Nation

2022-07-04T21:03:11Z

2402:8100:263A:3C54:11A5:BD73:D2DF:EF4:

{{Short description|Community based on common ethnic or cultural identity}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Nationalism sidebar|Development}}
{{politics}}
A '''nation''' is a [[community]] of people formed on the basis of a combination of shared features such as [[language]], [[history]], [[ethnicity]], [[culture]] and/or [[society]]. A nation is thus the collective [[Identity (social science)|identity]] of a group of people understood as defined by those features. Some nations are equated with ethnic groups (see [[ethnic nationalism]]) and some are equated with affiliation to a social and political [[constitution]] (see [[civic nationalism]] and [[multiculturalism]]).{{sfn|Eller|1997}} A nation is generally more overtly political than an [[ethnic group]].<ref name="black" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=James |first=Paul |author-link=Paul James (academic) |title=Nation Formation: Towards a Theory of Abstract Community |url=https://www.academia.edu/40353321 |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |location=London |year=1996 |access-date=15 September 2019 |archive-date=6 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211006234455/https://www.academia.edu/40353321 |url-status=live }}</ref> A nation has also been defined as a cultural-political community that has become conscious of its [[autonomy]], unity and particular interests.<ref name="Smith1991">{{cite book |first=Anthony D. |last=Smith |title=The Ethnic Origins of Nations |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=740O4K52DCwC |publisher=Wiley |page=17 |isbn=978-0-631-16169-1 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>

The consensus among scholars is that nations are [[Social constructionism|socially constructed]] and historically contingent.<ref name="Mylonas">{{cite journal |last1=Mylonas |first1=Harris |last2=Tudor |first2=Maya |title=Nationalism: What We Know and What We Still Need to Know |journal=Annual Review of Political Science |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=109–132 |doi=10.1146/annurev-polisci-041719-101841 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Throughout history, people have had an attachment to their [[kin group]] and [[Tradition|traditions]], territorial authorities and their homeland, but [[nationalism]] – the belief that [[state (polity)|state]] and nation should align as a [[nation state]] – did not become a prominent ideology until the end of the 18th century.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kohn |first1=Hans |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/nationalism |title=Nationalism |publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=12 January 2022 |archive-date=15 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220115182310/https://www.britannica.com/topic/nationalism |url-status=live }}</ref> There are three notable perspectives on how nations developed. [[Primordialism]] (perennialism), which reflects popular conceptions of nationalism but has largely fallen out of favour among academics,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Coakley |first1=J |title="Primordialism" in nationalism studies: theory or ideology? |journal=[[Nations and Nationalism (journal)|Nations and Nationalism]] |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=327–347 |doi=10.1111/nana.12349 |s2cid=149288553 |url=https://pureadmin.qub.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/136558806/coakley_primordialism_nn_2017_upload.pdf |access-date=28 September 2022 |archive-date=28 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220928031810/https://pureadmin.qub.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/136558806/coakley_primordialism_nn_2017_upload.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> proposes that there have always been nations and that nationalism is a natural phenomenon. [[Ethnosymbolism]] explains nationalism as a dynamic, evolving phenomenon and stresses the importance of symbols, myths and traditions in the development of nations and nationalism. [[Modernization theory (nationalism)|Modernization theory]], which has superseded primordialism as the dominant explanation of nationalism,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Woods |first1=Eric Taylor |last2=Schertzer |first2=Robert |last3=Kaufmann |first3=Eric |title=Ethno-national conflict and its management |journal=Commonwealth & Comparative Politics |volume=49 |issue=2 |page=154 |doi=10.1080/14662043.2011.564469 |s2cid=154796642}}</ref> adopts a [[Constructivism (ethnic politics)|constructivist]] approach and proposes that nationalism emerged due to processes of [[Modernization theory|modernization]], such as [[Industrialisation|industrialization]], urbanization, and mass education, which made national consciousness possible.<ref name="Mylonas" /><ref name="Anthony Smith">{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Deanna |title=Nationalism |publisher=[[Polity Press]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-7456-5128-6 |edition=2nd |location=Cambridge}}</ref>

