Bharatpedia - User contributions [en]

Parantaka I

2026-09-11T07:12:18Z

2401:4900:CAE8:3612:6CEF:4DFF:FE8D:E8C3:

{{Use Indian English|date=October 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Parantaka I
| title = Parakesari, Maduraium Eelamum Konda Parakesarivarman, Veera Cholan, Irumudi Cholan
| image = Parantaka territories.png
| caption = [[Chola Empire]] under Parantaka Chola I in 915 CE
| succession = [[Chola Empire|Chola Emperor]]
| reign = 907 CE - 955 CE
| predecessor = [[Aditya I]]
| successor = [[Gandaraditya]]
| spouse = 11 Total<ref>{{cite book|title=Volume 1 of Early Chola Art, S. R. Balasubrahmanyam|author=S. R. Balasubrahmanyam|publisher=Asia publ. house, 1966|page=165}}</ref> Including: Ko "Kizhan Adigal" Iravi Nili Solamadeviyar
| spouse-type = Queen
| issue = [[Rajaditya Chola|Rajaditya]] [[Gandaraditya]] Uttamasili [[Arinjaya Chola|Arinjaya]] Viramadevi Anupama.
| house = [[Cholas]]
| father = [[Aditya I]]
| mother = Tribhuvanamadeviyar
| birth_name = Veera Narayanan
| birth_date = 873 CE
| birth_place = [[Tiruvottiyur]], [[Chola Empire]] (Modern day [[Chennai]] [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]])
| death_date = 955 CE (aged 82)
| death_place = [[Tiruvottiyur]], [[Chola Empire]] (Modern day [[Chennai]] [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]])
| burial_place =
| religion = [[Hinduism]]
| dynasty = [[Chola]]
}}
{{Chola history}}
'''Parantaka Chola I''' ([[Tamil language|Tamil]] : பராந்தக சோழன் I) (873 CE–955 CE) was a [[Chola Empire|Chola]] emperor who ruled for forty-eight years, annexing [[Pandyan dynasty|Pandya]] by defeating [[Maravarman Rajasimha II|Rajasimhan II]] and in the [[Deccan]] won the Battle of Vallala against [[Rashtrakuta dynasty|Rashtrakutas]] which happened before 916 CE.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=K.A. |first=Nilakanta Sastri |title=A History of South India from Prehistoric to the Fall of Vijayanagar |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1955 |pages=Page=168 |language=English}}</ref><ref name="sen2">{{Cite book |last=Sen |first=Sailendra |title=A Textbook of Medieval Indian History |publisher=Primus Books |year=2013 |isbn=978-9-38060-734-4 |pages=46–49}}</ref> The best part of his reign was marked by increasing success and prosperity.

==Invasion of the Pandya kingdom ==
Parantaka I continued the expansion started by his father, and invaded the [[Pandya]] kingdom in 915. He captured the Pandyan capital [[Madurai]] and assumed the title Madurain-konda (Capturer of Madurai). The Pandyan ruler [[Maravarman Rajasimha II|Maravarman Rajasinha II]] sought the help of [[Kassapa V of Anuradhapura|Kassapa V]] of [[Anuradhapura Kingdom|Anuradhapura]] who sent an army to his aid. Parantaka I defeated the combined army at the battle of [[Vellore]]. The Pandya king fled into exile in Sri Lanka and Parantaka I completed his conquest of the entire Pandya country.

Parantaka I spent many years in the newly conquered country reducing it to subjugation, and when he felt he had at last achieved his aim, he wanted to celebrate his victory by a coronation in [[Madurai]] in which he was to invest himself with the insignia of [[Pandya dynasty|Pandyan monarchy]]. However he was failed in this attempt by the Pandyan king, who had carried them away and left them in the safe custody of the Lankan king. Towards the end of his reign, Parantaka I tried to capture them by invading Lanka. [[Mahavamsa]] records that the Lankan king Udaya IV took the Pandya crown and the jewels and hid himself in the [[Sri Pada|Rohana]] hills. Parantaka I's armies had to return empty handed.

After his exploits in the Pandya country and in Lanka, he took the title of ''Maduraiyum Eelamum Konda Parakesarivarman'' – Parakesarivarman who conquered Madurai and Sri Lanka.<ref>K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, ''The Cholas'', Vol. 1, pp. 144–147.</ref>

== Lankan Expedition ==
Towards the end of his reign, Parantaka tried to recapture Pandya regalia by invading Lanka. Although the Cholas were victorious in battle and conquered the northern provinces, but failed to retrieve the insignia.<ref>{{cite journal|last=GEIGER|first=WILH|title=The Trustworthiness of Mahavamsa|url=https://buddhismloot.lib.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-ENG/gei.htm#:~:text=All%20these%20facts%20are%20told,somtimes%20also%20exaggerations%20may%20occur|pages=221|journal=THE Indian Historical Quarterly}}{{dead link|date=June 2026}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/CholasI |title=Cholas I |pages=154}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sastri |first=K. Nilakanta |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=63vJPQAACAAJ |title=The Pandyan Kingdom |date=July 1974 |publisher=Ind-U. S. Incorporated |isbn=978-0-88253-426-8 |pages=82 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Pillay |first=Kolappa Pillay Kanakasabhapathi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ukHRAAAAMAAJ |title=South India and Ceylon |date=1963 |publisher=University of Madras |pages=62–63 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Spencer |first=George W. |date=1976 |title=The Politics of Plunder: The Cholas in Eleventh-Century Ceylon |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2053272 |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=408–409 |doi=10.2307/2053272 |jstor=2053272 |issn=0021-9118}}</ref> Now, at that time, the Senapati here (in Ceylon) was absent in a rebellious border province. The king had him fetched and sent him forth to begin the war. The Senapati set forth, delivered battle and fell in the fight. Thereupon, the king (Udaya) took the crown and the rest and betook himself to Rohana. The Chola troops marched forward, but upon finding no way to enter Rohana, they withdrew and returned to their own country. Although the Chola forces retreated with a large amount of plunder, Sri Lankan sources claims a successful counter-invasion by Ceylon and they were able to recover the loot - an event entirely unmentioned in the Chola records.<ref name=":2" /><ref>Spencer 1976, p. 409</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/CholasI |title=Cholas I |pages=148}}</ref> During his Lankan campaign (c. 946–947 CE), Parantaka I defeated the Sinhalese forces and sacked Anuradhapura, although he was unable to secure lasting control over the region.<ref>{{cite book
|last=de Silva
|first=K. M.
|title=A History of Sri Lanka
|year=1981
|publisher=University of California Press
|page=42 |url=https://archive.org/details/srilankahistory0000desi/page/42/mode/1up
|access-date=2026-03-31
}}</ref> [[Mahavamsa]] also records that the Lankan king Udaya IV took the Pandya crown and the jewels and hid himself in the [[Sri Pada|Rohana]] hills. After his exploits in the Pandya country and in Lanka, he took the title of ''Maduraiyum Eelamum Konda Parakesarivarman'' – Parakesarivarman who conquered Madurai and Sri Lanka.

==Sitpuli–Nellore campaign==

In the 34th year of Parantaka Chola I's reign (c. 941 CE), two inscriptions from Tiruvottiyur record a northern campaign led by one of his military officers, Maran Paramesvaran. A native of Kulattur, Maran Paramesvaran defeated Sitpuli, a district in the Nellore region, and is stated to have destroyed Nellore.

After completing the campaign, Maran Paramesvaran returned south and stopped at Tiruvottiyur, where he made a land grant to Mahadeva as an offering of thanksgiving. Four years later, the land was exempted from the fiscal dues imposed upon it. The inscriptions therefore provide evidence for a northern military expedition undertaken by Parantaka's officer, during which Sitpuli was defeated and Nellore was reportedly destroyed.

The campaign was probably directed against the power of the Eastern Chalukyas under Chalukya Bhima II, with Sitpuli having been located in the southern part of the Eastern Chalukya kingdom. However, as no records of Parantaka have been found on the eastern coast north of Tiruvottiyur, it is uncertain whether the campaign resulted in any permanent territorial or political control in the region.<ref>{{cite book
|last=Sastri
|first=K. A. Nilakanta
|title=The Cholas
|volume=1
|pages=152–153 |url=https://archive.org/details/CholasI/page/n168/mode/1up
}}</ref>
==War against Rashtrakutas ==
=== Background ===

