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Vajra-mushti

2021-08-05T15:51:55Z

2409:4073:4D86:A936:7102:64FA:C2B:500A: /* See also */

{{For|the mudra|Vajra Mushti}}
{{Infobox martial art
| logo =
| logocaption =
| logosize =
| image =
| imagecaption =
| imagesize =
| name = Vajra-musti
| aka =
| focus = [[Grappling]]
| hardness = [[Contact sport#Full-contact sport|Full contact]]
| country = India
| creator =
| parenthood =
| famous_pract =
| olympic = No
| website =
| meaning = Diamond Fist, Thunder Fist
}}
{{infobox weapon
| name = Vajramusti
| image =
| caption =
| origin = India
| type = Knuckleduster
}}
'''Vajra-musti''' ([[Sanskrit]]:{{lang|sa|वज्रमुष्टि}}, "thunder fist" or "diamond fist") refers to a "fist-load, [[knuckleduster]]-like" weapon and also a form of [[Indian wrestling]] in which the weapon is employed. The weapon is sometimes called ''Indra-musti'' which means [[Indra]]'s fist.

The vajramusti is usually made of ivory or buffalo horn. Its appearance is that of a knuckleduster, slightly pointed at the sides and with small spikes at the knuckles. The variation used for warfare had long blades protruding from each end, and an elaborate bladed knuckle.

==History==
The first literary mention of vajra-musti comes from the ''Manasollasa'' of the [[Chalukya]] king Someswara III (1124–1138), although it has been conjectured to have existed since as early as the [[Maurya Empire|Maurya dynasty]]. Matches were patronized by royalty and wrestlers thus became held in high regard. Vajra-musti and its unarmed counterpart [[malla-yuddha]] was practiced by the {{IAST|[[Jyeṣṭīmalla]]}} (lit. "the most excellent wrestlers"), a [[jāti]] of [[Krishna]]-worshipping Modha Brahmins first mentioned in the 12th century. The Jyesti clan trained specifically in [[malla-yuddha]] and vajra-musti. The ''Malla Purana'' is a [[Kula Purana]] associated with the Jyesti sub-caste, and is thought to date back to the 13th century. It describes the preparation of the arena, and exercises used, types of wrestlers, defines necessary physical characteristics, techniques of wrestling, and provides a fairly precise account of which foods wrestlers should eat in each season of the year.<ref>Alter, Joseph S. (1992b). The Wrestler's Body: Identity and Ideology in North India. Berkeley: [[University of California Press]].</ref> Unlike the [[South Indian]] [[Nair]] clan, they are thought to be [[Brahmin]] priests. By the 16th century, the Jyestimalla were synonymous with fighting, renowned athletes and professional fighters who would act as bodyguards for the rich.

During the Mughal era, [[Negrito]] aboriginals of Gujerat (sometimes mistakenly referred to in European writings as being from Madagascar due to their appearance) were trained in vajra-musti from infancy.<ref>{{cite book |title=Indian and Oriental Arms and Armour |author=Earl Wilbraham Egerton |year=2002 |publisher=Dover}}</ref> The Portuguese chronicler [[Fernão Nunes]] records the practice of vajra-musti in the southern [[Vijayanagara Empire]].

<blockquote>"The King has a thousand wrestlers for these feasts who wrestle before the King, but not in our manner, for they strike and wound each other with two circlets with points which they carry in their hands to strike with, and the one most wounded goes and takes his reward in the shape of a silk cloth, such as the King gives to these wrestlers. They have a captain over them, and they do not perform any other service in the kingdom."</blockquote>

By the colonial period, the Jyesti clan became known as Jetti. At this time the Jetti of [[Baroda]] are recorded as practicing ''naki ka kusti'', a form of wrestling with [[bagh nakh]]. James Scurry wrote the following account while he was a prisoner of [[Tipu Sultan]] in the late 1700s.

