Pindari

2021-08-17T08:46:11Z

2409:4063:2104:F1AF:881E:2CB7:7FA1:DACF: /* Maratha era */

{{short description|Irregular military around India, 17th-19th century}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}}

The '''Pindaris''' were [[irregular military]] plunderers and foragers in 17th- through early 19th-century [[Indian subcontinent]] who accompanied initially the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] army, later the [[Maratha Army|Maratha]] army, and finally on their own before being eliminated in 1817-19 [[Pindari War]].<ref name=britannicapindari>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pindaris Pindari: Indian History], Encyclopaedia Britannica</ref> They were unpaid and their compensation was entirely the loot they plundered during wars and raids.<ref name=britannicapindari/> They were mostly horsemen armed with spears and swords who would create chaos and deliver intelligence about the enemy positions to benefit the army they accompanied.<ref name=cooper2003p32>{{cite book|author=Randolf Cooper|title=The Anglo-Maratha Campaigns and the Contest for India: The Struggle for Control of the South Asian Military Economy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qweZWra_tbwC |year=2003|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-82444-6|pages=32–34, 94–95, 303–305}}</ref> ]],they recruited from all classes and religions.<ref>{{cite web|title=Pindari|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pindaris|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=30 July 2016}}</ref><ref name="Woerkens2002p24" />

The earliest mention of them is found in the Mughal period during [[Aurangzeb]]'s campaign in the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]], but their role expanded with the Maratha armed campaigns against the [[Mughal empire]].<ref name=cooper2003p32 /> They were highly effective against the enemies given their rapid and chaotic thrust into enemy territories, but also caused serious abuses against allies such as the Pindari raid on [[Sringeri Sharada Peetham]] in 1791.<ref name=cooper2003p32 /> By the early 1800s, armed Pindari militia groups sought wealth for their leaders and themselves.<ref name="Banerjee">{{Cite journal|last=Banerjee |first=Tarasankar |year=1972 |title=The Marathas and the Pindaris: A Study in Their Relationship |journal=The Quarterly Review of Historical Studies |volume=11 |pages=71–82 |url=https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.110194/2015.110194.The-Quarterly-Review-Of-Historical-Studies-Vol11-15-No1-31971-1976_djvu.txt }}</ref> There were an estimated 20,000 to 30,000 Pindari militia during the "Gardi-ka-wakt" ("period of unrest") in north-central India<ref>{{harvnb|Banerjee|1972|page=77}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Katare |first=Shyam Sunder |year=1972 |title=Patterns of Dacoity in India: A Case Study of Madhya Pradesh |location=New Delhi |publisher=S. Chand |page=26 }}</ref> around 1800-1815 CE, who looted villages, captured people as slaves for sale,<ref name="Thompson2017p208">{{cite book|author=Edward Thompson|title=The Making of the Indian Princes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z-2fDgAAQBAJ |year=2017|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-351-96604-7|pages=208–217, 219–221}}</ref> and challenged the authority of local Muslim sultanates, Hindu kingdoms, and the British colonies.<ref name="Woerkens2002p24">{{cite book|author=Martine van Woerkens|title=The Strangled Traveler: Colonial Imaginings and the Thugs of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5HPc_EgwUg8C |year=2002|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-85085-6|pages=24–35, 43}}</ref>

[[Francis Rawdon-Hastings, 1st Marquess of Hastings|Francis Rawdon-Hastings]], Governor-General of British India led an army in early 19th-century to eliminate the Pindaris through military action during the [[Third Anglo-Maratha War]].<ref name=britannicapindari /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vartavarian |first=Mesrob |year=2016 |title=Pacification and Patronage in the Maratha Deccan, 1803–1818 |journal=Modern Asian Studies |volume=50 |issue=6 |pages=1749–1791 }}</ref><ref name="Hardy1972p34">{{Cite book|first=Thomas |last=Hardy |year=1972 |title=The Muslims of British India |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=34–39, 51–52 |isbn=978-0-521-09783-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RDw4AAAAIAAJ }}</ref>

