Mushika dynasty

2021-07-30T07:54:04Z

2405:201:F004:C106:6134:DE32:BC7A:1D24:

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2019}}{{Infobox former country
|native_name = Ezhimala/Kolladesham
|image_map = Ezhimala beach.JPG
|image_map_caption = [[Ezhimala (hill, Kannur)|Ezhimala]], early historic headquarters of Mushika dynasty
|conventional_long_name = Mushika
|common_name =
|status =
|year_start =
|year_end =
|common_languages =
* [[Middle Tamil]]
* [[Old Malayalam]]
|capital =
* [[Ezhimala (hill, Kannur)|Ezhimala]] (early historic)
* Kollam (early medieval)
* Karippattu, [[Taliparamba]] (c. 12th century)
|today = [[India]]
|religion = [[Hinduism]]
|demonym=|area_km2=|area_rank=|GDP_PPP=|GDP_PPP_year=|HDI=|HDI_year=}}

'''Mushika dynasty,''' also spelled '''Mushaka''', was a minor dynastic power that held sway over the region in and around Mount Ezhi ([[Ezhimala (hill, Kannur)|Ezhimala]]) in present-day [[Kerala]], India.<ref>Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 178.</ref> The present-day [[Kolathiri]]s are descendants of the ancient Mushika dynasty.<ref>{{cite book |author=A. Sreedhara Menon |title=Kerala History and its Makers |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Kerala_History_and_its_Makers/wnAjqjhc1VcC?hl=en |publisher=DC Books |page=1}}</ref> The country of the Mushikas, ruled by an ancient lineage of the [[Velirs|Velir]] clan of the same name, appears in [[Sangam period|early historic (pre-Pallava) south India]].<ref name=":7">Gurukkal, Rajan. “DID STATE EXIST IN THE PRE-PALLAVAN TAMIL REGION.” ''Proceedings of the Indian History Congress'', vol. 63, 2002, pp. 138–150.</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Ganesh|first=K.N.|date=2009-08-01|title=Lived Spaces in History: A Study in Human Geography in the Context of Sangam Texts|journal=Studies in History|language=en|volume=25|issue=2|pages=151–195|doi=10.1177/025764301002500201|pmid=20662174|s2cid=20543161|issn=0257-6430}}</ref> Early Tamil poems contain several references to the exploits of Nannan of Ezhimalai.<ref name=":5" /> Nannan was known as a great enemy of the pre-[[Pallava dynasty|Pallava]] [[Chera dynasty|Chera]] chieftains.<ref name=":0">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 195.</ref> The clan also had matrimonial alliances with the Chera, Pandya and Chola chieftains.<ref name=":4" /> The [[Kolathunadu]] ([[Kannur]]) Kingdom, which was the descendant of Mushika dynasty, at the peak of its power, reportedly extended from [[Netravati River]] ([[Mangalore]]) in the north to [[Korapuzha]] ([[Kozhikode]]) in the south with [[Arabian Sea]] on the west and [[Kodagu]] hills on the eastern boundary, also including the isolated islands of [[Lakshadweep]] in the [[Arabian Sea]].<ref name="Kola Swaroopam"/>

The Mushika/Ezhimala kingdom/chiefdom gradually developed into a monarchical polity (known as Kolla-desam<ref name=":10">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 118-119 and 137-138.</ref>) in the early medieval period.<ref name=":0" /> The medieval Mushikas were considered as [[Kshatriya]]s of Soma Vamsa.<ref name=":1">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 180-182.</ref> The hereditary title of the Mushika kings in the medieval period was Ramaghata Musaka (Tamil/Malayalam: Iramakuta Muvar).<ref>Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 140-141.</ref><ref name=":11">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 122-123 and 141.</ref> The ''[[Mushika-vamsha|Mushaka Vamsa Kavya]]'', a dynastic chronicle composed in the 11th century by poet [[Atula|Athula]], describes the history of the Mushika lineage.<ref name=":3">Thapar, Romila'', The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300.'' Penguin Books, 2002. 394-95.</ref><ref name=":2" />