<blockquote>"The Jetti’s would be sent for, who always approached with their masters at their head, and, after prostration, and making their grand salams, touching the ground each time, they would be paired, one school against another. They had on their right hands the wood-guamootie <vajra-musti> of four steel talons, which were fixed to each back joint of their fingers, and had a terrific appearance when their fists were closed. Their heads were close shaved, their bodies oiled, and they wore only a pair of short drawers. On being matched, and the signal given from Tippu, they begin the combat, always by throwing the flowers, which they wear round their necks, in each other’s faces; watching an opportunity for striking with the right hand, on which they wore this mischievous weapon which never failed lacerating the flesh, and drawing blood most copiously. Some pairs would close instantly, and no matter which was under, for the gripe was the whole ; they were in general taught to suit their holds to their opponent’s body, with every part of which, as far as concerned them, they were well acquainted. If one got a hold against which his antagonist could not guard, he would be the conqueror; they would frequently break each other’s legs and arms."</blockquote>

After independence, the Jetti today live in [[Gujarat]], [[Hyderabad]], [[Rajasthan]] and [[Mysore]]. The family tradition of wrestling lost its prestige without its royal patronage. Modern Indians regarded such violent sports as barbarically outdated. Even the relatively safe [[malla-yuddha]] dwindled in popularity. Fights persisted nonetheless, typically held during Dasara festivals. Australian martial artist [[John Will (fighter)|John Will]] trained in vajra-musti with one of the last masters in the 1980s, during which time the art was already nearly extinct.

Vajra-musti matches are still held during the annual [[Mysore Dasara]] festival, a tradition dating back to the [[Wadiyar dynasty]] in 1610. Unlike the bloody matches of old, modern combatants use knuckle-dusters with blunt studs. The fight ends immediately after first blood is drawn, and the referee's verdict is seldom questioned. On the rare occasion when the decision is disputed, the loser or his guru can appeal to the judges panel. The umpire and the judges are normally former wrestlers with decades of experience.

==Practice==
As a variant of wrestling, vajra-musti shares its training methodology with [[malla-yuddha]]. The sun salutation ([[Surya Namaskara]]), [[shirshasan]]a, [[Sitting#Parallel legs|Hindu squat]] (''bethak'') and the [[Press up#Hindu press ups|Hindu press-up]] (''danda'') are all used to strengthen the body and improve stamina. The only attire is a [[kowpeenam]] or loincloth. The actual vajra-musti is not used for training due to the risk of injury. Instead, wrestlers substitute the weapon with a cloth woven between the fingers. The cloth is dipped in red ochre so that hits may be confirmed.

On the day of a match, the combatants' heads are shaved, leaving only a small tuft of hair at the crown to which [[neem]] leaves are tied for good luck. A square altar is temporarily constructed in the middle of the wrestling pit, upon which a branch of the neem tree is planted so the wrestler can pray to the goddess Limbaja. To the east of this altar a small platform is placed, upon which the wrestler's vajramusti is kept. After the prayers and rituals are completed, the weapon is tied to the fighter's right hand so it won't get dislodged during the fight. Upon leaving their family’s [[akhara]] (training hall), the wrestlers make their way to the public arena which they enter in a zig-zag, jumping fashion.

In the basic stance, the left arm is held out to the front with the hand open. The right arm, holding the vajramusti, is held to the side next to the waist. The left foot is placed forward while the right foot is turned to the side. Strikes, knees, elbows, takedowns and submission holds are all employed. There is an extensive use of locks to immobilize the opponent's right arm. These locks may be applied with the arms, legs, or a combination of the two. One of the few rules is the prohibition of any attack below the waist, so major targets are the face, chest and arms.

Matches are done in submission style, going until one competitor submits, gets disarmed, or is otherwise unable to continue. Both fighters receive payment after the match, with the winner receiving double the amount of his defeated opponent. If the match was a draw and neither fighter was submitted, then the prize was shared.

Australian martial artist [[John Will (fighter)|John Will]] trained with the Jyesthi clan in the [[Gujarat]] state of India. His account is one of the few first hand accounts of [[vajra-musti]] in western media.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

John Will has re-published the original Mallapurana text, along with an preface the outlines his encounter with the Jyesthimalla's of Baroda in 1984. This may be downloaded here: https://www.dropbox.com/s/vgrr3msfxlsf4us/The%20Mallapurana%20-%20my%20encounter.pdf?dl=0

