Dravidian folk religion

2021-07-04T19:02:48Z

2409:4072:6D17:2F:A7F2:7666:6180:A1A4:

{{short description|Indigenous Dravidian folk religion}}
[[File:WLA lacma 12th century Maharishi Agastya.jpg|270px|thumb|[[Tamil people|Tamil]] sage [[Agastya|Agathiyar]], father of Tamil literature.]]
{{Hinduism}}
{{Dravidian|expanded=Religion}}
The early Dravidian religion constituted a pre-[[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic]] form of [[Hinduism]] in that they were either historical or are at present [[Āgama (Hinduism)|Āgamic]]. The Agamas are non-[[Vedic]] in origin,<ref name=Narasimhachary>Mudumby Narasimhachary (Ed) (1976). Āgamaprāmāṇya of Yāmunācārya, Issue 160 of Gaekwad's Oriental Series. Oriental Institute, Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda.</ref> and have been dated either as post-Vedic texts,<ref name=Tripath>Tripath, S.M. (2001). Psycho-Religious Studies Of Man, Mind And Nature. Global Vision Publishing House. {{ISBN|9788187746041}}. [https://books.google.com/books?id=zWFM_SaX24AC&pg=PA54 ]</ref> or as pre-Vedic compositions.<ref name=Nagalingam>Nagalingam, Pathmarajah (2009). The Religion of the Agamas. Siddhanta Publications. [http://www.siddha.com.my/forum/religionoftheagamas/chapter3.html]</ref> The ''Agamas'' are a collection of [[Tamil language|Tamil]] and [[Sanskrit]] [[religious text|scriptures]] chiefly constituting the methods of temple construction and creation of ''[[murti]]'', worship means of deities, philosophical doctrines, meditative practices, attainment of sixfold desires and four kinds of yoga.<ref name=Grimes>Grimes, John A. (1996). A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English. State University of New York Press. {{ISBN|9780791430682}}. LCCN 96012383. [https://books.google.com.sg/books?id=eP5p0ev3nJEC]</ref> The worship of [[tutelary deity]], sacred flora and fauna in Hinduism is also recognized as a survival of the pre-Vedic Dravidian religion.<ref name="Prabasi Press Private, Ltd">{{cite book|title=The Modern review: Volume 28; Volume 28|year=1920|publisher=Prabasi Press Private, Ltd.}}</ref> Dravidian linguistic influence on early Vedic religion is evident, many of these features are already present in the oldest known [[Indo-Aryan language]], the language of the ''[[Rigveda]]'' (c. 1500 BCE), which also includes over a dozen words borrowed from Dravidian. The linguistic evidence for Dravidian impact grows increasingly strong as we move from the [[Samhita]]s down through the later Vedic works and into the classical post-Vedic literature.{{sfnp|Krishnamurti|2003|p=6}} This represents an early religious and cultural fusion{{sfn|Lockard|2007|p=50}}{{refn|group=note|name=Lockard|Lockard: "The encounters that resulted from Aryan migration brought together several very different peoples and cultures, reconfiguring Indian society. Over many centuries a fusion of [[Indo-Aryan peoples]] and [[Dravidian peoples|Dravidian]] occurred, a complex process that historians have labeled the Indo-Aryan synthesis."{{sfn|Lockard|2007|p=50}} Lockard: "Hinduism can be seen historically as a synthesis of Aryan beliefs with Harappan and other Dravidian traditions that developed over many centuries."{{sfn|Lockard|2007|p=52}}}} or synthesis{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2007|p=12}} between ancient Dravidians and Indo-Aryans that went on to influence Indian civilization.{{sfn|Tiwari|2002|p=v}}{{sfn|Lockard|2007|p=52}}{{sfn|Zimmer|1951|p=218-219}}{{sfn|Larson|1995|p=81}}

