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Chola Navy

2026-10-02T04:32:50Z

2401:4900:CAEB:B695:904D:62FF:FEA2:6A13: /* History */Added early refrence of chola maritime activity with reference

{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2018}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{POV|date=June 2022}}
{{Notability|date=June 2022}}
{{Refimprove|date=June 2022}}
}}
{{Infobox military unit
| unit_name = Chola Navy
| native_name =
| image =
| image_size = 300px
| caption =
| start_date =
| country = [[Chola Dynasty|Chola Empire]]
| allegiance = Chola Dynasty
| branch =
| type = [[Navy|Naval Force]]
| command_structure = [[Chola military]]
| garrison =
| garrison_label =
| equipment =
| equipment_label =
| nickname =
| size =
| motto =
| battles =
| ceremonial_chief = Chola Emperor (''Chakravarthy'') – notably, [[Rajaraja I]] and [[Rajendra I]]
| ceremonial_chief_label =
| notable_commanders =

| identification_symbol =
| identification_symbol_label =
| identification_symbol_2 =
| identification_symbol_2_label =
}}

The '''Cholas''' did not have a standing navy in the modern sense. The maritime force of Cholas was formed by using ships used for trade, as they did not have a dedicated ship for naval combat. The ships were used for transporting the land army overseas.<ref name="MajumdarHistCult3" />{{rp|251}}<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sakhuja |first1=Vijay |last2=Sakhuja |first2=Sangeeta |title=Nagapattinam to suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the chola naval expeditions to Southeast Asia |editor-last1=Kulke |editor-first1=Hermann |editor-last2=Kesavapany |editor-first2=K. |editor-last3=Sakhuja |editor-first3=Vijay |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |year=2009 |location=Singapore |pages=76–90 |chapter=Rajendra Chola I’s Naval Expedition to Southeast Asia: A Nautical Perspective}}</ref>{{rp|77}}

The Cholas were at the height of their power from the latter half of the 9th century CE through the early 13th century CE.<ref name="SastriHOSI"/>{{rp|5}} Between 1010 and 1153 CE, Rajaraja's successors continued the expansion, making the Chola Empire a military, economic and cultural power in [[South Asia|South]] and [[South-East Asia]].<ref name="keay">Keay, John (12 April 2011), ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=0IquM4BrJ4YC India - A History]'', Open Road + Grove/Atlantic, {{ISBN|978-0-8021-9550-0}}.</ref>{{rp|215}} During this period, the Chola Navy helped expand the empire with Naval expeditions to the [[Pala Empire|Pala]] of [[Pataliputra]], along the [[Ganges]] and the [[Chola invasion of Srivijaya]] (present-day Indonesia) in 1025 CE,<ref name=meyer73>Meyer, p. 73</ref> as well as repeated embassies to China.<ref name="SastriHOSI"/>{{rp|158}} The Chola Navy declined in the 13th century when the Cholas fought land battles with the [[Chalukyas]] of Andhra-Kannada area in South India, and with the rise of the [[Pandyan dynasty]].<ref name="SastriHOSI">{{cite book | title=[[A History of South India: From Prehistoric Times to the Fall of Vijayanagar]]| last=Sastri|first=K. A. Nilakanta |author-link=K.A. Nilakanta Sastri| year=1955| publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref>{{rp|175}}

==History==
{{Main|Chola Dynasty}}
===Imperial Chola period (848–1070 CE)===
{{see also|Medieval Cholas}}
====Rajaraja I and Rajendra I====
{{Gallery
|title=Chola territorial extent
|width=200 | height=200
|align=center
|File:Rajendra map new.svg|c.1030 CE (under [[Rajendra I]])
|File:Chola Empire map2.png|c.1055 CE (under [[Rajendra Chola II|Rajendra II]])
|File:Rajendra map new.png|c.1065 CE (under [[Virarajendra Chola]])
}}
==Early Evidence==

Karikala chola's Naval Power described in Purananuru - 66 by Venni Kuyathiyar:

{{Quote|"O heir of a mighty man who mastered the movement of the wind and had his ships sail on the huge, full ocean"|Purananuru - 66<ref>{{cite book |last=Herbert |first=Vaidehi |title=Purananuru: Translation in English with Meanings |page=147}}</ref>}}

One of the early pieces of evidence for the maritime activities of the Cholas is associated with events concerning Ellalan, who ruled parts of Sri Lanka in the mid-2nd century BCE. This indicates maritime invasions and transportation across the Palk Strait. Historians such as Romila Thapar and R. S. Sharma have noted that such invasions would have required organized maritime transport. Maritime activities are also considered to have developed further during the reign of Karikala Chola, dated to the late 1st century CE and early 2nd century CE. Karikala is associated with the port city of Kaveripattinam (Puhar). His reign reflects the expansion of maritime trade and continued contacts with Sri Lanka. However, these early maritime activities should not be equated with the permanent, separate naval forces seen in the modern period.<ref>{{cite book |last=Thapar |first=Romila |title=A History of India |volume=1 |publisher=Penguin Books |year=1990 |orig-year=1966 |page=104}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Sharma |first=R. S. |title=India's Ancient Past |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2005 |page=253}}</ref>

Karikala Chola is said to have possessed a powerful navy, which he used to conquer Sri Lanka and establish his rule and reputation. According to the Rajavaliya, Karikala Chola invaded Sri Lanka, defeated Vankanāsika Tissa, and captured 12,000 Sinhalese prisoners of war, who were reportedly employed in the construction of the Kaveri embankment. The Kallanai is a large dam constructed of unhewn stones across the main channel of the Kaveri River. It is approximately 329 metres (1,080 feet) long and 20 metres (60 feet) wide.<ref>{{cite book
|last=Sharma
|first=R. S.
|title=India's Ancient Past
|publisher=Oxford University Press
|year=2005
|page=253
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Subrahmanian |first=N. |title=History of Tamilnad |publisher=Koodal Publishers |year=1962 |page=256}}</ref>