==See also==
*[[Akhara]]
*[[Bagh nakh]]
*[[Boli Khela]]
*[[Gatta Gusthi]]
*[[Inbuan]]
*[[Malakhra]]
*[[Malla-yuddha]]
*[[Mukna]]
*[[Pehlwani]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}
*{{cite book |title=Comprehensive Asian Fighting Arts |author=[[Donn F. Draeger]] and [[Robert W. Smith (writer)|Robert W. Smith]] |year=1969 |publisher=Kodansha}}
*{{cite book |last=Alter |first=Joseph S. |authorlink=Joseph Alter |title=The Wrestler's Body: Identity and Ideology in North India |date=August 1992b |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley}}
*{{cite book |title=The World Encyclopedia Of Knives, Daggers And Bayonets |author=Dr Tobias Capwell |authorlink=Tobias Capwell |year=2009 |publisher=Anness Publishing}}
*{{cite book |title=A Forgotten Empire: Vijayanagar |author=Robert Sewell |year=1982 |publisher=Adamant Media Corporation |isbn=0-543-92588-9}}

{{Wrestling in India}}
{{Indian martial arts}}
{{grappling}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Vajra-Musti}}
[[Category:Fist-load weapons]]
[[Category:Indian martial arts]]
[[Category:Wrestling in India]]
[[Category:Weapons of India]]
[[Category:Indian melee weapons]]
[[Category:Traditional sports of India]]

Mukna

2021-08-05T15:51:14Z

2409:4073:4D86:A936:7102:64FA:C2B:500A: /* See also */

{{More citations needed|date=January 2021}}
'''Mukna''' is a form of [[folk wrestling]] from the [[north-east India]]n state of [[Manipur]]. It is popular in [[Imphal]], [[Thoubal]] and [[Bishnupur, Manipur|Bishnupur]]. The game is generally played on the last day of the [[Lai Haraoba]] festival and is an intrinsic part of the ceremonial functions.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Prakash |first1=Col Ved |title=Encyclopaedia of North-East India |publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist |isbn=978-81-269-0706-9 |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Encyclopaedia_of_North_East_India/wxkC9S2jYCkC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=mukna+wrestling&pg=PA1559&printsec=frontcover}}</ref>

==History==
The mythological origin according to [[Meitei people|Meiteis]] trace back to [[Puya (Meitei texts)|Puya]] manuscripts such as ''Leithal'', ''Leikharol'', and ''Pudin''.<ref name="CPC">{{cite book |last1=Dutta |first1=Sristidhar |last2=Tripathy |first2=Byomakesh |title=Martial Traditions of North East India |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |isbn=978-81-8069-335-9 |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Martial_Traditions_of_North_East_India/s_ttiCMvGH4C?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=mukna&pg=PA254&printsec=frontcover |access-date=17 December 2020}}</ref> It is thought to have originated in Moirang Kangleirol, in which Khamba and Nongban were two legendary figures in Mukna.<ref name="Routledge">{{cite book |last1=Meitei |first1=Sanjenbam Yaiphaba |last2=Chaudhuri |first2=Sarit K. |last3=Arunkumar |first3=M. C. |title=The Cultural Heritage of Manipur |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-000-29629-7 |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/The_Cultural_Heritage_of_Manipur/FhUHEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=mukna&pg=PA131&printsec=frontcover |access-date=17 December 2020}}</ref>

==Sport==
Matches begin with the competitors holding each other's belts called ''ningri''. The object is to pin the opponent with their back touching the ground. The winner is called a ''yatra''.<ref name="Routledge"/> Mukna contains many techniques (''lou'') which require absolute physical fitness and skill to be mastered.<ref name="CPC"/> Holding the opponent's neck, hair, ear or legs with the hands is not permitted. Any strikes are also considered fouls. Anyone who touches the ground with any part of their body besides the feet is declared the loser.

Wrestlers are paired according to weight-class. The traditional attire not only protects the players' vital points but also helps to identify the ''pana'' or the ''yek''{{clarify|date=April 2016}} to which the wrestler belongs.

