https://en.bharatpedia.org/w/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=2405%3A201%3A6036%3A801D%3A5C0B%3A881A%3A3959%3AB939Bharatpedia - User contributions [en]2026-08-19T11:10:52ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.43.6https://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gupta_Empire&diff=444054Gupta Empire2024-03-11T08:42:33Z<p>2405:201:6036:801D:5C0B:881A:3959:B939: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Ancient Indian empire (c. 3rd century CE – 575 CE)}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2023}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2021}}<br />
{{Infobox Former Country<br />
| conventional_long_name = Gupta Empire<br />
| common_name = Gupta Empire (Dynasty)<br />
| era = Ancient India<br />
| year_start = 4th century CE<br />
| year_end = early 6th century CE<br />
| status = [[Empire]]<br />
| p1 = Kushan Empire<br />
| flag_p1 = Map of the Kushan Empire.png<br />
| p2 = Western Satraps<br />
| flag_p2 = Map_of_the_Western_Satraps.png<br />
| p3 = Nagas of Padmavati<br />
| p4 = Mahameghavahana dynasty<br />
| flag_p4 = Map_of_the_Maha-Meghavahanas.png<br />
| p5 = Murunda dynasty<br />
| s1 = Later Guptas<br />
| flag_s1 = Map of the Later Guptas.jpg<br />
| s2 = Maukhari<br />
| flag_s2 = Map_of_the_Maukharis.png<br />
| s3 = Maitraka<br />
| flag_s3 = South_Asia_historical_AD590_EN.svg<br />
| s4 = Vardhana dynasty<br />
| flag_s4 = Map_of_the_Pushyabhutis.png<br />
| s5 = Mathara dynasty<br />
| s6 = Shailodbhava dynasty<br />
| s7 = Varman dynasty<br />
| flag_s7 = South_Asia_historical_AD625_EN.svg<br />
| s8 = Gauda Kingdom<br />
| flag_s8 = Map_of_the_Shashankas.png<br />
| s9 = Kalachuris<br />
| flag_s9 = Map_of_the_Early_Kalachuris.png<br />
| s10 = Gurjaradesa{{!}}Gurjara kingdoms<br />
| s11 = Nala dynasty<br />
| s12 = Sharabhapuriya dynasty<br />
| s13 = Rajarsitulyakula<br />
| s14 = Rai dynasty<br />
| flag_s14 = Map_of_Sindh_(Rais).png<br />
| s15 = Alchon Huns<br />
| today = {{plainlist| *[[India]]}}<br />
{{plainlist| *[[Pakistan]]}}<br />
{{plainlist| *[[Nepal]]}}<br />
{{plainlist| *[[Bangladesh]]}}<br />
{{plainlist| *[[Afghanistan]]}}<br />
| flag_s15 = Alchon_Tamga.png<br />
| image_map = {{Location map+<br />
|South Asia<br />
|overlay_image= Map of the Gupta Empire.png<br />
|float = center<br />
|width = 290 <!-- DO NOT CHANGE MAP SIZE (290) AS THIS WILL DISPLACE THE LABELS --><br />
|border =none<br />
|nodiv = 1<br />
|mini = 1<br />
|relief=yes <br />
|places =<br />
{{Annotation|230|5|text-align=center|South Asia<br/>{{Circa|420 CE}}|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=10|color=#000000}}<br />
{{Annotation|85|80|[[Yaudheya|<span style="color:#4F311CFF">YAUDHEYAS</span>]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}<br />
{{Annotation|110|70|[[Arjunayanas|<span style="color:#4F311CFF">ARJUNAYANAS</span>]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}<br />
{{Annotation|80|60|[[Madra Kingdom|<span style="color:#4F311CFF">MADRAKAS</span>]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}<br />
{{Annotation|80|115|[[Malavas|<span style="color:#4F311CFF">MALAVAS</span>]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}<br />
{{Annotation|175|82|text-align=center|[[Licchavi (kingdom)|<span style="color:#4F311CFF">LICCHAVIS</span>]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}<br />
{{Annotation|text-align=center|160|3|[[Tocharians|<span style="color:#006400FF">TOCHARIANS</span>]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}<br />
{{Annotation|105|142|text-align=center|[[Abhira dynasty|<span style="color:#4F311CFF">ABHIRAS</span>]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}<br />
{{Annotation|115|215|text-align=center|[[Kalabhra dynasty|<span style="color:#4F311CFF">KALABHRAS</span>]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}{{Annotation|120|195|text-align=center|[[Western Ganga dynasty|<span style="color:#4F311CFF">WESTERN<br/>GANGAS</span>]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=5|color=#000000}}<br />
{{Annotation|43|65|text-align=center|[[Hind (Sasanian province)|<span style="color:#006400FF">SASANIAN<br/>HIND</span>]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}<br />
{{Annotation|text-align=center|145|50|[[Zhangzhung|<span style="color:#4F311CFF">ZHANGZHUNG</span>]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}<br />
{{Annotation|85|152|text-align=center|[[Traikutaka dynasty|<span style="color:#4F311CFF">TRAITAKUTAS</span>]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}<br />
{{Annotation|100|165|text-align=center|[[Vakatakas|<span style="color:#4F311CFF">VAKATAKAS</span>]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}}<br />
{{Annotation|95|185|text-align=center|[[Kadamba dynasty|<span style="color:#4F311CFF">KADAMBAS</span>]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}<br />
{{Annotation|210|130|text-align=center|[[Samatata|<span style="color:#4F311CFF">SAMATATAS</span>]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}<br />
{{Annotation|235|113|text-align=center|[[Gauda Kingdom|<span style="color:#4F311CFF">GAUDA</span>]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}<br />
{{Annotation|247|90|text-align=center|[[Varman dynasty|<span style="color:#4F311CFF">KAMARUPAS</span>]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}<br />
{{Annotation|45|20|text-align=center|[[Kidarites|<span style="color:#006400FF">KIDARITES</span>]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}<br />
{{Annotation|15|5|text-align=center|[[Alchon Huns|<span style="color:#006400FF">ALCHON HUNS</span>]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}<br />
{{Annotation|1|45|text-align=center|[[Sasanian Empire|<span style="color:#006400FF">SASANIAN<br/>EMPIRE</span>]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}}<br />
{{Annotation|262|250|[[Template:South Asia in 350 CE|<span style="color:#4F311CFF"> ◁ </span>]] [[Template:South Asia in 500 CE|<span style="color:#4F311CFF"> ▷ </span>]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=12|color=#000000}}<br />
|caption=<br />
}}<br />
| image_map_caption = {{center|1=Map of the Gupta Empire {{Circa|420 CE}}, according to [[Joseph E. Schwartzberg]], with contemporary polities<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |date=1978 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |page=[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=182 145, map XIV.1 (j)]; [https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=062 p.25] |isbn=0226742210 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=182 |access-date=12 February 2022 |archive-date=24 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224162023/https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=182 |url-status=live }}</ref>}}<br />
| capital = [[Pataliputra]]<br/>[[Ayodhya]]<ref>{{citation |last=Bakker |first=Hans |title=Ayodhya, Part 1: The History of Ayodhya from the seventh century BC to the middle of the 18th century |publisher=Egbert Forsten |location=Groningen |year=1984 |isbn=90-6980-007-1 |ref={{sfnref|Bakker, Ayodhya, Part 1|1984}}}}</ref><br />
| common_languages = [[Sanskrit]] (literary and academic); [[Prakrit]] (vernacular)<br />
| religion = {{plainlist|<br />
*[[Hinduism]]<br />
*[[Buddhism]]<br />
*[[Jainism]]<br />
}}<br />
| demonym = Indian<br />
| government_type = Monarchy<br />
| GDP_PPP = <br />
| title_leader = [[Emperor]]<br />
| leader1 = [[Gupta (king)|Gupta]] (first)<br />
| year_leader1 = {{Circa|late 3rd century}}<br />
| leader2 = [[Vishnugupta (Gupta Empire)|Vishnugupta]]<br />
| year_leader2 = {{Circa|540|550 CE}}<br />
| stat_year1 = 400 est.<br />
| stat_area1 = 4400000<br />
| ref_area1 = <ref name="Turchin223">{{Cite journal |last1=Turchin |first1=Peter |last2=Adams |first2=Jonathan M. |last3=Hall |first3=Thomas D |date=December 2006 |title=East-West Orientation of Historical Empires |journal=Journal of World-Systems Research |volume=12 |issue=2 |page=223 |issn=1076-156X |doi=10.5195/JWSR.2006.369|doi-access=free }}</ref>{{break}}(high-end estimate of peak area)<br />
| stat_year2 = 440 est.<br />
| stat_area2 = 2500000<br />
| ref_area2 = <ref name="Taagepera">{{Cite journal |last=Taagepera |first=Rein |year=1979 |title=Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D |journal=Social Science History |volume=3 |issue=3/4 |page=121 |doi=10.2307/1170959 |jstor=1170959}}</ref>{{break}}(low-end estimate of peak area)<br />
}}<br />
<br />
The '''Gupta Empire''' was an [[Outline of ancient India|ancient Indian]] empire which existed from the early 4th century CE to early 6th century CE. At its zenith, from approximately 319 to 467 CE, it covered much of the [[Indian subcontinent]].<ref name="Gupta Dynasty – MSN Encarta">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Gupta Dynasty – MSN Encarta |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761571624/gupta_dynasty.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091029013809/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761571624/Gupta_Dynasty.html |archive-date=29 October 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref> This period is considered as the [[Golden Age of India]] by historians.<ref>N. Jayapalan, ''History of India'', Vol. I, (Atlantic Publishers, 2001), 130.</ref>{{#tag:ref|Although this characterisation has been disputed by [[D. N. Jha]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Ancient India in Historical Outline |last=Jha |first=D.N. |publisher=Manohar Publishers and Distributors |year=2002 |isbn=978-81-7304-285-0 |location=Delhi |pages=149–73}}</ref>|group=note}} The ruling dynasty of the empire was founded by [[Gupta (king)|Gupta]], and the most notable rulers of the dynasty were [[Chandragupta I]], [[Samudragupta]], [[Chandragupta II]] and [[Skandagupta]]. The 5th-century CE [[Sanskrit]] poet [[Kalidasa]] credits the Guptas with having conquered about twenty-one kingdoms, both in and outside India, including the kingdoms of [[Persians|Parasikas]], the [[Huna people|Hunas]], the [[Kambojas]], tribes located in the west and east [[Oxus river|Oxus valleys]], the [[Kinnara Kingdom|Kinnaras]], [[Kiratas]], and others.<ref name="Raghu Vamsa v 4.60–75">Raghu Vamsa v 4.60–75</ref>{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|pp=112–18}}{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2017|p=343}}<br />
<br />
The high points of this period are the great cultural developments which took place primarily during the reigns of Samudragupta, Chandragupta II and Kumaragupta I. Many [[Hinduism|Hindu]] [[Hindu epics|epics]] and [[Hindu literature|literary]] sources, such as [[Mahabharata]] and [[Ramayana]], were canonised during this period.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/249590/Gupta-dynasty Gupta dynasty (Indian dynasty)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100330100325/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/249590/Gupta-dynasty |date=30 March 2010 }}. Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Retrieved 21 November 2011.</ref> The Gupta period produced scholars such as [[Kalidasa]],<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/indiahistory00keay/page/151 |title=India: A history |last=Keay |first=John |publisher=Atlantic Monthly Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-87113-800-2 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/indiahistory00keay/page/151 151–52] |quote=Kalidasa wrote ... with an excellence which, by unanimous consent, justifies the inevitable comparisons with Shakespeare ... When and where Kalidasa lived remains a mystery. He acknowledges no links with the Guptas; he may not even have coincided with them ... but the poet's vivid awareness of the terrain of the entire subcontinent argues strongly for a Guptan provenance. |author-link=John Keay }}</ref> [[Aryabhata]], [[Varahamihira]] and [[Vatsyayana]], who made great advancements in many academic fields.{{sfn|Vidya Dhar Mahajan|1990|p=540}}<ref name="Keay">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/indiahistory00keay/page/132 |title=India: A history |last=Keay |first=John |publisher=Atlantic Monthly Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-87113-800-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/indiahistory00keay/page/132 132] |quote=The great era of all that is deemed classical in Indian literature, art and science was now dawning. It was this crescendo of creativity and scholarship, as much as ... political achievements of the Guptas, which would make their age so golden. |author-link=John Keay }}</ref><ref>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic-art/285248/1960/The-Gupta-empire-at-the-end-of-the-4th-century Gupta dynasty: empire in 4th century] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100330103811/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic-art/285248/1960/The-Gupta-empire-at-the-end-of-the-4th-century |date=30 March 2010 }}. Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Retrieved 21 November 2011.</ref> [[History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent|Science]] and political administration reached new heights during the Gupta era.<ref name="Keay"/> The period, sometimes described as ''[[Pax Gupta]]'', gave rise to achievements in architecture, sculpture, and painting that "set standards of form and taste [that] determined the whole subsequent course of art, not only in India but far beyond her borders".{{sfn|J.C. Harle|1994|p=87}} Strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural centre and established the region as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions in India and [[Southeast Asia]].<ref>[https://www.pbs.org/thestoryofindia/gallery/photos/8.html Trade | The Story of India – Photo Gallery] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100328013124/http://www.pbs.org/thestoryofindia/gallery/photos/8.html |date=28 March 2010 }}. PBS. Retrieved 21 November 2011.</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2016}} The [[Puranas]], earlier long poems on a variety of subjects, are also thought to have been committed to written texts around this period.{{sfn|J.C. Harle|1994|p=87}}<ref name="Dikshitar 1993">{{Cite book|last=Dikshitar|first=V. R. Ramachandra|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KP_DTtd6kJEC&pg=PA199|title=The Gupta Polity|date=1993|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ.|isbn=978-81-208-1024-2|language=en|access-date=1 July 2020|archive-date=2 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200802225920/https://books.google.com/books?id=KP_DTtd6kJEC&pg=PA199|url-status=live}}</ref> Hinduism was followed by the rulers and the Brahmins flourished in the Gupta empire but the Guptas tolerated people of other faiths as well.<ref>{{cite book |title= Ancient Indian History and Civilization |first= Sailendra |last= Nath sen |publisher= Routledge |year= 1999 |page= 227 |isbn= 9788122411980 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&q=indus |access-date= 30 August 2020 |archive-date= 7 May 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210507000807/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Ancient_Indian_History_and_Civilization/Wk4_ICH_g1EC?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=indus |url-status= live }}</ref> <br />
<br />
The empire eventually died out because of factors such as substantial loss of territory and imperial authority caused by their own erstwhile feudatories, as well as the invasion by the [[Huna people]]s ([[Kidarites]] and [[Alchon Huns]]) from [[Central Asia]].{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|pp=264–69}}<ref name="Rene">{{Cite book |title=The Empire of the Steppes |last=Grousset |first=Rene |publisher=Rutgers University Press |year=1970 |isbn=978-0-8135-1304-1 |page=[https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppesh00prof/page/69 69] |url=https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppesh00prof/page/69 }}</ref> After the collapse of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century, India was again ruled by numerous regional kingdoms.<br />
<br />
==Origin==<br />
{{Main|Origin of the Gupta dynasty}}<br />
{{Gupta Empire}}<br />
The homeland of the Guptas is uncertain.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=79}} According to one theory, they originated in the present-day lower-Doab region of [[Uttar Pradesh]],<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Dani|first1=Ahmad Hasan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=883OZBe2sMYC|title=History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The crossroads of civilizations, A.D. 250 to 750|last2=Litvinsky|first2=B. A.|date=1996|publisher=UNESCO|isbn=978-92-3-103211-0|pages=185|language=en|quote=On the basis of...historians have now come to accept the lower doab region as the original homeland of the Guptas.|access-date=24 July 2017|archive-date=20 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220520154031/https://books.google.com/books?id=883OZBe2sMYC|url-status=live}}</ref> where most of the inscriptions and coin hoards of the early Gupta kings have been discovered.{{sfn|Dilip Kumar Ganguly|1987|p=14}}{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=39}} This theory is also supported by the [[Purana]], as argued by the proponents, that mention the territory of the early Gupta kings as [[Prayaga]], [[Saketa]], and [[Magadha]] areas in the [[Ganges]] basin.{{sfn|Dilip Kumar Ganguly|1987|p=2}}{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=2}}<br />
<br />
Another prominent theory locates the Gupta homeland in the present-day [[Bengal]] region in Ganges basin, based on the account of the 7th-century Chinese Buddhist monk [[Yijing (monk)|Yijing]]. According to Yijing, king Che-li-ki-to (identified with the dynasty's founder ''Shri'' [[Gupta (king)|Gupta]]) built a temple for Chinese pilgrims near Mi-li-kia-si-kia-po-no (apparently a transcription of [[Mṛgaśikhāvana|Mriga-shikha-vana]]). Yijing states that this temple was located more than 40 ''[[yojana]]s'' east of [[Nalanda]], which would mean it was situated somewhere in the modern Bengal region.{{sfn|Dilip Kumar Ganguly|1987|pp=7–11}} Another proposal is that the early Gupta kingdom extended from Prayaga in the west to northern Bengal in the east.{{sfn|Dilip Kumar Ganguly|1987|p=12}}<br />
<br />
The Gupta records do not mention the dynasty's [[varna in Hinduism|varna]] (social class).{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=44}} Some historians, such as [[A.S. Altekar]], have theorised that they were of [[Vaishya]] origin, as certain ancient Indian texts prescribe the name "Gupta" for the members of the Vaishya varna.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=82}}{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=42}} According to historian [[Ram Sharan Sharma|R. S. Sharma]], the Vaishyas – who were traditionally associated with trade – may have become rulers after resisting oppressive taxation by the previous rulers.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i_sIE1sO5kwC&pg=PA69 |title=Early Medieval Indian Society: A Study in Feudalisation |last=R. S. Sharma |publisher=Orient Longman |year=2003 |isbn=9788125025238 |access-date=26 June 2019 |archive-date=26 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210326214745/https://books.google.com/books?id=i_sIE1sO5kwC&pg=PA69 |url-status=live }}</ref> Critics of the Vaishya-origin theory point out that the suffix Gupta features in the names of several non-Vaishyas before as well as during the Gupta period,{{sfn|R.C. Majumdar|1981|p=4}} and the dynastic name "Gupta" may have simply derived from the name of the family's first king [[Gupta (king)|Gupta]].{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=40}} Some scholars, such as S. R. Goyal, theorise that the Guptas were [[Brahmins|Brahmanas]], because they had matrimonial relations with Brahmans, but others reject this evidence as inconclusive.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|pp=43–44}} Based on the Pune and Riddhapur inscriptions of the Gupta princess [[Prabhavatigupta|Prabhavati-gupta]], some scholars believe that the name of her paternal [[gotra]] (clan) was "Dharana", but an alternative reading of these inscriptions suggests that Dharana was the ''gotra'' of her mother Kuberanaga.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=83}}<br />
<br />
Nepali scholar [[Dilli Raman Regmi|D. R. Regmi]] links the imperial Guptas with the [[Abhira-Gupta dynasty (Nepal)|Abhira Guptas]] of Nepal, noting that excavations in Nepal and Deccan have revealed that the Gupta suffix was common among [[Abhira tribe|Abhira]] kings.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Regmi|first=D. R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OPEcHLvf33YC&dq=d+r+regmi+gupta&pg=PA75|title=Inscriptions of Ancient Nepal|date=1983|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-0-391-02559-2|language=en|access-date=9 July 2022|archive-date=27 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220927082952/https://books.google.com/books?id=OPEcHLvf33YC&dq=d+r+regmi+gupta&pg=PA75|url-status=live}}{{pn|date=February 2023}}</ref><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
{{For|historical calendar era|Gupta era}}<br />
<br />
=== Early rulers ===<br />
[[File:Maharaja Sri Gupta inscription on the Allahabad pillar Samudragupta inscription.jpg|thumb|280px|[[Gupta script]] inscription ''Maharaja Sri Gupta'' [[File:Gupta allahabad m.svg|11px]] [[File:Gupta allahabad haa.jpg|11px]] [[File:Gupta allahabad raa.jpg|11px]] [[File:Gupta allahabad j.svg|12px]] [[File:Gupta allahabad shrii.jpg|14px]] [[File:Gupta allahabad gu.jpg|14px]]<sub>[[File:Gupta allahabad pt.jpg|12px]]</sub> ("Great King, Lord Gupta"), mentioning the first ruler of the dynasty, king [[Gupta (king)|Gupta]]. Inscription by [[Samudragupta]] on the [[Allahabad pillar]], where Samudragupta presents king Gupta as his great-grandfather. Dated circa 350 CE.<ref>[[:File:Allahabad stone pillar inscription of Samudragupta.jpg|Full inscription]], {{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.49403 |title=Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Vol. 3 |last=Fleet |first=John Faithfull |date=1888 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.49403/page/n197 1]–17}}</ref>|left]]<br />
[[File:Queen Kumaradevi and King Chandragupta I on a coin of their son Samudragupta 350 380 CE.jpg|thumb|Queen Kumaradevi and King [[Chandragupta I]], depicted on a gold coin|left]]<br />
Gupta ([[Gupta script]]: [[File:Gupta allahabad gu.jpg|14px]]<sub>[[File:Gupta allahabad pt.jpg|12px]]</sub> ''gu-pta'', fl. late 3rd century CE) is the earliest known king of the dynasty: different historians variously date the beginning of his reign from mid-to-late 3rd century CE.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|pp=49–55}}{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=86}} Gupta founded the Gupta Empire {{Circa|240}}-280 CE, and was succeeded by his son, [[Ghatotkacha (king)|Ghatotkacha]], {{Circa|280}}-319 CE, followed by Ghatotkacha's son, [[Chandragupta I]], {{Circa|319}}-335 CE.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Gupta Empire {{!}} Boundless World History|url=https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/the-gupta-empire/|access-date=30 January 2021|website=courses.lumenlearning.com|archive-date=28 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201228034701/https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/the-gupta-empire/|url-status=live}}</ref> "Che-li-ki-to", the name of a king mentioned by the 7th century Chinese Buddhist monk Yijing, is believed to be a transcription of "[[Shri]]-Gupta" ([[IAST]]: Śrigupta), "Shri" being an honorific prefix.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|pp=84–85}} According to Yijing, this king built a temple for Chinese Buddhist pilgrims near "Mi-li-kia-si-kia-po-no" (believed to be a transcription of [[Mṛgaśikhāvana]]).{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|pp=79–81}}<br />
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In the [[Allahabad Pillar]] inscription, Gupta and his successor Ghatotkacha are described as ''[[Maharaja]]'' ("great king"), while the next king Chandragupta I is called a ''[[Maharajadhiraja]]'' ("king of great kings"). In the later period, the title ''Maharaja'' was used by feudatory rulers, which has led to suggestions that Gupta and Ghatotkacha were vassals (possibly of [[Kushan Empire]]).{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=85}} However, there are several instances of paramount sovereigns using the title ''Maharaja'', in both pre-Gupta and post-Gupta periods, so this cannot be said with certainty. That said, there is no doubt that Gupta and Ghatotkacha held a lower status and were less powerful than Chandragupta I.{{sfn|R.C. Majumdar|1981|pp=6–7}}<br />
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Chandragupta I married the [[Licchavi (tribe)|Licchavi]] princess Kumaradevi, which may have helped him extend his political power and dominions, enabling him to adopt the imperial title ''Maharajadhiraja''.{{sfn|R.C. Majumdar|1981|p=10}} According to the dynasty's official records, he was succeeded by his son [[Samudragupta]]. However, the discovery of the coins issued by a Gupta ruler named [[Kacha (king)|Kacha]] have led to some debate on this topic: according to one theory, Kacha was another name for Samudragupta; another possibility is that Kacha was a rival claimant to the throne.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=71}}<br />
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===Samudragupta===<br />
{{Main|Samudragupta}}<br />
Samudragupta succeeded his father around 335 or 350 CE, and ruled until {{Circa|375 CE}}.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|pp=51–52}} The Allahabad Pillar inscription, composed by his courtier [[Harisena|Harishena]], credits him with extensive conquests.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|pp=106–07}} The inscription asserts that Samudragupta uprooted 8 kings of [[Āryāvarta]], the northern region, including the [[Nagas of Padmavati|Nagas]].{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=114}} It further claims that he subjugated all the kings of the forest region, which was most probably located in central India.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=117}} It also credits him with defeating 12 rulers of [[Dakshinapatha]], the southern region: the exact identification of several of these kings is debated among modern scholars,{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=107}} but it is clear that these kings ruled areas located on the eastern coast of India.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=112}} The inscription suggests that Samudragupta advanced as far as the [[Pallava dynasty|Pallava]] kingdom in the south, and defeated Vishnugopa, the Pallava regent of [[Kanchipuram|Kanchi]].{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=110}} During this southern campaign, Samudragupta most probably passed through the forest tract of central India, reached the eastern coast in present-day [[Odisha]], and then marched south along the coast of the [[Bay of Bengal]].{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|pp=80–81}}<br />
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The Allahabad Pillar inscription mentions that rulers of several frontier kingdoms and tribal [[oligarchy|oligarchies]] paid Samudragupta tributes, obeyed his orders, and performed obeisance before him.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=84}}{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2017|p=343}} The frontier kingdoms included [[Samatata]], [[Davaka]], [[Kamarupa]], [[Nepala]] and [[Katyuri kings|Karttripura]].{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|pp=112–18}} The tribal oligarchies included [[Malavas]], [[Arjunayanas]], [[Yaudheyas]], [[Madra Kingdom|Madrakas]], and [[Abhira tribe|Abhiras]], among others.{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2017|p=343}}<br />
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Finally, the inscription mentions that several foreign kings tried to please Samudragupta by personal attendance; offered him their daughters in marriage (or according to another interpretation, gifted him maidens{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=125}}); and sought the use of the [[Garuda]]-depicting Gupta seal for administering their own territories.{{sfn|Shankar Goyal|2001|p=168}} This is an exaggeration: for example, the inscription lists the king of [[Sri Lanka|Simhala]] among these kings. It is known that from Chinese sources that the Simhala king [[Sirimeghavanna of Anuradhapura|Meghavarna]] sent rich presents to the Gupta king requesting his permission to build a Buddhist monastery at [[Bodh Gaya]]: Samudragupta's panegyrist appears to have described this act of diplomacy as an act of subservience.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=90}}<br />
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Samudragupta appears to have been [[Vaishnavite]], as attested by his Eran inscription,{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=68}}{{sfn|R.C. Majumdar|1981|p=32}} and performed several [[Brahmanism|Brahmanical]] ceremonies.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=91}} The Gupta records credit him with making generous donations of cows and gold.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=68}} He performed the [[Ashvamedha]] ritual (horse sacrifice), which was used by the ancient Indian kings to prove their imperial sovereignty, and issued gold coins (see [[#Coinage|Coinage]] below) to mark this performance.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|pp=125–26}}<br />
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The Allahabad Pillar inscription presents Samudragupta as a wise king and strict administrator, who was also compassionate enough to help the poor and the helpless.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|pp=91, 94}} It also alludes to the king's talents as a musician and a poet, and calls him the "king of poets".{{sfn|R.C. Majumdar|1981|p=31}} Such claims are corroborated by Samudragupta's gold coins, which depict him playing a [[ancient veena|veena]].{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=94}}<br />
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Samudragupta appears to have directly controlled a large part of the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]] in present-day India, as well as a substantial part of central India.{{sfn|R.C. Majumdar|1981|pp=23, 27}} Besides, his empire comprised a number of monarchical and tribal tributary states of northern India, and of the south-eastern coastal region of India.{{sfn|R.C. Majumdar|1981|p=22}}{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=112}}<br />
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=== Ramagupta ===<br />
[[File:Standing_Buddha_Installed_by_Buddist_Monk_Yasadinna_-_Circa_5th_Century_CE_-_Jamalpur_Mound_-_ACCN_00-A-5_-_Government_Museum_Mathura_Golden_background.jpg|thumb|upright|Standing [[Buddha]] in red sandstone, [[Art of Mathura]], Gupta period circa 5th century CE. [[Mathura Museum]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Vincent Arthur |title=A history of fine art in India and Ceylon, from the earliest times to the present day |date=1911 |publisher=Oxford: Clarendon Press |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyoffineart00smit/page/170 170]–171 |url=https://archive.org/details/historyoffineart00smit}}</ref>]]<br />
{{Main|Ramagupta}}<br />
Ramagupta is known from a sixth-century play, the ''[[Devichandragupta]]'', in which he surrenders his wife to the enemy [[Saka]]s and his brother Chandragupta has to sneak into the enemy camp to rescue her and kill the Saka king. The historicity of these events is unclear, but Ramagupta's existence is confirmed by three [[Jainism|Jain]] statues found at Durjanpur, with inscriptions referring to him as the ''Maharajadhiraja''. A large number of his copper coins also have been found from the [[Eran]]-[[Vidisha]] region and classified in five distinct types, which include the ''Garuda'',{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|pp=153–59}} ''Garudadhvaja'', ''lion'' and ''border legend'' types. The [[Brahmi]] legends on these coins are written in the early Gupta style.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=chGrJUMarHoC&pg=PA120 |title=Indian Numismatic Studies |last=Bajpai |first=K.D. |publisher=Abhinav Publications |year=2004 |isbn=978-81-7017-035-8 |location=New Delhi |pages=120–21 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=4 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160504160827/https://books.google.com/books?id=chGrJUMarHoC&pg=PA120 |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
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===Chandragupta II "Vikramaditya"===<br />
{{Main|Chandragupta II}}<br />
According to the Gupta records, amongst his sons, Samudragupta nominated prince Chandragupta II, born of queen [[Dattadevi]], as his successor. Chandragupta II, ''Vikramaditya'' (Victory of the Sun), ruled from 375 until 415. He married a Kadamba princess of Kuntala and of Naga lineage (''Nāgakulotpannnā''), Kuberanaga. His daughter [[Prabhavatigupta]] from this Naga queen was married to [[Rudrasena II]], the [[Vakataka]] ruler of [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]].{{sfn|H.C. Raychaudhuri|1923|p=489}} His son Kumaragupta I was married to a Kadamba princess of the Karnataka region. Chandragupta II expanded his realm westwards, defeating the Saka [[Western Kshatrapas]] of [[Malwa]], [[Gujarat]] and [[Saurashtra (region)|Saurashtra]] in a campaign lasting until 409. His main opponent [[Rudrasimha III]] was defeated by 395, and he crushed the Bengal chiefdoms. This extended his control from coast to coast, established a second capital at [[Ujjain]] and was the high point of the empire.{{citation needed|date=July 2020}} Kuntala inscriptions indicate rule of Chandragupta in [[Kuntala country|Kuntala region]] of Indian state of [[Karnataka]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.107941|title=Annual Report Of Mysore 1886 To 1903|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> [[Sacred Rock of Hunza|Hunza inscription]] also indicate that Chandragupta was able to rule north western Indian subcontinent and proceeded to conquer [[Balkh]], although some scholars have also disputed the identity of gupta king.<ref>{{Cite web|title=HALDEIKISH, Sacred Rocks of Hunza|url=https://www.hunzabytes.com.au/history/haldeikish-sacred-rocks-of-hunza/|access-date=20 October 2020|website=Hunza Bytes|language=en|archive-date=13 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513212637/https://www.hunzabytes.com.au/history/haldeikish-sacred-rocks-of-hunza/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Singh|first=Upinder|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&q=upinder+singh|title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century|date=2008|publisher=Pearson Education India|isbn=978-81-317-1120-0|pages=480|language=en|access-date=3 May 2021|archive-date=18 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220318043350/https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&q=upinder+singh|url-status=live}}</ref> Chalukyan ruler [[Vikramaditya VI|Vikramditya VI]] (r. 1076 – 1126 CE) mentions Chandragupta with his title and states"why should the glory of the Kings Vikramaditya and Nanda be a hindrance any longer ? he with a loud command abolished that (era), which has the name of Saka, and made that (era) which has the Chalukya counting".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Barua|first=Benimadhab|url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.103481|title=Old Brahmi Inscriptions In The Udayagiri And Khandagiri Caves|date=1929}}</ref><br />
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[[Image:Two Gold coins of Chandragupta II.jpg|thumb|right|Gold coins of [[Chandragupta II]]]]<br />
Despite the creation of the empire through war, the reign is remembered for its very influential style of [[Hindu]] art, literature, culture and science, especially during the reign of Chandragupta II. Some excellent works of Hindu art such as the panels at the Dashavatara Temple in [[Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh|Deogarh]] serve to illustrate the magnificence of Gupta art. Above all, it was the synthesis of elements that gave Gupta art its distinctive flavour. During this period, the Guptas were supportive of thriving [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] and [[Jain]] cultures as well, and for this reason, there is also a long history of non-Hindu [[Gupta period art]]. In particular, Gupta period Buddhist art was to be influential in most of East and Southeast Asia. Many advances were recorded by the Chinese scholar and traveller [[Faxian]] in his diary and published afterwards.<br />
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The court of Chandragupta was made even more illustrious by the fact that it was graced by the ''Navaratna'' (Nine Jewels), a group of nine who excelled in the literary arts. Amongst these men was [[Kālidāsa]], whose works dwarfed the works of many other literary geniuses, not only in his own age but in the years to come. Kalidasa was mainly known for his subtle exploitation of the ''shringara'' (romantic) element in his verse.<br />
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====Chandragupta II's campaigns against foreign tribes====<br />
[[File:Vishnu sculpture.jpg|thumb|upright|Sculpture of Vishnu (red sandstone), 5th century CE.]]<br />
The 4th century [[Sanskrit]] poet [[Kalidasa]] credits Chandragupta Vikramaditya with conquering about twenty-one kingdoms, both in and outside India. After finishing his campaign in East and West India, Vikramaditya (Chandragupta II) proceeded northwards, subjugated the [[Parasika]]s, then the [[Huna people|Hunas]] and the [[Kambojas]] tribes located in the west and east [[Oxus]] valleys respectively. Thereafter, the king proceeded into the [[Himalaya]] mountains to reduce the mountain tribes of the [[Kinnara Kingdom|Kinnaras]], [[Kiratas]], as well as India proper.<ref name="Raghu Vamsa v 4.60–75" />{{npsn|date=August 2016}} In one of his works Kalidasa also credits him with the removal of the [[Saka]]s from the country. He wrote 'Wasn't it Vikramaditya who drove the Sakas out from the lovely city of Ujjain?'.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Wolpert|first=Stanley|title=India|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1993}}</ref><br />
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The ''Brihatkathamanjari'' of the [[Kashmir]]i writer [[Kshemendra]] states, King Vikramaditya (Chandragupta II) had "unburdened the sacred earth of the [[Barbarian]]s like the Sakas, [[Mleccha]]s, [[Kambojas]], [[Yavana]]s, [[Tushara Kingdom|Tusharas]], [[Persians|Parasikas]], [[Huna people|Hunas]], and others, by annihilating these sinful Mlecchas completely".<ref>ata shrivikramadityo helya nirjitakhilah Mlechchana Kamboja. Yavanan neechan Hunan Sabarbran Tushara. Parsikaanshcha tayakatacharan vishrankhalan hatya bhrubhangamatreyanah bhuvo bharamavarayate (Brahata Katha, 10/1/285-86, Kshmendra).</ref>{{npsn|date=August 2016}}<ref>Kathasritsagara 18.1.76–78</ref><ref>Cf:"In the story contained in Kathasarit-sagara, king Vikarmaditya is said to have destroyed all the barbarous tribes such as the Kambojas, Yavanas, Hunas, Tokharas and the, National Council of Teachers of English Committee on Recreational Reading – Sanskrit language.</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=December 2023}}<br />
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====Faxian====<br />
[[Faxian]], a Chinese [[Buddhist]], was one of the pilgrims who visited India during the reign of the Gupta emperor [[Chandragupta II]]. He started his journey from China in 399 and reached India in 405. During his stay in India up to 411, he went on a pilgrimage to [[Mathura]], [[Kannauj]], [[Kapilavastu (ancient city)|Kapilavastu]], [[Kushinagar]], [[Vaishali (ancient city)|Vaishali]], [[Pataliputra]], [[Varanasi|Kashi]], and [[Rajagriha]], and made careful observations about the empire's conditions. Faxian was pleased with the mildness of administration. The Penal Code was mild and offences were punished by fines only. From his accounts, the Gupta Empire was a prosperous period. His writings form one of the most important sources for the history of this period.<ref name="Fa-hsien 1886">{{Cite book|last1=Fa-hsien|first1=ca 337-ca 422|url=http://archive.org/details/recordofbuddhist00fahsuoft|title=A record of Buddhistic kingdoms; being an account by the Chinese monk Fâ-Hien of his travels in India and Ceylon, A.D. 399-414, in search of the Buddhist books of discipline. Translated and annotated with a Corean recension of the Chinese text|last2=Legge|first2=James|date=1886|publisher=Oxford Clarendon Press|others=Robarts - University of Toronto}}</ref><br />
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Faxian on reaching [[Mathura]] comments––<blockquote>"The snow and heat are finely tempered, and there is neither hoarfrost nor snow. The people are numerous and happy. They have not to register their households. Only those who cultivate the royal land have to pay (a portion of) the gain from it. If they want to go, they go. If they want to stay on, they stay on. The king governs without decapitation or (other) corporal punishments. Criminals are simply fined according to circumstances. Even in cases of repeated attempts at wicked rebellion, they only have their right-hand cut off. The king's bodyguards & attendants all have salaries. Throughout the whole country, the people do not kill any living creature, not drink any intoxicating liquor, nor eat onions or garlic."<ref name="Fa-hsien 1886"/></blockquote><br />
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===Kumaragupta I===<br />
{{Main|Kumaragupta I}}<br />
[[File:Silver Coin of Kumaragupta I.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Silver coin of the Gupta King [[Kumaragupta I]] (Coin of his Western territories, design derived from the [[Western Satraps]]).<br />
<br />''Obv'': Bust of king with crescents, with traces of corrupt Greek script.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_mUg2BBJr7kC&pg=PA112 |title=Coin splendour: a journey into the past |last=Prasanna Rao Bandela |publisher=Abhinav Publications |year=2003 |isbn=978-81-7017-427-1 |pages=112– |access-date=21 November 2011 |archive-date=29 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130529030958/http://books.google.com/books?id=_mUg2BBJr7kC&pg=PA112 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>"Evidence of the conquest of Saurastra during the reign of [[Chandragupta II]] is to be seen in his rare silver coins which are more directly imitated from those of the [[Western Satraps]]... they retain some traces of the old inscriptions in Greek characters, while on the reverse, they substitute the Gupta type (a peacock) for the chaitya with crescent and star." in Rapson "A catalogue of Indian coins in the British Museum. The Andhras etc...", p. cli</ref><br />
<br />''Rev'': [[Garuda]] standing facing with spread wings. Brahmi legend: ''Parama-bhagavata [[rajadhiraja]] Sri Kumaragupta Mahendraditya''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Virji |first1=krishnakumari J. |title=Ancient History Of Saurashtra |date=1952 |page=225 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.57287/page/n249/mode/2up}}</ref>]]<br />
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Chandragupta II was succeeded by his second son [[Kumara Gupta I|Kumaragupta I]], born of ''Mahadevi'' Dhruvasvamini. Kumaragupta I assumed the title, ''Mahendraditya''.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|pp=191–200}} He ruled until 455. Towards the end of his reign a tribe in the [[Narmada]] valley, the [[Pushyamitras]], rose in power to threaten the empire. The [[Kidarites]] as well probably confronted the Gupta Empire towards the end of the rule of Kumaragupta I, as his son [[Skandagupta]] mentions in the [[Bhitari pillar inscription of Skandagupta|Bhitari pillar inscription]] his efforts at reshaping a country in disarray, through reorganisation and military victories over the [[Pushyamitras]] and the [[Hunas]].<ref name="HCCE 119">History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Ahmad Hasan Dani, B.A. Litvinsky, UNESCO [https://books.google.com/books?id=883OZBe2sMYC&pg=PA119 pp. 119–]</ref><br />
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He was the founder of [[Nalanda (university)|Nalanda University]] which on 15 July 2016 was declared as a UNESCO world heritage site.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://travelnewsindia.com/nalanda-university-ruins/ |title=Nalanda University Ruins {{!}} Nalanda Travel Guide {{!}} Ancient Nalanda Site |date=5 October 2016 |work=Travel News India |access-date=20 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211075258/http://travelnewsindia.com/nalanda-university-ruins/ |archive-date=11 February 2017 |language=en-US |url-status=live}}</ref> Kumaragupta I was also a worshipper of [[Kartikeya]].<br />
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===Skandagupta===<br />
{{Main|Skandagupta}}<br />
[[Skandagupta]], son and successor of Kumaragupta I is generally considered to be the last of the great Gupta rulers. He assumed the titles of ''Vikramaditya'' and ''Kramaditya''.{{sfn|H.C. Raychaudhuri|1923|p=510}} He defeated the Pushyamitra threat, but then was faced with invading [[Kidarites]] (sometimes described as the [[Hephthalite]]s or "White Huns", known in India as the [[Huna (people)|Sweta Huna]]), from the northwest.<br />
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He repelled a ''Huna'' attack around 455 CE, but the expense of the wars drained the empire's resources and contributed to its decline. The Bhitari Pillar inscription of [[Skandagupta]], the successor of Chandragupta, recalls the near-annihilation of the Gupta Empire following the attacks of the [[Kidarites]].<ref name="Hyun">The Huns, Hyun Jin Kim, Routledge, 2015 [https://books.google.com/books?id=mcf4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PT50 pp. 50–]</ref> The Kidarites seem to have retained the western part of the Gupta Empire.<ref name="Hyun" /><br />
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Skandagupta died in 467 and was succeeded by his agnate brother [[Purugupta]].{{sfn|H.C. Raychaudhuri|1923|p=516}}<br />
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===Decline of the empire===<br />
[[File:Kakandi.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Jain]] [[tirthankara]] relief [[Parshvanatha]] on [[Kahaum pillar]] erected by Skandagupta<ref>{{Cite web|title=Jain shrines|url=http://www.uptourism.gov.in/post/jain-shrines|access-date=17 September 2020|publisher=[[Uttar Pradesh Tourism]]|archive-date=25 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925082108/http://www.uptourism.gov.in/post/jain-shrines|url-status=dead}}</ref>]]<br />
Following Skandagupta's death, the empire was clearly in decline,<ref>Sachchidananda Bhattacharya, ''Gupta dynasty'', ''A dictionary of Indian history'', (George Braziller, Inc., 1967), 393.</ref> and the later Gupta coinage indicates their loss of control over much of western India after 467–469.<ref name="Gupta Dynasty – MSN Encarta" /> Skandagupta was followed by [[Purugupta]] (467–473), [[Kumaragupta II]] (473–476), [[Budhagupta]] (476–495), [[Narasimhagupta]] (495–530), [[Kumaragupta III]] (530–540), [[Vishnugupta (Gupta Empire)|Vishnugupta]] (540–550), two lesser known kings namely, [[Vainyagupta]] and [[Bhanugupta]].<br />
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In the 480's the [[Alchon Huns]] under [[Toramana]] and [[Mihirakula]] broke through the Gupta defences in the northwest, and much of the empire in the northwest was overrun by the Huns by 500. According to some scholars the empire disintegrated under the attacks of [[Toramana]] and his successor [[Mihirakula]].<ref>"The Alchon Huns....established themselves as overlords of northwestern India, and directly contributed to the downfall of the Guptas" in {{Cite book|last=Neelis|first=Jason|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GB-JV2eOr2UC&pg=PA162|title=Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade Networks: Mobility and Exchange Within and Beyond the Northwestern Borderlands of India|date=2010|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9789004181595|page=162|language=en|access-date=20 May 2019|archive-date=3 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103112749/https://books.google.com/books?id=GB-JV2eOr2UC&pg=PA162|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Bakker|first=Hans|title=Monuments of Hope, Gloom and Glory in the Age of the Hunnic Wars: 50 years that changed India (484–534)|url=https://www.knaw.nl/en/news/publications/monuments-of-hope-gloom-and-glory|year=2017|at=Section 4|publisher=Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences|isbn=978-90-6984-715-3|access-date=20 May 2019|archive-date=11 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200111041719/https://www.knaw.nl/en/news/publications/monuments-of-hope-gloom-and-glory|url-status=live}}</ref> It appears from inscriptions that the Guptas, although their power was much diminished, continued to resist the Huns. The Hun invader Toramana was defeated by [[Bhanugupta]] in 510.<ref>Ancient Indian History and Civilization by Sailendra Nath Sen p. 220</ref><ref>Encyclopaedia of Indian Events & Dates by S B. Bhattacherje p. A15</ref> The Huns were defeated and driven out of India in 528 by King [[Yashodharman]] from [[Malwa]], and possibly Gupta emperor [[Narasimhagupta]].<ref name="Columbia Encyclopedia">''Columbia Encyclopedia''</ref><br />
<br />
These invasions, although only spanning a few decades, had long term effects on India, and in a sense brought an end to [[Classical India|Classical Indian civilisation]].<ref name="Eraly">The First Spring: The Golden Age of India by Abraham Eraly [https://books.google.com/books?id=te1sqTzTxD8C&pg=PA48 pp. 48–] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200105092116/https://books.google.com/books?id=te1sqTzTxD8C&pg=PA48 |date=5 January 2020 }}</ref> Soon after the invasions, the Gupta Empire, already weakened by these invasions and the rise of local rulers such as [[Yashodharman]], ended as well.<ref>Ancient Indian History and Civilization by Sailendra Nath Sen [https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA221 p. 221]</ref> Following the invasions, northern India was left in disarray, with numerous smaller Indian powers emerging after the crumbling of the Guptas.<ref>A Comprehensive History Of Ancient India [https://books.google.com/books?id=gE7udqBkACwC&pg=PA174 p. 174]</ref> The Huna invasions are said to have seriously damaged India's trade with [[Europe]] and [[Central Asia]].<ref name="Eraly" /> In particular, [[Indo-Roman trade relations]], which the Gupta Empire had greatly benefited from. The Guptas had been exporting numerous luxury products such as [[silk]], leather goods, fur, iron products, [[ivory]], [[pearl]], and pepper from centres such as [[Nasik]], [[Paithan]], [[Pataliputra]], and [[Benares]]. The Huna invasion probably disrupted these trade relations and the tax revenues that came with them.<ref>Longman History & Civics ICSE 9 by Singh [https://books.google.com/books?id=EXPouL4BYTMC&pg=PA81 p. 81]</ref><br />
<br />
Furthermore, Indian urban culture was left in decline, and [[Buddhism]], gravely weakened by the destruction of monasteries and the killing of monks by the hand of the vehemently anti-Buddhist [[Shaivism|Shaivist]] Mihirakula, started to collapse.<ref name="Eraly" /> Great centres of learning were destroyed, such as the city of [[Taxila]], bringing cultural regression.<ref name="Eraly" /> During their rule of 60 years, the Alchons are said to have altered the hierarchy of ruling families and the Indian [[Caste system in India|caste system]]. For example, the Hunas are often said to have become the precursors of the [[Rajputs]].<ref name="Eraly" /><br />
<br />
{{South Asia in 600 CE||{{center|1=Political fragmentation of South Asia after the retreat of the [[Alchon Huns]] to the northwest and the end of the Gupta Empire, {{Circa|600 CE}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |date=1978 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |pages=26, 146 |isbn=0226742210 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=063 |access-date=18 April 2022 |archive-date=6 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220206162650/https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=063 |url-status=live }}</ref>}}}}<br />
The succession of the 6th-century Guptas is not entirely clear, but the tail end recognised ruler of the dynasty's main line was king [[Vishnugupta (Gupta Empire)|Vishnugupta]], reigning from 540 to 550. In addition to the Hun invasion, the factors, which contribute to the decline of the empire include competition from the [[Vakatakas]] and the rise of [[Yashodharman]] in [[Malwa]].<ref name="singh3">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC |title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century |last=Singh |first=Upinder |publisher=Pearson Education |year=2008 |isbn=978-81-317-1677-9 |location=New Delhi |page=480 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=20 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220004242/https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
<br />
The last known inscription by a Gupta emperor is from the reign of Vishnugupta (the Damodarpur copper-plate inscription),<ref>Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Vol.3 (inscriptions of the Early Gupta Kings) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.108395 p. 362]</ref> in which he makes a land grant in the area of [[Kotivarsha]] ([[Bangarh]] in [[West Bengal]]) in 542/543 CE.<ref name="Davidson">Indian Esoteric Buddhism: Social History of the Tantric Movement by Ronald M. Davidson [https://books.google.com/books?id=n_VquVQvnBwC&pg=PA31 p. 31] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200107154342/https://books.google.com/books?id=n_VquVQvnBwC&pg=PA31 |date=7 January 2020 }}</ref> This follows the occupation of most of northern and central India by the [[Aulikara]] ruler Yashodharman {{Circa|532 CE}}.<ref name="Davidson" /><br />
<br />
A 2019 study by archaeologist Shanker Sharma has concluded that the cause of the Gupta empire's downfall was a devastating flood which happened around the middle of the 6th century in [[Uttar Pradesh]] and [[Bihar]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/deluge-drowned-mighty-guptas-study/cid/1685500 |title=Deluge drowned mighty Guptas: Study |website=The Telegraph |location=Kolkata |language=en |access-date=19 August 2019 |archive-date=19 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819215132/https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/deluge-drowned-mighty-guptas-study/cid/1685500 |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
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===Post-Gupta successor dynasties===<br />
In the heart of the former Gupta Empire, in the Gangetic region, the Guptas were succeeded by the [[Maukhari dynasty]] and the [[Pushyabhuti dynasty]].<ref name="HPR">{{cite book |last1=Ray |first1=Himanshu Prabha |title=Negotiating Cultural Identity: Landscapes in Early Medieval South Asian History |date=2019 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9781000227932 |pages=161–164 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qkyfDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT163 |language=en |access-date=27 September 2022 |archive-date=20 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220520170328/https://books.google.com/books?id=qkyfDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT163 |url-status=live }}</ref> The coinage of the Maukharis and Pushyabhutis followed the silver coin type of the Guptas, with portrait of the ruler in profile (although facing in the reverse direction compared to the Guptas, a possible symbol of antagonism)<ref name="RST">{{cite book |last1=Tripathi |first1=Rama S. |title=History of Kanauj: To the Moslem Conquest |date=1989 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |isbn=9788120804043 |page=45 Note 1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Tnh2QjGhMQC&pg=PA45 |language=en |access-date=27 September 2022 |archive-date=17 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220417230246/https://books.google.com/books?id=2Tnh2QjGhMQC&pg=PA45 |url-status=live }}</ref> and the peacock on the reverse, the Brahmi legend being kept except for the name of the ruler.<ref name="HPR"/><br />
