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Sangam literature

2026-09-30T11:43:24Z

2405:201:E006:48A2:6092:3D57:D25B:F1DB: "In Musiri, rich in wealth, where the white foam of the Chera king's beautiful, wide Periyar River stirs, foreign ships crafted by fine workmanship arrive laden with gold, and return laden with pepper." — Akananuru 149: 7–11

{{Short description|Historic period of Tamil literature}}

{{Use Indian English|date=October 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2015}}
[[File:WLA lacma 12th century Maharishi Agastya.jpg|thumb| The Ancient Tamil Siddhar [[Agastya]]r is traditionally believed to have chaired the first [[Tamil Sangam]] in [[Madurai]] ]]
The '''Sangam literature''' ([[Tamil language|Tamil]]: சங்க இலக்கியம், ''caṅka ilakkiyam'') historically known as 'the poetry of the noble ones' ([[Tamil language|Tamil]]: சான்றோர் செய்யுள், ''Cāṉṟōr ceyyuḷ'')<ref name="Kailas">{{cite book|author=K Kailasapathy|title=Tamil Heroic Poetry|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kF9kAAAAMAAJ |year=1968|publisher=Clarendon Press|isbn=9780198154341|pages=1}}</ref> connotes the ancient [[Tamil literature]] and is the earliest known literature of [[South India]]. The Tamil tradition and legends link it to three literary gatherings around [[Madurai]] and Kapāṭapuram ([[Pandya dynasty|Pandyan]] capitals): the first over 4,440 years, the second over 3,700 years, and the third over 1,850 years before the start of the common era.<ref name="Singh2008p27">{{cite book|author=Upinder Singh|title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&pg=PA27 |year=2008|publisher=Pearson Education India|isbn=978-81-317-1120-0|pages=27–28}}</ref><ref name="Zvelebil1973p46">{{harvnb|Kamil Zvelebil|1973|pages=45–49 with footnotes}}</ref> Scholars consider this Tamil tradition-based chronology as ahistorical and mythical.<ref>{{cite book |editor= Roma Chatterjee | title = India: Society, Religion and Literature in Ancient and Medieval Periods | publisher = Government of India, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting | series = | volume = | edition = 1st| date = 2021 | location = New Delhi| language = |isbn = 978-93-5409-122-3}}</ref>{{Rp|73}} Most scholars suggest the historical Sangam literature era spanned from c. 300 BCE to 300 CE,<ref name="Singh2008p27"/><ref>{{Cite book|last=Nadarajah|first=Devapoopathy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ7b6msS3kgC&q=info:Q1h0NSIwwIEJ:scholar.google.com/&pg=PR9|title=Love in Sanskrit and Tamil Literature: A Study of Characters and Nature, 200 B.C.-A.D. 500|date=1994|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ.|isbn=978-81-208-1215-4|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=University|first=Vijaya Ramaswamy, Jawaharlal Nehru|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ALUvDwAAQBAJ&q=info:YtwrhAmuSNIJ:scholar.google.com/&pg=PR9|title=Historical Dictionary of the Tamils|date=2017-08-25|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1-5381-0686-0|language=en}}</ref> while others variously place this early classical Tamil literature period a bit later and more narrowly but all before 300 CE.<ref name="Scharfe1977p178">{{cite book|author=Hartmut Scharfe|title=Grammatical Literature|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=2_VbnWkZ-SYC&pg=PA178|year=1977|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-01706-0|pages=178–179}}</ref><ref name="Zvelebil1992p12">{{cite book|author=Kamil Zvelebil|title=Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qAPtq49DZfoC |year=1992|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=90-04-09365-6|pages=12–13}}</ref><ref name="Sastri1958p110">{{cite book|author=Kallidaikurichi Aiyah Nilakanta Sastri|title=A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ae6AAAAAIAAJ|year=1958 |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=110–112}}</ref> According to [[Kamil Zvelebil]] – a Tamil literature and history scholar, the most acceptable range for the Sangam literature is 100 BCE to 250 CE, based on the linguistic, prosodic and quasi-historic allusions within the texts and the [[colophon (publishing)|colophon]]s.{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1974|pp=9–10 with footnotes}}

The Sangam literature had fallen into oblivion for much of the second millennium of the common era, but were preserved by and rediscovered in the [[matha|monasteries]] of [[Hinduism]], particularly those related to [[Shaivism]] near [[Kumbhakonam|Kumbakonam]], by the colonial era scholars in the late nineteenth century.{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1974|pp=7–8 with footnotes}}<ref name=takahashi1>{{cite book|author=Takanobu Takahashi|title=Tamil Love Poetry and Poetics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wgCHuVGyZoEC|year=1995|publisher=BRILL Academic |isbn=90-04-10042-3|pages=1–3 with footnotes}}</ref> The rediscovered Sangam classical collection is largely a bardic corpus. It comprises an ''Urtext'' of oldest surviving Tamil grammar (Tolkappiyam), the Ettuttokai anthology (the "Eight Collections"), the Pattuppattu anthology (the "Ten Songs").{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1974|pp=9–10}} The Tamil literature that followed the Sangam period – that is, after c. 250 CE but before c. 600 CE – is generally called the "post-Sangam" literature.<ref name="Zvelebil1992p12"/>

This collection contains 2381 poems in [[Tamil language|Tamil]] composed by 473 poets, some 102 anonymous.{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1974|pp=9–10}}<ref>George L. Hart III, ''The Poems of Ancient Tamil,'' U of California P, 1975.</ref> Of these, 16 poets account for about 50% of the known Sangam literature,{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1974|pp=9–10}} with [[Kapilar]] – the most prolific poet – alone contributing just little less than 10% of the entire corpus.<ref name=Shelby/> These poems vary between 3 and 782 lines long.<ref name=takahashi1/> The bardic poetry of the Sangam era is largely about love (''akam'') and war (''puram''), with the exception of the shorter poems such as in ''[[paripaatal]]'' which is more religious and praise [[Vishnu]], [[Shiva]], [[Durga]] and [[Murugan]].<ref name="Singh2008p27"/><ref>{{cite book|author=Kallidaikurichi Aiyah Nilakanta Sastri|title=A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ae6AAAAAIAAJ|year=1958 |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=110–119, 330–335}}</ref><ref name=britsangam>[https://www.britannica.com/art/shangam-literature Sangam Literature], Encyclopaedia Britannica (2011)</ref>

On their significance, Zvelebil quotes [[A. K. Ramanujan]], "In their antiquity and in their contemporaneity, there is not much else in any Indian literature equal to these quiet and dramatic Tamil poems. In their values and stances, they represent a mature classical poetry: passion is balanced by courtesy, transparency by ironies and nuances of design, impersonality by vivid detail, austerity of line by richness of implication. These poems are not just the earliest evidence of the Tamil genius. The Tamils, in all their 2,000 years of literary effort, wrote nothing better."{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1974|p=47}}

{{Tamil literature}}
It also includes [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]] epics.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2015-08-26|title=Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism in early Tamil History|url=https://www.sanskritimagazine.com/india/hinduism-jainism-and-buddhism-in-early-tamil-history/|access-date=2021-08-23|website=Sanskriti - Hinduism and Indian Culture Website|language=en-US}}</ref>{{Sangam literature}}
{{History of literature by era}}

== Nomenclature and tradition ==
{{Main|Tamil Sangams}}
''Sangam'' literally means "gathering, meeting, fraternity, academy". According to David Shulman, a scholar of Tamil language and literature, the Tamil tradition believes that the Sangam literature arose in distant antiquity over three periods, each stretching over many millennia.{{sfn|Shulman|2016|pp=27–28}} The first has roots in the Hindu deity [[Shiva]], his son [[Murugan]], [[Kubera]] as well as 545 sages including the famed [[Rigveda|Rigvedic]] poet [[Agastya]]. The first academy, states the legend, extended over four millennia and was located far to the south of modern city of Madurai, a location later "swallowed up by the sea", states Shulman.{{sfn|Shulman|2016|pp=27–28}}<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xlwoDwAAQBAJ&q=sangam|title=A Brief History of India|last=Daniélou|first=Alain|date=2003-02-11|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=9781594777943|language=en}}</ref> The second academy, also chaired by a very long-lived Agastya, was near the eastern seaside Kapāṭapuram and lasted three millennia. This was swallowed by floods. From the second Sangam, states the legend, the ''[[Akattiyam]]'' and the ''[[Tolkāppiyam]]'' survived and guided the third Sangam scholars.{{sfn|Shulman|2016|pp=27–28}}<ref name=":0" />

A prose commentary by Nakkiranar – likely about the eighth century CE – describes this legend.{{sfn|Shulman|2016|pp=25–28}} The earliest known mention of the Sangam legend, however, appears in ''Tirupputtur Tantakam'' by Appar in about the seventh century CE, while an extended version appears in the twelfth-century ''Tiruvilaiyatal puranam'' by Perumparrap Nampi.<ref name="Zvelebil1973p46"/> The legend states that the third Sangam of 449 poet scholars worked over 1,850 years in northern Madurai (Pandyan kingdom). He lists six anthologies of Tamil poems (later a part of ''Ettuttokai''):{{sfn|Shulman|2016|pp=25–28}}
*''Netuntokai nanuru'' (400 long poems)
*''Kuruntokai anuru'' (400 short poems)
*''Narrinai'' (400 Tinai landscape poems)
*''Purananuru'' (400 Outer poems)
*''Ainkurunuru'' (500 very short poems)
*''Patirruppattu'' (Ten Tens)

These claims of the Sangams and the description of sunken land masses [[Kumari Kandam]] have been dismissed as frivolous by historiographers. Noted historians like Kamil Zvelebil have stressed that the use of 'Sangam literature' to describe this corpus of literature is a misnomer and ''Classical'' literature should be used instead.<ref name="Zvelebil1973p46"/> According to Shulman, "there is not the slightest shred of evidence that any such [Sangam] literary academies ever existed", though there are many Pandya inscriptions that mention an academy of scholars. Of particular note, states Shulman, is the tenth-century CE Sinnamanur inscription that mentions a Pandyan king who sponsored the "translation of the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' into Tamil" and established a "Madhurapuri (Madurai) Sangam".{{sfn|Shulman|2016|pp=28–29}}{{refn|group=note|This is, however, not the first inscription to support the sangam legend. According to Eva Wilden, the first inscription to hint the existence of a "sangam" legend is found in the Erukkankuti plates of 829 CE. A part of this inscription says, "the lord of excellent Alankuti that is praised in the worlds, on the firm big bench of stone in Kutal [Maturai] with cool Tamil great in words". While the context and the last part about Kutal echoes the existence of a Tamil scholar academy in Madurai, it does not presuppose or confirm the existence of a full-fledged three sangam periods legend by the ninth century CE, states Wilden.{{sfn|Wilden|2014|p=12 with footnote 25}}}}

According to Zvelebil, within the myth there is a kernel of reality, and all literary evidence leads one to conclude that "such an academy did exist in Madurai (Maturai) at the beginning of the Christian era". The homogeneity of the prosody, language and themes in these poems confirms that the Sangam literature was a community effort, a "group poetry".{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1974|pp=10–11}}{{refn|group=note|According to Zvelebil, the hypothesis proposed by some that the first and second academy may have referred to the Buddhist and Jaina monk assemblies can "hardly" be true. Rather, states Zvelebil, it is more likely that the first academy of poets existed sometime about 400–300 BCE – which he adds, is also a "purely speculative" conjecture. The persistence of three gods – Siva, Murukavel [Murugan] and Kubera – in the legendary account and the classical Tamil literature, states Zvelebil, suggests that the beginnings of Tamil literature and civilization were "closely connected with the cults" of these three gods in ancient Tamil Nadu.{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1975|pp=59–61 with footnotes}}}} The Sangam literature is also referred sometimes with terms such as ''caṅka ilakkiyam'' or "Sangam age poetry".<ref name="Zvelebil1973p46"/>

==Authors==
The Sangam literature was composed by 473 poets, some 102 anonymous.{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1974|pp=9–10}} According to Nilakanta Sastri, the poets came from diverse backgrounds: some were from a royal family, some merchants, some farmers.<ref name=sastri43/> At least 27 of the poets were women. These poets emerged, states Nilakanta Sastri, in a milieu where the Tamil (Dravidian) society had already interacted and inseparably amalgamated with north Indians (Indo-Aryan) and both sides had shared mythology, values and literary conventions.<ref name=sastri43>{{cite journal|title= Sanskrit Elements in Early Tamil Literature| author = K. A. Nilakanta Sastri| journal= Proceedings of the Indian History Congress| volume= 13| year=1950| pages= 43–45| jstor=44140886}}</ref>

== Compilations ==
{{Main| Sangam landscape}}
The available literature from this period was categorised and compiled in the tenth century CE into two categories based roughly on chronology. The categories are the ''[[Eighteen Greater Texts|patiṉeṇmēlkaṇakku]]'' ("the eighteen greater text series") comprising ''[[Eight Anthologies|Ettuthogai]]'' (or ''Ettuttokai'', "Eight Anthologies") and the ''[[Ten Idylls|Pattuppāṭṭu]]'' ("Ten Idylls"). According to [[Takanobu Takahashi]], this compilation is as follows:<ref name=takahashi1/>

{| class="wikitable" align=center style = " background: transparent; "
|+ ''Ettuttokai''<ref name=takahashi1/>
|-style="text-align: center;"
| width=120px style="background: #ffad66;" | Name
| width=40px | Extant poems
| width=40px | Original poems
| width= 50px | Lines in poems
| width= 50px | Number of poets
|-style="text-align: center;"
| width=120px | ''Narrinai''
| width=40px | 400
| width=40px | 400
| width= 50px | 9–12
| width= 50px | 175
|-style="text-align: center;"
| width=120px | ''Kuruntokai''
| width=40px | 402
| width=40px | 400
| width= 50px | 4–8
| width= 50px | 205
|-style="text-align: center;"
| width=120px | ''Ainkurunuru''
| width=40px | 499
| width=40px | 500
| width= 50px | 3–6
| width= 50px | 5
|-style="text-align: center;"
| width=120px |''Patirruppattu''
| width=40px | 86
| width=40px | 10x10
| width= 50px | varies
| width= 50px | 8
|-style="text-align: center;"
| width=120px | ''Paripatal''
| width=40px | 33
| width=40px | 70
| width= 50px | varies
| width= 50px | 13
|-style="text-align: center;"
| width=120px | ''Kalittokai''
| width=40px | 150
| width=40px | 150
| width= 60px | varies
| width= 50px | 5
|-style="text-align: center;"
| width=120px | ''Akananuru''
| width=40px | 401
| width=40px | 400
| width= 60px | 12–31
| width= 50px | 145
|-style="text-align: center;"
| width=120px | ''Purananuru''
| width=40px | 398
| width=40px | 400
| width= 60px | varies
| width= 50px | 157
|}