==Classification==
Scholars do not share a uniform consensus on early Dravidian religion. Some scholars believed that the Dravidian religion was a belief system unique to the [[Neolithic]] people of South Asia before the origin of Indo-Aryan languages. Dr. Pope believes that in the pre-historic period the Dravidian religion was a precursor to Shaivism and Shaktism.<ref>{{cite book|last=Iyengar|first=T. R. Sesha|title=Dravidian India|year=1982|publisher=Asian Educational Services}}</ref>{{Full citation needed|date=March 2021}} While John B. Magee was of the view that native Dravidian religion prior to 1500 BC was unclear.<ref>{{cite book|last=Magee|first=John Benjamin|title=Religion and modern man: a study of the religious meaning of being human|url=https://archive.org/details/religionmodernma00mage|url-access=registration|year=1967|publisher=Harper & Row}}</ref> Other scholars define it as a non-Vedic part of [[Hinduism]]. Henry O. Thompson's definition of [[Hinduism]] included Dravidian traditions as one of the important foundational element.<ref>{{cite book|last=Thompson|first=Henry O.|title=World religions in war and peace|year=1988|publisher=McFarland}}</ref> Sjoberg claims that the Dravidian religion influenced [[Hinduism]] more than its Indo-Aryan counterpart,{{sfn|Sjoberg|1990|p=43}}{{refn|group=note|Tyler, in ''India: An Anthropological Perspective''(1973), page 68, as quoted by Sjoberg, calls Hinduism a "synthesis" in which the Dravidian elements prevail: "The Hindu synthesis was less the dialectical reduction of orthodoxy and heterodoxy than the resurgence of the ancient, aboriginal Indus civilization. In this process, the rude, barbaric Aryan tribes were gradually civilised and eventually merged with the autochthonous Dravidians. Although elements of their domestic cult and ritualism were jealously preserved by Brahman priests, the body of their culture survived only in fragmentary tales and allegories embedded in vast, syncretistic compendia. On the whole, the Aryan contribution to Indian culture is insignificant. The essential pattern of Indian culture was already established in the third millennium B.C., and ... the form of Indian civilization perdured and eventually reasserted itself.{{sfn|Sjoberg|1990|p=43}}}}<ref>{{cite book|last=Khan|first=Abdul Jamil|title=Urdu/Hindi: an artificial divide : African heritage, Mesopotamian roots, Indian culture & British colonialism|year=2006|publisher=Algora Publishing}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Eliot|first=Charles|title=Hinduism and Buddhism, Vol I. (of 3)|year=2007|publisher=Echo Library|pages=12}}</ref><ref>Grimes, John A. (1996). A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English. State University of New York Press. {{ISBN|9780791430682}}. {{LCCN|96012383}}.</ref><ref>Jamison, Stephanie; Witzel, Michael (1992). "Vedic Hinduism" (PDF). Harvard University. pp. 2–4. Retrieved 2019-01-23.</ref> Gustav oppert suggests Dravidian religion was centered the worship of Goddess as mother, protector of villages and the seven sisters identified with Matrikas.<ref>Gustav oppert, original inhabitants of Bharata. <</ref><ref>Dravidian Gods in Modern Hinduism, Wilder Theodre Elmore</ref><ref>Vicissitudes of Goddess, Sree Padma</ref> Wilder Theodre Elmore comments that the Dravidian folks religions are not a simple form of animism, but exhibit complex [[Metaphysics|metaphysical concepts]].<ref>page 134 Dravidian Gods in Modern Hinduism, Wilder Theodre Elmore</ref> The widespread worship of certain village deities of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu may be argued to reflect a survival of the pre-Brahmanic religious tradition.<ref name="Prabasi Press Private, Ltd"/><ref>Schastok, Sara L. ''The Śamalājī Sculptures and Sixth-Century Art in Western India.'' Leiden: Brill, 1985. pp.58–60</ref><ref>Guy Beck (1993), Sonic Theology: Hinduism and Sacred Sound, University of South Carolina Press, {{ISBN|978-0-87249-855-6}}, pages 151–152</ref>
<blockquote>
The cult of the Female Principle was a major aspect of Dravidian religion, The concept of Shakti was an integral part of their religion [...] The cult of the ''Sapta Matrika'', or Seven Divine Mothers, which is an integral part of the Shakta religion, may be of Dravidian inspiration.<ref>Bhattacharyya, N. N., ''History of the Sakta Religion'', Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd. (New Delhi, 1974, 2d ed. 1996).</ref>
</blockquote>

Dravidian influence on early Vedic religion is evident, many of these features are already present in the oldest known [[Indo-Aryan language]], the language of the ''[[Rigveda]]'' (c. 1500 BCE), which also includes over a dozen words borrowed from Dravidian.{{sfnp|Krishnamurti|2003|p=6}} The linguistic evidence for Dravidian impact grows increasingly strong as we move from the Samhitas down through the later Vedic works and into the classical post-Vedic literature.{{sfnp|Krishnamurti|2003|p=6}} This represents an early religious and cultural fusion{{sfn|Lockard|2007|p=50}}{{refn|group=note|name=Lockard}} or synthesis{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2007|p=12}} between ancient Dravidians and Indo-Aryans, which became more evident over time with sacred iconography, traditions, philosophy, flora and fauna that went on to influence [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]], [[Sramana]] and [[Charvaka]].{{sfn|Tiwari|2002|p=v}}{{sfn|Lockard|2007|p=52}}{{sfn|Zimmer|1951|p=218-219}}{{sfn|Larson|1995|p=81}}

