Sangam landscape

2021-04-21T01:24:01Z

2409:4072:6210:AFDD:0:0:1AF1:D8AD: Added information external link and removed false information.

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2020}}
[[File:Thinai en.svg|thumb|300px|Thinais]]
The '''Sangam landscape''' ([[Tamil language|Tamil]]: அகத்திணை "inner classification") is the name given to a poetic device that was characteristic of love poetry in classical [[Tamil language|Tamil]] [[Sangam literature]]. The core of the device was the categorisation of poems into different ''tiṇai''s or modes, depending on the nature, location, mood and type of relationship represented by the poem. Each ''tiṇai'' was closely associated with a particular landscape, and imagery associated with that landscape—its flowers, trees, wildlife, people, climate and geography—was woven into the poem in such a way as to convey a mood, associated with one aspect of a romantic relationship.

== Symbolism ==
{{Sangam literature}}
{{Tamil literature}}
Classical Tamil love poetry assigns the human experiences it describes, and in particular the subjective topics that those experiences relate to, to specific habitats. Every situation in the poems is described using themes in which the time, the place and the floral symbols of each episode are codified. These codifications are used as symbols to imply a socio-economic order, occupations and behaviour patterns, which, in turn, are symbolized, by specific flora and fauna. Details of secondary aspects are just as rigidly codified—the seasons, the hour a god, musical instruments and, above all, the sentimental connotations of each landscape: lovers' meetings, patient waiting, lovers' quarrels, separation, and the anxiously awaited return.

=== Geographical and non-geographical thinais ===

Under this codification, the inner universe associated with love is divided into seven modes, or ''thinai'', five of which are geographical and associated with specific landscapes, and two of which are non-geographical and not associated with any specific landscape. Four of the geographical landscapes are described as being landscapes that occur naturally in the [[Ancient Tamil country|Tamil lands]]. These are: kuṟiñci (குறிஞ்சி)—mountainous regions, associated with union, mullai (முல்லை)—forests, associated with waiting, marutam (மருதம்)—cropland, associated with quarreling, and neital (நெய்தல்)—seashore, associated with pining. The fifth—pālai (பாலை), or desert, associated with separation—is described in the ''[[Tolkappiyam]]'' as not being a naturally existing landscape.<ref name=Balambal>{{cite book|title=Studies in the History of the Sangam Age|pages=27–28|isbn=978-8185163871|year=1998|last=V.|first=Balambal|publisher=Kalinga Publications|location=New Delhi}}</ref>

From these basic associations of landscape and subject, a wide range of specific themes suitable for each landscape were derived. Thus, for example, the commentary on the [[Iraiyanar Akapporul]] states that as a result of the association of the ''kuṟiñci'' landscape with union, it was also associated with the fear of separation, reassurance, the hero's or heroine's discussions with their friends, their being teased or taunted by their friends, their replies to their friends, the friends' role as intermediary, the meeting of the lovers, grief and doubt, and other similar themes. According to the ''Tamilneri vilakkam'', a 9th-century text on poetry, the love themes described by the five thinais constitute "the Tamil way of life" or "the Tamil way of love." (''tamiḻneṟi'')<ref>{{Citation | last=Zvelebil | first=Kamil | title= Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature | year=1992 | publisher=Brill | place=Leiden | isbn=90-04-09365-6}} at pp. xvi-xvii</ref>

The two non-geographical modes—''kaikkilai'' and ''peruntiṇai''—were seen as dealing with emotions that were non-conforming, and therefore were not associated with any specific landscape. ''Kaikkilai'', dealt with unreciprocated or one-sided love, while ''peruntiṇai'', dealt with 'improper' love or love against the rules of custom.{{citation needed|date=July 2020}}

=== Poetic Attributes of the Landscapes<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Pearson Indian History Manual for the UPSC Civil Services Preliminary Examination|last=Singh|publisher=Pearson Education India|isbn=9788131717530|pages=50|language=en}}</ref>===