{| class="wikitable" align=center style = " background: transparent; "
|+ ''Pattuppattu''<ref name=takahashi1/>
|-style="text-align: center;"
| width=120px style="background: #ffad66;" | Name
| width= 50px | Lines
| width= 50px | Author
|-style="text-align: center;"
| width=120px | ''Tirumurukarruppatai''
| width= 50px | 317
| width= 50px | Nakkirar
|-style="text-align: center;"
| width=120px | ''Porunararruppatai''
| width= 50px | 234
| width= 50px | Mutattamakkanniyar
|-style="text-align: center;"
| width=120px | ''Cirupanarruppatai''
| width= 50px | 296
| width= 50px | Nattattanar
|-style="text-align: center;"
| width=120px | ''Perumpanarruppatai''
| width= 50px | 500
| width= 50px | Uruttirankannaiyar
|-style="text-align: center;"
| width=120px | ''Mullaippattu''
| width= 50px | 103
| width= 50px | Napputanar
|-style="text-align: center;"
| width=120px | ''Maturaikkanci''
| width= 50px | 782
| width= 50px | Mankuti Marutanar
|-style="text-align: center;"
| width=120px | ''Netunalvatai''
| width= 50px | 188
| width= 50px | Nakkirar
|-style="text-align: center;"
| width=120px | ''Kurincippattu''
| width= 50px | 261
| width= 50px | Kapilar
|-style="text-align: center;"
| width=120px | ''Pattinappalai''
| width= 50px | 301
| width= 50px | Uruttirankannanar
|-style="text-align: center;"
| width=120px | ''Malaipatukatam''
| width= 50px | 583
| width= 50px | Perunkaucikanar
|}

=== Classification ===

Sangam literature is broadly classified into '''akam''' ({{lang|ta|அகம்}}, inner), and '''puram''' ({{lang|ta|புறம்}}, outer).<ref name="Manninezhath1993p78"/> The ''akam'' poetry is about emotions and feelings in the context of romantic love, sexual union and eroticism. The ''puram'' poetry is about exploits and heroic deeds in the context of war and public life.{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1974|pp=10–11}}<ref name="Manninezhath1993p78">{{cite book|author=Thomas Manninezhath|title=Harmony of Religions: Vedānta Siddhānta Samarasam of Tāyumānavar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uE4-veDrY7AC&pg=PA78 |year=1993|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1001-3|pages=78–79}}</ref> Approximately three-fourths of the Sangam poetry is ''akam'' themed, and about one fourth is ''puram''.<ref name=takahashi2>{{cite book|author=Takanobu Takahashi|title=Tamil Love Poetry and Poetics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wgCHuVGyZoEC|year=1995|publisher=BRILL Academic |isbn=90-04-10042-3|pages=3–5 with footnotes}}</ref>

Sangam literature, both ''akam'' and ''puram'', can be subclassified into seven minor genre called ''tiṇai'' (திணை). This minor genre is based on the location or landscape in which the poetry is set.<ref name=takahashi2/> These are: ''kuṟiñci'' (குறிஞ்சி), mountainous regions; ''mullai'' (முல்லை), pastoral forests; ''marutam'' (மருதம்), riverine agricultural land; ''neytal'' (நெய்தல்) coastal regions; ''pālai'' (பாலை) arid.<ref name=takahashi2/>{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1973|pp=50–56}} In addition to the landscape based ''tiṇai''s, for ''akam'' poetry, ''ain-tinai'' (well matched, mutual love), ''kaikkilai'' (ill matched, one sided), and ''perunthinai'' (unsuited, big genre) categories are used.<ref name=takahashi2/> The ''Ainkurunuru'' – 500 short poems anthology – is an example of mutual love poetry.<ref name=Shelby>{{cite book | editor-last=Selby | editor-first=Martha Ann | title=Tamil Love Poetry | publisher=Columbia University Press | location=New York Chichester, West Sussex | date=2011-01-31 | isbn=978-0-231-52158-1 | doi=10.7312/selb15064 }}</ref>

Similar ''tiṇai''s pertain to ''puram'' poems as well, categories are sometimes based on activity: ''vetchi'' (cattle raid), ''vanchi'' (invasion, preparation for war), ''kanchi'' (tragedy), ''ulinai'' (siege), ''tumpai'' (battle), ''vakai'' (victory), ''paataan'' (elegy and praise), ''karanthai'' , and ''pothuviyal''.<ref name=takahashi2/> The ''akam'' poetry uses metaphors and imagery to set the mood, never uses names of person or places, often leaves the context as well that the community will fill in and understand given their [[oral tradition]]. The ''puram'' poetry is more direct, uses names and places, states Takanobu Takahashi.<ref>{{cite book|author=Takanobu Takahashi|title=Tamil Love Poetry and Poetics|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=wgCHuVGyZoEC| year=1995|publisher= BRILL Academic |isbn=90-04-10042-3|pages=5–9 with footnotes}}</ref>

==Style and prosody==
The early Sangam poetry diligently follows two meters, while the later Sangam poetry is a bit more diverse.{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1973|pp=65–71 with footnotes}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Kamil Zvelebil|title=Classical Tamil Prosody: An Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wYAOAAAAYAAJ|year=1989|publisher=New Era Publications|pages=1–7, 50–55}}</ref> The two meters found in the early poetry are ''akaval'' and ''vanci''.{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1973|pp=65–68}} The fundamental metrical unit in these is the ''acai'' (metreme<ref name="Niklas1988p165"/>), itself of two types – ''ner'' and ''nirai''. The ''ner'' is the stressed/long syllable in European prosody tradition, while the ''nirai'' is the unstressed/short syllable combination ([[pyrrhic]] (dibrach) and [[Iamb (poetry)|iambic]]) metrical feet, with similar equivalents in the Sanskrit prosody tradition.{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1973|pp=65–68}} The ''acai'' in the Sangam poems are combined to form a ''cir'' (foot), while the ''cir'' are connected to form a ''talai'', while the line is referred to as the ''ati''.<ref name="Mariaselvam1988">{{cite book|author=Abraham Mariaselvam|title=The Song of Songs and Ancient Tamil Love Poems: Poetry and Symbolism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9TULZX3SY18C&pg=PA124 |year=1988 |publisher=Gregorian |isbn=978-88-7653-118-7 |pages=124–127 with footnotes}}</ref> The ''[[sutra]]s'' of the ''Tolkappiyam'' – particularly after ''sutra'' 315 – state the prosody rules, enumerating the 34 component parts of ancient Tamil poetry.<ref name="Mariaselvam1988"/>

The prosody of an example early Sangam poem is illustrated by ''Kuruntokai'':{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1973|pp=66–67}}

{{Hinduism|state=autocollapse}}{{Jainism|state=autocollapse}}{{Quote|
<poem>
''ciṟuveḷ ḷaravi ṉavvarik kuruḷai
''kāṉa yāṉai aṇaṅki yāaṅ
''kiḷaiyaṇ muḷaivā ḷeyiṟṟaḷ
''vaḷaiyuṭaik kaiyaḷem maṇaṅki yōḷē
:– ''Kuruntokai 119'', Author: Catti Nataanr
</poem>
}}

The prosodic pattern in this poem follows the 4-4-3-4 feet per line, according to ''akaval'', also called ''aciriyam'', Sangam meter rule:{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1973|pp=66–67}}
{{Quote|
<poem>
= – / = – / – = / = –
– – / – – / = – / – –
= – / = – / = –
= = / – = / = – / – –<br>
Note: "=" is a ''ner'', while "–" is a ''nirai'' in Tamil terminology.
</poem>
}}
A literal translation of ''Kuruntokai 119'':{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1973|pp=66–67}}
{{Quote|
<poem>
:little-white-snake of lovely-striped young-body
:jungle elephant troubling like
:the young-girl sprouts-brightness toothed-female
:bangle(s) possessing hand(s)-female"
::– Translator: Kamil Zvelebil
</poem>
}}
English interpretation and translation of ''Kuruntokai 119'':{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1973|pp=66–67}}
{{Quote|
<poem>
:As a little white snake
:with lovely stripes on its young body
:troubles the jungle elephant
::this slip of a girl
::her teeth like sprouts of new rice
::her wrists stacked with bangles
::troubles me.
:::– Creative translator: A.K. Ramanujan (1967)
</poem>
}}

This metrical pattern, states Zvelebil, gives the Sangam poetry a "wonderful conciseness, terseness, pithiness", then an inner tension that is resolved at the end of the stanza.{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1973|pp=71–72}} The metrical patterns within the ''akaval'' meter in early Sangam poetry has minor variations.{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1973|pp=67–72}} The later Sangam era poems follow the same general meter rules, but sometimes feature 5 lines (4-4-4-3-4).{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1973|pp=83–84}}<ref name="Niklas1988p165">{{cite journal | last=Niklas | first=Ulrike | title=Introduction to Tamil Prosody | journal=Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient | publisher=PERSEE, France | volume=77 | issue=1 | year=1988 | issn=0336-1519 | doi=10.3406/befeo.1988.1744 | pages=165–227 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last=Tschacher | first=Thorsten | title=Method and Theory in the Study of Caṅkam (Sangam) Literature | journal=Orientalistische Literaturzeitung | publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH | volume=106 | issue=1 | year=2011 | doi=10.1524/olzg.2011.0002 | s2cid=163609253 }}</ref> The later Sangam age texts employ other meters as well, such as the Kali meter in ''Kalittokai'' and the mixed Paripatal meter in ''Paripatal''.{{sfn|Wilden|2014|pp=13–15 with footnotes}}

== Preservation and rediscovery ==
[[File:Palm-leaf manuscript, ancient and medieval Tamil literature (partly Sangam era), Languages in the manuscript Tamil Telugu Sanskrit, Scripts Grantha Telugu Tamil, Hindu Shaivism monastery, UVSL 589.jpg|thumb|upright=2.4|A [[palm-leaf manuscript]] (UVSL 589) with 100 folios, handwritten in miniature scripts by Shaiva Hindus. This multi-text manuscript includes many Tamil texts, including the Sangam era ''Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai''. The folio languages include mainly Tamil and Sanskrit, with some Telugu; scripts include Tamil, Grantha and Telugu. It is currently preserved in U.V. Swaminatha Aiyar library in Chennai.<ref>Jonas Buchholz and Giovanni Ciotti (2017), ''What a Multiple-text Manuscript Can Tell Us about the Tamil Scholarly Tradition: The Case of UVSL 589'', Manuscri[pt Cultures, Vol. 10, Editors: Michael Friedrich and Jorg Quenzer, Universitat Hamburg, pages 129–142</ref>{{refn|group=note|The private U.V. Swaminatha Aiyar library preserves the largest collection of Sangam era-related manuscripts. Other notable collections of Sangam literature manuscripts are found in the Saraswati Mahal library and the Tamil University manuscript library in [[Thanjavur]] (Tamil Nadu), the Oriental Research Institute and Manuscript library of [[Thiruvananthapuram]] (Kerala), as well as the private collections in old Hindu temples and monasteries. Less than 50% of all preserved palm leaf manuscripts, copied over the centuries over nearly 2,000 years, are in the Tamil language; the majority of these manuscripts preserved in Tamil Nadu and Kerala are in Sanskrit and Telugu (some Malayalam). Sangam literature manuscript collections typically include all three languages.{{sfn|Wilden|2014|pp=35–39}} A few thousand of the Sangam and post-Sangam era manuscripts in Tamil language are now preserved in various European and American collections.{{sfn|Wilden|2014|pp=35–39}}}}]]
The works of Sangam literature were lost and forgotten for most of the 2nd millennium. They were rediscovered by colonial-era scholars such as [[Arumuka Navalar]] (1822-1879), [[C. W. Thamotharampillai|C.W. Damodaram Pillai]] (1832-1901) and [[U. V. Swaminatha Iyer|U. V. Swaminatha Aiyar]] (1855-1942).<ref>"Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature", Kamil V. Zvelebil</ref>

[[Arumuka Navalar]] from [[Jaffna]] first inaugurated the modern editions of Tamil classics, publishing a fine edition of [[Tirukkuṟaḷ]] by 1860.<ref>A.R. Venkatachalapathy, ''Enna Prayocanam?' Constructing the canon in colonial Tamilnadu'', Indian Economic Social History Review 2005 42:535, p544</ref> Navalar – who translated the Bible into Tamil while working as an assistant to a Methodist Christian missionary, chose to defend and popularize [[Shaivism|Shaiva Hinduism]] against missionary polemics, in part by bringing ancient Tamil and [[Shaivism|Shaiva]] literature to wider attention.<ref name="Hudson1996">{{cite book|author=Dennis Hudson|editor=Raymond Brady Williams|title=A Sacred Thread: Modern Transmission of Hindu Traditions in India and Abroad|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3VV0VntTpvMC |year=1996 |publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-10779-2|pages=23–37}}</ref> He brought the first Sangam text into print in 1851 (''[[Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai]]'', one of the [[Ten Idylls]]). In 1868, Navalar published an early commentary on ''Tolkappiyam''.{{sfn|Shulman|2016|pp=301–303}}

[[C. W. Thamotharampillai|C.W. Damodaram Pillai]], also from [[Jaffna]], was the earliest scholar to systematically hunt for long-lost manuscripts and publish them using modern tools of textual criticism.<ref>A.R. Venkatachalapathy, ''Enna Prayocanam?' Constructing the canon in colonial Tamilnadu'', Indian Economic Social History Review 2005 42:535, p544</ref> These included:

* Viracoliyam (1881)
* [[Iraiyanar Akapporul]] (1883)
* [[Tolkappiyam]]-Porulatikaram (1885)
* [[Kalittokai]] (1887) - the first of the Eight Anthologies (''[[Eṭṭuttokai]]'').

[[U. V. Swaminatha Iyer|Aiyar]] – a Tamil scholar and a [[Shaivism|Shaiva]] pundit, in particular, is credited with his discovery of major collections of the Sangam literature in 1883. During his personal visit to the Thiruvavaduthurai Adhinam – a Shaiva matha about twenty kilometers northeast of [[Kumbhakonam]], he reached out to the monastery head Subrahmanya Desikar for access to its large library of preserved manuscripts. Desikar granted Aiyar permission to study and publish any manuscripts he wanted.<ref name=takahashi1/> There, Aiyar discovered a major source of preserved palm-leaf manuscripts of Sangam literature.<ref name=takahashi1/><ref>{{cite book|author=Kamil Zvelebil|author-link= Kamil Zvelebil|editor=Jan Gonda|title=Handbook of Oriental Studies: Tamil Literature|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Kx4uqyts2t4C |year=1975|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=90-04-04190-7|pages=108–109 with footnote 129|ref=none}}</ref> Aiyar published his first print of the [[Ten Idylls]] in 1889.

Together, these scholars printed and published ''[[Kalittokai]]'' (1887), ''[[Tholkappiyam]]'', ''Nachinarkiniyar Urai'' (1895), ''Tholkappiyam Senavariyar urai'' (1868), ''[[Manimekalai]]'' (1898), ''[[Silappatikaram]]'' (1889), ''[[Ten Idylls|Pattuppāṭṭu]]'' (1889), ''[[Patiṟṟuppattu]]'' (1889). ''[[Puṟanāṉūṟu]]'' (1894), ''[[Aiṅkurunūṟu]]'' (1903), ''[[Kuṟuntokai]]'' (1915), ''[[Naṟṟiṇai]]'' (1915), ''[[Paripāṭal]]'' (1918) and ''[[Akanāṉūṟu]]'' (1923) all with scholarly commentaries. They published more than 100 works in all, including minor poems.