Scholars regard the modern [[Hinduism]] as a fusion{{sfn|Lockard|2007|p=50}}{{refn|group=note||name=Lockard}} or synthesis{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2007|p=12}}{{refn|group=note|name="Hiltebeitel"|Hiltebeitel: "A period of consolidation, sometimes identified as one of "Hindu synthesis," Brahmanic synthesis," or "orthodox synthesis," takes place between the time of the late Vedic Upanishads (c. 500 BCE) and the period of Gupta imperial ascendency" (c. 320-467 CE)."}}{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=193}} of various Indian cultures and traditions.{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2007|p=12}}{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=16}}{{sfn|Lockard|2007|p=50}}{{refn|group=note|name=fusion|See also:
* J.H. Hutton (1931), in {{citation | last =Ghurye | first =Govind Sadashiv |year =1980| title =The Scheduled Tribes of India | publisher =Transaction Publishers | isbn =9781412838856 | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=pTNmCIc9hCUC&q=australoids+india+religion}}{{sfn|Ghurye|1980|p=3-4}}{{refn|group=note|Ghurye: He [Hutton] considers modern Hinduism to be the result of an amalgam between pre-Aryan Indian beliefs of Mediterranean inspiration and the religion of the Rigveda. "The Tribal religions present, as it were, surplus material not yet buit into the temple of Hinduism".{{sfn|Ghurye|1980|p=4}}}}
* {{citation | last =Zimmer | first =Heinrich | year =1951 | title =Philosophies of India | publisher =Princeton University Press}}{{sfn|Zimmer|1951|p=218-219}}
* Tyler (1973), ''India: An Anthropological Perspective'', Goodyear Publishing Company. In: Sjoberg 1990,{{sfn|Sjoberg|1990|p=43}}{{refn|group=note|Tyler, in ''India: An Anthropological Perspective''(1973), page 68, as quoted by Sjoberg, calls Hinduism a "synthesis" in which the Dravidian elements prevail: "The Hindu synthesis was less the dialectical reduction of orthodoxy and heterodoxy than the resurgence of the ancient, aboriginal Indus civilization. In this process the rude, barbaric Aryan tribes were gradually civilised and eventually merged with the autochthonous Dravidians. Although elements of their domestic cult and ritualism were jealously preserved by Brahman priests, the body of their culture survived only in fragmentary tales and allegories embedded in vast, syncretistic compendia. On the whole, the Aryan contribution to Indian culture is insignificant. The essential pattern of Indian culture was already established in the third millennium B.C., and ... the form of Indian civilization perdured and eventually reasserted itself.{{sfn|Sjoberg|1990|p=43}}}}
* {{citation | last =Sjoberg | first =Andree F. | year =1990 | title =The Dravidian Contribution To The Development Of Indian Civilization: A Call For A Reassessment | journal =Comparative Civilizations Review. 23:40-74 | url =https://ojs.lib.byu.edu/spc/index.php/CCR/article/download/13469/13403}}{{sfn|Sjoberg|1990}}
* {{citation | last =Flood | first =Gavin D. | year =1996 | title =An Introduction to Hinduism | publisher =Cambridge University Press}}{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=16}}
* {{citation | last =Nath | first =Vijay | date =March–April 2001 | title =From 'Brahmanism' to 'Hinduism': Negotiating the Myth of the Great Tradition | journal =Social Scientist | volume =29 | issue =3/4 | pages =19–50 | doi=10.2307/3518337 |jstor=3518337}}{{sfn|Nath|2001}}
* {{citation | last =Werner | first =karel | year =2005 | title =A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism | publisher =Routledge | isbn =9781135797539 | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=HvuQAgAAQBAJ&q=hinduism+synthesis}}{{sfn|Werner|2005|p=8-9}}
* {{citation | last =Lockard | first =Craig A. | year =2007 | title =Societies, Networks, and Transitions. Volume I: to 1500 | publisher =Cengage Learning | isbn =978-0618386123 | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=yJPlCpzOY_QC&pg=PA50}}{{sfn|Lockard|2007|p=50}}
* {{citation | last =Hiltebeitel | first=Alf |author-link=Alf Hiltebeitel |year=2007 | title =Hinduism. In: Joseph Kitagawa, "The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture" | publisher =Routledge | isbn=9781136875977 | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=kfyzAAAAQBAJ}}{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2007}}
* {{citation | last1 =Hopfe | first1 =Lewis M. | last2 =Woodward | first2 =Mark R. | year =2008 | title =Religions of the World | publisher =Pearson Education | isbn =9780136061779 | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=BVbiMBDVrdEC&pg=PA79}}{{sfn|Hopfe|2008|p=79}}{{refn|group=note|name=Hopfe|Hopfe & Woodward: "The religion that the Aryans brought with them mingled with the religion of the native people, and the culture that developed between them became classical Hinduism."{{sfn|Hopfe|2008|p=79}}}}
* {{citation | last =Samuel | first =Geoffrey | year =2010 | title =The Origins of Yoga and Tantra. Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century | publisher =Cambridge University Press}}{{sfn|Samuel|2010}}}} Among its roots are the [[historical Vedic religion]] of [[Iron Age India]],{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=41-42}}{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=16}} itself already the product of "a composite of the indo-Aryan and Harappan cultures and civilizations",{{sfn|White|2006|p=28}}{{refn|group=note|name="Vedic composite"|See:
* David Gordo White: "[T]he religion of the Vedas was already a composite of the Indo-Aryan and Harappan cultures and civilizations."{{sfn|White|2006|p=28}}
* Richard Gombrich: "It is important to bear in mind that the Indo-Aryans did not enter an unhabited (sic) land. For nearly two millennia they and their culture gradually penetrated India, moving east and south from their original seat in the Punjab. They mixed with people who spoke Munda or Dravidian languages, who have left no traces of their culture beyond some archaeological remains; we know as little about them as we would about the Indo-Aryans if they had left no texts. In fact we cannot even be sure whether some of the aerchaeological finds belong to Indo-Aryans, autochthonous populations, or a mixture.{{paragraph break}} It is to be assumed - though this is not fashionable in Indian historiography - that the clash of cultures between Indo-Aryans and autochtones was responsible for many of the changes in Indo-Aryan society. We can also assume that many - perhaps most - of the indigenous population came to be assimilated into Indo-Aryan culture.{{sfn|Gombrich|1996|p=35-36}}}} but also the [[Sramana]]{{sfn|Gomez|2002|p=42}} or renouncer traditions{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=16}} of [[Maurya Empire|northeast India]],{{sfn|Gomez|2002|p=42}} and mesolithic{{sfn|Doniger|2010|p=66}} and neolithic{{sfn|Jones|2006|p=xvii}} cultures of India, such as the religions of the [[Indus Valley Civilisation]],{{sfn|Narayanan|2009|p=11}}{{sfn|Lockard|2007|p=52}}{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2007|p=3}}{{sfn|Jones|2006|p=xviii}} [[Dravidian peoples|Dravidian]] traditions,{{sfn|Tiwari|2002|p=v}}{{sfn|Lockard|2007|p=52}}{{sfn|Zimmer|1951|p=218-219}}{{sfn|Larson|1995|p=81}} and the [[Adivasi|local traditions]]{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=16}} and [[Tribal religions in India|tribal religions]].{{sfn|Tiwari|2002|p=v}}{{refn|group=note|Tiwari mentions the [[Austroasiatic|Austric]] and [[Mongoloid]] people.{{sfn|Tiwari|2002|p=v}} See also [[Adivasi|Adivasi people]] for the variety of Indian people.}}