Mushika kingdom came under the influence of [[Chera dynasty|Chera/Perumal kingdom]] kingdom in the 11th century AD.<ref name=":62">{{Cite journal|last=Ganesh|first=K.N.|date=June 2009|title=Historical Geography of Natu in South India with Special Reference to Kerala|journal=Indian Historical Review|volume=36|issue=1|pages=3–21|doi=10.1177/037698360903600102|s2cid=145359607|issn=0376-9836}}</ref> Mushika royals seem to have assisted the Chera/Perumal kings in their struggle against the [[Chola dynasty|Chola Empire]].<ref name=":2">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 178-179.</ref><ref name=":1" /> Two subsequent Chola inscriptions (c. 1005 AD, [[Rajaraja I]] and c. 1018-19, [[Rajadhiraja Chola|Rajadhiraja]]) mention the defeat of the Kolla-desam and the fall of the Iramakuta Muvar.<ref name=":102">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 118-119 and 137-138.</ref><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":112">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 122-123 and 141.</ref> The presence of the Cholas in north Kerala (1020 AD) is confirmed by the Eramam inscription.<ref name=":113">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 122-123 and 141.</ref> The kingdom survived the Chera/Perumal state, and came to be known as Kolathunad ([[Kannur district|Kannur]]-[[Kasaragod district|Kasaragod]] area) in the post-Chera/Perumal period.<ref name=":0" />

The Mushika kings appear to have encouraged a variety of merchant guilds in their kingdom. Famous Indian guilds such as the [[anjuvannam]], the [[manigramam]], the valanchiyar and the nanadeshikal show their presence in the kingdom. The kings are also described as great champions of Hindu religion and temples. Some Mushika rulers are known for their patronage to a famous [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] vihara in central Kerala.<ref name=":1" /> Presence of Jewish merchants is also speculated in the ports of Mushika kingdom. A location in [[Madayi]] is still known as "the Jew's pond" (the Jutakkulam).<ref name=":1" />

== Etymology ==
The term "Mushika" or "Mushaka" is the fanciful [[Sanskrit]] translation of the ancient [[Tamil language|Tamil]] name "Ezhimalai" (the Ezhil Kunram<ref name=":8" />).<ref name=":0" /> The name was incorrectly pronounced as "Elimala" ("the Mountain of the Rats") also.<ref name=":0" />

The Ezhimala hill is described in ''Mushaka Vamsa Kavya'' as the "Mushaka Parvata".<ref name=":2" />

== Origins ==
[[File:Ezhimala1.png|left|thumb|Ezhimala, the ancient capital, as seen from train]]The ancient ruling family of the Ezhimala seems to have existed in northern Kerala at least from early historic [[Sangam period|(pre-Pallava)]] period.<ref name=":1" />

Ancient Tamil poems also describe the [[Velirs|velir]]-level chiefdom of Ezhimalai (also Ezhilmalai<s>)</s> on the northern edge of Tamilakam on its west (Malabar) coast. <ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2O07AQAAIAAJ|title=Journal: Humanities|last=Madras|first=University of|date=1961-01-01|page=188|language=en}}</ref> The rulers of Ezhilmalai were the most prominent hill chieftains of ancient Kerala.<ref name=":7" /> The port known as Naravu was located in Ezhimalai chiefdom (Akam, 97). The "Muvan" chieftain of the early Tamil poems, described as an adversery of the early Chera chieftains, is also identical with the Muvan of Ezhimalai.<ref name=":5">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 195.</ref>

The early historic Ezhimala clan had matrimonial alliances with the Chera, Pandya and Chola chieftains.<ref name=":4">{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.jZY9lup2kZl6TuXGlZQdjZU6kuUy| title=Glimpses of Tamil civilization: articles from the university quarterly, Tamil civilization| publisher=Tamil University| date=1994| page=142| language=en}}</ref>

''[[Mahabharata]]'', the Sanskrit epic poem of ancient India, also mention the Mushika as one of the kingdoms of the deep South of India, and is grouped with the Cheras, Pandyas and Cholas.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8897ridkczoC&pg=PA479|title=Encyclopaedia of Ancient Indian Geography|isbn=9788177552997|last1=Kapoor|first1=Subodh|year=2002}}</ref> It is identified both as the Ay/Venad/Thiruvithamkur dynasty as well as the Nannan/Mushika/Kolathiri dynasty.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Indiana/-w1uAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |last1=Pai |first1=Manjeshwar Govinda |last2=Prabhu |first2=M. Mukunda | last3=Bhaṭṭa| first3=Herañje Kr̥ṣṇa |title=Indiana - Studies in Indian Culture, History, and Civilisation| publisher=Rashtrakavi Govind Pai Samshodhana Kendra |page=768</ref><ref>https://www.academia.edu/37983321/Travancore_State_Manual_Vol_1_in_two_parts</ref>

