑀸𑀳𑀺𑀣𑀺 𑀫𑀸𑀓𑀡𑀓𑀼 𑀢𑀺𑀭𑀼 𑀧𑀼𑀮𑀼𑀫𑀸𑀯𑀺𑀓𑀼}}''' ''Arahaṇaku Vāhitti Mākaṇaku Tiru Pulumāviku''<ref>{{cite book |title=Epigraphia Āndhrica |date=1969 |publisher=Government of Andhra Pradesh |page=XV |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ek5mAAAAMAAJ&q=Arahanaku+Vahitti+Makanaku+Tiru+Pulumaviku |language=en}}</ref> or: ''Aracanaku Vācitti Makaṇaku Tiru Pulumāviku''<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nākacāmi |first1=Irāmaccantiran̲ |last2=Nagaswamy |first2=R. |title=Tamil Coins: A Study |date=1981 |publisher=Institute of Epigraphy, Tamilnadu State Department of Archaeology |page=132 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VjsfAAAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref> "Of King Tiru Pulumavi, son of Vasishthi"<ref name="AEX">"The Sātavāhana issues are uniscriptural, Brahmi but bilingual, Prākrit and Old Tamil/Proto-Telugu." in {{cite book |title=Epigraphia Andhrica |date=1975 |page=x |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D7u1AAAAIAAJ |language=en}}</ref>
| footer =
}}

The Satavahanas were the earliest Indian rulers to issue their own coins with portraits of their rulers, starting with king [[Gautamiputra Satakarni]], a practice derived from that of the [[Western Kshatrapas]] he defeated.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Art |first1=Los Angeles County Museum of |last2=Pal |first2=Pratapaditya |title=Indian Sculpture: Circa 500 B.C.-A.D. 700 |date=1986 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=9780520059917 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/indiansculpturec00losa/page/72 72]–73 |url=https://archive.org/details/indiansculpturec00losa |url-access=registration |language=en}}</ref> The Western Satraps themselves had been following the features of the coins of the [[Indo-Greek]] kings to the northwest.{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=53}}

Thousands of lead, copper and [[potin]] Satavahana coins have been discovered in the Deccan region; a few gold and silver coins are also available. These coins do not feature uniform design or size, and suggest that multiple minting locations existed within the Satavahana territory, leading to regional differences in coinage.{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|p=163}}

The coin legends of the Satavahanas, in all areas and all periods, used a [[Prakrit]] dialect without exception. In addition, some reverse coin legends are in [[Dravidian language|Dravidian]]<ref name="Sircar113"/> (much more similar to [[Tamil language|Tamil]]<ref name="RP_1969">{{cite journal |author=R. Panneerselvam |year=1969 |title=Further light on the bilingual coin of the Sātavāhanas |journal=Indo-Iranian Journal |volume=4 |issue=11 |pages=281–288 |doi=10.1163/000000069790078428 |jstor=24650366|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=James D. Ryan |chapter=The Heterodoxies in Tamil Nadu |editor1=Keith E. Yandell |editor2=John J. Paul |title=Religion and Public Culture: Encounters and Identities in Modern South India |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v8UeAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA253 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-81801-1 |pages=235, 253 }}</ref> than [[Telugu language|Telugu]],<ref name="Sircar113"/>{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|p=163}} in the Dravidian script (similar to the [[Brahmi script]] apart from a few variations).<ref name="Sircar113"/><ref name="AEX"/>

Several coins carry titles or matronyms that were common to multiple rulers (e.g. Satavahana, Satakarni, and Pulumavi), so the number of rulers attested by coinage cannot be determined with certainty. The names of 16 to 20 rulers appear on the various coins. Some of these rulers appear to be local elites rather than the Satavahana monarchs.{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|p=163}}

The Satavahana coins give unique indications as to their chronology, language, and even facial features (curly hair, long ears and strong lips). They issued mainly lead and copper coins; their portrait-style silver coins were usually struck over coins of the Western Kshatrapa kings. The Satavahana coins also display various traditional symbols, such as elephants, lions, horses and chaityas ([[stupa]]s), as well as the "[[Ujjain]] symbol", a cross with four circles at the end.