Proponents of modernization theory describe nations as "[[imagined communities]]", a term coined by [[Benedict Anderson]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Anderson |first=Benedict |title=Imagined Communities |publisher=[[Verso Books]] |location=London |year=1983}}</ref> A nation is an imagined community in the sense that the material conditions exist for imagining extended and shared connections and that it is objectively impersonal, even if each individual in the nation experiences themselves as subjectively part of an embodied unity with others. For the most part, members of a nation remain strangers to each other and will likely never meet.<ref>{{cite book |last=James |first=Paul |author-link=Paul James (academic) |title=Globalism, Nationalism, Tribalism: Bringing Theory Back In |url=https://www.academia.edu/1642214 |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |location=London |access-date=2 November 2017 |archive-date=29 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200429234210/https://www.academia.edu/1642214/Globalism_Nationalism_Tribalism_Bringing_Theory_Back_In_2006_ |url-status=live }}</ref> Nationalism is consequently seen an "[[invented tradition]]" in which shared sentiment provides a form of collective identity and binds individuals together in political solidarity. A nation's foundational "story" may be built around a combination of ethnic attributes, values and principles, and may be closely connected to narratives of belonging.<ref name="Mylonas" /><ref name="Anderson">{{Cite book |last=Anderson |first=Benedict |title=Imagined Communities: Reflections on the origins and spread of nationalism |publisher=[[Verso Books]] |year=1983 |location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hobsbawm |first1=E. |title=The Invention of Tradition |last2=Ranger |first2=T. |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge, UK}}</ref>

== Etymology and terminology ==
The English word ''nation'' came from the Latin ''natio'', supine of verb ''nascar'' « to birth » ([[supine]] : ''natum''), through French. In Latin, ''natio'' represents the children of the same birth and also a human group of same origin.<ref>Dictionnaire ''[[Le Petit Robert]]'', édition 2002.</ref> By [[Cicero]], ''natio'' is used for "people".<ref>''Dictionnaire Latin-Français'', [[Félix Gaffiot|Gaffiot]].</ref> [[Old French]] word ''nacion'' – meaning "birth" (''naissance''), "place of origin" –, which in turn originates from the [[Latin language|Latin]] word ''[[wikt:Special:Search/natio|natio]]'' (''nātĭō'') literally meaning "birth".<ref name="etymonline">{{cite web |last=Harper |first=Douglas |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=nation |title=Nation |work=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=5 June 2011 |archive-date=16 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516005937/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=nation |url-status=live }}</ref>

''[[Black's Law Dictionary]]'' defines a nation as follows:
<blockquote>'''nation''', ''n.'' (14c) '''1.''' A large group of people having a common origin, language, and tradition and usu. constituting a political entity. • When a nation is coincident with a state, the term ''nation-state'' is often used....
<P>...</P>
'''2.''' A community of people inhabiting a defined territory and organized under an independent government; a sovereign political state....<ref name = "black">{{cite dictionary |dictionary=[[Black's Law Dictionary]] |edition=10th |isbn=978-0-314-61300-4 |title=nation |page=1183 |editor-first=Bryan A. |editor-last=Garner}}</ref></blockquote>

The word "nation" is sometimes used as synonym for:
* [[State (polity)]] or [[sovereign state]]: a government that controls a specific territory, which may or may not be associated with any particular ethnic group
* [[Country]]: a geographic territory, which may or may not have an affiliation with a government or ethnic group

Thus the phrase "nations of the world" could be referring to the top-level governments (as in the name for the [[United Nations]]), various large geographical territories, or various large ethnic groups of the planet.

Depending on the meaning of "nation" used, the term "[[nation state]]" could be used to distinguish larger states from small [[city state]]s, or could be used to distinguish [[multinational state]]s from those with a single ethnic group.