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In the western regions, they were succeeded by the [[Gurjara]]s, the [[Pratiharas]], and later the [[Chaulukya dynasty|Chaulukya]]-[[Paramara dynasty|Paramara]] dynasties, who issued so-called [[Indo-Sasanian coinage]], on the model of the [[Sasanian coinage|coinage of the Sasanian Empire]], which had been introduced in India by the Alchon Huns.<ref name="HPR"/><br />
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==Military organisation==<br />
[[File: ChandraguptaIIOnHorse.jpg|thumb|An 8 gm gold coin featuring [[Chandragupta II]] astride a caparisoned horse with a bow in his left hand<ref>*{{British-Museum-db|1910,0403.26|3137724}}</ref>]]<br />
In contrast to the [[Mauryan Empire]], the Guptas introduced several military innovations to Indian warfare. Chief amongst these was the use of [[siege engine]]s, heavy cavalry archers and heavy sword cavalry. The [[heavy cavalry]] formed the core of the Gupta army and were supported by the traditional Indian army elements of elephants and [[light infantry]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wu7ZoAEACAAJ |title=Warfare in Pre-British India, 1500 BCE to 1740 CE |last=Roy |first=Kaushik |date=2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-315-74270-0 |page=56 |access-date=8 August 2020 |archive-date=9 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709184256/https://books.google.com/books?id=Wu7ZoAEACAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
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The utilisation of horse archers in the Gupta period is evidenced on the coinage of [[Chandragupta II]], [[Kumaragupta I]] and Prakasaditya (postulated to be [[Purugupta]])<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hud2_Ie3T94C |title=The Imperial Guptas and Their Times |last=Ganguly |first=Dilip Kumar |date=1987 |publisher=Abhinav Publications |isbn=9788170172222 |page=92 |access-date=29 August 2018 |archive-date=14 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200814151215/https://books.google.com/books?id=Hud2_Ie3T94C |url-status=live }}</ref> that depicts the emperors as horse-archers.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wu7ZoAEACAAJ |title=Warfare in Pre-British India, 1500 BCE to 1740 CE |last=Roy |first=Kaushik |date=2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-315-74270-0 |page=57 |access-date=8 August 2020 |archive-date=9 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709184256/https://books.google.com/books?id=Wu7ZoAEACAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.110150/2015.110150.The-Military-System-In-Ancient-India_djvu.txt |title=The military system in ancient India |last=Majumdar |first=Bimal Kanti |date=1960 |publisher=Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyay |edition=2 |page=118}}</ref><br />
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Unfortunately there is a paucity of contemporary sources detailing the tactical operations of the Imperial Gupta Army. The best extant information comes from the Sanskrit mahakavya (epic poem) [[Raghuvaṃśa]] written by the Classical Sanskrit writer and dramatist [[Kalidasa]]. Many modern scholars put forward the view that Kalidasa lived from the reign of Chandragupta II to the reign of [[Skandagupta]]<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sueiThBrP4gC&pg=PA1 |title=Kālidāsa; Date, Life, and Works |last=Vasudev Vishnu Mirashi and Narayan Raghunath Navlekar |publisher=Popular Prakashan |year=1969 |isbn=9788171544684 |pages=1–35}}</ref><ref>Ram Gopal. p.14</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N8fBQ5vH34gC&pg=PR7 |title=Works of Kālidāsa |last=C. R. Devadhar |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |year=1999 |isbn=9788120800236 |volume=1 |pages=vii–viii}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Gaurīnātha Śāstrī |year=1987 |title=A Concise History of Classical Sanskrit Literature |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |pages=77–78 |isbn=978-81-208-0027-4}}</ref> and that the campaigns of Raghu – his protagonist in the Raghuvaṃśa – reflect those of Chandragupta II.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wu7ZoAEACAAJ |title=Warfare in Pre-British India, 1500 BCE to 1740 CE |last=Roy |first=Kaushik |date=2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-315-74270-0 |page=58 |access-date=8 August 2020 |archive-date=9 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709184256/https://books.google.com/books?id=Wu7ZoAEACAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> In Canto IV of the Raghuvamsa, Kalidasa relates how the king's forces clash against the powerful, cavalry-centric, forces of the Persians and later the Yavanas (probably Huns) in the North-West. Here he makes special mention of the use horse-archers in the kings army and that the horses needed much rest after the hotly contested battles.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/raghuvamsaofkali00kliduoft/page/112 |title=The Raghuvamsa of Kalidasa |last=Kale |first=Moreshwar Ramchandra |date=1922 |publisher=P.S. Rege |location=Canto IV}}</ref> The five arms of the Gupta military included infantry, cavalry, chariot, elephants and ships. Gunaighar copper plate inscription of [[Vainyagupta|Vainya Gupta]] mentions ships but not chariots.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Bimal Kanti Majumdar |year=1949 |title=Military Pursuits and National Defence Under the Second Magadhan Empire |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=12 |pages=105–109 |jstor=44140516}}</ref> Ships had become integral part of Indian military in the 6th century AD.<br />
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==Religion==<br />
The buddhist "Cina Sanghārāma" was specially built for the use of Chinese monks near Bodhgaya by king Sri-Gupta, an ancestor of the Gupta Emperors.<ref "INDO12=>" Pg.66 The Cina Sanghārāma was specially built for the use of Chinese monks near Bodhgaya by king Sri-Gupta, an ancestor of the Gupta Emperors."{{Cite book|page=66|url=http://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.238415|title=India and China|last=Bagchi|first=Dr Prabodh Chandra|publisher=China Press Limited, Calcutta}}</ref><br />
[[File:Buddha in Sarnath Museum (Dhammajak Mutra).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Dharmachakra Pravartana Buddha at Sarnath]] from the Gupta era, 5th century CE]]<br />
The Guptas were traditionally a [[Hindu]] dynasty.<ref name="Singh">A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India by Upinder Singh [https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&pg=PA521 p. 521]</ref> They were [[Hindus]], and allowed followers of [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]] to practice their religions.<ref name="Mookerji">The Gupta Empire by Radhakumud Mookerji [https://books.google.com/books?id=uYXDB2gIYbwC&pg=PA133 pp. 133–] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217042651/https://books.google.com/books?id=uYXDB2gIYbwC&pg=PA133 |date=17 December 2019 }}</ref> [[Sanchi]] remained an important centre of Buddhism.<ref name="Mookerji" /> [[Kumaragupta I]] (455 CE) is said to have founded [[Nalanda]].<ref name="Mookerji" /> Modern genetic studies indicate that it was during the Gupta period that Indian caste groups ceased to intermarry (started practicing/enforcing [[endogamy]]).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2016/01/the-caste-system-has-left-its-mark-on-indians-genomes/|title=The caste system has left its mark on Indians' genomes|first=Annalee|last=Newitz|date=25 January 2016|website=Ars Technica|access-date=8 June 2021|archive-date=8 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210608015347/https://arstechnica.com/science/2016/01/the-caste-system-has-left-its-mark-on-indians-genomes/|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
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Some later rulers however seem to have especially promoted [[Buddhism]]. [[Narasimhagupta Baladitya]] ({{Circa|495}}–?), according to contemporary writer [[Paramartha]], was brought up under the influence of the [[Mahayanist]] philosopher, [[Vasubandhu]].<ref name="Singh" /> He built a [[sangharama]] at [[Nalanda]] and also a {{convert|300|feet|abbr=on}} high [[vihara]] with a Buddha statue within which, according to Xuanzang, resembled the "great Vihara built under the [[Bodhi tree]]". According to the ''[[Manjushrimulakalpa]]'' ({{Circa|800 CE}}), king Narasimhsagupta became a Buddhist monk, and left the world through meditation ([[Dhyāna in Buddhism|Dhyana]]).<ref name="Singh" /> The Chinese monk [[Xuanzang]] also noted that Narasimhagupta Baladitya's son, Vajra, who commissioned a sangharama as well, "possessed a heart firm in faith".<ref name="sankalia">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOVtAAAAMAAJ |title=The University of Nālandā |last=Sankalia, Hasmukhlal Dhirajlal |publisher=B.G. Paul & co. |year=1934 |isbn=9781014542144 |author-link=Hasmukh Dhirajlal Sankalia |access-date=27 July 2017 |archive-date=10 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170310231324/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOVtAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|45}}<ref name="sdutt">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lxRHYFd0fB4C |title=Buddhist Monks And Monasteries of India: Their History And Contribution To Indian Culture |last=Sukumar Dutt |publisher=George Allen and Unwin Ltd, London |year=1988 |isbn=978-81-208-0498-2 |orig-year=First published in 1962 |access-date=27 July 2017 |archive-date=10 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170310232744/https://books.google.com/books?id=lxRHYFd0fB4C |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|330}}<br />
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A second statue of the standing Buddha found in [[Sarnath]] has a dated inscription (year 157) in the name of Budhagupta. This statue is defaced, but the devotees at the feet of the Buddha are beautifully preserved. The content is partially preserved, but essentially identical to an inscription on the first statue, made by the same donor, allowing for reconstruction.<ref name="XVI"/><br />
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<gallery><br />
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File:Buddhist devotee on a statue of Buddha standing inscribed Gift of Abhayamitra in 157 GE (477 CE) in reign of Buddhagupta.jpg|Buddhist devotee on the second statue of the standing Buddha (fragment), inscribed "Gift of Abhayamitra in 157 in the reign of Buddhagupta" (477 CE). [[Sarnath Museum]].<ref name="vmis.in"/><ref name="Collections-Virtual Museum of Image"/><br />
File:Buddha inscription of Budhagupta in the Gupta Era year 157 (second statue).jpg|Buddha inscription of Budhagupta in the Gupta Era year 157 (second statue), with extrapolationa and English translation.<ref name="XVI">{{cite book|last1=Sahni|first1=Daya Ram|title=Annual Report Of The Archaeological Survey Of India 1914-15|date=1920|page=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.35506/page/n252 124] inscription XVI|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.35506}}</ref><br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
==Gupta administration==<br />
A study of the epigraphical records of the Gupta empire shows that there was a hierarchy of administrative divisions from top to bottom. The empire was called by various names such as ''Rajya'', ''Rashtra'', ''Desha'', ''Mandala'', ''Prithvi'' and ''Avani''. It was divided into 26 provinces, which were styled as ''Bhukti'', ''Pradesha'' and ''Bhoga''. Provinces were also divided into ''[[Vishaya]]s'' and put under the control of the ''Vishayapati''s. A ''Vishayapati'' administered the ''Vishaya'' with the help of the ''Adhikarana'' (council of representatives), which comprised four representatives: ''Nagarasreshesthi'', ''Sarthavaha'', ''Prathamakulika'' and ''Prathama Kayastha''. A part of the ''Vishaya'' was called ''Vithi''.{{sfn|Vidya Dhar Mahajan|1990|pp=530–31}} The Gupta also had trading links with the Sassanid and Byzantine Empire.{{Citation needed|date=July 2019}}. The four-fold varna system was observed under the Gupta period but caste system was fluid. Brahmins followed non-Brahmanical profession as well. Khastriyas were involved in trade and commerce. The society largely coexisted among themselves.<ref>{{cite book |title= Ancient Indian History and Civilization |first= Sailendra |last= Nath sen |publisher= Routledge |year= 1999 |page= 235 |isbn= 9788122411980 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&q=maurya+dynasty+sen |access-date= 21 September 2020 |archive-date= 27 September 2022 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220927082951/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Ancient_Indian_History_and_Civilization/Wk4_ICH_g1EC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=maurya+dynasty+sen&printsec=frontcover |url-status= live }}</ref>{{request quote|date=February 2021}}<br />
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==<span id='Legacy of the Gupta Empire'>Legacy</span>==<br />
{{Continental Asia in 420 CE|right|The Gupta Empire and other polities {{Circa|420 CE}}.||Map of the Gupta Empire circa 420 CE.png}}<br />
Scholars of this period include [[Varāhamihira]] and [[Aryabhata]], who is believed to be the first to consider [[zero]] as a separate number, postulated the theory that the Earth rotates about its own axis, and studied [[Solar eclipse|solar]] and [[lunar eclipse|lunar]] [[eclipses]]. [[Kalidasa]], who was a great playwright, who wrote plays such as [[Shakuntala]], and marked the highest point of [[Sanskrit literature]] is also said to have belonged to this period. The [[Sushruta|Sushruta Samhita]], which is a Sanskrit redaction text on all of the major concepts of ayurvedic medicine with innovative chapters on surgery, dates to the Gupta period.<br />
<br />
[[Chess]] is said to have developed in this period,<ref>{{cite book<br />
| last=Murray<br />
| first=H.J.R.<br />
| author-link=H. J. R. Murray<br />
| title=A History of Chess<br />
| publisher=Benjamin Press (originally published by Oxford University Press)<br />
| year=1913<br />
| isbn=978-0-936317-01-4<br />
| oclc=13472872<br />
| url=https://archive.org/details/historyofchess00murr<br />
}}</ref> where its early form in the 6th century was known as ''[[chaturanga|{{IAST|caturaṅga}}]]'', which translates as "four divisions [of the military]" – [[infantry]], [[cavalry]], [[war elephant|elephantry]], and [[chariot]]ry – represented by the pieces that would evolve into the modern pawn, knight, bishop, and rook, respectively. Doctors also invented several medical instruments, and even performed operations. The [[Indian numerals]] which were the first [[positional]] [[base 10]] [[numeral systems]] in the world originated from Gupta India. The [[Hindu calendar#Weekday/Vāsara|names of the seven days in a week]] appeared at the start of the Gupta period based on Hindu deities and planets corresponding to the Roman names. The ancient Gupta text [[Kama Sutra]] by the Indian scholar [[Vatsyayana]] is widely considered to be the standard work on [[human sexual behaviour]] in Sanskrit literature.<br />
<br />
[[Aryabhata]], a noted mathematician-astronomer of the Gupta period proposed that the earth is round and rotates about its own axis. He also discovered that the Moon and planets shine by reflected sunlight. Instead of the prevailing cosmogony in which eclipses were caused by pseudo-planetary nodes [[Rahu]] and [[Ketu (mythology)|Ketu]], he explained eclipses in terms of shadows cast by and falling on Earth.<ref>Thomas Khoshy, Elementary Number Theory with Applications, Academic Press, 2002, p. 567. {{ISBN|0-12-421171-2}}.</ref><br />
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==Art and architecture==<br />
{{Main|Gupta art}}<br />
<gallery mode="packed" style="font-size:88%; line-height:130%; border-bottom:1px #aaa solid;" heights="200"><br />
Sanchi_temple_17.jpg|A [[tetrastyle]] [[prostyle]] [[Gupta period]] temple at [[Sanchi]] besides the Apsidal hall with [[Maurya]] foundation, an example of [[Buddhist architecture]] and [[Hindu architecture]].<ref>Harle, 111;</ref>{{verification failed|date=March 2023}}<ref>Rowland, 219-220; Michell (1988), 94</ref>{{full citation needed|date=March 2023}} 5th century CE.<br />
Mahabodhitemple.jpg|The current structure of the [[Mahabodhi Temple]] dates to the Gupta era, 5th century CE. Marking the location where the Buddha is said to have attained enlightenment.<br />
Deogarh01.jpg|[[Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh|Dashavatara Temple]] is a Vishnu Hindu temple built during the Gupta period.<br />
File:KITLV 87946 - Unknown - Pataini temple in British India - 1897.tif|[[Pataini temple]] is a Jain temple built during the Gupta period.<br />
</gallery><br />
The Gupta period is generally regarded as a classic peak of North [[Indian art]] for all the major religious groups. Although painting was evidently widespread, the surviving works are almost all religious sculpture. The period saw the emergence of the iconic carved stone deity in Hindu art, as well as the Buddha-figure and [[Jain]] ''[[tirthankara]]'' figures, the latter often on a very large scale. The two great centres of sculpture were [[Mathura]] and [[Gandhara]], the latter the centre of [[Greco-Buddhist art]]. Both exported sculpture to other parts of northern India.<br />
<br />
The most famous remaining monuments in a broadly Gupta style, the caves at [[Ajanta Caves|Ajanta]], [[Elephanta Caves|Elephanta]], and [[Ellora Caves|Ellora]] (respectively Buddhist, Hindu, and mixed including Jain) were in fact produced under later dynasties, but primarily reflect the monumentality and balance of Guptan style. Ajanta contains by far the most significant survivals of painting from this and the surrounding periods, showing a mature form which had probably had a long development, mainly in painting palaces.{{sfn|J.C. Harle|1994|pp=118–22, 123–26, 129–35}} The Hindu [[Udayagiri Caves]] actually record connections with the dynasty and its ministers,{{sfn|J.C. Harle|1994|pp=92–97}} and the [[Vishnu Temple, Deogarh|Dashavatara Temple]] at [[Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh|Deogarh]] is a major temple, one of the earliest to survive, with important sculpture.{{sfn|J.C. Harle|1994|pp=113–14}}<br />
<br />
<gallery widths="170" heights="170"><br />
File:Vishnu Hood2 Deogarh.jpg|[[Vishnu]] reclining on the serpent [[Shesha]] (Ananta), [[Dashavatara Temple]] 5th century<br />
File:SFEC BritMus Asia 030.JPG|Buddha from [[Sarnath]], 5–6th century CE<br />
File:Elephanta tourists.jpg|The Colossal [[trimurti]] at the [[Elephanta Caves]]<br />
File:Ajanta Padmapani.jpg|Painting of [[Padmapani]] Cave 1 at [[Ajanta Caves|Ajanta]]<br />
File:Mukhalinga.JPG|The [[Shiva]] ''[[mukhalinga]]'' (faced-[[lingam]]) from the [[Bhumara Temple]]<br />
File:Nalraja fort chilapata.JPG|Nalrajar Garh fortification wall in [[Chilapata Forests]], [[West Bengal]], is one of the last surviving fortification remains from the Gupta period, currently 5–7 m high<br />
File:Nalanda University India ruins.jpg|[[Nalanda University]] was first established under Gupta Empire<br />
File:Gupt kalin mandir bhitargaon.jpg|[[Bhitargaon|Bitargaon temple]] from the Gupta period provide one of the earliest examples of pointed arches anywhere in the world<br />
File:Ajanta-3-aurangabad.jpg|Ajanta caves from Gupta era<br />
File:MET DT5237 (cropped).jpg|Krishna fighting the horse demon [[Keshi (demon)|Keshi]], 5th century<br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
==List of rulers==<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- bgcolor=#cccccc<br />
! colspan=2 | Ruler!!Reign (CE)!!Notes<br />
|- <br />
|[[Sri-Gupta I]]||[[File:Maharaja Sri Gupta inscription on the Allahabad pillar Samudragupta inscription.jpg|100px]]||{{Circa|late 3rd century CE}}|| Founder of the dynasty.<br />
|- <br />
|[[Ghatotkacha (king)|Ghatotkacha]]||[[File:Maharaja Sri Ghatotkacha inscription on the Allahabad pillar Samudragupta inscription.jpg|100px]]||280/290–319 CE||<br />
|- <br />
|[[Chandragupta I|Chandra-Gupta I]]||[[File:Queen Kumaradevi and King Chandragupta I on a coin.jpg|100px]]||319–335 CE||His title ''Maharajadhiraja'' ("king of great kings") suggests that he was the first emperor of the dynasty. It is not certain how he turned his small ancestral kingdom into an empire, although a widely accepted theory among modern historians is that his marriage to the [[Licchavi (tribe)|Licchavi]] princess Kumaradevi helped him extend his political power.<br />
|- <br />
|[[Samudragupta|Samudra-Gupta]]||[[File:SamudraguptaCoin.jpg|100px]]||335–375 CE||Defeated several kings of northern India, and annexed their territories to his empire. He also marched along the south-eastern coast of India, advancing as far as the [[Pallava dynasty|Pallava]] kingdom. In addition, he subjugated several frontier kingdoms and tribal oligarchies. His empire extended from [[Ravi River]] in the west to the [[Brahmaputra River]] in the east, and from the Himalayan foothills in the north to central India in the south-west; several rulers along the south-eastern coast were his tributaries.<br />
|- <br />
|[[Kacha (king)|Kacha]]||[[File:Kachagupta of the Gupta Empire circa AD 335.jpg|100px]]||mid 4th century CE|| Rival brother/king, possibly an usurper, there are coins who attest him as ruler; possibly identical with [[Samudragupta|Samudra-Gupta]].<br />
|- <br />
|[[Ramagupta|Rama-Gupta]]||||||<br />
|- <br />
|[[Chandragupta II|Chandra-Gupta II '''Vikramaditya''']]||[[File:ChandraguptaIIOnHorse.jpg|100px]]||375–415 CE|| Continued the expansionist policy of his father [[Samudragupta]]: historical evidence suggests that he defeated the [[Western Kshatrapas]], and extended the Gupta empire from the [[Indus River]] in the west to the [[Bengal]] region in the east, and from the Himalayan foothills in the north to the [[Narmada River]] in the south.<br />
|- <br />
|[[Kumaragupta|Kumara-Gupta I]]||[[File:KumaraguptaFightingLion.jpg|100px]]||415–455 CE|| He seems to have maintained control of his inherited territory, which extended from [[Gujarat]] in the west to [[Bengal]] region in the east. <br />
|- <br />
|[[Skandagupta|Skanda-Gupta]]||[[File:Skandagupta Circa 455-480 CE.jpg|100px]]||455–467 CE||It is stated that he restored the fallen fortunes of the Gupta family, which has led to suggestions that during his predecessor's last years, the Empire may have suffered reverses, possibly against the [[Pushyamitras]] or the [[Hunas]]. He is generally considered the last of the great Gupta Emperors.<br />
|- <br />
|[[Purugupta|Puru-Gupta]]||||467–473 CE||<br />
|- <br />
|[[Kumaragupta II|Kumara-Gupta II '''Kramaditya''']]||[[File:Kumaragupta II Kramaditya Circa 530-540 CE.jpg|100px]]||473–476 CE||<br />
|- <br />
|[[Buddhagupta|Buddha-Gupta]]||[[File:Budhagupta in Malwa Circa 476-495 CE.jpg|100px]]||476–495 CE||He had close ties with the rulers of [[Kannauj]] and together they sought to run the [[Alchon Huns]] ([[Hunas]]) out of the fertile plains of Northern India.<br />
|- <br />
|[[Narasimhagupta|Narasimha-Gupta '''Baladitya''']]||[[File:Narasinhagupta I Circa 414-455 AD.jpg|100px]]||495–530 CE|| <br />
|- <br />
|[[Kumaragupta III|Kumara-Gupta III]]||||530–540 CE||<br />
|- <br />
|[[Vishnugupta (Gupta Empire)|Vishnu-Gupta '''Candraditya''']]||[[File:Vishnugupta Candraditya Circa 540-550 CE.jpg|100px]]||540–550 CE||<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Family tree ==<br />
<br />
{{Chart top|width=100%|collapsed=yes|Gupta dynasty}}<br />
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{{Tree chart/start|align=center|style=font-size:95%}}<br />
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{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |A01 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |<br />
A01=''Gupta Kingdom''|boxstyle_A01=border-width:0px}}<br />
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{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |A01 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |<br />
A01='''[[Gupta (king)|Gupta]]'''<br/><sup>(1)</sup><br/><small>r. {{circa}} 3rd Century</small>|boxstyle_A01=border-color:#FFD700}}<br />
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{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |}}<br />
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{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |A01 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |<br />
A01='''[[Ghatotkacha (king)|Ghatotkacha]]'''<br/><sup>(2)</sup><br/><small>r. {{circa}} 3rd-4th<br/>Century</small>|boxstyle_A01=border-color:#FFD700}}<br />
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{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |}}<br />
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{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |A01 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |<br />
A01=''Gupta Empire''|boxstyle_A01=border-width:0px}}<br />
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{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |A01 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |<br />
A01='''[[Chandragupta I]]'''<br/><sup>(3)</sup><br/><small>r. {{circa}} 319-335/50</small>|boxstyle_A01=border-color:#FFD700}}<br />
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{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |)|-|-|-|.| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |}}<br />
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{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | |A01 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |<br />
A01=?|boxstyle_A01=border-width:0px}}<br />
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{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |A01 | |A02 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |<br />
A01='''[[Samudragupta]]'''<br/><sup>(5)</sup><br/><small>r. {{circa}} 335/50-375</small>|boxstyle_A01=border-color:#FFD700|<br />
A02='''[[Kacha (king)|Kacha]]'''<br/><sup>(4)</sup><br/><small>r. {{circa}} 4th Century</small>|boxstyle_A02=border-color:#FFD700}}<br />
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{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |)|-|-|-|.| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |}}<br />
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{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | |A01 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |<br />
A01=?|boxstyle_A01=border-width:0px}}<br />
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{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |A01 | |A02 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |<br />
A01='''[[Chandragupta II]]'''<br/><sup>(7)</sup><br/><small>r. {{circa}} 375-415</small>|boxstyle_A01=border-color:#FFD700|<br />
A02='''[[Ramagupta]]'''<br/><sup>(6)</sup><br/><small>r. {{circa}} 4th Century</small>|boxstyle_A02=border-color:#FFD700}}<br />
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{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |}}<br />
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{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |A01 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |<br />
A01='''[[Kumaragupta I]]'''<br/><sup>(8)</sup><br/><small>r. {{circa}} 415-455</small>|boxstyle_A01=border-color:#FFD700}}<br />
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{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |,|-|-|-|(| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |}}<br />
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{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |A01 | |A02 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |<br />
A01='''[[Skandagupta]]'''<br/><sup>(8)</sup><br/><small>r. {{circa}} 455-467</small>|boxstyle_A01=border-color:#FFD700|<br />
A02='''[[Purugupta]]'''<br/><sup>(9)</sup><br/><small>r. {{circa}} 467-473</small>|boxstyle_A02=border-color:#FFD700}}<br />
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{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |,|-|-|-|+|-|-|-|.| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |}}<br />
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{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |A01 | |A02 | |A03 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |<br />
A01='''[[Kumaragupta II]]'''<br/><sup>(10)</sup><br/><small>r. {{circa}} 473-476</small>|boxstyle_A01=border-color:#FFD700|<br />
A02='''[[Budhagupta]]'''<br/><sup>(11)</sup><br/><small>r. {{circa}} 476-495</small>|boxstyle_A02=border-color:#FFD700|<br />
A03='''[[Narasimhagupta]]'''<br/><sup>(12)</sup><br/><small>r. {{circa}} 495-530</small>|boxstyle_A03=border-color:#FFD700}}<br />
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{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |}}<br />
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{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |A01 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |<br />
A01='''[[Kumaragupta III]]'''<br/><sup>(13)</sup><br/><small>r. {{circa}} 530-540</small>|boxstyle_A01=border-color:#FFD700}}<br />
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{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |}}<br />
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{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |A01 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |<br />
A01='''[[Vishnugupta (Gupta Empire)|Vishnugupta]]'''<br/><sup>(14)</sup><br/><small>r. {{circa}} 540-550</small>|boxstyle_A01=border-color:#FFD700}}<br />
<br />
{{Tree chart/end}}<br />
<br />
{{Chart bottom}}<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
<br />
{{Part of History of India|File:Meister_des_Mahâjanaka_Jâtaka_001.jpg}}<br />
<br />
* [[Gupta era]]<br />
* [[Uchchhakalpa dynasty]]<br />
{{clear}}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
=== Bibliography ===<br />
{{Refbegin|30em}}<br />
* {{cite book |author=Ashvini Agrawal |title=Rise and Fall of the Imperial Guptas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hRjC5IaJ2zcC&pg=PA315 |year=1989 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0592-7 |access-date=29 August 2018 |archive-date=8 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200108040744/https://books.google.com/books?id=hRjC5IaJ2zcC&pg=PA315 |url-status=live }}<br />
* {{cite book |author=Dilip Kumar Ganguly |title=The Imperial Guptas and Their Times |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hud2_Ie3T94C&pg=PP1 |year=1987 |publisher=Abhinav |isbn=978-81-7017-222-2 |access-date=29 August 2018 |archive-date=8 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200108201608/https://books.google.com/books?id=Hud2_Ie3T94C&pg=PP1 |url-status=live }}<br />
* {{cite book |author=H.C. Raychaudhuri |author-link=Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri |title=Political History of Ancient India: From the Accession of Parikshit to the Extinction of the Gupta Dynasty |url=https://archive.org/details/politicalhistory00raycuoft |publisher=University of Calcutta |isbn=978-1-4400-5272-9 |year=1923 }}<br />
* {{cite book |author=J.C. Harle |title=The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent |url=https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo00harl |url-access=registration |year=1994 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-06217-5 }}<br />
* {{cite book |author=R.C. Majumdar |author-link=R. C. Majumdar |title=A Comprehensive History of India |volume=3, Part I: A.D. 300-985 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mRBuAAAAMAAJ |year=1981 |publisher=Indian History Congress / People's Publishing House |oclc=34008529 |pages=17–52 }}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Michell |first1=George |title=The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to its Meaning and Forms |url=https://archive.org/details/hindutempleintro0000mich |url-access=registration |year=1988 |orig-year=First published 1977 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-53230-1}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Pletcher |first1=Kenneth |title=The History of India |year=2011 |publisher= Britannica Educational Publishing |isbn=978-1-61530-201-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hdmcAAAAQBAJ}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Rowland |first1=Benjamin |title=The Art and Architecture of India: Buddhist, Hindu, Jain |url=https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo0000rowl_r2z2/page/n5/mode/2up |url-access=registration |year=1967 |orig-year=First published 1953 |edition=3rd |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-056102-9}}<br />
* {{cite book |author=Shankar Goyal |title=Problems of Ancient Indian History: New Perspectives and Perceptions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZSVuAAAAMAAJ |year=2001 |publisher=Book Enclave |isbn=978-81-87036-66-1 |access-date=13 December 2018 |archive-date=11 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200111224901/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZSVuAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}<br />
* {{cite book |author=Tej Ram Sharma |title=A Political History of the Imperial Guptas: From Gupta to Skandagupta |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fWVZWjNAcAgC&pg=PA50 |year=1989 |publisher=Concept |isbn=978-81-7022-251-4 |access-date=29 August 2018 |archive-date=13 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200113155014/https://books.google.com/books?id=fWVZWjNAcAgC&pg=PA50 |url-status=live }}<br />
* {{cite book |author=Vidya Dhar Mahajan |author-link=Vidya Dhar Mahajan |year=1990 |title=A History of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CJ2UAAAACAAJ |publisher=State Mutual Book & Periodical Service |isbn=978-0-7855-1191-5 |access-date=29 August 2018 |archive-date=10 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200110060325/https://books.google.com/books?id=CJ2UAAAACAAJ |url-status=live }}<br />
* {{cite book |author=Upinder Singh |author-link=Upinder Singh |title=Political Violence in Ancient India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dYM4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA343 |year=2017 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-98128-7 |access-date=13 December 2018 |archive-date=10 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200110123751/https://books.google.com/books?id=dYM4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA343 |url-status=live }}<br />
* {{citation|last=Stein|first=B.|author-link=Burton Stein|editor-last=Arnold|editor-first=D.|year=2010 |title=A History of India|edition=2nd|publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]]|place=Oxford|isbn=978-1-4051-9509-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QY4zdTDwMAQC}}<br />
{{Refend}}<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{Reflist|group=note|2}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{EB1911 poster|Gupta}}<br />
<br />
<br />
* [http://coinindia.com/galleries-gupta.html Coins of Gupta Empire]<br />
<br />
{{Middle kingdoms of India}}<br />
{{Empires}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Gupta Empire| ]]<br />
[[Category:Hindu states]]<br />
[[Category:Empires and kingdoms of India]]<br />
[[Category:Medieval India]]<br />
[[Category:Dynasties of India]]<br />
[[Category:Former empires]]<br />
[[Category:States and territories established in the 320s]]<br />
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in the 550s]]<br />
[[Category:4th-century establishments in India]]<br />
[[Category:550s disestablishments]]<br />
[[Category:6th-century disestablishments in India]]<br />
[[Category:3rd-century establishments in Nepal]]</div>2405:201:6036:801D:5C0B:881A:3959:B939https://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ashoka&diff=444053Ashoka2024-03-11T08:37:09Z<p>2405:201:6036:801D:5C0B:881A:3959:B939: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Use dmy dates|date= March 2021}}<br />
{{Infobox royalty<br />
|name=Ashoka The Great <br />
| title =[[Chakravartin]]<br>Magadha-dhirāja<br> Dhammasoka <br> Mahāsammata Janapadasthamaviryaprapt <br> Priyadarśin Devanampriya<br />
| succession = 3rd [[List of Mauryan rulers|Mauryan Emperor]]<br />
| image = Indian Relief of Ashoka, circa 1st century BC, from the Amaravathi village, Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh (India), in the Guimet Museum (Paris).jpg<br />
| image_size = 285px<br />
| caption = A {{circa|1st century BCE/CE}} relief of Ashoka, from the Amaravathi village, Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh India, currently present in the Guimet Museum, Paris.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|pp=295–296}}{{sfn|Singh|2017|p=162}}<br />
| reign = {{circa|268|232 BCE}}{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=331}}<br />
| coronation = 269<br />
BCE{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=331}}<br />
| predecessor = [[Bindusara Maurya]]<br />
| successor = [[Dasharatha Maurya]]<br />
| spouses = {{Unbulleted list|<br />
| Empress Consort [[Devi (wife of Ashoka)|Devi]] (Sri Lankan tradition)<br />
| Queen [[Karuvaki]] (own inscriptions)<br />
| Queen [[Padmavati (wife of Ashoka)|Padmavati]] (North Indian tradition)<br />
| Queen [[Asandhimitra]] (Sri Lankan tradition)<br />
| Queen [[Tishyaraksha]] (Sri Lankan and North Indian tradition)}}<br />
| issue = {{unbulleted list<br />
| Prince [[Mahinda (Buddhist monk)|Mahendra]] (Sri Lankan tradition)<br />
| Princess [[Sanghamitta]] (Sri Lankan tradition)<br />
| Prince [[Tivala]] (own inscriptions)<br />
| Crown Prince [[Kunala]] (North Indian tradition)<br />
| Princess [[Charumati]] }}<br />
| dynasty = [[Maurya Empire|Maurya]]<br />
| father = Emperor [[Bindusara Maurya]]<br />
| mother = Queen [[Mother of Ashoka|Subhadrangi or Dharma]]{{refn|group=note|The North Indian sources indicate Subhadrangi as the name of Ashoka's mother, while the Sri Lankan sources mention her as Dharma}}<br />
| religion = [[Buddhism]]<ref name="Strong 2003">{{cite journal |author-last=Strong |author-first=John S. |author-link=John S. Strong |date=2002–2003 |title=Aśoka's Wives and the Ambiguities of Buddhist Kingship |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/asie_0766-1177_2002_num_13_1_1176 |editor-last=Faure |editor-first=Bernard |journal=Cahiers d'Extrême-Asie |location=[[Paris]] |publisher=[[French School of the Far East|École française d'Extrême-Orient]] |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=35–54 |doi=10.3406/asie.2002.1176 |doi-access=free |eissn=2117-6272 |issn=0766-1177 |jstor=44167352 |access-date=8 August 2021 |archive-date=8 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210808225737/https://www.persee.fr/doc/asie_0766-1177_2002_num_13_1_1176 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JaVRCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA219 219]}}<br />
| birth_date = c. 304 BCE<br />
| death_date = 232 BCE (aged c. 71{{snd}}72)<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Ashoka''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|ʃ|oʊ|k|ə}}, {{IAST3|Aśoka}}; also ''Asoka''; {{circa|304}}&nbsp;– 232&nbsp;BCE), popularly known as '''Ashoka the Great''', and also referred to as '''Chakraravartin Samrat Ashoka''', was the third [[Mauryan Emperor]] of [[Magadha]] in the [[Indian subcontinent]] during {{circa|268}} to 232 BCE. His empire covered a large part of the Indian subcontinent, stretching from present-day [[Afghanistan]] in the west to present-day [[Bangladesh]] in the east, with its capital at [[Pataliputra]]. A patron of [[Buddhism]], he is credited with playing an important role in the spread of [[Buddhism ]]across ancient [[Asia]].The first perception of the whole of India as a country comes with the [[Mauryan Empire]]. The inscriptions of the Mauryan emperor Ashoka range from [[Kandahar]] and north of [[Kabul]] to [[Karnataka ]]and [[Andhra]] and they are in[[ Prakrit]], [[Greek ]]and [[Aramaic]]. So it was with such political unity that the concept of India came, and its first name was [[Jambudvipa]] a name which Ashoka uses in his [[Minor Rock Edict]]-I, meaning ''the land of the Jamun fruit.''<ref name="HABIB”>" Pg.9 : The first perception of the whole of India as a country comes with the Mauryan Empire. Those of you, who have studied Indian history would know that the inscriptions of the Mauryan emperor Ashoka range from Kandahar and north of Kabul to Karnataka and Andhra and they are in Prakrit, Greek and Aramaic. So it was with such political unity that the concept of India came, and its first name was Jambudvipa a name which Ashoka uses in his Minor Rock Edict-1, meaning 'the land of the Jamun fruit.’"{{Cite book|url=http://archive.org/details/IdeaofIndiabyIrfanHabib|page=9|title=Idea of India by Irfan Habib|first=Irfan |last=Habib|date=2015-10-24}}</ref><br />
<br />
<br />
Ashoka's edicts state that during his eighth regnal year ({{Circa|260 BCE}}), he conquered [[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]] after a [[Kalinga War|brutal war]]. Ashoka subsequently devoted himself to the propagation of "[[Ashoka's policy of Dhamma|dhamma]]" or righteous conduct, the major theme of the edicts. Ashoka's edicts suggest that a few years after the [[Kalinga War]], he was gradually drawn towards Buddhism. The Buddhist legends credit Ashoka with establishing a large number of [[stupa]]s, patronising the [[Third Buddhist council]], supporting Buddhist missionaries, making generous donations to the Buddhist Sangha. <br />
<br />
Ashoka's existence as a historical emperor had almost been forgotten, but since the decipherment of sources written in [[Brahmi script]] in the 19th century, Ashoka holds a reputation as one of the greatest [[List of Indian monarchs|Indian emperors]]. [[State Emblem of India|The emblem]] of the modern [[Republic of India]] is an adaptation of the [[Lion Capital of Ashoka]]. Ashoka's wheel, the [[Ashoka Chakra]] is adopted at the centre of the [[National Flag of India]].<br />
<br />
== Sources of information ==<br />
<br />
Information about Ashoka comes from [[List of Edicts of Ashoka|his inscriptions]]; other inscriptions that mention him or are possibly from his reign; and ancient literature, especially Buddhist texts.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|pp=5–8}} These sources often contradict each other, although various historians have attempted to correlate their testimony.{{sfn|Singh|2012|p=132}} <br />
<br />
[[File:Ashoka Rock Edict at Junagadh.jpg|thumb|[[Ashoka's Major Rock Edict]] at [[Junagadh]] contains inscriptions by Ashoka (fourteen of the [[Edicts of Ashoka]]), [[Rudradaman I]] and [[Skandagupta]].]]<br />
'''Inscriptions'''<br />
<br />
Ashoka's inscriptions are the earliest self-representations of imperial power in the Indian subcontinent.{{sfn|Singh|2012|p=131}} However, these inscriptions are focused mainly on the topic of ''[[Ashoka's policy of Dhamma|dhamma]]'', and provide little information regarding other aspects of the Maurya state or society.{{sfn|Singh|2012|p=132}} <br />
<br />
A small number of other inscriptions also provide some information about Ashoka.{{sfn|Singh|2012|p=132}} For example, he finds a mention in the 2nd century [[Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman]].{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=8}} [[Aramaic Inscription of Taxila|An inscription]] discovered at [[Sirkap]] mentions a lost word beginning with "Priy", which is theorised to be Ashoka's title "Priyadarshi", although this is not certain.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=7}} Some other inscriptions, such as the [[Sohgaura copper plate inscription]], have been tentatively dated to Ashoka's period by some scholars, although others contest this. {{sfn|Thapar|1961|pp=7–8}}<br />
<br />
'''Buddhist legends'''<br />
<br />
Much of the information about Ashoka comes from Buddhist legends, which present him as a great, ideal king.{{sfn|Singh|2008|pp=331–332}} These legends appear in texts that are not contemporary to Ashoka and were composed by Buddhist authors, who used various stories to illustrate the impact of their faith on Ashoka. This makes it necessary to exercise caution while relying on them for historical information.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|pp=8–9}} Among modern scholars, opinions range from downright dismissal of these legends as mythological to acceptance of all historical portions that seem plausible.{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=12}}<br />
<br />
The Buddhist legends about Ashoka exist in several languages, including [[Sanskrit]], [[Pali]], [[Tibetic languages|Tibetan]], [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Burmese language|Burmese]], [[Sinhala language|Sinhala]], [[Thai language|Thai]], [[Lao language|Lao]], and [[Khotanese language|Khotanese]]. All these legends can be traced to two primary traditions:{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=143}}<br />
* the North Indian tradition preserved in the Sanskrit-language texts such as ''[[Divyavadana]]'' (including its constituent ''[[Ashokavadana]]''); and Chinese sources such as ''A-yü wang chuan'' and ''A-yü wang ching''.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=143}}<br />
* the Sri Lankan tradition preserved in Pali-lanuage texts, such as ''[[Dipavamsa]]'', ''[[Mahavamsa]]'', ''Vamsatthapakasini'' (a commentary on ''Mahavamsa''), Buddhaghosha's commentary on the Vinaya, and ''Samanta-pasadika''.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=143}}{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=8}}<br />
<br />
There are several significant differences between the two traditions. For example, the Sri Lankan tradition emphasizes Ashoka's role in convening the [[Third Buddhist council]], and his dispatch of several missionaries to distant regions, including his son [[Mahinda (Buddhist monk)|Mahinda]] to Sri Lanka.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=143}} However, the North Indian tradition makes no mention of these events. It describes other events not found in the Sri Lankan tradition, such as a story about another son named Kunala. {{sfn|Strong|1995|p=144}}<br />
<br />
Even while narrating the common stories, the two traditions diverge in several ways. For example, both ''Ashokavadana'' and ''Mahavamsa'' mention that Ashoka's queen [[Tishyarakshita]] had the [[Bodhi Tree]] destroyed. In ''Ashokavadana'', the queen manages to have the tree healed after she realises her mistake. In the ''Mahavamsa'', she permanently destroys the tree, but only after a branch of the tree has been transplanted in Sri Lanka.{{sfn|Strong|1995|pp=152–154}} In another story, both the texts describe Ashoka's unsuccessful attempts to collect a relic of Gautama Buddha from [[Ramagrama stupa|Ramagrama]]. In ''Ashokavadana'', he fails to do so because he cannot match the devotion of the Nagas who hold the relic; however, in the ''Mahavamsa'', he fails to do so because the Buddha had destined the relic to be enshrined by King [[Dutthagamani]] of Sri Lanka. {{sfn|Strong|1995|p=155}} Using such stories, the ''Mahavamsa'' glorifies Sri Lanka as the new preserve of Buddhism. {{sfn|Strong|1995|pp=154–157}}<br />
<br />
[[File:013 King Asoka visits Ramagrama (33428090870).jpg|thumb|800px|center|King Ashoka visits Ramagrama, to take relics of the Buddha from the [[Nāga|Nagas]], but in vain. Southern gateway, Stupa 1, [[Sanchi]].{{sfn|Singh|2017|p=162}}]]<br />
<br />
'''Other sources'''<br />
<br />
Numismatic, sculptural, and archaeological evidence supplements research on Ashoka.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=11}} Ashoka's name appears in the lists of Mauryan kings in the various [[Puranas]]. However, these texts do not provide further details about him, as their [[Brahmanism|Brahmanical]] authors were not patronised by the Mauryans.{{sfn|Thapar|1995|p=15}} Other texts, such as the ''[[Arthashastra]]'' and ''[[Indica (Megasthenes)|Indica of Megasthenes]]'', which provide general information about the Maurya period, can also be used to make inferences about Ashoka's reign.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=9}} However, the ''Arthashastra'' is a normative text that focuses on an ideal rather than a historical state, and its dating to the Mauryan period is a subject of debate. The ''Indica'' is a [[lost work]], and only parts of it survive in the form of paraphrases in later writings.{{sfn|Singh|2012|p=132}}<br />
<br />
The 12th-century text ''[[Rajatarangini]]'' mentions a [[Kashmiris|Kashmiri]] king Ashoka who built several [[stupa]]s: some scholars, such as [[Aurel Stein]], have identified this king with the Maurya king Ashoka.<br />
<br />
Rajatarangini mentions Kashmir King Jalauka's father and predecessor as Ashoka.<br />
<blockquote><br />
अथाऽशोककुलोत्पन्नोयद्वाऽन्याभिजनोद्भवः । <br />
भूमि दामोदरो नाम जुगोप जगतीपतिः ।।१५३॥<br />
— Kalhana, Rajatarangini 1.143<br />
</blockquote><br />
Translation : Jalauka who born in the lineage of Ashoka, become the father of a son named Damodara .<br />
<br />
Modern scholars consider him the son of [[Ashoka]]<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=85aQTQE6YQgC&pg=PA163&lpg=PA163&dq=%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%95+%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0&source=bl&ots=88d3J34P3W&sig=ACfU3U2kOFpYedtL_OI8Qpgys17UTNyvGw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj43cm3ysSAAxVjg2MGHbptBa84KBDoAXoECAQQAg#v=onepage&q=%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%95%20%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0&f=false|title=Bharatiya Ithias|last=Jain|first=Jyoti Prasād|date=2004|publisher=Bhāratīya Jñānapīṭha|isbn=978-81-263-1029-6|language=hi}}</ref>. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://historyclasses.in/2021/08/history-of-kashmir.html|title=Ancient History of Kashmir|website=historyclasses.in|access-date=2023-08-05}}</ref>Probably, during Ashoka's reign, Jalauka might have been the governor of Kashmir. Later, Jalauka declared himself the independent ruler there.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=1eMfzTBcXcYC&pg=PA78&lpg=PA78&dq=%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%95+%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0&source=bl&ots=T5sMYuCqi0&sig=ACfU3U125JJCrXDJ-Ff3QnlblhKsdz5zKw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj43cm3ysSAAxVjg2MGHbptBa84KBDoAXoECAMQAghttps://books.google.co.in/books?id=_tWdDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT17&lpg=PT17&dq=%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%95+%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0&source=bl&ots=hlGPlYCQHj&sig=ACfU3U28BvOY8cB_6fD4svl2YnsxTVpWzA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj43cm3ysSAAxVjg2MGHbptBa84KBDoAXoECAYQAg|title=Culture and Political History of Kashmir|last=Bamzai|first=Prithivi Nath Kaul|date=1994|publisher=M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd.|isbn=978-81-85880-31-0|language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
<br />
'''Alternative interpretation of the epigraphic evidence'''<br />
{{One source section|date=January 2023}}<br />
<br />
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=450|caption_align=center<br />
| align = right<br />
| direction =horizontal<br />
| header=The Edicts and their declared authors<br />
| image1 = Major Rock Edicts and Major Pillar Edicts by Devanampiya Piyadasi.jpg<br />
| caption1 = Edicts in the name of [[Priyadasi|Piyadasi]] or ''[[Devanampiya]]'' Piyadasi ("King Piyadasi"):<br />[[File:Brown pog.svg|8px]]: [[Major Rock Edicts]]<br />[[File:Brown 5C3317.svg|3px]]: [[Major Pillar Edicts]]<br />
| image2 = Minor Rock Edicts and Minor Pillar Edicts of Ashoka.jpg<br />
| caption2 = Edicts in the name of Ashoka or just "''[[Devanampiya]]''" ("King"), or both together:<br />[[File:Orange ff8040 pog.svg|8px]]: [[Minor Rock Edicts]]<br />[[File:Orange F79A18.svg|3px]]: [[Minor Pillar Edicts]]<br />
| footer=The different areas covered by the two types of inscriptions, and their different content in respect to Buddhism, may point to different rulers.<ref name="CIB226"/><br />
| footer_align = center<br />
}}<br />
For some scholars, such as [[Christopher I. Beckwith]], Ashoka, whose name only appears in the [[Minor Rock Edicts]], is not the same as king [[Priyadasi|Piyadasi]], or ''[[Devanampiya]]'' Piyadasi (i.e. "Beloved of the Gods Piyadasi", "Beloved of the Gods" being a fairly widespread title for "King"), who is named as the author of the [[Major Pillar Edicts]] and the [[Major Rock Edicts]].<ref name="CIB226">{{cite book |last1=Beckwith |first1=Christopher I. |title=Greek Buddha: Pyrrho's Encounter with Early Buddhism in Central Asia |date=2017 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-17632-1 |pages=226–250 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=53GYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA234 |language=en |access-date=31 January 2020 |archive-date=14 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200514211528/https://books.google.com/books?id=53GYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA234 |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
<br />
Beckwith suggests that Piyadasi was living in the 3rd century BCE, was probably the son of [[Chandragupta Maurya]] known to the Greeks as [[Amitrochates]], and only advocated for piety ("[[Dharma]]") in his [[Major Pillar Edicts]] and [[Major Rock Edicts]], without ever mentioning [[Buddhism]], the [[Buddha]], or the [[Samgha]] (the single notable exception is the 7th Edict of the [[Major Pillar Edicts]] which does mention the Samgha, but is a considered a later fake by Beckwith).<ref name="CIB226"/> Also, the geographical spread of his inscription shows that Piyadasi ruled a vast Empire, contiguous with the [[Seleucid Empire]] in the West.<ref name="CIB226"/><br />
<br />
On the contrary, for Beckwith, Ashoka was [[Ashoka (Gonandiya)|a later king of the 1st–2nd century CE]], whose name only appears explicitly in the [[Minor Rock Edicts]] and allusively in the [[Minor Pillar Edicts]], and who does mention the Buddha and the [[Samgha]], explicitly promoting Buddhism.<ref name=" CIB226"/> The name "Priyadarsi" does occur in two of the minor edicts (Gujarra and Bairat), but Beckwith again considers them as later fabrications.<ref name=" CIB226"/> The minor inscriptions cover a very different and much smaller geographical area, clustering in Central India.<ref name=" CIB226"/> According to Beckwith, the inscriptions of this later Ashoka were typical of the later forms of "normative Buddhism", which are well attested from inscriptions and Gandhari manuscripts dated to the turn of the millennium, and around the time of the [[Kushan Empire]].<ref name=" CIB226"/> The quality of the inscriptions of this Ashoka is significantly lower than the quality of the inscriptions of the earlier Piyadasi.<ref name=" CIB226"/><br />
<br />
== Names and titles ==<br />
{{multiple image<br />
| perrow=2<br />
| align = right<br />
| direction =horizontal<br />
| header=Names and titles of Ashoka<br />
| total_width=300<br />
| caption_align = center<br />
| image1 = Devanampiyasa Asoka.jpg<br />
| caption1 = "[[Devanampiya|Devānampiyasa]] Asoka", in the [[Maski]] [[Edict of Ashoka]].<br />
| image2 = Ashoka in Brahmi script.jpg<br />
| caption2 = The name "Asoka" (𑀅𑀲𑁄𑀓 ''A-so-ka'') in the [[Maski]] [[Minor Rock Edict]].<br />