==Significance==
The Sangam literature is the historic evidence of indigenous literary developments in South India in parallel to [[Sanskrit]], and the classical status of the Tamil language. While there is no evidence for the first and second mythical Sangams, the surviving literature attests to a group of scholars centered around the ancient [[Madurai]] (Maturai) that shaped the "literary, academic, cultural and linguistic life of ancient Tamil Nadu", states Zvelebil.{{sfnm|Kamil Zvelebil|1973|1pp=45-46|Shulman|2016|2pp=28–30}}

The Sangam literature offers a window into some aspects of the ancient Tamil culture, secular and religious beliefs, and the people. For example, in the Sangam era ''Ainkurunuru'' poem 202 is one of the earliest mentions of "pigtail of [[Brahmin]] boys".{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1973|p=51}} These poems also allude to historical incidents, ancient Tamil kings, the effect of war on loved ones and households.{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1973|pp=51-56}} The ''Pattinappalai'' poem in the Ten Idylls group, for example, paints a description of the Chola capital, the king Karikal, the life in a harbor city with ships and merchandise for seafaring trade, the dance troupes, the bards and artists, the worship of the Hindu god [[Murugan]] and the monasteries of Buddhism and Jainism. This Sangam era poem remained in the active memory and was significant to the Tamil people centuries later, as evidenced by its mention nearly 1,000 years later in the 11th- and 12th-century inscriptions and literary work.{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1973|pp=57-58}}

The Sangam literature embeds evidence of loan words from Sanskrit, suggesting on-going linguistic and literary collaboration between ancient Tamil Nadu and other parts of the Indian subcontinent.{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1973|pp=5–8, 51-56}}{{refn|group=note|This collaboration was two way, and evidence for this is found in the earliest known Hindu scripture, the ''[[Rigveda]]'' (1500–1200 BCE). About 300 words in the ''Rigveda'' are neither Indo-Aryan nor Indo-European, states the Sanskrit and Vedic literature scholar [[Frits Staal]].<ref name="Staal2008p23"/> Of these 300, many – such as ''kapardin'', ''kumara'', ''kumari'', ''kikata'' – come from Munda or proto-Munda languages found in the eastern and northeastern (Assamese) region of India, with roots in Austro-Asiatic languages. The others in the list of 300 – such as ''mleccha'' and ''nir'' – have Dravidian (Tamil, Telugu) roots found in the southern region of India, or are of Tibeto-Burman origins.<ref name="Staal2008p23">{{cite book|author=Frits Staal|title=Discovering the Vedas: Origins, Mantras, Rituals, Insights|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HcE23SjLX8sC|year=2008|publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-0-14-309986-4|pages=23–24}}</ref><ref name="HockBashir2016">{{cite book|author=Franklin C Southworth|editor1-last=Hock|editor1-first=Hans Henrich|editor1-link=Hans Henrich Hock|editor2-last=Bashir|editor2-first=Elena|editor2-link=Elena Bashir|title=The Languages and Linguistics of South Asia: A Comprehensive Guide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PSFBDAAAQBAJ |year=2016|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-042330-3|pages=252–255}}</ref> The linguistic sharing provide clear indications, states [[Michael Witzel]], that the people who spoke Rigvedic Sanskrit already knew and interacted with Munda and Dravidian speakers.<ref name="Erdosy2012p98">{{cite book|author=Michael Witzel|editor=George Erdosy|title=The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OZ0gAAAAQBAJ |year=2012|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-081643-3|pages=98–110 with footnotes}}, Quote (p. 99): "Although the Middle/Late Vedic periods are the earliest for which we can reconstruct a linguistic map, the situation even at the time of the Indus Civilisation and certainly during the time of the ''earliest texts of the Rigveda'', cannot have been very different. There are clear indications that the speakers of Rigvedic Sanskrit knew, and interacted with, Dravidian and Munda speakers."</ref>}} One of the early loan words, for example, is ''acarya–'' from Sanskrit for a "spiritual guide or teacher", which in Sangam literature appears as ''aciriyan'' (priest, teacher, scholar), ''aciriyam'' or ''akavar'' or ''akaval'' or ''akavu'' (a poetic meter).{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1973|pp=13–14}}{{refn|group=note|According to George Hart, other than loan words, it is obvious to any scholar who has studied both classical Sanskrit and classical Tamil that the mid to late Sangam literature (1st to 3rd century CE) and ancient Sanskrit literature are related. However, adds Hart, the earliest layer of the Sangam literature "does not seem to be much influenced by Sanskrit".<ref>{{cite book|author=George L. Hart|title=The Relation Between Tamil and Classical Sanskrit Literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VqE5c4QAs9gC&pg=PA317|year=1976|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-01785-5|pages=317–326}}</ref>}}

The Sangam poetry focuses on the culture and people. It is almost entirely non-religious, except for the occasional mentions of the Hindu gods and more substantial mentions of various gods in the shorter poems. The 33 surviving poems of ''Paripaatal'' in the "Eight Anthologies" group praises Vishnu, Shiva, Durga and Murugan.<ref name="Singh2008p27"/><ref name=britsangam/>{{refn|group=note|Other Sangam poems mention gods and goddesses. For example, ''Purananuru 23'', ''Akananuru 22'', ''Tirumurukarruppatai 83–103'' and others mention god Murugan, his wife Valli, the iconographic peacock, and the Vedas; Murugan's mother – goddess Korravai (Amma, Uma, Parvati, Durga) is mentioned in ''Akananuru 345'', ''Kalittokai 89'', ''Perumpanarruppatai 459'' and elsewhere. She is both a mother goddess and the goddess of war and victory in Sangam poetry.<ref name="rf108">{{cite book|author=Ronald Ferenczi|editor=Róbert Válóczi|title=Goddess Woman |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d3kyuwEACAAJ |year=2019|publisher=Museum of Fine Art Budapest, Hungarian National Gallery|isbn=978-615-5304-84-2|pages=108–111}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last=Hart III | first=George L. | title=Woman and the Sacred in Ancient Tamilnad | journal=The Journal of Asian Studies | publisher=Cambridge University Press | volume=32 | issue=2 | year=1973 | doi=10.2307/2052342 | pages=233–250| jstor=2052342 }}</ref>}} Similarly, the 150 poems of ''Kalittokai'' – also from the Eight Anthologies group – mention Shiva, Murugan, various Pandava brothers of the ''Mahabharata'', Kama, Krishna, goddesses such as Ganga, divine characters from classical love stories of India.{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1973|pp=123-128}} One of the poems also mentions the "merciful men of [[Varanasi|Benares]]", an evidence of interaction between the northern holy city of the Hindus with the Sangam poets.{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1973|pp=123-128}} Some of the ''Paripaatal'' love poems are set in the context of bathing festivals ([[Magh Mela]]) and various Hindu gods. They mention temples and shrines, confirming the significance of such cultural festivals and architectural practices to the Tamil culture.{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1973|pp=123-128}}

Further, the colophons of the ''Paripaatal'' poems mention music and tune, signifying the development and the importance of musical arts in ancient Tamil Nadu. According to Zvelebil, these poems were likely from the late Sangam era (2nd or 3rd century CE) and attest to a sophisticated and prosperous ancient civilization.{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1973|pp=123-128}}

== Sangam Literature – A Historical Treasure House ==

The ideas and depictions found in Sangam literature extend far beyond mere literary expression; they serve as valuable historical records. For instance, Poem 149 of Akananuru vividly records the arrival of foreign ships at the ancient port of Musiri.

"In Musiri, rich in wealth,
where the white foam of the Chera king's beautiful,
wide Periyar River stirs,
foreign ships crafted by fine workmanship arrive
laden with gold, and return laden with pepper."
— Akananuru 149: 7–11

This account is further substantiated by Greek historical records.

Tyndis is of the Kingdom of Cerobothra; it is a village in plain sight by the sea. Muziris, of the same Kingdom, abounds in ships sent there with cargoes from Arabia, and by the Greeks; it is located on a river, distant from Tyndis by river and sea five hundred stadia, and up the river from the shore twenty stadia. Nelcynda is distant from Muziris by river and sea about five hundred stadia, and is of another Kingdom, the Pandion. This place also is situated on a river, about one hundred and twenty stadia from the sea.
Periplus of the Eritheranian Sea
(Ref: Greek, Latin, Sanskrit and Tamil: The Meaning of the Word Ἐρυθρὰν , https://www.athensjournals.gr/philology/2022-9-1-3-Pugazhendhi.pdf)

== Modern musical renditions ==

The first music album on Tamil Sangam poetry titled [[Sandham: Symphony Meets Classical Tamil]] by Composer [[Rajan Somasundaram]] in collaboration with Durham Symphony, featured in Amazon's Top#10 'International Music albums' category in July 2020 and was called a "A Major event in the world of Music" by The Hindu Music review.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hindutamil.in/news/supplements/541792-sandham.html |title=A Major event in the world of Music- The Hindu Music Review |publisher=The Hindu Tamil |access-date=2020-03-02}}</ref>

Sangam poems are often quoted and paraphrased in modern Tamil cinema.<ref>Sangam poems in contemporary songs https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2017/mar/26/sangam-poems-in-contemporary-songs-1586219.html</ref><ref>Narumugaiye - A.R.Rahman - Mirchi Unplugged Season 1 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QatLrdzalew</ref>

== See also ==

* [[List of historic Indian texts]]
* [[Tamilakam|Tamiḻakam]]
* [[First Sangam]]
* [[Second Sangam]]
* [[Tamil Sangams]]
* [[List of Sangam poets]]

== Notes ==
{{reflist|group=note}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

=== Bibliography ===
{{ref begin}}
*{{cite book|author= JV Chelliah|title= Pattupattu - Ten Tamil Idylls (Tamil Verses with Englilsh Translation)| year= 1946|url = https://archive.org/details/PattupattuTenTamilIdylls_20180715/page/n1| publisher= Tamil University (1985 print)}}
*{{cite book| author1=Thomas Lehmann|author2=Thomas Malten|title=A Word Index of Old Tamil Caṅkam Literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iIcOAAAAYAAJ|year=1992|publisher=F. Steiner|isbn=978-3-515-05814-8}}
*{{cite book|author=V. S. Rajam|title=A Reference Grammar of Classical Tamil Poetry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n6VhXLdmdKkC |year=1992|publisher=American Philosophical Society|isbn=978-0-87169-199-6}}
* {{cite book|title=The archaeology of seafaring in ancient South Asia|last=Ray|first=Himanshu Prabha |year=2003|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=iHHzP4uVpn4C |isbn=9780521011099}}
* Selby, Martha Ann (2011) Tamil Love Poetry: The Five Hundred Short Poems of the Aiṅkuṟunūṟu, an Early Third-Century Anthology. Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|9780231150651}}
* {{cite book|first=David |last=Shulman|title=Tamil|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fG8NDQAAQBAJ |year=2016|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-97465-4}}
*{{cite book|author=Takanobu Takahashi|title=Tamil Love Poetry and Poetics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wgCHuVGyZoEC|year=1995|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=90-04-10042-3}}
*{{cite book|author=Herman Tieken|title=Kāvya in South India: Old Tamil Caṅkam Poetry|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yXlkAAAAMAAJ|year=2001|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-6980-134-6}}
*{{cite book|first=Eva Maria |last=Wilden|title=Manuscript, Print and Memory: Relics of the Cankam in Tamilnadu|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KuPmBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA75|year=2014|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-035276-4}}
* {{cite book |author=Kamil Zvelebil |title=The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=degUAAAAIAAJ |year=1973 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=90-04-03591-5 }}
*{{cite book|author=Kamil Zvelebil|title=Tamil Literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OQ33i496MsIC |year=1974|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-01582-0}}
* {{cite book |author=Kamil Zvelebil |title=Tamil Literature |series=Handbook of Oriental Studies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kx4uqyts2t4C |year=1975 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=90-04-04190-7 }}
* {{cite book |author=P. Meenakshi Sundaram |title=History of Tamil Literature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sLEuAAAAMAAJ |year=1965 |publisher=Annamalai University }}
{{ref end}}

== External links ==
* [http://sangamtranslationsbyvaidehi.com sangamtranslationsbyvaidehi.com Sangam poetry with translation in English], [[Vaidehi Herbert]]

{{Tamil language}}
{{Languages of South Asia}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sangam Literature}}
[[Category:Sangam literature| ]]
[[Category:Indian poetics]]
[[Category:Cultural history of Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Hinduism]]
[[Category:Hindu literature]]
[[Category:Jainism]]
[[Category:Jain literature]]
[[Category:Dravidian languages]]

Bhishma

2026-09-30T10:29:07Z

2405:201:E006:48A2:6092:3D57:D25B:F1DB: Bhishma

{{Short description|Statesman and patriarch of Kuru kingdom in the Hindu epic Mahabharata}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Infobox character
| image = Statue of Bhishma.jpg
| image_size =
| caption = A contemporary sculpture of Bhishma during the Kurukshetra War
| aliases = {{cslist
|Devavrata
|Gauranga
|Bhishma
|Pitamaha
|Gangaputra
|Mahamahima
|Gangadatta
|Kurushreshtha}}
| info-hdr = Information
| home = [[Hastinapura]]
| family = {{indented plainlist|
* [[Shantanu]] (father)
* [[Ganga (goddess)|Ganga]] (mother)
* [[Satyavati]] (step-mother)
* [[Chitrāngada]] (half-brother)
* [[Vichitravirya]] (half-brother)
* [[Bahlika (Mahabharata)|Bahlika]] and [[Devapi]] (elder uncles)
}}
| weapon = {{cslist|[[Bow and arrow]]
|[[sword]]| [[axe]]| [[Gada (mace)|gada]]|[[spear]]}}
| gender = Male
| relatives = [[Kuru dynasty]]-[[Lunar dynasty|Chandravamsha]]
| title = Supreme commander of the Kuru army
| class = [[Maharathi]]
| affiliation = [[Kauravas]]
}}{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}
{{EngvarB|date=March 2020}}

'''Bhishma''' ({{Langx|sa|भीष्म|lit=|translit=Bhīṣma}}), also known as '''Pitāmaha''', '''Gangāputra''', and '''Devavrata''', is a central figure in the Hindu epic [[Mahabharata]]. He was a statesman and military commander of the ancient [[Kuru kingdom]]. Renowned for his wisdom, valor, skill in battle and unwavering principles, Bhishma served as the supreme commander of the [[Kaurava]] forces during the first ten days of the [[Kurukshetra War]] until his fall.

Born to [[King Shantanu]] and the river goddess [[Ganga (goddess)|Ganga]], he was originally named Devavrata and the designated the heir-apparent to the throne. However, he renounced his claim and took a vow of lifelong celibacy to facilitate his father's marriage to [[Satyavati]]. This sacrifice earned him the title Bhishma, meaning "the one who undertakes a severe vow," and he was blessed with ''Ichcha Mrityu''—the boon of choosing his time of death.

Bhishma's life after his vow was marked by his steadfast loyalty to the Kuru dynasty and his navigation of complex political and familial challenges. He served as the chief adviser and regent to successive rulers of [[Hastinapura]], including his half-brothers [[Chitrāngada|Chitrangada]] and [[Vichitravirya]], as well as their successors—[[Pandu]] and [[Dhritarashtra]].
During this period, he came into conflict with his preceptor in warfare, [[Parashurama]], over the abduction of [[Amba (Mahabharata)|Amba]], a princess whom he had carried off for Vichitravirya’s marriage. He also played a decisive role in arranging the marriages of Pandu and Dhritarashtra, and in overseeing the upbringing of their children—the five [[Pandava]] brothers led by [[Yudhishthira]], and the hundred Kauravas led by [[Duryodhana]]. Bhishma further acted as a mediator in several internal disputes within the royal family, including the division of the Kuru kingdom between Duryodhana and Yudhishthira.
Despite his personal adherence to [[dharma]], his loyalty to the throne ultimately compelled him to side with the Kauravas during the [[Kurukshetra War]].