== Medieval nations ==
[[Susan Reynolds]] has argued that many European medieval kingdoms were nations in the modern sense except that political participation in nationalism was available only to a limited prosperous and literate class.<ref>{{cite book |first=Susan |last=Reynolds |author-link=Susan Reynolds |title=Kingdoms and Communities in Western Europe 900–1300 |location=Oxford }}</ref>

[[Adrian Hastings]] has claimed that England's Anglo-Saxon kings mobilized mass nationalism in their struggle to repel Norse invasions. He argues that [[Alfred the Great]], in particular, drew on [[biblical nationalism]], using biblical language in his law code and that during his reign selected books of the Bible were translated into [[Old English]] to inspire Englishmen to fight to turn back the Norse invaders. Hastings argues for a strong renewal of English nationalism (following a hiatus after the [[Norman conquest]]) beginning with the [[Wycliffe's Bible|translation of the complete bible into English by the Wycliffe circle in the 1380s]], positing that [[English nationalism]] and the English nation have been continuous since that time.<ref>{{cite book |first=Adrian |last=Hastings |author-link=Adrian Hastings |title=The Construction of Nationhood: Ethnicity, Religion and Nationalism |location=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] }}</ref>

The Medieval [[Bulgarians|Bulgarian nation]] is another possible example. [[First Bulgarian Empire|Danubian Bulgaria]] was founded in 680-681 as a continuation of [[Old Great Bulgaria|Great Bulgaria]]. After the adoption of [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christianity]] in 864 it became one of the cultural centres of [[Slavs|Slavic]] Europe. Its leading cultural position was consolidated with the invention of the [[Cyrillic script]] in its capital [[Preslav]] at the eve of the 10th century.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YIAYMNOOe0YC&pg=PR1 |title=Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 500–1250, Cambridge Medieval Textbooks |first=Florin |last=Curta |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2006 |pages=221–222 |access-date=2015-02-11 |isbn=9780521815390 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> The development of [[Old Church Slavonic]] literacy in the country had the effect of preventing the assimilation of the [[South Slavs]] into neighbouring cultures and it also stimulated the development of a distinct ethnic identity.<ref name="Poulton2000">{{cite book |last=Poulton |first=Hugh |title=Who are the Macedonians? |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ppbuavUZKEwC&pg=PA19 |edition=2nd |year=2000 |publisher=C. Hurst & Co. Publishers |isbn=978-1-85065-534-3 |pages=19–20 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> A symbiosis was carried out between the numerically weak Bulgars and the numerous Slavic tribes in that broad area from the Danube to the north, to the [[Aegean Sea]] to the south, and from the [[Adriatic Sea]] to the west, to the [[Black Sea]] to the east, who accepted the common ethnonym "''Bulgarians''".<ref>{{cite book |first=Vassil |last=Karloukovski |url=http://www.kroraina.com/macedon/mik_6_1.html |script-title=mk:Средновековни градови и тврдини во Македонија. Иван Микулчиќ (Скопје, Македонска цивилизација, 1996) |title=Srednovekovni gradovi i tvrdini vo Makedonija. Ivan Mikulčiḱ (Skopje, Makedonska civilizacija, 1996) |language=mk |trans-title=Medieval cities and fortresses in Macedonia. Ivan Mikulcic (Skopje, Macedonian Civilization, 1996) |isbn=978-9989756078 |page=72 |publisher=Kroraina.com |access-date=2015-02-11 |year=1996 |archive-date=15 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200915012207/http://www.kroraina.com/macedon/mik_6_1.html |url-status=live }}</ref> During the 10th century the Bulgarians established a form of national identity that was far from modern nationalism but helped them to survive as a distinct entity through the centuries.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MUVgsK_GfxYC&pg=PA11 |title=An Introduction to Post-Communist Bulgaria: Political, Economic and Social Transformations |first=Emil |last=Giatzidis |publisher=[[Manchester University Press]] |access-date=2015-02-11 |isbn=9780719060953 |year=2002 |via=[[Google Books]] |archive-date=15 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115223028/https://books.google.com/books?id=MUVgsK_GfxYC&pg=PA11 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y0NBxG9Id58C&q=Thus+by+Peter%27s+reign+the+Bulgar+and+Slavic+elements+had+merged+to+form+a+Slavic |title=The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century |first=John V. A. Jr. |last=Fine |publisher=[[University of Michigan]] |year=1991 |page=165 |access-date=2015-02-11 |isbn=978-0472081493 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>