=== Ezhimala Nannan ===
Nannan was a [[Velirs|velir]]-level chieftain of Ezhimalai ("the Ezhil Kunram").<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /> Nannan is known as a great enemy of the early (pre-[[Pallava dynasty|Pallava]]) [[Chera dynasty|Chera]] chieftains (western Tamil Nadu and central Kerala).<ref name=":0" /> He appeas in ''[[Akanaṉūṟu|Akananuru]]'' and ''[[Purananuru]]'' poems, and also in ''[[Naṟṟiṇai|Natrinai]]'', in ''[[Patiṟṟuppattu|Pathitruppathu]]'' and in ''[[Kuṟuntokai|Kurunthokai]]''.<ref name=":5" /> He is described as the hunter chieftain of the vetar descent group ("vetar-ko-man").<ref name=":7" />

Early Tamil poems contain several references to the exploits of Ezhimalai Nannan (who was also known as the lord of Konkanam).<ref name=":5" />

* Poet Kudavayur Kirattanar speaks about the defeat of certain Pazhayan by Nannan and his associates Ettai, Atti, Gangan, Katti and Punthurai. In another battle Nannan defeated a chieftain called Pindan (''Akam'', 152, and ''Natrinai'', 270).

* When Nannan invaded Punnad, the [[Chera dynasty|Chera]] warriors came to the aid of the people of that country. It seems that Nannan managed to defeat Ay Eyinan, the leader of the Chera warriors, in the ensuing battle at Pazhi. The warriors of Nannan were led by a person called Minjili in this battle (''Akam'', 141, 181, and 396, and ''Natrinai'', 265).

* However, poem 351 and poem 396 from the ''Purananuru'' describe Nannan and Ay Eyinan as relatives and as extremely close friends. So intimate was their relationship that Nannan renamed the "Pirampu" hills in his domain as "Aypirampu".<ref><nowiki>{{</nowiki>{{cite book |last=Indian History Congress |date=1981 |title=Proceedings |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Proceedings/9-RtAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&printsec=frontcover |location=University of Michigan |publisher=Indian History Congress |page=87 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Samuel, Hikosaka |first=G. John, Shu |date=1996 |title=Encyclopaedia of Tamil Literature: Ākkañceppal to Ilaiyutir Kālattu Iravukaḷ |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Encyclopaedia_of_Tamil_Literature_%C4%80kka/T3gOAAAAYAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&printsec=frontcover |location=University of Virginia |publisher=Institute of Asian Studies |page=97 }}</ref><ref>http://www.archaeology.kerala.gov.in/monuments/ezhimala-fort/25</ref>

* In the meanwhile, Kosar people from Chellur (identified present day [[Taliparamba]]) attacked Ezhimala country, and even cut down the vakai ([[albizia]]), the tutelary tree of Nannan.<ref name=":8" /> Nannan defeated the Kosars with help of [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] Ilanchettu Chenni, but Pazhi was sacked by the Cholas (''Kurunthokai'', 73 and ''Akam'', 375).

* Nannan was killed in a battle at Vakai Perumthurai by Chera Narmudi Cheral (''Pathitruppattu, IV).''

==Jurisdiction==
The ancient port of ''Naura'', which is mentioned in the ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]'' as a port somewhere north of [[Muziris]] is identifed with [[Kannur]].<ref name="Ente_Kannur">{{cite book|author=Menon, A. Sreedhara |title=A Survey of Kerala History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C|year=2007|publisher=DC Books|isbn=9788126415786}}</ref>
[[File:Periplous of the Erythraean Sea.svg|thumbnail|Names, routes and locations of the ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]'' (1st century CE)]]
[[Pliny the Elder]] (1st century CE) states that the port of ''[[Tyndis]]'' was located at the northwestern border of ''Keprobotos'' ([[Chera dynasty]]).<ref name="Oho">Gurukkal, R., & Whittaker, D. (2001). In search of Muziris. ''Journal of Roman Archaeology,'' ''14'', 334-350.</ref> The region, which lies north of the port at ''[[Tyndis]]'', was ruled by the kingdom of [[Ezhimala]] during [[Sangam period]].<ref name="odra">A. Shreedhara Menon, A Survey of Kerala History</ref> According to the ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]'', a region known as ''[[Limyrike]]'' began at ''[[Kannur|Naura]]'' and ''[[Tyndis]]''. However the [[Ptolemy]] mentions only ''[[Tyndis]]'' as the ''[[Limyrike]]'''s starting point. The region probably ended at [[Kanyakumari]]; it thus roughly corresponds to the present-day [[Malabar Coast]]. The value of Rome's annual trade with the region was estimated at around 50,000,000 [[sesterces]].<ref>According to [[Pliny the Elder]], goods from India were sold in the Empire at 100 times their original purchase price. See [https://web.archive.org/web/20131106031753/http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/BookLibrary/books/bibliographie/P/Plinyelder/elder/pliny-india.html]</ref> [[Pliny the Elder]] mentioned that ''[[Limyrike]]'' was prone by pirates.<ref>Bostock, John (1855). "26 (Voyages to India)". Pliny the Elder, The Natural History. London: Taylor and Francis. </ref> The [[Cosmas Indicopleustes]] mentioned that the ''[[Limyrike]]'' was a source of peppers.<ref>Indicopleustes, Cosmas (1897). Christian Topography. 11. United Kingdom: The Tertullian Project. pp. 358–373. </ref><ref>Das, Santosh Kumar (2006). The Economic History of Ancient India. Genesis Publishing Pvt Ltd. p. 301. </ref>