==Medival Period==
Under [[Rajaraja Chola I]] and his son [[Rajendra Chola I]], the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in [[Asia]].<ref name="kulke">{{cite book |last1=Kulke |first1=Hermann |title=A History of India |last2=Rothermund |first2=Dietmar |date=2004 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-1138961159 |location=Berlin}}</ref>{{rp|115}}<ref name="keay" />{{rp|215}} Rajaraja Chola conquered peninsular [[South India]], annexed parts of [[Sri Lanka]] and occupied the islands of the northernmost atolls of the Maldives.<ref name="keay" />{{rp|215}} Rajendra Chola sent a victorious expedition to North India that touched the river [[Ganges]] and defeated the [[Pala Empire|Pala]] ruler of [[Pataliputra]], [[Mahipala]]. He also successfully raided kingdoms of [[Maritime Southeast Asia]].{{efn|name=Sastri2}}<ref name="SastriCholas">{{cite book |last=Sastri |first=K. A. Nilakanta |title=The CōĻas |publisher=University of Madras |year=1935 |author-link=K.A. Nilakanta Sastri}}</ref>{{rp|211–220}}<ref name="meyer73" />

An inscription from [[Sirkazhi]], dated to 1187 AD, mentions a naval officer called Araiyan Kadalkolamitantaan alias Amarakon Pallavaraiyan. He is mentioned as the ''Tandalnayagam'' of the ''Karaippadaiyilaar''. The term ''Karaippadaiyilaar'' means "forces or army of the seashore" and the title ''Tandalnayagam'' is similar to ''Dandanayaka'' and means "commander of the forces". The title ''Kadalkolamitantaan'' means "one who floated while the sea was engulfed".<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2swhCXJVRzwC&q=chola+pallavaraiyan&pg=PA92|title=Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia|author=Hermann Kulke, K Kesavapany, Vijay Sakhuja|year=2009|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2009|pages=92–93|isbn=9789812309372}}</ref>

==Trade, commerce, and diplomacy==
The Cholas excelled in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending their influence overseas to China and Southeast Asia.<ref name="kulke" />{{rp|116–117}} A fragmentary Tamil inscription found in [[Sumatra]] cites the name of a merchant guild ''Nanadesa Tisaiyayirattu Ainnutruvar'' (literally, "the five hundred from the four countries and the thousand directions"), a famous merchant guild in the Chola country.<ref name="kulke" />{{rp|118}} The inscription is dated 1088, indicating that there was an active overseas trade during the Chola period.<ref name="kulke" />{{rp|117}}

Towards the end of the 9th century, southern India had developed extensive maritime and commercial activity, especially with the Chinese and [[Arab]]s.<ref name=kulke/>{{rp|12,118}} The Cholas, being in possession of parts of both the west and the east coasts of peninsular India, were at the forefront of these ventures.<ref name=kulke/>{{rp|124}}<ref>Tripathi, p 465</ref><ref>Tripathi, p 477</ref> The [[Tang dynasty]] of China, the [[Srivijaya]] empire in the Malayan archipelago under the Sailendras, and the [[Abbasid]] [[caliphate]] at [[Baghdad]] were the main trading partners.<ref name="SastriCholas"/>{{rp|604}}

===Cooperation with the Chinese===
Chinese [[Song Dynasty]] reports record that an embassy from ''Chulian'' (Chola) reached the Chinese court in the year 1077,<ref name=kulke/>{{rp|117}}<ref name=keay/>{{rp|223}}<ref>See Thapar, p xv</ref> and that the king of the Chulien at the time was called ''Ti-hua-kia-lo''.<ref name="SastriCholas"/>{{rp|316}} It is possible that these syllables denote "Deva Kulo[tunga]" (Kulothunga Chola I). This embassy was a trading venture and was highly profitable to the visitors, who returned with "81,800 strings of copper coins in exchange for articles of tributes, including glass articles, and spices".{{efn|name=Sastri1}}<ref name="SastriHOSI"/>{{rp|173}}

==Vessels and weapons==
<gallery mode="packed" widths="170" heights="200">
Periplus 244 Indian coins.png|Left: Kurumbar or [[Pallava dynasty|Pallava]] coin of the [[Coromandel coast]]; showing a two-masted ship like the modern coasting vessel or ''[[Dhoni (fishing vessel)|d'honi]]'', Right: [[Satavahana dynasty|Andhra]] coin from Eastern Indian coast, showing a two-masted ship, ca. 1st–3rd century AD.
Ajanta Caves boat sketched by Mookerji.jpg|Sketch of a ship based on a mural in [[Ajanta Caves]], ca. 6th century.
</gallery>

Information regarding Chola vessels is lacking. Because of this, the technique used for naval battles and how the battles were fought is unknown. R.C. Majumdar argues that the naval battles fought by Chola are basically land battles fought on ships, and the ships used were transports used for transporting the army.<ref name="MajumdarHistCult3">{{cite book |last=Majumdar |first=Romesh Chandra |url=https://archive.org/details/struggleforempir05bhar/page/250/mode/2up?q= |title=The History and Culture of the Indian People, Volume V: The Struggle for Empire |publisher=[[Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan]] |year=2001 |location=Mumbai |author-link=R. C. Majumdar}}</ref>{{rp|251}}