Another example of Medieval nationalism is the [[Declaration of Arbroath]] (1320), a document produced by Scottish nobles and clergy during the [[Scottish Wars of Independence]]. The purpose of the document was to demonstrate to the Pope that Scotland was indeed a nation of its own, with its own unique culture, history and language and that it was indeed an older nation than England. The document went on to justify the actions of [[Robert the Bruce]] and his forces in resisting the occupation and to chastise the English for having violated Scottish [[sovereignty]] without justification. The propaganda campaign supplemented a military campaign on the part of the Bruce, which after the [[Battle of Bannockburn]] was successful and eventually resulted in the end of England's occupation and recognition of Scottish independence on the part of the English crown. The document is widely seen as an early example of both [[Scottish nationalism]] and [[popular sovereignty]].

[[Anthony Kaldellis]] asserts in ''Hellenism in Byzantium'' (2008) that what is called the [[Byzantine Empire]] was the Roman Empire transformed into a [[nation-state]] in the [[Middle Ages]].{{Page needed}}

Azar Gat is among the scholars who argue that [[China]], [[Korea]] and [[Japan]] were nations by the time of the [[European Middle Ages]].<ref>Azar Gat, ''Nations: The Long History and Deep Roots of Political Ethnicity and Nationalism'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2013, China, p. 93 Korea, p. 104 and Japan p., 105.</ref>

=== Use of term ''nationes'' by medieval universities and other medieval institutions ===
{{main article| Nation (university)}}
A significant early use of the term ''nation'', as ''natio'', occurred at [[Medieval university|Medieval universities]]<ref>''see: [[nation (university)]]''</ref> to describe the colleagues in a college or students, above all at the [[University of Paris]], who were all born within a ''pays'', spoke the same language and expected to be ruled by their own familiar law. In 1383 and 1384, while studying theology at Paris, [[Jean Gerson]] was elected twice as a procurator for the French ''natio''. The [[Charles University in Prague|University of Prague]] adopted the division of students into ''nationes'': from its opening in 1349 the ''[[studium generale]]'' which consisted of Bohemian, Bavarian, Saxon and Polish ''nations''.

In a similar way, the ''nationes'' were segregated by the [[Knights Hospitaller|Knights Hospitaller of Jerusalem]], who maintained at [[Rhodes]] the hostels from which they took their name "where foreigners eat and have their places of meeting, each nation apart from the others, and a Knight has charge of each one of these hostels, and provides for the necessities of the inmates according to their religion", as the Spanish traveller [[Pedro Tafur]] noted in 1436.<ref>Pedro Tafur, ''[http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/tafur.html#ch5 Andanças e viajes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629042823/http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/tafur.html#ch5 }}''.</ref>

== Early modern nations ==
{{See also|Nation state}}
In his article, "The Mosaic Moment: An Early Modernist Critique of the Modernist Theory of Nationalism", [[Philip S. Gorski]] argues that the first modern [[Nation state|nation-state]] was the [[Dutch Republic]], created by a fully modern political nationalism rooted in the model of [[biblical nationalism]].<ref>{{cite journal |first=Philip S. |last=Gorski |title=The Mosaic Moment: An Early Modernist Critique of the Modernist Theory of Nationalism |journal=[[American Journal of Sociology]] |volume=105 |number=5 |pages=1428–68 |doi=10.1086/210435 |jstor=3003771 |s2cid=144002511 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3003771 |access-date=27 April 2023 |archive-date=4 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221204162126/https://www.jstor.org/stable/3003771 |url-status=live }}</ref> In a 2013 article "Biblical nationalism and the sixteenth-century states", [[Diana Muir|Diana Muir Appelbaum]] expands Gorski's argument to apply to a series of new, Protestant, sixteenth-century nation states.<ref>{{cite book |first=Diana Muir |last=Appelbaum |chapter=Biblical nationalism and the sixteenth-century states |title=National Identities |volume=15 |issue=4 |page=317 |url=https://www.academia.edu/4879193}}</ref> A similar, albeit broader, argument was made by [[Anthony D. Smith]] in his books, ''Chosen Peoples: Sacred Sources of National Identity'' and ''Myths and Memories of the Nation''.<ref>{{cite book |first=Anthony D. |last=Smith |title=Chosen Peoples: Sacred Sources of National Identity |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Anthony D. |last=Smith |title=Myths and Memories of the Nation |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] }}</ref>