Ezhimala dynasty had jurisdiction over two ''Nadu''s - The coastal ''Poozhinadu'' and the hilly eastern ''Karkanadu''. According to the works of [[Sangam literature]], ''Poozhinadu'' consisted much of the coastal belt between [[Mangalore]] and [[Kozhikode]].<ref name="Census_Handbook">{{Cite book|title=District Census Handbook, Kasaragod (2011)|publisher=Directorate of Census Operation, Kerala|location=Thiruvananthapuram|pages=9|url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/3201_PART_B_KASARAGOD.pdf}}</ref> ''Karkanadu'' consisted of [[Wayanad]]-[[Gudalur, Nilgiris|Gudalur]] hilly region with parts of [[Kodagu]] (Coorg).<ref name="wnd">{{cite book
| author = Government of India | year=2014–15
| title= District Census Handbook – Wayanad (Part-B) 2011 | publisher=Directorate of Census Operations, Kerala
| url= https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/3203_PART_B_WAYANAD.pdf
}}</ref> It is said that Nannan, the most renowned ruler of Ezhimala dynasty, took refuge at Wayanad hills in 5th century CE when he was lost to [[Chera dynasty|Cheras]], just before his execution in a battle, according to the [[Sangam literature|Sangam works]].<ref name="wnd"/> The Ezhimala/Mushika Kingdom at the peak of its power, reportedly extended from [[Netravati River]] ([[Mangalore]]) in the north to [[Korapuzha]] ([[Kozhikode]]) in the south with [[Arabian Sea]] on the west and [[Kodagu]] hills on the eastern boundary, also including the isolated islands of [[Lakshadweep]] in the [[Arabian Sea]].<ref name="Kola Swaroopam">{{cite book |last1=Sreedhara Menon |first1=A. |title=''Kerala Charitram'' |year=2007 |publisher=DC Books |location=Kottayam |isbn=978-8126415885 |edition=2007 |page=175 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FAlXPgAACAAJ&q=%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%B3+%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82 |access-date=19 July 2020}}</ref>

Until 16th century CE, [[Kasargod]] town was known by the name ''Kanhirakode'' (may be by the meaning, 'The land of ''Kanhira'' Trees') in [[Malayalam]].<ref name="Kanhirakode">{{cite book
| author = S. Muhammad Hussain Nainar | year=1942
| title= Tuhfat-al-Mujahidin: An Historical Work in The Arabic Language | publisher=University of Madras
| url= https://archive.org/details/Tuhfat-al-MujahidinAnHistoricalWorkInTheArabicLanguage
}}</ref> The [[Kumbla]] dynasty, who swayed over the land of southern [[Tulu Nadu]] wedged between [[Payaswini|Chandragiri River]] and [[Netravati River]] (including present-day Taluks of [[Manjeshwar]] and [[Kasaragod]]) from ''Maipady Palace'' at [[Kumbla]], had also been vassals to the [[Kolathunadu]]/[[Kolathiri]] rulers, before the [[Kannada|Carnatic]] conquests of [[Vijayanagara Empire]].<ref>{{cite book
| author = M. Vijayanunni
| title= 1981 Census Handbook- Kasaragod District | publisher=Directorate of Census Operations, Kerala
| url= http://lsi.gov.in:8081/jspui/bitstream/123456789/5757/1/51134_1981_KAS.pdf
}}</ref> The Kumbla dynasty had a mixed lineage of [[Malayali]] [[Nair]]s and [[Tuluva Brahmin]]s.<ref name="askh"/> They also claimed their origin from [[legend of Cheraman Perumals|Cheraman Perumal]]s of Kerala.<ref name="askh">A. Sreedhara Menon, A Survey of Kerala History</ref> [[Francis Buchanan-Hamilton]] states that the customs of Kumbla dynasty were similar to those of the contemporary [[Malayali]] kings, though Kumbla was considered as the southernmost region of [[Tulu Nadu]].<ref name="askh"/>