==Religion in ancient Tamilakam==
{{Main article|Sangam literature|Tamilakam}}
Ancient Tamil grammatical works [[Tolkappiyam]], the ten anthologies [[Pattuppāṭṭu]], the eight anthologies [[Eṭṭuttokai]] sheds light on early ancient Dravidian religion. ''[[Murugan|Seyyon]]'' was glorified as, ''the red god seated on the blue peacock, who is ever young and resplendent,'' as ''the favored god of the Tamils.''<ref name="Kanchan Sinha 1979">Kanchan Sinha, Kartikeya in Indian art and literature, Delhi: Sundeep Prakashan (1979).</ref> [[Shiva|Sivan]] was also seen as the supreme God.<ref name="Kanchan Sinha 1979" /> Early iconography of [[Murugan|Seyyon]]<ref>{{cite book|last=Mahadevan|first=Iravatham|title=A Note on the Muruku Sign of the Indus Script in light of the Mayiladuthurai Stone Axe Discovery|year=2006|publisher=harappa.com|url=http://www.harappa.com/arrow/stone_celt_indus_signs.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060904034700/http://www.harappa.com/arrow/stone_celt_indus_signs.html|archive-date=2006-09-04}}</ref> and [[Shiva|Sivan]]<ref>{{cite book| title = The Making of India: A Historical Survey| url = https://archive.org/details/makingindiahisto00vohr| url-access = limited| author = Ranbir Vohra| publisher = M.E. Sharpe| year = 2000| page = [https://archive.org/details/makingindiahisto00vohr/page/n10 15]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| title = Ancient Indian Civilization| author = Grigorii Maksimovich Bongard-Levin| publisher = Arnold-Heinemann| year = 1985| page = 45}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| title = Essential Hinduism| author = Steven Rosen, Graham M. Schweig| publisher = Greenwood Publishing Group| year = 2006| page = 45}}</ref> and their association with native flora and fauna goes back to Indus Valley Civilization.<ref>{{Harvnb|Basham|1967}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| title = Plants of life, plants of death| author = Frederick J. Simoons| year = 1998 |page=363}}</ref> The [[Sangam landscape]] was classified into five categories, ''thinais'', based on the mood, the season and the land. [[Tolkappiyam]], mentions that each of these ''thinai'' had an associated deity such [[Murugan|Seyyon]] in ''Kurinji''-the hills, [[Thirumal|Thirumaal]] in ''Mullai''-the forests, and [[Indra|Indran]] in ''Marutham''-the plains, [[Varuna|Varunan]] in the ''Neithal''-the coasts and the seas and [[Korravai|Kottravai]] in ''Paalai’’- the arid region. Other gods mentioned were [[Krishna|Mayyon]] and Vaali who were all assimilated into Hinduism over time.