In her book ''Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity'', [[Liah Greenfeld]] argued that nationalism was invented in England by 1600. According to Greenfeld, England was “the first nation in the world".<ref>{{cite book |first=Steven |last=Guilbert |title=The Making of English National Identity |url=http://www.cercles.com/review/R12/kumar7.htm |access-date=17 March 2014 |archive-date=23 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923201948/http://www.cercles.com/review/R12/kumar7.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Liah |last=Greenfeld |title=Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] }}</ref>

== Social science ==
Scholars in the 19th and early 20th century offered constructivist criticisms of primordial theories about nations.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Buck |first=Carl Darling |title=Language and the Sentiment of Nationality |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0003055400012120/type/journal_article |journal=American Political Science Review |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=45 |doi=10.2307/1946302 |jstor=1946302 |s2cid=146904598 |issn=0003-0554}}</ref> A prominent lecture by Ernest Renan, "[[What Is a Nation?|What is a Nation?]]", argues that a nation is "a daily referendum", and that nations are based as much on what the people jointly forget as on what they remember. Carl Darling Buck argued in a 1916 study, "Nationality is essentially subjective, an active sentiment of unity, within a fairly extensive group, a sentiment based upon real but diverse factors, political, geographical, physical, and social, any or all of which may be present in this or that case, but no one of which must be present in all cases."<ref name=":0" />

In the late 20th century, many social scientists argued that there were two types of nations, the [[civic nation]] of which French republican society was the principal example and the [[ethnic nationalism|ethnic nation]] exemplified by the German peoples. The German tradition was conceptualized as originating with early 19th-century philosophers, like [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte]], and referred to people sharing a common language, religion, culture, history, and [[ethnic origins]], that differentiate them from people of other nations.<ref name="Noiriel">{{cite book |last=Noiriel |first=Gérard |title=Population, immigration et identité nationale en France:XIX-XX siècle. |language=fr |trans-title= |publisher=Hachette |isbn=2010166779}}</ref> On the other hand, the civic nation was traced to the [[French Revolution]] and ideas deriving from 18th-century French philosophers. It was understood as being centred in a willingness to "live together", this producing a nation that results from an act of affirmation.<ref>[[Rogers Brubaker]], Citizenship and nationhood in France and Germany, [[Harvard University Press]], 1992, {{ISBN|978-0-674-13178-1}}</ref> This is the vision, among others, of [[Ernest Renan]].<ref name="Noiriel" />

==Debate about a potential future of nations==
{{See also|Clash of Civilizations|City-state|Virtual community|Tribe (Internet)|Global citizenship|Geographic mobility|Transnationalism|Geo-fence|Decentralization|Collective problem solving|Sociocultural evolution}}
There is an ongoing debate about the future of nations − about whether this framework will persist as is and whether there are viable or developing alternatives.<ref name=news>{{cite magazine |title=End of nations: Is there an alternative to countries? |url=http://mpc-journal.org/blog/2016/11/09/end-of-nations-is-there-an-alternative-to-countries/ |magazine=[[New Scientist]] |access-date=10 May 2017 |archive-date=18 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170318172657/http://mpc-journal.org/blog/2016/11/09/end-of-nations-is-there-an-alternative-to-countries/ |url-status=dead}}</ref>

The theory of the [[clash of civilizations]] lies in direct contrast to [[Cosmopolitanism|cosmopolitan]] theories about an ever more-connected world that no longer requires nation states. According to [[political scientist]] [[Samuel P. Huntington]], people's cultural and religious [[Identity (social science)|identities]] will be the primary source of conflict in the post–[[Cold War]] world.