It is popular in Kakching Haraoba, Chakpa Haraoba among others. The game is generally played on the last day of the [[Lai Haraoba]] festival and is an intrinsic part of the ceremonial functions.<ref name="Routledge"/>

==See also==
* [[Akhara]]
* [[Boli Khela]]
* [[Gatta Gusthi]]
* [[Inbuan]]
* [[Malakhra]]
* [[Malla-yuddha]]
* [[Pehlwani]]
* [[Thang-Ta]]
* [[Vajra-mushti]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{folk wrestling}}
{{Indian martial arts}}

[[Category:Folk wrestling styles]]
[[Category:Combat sports]]
[[Category:Indian martial arts]]
[[Category:Traditional sports of India]]

{{martialart-stub}}

Malla-yuddha

2021-08-05T15:50:36Z

2409:4073:4D86:A936:7102:64FA:C2B:500A: /* See also */

{{more citations needed|date=August 2019}}
{{Infobox martial art
| image = Wrestlers LACMA M.88.133.2 (3 of 3).jpg
| imagecaption = 5th-century terracotta sculpture of wrestlers from [[Uttar Pradesh, India]].
| name = Malla-yuddha
| aka =
| focus = [[Wrestling]]
| hardness =
| country = [[India]]
| olympic = No
| creator =
| parenthood =
| descendant arts = [[Pehlwani]] [[Naban]]
| famous_pract = [[Krishna]] [[Jarasandha]] [[Siddhartha Gautama]] [[Narasimhavarman]] [[Krishna Deva Raya]] [[Deva Raya II]]
| meaning = Grappling-combat
}}

'''Malla-yuddha''' ([[Sanskrit]]: मल्लयुद्ध, {{IAST3|mallayuddha}}) is the traditional form of combat-wrestling originating in [[India]].<ref name="Alter1992a">{{cite journal |first=Joseph S. |last=Alter |author-link=Joseph Alter |date=May 1992 |title=The ''sannyasi'' and the Indian wrestler: the anatomy of a relationship |journal=American Ethnologist |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=317–336 |issn=0094-0496 |doi=10.1525/ae.1992.19.2.02a00070}}</ref> It is closely related to [[Southeast Asia]]n wrestling styles such as [[naban]] and is one of the two ancestors of [[pehlwani|kushti]]. Indian wrestling is described in the 13th century '''''Malla Purana'''''.

Malla-yuddha incorporates wrestling, joint-breaking, punching, biting, choking and [[varma kalai|pressure point striking]]. Matches were traditionally codified into four types which progressed from purely sportive contests of strength to actual full-contact fights known as ''yuddha''.<ref name=Draeger>{{cite book |title=Comprehensive Asian Fighting Arts |author=[[Donn F. Draeger]] and [[Robert W. Smith (writer)|Robert W. Smith]] |year=1969 |publisher=Kodansha International Limited}}</ref> Due to the extreme violence, this final form is generally no longer practised. The second form, wherein the wrestlers attempt to lift each other off the ground for three seconds, still exists in [[south India]]. Additionally, malla-yuddha is divided into four categories (see below). Each yuddhan is named after Hindu gods and legendary fighters:
* ''[[Hanuman]]ti'' concentrates on technical superiority.
* ''[[Jambavan|Jambuvanti]]'' uses locks and holds to force the opponent into submission.
* ''[[Jarasandha|Jarasandhi]]'' concentrates on breaking the limbs and joints while fighting.
* ''[[Bhima]]seni'' focuses on sheer strength.

==Terminology==
In [[Sanskrit]], ''{{IAST|mallayuddha}}'' literally translates to "wrestling combat". Strictly speaking, the term denotes a single pugilistic encounter or prize-fight rather than a style or school of wrestling. It is a [[tatpurusha]] compound of ''{{IAST|malla}}'' (wrestler, boxer, athlete) and ''{{IAST|yuddha}}'' or ''{{IAST|juddho}}'' (fight, battle, conflict). The compound is first attested in the [[Mahabharata]] referring to boxing matches such as those fought by [[Bhima]]. Another word for a sportive wrestling match or athletic sports more generally is [[malakhra]]. The second element, ''khra'' (sport, play, pastime, amusement) implies a more limited-contact style of [[folk wrestling]] rather than true grappling combat.

The term ''{{IAST|malla}}'' was historically a proper name referring to, among other things, an [[asura]] known as ''{{IAST|mallāsura}}'' and the name of a tribe from the [[Malla Kingdom]] mentioned in the Mahabharata. The name Malla was also used in this sense for [[Malla (India)|an ancient mahajanapada]], a [[Malla (Nepal)|Nepalese dynasty]] descended from them, and the [[Mallabhum]] kingdom in Bishnapur. In the [[Manusmriti]] (10.22; 12.45), it is the technical term for the offspring of an out-caste [[kshatriya]] by a kshatriya female who was previously the wife of another out-caste.