| image3=Devanampiyena Piyadasi in the Lumbini Edict of Ashoka.jpg<br />
| caption3=Ashoka's title "[[Devanampriya|Devanaṃpiyena]] [[Priyadasi|Piyadasi]]" (𑀤𑁂𑀯𑀸𑀦𑀁𑀧𑀺𑀬𑁂𑀦 𑀧𑀺𑀬𑀤𑀲𑀺) in the [[Lumbini]] [[Minor Pillar Edict]].<br />
| footer=<br />
}}<br />
The name "A-shoka" literally means "without sorrow". According to an ''[[Ashokavadana]]'' legend, his mother gave him this name because his birth removed her sorrows.{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=205}}<br />
<br />
The name [[Priyadasi]] is associated with Ashoka in the 3rd–4th century CE ''[[Dipavamsa]]''.{{sfn|Allen|2012|p=79}}<ref>{{cite book |title=The Dîpavaṃsa: An Ancient Buddhist Historical Record |date=1879 |publisher=Williams and Norgate |pages=[https://archive.org/details/dpavasaanancien00oldegoog/page/n156 147]–148 |url=https://archive.org/details/dpavasaanancien00oldegoog |language=en}}</ref> The term literally means "he who regards amiably", or "of gracious mien" ([[Sanskrit]]: Priya-darshi). It may have been a [[regnal name]] adopted by Ashoka.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|pp=226–227}}<ref name="Asokan studies">{{cite book |last1=Sircar |first1=D. C. |title=Asokan studies |date=1979 |page=113 |url=https://archive.org/stream/in.gov.ignca.67068/67068#page/n125/mode/2up}}</ref> A version of this name is used for Ashoka in Greek-language inscriptions: βασιλεὺς Πιοδασσης ("[[Basileus]] Piodassēs").<ref name="Asokan studies"/><br />
<br />
Ashoka's inscriptions mention his title ''[[Devanampriya|Devanampiya]]'' (Sanskrit: ''Devanampriya'', "Beloved of the Gods"). The identification of Devanampiya and Ashoka as the same person is established by the [[Maski#Minor Rock Edict of Ashoka|Maski]] and Gujarra inscriptions, which use both these terms for the king.{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=11}}{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=129}} The title was adopted by other kings, including the contemporary king [[Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura]] and Ashoka's descendant [[Dasharatha Maurya]].{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=226}}<br />
<br />
The title 'Mahasammat' is received in the context of directing the Mahamatras in the Buddhist text [[Nikaya Buddhism|Nikaya]]. Also the other two other titles are 'Murdhabhishikta' and 'Janapadasthamaviryaprapt' which are often used titles for Ashoka.<br />
<br />
The Sarnath inscription of Kumāradevī from the Gahadavala dynasty refers to Ashoka as "Dharma Ashoka." Her inscription notes that the Dharmacakra Jina, initially established by Ashoka, was later renovated by Kumāradevī.<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
Dharmāsoka narādhipasya samaye Sri Dharmachakro Jino yādrik tannaya rakshitaḥ punarayañchakre tatopyadbhutam<br />
<br />
~ Kumāradevi, Sarnath Inscription<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://archive.org/details/politicalhistory00raycuoft|title=Political history of ancient India|page=159|last=Raychaudhuri|first=Hem Chandra|date=1923|publisher=Calcutta, University of Calcutta|others=Robarts - University of Toronto}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=http://archive.org/details/dli.calcutta.11684|title=Journal of Ancient Indian History, Vol-3|page=90-91|date=1969-70}}</ref><br />
</blockquote><br />
Translation : "At the time of Emperor Dharma Ashoka, the sacred wheel of dharma, just as it was, was protected by him. And then, she (Kumāradevi ) restored it in accordance performing a wondrous deed."<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; background-color:#D2B48C; color:brown;"<br />
|+ Ashoka's Names in Inscriptions<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3" style="background-color:gold;" | Prakrit Edict <br />
|-<br />
! Inscription<br />
! Script<br />
! Meaning<br />
|-<br />
| Maski Inscription<br />
|| "Devanampriyasi Ashoka" || Beloved of the God, Ashoka.<br />
|-<br />
| Gujjarra Inscription || "Devanampiya Piyadasi Ashokaraja" || Beloved of the Gods, Beloved of the Beloved, Ashokaraja.<br />
|-<br />
| Kanganahalli Mahastupa Inscription || "Ranyo Ashoka" || King Ashoka or Rana Ashoka.<br />
|-<br />
| Salihundam Inscription || "Dhamma Rano Ashoka Siri" || Righteous King Ashoka, the Glorious.<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3" style="background-color:gold;" | Sanskrit Edict <br />
|-<br />
! Inscription<br />
! Script<br />
! Meaning<br />
|-<br />
|Rudradaman Inscription, Junagadh || "Ashokasya Mauryasya" || Ashoka of the Maurya Dynasty.<br />
|-<br />
|Kumaradevi Inscription, Sarnath || "Dharmashoka Naradhipasya" || Dharma-Ashoka, the Emperor.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Date ==<br />
[[File:Khalsi rock edict of Ashoka.jpg|thumb|The [[Major Rock Edict|Major Rock Edict No.13]] of Ashoka, mentions the Greek kings [[Antiochus II Theos|Antiochus]], [[Ptolemy II of Egypt|Ptolemy]], [[Antigonus II Gonatas|Antigonus]], [[Magas of Cyrene|Magas]] and [[Alexander II of Epirus|Alexander]] by name, as recipients of his teachings.]]<br />
The exact date of Ashoka's birth is not certain, as the extant contemporary Indian texts did not record such details. It is known that he lived in the 3rd century BCE, as his inscriptions mention several contemporary rulers whose dates are known with more certainty, such as [[Antiochus II Theos]], [[Ptolemy II Philadelphus]], [[Antigonus II Gonatas]], [[Magas of Cyrene]], and Alexander (of [[Alexander II of Epirus|Epirus]] or [[Alexander of Corinth|Corinth]]).{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=25}} Thus, Ashoka must have been born sometime in the late 4th century BCE or early 3rd century BCE ({{circa|304 BCE}}),{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=24}}<br />
<br />
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=400|caption_align=center<br />
| align = right<br />
| direction =horizontal<br />
| header=Pataliputra at the time of Ashoka<br />
| image1 = Mauryan ruins of pillared hall at Kumrahar site of Pataliputra ASIEC 1912-13.jpg<br />
| caption1 = Ruins of pillared hall at [[Kumrahar]] site at Pataliputra.<br />
| image2 = Pataliputra_capital,_Bihar_Museum,_Patna,_3rd_century_BCE.jpg<br />
| caption2 = The [[Pataliputra capital]], 4th–3rd c. BCE.<br />
| footer=Ashoka was probably born in the city of [[Pataliputra]]. Remains of the city from around that time have been found through excavations in central areas of the modern city of [[Patna]].<br />
| footer_align = center<br />
}}<br />
<br />
== Ancestry ==<br />
Ashoka's own inscriptions are fairly detailed but make no mention of his ancestors.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=26}} Other sources, such as the [[Puranas]] and the ''[[Mahavamsa]]'' state that his father was the Mauryan emperor [[Bindusara]], and his grandfather was [[Chandragupta Maurya|Chandragupta]] – the founder of the Empire.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=13}} The ''Ashokavadana'' also names his father as Bindusara, but traces his ancestry to Buddha's contemporary king [[Bimbisara]], through [[Ajatashatru]], [[Udayin]], Munda, Kakavarnin, Sahalin, Tulakuchi, Mahamandala, [[Prasenajit]], and [[Nanda Empire|Nanda]].{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=204}} The 16th century Tibetan monk [[Taranatha]], whose account is a distorted version of the earlier traditions,{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=9}} describes Ashoka as the illegitimate son of king Nemita of Champarana from the daughter of a merchant.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|pp=25–26}}<br />
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''Ashokavadana'' states that [[Mother of Ashoka|Ashoka's mother]] was the daughter of a Brahmin from [[Champapuri|Champa]], and was prophesied to marry a king. Accordingly, her father took her to Pataliputra, where she was inducted into Bindusara's harem, and ultimately, became his chief queen.{{sfn|Strong|1989|pp=204–205}} The ''Ashokavadana'' does not mention her by name,{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=323|ps=:"In the Ashokavadana, Ashoka's mother is not named."}} although other legends provide different names for her.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=31}} For example, the ''Asokavadanamala'' calls her Subhadrangi.{{sfn|Guruge|1993|p=19}}{{sfn|Mookerji|1962|p=2}} The ''Vamsatthapakasini'' or ''Mahavamsa-tika'', a commentary on ''Mahavamsa'', calls her "Dharma" ("Dhamma" in [[Pali language|Pali]]), and states that she belonged to the Moriya [[Kshatriya]] clan.{{sfn|Mookerji|1962|p=2}} A ''[[Divyavadana]]'' legend calls her Janapada-kalyani;{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=332}} according to scholar [[Ananda W. P. Guruge]], this is not a name, but an epithet.{{sfn|Guruge|1993|p=19}}<br />
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According to the 2nd-century historian [[Appian]], Chandragupta entered into a marital alliance with the Greek ruler [[Seleucus I Nicator]], which has led to speculation that either Chandragupta or his son Bindusara married a Greek princess. However, there is no evidence that Ashoka's mother or grandmother was Greek, and most historians have dismissed the idea.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=20}}<br />
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== As a prince ==<br />
Ashoka's own inscriptions do not describe his early life, and much of the information on this topic comes from apocryphal legends written hundreds of years after him.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=27}} While these legends include obviously fictitious details such as narratives of Ashoka's past lives, they have some plausible historical information about Ashoka's period.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=27}}{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=332}}<br />
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According to the ''Ashokavadana'', Bindusara disliked Ashoka because of rough skin. One day, Bindusara asked the ascetic Pingala-vatsajiva to determine which of his sons was worthy of being his successor. He asked all the princes to assemble at the Garden of the Golden Pavilion on the ascetic's advice. Ashoka was reluctant to go because his father disliked him, but his mother convinced him to do so. When minister Radhagupta saw Ashoka leaving the capital for the Garden, he offered to provide the prince with a royal elephant for the travel.{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=206}} At the Garden, Pingala-vatsajiva examined the princes and realised that Ashoka would be the next king. To avoid annoying Bindusara, the ascetic refused to name the successor. Instead, he said that one who had the best mount, seat, drink, vessel and food would be the next king; each time, Ashoka declared that he met the criterion. Later, he told Ashoka's mother that her son would be the next king, and on her advice, left the kingdom to avoid Bindusara's wrath.{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=207}}<br />
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While legends suggest that Bindusara disliked Ashoka's ugly appearance, they also state that Bindusara gave him important responsibilities, such as suppressing a revolt in Takshashila (according to north Indian tradition) and governing Ujjain (according to Sri Lankan tradition). This suggests that Bindusara was impressed by the other qualities of the prince.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=21}} Another possibility is that he sent Ashoka to distant regions to keep him away from the imperial capital.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=65}}<br />
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=== Rebellion at Taxila ===<br />
[[File:Aramaic_inscription_at_Taxila_Museum.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Aramaic Inscription of Taxila]] of Ashoka mention his wife and son.]]<br />
According to the ''Ashokavadana'', Bindusara dispatched prince Ashoka to suppress a rebellion in the city of [[Taxila|Takshashila]]{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=208}} (present-day [[Bhir Mound]]{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=66}} in Pakistan). This episode is not mentioned in the Sri Lankan tradition, which instead states that Bindusara sent Ashoka to govern Ujjain. Two other Buddhist texts – ''Ashoka-sutra'' and ''Kunala-sutra'' – state that Bindusara appointed Ashoka as a viceroy in [[Gandhara]] (where Takshashila was located), not Ujjain. {{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=21}}<br />
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The ''Ashokavadana'' states that Bindusara provided Ashoka with a fourfold-army (comprising cavalry, elephants, chariots and infantry) but refused to provide any weapons for this army. Ashoka declared that weapons would appear before him if he was worthy of being a king, and then, the deities emerged from the earth and provided weapons to the army. When Ashoka reached Takshashila, the citizens welcomed him and told him that their rebellion was only against the evil ministers, not the king. Sometime later, Ashoka was similarly welcomed in the [[Khasas|Khasa]] territory and the gods declared that he would go on to conquer the whole earth.{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=208}}<br />
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Takshashila was a prosperous and geopolitically influential city, and historical evidence proves that by Ashoka's time, it was well-connected to the Mauryan capital Pataliputra by the ''Uttarapatha'' trade route.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=70}} However, no extant contemporary source mentions the Takshashila rebellion, and none of Ashoka's records states that he ever visited the city.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=66-67}} That said, the historicity of the legend about Ashoka's involvement in the Takshashila rebellion may be corroborated by [[Aramaic Inscription of Taxila|an Aramaic-language inscription]] discovered at [[Sirkap]] near Taxila. The inscription includes a name that begins with the letters "prydr", and most scholars restore it as "Priyadarshi", which was the title of Ashoka.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=21}} Another evidence of Ashoka's connection to the city may be the name of the [[Dharmarajika Stupa]] near Taxila; the name suggests that it was built by Ashoka ("Dharma-raja"). {{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=68}}<br />
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The story about the deities miraculously bringing weapons to Ashoka may be the text's way of deifying Ashoka; or indicating that Bindusara – who disliked Ashoka – wanted him to fail in Takshashila. {{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=67}}<br />
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=== Governor of Ujjain ===<br />
According to the ''Mahavamsa'', Bindusara appointed Ashoka as the viceroy of present-day [[Ujjain]] (Ujjeni),{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=21}} which was an important administrative and commercial centre in the Avanti province of central India.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|pp=89–90}} This tradition is corroborated by the [[Saru Maru]] inscription discovered in central India; this inscription states that he visited the place as a prince.{{sfn|Allen|2012|p=154}} Ashoka's own [[Major Rock Edicts#First Separate Major Rock Edict|rock edict]] mentions the presence of a prince viceroy at Ujjain during his reign,{{sfn|Guruge|1993|p=28}} which further supports the tradition that he himself served as a viceroy at Ujjain.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=98}}<br />
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[[File:Panguraria Top View Closeup detail.jpg|thumb|170px|The [[Saru Maru|Saru Maru commemorative inscription]] mention the presence of Ashoka in the area of Ujjain as he was still a Prince.]]<br />
Pataliputra was connected to Ujjain by multiple routes in Ashoka's time, and on the way, Ashoka entourage may have encamped at Rupnath, where his inscription has been found.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|pp=94–95}}<br />
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According to the Sri Lankan tradition, Ashoka visited [[Vidisha]], where he fell in love with a beautiful woman on his way to Ujjain. According to the ''Dipamvamsa'' and ''Mahamvamsa'', the woman was [[Devi (Ashoka's wife)|Devi]] – the daughter of a merchant. According to the ''Mahabodhi-vamsa'', she was Vidisha-Mahadevi and belonged to the [[Shakya]] clan of [[Gautama Buddha]]. The Buddhist chroniclers may have fabricated the Shakya connection to connect Ashoka's family to Buddha.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|pp=22–23}} The Buddhist texts allude to her being a Buddhist in her later years but do not describe her conversion to Buddhism. Therefore, it is likely that she was already a Buddhist when she met Ashoka.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=101}}<br />
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The ''Mahavamsa'' states that Devi gave birth to Ashoka's son [[Mahinda (Buddhist monk)|Mahinda]] in Ujjain, and two years later, to a daughter named [[Sanghamitta]].{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=97}} According to the ''Mahavamsa'', Ashoka's son Mahinda was ordained at the age of 20 years, during the sixth year of Ashoka's reign. That means Mahinda must have been 14 years old when Ashoka ascended the throne. Even if Mahinda was born when Ashoka was as young as 20 years old, Ashoka must have ascended the throne at 34 years, which means he must have served as a viceroy for several years.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|pp=24–25}}<br />
<br />
== Ascension to the throne ==<br />
Legends suggest that Ashoka was not the crown prince, and his ascension on the throne was disputed. {{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=25}}<br />
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''Ashokavadana'' states that Bindusara's eldest son Susima once slapped a bald minister on his head in jest. The minister worried that after ascending the throne, [[Susima]] may jokingly hurt him with a sword. Therefore, he instigated five hundred ministers to support Ashoka's claim to the throne when the time came, noting that Ashoka was predicted to become a ''[[chakravartin]]'' (universal ruler).{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=102}} Sometime later, Takshashila rebelled again, and Bindusara dispatched Susima to curb the rebellion. Shortly after, Bindusara fell ill and was expected to die soon. Susima was still in Takshashila, having been unsuccessful in suppressing the rebellion. Bindusara recalled him to the capital and asked Ashoka to march to Takshashila.{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=209}} However, the ministers told him that Ashoka was ill and suggested that he temporarily install Ashoka on the throne until Susmia's return from Takshashila.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=102}} When Bindusara refused to do so, Ashoka declared that if the throne were rightfully his, the gods would crown him as the next king. At that instance, the gods did so, Bindusara died, and Ashoka's authority extended to the entire world, including the [[Yaksha]] territory located above the earth and the [[Nāga|Naga]] territory located below the earth.{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=209}} When Susima returned to the capital, Ashoka's newly appointed prime minister Radhagupta tricked him into a pit of charcoal. Susima died a painful death, and his general Bhadrayudha became a Buddhist monk.{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=210}}<br />
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[[File:Sarnath_Ashoka_Lions_with_Dharma_Wheel.jpg|thumb|The [[Lion Capital of Ashoka]] in [[Sarnath]], showing its four [[Asiatic lion]]s standing back to back, and symbolizing the [[Four Noble Truths]] of [[Buddhism]], supporting the Wheel of Moral law ([[Dharmachakra]], reconstitution per Sarnath Museum notice).{{sfn|Allen|2012|p=15|ps=: "Only fragments were found of the Wheel of the Moral Law, which the four lions had originally supported."}} The lions stand on a circular [[Abacus (architecture)|abacus]], decorated with dharmachakras alternating with four animals in profile: horse, bull, elephant, and lion. The architectural ''bell'' below the abacus, is a stylized upside down lotus. [[Sarnath Museum]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Lion Capital of Ashoka At Sarnath Archaeological Museum Near Varanasi India |website=[[YouTube]] |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r6v3YtLOP6M |language=en |access-date=16 July 2022 |archive-date=15 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220715160718/https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=r6v3YtLOP6M |url-status=live }}</ref>]]<br />
The ''Mahavamsa'' states that when Bindusara fell sick, Ashoka returned to Pataliputra from Ujjain and gained control of the capital. After his father's death, Ashoka had his eldest brother killed and ascended the throne.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=101}} The text also states that Ashoka killed ninety-nine of his half-brothers, including Sumana.{{sfn|Guruge|1993|p=28}} The ''Dipavamsa'' states that he killed a hundred of his brothers and was crowned four years later.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=102}} The ''Vamsatthapakasini'' adds that an Ajivika ascetic had predicted this massacre based on the interpretation of a dream of Ashoka's mother.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=26}} According to these accounts, only Ashoka's uterine brother Tissa was spared.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=27}} Other sources name the surviving brother Vitashoka, Vigatashoka, Sudatta (So-ta-to in ''A-yi-uang-chuan''), or Sugatra (Siu-ka-tu-lu in ''Fen-pie-kung-te-hun'').{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=27}}<br />
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The figures such as 99 and 100 are exaggerated and seem to be a way of stating that Ashoka killed several of his brothers.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=102}} Taranatha states that Ashoka, who was an illegitimate son of his predecessor, killed six legitimate princes to ascend the throne.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|pp=25–26}} It is possible that Ashoka was not the rightful heir to the throne and killed a brother (or brothers) to acquire the throne. However, the Buddhist sources have exaggerated the story, which attempts to portray him as evil before his conversion to Buddhism. Ashoka's Rock Edict No. 5 mentions officers whose duties include supervising the welfare of "the families of his brothers, sisters, and other relatives". This suggests that more than one of his brothers survived his ascension. However, some scholars oppose this suggestion, arguing that the inscription talks only about the ''families'' of his brothers, not the brothers themselves.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=27}}<br />
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=== Date of ascension ===<br />
According to the Sri Lankan texts ''Mahavamsa'' and the ''Dipavamsa'', Ashoka ascended the throne 218 years after the death of Gautama Buddha and ruled for 37 years.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|pp=13–14}} The date of the Buddha's death is itself a matter of debate,{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=14}} and the North Indian tradition states that Ashoka ruled a hundred years after the Buddha's death, which has led to further debates about the date.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=144}}<br />
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Assuming that the Sri Lankan tradition is correct, and assuming that the Buddha died in 483 BCE – a date proposed by several scholars – Ashoka must have ascended the throne in 265 BCE.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=14}} The Puranas state that Ashoka's father Bindusara reigned for 25 years, not 28 years as specified in the Sri Lankan tradition.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=13}} If this is true, Ashoka's ascension can be dated three years earlier, to 268 BCE. Alternatively, if the Sri Lankan tradition is correct, but if we assume that the Buddha died in 486 BCE (a date supported by the Cantonese Dotted Record), Ashoka's ascension can be dated to 268 BCE.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=14}} The ''Mahavamsa'' states that Ashoka consecrated himself as the king four years after becoming a sovereign. This interregnum can be explained assuming that he fought a war of succession with other sons of Bindusara during these four years.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=30}}<br />
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The ''Ashokavadana'' contains a story about Ashoka's minister Yashas hiding the sun with his hand. Professor P. H. L. Eggermont theorised that this story was a reference to a partial solar eclipse that was seen in northern India on 4 May 249 BCE.{{sfn|Strong|1989|pp=12–13}} According to the ''Ashokavadana'', Ashoka went on a pilgrimage to various Buddhist sites sometime after this eclipse. Ashoka's Rummindei pillar inscription states that he visited [[Lumbini]] during his 21st regnal year. Assuming this visit was a part of the pilgrimage described in the text, and assuming that Ashoka visited Lumbini around 1–2 years after the solar eclipse, the ascension date of 268–269 BCE seems more likely.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=14}}{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=25}} However, this theory is not universally accepted. For example, according to [[John S. Strong]], the event described in the ''Ashokavadana'' has nothing to do with chronology, and Eggermont's interpretation grossly ignores the literary and religious context of the legend.{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=13}}<br />
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==Empire Expansion==<br />
[[File:Maurya Empire c.260 BCE.png|thumb|Mauryan Empire 260 BCE]]<br />
===Conquest of the Nanda Empire===<br />
Historically reliable inscription details of Chandragupta's campaign against [[Nanda Empire]] are unavailable and but later written Buddhist, Jain, and Hindu texts which claim [[Magadha]] was ruled by the [[Nanda dynasty]], which, with [[Chanakya]]'s counsel, [[Chandragupta Maurya|Chandragupta]] conquered Nanda Empire.{{sfn|Thapar|2013|pp=362–364}}{{sfn|Sen|1895|pp=26–32}}{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2008|p=272}} The army of Chandragupta and Chanakya first conquered the Nanda outer territories, and finally besieged the Nanda capital '''Pataliputra'''. In contrast to the easy victory in Buddhist sources, the Hindu and Jain texts state that the campaign was bitterly fought because the Nanda dynasty had a powerful and well-trained army.{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=28–33}}{{sfn|Sen|1895|pp=26–32}}<br />
<br />
The Buddhist ''Mahavamsa Tika'' and Jain ''Parishishtaparvan'' records Chandragupta's army unsuccessfully attacking the Nanda capital. {{sfn|Hemacandra|1998|pp=175–188}} Chandragupta and Chanakya then began a campaign at the frontier of the Nanda empire, gradually conquering various territories on their way to the Nanda capital.{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|p=33}} He then refined his strategy by establishing garrisons in the conquered territories, and finally besieged the Nanda capital Pataliputra. There [[Dhana Nanda]] accepted defeat.{{sfn|Malalasekera|2002|p=383}}{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=33-34}} The conquest was fictionalised in ''Mudrarakshasa'' play, it contains narratives not found in other versions of the Chanakya-Chandragupta legend. Because of this difference, [[Thomas Trautmann]] suggests that most of it is fictional or legendary, without any historical basis.{{sfn|Trautmann|1971|p=43}} [[Radha Kumud Mukherjee]] similarly considers Mudrakshasa play without historical basis.<ref>Chandragupta Maurya and His Times, Radhakumud Mookerji, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1966, p.26-27 {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i-y6ZUheQH8C&pg=PA27 |title=Chandragupta Maurya and His Times |access-date=2016-11-26 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161127023139/https://books.google.fr/books?id=i-y6ZUheQH8C&pg=PA27 |archive-date=27 November 2016 |df=dmy-all |isbn=9788120804050 |last1=Mookerji |first1=Radhakumud |year=1966 }}</ref><br />
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These legends state that the Nanda king was defeated, deposed and exiled by some accounts, while Buddhist accounts claim he was killed.{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|p=34}} With the defeat of Dhana Nanda, Chandragupta Maurya founded the Maurya Empire.{{sfn|Roy|2012|p=62}}<br />
<br />
===Conquest of the Eastern Seleucid Empire===<br />
<br />
Greek historians mentioned the result of [[Seleucid–Mauryan war]] where Seleucid Empire's eastern satrapies( [[Gedrosia]],[[Arachosia]], [[Aria]], and [[Paropamisadae]]) ceded to Mauryan Empire :<br />
{{quote|text= " Seleucus crossed the Indus and waged war with Sandrocottus [Maurya], king of he Indians, who dwelt on the banks of that stream, until they came to an understanding with each other and contracted a marriage relationship. Some of these exploits were performed before the death of Antigonus and some afterward." |sign=<small>[[Appian]]</small>|source=''History of Rome'', The Syrian Wars [https://www.livius.org/sources/content/appian/appian-the-syrian-wars/appian-the-syrian-wars-11/ 55]}}<blockquote>" The geographical position of the tribes is as follows: along the Indus are the Paropamisadae, above whom lies the Paropamisus mountain: then, towards the south, the Arachoti: then next, towards the south, the Gedroseni, with the other tribes that occupy the seaboard; and the Indus lies, latitudinally, alongside all these places; and of these places, in part, some that lie along the Indus are held by Indians, although they formerly belonged to the Persians. Alexander [III 'the Great' of Macedon] took these away from the Arians and established settlements of his own, but [[Seleucus Nicator]] gave them to [[Sandrocottus]] [Chandragupta], upon terms of intermarriage and of receiving in exchange five hundred elephants. " — Strabo 15.2.9 [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/15B*.html#2.9]</blockquote><br />
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Greecian historian Pliny also quoted a passage from Megasthanes work about Chandragupta Empire boundaries:<br />
<blockquote><br />
Most geographers, in fact, do not look upon India as bounded by the river Indus, but add to it the four satrapies of the [[Gedrosia|Gedrose]], the [[Arachosia|Arachotë]], the [[Herat|Aria]], and the [[Paropamisadë]], the [[Kabul River|River Cophes]] thus forming the extreme boundary of India. According to other writers, however, all these territories, are reckoned as belonging to the country of the Aria. <br />
<br />
— Pliny, Natural History VI, 23 [https://archive.today/20121210070738/http://perseus.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plin.+Nat.+6.23][https://archive.org/details/naturalhistoryof21855plin/page/50/mode/1up]<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
====Treaty of the Indus====<br />
The ancient historians Justin, Appian, and Strabo preserve the three main terms of the Treaty of the Indus:<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=9UWdAwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=The Land of the Elephant Kings: Space, Territory, and Ideology in the Seleucid Empire|last=Kosmin|first=Paul J.|date=2014-06-23|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72882-0|language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
(i) Seleucus transferred to Chandragupta's kingdom the easternmost satrapies of his empire, certainly Gandhara, Parapamisadae, and the eastern parts of Gedrosia, Arachosia and Aria as far as Herat. <br />
<br />
(ii) Chandragupta gave Seleucus 500 Indian war elephants.<br />
<br />
(iii) The two kings were joined by some kind of marriage alliance (ἐπιγαμία οι κῆδος); most likely Chandragupta wed a female relative of Seleucus.<br />
<br />
====Other account====<br />
*Tibbetan Lama Taranatha (1575–1634)<br />
<br />
<blockquote>Ashoka brought under his rule without bloodshed all the countries including those to the south of the Vindhya. And he conquered the northern Himalayas, the snowy ranges beyond Li-yul (Khotan)," the entire land of Jambudvipa bounded by seas on east, south and west, and also fifty small islands.<ref>https://archive.org/details/TaranathasHistoryOfBuddhismInIndia/page/n89/mode/2up</ref><br />
<br />
-History Of Buddhism In India ,Taranatha<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
=== Conquest of the Saurashtra===<br />
Chandragupta conquered Southern-Western part of India. Especially his conquest over Saurashtra and Sudarshana lake construction is preseved in later Satrapian king Rudradaman inscription:<br />
<br />
<blockquote>(L.8) for the sake of / ordered to be made by the Vaishya Pushyagupta, the provincial governor of the Maurya king [[Chandragupta Maurya|Chandragupta]]; adorned with conduits for Ashoka the Maurya by the [[Yavana]] king [[Tushaspha]] while governing; and by the conduit ordered to be made by him, constructed in a manner worthy of a king (and) seen in that breach.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
—Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman<ref name="WB">[http://projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu/Docs/HISTORY/PRIMARYDOCS/EPIGRAPHY/JunagadhRockInscription.htm "Junagadh Rock Inscription of Rudradaman", ''Project South Asia''.]{{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090223182107/http://projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu/Docs/HISTORY/PRIMARYDOCS/EPIGRAPHY/JunagadhRockInscription.htm |date=23 February 2009 }}</ref> </blockquote><br />
<br />
===Conquest of the Kalinga===<br />
[[Kalinga War]] plays a very important role in Mauryan history which changes a cruel Emperor Chanda-Ashoka to Priyadarshi Ashoka.<br />
<br />
<blockquote> "Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Priyadarsi(Ashoka)conquered the Kalingas eight years after his coronation. One hundred and fifty thousand were deported, one hundred thousand were killed and many more died (from other causes). After the Kalingas had been conquered, Beloved-of-the-Gods came to feel a strong inclination towards the Dharma, a love for the Dharma and for instruction in Dharma. Now Beloved-of-the-Gods feels deep remorse for having conquered the Kalingas. "</blockquote><br />
— Ashoka, Major Rock Edict No. 13 [https://books.google.co.in/books?id=K4vHjbUtf_4C&pg=PT82&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false]<br />
<br />
===Boundaries sharing territories===<br />
<br />
Even though Ashoka defined the boundaries of his empire four times in various inscriptions ('''with same lines''') but he never mentioned any inner hole or unconquered region inside his empire.This suggests that Ashoka's empire was likely contiguous, with no significant unconquered regions within its borders :<br />
----<br />
<blockquote><br />
''3. Sav[r]atra vijite [De]va[naṃ]priyasa Priyadraśisa y[e] ca [a]ṃta yathā [Coḍa] Paṃḍiya Satiyaputro Keraḍaputro Taṃbapaṃṇī Aṃtiyo[k]o nāma Yonaraja ye ca aṃñe tasa Aṃtiyokasa samaṃta rajano ''<br />
<br />
''4. savratra Devanaṃpriyasa Priyadraśisa raño du[vi] cik[i]sa [kr]i[ṭa] manusa-cikisa .. pa[śu-c]ikisa [ca]''<br />
<br />
—Second Rock-Edict: Shahbazgarhi [https://archive.org/details/dli.ministry.25989/page/51/mode/1up]<br />
</blockquote><br />
----<br />
<blockquote><br />
''4. Sav[a]ta vijitsi Devanampiyas[a] Piyadasis[a] lajine ye cha amta [a]tha Choda Pam[di]ya Satiyaputo Ke[lala]puto Tamba[pa]mni''<br />
<br />
''5. Aṃtiyoge [n]āma Yona-lājā ye ca aṃne tas[ā A]ṃtiyogasā sā[ma]ṃta lā[j]ano [sa]vatā Devānaṃpiyasā Piyadasisā lājine duve cikisakā kaṭā manusacikisā cā pasu-cikisā cā '' <br />
<br />
—Second Rock Edict: Kalsi [https://archive.org/details/dli.ministry.25989/page/28/mode/1up]<br />
</blockquote><br />
----<br />
<blockquote><br />
''6. Sa[vatra vi]jitasi Devanapriyasa Priyadrasisa rajine ye cha ata atha [Choda] Pa[mdiya] Sa[ti]ya[p]u[tra] Keralaputra [Tam]bapani Atiyoge nama Yona-raja ye cha [a] .... sa ......[gasa] samata ra[jane sa]vratra ...... priyasa Priyadrasisa rajine''<br />
<br />
''7. duve chikisa [ka]ta manusa-chik[isa cha] pasu [chi]kisa cha ''<br />
<br />
—Second Rock Edict: Mansehra [https://archive.org/details/dli.ministry.25989/page/71/mode/1up]<br />
</blockquote><br />
----<br />
<blockquote><br />
''1. Sarvata vijitamhi Devānaṃpriyasa Piyadasino rāño''<br />
<br />
''2. evamapi pracaṃtesu yathā Coḍa Pāḍā Satiyaputo Ketalaputo ā Taṃba-''<br />
<br />
''3. paṃṇī Aṃtiyako Yona-rājā ye vā pi tasa Aṃtiy[a]kas[a] sāmīp[aṃ] ''<br />
<br />
''4. rājāno sarvatra Devānaṃpriyasa Priyadasino rāño dve cikīcha katā ''<br />
<br />
''5 manusa-cīkichā ca pasu cikīchā ca''<br />
<br />
—Second Rock Edict :Girnar [https://archive.org/details/dli.ministry.25989/page/n136/mode/1up] <br />
</blockquote> <br />
----<br />
'''— [[James Prinsep]] Translation''' : Everywhere within the conquered province of Raja Piyadasi (Ashoka), the beloved of the gods, as well as in the parts occupied by the faithful, such as Chola, Pandiya, Satiyaputra, and Keralaputra, even as fart as Tambapanni (Sri Lanka) and, moreover, within the dominions the Greek (of which [[Antiochus]] generals are the rulers ) everywhere the heaven-beloved Raja Piyadasi’s double system of medical aid is established— both medical aid for men, and medical aid for animals, together with the medicaments of all sorts, which are suitable for men, and suitable for animals.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/dli.ministry.25520/page/117/mode/1up|title=Complete Works of Alexander Cunningham: Inscriptions of Asoka Vol I|last=Cunningham|page=117|first=Alexander|date=1969|publisher=Indological Book House, Varanasi}}</ref><br />
<br />
'''— [[E. Hultzsch]] Translation:''' Everywhere in the dominions of Dévanampriya Priyadarsina, and (of those) who (are his) borderers, such as the Cholas, the Pandyas, the Satiyaputra, the Kéralaputra, Tamaraparni, the Yona(Greek) king named Antiyoka , and the other kings who are the neighbours of this Antiyoka, everywhere two kinds of medical treatment were established by king Devanampriya Priyadarsin, (viz.) medical treatment for men and medical treatment for cattle.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/dli.ministry.25989/page/52/mode/1up|title=Inscriptions of Asoka, Vol. I|page=52|last=Hultzsch|first=E.|date=1989|publisher=Indological Book House, Varanasi}}</ref><br />
<br />
[[File:Ashoka Maurya Empire 250 BCE.jpg|thumb|Possible Mauryan Empire size according to details given in Ashoka Second Rock Edict of Shahbazgarhi , Kalsi ,Mansera and Girnar.]]<br />
<br />
== Reign before Buddhist influence==<br />
Both Sri Lankan and North Indian traditions assert that Ashoka was a violent person before Buddhism.{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=46}} Taranatha also states that Ashoka was initially called "Kamashoka" because he spent many years in pleasurable pursuits (''[[kama]]''); he was then called "Chandashoka" ("Ashoka the fierce") because he spent some years performing evil deeds; and finally, he came to be known as Dhammashoka ("Ashoka the righteous") after his conversion to Buddhism.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=29}}<br />
<br />
The ''Ashokavadana'' also calls him "Chandashoka", and describes several of his cruel acts:{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=105}}<br />
*The ministers who had helped him ascend the throne started treating him with contempt after his ascension. To test their loyalty, Ashoka gave them the absurd order of cutting down every flower-and fruit-bearing tree. When they failed to carry out this order, Ashoka personally cut off the heads of 500 ministers.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=105}}<br />
*Alarmed by the king's involvement in such massacres, prime minister Radha-Gupta proposed hiring an executioner to carry out future mass killings to leave the king unsullied. Girika, a Magadha village boy who boasted that he could execute the whole of [[Jambudvipa]], was hired for the purpose. He came to be known as Chandagirika ("Girika the fierce"), and on his request, Ashoka built a jail in Pataliputra.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=106}} Called [[Ashoka's Hell]], the jail looked pleasant from the outside, but inside it, Girika brutally tortured the prisoners.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|pp=106–107}}<br />
<br />
The 5th-century Chinese traveller [[Faxian]] states that Ashoka personally visited the underworld to study torture methods there and then invented his methods. The 7th-century traveller [[Xuanzang]] claims to have seen a pillar marking the site of Ashoka's "Hell".{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=29}}<br />
<br />
The ''Mahavamsa'' also briefly alludes to Ashoka's cruelty, stating that Ashoka was earlier called Chandashoka because of his evil deeds but came to be called Dharmashoka because of his pious acts after his conversion to Buddhism.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=107}} However, unlike the north Indian tradition, the Sri Lankan texts do not mention any specific evil deeds performed by Ashoka, except his killing of 99 of his brothers.{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=46}}<br />
<br />
Such descriptions of Ashoka as an evil person before his conversion to Buddhism appear to be a fabrication of the Buddhist authors,{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=29}} who attempted to present the change that Buddhism brought to him as a miracle.{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=46}} In an attempt to dramatise this change, such legends exaggerate Ashoka's past wickedness and his piousness after the conversion.<ref name="Charles1962">{{cite book | author=Charles Drekmeier | title=Kingship and Community in Early India | url=https://archive.org/details/kingshipcommunit0000drek | url-access=registration | access-date=30 October 2012 | year=1962 | publisher=Stanford University Press | isbn=978-0-8047-0114-3 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/kingshipcommunit0000drek/page/173 173] }}</ref><br />
<br />
==War and Revolt==<br />
=== The Kalinga War ===<br />
{{Main |Kalinga war}}<br />
[[File:Kanaganahalli inscribed panel portraying Asoka (perspective).jpg|thumb|[[Kanaganahalli]] inscribed panel portraying Asoka and his queens with [[Brahmi]] label "King Asoka", 1st–3rd century CE.<ref>{{cite book |title=Indian Archaeology 1997–98 |publisher=ASI |page=Plate 72 |url=http://nmma.nic.in/nmma/nmma_doc/Indian%20Archaeology%20Review/Indian%20Archaeology%201997-98%20A%20Review.pdf |access-date=22 January 2020 |archive-date=22 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200122082556/http://nmma.nic.in/nmma/nmma_doc/Indian%20Archaeology%20Review/Indian%20Archaeology%201997-98%20A%20Review.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>]]<br />
Ashoka's inscriptions mention that he conquered the [[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]] region during his 8th regnal year: the destruction caused during the war made him repent violence, and in the subsequent years, he was drawn towards Buddhism.{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|pp=49–50}} Edict 13 of the [[Edicts of Ashoka]] Rock Inscriptions expresses the great remorse the king felt after observing the destruction of Kalinga:<br />
<br />
{{Blockquote<br />
|text=Directly, after the Kalingas had been annexed, began His Sacred Majesty's zealous protection of the Law of Piety, his love of that Law, and his inculcation of that Law. Thence arises the remorse of His Sacred Majesty for having conquered the Kalingas because the conquest of a country previously unconquered involves the slaughter, death, and carrying away captive of the people. That is a matter of profound sorrow and regret to His Sacred Majesty.<ref name="Wikisource Smith">{{cite Wikisource |wslink=Asoka – the Buddhist Emperor of India/Chapter 4 |title=Asoka: The Buddhist Emperor of India |last=Smith |first=Vincent |author-link=Vincent Arthur Smith |year=1920 |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford |page=185}}</ref>}}<br />
During Kalinga war launched by Ashoka, King of Magadh, lakhs of Kalingan soldiers died in the war field, which filled him with remorse though he conquested Kalinga. A cruel Chandasoka' became Dharmasoka. He embraced Buddhism and spread its message of peace and non-violence far and wide.<br />
<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://archive.org/details/artcultureoforis00sena|title=Art and Culture of Orissa|last=Senāpati|first=Rabīndra Mohana|date=2004|page=9|publisher=Publications Division, Ministry of Information & Broadcasting, Government of India|others=Public Resource|isbn=978-81-230-1171-4}}</ref>According to Ashoka's Major Rock Edict 13, he conquered Kalinga 8 years after ascending to the throne. The edict states that during his conquest of Kalinga, 1,00,000 men and animals were killed in action; many times that number "perished"; and 150,000 men and animals were carried away from Kalinga as captives. {{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=38}}<br />
<br />
==Conversion to Buddhism==<br />
<br />
Some earlier writers believed that Ashoka ''dramatically'' converted to Buddhism after seeing the suffering caused by the war since his Major Rock Edict 13 states that he became closer to the dhamma after the annexation of Kalinga.{{sfn|Thapar|1995|p=18}} However, even if Ashoka converted to Buddhism ''after'' the war, epigraphic evidence suggests that his conversion was a ''gradual'' process rather than a dramatic event.{{sfn|Thapar|1995|p=18}} For example, in a Minor Rock Edict issued during his 13th regnal year (five years after the Kalinga campaign), he states that he had been an ''[[upasaka]]'' (lay Buddhist) for more than two and a half years, but did not make much progress; in the past year, he was drawn closer to the sangha and became a more ardent follower.{{sfn|Thapar|1995|p=18}}<br />
<br />
According to Ashoka's Major Rock Edict 13, he conquered Kalinga 8 years after ascending to the throne. The edict states that during his conquest of Kalinga, 100,000 men and animals were killed in action; many times that number "perished"; and 150,000 men and animals were carried away from Kalinga as captives. Ashoka states that the repentance of these sufferings caused him to devote himself to the practice and propagation of dharma.{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=38}} He proclaims that he now considered the slaughter, death and deportation caused during the conquest of a country painful and deplorable; and that he considered the suffering caused to the religious people and householders even more deplorable.{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=38}}<br />
<br />
This edict has been inscribed at several places, including Erragudi, Girnar, Kalsi, Maneshra, Shahbazgarhi and Kandahar.{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=37}} However, it is omitted in Ashoka's inscriptions found in the Kalinga region, where the Rock Edicts 13 and 14 have been replaced by two separate edicts that make no mention of Ashoka's remorse. It is possible that Ashoka did not consider it politically appropriate to make such a confession to the people of Kalinga.{{sfn|Thapar|1995|pp=30–31}} Another possibility is the Kalinga war and its consequences, as described in Ashoka's rock edicts, are "more imaginary than real". This description is meant to impress those far removed from the scene, thus unable to verify its accuracy.{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=56}}<br />
<br />
Ancient sources do not mention any other military activity of Ashoka, although the 16th-century writer [[Taranatha]] claims that Ashoka conquered the entire Jambudvipa.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=36}}<br />
<br />
===First contact with Buddhism===<br />
Different sources give different accounts of Ashoka's conversion to Buddhism. {{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=29}}<br />
<br />
According to Sri Lankan tradition, Ashoka's father, Bindusara, was a devotee of [[Brahmanism]], and his mother Dharma was a devotee of [[Ajivika]]s.{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=42}} The ''[[Samantapasadika]]'' states that Ashoka followed non-Buddhist sects during the first three years of his reign.{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=43}} The Sri Lankan texts add that Ashoka was not happy with the behaviour of the Brahmins who received his alms daily. His courtiers produced some Ajivika and Nigantha teachers before him, but these also failed to impress him. {{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=47}}<br />
<br />
The ''Dipavamsa'' states that Ashoka invited several non-Buddhist religious leaders to his palace and bestowed great gifts upon them in the hope that they would answer a question posed by the king. The text does not state what the question was but mentions that none of the invitees were able to answer it.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=109}} One day, Ashoka saw a young Buddhist monk called Nigrodha (or Nyagrodha), who was looking for alms on a road in Pataliputra.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=109}} He was the king's nephew, although the king was not aware of this:{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=7}} he was a posthumous son of Ashoka's eldest brother Sumana, whom Ashoka had killed during the conflict for the throne.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=34}} Ashoka was impressed by Nigrodha's tranquil and fearless appearance, and asked him to teach him his faith. In response, Nigrodha offered him a sermon on [[appamada]] (earnestness).{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=109}} Impressed by the sermon, Ashoka offered Nigrodha 400,000 silver coins and 8 daily portions of rice.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=110}} The king became a Buddhist [[upasaka]], and started visiting the [[Kukkutarama]] shrine at Pataliputra. At the temple, he met the Buddhist monk [[Moggaliputta Tissa]], and became more devoted to the Buddhist faith.{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=47}} The veracity of this story is not certain.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=110}} This legend about Ashoka's search for a worthy teacher may be aimed at explaining why Ashoka did not adopt [[Jainism]], another major contemporary faith that advocates non-violence and compassion. The legend suggests that Ashoka was not attracted to Buddhism because he was looking for such a faith, rather, for a competent spiritual teacher.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=108}} The Sri Lankan tradition adds that during his sixth regnal year, Ashoka's son Mahinda became a Buddhist monk, and his daughter became a Buddhist nun.{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=49}}<br />
<br />
A story in ''Divyavadana'' attributes Ashoka's conversion to the Buddhist monk Samudra, who was an ex-merchant from Shravasti. According to this account, Samudra was imprisoned in Ashoka's "Hell", but saved himself using his miraculous powers. When Ashoka heard about this, he visited the monk, and was further impressed by a series of miracles performed by the monk. He then became a Buddhist.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=35}} A story in the ''Ashokavadana'' states that Samudra was a merchant's son, and was a 12-year-old boy when he met Ashoka; this account seems to be influenced by the Nigrodha story.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=36}}<br />
<br />
The A-yu-wang-chuan states that a 7-year-old Buddhist converted Ashoka. Another story claims that the young boy ate 500 [[Brahmins|Brahmanas]] who were harassing Ashoka for being interested in Buddhism; these Brahmanas later miraculously turned into Buddhist [[bhikku]]s at the Kukkutarama monastery, which Ashoka visited.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=35}}<br />
<br />
Several Buddhist establishments existed in various parts of India by the time of Ashoka's ascension. It is not clear which branch of the Buddhist sangha influenced him, but the one at his capital [[Pataliputra]] is a good candidate.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=135}} Another good candidate is the one at [[Mahabodhi Temple|Mahabodhi]]: the Major Rock Edict 8 records his visit to the [[Bodhi Tree]] – the place of Buddha's enlightenment at Mahabodhi – after his tenth regnal year, and the minor rock edict issued during his 13th regnal year suggests that he had become a Buddhist around the same time.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=135}}{{sfn|Thapar|1995|p=18}}<br />
<br />
==Reign after Buddhist influence==<br />
<br />
===Construction of Stupas and Temples===<br />
[[File:Sanchi2.jpg|thumb|left|Stupa of [[Sanchi]]. The central stupa was built during the Mauryas, and enlarged during the [[Sungas]], but the decorative gateway is dated to the later dynasty of the [[Satavahanas]]. ]]<br />
<br />
Both ''Mahavamsa'' and ''Ashokavadana'' state that Ashoka constructed 84,000 stupas or viharas.{{sfn|Strong|1995|pp=154–155}} According to the ''Mahavamsa'', this activity took place during his fifth–seventh regnal years.{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=49}}<br />
<br />
The ''Ashokavadana'' states that Ashoka collected seven out of the eight relics of Gautama Buddha, and had their portions kept in 84,000 boxes made of gold, silver, [[cymophane|cat's eye]], and crystal. He ordered the construction of 84,000 stupas throughout the earth, in towns that had a population of 100,000 or more. He told Elder Yashas, a monk at the Kukkutarama monastery, that he wanted these stupas to be completed on the same day. Yashas stated that he would signal the completion time by eclipsing the sun with his hand. When he did so, the 84,000 stupas were completed at once.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=155}}<br />
<br />
[[File:Bharhut relief with Diamond throne and Mahabodhi Temple around the Boddhi Tree.jpg|thumb|Illustration of the original [[Mahabodhi Temple]] temple built by Asoka at [[Bodh Gaya]]. At the center, the ''[[Vajrasana, Bodh Gaya|Vajrasana]]'', or "Enlightenment Throne of the Buddha", with its supporting columns, being the object of adoration. A [[Pillar of Ashoka]] topped by an elephant appears in the right corner. [[Bharhut]] relief, 1st century BCE.<ref>Mahâbodhi, Cunningham [https://archive.org/stream/cu31924008747788 p.4ff]</ref>]]<br />
[[File:Vajrasana, early 20th century.jpg|thumb|The rediscovered ''[[Vajrasana, Bodh Gaya|Vajrasana]]'', or "Enlightenment Throne of the Buddha", at the [[Mahabodhi Temple]] in [[Bodh Gaya]]. It was built by Ashoka to commemorate the enlightenment of the Buddha, about two hundred years before him.{{sfn|Allen|2012}}<ref>"Ashoka did build the Diamond Throne at Bodh Gaya to stand in for the Buddha and to mark the place of his enlightenment" in {{cite book |last1=Ching |first1=Francis D. K. |last2=Jarzombek |first2=Mark M. |last3=Prakash |first3=Vikramaditya |title=A Global History of Architecture |date=23 March 2017 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-118-98160-3 |page=570 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SPqKDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT570 |language=en |access-date=7 March 2021 |archive-date=23 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210523153935/https://books.google.com/books?id=SPqKDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT570 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]<br />