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; font-size: 95%;"
|- bgcolor ="#ebebeb"
!  !! kuṟunji !! Mullai !! Marudam !! Neithal !! Pālai
|- valign="top"
|- bgcolor ="#ffffff"
|-
| || Elopment ||Patient waiting over separation || Lovers' quarrels, wife's irritability
(husband accused of

visiting a courtesan)
| Longest separation|| Dangerous journey by the hero
|-
| '''Flower''' || [[Strobilanthes|kuṟunji]] || Mullai ([[Jasminum auriculatum|Jasmine]]) || [[Lagerstroemia speciosa|Marudam]] || [[Nymphaeaceae|Water lily]] || [[Wrightia|Paalai]]
|-
| '''Landscape''' || [[Mountain|Mountains]]|| [[Forest]], [[pasture]] || [[Agricultural]] areas, [[plain]] or valley || [[Coast|Seashore]] || Parched wasteland, [[Desert]]
|-
| '''Time''' || [[Midnight]]|| [[Evening]]|| Shortly before sunrise || [[Sunset]]|| Noon
|-
| '''Season/Climate''' || [[Winter]]/Cool and moist || Late Summer/Cloudy || Late spring || Early summer || Summer
|-
| '''Animal''' || [[Monkey]], [[elephant]], [[horse]], [[bull]], [[Tiger]] || [[Deer]] || [[Domestic buffalo|Water Buffalo]], freshwater [[fish]] || [[Crocodile]], [[shark]] || Fatigued elephant, [[tiger]], or [[wolf]]
|-
| '''Crop/Plant''' || [[Jackfruit]], [[bamboo]], ''[[Indian Kino Tree|venkai]]'' || [[Golden Shower Tree|Konrai]] || [[Mango]] || [[Alexandrian Laurel|Punnai]] || [[Cactus]]
|-
| '''Water''' || [[Waterfall]] || [[River|Rivers]]|| [[Pond]] || [[water well|Well]], sea || dry wells, stagnant water
|-
| '''Soil''' || Red and [[Vertisol|black soils]] with stones and pebbles || [[Red soil]]|| [[Alluvial]] || Sandy, [[soil salinity|saline]] soil || salt affected soil
|-
| '''Occupation''' || [[hunting]], gathering [[honey]]||[[animal husbandry]], [[shifting cultivation]]||[[agriculture]]||[[fishing]], [[coastal trade]], salt manufactering || [[traveling]], [[fighting]] (warriorship)
|-
| '''God''' ||[[Murugan|Seyon]]||[[Thirumal|Maayon]]||Vendan||Kadalon || [[Korravai|Kotravai]]
|-
|}

== The Geographical thinais ==
In Tamil, each of the five geographical thinais are named for a flower that is characteristic of that landscape. In English translation, however, it is customary to use the name of the landscape rather than that of the flower, largely because the flowers lack the cultural association with a specific language in English that they have in Tamil.

=== Kurinji—Mountainous Region ===
[[File:Mountains of Western Ghats.jpg|thumb|[[Western Ghats]], Tamil Nadu]]
The mountain is the scene of the lovers' union at midnight. It is the cold, dewy season. The forest is rich with lakes, waterfalls, teak, bamboo and sandalwood. In this region millet grows and wild bees are a source of honey.
Love in this setting is exemplified by [[Murugan]], and one of his wives, [[Valli]], the daughter of a mountain dweller. He wears the sparkling red kantal flower and rides a [[peacock]], the bird of the mountains.

The name of the region, Kurinchi, is also the name of the famous Kurinji flower ([[Strobilanthes kunthiana]]) from the lofty hills of Tamil country. The Strobilanthes, a shrub whose brilliant white flowers blossom for only a few days once every ten or twelve years, blanketing the slopes in radiant whiteness under the sun. This event of jubilation and purity symbolizes the frenzy of a sudden love shared, in concert with the unleashed forces of nature: the amorous dance of peacocks, their echoing cries, the splash of waterfalls, the roar of savage beasts. The lovers hold each other tighter still and forget the dangers of the mountain path.