[[Aditya I]] had two sons, namely Parantaka I and Kannara Deva. The eldest son was Parantaka, born to a Chera wife; the youngest son was Kannara Devan, born to a Rashtrakuta wife. Following Aditya I's death, Rashtrakuta king [[Krishna II]] tried to exert his influence in the Chola country by placing his grandson Kannara Deva on the throne.<ref name="Sastri 1955">{{Cite book |last=Sastri |first=K. A. Nilakanta |url=http://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.4293 |title=Colas |date=1955}}</ref>
=== Battle of vallala ===
[[Aditya I]] had two sons namely Parantaka I and Kannara Deva. The eldest son was Parantaka, born to a Chera wife; the youngest son was Kannara Devan, born to Rashtrakuta wife. After the death of Aditya I, Rashtrakuta king [[Krishna II]] tried to establish his influence in the Chola country by placing his grandson Kannara Deva on the throne. But in 907 AD, Parantaka became the king. Disappointed by this, [[Krishna II]] invaded the Chola country. On Rashtrakuta side, prince [[Indra III]] lead the battle, while the Chola side was led by King Parantaka and Prince [[Rajaditya Chola|Rajaditya]]. During 911 CE in the battle of Vallala,<ref name=":1" /> a large number of Rashtrakuta soldiers died and their army began to weaken. Krishna II withdrew and his forces retreated. The Cholas advanced further and attacked the Rashtrakutas and chased away from their territory. Eventually the Cholas defeated the Rashtrakutas. Parantaka Chola's early series of victories would also includes this Rashtrakuta War.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dutta |first=Vidhan |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=QXlSEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA34&dq=Parantaka+2&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwibrp3M-diSAxWRU2wGHcgLLuIQ6AF6BAgPEAM#v=onepage&q=Parantaka%202&f=false |title=A Glimpse of the Former Glory of India- The Chola Empire |date=2025-03-15 |publisher=Blue Rose Publishers |language=en}}</ref>
=== Conflict with Rashtrakuta feudatories ===
==== Banas and Vaidumbas ====
During the early phase of Parantaka I’s conflict with the Rashtrakuta Empire and its allies, campaigns were directed against the Bana and Vaidumba chiefs. According to K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, the Bana rulers Vikramaditya II and his son Vijayaditya III were defeated in these campaigns, leading to the incorporation of Bana territory under Chola control, at times administered through loyal subordinates. The Vaidumbas, who were associated with the Banas, also appear to have been reduced to submission during this period, with some chiefs seeking refuge in Rashtrakuta domains. These events are generally placed in the early decades of Parantaka I’s reign.<ref>{{cite book
|last=Sen
|first=Sailendra Nath
|title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization
|year=1990
|publisher=Wiley Eastern Ltd.
|page=439
|url=https://archive.org/details/ancientindianhistoryandcivilization/page/n439/mode/1up
|access-date=2026-04-01
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
|last=Sastri
|first=K. A. Nilakanta
|title=The Colas
|year=1955
|publisher=University of Madras
|page=142
|url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.4293/page/n142/mode/1up
|access-date=2026-04-01
}}</ref>
==== Against Nolamba king Iriva Nolamba Diliparaja ====
During the 29th year of Parantaka I's reign, Chola influence appears to have extended into regions near Nolambavadi. A Kannada inscription from this regnal year (c. 936 CE) of parantaka I, found at Bairakur in present-day Karnataka, indicates a possible conflict between Parantaka I and the Nolamba ruler Iriva Nolamba Diliparaja, a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta Empire. While the evidence is not conclusive, some historians suggest that this encounter may have ended in favour of the Cholas, pointing to a possible success of Parantaka I over a Rashtrakuta subordinate.<ref>{{cite web |title=Dates of the Pallava Kings of the 8th and 9th Centuries |author=N. Sethuraman |publisher=Epigraphical Society of India (Conference Paper) |year=1995 |url=https://sethuramanepigraphist.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Dates_0f_the_Pallava_Kings_of_the_8th_and_9th_Centuries.pdf |access-date=2026-04-01}}</ref>
=== Initial encounter with krishna III ===
Some historians note that the struggle between Parantaka I and the Rashtrakutas was not uniformly favourable to the latter. The Kanyakumari inscription of Virarajendra states that Parantaka I defeated Krishna III.<ref>{{Cite web |title=South Indian Inscriptions Volume_3 - Misc.Inscriptions in Tamil @ whatisindia.com |url=https://www.whatisindia.com/inscriptions/south_indian_inscriptions/volume_3/introduction1.html |access-date=2026-02-14 |website=www.whatisindia.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
|editor=E. Hultzsch
|title=South Indian Inscriptions, Volume III, Parts I & II
|publisher=Archaeological Survey of India
|year=1987
|url=https://indianhistorybooks4.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/99999990037356-south-indian-inscriptions-vol-3-pt-1-and-pt-2-279p-inscriptions-south-india-english-1987.pdf
|access-date=2026-04-01
}}</ref> Historian A. S. Altekar interprets this reference as possibly relating to an earlier engagement before 944 CE, suggesting that Parantaka I achieved a temporary success against Krishna III before the renewed Rashtrakuta invasion that culminated in the Battle of Takkolam (c. 949 CE). K. A. Nilakanta Sastri also questioned the early dating of the Siddhalingamadam inscription attributing the conquest of Kanchi and Tanjavur to Krishna III in 944–45, arguing that firm Rashtrakuta occupation of Tondaimandalam occurred only after the Battle of Takkolam.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Altekar |first=A. s |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.57217 |title=Rashtrakutas And Their Times |date=1934}}</ref><ref name="Sastri 1955"/><ref name="Cholas I"/>
===Battle of Takkolam===
At the height of his success, Parantaka's dominions comprised almost the whole of the Tamil country right up to [[Nellore]] in Andhra Pradesh. It is clear from other Chola grants that Parantaka I was a great militarist who had made extensive conquests. He may have had it recorded, but those records are lost to us. He is known to have defeated the kings of Deccan kingdoms by 912 CE and completed at least temporarily the conquests started by his father Aditya. Later in 949 CE, Rashtrakuta king [[Krishna III]] waged war against Cholas, so Parantaka sent an army under his son [[Rajaditya Chola|Rajaditya]] but the Cholas were defeated and crown prince Rajaditya was killed in the battlefield while sitting on elephant.<ref>{{cite book
|last=Sastri
|first=K. A. Nilakanta
|title=The Cholas
|volume=1
|pages=159–162
|url=https://archive.org/details/CholasI/page/n168/mode/1up
}}</ref>

==Civic and religious contributions==
{{Unreferenced section|date=September 2020}}
Although was engaged for the greater part of his long reign in warlike operations, yet he was not unmindful of the victories of peace. The internal administration of his country was a matter in which he took a keen interest. He laid out the rules for the conduct of the village assemblies in an inscription. The village institutions of South India, of course, date from a much earlier period than that of , but he introduced many salutary reforms for the proper administration of local self-Government.

[[Image:parantaka territories late.png|thumb|Chola Territories c. 950]]

The [[Indian copper plate inscriptions|copper-plate inscriptions]] detail Parantaka I's promotion of agricultural prosperity by the digging of numerous canals all over the country.

He also utilised the spoils of war to donate to numerous temple charities. He is reported to have covered the [[Chidambaram]] [[Shiva|Siva]] Temple with golden roof. "''Thillaiyambalathhukku pon koorai veiyntha thevan''" He was a devout Saiva (follower of Siva) in religion.

A record obtained from the ancient temple at Anbil near [[Tiruchirappalli]], sung by nayanmars, which has fragmented documents dating back to at least six thousand years,{{Original research inline|date=September 2020}} informs that instituted some services in the temple with one hundred and eight servitors. However, these documents might be the information about an earlier Parantaka I since lived before only one thousand years. These servitors worked on ancient jaiminiya recension of samaveda and continuously performed many rituals like the live vasantayaagam, somayagam, atiratram, agnihotram etc.

==Personal life==
From his inscriptions we can gather a few details about Parantaka I's personal life. He had many wives, of whom no fewer than eleven appear in the inscriptions. He was religious but secular and encouraged various faiths. We find various members of his family building temples and regularly making donations to various shrines across the kingdom. Kotanta Rama, incidental with Rajaditya, was the eldest son of Parantaka I. There is an inscription of him from Tiruvorriyur making a donation for some lamps during the 30th year of his father.<ref name="South Indian shrines: illustrated, page 56">''South Indian shrines: illustrated, page 56''</ref> Besides him he had several other sons; [[Arinjaya|Arikulakesari]], [[Gandaraditya]] and Uttamasili.

Parankata had the [[Chera Perumals]] as his close allies and the relationship was further strengthened by two marriages. The king is assumed to have married two distinct [[Ko Kizhan Adikal Ravi Neeli|Chera princesses]] (the mothers of his two sons, [[Rajaditya Chola|Rajaditya]] and [[Arinjaya Chola|Arinjaya]]).<ref>George Spencer, 'Ties that Bound: Royal Marriage Alliance in the Chola Period', ''Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on Asian Studies'' (Hong Kong: Asian Research Service, 1982), 723.</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The early Chōḷas history, art, and culture|author=S. Swaminathan|publisher=Sharada Pub. House, 1998|page=23}}</ref>

A member of the retinue of ''pillaiyar (prince) Rajadittadeva'' gave a gift to the [[Vishnu]] temple at Tirunavalur/Tirumanallur in the 32nd year of Parantaka I.<ref name="Early Chola temples: Parantaka I to Rajaraja I, A.D. 907-985, page 64">''Early Chola temples: Parantaka I to Rajaraja I, A.D. 907–985, page 64''</ref> Tirunavalur was also known as "Rajadittapuram" after [[Rajaditya]].<ref name="South Indian Inscriptions: Miscellaneous inscriptions in Tamil (4 pts. in 2), page 198">''South Indian Inscriptions: Miscellaneous inscriptions in Tamil (4 pts. in 2), page 198''</ref> It is assumed that a large number of warriors from the aristocratic families of the Chera kingdom were part of the contingent of this Chera-Chola prince.<ref name=":0">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala: Brahmin Oligarchy and Ritual Monarchy: Political and Social Conditions of Kerala Under the Cēra Perumāḷs of Makōtai (c. AD 800 - AD 1124).'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 96-100.</ref> In the 39th year of Parantaka I, his daughter-in-law, Mahadevadigal, a queen of Rajaditya and the daughter of Lataraja donated a lamp to the temple of Rajadityesvara for the merit of her brother.<ref name="Epigraphia Indica and record of the Archæological Survey of India, Volume 7, page 167">''Epigraphia Indica and record of the Archæological Survey of India, Volume 7, page 167''</ref> He had at least two daughters: Viramadevi and Anupama. Uttamasili does not appear to have lived long enough to succeed to the Chola throne.

He bore numerous epithets such as ''Viranarayana'', ''Virakirti'', ''Vira-Chola'', ''Vikrama-Chola'', ''Irumadi-Sola'' (Chola with two crowns alluding to the Chola and the Pandya kingdoms), ''Devendran'' (lord of the gods), ''Chakravartin'' (the emperor), ''Panditavatsalan'' (fond of learned men), ''Kunjaramallan'' (the wrestler with elephants) and ''Surachulamani'' (the crest jewel of the heroes).

Parantaka I died in 955. His second son [[Gandaraditya]] succeeded him.

==Inscriptions==
[[File:Thiuvotriyur2.jpg|left|thumb|[[Thyagaraja Temple, Tiruvottiyur|Thyagaraja Temple]]]]
[[File:Ekapada Trimurti.jpg|left|thumb|Sculpture in [[Tiruvottiyur]].]]
The following is an inscription of Parantaka I from [[Tiruvottiyur|Tiruvorriyur]]. It is important as it shows that his dominions included regions beyond [[Thondaimandalam]]:

{{Cquote|{{center|''..record of the Chola king Maduraikonda Parakesarivarman(Parantaka) dated in his 34th year. Records gift of lamp to the temple of Tiruvorriyur Mahadeva by Maran Parameswaran alias Sembiyan Soliyavarayan of Sirukulattur in Poyyurkurram, a sub-division of Tenkarai-nadu. Refers to a military officer who destroyed Sitpuli and destroyed Nellore.<ref name="South Indian shrines: illustrated, page 55">''South Indian shrines: illustrated, page 55''</ref>''}}}}

Here we have his son [[Arinjaya]] making a donation. Once again it is from [[Tiruvottiyur|Tiruvorriyur]]:

{{Cquote|{{center|''On the eleventh slab. Records in the 30th year of Maduraikonda Parakesarivarman(Parantaka) dated in his 30th year, gift of gold for a lamp by Arindigai-perumanar, son of Chola-Perumanadigal (i.e Parantaka), to the god Siva at Adhigrama.<ref name="South Indian shrines: illustrated, page 57">''South Indian shrines: illustrated, page 57''</ref>''}}}}

We also have several inscriptions of his son [[Rajaditya]] from Tirunavalur. One such inscription is the following from the temple of Rajadityesvara in Tirunavalur. The temple was also called ''Tiruttondîsvaram'':<ref name="A topographical list of inscriptions in the Tamil Nadu and Kerala states, Volume 2, page 393">''A topographical list of inscriptions in the Tamil Nadu and Kerala states, Volume 2, page 393''</ref>

{{Cquote|{{center|''A record in the 29th year of the Chola king Maduraikonda Parakesarivarman. Records gift of 20 sheep for offerings and of two lamps to the shrines of Rajadityesvara and Agastyesvara by a servant of Rajadityadeva.<ref name="A topographical list of the inscriptions of the Madras Presidency, collected till 1915, page 232">''A topographical list of the inscriptions of the Madras Presidency, collected till 1915, page 232''</ref>''}}}}

== Chola-Chera Perumal relations (c. 9th-10th centuries AD) ==
[[File:Cola-Cera_Perumal_relations_(c._9th-10th_centuries_AD).png|700px|Cola-Cera Perumal relations (c. 9th-10th centuries AD)]]