The ''Mahavamsa'' states that Ashoka ordered construction of 84,000 viharas (monasteries) rather than the stupas to house the relics.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=158}} Like ''Ashokavadana'', the ''Mahavamsa'' describes Ashoka's collection of the relics, but does not mention this episode in the context of the construction activities.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=158}} It states that Ashoka decided to construct the 84,000 viharas when Moggaliputta Tissa told him that there were 84,000 sections of the Buddha's Dhamma.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=159}} Ashoka himself began the construction of the Ashokarama vihara, and ordered subordinate kings to build the other viharas. Ashokarama was completed by the miraculous power of Thera Indagutta, and the news about the completion of the 84,000 viharas arrived from various cities on the same day.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=155}}<br />
<br />
The construction of following stupas and viharas is credited to Ashoka: <br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; background-color:#D2B48C; color:brown;"<br />
|+ <br />
|-<br />
! style="background-color:gold;" |Discovered Ashoka's Stupas and Viharas<br />
! style="background-color:gold;" | Location<br />
! style="background-color:gold;" | Construction Credit<br />
|-<br />
| [[Sanchi Stupa]]<br />
| [[Raisen district]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[India]]<br />
| [[Ashoka]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Amaravati Stupa]]<br />
| [[Palnadu district]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[India]]<br />
| [[Ashoka]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Bairat Stupa]]<br />
| [[Viratnagar]], [[Rajasthan]], [[India]]<br />
| [[Ashoka]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Shanti Stupa]]<br />
|[[Leh district]], [[Ladakh]], [[India]]<br />
| [[Ashoka]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Dhamek Stupa]]<br />
| [[Sarnath]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[India]]<br />
| [[Ashoka]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Mahabodhi Temple|Mahabodhi Stupa]]<br />
| [[Bodh Gaya]], [[Bihar]], [[India]]<br />
| [[Ashoka]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Barabar Caves]]<br />
| [[Jehanabad district]], [[Bihar]], [[India]]<br />
| [[Ashoka]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Bharhut|Bharhut Stupa]]<br />
| [[Satna district]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[India]]<br />
| [[Ashoka]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Deorkothar|Deorkothar Stupa]]<br />
| [[Rewa district]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[India]]<br />
| [[Ashoka]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Sannati|Sannati Stupa]]<br />
| [[Kalaburagi district]], [[Karnataka]], [[India]]<br />
| [[Ashoka]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Kesaria Stupa]]<br />
| [[Champaran]], [[Bihar]], [[India]]<br />
| [[Ashoka]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Sariputta Stupa]] <br />
|[[Nalanda|Nalanda Mahavihara]], [[Bihar]], [[India]]<br />
| [[Ashoka]]<br />
|-<br />
|[[Dharmarajika Stupa]] <br />
|[[Taxila Cantonment]], [[Punjab]], [[Pakistan]]<br />
| [[Ashoka]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Kunala Stupa]]<br />
| [[Sirkap]], [[Punjab]], [[Pakistan]]<br />
| [[Ashoka]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Butkara Stupa]]<br />
|[[Swat]], [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]], [[Pakistan]] <br />
| [[Ashoka]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Bhir Mound]] (''reconstruction'')<br />
| [[Taxila]],[[Punjab]], [[Pakistan]]<br />
| [[Ashoka]]<br />
|-<br />
|[[Mir Rukun Stupa]]<br />
| [[Nawabshah]], [[Sindh]], [[Pakistan]]<br />
| [[Ashoka]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Ramagrama Stupa]]<br />
| [[Parasi District]], [[Nepal]]<br />
| [[Ashoka]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Rangkuta Banashram Stupa]]<br />
| [[Ramu Village]], [[Bangladesh]]<br />
| [[Ashoka]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Dhamrai Stupa]]<br />
| [[Dhaka district]], [[Bangladesh]]<br />
| [[Ashoka]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Mahasthangarh Stupa]]<br />
| [[Bogra district]], [[Bangladesh]]<br />
| [[Ashoka]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Propagation of Dhamma===<br />
Ashoka's rock edicts suggest that during his eighth–ninth regnal years, he made a pilgrimage to the Bodhi Tree, started propagating dhamma, and performed social welfare activities. The welfare activities included establishment of medical treatment facilities for humans and animals; plantation of medicinal herbs; and digging of wells and plantation of trees along the roads. These activities were conducted in the neighbouring kingdoms, including those of the Cholas, the Pandyas, the Satiyaputras, Tamraparni, the Greek kingdom of Antiyoka.{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=50}}<br />
<br />
The edicts also state that during his tenth–eleventh regnal years, Ashoka became closer to the Buddhist sangha, and went on a tour of the empire that lasted for at least 256 days.{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=50}}<br />
<br />
By his 12th regnal year, Ashoka had started inscribing edicts to propagate dhamma, having ordered his officers (''rajjukas'' and ''pradesikas'') to tour their jurisdictions every five years for inspection and for preaching ''dhamma''. By the next year, he had set up the post of the ''dharma-mahamatra''.{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=50}}<br />
<br />
During his 14th regnal year, he commissioned the enlargement of the stupa of Buddha Kanakamuni.{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=50}}<br />
<br />
===Third Buddhist Council ===<br />
{{Main|Third Buddhist council}}<br />
The Sri Lankan tradition presents a greater role for Ashoka in the Buddhist community.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=143}} In this tradition, Ashoka starts feeding monks on a large scale. His lavish patronage to the state patronage leads to many fake monks joining the sangha. The true Buddhist monks refuse to co-operate with these fake monks, and therefore, no [[uposatha]] ceremony is held for seven years. The king attempts to eradicate the fake monks, but during this attempt, an over-zealous minister ends up killing some real monks. The king then invites the elder monk [[Moggaliputta-Tissa]], to help him expel non-Buddhists from the monastery founded by him at Pataliputra.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=7}} 60,000 monks ([[bhikkhu]]s) convicted of being heretical are de-frocked in the ensuing process.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=143}} The uposatha ceremony is then held, and Tissa subsequently organises the [[Third Buddhist council]],{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=8}} during the 17th regnal year of Ashoka.{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=51}} Tissa compiles ''[[Kathavatthu]]'', a text that reaffirms Theravadin orthodoxy on several points.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=8}}<br />
<br />
The North Indian tradition makes no mention of these events, which has led to doubts about the historicity of the Third Buddhist council.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=144}}<br />
<br />
[[Image:Nava Jetavana Temple - Shravasti - 014 King Asoka at the Third Council (9241725897).jpg|thumb|Ashoka and Monk [[Moggaliputta-Tissa]] at the [[Third Buddhist Council]]. Nava Jetavana, [[Shravasti]].]]<br />
[[Richard Gombrich]] argues that the non-corroboration of this story by inscriptional evidence cannot be used to dismiss it as completely unhistorical, as several of Ashoka's inscriptions may have been lost.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=8}} Gombrich also argues that Asohka's inscriptions prove that he was interested in maintaining the "unanimity and purity" of the Sangha.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|pp=8–9}} For example, in his Minor Rock Edict 3, Ashoka recommends the members of the Sangha to study certain texts (most of which remain unidentified). Similarly, in an inscription found at Sanchi, Sarnath, and Kosam, Ashoka mandates that the dissident members of the sangha should be expelled, and expresses his desire to the Sangha remain united and flourish.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=5}}{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=45}}<br />
<br />
The 8th century Buddhist pilgrim [[Yijing (monk)|Yijing]] records another story about Ashoka's involvement in the Buddhist sangha. According to this story, the earlier king [[Bimbisara]], who was a contemporary of the Gautama Buddha, once saw 18 fragments of a cloth and a stick in a dream. The Buddha interpreted the dream to mean that his philosophy would be divided into 18 schools after his death, and predicted that a king called Ashoka would unite these schools over a hundred years later.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=26}}<br />
<br />
===Buddhist missions===<br />
In the Sri Lankan tradition, [[Moggaliputta-Tissa]] – who is patronised by Ashoka – sends out nine Buddhist missions to spread Buddhism in the "border areas" in {{circa|250 BCE}}. This tradition does not credit Ashoka directly with sending these missions. Each mission comprises five monks, and is headed by an elder.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=10}} To Sri Lanka, he sent his own son [[Mahinda (Buddhist monk)|Mahinda]], accompanied by four other Theras – Itthiya, Uttiya, Sambala and Bhaddasala.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=143}} Next, with Moggaliputta-Tissa's help, Ashoka sent Buddhist missionaries to distant regions such as Kashmir, Gandhara, Himalayas, the land of the Yonas (Greeks), Maharashtra, Suvannabhumi, and Sri Lanka.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=143}}<br />
<br />
The Sri Lankan tradition dates these missions to Ashoka's 18th regnal year, naming the following missionaries:{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=50}}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; background-color:#D2B48C; color:brown;"<br />
|+ <br />
|-<br />
! style="background-color:gold;" | Buddhist Emissary<br />
! style="background-color:gold;" | Destination<br />
|-<br />
| [[Mahinda (Buddhist monk)|Mahinda]]<br />
| Sri Lanka <br />
|-<br />
| Majjhantika<br />
| Kashmir and Gandhara <br />
|-<br />
| Mahadeva<br />
| Mahisa-mandala (possibly modern Mysore region) <br />
|-<br />
| Rakkhita<br />
| Vanavasa <br />
|-<br />
| Dhammarakkhita the Greek<br />
| Aparantaka (western India) <br />
|-<br />
| Maha-dhamma-rakkhita<br />
| Maharashtra <br />
|-<br />
| Maharakkhita<br />
| The Greek country <br />
|-<br />
| Majjhima<br />
| The Himalayas <br />
|-<br />
| Soṇa and Uttara<br />
| Suvaṇṇabhūmi (possibly Lower Burma and Thailand)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
[[File:Asoka_Kaart.gif|thumb|Ashoka Dhamma Emissary Missions]]<br />
The tradition adds that during his 19th regnal year, Ashoka's daughter [[Sanghamitta]] went to Sri Lanka to establish an order of nuns, taking a sapling of the sacred Bodhi Tree with her.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=10}}{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=51}}<br />
<br />
The North Indian tradition makes no mention of these events.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=144}} Ashoka's own inscriptions also appear to omit any mention of these events, recording only one of his activities during this period: in his 19th regnal year, he donated the Khalatika Cave to ascetics to provide them a shelter during the rainy season. Ashoka's [[Minor Pillar Edicts|Pillar Edicts]] suggest that during the next year, he made pilgrimage to Lumbini – the place of Buddha's birth, and to the stupa of the Buddha Kanakamuni.{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=51}}<br />
<br />
The Rock Edict XIII states that Ashoka's won a "dhamma victory" by sending messengers to five kings and several other kingdoms. Whether these missions correspond to the Buddhist missions recorded in the Buddhist chronicles is debated.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=6}} Indologist [[Etienne Lamotte]] argues that the "dhamma" missionaries mentioned in Ashoka's inscriptions were probably not Buddhist monks, as this "dhamma" was not same as "Buddhism".{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|pp=10–11}} Moreover, the lists of destinations of the missions and the dates of the missions mentioned in the inscriptions do not tally the ones mentioned in the Buddhist legends.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=11}}<br />
<br />
Other scholars, such as [[Erich Frauwallner]] and [[Richard Gombrich]], believe that the missions mentioned in the Sri Lankan tradition are historical.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=11}} According to these scholars, a part of this story is corroborated by archaeological evidence: the ''Vinaya Nidana'' mentions names of five monks, who are said to have gone to the Himalayan region; three of these names have been found inscribed on relic caskets found at [[Bhilsa]] (near [[Vidisha]]). These caskets have been dated to the early 2nd century BCE, and the inscription states that the monks are of the Himalayan school.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=10}} The missions may have set out from Vidisha in central India, as the caskets were discovered there, and as Mahinda is said to have stayed there for a month before setting out for Sri Lanka.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|pp=11–12}}<br />
<br />
According to Gombrich, the mission may have included representatives of other religions, and thus, Lamotte's objection about "dhamma" is not valid. The Buddhist chroniclers may have decided not to mention these non-Buddhists, so as not to sideline Buddhism.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=12}} Frauwallner and Gombrich also believe that Ashoka was directly responsible for the missions, since only a resourceful ruler could have sponsored such activities. The Sri Lankan chronicles, which belong to the Theravada school, exaggerate the role of the Theravadin monk Moggaliputta-Tissa in order to glorify their sect.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=12}}<br />
<br />
Some historians argue that Buddhism became a major religion because of Ashoka's royal patronage.{{sfn|Thapar|1995|p=32}} However, epigraphic evidence suggests that the spread of Buddhism in north-western India and Deccan region was less because of Ashoka's missions, and more because of merchants, traders, landowners and the artisan guilds who supported Buddhist establishments.{{sfn|Thapar|1995|p=36}}<br />
<br />
===Violence after conversion===<br />
According to the ''Ashokavadana'', a non-Buddhist in [[Pundravardhana]] drew a picture showing the Buddha bowing at the feet of the Nirgrantha leader Jnatiputra. The term nirgrantha ("free from bonds") was originally used for a pre-Jaina ascetic order, but later came to be used for Jaina monks.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=28}} "Jnatiputra" is identified with [[Mahavira]], 24th Tirthankara of [[Jainism]]. The legend states that on complaint from a Buddhist devotee, Ashoka issued an order to arrest the non-Buddhist artist, and subsequently, another order to kill all the [[Ajivika]]s in Pundravardhana. Around 18,000 followers of the Ajivika sect were executed as a result of this order.{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=232}}<ref name="Beni2010">{{cite book | author=Beni Madhab Barua | title=The Ajivikas | url=https://archive.org/details/ajivikas00barurich | access-date=30 October 2012 | date=5 May 2010 | publisher=General Books | isbn=978-1-152-74433-2 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/ajivikas00barurich/page/68 68]–69}}</ref> Sometime later, another Nirgrantha follower in [[Pataliputra]] drew a similar picture. Ashoka burnt him and his entire family alive in their house.<ref name="Beni2010" /> He also announced an award of one [[Kushan coinage|dinara]] (gold coin) to anyone who brought him the head of a Nirgrantha heretic. According to ''Ashokavadana'', as a result of this order, his own brother was mistaken for a heretic and killed by a cowherd.{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=232}} Ashoka realised his mistake, and withdrew the order.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=28}}<br />
<br />
For several reasons, scholars say, these stories of persecutions of rival sects by Ashoka appear to be clear fabrications arising out of sectarian propaganda.<ref name="Beni2010" /><ref name="Steven2010">{{cite book | author=Steven L. Danver | author-link=Steven L. Danver | title=Popular Controversies in World History: Investigating History's Intriguing Questions: Investigating History's Intriguing Questions | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=slVobUjdzGMC&pg=RA1-PA99 | access-date=23 May 2013 | date=22 December 2010 | publisher=ABC-CLIO | isbn=978-1-59884-078-0 | page=99 | archive-date=3 January 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103043618/http://books.google.com/books?id=slVobUjdzGMC&pg=RA1-PA99 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="LePhuoc2010">{{cite book | author=Le Phuoc | title=Buddhist Architecture | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9jb364g4BvoC&pg=PA32 | access-date=23 May 2013 | date=March 2010 | publisher=Grafikol | isbn=978-0-9844043-0-8 | page=32 | archive-date=31 December 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231233840/http://books.google.com/books?id=9jb364g4BvoC&pg=PA32 | url-status=live }}</ref><br />
<br />
==Family==<br />
[[File:Sanchi King Ashoka with his Queens, South Gate, Stupa no. 1.jpg|thumb|300px|A king - most probably Ashoka - with his two queens and three attendants, in a relief at [[Sanchi]].{{sfn|Singh|2017|p=162}} The king's identification with Ashoka is suggested by a similar relief at [[Kanaganahalli]], which bears his name.{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=333}}{{sfn|Singh|2017|p=162}}]]<br />
[[File:Kanaganahalli Asoka with inscription.jpg|thumb|upright|Ashoka with his queen, at [[Kanaganahalli]] near [[Sannati]], 1st–3rd century CE. The relief bears the inscription "Rāya Asoko" (𑀭𑀸𑀬 𑀅𑀲𑁄𑀓𑁄, "King Ashoka") in [[Brahmi script]]. It depicts the king with his queen, two attendants bearing fly-whisks, and one attendant bearing an umbrella.{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=333}}{{sfn|Singh|2017|p=162}}]]<br />
[[File:Emperor Ashoka and his Queen at the Deer Park.jpg|thumb|Emperor Ashoka and his Queen at the [[Sarnath|Deer Park]]. [[Sanchi]] relief.{{sfn|Singh|2017|p=162}}]]<br />
<br />
===Queens===<br />
Various sources mention five consorts of Ashoka: [[Devi (Ashoka's wife)|Devi]] (or Vedisa-Mahadevi-Shakyakumari), [[Karuvaki]], Asandhimitra (Pali: Asandhimitta), [[Padmavati (wife of Ashoka)|Padmavati]], and [[Tishyarakshita]] (Pali: Tissarakkha).{{sfn|Mookerji|1962|p=9}}<br />
<br />
Karuvaki is the only queen of Ashoka known from his own inscriptions: she is mentioned in an edict inscribed on a pillar at Allahabad. The inscription names her as the mother of prince Tivara, and orders the royal officers (mahamattas) to record her religious and charitable donations.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=30}} According to one theory, Tishyarakshita was the regnal name of Kaurvaki.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=30}}<br />
<br />
According to the ''Mahavamsa'', Ashoka's chief queen was Asandhimitta, who died four years before him.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=30}} It states that she was born as Ashoka's queen because in a previous life, she directed a [[pratyekabuddha]] to a honey merchant (who was later reborn as Ashoka).{{sfn|Strong|1995|pp=146–147}} Some later texts also state that she additionally gave the pratyekabuddha a piece of cloth made by her.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=166}} These texts include the ''Dasavatthuppakarana'', the so-called Cambodian or Extended ''Mahavamsa'' (possibly from 9th–10th centuries), and the ''Trai Bhumi Katha'' (15th century).{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=166}} These texts narrate another story: one day, Ashoka mocked Asandhamitta was enjoying a tasty piece of sugarcane without having earned it through her karma. Asandhamitta replied that all her enjoyments resulted from merit resulting from her own karma. Ashoka then challenged her to prove this by procuring 60,000 robes as an offering for monks.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=166}} At night, the guardian gods informed her about her past gift to the pratyekabuddha, and next day, she was able to miraculously procure the 60,000 robes. An impressed Ashoka makes her his favourite queen, and even offers to make her a sovereign ruler. Asandhamitta refuses the offer, but still invokes the jealousy of Ashoka's 16,000 other women. Ashoka proves her superiority by having 16,000 identical cakes baked with his royal seal hidden in only one of them. Each wife is asked to choose a cake, and only Asandhamitta gets the one with the royal seal.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=167}} The ''Trai Bhumi Katha'' claims that it was Asandhamitta who encouraged her husband to become a Buddhist, and to construct 84,000 stupas and 84,000 viharas.{{sfn|Strong|1995|pp=167–168}}<br />
<br />
According to ''Mahavamsa'', after Asandhamitta's death, [[Tissarakkha]] became the chief queen.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=30}} The Ashokavadana does not mention Asandhamitta at all, but does mention Tissarakkha as Tishyarakshita.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=151}} The ''Divyavadana'' mentions another queen called Padmavati, who was the mother of the crown-prince Kunala.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=30}}<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, according to the Sri Lankan tradition, Ashoka fell in love with Devi (or Vidisha-Mahadevi), as a prince in central India.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|pp=22–23}} After Ashoka's ascension to the throne, Devi chose to remain at Vidisha than move to the royal capital Pataliputra. According to the ''Mahavmsa'', Ashoka's chief queen was Asandhamitta, not Devi: the text does not talk of any connection between the two women, so it is unlikely that Asandhamitta was another name for Devi.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=23}} The Sri Lankan tradition uses the word ''samvasa'' to describe the relationship between Ashoka and Devi, which modern scholars variously interpret as sexual relations outside marriage, or co-habitation as a married couple.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=97-98}} Those who argue that Ashoka did not marry Devi argue that their theory is corroborated by the fact that Devi did not become Ashoka's chief queen in Pataliputra after his ascension.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=98}} The ''Dipavamsa'' refers to two children of Ashoka and Devi – Mahinda and [[Sanghamitta]].{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=22}}<br />
<br />
===Sons===<br />
Tivara, the son of Ashoka and Karuvaki, is the only of Ashoka's sons to be mentioned by name in the inscriptions.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=30}}<br />
<br />
According to North Indian tradition, Ashoka had a son named Kunala.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=144}} Kunala had a son named Samprati.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=30}}<br />
<br />
The Sri Lankan tradition mentions a son called [[Mahinda (Buddhist monk)|Mahinda]], who was sent to Sri Lanka as a Buddhist missionary; this son is not mentioned at all in the North Indian tradition.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=143}} The Chinese pilgrim [[Xuanzang]] states that Mahinda was Ashoka's younger brother (Vitashoka or Vigatashoka) rather than his illegitimate son.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=24}}<br />
<br />
The ''Divyavadana'' mentions the crown-prince Kunala alias Dharmavivardhana, who was a son of queen Padmavati. According to Faxian, Dharmavivardhana was appointed as the governor of Gandhara.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=30}}<br />
<br />
The ''Rajatarangini'' mentions Jalauka as a son of Ashoka.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=30}}<br />
<br />
===Daughters===<br />
According to Sri Lankan tradition, Ashoka had a daughter named Sanghamitta, who became a Buddhist nun.{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=49}} A section of historians, such as [[Romila Thapar]], doubt the historicity of Sanghamitta, based on the following points:{{sfn|Thapar|1961|pp=23–24}}<br />
* The name "Sanghamitta", which literally means the friend of the Buddhist Order (sangha), is unusual, and the story of her going to Ceylon so that the Ceylonese queen could be ordained appears to be an exaggeration.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=23}}<br />
*The ''Mahavamsa'' states that she married Ashoka's nephew Agnibrahma, and the couple had a son named Sumana. The contemporary laws regarding exogamy would have forbidden such a marriage between first cousins.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=24}}<br />
*According to the ''Mahavamsa'', she was 18 years old when she was ordained as a nun.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=23}} The narrative suggests that she was married two years earlier, and that her husband as well as her child were ordained. It is unlikely that she would have been allowed to become a nun with such a young child.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=24}}<br />
<br />
Another source mentions that Ashoka had a daughter named Charumati, who married a kshatriya named Devapala.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=30}}<br />
<br />
===Brothers===<br />
<br />
According to the ''Ashokavadana'', Ashoka had an elder half-brother named Susima.{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=204}} <br />
*According to Sri Lankan tradition, this brother was Tissa, who initially lived a luxurious life, without worrying about the world. To teach him a lesson, Ashoka put him on the throne for a few days, then accused him of being an usurper, and sentenced him to die after seven days. During these seven days, Tissa realised that the Buddhist monks gave up pleasure because they were aware of the eventual death. He then left the palace, and became an ''arhat''.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=27}}<br />
*The Theragatha commentary calls this brother Vitashoka. According to this legend, one day, Vitashoka saw a grey hair on his head, and realised that he had become old. He then retired to a monastery, and became an arhat.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=28}}<br />
*Faxian calls the younger brother Mahendra, and states that Ashoka shamed him for his immoral behaviour. The brother than retired to a dark cave, where he meditated, and became an arhat. Ashoka invited him to return to the family, but he preferred to live alone on a hill. So, Ashoka had a hill built for him within Pataliputra.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=28}}<br />
*The Ashoka-vadana states that Ashoka's brother was mistaken for a Nirgrantha, and killed during a massacre of the Nirgranthas ordered by Ashoka.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=28}}<br />
<br />
==Religion and philosophy==<br />
<br />
===Relationship with Buddhism===<br />
[[File:Upasaka.jpg|thumb|The word ''[[Upāsaka]]'' (𑀉𑀧𑀸𑀲𑀓, "Buddhist lay follower", in the [[Brahmi script]]), used by Ashoka in his [[Minor Rock Edict]] No.1 to describe his affiliation to Buddhism ({{Circa|258 BCE}}).]]<br />
<br />
The Buddhist legends state that Ashoka converted to Buddhism,{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=15}} although this has been debated by a section of scholars.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=142}} The [[Minor Rock Edicts#Full texts of the Minor Rock Edicts|Minor Rock Edict 1]] leaves no doubt that Ashoka was a follower of Buddhism. In this edict, he calls himself an [[upāsaka and Upāsikā|upasaka]] (a lay follower of Buddhism) and a ''sakya'' (i.e. Buddhist, after Gautama Buddha's title ''Shakya-Muni'').{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=134}} This and several other edicts are evidence of his Buddhist affiliation:{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|pp=43–44}} <br />
*In his Minor Rock Edict 1, Ashoka adds that he did not make much progress for a year after becoming an ''upasaka'', but then, he "went to" the Sangha, and made more progress. It is not certain what "going to" the Sangha means – the Buddhist tradition that he lived with monks may be an exaggeration, but it clearly means that Ashoka was drawn closer to Buddhism.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=3}}<br />
*In his Minor Rock Edict 3, he calls himself an ''upasaka'', and records his faith in the Buddha and the Sangha.{{sfn|Thapar|1995|pp=19–20}}{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=44}}<br />
*In the [[Major Rock Edicts#Major Rock Edict 8|Major Rock Edict 8]], he records his visit to Sambodhi (the sacred Bodhi Tree at Bodh Gaya), ten years after his coronation.{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=44}}<br />
*In the [[Lumbini#Pillar of Ashoka|Lumbini (Rumminidei) inscription]], he records his visit to the Buddha's birthplace, and declares his reverence for the Buddha and the sangha.{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=13}}<br />
*In the Nigalisagar inscription, he records his doubling in size of a stupa dedicated to a former Buddha, and his visit to the site for worship.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=5}}<br />
*Some of his inscriptions reflect his interest in maintaining the Buddhist sangha (see [[#Purification of sangha]] below).{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=5}}<br />
*The [[Saru Maru]] inscription states that Ashoka dispatched the message while travelling to Upunita-vihara in Manema-desha. Although the identity of the destination is not certain, it was obviously a Buddhist monastery ([[vihara]]).{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=157}}<br />
<br />
===Other religions ===<br />
A legend in the Buddhist text ''Vamsatthapakasini'' states that an Ajivika ascetic invited to interpret a dream of Ashoka's mother had predicted that he would patronise Buddhism and destroy 96 heretical sects.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=26}} However, such assertions are directly contradicted by Ashoka's own inscriptions. Ashoka's edicts, such as the Rock Edicts 6, 7, and 12, emphasise tolerance of all sects.{{sfn|Thapar|1995|p=29}} Similarly, in his [[Major Rock Edicts#Major Rock Edict 12|Rock Edict 12]], Ashoka honours people of all faiths.{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=4}} In his inscriptions, Ashoka dedicates caves to non-Buddhist ascetics, and repeatedly states that both Brahmins and shramanas deserved respect. He also tells people "not to denigrate other sects, but to inform themselves about them".{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=3}}<br />
<br />
In fact, there is no evidence that Buddhism was a state religion under Ashoka.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=37}} None of Ashoka's extant edicts record his direct donations to the Buddhists. One inscription records donations by his queen [[Karuvaki]], while the emperor is known to have donated the [[Barabar Caves]] to the [[Ajivika]]s.{{sfn|Thapar|1995|p=19}} There are some indirect references to his donations to Buddhists. For example, the Nigalisagar Pillar inscription records his enlargement of the Konakamana stupa.{{sfn|Thapar|1995|pp=20–21}} Similarly, the [[Lumbini#Pillar of Ashoka|Lumbini (Rumminidei) inscription]] states that he exempted the village of Buddha's birth from the land tax, and reduced the revenue tax to one-eighth.{{sfn|Thapar|1995|p=20}}<br />
<br />
Ashoka appointed the ''dhamma-mahamatta'' officers, whose duties included the welfare of various religious sects, including the Buddhist sangha, Brahmins, Ajivikas, and Nirgranthas. The Rock Edicts 8 and 12, and the Pillar Edict 7, mandate donations to all religious sects.{{sfn|Thapar|1995|p=31}}<br />
<br />
Ashoka's [[Minor Rock Edicts#Full texts of the Minor Rock Edicts|Minor Rock Edict 1]] contains the phrase "''amissā [[deva (Buddhism)|devā]]''". According to one interpretation, the term "''amissā''" derives from the word "''amṛṣa''" ("false"), and thus, the phrase is a reference to Ashoka's belief in "true" and "false" gods. However, it is more likely that the term derives from the word "''amiśra''" ("not mingled"), and the phrase refers to celestial beings who did not mingle with humans. The inscription claims that the righteousness generated by adoption of dhamma by the humans attracted even the celestial gods who did not mingle with humans.{{sfn|Thapar|1995|pp=21–22}}<br />
<br />
===Dharma===<br />
{{main|Ashoka's policy of Dhamma}}<br />
<br />
Ashoka's various inscriptions suggest that he devoted himself to the propagation of "Dharma" (Pali: Dhamma), a term that refers to the teachings of [[Gautama Buddha]] in the Buddhist circles.{{sfn|Strong|1989|pp=3–4}} However, Ashoka's own inscriptions do not mention Buddhist doctrines such as the [[Four Noble Truths]] or [[Nirvana (Buddhism)|Nirvana]].{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=13}} The word "Dharma" has various connotations in the [[Indian religions]], and can be generally translated as "law, duty, or righteousness".{{sfn|Strong|1989|pp=3–4}} In the Kandahar inscriptions of Ashoka, the word "Dharma" has been translated as [[eusebeia]] (Greek) and qsyt (Aramaic), which further suggests that his "Dharma" meant something more generic than Buddhism.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=142}}<br />
<br />
The inscriptions suggest that for Ashoka, Dharma meant "a moral polity of active social concern, [[religious tolerance]], ecological awareness, the observance of common ethical precepts, and the renunciation of war."{{sfn|Strong|1989|pp=3–4}} For example:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left; background-color:#D2B48C; color:brown;"<br />
|+ <br />
|-<br />
! style="background-color:gold;" | Ashoka's Actions<br />
! style="background-color:gold;" | Edict Reference<br />
|-<br />
| Abolition of the death penalty.<br />
| Pillar Edict 4{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=3}}<br />
|-<br />
| Plantation of banyan trees and mango groves, and construction of resthouses and wells, every {{convert|1/2|mi|m|abbr=off|order=flip}} along the roads.<br />
| Pillar Edict 7{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=4}}<br />
|-<br />
| Restriction on killing of animals in the royal kitchen; the number of animals killed was limited to two peacocks and a deer daily, and in the future, even these animals were not to be killed.<br />
| Rock Edict 1{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=4}}, {{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=3}}<br />
|-<br />
| Provision of medical facilities for humans and animals.<br />
| Rock Edict 2{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=4}}<br />
|-<br />
| Encouragement of obedience to parents, generosity toward priests and ascetics, and frugality in spending.<br />
| Rock Edict 3{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=4}}<br />
|-<br />
| Commissioning officers to work for the welfare and happiness of the poor and aged.<br />
| Rock Edict 5{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=4}}<br />
|-<br />
| Promotion of the welfare of all beings so as to pay off his debt to living creatures and to work for their happiness in this world and the next.<br />
| Rock Edict 6{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=4}}<br />
|}<br />
Modern scholars have variously understood this ''dhamma'' as a Buddhist lay ethic, a set of politico-moral ideas, a "sort of universal religion", or as an Ashokan innovation. On the other hand, it has also been interpreted as an ''essentially political'' ideology that sought to knit together a vast and diverse empire.{{sfn|Singh|2012|p=131}}<br />
<br />
Ashoka instituted a new category of officers called the ''dhamma-mahamattas'', who were tasked with the welfare of the aged, the infirm, the women and children, and various religious sects. They were also sent on diplomatic missions to the Hellenistic kingdoms of west Asia, in order to propagate the dhamma.{{sfn|Thapar|1995|p=31}}<br />
<br />
Historically, the image of Ashoka in the global Buddhist circles was based on legends (such as those mentioned in the ''[[Ashokavadana]]'') rather than his rock edicts. This was because the Brahmi script in which these edicts were written was forgotten soon and remained undeciphered until its study by James Prinsep in the 19th century.{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=5}} The writings of the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims such as Faxian and Xuanzang suggest that Ashoka's inscriptions mark the important sites associated with Gautama Buddha. These writers attribute Buddhism-related content to Ashoka's edicts, but this content does not match with the actual text of the inscriptions as determined by modern scholars after the decipherment of the Brahmi script. It is likely that the script was forgotten by the time of Faxian, who probably relied on local guides; these guides may have made up some Buddhism-related interpretations to gratify him, or may have themselves relied on faulty translations based on oral traditions. Xuanzang may have encountered a similar situation, or may have taken the supposed content of the inscriptions from Faxian's writings.{{sfn|Strong|1989|pp=6–9}} This theory is corroborated by the fact that some Brahmin scholars are known to have similarly come up with a fanciful interpretation of Ashoka pillar inscriptions, when requested to decipher them by the 14th century Muslim king [[Firuz Shah Tughlaq]]. According to Shams-i Siraj's ''Tarikh-i Firoz Shahi'', after the king had these pillar transported from [[Topra Kalan|Topra]] and Mirat to Delhi as war trophies, these Brahmins told him that the inscriptions prophesied that nobody would be able to remove the pillars except a king named Firuz. Moreover, by this time, there were local traditions that attributed the erection of these pillars to the legendary hero [[Bhima]].{{sfn|Strong|1989|pp=9–10}}<br />
<br />
According to scholars such as Richard Gombrich, Ashoka's dharma shows Buddhist influence. For example, the Kalinga Separate Edict I seems to be inspired by Buddha's ''Advice to Sigala'' and his other sermons.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=3}}<br />
<br />
====Animal welfare====<br />
Ashoka's rock edicts declare that injuring living things is not good, and no animal should be slaughtered for sacrifice.{{sfn|Fitzgerald|2004|p=120}} <br />
<br />
He imposed a ban on killing of "all four-footed creatures that are neither useful nor edible", and of specific animal species including several birds, certain types of fish and bulls among others. He also banned killing of female goats, sheep and pigs that were nursing their young; as well as their young up to the age of six months. He also banned killing of all fish and [[neutering|castration]] of animals during certain periods such as [[Chaturmasa]] and [[Uposatha]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/dhammika/wheel386.html |title=The Edicts of King Asoka |translator-last=Dhammika |translator-first=Ven. S. |year=1994 |publisher=Buddhist Publication Society |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160510060618/http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/dhammika/wheel386.html |archive-date=10 May 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hhlfSZLDjRsC&pg=PA314 |title=Asoka |author=D.R. Bhandarkar, R. G. Bhandarkar |publisher=Asian Educational Services |year=2000 |pages=314–315 |isbn=9788120613331 |access-date=17 December 2015 |archive-date=26 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160426172502/https://books.google.com/books?id=hhlfSZLDjRsC&pg=PA314 |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
<br />
Ashoka also abolished the royal hunting of animals and restricted the slaying of animals for food in the royal residence.<ref name="GeraldMichael1998">{{cite book | author1=Gerald Irving A. Dare Draper | author2=Michael A. Meyer | author3=H. McCoubrey | title=Reflections on Law and Armed Conflicts: The Selected Works on the Laws of War by the Late Professor Colonel G.I.A.D. Draper, Obe | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ETjo7FKSsVkC&pg=PA44 | access-date=30 October 2012 | year=1998 | publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers | isbn=978-90-411-0557-8 | page=44 | archive-date=14 May 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514230412/http://books.google.com/books?id=ETjo7FKSsVkC&pg=PA44 | url-status=live }}</ref> Because he banned hunting, created many veterinary clinics and eliminated meat eating on many holidays, the Mauryan Empire under Ashoka has been described as "one of the very few instances in world history of a government treating its animals as citizens who are as deserving of its protection as the human residents".<ref>{{cite book |title=The Longest Struggle: Animal Advocacy from Pythagoras to Peta |last=Phelps |first=Norm |author-link=Norm Phelps |year=2007 |publisher=Lantern Books |isbn=978-1590561065 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/longeststrugglea00phel }}</ref><br />
<br />
==Foreign relations==<br />
[[File:Territories conquered by the Dharma according to Ashoka.jpg|thumb|Territories "conquered by the Dhamma" according to [[Major Rock Edicts|Major Rock Edict No.13]] of Ashoka (260–218 BCE).{{sfn|Kosmin|2014|p=57}}<ref name="ME368">Thomas Mc Evilly "The shape of ancient thought", Allworth Press, New York, 2002, p.368</ref>]]<br />
It is well known that Ashoka sent ''dütas'' or emissaries to convey messages or letters, written or oral (rather both), to various people. The VIth Rock Edict about "oral orders" reveals this. It was later confirmed that it was not unusual to add oral messages to written ones, and the content of Ashoka's messages can be inferred likewise from the XIIIth Rock Edict: They were meant to spread his ''dhammavijaya,'' which he considered the highest victory and which he wished to propagate everywhere (including far beyond India). There is obvious and undeniable trace of cultural contact through the adoption of the [[Kharosthi]] script, and the idea of installing inscriptions might have travelled with this script, as [[Achaemenid]] influence is seen in some of the formulations used by Ashoka in his inscriptions. This indicates to us that Ashoka was indeed in contact with other cultures, and was an active part in mingling and spreading new cultural ideas beyond his own immediate walls.<ref name="Hinuber2012">{{cite journal | author=Oskar von Hinüber |title=Did Hellenistic Kings Send Letters to Aśoka? | journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=130 | issue=2 | year=2010 | publisher=Freiburg | pages=262–265}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Hellenistic world===<br />
In his rock edicts, Ashoka states that he had encouraged the transmission of Buddhism to the [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic kingdoms]] to the west and that the Greeks in his dominion were converts to Buddhism and recipients of his envoys:<br />
<br />
{{blockquote|Now it is conquest by Dhamma that Beloved-of-the-Gods considers to be the best conquest. And it (conquest by Dhamma) has been won here, on the borders, even six hundred yojanas away, where the Greek king [[Antiochus II Theos|Antiochos]] rules, beyond there where the four kings named [[Ptolemy II Philadelphus|Ptolemy]], [[Antigonus II Gonatas|Antigonos]], [[Magas of Cyrene|Magas]] and [[Alexander II of Epirus|Alexander]] rule, likewise in the south among the Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as Tamraparni.<br />
<br />
Here in the king's domain among the Greeks, the Kambojas, the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamktis, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas, everywhere people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions in Dhamma. Even where Beloved-of-the-Gods' envoys have not been, these people too, having heard of the practice of Dhamma and the ordinances and instructions in Dhamma given by Beloved-of-the-Gods, are following it and will continue to do so. | [[Edicts of Ashoka]], [[Ashoka's Major Rock Edict|Rock Edict]] (S. Dhammika)<ref>[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/dhammika/wheel386.html#rock14 The Edicts of King Ashoka: an English rendering by Ven. S. Dhammika] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160510060618/http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/dhammika/wheel386.html |date=10 May 2016 }}. Access to Insight: Readings in Theravāda Buddhism. Retrieved 1 September 2011.</ref>|source=}}<br />
<br />
It is possible, but not certain, that Ashoka received letters from Greek rulers and was acquainted with the Hellenistic royal orders in the same way as he perhaps knew of the inscriptions of the Achaemenid kings, given the presence of ambassadors of Hellenistic kings in India (as well as the ''dütas'' sent by Ashoka himself).<ref name="Hinuber2012" /> [[Dionysius (ambassador)|Dionysius]] is reported to have been such a Greek ambassador at the court of Ashoka, sent by [[Ptolemy II Philadelphus]],<ref>{{cite web |url = http://perseus.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plin.+Nat.+6.21 |title = Pliny the Elder, "The Natural History", 6, 21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130728023626/http://perseus.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plin.+Nat.+6.21 |archive-date=28 July 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> who himself is mentioned in the [[Edicts of Ashoka]] as a recipient of the Buddhist proselytism of Ashoka. Some Hellenistic philosophers, such as [[Hegesias of Cyrene]], who probably lived under the rule of King [[Magas of Cyrene|Magas]], one of the supposed recipients of Buddhist emissaries from Asoka, are sometimes thought to have been influenced by Buddhist teachings.<ref>{{cite book |last=Preus |first=Anthony |year=2015 |title=Historical Dictionary of Ancient Greek Philosophy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wjW_BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA184 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |page=184 |isbn=978-1-4422-4639-3 |access-date=18 June 2017 |archive-date=4 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201104102717/https://books.google.com/books?id=wjW_BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA184 |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
<br />
The Greeks in India even seem to have played an active role in the propagation of Buddhism, as some of the emissaries of Ashoka, such as [[Dharmaraksita]], are described in [[Pāli|Pali]] sources as leading Greek ([[Yona]]) Buddhist monks, active in spreading Buddhism (the ''[[Mahavamsa]]'', XII).<ref name="plgotw">Full text of the ''Mahavamsa'' [http://lakdiva.org/mahavamsa/chapters.html Click chapter XII] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060905050433/http://lakdiva.org/mahavamsa/chapters.html |date=5 September 2006 }}</ref><br />
<br />
Some Greeks (Yavana) may have played an administrative role in the territories ruled by Ashoka. The Girnar inscription of [[Rudradaman]] records that during the rule of Ashoka, a [[Yavana]] Governor was in charge in the area of [[Girnar]], [[Gujarat]], mentioning his role in the construction of a water reservoir.<ref>The Idea of Ancient India: Essays on Religion, Politics, and Archaeology by Upinder Singh [https://books.google.com/books?id=KIWTCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA18 p.18] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191229135504/https://books.google.com/books?id=KIWTCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA18 |date=29 December 2019 }}</ref><br />
<br />
It is thought that Ashoka's palace at Patna was modelled after the Achaemenid palace of [[Persepolis]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=De la Croix |first1=Horst |last2=Tansey |first2=Richard G. |last3=Kirkpatrick |first3=Diane |title=Gardner's Art Through the Ages |date=1991 |publisher=Thomson/Wadsworth |isbn=0-15-503769-2 |edition=9th |page=[https://archive.org/details/gardnersartthrou00gard/page/428 428] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/gardnersartthrou00gard/page/428 }}</ref><br />
===Khotan===<br />
There are four versions of the legend of the founding of Khotan.<ref name="emmerick 263">{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ko_RafMSGLkC&pg=PA263 |author=Emmerick, R. E. |publisher=Cambridge University Press; Reissue edition |date=14 April 1983|isbn=978-0-521-20092-9|chapter =Chapter 7: Iranian Settlement East of the Pamirs|editor=Ehsan Yarshater |title=The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol III: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian Periods, Part 1 |page= 263 }}</ref> These may be found in accounts given by the Chinese pilgrim [[Xuanzang]] and in Tibetan translations of Khotanese documents. All four versions suggest that the city was founded around the third century BC by a group of Indians during the reign of [[Ashoka]].<ref name="Mallory 2000"><br />
{{Citation <br />
| last1 =Mallory <br />
| first1 =J. P. <br />
| author-link =J. P. Mallory <br />
| last2 =Mair <br />
| first2 =Victor H. <br />
| author2-link =Victor H. Mair <br />
| year =2000<br />
| pages = 77–81<br />
| title =The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West <br />
| place =London <br />
| publisher =Thames & Hudson<br />
}}</ref><ref name="emmerick 263"/> According to one version, the nobles of a tribe in [[Taxila (ancient)|ancient Taxila]], who traced their ancestry to the deity [[Vaiśravaṇa]], were said to have blinded [[Kunala|Kunãla]], a son of [[Ashoka]]. In punishment they were banished by the [[Maurya Empire|Mauryan emperor]] to the north of the Himalayas, where they settled in Khotan and elected one of their members as king. However war then ensued with another group from China whose leader then took over as king, and the two colonies merged.<ref name="Mallory 2000"/> In a different version, it was Kunãla himself who was exiled and founded Khotan.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8XXGhAL1WKcC&pg=PA193 |title=The Early History of India|first= Vincent A. |last= Smith | page=193 |publisher= Atlantic Publishers |date= 1999|isbn=978-81-7156-618-1}}</ref><br />
==Legends about past lives==<br />
Buddhist legends mention stories about Ashoka's past lives. According to a ''Mahavamsa'' story, Ashoka, Nigrodha and Devnampiya Tissa were brothers in a previous life. In that life, a [[pratyekabuddha]] was looking for honey to cure another, sick pratyekabuddha. A woman directed him to a honey shop owned by the three brothers. Ashoka generously donated honey to the pratyekabuddha, and wished to become the sovereign ruler of Jambudvipa for this act of merit.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=146}} The woman wished to become his queen, and was reborn as Ashoka's wife Asandhamitta.{{sfn|Strong|1995|pp=146–147}} Later Pali texts credit her with an additional act of merit: she gifted the pratyekabuddha a piece of cloth made by her. These texts include the ''Dasavatthuppakarana'', the so-called Cambodian or Extended ''Mahavamsa'' (possibly from 9th–10th centuries), and the ''Trai Bhumi Katha'' (15th century).{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=166}}<br />
<br />
According to an ''Ashokavadana'' story, Ashoka was born as Jaya in a prominent family of Rajagriha. When he was a little boy, he gave the Gautama Buddha dirt imagining it to be food. The Buddha approved of the donation, and Jaya declared that he would become a king by this act of merit. The text also state that Jaya's companion Vijaya was reborn as Ashoka's prime-minister Radhagupta.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=147}} In the later life, the Buddhist monk Upagupta tells Ashoka that his rough skin was caused by the impure gift of dirt in the previous life.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=149}} Some later texts repeat this story, without mentioning the negative implications of gifting dirt; these texts include Kumaralata's ''Kalpana-manditika'', Aryashura's ''Jataka-mala'', and the ''Maha-karma-vibhaga''. The Chinese writer Pao Ch'eng's ''Shih chia ju lai ying hua lu'' asserts that an insignificant act like gifting dirt could not have been meritorious enough to cause Ashoka's future greatness. Instead, the text claims that in another past life, Ashoka commissioned a large number of Buddha statues as a king, and this act of merit caused him to become a great emperor in the next life.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=163}}<br />
<br />
The 14th century Pali-language fairy tale ''Dasavatthuppakarana'' (possibly from {{Circa|14th century}}) combines the stories about the merchant's gift of honey, and the boy's gift of dirt. It narrates a slightly different version of the ''Mahavamsa'' story, stating that it took place before the birth of the Gautama Buddha. It then states that the merchant was reborn as the boy who gifted dirt to the Buddha; however, in this case, the Buddha his attendant to [[Ānanda]] to create [[plaster]] from the dirt, which is used repair cracks in the monastery walls.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=163-165}}<br />
<br />
==Last years ==<br />
<br />
=== Tissarakkha as the queen===<br />
Ashoka's last dated inscription - the [[Major Pillar Edicts#Major Pillar Edict 4|Pillar Edict 4]] is from his 26th regnal year.{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=51}} The only source of information about Ashoka's later years are the Buddhist legends. The Sri Lankan tradition states that Ashoka's queen Asandhamitta died during his 29th regnal year, and in his 32nd regnal year, his wife [[Tishyaraksha|Tissarakkha]] was given the title of queen.{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=51}}<br />
<br />
Both ''Mahavamsa'' and ''Ashokavadana'' state that Ashoka extended favours and attention to the [[Bodhi Tree]], and a jealous Tissarakkha mistook "Bodhi" to be a mistress of Ashoka. She then used black magic to make the tree wither.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=152}} According to the ''Ashokavadana'', she hired a sorceress to do the job, and when Ashoka explained that "Bodhi" was the name of a tree, she had the sorceress heal the tree.{{sfn|Strong|1995|pp=152–153}} According to the ''Mahavamsa'', she completely destroyed the tree,{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=153}} during Ashoka's 34th regnal year.{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=51}}<br />
<br />
The ''Ashokavadana'' states that Tissarakkha (called "Tishyarakshita" here) made sexual advances towards Ashoka's son Kunala, but Kunala rejected her. Subsequently, Ashoka granted Tissarakkha kingship for seven days, and during this period, she tortured and blinded Kunala.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=151}} Ashoka then threatened to "tear out her eyes, rip open her body with sharp rakes, impale her alive on a spit, cut off her nose with a saw, cut out her tongue with a razor." Kunala regained his eyesight miraculously, and pleaded for mercy for the queen, but Ashoka had her executed anyway.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=152}} Kshemendra's ''Avadana-kalpa-lata'' also narrates this legend, but seeks to improve Ashoka's image by stating that he forgave the queen after Kunala regained his eyesight.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=165}}<br />