==Etymology==
The term ''Pindar'' may derive from ''[[Pindia|pinda]]'',<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=76c1VSYnPE0C|title=The Tribes and Castes of the Central Provinces of India|last=Russell|first=R. V.|date=1 January 1993|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=9788120608337|language=en}}</ref> an intoxicating drink.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SyMmAQAAIAAJ|title=Nimar|last=(India)|first=Central Provinces|date=1 January 1908|publisher=Printed at the Pioneer Press|language=en}}</ref> It is a Marathi name that possibly connotes a "bundle of grass" or "who takes".<ref name=britannicapindari/> They are also referred to as ''Bidaris'' in some historic texts,<ref name="RaychaudhuriHabib1982p192">{{cite book|author1=Tapan Raychaudhuri|author2=Irfan Habib|author3=Dharma Kumar, Meghnad Desai|title=The Cambridge Economic History of India: Volume 1, C.1200-c.1750|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L-s8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA192|year=1982|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-22692-9|pages=192–193}}</ref> indicating that they originally came from the [[Bidar district]] in central India.<ref name="mcel">{{cite book |last1=McEldowney |first1=Philip |title=Pindari Society and the Establishment of British Paramountcy in India |date=1966 |publisher=University of Wisconsin |url=https://asianstudies.github.io/area-studies/SouthAsia/Ideas/pindaris.html#rise}}</ref>

==Appearance and society==
The Pindaris were horsemen who were mostly armed with a type of [[talwar]] and a large spear. They were organised into groups called ''durrahs'' each of which had a leader and were organised into different castes and classes. Allegiances were usually hereditary but membership of each ''durrah'' could be interchangeable.<ref name="mcel" />

The Pindaris were from a variety of religious and traditional backgrounds, all of which appear to have been accepted within their society. In addition to their individual beliefs, the Pindaris worshipped Ramasah Pir, an ancient Pindari raider, as a demi-god. Pindari women would place small icons of horses in a shrine dedicated to Pir before the commencement of their raids, and the men would wear tokens stamped with his image.<ref name="mcel" />

The raids, called ''luhbur'', would be conducted in the dry-season starting from late October. During the rainy season, the Pindari would stay with their families in their native lands around the [[Narmada River]].<ref name="mcel" />

==History==
===Mughal Empire era===
[[File:Hutchinsonsstory00londuoft 0234.jpg|thumb|Pindaris loyal to [[Siraj-ud-Daulah]] carry out the [[Black Hole of Calcutta]] incident, 20 June 1756.]]

The first clear mention of Pindaris in historical texts occurs in the works of the [[Persian people|Persian]] historian, [[Firishta]], who refers to them marching with the [[Mughal Army|Mughal armies]] of [[Aurangzeb]] during his 1689 campaign in the [[Deccan Plateau]].<ref name="mcel" /> Around the same time, the Italian traveler [[Niccolao Manucci]], in his memoir about the Mughal Empire, wrote about Bederia (Pidari), stating that "these are the first to invade the enemy's territory, where they plunder everything they find."<ref>{{cite book|author=Niccolò Manucci|author2= William Irvine (Translator)| title=Storia do Mogor: or, Mogul India, 1653-1708. by Niccolao Manucci |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HOMUAQAAIAAJ |year=1965|publisher=Editions|page=431}}</ref>

According to Tapan Raychaudhuri et al., the Mughal army "always had in its train the "Bidari" (as pronounced in [[Arabic]]), the privileged and recognized thieves who first plundered the enemy territory and everything they could find". The Deccan sultanates and Aurangzeb's campaign in central India deployed them against kingdoms such as Golconda, and in Bengal. The unpaid cavalry got compensated for their services by "burning and looting everywhere".<ref name="RaychaudhuriHabib1982p192"/> The Hindu Marathas, in their war against the Mughals, evolved this concept by expanding the Pindaris brigade, encouraging them not only to loot the Muslim territories but gather and deliver food to their regular army. The Maratha army never carried provisions, and gathered their resources and provisions from the enemy territory as they invaded and conquered more regions of the collapsing Mughal state.<ref name="RaychaudhuriHabib1982p192"/> According to the historian Richard Eaton, plunder of frontier regions was a part of the strategy that contributed wealth and propelled the Sultanate systems in the Indian subcontinent.{{sfn|Richard M. Eaton|2005|pp=24-25}} Plunder, along with taxes and tribute payments contributed to growing imperial revenues for the Mughal rulers.{{sfn|John Richards|1995|pp=8-9, 58, 69}}