[[File:01AnnamalaiyarTemple&Thiruvannamalai&TamilNadu&AerialViewfromVirupakshaCave.jpg|thumb|left|Typical layout of Dravidian architecture which evolved from ''koyil'' as kings residence.]]
Throughout [[Tamilakam]], a king was considered to be divine by nature and possessed religious significance.<ref>{{cite book|last=Harman|first=William P.|title=The sacred marriage of a Hindu goddess|year=1992|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|pages=6}}</ref> The king was 'the representative of God on earth’ and lived in a “koyil”, which means the “residence of a god”. The Modern Tamil word for temple is [[koil]] ({{lang-ta|கோயில்}}). Titual worship was also given to kings.<ref>{{cite book|last=Anand|first=Mulk Raj|title=Splendours of Tamil Nadu |year=1980|publisher=Marg Publications|url=https://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&safe=off&noj=1&prmdo=1&biw=1067&bih=565&tbm=bks&q=The+king+is+%27the+representative+of+God+on+earth%27+and+lives+in+a+palace+called+%27+Koyil%27%2C+which+means+the+residence+of+God.+The+ritual+worship+of+God&oq=The+king+is+%27the+representative+of+God+on+earth%27+and+lives+in+a+palace+called+%27+Kovil%27%2C+which+means+the+residence+of+God.+The+ritual+worship+of+God&aq=f&aqi=&aql=&gs_l=serp.3…0.0.0.8227.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0..0.0…0.0.DdIt9d1ZNjo}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Chopra|first=Pran Nath|title=History of South India|year=1979|publisher=S. Chand|url=https://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&safe=off&noj=1&prmdo=1&biw=1067&bih=565&tbm=bks&q=The+king+is+%27the+representative+of+God+on+earth%27+and+lives+in+a+palace+called+%27+Kovil%27%2C+which+means+the+residence+of+God.+The+ritual+worship+of+God&oq=The+king+is+%27the+representative+of+God+on+earth%27+and+lives+in+a+palace+called+%27+Koyil%27%2C+which+means+the+residence+of+God.+The+ritual+worship+of+God&aq=f&aqi=&aql=&gs_l=serp.3…0.0.0.8227.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0..0.0…0.0.DdIt9d1ZNjo}}</ref> Modern words for god like “kō” ({{lang-ta|கோ}} “king”), “iṟai” ({{lang|ta|இறை}} “emperor”) and “āṇḍavar” ({{lang|ta|ஆண்டவன்}} “conqueror”) now primarily refer to gods. These elements were incorporated later into [[Hinduism]] like the legendary marriage of [[Shiva]] to Queen Mīnātchi who ruled [[Madurai]] or [[Legendary early Chola kings#Cholas of the Sangam period|Wanji-ko]], a god who later merged into [[Indra]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Bate|first=Bernard|title=Tamil oratory and the Dravidian aesthetic: democratic practice in south India|year=2009|publisher=Columbia University Press}}</ref> [[Tolkappiyar]] refers to the [[Three Crowned Kings]] as the “Three Glorified by Heaven”, ({{indic|lang=ta|indic=வான்புகழ் மூவர்|trans=Vāṉpukaḻ Mūvar}}).<ref>{{cite book|last=A. Kiruṭṭin̲an̲|title=Tamil culture: religion, culture, and literature|year=2000|publisher=Bharatiya Kala Prakashan|pages=17}}</ref> In the Dravidian-speaking South, the concept of divine kingship led to the assumption of major roles by state and temple.<ref>{{cite book|last=Embree|first=Ainslie Thomas|author-link=Ainslie Embree|title=Encyclopedia of Asian history: Volume 1|year=1988|publisher=Scribner|isbn=9780684188980|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofas0000embr|url-access=registration}}</ref>