In battle, Bhishma was unmatched in skill and strategy, holding off the Pandava forces for ten days. On the tenth day, however, the Pandava prince [[Arjuna]], aided by [[Shikhandi]] (reincarnation of Amba), incapacitated him with a volley of arrows, leaving him lying on a [[Bhishma#Death|bed of arrows]]. Bhishma spent fifty-one days in this state, offering counsel to the Pandavas and Kauravas alike. Before his death, timed to the auspicious [[Uttarayana]] (winter solstice), he imparted the [[Vishnu Sahasranama]] to [[Yudhishthira]] and shared his vast knowledge on governance, dharma, and the duties of a king.

Revered in Hindu tradition, Bhishma is extolled for his sacrifice and duty. His death anniversary, observed as [[Bhishma Ashtami]], falls on the eighth lunar day of the bright half of the [[Magha (month)|Magha]] month (January–February).

==Etymology and epithets==
According to [[Monier Monier-Williams]], the word ''Bhishma'' (Bhīṣma, भीष्म) means "extreme" or "fierce". The word is also used to describe [[Rudra]], the fierce god, as well as the [[Rakshasa]].{{sfn|Monier-Williams|1872|p=712}} In the epic, Devavrata received this as he undertook a fierce or terrible vow (Bhishma pratigya) and fulfilled it.{{sfn|Mani|1975|p=135}}{{sfn|Long|2020|p=91}} Bhishma was given the name Devavrata (देवव्रत) at his birth, meaning one who is devoted to Gods.{{sfn|Monier-Williams|1872|p=432}}

As Bhishma was the only surviving son of Ganga, he was given many epithets which mean "son of Ganga" {{mdash}} ''Gangaputra'' (Gangāputra, गंगापुत्र), ''Gang'' (गंग), Gangasuta (Gangāsuta, गंगासुत) and Gangeya (गांगेय). The word ''Gangadatta'' (Gangādatta, गंगादत्त) means the gift of Ganga.{{sfn|Gandhi|2004|p=115}} Patronymics of Bhishma include Shantanava (Śāntanava, शान्तनव), Shantanuputra, Shantanusuta and Shantanuja.{{sfn|Mani|1975|p=137}} Bhishma was also referred as:
* Gaurānga (गौरांग) – the one with fair body
* Shvetaveera (Śvetavīra, श्वेतवीर) – a white warrior or the one who is heroic white and has all weapons in white Colour
* Bhārata (भारत) – a descendant of Bharata
* Mahāmahima (महामहिम) – his excellency
* Parashuramashishya (Paraśurāmaśiṣya, परशुरामशिष्य) – disciple of [[Parashurama]]
* Pitāmaha (पितामह) – Grandfather (also known as Bhishma Pitamaha; called by Pandavas and Kauravas)
{{sfn|Mani|1975|p=137}}

==Birth and early life==
[[File:Raja Ravi Varma, Ganga and Shantanu (1890).jpg|175px|left|thumb|Shantanu stops Ganga from drowning their eighth child, who later was known as Bhishma. Painting by [[Raja Ravi Varma]].]]

Bhishma's birth and youth are mainly narrated in the ''[[Adi Parva]]'' book of the epic. He was the only surviving son of [[Shantanu]], a king belonging to the [[lunar dynasty]], and his first wife [[Ganga (goddess)|Ganga]], a river goddess. It is believed that he was the avatar of a [[Vasus|Vasu]] named Dyu, alias Prabhasa.{{sfn|Mani|1975|p=134}}

According to the legend, Shantanu, the youngest son of the king [[Pratipa]] and the king of [[Kuru kingdom]], was on a hunting trip, when he saw a beautiful woman on the banks of the river [[Ganga]]. He fell in love with her and asked for her hand in marriage. The lady agreed to his proposal but with one condition that he will never question her actions; and if this condition was broken, she would abandon him. Shantanu accepted it and lived a happy marital life with her. However, when a child was born, the queen used to drown him in the river Ganga. One by one, seven sons were born and drowned, while Shantanu remained silent because of his commitment. When she was about to throw the eighth child into the river, Shantanu, unable to control himself, stopped her and confronted her about her actions. After hearing Shantanu's harsh words, the woman revealed herself to be the goddess Ganga and justified her actions and narrated the following story.<ref name = "Adi Parva 98" />{{sfn|Mani|1975|p=135}}

Once the celestial Vasus and their wives were enjoying themselves in the forest when the wife of Dyu spotted an excellent cow and asked her husband to steal it. The cow was Nandini, daughter of the wish-fulfilling cow [[Surabhi]], and was owned by the sage [[Vashishtha]]. With the help of his brothers, Dyu tried to steal it but Vashishtha caught them and cursed them to be born as mortals and suffer a miserable life. Upon their pleading, Vashishta showed mercy and told the other seven Vasus that they will be liberated soon after their birth. However, Dyu being the protagonist of the theft was cursed to endure a longer life on the earth. Before the birth of her sons, Ganga was requested to kill the seven children soon after their birth.<ref name = "Adi 99" >[https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m01/m01100.htm Ganguly], Adi Parva: section 99</ref>{{sfn|Mani|1975|p=135}} Hearing this, Shantanu was filled with grief and regrets and Ganga decided to abandon him as her condition was broken. Before disappearing, she promised Shantanu to return his heir.<ref name = "Adi Parva 98" >[https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m01/m01099.htm Ganguly], Adi Parva: Section 98
</ref>
[[File:The scene from the Mahabharata of the presentation by Ganga of her son Devavrata (the future Bhisma) to his father, Santanu..jpg|thumb|175px|[[Ganga]] handing over her son Devavrata to his father. Painting by BP Banerjee.]]
Ganga named her son Devavrata and took him to different ''loka'' (realms), where he was brought up and trained by many eminent sages.<ref name = "Adi 100" >[https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m01/m01101.htm Ganguly], Adi Parva: section 100</ref><ref>[https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m12/m12a037.htm Ganguly], Shanti Parva: section 38</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-04-12|title=Why Devavrata came to be known as Bhishma?|url=https://zeenews.india.com/spirituality/why-devavrata-came-to-be-known-as-bhishma-1995354.html|access-date=2020-08-29|website=Zee News|language=en}}</ref>

* [[Brihaspati]] and [[Shukracharya]] taught Devavrata the duties of kings (Dandaneeti), or political science and other [[Shastras]].
* The sages [[Vashishtha]] and [[Chyavana]] taught the Vedas and [[Vedangas]] to Devavrata.
* [[Sanatkumara]]: The eldest son of the god [[Brahma]] taught Devavrata the mental and spiritual sciences.
* [[Markandeya]]: The immortal son of [[Mrikanda]] of Bhrigu's race who acquired everlasting youth from the god [[Shiva]] taught Devavrata in the duties of the Yatis.
* [[Parashurama]]: The son of [[Jamadagni]] trained Bhishma in warfare.
* [[Indra]]: The king of the Devas. He bestowed celestial weapons on Bhishma.
Bhishma possessed many esteemed divine weapons and was resistant against magical warfare. Weapons inducing stupor and mental clouding rendered no effect on him.

Years later, Shantanu was roaming on the banks of the Ganga and observed that the water of the river had turned shallow. He saw a young man blocking the water currents with a dam made up of arrows. Shantanu recognised his son because of the similarities and begged Ganga to return him. Ganga appeared in a youthful form and handed her son to Shantanu as per her promise. The young Devavrata was known as Gangadatta as he was handed over by Ganga.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Narasimhan|first=Chakravarthi V.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-P56leXRgAYC&q=santanu+sees+a+beautiful+woman&pg=PA8|title=The Mahābhārata: An English Version Based on Selected Verses|date=1999|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ.|isbn=978-81-208-1673-2|language=en}}</ref>

==The oath==
[[File: Bheeshma oath by RRV.jpg|190px|left|thumb|Devavrata taking his oath, painting by Raja Ravi Varma]]
Devavrata was made the heir-apparent, and the citizens loved him because of his divine background and eligibility. Meanwhile, Shantanu went to the forest and met a fisherwoman named [[Satyavati]], who operated the boats crossing the [[Yamuna]]. He fell in love with her and asked for her hand in marriage from her father. However, the fisherman-chief told that he would only agree if Shantanu promised to put the son born to Satyavati as the heir. Shantanu rejected the offer as he had already promised the throne to Devavrata and returned to the palace. He started to avoid any company and spend his time in bed in grief and solitude. Devavrata noticed his father's sorrow and discovered the reason behind it from a minister.{{sfn|Mani|1975|p=135}}

Devavrata immediately rushed to the cottage of the fishermen-chief and begged him for Satyavati, but the fishermen-chief repeated his former condition. For his father's pleasure and happiness, Devavrata ceded his rights to the throne and promised to put the son of Satyavati on the throne of the kingdom. Satyavati's father was not assured as he claimed that disputes were likely to arise between Satyavati's son and Devavrata's children regarding the rights to the throne. To satisfy him, Devavrata took the vow of lifelong ''[[Brahmacharya]]'' (celibacy), thus denying himself the pleasures of marital life.{{sfn|Mani|1975|p=135}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Arora |first=Jai Gopal |url= |title=कलरव |publisher=Al- Lina Publications |isbn=979-8-4370-5396-6 |location=New Delhi |publication-date=22 March 2022 |pages=34–42 |language=hi |trans-title=Chirping}}</ref>

The celestials showered flowers from heaven and he came to be known as "Bhishma" as he took a terrible vow. With the consent of the fisherman, Bhishma took Satyavati to his father on a chariot and informed him about his vows. A loving father Shantanu gave him a boon of ''Iccha Mrityu'', the control over the time of his death.<ref name = "Adi 100" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Ireland|first=Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1LEIAAAAQAAJ&q=Santanu+sees+a+beautiful+woman&pg=PA31|title=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland|date=1879|publisher=Cambridge University Press for the Royal Asiatic Society|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=2016-07-07|title=Devavrata's oath|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/religion/Devavrata%E2%80%99s-oath/article14475999.ece|access-date=2020-08-29|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> Shantanu and Satyavati soon married and two children – [[Chitrangada (son of Shantanu)|Chitrangada]] and [[Vichitravirya]] were born.{{sfn|Mani|1975|p=135}}

==Affairs of Kuru Kingdom==
After the death of his father, Bhishma played a major role in the affairs of the Kuru kingdom. He managed the kingdom when there were succession crises. He also arranged the marriage of his nephews and tried to bring peace between his grand-nephews, the [[Kauravas]] and the [[Pandavas]].

The text ''[[Harivamsa]]'' mentions that during the mourning period after Shantanu's death, Bhishma killed Ugrayudha Paurava, a statesman of [[Panchala kingdom]] who lusted for Satyavati and tried to buy her with wealth.{{sfn|Bhattacharya|2004|p=21–25}} According to the ''Mahabharata'', Chitrangada was crowned as the king, however, he was soon killed by a ''[[Gandharva]]'' (celestial musician). Bhishma performed Chitrangada's funeral rites.{{sfn|Mani|1975|p=135}}<ref name = "Sec 101">[https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m01/m01102.htm Ganguly], Adi Parva: Section 101</ref> Vichitravirya, who was too young to rule, was crowned as the king by Bhishma but the actual control of the kingdom was under Satyavati until he reached adulthood. Bhishma aided Satyavati during that time.<ref name = "Section 102">[https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m01/m01103.htm Ganguly], Adi Parva: Section 102</ref>

===Swayamvara of the Kashi princesses and battle with Parashurama===
[[File:Parasurama shoots Bhima , ca. 1616.jpg|thumb|Parashurama shoots Bhishma while [[Amba (Mahabharata)|Amba]] watches them, folio from ''[[Razmnama]]'' (Persian translation of the Mahabharata), ca. 1616]]
When Vichitravirya grew up, Bhishma decided to bring [[Amba (Mahabharata)|Amba]], [[Ambika (Mahabharata)|Ambika]] and [[Ambalika]]{{mdash}}the princesses of [[Kashi kingdom]]{{mdash}}and get them married to him. Bhishma reached the kingdom and fought Shalva, easily defeating him and rightfully won over the princesses, who were choosing their spouse in a ''[[Swayamvara]]'' (ceremony where a woman chooses her husband from a group of suitors either by holding a competition or a task and the winner marries the princess). [[Shalva (Mahabharata)|Shalva]], the ruler of Shalwa or Saubala Kingdom and the lover of Amba, attempted to stop Bhishma but failed. Upon reaching [[Hastinapura]], Ambika and Ambalika consented to marry Vichitravirya, while Amba told Bhishma about her love for Shalva. Learning about her feelings, Bhishma sent Amba to Saubala Kingdom.