Entire Tamilakam was a hub of [[Indian Ocean trade]] during the era. According to [[Mappila|Kerala Muslim]] tradition, Kolathunadu was home to several [[Islam in India|oldest mosques]] in [[Indian subcontinent]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Jonathan Goldstein |title=The Jews of China |publisher=M. E. Sharpe |year=1999|isbn=9780765601049 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8Z6DlzyT2vwC |page=123}}</ref><ref name="SimpsonKresse2008">{{cite book |author1=Edward Simpson|author2=Kai Kresse|title=Struggling with History: Islam and Cosmopolitanism in the Western Indian Ocean|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w0qHKA7zEaEC&pg=PA333|access-date=24 July 2012 |year=2008|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-70024-5|pages=333}}</ref><ref name="Kupferschmidt1987">{{cite book|author=Uri M. Kupferschmidt|title=The Supreme Muslim Council: Islam Under the British Mandate for Palestine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ChEVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA458|access-date=25 July 2012|year=1987|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-07929-8|pages=458–459}}</ref><ref name="Raṇṭattāṇi2007">{{cite book|author=Husain Raṇṭattāṇi|title=Mappila Muslims: A Study on Society and Anti Colonial Struggles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xlb5BrabQd8C&pg=PA179|access-date=25 July 2012|year=2007|publisher=Other Books|isbn=978-81-903887-8-8|pages=179–}}</ref> According to ''[[Qissat Shakarwati Farmad]]'', the [[Mosque|''Masjids'']] at Kodungallur, [[Kollam]], [[Madayi]], [[Barkur]], [[Mangalore]], [[Kasaragod]], [[Kannur]], [[Dharmadam]], [[Koyilandy|Panthalayani]], and [[Chaliyam]], were built during the era of [[Malik Dinar]], and they are among the oldest ''Masjid''s in [[Indian Subcontinent]].<ref>Prange, Sebastian R. ''Monsoon Islam: Trade and Faith on the Medieval Malabar Coast.'' Cambridge University Press, 2018. 98.</ref> It is believed that [[Malik Dinar]] was died at [[Thalangara]] in [[Kasaragod]] town.<ref name="ch">Pg 58, Cultural heritage of [[Kerala]]: an introduction, A. Sreedhara Menon, East-West Publications, 1978</ref> Most of them lies in the erstwhile region of Ezhimala kingdom. The [[Koyilandy Jumu'ah Mosque]] contains an [[Old Malayalam]] inscription written in a mixture of ''[[Vatteluttu]]'' and [[Grantha script]]s which dates back to 10th century CE.<ref name="Okay">Aiyer, K. V. Subrahmanya (ed.), ''South Indian Inscriptions.'' VIII, no. 162, Madras: Govt of India, Central Publication Branch, Calcutta, 1932. p. 69.</ref> It is a rare surviving document recording patronage by a [[Hindu]] king (Bhaskara Ravi) to the [[Muslim]]s of Kerala.<ref name="Okay"/>

== Medieval Mushikas ==
[[File:Anantapura Lake Temple.jpg|thumbnail|[[Ananthapura Lake Temple|Ananthapadmanabhaswamy temple]] at Ananthapura, [[Kumbla]]]]
The Indian anthropologist [[A. Aiyappan|Ayinapalli Aiyappan]] states that a powerful and warlike clan of the [[Bunt (community)|Bunt community]] of [[Tulu Nadu]] was called ''Kola Bari'' and the Kolathiri Raja of [[Kolathunadu]] was a descendant of this clan.<ref name="Aiyappan">{{cite book |last1=Ayinapalli |first1=Aiyappan |title=The Personality of Kerala |date=1982 |publisher=Department of Publications, [[University of Kerala]] |page=162 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SXFuAAAAMAAJ |access-date=27 July 2018 |quote=A very powerful and warlike section of the Bants of Tulunad was known as Kola bari. It is reasonable to suggest that the Kola dynasty was part of the Kola lineages of Tulunad.}}</ref> The Kolla-desam (or the Mushika-rajya) came under the influence of the [[Chera dynasty|Chera]]/Perumals kingdom during eleventh century AD.<ref name=":72">Ganesh, K. N. (2009). ''Historical Geography of Natu in South India with Special Reference to Kerala.'' Indian Historical Review, 36(1), 3–21.</ref> The [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] references to several kings in medieval Kerala confirms that the power of the [[Chera dynasty|Chera]]/Perumal was restricted to the country around capital [[Kodungallur]]. The Perumal kingship remained nominal compared with the power that local rulers (such as that of the Mushika in the north and Venatu in the south) exercised politically and militarily.<ref>Noburu Karashmia (ed.), ''A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations.'' New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 144-145</ref> In his book on travels (''[[Il Milione]]''), [[Marco Polo]] recounts his visit to the area in mid 1290s. Other visitors included [[Faxian]], the Buddhist pilgrim and [[Ibn Batuta]], writer and historian of [[Tangiers]]. The [[Arabic]] inscription on a copper slab within the [[Madayi Palli|Madayi Mosque]] in [[Kannur]] records its foundation year as 1124 CE.<ref name="Madayi">{{cite book
| author = Charles Alexander Innes | year=1908
| title= Madras District Gazetteers Malabar (Volume-I) | publisher=Madras Government Press |page=423-424
| url= https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.358941/mode/2up
}}</ref><ref name=anathapuri>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ananthapuri.com/kerala-history.asp?page=muslim|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120605222957/http://ananthapuri.com/kerala-history.asp?page=muslim|url-status=dead|title=Arakkal royal family|archive-date=5 June 2012}}</ref>