===Other examples===
<gallery mode="packed">
Coin of Satkarni.jpg|Early Satavahana coinage, [[Satakarni]] issue, [[Maharashtra]] – [[Vidarbha]] type, 1st century BCE.
Satavahana1stCenturyBCECoinInscribedInBrahmi(Sataka)Nisa.jpg|Satavahana 1st century BCE coin inscribed in Brahmi: "(Sataka)Nisa". [[British Museum]]
File:Coin of Gautamiputra Sri Yajna Satakarni.jpg|Coin of Gautamiputra [[Yajna Satakarni]] ({{reign|167|196 CE}}).
</gallery>

== Cultural achievements ==
[[File:010 Cave 3, Exterior (33156264563).jpg|thumb|right|Satavahana architecture at [[Pandavleni Caves#Cave No.3, "Gautamiputra vihara" (circa 150 CE)|Cave No.3]] of the [[Pandavleni Caves]] in [[Nashik]]. This cave was probably started during the reign of Gautamiputra Satakarni, and was finished and dedicated to the Buddhist [[Samgha]] during the reign of his son [[Vasishthiputra Pulumavi]], circa 150 CE.]]
The Satavahanas patronised the [[Prakrit]] language instead of [[Sanskrit]].{{sfn|Sen|1999|pp=172–176}} The Satavahana king [[Hāla]] is famous for compiling the collection of [[Maharashtri]] poems known as the ''[[Gaha Sattasai]]'' ({{langx|sa|Gāthā Saptashatī}}), although from linguistic evidence it seems that the work now extant must have been re-edited in the succeeding century or two. Through this book, it was evident that agriculture was the main means of livelihood. Also many sorts of superstitions had prevailed. Additionally, Gunadhya, the minister of Hala, was the author of [[Brihatkatha]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zB4n3MVozbUC&q=gunadhya+hala&pg=PA1375|title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature|last=Datta|first=Amaresh|date=1 January 1988|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|pages=1375|isbn=9788126011940|language=en}}</ref>

=== Sculptures ===
[[Madhukar Keshav Dhavalikar]] writes that "The Satavahana sculptures unfortunately has never been recognized as an independent school in spite of the fact it has its own distinctive characteristic features. The earliest in point of time is that in the Bhaja Vihara cave which marks the beginning of sculptural art in the Satavahana dominion around 200BC. It is profusely decorated with carvings, and even pillars have a lotus capital crowned with sphinx-like mythic animals."{{sfn|Dhavalikar|2004|p=57|ps=: "The Satavahana sculptures unfortunately has never been recognized as an independent school in spite of the fact it has its own distinctive characteristic features. The earliest in point of time is that in the Bhaja Vihara cave which marks the beginning of sculptural art in the Satavahana dominion around 200BC. It is profusely decorated with carvings, and even pillars have a lotus capital crowned with sphinx-like mythic animals."}} Dhavalikar also writes that in Chankama "the panel occurring on the west pillar of Northern Gateway portrays a very important event in Buddha's life. It depicts votaries, two each on either side of what looks like a ladder which actually is the promenade which Buddha is supposed to have walked. It is said that Buddha, after attaining Enlightment, spent four weeks near the Bodhi tree. Of these, the third week he spent walking along the promenade (''chankama'') to and fro."{{sfn|Dhavalikar|2004|p=63|ps=: "...the panel occurring on the west pillar of Northern Gateway portrays a very important event in Buddha's life. It depicts votaries, two each on either side of what looks like a ladder which actually is the promenade which Buddha is supposed to have walked. It is said that Buddha, after attaining Enlightment, spent four weeks near the Bodhi tree. Of these, the third week he spent walking along the promenade (chankama) to and fro."}}

Along with some of the above major Satavahana sculptures some more sculptures existed—namely, ''Dvarapala, Gajalaksmi, Shalabhanjikas'', Royal Procession, Decorative pillar, etc.<ref>These sculptures are mentioned in {{harvnb|Dhavalikar|2004}}. Only names have been mentioned.</ref>

=== Bronze ===
[[File:Andhra Pradesh Royal earrings 1st Century BCE.jpg|thumb|Royal earrings, [[Andhra Pradesh]], 1st century BCE.]]
Several metal figurines are found that could be attributed to the Satavahanas. A hoard of unique bronze objects were also found from [[Bramhapuri]]. Numerous articles obtained from there were Indian but also reflected Roman and Italian influence. A small statue of Poseidon, wine jugs, and a plaque depicting Perseus and Andromeda were also obtained from the house from where the objects were found.{{sfn|Dhavalikar|2004|p=91}} The fine elephant in the [[Ashmolean Museum]], the Yaksi image in the [[British Museum]],<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0tX4wzIUY3QC&q=british+museum+satavahana+bronze&pg=PA259|title=A Social History of Early India|last=Chattopadhyaya|first=Brajadulal|pages=259|date=1 January 2009|publisher=Pearson Education India|isbn=9788131719589|language=en}}</ref> and the cornucopia found in Posheri, kept at [[Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya]]{{sfn|Dhavalikar|2004|p=95}} can also be attributed to the Satavahana period.