The ''[[Udyoga Parva]]'' further narrates about Amba as well as the battle between Bhishma and Parashurama. When Amba requested Shalva to marry her, he rejected her, claiming that he was already humiliated during the Svayamvara. He also told her that he could not accept a woman who was won by another man. A variant suggests that after Amba returned to Hastinapur, Bhishma then asked Vichitravirya to marry her, but he also refused to marry her as she loved another man. With no one to accept her, Amba blamed Bhishma for her misery and wanted revenge from him. She went to the kings of several kingdom and tried to convince them to slay Bhishma; but none of them agreed. After she was advised by some sages, she met Parasurama, Bhishma's teacher and successfully convinced him to vow to help her.<ref name=B>{{cite book|title=Myths and Legends from India – Great Women|last=Bhanu|first=Sharada|publisher=Macmillan India Limited|year=1997|location=Chennai|isbn=0-333-93076-2|pages=30–8}}</ref>

Parasurama went to [[Kurukshetra]] and sent a message to Bhishma to meet him. Bhishma arrived at the place and offered his service to his teacher. Wanting to solve the situation, Parasurama ordered him to marry Amba, telling him that it was his [[dharma|duty]]. However, Bhishma denied it, reminding him about his vow. This enraged Parashurama and he threatened Bhishma with death. Bhishma tried to calm him but it failed. An intense battle began with both protecting their words. They fought for twenty-three days, each using celestial weapons. Ganga tried to stop them but was unsuccessful.<ref name=B/> On the twenty-fourth day of battle, Bhishma attempted to use the Prashwapastra against [[Parashurama]], but the divine sage [[Narada]] and the gods intervened and showed their concern over the use of powerful weapons which could destroy the world. Parashurama ended the conflict and the battle was declared a stalemate. After hearing about the event, Amba decided to take her revenge on her own and did severe austerities to please the god [[Shiva]]. Shiva appeared in front of her and assured that she would be reborn and become instrumental in Bhishma's death. Satisfied, she then made a funeral pyre of woods and killed herself. Years later, she was reborn as [[Shikhandini]], daughter of King [[Drupada]] of [[Panchala kingdom]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Mahabharata Story By Rajaji – Page 5 {{!}} Mahabharata Stories, Summary and Characters from Mahabharata|url=http://www.mahabharataonline.com/rajaji/mahabharata_summary_5.php|access-date=2020-08-29|website=www.mahabharataonline.com}}</ref>

===Political influences===
[[File:Razmnamah.jpg|thumb|Yudhishthira with Bhishma, from the Razm-Namah, by Fattu, 1598]]
Vichitravirya was crowned as the king of Hastinapura and he ruled for a few years, before he died of [[tuberculosis]]. He had no offspring and the lineage was at the risk of extinction. [[Satyavati]] persuaded Bhishma to marry the widows of Vichitravirya and rule as the king or at least impregnate them to produce an heir.<ref>Meyer pp. 165–6</ref> However Bhishma refused the proposal and told her about his vow. He then suggested that a sage could be requested to perform ''[[Niyoga]]'' (a practice in which another person is requested to impregnate a woman, whose husband is deceased or impotent).<ref name = "ganguliCIV">{{cite book|last=Ganguli|first=Kisari Mohan |title=The Mahabharata: Book 1: Adi Parva|url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m01/m01105.htm|date=1883–1896|publisher=Sacred texts archive|chapter=SECTION CIV}}</ref> Satyavati called her premarital born son, [[Vyasa]], to impregnate her daughters-in-law.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Choppra|first=Kusum|date=2017-06-17|title=Satyavati, the feminist who stood up to patriarchy|url=https://www.dnaindia.com/lifestyle/column-satyavati-the-feminist-who-stood-up-to-patriarchy-2475404|access-date=2020-10-26|website=DNA India|language=en}}</ref><ref name = "ganguliCIII">{{cite book|last=Ganguli|first=Kisari Mohan |title=The Mahabharata: Book 1: Adi Parva|url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m01/m01104.htm|date=1883–1896|publisher=Sacred texts archive|chapter=SECTION CIII}}</ref><ref>Meyer p. 165</ref> Three children were born{{mdash}} [[Dhritarashtra]] from Ambika, [[Pandu]] from Ambalika and [[Vidura]] from a maid. Bhishma trained them and also got them married. He arranged the wedding of Dhritarashtra with [[Gandhāri|Gandhari]], the princess of [[Gandhara Kingdom]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Srivastava|first=Diwaker Ikshit|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZmxCDwAAQBAJ&q=shakuni+gandhri+marries+dhritrashtra&pg=PT66|title=Decoding the Metaphor Mahabharata|date=2017-12-11|publisher=One Point Six Technology Pvt Ltd|isbn=978-93-5201-000-4|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=The Mahabharata, Book 1: Adi Parva: Sambhava Parva: Section CX|url=https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m01/m01111.htm|access-date=2020-09-01|website=www.sacred-texts.com}}</ref> He also brought [[Madri]] for [[Pandu]] from [[Madra Kingdom]] and also got Vidura married to the daughter of Devaka.{{sfn|Mani|1975|p=136}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Debalina|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9hfHDwAAQBAJ&q=bhishma+gets+pandu+married+with+Madri&pg=PT123|title=Into the Myths: A Realistic Approach Towards Mythology and Epic|date=2019-12-20|publisher=Partridge Publishing|isbn=978-1-5437-0576-8|language=en}}</ref>

Despite Dhritrashtra being the eldest among the brothers, he was denied the throne because of his blindness. Pandu was appointed as the king, but later, he renounced his position and went to the forest with his wives. Dhritarashtra was made the de facto king and Gandhari gave birth to the [[Kauravas]] siblings. Meanwhile, Pandu's two wives gave birth to the five [[Pandava]] brothers. After the premature death of Pandu, his first wife Kunti returned to Hastinapur with her sons. Satyavati, along with Ambika and Ambalika, decided to retire to the forest for penance, leaving Bhishma with the responsibility of the kingdom. A Brahmin warrior [[Drona]], was hired by Bhishma to train the princes in warfare.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dalal|first=Roshen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zrk0AwAAQBAJ&q=bhishma+appoints+drona&pg=PT450|title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide|date=2014-04-18|publisher=Penguin UK|isbn=978-81-8475-277-9|language=en}}</ref>

From their childhood, the Kauravas hated their cousins and tried to kill them multiple times. One such was the event of [[Lakshagriha]], in which [[Duryodhana]]—the eldest Kaurava—decided to burn the Pandavas. Bhishma was despondent but Vidura consoled him and told them that the Pandavas were alive. The event led to the succession dispute between Duryodhana and [[Yudhishthira]]. To resolve this, Bhishma advised Dhritarashtra to divide the kingdom among the princes. The Pandavas made their capital in [[Indraprastha]] and performed the ''[[Rajasuya]]'' to achieve sovereignty and the status of the emperor. Bhishma supported them and attended the ceremony. He suggested Yudhishthira give [[Krishna]] the highest place in the ceremony, but this enraged [[Shishupala]]{{mdash}}an enemy of Krishna. He initially protested to give the position to Bhishma, but after Bhishma showed no objection in honouring Krishna, Shishupala started insulting him.{{sfn|Mani|1975|p=136}}

Bhishma was present during the gambling game in [[Hastinapur]], where [[Draupadi]]—the wife of the Pandavas—was humiliated in the court. When she questioned the [[dharma]] of Yudhishthira losing her in the game, Bhishma tried but failed to answer her and described dharma to be subtle.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hudson|first=Emily T.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BcFE9O-IgQUC&q=Bhisma|title=Disorienting Dharma: Ethics and the Aesthetics of Suffering in the Mahabharata|date=2013|publisher=OUP USA|isbn=978-0-19-986078-4|language=en}}</ref>

Bhishma also led the Virata war, an operation undertook by the Kauravas and the [[Trigarthas ]] to rob the cows from King [[Virata]] and to reveal the hidden Pandavas. The combined Kaurava and Trigartha forces were defeated by Arjuna alone.
Arjuna handed Bhishma a defeat in their duel, but when the former used the 'Sammohana', Bhishma remained unaffected while the rest of the army fell into stupor.

After the Pandavas returned following the completion of their exile, Bhishma encouraged Dritharashtra and Duryodhana to give back [[Indraprastha]] to them , doing his best to avoid the war. Bhishma was present during Krishna's peace mission visit to the court of Hasthinapura and when the true form of the lord was revealed following Duryodhana's hostility, he was among few who were not blinded by the divine light emanating from the [[Viswaroopa]].

==The Kurukshetra War==
{{multiple image
| image1 =
| caption1 =Pandavas meet Pitamaha Bhishma before the war to seek his blessings
| image2 =
| caption2 = Duryodhana accuses Bhishma for showing partiality towards the Pandavas}}

In the great battle at [[Kurukshetra]], Bhishma was the supreme commander of the Kaurava forces for ten days. He fought reluctantly on the side of the [[Kauravas]], having vowed to protect the city of Hastinapur from all threats and invasions.

Before the battle, at the Kauravas army's assembly, Bhishma analysed and classified the warriors of the Kaurava side and famously describe [[Karna]] as an Athirathi, a class of warrior inferior to a [[Maharathi]]. This infuriated Karna and he took a vow that as long as Bhishma is commanding the forces, he will not participate in the war. In truth, both sides of the affront were aware of Karna's true lineage, and had to make pretext to prevent Karna from battling his brothers.

Bhishma was one of the most powerful warriors of his time and in history. He acquired his prowess and invincibility from being the son of the sacred [[Ganga]] and by being a student of Lord Parashurama. Despite being about five generations old, Bhishma was too powerful to be defeated by any warrior alive at that time. Every day, he slew at least 10,000 soldiers and about a 1,000 [[ratha]]s.

At the beginning of the war, Bhishma vowed not to kill any of the Pandavas, as he loved them, being their grand-uncle. Duryodhana often confronted Bhishma alleging that he was not actually fighting for the Kaurava camp as he would not kill any of the Pandavas. He also tried his best to prevent the death of any of the Kauravas in the war, as he loved all his grand-nephews.

Duryodhana approached Bhishma on the night of the eighth day and accused him of not fighting the battle to his full strength because of his affection for the Pandavas. On the next day there was an intense battle between Bhishma and Arjuna. Although Arjuna was very very skilled and powerful, he was not fighting seriously as his heart was not in it to hurt his beloved grandsire Bhishma. Bhishma fired arrows such that Arjuna and Krishna were both injured. [[Krishna]], enraged over Bhishma's devastation of the Pandavas army and Arjuna's hesitation to fight him with full force, got down from his charioteer seat and picked up a displaced wheel, intending to use it in place of his [[Sudarshana Chakra]]. Seeing this, both Arjuna and Bhishma stopped their battle, with the protector of Hastinapur humbly telling the avatar of Vishnu that he would immediately lay down his life should Krishna took action here and now. Arjuna ultimately convinced Krishna to remain true to his vow and returned themselves to their chariot. Thus Bhishma fulfilled his vow of forcing Krishna to raise a weapon. Then Arjuna used stronger weapons, injuring Bhishma. Bhishma and Arjuna's duel was praised by the gods themselves as they watched over it from the sky.

The war was thus locked in a stalemate. As the Pandavas mulled over this situation, Krishna advised them to visit Bhishma himself and request him to suggest a way out of this stalemate. Bhishma loved the Pandavas and knew that he stood as an obstacle in their path to victory and so when they visited Bhishma, he gave them a hint as to how they could defeat him. He told them that if faced by one who had once been of the opposite gender, he would lay down his arms and fight no longer.

Later Krishna told Arjuna how he could bring down Bhishma, through the help of [[Shikhandi]]. The Pandavas were not agreeable to such a ploy, as by using such tactics they would not be following the path of Dharma, but Krishna suggested a clever alternative. And thus, on the next day, the tenth day of battle Shikhandi was accompanied by Arjuna as Arjuna was his chariot protector and they faced Bhishma who avoided Shikhandi. He was then felled in battle by [[Arjuna]], pierced by innumerable arrows. Arjuna shot arrows at Bhishma, piercing his entire body. Thus, as was preordained (Mahadeva's boon to Amba that she would be the cause of Bhishma's fall) Shikhandi, that is, Amba reincarnated was the cause of Bhishma's fall.
[[File:Fall of Bhisma.jpg|thumb|Fall of Bhisma]]
As Bhishma fell, his whole body was held above the ground by the shafts of Arjuna's arrows which protruded from his back, and through his arms and legs. Seeing Bhishma lying on such a bed of arrows humbled even the gods who watched from the heavens in reverence. They silently blessed the mighty warrior. When the young princes of both armies gathered around him, inquiring if there was anything they could do, he told them that while his body lay on the bed of arrows above the ground, his head hung unsupported. Hearing this, many of the princes, both Kaurava and the Pandava alike brought him pillows of silk and velvet, but he refused them. He asked Arjuna to give him a pillow fit for a warrior. Arjuna then removed three arrows from his quiver and placed them underneath Bhishma's head, the pointed arrow tips facing upwards. To quench the war veteran's thirst, Arjuna shot an arrow into the earth, and a jet stream of water rose up and into Bhishma's mouth.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Vyāsa Deva|first=Kṛṣṇa Dvaipāyana|title=Mahābhārata : Sanskrit text and English translation; translation according to M.N. Dutt|publisher=Parimal Publications|others=Manmatha Nath Dutt, Ishvar Chandra, O. N. Bimali|year=2018|isbn=978-81-7110-196-2|edition=4th|location=Delhi|pages=427–428|oclc=855398616}}</ref> It is said that Ganga herself rose to quench her son's thirst.<ref name=B/>

After the proceedings of the tenth day, Karna visited Bhishma alone at night and Bhishma reveals to him that he had prior knowledge of his birth secret and urges him to make peace with the Pandavas. Bhishma also tells him that declaring him as an Athirathi and tricking him to make the vow of not fighting was his ploy to avert Karna clashing with his brothers. He declares that he considered Karna as a Maharathi as well and that he had deep appreciation for his skill as a warrior. Karna however declines to join the Pandavas and leaves after a brief moment of sharing his respect and admiration to Bhishma.

==Death==
After the war, while on his deathbed (arrow bed), he gave deep and meaningful instructions to [[Yudhishthira]] on statesmanship and the duties of a king. Bhishma always gave priority to [[Dharma]]. He always walked in the path of Dharma, despite his state because of the vow, he was supposed to forcefully follow the orders of his king Dhritharashtra, which were mostly [[Adharma]], he was totally upset. He was sure he must let dharma win and Pandavas win, but the way he led the war and stayed silent were his sins in a way and he paid for it with the bed of arrows. Finally, Bhishma gave up the fight, focusing his life force and breath, sealing the wounds, and waiting for the auspicious moment to give up his body on the arrow bed. He did wait for about 58 nights for the [[winter solstice]] and chose "'''''Magh maha Sukla paksha Astami tithi'''''" after [[Uttarayana]] to give up his body on the arrow bed. His body was later cremated by Emperor Yudhishthira in a great ceremony.

''Mahabharata'' states that he attained [[salvation]] after his death. He was granted the [[Maharloka|Maatru Lok]] (which is considered even above Swarga, the heaven). [[Magha (month)]] Shukla Ashtami marks the death anniversary of Bhishma Pitamah (Patriarch), the day being known as [[Bhishma Ashtami]]. Hindus observe Ekodishta [[Śrāddha]] for him on this day, for many generations, and can only be performed by those whose fathers are not alive. Bhishma Panchaka vrata (fast) is observed in all [[Vishnu]] temples, starting from Bhishma Ashtami, for five days until Bhishma Dwadasi.{{citation needed|date=May 2020}} People believe that they will have a son with the steadfast qualities of Bhishma if they observe these holy rituals on the river banks.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.drikpanchang.com/festivals/bhishma-ashtami/bhishma-ashtami-date-time.html | title=Bhishma Ashtami | publisher=Drik Panchang | access-date=24 January 2019 }}</ref> It is also said that those who will perform this fast will live a happy life and attain salvation after their death.
[[File:Angkor_Wat_Bhishma.jpg|thumb|left|Bhishma on bed of arrows depicted in [[Angkor Wat]]]]

==Bhishma in Greek Literature==

Greek researchers themselves have discovered and published in their academic journals that the narrative elements—namely, Mother Ganga casting her children born prior to Bhishma into the river without any objection from her husband, the husband finally intervening when Bhishma was about to be cast into the water, and Ganga reacting with anger and leaving her husband—spread as far as Greece and found a place in their literature. (See: GJHSS Volume 26 Issue H1, https://socialscienceresearch.org/index.php/GJHSS/article/view/104671)
)
==In popular culture==
===Films and television===
His life has been made into many films in different Indian languages. The first silent film was made in 1922. During the talkie period, the first film was made in Hindi (1937). It was followed by a [[Bengali language|Bengali]] film in 1942 directed by Jyotish Bannerjee. Jahar Ganguli played the title role.{{citation needed|date=January 2019}}

* [[Telugu cinema]], two films were made. The first film on Bhishma was made in 1944 directed by [[Chitrapu Narayana Rao]]. Jandhyala Gourinatha Sastry played the role of Bhishma. [[B. A. Subba Rao]] made a film in 1962 titled ''[[Bhishma (1962 film)|Bhishma]]''. The title role was played by [[N. T. Rama Rao]].{{citation needed|date=January 2019}}
* Bhishma's character was played by [[Mukesh Khanna]] in the B.R. Chopra's classic television series ''[[Mahabharat (1988 TV series)|Mahabharat]]'' (1988).
* [[Sotigui Kouyaté]] played Bhishma in [[Peter Brook]]'s 1989 film [[The Mahabharata (1989 film)|''The Mahabharata'']].
* In [[Ramanand Sagar]]'s television series ''[[Shri Krishna (TV series)|Shri Krishna]]'' (1993) Sunil Nagar portrayed the character.
* [[Surendra Pal]] portrayed the character in [[Chandraprakash Dwivedi]]'s ''[[Ek Aur Mahabharat]]''.
* In the television series ''[[Draupadi (TV series)|Draupadi]]'' (2001) [[Pankaj Dheer]] played the character.
* In [[Balaji Telefilms]]' ''[[Kahaani Hamaaray Mahaabhaarat Ki]]'' (2008) [[Ronit Roy]] played the role.
* In Star Plus' television series ''[[Mahabharat (2013 TV series)|Mahabharat]]'' (2013) [[Arav Chowdharry]] played the role of Bhishma.
* [[Amitabh Bachchan]] has also voiced the character in the animated ''[[Mahabharat (2013 film)|Mahabharat]]'' (2013).
* [[Naved Aslam]] in [[Sony Entertainment Television|Sony TV's]] ''[[Suryaputra Karn]]''. {{citation needed|date=January 2019}}
* [[Ambareesh]] played the role of Bhishma in the 2019 mythological Kannada movie ''[[Kurukshetra (2019 film)|Kurukshetra]]'', which was his last film as well.
* In the 2022 Malayalam movie [[Bheeshma Parvam]], the lead character (played by [[Mammootty]] ) was based on Bheeshma. The story and characters were inspired by both ''[[Mahabharat]]'' and ''[[The Godfather]]''.