The people of this region were known by the names ''kanavar'', ''vedar'' and ''kuravar'' whose prime occupation was [[hunting]], [[Honey hunting|honey harvesting]] and [[millet]] cultivation.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=A Social History of Early India|last=Chattopadhyaya|first=Brajadulal|date=2009|publisher=Pearson Education India|isbn=9788131719589|pages=33|language=en}}</ref> The Vedars or Vettuvars (derived from ''vettai'' - hunting) were the main hunters, kanavars (derived from ''kanam'' - forest) hunted elephants and pigs, the kuravars or kunravar (derived from ''kunru'' - hill) were [[Forest farming|forest cultivators]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Untouchability: A Historical Study Upto 1500 A.D. : with Special Reference to Tamil Nadu|last=Hanumanthan|first=Krishnaswamy Ranaganathan|date=1979|publisher=Koodal Publishers|pages=123–124|language=en}}</ref> Their headmen were known as ''Verpan'', ''Poruppan'' and ''Silamban.<ref name=":4"/>'' Their [[totem]]s included [[Murugan]] (god of war and hunting, under the name ''Seyyon''), the [[Vel]] ([[spear]] of Murugan), the [[tiger]] and the tree [[Pterocarpus marsupium|''Venkai'']].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Modern Sannyasins, Parallel Society and Hindu Replications: A Study of the Protestant Contribution to Tamil Culture in Nineteenth Century Sri Lanka against a Historical Background|last=Hoole R.|first=Charles|publisher=McMaster University|year=1993|pages=71–74, 77}}</ref> Their settlements were known as ''sirukuti'' and their place-names attached the suffixes ''kuricci'' (hilly village) and ''malai'' (hill).<ref name=":1" />

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''''குறிஞ்சி—தலைவன் கூற்று''''

கொங்குதேர் வாழ்க்கை அஞ்சிறைத் தும்பி 
காமம் செப்பாது கண்டது மொழிமோ 
பயிலியது கெழீஇய நட்பின் மயிலியல் 
செறியெயிற் றரிவை கூந்தலின் 
நறியவும் உளவோ நீயறியும் பூவே.

—இறையனார்.
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'''Kuṟiñci (Kuṟuntokai-2)''' 
Beautiful-winged bee 
whose life is passed in search of honey 
don't speak to me of desire 
but tell me what you really saw:

Could even the flowers that you know 
be as full of fragrance 
as the hair of the woman 
with the even set of teeth and the peacock nature, 
to whom long affection binds me?

—Irayanār
|}

=== Mullai—Forests ===
[[File:Deer at Mudumalai National Park.jpg|thumb|Forest habitat, [[Mudumalai National Park]]]]
Mullai is the land of the forest. The forest is rich with lakes, waterfalls, teak, bamboo and sandalwood. In this region millet grows and wild bees are a source of honey. Mullai or Jasmine ([[Jasminum auriculatum]]) is the flower of the forests. The inhabitants were known as ''kovalar'', ''ayar'' and ''idaiyar,'' whose occupation included [[livestock]], [[shifting cultivation]], [[husbandry]] and [[dairy farming]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=History of Agriculture in India, Up to C. 1200 A.D.|last=Srivastava|first=Vinod Chandra|date=2008|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn=9788180695216|pages=618|language=en}}</ref> The ''kovalars'' were [[Cowboy|cowherder]] and the ''ayar'' were [[shepherd]].<ref name=":0" /> Their settlements were known as ''pāti'' and used the suffixes ''patti'', ''vati'', ''katu'' and ''ental'' attached to their place-names.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India|last=Kamil Zvelebil|author-link=Kamil Zvelebil|date=1973|publisher=Brill Publishers|isbn=9789004035911|pages=97–99|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Proceedings of the 13th All India Conference of Dravidian Linguists|last=Rangan|first=K.|date=1986|publisher=Tamil University|pages=119|language=en}}</ref> Their headmen bore the titles ''Annal'', ''Tonral'', ''Kuramporai'', ''Nadan'' and ''Manaivi.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|title=Agricultural Practices as gleaned from the Tamil Literature of the Sangam Age|last=T.M.|first=Srinivasan|publisher=Indian Journal of History of Science|volume=51|issue=2|pages=171–172}}</ref>''

The theme of the forest and of shepherds at play, the image of confident waiting for the loved one, produced an original offshoot; for this is the region of [[Vishnu|Maayon]] (Ancient Tamil god), and the love theme it represents symbolizes the devotee waiting in the hope that Maayon will eventually come and fill his soul, thus experiencing the joys of expectation.