== See also ==
* [[Battle of Takkolam]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* Venkata Ramanappa, M. N. (1987). ''Outlines of South Indian History''. (Rev. edn.) New Delhi: Vikram.
* Early Chola temples: to Rajaraja I, A.D. 907–985 By S. R. Balasubrahmanyam
* South Indian Inscriptions: Miscellaneous inscriptions in Tamil (4 pts. in 2) By Eugen Hultzsch, Hosakote Krishna Sastri, V. Venkayya, Archaeological Survey of India
* A topographical list of the inscriptions of the Madras Presidency, collected till 1915: with notes and references, Volume 1 By Vijayaraghava Rangacharya
* A topographical list of inscriptions in the Tamil Nadu and Kerala states, Volume 2 By T. V. Mahalingam
* Nilakanta Sastri, K. A. (1935). ''The CōĻas'', University of Madras, Madras (Reprinted 1984).
* Nilakanta Sastri, K. A. (1955). ''A History of South India'', OUP, New Delhi (Reprinted 2002).
* South Indian shrines: illustrated By P. V. Jagadisa Ayyar

{{S-start}}
{{Succession box|title=[[Chola]]|before=[[Aditya I]]|after=[[Gandaraditya]] |years=907–955 CE}}
{{S-end}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Parantaka 01}}
[[Category:Chola kings]]
[[Category:900s births]]
[[Category:955 deaths]]
[[Category:10th-century Hindus]]
[[Category:10th-century Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:Year of birth uncertain]]

Parantaka I

2026-09-11T07:05:00Z

2401:4900:CAE8:3612:6CEF:4DFF:FE8D:E8C3:

{{Use Indian English|date=October 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Parantaka I
| title = Parakesari, Maduraium Eelamum Konda Parakesarivarman, Veera Cholan, Irumudi Cholan
| image = Parantaka territories.png
| caption = [[Chola Empire]] under Parantaka Chola I in 915 CE
| succession = [[Chola Empire|Chola Emperor]]
| reign = 907 CE - 955 CE
| predecessor = [[Aditya I]]
| successor = [[Gandaraditya]]
| spouse = 11 Total<ref>{{cite book|title=Volume 1 of Early Chola Art, S. R. Balasubrahmanyam|author=S. R. Balasubrahmanyam|publisher=Asia publ. house, 1966|page=165}}</ref> Including: Ko "Kizhan Adigal" Iravi Nili Solamadeviyar
| spouse-type = Queen
| issue = [[Rajaditya Chola|Rajaditya]] [[Gandaraditya]] Uttamasili [[Arinjaya Chola|Arinjaya]] Viramadevi Anupama.
| house = [[Cholas]]
| father = [[Aditya I]]
| mother = Tribhuvanamadeviyar
| birth_name = Veera Narayanan
| birth_date = 873 CE
| birth_place = [[Tiruvottiyur]], [[Chola Empire]] (Modern day [[Chennai]] [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]])
| death_date = 955 CE (aged 82)
| death_place = [[Tiruvottiyur]], [[Chola Empire]] (Modern day [[Chennai]] [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]])
| burial_place =
| religion = [[Hinduism]]
| dynasty = [[Chola]]
}}
{{Chola history}}
'''Parantaka Chola I''' ([[Tamil language|Tamil]] : பராந்தக சோழன் I) (873 CE–955 CE) was a [[Chola Empire|Chola]] emperor who ruled for forty-eight years, annexing [[Pandyan dynasty|Pandya]] by defeating [[Maravarman Rajasimha II|Rajasimhan II]] and in the [[Deccan]] won the Battle of Vallala against [[Rashtrakuta dynasty|Rashtrakutas]] which happened before 916 CE.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=K.A. |first=Nilakanta Sastri |title=A History of South India from Prehistoric to the Fall of Vijayanagar |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1955 |pages=Page=168 |language=English}}</ref><ref name="sen2">{{Cite book |last=Sen |first=Sailendra |title=A Textbook of Medieval Indian History |publisher=Primus Books |year=2013 |isbn=978-9-38060-734-4 |pages=46–49}}</ref> The best part of his reign was marked by increasing success and prosperity.

==Invasion of the Pandya kingdom ==
Parantaka I continued the expansion started by his father, and invaded the [[Pandya]] kingdom in 915. He captured the Pandyan capital [[Madurai]] and assumed the title Madurain-konda (Capturer of Madurai). The Pandyan ruler [[Maravarman Rajasimha II|Maravarman Rajasinha II]] sought the help of [[Kassapa V of Anuradhapura|Kassapa V]] of [[Anuradhapura Kingdom|Anuradhapura]] who sent an army to his aid. Parantaka I defeated the combined army at the battle of [[Vellore]]. The Pandya king fled into exile in Sri Lanka and Parantaka I completed his conquest of the entire Pandya country.

Parantaka I spent many years in the newly conquered country reducing it to subjugation, and when he felt he had at last achieved his aim, he wanted to celebrate his victory by a coronation in [[Madurai]] in which he was to invest himself with the insignia of [[Pandya dynasty|Pandyan monarchy]]. However he was failed in this attempt by the Pandyan king, who had carried them away and left them in the safe custody of the Lankan king. Towards the end of his reign, Parantaka I tried to capture them by invading Lanka. [[Mahavamsa]] records that the Lankan king Udaya IV took the Pandya crown and the jewels and hid himself in the [[Sri Pada|Rohana]] hills. Parantaka I's armies had to return empty handed.

After his exploits in the Pandya country and in Lanka, he took the title of ''Maduraiyum Eelamum Konda Parakesarivarman'' – Parakesarivarman who conquered Madurai and Sri Lanka.<ref>K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, ''The Cholas'', Vol. 1, pp. 144–147.</ref>

== Lankan Expedition ==
Towards the end of his reign, Parantaka tried to recapture Pandya regalia by invading Lanka. Although the Cholas were victorious in battle and conquered the northern provinces, but failed to retrieve the insignia.<ref>{{cite journal|last=GEIGER|first=WILH|title=The Trustworthiness of Mahavamsa|url=https://buddhismloot.lib.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-ENG/gei.htm#:~:text=All%20these%20facts%20are%20told,somtimes%20also%20exaggerations%20may%20occur|pages=221|journal=THE Indian Historical Quarterly}}{{dead link|date=June 2026}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/CholasI |title=Cholas I |pages=154}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sastri |first=K. Nilakanta |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=63vJPQAACAAJ |title=The Pandyan Kingdom |date=July 1974 |publisher=Ind-U. S. Incorporated |isbn=978-0-88253-426-8 |pages=82 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Pillay |first=Kolappa Pillay Kanakasabhapathi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ukHRAAAAMAAJ |title=South India and Ceylon |date=1963 |publisher=University of Madras |pages=62–63 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Spencer |first=George W. |date=1976 |title=The Politics of Plunder: The Cholas in Eleventh-Century Ceylon |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2053272 |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=408–409 |doi=10.2307/2053272 |jstor=2053272 |issn=0021-9118}}</ref> Now, at that time, the Senapati here (in Ceylon) was absent in a rebellious border province. The king had him fetched and sent him forth to begin the war. The Senapati set forth, delivered battle and fell in the fight. Thereupon, the king (Udaya) took the crown and the rest and betook himself to Rohana. The Chola troops marched forward, but upon finding no way to enter Rohana, they withdrew and returned to their own country. Although the Chola forces retreated with a large amount of plunder, Sri Lankan sources claims a successful counter-invasion by Ceylon and they were able to recover the loot - an event entirely unmentioned in the Chola records.<ref name=":2" /><ref>Spencer 1976, p. 409</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/CholasI |title=Cholas I |pages=148}}</ref> During his Lankan campaign (c. 946–947 CE), Parantaka I defeated the Sinhalese forces and sacked Anuradhapura, although he was unable to secure lasting control over the region.<ref>{{cite book
|last=de Silva
|first=K. M.
|title=A History of Sri Lanka
|year=1981
|publisher=University of California Press
|page=42 |url=https://archive.org/details/srilankahistory0000desi/page/42/mode/1up
|access-date=2026-03-31
}}</ref> [[Mahavamsa]] also records that the Lankan king Udaya IV took the Pandya crown and the jewels and hid himself in the [[Sri Pada|Rohana]] hills. After his exploits in the Pandya country and in Lanka, he took the title of ''Maduraiyum Eelamum Konda Parakesarivarman'' – Parakesarivarman who conquered Madurai and Sri Lanka.

==Sitpuli–Nellore campaign==

In the 34th year of Parantaka Chola I's reign (c. 941 CE), two inscriptions from Tiruvottiyur record a northern campaign led by one of his military officers, Maran Paramesvaran. A native of Kulattur, Maran Paramesvaran defeated Sitpuli, a district in the Nellore region, and is stated to have destroyed Nellore.

After completing the campaign, Maran Paramesvaran returned south and stopped at Tiruvottiyur, where he made a land grant to Mahadeva as an offering of thanksgiving. Four years later, the land was exempted from the fiscal dues imposed upon it. The inscriptions therefore provide evidence for a northern military expedition undertaken by Parantaka's officer, during which Sitpuli was defeated and Nellore was reportedly destroyed.

The campaign was probably directed against the power of the Eastern Chalukyas under Chalukya Bhima II, with Sitpuli having been located in the southern part of the Eastern Chalukya kingdom. However, as no records of Parantaka have been found on the eastern coast north of Tiruvottiyur, it is uncertain whether the campaign resulted in any permanent territorial or political control in the region.<ref>{{cite book
|last=Sastri
|first=K. A. Nilakanta
|title=The Cholas
|volume=1
|pages=152–153 |url=https://archive.org/details/CholasI/page/n168/mode/1up
}}</ref>
==War against Rashtrakutas ==
=== Background ===

[[Aditya I]] had two sons, namely Parantaka I and Kannara Deva. The eldest son was Parantaka, born to a Chera wife; the youngest son was Kannara Devan, born to a Rashtrakuta wife. Following Aditya I's death, Rashtrakuta king [[Krishna II]] tried to exert his influence in the Chola country by placing his grandson Kannara Deva on the throne.<ref name="Sastri 1955">{{Cite book |last=Sastri |first=K. A. Nilakanta |url=http://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.4293 |title=Colas |date=1955}}</ref>
=== Battle of vallala ===
[[Aditya I]] had two sons namely Parantaka I and Kannara Deva. The eldest son was Parantaka, born to a Chera wife; the youngest son was Kannara Devan, born to Rashtrakuta wife. After the death of Aditya I, Rashtrakuta king [[Krishna II]] tried to establish his influence in the Chola country by placing his grandson Kannara Deva on the throne. But in 907 AD, Parantaka became the king. Disappointed by this, [[Krishna II]] invaded the Chola country. On Rashtrakuta side, prince [[Indra III]] lead the battle, while the Chola side was led by King Parantaka and Prince [[Rajaditya Chola|Rajaditya]]. During 911 CE in the battle of Vallala,<ref name=":1" /> a large number of Rashtrakuta soldiers died and their army began to weaken. Krishna II withdrew and his forces retreated. The Cholas advanced further and attacked the Rashtrakutas and chased away from their territory. Eventually the Cholas defeated the Rashtrakutas. Parantaka Chola's early series of victories would also includes this Rashtrakuta War.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dutta |first=Vidhan |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=QXlSEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA34&dq=Parantaka+2&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwibrp3M-diSAxWRU2wGHcgLLuIQ6AF6BAgPEAM#v=onepage&q=Parantaka%202&f=false |title=A Glimpse of the Former Glory of India- The Chola Empire |date=2025-03-15 |publisher=Blue Rose Publishers |language=en}}</ref>
=== Conflict with Rashtrakuta feudatories ===