=== Modern references ===
The tank [[T-90]] [[main battle tank]] (MBT), one of the world's most advanced MBTs acquired from Russia for the [[Indian Army]], is named after Bhishma.<ref name="Jackson2007">{{cite book|author=Robert Jackson|title=Tanks and Armored Fighting Vehicles|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H-3dNmei_N8C&pg=PA295|access-date=24 June 2012|date=1 March 2007|publisher=Parragon Incorporated|isbn=978-1-4054-8664-4|pages=295–}}</ref><ref name="Muthiah2008">{{cite book|author=S. Muthiah|title=Madras, Chennai: A 400-year Record of the First City of Modern India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tbR_LLkqdI8C&pg=PA288|access-date=24 June 2012|year=2008|publisher=Palaniappa Brothers|isbn=978-81-8379-468-8|pages=288–}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=note}}

===Citations===
{{Reflist}}

==References==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{Cite web|last=Ganguly|first=Kisari Mohan|author-link=Kisari Mohan Ganguli|title=Sacred-Texts: Hinduism|url=https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/maha/index.htm|access-date=2021-02-12|website=www.sacred-texts.com}}
*{{cite book |title = Puranic Encyclopaedia: a Comprehensive Dictionary with Special Reference to the Epic and Puranic Literature |url = https://archive.org/details/puranicencyclopa00maniuoft/page/134/mode/1up | publisher = Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |year = 1975| isbn = 978-0-8426-0822-0 |first = Vettam|last = Mani|pages=134–137}}
* {{Cite book|last=Monier-Williams|first=Sir Monier|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FzRDAQAAMAAJ&q=Bhishma|title=A Sanskṛit-English Dictionary Etymologically and Philologically Arranged: With Special Reference to Greek, Latin, Gothic, German, Anglo-Saxon, and Other Cognate Indo-European Languages|date=1872|publisher=Clarendon Press|language=en}}
*{{Cite book|last=Gandhi|first=Maneka|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QZ94y_-jChMC&q=Bhisma|title=The Penguin Book of Hindu Names for Boys|date=2004|publisher=Penguin Books India|isbn=978-0-14-303168-0|language=en}}
*{{Cite book|last=Long|first=Jeffery D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IWXRDwAAQBAJ&q=bh%C4%AB%E1%B9%A3ma+terrible&pg=PA91|title=Historical Dictionary of Hinduism|date=2020-04-15|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1-5381-2294-5|language=en}}
* {{cite book|last=Meyer|first=Johann Jakob |title=Sexual life in ancient India|year=1989|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ|isbn=81-208-0638-7|orig-year = 1971}}
*{{Cite book|last=|first=|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=56fr2p5f7l0C&q=bhisma&pg=PA193|title=Gender and Narrative in the Mahabharata|last2=|first2=|last4=|date=2007-08-09|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-11995-0|editor-last=Brodbeck|editor-first=Simon|location=|pages=|language=en|editor-last2=Brian|editor-first2=Black}}
*{{Cite book|last=Dalal|first=Roshen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zrk0AwAAQBAJ&q=Bhishma&pg=PT450|title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide|date=2014-04-18|publisher=Penguin UK|isbn=978-81-8475-277-9|language=en}}
*{{cite book |author1=B. R. Rajam Aiyar |title=Rambles in Vedanta |date=30 September 1996 |publisher=Motilal Banarasi Das Publishers Pvt Ltd |pages=113–114 |isbn=9788120809123 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=89doofWiWJIC&q=bhishma |access-date=7 May 2020}}
* {{cite book|first=Manish|last=Verma|title=Fasts and Festivals of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z4gzFFLdBoYC&pg=PA73|access-date=13 June 2012|year=2000|publisher=Diamond Pocket Books (P) Ltd.|isbn=978-81-7182-076-4|pages=73–}}
* {{cite journal|last=Bhattacharya|first=Pradip|date=May–June 2004|title=Of Kunti and Satyawati: Sexually Assertive Women of the Mahabharata|journal=[[Manushi]]|issue=142|pages=21–25|url=http://www.manushi-india.org/pdfs_issues/PDF%20142/04%20panchakanya%20pg%2021-25.pdf}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
*{{Wikiquote-inline}}
*{{Commons category-inline|Bhīṣma}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100117032308/http://mahabharataonline.com/ Persons and stories from the ''Mahābhārata'']
* [http://moralstories.wordpress.com/2006/09/24/dharmabalam/ Small story illustrating Bhishma's greatness]

{{Mahabharata}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Characters in the Mahabharata]]
[[Category:Kuru dynasty]]

Bhishma

2026-09-30T10:26:35Z

2405:201:E006:48A2:6092:3D57:D25B:F1DB: GJHSS Volume 26 Issue H1, https://socialscienceresearch.org/index.php/GJHSS/article/view/104671 )

{{Short description|Statesman and patriarch of Kuru kingdom in the Hindu epic Mahabharata}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Infobox character
| image = Statue of Bhishma.jpg
| image_size =
| caption = A contemporary sculpture of Bhishma during the Kurukshetra War
| aliases = {{cslist
|Devavrata
|Gauranga
|Bhishma
|Pitamaha
|Gangaputra
|Mahamahima
|Gangadatta
|Kurushreshtha}}
| info-hdr = Information
| home = [[Hastinapura]]
| family = {{indented plainlist|
* [[Shantanu]] (father)
* [[Ganga (goddess)|Ganga]] (mother)
* [[Satyavati]] (step-mother)
* [[Chitrāngada]] (half-brother)
* [[Vichitravirya]] (half-brother)
* [[Bahlika (Mahabharata)|Bahlika]] and [[Devapi]] (elder uncles)
}}
| weapon = {{cslist|[[Bow and arrow]]
|[[sword]]| [[axe]]| [[Gada (mace)|gada]]|[[spear]]}}
| gender = Male
| relatives = [[Kuru dynasty]]-[[Lunar dynasty|Chandravamsha]]
| title = Supreme commander of the Kuru army
| class = [[Maharathi]]
| affiliation = [[Kauravas]]
}}{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}
{{EngvarB|date=March 2020}}

'''Bhishma''' ({{Langx|sa|भीष्म|lit=|translit=Bhīṣma}}), also known as '''Pitāmaha''', '''Gangāputra''', and '''Devavrata''', is a central figure in the Hindu epic [[Mahabharata]]. He was a statesman and military commander of the ancient [[Kuru kingdom]]. Renowned for his wisdom, valor, skill in battle and unwavering principles, Bhishma served as the supreme commander of the [[Kaurava]] forces during the first ten days of the [[Kurukshetra War]] until his fall.

Born to [[King Shantanu]] and the river goddess [[Ganga (goddess)|Ganga]], he was originally named Devavrata and the designated the heir-apparent to the throne. However, he renounced his claim and took a vow of lifelong celibacy to facilitate his father's marriage to [[Satyavati]]. This sacrifice earned him the title Bhishma, meaning "the one who undertakes a severe vow," and he was blessed with ''Ichcha Mrityu''—the boon of choosing his time of death.

Bhishma's life after his vow was marked by his steadfast loyalty to the Kuru dynasty and his navigation of complex political and familial challenges. He served as the chief adviser and regent to successive rulers of [[Hastinapura]], including his half-brothers [[Chitrāngada|Chitrangada]] and [[Vichitravirya]], as well as their successors—[[Pandu]] and [[Dhritarashtra]].
During this period, he came into conflict with his preceptor in warfare, [[Parashurama]], over the abduction of [[Amba (Mahabharata)|Amba]], a princess whom he had carried off for Vichitravirya’s marriage. He also played a decisive role in arranging the marriages of Pandu and Dhritarashtra, and in overseeing the upbringing of their children—the five [[Pandava]] brothers led by [[Yudhishthira]], and the hundred Kauravas led by [[Duryodhana]]. Bhishma further acted as a mediator in several internal disputes within the royal family, including the division of the Kuru kingdom between Duryodhana and Yudhishthira.
Despite his personal adherence to [[dharma]], his loyalty to the throne ultimately compelled him to side with the Kauravas during the [[Kurukshetra War]].

In battle, Bhishma was unmatched in skill and strategy, holding off the Pandava forces for ten days. On the tenth day, however, the Pandava prince [[Arjuna]], aided by [[Shikhandi]] (reincarnation of Amba), incapacitated him with a volley of arrows, leaving him lying on a [[Bhishma#Death|bed of arrows]]. Bhishma spent fifty-one days in this state, offering counsel to the Pandavas and Kauravas alike. Before his death, timed to the auspicious [[Uttarayana]] (winter solstice), he imparted the [[Vishnu Sahasranama]] to [[Yudhishthira]] and shared his vast knowledge on governance, dharma, and the duties of a king.

Revered in Hindu tradition, Bhishma is extolled for his sacrifice and duty. His death anniversary, observed as [[Bhishma Ashtami]], falls on the eighth lunar day of the bright half of the [[Magha (month)|Magha]] month (January–February).

==Etymology and epithets==
According to [[Monier Monier-Williams]], the word ''Bhishma'' (Bhīṣma, भीष्म) means "extreme" or "fierce". The word is also used to describe [[Rudra]], the fierce god, as well as the [[Rakshasa]].{{sfn|Monier-Williams|1872|p=712}} In the epic, Devavrata received this as he undertook a fierce or terrible vow (Bhishma pratigya) and fulfilled it.{{sfn|Mani|1975|p=135}}{{sfn|Long|2020|p=91}} Bhishma was given the name Devavrata (देवव्रत) at his birth, meaning one who is devoted to Gods.{{sfn|Monier-Williams|1872|p=432}}

As Bhishma was the only surviving son of Ganga, he was given many epithets which mean "son of Ganga" {{mdash}} ''Gangaputra'' (Gangāputra, गंगापुत्र), ''Gang'' (गंग), Gangasuta (Gangāsuta, गंगासुत) and Gangeya (गांगेय). The word ''Gangadatta'' (Gangādatta, गंगादत्त) means the gift of Ganga.{{sfn|Gandhi|2004|p=115}} Patronymics of Bhishma include Shantanava (Śāntanava, शान्तनव), Shantanuputra, Shantanusuta and Shantanuja.{{sfn|Mani|1975|p=137}} Bhishma was also referred as:
* Gaurānga (गौरांग) – the one with fair body
* Shvetaveera (Śvetavīra, श्वेतवीर) – a white warrior or the one who is heroic white and has all weapons in white Colour
* Bhārata (भारत) – a descendant of Bharata
* Mahāmahima (महामहिम) – his excellency
* Parashuramashishya (Paraśurāmaśiṣya, परशुरामशिष्य) – disciple of [[Parashurama]]
* Pitāmaha (पितामह) – Grandfather (also known as Bhishma Pitamaha; called by Pandavas and Kauravas)
{{sfn|Mani|1975|p=137}}

==Birth and early life==
[[File:Raja Ravi Varma, Ganga and Shantanu (1890).jpg|175px|left|thumb|Shantanu stops Ganga from drowning their eighth child, who later was known as Bhishma. Painting by [[Raja Ravi Varma]].]]

Bhishma's birth and youth are mainly narrated in the ''[[Adi Parva]]'' book of the epic. He was the only surviving son of [[Shantanu]], a king belonging to the [[lunar dynasty]], and his first wife [[Ganga (goddess)|Ganga]], a river goddess. It is believed that he was the avatar of a [[Vasus|Vasu]] named Dyu, alias Prabhasa.{{sfn|Mani|1975|p=134}}

According to the legend, Shantanu, the youngest son of the king [[Pratipa]] and the king of [[Kuru kingdom]], was on a hunting trip, when he saw a beautiful woman on the banks of the river [[Ganga]]. He fell in love with her and asked for her hand in marriage. The lady agreed to his proposal but with one condition that he will never question her actions; and if this condition was broken, she would abandon him. Shantanu accepted it and lived a happy marital life with her. However, when a child was born, the queen used to drown him in the river Ganga. One by one, seven sons were born and drowned, while Shantanu remained silent because of his commitment. When she was about to throw the eighth child into the river, Shantanu, unable to control himself, stopped her and confronted her about her actions. After hearing Shantanu's harsh words, the woman revealed herself to be the goddess Ganga and justified her actions and narrated the following story.<ref name = "Adi Parva 98" />{{sfn|Mani|1975|p=135}}

Once the celestial Vasus and their wives were enjoying themselves in the forest when the wife of Dyu spotted an excellent cow and asked her husband to steal it. The cow was Nandini, daughter of the wish-fulfilling cow [[Surabhi]], and was owned by the sage [[Vashishtha]]. With the help of his brothers, Dyu tried to steal it but Vashishtha caught them and cursed them to be born as mortals and suffer a miserable life. Upon their pleading, Vashishta showed mercy and told the other seven Vasus that they will be liberated soon after their birth. However, Dyu being the protagonist of the theft was cursed to endure a longer life on the earth. Before the birth of her sons, Ganga was requested to kill the seven children soon after their birth.<ref name = "Adi 99" >[https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m01/m01100.htm Ganguly], Adi Parva: section 99</ref>{{sfn|Mani|1975|p=135}} Hearing this, Shantanu was filled with grief and regrets and Ganga decided to abandon him as her condition was broken. Before disappearing, she promised Shantanu to return his heir.<ref name = "Adi Parva 98" >[https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m01/m01099.htm Ganguly], Adi Parva: Section 98
</ref>
[[File:The scene from the Mahabharata of the presentation by Ganga of her son Devavrata (the future Bhisma) to his father, Santanu..jpg|thumb|175px|[[Ganga]] handing over her son Devavrata to his father. Painting by BP Banerjee.]]
Ganga named her son Devavrata and took him to different ''loka'' (realms), where he was brought up and trained by many eminent sages.<ref name = "Adi 100" >[https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m01/m01101.htm Ganguly], Adi Parva: section 100</ref><ref>[https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m12/m12a037.htm Ganguly], Shanti Parva: section 38</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-04-12|title=Why Devavrata came to be known as Bhishma?|url=https://zeenews.india.com/spirituality/why-devavrata-came-to-be-known-as-bhishma-1995354.html|access-date=2020-08-29|website=Zee News|language=en}}</ref>

* [[Brihaspati]] and [[Shukracharya]] taught Devavrata the duties of kings (Dandaneeti), or political science and other [[Shastras]].
* The sages [[Vashishtha]] and [[Chyavana]] taught the Vedas and [[Vedangas]] to Devavrata.
* [[Sanatkumara]]: The eldest son of the god [[Brahma]] taught Devavrata the mental and spiritual sciences.
* [[Markandeya]]: The immortal son of [[Mrikanda]] of Bhrigu's race who acquired everlasting youth from the god [[Shiva]] taught Devavrata in the duties of the Yatis.
* [[Parashurama]]: The son of [[Jamadagni]] trained Bhishma in warfare.
* [[Indra]]: The king of the Devas. He bestowed celestial weapons on Bhishma.
Bhishma possessed many esteemed divine weapons and was resistant against magical warfare. Weapons inducing stupor and mental clouding rendered no effect on him.