The Bidaris of the Aurangzeb's army and the Pindaris of the Maratha army extended this tradition of violence and plunder in their pursuit of the political and ideological wars. Shivaji, and later his successors in the name of his dynasty, included the Pindaris in their war strategy. Deploying the Pindaris, they plundered the Mughal and Sultanate territories surrounding the Maratha empire and used the plundered wealth to sustain the Maratha army.{{sfn|John Richards|1995|pp=207-208, 212, 215-220}}<ref name="Roy2011p102"/><ref name=cooper2003p32 /><ref>{{cite book|author=Abraham Eraly|title=Emperors of the Peacock Throne: The Saga of the Great Mughals|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=04ellRQx4nMC&pg=PA471 |year=2000 |publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-0-14-100143-2|pages=471–472}}</ref><ref name=Farrell>{{cite book|author1=Jack Fairey|author2=Brian P. Farrell|title=Empire in Asia: A New Global History: From Chinggisid to Qing|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IlFuDwAAQBAJ |year=2018|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-1-4725-9123-4|pages=144–145}}</ref>

The devastation and disruption by the Pindaris not only strengthened the Marathas, the Pindaris helped weaken and frustrate the Muslim sultans in preserving a stable kingdom they could rule or rely on for revenues.{{sfn|John Richards|1995|pp=207-208, 212, 215-220}}<ref name="Roy2011p102"/><ref name=cooper2003p32 /> The Maratha strategy also embarrassed Aurangzeb and his court.<ref name=Farrell/> The same Pindari-assisted strategy help the Marathas block and reverse the Mughal era gains in south India as far as Gingee and Trichurapalli.<ref>{{cite book|author=Jos J. L. Gommans|title=Mughal Warfare: Indian Frontiers and Highroads to Empire, 1500-1700 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vA3YVOt9QZUC&pg=PA187 |year=2002|publisher=Psychology Press| isbn=978-0-415-23989-9 |pages= 191–192, context: 187–198}}</ref>

===Maratha era===
{{See also|Maratha Confederacy}}

Marathas adopted the Bidaris militia of the earlier era. Their Pindaris were not from any particular religion or caste.<ref name="Roy2011p102">{{cite book|author=Kaushik Roy|title=War, Culture and Society in Early Modern South Asia, 1740-1849 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zp0FbTniNaYC&pg=PA102 |year=2011|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-136-79087-4|pages=102–103, 125–126}};<br>{{cite book|author=Robert Vane Russell|title=The principal castes and tribes of the Central Provinces|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oUgzAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA388|year=1916|publisher=Macmillan and Company, limited|pages=388–397}}</ref> Most of the Pindari leaders who plundered for the Marathas were Muslims, such as Gardi Khan and Ghats-u-Din who were employed by the Maratha Peshwa [[Balaji Baji Rao]].<ref name="mcel" /> Other famed Pindari leaders in the historic literature include Namdar Khan, Dost Mohammad, Wasil Mohammad, Chitu, Khajeh Bush, Fazil Khan and Amir Khan.<ref>{{cite book|author=R.S. Chaurasia|title=History of the Marathas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D_v3Y7hns8QC&pg=PA158|year=2004|publisher=Atlantic Publishers |isbn=978-81-269-0394-8|pages=158–159}}</ref> Similarly, Hindu leaders of Pindaris included the Gowaris, Alande, Ghyatalak, Kshirsagar, Ranshing and Thorat.<ref>{{cite book|author=LKA Iyer|title=Mysore|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w9jbqGLH7ioC&pg=PA393|year=1965|publisher=Mittal Publications|pages=393–395|id=GGKEY:HRFC6GWCY6D}}</ref> Hindu ascetics and monks were another pool that volunteered as militia to save their temples and villages from the Muslim invaders but also disrupted enemy supply lines and provided reconnaissance to the Marathas.<ref name="Barendse2009p1519">{{cite book|author=Rene Barendse|title=Arabian Seas 1700 - 1763 (4 vols.)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fCywCQAAQBAJ |year=2009|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=978-90-474-3002-5|pages=1518–1520}}</ref>

