Medieval India

2021-08-27T16:18:06Z

2405:201:6819:900D:2032:B64:5751:56D5:

{{short description|Period of South Asian history}}
{{use dmy dates|date=April 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2017}}
{{History of South Asia}}

[[File:Beyond Rao Jodhaji's Falsa in Mehrangarh Fort.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Mehrangarh|Mehrangarh Fort]] was built in medieval India during the reign of [[Jodha of Mandore]].]]

'''Medieval India''' refers to a long period of the history of the [[Indian subcontinent]] between the "ancient period" and "modern period". It is usually regarded as running between the breakup of the [[Gupta Empire]] in the 6th century AD and the start of the [[Mughal Empire]] (the Moghuls) in 1526, although some historians regard it as both starting and finishing later than these points.

==Definitions==
[[File:India 7th century AD.jpg|thumb|Medieval India during the [[Harsha Empire]] of the 7th century A.D.]]
One definition includes the period from the 6th century,<ref name="exeter"/> the "first half of the 7th century",<ref>Chakravarti, Mahadev, ''The Concept of Rudra-Śiva Through the Ages'', pp. 153-154, 1986, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., {{ISBN|8120800532}}, 9788120800533, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yMFwMHH4HzMC&printsec=frontcover google books]</ref> or the 8th century<ref>{{citation|last=Stein|first=Burton|author-link=Burton Stein|editor-last=Arnold|editor-first=D.|date=27 April 2010|title=A History of India|edition=2nd|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|place=Oxford|isbn=978-1-4051-9509-6|page=105|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QY4zdTDwMAQC&pg=PA105}}</ref> up to the 16th century, essentially coinciding with the [[Middle Ages]] of Europe. It may be divided into two periods: The 'early medieval period' which lasted from the 6th to the 13th century and the 'late medieval period' which lasted from the 13th to the 16th century, ending with the start of the [[Mughal Empire]] in 1526. The Mughal era, from the 16th century to the 18th century, is often referred to as the [[early modern period]],<ref name="exeter">{{cite web|title=India before the British: The Mughal Empire and its Rivals, 1526-1857|website=[[University of Exeter]]|url=http://humanities.exeter.ac.uk/history/modules/hih1407/}}</ref> but is sometimes also included in the 'late medieval' period.<ref name="Parthasarathi38">{{Citation |title=Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850 |given=Prasannan |surname=Parthasarathi |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-139-49889-0 |pages=39–45 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1_YEcvo-jqcC&pg=PA38}}</ref>

An alternative definition, often seen in those more recent authors who still use the term at all, brings the start of the medieval times forward, either to about 1000 CE, or to the 12th century.<ref>According to the article on [http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Architecture"Architecture"] in [[Banglapedia]], "Unlike European periodisation, the medieval period in Indian history is generally regarded to have started with the coming of the Muslims, particularly the conquest of Delhi towards the end of the twelfth century by the Ghorids of Afghanistan." The "generally regarded" is dubious.</ref> The end may be pushed back to the 18th century, Hence, this period can be effectively considered as the beginning of Muslim domination (North India) to [[British India]].<ref name="Singh2008">{{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Upinder |title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century |date=2008 |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-81-317-1120-0 |quote=Due to such reasons, most historians have discarded the Hindu-Muslim-British periodization of the Indian past in favour of a more neutral classification into the ancient, early medieval, and modern periods. The dividing lines may vary, but the ancient period can be considered as stretching roughly from the earliest times to the 6th century CE; the early medieval from the 6th to the 13th centuries; the medieval from the 13th to 18th centuries; and the modern from the 18th century to the present. The current use of these terms shifts the focus away from religious labels towards patterns of significant socio-economic changes.}}</ref> Or the "early medieval" period as beginning in the 8th century, and ending with the 11th century.<ref>Ahmed, xviii</ref>

The use of "medieval" at all as a term for periods in Indian history has often been objected to, and is probably becoming more rare (there is a similar discussion in terms of the [[history of China]]).<ref>Keay, 155 "... the history of what used to be called 'medieval' India ..."</ref> It is argued that neither the start nor the end of the period really mark fundamental changes in Indian history, comparable to the European equivalents.<ref>Rowland, 273</ref> [[Burton Stein]] still used the concept in his ''A History of India'' (1998, referring to the period from the [[Guptas]] to the Mughals), but most recent authors using it are Indian. Understandably, they often specify the period they cover within their titles.<ref>Examples: Farooqui; Radhey Shyam Chaurasia, ''History of Medieval India: From 1000 A.D. to 1707 A.D.'', 2002, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?isbn=8126901233 google books]; Satish Chandra, ''Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals'', 2004 (2 vols), [https://books.google.co.uk/books?isbn=8124110646 google books]; Upinder Singh, ''A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th century'', 2008, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?isbn=813171120X google books]</ref>