==== Banas and Vaidumbas ====

During the early phase of Parantaka I’s conflict with the Rashtrakuta Empire and its allies, campaigns were directed against the Bana and Vaidumba chiefs. According to K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, the Bana rulers Vikramaditya II and his son Vijayaditya III were defeated in these campaigns, leading to the incorporation of Bana territory under Chola control, at times administered through loyal subordinates. The Vaidumbas, who were associated with the Banas, also appear to have been reduced to submission during this period, with some chiefs seeking refuge in Rashtrakuta domains. These events are generally placed in the early decades of Parantaka I’s reign.<ref>{{cite book
|last=Sen
|first=Sailendra Nath
|title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization
|year=1990
|publisher=Wiley Eastern Ltd.
|page=439
|url=https://archive.org/details/ancientindianhistoryandcivilization/page/n439/mode/1up
|access-date=2026-04-01
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
|last=Sastri
|first=K. A. Nilakanta
|title=The Colas
|year=1955
|publisher=University of Madras
|page=142
|url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.4293/page/n142/mode/1up
|access-date=2026-04-01
}}</ref>

==== Against Nolamba king Iriva Nolamba Diliparaja ====

During the 29th year of Parantaka I's reign, Chola influence appears to have extended into regions near Nolambavadi. A Kannada inscription from this regnal year (c. 936 CE) of parantaka I, found at Bairakur in present-day Karnataka, indicates a possible conflict between Parantaka I and the Nolamba ruler Iriva Nolamba Diliparaja, a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta Empire. While the evidence is not conclusive, some historians suggest that this encounter may have ended in favour of the Cholas, pointing to a possible success of Parantaka I over a Rashtrakuta subordinate.<ref>{{cite web |title=Dates of the Pallava Kings of the 8th and 9th Centuries |author=N. Sethuraman |publisher=Epigraphical Society of India (Conference Paper) |year=1995 |url=https://sethuramanepigraphist.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Dates_0f_the_Pallava_Kings_of_the_8th_and_9th_Centuries.pdf |access-date=2026-04-01}}</ref>

=== Initial encounter with krishna III ===
Some historians note that the struggle between Parantaka I and the Rashtrakutas was not uniformly favourable to the latter. The Kanyakumari inscription of Virarajendra states that Parantaka I defeated Krishna III.<ref>{{Cite web |title=South Indian Inscriptions Volume_3 - Misc.Inscriptions in Tamil @ whatisindia.com |url=https://www.whatisindia.com/inscriptions/south_indian_inscriptions/volume_3/introduction1.html |access-date=2026-02-14 |website=www.whatisindia.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
|editor=E. Hultzsch
|title=South Indian Inscriptions, Volume III, Parts I & II
|publisher=Archaeological Survey of India
|year=1987
|url=https://indianhistorybooks4.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/99999990037356-south-indian-inscriptions-vol-3-pt-1-and-pt-2-279p-inscriptions-south-india-english-1987.pdf
|access-date=2026-04-01
}}</ref> Historian A. S. Altekar interprets this reference as possibly relating to an earlier engagement before 944 CE, suggesting that Parantaka I achieved a temporary success against Krishna III before the renewed Rashtrakuta invasion that culminated in the Battle of Takkolam (c. 949 CE). K. A. Nilakanta Sastri also questioned the early dating of the Siddhalingamadam inscription attributing the conquest of Kanchi and Tanjavur to Krishna III in 944–45, arguing that firm Rashtrakuta occupation of Tondaimandalam occurred only after the Battle of Takkolam.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Altekar |first=A. s |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.57217 |title=Rashtrakutas And Their Times |date=1934}}</ref><ref name="Sastri 1955"/><ref name="Cholas I"/>
===Battle of Takkolam===
At the height of his success, Parantaka's dominions comprised almost the whole of the Tamil country right up to [[Nellore]] in Andhra Pradesh. It is clear from other Chola grants that Parantaka I was a great militarist who had made extensive conquests. He may have had it recorded, but those records are lost to us. He is known to have defeated the kings of Deccan kingdoms by 912 CE and completed at least temporarily the conquests started by his father Aditya. Later in 949 CE, Rashtrakuta king [[Krishna III]] waged war against Cholas, so Parantaka sent an army under his son [[Rajaditya Chola|Rajaditya]] but the Cholas were defeated and crown prince Rajaditya was killed in the battlefield while sitting on elephant.<ref>{{cite book
|last=Sastri
|first=K. A. Nilakanta
|title=The Cholas
|volume=1
|pages=159–162
|url=https://archive.org/details/CholasI/page/n168/mode/1up
}}</ref>

==Civic and religious contributions==
{{Unreferenced section|date=September 2020}}
Although was engaged for the greater part of his long reign in warlike operations, yet he was not unmindful of the victories of peace. The internal administration of his country was a matter in which he took a keen interest. He laid out the rules for the conduct of the village assemblies in an inscription. The village institutions of South India, of course, date from a much earlier period than that of , but he introduced many salutary reforms for the proper administration of local self-Government.

[[Image:parantaka territories late.png|thumb|Chola Territories c. 950]]

The [[Indian copper plate inscriptions|copper-plate inscriptions]] detail Parantaka I's promotion of agricultural prosperity by the digging of numerous canals all over the country.

He also utilised the spoils of war to donate to numerous temple charities. He is reported to have covered the [[Chidambaram]] [[Shiva|Siva]] Temple with golden roof. "''Thillaiyambalathhukku pon koorai veiyntha thevan''" He was a devout Saiva (follower of Siva) in religion.

A record obtained from the ancient temple at Anbil near [[Tiruchirappalli]], sung by nayanmars, which has fragmented documents dating back to at least six thousand years,{{Original research inline|date=September 2020}} informs that instituted some services in the temple with one hundred and eight servitors. However, these documents might be the information about an earlier Parantaka I since lived before only one thousand years. These servitors worked on ancient jaiminiya recension of samaveda and continuously performed many rituals like the live vasantayaagam, somayagam, atiratram, agnihotram etc.

==Personal life==
From his inscriptions we can gather a few details about Parantaka I's personal life. He had many wives, of whom no fewer than eleven appear in the inscriptions. He was religious but secular and encouraged various faiths. We find various members of his family building temples and regularly making donations to various shrines across the kingdom. Kotanta Rama, incidental with Rajaditya, was the eldest son of Parantaka I. There is an inscription of him from Tiruvorriyur making a donation for some lamps during the 30th year of his father.<ref name="South Indian shrines: illustrated, page 56">''South Indian shrines: illustrated, page 56''</ref> Besides him he had several other sons; [[Arinjaya|Arikulakesari]], [[Gandaraditya]] and Uttamasili.

Parankata had the [[Chera Perumals]] as his close allies and the relationship was further strengthened by two marriages. The king is assumed to have married two distinct [[Ko Kizhan Adikal Ravi Neeli|Chera princesses]] (the mothers of his two sons, [[Rajaditya Chola|Rajaditya]] and [[Arinjaya Chola|Arinjaya]]).<ref>George Spencer, 'Ties that Bound: Royal Marriage Alliance in the Chola Period', ''Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on Asian Studies'' (Hong Kong: Asian Research Service, 1982), 723.</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The early Chōḷas history, art, and culture|author=S. Swaminathan|publisher=Sharada Pub. House, 1998|page=23}}</ref>

A member of the retinue of ''pillaiyar (prince) Rajadittadeva'' gave a gift to the [[Vishnu]] temple at Tirunavalur/Tirumanallur in the 32nd year of Parantaka I.<ref name="Early Chola temples: Parantaka I to Rajaraja I, A.D. 907-985, page 64">''Early Chola temples: Parantaka I to Rajaraja I, A.D. 907–985, page 64''</ref> Tirunavalur was also known as "Rajadittapuram" after [[Rajaditya]].<ref name="South Indian Inscriptions: Miscellaneous inscriptions in Tamil (4 pts. in 2), page 198">''South Indian Inscriptions: Miscellaneous inscriptions in Tamil (4 pts. in 2), page 198''</ref> It is assumed that a large number of warriors from the aristocratic families of the Chera kingdom were part of the contingent of this Chera-Chola prince.<ref name=":0">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala: Brahmin Oligarchy and Ritual Monarchy: Political and Social Conditions of Kerala Under the Cēra Perumāḷs of Makōtai (c. AD 800 - AD 1124).'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 96-100.</ref> In the 39th year of Parantaka I, his daughter-in-law, Mahadevadigal, a queen of Rajaditya and the daughter of Lataraja donated a lamp to the temple of Rajadityesvara for the merit of her brother.<ref name="Epigraphia Indica and record of the Archæological Survey of India, Volume 7, page 167">''Epigraphia Indica and record of the Archæological Survey of India, Volume 7, page 167''</ref> He had at least two daughters: Viramadevi and Anupama. Uttamasili does not appear to have lived long enough to succeed to the Chola throne.

He bore numerous epithets such as ''Viranarayana'', ''Virakirti'', ''Vira-Chola'', ''Vikrama-Chola'', ''Irumadi-Sola'' (Chola with two crowns alluding to the Chola and the Pandya kingdoms), ''Devendran'' (lord of the gods), ''Chakravartin'' (the emperor), ''Panditavatsalan'' (fond of learned men), ''Kunjaramallan'' (the wrestler with elephants) and ''Surachulamani'' (the crest jewel of the heroes).

Parantaka I died in 955. His second son [[Gandaraditya]] succeeded him.