The theory was originally formulated in a 1992 lecture<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aei.org/issue/29196 |title=U.S. Trade Policy — Economics |publisher=AEI |access-date=20 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130629170348/http://www.aei.org/issue/29196 |archive-date=29 June 2013 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> at the [[American Enterprise Institute]], which was then developed in a 1993 ''[[Foreign Affairs]]'' article titled "The Clash of Civilizations?",<ref name="FAarticle">Official copy (free preview): {{cite web |url=http://www.foreignaffairs.org/19930601faessay5188/samuel-p-huntington/the-clash-of-civilizations.html |title=The Clash of Civilizations? |work=[[Foreign Affairs]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070629022856/http://www.foreignaffairs.org/19930601faessay5188/samuel-p-huntington/the-clash-of-civilizations.html |archive-date=29 June 2007 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> in response to [[Francis Fukuyama]]'s 1992 book, ''[[The End of History and the Last Man]]''. Huntington later expanded his [[thesis]] in a 1996 book ''The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order''.

Huntington began his thinking by surveying the diverse theories about the nature of global politics in the post–[[Cold War]] period. Some theorists and writers argued that [[human rights]], [[liberal democracy]] and capitalist [[free market]] economics had become the only remaining ideological alternative for nations in the post–Cold War world. Specifically, [[Francis Fukuyama]], in ''[[The End of History and the Last Man]]'', argued that the world had reached a [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegelian]] "end of history".

Huntington believed that while the age of [[ideology]] had ended, the world had reverted only to a normal state of affairs characterized by cultural conflict. In his thesis, he argued that the primary axis of conflict in the future will be along cultural and religious lines.
[[Postnationalism]] is the process or trend by which nation states and national identities lose their importance relative to supranational and global entities. Several factors contribute to its aspects including [[economic globalization]], a rise in importance of [[multinational corporation]]s, the internationalization of financial markets, the transfer of [[socio-political power]] from national authorities to supranational entities, such as multinational corporations, the [[United Nations]] and the [[European Union]] and the advent of new information and culture technologies such as the [[Internet]]. However attachment to citizenship and [[national identities]] often remains important.<ref>R. Koopmans and P. Statham; "Challenging the liberal nation-state? Postnationalism, multiculturalism, and the collective claims making of migrants and ethnic minorities in Britain and Germany"; ''[[American Journal of Sociology]]'' 105:652–96 (1999)</ref><ref>R.A. Hackenberg and R.R. Alvarez; "Close-ups of postnationalism: Reports from the US-Mexico borderlands"; ''Human Organization'' 60:97–104 (2001)</ref><ref>I. Bloemraad; "Who claims dual citizenship? The limits of postnationalism, the possibilities of transnationalism, and the persistence of traditional citizenship"; ''International Migration Review'' 38:389–426 (2004)</ref>

Jan Zielonka of the University of Oxford states that "the future structure and exercise of political power will resemble the medieval model more than the Westphalian one" with the latter being about "concentration of power, sovereignty and clear-cut identity" and [[neo-medievalism]] meaning "overlapping authorities, divided sovereignty, multiple identities and governing institutions, and fuzzy borders".<ref name=news/>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Politics|Society}}
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Citizenship]]
* [[City network]]
* [[Country]]
* [[Government]]
* [[Identity (social science)]]
* ''[[Imagined Communities]]''
* [[Invented tradition]]
* [[Lists of people by nationality]]
* [[Meta-ethnicity]]
* [[Multinational state]]
* [[National emblem]]
* [[National god]]
* [[National memory]]
* [[Nationalism]]
* [[Nationality]]
* [[People]]
* [[Polity]]
* [[Qaum]]
* [[Race (human categorization)]]
* [[Separatism]]
* [[Irredentism]]
* [[Society]]
* [[Sovereign state]]
* [[Stateless nation]]
* [[Tribe]]
* [[Republic]]
* [[Republicanism]]
{{div col end}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}
{{Use dmy dates}}