==History==

===Origins===
Wrestling in the [[Indian subcontinent]],<ref name=Draeger/> making it the oldest known codified form of fighting in the region. Competitions held for entertainment were popular among all social classes, with even kings and other royalty taking part. Wrestlers represented their kings in matches between rival kingdoms; death matches before the royal court served as a way to settle disputes and avoid large-scale wars. As such, professional wrestlers were held in high regard. In pastoral communities, people would even wrestle against steers.

The first written attestation of the term ''{{IAST|mallayuddha}}'' is found in the epic [[Ramayana]], in the context of a wrestling match between the [[vanara]] King [[Vali (Ramayana)|Bali]] and [[Ravana]], the king of [[Lanka]]. [[Hanuman]], the god in Ramayana, is worshipped as the patron of wrestlers and general feats of strength. The [[Mahabharata]] epic also describes a wrestling match between [[Bhima]] and [[Jarasandha]].<ref name=Alter1992a/> Other early literary descriptions of wrestling matches include the story of [[Balarama]] and [[Krishna]].

Stories describing Krishna report that he sometimes engaged in wrestling matches where he used knee strikes to the chest, punches to the head, hair pulling, and strangleholds.<ref name=Svinth>J. R. Svinth (2002). [http://ejmas.com/kronos A Chronological History of the Martial Arts and Combative Sports.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101228093034/http://ejmas.com/kronos/ |date=2010-12-28 }} ''Electronic Journals of Martial Arts and Sciences''.</ref> He defeated [[Kans]], king of Mathura, in a wrestling match and became new king in his place. [[Siddhartha Gautama]] himself was said to be an expert wrestler, archer and sword-fighter before becoming the [[Buddha]]. Based on such accounts, Svinth traces press ups and squats used by [[India]]n wrestlers to the pre-classical era.<ref name=Svinth/> Later, the Pallava king [[Narasimhavarman]] acquired the nickname Mahamalla meaning "great wrestler" for his passion and prowess in the art.

Competitions in medieval times were announced by a [[kanjira]]-player a week beforehand. Matches took place at the palace entrance, in an enclosure set aside for games and shows. The wrestlers typically came of their own accord during public festivals, along with magicians, actors and acrobats. Other times they would be hired by nobles to compete. Winners were awarded a substantial cash prize from the king and presented with a victory standard. Possession of this standard brought national distinction.<ref>{{cite book |title=Daily Life in Ancient India |author=[[Jeannine Auboyer]] |year=1965 |page=[https://archive.org/details/dailylifeinancie0000aubo/page/252 252] |publisher=Phoenix Press |isbn=1-84212-591-5 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/dailylifeinancie0000aubo/page/252 }}</ref>

<blockquote>The scene of action was gay with flags flapping, and the citizenry quickly packed the rows of benches. When the wrestlers climbed into the arena, they strutted around, flexing their muscles, leaping in the air, crying out and clapping their hands. Then they grappled, holding each other tightly around the waist, their necks resting on each other's shoulder, their legs entwined, while each attempted to win a fall or break the hold.</blockquote>

===''Manasollasa''===

The ''Manasollasa'' of the [[Chalukya]] king Someswara III (1124–1138) is a treatise on kingly fine arts and leisure.<ref name="Alter1992b">{{cite book |last=Alter |first=Joseph S. |author-link=Joseph Alter |year=1992 |title=The Wrestler's Body: Identity and Ideology in North India |publisher=University of California Press |pages=15–16, 72, 126 |isbn=0-520-07697-4}}</ref> Anthropologist [[Joseph Alter]] writes of it, "The chapter entitled 'Malla Vinod' describes the classification of wrestlers into types by age, size and strength. It also outlines how the wrestlers were to exercise and what they were to eat. In particular the king was responsible for providing the wrestlers with pulses, meat, milk, sugar as well as 'high-class sweets'. The wrestlers were kept isolated from the women of the court and were expected to devote themselves to building their bodies."<ref name="Alter1992b"/> The ''Manasollasa'' "gives the names of moves and exercises but does not provide descriptions".<ref name="Alter1992b"/>