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முல்லை—தலைவி கூற்று

சுடர்செல் வானஞ் சேப்பப் படர்கூர்ந் 
தெல்லறு பொழுதின் முல்லை மலரும் 
மாலை என்மனார் மயங்கி யோரே 
குடுமிக் கோழி நெடுநக ரியம்பும் 
பெரும்புலர் விடியலு மாலை 
பகலும் மாலை துணையி லோர்க்கே.

—மிளைப்பெருங் கந்தனார்.
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The sun goes down and the sky reddens, pain grows sharp, 
light dwindles. Then is evening 
when jasmine flowers open, the deluded say. 
But evening is the great brightening dawn 
when crested cocks crow all through the tall city 
and evening is the whole day 
for those without their lovers.

(''[[Kuruntokai]]''-234)''' tr. [[George L. Hart]]
|}

=== Marutham—Cropland ===
[[File:Rice Paddy Fields in Tamil Nadu.jpg|thumb|Paddy fields, Tamil Nadu]]
The plains were the scene of triangular love plots in which the hero's visits to the courtesan oblige the heroine to counter with a mixed show of coquetry and moodiness, tactics whose limits are described in the Thirukkural ("Sulking is like flavouring with salt; a little suffices, but it is easy to go too far."). [[Indra|Senon]], the god of thunderstorm, is the god of Marutham land. The inhabitants were known as ''ulavar'', ''velanmadar, toluvar'' and ''kadaiyar'' whose occupations were involved in [[agriculture]]. The ulavar were the [[plough]]ers, the velanmadar and toluvar the [[Tillage|tillers]] and the kadaiyars were the [[farmworker]]s.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=Historical Dictionary of the Tamils|last=University|first=Vijaya Ramaswamy, Jawaharlal Nehru|date=2017-08-25|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=9781538106860|pages=371|language=en}}</ref> Their headmen were known as ''Mahinan'', ''Uran'' and ''Manaiyol''.<ref name=":4"/> Their settlements were known as ''perur'' and their place-names often had the suffixes ''eri'', ''kulam'', ''mankalam'' and ''kudi.<ref name=":1" />''

The Marutam ([[Lagerstroemia speciosa]]) tree was the characteristic tree of this region.

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மருதம்—தலைவி கூற்று

மள்ளர் குழீஇய விழவி னானும் 
மகளிர் தழீஇய துணங்கை யானும் 
யாண்டுங் காணேன் மாண்தக் கோனை 
யானுமோர் ஆடுகள மகளே என்கைக் 
கோடீ ரிலங்குவளை நெகிழ்த்த 
பீடுகெழு குரிசிலுமோர் ஆடுகள மகனே

—ஆதிமந்தியார்.
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Nowhere, not among the warriors at their festival, 
nor with the girls dancing close in pairs, 
nowhere did I see him.

I am a dancer;

:—for love of him
:these conch-shell bangles slip
:from my wasting hands—
he's a dancer too.

'''—Marutham (Kuruntokai-31)'''
|}

=== Neithal—Seashore ===
[[File:Dawn at Tiruchendur, India.jpg|thumb|Dawn at the seashore of [[Thiruchendur|Tiruchendur]]]]
The seashore affords many examples of the compelling charm of Sangam poetry and the extraordinary freshness of its realism. From behind the conventional symbolization of waiting there emerges a picture of the life of the fisherfolk; the nets and boats drawn up on the beach, scuttling crabs and cart wheels bogged down in the sand, the odour of drying fish, cut into thick slices, which attracts the birds, beautiful village girls peering through the [[Pandanus]] hedges, and the wind blowing through the cracks in the roughly constructed straw huts at night. [[Varuna|Kadalon]], the water god, is worshiped in Neithal. The inhabitants were known as ''parathavar'', ''nulaiyar'' and ''umanar'' whose occupations included fishing, coastal trade, [[pearl hunting|pearl diving]] and [[salt]] manufacturing. The parathavars were sailors and fishermen, the nulaiyar were the divers and umanars the salt manufacturers and [[merchant]]s.<ref name=":2" /> Their settlements were known as ''pakkam'' or ''pattinam'', which were maritime trading [[port]]s.<ref name=":3" /> The headmen were known as ''Thuraivan'', ''Pulampan'' and ''Serppan''.<ref name=":4" />

The neithal, or [[Nelumbo|water lily]] is the characteristic flower of the region.