==Periods==
===Early medieval period===
{{Main|Middle kingdoms of India}}
The start of the period is typically taken to be the slow collapse of the [[Gupta Empire]] from about 480 to 550,<ref>Rowland, 273; Stein, 105</ref> ending the [[Outline of ancient India|"classical" period]], as well as "ancient India",<ref>Not for Burjor Avari, who ends "ancient India" at 1200. Avari, 2</ref> although both these terms may be used for periods with widely different dates, especially in specialized fields such as the history of art or religion.<ref>For architecture, see Michell, 87-88. For "classical hinduism", see the note at [[Outline of ancient India]].</ref> Another alternative for the preceding period is "Early Historical" stretching "from the sixth century BC to the sixth century AD", according to [[Romila Thapar]].<ref>[http://www.ias.ac.in/article/fulltext/reso/016/06/0551-0573 Early Indian History and the Legacy of D.D. Kosambi] by [[Romila Thapar]]. ''Resonance'', June 2011, p. 571</ref>

At least in northern India, there was no larger state until the [[Delhi Sultanate]], or certainly the Mughal Empire,<ref>Keay, xxii-xxiii</ref> but there were several different dynasties ruling large areas for long periods, as well as many other dynasties ruling smaller areas, often paying some form of tribute to larger states. [[John Keay]] puts the typical number of dynasties within the subcontinent at any one time at between 20 and 40,<ref>Keay, xx-xxi</ref> not including local [[raja]]s.
*[[Pratihara dynasty]], was the last largest dynasty of northern India which rivaled the Gupta empire in extent and ruled most part of India from 6th century up-to 11th century. They were successful for stopping Muslim conquests of India for nearly 400 years and destroyed Muslim armies according to the Arab accounts. their capital was kannuaj and were the first Rajput empire. They can be differentiated from other kingdoms as they were called Imperial Pratiharas.
*[[Chalukya dynasty]] ruled most of the western Deccan and some of South India, between the 6th to 12th centuries. [[Kannada]]-speaking, with capital at [[Badami]].
*[[Rashtrakuta dynasty]], was a Kannada Dynasty ruling large parts of the Indian subcontinent between the 6th and the 10th centuries and one who built World Heritage center [[Ellora]], [[Maharashtra]].
*[[Eastern Chalukyas]], 7th and 12th centuries, a South Indian [[Kannada]] dynasty whose kingdom was located in the present-day Andhra Pradesh they were the descendants of Western Chalukyas.
*[[Pallava dynasty]], rulers of [[Telugu people|Telugu]] and some Tamil areas from the 6th to 9th centuries.
*[[Pala Empire]], the last major [[Buddhist]] rulers, from the 8th to 12th centuries in [[Bengal]]. Briefly controlled most of north India in the 9th century.
*[[Chola Empire]], a South Indian empire which ruled from [[Tamil Nadu]] and extended to include South-east Asian territories at its height. From 9th century to 13th century.
*[[Empire of Harsha]], a brief period of control of most of north India, from 601 to 647, under [[Harsha]] of the [[Vardhana dynasty]].
*[[Western Chalukya Empire]], ruled most of the western Deccan and some of South India, between the 10th to 12th centuries. [[Kannada]]-speaking, with capital at [[Badami]].
*[[Kalachuris of Tripuri|Kalachuri dynasty]], ruled areas in Central India during 10th-12th centuries.
*[[Western Ganga dynasty]], was an important ruling dynasty of ancient [[Karnataka]], often under the overlordship of larger states, from about 350 to 1000 AD. The large monolithic [[Bahubali]] of Shravanabelagola was built during their rule.
*[[Eastern Ganga dynasty]], was a royal dynasty ruling [[Odisha]] region who are descendants of Kannada [[Western Ganga Dynasty]] and Tamil [[Chola Empire]]. They have built famous [[Konark Sun Temple]] and [[Jagannath Temple, Puri]].
*[[Hoysala Empire]], a prominent [[South India]]n [[Kannadiga]] [[empire]] that ruled most of the modern day state of [[Karnataka]] between the 10th and the 14th centuries. The capital of the Hoysalas was initially located at [[Belur, Karnataka|Belur]] but was later moved to [[Halebidu]].
*[[Kakatiya dynasty|Kakatiya Kingdom]], a [[Telugu people|Telugu]] dynasty that ruled most of current day [[Andhra Pradesh]], India from 1083 to 1323 CE.
*The [[Sena dynasty]], was a Hindu dynasty that ruled from Bengal through the 11th and 12th centuries. The empire at its peak covered much of the north-eastern region of the Indian subcontinent. The rulers of the Sena Dynasty traced their origin to the south Indian region of Karnataka.
*[[Kamarupa]], 4th to 12th century in [[Assam]], ruled by three dynasties