The cult of the mother goddess is treated as an indication of a society which venerated femininity. This mother goddess was conceived as a virgin, one who has given birth to all and one and was typically associated with [[History of Shaktism|Shaktism]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Thiruchandran|first=Selvy|title=Ideology, caste, class, and gender|year=1997|publisher=Vikas Pub. House}}</ref> Her worship was accepted in the northern parts of India with various names as Devi, Ksetradevata etc.<ref>On the original inhabitants of Bharatavarsa or India, Oppert, Gustav Salomon, 1836-1908, page 17</ref> More recent scholarship has been correcting the misrepresentation made by a section of Westerner and Indian Brahmanical scholars in the portrayal of the tradition of the goddess. Western scholars like Denobili portrayed Brahmin as "gentilism" and the goddess tradition as "idolatarous".<ref>Visicssitudes of the Goddess, Sree Padma,goddess explained, page 11</ref>

The temples of the Sangam days, mainly of Madurai, seem to have had priestesses to the deity, which also appear predominantly a goddess.<ref>{{cite book|last=Manickam|first=Valliappa Subramaniam|title=A glimpse of Tamilology|year=1968|publisher=Academy of Tamil Scholars of Tamil Nadu|pages=75|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bIQOAAAAYAAJ&q=sangam+priestess}}</ref> In the Sangam literature, there is an elaborate description of the rites performed by the Kurava priestess in the shrine Palamutircholai.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lal|first=Mohan|title=The Encyclopaedia Of Indian Literature Volume Five (Sasay To Zorgot), Volume 5|year=2006|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|isbn=8126012218|pages=4396}}</ref> Among the early Dravidians the practice of erecting memorial stones “[[hero stone|Natukal]]’' had appeared, and it continued for quite a long time after the Sangam age, down to about 16th century.<ref>{{cite book|last=Shashi|first=S. S.|title=Encyclopaedia Indica: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh: Volume 100|year=1996|publisher=Anmol Publications}}</ref> It was customary for people who sought victory in war to worship these [[hero stone]]s to bless them with victory.<ref>{{cite book|last=Subramanium|first=N.|title=Śaṅgam polity: the administration and social life of the Śaṅgam Tamils|year=1980|publisher=Ennes Publications}}</ref> Many Hindu sects such as [[Bhakti movement]] and [[Lingayatism]] originated in [[Tamil Nadu]] and [[Karnataka]] respectively. In addition to literary sources, folk festivals, village deities, shamanism, ritual theater and traditions, which are unique to the region, are also good indicators of what early Dravidian people believed/practiced.

[[File:Ayyanar idols near Gobichettipalayam.jpg|right|thumb|170px|Ayyanar, guardian folk deity of Tamil Nadu villages]]

The most popular deity is [[Murugan]], he is known as the patron god of the Tamils and is also called ''Tamil Kadavul'' (Tamil God).<ref>{{Citation | title= Murukan in Cankam Literature: Veriyattu Tribal Worship|author= M. Shanmugam Pillai| work=First International Conference Seminar on Skanda-Murukan in Chennai, 28–30 December 1998. This article first appeared in the September 1999 issue of The Journal of the Institute of Asian Studies | url= http://murugan.org/research/shanmugampillai.htm | access-date=6 December 2006}}</ref><ref>Harold G. Coward,John R. Hinnells,Raymond Brady Williams, ''The South Asian Religious Diaspora in Britain, Canada, and the United States''</ref> In Tamil tradition, Murugan is the youngest son and [[Ganesha|Pillayar]] the oldest son of [[Shiva|Sivan]], this differs from the North Indian tradition, which represents Murugan as the oldest son. The goddess [[Parvati]] is often depicted as having a green complexion in Tamil Hindu tradition, implying her association with nature. The worship of [[Amman (goddess)|Amman]], also called [[Mariamman]], who is thought to have been derived from an ancient [[mother goddess]] is also very common.<ref>{{citation | title= Principles and Practice of Hindu Religion| work=Hindu Heritage Study Program |url=http://www.bnaiyer.com/hinduism/hist-34.html |access-date=5 December 2006|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061114082702/http://www.bnaiyer.com/hinduism/hist-34.html |archive-date = 14 November 2006|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Kannagi|Kan̲n̲agi]], the heroine of the [[Cilappatikaram|Cilappatikār̲am]], is worshipped as [[Pattini|Pattin̲i]] by many Tamils, particularly in Sri Lanka.<ref>{{Citation | title= Tracing the Sri Lanka-Kerala link|author= PK Balachandran |work=Hindustan Times, 23 March 2006 | url= http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/5983_1657214,00430014.htm |access-date=5 December 2006 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20061210184751/http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/5983_1657214,00430014.htm |archive-date = 10 December 2006|url-status=dead}}</ref> There are also many followers of [[Ayyavazhi]] in Tamil Nadu, mainly in the southern districts.<ref>''Dr. R.Ponnu''s, Sri Vaikunda Swamigal and the Struggle for Social Equality in South India, (Madurai Kamaraj University) ''Ram Publishers'', Page 98</ref> In addition, there are many temples and devotees of [[Vishnu]], [[Shiva|Siva]], [[Ganapathi]], and the other Hindu deities.