===''Malla Purana''===
[[File:The Indian club exercise - with explanatory figures and positions - photographed from life - also, general remarks on physical culture - illustrated with portraitures of celebrated athletes, (14583444227).jpg|thumb|The ''Malla Purana'' describes ''Pramada'' exercises with clubs; these were still current in the 19th century, as illustrated here]]

The ''Malla Purana''<ref name="The Ancient Vale Tudo of India: Vajramushti">{{cite web|title=The Ancient Vale Tudo of India: Vajramushti|url=https://www.grapplearts.com/the-ancient-vale-tudo-of-india-vajramushti/}}</ref> is a [[Kula Purana]] associated with the [[Jyesthimalla]], a Brahmin [[jāti]] of wrestlers from [[Gujarat]], dating most likely to the 13th century. According to Alter, "It categorizes and classifies types of wrestlers, defines necessary physical characteristics, ... describes types of exercises and techniques of wrestling as well as the preparation of the wrestling pit", and provides a fairly precise account of which foods wrestlers should eat in each season of the year.<ref name="Alter1992b"/>

The scholar-practitioner [[Norman Sjoman]] states that the ''Malla Purana'' describes 16 types of exercises for wrestling, namely ''Rangasrama'' wrestling as such; ''Stambhasrama'' pole exercises; ''Bhamramanikasrama'' of unknown meaning; ''Svasaprenaikasrama'' stamina exercises like running and skipping; ''Sthapitasrama'', "perhaps exercises done erect";<ref name="Sjoman 1999"/> ''Uhapohasrama'' "said not to be an exercise";<ref name="Sjoman 1999"/> the use of heavy and light stone rings fastened to poles; ''Pramada'' exercises with clubs; ''Amardankisrama'', that Sjoman suspects is a form of massage; ''Asthadanaka'' gymnastic exercises for the lower body; ''Kundakarsank'' "callisthenics with circular movements";<ref name="Sjoman 1999"/> the unknown ''Anyakrtkarasrama''; ''Jalasrama'', swimming; ''Sopanarohana'', climbing steps; and ''Bhojanordhavabhramanika'', which Sjoman assumes was a type of callisthenics.<ref name="Sjoman 1999">{{cite book |last=Sjoman |first= N.E. |author-link=Norman Sjoman |title=The Yoga Tradition of the Mysore Palace | edition=2nd | year=1999 |publisher=Abhinav Publications |location=New Delhi, India |isbn=81-7017-389-2 |pages=56–57 and note 89, page 67}}</ref> Sjoman notes that the ''Malla Purana'' (16-21) names 18 [[hatha yoga]] postures ([[asana]]s) including [[Simhasana]], [[Kurmasana]], [[Kukkutasana]], [[Garudasana]] and [[Sirsasana]].<ref name="Sjoman 1999"/>

===Spread===
[[File:Bhima Slays Jarasandha.jpg|thumb|[[Bhima]] kills [[Jarasandha]] in a wrestling match, a folio from the ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]''. c. 1520–1540]]

As the influence of Indian culture spread to Southeast Asia, malla-yuddha was adopted in what are now [[Thailand]], [[Malaysia]], [[Java]], and other neighbouring countries. It became popular not only among commoners but also patronized by royalty. The legendary hero [[Badang]] was said to have engaged in such a wrestling match against a visiting champion in [[Singapore]].

===Decline===

Traditional Indian wrestling first began to decline in the north after the medieval Muslim invasions when influences from Persian wrestling were incorporated into native malla-yuddha. Under [[Mughal Empire|Mughal rule]], courtly fashion favoured the Persianate [[pehlwani]] style. Traditional malla-yuddha remained popular in the south, however, and was particularly common in the [[Vijayanagara Empire]]. The 16th-century Jaina classic ''Bharatesa Vaibhava'' describes wrestlers challenging their opponents with grunts and traditional signs of patting the shoulders. Sculptures at [[Bhatkal]] depict wrestling matches, including female wrestlers. As part of his daily routine, the king [[Krishna Deva Raya]] would rise early and exercise his muscles with the [[gada (mace)]] and sword before wrestling with his favourite opponent. His many wives were tended to by only female servants and guards, and among the 12,000 women in the palace were those who wrestled and others who fought with sword and shield. During the [[Navaratri]] festival, wrestlers from around the empire would come to the capital in [[Karnataka]] to compete in front of the king, as described by the Portuguese traveller [[Domingo Paes]].<ref>{{cite book |title=A Forgotten Empire: Vijayanagar |author=Robert Sewell |year=1982 |publisher=Adamant Media Corporation |isbn=0-543-92588-9 }}{{page needed|date=August 2019}}</ref>