Rajendra Chola's inscriptions mentioned the term ''kalam'', which is a usual term for a ship. Tamil inscription of 1088 from Barus, Sumatra and dated to 1088 mentioned ''marakkalam'' (timber ship). The size of the ship and where it was constructed are unknown. A Tamil inscription of about 1200/1256 AD from Krishnapattinam, on the Andhra coast, mentioned several sea vessels: There are ''marakkalam'', ''toni'', ''kalavam'', ''vedi'', and ''padavu''. Their size is not recorded, Y. Subbarayalu thinks that the ''marakkalam'' may have been the biggest since it was mentioned first, and it may be about 4 times bigger than ''padavu'' since it was charged 4 times the charge on ''padavu''. The ''toni'' (also pronounced as [[Dhoni (fishing vessel)|''dhony'']]) was charged the same amount as ''marakkalam'', but according to Subbarayalu they may be smaller than ''marakkalam'' in size. The ''dhony'' continued operating in the 19th century, plying the routes between Sri Lanka and Madras (Chennai). The ''dhony'' was {{convert|70|feet|m|2}} long, {{convert|20|feet|m|2}} wide, {{convert|12|feet|m|2}} deep, with no decks, and had one mast.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Subbarayalu |first=Y. |title=Nagapattinam to suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the chola naval expeditions to Southeast Asia |editor-last1=Kulke |editor-first1=Hermann |editor-last2=Kesavapany |editor-first2=K. |editor-last3=Sakhuja |editor-first3=Vijay |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |year=2009 |location=Singapore |pages=91–95 |chapter=A Note on the Navy of the Chola State}}</ref>{{rp|93-94}}

==Campaigns==
Chola military campaigns late 10th and early 11th centuries were in fact plundering raids. This is done to ensure the entry of spoils, which can be in the form of livestock, jewelry, and other forms of property.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Spencer |first=George W. |date=1976 |title=The Politics of Plunder: The Cholas in Eleventh-Century Ceylon |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2053272 |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=405–419 |doi=10.2307/2053272 |jstor=2053272 |s2cid=154741845 |issn=0021-9118}}</ref>{{rp|405, 407}}

==See also==
* [[Chola dynasty]]
* [[Chola military]]
* [[Dravidian architecture]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Footnotes==
{{notelist|refs=
{{efn|name=Sastri1|''"The Tamil merchants took glassware, [[camphor]], [[sandalwood]], [[rhinoceros]] horns, [[ivory]], rose water, [[asafoetida]], spices such as [[Black pepper|pepper]], [[cloves]], etc."'' – [[K.A. Nilakanta Sastri]], ''A History of South India'', p 173}}
{{efn|name=Sastri2|The ''kadaram'' campaign is first mentioned in Rajendra's inscriptions dating from his 14th year. The name of the [[Srivijaya]] king was Sangrama Vijayatungavarman. – [[K.A. Nilakanta Sastri]], ''The CōĻas'', pp 211–220}}
}}

==External links==
* http://www.tifr.res.in/~akr/crab_webtifr.html (Indian subcontinent section)
* https://web.archive.org/web/20080514170634/http://www.sabrizain.demon.co.uk/malaya/early2.htm
* https://web.archive.org/web/20091203133836/http://www.tsr8283.com/general/history.htm
* http://nandhivarman.indiainteracts.com/2007/11/01/chola-maritime-conquests-and-technological-grandeur/
* http://www.cmi.ac.in/gift/Archeaology/arch_tambaramhistory.htm
* http://www.sangam.org/articles/view2/print.php?uid=1012
* https://web.archive.org/web/20081105144141/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/NAVY/History/1600s/Prakash.html
*{{citation|last=Keay|first=John|title=India: A History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0IquM4BrJ4YC|date=12 April 2011|publisher=Open Road + Grove/Atlantic|isbn=978-0-8021-9550-0}}
* {{Citation | last = Tripati | first = Sila | title = Ships on Hero Stones from the West Coast of India | journal = International Journal of Nautical Archaeology | volume = 35 | issue = 1 | pages = 88–96 | date = April 2006 | year = 2006 | language = en | url = http://www.sabrizain.org/malaya/library/herostones.pdf | doi = 10.1111/j.1095-9270.2005.00081.x | s2cid = 162192060 }}
* {{Citation | last = Rao | first = K.V. Ramakrishna | title = The Shipping Technology of Cholas | journal = 27th Annual South Indian History Congress | pages = 326–345 | year = 2007 | url = https://sangam.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/The-Shipping-Technology-of-Cholas-2007.pdf }}
[[Category:Chola Empire|Navy]]
[[Category:Military of Chola]]
[[Category:History of Thanjavur]]
[[Category:Military history of Southeast Asia]]
[[Category:Naval history of India]]
[[Category:Disbanded navies]]