In rural [[Tamil Nadu]], many local deities, called ''[[aiyyanar|aiyyan̲ārs]]'', are believed to be the spirits of local heroes who protect the village from harm.<ref>{{citation |title= Horse Shrines in Tamil India: Reflections on Modernity|author= [[Mark Jarzombek]]| journal=Future Anterior |year= 2009| url= http://web.mit.edu/mmj4/www/downloads/future_ant4_1.pdf | volume=4 | issue=1 | pages=18–36 | doi=10.1353/fta.0.0031|s2cid= 191627473| doi-access=free}}</ref> Their worship often centres around ''nadukkal'', stones erected in memory of heroes who died in battle. This form of worship is mentioned frequently in classical literature and appears to be the surviving remnants of an ancient Tamil tradition.<ref>{{citation | title= 'Hero stone' unearthed | work=The Hindu, 22 July 2006| url= http://www.hindu.com/2006/07/22/stories/2006072202680200.htm |access-date=5 December 2006 | location=Chennai, India | date=22 July 2006}}</ref> The early Dravidian religion constituted a non-[[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic]] form of [[Hinduism]] in that they were either historically or are at present [[Āgama (Hinduism)|Āgamic]]. The Agamas are non-[[vedic]] in origin<ref name="Narasimhachary">Mudumby Narasimhachary (Ed) (1976). Āgamaprāmāṇya of Yāmunācārya, Issue 160 of Gaekwad's Oriental Series. Oriental Institute, Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda.</ref> and have been dated either as post-Vedic texts<ref name="Tripath" /> or as pre-Vedic compositions.<ref name="Nagalingam">Nagalingam, Pathmarajah (2009). The Religion of the Agamas. Siddhanta Publications. [http://www.siddha.com.my/forum/religionoftheagamas/chapter3.html]</ref> A large portion of these deities continue to be worshipped as the [[Village deities of Tamil Nadu]] and [[Village deities of Tamils of Sri Lanka|Sri Lanka]], and their subsequent influence in [[South-east Asia]], examples of which include the Mariamman temples in [[Sri Mariamman Temple, Singapore|Singapore]] and [[Mariamman Temple, Ho Chi Minh City|Vietnam]]. Worship of anthills, snakes and other forms of guardian deities and heroes are still worshiped in the [[Konkan coast]], [[Maharashtra]] proper and a few other parts of India including [[North India]] which traces its origins to ancient Dravidian religion which has been influencing formation of mainstream Hinduism for thousands of years.

A [[hero stone]], known as “Natukal” by [[Tamils]] and “Virgal” by [[Kannadigas]], is a memorial commemorating the honorable death of a hero in battle. Erected between the 3rd century BC and the 18th century AD, hero stones are found all over India, most of them in southern India. They often carry inscriptions displaying a variety of adornments, including [[bas relief]] panels, frieze, and figures on carved stone.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.kamat.com/database/content/hero-stones/index.htm
|title=Hero-stone Memorials of India
|publisher=Kamat Potpourri
|access-date=2007-03-15
}}</ref> Usually they are in the form of a stone monument and may have an inscription at the bottom with a narrative of the battle. According to the historian [[Upinder Singh]], the largest concentration of such memorial stones are found in [[Karnataka]]. About two thousand six hundred and fifty hero stones, the earliest dated to the 5th century have been discovered in Karnataka.<ref name="singh">Chapter “Memorializing death in stone”, Singh (2009), p48</ref> The custom of erecting memorial stones dates back to the Iron Age (1000 BCE–600BCE) though a vast majority were erected between the 5th and 13th centuries CE.