==Inscriptions==
[[File:Thiuvotriyur2.jpg|left|thumb|[[Thyagaraja Temple, Tiruvottiyur|Thyagaraja Temple]]]]
[[File:Ekapada Trimurti.jpg|left|thumb|Sculpture in [[Tiruvottiyur]].]]
The following is an inscription of Parantaka I from [[Tiruvottiyur|Tiruvorriyur]]. It is important as it shows that his dominions included regions beyond [[Thondaimandalam]]:

{{Cquote|{{center|''..record of the Chola king Maduraikonda Parakesarivarman(Parantaka) dated in his 34th year. Records gift of lamp to the temple of Tiruvorriyur Mahadeva by Maran Parameswaran alias Sembiyan Soliyavarayan of Sirukulattur in Poyyurkurram, a sub-division of Tenkarai-nadu. Refers to a military officer who destroyed Sitpuli and destroyed Nellore.<ref name="South Indian shrines: illustrated, page 55">''South Indian shrines: illustrated, page 55''</ref>''}}}}

Here we have his son [[Arinjaya]] making a donation. Once again it is from [[Tiruvottiyur|Tiruvorriyur]]:

{{Cquote|{{center|''On the eleventh slab. Records in the 30th year of Maduraikonda Parakesarivarman(Parantaka) dated in his 30th year, gift of gold for a lamp by Arindigai-perumanar, son of Chola-Perumanadigal (i.e Parantaka), to the god Siva at Adhigrama.<ref name="South Indian shrines: illustrated, page 57">''South Indian shrines: illustrated, page 57''</ref>''}}}}

We also have several inscriptions of his son [[Rajaditya]] from Tirunavalur. One such inscription is the following from the temple of Rajadityesvara in Tirunavalur. The temple was also called ''Tiruttondîsvaram'':<ref name="A topographical list of inscriptions in the Tamil Nadu and Kerala states, Volume 2, page 393">''A topographical list of inscriptions in the Tamil Nadu and Kerala states, Volume 2, page 393''</ref>

{{Cquote|{{center|''A record in the 29th year of the Chola king Maduraikonda Parakesarivarman. Records gift of 20 sheep for offerings and of two lamps to the shrines of Rajadityesvara and Agastyesvara by a servant of Rajadityadeva.<ref name="A topographical list of the inscriptions of the Madras Presidency, collected till 1915, page 232">''A topographical list of the inscriptions of the Madras Presidency, collected till 1915, page 232''</ref>''}}}}

== Chola-Chera Perumal relations (c. 9th-10th centuries AD) ==
[[File:Cola-Cera_Perumal_relations_(c._9th-10th_centuries_AD).png|700px|Cola-Cera Perumal relations (c. 9th-10th centuries AD)]]

== See also ==
* [[Battle of Takkolam]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* Venkata Ramanappa, M. N. (1987). ''Outlines of South Indian History''. (Rev. edn.) New Delhi: Vikram.
* Early Chola temples: to Rajaraja I, A.D. 907–985 By S. R. Balasubrahmanyam
* South Indian Inscriptions: Miscellaneous inscriptions in Tamil (4 pts. in 2) By Eugen Hultzsch, Hosakote Krishna Sastri, V. Venkayya, Archaeological Survey of India
* A topographical list of the inscriptions of the Madras Presidency, collected till 1915: with notes and references, Volume 1 By Vijayaraghava Rangacharya
* A topographical list of inscriptions in the Tamil Nadu and Kerala states, Volume 2 By T. V. Mahalingam
* Nilakanta Sastri, K. A. (1935). ''The CōĻas'', University of Madras, Madras (Reprinted 1984).
* Nilakanta Sastri, K. A. (1955). ''A History of South India'', OUP, New Delhi (Reprinted 2002).
* South Indian shrines: illustrated By P. V. Jagadisa Ayyar

{{S-start}}
{{Succession box|title=[[Chola]]|before=[[Aditya I]]|after=[[Gandaraditya]] |years=907–955 CE}}
{{S-end}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Parantaka 01}}
[[Category:Chola kings]]
[[Category:900s births]]
[[Category:955 deaths]]
[[Category:10th-century Hindus]]
[[Category:10th-century Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:Year of birth uncertain]]

Parantaka I

2026-09-11T07:04:05Z

2401:4900:CAE8:3612:6CEF:4DFF:FE8D:E8C3:

{{Use Indian English|date=October 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
{{More footnotes needed|date=September 2020}}{{Infobox royalty
| name = Parantaka I
| title = Parakesari, Maduraium Eelamum Konda Parakesarivarman, Veera Cholan, Irumudi Cholan
| image = Parantaka territories.png
| caption = [[Chola Empire]] under Parantaka Chola I in 915 CE
| succession = [[Chola Empire|Chola Emperor]]
| reign = 907 CE - 955 CE
| predecessor = [[Aditya I]]
| successor = [[Gandaraditya]]
| spouse = 11 Total<ref>{{cite book|title=Volume 1 of Early Chola Art, S. R. Balasubrahmanyam|author=S. R. Balasubrahmanyam|publisher=Asia publ. house, 1966|page=165}}</ref> Including: Ko "Kizhan Adigal" Iravi Nili Solamadeviyar
| spouse-type = Queen
| issue = [[Rajaditya Chola|Rajaditya]] [[Gandaraditya]] Uttamasili [[Arinjaya Chola|Arinjaya]] Viramadevi Anupama.
| house = [[Cholas]]
| father = [[Aditya I]]
| mother = Tribhuvanamadeviyar
| birth_name = Veera Narayanan
| birth_date = 873 CE
| birth_place = [[Tiruvottiyur]], [[Chola Empire]] (Modern day [[Chennai]] [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]])
| death_date = 955 CE (aged 82)
| death_place = [[Tiruvottiyur]], [[Chola Empire]] (Modern day [[Chennai]] [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]])
| burial_place =
| religion = [[Hinduism]]
| dynasty = [[Chola]]
}}
{{Chola history}}
'''Parantaka Chola I''' ([[Tamil language|Tamil]] : பராந்தக சோழன் I) (873 CE–955 CE) was a [[Chola Empire|Chola]] emperor who ruled for forty-eight years, annexing [[Pandyan dynasty|Pandya]] by defeating [[Maravarman Rajasimha II|Rajasimhan II]] and in the [[Deccan]] won the Battle of Vallala against [[Rashtrakuta dynasty|Rashtrakutas]] which happened before 916 CE.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=K.A. |first=Nilakanta Sastri |title=A History of South India from Prehistoric to the Fall of Vijayanagar |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1955 |pages=Page=168 |language=English}}</ref><ref name="sen2">{{Cite book |last=Sen |first=Sailendra |title=A Textbook of Medieval Indian History |publisher=Primus Books |year=2013 |isbn=978-9-38060-734-4 |pages=46–49}}</ref> The best part of his reign was marked by increasing success and prosperity.

==Invasion of the Pandya kingdom ==
Parantaka I continued the expansion started by his father, and invaded the [[Pandya]] kingdom in 915. He captured the Pandyan capital [[Madurai]] and assumed the title Madurain-konda (Capturer of Madurai). The Pandyan ruler [[Maravarman Rajasimha II|Maravarman Rajasinha II]] sought the help of [[Kassapa V of Anuradhapura|Kassapa V]] of [[Anuradhapura Kingdom|Anuradhapura]] who sent an army to his aid. Parantaka I defeated the combined army at the battle of [[Vellore]]. The Pandya king fled into exile in Sri Lanka and Parantaka I completed his conquest of the entire Pandya country.

Parantaka I spent many years in the newly conquered country reducing it to subjugation, and when he felt he had at last achieved his aim, he wanted to celebrate his victory by a coronation in [[Madurai]] in which he was to invest himself with the insignia of [[Pandya dynasty|Pandyan monarchy]]. However he was failed in this attempt by the Pandyan king, who had carried them away and left them in the safe custody of the Lankan king. Towards the end of his reign, Parantaka I tried to capture them by invading Lanka. [[Mahavamsa]] records that the Lankan king Udaya IV took the Pandya crown and the jewels and hid himself in the [[Sri Pada|Rohana]] hills. Parantaka I's armies had to return empty handed.

After his exploits in the Pandya country and in Lanka, he took the title of ''Maduraiyum Eelamum Konda Parakesarivarman'' – Parakesarivarman who conquered Madurai and Sri Lanka.<ref>K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, ''The Cholas'', Vol. 1, pp. 144–147.</ref>

== Lankan Expedition ==
Towards the end of his reign, Parantaka tried to recapture Pandya regalia by invading Lanka. Although the Cholas were victorious in battle and conquered the northern provinces, but failed to retrieve the insignia.<ref>{{cite journal|last=GEIGER|first=WILH|title=The Trustworthiness of Mahavamsa|url=https://buddhismloot.lib.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-ENG/gei.htm#:~:text=All%20these%20facts%20are%20told,somtimes%20also%20exaggerations%20may%20occur|pages=221|journal=THE Indian Historical Quarterly}}{{dead link|date=June 2026}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/CholasI |title=Cholas I |pages=154}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sastri |first=K. Nilakanta |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=63vJPQAACAAJ |title=The Pandyan Kingdom |date=July 1974 |publisher=Ind-U. S. Incorporated |isbn=978-0-88253-426-8 |pages=82 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Pillay |first=Kolappa Pillay Kanakasabhapathi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ukHRAAAAMAAJ |title=South India and Ceylon |date=1963 |publisher=University of Madras |pages=62–63 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Spencer |first=George W. |date=1976 |title=The Politics of Plunder: The Cholas in Eleventh-Century Ceylon |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2053272 |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=408–409 |doi=10.2307/2053272 |jstor=2053272 |issn=0021-9118}}</ref> Now, at that time, the Senapati here (in Ceylon) was absent in a rebellious border province. The king had him fetched and sent him forth to begin the war. The Senapati set forth, delivered battle and fell in the fight. Thereupon, the king (Udaya) took the crown and the rest and betook himself to Rohana. The Chola troops marched forward, but upon finding no way to enter Rohana, they withdrew and returned to their own country. Although the Chola forces retreated with a large amount of plunder, Sri Lankan sources claims a successful counter-invasion by Ceylon and they were able to recover the loot - an event entirely unmentioned in the Chola records.<ref name=":2" /><ref>Spencer 1976, p. 409</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/CholasI |title=Cholas I |pages=148}}</ref> During his Lankan campaign (c. 946–947 CE), Parantaka I defeated the Sinhalese forces and sacked Anuradhapura, although he was unable to secure lasting control over the region.<ref>{{cite book
|last=de Silva
|first=K. M.
|title=A History of Sri Lanka
|year=1981
|publisher=University of California Press
|page=42 |url=https://archive.org/details/srilankahistory0000desi/page/42/mode/1up
|access-date=2026-03-31
}}</ref> [[Mahavamsa]] also records that the Lankan king Udaya IV took the Pandya crown and the jewels and hid himself in the [[Sri Pada|Rohana]] hills. After his exploits in the Pandya country and in Lanka, he took the title of ''Maduraiyum Eelamum Konda Parakesarivarman'' – Parakesarivarman who conquered Madurai and Sri Lanka.

==Sitpuli–Nellore campaign==

In the 34th year of Parantaka Chola I's reign (c. 941 CE), two inscriptions from Tiruvottiyur record a northern campaign led by one of his military officers, Maran Paramesvaran. A native of Kulattur, Maran Paramesvaran defeated Sitpuli, a district in the Nellore region, and is stated to have destroyed Nellore.

After completing the campaign, Maran Paramesvaran returned south and stopped at Tiruvottiyur, where he made a land grant to Mahadeva as an offering of thanksgiving. Four years later, the land was exempted from the fiscal dues imposed upon it. The inscriptions therefore provide evidence for a northern military expedition undertaken by Parantaka's officer, during which Sitpuli was defeated and Nellore was reportedly destroyed.