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நெய்தல் இருங்கழி நெய்தல் நீக்கி 
மீனுநுண் குருகுஇளங் கானல் அல்கும் 
கடல்அணிந் தன்றுஅவர் ஊரே 
கடலினும் பெரிது எமக்கு அவருடை நட்பே.
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Water lilies bloom 
in the lagoons 
where cranes part the water lilies 
looking for fish 
then fly away to stay 
in fragrant seaside groves, 
near my lover's village washed by the sea.

His love for me 
is greater than the sea.

'''—Neithal (Ainkurunuru-184)'''
|}

=== Pālai—Dry Lands ===
[[File:Agasthiyamalai range and Tirunelveli rainshadow.jpg|thumb|Dry land in [[Tirunelveli district]]]]
In classical Tamil prosody, the ''pālai'' or wasteland is not seen as being a naturally occurring ecology. Ilampuranar, in his commentary on the Tolkappiyam, explains that instead, the landscape of the wasteland with which the paalai is associated emerges when other landscapes whither under the heat of the burning sun.
The palai flower is identified as [[Wrightia]] (Wrightia tinctoria). The people inhabiting this region are known as ''eyiner'', ''[[maravar]]'' and ''[[Kallar (caste)|kalvar]]'' who were involved in waylaying, highway robbery and [[soldier]]ing. The Eyiner (from ''ey'' – bow) were hunters who hunted with bow, the maravar (from ''maram'' – valour) were soldiers and the kalvar (from kal – robbery) were robbers.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MazdaWXQFuQC&q=palai+kalvar&pg=PA63|title=Indian History|last=Agnihotri|first=V.K.|date=1988|publisher=Allied Publishers|isbn=9788184245684|pages=368|language=en}}</ref> Their chiefs were known as ''mili'', ''vitalai'' and ''kalai.'' Their settlements were known as ''kurumpu.'' [[Durga|Korravai]], the Mother goddess and goddess of war, is worshipped here.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Song of Songs and Ancient Tamil Love Poems: Poetry and Symbolism|last=Mariaselvam|first=Abraham|date=1988|publisher=Gregorian Biblical Press|isbn=9788876531187|pages=120–123|language=en}}</ref>

The theme of wasteland and separation occupies half of one of the most famous anthologies, the theme of the mountain being only secondary.

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பாலை—கூற்று
தோழி
நிலந்தொட்டுப் புகாஅர் வானம் ஏறார் 
விலங்கிரு முந்நீர் காலிற் செல்லார் 
நாட்டின் நாட்டின் ஊரின் ஊரின் 
குடிமுறை குடிமுறை தேரிற் 
கெடுநரும் உளரோநம் காதலோரே. 
—வெள்ளி வீதியார். 
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They will not dig up the earth and enter it, 
They will not climb into the sky, 
They will not walk across the dark sea. 
If we search every country, 
every city, 
every village, 
can our respective lovers escape us?

'''—Pālai (Kuṟuntokai-130)'''
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}
* Gros, Francois, Poetry in a landscape; the world of Sangam - Indian literature, UNESCO Courier, March 1984.
* ''Kaḷaiviyal eṉṟa Iṟaiyaṉār Akapporuḷ''. [[South India Saiva Siddhanta Works Publishing Society Ltd.]], Madras: 1976.
* ''Tolkappiyam porulatikāram, iḷampūraṇar uraiyuṭaṉ''. Vol 1: akattiṇaiyiyal, puṟattiṇaiyiyal. [[South India Saiva Siddhanta Works Publishing Society Ltd.]], Chennai: 2000.


{{Tamil language}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sangam Landscape}}
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