=== Veriyattam ===
Veriyattam refers to [[spirit possession]] of women, who took part in priestly functions. Under the influence of the god, women sang and danced, but also read the dim past, predicted the future, diagnosed diseases.<ref>{{cite book|title=History of the Tamils: from the earliest times to 600 A.D.|last=Iyengar|first=Srinivasa|publisher=Asian Educational Services|year=1929|pages=77}}</ref> Twenty two poets of the Sangam age in as many as 40 poems portray Veriyatal. Velan is a reporter and prophet endowed with supernatural powers. Veriyatal had been performed by men as well as women.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pzurjfF3AE4C&q=Twenty+two+poets+of+the+Sangam+age+in+as+many+as&pg=PA16|title=Music as History in TamilNadu|last=Venkatasubramanian|first=T.K.|publisher=Primus Books|year=2010|isbn=978-9380607061|pages=16}}</ref>

=== Nadukkal ===
Among the early Tamils, the practice of erecting [[hero stone]]s (''nadukkal'') had appeared, and it continued for quite a long time after the Sangam age, down to about 11th century.<ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopaedia Indica: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh: Volume 100|last=Shashi|first=S. S.|publisher=Anmol Publications|year=1996}}</ref> It was customary for people who sought victory in war to worship these hero stones to bless them with victory.<ref>{{cite book|title=Śaṅgam polity: the administration and social life of the Śaṅgam Tamils|last=Subramanium|first=N.|publisher=Ennes Publications|year=1980}}</ref>

=== Theyyam ===
[[Theyyam]] is a ritual shaman dance popular in [[Kerala]] and parts of [[Karnataka]]. Theyyam migrates into the artist who has assumed the spirit and it is a belief that the god or goddess comes in the midst of fathering through the medium of possessed dancer. The dancer throws rice on the audience and distributes turmeric powder as symbols of blessing. Theyyam incorporates dance, mime and music and enshrines the rudiments of ancient tribal cultures which attached great importance to the worship of heroes and the spirits of ancestors, is a socio-religious ceremony. There are over 400 Theyyams performed, the most spectacular ones are those of Raktha Chamundi, Kari Chamundi, Muchilottu Bhagavathi, Wayanadu Kulaven, Gulikan and Pottan. These are performed in front of shrines, sans stage or curtains.

The early character of Tamil religion was celebrative. It embodied an aura of sacral immanence, sensing the sacred in the vegetation, fertility, and color of the land. The summum bonum of the religious experience was expressed in terms of possession by the god, or ecstasy. Into this milieu there immigrated a sobering influence—a growing number of Jain and Buddhist communities and an increasing influx of northerners.{{Citation needed|date=March 2021}}

The layout of villages can be assumed to be standard across most villages. An Amman (mother goddess) is at the centre of the villages while a male [[Village deities of Tamil Nadu|guardian deity]] ({{indic|lang=ta|indic=காவல் கடவுள்|trans=kāval kaṭavuḷ}}) has a shrine at the village borders. Nowadays, Amman can be either worshipped alone or as a part of the Vedic pantheon.<ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, Part 14|last=Hastings|first=James|publisher=Kessinger Publishing|year=2003}}</ref>

==Folk dance rituals==

*There are multiple [[Folk arts of Karnataka|folk dance rituals]] in Karnataka used for the worship of ''gramadevata''. One of these from Tulu areas is [[Yakshagana]], literally meansing the song (''gana'') of the ''yaksha'', (''[[nature spirits]]'').<ref name="eb">{{cite web | url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9077732/yaksha| title=yaksha|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica| access-date=2007-09-06}}</ref> Yakshagana is the scholastic name (used for the last 200 years) for art forms formerly known as ''kēḷike, āṭa, [[Bayalaata|bayalāṭa]],'' and ''daśāvatāra'' ({{lang-kn|ದಶಾವತಾರ}}). From the Old Mysore region comes [[Folk arts of Karnataka#Somana Kunita|Somana Kunitha]].
*[[Koothu]] ({{lang-ta|கூத்து}}), and alternatively spelt as ''kuttu'', means dance or performance in [[Tamil language|Tamil]], it is a folk art originated from the early [[Tamil country]].<ref>[http://www.discovertamilnadu.net/tamilnadu%20dances.html Dance forms of Tamilnadu] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150814040440/http://discovertamilnadu.net/tamilnadu%20dances.html |date=2015-08-14}}</ref><ref>[http://tamilnadu.com/arts/therukoothu.html Tamilnadu.com] {{webarchive |url=https://archive.today/20130411213929/http://tamilnadu.com/arts/therukoothu.html |date=April 11, 2013}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Buta Kola]]
* [[Dravidian languages]]
* [[Folk religion]]
* [[Gramadevata]]
* [[History of Hinduism]]
* [[Indian religions]]
* [[Religion in ancient Tamil country]]
* [[Shinto]]
* [[Substratum in Vedic Sanskrit]]
* [[Theyyam]]

==Notes==
{{Hinduism}}
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Dravidian studies]]
[[Category:Indian religions]]
[[Category:Asian ethnic religion]]

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Dravidian folk religion