Medieval Kolla-desam stretched on the banks of Kavvai, Koppam and Valappattanam rivers.<ref name=":72" />

=== Mushika rulers from medieval inscriptions (10th - 12th centuries AD) ===
*Validhara Vikkirama Rama (c. 929 AD) - mentioned in the [[Ramanthali inscriptions|Ezhimala-Narayankannur inscription.]]<ref name=":6">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 180-181.</ref>
* Kantan Karivarman ''alias'' Iramakuta Muvar (c. 1020 AD) <ref name=":6" /> - mentioned in a Eramam inscription of [[Chera dynasty|Chera/Perumal]] Bhaskara Ravi Manukuladitya (962–1021 AD).<ref name=":6" />
*''Mushikesvara'' Chemani/Jayamani (c. 1020 AD) - Tiruvadur inscription.<ref name=":18">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 480-81.</ref>
* Ramakuta Muvar (as a donor to the [[Sreevallabha Temple|Tiruvalla temple]] in [[Tiruvalla copper plates|Tiruvalla Copper Plates/Huzur Treasury Plates]]).<ref>Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 197.</ref>
* Utaiya-varma ''alias Ramakuta Muvar'' (early 12th century AD) - mentioned in the Kannapuram inscription.<ref name=":12" />

{| class="wikitable"
!Inscription
!Location
!Notes
|-
|[[Ramanthali inscriptions|Ramanthali/Ezhimala-Narayankannur inscription]] (929 AD)
|
*[[Ramanthali]], near [[Ezhimala (hill, Kannur)|Ezhimala.]]<ref name=":15">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 475-76.</ref>
* A single granite slab in the courtyard of the Narayankannur Temple.<ref name=":15" />
|
* Mentions Mushika Validhara Vikrama Rama.<ref name=":15" />
* The so-called Agreement of Muzhikkulam is quoted in the record.<ref name=":04">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 483.</ref>
* Merchant guild [[manigramam]] is appointed as the guardian of the Narayankannur Temple.<ref name=":17">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 475-76.</ref>
|-
|Eramam inscription (1020 AD)
|
* Eramam, near [[Payyanur]].<ref name=":16">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 455.</ref>
*A single slab in the site of the ruined Chalappuram Temple.<ref name=":16" />
|
* Mentions Chera/Perumal king Bhaskara Ravi Manukuladitya (962–1021 AD) and Iramakuta Muvar Kantan Karivarman (Srikantha Kartha) (c.1020 AD).<ref name=":16" />
* Mentions the merchants guilds of Valanchiyar and Nanadeyar.<ref name=":16" />
* Mentions [[Rajendra Chola I|Rajendra Chola]] Samaya Senapati from Katappa Palli.<ref name=":16" />
|-
|Tiruvadur inscription (c. 1020 AD)
|
* Partly in the courtyard of the temple on either side of the sopana.<ref name=":18" />
* Partly in the sanctum sanctorum of the temple.<ref name=":18" />
|
* Creation and endowment of a grama (Brahmin settlement) with members chosen from some old grama settlements from central Kerala ([[Vaikom]], [[North Paravur|Paravur]], Avittathoor, [[Irinjalakuda]] and Peruvanam).<ref name=":18" />
* The engraver is mentioned as Rama Jayamani, the "royal goldsmith of the Mushika king [Jayamani]".<ref name=":18" />
|-
|[[Tiruvalla copper plates|Tiruvalla Copper Plates]]
[[Tiruvalla copper plates|(Huzur Treasury Plates)]]
|
*[[Thiruvalla|Tiruvalla]]
|
* Presence of a Ramakuta Muvar (as a donor to the [[Sreevallabha Temple|Tiruvalla temple]]).<ref>Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 197.</ref>
|-
|Kannapuram inscription
(beginning of the 12th century)
|
* Single stone slab fixed on a platform outside the prakara (outer wall) of the Kannapuram temple.<ref name=":12" />
|
* Ramakuta Muvar Udaya Varma is mentioned.<ref name=":12" />
|}