<br />
=== Death ===<br />
According to the Sri Lankan tradition, Ashoka died during his 37th regnal year,{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=51}} which suggests that he died around 232 BCE.{{sfn|Kosmin|2014|p=36}}<br />
<br />
According to the ''Ashokavadana'', the emperor fell severely ill during his last days. He started using state funds to make donations to the Buddhist sangha, prompting his ministers to deny him access to the state treasury. Ashoka then started donating his personal possessions, but was similarly restricted from doing so. On his deathbed, his only possession was the half of a [[phyllanthus emblica|myrobalan fruit]], which he offered to the sangha as his final donation.{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=18}} Such legends encourage generous donations to the ''sangha'' and highlight the role of the kingship in supporting the Buddhist faith.{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=332}}<br />
<br />
Legend states that during his cremation, his body burned for seven days and nights.<ref>{{cite book |last=Strong |first=John |date=2007 |title=Relics of the Buddha |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xqAB6PKyP98C&pg=PA149 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |page=149 |isbn=978-81-208-3139-1 |access-date=15 November 2015 |archive-date=8 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160508154548/https://books.google.com/books?id=xqAB6PKyP98C&pg=PA149 |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
<br />
==Legacy==<br />
<br />
In ''[[The Outline of History]]'' (1920), [[H. G. Wells]] wrote, <blockquote>"Amidst the tens of thousands of names of monarchs that crowd the columns of history, their majesties and graciousnesses and serenities and royal highnesses and the like, the name of Ashoka shines, and shines, almost alone, a star. From the Volga to Japan, his name is still honoured."<ref name="Lahiri2015">{{cite book|author=Nayanjot Lahiri|title=Ashoka in Ancient India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JaVRCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT20|date=5 August 2015|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-91525-1|pages=20–|access-date=3 July 2018|archive-date=29 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191229045759/https://books.google.com/books?id=JaVRCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT20|url-status=live}}</ref> </blockquote><br />
<br />
===Architecture===<br />
Besides the various stupas attributed to Ashoka, the [[pillars of Ashoka|pillars erected by him]] survive at various places in the Indian subcontinent.<br />
<br />
Ashoka is often credited with the beginning of stone architecture in India, possibly following the introduction of stone-building techniques by the [[Greco-Bactrian|Greeks after Alexander the Great]].<ref name="Stone">[https://books.google.com/books?id=fpfTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT21 Introduction to Indian Architecture Bindia Thapar, Tuttle Publishing, 2012, p.21] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191229200601/https://books.google.com/books?id=fpfTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT21 |date=29 December 2019 }} "Ashoka used the knowledge of stone craft to begin the tradition of stone architecture in India, dedicated to Buddhism."</ref> Before Ashoka's time, buildings were probably built in non-permanent material, such as wood, [[bamboo]] or [[thatch]].<ref name="Stone" /><ref>{{cite book| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=TlVeuxIgjwQC&pg=PA14| title = Gardner's Art through the Ages: Non-Western Perspectives, Fred S. Kleiner, Cengage Learning, 2009, p14| isbn = 9780495573678| last1 = Kleiner| first1 = Fred S.| date = 5 January 2009| access-date = 17 June 2017| archive-date = 26 December 2019| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191226115443/https://books.google.com/books?id=TlVeuxIgjwQC&pg=PA14| url-status = live}}</ref> Ashoka may have rebuilt his palace in [[Pataliputra]] by replacing wooden material by stone,{{sfn|Mookerji|1962|p=96}} and may also have used the help of foreign craftmen.<ref name="auto3">"Ashoka was known to be a great builder who may have even imported craftsmen from abroad to build royal monuments." Monuments, Power and Poverty in India: From Ashoka to the Raj, A. S. Bhalla, I.B.Tauris, 2015 p.18 [https://books.google.com/books?id=emATBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA18] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191226160624/https://books.google.com/books?id=emATBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA18|date=26 December 2019}}</ref> Ashoka also innovated by using the permanent qualities of stone for his written [[Edicts of Ashoka|edicts]], as well as his pillars with Buddhist symbolism.<br />
<br />
<gallery widths="180px" heights="180px"><br />
Ashok Sthamba.jpg | The Ashokan pillar at [[Lumbini]], [[Nepal]], Buddha's birthplace<br />
Diamond throne discovery.jpg | The [[Diamond throne]] at the [[Mahabodhi Temple]], attributed to Ashoka<br />
Vajrasana front frieze design.jpg | Front frieze of the Diamond throne<br />
MauryanRingstone.JPG | Mauryan [[ringstone]], with standing goddess. Northwest Pakistan. 3rd century BCE. [[British Museum]]<br />
Rampurva bull capital detail.jpg |[[Rampurva|Rampurva bull capital]], detail of the [[abacus (architecture)|abacus]], with two [[palmette|"flame palmettes"]] framing a lotus surrounded by small rosette flowers.<br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
===Symbols===<br />
<br />
{{multiple image<br />
| perrow=2<br />
| align = right<br />
| direction =horizontal<br />
| header=Symbols of Ashoka<br />
| total_width=300<br />
| image1 = Sarnath capital.jpg<br />
| caption1 = [[Lion Capital of Ashoka|Ashoka's pillar]] capital of [[Sarnath]]. This sculpture has been adopted as the [[National Emblem of India]].<br />
| image2 = Flag of India.svg<br />
| caption2 = [[Ashoka Chakra]], ''"the wheel of Righteousness" (Dharma in [[Sanskrit]] or Dhamma in [[Pali]])"'', has been adopted in the [[National Flag of India]].<br />
}}<br />
<br />
Ashokan capitals were highly realistic and used a characteristic polished finish, [[Mauryan polish]], giving a shiny appearance to the stone surface.<ref name="Irwin 1973 706–720">{{Cite journal |last=Irwin |first=John |date=1973 |title='Aśokan' Pillars: A Reassessment of the Evidence |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/877526 |journal=The Burlington Magazine |volume=115 |issue=848 |pages=706–720 |jstor=877526 |issn=0007-6287}}</ref> [[Lion Capital of Ashoka]], the capital of one of the pillars erected by Ashoka features a carving of a spoked wheel, known as the [[Ashoka Chakra]]. This wheel represents the wheel of Dhamma set in motion by the Gautama Buddha, and appears on the flag of modern India. This capital also features sculptures of lions, which appear on the seal of India.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=1}}<br />
<br />
===Inscriptions===<br />
[[File:AiKhanoumAndIndia.jpg|thumb|Distribution of the [[Edicts of Ashoka]], and location of the contemporary Greek city of [[Ai-Khanoum]].<ref>Reference: "India: The Ancient Past" p.113, Burjor Avari, [[Routledge]], {{ISBN|0-415-35615-6}}</ref>]]<br />
[[File:AsokaKandahar.jpg|thumb|The [[Kandahar Edict of Ashoka]], a bilingual inscription (in Greek and [[Aramaic]]) by King Ashoka, discovered at [[Kandahar]] ({{small|[[National Museum of Afghanistan]]}}).]]<br />
The edicts of Ashoka are a collection of 33 inscriptions on the [[Pillars of Ashoka]], as well as boulders and cave walls, issued during his reign.<ref name="Irwin 1973 706–720" /> These inscriptions are dispersed throughout modern-day Pakistan and India, and represent the first tangible evidence of Buddhism. The edicts describe in detail the first wide expansion of Buddhism through the sponsorship of one of the most powerful kings of Indian history, offering more information about Ashoka's proselytism, moral precepts, religious precepts, and his notions of social and animal welfare.{{sfn|Singh|2012}}<br />
<br />
Before Ashoka, the royal communications appear to have been written on perishable materials such as palm leaves, birch barks, cotton cloth, and possibly wooden boards. While Ashoka's administration would have continued to use these materials, Ashoka also had his messages inscribed on rock edicts.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|pp=120–121}} Ashoka probably got the idea of putting up these inscriptions from the neighbouring [[Achaemenid empire]].{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=3}} It is likely that Ashoka's messages were also inscribed on more perishable materials, such as wood, and sent to various parts of the empire. None of these records survive now.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=7}}<br />
<br />
Scholars are still attempting to analyse both the expressed and implied political ideas of the Edicts (particularly in regard to imperial vision), and make inferences pertaining to how that vision was grappling with problems and political realities of a "virtually subcontinental, and culturally and economically highly variegated, 3rd century BCE Indian empire.{{sfn|Singh|2012|p=132}} Nonetheless, it remains clear that Ashoka's Inscriptions represent the earliest corpus of royal inscriptions in the Indian subcontinent, and therefore prove to be a very important innovation in royal practices."{{sfn|Singh|2012}}<br />
<br />
Most of Ashoka's inscriptions are written in a mixture of various [[Prakrit]] dialects, in the [[Brahmi]] script.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=126}}<br />
<br />
Several of Ashoka's inscriptions appear to have been set up near towns, on important routes, and at places of religious significance.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=6}} Many of the inscriptions have been discovered in hills, rock shelters, and places of local significance.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=143}} Various theories have been put forward about why Ashoka or his officials chose such places, including that they were centres of megalithic cultures,{{sfn|Thapar|1995|p=23}} were regarded as sacred spots in Ashoka's time, or that their physical grandeur may be symbolic of spiritual dominance.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|pp=143–157}} Ashoka's inscriptions have not been found at major cities of the Maurya empire, such as Pataliputra, Vidisha, Ujjayini, and Taxila.<br />
{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=143}} It is possible that many of these inscriptions are lost; the 7th century Chinese pilgrim [[Xuanzang]] refers to some of Ashoka's pillar edicts, which have not been discovered by modern researchers.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=6}}<br />
<br />
It appears that Ashoka dispatched every message to his provincial governors, who in turn, relayed it to various officials in their territory.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=127}} For example, the [[Minor Rock Edicts#Full texts of the Minor Rock Edicts|Minor Rock Edict 1]] appears in several versions at multiple places: all the versions state that Ashoka issued the proclamation while on a tour, having spent 256 days on tour. The number 256 indicates that the message was dispatched simultaneously to various places.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=133}} Three versions of a message, found at edicts in the neighbouring places in Karnataka (Brahmagiri, Siddapura, and Jatinga-Rameshwara), were sent from the southern province's capital Suvarnagiri to various places. All three versions contain the same message, preceded by an initial greeting from the ''arya-putra'' (presumably Ashoka's son and the provincial governor) and the ''mahamatras'' (officials) in Suvarnagiri.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=127}}<br />
<br />
===Coinage===<br />
<br />
The [[caduceus]] appears as a symbol of the [[punch-marked coins]] of the [[Maurya Empire]] in India, in the 3rd–2nd century BCE. Numismatic research suggests that this symbol was the symbol of king Ashoka, his personal "[[Mudra]]".<ref>Indian Numismatics, Damodar Dharmanand Kosambi, Orient Blackswan, 1981, p.73 [https://books.google.com/books?id=favxZII9WtwC&pg=PA73] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191215201423/https://books.google.com/books?id=favxZII9WtwC&pg=PA73|date=15 December 2019}}</ref> This symbol was not used on the pre-Mauryan punch-marked coins, but only on coins of the Maurya period, together with the [[arched-hill symbol|three arched-hill symbol]], the "peacock on the hill", the [[triskelis]] and the [[Taxila]] mark.<ref>Malwa Through the Ages, from the Earliest Times to 1305 A.D, Kailash Chand Jain, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1972, p.134 [https://books.google.com/books?id=_3O7q7cU7k0C&pg=PA134] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191224053358/https://books.google.com/books?id=_3O7q7cU7k0C&pg=PA134|date=24 December 2019}}</ref><br />
<br />
<gallery widths="180px" heights="180px"><br />
Caduceus on Mauryan coin.jpg | Caduceus symbol on a Maurya-era [[punch-marked coin]]<br />
India Mauryan emperor Ashoka Punch-marked Coin.jpg | A punch-marked coin attributed to Ashoka<ref>{{cite book |last=Mitchiner |first=Michael |date=1978 |title=Oriental Coins & Their Values: The Ancient and Classical World 600 B.C. - A.D. 650 |publisher=Hawkins Publications |page=544 |isbn=978-0-9041731-6-1}}</ref><br />
I15 1karshapana Maurya Ashoka MACW4229 1ar (8486624862).jpg | A Maurya-era silver coin of 1 [[karshapana]], possibly from Ashoka's period, workshop of Mathura. '''Obverse:''' Symbols including a sun and an animal '''Reverse:''' Symbol '''Dimensions:''' 13.92 x 11.75&nbsp;mm '''Weight:''' 3.4 g.<br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
==Modern scholarship==<br />
<br />
===Rediscovery ===<br />
<br />
Ashoka had almost been forgotten, but in the 19th century [[James Prinsep]] contributed in the revelation of historical sources. After deciphering the [[Brahmi script]], Prinsep had originally identified the "[[Priyadasi]]" of the inscriptions he found with the King of [[Ceylon]] [[Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura|Devanampiya Tissa]]. However, in 1837, [[George Turnour]] discovered an important Sri Lankan manuscript ([[Dipavamsa]], or "Island Chronicle" ) associating Piyadasi with Ashoka:<br />
<br />
{{blockquote|"Two hundred and eighteen years after the beatitude of the [[Buddha]], was the inauguration of Piyadassi, .... who, the grandson of Chandragupta, and the son of Bindusara, was at the time Governor of [[Ujain|Ujjayani]]."|[[Dipavamsa]].{{sfn|Allen|2012|p=79}}}}<br />
<br />
[[File:Rock_edict-_closer_look.JPG|thumb|The [[Minor Rock Edict]] of [[Maski]] mentions the author as "Devanampriya Asoka", definitively linking both names, and confirming Ashoka as the author of the famous [[Edicts of Ashoka|Edicts]].]]<br />
Since then, the association of "Devanampriya Priyadarsin" with Ashoka was confirmed through various inscriptions, and especially confirmed in the [[Minor Rock Edict]] inscription discovered in [[Maski]], directly associating Ashoka with his regnal title Devanampriya ("Beloved-of-the-Gods"):<ref name="CSH">{{cite book |title=The Cambridge Shorter History of India |publisher=CUP Archive |page=42 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9_48AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA42 |language=en |access-date=13 July 2018 |archive-date=25 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191225190721/https://books.google.com/books?id=9_48AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA42 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Gupta |first1=Subhadra Sen |title=Ashoka |date=2009 |publisher=Penguin UK |isbn=9788184758078 |page=13 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L5ru08et_ZAC&pg=PT13 |language=en |access-date=13 July 2018 |archive-date=31 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191231152002/https://books.google.com/books?id=L5ru08et_ZAC&pg=PT13 |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
<br />
{{blockquote|<br />
[A proclamation] of Devanampriya Asoka.<br /><br />
Two and a half years [and somewhat more] (have passed) since I am a [[Buddha]]-[[Shakya|Sakya]].<br /><br />
[A year and] somewhat more (has passed) [since] I have visited the [[Samgha]] and have shown zeal.<br /><br />
Those gods who formerly had been unmingled (with men) in [[Jambudvipa]], have how become mingled (with them).<br /><br />
This object can be reached even by a lowly (person) who is devoted to morality.<br /><br />
One must not think thus, – (viz.) that only an exalted (person) may reach this.<br /><br />
Both the lowly and the exalted must be told : "If you act thus, this matter (will be) prosperous and of long duration, and will thus progress to one and a half.<br />
|[[Maski]] [[Minor Rock Edict]] of Ashoka.<ref>{{cite book |title=Inscriptions of Asoka. New Edition by E. Hultzsch |date=1925 |pages=174–175 |url=https://archive.org/stream/InscriptionsOfAsoka.NewEditionByE.Hultzsch/HultzschCorpusAsokaSearchable#page/n353/mode/2up |language=sa}}</ref>}}<br />
<br />
Another important historian was British [[archaeologist]] [[John Hubert Marshall]], who was director-General of the [[Archaeological Survey of India]]. His main interests were [[Sanchi]] and [[Sarnath]], in addition to [[Harappa]] and [[Mohenjo-daro|Mohenjodaro]]. Sir [[Alexander Cunningham]], a British archaeologist and army engineer, and often known as the father of the [[Archaeological Survey of India]], unveiled heritage sites like the [[Bharhut]] Stupa, Sarnath, Sanchi, and the Mahabodhi Temple. [[Mortimer Wheeler]], a British archaeologist, also exposed Ashokan historical sources, especially the [[Taxila]].{{citation needed|date=June 2016}}<br />
<br />
===Perceptions and historiography===<br />
<br />
The use of Buddhist sources in reconstructing the life of Ashoka has had a strong influence on perceptions of Ashoka, as well as the interpretations of his Edicts. Building on traditional accounts, early scholars regarded Ashoka as a primarily Buddhist monarch who underwent a conversion from the Vedic religion to Buddhism and was actively engaged in sponsoring and supporting the Buddhist monastic institution. Some scholars have tended to question this assessment. Romila Thappar writes about Ashoka that "We need to see him both as a statesman in the context of inheriting and sustaining an empire in a particular historical period, and as a person with a strong commitment to changing society through what might be called the propagation of social ethics."<ref name="Ashoka - A Retrospective">{{cite journal|last1=Thappar|first1=Romila|title=Ashoka – A Retrospective|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|date=13 November 2009|volume=44|issue=45|pages=31–37}}</ref> The only source of information not attributable to Buddhist sources are the Ashokan Edicts, and these do not explicitly state that Ashoka was a Buddhist. In his edicts, Ashoka expresses support for all the major religions of his time: [[Buddhism]], [[Vedic Brahmanism|Brahmanism]], [[Jainism]], and [[Ajivika]]ism, and his edicts addressed to the population at large (there are some addressed specifically to Buddhists; this is not the case for the other religions) generally focus on moral themes members of all the religions would accept. For example, Amartya Sen writes, "The Indian Emperor Ashoka in the third century BCE presented many political inscriptions in favor of tolerance and individual freedom, both as a part of state policy and in the relation of different people to each other".<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sen|first1=Amartya|title=Universal Truths and the Westernizing Illusion|journal=Harvard International Review|date=Summer 1998|volume=20|issue=3|pages=40–43}}</ref><br />
<br />
However, the edicts alone strongly ''indicate'' that he was a Buddhist. In one edict he belittles rituals, and he banned Vedic animal sacrifices; these strongly suggest that he at least did not look to the Vedic tradition for guidance. Furthermore, many edicts are expressed to Buddhists alone; in one, Ashoka declares himself to be an "[[upasaka]]", and in another he demonstrates a close familiarity with Buddhist texts. He erected rock pillars at Buddhist holy sites, but did not do so for the sites of other religions. He also used the word [[Dharma (Buddhism)|"dhamma"]] to refer to qualities of the heart that underlie moral action; this was an exclusively Buddhist use of the word. However, he used the word more in the spirit than as a strict code of conduct. Romila Thappar writes, "His dhamma did not derive from divine inspiration, even if its observance promised heaven. It was more in keeping with the ethic conditioned by the logic of given situations. His logic of Dhamma was intended to influence the conduct of categories of people, in relation to each other. Especially where they involved unequal relationships."<ref name="Ashoka - A Retrospective" /> Finally, he promotes ideals that correspond to the first three steps of the Buddha's graduated discourse.<ref>Richard Robinson, Willard Johnson, and Thanissaro Bhikkhu, ''Buddhist Religions'', fifth ed., Wadsworth 2005, page 59.</ref><br />
<br />
Much of the knowledge about Ashoka comes from the [[Edicts of Ashoka|several inscriptions]] that he had carved on pillars and rocks throughout the empire. All his inscriptions present him as compassionate and loving. In the Kalinga rock edits, he addresses his people as his "children" and mentions that as a father he desires their good.<ref name="VenSDhammika_1993">[https://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/ashoka.html The Edicts of King Ashoka] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328144411/http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/ashoka.html |date=28 March 2014 }}, English translation (1993) by Ven. S. Dhammika. {{ISBN|955-24-0104-6}}. Retrieved 21 February 2009</ref><br />
<br />
===Impact of pacifism===<br />
After Ashoka's death, the [[Maurya dynasty#Decline|Maurya dynasty declined]] rapidly. The various Puranas provide different details about Ashoka's successors, but all agree that they had relatively short reigns. The empire seems to have weakened, fragmented, and suffered an invasion from the [[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom|Bactrian Greeks]].{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=333}}<br />
<br />
Some historians, such as [[H. C. Raychaudhuri]], have argued that Ashoka's pacifism undermined the "military backbone" of the Maurya empire. Others, such as [[Romila Thapar]], have suggested that the extent and impact of his pacifism have been "grossly exaggerated".{{sfn|Singh|2012|p=131, 143}}<br />
<br />
==In art, film and literature ==<br />
[[File:Asoka's Queen.jpg|thumb|A {{Circa|1910}} painting by [[Abanindranath Tagore]] (1871–1951) depicting Ashoka's queen standing in front of the railings of the Buddhist monument at [[Sanchi]] ([[Raisen district]], [[Madhya Pradesh]]).]]<br />
*''[[Ashoka the Great (book)|Ashoka the Great]]'' is a fictional biography of the emperor, which was originally written in Dutch in the form of a trilogy by [[Wytze Keuning]] in 1937-1947.<br />
*[[Jaishankar Prasad]] composed ''Ashoka ki Chinta'' (''Ashoka's Anxiety''), a poem that portrays Ashoka's feelings during the war on Kalinga.<br />
*''Ashoka'', a 1922 Indian silent historical film about the emperor produced by [[Madan Theatres]].<ref name="silent">{{cite book|author=R. K. Verma|title=Filmography: Silent Cinema, 1913-1934|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=suFkAAAAMAAJ|year=2000|publisher=M. Verma|isbn=978-81-7525-224-0|page=150|access-date=5 February 2021|archive-date=2 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002175530/https://books.google.com/books?id=suFkAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
*''[[The Nine Unknown]]'', a 1923 novel by [[Talbot Mundy]] about the "Nine Unknown Men", a fictional secret society founded by Ashoka.<br />
*''Samrat Ashok'', a 1928 Indian silent film by Bhagwati Prasad Mishra.<ref name="silent" /><br />
*''[[Ashok Kumar (film)|Ashok Kumar]]'' is a 1941 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language film directed by Raja Chandrasekhar. The film stars [[V. Nagayya]] as Ashoka.<br />
*''Samrat Ashok'' is a 1947 Indian [[Hindi]]-language film by K.B. Lall.<ref name="encyc">{{cite book|author1=Ashish Rajadhyaksha|author2=Paul Willemen|title=Encyclopedia of Indian Cinema|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rF8ABAAAQBAJ&pg=RA43-PA1993|date=10 July 2014|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-135-94325-7|page=43|access-date=10 February 2021|archive-date=10 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220310215628/https://books.google.com/books?id=rF8ABAAAQBAJ&pg=RA43-PA1993|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
*''Uttar-Priyadarshi'' (The Final Beatitude), a verse-play written by poet [[Agyeya]] depicting his redemption, was adapted to stage in 1996 by theatre director, [[Ratan Thiyam]] and has since been performed in many parts of the world.<ref>{{cite news |last=Jefferson |first=Margo |date=27 October 2000 |title=Next Wave Festival Review; In Stirring Ritual Steps, Past and Present Unfold |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/10/27/movies/next-wave-festival-review-in-stirring-ritual-steps-past-and-present-unfold.html |newspaper=The New York Times |access-date=16 November 2018 |archive-date=31 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220731043128/https://www.nytimes.com/section/theater?res=990ce6dc1131f934a15753c1a9669c8b63 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="ba">{{cite magazine |last=Renouf |first=Renee |date=December 2000 |title=Review: Uttarpriyadarshi |url=http://www.ballet.co.uk/magazines/yr_00/dec00/rr_rev_crt_1000.htm |magazine=Balletco |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120205221756/http://www.ballet.co.uk/magazines/yr_00/dec00/rr_rev_crt_1000.htm |archive-date=5 February 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref><br />
*In 1973, [[Amar Chitra Katha]] released a graphic novel based on the life of Ashoka.<br />
*In [[Piers Anthony]]'s series of [[space opera]] novels, the main character mentions Ashoka as a model for administrators to strive for.<br />
*''[[Samrat Ashoka|Samrat Ashok]]'' is a 1992 Indian Telugu-language film about the emperor by [[N. T. Rama Rao]] with Rao also playing the titular role.<ref name="encyc" /><br />
*''[[Aśoka (2001 film)|Aśoka]]'' is a 2001 epic Indian historical drama film directed and co-written by [[Santosh Sivan]]. The film stars [[Shah Rukh Khan]] as Ashoka.<br />
*In 2002, [[Mason Jennings]] released the song "Emperor Ashoka" on his [[Living in the Moment (Mason Jennings EP)|Living in the Moment EP]]. It is based on the life of Ashoka.<br />
*In 2013, Christopher C. Doyle released his debut novel, ''[[The Mahabharata Secret]]'', in which he wrote about Ashoka hiding a dangerous secret for the well-being of India.<br />
*2014's ''[[The Emperor's Riddles]]'', a fiction mystery thriller novel by Satyarth Nayak, traces the evolution of Ashoka and his esoteric legend of the Nine Unknown Men.<br />
*In 2015, ''[[Chakravartin Ashoka Samrat]]'', a television serial by [[Ashok Banker]], based on the life of Ashoka, began airing on [[Colors TV]] where [[Siddharth Nigam]] played the role of Ashoka.<br />
*[[Bharatvarsh (TV Series)|''Bharatvarsh'']] is an Indian television historical documentary series, hosted by actor-director [[Anupam Kher]] on Hindi news channel [[ABP News]]. The series stars [[Aham Sharma]] as Ashoka.<ref>{{cite news | date=19 August 2016 | title='Bharatvarsh' – ABP News brings a captivating saga of legendary Indians with Anupam Kher | url=https://news.abplive.com/news/india/bharatvarsh-abp-news-brings-a-captivating-saga-of-legendary-indians-with-anupam-kher-401258 | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826010058/http://www.abplive.in/india-news/bharatvarsh-abp-news-brings-a-captivating-saga-of-legendary-indians-with-anupam-kher-401258 | archive-date=26 August 2016 | df=dmy-all }}</ref><br />
==Legacy==<br />
*In ''[[The Outline of History]]'' (1920), [[H. G. Wells]] wrote, "Amidst the tens of thousands of names of monarchs that crowd the columns of history, their majesties and graciousnesses and serenities and royal highnesses and the like, the name of Ashoka shines, and shines, almost alone, a star."<ref name="Lahiri2015">{{cite book|author=Nayanjot Lahiri|title=Ashoka in Ancient India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JaVRCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT20|date=5 August 2015|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-91525-1|pages=20–|access-date=3 July 2018|archive-date=29 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191229045759/https://books.google.com/books?id=JaVRCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT20|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
<br />
*In his 1978 book, ''[[The 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History]]'', [[Michael H. Hart]] ranked him 53th, below the [[Buddha]] (ranked 4) and above [[Mahavira]] (ranked 100).<ref>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=jvbNRbDKY1wC&dq=ashoka+The+100:+A+Ranking+of+the+Most+Influential+Persons+in+History&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiN2cHxyYeCAxXuxTgGHS3HBmkQ6AF6BAgDEAI</ref><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[List of people known as the Great]]<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{Reflist|group=note}}<br />
{{Notelist}}<br />
<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
*{{cite book |author=Harry Falk |title=Aśokan Sites and Artefacts: A Source-book with Bibliography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R5vxPAAACAAJ |year=2006 |publisher=Von Zabern |isbn=978-3-8053-3712-0}}<br />
*{{cite book |author1=Patrick Olivelle |author2=Janice Leoshko |author3=Himanshu Prabha Ray |title=Reimagining Asoka: Memory and History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V6w_XwAACAAJ |year=2012 |publisher=Oxford University Press India |isbn=978-0-19-807800-5}}<br />
*{{Cite book |author=E. Hultzsch |title=Inscriptions of Asoka: New Edition |url=https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfAsoka.NewEditionByE.Hultzsch |publisher=Government of India |year=1925 }}<br />
*{{cite book |last=Rongxi |first=Li |title=The Biographical Scripture of King Aśoka: Translated from the Chinese of Saṃghapāla |year=1993 |publisher=Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research |url=https://www.bdkamerica.org/system/files/pdf/dBET_Alpha_T2043_BiographicalScriptureofKingAsoka_1993.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.bdkamerica.org/system/files/pdf/dBET_Alpha_T2043_BiographicalScriptureofKingAsoka_1993.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-9625618-4-9 }}<br />
*{{cite book |last1=Nikam |first1=N. A. |first2=Richard |last2=McKeon |title=The Edicts of Aśoka |year=1959 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |url=https://archive.org/details/TheEdictsOfAsokaNikamMcKeon }}<br />
*{{cite book |author=James Merry MacPhail |title=Asoka |url=https://archive.org/details/asokaheritage00macpiala/page/n8 |year=1918 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=London}}<br />
<br />
== External links==<br />
*<br />
*<br />
*{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Asoka}}<br />
*{{curlie|Society/History/By_Region/Asia/South_Asia/Personalities/Ashoka/|Ashoka}}<br />
* BBC Radio 4: Sunil Khilnani, ''[http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b05tpy82 Incarnations: Ashoka.]''<br />
*BBC Radio 4: Melvyn Bragg with Richard Gombrich et al., ''[http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b0511tm1 In Our Time, Ashoka the Great]''.<br />
<br><br />
{{Clear}}<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:0 auto; font-size:88%; text-align:center;"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="6" style="background:#ccf; font-size: 130%;" |[[Edicts of Ashoka]]<br /><small>{{nobold|(Ruled 269&ndash;232 BCE)}}</small><br />
|-<br />
! style="background-color:#cdcdcd;" |Regnal years<br />of Ashoka<br />
! colspan="4" style="background-color:#cdcdcd;" |Type of Edict<br />(and location of the inscriptions)<br />
! style="background-color:#cdcdcd;" |Geographical location<br />
|-<br />
| Year 8<br />
| colspan="4" | ''End of the [[Kalinga War]] and conversion to the "[[Dharma]]"''<br />
| rowspan="10" |{{Map of the Edicts of Ashoka}}<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="3" |Year 10<ref name="Yailenko">Yailenko,Les maximes delphiques d'Aï Khanoum et la formation de la doctrine du dhamma d'Asoka, 1990, [https://www.persee.fr/doc/dha_0755-7256_1990_num_16_1_1467 p.&nbsp;243] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190612164849/https://www.persee.fr/doc/dha_0755-7256_1990_num_16_1_1467 |date=12 June 2019 }}.</ref> <br />
| align="left" style="background-color:#cdcdcd;" |'''[[Minor Rock Edicts]]'''<br />
| colspan="3" rowspan="4" |'''Related events:'''<br />Visit to the [[Bodhi tree]] in [[Bodh Gaya]]<br />Construction of the [[Mahabodhi Temple]] and [[Diamond throne]] in Bodh Gaya<br />Predication throughout India.<br />Dissenssions in the [[Sangha]]<br />[[Third Buddhist Council]]<br />In Indian language: [[Sohgaura copper plate inscription|Sohgaura inscription]]<br />Erection of the [[Pillars of Ashoka]]<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#dcdcdc;" |[[Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription]]<br /><small>(in [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Aramaic]], [[Kandahar]])</small><br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#dcdcdc;" | Minor Rock Edicts in [[Aramaic]]:<br />[[Aramaic Inscription of Laghman|Laghman Inscription]], [[Aramaic Inscription of Taxila|Taxila inscription]]<br />
|-<br />
|Year 11 and later<br />
| style="background-color:#dcdcdc;" | [[Minor Rock Edicts|Minor Rock Edicts (n°1, n°2 and n°3)]]<br /><small>([[Saru Maru|Panguraria]], [[:Commons:Category:Ashoka Rock Edict, Maski|Maski]], [[Palkigundu and Gavimath, Koppal|Palkigundu and Gavimath]], [[:Commons:Category:Ashoka Minor Rock Edict, Bahapur, Delhi|Bahapur/Srinivaspuri]], [[Bairat Temple|Bairat]], [[Ahraura]], [[:Commons:Category:Ashoka Minor Rock Edict, Gujarra|Gujarra]], [[Sasaram]], [[:Commons:Category:Ashoka Minor Rock Edicts, Rajula Mandagiri|Rajula Mandagiri]], [[:Commons:Category:Ashoka Minor Rock Edict, Yerragudi|Yerragudi]], [[:Commons:Category:Ashoka Minor Rock Edict, Udegolam|Udegolam]], [[:Commons:Category:Ashoka Minor Rock Edict, Nittur|Nittur]], [[Commons:Category:Ashoka Minor Rock Edict, Brahmagiri|Brahmagiri]], [[:Commons:Category:Ashoka Minor Rock Edict, Siddapur|Siddapur]], [[:Commons:Category:Ashoka Minor Rock Edict, Jatinga Rameshwara|Jatinga-Rameshwara]])</small><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="3" |Year 12 and later<ref name="Yailenko" /><br />
| style="background-color:#dcdcdc;" |'''[[Barabar Caves|Barabar Caves inscriptions]]'''<br />
| colspan="3" style="background-color:#cdcdcd;" width="40%" |'''[[Ashoka's Major Rock Edicts|Major Rock Edicts]]'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#cdcdcd;" |'''[[Minor Pillar Edicts]]'''<br />
| colspan="3" rowspan="2" style="background-color:#dcdcdc;" |Major Rock Edicts in Greek: [[Kandahar Greek Edict of Ashoka|Edicts n°12-13]] ([[Kandahar]])<br /><br />Major Rock Edicts in Indian language:<br />[[Major Rock Edicts|Edicts No.1 ~ No.14]]<br /><small>(in [[Kharoshthi]] script: [[Shahbaz Garhi|Shahbazgarhi]], [[Mansehra Rock Edicts|Mansehra Edicts]]</small><br /><small>(in [[Brahmi script]]: [[Khalsi inscription|Kalsi]], [[Girnar]], [[Sopara]], [[Sannati]], [[:Commons:Category:Ashoka Minor Rock Edict, Yerragudi|Yerragudi]], [[Ashokan Edicts in Delhi|Delhi Edicts]])</small><br />Major Rock Edicts 1–10, 14, [[Major Rock Edicts|Separate Edicts 1&2]]:<br /><small>([[Dhauli]], [[Jaugada]])</small><br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#dcdcdc;" |[[:Commons:Category:Schism Edict of Ashoka|Schism Edict]], [[:File:Ashoka Inscriptions Queen's edict.jpg|Queen's Edict]]<br /><small>([[Sarnath]] [[Sanchi]] [[Allahabad pillar|Allahabad]])</small><br />[[Lumbini pillar inscription|Lumbini inscription]], [[Nigali Sagar|Nigali Sagar inscription]]<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" |Year 26, 27<br />and later<ref name="Yailenko" /><br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:#cdcdcd;" |'''[[Major Pillar Edicts]]'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcdcdc;" |In Indian language:<br />[[Major Pillar Edicts|Major Pillar Edicts No.1 ~ No.7]]<br /><small>([[Allahabad pillar]] [[Ashokan Edicts in Delhi|Delhi-Meerut]] [[Delhi-Topra pillar|Delhi-Topra]] [[Rampurva]] [[Lauria Nandangarh]] [[Lauriya Araraj|Lauriya-Araraj]] [[:File:Amaravati Major Pillar Edict inscription.jpg|Amaravati]])</small><br /><br />
Derived inscriptions in [[Aramaic]], on rock:<br /><br />
[[Kandahar Aramaic inscription|Kandahar, Edict No.7]]<ref>Inscriptions of Asoka de D.C. Sircar [https://books.google.com/books?id=1_omDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT30 p.&nbsp;30] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220419052534/https://books.google.com/books?id=1_omDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT30 |date=19 April 2022 }}</ref><ref name="p. 39">Handbuch der Orientalistik de Kurt A. Behrendt [https://books.google.com/books?id=C9_vbgkzUSkC&pg=PA39 p.&nbsp;39] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409214255/https://books.google.com/books?id=C9_vbgkzUSkC&pg=PA39 |date=9 April 2022 }}</ref> and [[Pul-i-Darunteh Aramaic inscription|Pul-i-Darunteh, Edict No.5 or No.7]]<ref name="p. 39" /><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" | <br />
|}<br />
{{Buddhism topics}}<br />
{{refend}}<br />
<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
{{refbegin}}<br />
* {{cite book|last=Allen|first=Charles|author-link=Charles Allen (writer)|title=Ashoka: The Search for India's Lost Emperor|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K4vHjbUtf_4C|publisher=[[Hachette (publisher)|Hachette]]|date=2012|isbn=978-1-408-70388-5|access-date=13 July 2018|archive-date=8 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508064320/https://books.google.com/books?id=K4vHjbUtf_4C|url-status=live}}<br />
* {{cite book|last=Bentley|first=Jerry|author-link=Jerry H. Bentley|title=Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times|url=https://archive.org/details/oldworldencounte00jerr|url-access=registration|location=New York|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=1993|isbn=978-0195076400}}<br />
* {{cite book|editor-last=Fitzgerald|editor-first=James L.|editor-link=James L. Fitzgerald|title=The Mahabharata|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p9SzCuLIlQ0C|publisher=[[The University of Chicago Press]]|year=2004|volume=7|isbn=0-226-25250-7|access-date=16 August 2019|archive-date=8 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508065652/https://books.google.com/books?id=p9SzCuLIlQ0C|url-status=live}}<br />
* {{cite book|last=Gombrich|first=Richard|author-link=Richard Gombrich|chapter=Aśoka – The Great Upāsaka|title=King Aśoka and Buddhism: Historical and Literary Studies|editor=Anuradha Seneviratna|publisher=Buddhist Publication Society|isbn=978-955-24-0065-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iE5uAAAAMAAJ|year=1995|access-date=26 November 2019|archive-date=8 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508064334/https://books.google.com/books?id=iE5uAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}<br />
* {{cite book|last=Guruge|first=Ananda W. P.|author-link=Ananda W. P. Guruge|title=Aśoka, the Righteous: A Definitive Biography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dwjjAAAAMAAJ|year=1993|publisher=Central Cultural Fund|isbn=978-955-9226-00-0|access-date=10 October 2019|archive-date=8 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508064339/https://books.google.com/books?id=dwjjAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}<br />
* {{cite book|last=Guruge|first=Ananda W. P.|author-link=Ananda W. P. Guruge|chapter=Emperor Aśoka and Buddhism: Unresolved Discrepancies between Buddhist Tradition & Aśokan Inscriptions|title=King Aśoka and Buddhism: Historical and Literary Studies|editor=Anuradha Seneviratna|publisher=Buddhist Publication Society|isbn=978-955-24-0065-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iE5uAAAAMAAJ|year=1995|ref={{harvid|Guruge, Unresolved|1995}}|access-date=26 November 2019|archive-date=8 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508064334/https://books.google.com/books?id=iE5uAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}<br />
* {{cite book|last=Guruge|first=Ananda W. P.|author-link=Ananda W. P. Guruge|chapter=Emperor Aśoka's Place in History: A Review of Prevalent Opinions|title=King Aśoka and Buddhism: Historical and Literary Studies|editor=Anuradha Seneviratna|publisher=Buddhist Publication Society|isbn=978-955-24-0065-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iE5uAAAAMAAJ|year=1995|ref={{harvid|Guruge, Review|1995}}|access-date=26 November 2019|archive-date=8 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508064334/https://books.google.com/books?id=iE5uAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}<br />
* {{citation|last=Kosmin|first=Paul J.|author-link=Paul J. Kosmin|title=The Land of the Elephant Kings: Space, Territory, and Ideology in Seleucid Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9UWdAwAAQBAJ|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]|year=2014|isbn=978-0-674-72882-0|access-date=24 September 2018|archive-date=8 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508071213/https://books.google.com/books?id=9UWdAwAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}<br />
* {{cite book|last=Lahiri|first=Nayanjot|author-link=Nayanjot Lahiri|title=Ashoka in Ancient India|year=2015|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0674057777|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bJ_XCgAAQBAJ|access-date=16 August 2019|archive-date=8 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508064355/https://books.google.com/books?id=bJ_XCgAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}<br />
* {{cite book|last=Mookerji|first=Radhakumud|author-link=Radha Kumud Mukherjee|title=Aśoka|edition=3rd revised|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uXyftdtE1ygC|year=1962|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|location=Delhi|isbn=978-81-208-0582-8|access-date=16 August 2019|archive-date=8 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508064400/https://books.google.com/books?id=uXyftdtE1ygC|url-status=live}}<br />
* {{cite book|last=Singh|first=Upinder|author-link=Upinder Singh|title=Political Violence in Ancient India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t6A4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA162|year=2017|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-97527-9|access-date=15 July 2018|archive-date=8 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508065717/https://books.google.com/books?id=t6A4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA162|url-status=live}}<br />
* {{cite book|last=Singh|first=Upinder|author-link=Upinder Singh|title=A history of ancient and early medieval India : from the Stone Age to the 12th century|year=2008|publisher=[[Pearson Education]]|location=[[New Delhi]]|isbn=978-81-317-1120-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GW5Gx0HSXKUC|access-date=16 August 2019|archive-date=8 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508064421/https://books.google.com/books?id=GW5Gx0HSXKUC|url-status=live}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Singh |first=Upinder |author-link=Upinder Singh |title=Governing the State and the Self: Political Philosophy and Practice in the Edicts of Aśoka |journal=South Asian Studies |year=2012 |publisher=University of Delhi |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=131–145 |doi=10.1080/02666030.2012.725581|s2cid=143362618 }}<br />
* {{cite book|last=Strong|first=John S.|author-link=John S. Strong|chapter=Images of Aśoka: Some Indian and Sri Lankan Legends and their Development|title=King Aśoka and Buddhism: Historical and Literary Studies|editor=Anuradha Seneviratna|publisher=Buddhist Publication Society|isbn=978-955-24-0065-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iE5uAAAAMAAJ|year=1995|access-date=26 November 2019|archive-date=8 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508064334/https://books.google.com/books?id=iE5uAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}<br />
* {{cite book|last=Strong|first=John S.|author-link=John S. Strong|title=The Legend of King Aśoka: A Study and Translation of the Aśokāvadāna|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kp9uaQTQ8h8C&pg=PA232|year=1989|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0616-0|access-date=15 November 2015|archive-date=8 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508064425/https://books.google.com/books?id=Kp9uaQTQ8h8C&pg=PA232|url-status=live}}<br />
* {{cite book|last=Thapar|first=Romila|author-link=Romila Thapar|chapter=Aśoka and Buddhism as Reflected in the Aśokan Edicts|title=King Aśoka and Buddhism: Historical and Literary Studies|editor=Anuradha Seneviratna|publisher=Buddhist Publication Society|isbn=978-955-24-0065-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iE5uAAAAMAAJ|year=1995|access-date=26 November 2019|archive-date=8 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508064334/https://books.google.com/books?id=iE5uAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}<br />
* {{cite book|last=Thapar|first=Romila|author-link=Romila Thapar|title=Aśoka and the Decline of the Mauryas|year=1961|publisher=Oxford University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pwJuAAAAMAAJ|oclc=736554|access-date=29 October 2019|archive-date=8 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508071143/https://books.google.com/books?id=pwJuAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}<br />
* {{cite book|last=Thapar|first=Romila|author-link=Romila Thapar|year=2015|orig-date=First published 1961|title=Aśoka and the Decline of the Mauryas|edition=3rd|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0198077244|oclc=964509329}}<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Ashoka| ]]<br />
[[Category:3rd-century BC deaths]]<br />
[[Category:3rd-century BC Indian monarchs]]<br />
[[Category:3rd-century Buddhism]]<br />
[[Category:Ancient history of Afghanistan]]<br />
[[Category:Ancient history of Pakistan]]<br />
[[Category:Buddhist pacifists]]<br />
[[Category:Indian Buddhist monarchs]]<br />
[[Category:Indian pacifists]]<br />
[[Category:People from Patna]]<br />
[[Category:Ancient India]]<br />
[[Category:Mauryan emperors]]<br />
[[Category:Indian monarchs]]<br />
[[Category:Indian warriors]]<br />
[[Category:History of Buddhism in India]]<br />
[[Category:Indian Buddhist missionaries]]<br />
[[Category:Indian Buddhists]]<br />
[[Category:Converts to Buddhism]]</div>2405:201:6036:801D:5C0B:881A:3959:B939https://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ashoka&diff=444052Ashoka2024-03-11T08:30:44Z<p>2405:201:6036:801D:5C0B:881A:3959:B939: Irfan Habib, page 9</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Use dmy dates|date= March 2021}}<br />
{{Infobox royalty<br />
|name=Ashoka The Great <br />
| title =[[Chakravartin]]<br>Magadha-dhirāja<br> Dhammasoka <br> Mahāsammata Janapadasthamaviryaprapt <br> Priyadarśin Devanampriya<br />
| succession = 3rd [[List of Mauryan rulers|Mauryan Emperor]]<br />
| image = Indian Relief of Ashoka, circa 1st century BC, from the Amaravathi village, Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh (India), in the Guimet Museum (Paris).jpg<br />
| image_size = 285px<br />
| caption = A {{circa|1st century BCE/CE}} relief of Ashoka, from the Amaravathi village, Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh India, currently present in the Guimet Museum, Paris.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|pp=295–296}}{{sfn|Singh|2017|p=162}}<br />
| reign = {{circa|268|232 BCE}}{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=331}}<br />
| coronation = 269<br />
BCE{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=331}}<br />
| predecessor = [[Bindusara Maurya]]<br />
| successor = [[Dasharatha Maurya]]<br />
| spouses = {{Unbulleted list|<br />
| Empress Consort [[Devi (wife of Ashoka)|Devi]] (Sri Lankan tradition)<br />
| Queen [[Karuvaki]] (own inscriptions)<br />
| Queen [[Padmavati (wife of Ashoka)|Padmavati]] (North Indian tradition)<br />
| Queen [[Asandhimitra]] (Sri Lankan tradition)<br />
| Queen [[Tishyaraksha]] (Sri Lankan and North Indian tradition)}}<br />
| issue = {{unbulleted list<br />
| Prince [[Mahinda (Buddhist monk)|Mahendra]] (Sri Lankan tradition)<br />
| Princess [[Sanghamitta]] (Sri Lankan tradition)<br />
| Prince [[Tivala]] (own inscriptions)<br />
| Crown Prince [[Kunala]] (North Indian tradition)<br />
| Princess [[Charumati]] }}<br />
| dynasty = [[Maurya Empire|Maurya]]<br />
| father = Emperor [[Bindusara Maurya]]<br />
| mother = Queen [[Mother of Ashoka|Subhadrangi or Dharma]]{{refn|group=note|The North Indian sources indicate Subhadrangi as the name of Ashoka's mother, while the Sri Lankan sources mention her as Dharma}}<br />
| religion = [[Buddhism]]<ref name="Strong 2003">{{cite journal |author-last=Strong |author-first=John S. |author-link=John S. Strong |date=2002–2003 |title=Aśoka's Wives and the Ambiguities of Buddhist Kingship |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/asie_0766-1177_2002_num_13_1_1176 |editor-last=Faure |editor-first=Bernard |journal=Cahiers d'Extrême-Asie |location=[[Paris]] |publisher=[[French School of the Far East|École française d'Extrême-Orient]] |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=35–54 |doi=10.3406/asie.2002.1176 |doi-access=free |eissn=2117-6272 |issn=0766-1177 |jstor=44167352 |access-date=8 August 2021 |archive-date=8 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210808225737/https://www.persee.fr/doc/asie_0766-1177_2002_num_13_1_1176 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JaVRCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA219 219]}}<br />
| birth_date = c. 304 BCE<br />
| death_date = 232 BCE (aged c. 71{{snd}}72)<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Ashoka''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|ʃ|oʊ|k|ə}}, {{IAST3|Aśoka}}; also ''Asoka''; {{circa|304}}&nbsp;– 232&nbsp;BCE), popularly known as '''Ashoka the Great''', and also referred to as '''Chakraravartin Samrat Ashoka''', was the third [[Mauryan Emperor]] of [[Magadha]] in the [[Indian subcontinent]] during {{circa|268}} to 232 BCE. His empire covered a large part of the Indian subcontinent, stretching from present-day [[Afghanistan]] in the west to present-day [[Bangladesh]] in the east, with its capital at [[Pataliputra]]. A patron of [[Buddhism]], he is credited with playing an important role in the spread of [[Buddhism ]]across ancient [[Asia]].The first perception of the whole of India as a country comes with the [[Mauryan Empire]]. The inscriptions of the Mauryan emperor Ashoka range from [[Kandahar]] and north of [[Kabul]] to [[Karnataka ]]and [[Andhra]] and they are in[[ Prakrit]], [[Greek ]]and [[Aramaic]]. So it was with such political unity that the concept of India came, and its first name was [[Jambudvipa]] a name which Ashoka uses in his [[Minor Rock Edict]]-I, meaning ''the land of the Jamun fruit.''<ref name="HABIB”>" Pg.9 : The first perception of the whole of India as a country comes with the Mauryan Empire. Those of you, who have studied Indian history would know that the inscriptions of the Mauryan emperor Ashoka range from Kandahar and north of Kabul to Karnataka and Andhra and they are in Prakrit, Greek and Aramaic. So it was with such political unity that the concept of India came, and its first name was Jambudvipa a name which Ashoka uses in his Minor Rock Edict-1, meaning 'the land of the Jamun fruit.’"{{Cite book|url=http://archive.org/details/IdeaofIndiabyIrfanHabib|page=9|title=Idea of India by Irfan Habib|first=Irfan |last=Habib|date=2015-10-24}}</ref><br />
<br />
<br />
Ashoka's edicts state that during his eighth regnal year ({{Circa|260 BCE}}), he conquered [[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]] after a [[Kalinga War|brutal war]]. Ashoka subsequently devoted himself to the propagation of "[[Ashoka's policy of Dhamma|dhamma]]" or righteous conduct, the major theme of the edicts. Ashoka's edicts suggest that a few years after the [[Kalinga War]], he was gradually drawn towards Buddhism. The Buddhist legends credit Ashoka with establishing a large number of [[stupa]]s, patronising the [[Third Buddhist council]], supporting Buddhist missionaries, making generous donations to the Buddhist Sangha. <br />
<br />
Ashoka's existence as a historical emperor had almost been forgotten, but since the decipherment of sources written in [[Brahmi script]] in the 19th century, Ashoka holds a reputation as one of the greatest [[List of Indian monarchs|Indian emperors]]. [[State Emblem of India|The emblem]] of the modern [[Republic of India]] is an adaptation of the [[Lion Capital of Ashoka]]. Ashoka's wheel, the [[Ashoka Chakra]] is adopted at the centre of the [[National Flag of India]].<br />
<br />
== Sources of information ==<br />
<br />
Information about Ashoka comes from [[List of Edicts of Ashoka|his inscriptions]]; other inscriptions that mention him or are possibly from his reign; and ancient literature, especially Buddhist texts.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|pp=5–8}} These sources often contradict each other, although various historians have attempted to correlate their testimony.{{sfn|Singh|2012|p=132}} <br />
<br />
[[File:Ashoka Rock Edict at Junagadh.jpg|thumb|[[Ashoka's Major Rock Edict]] at [[Junagadh]] contains inscriptions by Ashoka (fourteen of the [[Edicts of Ashoka]]), [[Rudradaman I]] and [[Skandagupta]].]]<br />
'''Inscriptions'''<br />
<br />
Ashoka's inscriptions are the earliest self-representations of imperial power in the Indian subcontinent.{{sfn|Singh|2012|p=131}} However, these inscriptions are focused mainly on the topic of ''[[Ashoka's policy of Dhamma|dhamma]]'', and provide little information regarding other aspects of the Maurya state or society.{{sfn|Singh|2012|p=132}} <br />
<br />
A small number of other inscriptions also provide some information about Ashoka.{{sfn|Singh|2012|p=132}} For example, he finds a mention in the 2nd century [[Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman]].{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=8}} [[Aramaic Inscription of Taxila|An inscription]] discovered at [[Sirkap]] mentions a lost word beginning with "Priy", which is theorised to be Ashoka's title "Priyadarshi", although this is not certain.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=7}} Some other inscriptions, such as the [[Sohgaura copper plate inscription]], have been tentatively dated to Ashoka's period by some scholars, although others contest this. {{sfn|Thapar|1961|pp=7–8}}<br />
<br />
'''Buddhist legends'''<br />
<br />
Much of the information about Ashoka comes from Buddhist legends, which present him as a great, ideal king.{{sfn|Singh|2008|pp=331–332}} These legends appear in texts that are not contemporary to Ashoka and were composed by Buddhist authors, who used various stories to illustrate the impact of their faith on Ashoka. This makes it necessary to exercise caution while relying on them for historical information.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|pp=8–9}} Among modern scholars, opinions range from downright dismissal of these legends as mythological to acceptance of all historical portions that seem plausible.{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=12}}<br />