Years later, Shantanu was roaming on the banks of the Ganga and observed that the water of the river had turned shallow. He saw a young man blocking the water currents with a dam made up of arrows. Shantanu recognised his son because of the similarities and begged Ganga to return him. Ganga appeared in a youthful form and handed her son to Shantanu as per her promise. The young Devavrata was known as Gangadatta as he was handed over by Ganga.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Narasimhan|first=Chakravarthi V.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-P56leXRgAYC&q=santanu+sees+a+beautiful+woman&pg=PA8|title=The Mahābhārata: An English Version Based on Selected Verses|date=1999|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ.|isbn=978-81-208-1673-2|language=en}}</ref>

==The oath==
[[File: Bheeshma oath by RRV.jpg|190px|left|thumb|Devavrata taking his oath, painting by Raja Ravi Varma]]
Devavrata was made the heir-apparent, and the citizens loved him because of his divine background and eligibility. Meanwhile, Shantanu went to the forest and met a fisherwoman named [[Satyavati]], who operated the boats crossing the [[Yamuna]]. He fell in love with her and asked for her hand in marriage from her father. However, the fisherman-chief told that he would only agree if Shantanu promised to put the son born to Satyavati as the heir. Shantanu rejected the offer as he had already promised the throne to Devavrata and returned to the palace. He started to avoid any company and spend his time in bed in grief and solitude. Devavrata noticed his father's sorrow and discovered the reason behind it from a minister.{{sfn|Mani|1975|p=135}}

Devavrata immediately rushed to the cottage of the fishermen-chief and begged him for Satyavati, but the fishermen-chief repeated his former condition. For his father's pleasure and happiness, Devavrata ceded his rights to the throne and promised to put the son of Satyavati on the throne of the kingdom. Satyavati's father was not assured as he claimed that disputes were likely to arise between Satyavati's son and Devavrata's children regarding the rights to the throne. To satisfy him, Devavrata took the vow of lifelong ''[[Brahmacharya]]'' (celibacy), thus denying himself the pleasures of marital life.{{sfn|Mani|1975|p=135}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Arora |first=Jai Gopal |url= |title=कलरव |publisher=Al- Lina Publications |isbn=979-8-4370-5396-6 |location=New Delhi |publication-date=22 March 2022 |pages=34–42 |language=hi |trans-title=Chirping}}</ref>

The celestials showered flowers from heaven and he came to be known as "Bhishma" as he took a terrible vow. With the consent of the fisherman, Bhishma took Satyavati to his father on a chariot and informed him about his vows. A loving father Shantanu gave him a boon of ''Iccha Mrityu'', the control over the time of his death.<ref name = "Adi 100" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Ireland|first=Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1LEIAAAAQAAJ&q=Santanu+sees+a+beautiful+woman&pg=PA31|title=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland|date=1879|publisher=Cambridge University Press for the Royal Asiatic Society|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=2016-07-07|title=Devavrata's oath|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/religion/Devavrata%E2%80%99s-oath/article14475999.ece|access-date=2020-08-29|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> Shantanu and Satyavati soon married and two children – [[Chitrangada (son of Shantanu)|Chitrangada]] and [[Vichitravirya]] were born.{{sfn|Mani|1975|p=135}}

==Affairs of Kuru Kingdom==
After the death of his father, Bhishma played a major role in the affairs of the Kuru kingdom. He managed the kingdom when there were succession crises. He also arranged the marriage of his nephews and tried to bring peace between his grand-nephews, the [[Kauravas]] and the [[Pandavas]].

The text ''[[Harivamsa]]'' mentions that during the mourning period after Shantanu's death, Bhishma killed Ugrayudha Paurava, a statesman of [[Panchala kingdom]] who lusted for Satyavati and tried to buy her with wealth.{{sfn|Bhattacharya|2004|p=21–25}} According to the ''Mahabharata'', Chitrangada was crowned as the king, however, he was soon killed by a ''[[Gandharva]]'' (celestial musician). Bhishma performed Chitrangada's funeral rites.{{sfn|Mani|1975|p=135}}<ref name = "Sec 101">[https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m01/m01102.htm Ganguly], Adi Parva: Section 101</ref> Vichitravirya, who was too young to rule, was crowned as the king by Bhishma but the actual control of the kingdom was under Satyavati until he reached adulthood. Bhishma aided Satyavati during that time.<ref name = "Section 102">[https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m01/m01103.htm Ganguly], Adi Parva: Section 102</ref>

===Swayamvara of the Kashi princesses and battle with Parashurama===
[[File:Parasurama shoots Bhima , ca. 1616.jpg|thumb|Parashurama shoots Bhishma while [[Amba (Mahabharata)|Amba]] watches them, folio from ''[[Razmnama]]'' (Persian translation of the Mahabharata), ca. 1616]]
When Vichitravirya grew up, Bhishma decided to bring [[Amba (Mahabharata)|Amba]], [[Ambika (Mahabharata)|Ambika]] and [[Ambalika]]{{mdash}}the princesses of [[Kashi kingdom]]{{mdash}}and get them married to him. Bhishma reached the kingdom and fought Shalva, easily defeating him and rightfully won over the princesses, who were choosing their spouse in a ''[[Swayamvara]]'' (ceremony where a woman chooses her husband from a group of suitors either by holding a competition or a task and the winner marries the princess). [[Shalva (Mahabharata)|Shalva]], the ruler of Shalwa or Saubala Kingdom and the lover of Amba, attempted to stop Bhishma but failed. Upon reaching [[Hastinapura]], Ambika and Ambalika consented to marry Vichitravirya, while Amba told Bhishma about her love for Shalva. Learning about her feelings, Bhishma sent Amba to Saubala Kingdom.

The ''[[Udyoga Parva]]'' further narrates about Amba as well as the battle between Bhishma and Parashurama. When Amba requested Shalva to marry her, he rejected her, claiming that he was already humiliated during the Svayamvara. He also told her that he could not accept a woman who was won by another man. A variant suggests that after Amba returned to Hastinapur, Bhishma then asked Vichitravirya to marry her, but he also refused to marry her as she loved another man. With no one to accept her, Amba blamed Bhishma for her misery and wanted revenge from him. She went to the kings of several kingdom and tried to convince them to slay Bhishma; but none of them agreed. After she was advised by some sages, she met Parasurama, Bhishma's teacher and successfully convinced him to vow to help her.<ref name=B>{{cite book|title=Myths and Legends from India – Great Women|last=Bhanu|first=Sharada|publisher=Macmillan India Limited|year=1997|location=Chennai|isbn=0-333-93076-2|pages=30–8}}</ref>

Parasurama went to [[Kurukshetra]] and sent a message to Bhishma to meet him. Bhishma arrived at the place and offered his service to his teacher. Wanting to solve the situation, Parasurama ordered him to marry Amba, telling him that it was his [[dharma|duty]]. However, Bhishma denied it, reminding him about his vow. This enraged Parashurama and he threatened Bhishma with death. Bhishma tried to calm him but it failed. An intense battle began with both protecting their words. They fought for twenty-three days, each using celestial weapons. Ganga tried to stop them but was unsuccessful.<ref name=B/> On the twenty-fourth day of battle, Bhishma attempted to use the Prashwapastra against [[Parashurama]], but the divine sage [[Narada]] and the gods intervened and showed their concern over the use of powerful weapons which could destroy the world. Parashurama ended the conflict and the battle was declared a stalemate. After hearing about the event, Amba decided to take her revenge on her own and did severe austerities to please the god [[Shiva]]. Shiva appeared in front of her and assured that she would be reborn and become instrumental in Bhishma's death. Satisfied, she then made a funeral pyre of woods and killed herself. Years later, she was reborn as [[Shikhandini]], daughter of King [[Drupada]] of [[Panchala kingdom]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Mahabharata Story By Rajaji – Page 5 {{!}} Mahabharata Stories, Summary and Characters from Mahabharata|url=http://www.mahabharataonline.com/rajaji/mahabharata_summary_5.php|access-date=2020-08-29|website=www.mahabharataonline.com}}</ref>

===Political influences===
[[File:Razmnamah.jpg|thumb|Yudhishthira with Bhishma, from the Razm-Namah, by Fattu, 1598]]
Vichitravirya was crowned as the king of Hastinapura and he ruled for a few years, before he died of [[tuberculosis]]. He had no offspring and the lineage was at the risk of extinction. [[Satyavati]] persuaded Bhishma to marry the widows of Vichitravirya and rule as the king or at least impregnate them to produce an heir.<ref>Meyer pp. 165–6</ref> However Bhishma refused the proposal and told her about his vow. He then suggested that a sage could be requested to perform ''[[Niyoga]]'' (a practice in which another person is requested to impregnate a woman, whose husband is deceased or impotent).<ref name = "ganguliCIV">{{cite book|last=Ganguli|first=Kisari Mohan |title=The Mahabharata: Book 1: Adi Parva|url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m01/m01105.htm|date=1883–1896|publisher=Sacred texts archive|chapter=SECTION CIV}}</ref> Satyavati called her premarital born son, [[Vyasa]], to impregnate her daughters-in-law.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Choppra|first=Kusum|date=2017-06-17|title=Satyavati, the feminist who stood up to patriarchy|url=https://www.dnaindia.com/lifestyle/column-satyavati-the-feminist-who-stood-up-to-patriarchy-2475404|access-date=2020-10-26|website=DNA India|language=en}}</ref><ref name = "ganguliCIII">{{cite book|last=Ganguli|first=Kisari Mohan |title=The Mahabharata: Book 1: Adi Parva|url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m01/m01104.htm|date=1883–1896|publisher=Sacred texts archive|chapter=SECTION CIII}}</ref><ref>Meyer p. 165</ref> Three children were born{{mdash}} [[Dhritarashtra]] from Ambika, [[Pandu]] from Ambalika and [[Vidura]] from a maid. Bhishma trained them and also got them married. He arranged the wedding of Dhritarashtra with [[Gandhāri|Gandhari]], the princess of [[Gandhara Kingdom]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Srivastava|first=Diwaker Ikshit|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZmxCDwAAQBAJ&q=shakuni+gandhri+marries+dhritrashtra&pg=PT66|title=Decoding the Metaphor Mahabharata|date=2017-12-11|publisher=One Point Six Technology Pvt Ltd|isbn=978-93-5201-000-4|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=The Mahabharata, Book 1: Adi Parva: Sambhava Parva: Section CX|url=https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m01/m01111.htm|access-date=2020-09-01|website=www.sacred-texts.com}}</ref> He also brought [[Madri]] for [[Pandu]] from [[Madra Kingdom]] and also got Vidura married to the daughter of Devaka.{{sfn|Mani|1975|p=136}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Debalina|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9hfHDwAAQBAJ&q=bhishma+gets+pandu+married+with+Madri&pg=PT123|title=Into the Myths: A Realistic Approach Towards Mythology and Epic|date=2019-12-20|publisher=Partridge Publishing|isbn=978-1-5437-0576-8|language=en}}</ref>

Despite Dhritrashtra being the eldest among the brothers, he was denied the throne because of his blindness. Pandu was appointed as the king, but later, he renounced his position and went to the forest with his wives. Dhritarashtra was made the de facto king and Gandhari gave birth to the [[Kauravas]] siblings. Meanwhile, Pandu's two wives gave birth to the five [[Pandava]] brothers. After the premature death of Pandu, his first wife Kunti returned to Hastinapur with her sons. Satyavati, along with Ambika and Ambalika, decided to retire to the forest for penance, leaving Bhishma with the responsibility of the kingdom. A Brahmin warrior [[Drona]], was hired by Bhishma to train the princes in warfare.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dalal|first=Roshen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zrk0AwAAQBAJ&q=bhishma+appoints+drona&pg=PT450|title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide|date=2014-04-18|publisher=Penguin UK|isbn=978-81-8475-277-9|language=en}}</ref>

From their childhood, the Kauravas hated their cousins and tried to kill them multiple times. One such was the event of [[Lakshagriha]], in which [[Duryodhana]]—the eldest Kaurava—decided to burn the Pandavas. Bhishma was despondent but Vidura consoled him and told them that the Pandavas were alive. The event led to the succession dispute between Duryodhana and [[Yudhishthira]]. To resolve this, Bhishma advised Dhritarashtra to divide the kingdom among the princes. The Pandavas made their capital in [[Indraprastha]] and performed the ''[[Rajasuya]]'' to achieve sovereignty and the status of the emperor. Bhishma supported them and attended the ceremony. He suggested Yudhishthira give [[Krishna]] the highest place in the ceremony, but this enraged [[Shishupala]]{{mdash}}an enemy of Krishna. He initially protested to give the position to Bhishma, but after Bhishma showed no objection in honouring Krishna, Shishupala started insulting him.{{sfn|Mani|1975|p=136}}

Bhishma was present during the gambling game in [[Hastinapur]], where [[Draupadi]]—the wife of the Pandavas—was humiliated in the court. When she questioned the [[dharma]] of Yudhishthira losing her in the game, Bhishma tried but failed to answer her and described dharma to be subtle.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hudson|first=Emily T.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BcFE9O-IgQUC&q=Bhisma|title=Disorienting Dharma: Ethics and the Aesthetics of Suffering in the Mahabharata|date=2013|publisher=OUP USA|isbn=978-0-19-986078-4|language=en}}</ref>

Bhishma also led the Virata war, an operation undertook by the Kauravas and the [[Trigarthas ]] to rob the cows from King [[Virata]] and to reveal the hidden Pandavas. The combined Kaurava and Trigartha forces were defeated by Arjuna alone.
Arjuna handed Bhishma a defeat in their duel, but when the former used the 'Sammohana', Bhishma remained unaffected while the rest of the army fell into stupor.

After the Pandavas returned following the completion of their exile, Bhishma encouraged Dritharashtra and Duryodhana to give back [[Indraprastha]] to them , doing his best to avoid the war. Bhishma was present during Krishna's peace mission visit to the court of Hasthinapura and when the true form of the lord was revealed following Duryodhana's hostility, he was among few who were not blinded by the divine light emanating from the [[Viswaroopa]].