=== Chola attacks on Mushika kingdom (Kolla-desam) ===
''Corrections by [[M. G. S. Narayanan]] on [[K. A. Nilakanta Sastri]] and [[Elamkulam Kunjan Pillai|Elamkulam P. N. Kunjan Pillai]] are employed.''

* In 1005 AD, i. e., 20 regnal year of emperor [[Rajaraja I]] (985–1014 AD), there is a reference (in the Senur inscription) to the defeat of the "haughty" kings at [[Kollam]], Kolladesam and [[Kodungallur]] at the hand of Rajaraja. The Kolladesam is identified with the Mushika kingdom in north Kerala. According to scholars, "plunder is emphasised more than conquest [in the inscription] and it is likely that the victories at Kollam in the south, Kodungallur in the center and Kolladesam in the north of Kerala have been primarily the achievement of [the Chola] naval forces".<ref name=":10" />

* Chola emperor [[Rajadhiraja Chola|Rajadhiraja]] (1019–1044–1053/4 AD) is stated to have "confined the undaunted king of [[Venad|Venatu]] [back] to Che[ra]natu, destroyed the Iramakuta Muvar in anger, and put on a fresh garland of Vanchi flowers after capturing Kantalur Salai [<nowiki/>[[Vizhinjam]]?] while the strong Villavan [the Chera/Perumal king] hid himself in terror inside the jungle".<ref name=":11" /> The Irumakuta Muvar is not named in the above Chola ''prasasti'' (the above events are dated to around 1018–19 AD).<ref name=":11" />
* The presence of Chola army in north Kerala (1020 AD) is confirmed by the Eramam inscription of Chera/Perumal Bhaskara Ravi Manukuladitya (962–1021 AD) (which mentions a meeting attended by Rajendra Chola Samaya Senapati in the Chalappuram Temple).<ref name=":11" />

== Inscriptions related to Mushika country ==

=== Records mentioning Chera/Perumals ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Inscription
!Location
!Notes
|-
|Panthalayani Kollam inscription (973 AD)
|
* Single stone slab in the upper frame of the srikoyil (central shrine) entrance in Tali temple.<ref name=":21">Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 448-49.</ref>
|
* Name of the king – probably Bhaskara Ravi Manukuladitya (962–1021 AD) – is built over by the present structure. <ref name=":21" />
|-
|[[Koyilandy Jumu'ah Mosque]] inscription (10th century AD)
|
* On the granite blocks built into the steps of the ablution tank of the [[Koyilandy Jumu'ah Mosque]]<ref name="Malabar">Aiyer, K. V. Subrahmanya (ed.), ''South Indian Inscriptions.'' VIII, no. 162, Madras: Govt of India, Central Publication Branch, Calcutta, 1932. p. 69.</ref>
|
* A rare surviving document recording patronage by a [[Hinduism|Hindu]] king (Bhaskara Ravi) (961-1021 AD) to the [[Mappila]] [[Muslim]]s of Kerala.<ref name="Malabar"/> It also mentions about a merchant guild.<ref name="Malabar"/>
|-
|[[Pullur Kodavalam inscription]] (1020 AD)
|
* Pullur, near [[Kanhangad]].<ref>''Annual Reports of Indian Epigraphy'' (1963-64), No. 125.</ref>
* Engraved on a single stone slab in the courtyard of the Pullur Kodavalam Vishnu Temple<ref name=":02">Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 68-70, 84 and 454.</ref><ref name=":13">Narayanan, M.G.S. THE IDENTITY AND DATE OF KING MANUKULĀDITYA. ''Proceedings of the Indian History Congress'', Vol. 31, 1969, 73–78.</ref>
|
* Mentions [[Chera dynasty|Chera/Perumal]] king Bhaskara Ravi Manukuladitya (962–1021 AD).<ref name=":03">Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 68-70, 84 and 454.</ref><ref name=":14">Narayanan, M.G.S. THE IDENTITY AND DATE OF KING MANUKULĀDITYA. ''Proceedings of the Indian History Congress'', Vol. 31, 1969, 73–78.</ref>
* Identified king Manukuladitya with king Bhaskara Ravi.<ref name=":14" />
|-
|Trichambaram inscription
(c. 1040 AD)
|
* Three blocks of granite on the base of the central shrine of the temple.<ref name=":19">Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 465.</ref>
|
* Mentions [[Chera dynasty|Chera/Perumal]] king Raja Raja (c. 1036–1089 AD).<ref name=":19" />
|-
|Panthalayani Kollam inscription
(c. 1089 AD)
|
* Single granite slab in the courtyard of the Panthalayani Kollam Bhagavati temple.<ref name=":20">Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 470.</ref>
* The record was destroyed.<ref name=":20" />
|
* Mentions [[Chera dynasty|Chera/Perumal]] king Rama Kulasekhara (1089–1122 AD).<ref name=":20" />
* The location given as "Kollathu Panthalayani".<ref name=":20" />
|}