<br />
The Buddhist legends about Ashoka exist in several languages, including [[Sanskrit]], [[Pali]], [[Tibetic languages|Tibetan]], [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Burmese language|Burmese]], [[Sinhala language|Sinhala]], [[Thai language|Thai]], [[Lao language|Lao]], and [[Khotanese language|Khotanese]]. All these legends can be traced to two primary traditions:{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=143}}<br />
* the North Indian tradition preserved in the Sanskrit-language texts such as ''[[Divyavadana]]'' (including its constituent ''[[Ashokavadana]]''); and Chinese sources such as ''A-yü wang chuan'' and ''A-yü wang ching''.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=143}}<br />
* the Sri Lankan tradition preserved in Pali-lanuage texts, such as ''[[Dipavamsa]]'', ''[[Mahavamsa]]'', ''Vamsatthapakasini'' (a commentary on ''Mahavamsa''), Buddhaghosha's commentary on the Vinaya, and ''Samanta-pasadika''.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=143}}{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=8}}<br />
<br />
There are several significant differences between the two traditions. For example, the Sri Lankan tradition emphasizes Ashoka's role in convening the [[Third Buddhist council]], and his dispatch of several missionaries to distant regions, including his son [[Mahinda (Buddhist monk)|Mahinda]] to Sri Lanka.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=143}} However, the North Indian tradition makes no mention of these events. It describes other events not found in the Sri Lankan tradition, such as a story about another son named Kunala. {{sfn|Strong|1995|p=144}}<br />
<br />
Even while narrating the common stories, the two traditions diverge in several ways. For example, both ''Ashokavadana'' and ''Mahavamsa'' mention that Ashoka's queen [[Tishyarakshita]] had the [[Bodhi Tree]] destroyed. In ''Ashokavadana'', the queen manages to have the tree healed after she realises her mistake. In the ''Mahavamsa'', she permanently destroys the tree, but only after a branch of the tree has been transplanted in Sri Lanka.{{sfn|Strong|1995|pp=152–154}} In another story, both the texts describe Ashoka's unsuccessful attempts to collect a relic of Gautama Buddha from [[Ramagrama stupa|Ramagrama]]. In ''Ashokavadana'', he fails to do so because he cannot match the devotion of the Nagas who hold the relic; however, in the ''Mahavamsa'', he fails to do so because the Buddha had destined the relic to be enshrined by King [[Dutthagamani]] of Sri Lanka. {{sfn|Strong|1995|p=155}} Using such stories, the ''Mahavamsa'' glorifies Sri Lanka as the new preserve of Buddhism. {{sfn|Strong|1995|pp=154–157}}<br />
<br />
[[File:013 King Asoka visits Ramagrama (33428090870).jpg|thumb|800px|center|King Ashoka visits Ramagrama, to take relics of the Buddha from the [[Nāga|Nagas]], but in vain. Southern gateway, Stupa 1, [[Sanchi]].{{sfn|Singh|2017|p=162}}]]<br />
<br />
'''Other sources'''<br />
<br />
Numismatic, sculptural, and archaeological evidence supplements research on Ashoka.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=11}} Ashoka's name appears in the lists of Mauryan kings in the various [[Puranas]]. However, these texts do not provide further details about him, as their [[Brahmanism|Brahmanical]] authors were not patronised by the Mauryans.{{sfn|Thapar|1995|p=15}} Other texts, such as the ''[[Arthashastra]]'' and ''[[Indica (Megasthenes)|Indica of Megasthenes]]'', which provide general information about the Maurya period, can also be used to make inferences about Ashoka's reign.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=9}} However, the ''Arthashastra'' is a normative text that focuses on an ideal rather than a historical state, and its dating to the Mauryan period is a subject of debate. The ''Indica'' is a [[lost work]], and only parts of it survive in the form of paraphrases in later writings.{{sfn|Singh|2012|p=132}}<br />
<br />
The 12th-century text ''[[Rajatarangini]]'' mentions a [[Kashmiris|Kashmiri]] king Ashoka who built several [[stupa]]s: some scholars, such as [[Aurel Stein]], have identified this king with the Maurya king Ashoka.<br />
<br />
Rajatarangini mentions Kashmir King Jalauka's father and predecessor as Ashoka.<br />
<blockquote><br />
अथाऽशोककुलोत्पन्नोयद्वाऽन्याभिजनोद्भवः । <br />
भूमि दामोदरो नाम जुगोप जगतीपतिः ।।१५३॥<br />
— Kalhana, Rajatarangini 1.143<br />
</blockquote><br />
Translation : Jalauka who born in the lineage of Ashoka, become the father of a son named Damodara .<br />
<br />
Modern scholars consider him the son of [[Ashoka]]<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=85aQTQE6YQgC&pg=PA163&lpg=PA163&dq=%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%95+%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0&source=bl&ots=88d3J34P3W&sig=ACfU3U2kOFpYedtL_OI8Qpgys17UTNyvGw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj43cm3ysSAAxVjg2MGHbptBa84KBDoAXoECAQQAg#v=onepage&q=%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%95%20%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0&f=false|title=Bharatiya Ithias|last=Jain|first=Jyoti Prasād|date=2004|publisher=Bhāratīya Jñānapīṭha|isbn=978-81-263-1029-6|language=hi}}</ref>. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://historyclasses.in/2021/08/history-of-kashmir.html|title=Ancient History of Kashmir|website=historyclasses.in|access-date=2023-08-05}}</ref>Probably, during Ashoka's reign, Jalauka might have been the governor of Kashmir. Later, Jalauka declared himself the independent ruler there.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=1eMfzTBcXcYC&pg=PA78&lpg=PA78&dq=%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%95+%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0&source=bl&ots=T5sMYuCqi0&sig=ACfU3U125JJCrXDJ-Ff3QnlblhKsdz5zKw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj43cm3ysSAAxVjg2MGHbptBa84KBDoAXoECAMQAghttps://books.google.co.in/books?id=_tWdDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT17&lpg=PT17&dq=%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%95+%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0&source=bl&ots=hlGPlYCQHj&sig=ACfU3U28BvOY8cB_6fD4svl2YnsxTVpWzA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj43cm3ysSAAxVjg2MGHbptBa84KBDoAXoECAYQAg|title=Culture and Political History of Kashmir|last=Bamzai|first=Prithivi Nath Kaul|date=1994|publisher=M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd.|isbn=978-81-85880-31-0|language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
<br />
'''Alternative interpretation of the epigraphic evidence'''<br />
{{One source section|date=January 2023}}<br />
<br />
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=450|caption_align=center<br />
| align = right<br />
| direction =horizontal<br />
| header=The Edicts and their declared authors<br />
| image1 = Major Rock Edicts and Major Pillar Edicts by Devanampiya Piyadasi.jpg<br />
| caption1 = Edicts in the name of [[Priyadasi|Piyadasi]] or ''[[Devanampiya]]'' Piyadasi ("King Piyadasi"):<br />[[File:Brown pog.svg|8px]]: [[Major Rock Edicts]]<br />[[File:Brown 5C3317.svg|3px]]: [[Major Pillar Edicts]]<br />
| image2 = Minor Rock Edicts and Minor Pillar Edicts of Ashoka.jpg<br />
| caption2 = Edicts in the name of Ashoka or just "''[[Devanampiya]]''" ("King"), or both together:<br />[[File:Orange ff8040 pog.svg|8px]]: [[Minor Rock Edicts]]<br />[[File:Orange F79A18.svg|3px]]: [[Minor Pillar Edicts]]<br />
| footer=The different areas covered by the two types of inscriptions, and their different content in respect to Buddhism, may point to different rulers.<ref name="CIB226"/><br />
| footer_align = center<br />
}}<br />
For some scholars, such as [[Christopher I. Beckwith]], Ashoka, whose name only appears in the [[Minor Rock Edicts]], is not the same as king [[Priyadasi|Piyadasi]], or ''[[Devanampiya]]'' Piyadasi (i.e. "Beloved of the Gods Piyadasi", "Beloved of the Gods" being a fairly widespread title for "King"), who is named as the author of the [[Major Pillar Edicts]] and the [[Major Rock Edicts]].<ref name="CIB226">{{cite book |last1=Beckwith |first1=Christopher I. |title=Greek Buddha: Pyrrho's Encounter with Early Buddhism in Central Asia |date=2017 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-17632-1 |pages=226–250 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=53GYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA234 |language=en |access-date=31 January 2020 |archive-date=14 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200514211528/https://books.google.com/books?id=53GYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA234 |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
<br />
Beckwith suggests that Piyadasi was living in the 3rd century BCE, was probably the son of [[Chandragupta Maurya]] known to the Greeks as [[Amitrochates]], and only advocated for piety ("[[Dharma]]") in his [[Major Pillar Edicts]] and [[Major Rock Edicts]], without ever mentioning [[Buddhism]], the [[Buddha]], or the [[Samgha]] (the single notable exception is the 7th Edict of the [[Major Pillar Edicts]] which does mention the Samgha, but is a considered a later fake by Beckwith).<ref name="CIB226"/> Also, the geographical spread of his inscription shows that Piyadasi ruled a vast Empire, contiguous with the [[Seleucid Empire]] in the West.<ref name="CIB226"/><br />
<br />
On the contrary, for Beckwith, Ashoka was [[Ashoka (Gonandiya)|a later king of the 1st–2nd century CE]], whose name only appears explicitly in the [[Minor Rock Edicts]] and allusively in the [[Minor Pillar Edicts]], and who does mention the Buddha and the [[Samgha]], explicitly promoting Buddhism.<ref name=" CIB226"/> The name "Priyadarsi" does occur in two of the minor edicts (Gujarra and Bairat), but Beckwith again considers them as later fabrications.<ref name=" CIB226"/> The minor inscriptions cover a very different and much smaller geographical area, clustering in Central India.<ref name=" CIB226"/> According to Beckwith, the inscriptions of this later Ashoka were typical of the later forms of "normative Buddhism", which are well attested from inscriptions and Gandhari manuscripts dated to the turn of the millennium, and around the time of the [[Kushan Empire]].<ref name=" CIB226"/> The quality of the inscriptions of this Ashoka is significantly lower than the quality of the inscriptions of the earlier Piyadasi.<ref name=" CIB226"/><br />
<br />
== Names and titles ==<br />
{{multiple image<br />
| perrow=2<br />
| align = right<br />
| direction =horizontal<br />
| header=Names and titles of Ashoka<br />
| total_width=300<br />
| caption_align = center<br />
| image1 = Devanampiyasa Asoka.jpg<br />
| caption1 = "[[Devanampiya|Devānampiyasa]] Asoka", in the [[Maski]] [[Edict of Ashoka]].<br />
| image2 = Ashoka in Brahmi script.jpg<br />
| caption2 = The name "Asoka" (𑀅𑀲𑁄𑀓 ''A-so-ka'') in the [[Maski]] [[Minor Rock Edict]].<br />
| image3=Devanampiyena Piyadasi in the Lumbini Edict of Ashoka.jpg<br />
| caption3=Ashoka's title "[[Devanampriya|Devanaṃpiyena]] [[Priyadasi|Piyadasi]]" (𑀤𑁂𑀯𑀸𑀦𑀁𑀧𑀺𑀬𑁂𑀦 𑀧𑀺𑀬𑀤𑀲𑀺) in the [[Lumbini]] [[Minor Pillar Edict]].<br />
| footer=<br />
}}<br />
The name "A-shoka" literally means "without sorrow". According to an ''[[Ashokavadana]]'' legend, his mother gave him this name because his birth removed her sorrows.{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=205}}<br />
<br />
The name [[Priyadasi]] is associated with Ashoka in the 3rd–4th century CE ''[[Dipavamsa]]''.{{sfn|Allen|2012|p=79}}<ref>{{cite book |title=The Dîpavaṃsa: An Ancient Buddhist Historical Record |date=1879 |publisher=Williams and Norgate |pages=[https://archive.org/details/dpavasaanancien00oldegoog/page/n156 147]–148 |url=https://archive.org/details/dpavasaanancien00oldegoog |language=en}}</ref> The term literally means "he who regards amiably", or "of gracious mien" ([[Sanskrit]]: Priya-darshi). It may have been a [[regnal name]] adopted by Ashoka.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|pp=226–227}}<ref name="Asokan studies">{{cite book |last1=Sircar |first1=D. C. |title=Asokan studies |date=1979 |page=113 |url=https://archive.org/stream/in.gov.ignca.67068/67068#page/n125/mode/2up}}</ref> A version of this name is used for Ashoka in Greek-language inscriptions: βασιλεὺς Πιοδασσης ("[[Basileus]] Piodassēs").<ref name="Asokan studies"/><br />
<br />
Ashoka's inscriptions mention his title ''[[Devanampriya|Devanampiya]]'' (Sanskrit: ''Devanampriya'', "Beloved of the Gods"). The identification of Devanampiya and Ashoka as the same person is established by the [[Maski#Minor Rock Edict of Ashoka|Maski]] and Gujarra inscriptions, which use both these terms for the king.{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=11}}{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=129}} The title was adopted by other kings, including the contemporary king [[Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura]] and Ashoka's descendant [[Dasharatha Maurya]].{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=226}}<br />
<br />
The title 'Mahasammat' is received in the context of directing the Mahamatras in the Buddhist text [[Nikaya Buddhism|Nikaya]]. Also the other two other titles are 'Murdhabhishikta' and 'Janapadasthamaviryaprapt' which are often used titles for Ashoka.<br />
<br />
The Sarnath inscription of Kumāradevī from the Gahadavala dynasty refers to Ashoka as "Dharma Ashoka." Her inscription notes that the Dharmacakra Jina, initially established by Ashoka, was later renovated by Kumāradevī.<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
Dharmāsoka narādhipasya samaye Sri Dharmachakro Jino yādrik tannaya rakshitaḥ punarayañchakre tatopyadbhutam<br />
<br />
~ Kumāradevi, Sarnath Inscription<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://archive.org/details/politicalhistory00raycuoft|title=Political history of ancient India|page=159|last=Raychaudhuri|first=Hem Chandra|date=1923|publisher=Calcutta, University of Calcutta|others=Robarts - University of Toronto}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=http://archive.org/details/dli.calcutta.11684|title=Journal of Ancient Indian History, Vol-3|page=90-91|date=1969-70}}</ref><br />
</blockquote><br />
Translation : "At the time of Emperor Dharma Ashoka, the sacred wheel of dharma, just as it was, was protected by him. And then, she (Kumāradevi ) restored it in accordance performing a wondrous deed."<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; background-color:#D2B48C; color:brown;"<br />
|+ Ashoka's Names in Inscriptions<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3" style="background-color:gold;" | Prakrit Edict <br />
|-<br />
! Inscription<br />
! Script<br />
! Meaning<br />
|-<br />
| Maski Inscription<br />
|| "Devanampriyasi Ashoka" || Beloved of the God, Ashoka.<br />
|-<br />
| Gujjarra Inscription || "Devanampiya Piyadasi Ashokaraja" || Beloved of the Gods, Beloved of the Beloved, Ashokaraja.<br />
|-<br />
| Kanganahalli Mahastupa Inscription || "Ranyo Ashoka" || King Ashoka or Rana Ashoka.<br />
|-<br />
| Salihundam Inscription || "Dhamma Rano Ashoka Siri" || Righteous King Ashoka, the Glorious.<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3" style="background-color:gold;" | Sanskrit Edict <br />
|-<br />
! Inscription<br />
! Script<br />
! Meaning<br />
|-<br />
|Rudradaman Inscription, Junagadh || "Ashokasya Mauryasya" || Ashoka of the Maurya Dynasty.<br />
|-<br />
|Kumaradevi Inscription, Sarnath || "Dharmashoka Naradhipasya" || Dharma-Ashoka, the Emperor.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Date ==<br />
[[File:Khalsi rock edict of Ashoka.jpg|thumb|The [[Major Rock Edict|Major Rock Edict No.13]] of Ashoka, mentions the Greek kings [[Antiochus II Theos|Antiochus]], [[Ptolemy II of Egypt|Ptolemy]], [[Antigonus II Gonatas|Antigonus]], [[Magas of Cyrene|Magas]] and [[Alexander II of Epirus|Alexander]] by name, as recipients of his teachings.]]<br />
The exact date of Ashoka's birth is not certain, as the extant contemporary Indian texts did not record such details. It is known that he lived in the 3rd century BCE, as his inscriptions mention several contemporary rulers whose dates are known with more certainty, such as [[Antiochus II Theos]], [[Ptolemy II Philadelphus]], [[Antigonus II Gonatas]], [[Magas of Cyrene]], and Alexander (of [[Alexander II of Epirus|Epirus]] or [[Alexander of Corinth|Corinth]]).{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=25}} Thus, Ashoka must have been born sometime in the late 4th century BCE or early 3rd century BCE ({{circa|304 BCE}}),{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=24}}<br />
<br />
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=400|caption_align=center<br />
| align = right<br />
| direction =horizontal<br />
| header=Pataliputra at the time of Ashoka<br />
| image1 = Mauryan ruins of pillared hall at Kumrahar site of Pataliputra ASIEC 1912-13.jpg<br />
| caption1 = Ruins of pillared hall at [[Kumrahar]] site at Pataliputra.<br />
| image2 = Pataliputra_capital,_Bihar_Museum,_Patna,_3rd_century_BCE.jpg<br />
| caption2 = The [[Pataliputra capital]], 4th–3rd c. BCE.<br />
| footer=Ashoka was probably born in the city of [[Pataliputra]]. Remains of the city from around that time have been found through excavations in central areas of the modern city of [[Patna]].<br />
| footer_align = center<br />
}}<br />
<br />
== Ancestry ==<br />
Ashoka's own inscriptions are fairly detailed but make no mention of his ancestors.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=26}} Other sources, such as the [[Puranas]] and the ''[[Mahavamsa]]'' state that his father was the Mauryan emperor [[Bindusara]], and his grandfather was [[Chandragupta Maurya|Chandragupta]] – the founder of the Empire.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=13}} The ''Ashokavadana'' also names his father as Bindusara, but traces his ancestry to Buddha's contemporary king [[Bimbisara]], through [[Ajatashatru]], [[Udayin]], Munda, Kakavarnin, Sahalin, Tulakuchi, Mahamandala, [[Prasenajit]], and [[Nanda Empire|Nanda]].{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=204}} The 16th century Tibetan monk [[Taranatha]], whose account is a distorted version of the earlier traditions,{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=9}} describes Ashoka as the illegitimate son of king Nemita of Champarana from the daughter of a merchant.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|pp=25–26}}<br />
<br />
''Ashokavadana'' states that [[Mother of Ashoka|Ashoka's mother]] was the daughter of a Brahmin from [[Champapuri|Champa]], and was prophesied to marry a king. Accordingly, her father took her to Pataliputra, where she was inducted into Bindusara's harem, and ultimately, became his chief queen.{{sfn|Strong|1989|pp=204–205}} The ''Ashokavadana'' does not mention her by name,{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=323|ps=:"In the Ashokavadana, Ashoka's mother is not named."}} although other legends provide different names for her.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=31}} For example, the ''Asokavadanamala'' calls her Subhadrangi.{{sfn|Guruge|1993|p=19}}{{sfn|Mookerji|1962|p=2}} The ''Vamsatthapakasini'' or ''Mahavamsa-tika'', a commentary on ''Mahavamsa'', calls her "Dharma" ("Dhamma" in [[Pali language|Pali]]), and states that she belonged to the Moriya [[Kshatriya]] clan.{{sfn|Mookerji|1962|p=2}} A ''[[Divyavadana]]'' legend calls her Janapada-kalyani;{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=332}} according to scholar [[Ananda W. P. Guruge]], this is not a name, but an epithet.{{sfn|Guruge|1993|p=19}}<br />
<br />
According to the 2nd-century historian [[Appian]], Chandragupta entered into a marital alliance with the Greek ruler [[Seleucus I Nicator]], which has led to speculation that either Chandragupta or his son Bindusara married a Greek princess. However, there is no evidence that Ashoka's mother or grandmother was Greek, and most historians have dismissed the idea.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=20}}<br />
<br />
== As a prince ==<br />
Ashoka's own inscriptions do not describe his early life, and much of the information on this topic comes from apocryphal legends written hundreds of years after him.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=27}} While these legends include obviously fictitious details such as narratives of Ashoka's past lives, they have some plausible historical information about Ashoka's period.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=27}}{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=332}}<br />
<br />
According to the ''Ashokavadana'', Bindusara disliked Ashoka because of rough skin. One day, Bindusara asked the ascetic Pingala-vatsajiva to determine which of his sons was worthy of being his successor. He asked all the princes to assemble at the Garden of the Golden Pavilion on the ascetic's advice. Ashoka was reluctant to go because his father disliked him, but his mother convinced him to do so. When minister Radhagupta saw Ashoka leaving the capital for the Garden, he offered to provide the prince with a royal elephant for the travel.{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=206}} At the Garden, Pingala-vatsajiva examined the princes and realised that Ashoka would be the next king. To avoid annoying Bindusara, the ascetic refused to name the successor. Instead, he said that one who had the best mount, seat, drink, vessel and food would be the next king; each time, Ashoka declared that he met the criterion. Later, he told Ashoka's mother that her son would be the next king, and on her advice, left the kingdom to avoid Bindusara's wrath.{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=207}}<br />
<br />
While legends suggest that Bindusara disliked Ashoka's ugly appearance, they also state that Bindusara gave him important responsibilities, such as suppressing a revolt in Takshashila (according to north Indian tradition) and governing Ujjain (according to Sri Lankan tradition). This suggests that Bindusara was impressed by the other qualities of the prince.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=21}} Another possibility is that he sent Ashoka to distant regions to keep him away from the imperial capital.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=65}}<br />
<br />
=== Rebellion at Taxila ===<br />
[[File:Aramaic_inscription_at_Taxila_Museum.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Aramaic Inscription of Taxila]] of Ashoka mention his wife and son.]]<br />
According to the ''Ashokavadana'', Bindusara dispatched prince Ashoka to suppress a rebellion in the city of [[Taxila|Takshashila]]{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=208}} (present-day [[Bhir Mound]]{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=66}} in Pakistan). This episode is not mentioned in the Sri Lankan tradition, which instead states that Bindusara sent Ashoka to govern Ujjain. Two other Buddhist texts – ''Ashoka-sutra'' and ''Kunala-sutra'' – state that Bindusara appointed Ashoka as a viceroy in [[Gandhara]] (where Takshashila was located), not Ujjain. {{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=21}}<br />
<br />
The ''Ashokavadana'' states that Bindusara provided Ashoka with a fourfold-army (comprising cavalry, elephants, chariots and infantry) but refused to provide any weapons for this army. Ashoka declared that weapons would appear before him if he was worthy of being a king, and then, the deities emerged from the earth and provided weapons to the army. When Ashoka reached Takshashila, the citizens welcomed him and told him that their rebellion was only against the evil ministers, not the king. Sometime later, Ashoka was similarly welcomed in the [[Khasas|Khasa]] territory and the gods declared that he would go on to conquer the whole earth.{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=208}}<br />
<br />
Takshashila was a prosperous and geopolitically influential city, and historical evidence proves that by Ashoka's time, it was well-connected to the Mauryan capital Pataliputra by the ''Uttarapatha'' trade route.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=70}} However, no extant contemporary source mentions the Takshashila rebellion, and none of Ashoka's records states that he ever visited the city.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=66-67}} That said, the historicity of the legend about Ashoka's involvement in the Takshashila rebellion may be corroborated by [[Aramaic Inscription of Taxila|an Aramaic-language inscription]] discovered at [[Sirkap]] near Taxila. The inscription includes a name that begins with the letters "prydr", and most scholars restore it as "Priyadarshi", which was the title of Ashoka.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=21}} Another evidence of Ashoka's connection to the city may be the name of the [[Dharmarajika Stupa]] near Taxila; the name suggests that it was built by Ashoka ("Dharma-raja"). {{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=68}}<br />
<br />
The story about the deities miraculously bringing weapons to Ashoka may be the text's way of deifying Ashoka; or indicating that Bindusara – who disliked Ashoka – wanted him to fail in Takshashila. {{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=67}}<br />
<br />
=== Governor of Ujjain ===<br />
According to the ''Mahavamsa'', Bindusara appointed Ashoka as the viceroy of present-day [[Ujjain]] (Ujjeni),{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=21}} which was an important administrative and commercial centre in the Avanti province of central India.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|pp=89–90}} This tradition is corroborated by the [[Saru Maru]] inscription discovered in central India; this inscription states that he visited the place as a prince.{{sfn|Allen|2012|p=154}} Ashoka's own [[Major Rock Edicts#First Separate Major Rock Edict|rock edict]] mentions the presence of a prince viceroy at Ujjain during his reign,{{sfn|Guruge|1993|p=28}} which further supports the tradition that he himself served as a viceroy at Ujjain.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=98}}<br />
<br />
[[File:Panguraria Top View Closeup detail.jpg|thumb|170px|The [[Saru Maru|Saru Maru commemorative inscription]] mention the presence of Ashoka in the area of Ujjain as he was still a Prince.]]<br />
Pataliputra was connected to Ujjain by multiple routes in Ashoka's time, and on the way, Ashoka entourage may have encamped at Rupnath, where his inscription has been found.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|pp=94–95}}<br />
<br />
According to the Sri Lankan tradition, Ashoka visited [[Vidisha]], where he fell in love with a beautiful woman on his way to Ujjain. According to the ''Dipamvamsa'' and ''Mahamvamsa'', the woman was [[Devi (Ashoka's wife)|Devi]] – the daughter of a merchant. According to the ''Mahabodhi-vamsa'', she was Vidisha-Mahadevi and belonged to the [[Shakya]] clan of [[Gautama Buddha]]. The Buddhist chroniclers may have fabricated the Shakya connection to connect Ashoka's family to Buddha.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|pp=22–23}} The Buddhist texts allude to her being a Buddhist in her later years but do not describe her conversion to Buddhism. Therefore, it is likely that she was already a Buddhist when she met Ashoka.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=101}}<br />
<br />
The ''Mahavamsa'' states that Devi gave birth to Ashoka's son [[Mahinda (Buddhist monk)|Mahinda]] in Ujjain, and two years later, to a daughter named [[Sanghamitta]].{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=97}} According to the ''Mahavamsa'', Ashoka's son Mahinda was ordained at the age of 20 years, during the sixth year of Ashoka's reign. That means Mahinda must have been 14 years old when Ashoka ascended the throne. Even if Mahinda was born when Ashoka was as young as 20 years old, Ashoka must have ascended the throne at 34 years, which means he must have served as a viceroy for several years.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|pp=24–25}}<br />
<br />
== Ascension to the throne ==<br />
Legends suggest that Ashoka was not the crown prince, and his ascension on the throne was disputed. {{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=25}}<br />
<br />
''Ashokavadana'' states that Bindusara's eldest son Susima once slapped a bald minister on his head in jest. The minister worried that after ascending the throne, [[Susima]] may jokingly hurt him with a sword. Therefore, he instigated five hundred ministers to support Ashoka's claim to the throne when the time came, noting that Ashoka was predicted to become a ''[[chakravartin]]'' (universal ruler).{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=102}} Sometime later, Takshashila rebelled again, and Bindusara dispatched Susima to curb the rebellion. Shortly after, Bindusara fell ill and was expected to die soon. Susima was still in Takshashila, having been unsuccessful in suppressing the rebellion. Bindusara recalled him to the capital and asked Ashoka to march to Takshashila.{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=209}} However, the ministers told him that Ashoka was ill and suggested that he temporarily install Ashoka on the throne until Susmia's return from Takshashila.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=102}} When Bindusara refused to do so, Ashoka declared that if the throne were rightfully his, the gods would crown him as the next king. At that instance, the gods did so, Bindusara died, and Ashoka's authority extended to the entire world, including the [[Yaksha]] territory located above the earth and the [[Nāga|Naga]] territory located below the earth.{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=209}} When Susima returned to the capital, Ashoka's newly appointed prime minister Radhagupta tricked him into a pit of charcoal. Susima died a painful death, and his general Bhadrayudha became a Buddhist monk.{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=210}}<br />
<br />
[[File:Sarnath_Ashoka_Lions_with_Dharma_Wheel.jpg|thumb|The [[Lion Capital of Ashoka]] in [[Sarnath]], showing its four [[Asiatic lion]]s standing back to back, and symbolizing the [[Four Noble Truths]] of [[Buddhism]], supporting the Wheel of Moral law ([[Dharmachakra]], reconstitution per Sarnath Museum notice).{{sfn|Allen|2012|p=15|ps=: "Only fragments were found of the Wheel of the Moral Law, which the four lions had originally supported."}} The lions stand on a circular [[Abacus (architecture)|abacus]], decorated with dharmachakras alternating with four animals in profile: horse, bull, elephant, and lion. The architectural ''bell'' below the abacus, is a stylized upside down lotus. [[Sarnath Museum]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Lion Capital of Ashoka At Sarnath Archaeological Museum Near Varanasi India |website=[[YouTube]] |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r6v3YtLOP6M |language=en |access-date=16 July 2022 |archive-date=15 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220715160718/https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=r6v3YtLOP6M |url-status=live }}</ref>]]<br />
The ''Mahavamsa'' states that when Bindusara fell sick, Ashoka returned to Pataliputra from Ujjain and gained control of the capital. After his father's death, Ashoka had his eldest brother killed and ascended the throne.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=101}} The text also states that Ashoka killed ninety-nine of his half-brothers, including Sumana.{{sfn|Guruge|1993|p=28}} The ''Dipavamsa'' states that he killed a hundred of his brothers and was crowned four years later.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=102}} The ''Vamsatthapakasini'' adds that an Ajivika ascetic had predicted this massacre based on the interpretation of a dream of Ashoka's mother.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=26}} According to these accounts, only Ashoka's uterine brother Tissa was spared.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=27}} Other sources name the surviving brother Vitashoka, Vigatashoka, Sudatta (So-ta-to in ''A-yi-uang-chuan''), or Sugatra (Siu-ka-tu-lu in ''Fen-pie-kung-te-hun'').{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=27}}<br />
<br />
The figures such as 99 and 100 are exaggerated and seem to be a way of stating that Ashoka killed several of his brothers.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=102}} Taranatha states that Ashoka, who was an illegitimate son of his predecessor, killed six legitimate princes to ascend the throne.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|pp=25–26}} It is possible that Ashoka was not the rightful heir to the throne and killed a brother (or brothers) to acquire the throne. However, the Buddhist sources have exaggerated the story, which attempts to portray him as evil before his conversion to Buddhism. Ashoka's Rock Edict No. 5 mentions officers whose duties include supervising the welfare of "the families of his brothers, sisters, and other relatives". This suggests that more than one of his brothers survived his ascension. However, some scholars oppose this suggestion, arguing that the inscription talks only about the ''families'' of his brothers, not the brothers themselves.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=27}}<br />
<br />
=== Date of ascension ===<br />
According to the Sri Lankan texts ''Mahavamsa'' and the ''Dipavamsa'', Ashoka ascended the throne 218 years after the death of Gautama Buddha and ruled for 37 years.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|pp=13–14}} The date of the Buddha's death is itself a matter of debate,{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=14}} and the North Indian tradition states that Ashoka ruled a hundred years after the Buddha's death, which has led to further debates about the date.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=144}}<br />
<br />
Assuming that the Sri Lankan tradition is correct, and assuming that the Buddha died in 483 BCE – a date proposed by several scholars – Ashoka must have ascended the throne in 265 BCE.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=14}} The Puranas state that Ashoka's father Bindusara reigned for 25 years, not 28 years as specified in the Sri Lankan tradition.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=13}} If this is true, Ashoka's ascension can be dated three years earlier, to 268 BCE. Alternatively, if the Sri Lankan tradition is correct, but if we assume that the Buddha died in 486 BCE (a date supported by the Cantonese Dotted Record), Ashoka's ascension can be dated to 268 BCE.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=14}} The ''Mahavamsa'' states that Ashoka consecrated himself as the king four years after becoming a sovereign. This interregnum can be explained assuming that he fought a war of succession with other sons of Bindusara during these four years.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=30}}<br />
<br />
The ''Ashokavadana'' contains a story about Ashoka's minister Yashas hiding the sun with his hand. Professor P. H. L. Eggermont theorised that this story was a reference to a partial solar eclipse that was seen in northern India on 4 May 249 BCE.{{sfn|Strong|1989|pp=12–13}} According to the ''Ashokavadana'', Ashoka went on a pilgrimage to various Buddhist sites sometime after this eclipse. Ashoka's Rummindei pillar inscription states that he visited [[Lumbini]] during his 21st regnal year. Assuming this visit was a part of the pilgrimage described in the text, and assuming that Ashoka visited Lumbini around 1–2 years after the solar eclipse, the ascension date of 268–269 BCE seems more likely.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=14}}{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=25}} However, this theory is not universally accepted. For example, according to [[John S. Strong]], the event described in the ''Ashokavadana'' has nothing to do with chronology, and Eggermont's interpretation grossly ignores the literary and religious context of the legend.{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=13}}<br />
<br />
==Empire Expansion==<br />
[[File:Maurya Empire c.260 BCE.png|thumb|Mauryan Empire 260 BCE]]<br />
===Conquest of the Nanda Empire===<br />
Historically reliable inscription details of Chandragupta's campaign against [[Nanda Empire]] are unavailable and but later written Buddhist, Jain, and Hindu texts which claim [[Magadha]] was ruled by the [[Nanda dynasty]], which, with [[Chanakya]]'s counsel, [[Chandragupta Maurya|Chandragupta]] conquered Nanda Empire.{{sfn|Thapar|2013|pp=362–364}}{{sfn|Sen|1895|pp=26–32}}{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2008|p=272}} The army of Chandragupta and Chanakya first conquered the Nanda outer territories, and finally besieged the Nanda capital '''Pataliputra'''. In contrast to the easy victory in Buddhist sources, the Hindu and Jain texts state that the campaign was bitterly fought because the Nanda dynasty had a powerful and well-trained army.{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=28–33}}{{sfn|Sen|1895|pp=26–32}}<br />
<br />
The Buddhist ''Mahavamsa Tika'' and Jain ''Parishishtaparvan'' records Chandragupta's army unsuccessfully attacking the Nanda capital. {{sfn|Hemacandra|1998|pp=175–188}} Chandragupta and Chanakya then began a campaign at the frontier of the Nanda empire, gradually conquering various territories on their way to the Nanda capital.{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|p=33}} He then refined his strategy by establishing garrisons in the conquered territories, and finally besieged the Nanda capital Pataliputra. There [[Dhana Nanda]] accepted defeat.{{sfn|Malalasekera|2002|p=383}}{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=33-34}} The conquest was fictionalised in ''Mudrarakshasa'' play, it contains narratives not found in other versions of the Chanakya-Chandragupta legend. Because of this difference, [[Thomas Trautmann]] suggests that most of it is fictional or legendary, without any historical basis.{{sfn|Trautmann|1971|p=43}} [[Radha Kumud Mukherjee]] similarly considers Mudrakshasa play without historical basis.<ref>Chandragupta Maurya and His Times, Radhakumud Mookerji, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1966, p.26-27 {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i-y6ZUheQH8C&pg=PA27 |title=Chandragupta Maurya and His Times |access-date=2016-11-26 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161127023139/https://books.google.fr/books?id=i-y6ZUheQH8C&pg=PA27 |archive-date=27 November 2016 |df=dmy-all |isbn=9788120804050 |last1=Mookerji |first1=Radhakumud |year=1966 }}</ref><br />
<br />
These legends state that the Nanda king was defeated, deposed and exiled by some accounts, while Buddhist accounts claim he was killed.{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|p=34}} With the defeat of Dhana Nanda, Chandragupta Maurya founded the Maurya Empire.{{sfn|Roy|2012|p=62}}<br />
<br />
===Conquest of the Eastern Seleucid Empire===<br />
<br />
Greek historians mentioned the result of [[Seleucid–Mauryan war]] where Seleucid Empire's eastern satrapies( [[Gedrosia]],[[Arachosia]], [[Aria]], and [[Paropamisadae]]) ceded to Mauryan Empire :<br />
{{quote|text= " Seleucus crossed the Indus and waged war with Sandrocottus [Maurya], king of he Indians, who dwelt on the banks of that stream, until they came to an understanding with each other and contracted a marriage relationship. Some of these exploits were performed before the death of Antigonus and some afterward." |sign=<small>[[Appian]]</small>|source=''History of Rome'', The Syrian Wars [https://www.livius.org/sources/content/appian/appian-the-syrian-wars/appian-the-syrian-wars-11/ 55]}}<blockquote>" The geographical position of the tribes is as follows: along the Indus are the Paropamisadae, above whom lies the Paropamisus mountain: then, towards the south, the Arachoti: then next, towards the south, the Gedroseni, with the other tribes that occupy the seaboard; and the Indus lies, latitudinally, alongside all these places; and of these places, in part, some that lie along the Indus are held by Indians, although they formerly belonged to the Persians. Alexander [III 'the Great' of Macedon] took these away from the Arians and established settlements of his own, but [[Seleucus Nicator]] gave them to [[Sandrocottus]] [Chandragupta], upon terms of intermarriage and of receiving in exchange five hundred elephants. " — Strabo 15.2.9 [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/15B*.html#2.9]</blockquote><br />
<br />
Greecian historian Pliny also quoted a passage from Megasthanes work about Chandragupta Empire boundaries:<br />
<blockquote><br />
Most geographers, in fact, do not look upon India as bounded by the river Indus, but add to it the four satrapies of the [[Gedrosia|Gedrose]], the [[Arachosia|Arachotë]], the [[Herat|Aria]], and the [[Paropamisadë]], the [[Kabul River|River Cophes]] thus forming the extreme boundary of India. According to other writers, however, all these territories, are reckoned as belonging to the country of the Aria. <br />
<br />
— Pliny, Natural History VI, 23 [https://archive.today/20121210070738/http://perseus.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plin.+Nat.+6.23][https://archive.org/details/naturalhistoryof21855plin/page/50/mode/1up]<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
====Treaty of the Indus====<br />
The ancient historians Justin, Appian, and Strabo preserve the three main terms of the Treaty of the Indus:<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=9UWdAwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=The Land of the Elephant Kings: Space, Territory, and Ideology in the Seleucid Empire|last=Kosmin|first=Paul J.|date=2014-06-23|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72882-0|language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
(i) Seleucus transferred to Chandragupta's kingdom the easternmost satrapies of his empire, certainly Gandhara, Parapamisadae, and the eastern parts of Gedrosia, Arachosia and Aria as far as Herat. <br />
<br />
(ii) Chandragupta gave Seleucus 500 Indian war elephants.<br />
<br />
(iii) The two kings were joined by some kind of marriage alliance (ἐπιγαμία οι κῆδος); most likely Chandragupta wed a female relative of Seleucus.<br />
<br />
====Other account====<br />
*Tibbetan Lama Taranatha (1575–1634)<br />
<br />
<blockquote>Ashoka brought under his rule without bloodshed all the countries including those to the south of the Vindhya. And he conquered the northern Himalayas, the snowy ranges beyond Li-yul (Khotan)," the entire land of Jambudvipa bounded by seas on east, south and west, and also fifty small islands.<ref>https://archive.org/details/TaranathasHistoryOfBuddhismInIndia/page/n89/mode/2up</ref><br />
<br />
-History Of Buddhism In India ,Taranatha<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
=== Conquest of the Saurashtra===<br />
Chandragupta conquered Southern-Western part of India. Especially his conquest over Saurashtra and Sudarshana lake construction is preseved in later Satrapian king Rudradaman inscription:<br />
<br />
<blockquote>(L.8) for the sake of / ordered to be made by the Vaishya Pushyagupta, the provincial governor of the Maurya king [[Chandragupta Maurya|Chandragupta]]; adorned with conduits for Ashoka the Maurya by the [[Yavana]] king [[Tushaspha]] while governing; and by the conduit ordered to be made by him, constructed in a manner worthy of a king (and) seen in that breach.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
—Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman<ref name="WB">[http://projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu/Docs/HISTORY/PRIMARYDOCS/EPIGRAPHY/JunagadhRockInscription.htm "Junagadh Rock Inscription of Rudradaman", ''Project South Asia''.]{{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090223182107/http://projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu/Docs/HISTORY/PRIMARYDOCS/EPIGRAPHY/JunagadhRockInscription.htm |date=23 February 2009 }}</ref> </blockquote><br />
<br />
===Conquest of the Kalinga===<br />
[[Kalinga War]] plays a very important role in Mauryan history which changes a cruel Emperor Chanda-Ashoka to Priyadarshi Ashoka.<br />
<br />
<blockquote> "Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Priyadarsi(Ashoka)conquered the Kalingas eight years after his coronation. One hundred and fifty thousand were deported, one hundred thousand were killed and many more died (from other causes). After the Kalingas had been conquered, Beloved-of-the-Gods came to feel a strong inclination towards the Dharma, a love for the Dharma and for instruction in Dharma. Now Beloved-of-the-Gods feels deep remorse for having conquered the Kalingas. "</blockquote><br />
— Ashoka, Major Rock Edict No. 13 [https://books.google.co.in/books?id=K4vHjbUtf_4C&pg=PT82&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false]<br />
<br />
===Boundaries sharing territories ===<br />
<br />
Even though Ashoka defined the boundaries of his empire four times in various inscriptions (with same lines) but he never mentioned any inner hole or unconquered region inside his empire.This suggests that Ashoka's empire was likely contiguous, with no significant unconquered regions within its borders :<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
Sav[r]atravijite [De]va[nam]priyasaPriyadrashisa y[e] cha [a]mtayatha [Choda] PamdiyaSatiyaputro KeradaputroTambapamni…,<br />
</blockquote><br />
-Second Rock-Edict: Shahbazgarhi [https://archive.org/details/dli.ministry.25989/page/51/mode/1up]<br />
<blockquote><br />
Sav[a]ta vijitsi Devanampiyas[a] Piyadasis[a] lajine ye cha amta [a]tha Choda Pam[di]yaSatiyaputo Ke[lala]putoTamba[pa]mni.. <br />
</blockquote><br />
-Second Rock Edict: Kalsi [https://archive.org/details/dli.ministry.25989/page/28/mode/1up]<br />
<blockquote><br />
sa[vatra vi]jitasi Devanapriyasa Priyadrashisarajine ye cha ataatha [Choda] Pa[mdiya] Sa[ti]ya[p]u[tra] Keralaputra [Tam]bapani..<br />
</blockquote><br />
-Second Rock Edict: Mansehra [https://archive.org/details/dli.ministry.25989/page/71/mode/1up]<br />
<blockquote><br />
Sav[r]atravijite [De]va[nam]priyasaPriyadrashisa Ye Ca anta ataChoda, Pandiya, Satiyaputo, Ketalaputo, Tam bapanni, Antiyogonaama, Yonalaja.... <br />
</blockquote> -Second Rock Edict :Girnar [https://archive.org/details/dli.ministry.25520/page/117/mode/1up]<br />
'''—Translation:''' Everywhere in the conquered dominions of king Priyadarsin, the beloved-of the gods, and the dominions on the boarders as those of the Choda (the Colas), Pandiya (the Pandyas). Satiyaputo (The Satiyaputras) and the Ketalaputo (the Keralaputras), as far as Tamraparni, the Yavana king named Antiyogonaama (Antiyoka) and the other neighbouring kings of this king Antiyoka.<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:Ashoka Maurya Empire 250 BCE.jpg|thumb|Possible Mauryan Empire size according to details given in Ashoka Second Rock Edict of Shahbazgarhi , Kalsi ,Mansera and Girnar.]]<br />
<br />
== Reign before Buddhist influence==<br />
Both Sri Lankan and North Indian traditions assert that Ashoka was a violent person before Buddhism.{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=46}} Taranatha also states that Ashoka was initially called "Kamashoka" because he spent many years in pleasurable pursuits (''[[kama]]''); he was then called "Chandashoka" ("Ashoka the fierce") because he spent some years performing evil deeds; and finally, he came to be known as Dhammashoka ("Ashoka the righteous") after his conversion to Buddhism.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=29}}<br />
<br />
The ''Ashokavadana'' also calls him "Chandashoka", and describes several of his cruel acts:{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=105}}<br />
*The ministers who had helped him ascend the throne started treating him with contempt after his ascension. To test their loyalty, Ashoka gave them the absurd order of cutting down every flower-and fruit-bearing tree. When they failed to carry out this order, Ashoka personally cut off the heads of 500 ministers.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=105}}<br />
*Alarmed by the king's involvement in such massacres, prime minister Radha-Gupta proposed hiring an executioner to carry out future mass killings to leave the king unsullied. Girika, a Magadha village boy who boasted that he could execute the whole of [[Jambudvipa]], was hired for the purpose. He came to be known as Chandagirika ("Girika the fierce"), and on his request, Ashoka built a jail in Pataliputra.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=106}} Called [[Ashoka's Hell]], the jail looked pleasant from the outside, but inside it, Girika brutally tortured the prisoners.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|pp=106–107}}<br />
<br />
The 5th-century Chinese traveller [[Faxian]] states that Ashoka personally visited the underworld to study torture methods there and then invented his methods. The 7th-century traveller [[Xuanzang]] claims to have seen a pillar marking the site of Ashoka's "Hell".{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=29}}<br />
<br />
The ''Mahavamsa'' also briefly alludes to Ashoka's cruelty, stating that Ashoka was earlier called Chandashoka because of his evil deeds but came to be called Dharmashoka because of his pious acts after his conversion to Buddhism.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=107}} However, unlike the north Indian tradition, the Sri Lankan texts do not mention any specific evil deeds performed by Ashoka, except his killing of 99 of his brothers.{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=46}}<br />
<br />
Such descriptions of Ashoka as an evil person before his conversion to Buddhism appear to be a fabrication of the Buddhist authors,{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=29}} who attempted to present the change that Buddhism brought to him as a miracle.{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=46}} In an attempt to dramatise this change, such legends exaggerate Ashoka's past wickedness and his piousness after the conversion.<ref name="Charles1962">{{cite book | author=Charles Drekmeier | title=Kingship and Community in Early India | url=https://archive.org/details/kingshipcommunit0000drek | url-access=registration | access-date=30 October 2012 | year=1962 | publisher=Stanford University Press | isbn=978-0-8047-0114-3 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/kingshipcommunit0000drek/page/173 173] }}</ref><br />
<br />
==War and Revolt==<br />
=== The Kalinga War ===<br />
{{Main |Kalinga war}}<br />
[[File:Kanaganahalli inscribed panel portraying Asoka (perspective).jpg|thumb|[[Kanaganahalli]] inscribed panel portraying Asoka and his queens with [[Brahmi]] label "King Asoka", 1st–3rd century CE.<ref>{{cite book |title=Indian Archaeology 1997–98 |publisher=ASI |page=Plate 72 |url=http://nmma.nic.in/nmma/nmma_doc/Indian%20Archaeology%20Review/Indian%20Archaeology%201997-98%20A%20Review.pdf |access-date=22 January 2020 |archive-date=22 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200122082556/http://nmma.nic.in/nmma/nmma_doc/Indian%20Archaeology%20Review/Indian%20Archaeology%201997-98%20A%20Review.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>]]<br />
Ashoka's inscriptions mention that he conquered the [[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]] region during his 8th regnal year: the destruction caused during the war made him repent violence, and in the subsequent years, he was drawn towards Buddhism.{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|pp=49–50}} Edict 13 of the [[Edicts of Ashoka]] Rock Inscriptions expresses the great remorse the king felt after observing the destruction of Kalinga:<br />
<br />
{{Blockquote<br />
|text=Directly, after the Kalingas had been annexed, began His Sacred Majesty's zealous protection of the Law of Piety, his love of that Law, and his inculcation of that Law. Thence arises the remorse of His Sacred Majesty for having conquered the Kalingas because the conquest of a country previously unconquered involves the slaughter, death, and carrying away captive of the people. That is a matter of profound sorrow and regret to His Sacred Majesty.<ref name="Wikisource Smith">{{cite Wikisource |wslink=Asoka – the Buddhist Emperor of India/Chapter 4 |title=Asoka: The Buddhist Emperor of India |last=Smith |first=Vincent |author-link=Vincent Arthur Smith |year=1920 |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford |page=185}}</ref>}}<br />
During Kalinga war launched by Ashoka, King of Magadh, lakhs of Kalingan soldiers died in the war field, which filled him with remorse though he conquested Kalinga. A cruel Chandasoka' became Dharmasoka. He embraced Buddhism and spread its message of peace and non-violence far and wide.<br />
<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://archive.org/details/artcultureoforis00sena|title=Art and Culture of Orissa|last=Senāpati|first=Rabīndra Mohana|date=2004|page=9|publisher=Publications Division, Ministry of Information & Broadcasting, Government of India|others=Public Resource|isbn=978-81-230-1171-4}}</ref>According to Ashoka's Major Rock Edict 13, he conquered Kalinga 8 years after ascending to the throne. The edict states that during his conquest of Kalinga, 1,00,000 men and animals were killed in action; many times that number "perished"; and 150,000 men and animals were carried away from Kalinga as captives. {{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=38}}<br />
<br />
==Conversion to Buddhism==<br />
<br />
Some earlier writers believed that Ashoka ''dramatically'' converted to Buddhism after seeing the suffering caused by the war since his Major Rock Edict 13 states that he became closer to the dhamma after the annexation of Kalinga.{{sfn|Thapar|1995|p=18}} However, even if Ashoka converted to Buddhism ''after'' the war, epigraphic evidence suggests that his conversion was a ''gradual'' process rather than a dramatic event.{{sfn|Thapar|1995|p=18}} For example, in a Minor Rock Edict issued during his 13th regnal year (five years after the Kalinga campaign), he states that he had been an ''[[upasaka]]'' (lay Buddhist) for more than two and a half years, but did not make much progress; in the past year, he was drawn closer to the sangha and became a more ardent follower.{{sfn|Thapar|1995|p=18}}<br />
<br />
According to Ashoka's Major Rock Edict 13, he conquered Kalinga 8 years after ascending to the throne. The edict states that during his conquest of Kalinga, 100,000 men and animals were killed in action; many times that number "perished"; and 150,000 men and animals were carried away from Kalinga as captives. Ashoka states that the repentance of these sufferings caused him to devote himself to the practice and propagation of dharma.{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=38}} He proclaims that he now considered the slaughter, death and deportation caused during the conquest of a country painful and deplorable; and that he considered the suffering caused to the religious people and householders even more deplorable.{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=38}}<br />
<br />
This edict has been inscribed at several places, including Erragudi, Girnar, Kalsi, Maneshra, Shahbazgarhi and Kandahar.{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=37}} However, it is omitted in Ashoka's inscriptions found in the Kalinga region, where the Rock Edicts 13 and 14 have been replaced by two separate edicts that make no mention of Ashoka's remorse. It is possible that Ashoka did not consider it politically appropriate to make such a confession to the people of Kalinga.{{sfn|Thapar|1995|pp=30–31}} Another possibility is the Kalinga war and its consequences, as described in Ashoka's rock edicts, are "more imaginary than real". This description is meant to impress those far removed from the scene, thus unable to verify its accuracy.{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=56}}<br />