<blockquote>Then the wrestlers begin their play. Their wrestling does not seem like ours, but there are blows (given), so severe as to break teeth, and put out eyes, and disfigure faces, so much so that here and there men are carried off speechless by their friends; they give one another fine falls too.</blockquote>

Malla-yuddha is now virtually extinct in the [[north India|northern states]], but most of its traditions are perpetuated in modern kusti. The descendants of the Jyesti clan continued to practice their ancestral arts of malla-yuddha and [[vajra-musti]] into the 1980s but rarely do so today. Malla-yuddha has survived ceremonially in [[south India]] however, and can still be seen in [[Karnataka]]<ref>"The Lost Temples Of India". TLC. 1999</ref> and [[Tamil Nadu]] today.

==Training==
[[File:Jarasandha's Akhara1.JPG|thumb|The historic [[Jarasandha]]'s Akhara (wrestling arena) mentioned in the [[Mahabharata]] epic, at Rajgir in [[Bihar]], India.]]
Wrestlers train and fight in a traditional arena or [[akhara]]. Matches take place in a clay or dirt pit, thirty feet across and either square or circular in shape. The soil of the floor is mixed with various ingredients, including [[ghee]]. Before training, the floor is raked of any pebbles or stones. Water is added approximately every three days to keep it at the right consistency; soft enough to avoid injury but hard enough so as not to impede the wrestlers' movements. Wrestlers begin each session by flattening the soil, an act which is considered both a part of endurance training and an exercise in self-discipline. During practice, wrestlers throw a few handfuls of dirt onto their own bodies and that of their opponents as a form of blessing, which also provides for a better grip. Once the arena has been prepared a prayer is offered to the gym's patron deity, most commonly [[Hanuman]]. Every training hall has a small makeshift altar for this purpose, where incense is lit and small yellow flower garlands are offered to the god. This is followed by paying respect to the [[guru]] by touching the head to his feet, a traditional sign of respect for elders in the Indian subcontinent.

Many wrestlers live at their training hall but this is not always required. Traditionally revered as extensions of Hanuman, all wrestlers are required to abstain from sex, smoking and drinking so the body remains pure and the wrestlers are able to focus on cultivating themselves physically, mentally and spiritually. This purity is also said to help achieve the highest level of martial and sporting perfection. A wrestler's only belongings are a blanket, a [[kowpeenam]] (loincloth) and some clothes. In this regard, they are often compared to Hindu-Buddhist holy men.<ref name="Alter1992a"/>

Boys typically start training at the age of ten to twelve. To avoid stunting their growth, young trainees are first taught ''kundakavartana'', callisthenics and exercises to develop their overall strength and endurance without equipment. Exercises that employ the wrestler's own bodyweight include the sun salutation ([[Surya Namaskara]]), [[shirshasan]]a, [[Sitting#Parallel legs|Hindu squat]] (''bethak'') and the [[Push-up#Hindu push-up|Hindu press-up]] (''danda''), which are also found in [[hatha yoga]]. After acquiring the necessary power and stamina, students may begin ''khambhasrama'', referring to exercises that use the [[mallakhamba]] or wrestler's pillar. There are a number of pillars, although the most common is a free-standing upright pole, some eight to ten inches in diameter, planted into the ground. Wrestlers mount, dismount and utilize this pole for various complex callisthenics designed to develop their grip, stamina, and strength in the arms, legs and upper-body. In a later variation, the pole was replaced with a hanging rope. Rope mallakhamba is today most commonly practiced by children as a spectator sport in itself rather than its traditional role as a form of training for wrestling.