=== Architecture ===
The sculptures of the [[Amaravati Stupa]] and the wider [[Amaravati style]] represent the architectural development of the Satavahana periods. They built [[Stupa|Buddhist stupas]] in Amravati (95 feet high). They also constructed a large number of stupas at Goli, [[Jaggayyapeta|Jaggiahpeta]], Ghantasala, Amaravati Bhattiprolu, and Shri Parvatam. Caves IX and X, containing Ajanta paintings, were patronised by Satavahana, and the painting throughout the caves appear to have started with them. Ashokan Stupas were enlarged, the earlier bricks and wood works being replaced with stone works. The most famous of these monuments are the stupas, the most famous among them being the Amravati Stupa and the [[Nagarjunakonda]] Stupa.

=== Paintings ===
The Satavahana paintings are the earliest surviving specimens—excluding prehistoric rock art—in India, and they are to be found only at the [[Ajanta Caves]]. There were two phases of artistic activity of Ajanta: the first occurring in the 2nd to 1st centuries BCE, when Hinayana caves were excavated during Satavahana rule; the later in the second half of the 5th century under the Vakatakas. Vagaries of nature and some vandalism have taken a heavy toll on the Ajanta Caves. Only a few fragments related to the Satavahanas have survived in Caves No. 9 and 10, both of which are [[chaitya-griha]]s with stupas.

The most important surviving painting of the Satavahana period at Ajanta is the ''Chhadanta Jataka'' in Cave No. 10, but that, too, is only fragmentary. It is a painting of an elephant named Bodhisattva with six tusks, related to a mythological story. The human figures, both male and female, are typically Satavahanas, almost identical with their counterparts on the Sanchi Gateways so far as their physiognomy, costumes, and jewellery are concerned. The only difference is that the Sanchi figures have shed some of their weight.{{sfn|Dhavalikar|2004|pp=77, 81, 84}}

=== Art of Amaravati ===
{{Main|Amaravati Stupa}}

The Satavahana rulers are also remarkable for their contributions to [[Buddhist art]] and architecture. They built great stupas in the [[Krishna River]] Valley, including the stupa at [[Amaravati Stupa|Amaravati]] in [[Andhra Pradesh]]. The stupas were decorated in marble slabs and sculpted with subjects including [[Life of Buddha in art|scenes from the life of the Buddha]], portrayed in a characteristic slim and elegant style. The regional [[Amaravati style]] of sculpture also influenced the sculpture of Southeast Asia.{{Sfn|Rao|1994|p=20}}

<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
BrMus Amravati.jpg|[[Amaravati Marbles]], fragments of Buddhist stupa
Head of a lion, from gateway pillar at the Amaravati Stupa, Amaravati, Andhra Pradesh, India, Satavahana dynasty, 2nd century AD, limestone - Freer Gallery of Art - DSC05130.JPG|Fragment of Amaravati stupa
MaraAssault.jpg|[[Mara (demon)|Mara]]'s assault on the Buddha, 2nd century, [[Amaravati style]]
AmaravatiScroll.JPG|Scroll supported by Indian [[Yaksha]], [[Amaravati Stupa]], 2nd–3rd century CE.
</gallery>

== List of rulers ==
'''{{main|List of Satavahana emperors}}'''

== See also ==
* [[History of Andhra Pradesh]]
* [[History of Telangana]]
* [[History of Maharashtra]]
* [[History of India]]
* [[History of Hinduism]]
* [[List of Indian monarchs]]
* [[List of wars involving India]]

== References ==
===Citations===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{Refbegin}}


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* {{cite book |last=Sarma |first=I. K. |author-link=Inguva Kartikeya Sarma |title=Coinage of the Satavahana Empire |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ilBmAAAAMAAJ |year=1980 |publisher=Agam }}
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* {{cite book |last=Sinopoli |first=Carla M. |chapter=On the Edge of Empire: Form and Substance in the Satavahana Dynasty |title=Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History |editor-last1=Alcock |editor-first1=Susan E.|editor-link1=Susan E. Alcock|editor-last2=D'Altroy |editor-first2=Terence N.|editor-last3=Morrison|editor-first3=Kathleen D. |editor-last4=Sinopoli |editor-first4=Carla M.|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|location=Cambridge|url=https://www.cambridge.org/gb/academic/subjects/archaeology/archaeology-general-interest/empires-perspectives-archaeology-and-history?format=PB&isbn=9780521112345|year=2001 |isbn=9780521770200 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MBuPx1rdGYIC&pg=PA155 }}

* {{citation |last=Thapar |first=Romila |author-link=Romila Thapar |title=The Past Before Us|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aei9AAAAQBAJ |year=2013 |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |isbn=978-0-674-72651-2 }}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
* {{Commons category inline|Satavahana}}

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