=== Miscellaneous records ===
{| class="wikitable"
!Inscription
!Location
!Notes
|-
|[[Ramanthali inscriptions|Ramanthali/Ezhimala-Narayankannur inscription]] (1075 AD)
|
*[[Ramanthali]], near [[Ezhimala (hill, Kannur)|Ezhimala]].<ref name=":04" />
* Obverse sides of three granite blocks in the base of central shrine of Narayankannur Temple.<ref name=":04" />
|
* Mentions [[Alupa dynasty|Alupa]] king Kunda Alupa.<ref name=":05">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 483.</ref>
|-
|Trichambaram inscription
(c. 11th century)
|
* Two granite blocks on the base of the central shrine of the temple.<ref name=":22">Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 486.</ref>
|
* The chieftain of Eranad Manavepala Mana Viyatan creates an endowment for the thiruvilakku at the Trichambaram Temple.<ref name=":22" />
* Manavepala Manaviyatan appears in the famous [[Jewish copper plates of Cochin|Jewish copper plates]] (c. 1000 AD).
|-
|Maniyur inscription
(c. 11th century)
|
* Single stone slab outside the prakara (outer wall) of the temple.<ref name=":22" />
|
* [[File:Maniyur_inscription_(c._11th_century_AD),_Kerala.png|thumb|Maniyur inscription]]Confirms the extension of the so-called Agreement of Muzhikkulam to Mushika country.<ref name=":22" />
|}

== Udayavarman Kolattiri ==
An inscription discovered from Kannappuram Temple, found fixed on a platform outside the prakara of the temple, in old Malayalam mentions king "Utaiya Varma Ramakuta Muvar".<ref name=":12">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 485.</ref> The record give details of land set apart for the expenses of the Kannapuram Temple. The inscription can be attributed to the early years of the 12th century on the basis of script and language.<ref name=":12" />
{| class="wikitable"
!Inscription
!Location
!Notes
|-
|Kannapuram inscription
(beginning of the 12th century)
|
* Single stone slab fixed on a platform outside the prakara (outer wall) of the Kannapuram temple.<ref name=":12" />
|
* Ramakuta Muvar Udaya Varma is mentioned.<ref name=":12" />
|}

King Udayavarman of Karippattu palace in Kolattunadu is described as a favourite of the Chera/Perumal king in traditional Kerala chronicles. He is described as the overlord of the Fort Valapattanam, the Chera/Perumal king's Palace, the Taliparamba Temple, and the Perinchellur Brahmin village.<ref>Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 131.</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

=== Bibliography ===
* {{cite book |author=A Sreedhara Menon |title=A Survey Of Kerala History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA45 |year=2007 |publisher=DC Books |isbn=978-81-264-1578-6 }}
* {{cite book |author=R. Leela Devi |title=History of Kerala|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pXpuAAAAMAAJ |year=1986 |publisher=Vidyarthi Mithram }}
* {{cite book |author=T. Madhava Menon |title=A handbook of Kerala |volume=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FltwAAAAMAAJ|year=2000 |publisher=International School of Dravidian Linguistics |isbn=978-81-85692-27-2 }}
* {{cite book |author=T. Madhava Menon |title=A handbook of Kerala |volume=2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TjVuAAAAMAAJ |year=2002 |publisher=International School of Dravidian Linguistics |isbn=978-81-85692-31-9 }}

{{Kerala}}
{{Kerala topics}}

[[Category:History of Kerala]]
[[Category:Ancient Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Kingdoms in the Mahabharata]]

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Mushika dynasty