===Late medieval era===
Following the [[Muslim conquests of the Indian subcontinent]] and the decline of Buddhism were seen to be taken place, eventually founding the [[Delhi Sultanate]] and creating the [[Indo-Islamic architecture]], followed by the world's major trading nation [[Bengal Sultanate]].<ref name="Randall Collins 2000, pages 184-185">Randall Collins, ''The Sociology of Philosophies: A Global Theory of Intellectual Change.'' Harvard University Press, 2000, pages 184-185</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Craig Lockard|title=Societies, Networks, and Transitions: Volume I: A Global History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yJPlCpzOY_QC |year=2007|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |isbn=978-0-618-38612-3 |pages=364 }}</ref>

*[[Delhi Sultanate]], five short-lived dynasties, based in [[Delhi]], from 1206 to 1526, when it fell to the Mughal Empire.
*[[Chero dynasty]], 12th CE-18th CE ruled much parts of eastern [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Bihar]] and [[Jharkhand]].
*[[Bengal Sultanate]], 1352 to 1576, ruled over Bengal and much of [[Burma]].
*[[Reddy dynasty|Reddy Kingdom]], 1325 to 1448, in [[Andhra Pradesh]].
*[[Seuna (Yadava) dynasty]], 1190–1315, an old Kannada-Maratha dynasty, which at its peak ruled a kingdom stretching from the Tungabhadra to the Narmada rivers, including present-day Maharashtra, north Karnataka and parts of Madhya Pradesh, from its capital at [[Devagiri]].

*[[List of Rajput dynasties and states|Rajput States]], were a group of [[Rajput]] Hindu states that ruled present-day [[Rajasthan]], and at times much of [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Gujarat]], [[Uttaranchal]], [[Himachal Pradesh]], Western [[Uttar Pradesh]] and Central [[Uttar Pradesh]]. Many Rajput kingdoms continued under the Mughals and as [[Princely States]] in [[British India]] until [[Indian Independence Act 1947|Indian independence]].

====Other prominent kingdoms====
*[[Vijayanagara Empire]], 1336–1646, a Hindu-[[Kannadiga]] empire based in [[Karnataka]], in the [[Deccan Plateau]] region. [[UNESCO World Heritage site]] [[Hampi]] in Bellary district of Karnataka was their capital city.
*[[Gajapati Empire]], was a medieval [[Hindu]] dynasty that ruled over [[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]] (the present day [[Odisha, India|Odisha]]).

====Northeast India====
*[[Kamata kingdom]], established in the middle of 13th century, broke up in 1582 into [[Cooch Behar State|Koch Bihar]] (eventually a princely state) and [[Koch Hajo]] (eventually absorbed partly by the [[Mughal empire|Mughals]] and Ahom kingdom).
*[[Chutia kingdom]], unknown to 1524, in [[Assam]] and [[Arunachal Pradesh]], fell to the [[Ahom kingdom]].
*[[Ahom Kingdom]], 1228–1826, [[Brahmaputra]] valley in [[Assam]], successfully resisted the Mughals in [[Battle of Saraighat]] and [[Battle of Itakhuli]], eventually taken by the British.
*[[Dimasa kingdom]], 13th century to 1832, in North Cachar Hills and Barak valley in [[Assam]], eventually annexed by the British.
*[[Tripura kingdom]], unknown origin, survived as princely state during British Raj and absorbed into India.
*[[Manipur kingdom]], unknown to 1949, princely state during British Raj and absorbed into India in 1949.
*[[Jaintia kingdom]]

===Early modern era===
The start of the [[Mughal Empire]] in 1526 marked the beginning of the early modern period of Indian history,<ref name="exeter"/> often referred to as the Mughal era. Sometimes, the Mughal era is also referred to as the 'late medieval' period.