Karikala

2026-10-02T04:28:10Z

2401:4900:CAEB:B695:904D:62FF:FEA2:6A13: Added purananuru Verse -66

{{Short description|Historical Chola king who ruled southern India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2016}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Karikala Cholan
| native_name =
| title = Peruvalatthaan Thirumavalavan Kaviri Kandan Makkotai Konda Cholan Parakesari ([[Sanskrit]]) <ref name="Rama Shankar Tripathi 478">{{cite book|title=History of Ancient India|author=Rama Shankar Tripathi|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass, 1967 - India - 605 pages|page=478}}</ref><ref name="Kallidaikurichi Aiyah Nilakanta Sastri 68">{{cite book|title=Studies in Cōḷa history and administration|author=Kallidaikurichi Aiyah Nilakanta Sastri|publisher=University of Madras, 1932 - History - 210 pages|page=68}}</ref>
| image = Karikalacholan kallanai trichy.jpg
| alt = Karikala the Great
| reign =
| caption = Bronze statue of Karikāla Chōḻaṉ
| predecessor = [[Ilamcetcenni]]
| successor = [[Nedunkilli]] and [[Nalankilli]]
| spouse = [[Velir]] princess from Nangur<ref>{{cite book|title=Art and culture of Tamil Nadu|author=Irāmaccantiran̲ Nākacāmi|publisher=Sundeep Prakashan, 1980 - Art, Indic - 184 pages|page=140}}</ref>
| spouse-type = Queen
| issue = [[Nalankilli]] [[Nedunkilli]] Māvalattān
| father = [[Ilamcetcenni]]
}}
{{Chola history}}
'''Karikala''' ({{lang-ta| கரிகால சோழன்}}) often referred to as '''Karikala the Great'''<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/opinions/2022/may/21/the-great-cholas-through-the-ages-2456011.html | title=The great Cholas through the ages }}</ref> was a [[Tamils|Tamil]] [[Emperor]] of the early Chola kingdom who ruled ancient [[Tamilakam]] from [[Uraiyur]]. He is credited with the construction of the flood banks of the [[Kaveri|river Kaveri]]. He is recognised as the greatest of the Early Cholas. In Thiruvalangadu plates of [[Rajendra Chola I]], [[Medieval Cholas|Medieval Tamil Cholas]] listed Karikala Chola as one of their ancestors. In Malepadu plates (7th century CE) of Renati Chola king Punyakumara, [[Telugu Cholas]] claimed that they belong to the family of Karikala Chola and praises him for stopping the overflow over the banks of river Kaveri.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hultzsch |first=Eugene |date=1911–1912 |title=Epigraphia Indica |journal=Epigraphia Indica |volume=11 |pages=339 |via=Archaeological Survey of India, Government of India}}</ref>

== Sources ==
The story of Karikala is mixed with legend and anecdotal information gleaned from [[Sangam literature]]. The only sources available are the numerous mentions in Sangam poetry. The period covered by the extant literature of the Sangam is not easy to determine with any measure of certainty.

''[[Paṭṭiṉappālai]]'', ''[[Poruṇarāṟṟuppaṭai]]'' and a number of individual poems in the ''[[Akanaṉūṟu]]'' and ''[[Purananuru]]'' have been the main source for the information that is attributed to Karikala.

No authentic records of Karikala's reign have been found so far. However many rulers and petty chiefs who came after him claimed him as their ancestor and decorated themselves as belonging to the ''[[Chola dynasty|Chola race]] of Karikala and of the [[Kashyapa]] [[gotra]]''.<ref>{{cite book|title=Indian Antiquary, Volume 38|author=Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland|pages=7–8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Andhra Pradesh district gazetteers, Volume 16|author=Andhra Pradesh (India), Bh Sivasankaranarayana|publisher=Printed by the Director of Print. and Stationery at the Govt. Secretariat Press; [copies can be had from: Govt. Publication Bureau, Andhra Pradesh], 1977 - Andhra Pradesh (India)|page=19}}</ref>

== Early life ==
Karikala was the son of [[Ilamcetcenni]].<ref>''Purananuru'' – 266</ref> The name Karikalan has been held to mean "the man with the charred leg" and perpetuates the memory of a fire accident in the early years of his life. Some scholars also hold the view ''kari'' and ''kalan'' are Tamil words meaning "slayer of elephants". ''Poruṇarāṟṟuppaṭai'' describes the back-formed origin legend of this incident as follows:{{quote|The king of [[Uraiyur]] ([[Tiruchirappalli]]) Ilamcetcenni married a [[Velir]] princess from Azhundur and she became pregnant and gave birth to Karikala. Ilamcetcenni died soon after. Due to his young age, Karikala's right to the throne was overlooked and there was political turmoil in the country. Karikala was exiled. When normality returned, the Chola ministers sent a state elephant to look for the prince. The elephant finds the prince hiding in [[Karuvur]] (modern day [[Karur]] in [[Tamil Nadu]]). His political opponents arrested and imprisoned him. The prison was set on fire that night. Karikala escaped the fire and, with the help of his uncle Irum-pitar-thalaiyan, defeated his enemies. Karikala’s leg was scorched in the fire and from thence Karikala became his name.}}Old Sangam Age inscriptions and the sthala puranam of the great ancient Saiva shrine at Parasalur, near [[Mayiladuthurai|Mayavaram]], state that in order to escape a murder plot hatched by conspirators, Karikal Valavan stayed there in disguise as a Vedic and Agama Sastra lecturer for eight years. The [[Paṭṭiṉappālai]], written in praise of Karikala, also describes this incident but without mentioning the fable of the burnt limb:
{{quote|Like a tiger cub with sharp claws and curved stripes growing strong within a cage, his strength matured while he was in the bondage of his enemies. Just as a large-trunked elephant pulls down the banks of a pit and reunites with its mate, he, after deep and careful consideration, drew his sword, overpowered the strong guard, and eventually achieved his glorious heritage.}}

== Military conquests ==
{{cquote|"You delight in looting the enemy's country by the light of the destructive fires which you have started. Because of your plunder, the enemy's land is deprived of all good things." <ref>{{cite journal
|last=Spencer
|first=George W.
|title=The Politics of Plunder: The Cholas in Eleventh-Century Ceylon
|page=405
}}</ref>}}

According to Purananuru poem verse - 7:

{{cquote|"Your legs press and command elephants and
your perfect feet are rubbed by your warrior anklets.
Your bow that dazzles the eyes rests in your charitable
hands, to release arrows in battles. Your chest is so broad, and Thirumakal forsakes others for it. You have the strength to drive back elephants. You do not consider whether it is day or night to plunder enemy towns, blazing them as their citizens cry loudly.