== Sources ==
* {{cite book |last=Anderson |first=Benedict |title=Imagined Communities |publisher=[[Verso Books]] |location=London |year=1983}}
* {{cite book |last=Gellner |first=Ernest |title=Nations and Nationalism |publisher=Blackwell |location=Cambridge |year=1983}}
* {{Cite book |last=James |first=Paul |author-link= Paul James (academic) |title=Nation Formation: Towards a Theory of Abstract Community |volume=1 |url=https://www.academia.edu/40353321 |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |location=London |year=1996}}
* {{Cite book |last=James |first=Paul |author-link=Paul James (academic) |title=Globalism, Nationalism, Tribalism: Bringing Theory Back In — Volume 2 of Towards a Theory of Abstract Community |url=https://www.academia.edu/1642214 |year=2006 |publisher= Sage Publications | location= London }}
* {{cite book |last=Smith |first=Anthony | title=The Ethnic Origins of Nations |publisher=Blackwell |location=London |year=1986}}
* {{cite book |last=Bhabha |first=Homi K. |title=Nations and Narration |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=New York |year=1990}}
* {{cite journal |last=Eller |first=Jack David |title=Ethnicity, Culture, and "The Past" |journal=[[Michigan Quarterly Review]] |volume=36 |issue=4 |hdl=2027/spo.act2080.0036.411}}
* Mylonas, Harris; Tudor, Maya (11 May 2021). "[https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-polisci-041719-101841 Nationalism: What We Know and What We Still Need to Know]". ''Annual Review of Political Science''. '''24''' (1): 109–132.

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin|2}}
* [[Pierre Manent|Manent, Pierre]] (2007). [http://www.mmisi.org/IR/42_02/manent.pdf "What is a Nation?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304003636/http://www.mmisi.org/IR/42_02/manent.pdf }}, ''The Intercollegiate Review'', Vol. XLII, No. 2, pp. 23–31.
* [[Ernest Renan|Renan, Ernest]] (1896). [https://archive.org/stream/poetryofcelticra00renauoft#page/60/mode/2up "What is a Nation?"] In: ''The Poetry of the Celtic Races, and Other Essays''. London: The Walter Scott Publishing Co., pp. 61–83.
* {{cite book |last1=Leach |first1=Michael |title=Nation-Building and National Identity in Timor-Leste |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9781315311647 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iiglDwAAQBAJ |access-date=28 May 2022 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326152316/https://books.google.com/books?id=iiglDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book|last=Smith|first=Anthony D.|author-link=Anthony D. Smith|title=The Ethnic Revival in the Modern World|year=1981|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521232678|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pks7AAAAIAAJ}}
* {{Cite book|last=Smith|first=Anthony D.|author-link=Anthony D. Smith|title=Nations and Nationalism in a Global Era|year=1995|location=Cambridge|publisher=Polity Press|isbn=9780745610191|url=https://archive.org/details/nationsnationali0000smit|url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book|last=Smith|first=Anthony D.|author-link=Anthony D. Smith|title=The Nation in History: Historiographical Debates about Ethnicity and Nationalism|year=2000|location=Hanover|publisher=University Press of New England|isbn=9781584650409|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mXhxE1lgmhEC}}
* {{Cite book|last=Smith|first=Anthony D.|author-link=Anthony D. Smith|title=Nationalism: Theory, Ideology, History|year=2010|orig-year=2001|edition=2.|location=Cambridge|publisher=Polity Press|isbn=9780745651279|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WUEszleiXNMC}}
* {{Cite book|last=Smith|first=Anthony D.|author-link=Anthony D. Smith|title=Ethno-symbolism and Nationalism: A Cultural Approach|year=2009|location=London and New York|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781135999483|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nAaTAgAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book|last=Smith|first=Anthony D.|author-link=Anthony D. Smith|title=The Nation Made Real: Art and National Identity in Western Europe, 1600-1850|year=2013|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780199662975|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZgtEwZUGtggC}}
{{refend}}

{{Ethnicity}}

[[Category:Ethnicity]]
[[Category:Nation|*]]
[[Category:Political geography]]
[[Category:Political science terminology]]
[[Category:Types of communities]]

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