*[[Mughal Empire]], was an imperial state founded by [[Babur]], who had [[Turco-Mongol]] origin from [[Central Asia]]. The empire ruled most of the [[Indian subcontinent]] from 16th to 18th century, though it lingered for another century, formally ending in 1857.
*[[Maratha Empire]], was an imperial power based in modern-day [[Maharashtra]] in western India. Marathas replaced the Mughal rule over large parts of India in the 18th century, but lost the [[Anglo-Maratha Wars]] in the early 19th century, and became rulers of Princely States.
*[[Kingdom of Mysore]], was a Kannada kingdom have been founded in 1399 in the vicinity of the modern city of Mysore. Fully independent after the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire in 1646, reduced in size by the British, but ruled as a princely state until 1947.
*[[Nayak dynasty]] of Kannada, Telugu, Tamil kings ruled parts of south India after the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire in 1646. Their contribution can be seen in Ikkeri, Sri Ranga, Madurai, and Chitradurga.
*[[Bharatpur State|Kingdom of Bharatpur]], was a [[Jat people|Jat]] kingdom have been founded in 1722 in the vicinity of the modern city of Bharatpur. It was founded during the fall of the Mughal Empire, reduced in size by the invaders, but ruled as a princely state until 1947.
*[[Sikh Empire]],<ref>{{cite news |last=Zubair |first=Syed |date=4 November 2012 |title=Before India |newspaper=Deccan Chronicle }}</ref> was a major power in the Northwestern part of the [[Indian subcontinent]], which arose under the leadership of [[Maharaja]] [[Ranjit Singh]] in the [[Punjab region]]. They were usurped by the [[British East India Company]] between early and mid 19th century, following the British victory in the [[Anglo-Sikh wars]].

==Historiography==
Modern historical works written on Medieval India have received some criticism from scholars studying the [[historiography]] of the period. E. Sreedharan argues that, after [[Indian Independence Act 1947|Indian independence]] up until the 1960s, Indian historians were often motivated by [[Indian nationalism]].<ref>[https://books.google.co.nz/books/about/A_Textbook_of_Historiography_500_B_C_to.html?id=jJVoi3PIejwC&redir_esc=y ''A Textbook of Historiography, 500 B.C. to A.D. 2000''] by E. Sreedharan, p. 437, Orient Blackswan, 2004, {{ISBN|8-125-02657-6}}</ref> [[Peter Hardy (historian)|Peter Hardy]] notes that the majority of modern historical works on Medieval India up until then were written by British and Hindu historians, whereas the work of modern Muslim historians was under-represented.<ref>''A Textbook of Historiography, 500 B.C. to A.D. 2000'' by E. Sreedharan, p. 451, referencing Peter Hardy</ref> However, he argues that some of the modern [[Historiography of early Islam|Muslim historiography]] on Medieval India at the time was motivated by [[Islamic apologetics]], attempting to justify "the life of medieval Muslims to the modern world."<ref>''A Textbook of Historiography, 500 B.C. to A.D. 2000'' by E. Sreedharan, p. 457, referencing Peter Hardy</ref>

[[Ram Sharan Sharma]] has criticised the simplistic manner in which Indian history is often divided into an ancient "Hindu" period, a medieval "Muslim" period, and a modern "British" period. He argues that there is no clear sharp distinction between when the ancient period ended and when the medieval period began, noting dates ranging from the 7th century to the 13th century.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sharma |first1=Ram Sharan |title=Early Medieval Indian Society (pb) |date=2003 |publisher=[[Orient Blackswan]] |isbn=9788125025238 |pages=17–18 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i_sIE1sO5kwC&pg=PA17}}</ref>