O Valavan riding your elegant chariot! There is nothing
good remaining in your enemy countries where there were prosperous towns, where, instead of mud, they used fish to block holes of dams with sounds of cool flowing water!"<ref>{{cite web
|title=Ettuthokai – Purananuru 1–200 |url=https://sangamtranslationsbyvaidehi.com/ettuthokai-purananuru-1-200/
|website=Sangam Translations by Vaidehi
|access-date=10 September 2026
}}</ref>}}

=== Battle of Venni ===
{{Main|Battle of Venni}}
Karikala’s Naval Power and the Battle of Venni — described in Purananuru - 66 by Venni Kuyathiyar:

{{Quote|"O heir of a mighty man who mastered the movement of the wind and had his ships sail on the huge, full ocean! O Karikalan who owns rutting elephants! You who won displaying your strength in the battlefield near prosperous Venni town"|Purananuru - 66<ref>{{cite book |last=Herbert |first=Vaidehi |title=Purananuru: Translation in English with Meanings |page=147}}</ref>}}
According to the '' Poruṇarāṟṟuppaṭai'', Karikala Chola fought a great [[Battle of Venni]] in which both [[Pandyan dynasty|Pandyan]] and [[Chera dynasty|Cheran]] king [[Uthiyan Cheralathan]]<ref>{{cite book|title=[[A History of South India: From Prehistoric Times to the Fall of Vijayanagar]]|first=K. A. Nilakanta|last=Sastri|author-link=K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|ref=Sastri}} </ref> suffered a defeat.<ref name=majumdar137>See Majumdar, p 137</ref> Although we know very little about the circumstances leading to this battle, there can be no doubt that it marked the turning point in Karikala’s career, for in this battle he broke the back of the powerful confederacy formed against him.<ref name=tri458>See Tripathi, p 458</ref> Besides the two crowned kings of the Pandya and Chera countries, eleven minor chieftains took the opposing side in the campaign and shared defeat at the hands of Karikala.<ref name=kulke104>See Kulke and Rothermund, p 104</ref><ref name=Balambal>{{cite book|title=Studies in the History of the Sangam Age|pages=21|isbn=978-8185163871|year=1998|last=V.|first=Balambal|publisher=Kalinga Publications|location=New Delhi}}</ref> The Chera king, who was wounded on his back in the battle, committed suicide by starvation. Venni was the watershed in the career of Karikala which established him firmly on his throne and secured for him some sort of hegemony among the three crowned monarchs. Venni is also known as Vennipparandalai and now it is known as [[Kovilvenni]] and is situated near [[Thanjavur]].<ref name=sastri112>See Nilakanta Sastri, ''A History of South India'', p112-113</ref>

=== Battle of Vahaipparandalai ===

According to Pattinapalai verse:

{{quote|"Those from Oli land are humble and under
his control. Those from the ancient Aruva
land submit to him. Northerners lose to
him and Kudanadu ruler bows to his might.
He captures enemy forts and ruins the strengths
of the Pandiyan king. He ruins the weak forest
kings and their heirs with enraged red eyes,
as well as king Irungovel's clan, with his huge
army of brave warriors."|source =Pattinapalai (274 - 285)<ref>{{cite web |title=Pathuppāttu – Pattinappālai |url=https://sangamtranslationsbyvaidehi.com/pathuppattu-pattinappalai/ |author=Vaidehi Herbert |access-date=5 August 2026 |publisher=Sangam Poems Translated by Vaidehi |language=en |at=lines 274–285}}</ref>
}}
The [[Battle of Vahaipparandalai]] was a significant military engagement during the Sangam period in South India, fought by the Chola king Karikala. In this battle,[[Karikala Chola]] defeated confederacy of nine enemy chieftains, forcing them to submit. This victory, along with his earlier triumph at the [[Battle of Venni]], solidified Karikala's dominance over the [[Tamilakam|Tamil region]] and established him as a powerful ruler.[[Paranar]], a contemporary of Karikala, in his poem from ''[[Agananuru]]'' mentions this incident without giving any information on the cause of the conflict.<ref name="sastri112">See Nilakanta Sastri, ''A History of South India'', p112-113</ref><ref name="NilakantaSastri120">{{Cite book |last=K. A. Nilakanta Sastry |url=http://archive.org/details/history-of-south-india-k.-a.-nilkanta-sastry |title=A History Of South India (K. A. Nilakanta Sastry)}}</ref>The Confederacy of Nine kings and their vassals were defeated by him , Numerous Oliyars Submitted to him , The Pallavas of Kanchi and the Kurumbas were Compelled to accept his sovereignty. The Battle of Vahaiparantalai make karikala master of vast domination including Thondaimandalam . Pattinapalai mentioned the city was strong walls with Goddess of victory and karikala furnished with door tiger cryst engraved . Pattinapalai also said Karikala chola has no enemies that he left his capital puhar with sword and proceeded his rule north up to Himalayas . Bramanical sacrifice was encouraged in his rule and karikala patrone litterature.According to Seshadri sastri karikala reign was 113AD to 135 AD.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mahajan |first=V. D. |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=sjscEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA622&dq=karikala+kurumbas&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwinn5v7xoeWAxUrzDgGHYAWEGIQ6AF6BAgLEAM#v=onepage&q=Vahaiparantalai&f=false |title=Ancient India |publisher=S. Chand Publishing |isbn=978-93-5283-603-1 |language=en}}</ref> Oliyar, Aruvalar ,Vadavar , Kudavar , Tennavar ,Poduvar Irungovel were defeated in that battle of Vahaiparantalai.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kalidos |first=Raju |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=zG1uAAAAMAAJ&q=Karikala+defeated+vadavar&dq=Karikala+defeated+vadavar&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjExvvws4iWAxVdQmwGHT4UKAsQ6AF6BAgIEAM#oliyar |title=History and Culture of the Tamils: From Prehistoric Times to the President's Rule |date=1976 |publisher=Vijay Publications |language=en}}</ref> "The famous victor, the Sola, Karikal, protected the families of the Kurumbar who tend (flocks) onthe hill-tops".the poem also states karikala destroyed forests and turned into habbitable places.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Srinivas Iyengar |first=P. T. |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.277107 |title=History of the Tamils from the earliest times to 600 A.D |date=1929}}</ref> According to Paranar The nine princess with large army who proposed karikala probably Kurumbas and they were defeated by Karikala in that battle .<ref>{{Cite book |last=V. Kanakasabhai |url=http://archive.org/details/TheTamilsEighteenHundredYearsAgo1956 |title=The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago |date=1956}}</ref>