<br />
Ancient sources do not mention any other military activity of Ashoka, although the 16th-century writer [[Taranatha]] claims that Ashoka conquered the entire Jambudvipa.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=36}}<br />
<br />
===First contact with Buddhism===<br />
Different sources give different accounts of Ashoka's conversion to Buddhism. {{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=29}}<br />
<br />
According to Sri Lankan tradition, Ashoka's father, Bindusara, was a devotee of [[Brahmanism]], and his mother Dharma was a devotee of [[Ajivika]]s.{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=42}} The ''[[Samantapasadika]]'' states that Ashoka followed non-Buddhist sects during the first three years of his reign.{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=43}} The Sri Lankan texts add that Ashoka was not happy with the behaviour of the Brahmins who received his alms daily. His courtiers produced some Ajivika and Nigantha teachers before him, but these also failed to impress him. {{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=47}}<br />
<br />
The ''Dipavamsa'' states that Ashoka invited several non-Buddhist religious leaders to his palace and bestowed great gifts upon them in the hope that they would answer a question posed by the king. The text does not state what the question was but mentions that none of the invitees were able to answer it.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=109}} One day, Ashoka saw a young Buddhist monk called Nigrodha (or Nyagrodha), who was looking for alms on a road in Pataliputra.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=109}} He was the king's nephew, although the king was not aware of this:{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=7}} he was a posthumous son of Ashoka's eldest brother Sumana, whom Ashoka had killed during the conflict for the throne.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=34}} Ashoka was impressed by Nigrodha's tranquil and fearless appearance, and asked him to teach him his faith. In response, Nigrodha offered him a sermon on [[appamada]] (earnestness).{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=109}} Impressed by the sermon, Ashoka offered Nigrodha 400,000 silver coins and 8 daily portions of rice.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=110}} The king became a Buddhist [[upasaka]], and started visiting the [[Kukkutarama]] shrine at Pataliputra. At the temple, he met the Buddhist monk [[Moggaliputta Tissa]], and became more devoted to the Buddhist faith.{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=47}} The veracity of this story is not certain.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=110}} This legend about Ashoka's search for a worthy teacher may be aimed at explaining why Ashoka did not adopt [[Jainism]], another major contemporary faith that advocates non-violence and compassion. The legend suggests that Ashoka was not attracted to Buddhism because he was looking for such a faith, rather, for a competent spiritual teacher.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=108}} The Sri Lankan tradition adds that during his sixth regnal year, Ashoka's son Mahinda became a Buddhist monk, and his daughter became a Buddhist nun.{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=49}}<br />
<br />
A story in ''Divyavadana'' attributes Ashoka's conversion to the Buddhist monk Samudra, who was an ex-merchant from Shravasti. According to this account, Samudra was imprisoned in Ashoka's "Hell", but saved himself using his miraculous powers. When Ashoka heard about this, he visited the monk, and was further impressed by a series of miracles performed by the monk. He then became a Buddhist.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=35}} A story in the ''Ashokavadana'' states that Samudra was a merchant's son, and was a 12-year-old boy when he met Ashoka; this account seems to be influenced by the Nigrodha story.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=36}}<br />
<br />
The A-yu-wang-chuan states that a 7-year-old Buddhist converted Ashoka. Another story claims that the young boy ate 500 [[Brahmins|Brahmanas]] who were harassing Ashoka for being interested in Buddhism; these Brahmanas later miraculously turned into Buddhist [[bhikku]]s at the Kukkutarama monastery, which Ashoka visited.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=35}}<br />
<br />
Several Buddhist establishments existed in various parts of India by the time of Ashoka's ascension. It is not clear which branch of the Buddhist sangha influenced him, but the one at his capital [[Pataliputra]] is a good candidate.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=135}} Another good candidate is the one at [[Mahabodhi Temple|Mahabodhi]]: the Major Rock Edict 8 records his visit to the [[Bodhi Tree]] – the place of Buddha's enlightenment at Mahabodhi – after his tenth regnal year, and the minor rock edict issued during his 13th regnal year suggests that he had become a Buddhist around the same time.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=135}}{{sfn|Thapar|1995|p=18}}<br />
<br />
==Reign after Buddhist influence==<br />
<br />
===Construction of Stupas and Temples===<br />
[[File:Sanchi2.jpg|thumb|left|Stupa of [[Sanchi]]. The central stupa was built during the Mauryas, and enlarged during the [[Sungas]], but the decorative gateway is dated to the later dynasty of the [[Satavahanas]]. ]]<br />
<br />
Both ''Mahavamsa'' and ''Ashokavadana'' state that Ashoka constructed 84,000 stupas or viharas.{{sfn|Strong|1995|pp=154–155}} According to the ''Mahavamsa'', this activity took place during his fifth–seventh regnal years.{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=49}}<br />
<br />
The ''Ashokavadana'' states that Ashoka collected seven out of the eight relics of Gautama Buddha, and had their portions kept in 84,000 boxes made of gold, silver, [[cymophane|cat's eye]], and crystal. He ordered the construction of 84,000 stupas throughout the earth, in towns that had a population of 100,000 or more. He told Elder Yashas, a monk at the Kukkutarama monastery, that he wanted these stupas to be completed on the same day. Yashas stated that he would signal the completion time by eclipsing the sun with his hand. When he did so, the 84,000 stupas were completed at once.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=155}}<br />
<br />
[[File:Bharhut relief with Diamond throne and Mahabodhi Temple around the Boddhi Tree.jpg|thumb|Illustration of the original [[Mahabodhi Temple]] temple built by Asoka at [[Bodh Gaya]]. At the center, the ''[[Vajrasana, Bodh Gaya|Vajrasana]]'', or "Enlightenment Throne of the Buddha", with its supporting columns, being the object of adoration. A [[Pillar of Ashoka]] topped by an elephant appears in the right corner. [[Bharhut]] relief, 1st century BCE.<ref>Mahâbodhi, Cunningham [https://archive.org/stream/cu31924008747788 p.4ff]</ref>]]<br />
[[File:Vajrasana, early 20th century.jpg|thumb|The rediscovered ''[[Vajrasana, Bodh Gaya|Vajrasana]]'', or "Enlightenment Throne of the Buddha", at the [[Mahabodhi Temple]] in [[Bodh Gaya]]. It was built by Ashoka to commemorate the enlightenment of the Buddha, about two hundred years before him.{{sfn|Allen|2012}}<ref>"Ashoka did build the Diamond Throne at Bodh Gaya to stand in for the Buddha and to mark the place of his enlightenment" in {{cite book |last1=Ching |first1=Francis D. K. |last2=Jarzombek |first2=Mark M. |last3=Prakash |first3=Vikramaditya |title=A Global History of Architecture |date=23 March 2017 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-118-98160-3 |page=570 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SPqKDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT570 |language=en |access-date=7 March 2021 |archive-date=23 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210523153935/https://books.google.com/books?id=SPqKDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT570 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]<br />
The ''Mahavamsa'' states that Ashoka ordered construction of 84,000 viharas (monasteries) rather than the stupas to house the relics.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=158}} Like ''Ashokavadana'', the ''Mahavamsa'' describes Ashoka's collection of the relics, but does not mention this episode in the context of the construction activities.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=158}} It states that Ashoka decided to construct the 84,000 viharas when Moggaliputta Tissa told him that there were 84,000 sections of the Buddha's Dhamma.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=159}} Ashoka himself began the construction of the Ashokarama vihara, and ordered subordinate kings to build the other viharas. Ashokarama was completed by the miraculous power of Thera Indagutta, and the news about the completion of the 84,000 viharas arrived from various cities on the same day.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=155}}<br />
<br />
The construction of following stupas and viharas is credited to Ashoka: <br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; background-color:#D2B48C; color:brown;"<br />
|+ <br />
|-<br />
! style="background-color:gold;" |Discovered Ashoka's Stupas and Viharas<br />
! style="background-color:gold;" | Location<br />
! style="background-color:gold;" | Construction Credit<br />
|-<br />
| [[Sanchi Stupa]]<br />
| [[Raisen district]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[India]]<br />
| [[Ashoka]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Amaravati Stupa]]<br />
| [[Palnadu district]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[India]]<br />
| [[Ashoka]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Bairat Stupa]]<br />
| [[Viratnagar]], [[Rajasthan]], [[India]]<br />
| [[Ashoka]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Shanti Stupa]]<br />
|[[Leh district]], [[Ladakh]], [[India]]<br />
| [[Ashoka]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Dhamek Stupa]]<br />
| [[Sarnath]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[India]]<br />
| [[Ashoka]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Mahabodhi Temple|Mahabodhi Stupa]]<br />
| [[Bodh Gaya]], [[Bihar]], [[India]]<br />
| [[Ashoka]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Barabar Caves]]<br />
| [[Jehanabad district]], [[Bihar]], [[India]]<br />
| [[Ashoka]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Bharhut|Bharhut Stupa]]<br />
| [[Satna district]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[India]]<br />
| [[Ashoka]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Deorkothar|Deorkothar Stupa]]<br />
| [[Rewa district]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[India]]<br />
| [[Ashoka]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Sannati|Sannati Stupa]]<br />
| [[Kalaburagi district]], [[Karnataka]], [[India]]<br />
| [[Ashoka]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Kesaria Stupa]]<br />
| [[Champaran]], [[Bihar]], [[India]]<br />
| [[Ashoka]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Sariputta Stupa]] <br />
|[[Nalanda|Nalanda Mahavihara]], [[Bihar]], [[India]]<br />
| [[Ashoka]]<br />
|-<br />
|[[Dharmarajika Stupa]] <br />
|[[Taxila Cantonment]], [[Punjab]], [[Pakistan]]<br />
| [[Ashoka]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Kunala Stupa]]<br />
| [[Sirkap]], [[Punjab]], [[Pakistan]]<br />
| [[Ashoka]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Butkara Stupa]]<br />
|[[Swat]], [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]], [[Pakistan]] <br />
| [[Ashoka]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Bhir Mound]] (''reconstruction'')<br />
| [[Taxila]],[[Punjab]], [[Pakistan]]<br />
| [[Ashoka]]<br />
|-<br />
|[[Mir Rukun Stupa]]<br />
| [[Nawabshah]], [[Sindh]], [[Pakistan]]<br />
| [[Ashoka]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Ramagrama Stupa]]<br />
| [[Parasi District]], [[Nepal]]<br />
| [[Ashoka]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Rangkuta Banashram Stupa]]<br />
| [[Ramu Village]], [[Bangladesh]]<br />
| [[Ashoka]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Dhamrai Stupa]]<br />
| [[Dhaka district]], [[Bangladesh]]<br />
| [[Ashoka]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Mahasthangarh Stupa]]<br />
| [[Bogra district]], [[Bangladesh]]<br />
| [[Ashoka]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Propagation of Dhamma===<br />
Ashoka's rock edicts suggest that during his eighth–ninth regnal years, he made a pilgrimage to the Bodhi Tree, started propagating dhamma, and performed social welfare activities. The welfare activities included establishment of medical treatment facilities for humans and animals; plantation of medicinal herbs; and digging of wells and plantation of trees along the roads. These activities were conducted in the neighbouring kingdoms, including those of the Cholas, the Pandyas, the Satiyaputras, Tamraparni, the Greek kingdom of Antiyoka.{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=50}}<br />
<br />
The edicts also state that during his tenth–eleventh regnal years, Ashoka became closer to the Buddhist sangha, and went on a tour of the empire that lasted for at least 256 days.{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=50}}<br />
<br />
By his 12th regnal year, Ashoka had started inscribing edicts to propagate dhamma, having ordered his officers (''rajjukas'' and ''pradesikas'') to tour their jurisdictions every five years for inspection and for preaching ''dhamma''. By the next year, he had set up the post of the ''dharma-mahamatra''.{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=50}}<br />
<br />
During his 14th regnal year, he commissioned the enlargement of the stupa of Buddha Kanakamuni.{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=50}}<br />
<br />
===Third Buddhist Council ===<br />
{{Main|Third Buddhist council}}<br />
The Sri Lankan tradition presents a greater role for Ashoka in the Buddhist community.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=143}} In this tradition, Ashoka starts feeding monks on a large scale. His lavish patronage to the state patronage leads to many fake monks joining the sangha. The true Buddhist monks refuse to co-operate with these fake monks, and therefore, no [[uposatha]] ceremony is held for seven years. The king attempts to eradicate the fake monks, but during this attempt, an over-zealous minister ends up killing some real monks. The king then invites the elder monk [[Moggaliputta-Tissa]], to help him expel non-Buddhists from the monastery founded by him at Pataliputra.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=7}} 60,000 monks ([[bhikkhu]]s) convicted of being heretical are de-frocked in the ensuing process.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=143}} The uposatha ceremony is then held, and Tissa subsequently organises the [[Third Buddhist council]],{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=8}} during the 17th regnal year of Ashoka.{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=51}} Tissa compiles ''[[Kathavatthu]]'', a text that reaffirms Theravadin orthodoxy on several points.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=8}}<br />
<br />
The North Indian tradition makes no mention of these events, which has led to doubts about the historicity of the Third Buddhist council.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=144}}<br />
<br />
[[Image:Nava Jetavana Temple - Shravasti - 014 King Asoka at the Third Council (9241725897).jpg|thumb|Ashoka and Monk [[Moggaliputta-Tissa]] at the [[Third Buddhist Council]]. Nava Jetavana, [[Shravasti]].]]<br />
[[Richard Gombrich]] argues that the non-corroboration of this story by inscriptional evidence cannot be used to dismiss it as completely unhistorical, as several of Ashoka's inscriptions may have been lost.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=8}} Gombrich also argues that Asohka's inscriptions prove that he was interested in maintaining the "unanimity and purity" of the Sangha.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|pp=8–9}} For example, in his Minor Rock Edict 3, Ashoka recommends the members of the Sangha to study certain texts (most of which remain unidentified). Similarly, in an inscription found at Sanchi, Sarnath, and Kosam, Ashoka mandates that the dissident members of the sangha should be expelled, and expresses his desire to the Sangha remain united and flourish.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=5}}{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=45}}<br />
<br />
The 8th century Buddhist pilgrim [[Yijing (monk)|Yijing]] records another story about Ashoka's involvement in the Buddhist sangha. According to this story, the earlier king [[Bimbisara]], who was a contemporary of the Gautama Buddha, once saw 18 fragments of a cloth and a stick in a dream. The Buddha interpreted the dream to mean that his philosophy would be divided into 18 schools after his death, and predicted that a king called Ashoka would unite these schools over a hundred years later.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=26}}<br />
<br />
===Buddhist missions===<br />
In the Sri Lankan tradition, [[Moggaliputta-Tissa]] – who is patronised by Ashoka – sends out nine Buddhist missions to spread Buddhism in the "border areas" in {{circa|250 BCE}}. This tradition does not credit Ashoka directly with sending these missions. Each mission comprises five monks, and is headed by an elder.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=10}} To Sri Lanka, he sent his own son [[Mahinda (Buddhist monk)|Mahinda]], accompanied by four other Theras – Itthiya, Uttiya, Sambala and Bhaddasala.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=143}} Next, with Moggaliputta-Tissa's help, Ashoka sent Buddhist missionaries to distant regions such as Kashmir, Gandhara, Himalayas, the land of the Yonas (Greeks), Maharashtra, Suvannabhumi, and Sri Lanka.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=143}}<br />
<br />
The Sri Lankan tradition dates these missions to Ashoka's 18th regnal year, naming the following missionaries:{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=50}}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; background-color:#D2B48C; color:brown;"<br />
|+ <br />
|-<br />
! style="background-color:gold;" | Buddhist Emissary<br />
! style="background-color:gold;" | Destination<br />
|-<br />
| [[Mahinda (Buddhist monk)|Mahinda]]<br />
| Sri Lanka <br />
|-<br />
| Majjhantika<br />
| Kashmir and Gandhara <br />
|-<br />
| Mahadeva<br />
| Mahisa-mandala (possibly modern Mysore region) <br />
|-<br />
| Rakkhita<br />
| Vanavasa <br />
|-<br />
| Dhammarakkhita the Greek<br />
| Aparantaka (western India) <br />
|-<br />
| Maha-dhamma-rakkhita<br />
| Maharashtra <br />
|-<br />
| Maharakkhita<br />
| The Greek country <br />
|-<br />
| Majjhima<br />
| The Himalayas <br />
|-<br />
| Soṇa and Uttara<br />
| Suvaṇṇabhūmi (possibly Lower Burma and Thailand)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
[[File:Asoka_Kaart.gif|thumb|Ashoka Dhamma Emissary Missions]]<br />
The tradition adds that during his 19th regnal year, Ashoka's daughter [[Sanghamitta]] went to Sri Lanka to establish an order of nuns, taking a sapling of the sacred Bodhi Tree with her.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=10}}{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=51}}<br />
<br />
The North Indian tradition makes no mention of these events.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=144}} Ashoka's own inscriptions also appear to omit any mention of these events, recording only one of his activities during this period: in his 19th regnal year, he donated the Khalatika Cave to ascetics to provide them a shelter during the rainy season. Ashoka's [[Minor Pillar Edicts|Pillar Edicts]] suggest that during the next year, he made pilgrimage to Lumbini – the place of Buddha's birth, and to the stupa of the Buddha Kanakamuni.{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=51}}<br />
<br />
The Rock Edict XIII states that Ashoka's won a "dhamma victory" by sending messengers to five kings and several other kingdoms. Whether these missions correspond to the Buddhist missions recorded in the Buddhist chronicles is debated.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=6}} Indologist [[Etienne Lamotte]] argues that the "dhamma" missionaries mentioned in Ashoka's inscriptions were probably not Buddhist monks, as this "dhamma" was not same as "Buddhism".{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|pp=10–11}} Moreover, the lists of destinations of the missions and the dates of the missions mentioned in the inscriptions do not tally the ones mentioned in the Buddhist legends.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=11}}<br />
<br />
Other scholars, such as [[Erich Frauwallner]] and [[Richard Gombrich]], believe that the missions mentioned in the Sri Lankan tradition are historical.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=11}} According to these scholars, a part of this story is corroborated by archaeological evidence: the ''Vinaya Nidana'' mentions names of five monks, who are said to have gone to the Himalayan region; three of these names have been found inscribed on relic caskets found at [[Bhilsa]] (near [[Vidisha]]). These caskets have been dated to the early 2nd century BCE, and the inscription states that the monks are of the Himalayan school.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=10}} The missions may have set out from Vidisha in central India, as the caskets were discovered there, and as Mahinda is said to have stayed there for a month before setting out for Sri Lanka.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|pp=11–12}}<br />
<br />
According to Gombrich, the mission may have included representatives of other religions, and thus, Lamotte's objection about "dhamma" is not valid. The Buddhist chroniclers may have decided not to mention these non-Buddhists, so as not to sideline Buddhism.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=12}} Frauwallner and Gombrich also believe that Ashoka was directly responsible for the missions, since only a resourceful ruler could have sponsored such activities. The Sri Lankan chronicles, which belong to the Theravada school, exaggerate the role of the Theravadin monk Moggaliputta-Tissa in order to glorify their sect.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=12}}<br />
<br />
Some historians argue that Buddhism became a major religion because of Ashoka's royal patronage.{{sfn|Thapar|1995|p=32}} However, epigraphic evidence suggests that the spread of Buddhism in north-western India and Deccan region was less because of Ashoka's missions, and more because of merchants, traders, landowners and the artisan guilds who supported Buddhist establishments.{{sfn|Thapar|1995|p=36}}<br />
<br />
===Violence after conversion===<br />
According to the ''Ashokavadana'', a non-Buddhist in [[Pundravardhana]] drew a picture showing the Buddha bowing at the feet of the Nirgrantha leader Jnatiputra. The term nirgrantha ("free from bonds") was originally used for a pre-Jaina ascetic order, but later came to be used for Jaina monks.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=28}} "Jnatiputra" is identified with [[Mahavira]], 24th Tirthankara of [[Jainism]]. The legend states that on complaint from a Buddhist devotee, Ashoka issued an order to arrest the non-Buddhist artist, and subsequently, another order to kill all the [[Ajivika]]s in Pundravardhana. Around 18,000 followers of the Ajivika sect were executed as a result of this order.{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=232}}<ref name="Beni2010">{{cite book | author=Beni Madhab Barua | title=The Ajivikas | url=https://archive.org/details/ajivikas00barurich | access-date=30 October 2012 | date=5 May 2010 | publisher=General Books | isbn=978-1-152-74433-2 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/ajivikas00barurich/page/68 68]–69}}</ref> Sometime later, another Nirgrantha follower in [[Pataliputra]] drew a similar picture. Ashoka burnt him and his entire family alive in their house.<ref name="Beni2010" /> He also announced an award of one [[Kushan coinage|dinara]] (gold coin) to anyone who brought him the head of a Nirgrantha heretic. According to ''Ashokavadana'', as a result of this order, his own brother was mistaken for a heretic and killed by a cowherd.{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=232}} Ashoka realised his mistake, and withdrew the order.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=28}}<br />
<br />
For several reasons, scholars say, these stories of persecutions of rival sects by Ashoka appear to be clear fabrications arising out of sectarian propaganda.<ref name="Beni2010" /><ref name="Steven2010">{{cite book | author=Steven L. Danver | author-link=Steven L. Danver | title=Popular Controversies in World History: Investigating History's Intriguing Questions: Investigating History's Intriguing Questions | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=slVobUjdzGMC&pg=RA1-PA99 | access-date=23 May 2013 | date=22 December 2010 | publisher=ABC-CLIO | isbn=978-1-59884-078-0 | page=99 | archive-date=3 January 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103043618/http://books.google.com/books?id=slVobUjdzGMC&pg=RA1-PA99 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="LePhuoc2010">{{cite book | author=Le Phuoc | title=Buddhist Architecture | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9jb364g4BvoC&pg=PA32 | access-date=23 May 2013 | date=March 2010 | publisher=Grafikol | isbn=978-0-9844043-0-8 | page=32 | archive-date=31 December 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231233840/http://books.google.com/books?id=9jb364g4BvoC&pg=PA32 | url-status=live }}</ref><br />
<br />
==Family==<br />
[[File:Sanchi King Ashoka with his Queens, South Gate, Stupa no. 1.jpg|thumb|300px|A king - most probably Ashoka - with his two queens and three attendants, in a relief at [[Sanchi]].{{sfn|Singh|2017|p=162}} The king's identification with Ashoka is suggested by a similar relief at [[Kanaganahalli]], which bears his name.{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=333}}{{sfn|Singh|2017|p=162}}]]<br />
[[File:Kanaganahalli Asoka with inscription.jpg|thumb|upright|Ashoka with his queen, at [[Kanaganahalli]] near [[Sannati]], 1st–3rd century CE. The relief bears the inscription "Rāya Asoko" (𑀭𑀸𑀬 𑀅𑀲𑁄𑀓𑁄, "King Ashoka") in [[Brahmi script]]. It depicts the king with his queen, two attendants bearing fly-whisks, and one attendant bearing an umbrella.{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=333}}{{sfn|Singh|2017|p=162}}]]<br />
[[File:Emperor Ashoka and his Queen at the Deer Park.jpg|thumb|Emperor Ashoka and his Queen at the [[Sarnath|Deer Park]]. [[Sanchi]] relief.{{sfn|Singh|2017|p=162}}]]<br />
<br />
===Queens===<br />
Various sources mention five consorts of Ashoka: [[Devi (Ashoka's wife)|Devi]] (or Vedisa-Mahadevi-Shakyakumari), [[Karuvaki]], Asandhimitra (Pali: Asandhimitta), [[Padmavati (wife of Ashoka)|Padmavati]], and [[Tishyarakshita]] (Pali: Tissarakkha).{{sfn|Mookerji|1962|p=9}}<br />
<br />
Karuvaki is the only queen of Ashoka known from his own inscriptions: she is mentioned in an edict inscribed on a pillar at Allahabad. The inscription names her as the mother of prince Tivara, and orders the royal officers (mahamattas) to record her religious and charitable donations.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=30}} According to one theory, Tishyarakshita was the regnal name of Kaurvaki.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=30}}<br />
<br />
According to the ''Mahavamsa'', Ashoka's chief queen was Asandhimitta, who died four years before him.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=30}} It states that she was born as Ashoka's queen because in a previous life, she directed a [[pratyekabuddha]] to a honey merchant (who was later reborn as Ashoka).{{sfn|Strong|1995|pp=146–147}} Some later texts also state that she additionally gave the pratyekabuddha a piece of cloth made by her.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=166}} These texts include the ''Dasavatthuppakarana'', the so-called Cambodian or Extended ''Mahavamsa'' (possibly from 9th–10th centuries), and the ''Trai Bhumi Katha'' (15th century).{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=166}} These texts narrate another story: one day, Ashoka mocked Asandhamitta was enjoying a tasty piece of sugarcane without having earned it through her karma. Asandhamitta replied that all her enjoyments resulted from merit resulting from her own karma. Ashoka then challenged her to prove this by procuring 60,000 robes as an offering for monks.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=166}} At night, the guardian gods informed her about her past gift to the pratyekabuddha, and next day, she was able to miraculously procure the 60,000 robes. An impressed Ashoka makes her his favourite queen, and even offers to make her a sovereign ruler. Asandhamitta refuses the offer, but still invokes the jealousy of Ashoka's 16,000 other women. Ashoka proves her superiority by having 16,000 identical cakes baked with his royal seal hidden in only one of them. Each wife is asked to choose a cake, and only Asandhamitta gets the one with the royal seal.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=167}} The ''Trai Bhumi Katha'' claims that it was Asandhamitta who encouraged her husband to become a Buddhist, and to construct 84,000 stupas and 84,000 viharas.{{sfn|Strong|1995|pp=167–168}}<br />
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According to ''Mahavamsa'', after Asandhamitta's death, [[Tissarakkha]] became the chief queen.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=30}} The Ashokavadana does not mention Asandhamitta at all, but does mention Tissarakkha as Tishyarakshita.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=151}} The ''Divyavadana'' mentions another queen called Padmavati, who was the mother of the crown-prince Kunala.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=30}}<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, according to the Sri Lankan tradition, Ashoka fell in love with Devi (or Vidisha-Mahadevi), as a prince in central India.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|pp=22–23}} After Ashoka's ascension to the throne, Devi chose to remain at Vidisha than move to the royal capital Pataliputra. According to the ''Mahavmsa'', Ashoka's chief queen was Asandhamitta, not Devi: the text does not talk of any connection between the two women, so it is unlikely that Asandhamitta was another name for Devi.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=23}} The Sri Lankan tradition uses the word ''samvasa'' to describe the relationship between Ashoka and Devi, which modern scholars variously interpret as sexual relations outside marriage, or co-habitation as a married couple.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=97-98}} Those who argue that Ashoka did not marry Devi argue that their theory is corroborated by the fact that Devi did not become Ashoka's chief queen in Pataliputra after his ascension.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=98}} The ''Dipavamsa'' refers to two children of Ashoka and Devi – Mahinda and [[Sanghamitta]].{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=22}}<br />
<br />
===Sons===<br />
Tivara, the son of Ashoka and Karuvaki, is the only of Ashoka's sons to be mentioned by name in the inscriptions.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=30}}<br />
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According to North Indian tradition, Ashoka had a son named Kunala.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=144}} Kunala had a son named Samprati.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=30}}<br />
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The Sri Lankan tradition mentions a son called [[Mahinda (Buddhist monk)|Mahinda]], who was sent to Sri Lanka as a Buddhist missionary; this son is not mentioned at all in the North Indian tradition.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=143}} The Chinese pilgrim [[Xuanzang]] states that Mahinda was Ashoka's younger brother (Vitashoka or Vigatashoka) rather than his illegitimate son.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=24}}<br />
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The ''Divyavadana'' mentions the crown-prince Kunala alias Dharmavivardhana, who was a son of queen Padmavati. According to Faxian, Dharmavivardhana was appointed as the governor of Gandhara.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=30}}<br />
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The ''Rajatarangini'' mentions Jalauka as a son of Ashoka.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=30}}<br />
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===Daughters===<br />
According to Sri Lankan tradition, Ashoka had a daughter named Sanghamitta, who became a Buddhist nun.{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=49}} A section of historians, such as [[Romila Thapar]], doubt the historicity of Sanghamitta, based on the following points:{{sfn|Thapar|1961|pp=23–24}}<br />
* The name "Sanghamitta", which literally means the friend of the Buddhist Order (sangha), is unusual, and the story of her going to Ceylon so that the Ceylonese queen could be ordained appears to be an exaggeration.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=23}}<br />
*The ''Mahavamsa'' states that she married Ashoka's nephew Agnibrahma, and the couple had a son named Sumana. The contemporary laws regarding exogamy would have forbidden such a marriage between first cousins.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=24}}<br />
*According to the ''Mahavamsa'', she was 18 years old when she was ordained as a nun.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=23}} The narrative suggests that she was married two years earlier, and that her husband as well as her child were ordained. It is unlikely that she would have been allowed to become a nun with such a young child.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=24}}<br />
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Another source mentions that Ashoka had a daughter named Charumati, who married a kshatriya named Devapala.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=30}}<br />
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===Brothers===<br />
<br />
According to the ''Ashokavadana'', Ashoka had an elder half-brother named Susima.{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=204}} <br />
*According to Sri Lankan tradition, this brother was Tissa, who initially lived a luxurious life, without worrying about the world. To teach him a lesson, Ashoka put him on the throne for a few days, then accused him of being an usurper, and sentenced him to die after seven days. During these seven days, Tissa realised that the Buddhist monks gave up pleasure because they were aware of the eventual death. He then left the palace, and became an ''arhat''.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=27}}<br />
*The Theragatha commentary calls this brother Vitashoka. According to this legend, one day, Vitashoka saw a grey hair on his head, and realised that he had become old. He then retired to a monastery, and became an arhat.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=28}}<br />
*Faxian calls the younger brother Mahendra, and states that Ashoka shamed him for his immoral behaviour. The brother than retired to a dark cave, where he meditated, and became an arhat. Ashoka invited him to return to the family, but he preferred to live alone on a hill. So, Ashoka had a hill built for him within Pataliputra.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=28}}<br />
*The Ashoka-vadana states that Ashoka's brother was mistaken for a Nirgrantha, and killed during a massacre of the Nirgranthas ordered by Ashoka.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=28}}<br />
<br />
==Religion and philosophy==<br />
<br />
===Relationship with Buddhism===<br />
[[File:Upasaka.jpg|thumb|The word ''[[Upāsaka]]'' (𑀉𑀧𑀸𑀲𑀓, "Buddhist lay follower", in the [[Brahmi script]]), used by Ashoka in his [[Minor Rock Edict]] No.1 to describe his affiliation to Buddhism ({{Circa|258 BCE}}).]]<br />
<br />
The Buddhist legends state that Ashoka converted to Buddhism,{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=15}} although this has been debated by a section of scholars.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=142}} The [[Minor Rock Edicts#Full texts of the Minor Rock Edicts|Minor Rock Edict 1]] leaves no doubt that Ashoka was a follower of Buddhism. In this edict, he calls himself an [[upāsaka and Upāsikā|upasaka]] (a lay follower of Buddhism) and a ''sakya'' (i.e. Buddhist, after Gautama Buddha's title ''Shakya-Muni'').{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=134}} This and several other edicts are evidence of his Buddhist affiliation:{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|pp=43–44}} <br />
*In his Minor Rock Edict 1, Ashoka adds that he did not make much progress for a year after becoming an ''upasaka'', but then, he "went to" the Sangha, and made more progress. It is not certain what "going to" the Sangha means – the Buddhist tradition that he lived with monks may be an exaggeration, but it clearly means that Ashoka was drawn closer to Buddhism.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=3}}<br />
*In his Minor Rock Edict 3, he calls himself an ''upasaka'', and records his faith in the Buddha and the Sangha.{{sfn|Thapar|1995|pp=19–20}}{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=44}}<br />
*In the [[Major Rock Edicts#Major Rock Edict 8|Major Rock Edict 8]], he records his visit to Sambodhi (the sacred Bodhi Tree at Bodh Gaya), ten years after his coronation.{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=44}}<br />
*In the [[Lumbini#Pillar of Ashoka|Lumbini (Rumminidei) inscription]], he records his visit to the Buddha's birthplace, and declares his reverence for the Buddha and the sangha.{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=13}}<br />
*In the Nigalisagar inscription, he records his doubling in size of a stupa dedicated to a former Buddha, and his visit to the site for worship.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=5}}<br />
*Some of his inscriptions reflect his interest in maintaining the Buddhist sangha (see [[#Purification of sangha]] below).{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=5}}<br />
*The [[Saru Maru]] inscription states that Ashoka dispatched the message while travelling to Upunita-vihara in Manema-desha. Although the identity of the destination is not certain, it was obviously a Buddhist monastery ([[vihara]]).{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=157}}<br />
<br />
===Other religions ===<br />
A legend in the Buddhist text ''Vamsatthapakasini'' states that an Ajivika ascetic invited to interpret a dream of Ashoka's mother had predicted that he would patronise Buddhism and destroy 96 heretical sects.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=26}} However, such assertions are directly contradicted by Ashoka's own inscriptions. Ashoka's edicts, such as the Rock Edicts 6, 7, and 12, emphasise tolerance of all sects.{{sfn|Thapar|1995|p=29}} Similarly, in his [[Major Rock Edicts#Major Rock Edict 12|Rock Edict 12]], Ashoka honours people of all faiths.{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=4}} In his inscriptions, Ashoka dedicates caves to non-Buddhist ascetics, and repeatedly states that both Brahmins and shramanas deserved respect. He also tells people "not to denigrate other sects, but to inform themselves about them".{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=3}}<br />
<br />
In fact, there is no evidence that Buddhism was a state religion under Ashoka.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=37}} None of Ashoka's extant edicts record his direct donations to the Buddhists. One inscription records donations by his queen [[Karuvaki]], while the emperor is known to have donated the [[Barabar Caves]] to the [[Ajivika]]s.{{sfn|Thapar|1995|p=19}} There are some indirect references to his donations to Buddhists. For example, the Nigalisagar Pillar inscription records his enlargement of the Konakamana stupa.{{sfn|Thapar|1995|pp=20–21}} Similarly, the [[Lumbini#Pillar of Ashoka|Lumbini (Rumminidei) inscription]] states that he exempted the village of Buddha's birth from the land tax, and reduced the revenue tax to one-eighth.{{sfn|Thapar|1995|p=20}}<br />
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Ashoka appointed the ''dhamma-mahamatta'' officers, whose duties included the welfare of various religious sects, including the Buddhist sangha, Brahmins, Ajivikas, and Nirgranthas. The Rock Edicts 8 and 12, and the Pillar Edict 7, mandate donations to all religious sects.{{sfn|Thapar|1995|p=31}}<br />
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Ashoka's [[Minor Rock Edicts#Full texts of the Minor Rock Edicts|Minor Rock Edict 1]] contains the phrase "''amissā [[deva (Buddhism)|devā]]''". According to one interpretation, the term "''amissā''" derives from the word "''amṛṣa''" ("false"), and thus, the phrase is a reference to Ashoka's belief in "true" and "false" gods. However, it is more likely that the term derives from the word "''amiśra''" ("not mingled"), and the phrase refers to celestial beings who did not mingle with humans. The inscription claims that the righteousness generated by adoption of dhamma by the humans attracted even the celestial gods who did not mingle with humans.{{sfn|Thapar|1995|pp=21–22}}<br />
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===Dharma===<br />
{{main|Ashoka's policy of Dhamma}}<br />
<br />
Ashoka's various inscriptions suggest that he devoted himself to the propagation of "Dharma" (Pali: Dhamma), a term that refers to the teachings of [[Gautama Buddha]] in the Buddhist circles.{{sfn|Strong|1989|pp=3–4}} However, Ashoka's own inscriptions do not mention Buddhist doctrines such as the [[Four Noble Truths]] or [[Nirvana (Buddhism)|Nirvana]].{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=13}} The word "Dharma" has various connotations in the [[Indian religions]], and can be generally translated as "law, duty, or righteousness".{{sfn|Strong|1989|pp=3–4}} In the Kandahar inscriptions of Ashoka, the word "Dharma" has been translated as [[eusebeia]] (Greek) and qsyt (Aramaic), which further suggests that his "Dharma" meant something more generic than Buddhism.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=142}}<br />
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The inscriptions suggest that for Ashoka, Dharma meant "a moral polity of active social concern, [[religious tolerance]], ecological awareness, the observance of common ethical precepts, and the renunciation of war."{{sfn|Strong|1989|pp=3–4}} For example:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left; background-color:#D2B48C; color:brown;"<br />
|+ <br />
|-<br />
! style="background-color:gold;" | Ashoka's Actions<br />
! style="background-color:gold;" | Edict Reference<br />
|-<br />
| Abolition of the death penalty.<br />
| Pillar Edict 4{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=3}}<br />
|-<br />
| Plantation of banyan trees and mango groves, and construction of resthouses and wells, every {{convert|1/2|mi|m|abbr=off|order=flip}} along the roads.<br />
| Pillar Edict 7{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=4}}<br />
|-<br />
| Restriction on killing of animals in the royal kitchen; the number of animals killed was limited to two peacocks and a deer daily, and in the future, even these animals were not to be killed.<br />
| Rock Edict 1{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=4}}, {{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=3}}<br />
|-<br />
| Provision of medical facilities for humans and animals.<br />
| Rock Edict 2{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=4}}<br />
|-<br />
| Encouragement of obedience to parents, generosity toward priests and ascetics, and frugality in spending.<br />
| Rock Edict 3{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=4}}<br />
|-<br />
| Commissioning officers to work for the welfare and happiness of the poor and aged.<br />
| Rock Edict 5{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=4}}<br />
|-<br />
| Promotion of the welfare of all beings so as to pay off his debt to living creatures and to work for their happiness in this world and the next.<br />
| Rock Edict 6{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=4}}<br />
|}<br />
Modern scholars have variously understood this ''dhamma'' as a Buddhist lay ethic, a set of politico-moral ideas, a "sort of universal religion", or as an Ashokan innovation. On the other hand, it has also been interpreted as an ''essentially political'' ideology that sought to knit together a vast and diverse empire.{{sfn|Singh|2012|p=131}}<br />
<br />
Ashoka instituted a new category of officers called the ''dhamma-mahamattas'', who were tasked with the welfare of the aged, the infirm, the women and children, and various religious sects. They were also sent on diplomatic missions to the Hellenistic kingdoms of west Asia, in order to propagate the dhamma.{{sfn|Thapar|1995|p=31}}<br />
<br />
Historically, the image of Ashoka in the global Buddhist circles was based on legends (such as those mentioned in the ''[[Ashokavadana]]'') rather than his rock edicts. This was because the Brahmi script in which these edicts were written was forgotten soon and remained undeciphered until its study by James Prinsep in the 19th century.{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=5}} The writings of the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims such as Faxian and Xuanzang suggest that Ashoka's inscriptions mark the important sites associated with Gautama Buddha. These writers attribute Buddhism-related content to Ashoka's edicts, but this content does not match with the actual text of the inscriptions as determined by modern scholars after the decipherment of the Brahmi script. It is likely that the script was forgotten by the time of Faxian, who probably relied on local guides; these guides may have made up some Buddhism-related interpretations to gratify him, or may have themselves relied on faulty translations based on oral traditions. Xuanzang may have encountered a similar situation, or may have taken the supposed content of the inscriptions from Faxian's writings.{{sfn|Strong|1989|pp=6–9}} This theory is corroborated by the fact that some Brahmin scholars are known to have similarly come up with a fanciful interpretation of Ashoka pillar inscriptions, when requested to decipher them by the 14th century Muslim king [[Firuz Shah Tughlaq]]. According to Shams-i Siraj's ''Tarikh-i Firoz Shahi'', after the king had these pillar transported from [[Topra Kalan|Topra]] and Mirat to Delhi as war trophies, these Brahmins told him that the inscriptions prophesied that nobody would be able to remove the pillars except a king named Firuz. Moreover, by this time, there were local traditions that attributed the erection of these pillars to the legendary hero [[Bhima]].{{sfn|Strong|1989|pp=9–10}}<br />
<br />
According to scholars such as Richard Gombrich, Ashoka's dharma shows Buddhist influence. For example, the Kalinga Separate Edict I seems to be inspired by Buddha's ''Advice to Sigala'' and his other sermons.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=3}}<br />
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====Animal welfare====<br />
Ashoka's rock edicts declare that injuring living things is not good, and no animal should be slaughtered for sacrifice.{{sfn|Fitzgerald|2004|p=120}} <br />
<br />
He imposed a ban on killing of "all four-footed creatures that are neither useful nor edible", and of specific animal species including several birds, certain types of fish and bulls among others. He also banned killing of female goats, sheep and pigs that were nursing their young; as well as their young up to the age of six months. He also banned killing of all fish and [[neutering|castration]] of animals during certain periods such as [[Chaturmasa]] and [[Uposatha]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/dhammika/wheel386.html |title=The Edicts of King Asoka |translator-last=Dhammika |translator-first=Ven. S. |year=1994 |publisher=Buddhist Publication Society |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160510060618/http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/dhammika/wheel386.html |archive-date=10 May 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hhlfSZLDjRsC&pg=PA314 |title=Asoka |author=D.R. Bhandarkar, R. G. Bhandarkar |publisher=Asian Educational Services |year=2000 |pages=314–315 |isbn=9788120613331 |access-date=17 December 2015 |archive-date=26 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160426172502/https://books.google.com/books?id=hhlfSZLDjRsC&pg=PA314 |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
<br />
Ashoka also abolished the royal hunting of animals and restricted the slaying of animals for food in the royal residence.<ref name="GeraldMichael1998">{{cite book | author1=Gerald Irving A. Dare Draper | author2=Michael A. Meyer | author3=H. McCoubrey | title=Reflections on Law and Armed Conflicts: The Selected Works on the Laws of War by the Late Professor Colonel G.I.A.D. Draper, Obe | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ETjo7FKSsVkC&pg=PA44 | access-date=30 October 2012 | year=1998 | publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers | isbn=978-90-411-0557-8 | page=44 | archive-date=14 May 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514230412/http://books.google.com/books?id=ETjo7FKSsVkC&pg=PA44 | url-status=live }}</ref> Because he banned hunting, created many veterinary clinics and eliminated meat eating on many holidays, the Mauryan Empire under Ashoka has been described as "one of the very few instances in world history of a government treating its animals as citizens who are as deserving of its protection as the human residents".<ref>{{cite book |title=The Longest Struggle: Animal Advocacy from Pythagoras to Peta |last=Phelps |first=Norm |author-link=Norm Phelps |year=2007 |publisher=Lantern Books |isbn=978-1590561065 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/longeststrugglea00phel }}</ref><br />
<br />
==Foreign relations==<br />
[[File:Territories conquered by the Dharma according to Ashoka.jpg|thumb|Territories "conquered by the Dhamma" according to [[Major Rock Edicts|Major Rock Edict No.13]] of Ashoka (260–218 BCE).{{sfn|Kosmin|2014|p=57}}<ref name="ME368">Thomas Mc Evilly "The shape of ancient thought", Allworth Press, New York, 2002, p.368</ref>]]<br />
It is well known that Ashoka sent ''dütas'' or emissaries to convey messages or letters, written or oral (rather both), to various people. The VIth Rock Edict about "oral orders" reveals this. It was later confirmed that it was not unusual to add oral messages to written ones, and the content of Ashoka's messages can be inferred likewise from the XIIIth Rock Edict: They were meant to spread his ''dhammavijaya,'' which he considered the highest victory and which he wished to propagate everywhere (including far beyond India). There is obvious and undeniable trace of cultural contact through the adoption of the [[Kharosthi]] script, and the idea of installing inscriptions might have travelled with this script, as [[Achaemenid]] influence is seen in some of the formulations used by Ashoka in his inscriptions. This indicates to us that Ashoka was indeed in contact with other cultures, and was an active part in mingling and spreading new cultural ideas beyond his own immediate walls.<ref name="Hinuber2012">{{cite journal | author=Oskar von Hinüber |title=Did Hellenistic Kings Send Letters to Aśoka? | journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=130 | issue=2 | year=2010 | publisher=Freiburg | pages=262–265}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Hellenistic world===<br />
In his rock edicts, Ashoka states that he had encouraged the transmission of Buddhism to the [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic kingdoms]] to the west and that the Greeks in his dominion were converts to Buddhism and recipients of his envoys:<br />
<br />
{{blockquote|Now it is conquest by Dhamma that Beloved-of-the-Gods considers to be the best conquest. And it (conquest by Dhamma) has been won here, on the borders, even six hundred yojanas away, where the Greek king [[Antiochus II Theos|Antiochos]] rules, beyond there where the four kings named [[Ptolemy II Philadelphus|Ptolemy]], [[Antigonus II Gonatas|Antigonos]], [[Magas of Cyrene|Magas]] and [[Alexander II of Epirus|Alexander]] rule, likewise in the south among the Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as Tamraparni.<br />
<br />
Here in the king's domain among the Greeks, the Kambojas, the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamktis, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas, everywhere people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions in Dhamma. Even where Beloved-of-the-Gods' envoys have not been, these people too, having heard of the practice of Dhamma and the ordinances and instructions in Dhamma given by Beloved-of-the-Gods, are following it and will continue to do so. | [[Edicts of Ashoka]], [[Ashoka's Major Rock Edict|Rock Edict]] (S. Dhammika)<ref>[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/dhammika/wheel386.html#rock14 The Edicts of King Ashoka: an English rendering by Ven. S. Dhammika] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160510060618/http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/dhammika/wheel386.html |date=10 May 2016 }}. Access to Insight: Readings in Theravāda Buddhism. Retrieved 1 September 2011.</ref>|source=}}<br />
<br />
It is possible, but not certain, that Ashoka received letters from Greek rulers and was acquainted with the Hellenistic royal orders in the same way as he perhaps knew of the inscriptions of the Achaemenid kings, given the presence of ambassadors of Hellenistic kings in India (as well as the ''dütas'' sent by Ashoka himself).<ref name="Hinuber2012" /> [[Dionysius (ambassador)|Dionysius]] is reported to have been such a Greek ambassador at the court of Ashoka, sent by [[Ptolemy II Philadelphus]],<ref>{{cite web |url = http://perseus.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plin.+Nat.+6.21 |title = Pliny the Elder, "The Natural History", 6, 21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130728023626/http://perseus.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plin.+Nat.+6.21 |archive-date=28 July 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> who himself is mentioned in the [[Edicts of Ashoka]] as a recipient of the Buddhist proselytism of Ashoka. Some Hellenistic philosophers, such as [[Hegesias of Cyrene]], who probably lived under the rule of King [[Magas of Cyrene|Magas]], one of the supposed recipients of Buddhist emissaries from Asoka, are sometimes thought to have been influenced by Buddhist teachings.<ref>{{cite book |last=Preus |first=Anthony |year=2015 |title=Historical Dictionary of Ancient Greek Philosophy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wjW_BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA184 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |page=184 |isbn=978-1-4422-4639-3 |access-date=18 June 2017 |archive-date=4 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201104102717/https://books.google.com/books?id=wjW_BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA184 |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
<br />