Other training concepts include the following.
* ''Vyayam'': Physical training in general. This includes rope climbing, log pulling, running and swimming.
* ''Rangasrama'': Refers to the wrestling itself and its techniques. Includes locks, submission holds, takedowns and, formerly, strikes.
* ''Gonitaka'': Exercises done with a large stone ring called a ''gar nal'' in [[Hindi]]. It can be swung, lifted, or worn around the neck to add resistance to press-ups and squats.
* ''Pramada'': Exercises performed with the [[gada (mace)]]. An exercise gada is a heavy round stone attached to the end of a meter-long bamboo stick.
* ''Uhapohasrama'': Discussion of tactics and strategies.
* ''Mardana'': Traditional massage. Wrestlers are given massages and also taught how to massage.

==See also==
* [[Gatta Gusthi]]
* [[Musti-yuddha]]
* [[Vajra-mushti]]
* [[Mukna]]
* [[Boli Khela]]
* [[Inbuan]]
* [[Khmer traditional wrestling]]

==References==

{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* [http://mallyuddha.com IFM International Federation of Mallyuddha]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090516231037/http://www.kathinayoga.com/KalariWorld/Articles/other_article3.html Martial arts of India] by R. Venkatachalam (1999)
* [http://www.shastarvidiya.org/combat/index.html Combat Forms - Yudhan / Pentra]

{{Grappling}}
{{Wrestling in India}}
{{Indian martial arts}}
{{Martial arts}}

[[Category:Indian martial arts]]
[[Category:Pakistani martial arts]]
[[Category:Bangladeshi martial arts]]
[[Category:Wrestling in India]]
[[Category:Wrestling in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Sports originating in South Asia]]

Inbuan wrestling

2021-08-05T15:48:52Z

2409:4073:4D86:A936:7102:64FA:C2B:500A: /* See also */

{{refimprove|date=December 2020}}
'''Inbuan''' is a form of [[wrestling]] native to the people of [[Mizoram]] in [[India]]. Inbuan is said to have originated in the village of [[Dungtlang]] in 1750. It was recognized as a sport after the [[Mizo people]] migrated from [[Burma]] to the Lushai Hills.

==History==
It is thought to have originated in 1750 at the village of [[Dungtlang]] in [[Mizoram]], India. It was recognized as a sport after the [[Mizo people]] migrated from [[Burma]] to the Lushai Hills.<ref name="book">{{cite book |title=Target PT 2020 in 100 days: UPSC Prelims: day 70-90 MCQs |publisher=GRASP IAS |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Target_PT_2020_in_100_days_UPSC_Prelims/FDHpDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=inbuan+wrestling&pg=PA208&printsec=frontcover |access-date=17 December 2020}}</ref> From 1871 to 1940, boys would gather after evening meal in village dormitory and played Inbuan almost every night. It was also played ceremonially between villages when a sick or dead person's body is carried from one village to another, which was called Hlang inchuh or Mizawn inchuh.<ref>{{cite book |title=Material Culture of the Mizo |publisher=Firma KLM, on behlaf of Tribal Research Institute, Department of Art & Culture, Government of Mizoram, Aizawl, Mizoram |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Material_Culture_of_the_Mizo/djJuAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=inbuan&dq=inbuan&printsec=frontcover |access-date=17 December 2020}}</ref>

==Characteristics==
Inbuan involves very strict rules prohibiting kicking, stepping out of the circle and even bending of the knees.<ref name="book"/> The contest is held in a circle 15–16 feet in diameter on carpet or grass. The objective is to lift one's opponent off his feet while strictly adhering to the rules. The matches are held in three rounds each of 30–60 seconds of duration, the match generally continues till a wrestler either breaks a rule or is lifted off his feet.

Another feature of this form of wrestling is the catch-hold belt worn by the wrestlers around the waist. It has to remain tight all through the match.

==See also==
* [[Akhara]]
* [[Boli Khela]]
* [[Gatta Gusthi]]
* [[Malakhra]]
* [[Malla-yuddha]]
* [[Mukna]]
* [[Naban]]
* [[Pehlwani]]
* [[Vajra-mushti]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://sports.indiapress.org/inbuan.php Inbuan ''Traditional Sports in India'']

{{Indian martial arts}}

[[Category:Indian martial arts]]
[[Category:Folk wrestling styles]]
[[Category:Combat sports]]
[[Category:Individual sports]]

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