=== Srilanka Conquests ===
According to legends Karikala was one of the few Chola kings who won the whole of Ceylon{{citation needed|date=November 2016}} (Lanka). The Grand anicut was built after his conquest over the Singalese kingdom and he used Singalese war prisoners for the hard task of moving stones from the mountains to the river bed of the Kaveri.{{cn|date=October 2021}} The ''Pattinappalai'' also describes the destruction caused by Karikala’s armies in the territories of his enemies and adds that as the result of these conflicts, the "Northerners and Westerners were depressed… and his flushed look of anger caused the Pandya’s strength to give way…".

The Chola invasion of Anurathapura happened in 110 AD, during the reign of [[Vankanasika Tissa]], the ruler of the [[House of Lambakanna I|Lambakanna dynasty]]. Karikala had a powerful [[Chola navy|navy]], which he used to capture Sri Lanka. During the campaign, Karikala’s forced defeated Vankanasika Tissa and captured 12,000 Sinhalese Prisoners along with treasures and The war Prosoners was to work as slaves to build the Kaveri Dam.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wijesekera |first=Nandadeva |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=zoNuAAAAMAAJ&q=Karikala+Chola+Srilanka&dq=Karikala+Chola+Srilanka&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiIwfXkpJKUAxVeQ_EDHWPGDsEQ6AF6BAgNEAM#Karikala%20Chola%20Srilanka |title=Contacts and Conflicts with Sri Lanka |date=1986 |publisher=N. Wijesekera |language=en}}</ref> Kallanai is a massive dam of unhewn stone, 329 metres (1,080 ft) long and 20 metres (60 ft) wide, across the main stream of the Kaveri. A later Chola record from Tiruvaduturai refers to this event that is raising the banks of the Kaveri by Parakesari Karikala Chola.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Subramaniam |first=N. |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.462306 |title=History Of Tamilnad |date=1962}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=REDDY |first=Prof P. CHENNA |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=j1amEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA144&dq=12,000+prisoners+karikala&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiH5O7fsYmUAxVJUGwGHQNyOPMQ6AF6BAgKEAM#v=onepage&q=12,000%20prisoners%20karikala&f=false |title=REVISITING INDIA’S PAST: Commemoration Volume to Prof. Vijay Kumar Thakur |date=2023-01-09 |publisher=Blue Rose Publishers |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Navaratnam |first=C. S. |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=pUKAr_2qEhwC&q=Karikala+Chola+12+000+prisoners&dq=Karikala+Chola+12+000+prisoners&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjaqeDwuomUAxURSmwGHZk6DsMQ6AF6BAgLEAM#12000 |title=Tamils and Ceylon: From the Earliest Period Up to the End of the Jaffna Dynasty with a Chart of Important Events Up to 1900 |date=1958 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Conquest of Tondainadu and Andhra from Pallavas ===
Based on numerous village records and [[Telugu Chodas|Telugu Chola]] inscriptions found in Andhra, Karikala seems to have battled against a Pallava king named Trilochana Pallava or Mukhanti Pallava or Mukhanti Kaduvetti and captured [[Tondaimandalam|Tondainadu]], leaving the southern Telugu country to the Pallava king. The Pallava king who had [[Kanchipuram|Kanchi]] as his capital moved the capital to [[Srikalahasti|Kalahasti]] after losing Kanchi in the battle. The inscriptions also says that Karikala ordered Trilochana Pallava to come and assist him in building the flood banks along the Kaveri river. But the Pallava king who was ruling from Kalahasti declined to obey which made Karikala to declare war against him. Karikala won the battle and captured the Telugu country. During that time period, southern Andhra was covered with big forests which is not fit for cultivation. So, Karikala destroyed the forests and planted many villages. One of the villages is Pottapi, which was the most important village and hence the whole locality acquired in course of time the name Pottapi Nadu. Unlike Trilochana Pallava, Karikala Chola donated lands not only to Brahmins but also to the cultivators.<ref>{{Cite book |last=N. |first=Venkata Ramanayya |title=Trilochana Pallava And Karikala Chola |publisher=V. Ramaswamy Sastrulu & Sons |year=1929 |location=Madras |pages=65–69 |language=English}}</ref>

=== Northern Expedition and Conquests ===
According to Silapathikaram, Indira vilavureduttakadai verses 89 to 110 Mentioned Karikala Chola Military Achivements:

{{quote|"Once Tirumavalavan felt that there was no foe on either side fit to fight with him and thinking, in his thirst for war, that there might be foes in the north, he had an auspicious day chosen for taking out hig sword, umbrella and war-drum, and he prayed to his guardian deity that he might be lucky enough to find an enemy fit to encounter his broad shoulders, and advanced in that direction. Finding the great Himalayas, the residence of gods, as the barrier arresting his further progress, he retreated with pride after engraving his tiger-emblem on its rocky side.
On his return, the king of the great [[Vatsa|Vacciranadu]] whose sway extended as far as the roaring sea (in the east), gave him a pearl canopy as tribute while th» king of [[Magadha]] famous for his sword-play, and his enemy a while ago, presented to him an audience-hall (pattimandapam) . The king of [[Avanti]] gave him a friendly present of a tall and beautiful arch on the gateway. Though all these were made of gold and gems, their technique was not known to human artists even of exceptional skill ; they were long ago given to the ancestors of these three monarchs by the divine Maya in return for some valuable service rendered to him. When they were all placed together, they formed an artistic mandapam much praised by great men."|Silapathikaram,Indira vilavureduttakadai 89-110<ref>{{cite book |last=Dikshitar |first=V. R. Ramachandra |title=The Silappadikaram |publisher=Oxford University Press, Humphrey Milford |year=1939 |page=114 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.201802/page/n128/mode/1up |access-date=7 August 2026 |chapter=Indira Vilavureduttakadai, verses 89–110}}</ref>}}

According to [[Cilappatikaram]], Nadukarkadai mentioned about Karikala Chola Successful North India Campaign and he received gifts from [[Indo-Aryan peoples|north]] Indian kingdoms by tributary it's follows:

{{quote|"O king with the tumbai and the anklet, tokens of success in battle! Attended by these vanquished [[Aryan|Arya]] kings we went to the ancient city of Sembiyan ([[Chola]]) and paid our respects to him through his officers. Seated in the ornamented mandapam constructed (with the materials received as gifts) from the Vaccira ([[Vatsa]]), [[Pradyota dynasty|Avanti]] and [[Magadha]] kings, he remarked to the commander of his chariot corps occupying the front rank of the army : ' it is no achievement to capture in the wide expanse of the battlefield those who, after displaying great military prowess, gave up their umbrellas and swords and fled in the disguise of non-combatants.”|source=[[Cilappatikaram]], Nadukarkadai 78 - 94<ref>{{cite book
|last=Dikshitar
|first=V. R. Ramachandra
|title=The Silappadikaram
|year=1939
|publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.35913/page/319/mode/1up
|page=319
|access-date=26 April 2026
}}</ref>
}}
After subduing the south Karikala went on an expedition to the north and engraved his tiger emblem in the Himalayas. The king of the great [[Vajra (king)|Vajra]] whose sway extended as far as the roaring sea (in the east), gave him a pearl canopy as a tribute while the king of [[Magadha]] famous for his sword-play, and his enemy a while ago, presented to him an audience hall (pattimandapam). The king of [[Avanti (Ancient India)|Avanti]] gave him a friendly present of a tall and beautiful arch on the gateway. Though all these were made of gold and gems, their technique was not known to human artists even of exceptional skill; they were long ago given to the ancestors of these three monarchs by the divine [[Mamuni Mayan|Maya]] in return for some valuable service rendered to him.<ref name="The Silappadikaram, page 114">The Śilappadikāram by V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar, p114-115</ref>

== Grand Anicut ==
[[File:Grand Anaicut.JPG|thumb|Kallanai built by Karikala Chola on river Kaveri]]

Sometime between the reign of Sinhalese monarch [[Vankanasika Tissa]], Karikala, with a large army, invaded the island and took away 12,000 Sinhalese men to work as slaves to build the Kaveri Dam.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6nrXAAAAMAAJ&q=sinhalese+slaves+kaveri+dam | isbn=9789555801102 | title=Walking to Kataragama | year=2007 | publisher=International Centre for Ethnic Studies }}</ref>

Later Chola kings attributed the building of dikes along the banks of the [[Kaveri]] to Karikala.<ref name=majumdar137 /><ref name=kulke104 /><ref name="History of ancient India, page 478">''History of ancient India, page 478: ..raising the banks of the Kaveri by Parakesari Karikala Chola''</ref><ref name="Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, Volume 39, page 156">''Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, Volume 39, page 156</ref> The raising of the banks of the river Kaveri by Karikala is also mentioned by the Malepadu plates (seventh century CE)<ref>{{Cite book|last=R. C. Majumdar|first=General Editor|url=https://archive.org/details/classicalage03bhar|title=History and Culture of the Indian People, Volume 03, The Classical Age p.265|date=1970|publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan|others=Public Resource}}</ref> of the [[Telugu_Cholas#Renati_Cholas|Telugu Chola]] sovereign of Renadu, [[Tumkur|Erigal]]-Mutturaju Punyakumara, who claims descent from Karikala: ''karuna – saroruha vihita – vilochana – pallava – trilochana pramukha kilapritvisvara karita kaveri tira'' (he who caused the banks of the Kaveri to be constructed by all the subordinate kings led by the Pallava Trilochana whose third eye was blinded by his lotus foot).