The Greeks in India even seem to have played an active role in the propagation of Buddhism, as some of the emissaries of Ashoka, such as [[Dharmaraksita]], are described in [[Pāli|Pali]] sources as leading Greek ([[Yona]]) Buddhist monks, active in spreading Buddhism (the ''[[Mahavamsa]]'', XII).<ref name="plgotw">Full text of the ''Mahavamsa'' [http://lakdiva.org/mahavamsa/chapters.html Click chapter XII] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060905050433/http://lakdiva.org/mahavamsa/chapters.html |date=5 September 2006 }}</ref><br />
<br />
Some Greeks (Yavana) may have played an administrative role in the territories ruled by Ashoka. The Girnar inscription of [[Rudradaman]] records that during the rule of Ashoka, a [[Yavana]] Governor was in charge in the area of [[Girnar]], [[Gujarat]], mentioning his role in the construction of a water reservoir.<ref>The Idea of Ancient India: Essays on Religion, Politics, and Archaeology by Upinder Singh [https://books.google.com/books?id=KIWTCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA18 p.18] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191229135504/https://books.google.com/books?id=KIWTCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA18 |date=29 December 2019 }}</ref><br />
<br />
It is thought that Ashoka's palace at Patna was modelled after the Achaemenid palace of [[Persepolis]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=De la Croix |first1=Horst |last2=Tansey |first2=Richard G. |last3=Kirkpatrick |first3=Diane |title=Gardner's Art Through the Ages |date=1991 |publisher=Thomson/Wadsworth |isbn=0-15-503769-2 |edition=9th |page=[https://archive.org/details/gardnersartthrou00gard/page/428 428] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/gardnersartthrou00gard/page/428 }}</ref><br />
===Khotan===<br />
There are four versions of the legend of the founding of Khotan.<ref name="emmerick 263">{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ko_RafMSGLkC&pg=PA263 |author=Emmerick, R. E. |publisher=Cambridge University Press; Reissue edition |date=14 April 1983|isbn=978-0-521-20092-9|chapter =Chapter 7: Iranian Settlement East of the Pamirs|editor=Ehsan Yarshater |title=The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol III: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian Periods, Part 1 |page= 263 }}</ref> These may be found in accounts given by the Chinese pilgrim [[Xuanzang]] and in Tibetan translations of Khotanese documents. All four versions suggest that the city was founded around the third century BC by a group of Indians during the reign of [[Ashoka]].<ref name="Mallory 2000"><br />
{{Citation <br />
| last1 =Mallory <br />
| first1 =J. P. <br />
| author-link =J. P. Mallory <br />
| last2 =Mair <br />
| first2 =Victor H. <br />
| author2-link =Victor H. Mair <br />
| year =2000<br />
| pages = 77–81<br />
| title =The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West <br />
| place =London <br />
| publisher =Thames & Hudson<br />
}}</ref><ref name="emmerick 263"/> According to one version, the nobles of a tribe in [[Taxila (ancient)|ancient Taxila]], who traced their ancestry to the deity [[Vaiśravaṇa]], were said to have blinded [[Kunala|Kunãla]], a son of [[Ashoka]]. In punishment they were banished by the [[Maurya Empire|Mauryan emperor]] to the north of the Himalayas, where they settled in Khotan and elected one of their members as king. However war then ensued with another group from China whose leader then took over as king, and the two colonies merged.<ref name="Mallory 2000"/> In a different version, it was Kunãla himself who was exiled and founded Khotan.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8XXGhAL1WKcC&pg=PA193 |title=The Early History of India|first= Vincent A. |last= Smith | page=193 |publisher= Atlantic Publishers |date= 1999|isbn=978-81-7156-618-1}}</ref><br />
==Legends about past lives==<br />
Buddhist legends mention stories about Ashoka's past lives. According to a ''Mahavamsa'' story, Ashoka, Nigrodha and Devnampiya Tissa were brothers in a previous life. In that life, a [[pratyekabuddha]] was looking for honey to cure another, sick pratyekabuddha. A woman directed him to a honey shop owned by the three brothers. Ashoka generously donated honey to the pratyekabuddha, and wished to become the sovereign ruler of Jambudvipa for this act of merit.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=146}} The woman wished to become his queen, and was reborn as Ashoka's wife Asandhamitta.{{sfn|Strong|1995|pp=146–147}} Later Pali texts credit her with an additional act of merit: she gifted the pratyekabuddha a piece of cloth made by her. These texts include the ''Dasavatthuppakarana'', the so-called Cambodian or Extended ''Mahavamsa'' (possibly from 9th–10th centuries), and the ''Trai Bhumi Katha'' (15th century).{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=166}}<br />
<br />
According to an ''Ashokavadana'' story, Ashoka was born as Jaya in a prominent family of Rajagriha. When he was a little boy, he gave the Gautama Buddha dirt imagining it to be food. The Buddha approved of the donation, and Jaya declared that he would become a king by this act of merit. The text also state that Jaya's companion Vijaya was reborn as Ashoka's prime-minister Radhagupta.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=147}} In the later life, the Buddhist monk Upagupta tells Ashoka that his rough skin was caused by the impure gift of dirt in the previous life.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=149}} Some later texts repeat this story, without mentioning the negative implications of gifting dirt; these texts include Kumaralata's ''Kalpana-manditika'', Aryashura's ''Jataka-mala'', and the ''Maha-karma-vibhaga''. The Chinese writer Pao Ch'eng's ''Shih chia ju lai ying hua lu'' asserts that an insignificant act like gifting dirt could not have been meritorious enough to cause Ashoka's future greatness. Instead, the text claims that in another past life, Ashoka commissioned a large number of Buddha statues as a king, and this act of merit caused him to become a great emperor in the next life.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=163}}<br />
<br />
The 14th century Pali-language fairy tale ''Dasavatthuppakarana'' (possibly from {{Circa|14th century}}) combines the stories about the merchant's gift of honey, and the boy's gift of dirt. It narrates a slightly different version of the ''Mahavamsa'' story, stating that it took place before the birth of the Gautama Buddha. It then states that the merchant was reborn as the boy who gifted dirt to the Buddha; however, in this case, the Buddha his attendant to [[Ānanda]] to create [[plaster]] from the dirt, which is used repair cracks in the monastery walls.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=163-165}}<br />
<br />
==Last years ==<br />
<br />
=== Tissarakkha as the queen===<br />
Ashoka's last dated inscription - the [[Major Pillar Edicts#Major Pillar Edict 4|Pillar Edict 4]] is from his 26th regnal year.{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=51}} The only source of information about Ashoka's later years are the Buddhist legends. The Sri Lankan tradition states that Ashoka's queen Asandhamitta died during his 29th regnal year, and in his 32nd regnal year, his wife [[Tishyaraksha|Tissarakkha]] was given the title of queen.{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=51}}<br />
<br />
Both ''Mahavamsa'' and ''Ashokavadana'' state that Ashoka extended favours and attention to the [[Bodhi Tree]], and a jealous Tissarakkha mistook "Bodhi" to be a mistress of Ashoka. She then used black magic to make the tree wither.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=152}} According to the ''Ashokavadana'', she hired a sorceress to do the job, and when Ashoka explained that "Bodhi" was the name of a tree, she had the sorceress heal the tree.{{sfn|Strong|1995|pp=152–153}} According to the ''Mahavamsa'', she completely destroyed the tree,{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=153}} during Ashoka's 34th regnal year.{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=51}}<br />
<br />
The ''Ashokavadana'' states that Tissarakkha (called "Tishyarakshita" here) made sexual advances towards Ashoka's son Kunala, but Kunala rejected her. Subsequently, Ashoka granted Tissarakkha kingship for seven days, and during this period, she tortured and blinded Kunala.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=151}} Ashoka then threatened to "tear out her eyes, rip open her body with sharp rakes, impale her alive on a spit, cut off her nose with a saw, cut out her tongue with a razor." Kunala regained his eyesight miraculously, and pleaded for mercy for the queen, but Ashoka had her executed anyway.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=152}} Kshemendra's ''Avadana-kalpa-lata'' also narrates this legend, but seeks to improve Ashoka's image by stating that he forgave the queen after Kunala regained his eyesight.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=165}}<br />
<br />
=== Death ===<br />
According to the Sri Lankan tradition, Ashoka died during his 37th regnal year,{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=51}} which suggests that he died around 232 BCE.{{sfn|Kosmin|2014|p=36}}<br />
<br />
According to the ''Ashokavadana'', the emperor fell severely ill during his last days. He started using state funds to make donations to the Buddhist sangha, prompting his ministers to deny him access to the state treasury. Ashoka then started donating his personal possessions, but was similarly restricted from doing so. On his deathbed, his only possession was the half of a [[phyllanthus emblica|myrobalan fruit]], which he offered to the sangha as his final donation.{{sfn|Strong|1989|p=18}} Such legends encourage generous donations to the ''sangha'' and highlight the role of the kingship in supporting the Buddhist faith.{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=332}}<br />
<br />
Legend states that during his cremation, his body burned for seven days and nights.<ref>{{cite book |last=Strong |first=John |date=2007 |title=Relics of the Buddha |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xqAB6PKyP98C&pg=PA149 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |page=149 |isbn=978-81-208-3139-1 |access-date=15 November 2015 |archive-date=8 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160508154548/https://books.google.com/books?id=xqAB6PKyP98C&pg=PA149 |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
<br />
==Legacy==<br />
<br />
In ''[[The Outline of History]]'' (1920), [[H. G. Wells]] wrote, <blockquote>"Amidst the tens of thousands of names of monarchs that crowd the columns of history, their majesties and graciousnesses and serenities and royal highnesses and the like, the name of Ashoka shines, and shines, almost alone, a star. From the Volga to Japan, his name is still honoured."<ref name="Lahiri2015">{{cite book|author=Nayanjot Lahiri|title=Ashoka in Ancient India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JaVRCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT20|date=5 August 2015|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-91525-1|pages=20–|access-date=3 July 2018|archive-date=29 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191229045759/https://books.google.com/books?id=JaVRCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT20|url-status=live}}</ref> </blockquote><br />
<br />
===Architecture===<br />
Besides the various stupas attributed to Ashoka, the [[pillars of Ashoka|pillars erected by him]] survive at various places in the Indian subcontinent.<br />
<br />
Ashoka is often credited with the beginning of stone architecture in India, possibly following the introduction of stone-building techniques by the [[Greco-Bactrian|Greeks after Alexander the Great]].<ref name="Stone">[https://books.google.com/books?id=fpfTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT21 Introduction to Indian Architecture Bindia Thapar, Tuttle Publishing, 2012, p.21] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191229200601/https://books.google.com/books?id=fpfTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT21 |date=29 December 2019 }} "Ashoka used the knowledge of stone craft to begin the tradition of stone architecture in India, dedicated to Buddhism."</ref> Before Ashoka's time, buildings were probably built in non-permanent material, such as wood, [[bamboo]] or [[thatch]].<ref name="Stone" /><ref>{{cite book| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=TlVeuxIgjwQC&pg=PA14| title = Gardner's Art through the Ages: Non-Western Perspectives, Fred S. Kleiner, Cengage Learning, 2009, p14| isbn = 9780495573678| last1 = Kleiner| first1 = Fred S.| date = 5 January 2009| access-date = 17 June 2017| archive-date = 26 December 2019| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191226115443/https://books.google.com/books?id=TlVeuxIgjwQC&pg=PA14| url-status = live}}</ref> Ashoka may have rebuilt his palace in [[Pataliputra]] by replacing wooden material by stone,{{sfn|Mookerji|1962|p=96}} and may also have used the help of foreign craftmen.<ref name="auto3">"Ashoka was known to be a great builder who may have even imported craftsmen from abroad to build royal monuments." Monuments, Power and Poverty in India: From Ashoka to the Raj, A. S. Bhalla, I.B.Tauris, 2015 p.18 [https://books.google.com/books?id=emATBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA18] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191226160624/https://books.google.com/books?id=emATBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA18|date=26 December 2019}}</ref> Ashoka also innovated by using the permanent qualities of stone for his written [[Edicts of Ashoka|edicts]], as well as his pillars with Buddhist symbolism.<br />
<br />
<gallery widths="180px" heights="180px"><br />
Ashok Sthamba.jpg | The Ashokan pillar at [[Lumbini]], [[Nepal]], Buddha's birthplace<br />
Diamond throne discovery.jpg | The [[Diamond throne]] at the [[Mahabodhi Temple]], attributed to Ashoka<br />
Vajrasana front frieze design.jpg | Front frieze of the Diamond throne<br />
MauryanRingstone.JPG | Mauryan [[ringstone]], with standing goddess. Northwest Pakistan. 3rd century BCE. [[British Museum]]<br />
Rampurva bull capital detail.jpg |[[Rampurva|Rampurva bull capital]], detail of the [[abacus (architecture)|abacus]], with two [[palmette|"flame palmettes"]] framing a lotus surrounded by small rosette flowers.<br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
===Symbols===<br />
<br />
{{multiple image<br />
| perrow=2<br />
| align = right<br />
| direction =horizontal<br />
| header=Symbols of Ashoka<br />
| total_width=300<br />
| image1 = Sarnath capital.jpg<br />
| caption1 = [[Lion Capital of Ashoka|Ashoka's pillar]] capital of [[Sarnath]]. This sculpture has been adopted as the [[National Emblem of India]].<br />
| image2 = Flag of India.svg<br />
| caption2 = [[Ashoka Chakra]], ''"the wheel of Righteousness" (Dharma in [[Sanskrit]] or Dhamma in [[Pali]])"'', has been adopted in the [[National Flag of India]].<br />
}}<br />
<br />
Ashokan capitals were highly realistic and used a characteristic polished finish, [[Mauryan polish]], giving a shiny appearance to the stone surface.<ref name="Irwin 1973 706–720">{{Cite journal |last=Irwin |first=John |date=1973 |title='Aśokan' Pillars: A Reassessment of the Evidence |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/877526 |journal=The Burlington Magazine |volume=115 |issue=848 |pages=706–720 |jstor=877526 |issn=0007-6287}}</ref> [[Lion Capital of Ashoka]], the capital of one of the pillars erected by Ashoka features a carving of a spoked wheel, known as the [[Ashoka Chakra]]. This wheel represents the wheel of Dhamma set in motion by the Gautama Buddha, and appears on the flag of modern India. This capital also features sculptures of lions, which appear on the seal of India.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=1}}<br />
<br />
===Inscriptions===<br />
[[File:AiKhanoumAndIndia.jpg|thumb|Distribution of the [[Edicts of Ashoka]], and location of the contemporary Greek city of [[Ai-Khanoum]].<ref>Reference: "India: The Ancient Past" p.113, Burjor Avari, [[Routledge]], {{ISBN|0-415-35615-6}}</ref>]]<br />
[[File:AsokaKandahar.jpg|thumb|The [[Kandahar Edict of Ashoka]], a bilingual inscription (in Greek and [[Aramaic]]) by King Ashoka, discovered at [[Kandahar]] ({{small|[[National Museum of Afghanistan]]}}).]]<br />
The edicts of Ashoka are a collection of 33 inscriptions on the [[Pillars of Ashoka]], as well as boulders and cave walls, issued during his reign.<ref name="Irwin 1973 706–720" /> These inscriptions are dispersed throughout modern-day Pakistan and India, and represent the first tangible evidence of Buddhism. The edicts describe in detail the first wide expansion of Buddhism through the sponsorship of one of the most powerful kings of Indian history, offering more information about Ashoka's proselytism, moral precepts, religious precepts, and his notions of social and animal welfare.{{sfn|Singh|2012}}<br />
<br />
Before Ashoka, the royal communications appear to have been written on perishable materials such as palm leaves, birch barks, cotton cloth, and possibly wooden boards. While Ashoka's administration would have continued to use these materials, Ashoka also had his messages inscribed on rock edicts.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|pp=120–121}} Ashoka probably got the idea of putting up these inscriptions from the neighbouring [[Achaemenid empire]].{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=3}} It is likely that Ashoka's messages were also inscribed on more perishable materials, such as wood, and sent to various parts of the empire. None of these records survive now.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=7}}<br />
<br />
Scholars are still attempting to analyse both the expressed and implied political ideas of the Edicts (particularly in regard to imperial vision), and make inferences pertaining to how that vision was grappling with problems and political realities of a "virtually subcontinental, and culturally and economically highly variegated, 3rd century BCE Indian empire.{{sfn|Singh|2012|p=132}} Nonetheless, it remains clear that Ashoka's Inscriptions represent the earliest corpus of royal inscriptions in the Indian subcontinent, and therefore prove to be a very important innovation in royal practices."{{sfn|Singh|2012}}<br />
<br />
Most of Ashoka's inscriptions are written in a mixture of various [[Prakrit]] dialects, in the [[Brahmi]] script.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=126}}<br />
<br />
Several of Ashoka's inscriptions appear to have been set up near towns, on important routes, and at places of religious significance.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=6}} Many of the inscriptions have been discovered in hills, rock shelters, and places of local significance.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=143}} Various theories have been put forward about why Ashoka or his officials chose such places, including that they were centres of megalithic cultures,{{sfn|Thapar|1995|p=23}} were regarded as sacred spots in Ashoka's time, or that their physical grandeur may be symbolic of spiritual dominance.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|pp=143–157}} Ashoka's inscriptions have not been found at major cities of the Maurya empire, such as Pataliputra, Vidisha, Ujjayini, and Taxila.<br />
{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=143}} It is possible that many of these inscriptions are lost; the 7th century Chinese pilgrim [[Xuanzang]] refers to some of Ashoka's pillar edicts, which have not been discovered by modern researchers.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=6}}<br />
<br />
It appears that Ashoka dispatched every message to his provincial governors, who in turn, relayed it to various officials in their territory.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=127}} For example, the [[Minor Rock Edicts#Full texts of the Minor Rock Edicts|Minor Rock Edict 1]] appears in several versions at multiple places: all the versions state that Ashoka issued the proclamation while on a tour, having spent 256 days on tour. The number 256 indicates that the message was dispatched simultaneously to various places.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=133}} Three versions of a message, found at edicts in the neighbouring places in Karnataka (Brahmagiri, Siddapura, and Jatinga-Rameshwara), were sent from the southern province's capital Suvarnagiri to various places. All three versions contain the same message, preceded by an initial greeting from the ''arya-putra'' (presumably Ashoka's son and the provincial governor) and the ''mahamatras'' (officials) in Suvarnagiri.{{sfn|Lahiri|2015|p=127}}<br />
<br />
===Coinage===<br />
<br />
The [[caduceus]] appears as a symbol of the [[punch-marked coins]] of the [[Maurya Empire]] in India, in the 3rd–2nd century BCE. Numismatic research suggests that this symbol was the symbol of king Ashoka, his personal "[[Mudra]]".<ref>Indian Numismatics, Damodar Dharmanand Kosambi, Orient Blackswan, 1981, p.73 [https://books.google.com/books?id=favxZII9WtwC&pg=PA73] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191215201423/https://books.google.com/books?id=favxZII9WtwC&pg=PA73|date=15 December 2019}}</ref> This symbol was not used on the pre-Mauryan punch-marked coins, but only on coins of the Maurya period, together with the [[arched-hill symbol|three arched-hill symbol]], the "peacock on the hill", the [[triskelis]] and the [[Taxila]] mark.<ref>Malwa Through the Ages, from the Earliest Times to 1305 A.D, Kailash Chand Jain, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1972, p.134 [https://books.google.com/books?id=_3O7q7cU7k0C&pg=PA134] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191224053358/https://books.google.com/books?id=_3O7q7cU7k0C&pg=PA134|date=24 December 2019}}</ref><br />
<br />
<gallery widths="180px" heights="180px"><br />
Caduceus on Mauryan coin.jpg | Caduceus symbol on a Maurya-era [[punch-marked coin]]<br />
India Mauryan emperor Ashoka Punch-marked Coin.jpg | A punch-marked coin attributed to Ashoka<ref>{{cite book |last=Mitchiner |first=Michael |date=1978 |title=Oriental Coins & Their Values: The Ancient and Classical World 600 B.C. - A.D. 650 |publisher=Hawkins Publications |page=544 |isbn=978-0-9041731-6-1}}</ref><br />
I15 1karshapana Maurya Ashoka MACW4229 1ar (8486624862).jpg | A Maurya-era silver coin of 1 [[karshapana]], possibly from Ashoka's period, workshop of Mathura. '''Obverse:''' Symbols including a sun and an animal '''Reverse:''' Symbol '''Dimensions:''' 13.92 x 11.75&nbsp;mm '''Weight:''' 3.4 g.<br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
==Modern scholarship==<br />
<br />
===Rediscovery ===<br />
<br />
Ashoka had almost been forgotten, but in the 19th century [[James Prinsep]] contributed in the revelation of historical sources. After deciphering the [[Brahmi script]], Prinsep had originally identified the "[[Priyadasi]]" of the inscriptions he found with the King of [[Ceylon]] [[Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura|Devanampiya Tissa]]. However, in 1837, [[George Turnour]] discovered an important Sri Lankan manuscript ([[Dipavamsa]], or "Island Chronicle" ) associating Piyadasi with Ashoka:<br />
<br />
{{blockquote|"Two hundred and eighteen years after the beatitude of the [[Buddha]], was the inauguration of Piyadassi, .... who, the grandson of Chandragupta, and the son of Bindusara, was at the time Governor of [[Ujain|Ujjayani]]."|[[Dipavamsa]].{{sfn|Allen|2012|p=79}}}}<br />
<br />
[[File:Rock_edict-_closer_look.JPG|thumb|The [[Minor Rock Edict]] of [[Maski]] mentions the author as "Devanampriya Asoka", definitively linking both names, and confirming Ashoka as the author of the famous [[Edicts of Ashoka|Edicts]].]]<br />
Since then, the association of "Devanampriya Priyadarsin" with Ashoka was confirmed through various inscriptions, and especially confirmed in the [[Minor Rock Edict]] inscription discovered in [[Maski]], directly associating Ashoka with his regnal title Devanampriya ("Beloved-of-the-Gods"):<ref name="CSH">{{cite book |title=The Cambridge Shorter History of India |publisher=CUP Archive |page=42 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9_48AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA42 |language=en |access-date=13 July 2018 |archive-date=25 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191225190721/https://books.google.com/books?id=9_48AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA42 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Gupta |first1=Subhadra Sen |title=Ashoka |date=2009 |publisher=Penguin UK |isbn=9788184758078 |page=13 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L5ru08et_ZAC&pg=PT13 |language=en |access-date=13 July 2018 |archive-date=31 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191231152002/https://books.google.com/books?id=L5ru08et_ZAC&pg=PT13 |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
<br />
{{blockquote|<br />
[A proclamation] of Devanampriya Asoka.<br /><br />
Two and a half years [and somewhat more] (have passed) since I am a [[Buddha]]-[[Shakya|Sakya]].<br /><br />
[A year and] somewhat more (has passed) [since] I have visited the [[Samgha]] and have shown zeal.<br /><br />
Those gods who formerly had been unmingled (with men) in [[Jambudvipa]], have how become mingled (with them).<br /><br />
This object can be reached even by a lowly (person) who is devoted to morality.<br /><br />
One must not think thus, – (viz.) that only an exalted (person) may reach this.<br /><br />
Both the lowly and the exalted must be told : "If you act thus, this matter (will be) prosperous and of long duration, and will thus progress to one and a half.<br />
|[[Maski]] [[Minor Rock Edict]] of Ashoka.<ref>{{cite book |title=Inscriptions of Asoka. New Edition by E. Hultzsch |date=1925 |pages=174–175 |url=https://archive.org/stream/InscriptionsOfAsoka.NewEditionByE.Hultzsch/HultzschCorpusAsokaSearchable#page/n353/mode/2up |language=sa}}</ref>}}<br />
<br />
Another important historian was British [[archaeologist]] [[John Hubert Marshall]], who was director-General of the [[Archaeological Survey of India]]. His main interests were [[Sanchi]] and [[Sarnath]], in addition to [[Harappa]] and [[Mohenjo-daro|Mohenjodaro]]. Sir [[Alexander Cunningham]], a British archaeologist and army engineer, and often known as the father of the [[Archaeological Survey of India]], unveiled heritage sites like the [[Bharhut]] Stupa, Sarnath, Sanchi, and the Mahabodhi Temple. [[Mortimer Wheeler]], a British archaeologist, also exposed Ashokan historical sources, especially the [[Taxila]].{{citation needed|date=June 2016}}<br />
<br />
===Perceptions and historiography===<br />
<br />
The use of Buddhist sources in reconstructing the life of Ashoka has had a strong influence on perceptions of Ashoka, as well as the interpretations of his Edicts. Building on traditional accounts, early scholars regarded Ashoka as a primarily Buddhist monarch who underwent a conversion from the Vedic religion to Buddhism and was actively engaged in sponsoring and supporting the Buddhist monastic institution. Some scholars have tended to question this assessment. Romila Thappar writes about Ashoka that "We need to see him both as a statesman in the context of inheriting and sustaining an empire in a particular historical period, and as a person with a strong commitment to changing society through what might be called the propagation of social ethics."<ref name="Ashoka - A Retrospective">{{cite journal|last1=Thappar|first1=Romila|title=Ashoka – A Retrospective|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|date=13 November 2009|volume=44|issue=45|pages=31–37}}</ref> The only source of information not attributable to Buddhist sources are the Ashokan Edicts, and these do not explicitly state that Ashoka was a Buddhist. In his edicts, Ashoka expresses support for all the major religions of his time: [[Buddhism]], [[Vedic Brahmanism|Brahmanism]], [[Jainism]], and [[Ajivika]]ism, and his edicts addressed to the population at large (there are some addressed specifically to Buddhists; this is not the case for the other religions) generally focus on moral themes members of all the religions would accept. For example, Amartya Sen writes, "The Indian Emperor Ashoka in the third century BCE presented many political inscriptions in favor of tolerance and individual freedom, both as a part of state policy and in the relation of different people to each other".<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sen|first1=Amartya|title=Universal Truths and the Westernizing Illusion|journal=Harvard International Review|date=Summer 1998|volume=20|issue=3|pages=40–43}}</ref><br />
<br />
However, the edicts alone strongly ''indicate'' that he was a Buddhist. In one edict he belittles rituals, and he banned Vedic animal sacrifices; these strongly suggest that he at least did not look to the Vedic tradition for guidance. Furthermore, many edicts are expressed to Buddhists alone; in one, Ashoka declares himself to be an "[[upasaka]]", and in another he demonstrates a close familiarity with Buddhist texts. He erected rock pillars at Buddhist holy sites, but did not do so for the sites of other religions. He also used the word [[Dharma (Buddhism)|"dhamma"]] to refer to qualities of the heart that underlie moral action; this was an exclusively Buddhist use of the word. However, he used the word more in the spirit than as a strict code of conduct. Romila Thappar writes, "His dhamma did not derive from divine inspiration, even if its observance promised heaven. It was more in keeping with the ethic conditioned by the logic of given situations. His logic of Dhamma was intended to influence the conduct of categories of people, in relation to each other. Especially where they involved unequal relationships."<ref name="Ashoka - A Retrospective" /> Finally, he promotes ideals that correspond to the first three steps of the Buddha's graduated discourse.<ref>Richard Robinson, Willard Johnson, and Thanissaro Bhikkhu, ''Buddhist Religions'', fifth ed., Wadsworth 2005, page 59.</ref><br />
<br />
Much of the knowledge about Ashoka comes from the [[Edicts of Ashoka|several inscriptions]] that he had carved on pillars and rocks throughout the empire. All his inscriptions present him as compassionate and loving. In the Kalinga rock edits, he addresses his people as his "children" and mentions that as a father he desires their good.<ref name="VenSDhammika_1993">[https://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/ashoka.html The Edicts of King Ashoka] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328144411/http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/ashoka.html |date=28 March 2014 }}, English translation (1993) by Ven. S. Dhammika. {{ISBN|955-24-0104-6}}. Retrieved 21 February 2009</ref><br />
<br />
===Impact of pacifism===<br />
After Ashoka's death, the [[Maurya dynasty#Decline|Maurya dynasty declined]] rapidly. The various Puranas provide different details about Ashoka's successors, but all agree that they had relatively short reigns. The empire seems to have weakened, fragmented, and suffered an invasion from the [[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom|Bactrian Greeks]].{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=333}}<br />
<br />
Some historians, such as [[H. C. Raychaudhuri]], have argued that Ashoka's pacifism undermined the "military backbone" of the Maurya empire. Others, such as [[Romila Thapar]], have suggested that the extent and impact of his pacifism have been "grossly exaggerated".{{sfn|Singh|2012|p=131, 143}}<br />
<br />
==In art, film and literature ==<br />
[[File:Asoka's Queen.jpg|thumb|A {{Circa|1910}} painting by [[Abanindranath Tagore]] (1871–1951) depicting Ashoka's queen standing in front of the railings of the Buddhist monument at [[Sanchi]] ([[Raisen district]], [[Madhya Pradesh]]).]]<br />
*''[[Ashoka the Great (book)|Ashoka the Great]]'' is a fictional biography of the emperor, which was originally written in Dutch in the form of a trilogy by [[Wytze Keuning]] in 1937-1947.<br />
*[[Jaishankar Prasad]] composed ''Ashoka ki Chinta'' (''Ashoka's Anxiety''), a poem that portrays Ashoka's feelings during the war on Kalinga.<br />
*''Ashoka'', a 1922 Indian silent historical film about the emperor produced by [[Madan Theatres]].<ref name="silent">{{cite book|author=R. K. Verma|title=Filmography: Silent Cinema, 1913-1934|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=suFkAAAAMAAJ|year=2000|publisher=M. Verma|isbn=978-81-7525-224-0|page=150|access-date=5 February 2021|archive-date=2 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002175530/https://books.google.com/books?id=suFkAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
*''[[The Nine Unknown]]'', a 1923 novel by [[Talbot Mundy]] about the "Nine Unknown Men", a fictional secret society founded by Ashoka.<br />
*''Samrat Ashok'', a 1928 Indian silent film by Bhagwati Prasad Mishra.<ref name="silent" /><br />
*''[[Ashok Kumar (film)|Ashok Kumar]]'' is a 1941 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language film directed by Raja Chandrasekhar. The film stars [[V. Nagayya]] as Ashoka.<br />
*''Samrat Ashok'' is a 1947 Indian [[Hindi]]-language film by K.B. Lall.<ref name="encyc">{{cite book|author1=Ashish Rajadhyaksha|author2=Paul Willemen|title=Encyclopedia of Indian Cinema|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rF8ABAAAQBAJ&pg=RA43-PA1993|date=10 July 2014|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-135-94325-7|page=43|access-date=10 February 2021|archive-date=10 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220310215628/https://books.google.com/books?id=rF8ABAAAQBAJ&pg=RA43-PA1993|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
*''Uttar-Priyadarshi'' (The Final Beatitude), a verse-play written by poet [[Agyeya]] depicting his redemption, was adapted to stage in 1996 by theatre director, [[Ratan Thiyam]] and has since been performed in many parts of the world.<ref>{{cite news |last=Jefferson |first=Margo |date=27 October 2000 |title=Next Wave Festival Review; In Stirring Ritual Steps, Past and Present Unfold |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/10/27/movies/next-wave-festival-review-in-stirring-ritual-steps-past-and-present-unfold.html |newspaper=The New York Times |access-date=16 November 2018 |archive-date=31 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220731043128/https://www.nytimes.com/section/theater?res=990ce6dc1131f934a15753c1a9669c8b63 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="ba">{{cite magazine |last=Renouf |first=Renee |date=December 2000 |title=Review: Uttarpriyadarshi |url=http://www.ballet.co.uk/magazines/yr_00/dec00/rr_rev_crt_1000.htm |magazine=Balletco |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120205221756/http://www.ballet.co.uk/magazines/yr_00/dec00/rr_rev_crt_1000.htm |archive-date=5 February 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref><br />
*In 1973, [[Amar Chitra Katha]] released a graphic novel based on the life of Ashoka.<br />
*In [[Piers Anthony]]'s series of [[space opera]] novels, the main character mentions Ashoka as a model for administrators to strive for.<br />
*''[[Samrat Ashoka|Samrat Ashok]]'' is a 1992 Indian Telugu-language film about the emperor by [[N. T. Rama Rao]] with Rao also playing the titular role.<ref name="encyc" /><br />
*''[[Aśoka (2001 film)|Aśoka]]'' is a 2001 epic Indian historical drama film directed and co-written by [[Santosh Sivan]]. The film stars [[Shah Rukh Khan]] as Ashoka.<br />
*In 2002, [[Mason Jennings]] released the song "Emperor Ashoka" on his [[Living in the Moment (Mason Jennings EP)|Living in the Moment EP]]. It is based on the life of Ashoka.<br />
*In 2013, Christopher C. Doyle released his debut novel, ''[[The Mahabharata Secret]]'', in which he wrote about Ashoka hiding a dangerous secret for the well-being of India.<br />
*2014's ''[[The Emperor's Riddles]]'', a fiction mystery thriller novel by Satyarth Nayak, traces the evolution of Ashoka and his esoteric legend of the Nine Unknown Men.<br />
*In 2015, ''[[Chakravartin Ashoka Samrat]]'', a television serial by [[Ashok Banker]], based on the life of Ashoka, began airing on [[Colors TV]] where [[Siddharth Nigam]] played the role of Ashoka.<br />
*[[Bharatvarsh (TV Series)|''Bharatvarsh'']] is an Indian television historical documentary series, hosted by actor-director [[Anupam Kher]] on Hindi news channel [[ABP News]]. The series stars [[Aham Sharma]] as Ashoka.<ref>{{cite news | date=19 August 2016 | title='Bharatvarsh' – ABP News brings a captivating saga of legendary Indians with Anupam Kher | url=https://news.abplive.com/news/india/bharatvarsh-abp-news-brings-a-captivating-saga-of-legendary-indians-with-anupam-kher-401258 | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826010058/http://www.abplive.in/india-news/bharatvarsh-abp-news-brings-a-captivating-saga-of-legendary-indians-with-anupam-kher-401258 | archive-date=26 August 2016 | df=dmy-all }}</ref><br />
==Legacy==<br />
*In ''[[The Outline of History]]'' (1920), [[H. G. Wells]] wrote, "Amidst the tens of thousands of names of monarchs that crowd the columns of history, their majesties and graciousnesses and serenities and royal highnesses and the like, the name of Ashoka shines, and shines, almost alone, a star."<ref name="Lahiri2015">{{cite book|author=Nayanjot Lahiri|title=Ashoka in Ancient India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JaVRCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT20|date=5 August 2015|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-91525-1|pages=20–|access-date=3 July 2018|archive-date=29 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191229045759/https://books.google.com/books?id=JaVRCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT20|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
<br />
*In his 1978 book, ''[[The 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History]]'', [[Michael H. Hart]] ranked him 53th, below the [[Buddha]] (ranked 4) and above [[Mahavira]] (ranked 100).<ref>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=jvbNRbDKY1wC&dq=ashoka+The+100:+A+Ranking+of+the+Most+Influential+Persons+in+History&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiN2cHxyYeCAxXuxTgGHS3HBmkQ6AF6BAgDEAI</ref><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[List of people known as the Great]]<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{Reflist|group=note}}<br />
{{Notelist}}<br />
<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
*{{cite book |author=Harry Falk |title=Aśokan Sites and Artefacts: A Source-book with Bibliography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R5vxPAAACAAJ |year=2006 |publisher=Von Zabern |isbn=978-3-8053-3712-0}}<br />
*{{cite book |author1=Patrick Olivelle |author2=Janice Leoshko |author3=Himanshu Prabha Ray |title=Reimagining Asoka: Memory and History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V6w_XwAACAAJ |year=2012 |publisher=Oxford University Press India |isbn=978-0-19-807800-5}}<br />
*{{Cite book |author=E. Hultzsch |title=Inscriptions of Asoka: New Edition |url=https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfAsoka.NewEditionByE.Hultzsch |publisher=Government of India |year=1925 }}<br />
*{{cite book |last=Rongxi |first=Li |title=The Biographical Scripture of King Aśoka: Translated from the Chinese of Saṃghapāla |year=1993 |publisher=Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research |url=https://www.bdkamerica.org/system/files/pdf/dBET_Alpha_T2043_BiographicalScriptureofKingAsoka_1993.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.bdkamerica.org/system/files/pdf/dBET_Alpha_T2043_BiographicalScriptureofKingAsoka_1993.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-9625618-4-9 }}<br />
*{{cite book |last1=Nikam |first1=N. A. |first2=Richard |last2=McKeon |title=The Edicts of Aśoka |year=1959 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |url=https://archive.org/details/TheEdictsOfAsokaNikamMcKeon }}<br />
*{{cite book |author=James Merry MacPhail |title=Asoka |url=https://archive.org/details/asokaheritage00macpiala/page/n8 |year=1918 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=London}}<br />
<br />
== External links==<br />
*<br />
*<br />
*{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Asoka}}<br />
*{{curlie|Society/History/By_Region/Asia/South_Asia/Personalities/Ashoka/|Ashoka}}<br />
* BBC Radio 4: Sunil Khilnani, ''[http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b05tpy82 Incarnations: Ashoka.]''<br />
*BBC Radio 4: Melvyn Bragg with Richard Gombrich et al., ''[http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b0511tm1 In Our Time, Ashoka the Great]''.<br />
<br><br />
{{Clear}}<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:0 auto; font-size:88%; text-align:center;"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="6" style="background:#ccf; font-size: 130%;" |[[Edicts of Ashoka]]<br /><small>{{nobold|(Ruled 269&ndash;232 BCE)}}</small><br />
|-<br />
! style="background-color:#cdcdcd;" |Regnal years<br />of Ashoka<br />
! colspan="4" style="background-color:#cdcdcd;" |Type of Edict<br />(and location of the inscriptions)<br />
! style="background-color:#cdcdcd;" |Geographical location<br />
|-<br />
| Year 8<br />
| colspan="4" | ''End of the [[Kalinga War]] and conversion to the "[[Dharma]]"''<br />
| rowspan="10" |{{Map of the Edicts of Ashoka}}<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="3" |Year 10<ref name="Yailenko">Yailenko,Les maximes delphiques d'Aï Khanoum et la formation de la doctrine du dhamma d'Asoka, 1990, [https://www.persee.fr/doc/dha_0755-7256_1990_num_16_1_1467 p.&nbsp;243] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190612164849/https://www.persee.fr/doc/dha_0755-7256_1990_num_16_1_1467 |date=12 June 2019 }}.</ref> <br />
| align="left" style="background-color:#cdcdcd;" |'''[[Minor Rock Edicts]]'''<br />
| colspan="3" rowspan="4" |'''Related events:'''<br />Visit to the [[Bodhi tree]] in [[Bodh Gaya]]<br />Construction of the [[Mahabodhi Temple]] and [[Diamond throne]] in Bodh Gaya<br />Predication throughout India.<br />Dissenssions in the [[Sangha]]<br />[[Third Buddhist Council]]<br />In Indian language: [[Sohgaura copper plate inscription|Sohgaura inscription]]<br />Erection of the [[Pillars of Ashoka]]<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#dcdcdc;" |[[Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription]]<br /><small>(in [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Aramaic]], [[Kandahar]])</small><br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#dcdcdc;" | Minor Rock Edicts in [[Aramaic]]:<br />[[Aramaic Inscription of Laghman|Laghman Inscription]], [[Aramaic Inscription of Taxila|Taxila inscription]]<br />
|-<br />
|Year 11 and later<br />
| style="background-color:#dcdcdc;" | [[Minor Rock Edicts|Minor Rock Edicts (n°1, n°2 and n°3)]]<br /><small>([[Saru Maru|Panguraria]], [[:Commons:Category:Ashoka Rock Edict, Maski|Maski]], [[Palkigundu and Gavimath, Koppal|Palkigundu and Gavimath]], [[:Commons:Category:Ashoka Minor Rock Edict, Bahapur, Delhi|Bahapur/Srinivaspuri]], [[Bairat Temple|Bairat]], [[Ahraura]], [[:Commons:Category:Ashoka Minor Rock Edict, Gujarra|Gujarra]], [[Sasaram]], [[:Commons:Category:Ashoka Minor Rock Edicts, Rajula Mandagiri|Rajula Mandagiri]], [[:Commons:Category:Ashoka Minor Rock Edict, Yerragudi|Yerragudi]], [[:Commons:Category:Ashoka Minor Rock Edict, Udegolam|Udegolam]], [[:Commons:Category:Ashoka Minor Rock Edict, Nittur|Nittur]], [[Commons:Category:Ashoka Minor Rock Edict, Brahmagiri|Brahmagiri]], [[:Commons:Category:Ashoka Minor Rock Edict, Siddapur|Siddapur]], [[:Commons:Category:Ashoka Minor Rock Edict, Jatinga Rameshwara|Jatinga-Rameshwara]])</small><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="3" |Year 12 and later<ref name="Yailenko" /><br />
| style="background-color:#dcdcdc;" |'''[[Barabar Caves|Barabar Caves inscriptions]]'''<br />
| colspan="3" style="background-color:#cdcdcd;" width="40%" |'''[[Ashoka's Major Rock Edicts|Major Rock Edicts]]'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#cdcdcd;" |'''[[Minor Pillar Edicts]]'''<br />
| colspan="3" rowspan="2" style="background-color:#dcdcdc;" |Major Rock Edicts in Greek: [[Kandahar Greek Edict of Ashoka|Edicts n°12-13]] ([[Kandahar]])<br /><br />Major Rock Edicts in Indian language:<br />[[Major Rock Edicts|Edicts No.1 ~ No.14]]<br /><small>(in [[Kharoshthi]] script: [[Shahbaz Garhi|Shahbazgarhi]], [[Mansehra Rock Edicts|Mansehra Edicts]]</small><br /><small>(in [[Brahmi script]]: [[Khalsi inscription|Kalsi]], [[Girnar]], [[Sopara]], [[Sannati]], [[:Commons:Category:Ashoka Minor Rock Edict, Yerragudi|Yerragudi]], [[Ashokan Edicts in Delhi|Delhi Edicts]])</small><br />Major Rock Edicts 1–10, 14, [[Major Rock Edicts|Separate Edicts 1&2]]:<br /><small>([[Dhauli]], [[Jaugada]])</small><br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#dcdcdc;" |[[:Commons:Category:Schism Edict of Ashoka|Schism Edict]], [[:File:Ashoka Inscriptions Queen's edict.jpg|Queen's Edict]]<br /><small>([[Sarnath]] [[Sanchi]] [[Allahabad pillar|Allahabad]])</small><br />[[Lumbini pillar inscription|Lumbini inscription]], [[Nigali Sagar|Nigali Sagar inscription]]<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" |Year 26, 27<br />and later<ref name="Yailenko" /><br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:#cdcdcd;" |'''[[Major Pillar Edicts]]'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcdcdc;" |In Indian language:<br />[[Major Pillar Edicts|Major Pillar Edicts No.1 ~ No.7]]<br /><small>([[Allahabad pillar]] [[Ashokan Edicts in Delhi|Delhi-Meerut]] [[Delhi-Topra pillar|Delhi-Topra]] [[Rampurva]] [[Lauria Nandangarh]] [[Lauriya Araraj|Lauriya-Araraj]] [[:File:Amaravati Major Pillar Edict inscription.jpg|Amaravati]])</small><br /><br />
Derived inscriptions in [[Aramaic]], on rock:<br /><br />
[[Kandahar Aramaic inscription|Kandahar, Edict No.7]]<ref>Inscriptions of Asoka de D.C. Sircar [https://books.google.com/books?id=1_omDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT30 p.&nbsp;30] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220419052534/https://books.google.com/books?id=1_omDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT30 |date=19 April 2022 }}</ref><ref name="p. 39">Handbuch der Orientalistik de Kurt A. Behrendt [https://books.google.com/books?id=C9_vbgkzUSkC&pg=PA39 p.&nbsp;39] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409214255/https://books.google.com/books?id=C9_vbgkzUSkC&pg=PA39 |date=9 April 2022 }}</ref> and [[Pul-i-Darunteh Aramaic inscription|Pul-i-Darunteh, Edict No.5 or No.7]]<ref name="p. 39" /><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" | <br />
|}<br />
{{Buddhism topics}}<br />
{{refend}}<br />
<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
{{refbegin}}<br />
* {{cite book|last=Allen|first=Charles|author-link=Charles Allen (writer)|title=Ashoka: The Search for India's Lost Emperor|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K4vHjbUtf_4C|publisher=[[Hachette (publisher)|Hachette]]|date=2012|isbn=978-1-408-70388-5|access-date=13 July 2018|archive-date=8 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508064320/https://books.google.com/books?id=K4vHjbUtf_4C|url-status=live}}<br />
* {{cite book|last=Bentley|first=Jerry|author-link=Jerry H. Bentley|title=Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times|url=https://archive.org/details/oldworldencounte00jerr|url-access=registration|location=New York|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=1993|isbn=978-0195076400}}<br />
* {{cite book|editor-last=Fitzgerald|editor-first=James L.|editor-link=James L. Fitzgerald|title=The Mahabharata|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p9SzCuLIlQ0C|publisher=[[The University of Chicago Press]]|year=2004|volume=7|isbn=0-226-25250-7|access-date=16 August 2019|archive-date=8 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508065652/https://books.google.com/books?id=p9SzCuLIlQ0C|url-status=live}}<br />
* {{cite book|last=Gombrich|first=Richard|author-link=Richard Gombrich|chapter=Aśoka – The Great Upāsaka|title=King Aśoka and Buddhism: Historical and Literary Studies|editor=Anuradha Seneviratna|publisher=Buddhist Publication Society|isbn=978-955-24-0065-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iE5uAAAAMAAJ|year=1995|access-date=26 November 2019|archive-date=8 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508064334/https://books.google.com/books?id=iE5uAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}<br />
* {{cite book|last=Guruge|first=Ananda W. P.|author-link=Ananda W. P. Guruge|title=Aśoka, the Righteous: A Definitive Biography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dwjjAAAAMAAJ|year=1993|publisher=Central Cultural Fund|isbn=978-955-9226-00-0|access-date=10 October 2019|archive-date=8 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508064339/https://books.google.com/books?id=dwjjAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}<br />
* {{cite book|last=Guruge|first=Ananda W. P.|author-link=Ananda W. P. Guruge|chapter=Emperor Aśoka and Buddhism: Unresolved Discrepancies between Buddhist Tradition & Aśokan Inscriptions|title=King Aśoka and Buddhism: Historical and Literary Studies|editor=Anuradha Seneviratna|publisher=Buddhist Publication Society|isbn=978-955-24-0065-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iE5uAAAAMAAJ|year=1995|ref={{harvid|Guruge, Unresolved|1995}}|access-date=26 November 2019|archive-date=8 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508064334/https://books.google.com/books?id=iE5uAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}<br />
* {{cite book|last=Guruge|first=Ananda W. P.|author-link=Ananda W. P. Guruge|chapter=Emperor Aśoka's Place in History: A Review of Prevalent Opinions|title=King Aśoka and Buddhism: Historical and Literary Studies|editor=Anuradha Seneviratna|publisher=Buddhist Publication Society|isbn=978-955-24-0065-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iE5uAAAAMAAJ|year=1995|ref={{harvid|Guruge, Review|1995}}|access-date=26 November 2019|archive-date=8 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508064334/https://books.google.com/books?id=iE5uAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}<br />
* {{citation|last=Kosmin|first=Paul J.|author-link=Paul J. Kosmin|title=The Land of the Elephant Kings: Space, Territory, and Ideology in Seleucid Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9UWdAwAAQBAJ|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]|year=2014|isbn=978-0-674-72882-0|access-date=24 September 2018|archive-date=8 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508071213/https://books.google.com/books?id=9UWdAwAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}<br />
* {{cite book|last=Lahiri|first=Nayanjot|author-link=Nayanjot Lahiri|title=Ashoka in Ancient India|year=2015|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0674057777|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bJ_XCgAAQBAJ|access-date=16 August 2019|archive-date=8 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508064355/https://books.google.com/books?id=bJ_XCgAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}<br />
* {{cite book|last=Mookerji|first=Radhakumud|author-link=Radha Kumud Mukherjee|title=Aśoka|edition=3rd revised|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uXyftdtE1ygC|year=1962|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|location=Delhi|isbn=978-81-208-0582-8|access-date=16 August 2019|archive-date=8 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508064400/https://books.google.com/books?id=uXyftdtE1ygC|url-status=live}}<br />
* {{cite book|last=Singh|first=Upinder|author-link=Upinder Singh|title=Political Violence in Ancient India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t6A4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA162|year=2017|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-97527-9|access-date=15 July 2018|archive-date=8 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508065717/https://books.google.com/books?id=t6A4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA162|url-status=live}}<br />
* {{cite book|last=Singh|first=Upinder|author-link=Upinder Singh|title=A history of ancient and early medieval India : from the Stone Age to the 12th century|year=2008|publisher=[[Pearson Education]]|location=[[New Delhi]]|isbn=978-81-317-1120-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GW5Gx0HSXKUC|access-date=16 August 2019|archive-date=8 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508064421/https://books.google.com/books?id=GW5Gx0HSXKUC|url-status=live}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Singh |first=Upinder |author-link=Upinder Singh |title=Governing the State and the Self: Political Philosophy and Practice in the Edicts of Aśoka |journal=South Asian Studies |year=2012 |publisher=University of Delhi |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=131–145 |doi=10.1080/02666030.2012.725581|s2cid=143362618 }}<br />
* {{cite book|last=Strong|first=John S.|author-link=John S. Strong|chapter=Images of Aśoka: Some Indian and Sri Lankan Legends and their Development|title=King Aśoka and Buddhism: Historical and Literary Studies|editor=Anuradha Seneviratna|publisher=Buddhist Publication Society|isbn=978-955-24-0065-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iE5uAAAAMAAJ|year=1995|access-date=26 November 2019|archive-date=8 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508064334/https://books.google.com/books?id=iE5uAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}<br />
* {{cite book|last=Strong|first=John S.|author-link=John S. Strong|title=The Legend of King Aśoka: A Study and Translation of the Aśokāvadāna|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kp9uaQTQ8h8C&pg=PA232|year=1989|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0616-0|access-date=15 November 2015|archive-date=8 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508064425/https://books.google.com/books?id=Kp9uaQTQ8h8C&pg=PA232|url-status=live}}<br />
* {{cite book|last=Thapar|first=Romila|author-link=Romila Thapar|chapter=Aśoka and Buddhism as Reflected in the Aśokan Edicts|title=King Aśoka and Buddhism: Historical and Literary Studies|editor=Anuradha Seneviratna|publisher=Buddhist Publication Society|isbn=978-955-24-0065-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iE5uAAAAMAAJ|year=1995|access-date=26 November 2019|archive-date=8 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508064334/https://books.google.com/books?id=iE5uAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}<br />
* {{cite book|last=Thapar|first=Romila|author-link=Romila Thapar|title=Aśoka and the Decline of the Mauryas|year=1961|publisher=Oxford University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pwJuAAAAMAAJ|oclc=736554|access-date=29 October 2019|archive-date=8 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508071143/https://books.google.com/books?id=pwJuAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}<br />
* {{cite book|last=Thapar|first=Romila|author-link=Romila Thapar|year=2015|orig-date=First published 1961|title=Aśoka and the Decline of the Mauryas|edition=3rd|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0198077244|oclc=964509329}}<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Ashoka| ]]<br />
[[Category:3rd-century BC deaths]]<br />
[[Category:3rd-century BC Indian monarchs]]<br />
[[Category:3rd-century Buddhism]]<br />
[[Category:Ancient history of Afghanistan]]<br />
[[Category:Ancient history of Pakistan]]<br />
[[Category:Buddhist pacifists]]<br />
[[Category:Indian Buddhist monarchs]]<br />
[[Category:Indian pacifists]]<br />
[[Category:People from Patna]]<br />
[[Category:Ancient India]]<br />
[[Category:Mauryan emperors]]<br />
[[Category:Indian monarchs]]<br />
[[Category:Indian warriors]]<br />
[[Category:History of Buddhism in India]]<br />
[[Category:Indian Buddhist missionaries]]<br />
[[Category:Indian Buddhists]]<br />
[[Category:Converts to Buddhism]]</div>2405:201:6036:801D:5C0B:881A:3959:B939