The campaign was probably directed against the power of the Eastern Chalukyas under Chalukya Bhima II, with Sitpuli having been located in the southern part of the Eastern Chalukya kingdom. However, as no records of Parantaka have been found on the eastern coast north of Tiruvottiyur, it is uncertain whether the campaign resulted in any permanent territorial or political control in the region.<ref>{{cite book
|last=Sastri
|first=K. A. Nilakanta
|title=The Cholas
|volume=1
|pages=152–153 |url=https://archive.org/details/CholasI/page/n168/mode/1up
}}</ref>
==War against Rashtrakutas ==
=== Background ===

[[Aditya I]] had two sons, namely Parantaka I and Kannara Deva. The eldest son was Parantaka, born to a Chera wife; the youngest son was Kannara Devan, born to a Rashtrakuta wife. Following Aditya I's death, Rashtrakuta king [[Krishna II]] tried to exert his influence in the Chola country by placing his grandson Kannara Deva on the throne.<ref name="Sastri 1955">{{Cite book |last=Sastri |first=K. A. Nilakanta |url=http://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.4293 |title=Colas |date=1955}}</ref>
=== Battle of vallala ===
[[Aditya I]] had two sons namely Parantaka I and Kannara Deva. The eldest son was Parantaka, born to a Chera wife; the youngest son was Kannara Devan, born to Rashtrakuta wife. After the death of Aditya I, Rashtrakuta king [[Krishna II]] tried to establish his influence in the Chola country by placing his grandson Kannara Deva on the throne. But in 907 AD, Parantaka became the king. Disappointed by this, [[Krishna II]] invaded the Chola country. On Rashtrakuta side, prince [[Indra III]] lead the battle, while the Chola side was led by King Parantaka and Prince [[Rajaditya Chola|Rajaditya]]. During 911 CE in the battle of Vallala,<ref name=":1" /> a large number of Rashtrakuta soldiers died and their army began to weaken. Krishna II withdrew and his forces retreated. The Cholas advanced further and attacked the Rashtrakutas and chased away from their territory. Eventually the Cholas defeated the Rashtrakutas. Parantaka Chola's early series of victories would also includes this Rashtrakuta War.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dutta |first=Vidhan |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=QXlSEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA34&dq=Parantaka+2&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwibrp3M-diSAxWRU2wGHcgLLuIQ6AF6BAgPEAM#v=onepage&q=Parantaka%202&f=false |title=A Glimpse of the Former Glory of India- The Chola Empire |date=2025-03-15 |publisher=Blue Rose Publishers |language=en}}</ref>
=== Conflict with Rashtrakuta feudatories ===

==== Banas and Vaidumbas ====

During the early phase of Parantaka I’s conflict with the Rashtrakuta Empire and its allies, campaigns were directed against the Bana and Vaidumba chiefs. According to K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, the Bana rulers Vikramaditya II and his son Vijayaditya III were defeated in these campaigns, leading to the incorporation of Bana territory under Chola control, at times administered through loyal subordinates. The Vaidumbas, who were associated with the Banas, also appear to have been reduced to submission during this period, with some chiefs seeking refuge in Rashtrakuta domains. These events are generally placed in the early decades of Parantaka I’s reign.<ref>{{cite book
|last=Sen
|first=Sailendra Nath
|title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization
|year=1990
|publisher=Wiley Eastern Ltd.
|page=439
|url=https://archive.org/details/ancientindianhistoryandcivilization/page/n439/mode/1up
|access-date=2026-04-01
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
|last=Sastri
|first=K. A. Nilakanta
|title=The Colas
|year=1955
|publisher=University of Madras
|page=142
|url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.4293/page/n142/mode/1up
|access-date=2026-04-01
}}</ref>

==== Against Nolamba king Iriva Nolamba Diliparaja ====

During the 29th year of Parantaka I's reign, Chola influence appears to have extended into regions near Nolambavadi. A Kannada inscription from this regnal year (c. 936 CE) of parantaka I, found at Bairakur in present-day Karnataka, indicates a possible conflict between Parantaka I and the Nolamba ruler Iriva Nolamba Diliparaja, a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta Empire. While the evidence is not conclusive, some historians suggest that this encounter may have ended in favour of the Cholas, pointing to a possible success of Parantaka I over a Rashtrakuta subordinate.<ref>{{cite web |title=Dates of the Pallava Kings of the 8th and 9th Centuries |author=N. Sethuraman |publisher=Epigraphical Society of India (Conference Paper) |year=1995 |url=https://sethuramanepigraphist.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Dates_0f_the_Pallava_Kings_of_the_8th_and_9th_Centuries.pdf |access-date=2026-04-01}}</ref>

=== Initial encounter with krishna III ===
Some historians note that the struggle between Parantaka I and the Rashtrakutas was not uniformly favourable to the latter. The Kanyakumari inscription of Virarajendra states that Parantaka I defeated Krishna III.<ref>{{Cite web |title=South Indian Inscriptions Volume_3 - Misc.Inscriptions in Tamil @ whatisindia.com |url=https://www.whatisindia.com/inscriptions/south_indian_inscriptions/volume_3/introduction1.html |access-date=2026-02-14 |website=www.whatisindia.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
|editor=E. Hultzsch
|title=South Indian Inscriptions, Volume III, Parts I & II
|publisher=Archaeological Survey of India
|year=1987
|url=https://indianhistorybooks4.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/99999990037356-south-indian-inscriptions-vol-3-pt-1-and-pt-2-279p-inscriptions-south-india-english-1987.pdf
|access-date=2026-04-01
}}</ref> Historian A. S. Altekar interprets this reference as possibly relating to an earlier engagement before 944 CE, suggesting that Parantaka I achieved a temporary success against Krishna III before the renewed Rashtrakuta invasion that culminated in the Battle of Takkolam (c. 949 CE). K. A. Nilakanta Sastri also questioned the early dating of the Siddhalingamadam inscription attributing the conquest of Kanchi and Tanjavur to Krishna III in 944–45, arguing that firm Rashtrakuta occupation of Tondaimandalam occurred only after the Battle of Takkolam.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Altekar |first=A. s |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.57217 |title=Rashtrakutas And Their Times |date=1934}}</ref><ref name="Sastri 1955"/><ref name="Cholas I"/>
===Battle of Takkolam===
At the height of his success, Parantaka's dominions comprised almost the whole of the Tamil country right up to [[Nellore]] in Andhra Pradesh. It is clear from other Chola grants that Parantaka I was a great militarist who had made extensive conquests. He may have had it recorded, but those records are lost to us. He is known to have defeated the kings of Deccan kingdoms by 912 CE and completed at least temporarily the conquests started by his father Aditya. Later in 949 CE, Rashtrakuta king [[Krishna III]] waged war against Cholas, so Parantaka sent an army under his son [[Rajaditya Chola|Rajaditya]] but the Cholas were defeated and crown prince Rajaditya was killed in the battlefield while sitting on elephant.<ref>{{cite book
|last=Sastri
|first=K. A. Nilakanta
|title=The Cholas
|volume=1
|pages=159–162
|url=https://archive.org/details/CholasI/page/n168/mode/1up
}}</ref>

==Civic and religious contributions==
{{Unreferenced section|date=September 2020}}
Although was engaged for the greater part of his long reign in warlike operations, yet he was not unmindful of the victories of peace. The internal administration of his country was a matter in which he took a keen interest. He laid out the rules for the conduct of the village assemblies in an inscription. The village institutions of South India, of course, date from a much earlier period than that of , but he introduced many salutary reforms for the proper administration of local self-Government.

[[Image:parantaka territories late.png|thumb|Chola Territories c. 950]]

The [[Indian copper plate inscriptions|copper-plate inscriptions]] detail Parantaka I's promotion of agricultural prosperity by the digging of numerous canals all over the country.

He also utilised the spoils of war to donate to numerous temple charities. He is reported to have covered the [[Chidambaram]] [[Shiva|Siva]] Temple with golden roof. "''Thillaiyambalathhukku pon koorai veiyntha thevan''" He was a devout Saiva (follower of Siva) in religion.

A record obtained from the ancient temple at Anbil near [[Tiruchirappalli]], sung by nayanmars, which has fragmented documents dating back to at least six thousand years,{{Original research inline|date=September 2020}} informs that instituted some services in the temple with one hundred and eight servitors. However, these documents might be the information about an earlier Parantaka I since lived before only one thousand years. These servitors worked on ancient jaiminiya recension of samaveda and continuously performed many rituals like the live vasantayaagam, somayagam, atiratram, agnihotram etc.

==Personal life==
From his inscriptions we can gather a few details about Parantaka I's personal life. He had many wives, of whom no fewer than eleven appear in the inscriptions. He was religious but secular and encouraged various faiths. We find various members of his family building temples and regularly making donations to various shrines across the kingdom. Kotanta Rama, incidental with Rajaditya, was the eldest son of Parantaka I. There is an inscription of him from Tiruvorriyur making a donation for some lamps during the 30th year of his father.<ref name="South Indian shrines: illustrated, page 56">''South Indian shrines: illustrated, page 56''</ref> Besides him he had several other sons; [[Arinjaya|Arikulakesari]], [[Gandaraditya]] and Uttamasili.

Parankata had the [[Chera Perumals]] as his close allies and the relationship was further strengthened by two marriages. The king is assumed to have married two distinct [[Ko Kizhan Adikal Ravi Neeli|Chera princesses]] (the mothers of his two sons, [[Rajaditya Chola|Rajaditya]] and [[Arinjaya Chola|Arinjaya]]).<ref>George Spencer, 'Ties that Bound: Royal Marriage Alliance in the Chola Period', ''Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on Asian Studies'' (Hong Kong: Asian Research Service, 1982), 723.</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The early Chōḷas history, art, and culture|author=S. Swaminathan|publisher=Sharada Pub. House, 1998|page=23}}</ref>

A member of the retinue of ''pillaiyar (prince) Rajadittadeva'' gave a gift to the [[Vishnu]] temple at Tirunavalur/Tirumanallur in the 32nd year of Parantaka I.<ref name="Early Chola temples: Parantaka I to Rajaraja I, A.D. 907-985, page 64">''Early Chola temples: Parantaka I to Rajaraja I, A.D. 907–985, page 64''</ref> Tirunavalur was also known as "Rajadittapuram" after [[Rajaditya]].<ref name="South Indian Inscriptions: Miscellaneous inscriptions in Tamil (4 pts. in 2), page 198">''South Indian Inscriptions: Miscellaneous inscriptions in Tamil (4 pts. in 2), page 198''</ref> It is assumed that a large number of warriors from the aristocratic families of the Chera kingdom were part of the contingent of this Chera-Chola prince.<ref name=":0">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala: Brahmin Oligarchy and Ritual Monarchy: Political and Social Conditions of Kerala Under the Cēra Perumāḷs of Makōtai (c. AD 800 - AD 1124).'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 96-100.</ref> In the 39th year of Parantaka I, his daughter-in-law, Mahadevadigal, a queen of Rajaditya and the daughter of Lataraja donated a lamp to the temple of Rajadityesvara for the merit of her brother.<ref name="Epigraphia Indica and record of the Archæological Survey of India, Volume 7, page 167">''Epigraphia Indica and record of the Archæological Survey of India, Volume 7, page 167''</ref> He had at least two daughters: Viramadevi and Anupama. Uttamasili does not appear to have lived long enough to succeed to the Chola throne.

He bore numerous epithets such as ''Viranarayana'', ''Virakirti'', ''Vira-Chola'', ''Vikrama-Chola'', ''Irumadi-Sola'' (Chola with two crowns alluding to the Chola and the Pandya kingdoms), ''Devendran'' (lord of the gods), ''Chakravartin'' (the emperor), ''Panditavatsalan'' (fond of learned men), ''Kunjaramallan'' (the wrestler with elephants) and ''Surachulamani'' (the crest jewel of the heroes).

Parantaka I died in 955. His second son [[Gandaraditya]] succeeded him.