The [[Grand Anicut]], also known as the Kallanai was built by Karikala<ref name="kallanai_googlebook">{{cite book | last = Singh | first = Vijay P. |author2=Ram Narayan Yadava | title = Water Resources System Operation: Proceedings of the International Conference on Water and Environment | publisher = Allied Publishers | year = 2003 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Bge-0XX6ip8C&dq=kallanai&pg=PA508 | isbn = 81-7764-548-X | page = 508}}</ref> and is considered one of the oldest water-diversion or water-regulator structures in the world which is still in use.<ref name="kallanai_oldest">{{cite web | url = http://www.hindunet.org/saraswati/traditionwater.pdf | title = ''This is the oldest stone water-diversion or water-regulator structure in the world''| access-date = 2007-05-27 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070206130842/http://www.hindunet.org/saraswati/traditionwater.pdf |archive-date = 2007-02-06}}</ref> The Kallanai is a massive dam of unhewn stone, 329 metres (1,080 ft) long and 20 metres (60 ft) wide, across the main stream of the Kaveri.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9021884/Cauvery-River|title=Cauvery River – Britannica Online Encyclopedia}}</ref> A later [[Chola]] record from Tiruvaduturai refers to this event that is raising the banks of the Kaveri by Parakesari Karikala Chola.<ref name="Rama Shankar Tripathi 478">{{cite book|title=History of Ancient India|author=Rama Shankar Tripathi|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass, 1967 - India - 605 pages|page=478}}</ref><ref name="Kallidaikurichi Aiyah Nilakanta Sastri 68">{{cite book|title=Studies in Cōḷa history and administration|author=Kallidaikurichi Aiyah Nilakanta Sastri|publisher=University of Madras, 1932 - History - 210 pages|page=68}}</ref>

== Perur Patteeswarar Temple ==
[[File:Perur Patteeswarar1.jpg|thumb|Perur Patteeswarar Temple]]
After his victory over the Northern kingdoms of Vatsa, Magadha and Avantika, Karikala returned back to [[Tamilakam|Tamil land]] and worshipped Lord [[Shiva]] at the [[Perur Pateeswarar Temple, Coimbatore|Perur Pateeswarar Temple]] located at the banks of river [[Noyyal]] in present day [[Coimbatore]]. Karikala was an ardent devotee of Lord Shiva. He is said to have done the [[Kumbhabhishekham]] (sanctification ritual) of the temple through hundred golden vessels. A famous text named '''Perur Puranam''' was composed by Kachiyappa Munivar in Tamil on the origin of the temple.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.perurpatteeswarar.tnhrce.in/history-patteeswarar.html|title=Arulmigu Patteeswarar Swamy Temple - History|access-date=14 December 2016}}</ref>

=== Karikala Cholan Manimandapam ===
[[File:Karikaala Chozan Memorial -1.jpg|thumb|Karikala Cholan Manimandapam]]
Karikala Cholan Manimandapam (memorial hall) was built in honour of the king who built the Grand Anicut. The hall designed as per Chola architecture style was built at a cost of {{INR}} 21 million. It features a bronze statue of the king.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/trichy/Karikalan-cholan-memorial-inaugurated/articleshow/30300318.cms | title=Karikalan cholan memorial inaugurated |newspaper=The Times of India | access-date=14 September 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Tiruchirapalli/karikalan-manimandapam-ready-for-inauguration/article5342940.ece | title=Karikalan Manimandapam ready for inauguration |work=The Hindu | access-date=14 September 2016}}</ref>

== Dating Karikala ==
According to [[Nilakanta Sastri]] Karikala reigned in 90 CE.<ref name="A History of South India, page 119">A History of South India: From Prehistoric Times to the Fall of Vijayanagar, page 119</ref>

However, [[V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar]] states that the Karikala mentioned in [[Silappadikaram]] and [[Sangam literature]] are two different kings and the Karikala mentioned in [[Silappadikaram]] has nothing to do with Trilocana Pallava and nothing prevents another Karikala having flourished in [[Puhar, Nagapattinam|Puhar]] a few centuries later.<ref name="The Silappadikaram, page 24">The Śilappadikāram by V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar, page 24</ref>

The copper-plate charters and stone inscription of the 10th and 11th centuries also mention two different Karikala thus unable to determine his exact reign.

== See also ==
* [[Legendary early Chola kings]]
* [[Tamil history from Sangam literature]]
* [[List of Tamil monarchs]]

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

== Further reading ==

* {{cite book|title=[[A History of South India: From Prehistoric Times to the Fall of Vijayanagar]]|first=K. A. Nilakanta|last=Sastri|author-link=K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|ref=Sastri}}
* {{cite book | first= Kulke| last= Hermann |author2=Rothermund D| orig-year= 2000| year=2001 | title= A History of India | publisher= Routledge | isbn= 0-415-32920-5}}
* {{cite book | first= R.C | last= Majumdar| year= 1987| title= Ancient India | publisher= Motilal Banarsidass Publications | location= India| isbn= 81-208-0436-8}}
* {{cite book | first= A.S| last= Mudaliar| orig-year= 1931| year= 1984| title= Abithana Chintamani| publisher= Asian Educational Services | location= New Delhi}}
* {{cite book | first= K.A| last= Nilakanta Sastri| author-link=K. A. Nilakanta Sastri | orig-year= 1935| year= 1984| title= The CōĻas| publisher= University of Madras | location= Madras}}
* {{cite book | first= K.A | last= Nilakanta Sastri| orig-year= 1955| year= 2002| title= A History of South India| publisher= OUP| location= New Delhi}}
* {{cite book | first= Rama Sankar| last= Tripathi| year= 1967| title= History of Ancient India| publisher= Motilal Banarsidass Publications| location= India| isbn= 81-208-0018-4}}
* {{cite book | title=History of the Tamils from the Earliest Times to the Present Day| last= Iyengar| first= P. T. Srinivasa | author-link= P. T. Srinivasa Iyengar| year=1929}}
* {{cite book | first= R.| last= Raghava Iyengar| year= 1951| title= Pattinapalai, Research Monograph| publisher= Annamalai University Publications| location= Chidambaram}}

[[Category:Chola kings]]