According to Randolf Cooper, the Pindaris who served the Marathas were a volunteer militia that included men and their wives, along with enthusiastic followers that sometimes swelled to some 50,000 people at the frontline of a war. They moved swiftly and performed the following duties: destabilize enemy's standing army and state apparatus by creating chaos; isolate enemy armed units by harassing them, provoke and waste enemy resources; break or confuse the logistical and communication lines of the enemy; gather intelligence about the size and armament of the enemy; raid enemy food and fodder to supply resources for the Marathas and deplete the same for the enemy.<ref name=cooper2003p32/>

The Pindaris of the Marathas did not attack the enemy infantry, rather operated by picketing the civilians, outposts, trade routes and the territorial sidelines. Once the confusion had set in among the enemy ranks, the trained and armed contingents of the Marathas attacked the enemy army. The Marathas, in some cases, collected ''palpatti'' – a form of tax – from the hordes of their Pindari plunderers to participate with them during their invasions.<ref name=cooper2003p32/>

The Pindaris were a major resource for the Marathas, but they also created problems when they raided and plundered the Maratha allies. Shivaji introduced extensive regulations to check and manage the targeted predatory actions of the Pindari.<ref name=cooper2003p32/>

During the [[Third Battle of Panipat]], [[Vishwasrao]] was in command of thousands of Pindari units.

===British Empire era===
[[File:The villagers burning themselves to avoid Pindaris, 1815.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Villagers burning themselves after a Pindari raid]]
After the arrival of the [[East India Company|British East India Company]] among the chaos of a collapsed Mughal Empire and the weakening of the Maratha leadership, the Pindaris became a semi-independent power centred in the area just north of the [[Narmada River]].<ref name="mcel" /> By late 18th-century, the Maratha empire had fragmented, the British colonial era had arrived and the Pindaris had transformed from being involved in regional wars to looting for the sake of their own and their leaders' wealth.<ref name="Thompson2017p208"/> They conducted raids for plunder to enrich themselves, or to whichever state was willing to hire them. Sometimes they worked for both sides in a conflict, causing heavy damages to the civilian populations of both sides. They advanced through central India, Gujarat and Malwa, with protection from rulers from [[Gwalior State|Gwalior]] and [[Indore State|Indore]].<ref name=britannicapindari/><ref name=kothiyal/><ref name=ward/> With the plundered wealth, they had also acquired cannons and more deadly military equipment to challenge local troops and law enforcement personnel. The Amir Khan-linked Pindaris, for example, brought 200 canons to seize and loot [[Jaipur State|Jaipur]].<ref name="Thompson2017p218">{{cite book|author=Edward Thompson|title=The Making of the Indian Princes|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Z-2fDgAAQBAJ |year= 2017|publisher= Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-351-96604-7|pages=179–180, 218–223}}</ref> According to Edward Thompson, the Pindaris led by Amir Khan and those led by Muhammad Khan had become nearly independent mobile satellite confederacy that launched annual loot and plunder campaigns, after the monsoon harvest season, on rural and urban settlements. Along with cash, produce and family wealth, these Pindari leaders took people as slaves for sale. They attacked regions under British control, the Hindu rajas, and the Muslim sultans.<ref name="Thompson2017p208"/>