==Inscriptions==
[[File:Thiuvotriyur2.jpg|left|thumb|[[Thyagaraja Temple, Tiruvottiyur|Thyagaraja Temple]]]]
[[File:Ekapada Trimurti.jpg|left|thumb|Sculpture in [[Tiruvottiyur]].]]
The following is an inscription of Parantaka I from [[Tiruvottiyur|Tiruvorriyur]]. It is important as it shows that his dominions included regions beyond [[Thondaimandalam]]:

{{Cquote|{{center|''..record of the Chola king Maduraikonda Parakesarivarman(Parantaka) dated in his 34th year. Records gift of lamp to the temple of Tiruvorriyur Mahadeva by Maran Parameswaran alias Sembiyan Soliyavarayan of Sirukulattur in Poyyurkurram, a sub-division of Tenkarai-nadu. Refers to a military officer who destroyed Sitpuli and destroyed Nellore.<ref name="South Indian shrines: illustrated, page 55">''South Indian shrines: illustrated, page 55''</ref>''}}}}

Here we have his son [[Arinjaya]] making a donation. Once again it is from [[Tiruvottiyur|Tiruvorriyur]]:

{{Cquote|{{center|''On the eleventh slab. Records in the 30th year of Maduraikonda Parakesarivarman(Parantaka) dated in his 30th year, gift of gold for a lamp by Arindigai-perumanar, son of Chola-Perumanadigal (i.e Parantaka), to the god Siva at Adhigrama.<ref name="South Indian shrines: illustrated, page 57">''South Indian shrines: illustrated, page 57''</ref>''}}}}

We also have several inscriptions of his son [[Rajaditya]] from Tirunavalur. One such inscription is the following from the temple of Rajadityesvara in Tirunavalur. The temple was also called ''Tiruttondîsvaram'':<ref name="A topographical list of inscriptions in the Tamil Nadu and Kerala states, Volume 2, page 393">''A topographical list of inscriptions in the Tamil Nadu and Kerala states, Volume 2, page 393''</ref>

{{Cquote|{{center|''A record in the 29th year of the Chola king Maduraikonda Parakesarivarman. Records gift of 20 sheep for offerings and of two lamps to the shrines of Rajadityesvara and Agastyesvara by a servant of Rajadityadeva.<ref name="A topographical list of the inscriptions of the Madras Presidency, collected till 1915, page 232">''A topographical list of the inscriptions of the Madras Presidency, collected till 1915, page 232''</ref>''}}}}

== Chola-Chera Perumal relations (c. 9th-10th centuries AD) ==
[[File:Cola-Cera_Perumal_relations_(c._9th-10th_centuries_AD).png|700px|Cola-Cera Perumal relations (c. 9th-10th centuries AD)]]

== See also ==
* [[Battle of Takkolam]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* Venkata Ramanappa, M. N. (1987). ''Outlines of South Indian History''. (Rev. edn.) New Delhi: Vikram.
* Early Chola temples: to Rajaraja I, A.D. 907–985 By S. R. Balasubrahmanyam
* South Indian Inscriptions: Miscellaneous inscriptions in Tamil (4 pts. in 2) By Eugen Hultzsch, Hosakote Krishna Sastri, V. Venkayya, Archaeological Survey of India
* A topographical list of the inscriptions of the Madras Presidency, collected till 1915: with notes and references, Volume 1 By Vijayaraghava Rangacharya
* A topographical list of inscriptions in the Tamil Nadu and Kerala states, Volume 2 By T. V. Mahalingam
* Nilakanta Sastri, K. A. (1935). ''The CōĻas'', University of Madras, Madras (Reprinted 1984).
* Nilakanta Sastri, K. A. (1955). ''A History of South India'', OUP, New Delhi (Reprinted 2002).
* South Indian shrines: illustrated By P. V. Jagadisa Ayyar

{{S-start}}
{{Succession box|title=[[Chola]]|before=[[Aditya I]]|after=[[Gandaraditya]] |years=907–955 CE}}
{{S-end}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Parantaka 01}}
[[Category:Chola kings]]
[[Category:900s births]]
[[Category:955 deaths]]
[[Category:10th-century Hindus]]
[[Category:10th-century Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:Year of birth uncertain]]

Parantaka I

2026-09-11T07:02:11Z

2401:4900:CAE8:3612:6CEF:4DFF:FE8D:E8C3:

{{Use Indian English|date=October 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
{{More footnotes needed|date=September 2020}}{{Infobox royalty
| name = Parantaka I
| title = Parakesari, Maduraium Eelamum Konda Parakesarivarman, Veera Cholan, Irumudi Cholan
| image = Parantaka territories.png
| caption = [[Chola Empire]] under Parantaka Chola I in 915 CE
| succession = [[Chola Empire|Chola Emperor]]
| reign = 907 CE - 955 CE
| predecessor = [[Aditya I]]
| successor = [[Gandaraditya]]
| spouse = 11 Total<ref>{{cite book|title=Volume 1 of Early Chola Art, S. R. Balasubrahmanyam|author=S. R. Balasubrahmanyam|publisher=Asia publ. house, 1966|page=165}}</ref> Including: Ko "Kizhan Adigal" Iravi Nili Solamadeviyar
| spouse-type = Queen
| issue = [[Rajaditya Chola|Rajaditya]] [[Gandaraditya]] Uttamasili [[Arinjaya Chola|Arinjaya]] Viramadevi Anupama.
| house = [[Cholas]]
| father = [[Aditya I]]
| mother = Tribhuvanamadeviyar
| birth_name = Veera Narayanan
| birth_date = 873 CE
| birth_place = [[Tiruvottiyur]], [[Chola Empire]] (Modern day [[Chennai]] [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]])
| death_date = 955 CE (aged 82)
| death_place = [[Tiruvottiyur]], [[Chola Empire]] (Modern day [[Chennai]] [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]])
| burial_place =
| religion = [[Hinduism]]
| dynasty = [[Chola]]
}}
{{Chola history}}
'''Parantaka Chola I''' ([[Tamil language|Tamil]] : பராந்தக சோழன் I) (873 CE–955 CE) was a [[Chola Empire|Chola]] emperor who ruled for forty-eight years, annexing [[Pandyan dynasty|Pandya]] by defeating [[Maravarman Rajasimha II|Rajasimhan II]] and in the [[Deccan]] won the Battle of Vallala against [[Rashtrakuta dynasty|Rashtrakutas]] which happened before 916 CE.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=K.A. |first=Nilakanta Sastri |title=A History of South India from Prehistoric to the Fall of Vijayanagar |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1955 |pages=Page=168 |language=English}}</ref><ref name="sen2">{{Cite book |last=Sen |first=Sailendra |title=A Textbook of Medieval Indian History |publisher=Primus Books |year=2013 |isbn=978-9-38060-734-4 |pages=46–49}}</ref> The best part of his reign was marked by increasing success and prosperity.

==Invasion of the Pandya kingdom ==
Parantaka I continued the expansion started by his father, and invaded the [[Pandya]] kingdom in 915. He captured the Pandyan capital [[Madurai]] and assumed the title Madurain-konda (Capturer of Madurai). The Pandyan ruler [[Maravarman Rajasimha II|Maravarman Rajasinha II]] sought the help of [[Kassapa V of Anuradhapura|Kassapa V]] of [[Anuradhapura Kingdom|Anuradhapura]] who sent an army to his aid. Parantaka I defeated the combined army at the battle of [[Vellore]]. The Pandya king fled into exile in Sri Lanka and Parantaka I completed his conquest of the entire Pandya country.

Parantaka I spent many years in the newly conquered country reducing it to subjugation, and when he felt he had at last achieved his aim, he wanted to celebrate his victory by a coronation in [[Madurai]] in which he was to invest himself with the insignia of [[Pandya dynasty|Pandyan monarchy]]. However he was failed in this attempt by the Pandyan king, who had carried them away and left them in the safe custody of the Lankan king. Towards the end of his reign, Parantaka I tried to capture them by invading Lanka. [[Mahavamsa]] records that the Lankan king Udaya IV took the Pandya crown and the jewels and hid himself in the [[Sri Pada|Rohana]] hills. Parantaka I's armies had to return empty handed.

After his exploits in the Pandya country and in Lanka, he took the title of ''Maduraiyum Eelamum Konda Parakesarivarman'' – Parakesarivarman who conquered Madurai and Sri Lanka.<ref>K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, ''The Cholas'', Vol. 1, pp. 144–147.</ref>

== Lankan Expedition ==
Towards the end of his reign, Parantaka tried to recapture Pandya regalia by invading Lanka. Although the Cholas were victorious in battle and conquered the northern provinces, but failed to retrieve the insignia.<ref>{{cite journal|last=GEIGER|first=WILH|title=The Trustworthiness of Mahavamsa|url=https://buddhismloot.lib.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-ENG/gei.htm#:~:text=All%20these%20facts%20are%20told,somtimes%20also%20exaggerations%20may%20occur|pages=221|journal=THE Indian Historical Quarterly}}{{dead link|date=June 2026}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/CholasI |title=Cholas I |pages=154}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sastri |first=K. Nilakanta |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=63vJPQAACAAJ |title=The Pandyan Kingdom |date=July 1974 |publisher=Ind-U. S. Incorporated |isbn=978-0-88253-426-8 |pages=82 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Pillay |first=Kolappa Pillay Kanakasabhapathi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ukHRAAAAMAAJ |title=South India and Ceylon |date=1963 |publisher=University of Madras |pages=62–63 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Spencer |first=George W. |date=1976 |title=The Politics of Plunder: The Cholas in Eleventh-Century Ceylon |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2053272 |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=408–409 |doi=10.2307/2053272 |jstor=2053272 |issn=0021-9118}}</ref> Now, at that time, the Senapati here (in Ceylon) was absent in a rebellious border province. The king had him fetched and sent him forth to begin the war. The Senapati set forth, delivered battle and fell in the fight. Thereupon, the king (Udaya) took the crown and the rest and betook himself to Rohana. The Chola troops marched forward, but upon finding no way to enter Rohana, they withdrew and returned to their own country. Although the Chola forces retreated with a large amount of plunder, Sri Lankan sources claims a successful counter-invasion by Ceylon and they were able to recover the loot - an event entirely unmentioned in the Chola records.<ref name=":2" /><ref>Spencer 1976, p. 409</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/CholasI |title=Cholas I |pages=148}}</ref> During his Lankan campaign (c. 946–947 CE), Parantaka I defeated the Sinhalese forces and sacked Anuradhapura, although he was unable to secure lasting control over the region.<ref>{{cite book
|last=de Silva
|first=K. M.
|title=A History of Sri Lanka
|year=1981
|publisher=University of California Press
|page=42 |url=https://archive.org/details/srilankahistory0000desi/page/42/mode/1up
|access-date=2026-03-31
}}</ref> [[Mahavamsa]] also records that the Lankan king Udaya IV took the Pandya crown and the jewels and hid himself in the [[Sri Pada|Rohana]] hills. After his exploits in the Pandya country and in Lanka, he took the title of ''Maduraiyum Eelamum Konda Parakesarivarman'' – Parakesarivarman who conquered Madurai and Sri Lanka.

==Sitpuli–Nellore campaign==

In the 34th year of Parantaka Chola I's reign (c. 941 CE), two inscriptions from Tiruvottiyur record a northern campaign led by one of his military officers, Maran Paramesvaran. A native of Kulattur, Maran Paramesvaran defeated Sitpuli, a district in the Nellore region, and is stated to have destroyed Nellore.