== Notes ==
{{Reflist}}

== References ==
*Avari, Burjor, ''India: The Ancient Past: A History of the Indian Subcontinent from C. 7000 BCE to CE 1200'', 2016 (2nd edn), Routledge, {{ISBN|1317236734}}, 9781317236733, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WTaTDAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover google books]
*Farooqui, Salma Ahmed, ''A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: From Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century'', 2011, Pearson Education India, {{ISBN|8131732029}}, 9788131732021, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sxhAtCflwOMC&printsec=frontcover google books]
*Harle, J.C., ''The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent'', 2nd edn. 1994, Yale University Press Pelican History of Art, {{ISBN|0300062176}}
*[[John Keay|Keay, John]], ''India: A History'', 2000, HarperCollins, {{ISBN|0002557177}}
*Michell, George, (1977) ''The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to its Meaning and Forms'', 1977, University of Chicago Press, {{ISBN|978-0-226-53230-1}}
*Rowland, Benjamin, ''The Art and Architecture of India: Buddhist, Hindu, Jain'', 1967 (3rd edn.), Pelican History of Art, Penguin, {{ISBN|0140561021}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin|40em}}
*{{Cite book|author=Gopinath Sharma|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jIs9AAAAMAAJ|title=Mewar & the Mughal Emperors (1526-1707 A.D.)|date=1954|publisher=S.L. Agarwala|language=en}}{{Refbegin|40em}}
*{{Cite book|author=Jadunath Sarkar|author-link=Jadunath Sarkar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qoRDAAAAYAAJ|title=Military History of India|date=1960|publisher=Orient Longmans|language=en}}
*{{Cite book|author=Romila Thapar|author-link=Romila Thapar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1Y02AiEu1kcC|title=A History of India|date=1990-06-28|publisher=Penguin UK|isbn=978-0-14-194976-5|language=en}}
* Satish Chandra; Historiography, Religion and State in Medieval India, Har-Anand Publications, 2010.
* Elliot and Dowson: [[The History of India as told by its own Historians]], New Delhi reprint, 1990.
* Elliot, Sir H. M., Edited by Dowson, John. [[The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period]]; published by London Trubner Company 1867–1877. (Online Copy: [https://web.archive.org/web/20070929125948/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/index.jsp?serv=pf&file=80201010&ct=0 The History of India, as Told by Its own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; by Sir H. M. Elliot; Edited by John Dowson; London Trubner Company 1867–1877] – This online Copy has been posted by: [https://web.archive.org/web/20070929132016/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/index.jsp The Packard Humanities Institute; Persian Texts in Translation; Also find other historical books: Author List and Title List])
* Gommans, Jos J. L. (2002), Mughal Warfare: Indian Frontiers and Highroads to Empire, 1500–1700, Routledge, {{ISBN|0-415-23989-3}}.
*Lal, K. S. (1999). Theory and practice of Muslim state in India. New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan.
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Majumdar |editor1-first=Ramesh Chandra |editor1-link=R. C. Majumdar |editor2-last=Pusalker |editor2-first=A. D. |editor3-last=Majumdar |editor3-first=A. K. |date=1960 |title=[[The History and Culture of the Indian People]] |volume=VI: The Delhi Sultanate |location=Bombay |publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Majumdar |editor1-first=Ramesh Chandra |editor1-link=R. C. Majumdar |editor2-last=Pusalker |editor2-first=A. D. |editor3-last=Majumdar |editor3-first=A. K. |date=1973 |title=[[The History and Culture of the Indian People]] |volume=VII: The Mughal Empire |location=Bombay |publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan}}
*Misra, R. G. (1993). Indian resistance to early Muslim invaders up to 1206 AD. Meerut City: Anu Books.
*[[Jadunath Sarkar|Sarkar, Jadunath]]. (1997). Fall of the Mughal Empire: Vol. 1–4. Hyderabad: Orient Longman.
*[[Jadunath Sarkar|Sarkar, Jadunath]]. (1975). Studies in economic life in Mughal India. Delhi: Oriental Publishers & Distributors.; (1987). Mughal economy: Organization and working. Calcutta, India: Naya Prokash.
*Srivastava, A. L. (1970). The Mughal Empire, 1526-1803 A.D. ... Seventh revised edition. Agra: Shiva Lal Agarwala & Co.
*Srivastava, A. L. (1975). Medieval Indian culture. Agra: Agarwala.
*{{cite book|title=Indo-Islamic society: 14th - 15th centuries|first=André|last=Wink|volume=Volume 3 of Al-Hind Series|year=2004|publisher=BRILL|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nyYslywJUE8C|isbn=9004135618|access-date=24 April 2014}}
*Wink, André (1996). Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic Worlds Vol 1. E. J. Brill. {{ISBN|0-391-04173-8}}.

;Primary sources
*Babur, ., & Thackston, W. M. (2002). The Baburnama: Memoirs of Babur, prince and emperor. New York: Modern Library.
*Muḥammad, A. K., & Pandit, K. N. (2009). A Muslim missionary in mediaeval Kashmir: Being the English translation of Tohfatu'l-ahbab.
* {{cite book |author=V. S. Bhatnagar |title=[[Kanhadade Prabandha|Kānhaḍade Prabandha]], India's Greatest Patriotic Saga of Medieval Times: Padmanābha's Epic Account of Kānhaḍade |year=1991 |publisher=Aditya Prakashan |isbn=978-81-85179-54-4 }}
*Jain, M. The India They Saw : Foreign Accounts (4 Volumes) Delhi: Ocean Books, 2011.
{{Refend}}

==External links==
* Online Copy: [https://web.archive.org/web/20070929125948/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/index.jsp?serv=pf&file=80201010&ct=0 The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; by Sir H. M. Elliot; Edited by John Dowson; London Trubner Company 1867–1877] – This online Copy has been postesd by: [https://web.archive.org/web/20070929132016/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/index.jsp The Packard Humanities Institute; Persian Texts in Translation; Also find other historical books: Author List and Title List]

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