In 1812 and 1813 the Pindaris conducted successful plundering raids on [[Mirzapur]] and [[Surat]] which were located in areas controlled by the British. In 1816, they undertook an extensive expedition into the East India Company territories around the [[Guntur district]], raiding 339 villages and taking an estimated £100,000 worth of loot. Some of the inhabitants of village Ainavolu committed suicide by throwing themselves into the flames of their burning houses. The British reacted, not only to the financial cost of these raids, but also to the loss of trust the inhabitants had in them as a protective power. They established military outposts south of the Narmada River which contained the Pindaris and prevented any further raids.<ref name="mcel" />

===Pindari War (1817-19)===
Ultimately, the British under the governorship of [[Francis Rawdon-Hastings, 1st Marquess of Hastings|Francis Rawdon-Hastings]] became so frustrated that they formed the largest army they had ever organised in India to exterminate the Pindaris.<ref name="mcel" /> Rawdon-Hastings, with the approval of the Court of Directors of the [[British East India Company|East India Company]], also utilised this force to fight against the remaining Maratha forces and take ownership of their territories in what became known as the [[Third Anglo-Maratha War]].<ref name="mapw">{{cite book |last1=Burton |first1=R.G. |title=The Mahratta And Pindari War |date=1910 |publisher=Government Press |location=Simla |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.284400/mode/2up}}</ref> From November 1817 until 1819, some 120,000 British troops surrounded and invaded the Malwa and Maratha regions, eliminating the Pindaris where they found them and forcing the surrender of the Maratha leaders.<ref name=britannicapindari/><ref name=kothiyal>{{cite book|author=Tanuja Kothiyal|title=Nomadic Narratives: A History of Mobility and Identity in the Great Indian Desert|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=be-7CwAAQBAJ |year=2016|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-08031-7|pages=109–113, 116–120 with footnotes}}</ref><ref name=ward>{{cite book|author1=Adolphus William Ward|author2=George Walter Prothero|author3=Stanley Mordaunt Leathes|title=The Cambridge Modern History: The growth of nationalities|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7oBGAQAAMAAJ |year=1969|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=725–727}}</ref><ref name="mapw" />

In addition to the military action, the British coalition also offered regular employment to some of the Pindari militia by converting them into a separate contingent of its forces. A minority were given jobs as police and offered pensions or [[Nawab]] positions along with land to their leaders such as Namdar Khan and Amir Khan.<ref name="Hardy1972p34"/>

==In popular culture==
[[Veer (2010 film)|Veer]], a 2010 film directed by [[Anil Sharma]] and starring [[Salman Khan]], depicts the story of a Pindari warrior named Veer Pratap Singh who fought against British colonial rule in [[Rajasthan]].

==See also==
*[[Thuggee]]
*[[Bargi]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

===Bibliography===
*{{cite book|author=Randolf Cooper|title=The Anglo-Maratha Campaigns and the Contest for India: The Struggle for Control of the South Asian Military Economy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qweZWra_tbwC |year=2003|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-82444-6}}
*{{cite book|author=Richard M. Eaton|title=A Social History of the Deccan, 1300-1761: Eight Indian Lives|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cGd2huLXEVYC |year=2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-25484-7}}
*{{cite book|author=John Richards|title=The Mughal Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4evztAEACAAJ|year=1995|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-511-58406-0}}

==External links==
* [http://www.lib.virginia.edu/area-studies/SouthAsia/Ideas/pindaris.html Pindari Society and the Establishment of British Paramountcy in India]
* ''Pindari'' in [https://books.google.com/books?id=xGXhAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA388&dq=pindara+caste&hl=en&ei=3cyATvujPIXK0AHfyJUK&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CE4Q6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=pindara%20caste&f=false The tribes and castes of the central provinces of India], Volume 1, by R.V. Russell, R.B.H. Lai

[[Category:Military history of India]]
[[Category:History of Rajasthan]]
[[Category:History of Malwa]]
[[Category:Marathi people]]
[[Category:Indian castes]]
[[Category:History of law enforcement in India]]
[[Category:Looting]]

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Pindari