==The Kurukshetra War==
{{multiple image
| image1 =
| caption1 =Pandavas meet Pitamaha Bhishma before the war to seek his blessings
| image2 =
| caption2 = Duryodhana accuses Bhishma for showing partiality towards the Pandavas}}

In the great battle at [[Kurukshetra]], Bhishma was the supreme commander of the Kaurava forces for ten days. He fought reluctantly on the side of the [[Kauravas]], having vowed to protect the city of Hastinapur from all threats and invasions.

Before the battle, at the Kauravas army's assembly, Bhishma analysed and classified the warriors of the Kaurava side and famously describe [[Karna]] as an Athirathi, a class of warrior inferior to a [[Maharathi]]. This infuriated Karna and he took a vow that as long as Bhishma is commanding the forces, he will not participate in the war. In truth, both sides of the affront were aware of Karna's true lineage, and had to make pretext to prevent Karna from battling his brothers.

Bhishma was one of the most powerful warriors of his time and in history. He acquired his prowess and invincibility from being the son of the sacred [[Ganga]] and by being a student of Lord Parashurama. Despite being about five generations old, Bhishma was too powerful to be defeated by any warrior alive at that time. Every day, he slew at least 10,000 soldiers and about a 1,000 [[ratha]]s.

At the beginning of the war, Bhishma vowed not to kill any of the Pandavas, as he loved them, being their grand-uncle. Duryodhana often confronted Bhishma alleging that he was not actually fighting for the Kaurava camp as he would not kill any of the Pandavas. He also tried his best to prevent the death of any of the Kauravas in the war, as he loved all his grand-nephews.

Duryodhana approached Bhishma on the night of the eighth day and accused him of not fighting the battle to his full strength because of his affection for the Pandavas. On the next day there was an intense battle between Bhishma and Arjuna. Although Arjuna was very very skilled and powerful, he was not fighting seriously as his heart was not in it to hurt his beloved grandsire Bhishma. Bhishma fired arrows such that Arjuna and Krishna were both injured. [[Krishna]], enraged over Bhishma's devastation of the Pandavas army and Arjuna's hesitation to fight him with full force, got down from his charioteer seat and picked up a displaced wheel, intending to use it in place of his [[Sudarshana Chakra]]. Seeing this, both Arjuna and Bhishma stopped their battle, with the protector of Hastinapur humbly telling the avatar of Vishnu that he would immediately lay down his life should Krishna took action here and now. Arjuna ultimately convinced Krishna to remain true to his vow and returned themselves to their chariot. Thus Bhishma fulfilled his vow of forcing Krishna to raise a weapon. Then Arjuna used stronger weapons, injuring Bhishma. Bhishma and Arjuna's duel was praised by the gods themselves as they watched over it from the sky.

The war was thus locked in a stalemate. As the Pandavas mulled over this situation, Krishna advised them to visit Bhishma himself and request him to suggest a way out of this stalemate. Bhishma loved the Pandavas and knew that he stood as an obstacle in their path to victory and so when they visited Bhishma, he gave them a hint as to how they could defeat him. He told them that if faced by one who had once been of the opposite gender, he would lay down his arms and fight no longer.

Later Krishna told Arjuna how he could bring down Bhishma, through the help of [[Shikhandi]]. The Pandavas were not agreeable to such a ploy, as by using such tactics they would not be following the path of Dharma, but Krishna suggested a clever alternative. And thus, on the next day, the tenth day of battle Shikhandi was accompanied by Arjuna as Arjuna was his chariot protector and they faced Bhishma who avoided Shikhandi. He was then felled in battle by [[Arjuna]], pierced by innumerable arrows. Arjuna shot arrows at Bhishma, piercing his entire body. Thus, as was preordained (Mahadeva's boon to Amba that she would be the cause of Bhishma's fall) Shikhandi, that is, Amba reincarnated was the cause of Bhishma's fall.
[[File:Fall of Bhisma.jpg|thumb|Fall of Bhisma]]
As Bhishma fell, his whole body was held above the ground by the shafts of Arjuna's arrows which protruded from his back, and through his arms and legs. Seeing Bhishma lying on such a bed of arrows humbled even the gods who watched from the heavens in reverence. They silently blessed the mighty warrior. When the young princes of both armies gathered around him, inquiring if there was anything they could do, he told them that while his body lay on the bed of arrows above the ground, his head hung unsupported. Hearing this, many of the princes, both Kaurava and the Pandava alike brought him pillows of silk and velvet, but he refused them. He asked Arjuna to give him a pillow fit for a warrior. Arjuna then removed three arrows from his quiver and placed them underneath Bhishma's head, the pointed arrow tips facing upwards. To quench the war veteran's thirst, Arjuna shot an arrow into the earth, and a jet stream of water rose up and into Bhishma's mouth.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Vyāsa Deva|first=Kṛṣṇa Dvaipāyana|title=Mahābhārata : Sanskrit text and English translation; translation according to M.N. Dutt|publisher=Parimal Publications|others=Manmatha Nath Dutt, Ishvar Chandra, O. N. Bimali|year=2018|isbn=978-81-7110-196-2|edition=4th|location=Delhi|pages=427–428|oclc=855398616}}</ref> It is said that Ganga herself rose to quench her son's thirst.<ref name=B/>

After the proceedings of the tenth day, Karna visited Bhishma alone at night and Bhishma reveals to him that he had prior knowledge of his birth secret and urges him to make peace with the Pandavas. Bhishma also tells him that declaring him as an Athirathi and tricking him to make the vow of not fighting was his ploy to avert Karna clashing with his brothers. He declares that he considered Karna as a Maharathi as well and that he had deep appreciation for his skill as a warrior. Karna however declines to join the Pandavas and leaves after a brief moment of sharing his respect and admiration to Bhishma.

==Death==
After the war, while on his deathbed (arrow bed), he gave deep and meaningful instructions to [[Yudhishthira]] on statesmanship and the duties of a king. Bhishma always gave priority to [[Dharma]]. He always walked in the path of Dharma, despite his state because of the vow, he was supposed to forcefully follow the orders of his king Dhritharashtra, which were mostly [[Adharma]], he was totally upset. He was sure he must let dharma win and Pandavas win, but the way he led the war and stayed silent were his sins in a way and he paid for it with the bed of arrows. Finally, Bhishma gave up the fight, focusing his life force and breath, sealing the wounds, and waiting for the auspicious moment to give up his body on the arrow bed. He did wait for about 58 nights for the [[winter solstice]] and chose "'''''Magh maha Sukla paksha Astami tithi'''''" after [[Uttarayana]] to give up his body on the arrow bed. His body was later cremated by Emperor Yudhishthira in a great ceremony.

''Mahabharata'' states that he attained [[salvation]] after his death. He was granted the [[Maharloka|Maatru Lok]] (which is considered even above Swarga, the heaven). [[Magha (month)]] Shukla Ashtami marks the death anniversary of Bhishma Pitamah (Patriarch), the day being known as [[Bhishma Ashtami]]. Hindus observe Ekodishta [[Śrāddha]] for him on this day, for many generations, and can only be performed by those whose fathers are not alive. Bhishma Panchaka vrata (fast) is observed in all [[Vishnu]] temples, starting from Bhishma Ashtami, for five days until Bhishma Dwadasi.{{citation needed|date=May 2020}} People believe that they will have a son with the steadfast qualities of Bhishma if they observe these holy rituals on the river banks.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.drikpanchang.com/festivals/bhishma-ashtami/bhishma-ashtami-date-time.html | title=Bhishma Ashtami | publisher=Drik Panchang | access-date=24 January 2019 }}</ref> It is also said that those who will perform this fast will live a happy life and attain salvation after their death.
[[File:Angkor_Wat_Bhishma.jpg|thumb|left|Bhishma on bed of arrows depicted in [[Angkor Wat]]]]

==Bheeshma in Greek Literature==

Greek researchers themselves have discovered and published in their academic journals that the narrative elements—namely, Mother Ganga casting her children born prior to Bhishma into the river without any objection from her husband, the husband finally intervening when Bhishma was about to be cast into the water, and Ganga reacting with anger and leaving her husband—spread as far as Greece and found a place in their literature. (See: GJHSS Volume 26 Issue H1, https://socialscienceresearch.org/index.php/GJHSS/article/view/104671)
)
==In popular culture==
===Films and television===
His life has been made into many films in different Indian languages. The first silent film was made in 1922. During the talkie period, the first film was made in Hindi (1937). It was followed by a [[Bengali language|Bengali]] film in 1942 directed by Jyotish Bannerjee. Jahar Ganguli played the title role.{{citation needed|date=January 2019}}

* [[Telugu cinema]], two films were made. The first film on Bhishma was made in 1944 directed by [[Chitrapu Narayana Rao]]. Jandhyala Gourinatha Sastry played the role of Bhishma. [[B. A. Subba Rao]] made a film in 1962 titled ''[[Bhishma (1962 film)|Bhishma]]''. The title role was played by [[N. T. Rama Rao]].{{citation needed|date=January 2019}}
* Bhishma's character was played by [[Mukesh Khanna]] in the B.R. Chopra's classic television series ''[[Mahabharat (1988 TV series)|Mahabharat]]'' (1988).
* [[Sotigui Kouyaté]] played Bhishma in [[Peter Brook]]'s 1989 film [[The Mahabharata (1989 film)|''The Mahabharata'']].
* In [[Ramanand Sagar]]'s television series ''[[Shri Krishna (TV series)|Shri Krishna]]'' (1993) Sunil Nagar portrayed the character.
* [[Surendra Pal]] portrayed the character in [[Chandraprakash Dwivedi]]'s ''[[Ek Aur Mahabharat]]''.
* In the television series ''[[Draupadi (TV series)|Draupadi]]'' (2001) [[Pankaj Dheer]] played the character.
* In [[Balaji Telefilms]]' ''[[Kahaani Hamaaray Mahaabhaarat Ki]]'' (2008) [[Ronit Roy]] played the role.
* In Star Plus' television series ''[[Mahabharat (2013 TV series)|Mahabharat]]'' (2013) [[Arav Chowdharry]] played the role of Bhishma.
* [[Amitabh Bachchan]] has also voiced the character in the animated ''[[Mahabharat (2013 film)|Mahabharat]]'' (2013).
* [[Naved Aslam]] in [[Sony Entertainment Television|Sony TV's]] ''[[Suryaputra Karn]]''. {{citation needed|date=January 2019}}
* [[Ambareesh]] played the role of Bhishma in the 2019 mythological Kannada movie ''[[Kurukshetra (2019 film)|Kurukshetra]]'', which was his last film as well.
* In the 2022 Malayalam movie [[Bheeshma Parvam]], the lead character (played by [[Mammootty]] ) was based on Bheeshma. The story and characters were inspired by both ''[[Mahabharat]]'' and ''[[The Godfather]]''.

=== Modern references ===
The tank [[T-90]] [[main battle tank]] (MBT), one of the world's most advanced MBTs acquired from Russia for the [[Indian Army]], is named after Bhishma.<ref name="Jackson2007">{{cite book|author=Robert Jackson|title=Tanks and Armored Fighting Vehicles|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H-3dNmei_N8C&pg=PA295|access-date=24 June 2012|date=1 March 2007|publisher=Parragon Incorporated|isbn=978-1-4054-8664-4|pages=295–}}</ref><ref name="Muthiah2008">{{cite book|author=S. Muthiah|title=Madras, Chennai: A 400-year Record of the First City of Modern India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tbR_LLkqdI8C&pg=PA288|access-date=24 June 2012|year=2008|publisher=Palaniappa Brothers|isbn=978-81-8379-468-8|pages=288–}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=note}}

===Citations===
{{Reflist}}

==References==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{Cite web|last=Ganguly|first=Kisari Mohan|author-link=Kisari Mohan Ganguli|title=Sacred-Texts: Hinduism|url=https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/maha/index.htm|access-date=2021-02-12|website=www.sacred-texts.com}}
*{{cite book |title = Puranic Encyclopaedia: a Comprehensive Dictionary with Special Reference to the Epic and Puranic Literature |url = https://archive.org/details/puranicencyclopa00maniuoft/page/134/mode/1up | publisher = Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |year = 1975| isbn = 978-0-8426-0822-0 |first = Vettam|last = Mani|pages=134–137}}
* {{Cite book|last=Monier-Williams|first=Sir Monier|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FzRDAQAAMAAJ&q=Bhishma|title=A Sanskṛit-English Dictionary Etymologically and Philologically Arranged: With Special Reference to Greek, Latin, Gothic, German, Anglo-Saxon, and Other Cognate Indo-European Languages|date=1872|publisher=Clarendon Press|language=en}}
*{{Cite book|last=Gandhi|first=Maneka|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QZ94y_-jChMC&q=Bhisma|title=The Penguin Book of Hindu Names for Boys|date=2004|publisher=Penguin Books India|isbn=978-0-14-303168-0|language=en}}
*{{Cite book|last=Long|first=Jeffery D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IWXRDwAAQBAJ&q=bh%C4%AB%E1%B9%A3ma+terrible&pg=PA91|title=Historical Dictionary of Hinduism|date=2020-04-15|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1-5381-2294-5|language=en}}
* {{cite book|last=Meyer|first=Johann Jakob |title=Sexual life in ancient India|year=1989|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ|isbn=81-208-0638-7|orig-year = 1971}}
*{{Cite book|last=|first=|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=56fr2p5f7l0C&q=bhisma&pg=PA193|title=Gender and Narrative in the Mahabharata|last2=|first2=|last4=|date=2007-08-09|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-11995-0|editor-last=Brodbeck|editor-first=Simon|location=|pages=|language=en|editor-last2=Brian|editor-first2=Black}}
*{{Cite book|last=Dalal|first=Roshen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zrk0AwAAQBAJ&q=Bhishma&pg=PT450|title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide|date=2014-04-18|publisher=Penguin UK|isbn=978-81-8475-277-9|language=en}}
*{{cite book |author1=B. R. Rajam Aiyar |title=Rambles in Vedanta |date=30 September 1996 |publisher=Motilal Banarasi Das Publishers Pvt Ltd |pages=113–114 |isbn=9788120809123 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=89doofWiWJIC&q=bhishma |access-date=7 May 2020}}
* {{cite book|first=Manish|last=Verma|title=Fasts and Festivals of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z4gzFFLdBoYC&pg=PA73|access-date=13 June 2012|year=2000|publisher=Diamond Pocket Books (P) Ltd.|isbn=978-81-7182-076-4|pages=73–}}
* {{cite journal|last=Bhattacharya|first=Pradip|date=May–June 2004|title=Of Kunti and Satyawati: Sexually Assertive Women of the Mahabharata|journal=[[Manushi]]|issue=142|pages=21–25|url=http://www.manushi-india.org/pdfs_issues/PDF%20142/04%20panchakanya%20pg%2021-25.pdf}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
*{{Wikiquote-inline}}
*{{Commons category-inline|Bhīṣma}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100117032308/http://mahabharataonline.com/ Persons and stories from the ''Mahābhārata'']
* [http://moralstories.wordpress.com/2006/09/24/dharmabalam/ Small story illustrating Bhishma's greatness]

{{Mahabharata}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Characters in the Mahabharata]]
[[Category:Kuru dynasty]]