After completing the campaign, Maran Paramesvaran returned south and stopped at Tiruvottiyur, where he made a land grant to Mahadeva as an offering of thanksgiving. Four years later, the land was exempted from the fiscal dues imposed upon it. The inscriptions therefore provide evidence for a northern military expedition undertaken by Parantaka's officer, during which Sitpuli was defeated and Nellore was reportedly destroyed.

The campaign was probably directed against the power of the Eastern Chalukyas under Chalukya Bhima II, with Sitpuli having been located in the southern part of the Eastern Chalukya kingdom. However, as no records of Parantaka have been found on the eastern coast north of Tiruvottiyur, it is uncertain whether the campaign resulted in any permanent territorial or political control in the region.<ref>{{cite book
|last=Sastri
|first=K. A. Nilakanta
|title=The Cholas
|volume=1
|pages=152–153 |url=https://archive.org/details/CholasI/page/n168/mode/1up
}}</ref>
==War against Rashtrakutas ==
=== Background ===

[[Aditya I]] had two sons, namely Parantaka I and Kannara Deva. The eldest son was Parantaka, born to a Chera wife; the youngest son was Kannara Devan, born to a Rashtrakuta wife. Following Aditya I's death, Rashtrakuta king [[Krishna II]] tried to exert his influence in the Chola country by placing his grandson Kannara Deva on the throne.<ref name="Sastri 1955">{{Cite book |last=Sastri |first=K. A. Nilakanta |url=http://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.4293 |title=Colas |date=1955}}</ref>
=== Battle of vallala ===
[[Aditya I]] had two sons namely Parantaka I and Kannara Deva. The eldest son was Parantaka, born to a Chera wife; the youngest son was Kannara Devan, born to Rashtrakuta wife. After the death of Aditya I, Rashtrakuta king [[Krishna II]] tried to establish his influence in the Chola country by placing his grandson Kannara Deva on the throne. But in 907 AD, Parantaka became the king. Disappointed by this, [[Krishna II]] invaded the Chola country. On Rashtrakuta side, prince [[Indra III]] lead the battle, while the Chola side was led by King Parantaka and Prince [[Rajaditya Chola|Rajaditya]]. During 911 CE in the battle of Vallala,<ref name=":1" /> a large number of Rashtrakuta soldiers died and their army began to weaken. Krishna II withdrew and his forces retreated. The Cholas advanced further and attacked the Rashtrakutas and chased away from their territory. Eventually the Cholas defeated the Rashtrakutas. Parantaka Chola's early series of victories would also includes this Rashtrakuta War.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dutta |first=Vidhan |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=QXlSEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA34&dq=Parantaka+2&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwibrp3M-diSAxWRU2wGHcgLLuIQ6AF6BAgPEAM#v=onepage&q=Parantaka%202&f=false |title=A Glimpse of the Former Glory of India- The Chola Empire |date=2025-03-15 |publisher=Blue Rose Publishers |language=en}}</ref>
=== Conflict with Rashtrakuta feudatories ===

==== Banas and Vaidumbas ====

During the early phase of Parantaka I’s conflict with the Rashtrakuta Empire and its allies, campaigns were directed against the Bana and Vaidumba chiefs. According to K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, the Bana rulers Vikramaditya II and his son Vijayaditya III were defeated in these campaigns, leading to the incorporation of Bana territory under Chola control, at times administered through loyal subordinates. The Vaidumbas, who were associated with the Banas, also appear to have been reduced to submission during this period, with some chiefs seeking refuge in Rashtrakuta domains. These events are generally placed in the early decades of Parantaka I’s reign.<ref>{{cite book
|last=Sen
|first=Sailendra Nath
|title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization
|year=1990
|publisher=Wiley Eastern Ltd.
|page=439
|url=https://archive.org/details/ancientindianhistoryandcivilization/page/n439/mode/1up
|access-date=2026-04-01
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
|last=Sastri
|first=K. A. Nilakanta
|title=The Colas
|year=1955
|publisher=University of Madras
|page=142
|url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.4293/page/n142/mode/1up
|access-date=2026-04-01
}}</ref>

==== Against Nolamba king Iriva Nolamba Diliparaja ====

During the 29th year of Parantaka I's reign, Chola influence appears to have extended into regions near Nolambavadi. A Kannada inscription from this regnal year (c. 936 CE) of parantaka I, found at Bairakur in present-day Karnataka, indicates a possible conflict between Parantaka I and the Nolamba ruler Iriva Nolamba Diliparaja, a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta Empire. While the evidence is not conclusive, some historians suggest that this encounter may have ended in favour of the Cholas, pointing to a possible success of Parantaka I over a Rashtrakuta subordinate.<ref>{{cite web |title=Dates of the Pallava Kings of the 8th and 9th Centuries |author=N. Sethuraman |publisher=Epigraphical Society of India (Conference Paper) |year=1995 |url=https://sethuramanepigraphist.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Dates_0f_the_Pallava_Kings_of_the_8th_and_9th_Centuries.pdf |access-date=2026-04-01}}</ref>

=== Initial encounter with krishna III ===
Some historians note that the struggle between Parantaka I and the Rashtrakutas was not uniformly favourable to the latter. The Kanyakumari inscription of Virarajendra states that Parantaka I defeated Krishna III.<ref>{{Cite web |title=South Indian Inscriptions Volume_3 - Misc.Inscriptions in Tamil @ whatisindia.com |url=https://www.whatisindia.com/inscriptions/south_indian_inscriptions/volume_3/introduction1.html |access-date=2026-02-14 |website=www.whatisindia.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
|editor=E. Hultzsch
|title=South Indian Inscriptions, Volume III, Parts I & II
|publisher=Archaeological Survey of India
|year=1987
|url=https://indianhistorybooks4.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/99999990037356-south-indian-inscriptions-vol-3-pt-1-and-pt-2-279p-inscriptions-south-india-english-1987.pdf
|access-date=2026-04-01
}}</ref> Historian A. S. Altekar interprets this reference as possibly relating to an earlier engagement before 944 CE, suggesting that Parantaka I achieved a temporary success against Krishna III before the renewed Rashtrakuta invasion that culminated in the Battle of Takkolam (c. 949 CE). K. A. Nilakanta Sastri also questioned the early dating of the Siddhalingamadam inscription attributing the conquest of Kanchi and Tanjavur to Krishna III in 944–45, arguing that firm Rashtrakuta occupation of Tondaimandalam occurred only after the Battle of Takkolam.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Altekar |first=A. s |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.57217 |title=Rashtrakutas And Their Times |date=1934}}</ref><ref name="Sastri 1955"/><ref name="Cholas I"/>
===Battle of Takkolam===
At the height of his success, Parantaka's dominions comprised almost the whole of the Tamil country right up to [[Nellore]] in Andhra Pradesh. It is clear from other Chola grants that Parantaka I was a great militarist who had made extensive conquests. He may have had it recorded, but those records are lost to us. He is known to have defeated the kings of Deccan kingdoms by 912 CE and completed at least temporarily the conquests started by his father Aditya. Later in 949 CE, Rashtrakuta king [[Krishna III]] waged war against Cholas, so Parantaka sent an army under his son [[Rajaditya Chola|Rajaditya]] but the Cholas were defeated and crown prince Rajaditya was killed in the battlefield while sitting on elephant.

==Civic and religious contributions==
{{Unreferenced section|date=September 2020}}
Although was engaged for the greater part of his long reign in warlike operations, yet he was not unmindful of the victories of peace. The internal administration of his country was a matter in which he took a keen interest. He laid out the rules for the conduct of the village assemblies in an inscription. The village institutions of South India, of course, date from a much earlier period than that of , but he introduced many salutary reforms for the proper administration of local self-Government.

[[Image:parantaka territories late.png|thumb|Chola Territories c. 950]]

The [[Indian copper plate inscriptions|copper-plate inscriptions]] detail Parantaka I's promotion of agricultural prosperity by the digging of numerous canals all over the country.

He also utilised the spoils of war to donate to numerous temple charities. He is reported to have covered the [[Chidambaram]] [[Shiva|Siva]] Temple with golden roof. "''Thillaiyambalathhukku pon koorai veiyntha thevan''" He was a devout Saiva (follower of Siva) in religion.

A record obtained from the ancient temple at Anbil near [[Tiruchirappalli]], sung by nayanmars, which has fragmented documents dating back to at least six thousand years,{{Original research inline|date=September 2020}} informs that instituted some services in the temple with one hundred and eight servitors. However, these documents might be the information about an earlier Parantaka I since lived before only one thousand years. These servitors worked on ancient jaiminiya recension of samaveda and continuously performed many rituals like the live vasantayaagam, somayagam, atiratram, agnihotram etc.

==Personal life==
From his inscriptions we can gather a few details about Parantaka I's personal life. He had many wives, of whom no fewer than eleven appear in the inscriptions. He was religious but secular and encouraged various faiths. We find various members of his family building temples and regularly making donations to various shrines across the kingdom. Kotanta Rama, incidental with Rajaditya, was the eldest son of Parantaka I. There is an inscription of him from Tiruvorriyur making a donation for some lamps during the 30th year of his father.<ref name="South Indian shrines: illustrated, page 56">''South Indian shrines: illustrated, page 56''</ref> Besides him he had several other sons; [[Arinjaya|Arikulakesari]], [[Gandaraditya]] and Uttamasili.

Parankata had the [[Chera Perumals]] as his close allies and the relationship was further strengthened by two marriages. The king is assumed to have married two distinct [[Ko Kizhan Adikal Ravi Neeli|Chera princesses]] (the mothers of his two sons, [[Rajaditya Chola|Rajaditya]] and [[Arinjaya Chola|Arinjaya]]).<ref>George Spencer, 'Ties that Bound: Royal Marriage Alliance in the Chola Period', ''Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on Asian Studies'' (Hong Kong: Asian Research Service, 1982), 723.</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The early Chōḷas history, art, and culture|author=S. Swaminathan|publisher=Sharada Pub. House, 1998|page=23}}</ref>

A member of the retinue of ''pillaiyar (prince) Rajadittadeva'' gave a gift to the [[Vishnu]] temple at Tirunavalur/Tirumanallur in the 32nd year of Parantaka I.<ref name="Early Chola temples: Parantaka I to Rajaraja I, A.D. 907-985, page 64">''Early Chola temples: Parantaka I to Rajaraja I, A.D. 907–985, page 64''</ref> Tirunavalur was also known as "Rajadittapuram" after [[Rajaditya]].<ref name="South Indian Inscriptions: Miscellaneous inscriptions in Tamil (4 pts. in 2), page 198">''South Indian Inscriptions: Miscellaneous inscriptions in Tamil (4 pts. in 2), page 198''</ref> It is assumed that a large number of warriors from the aristocratic families of the Chera kingdom were part of the contingent of this Chera-Chola prince.<ref name=":0">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala: Brahmin Oligarchy and Ritual Monarchy: Political and Social Conditions of Kerala Under the Cēra Perumāḷs of Makōtai (c. AD 800 - AD 1124).'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 96-100.</ref> In the 39th year of Parantaka I, his daughter-in-law, Mahadevadigal, a queen of Rajaditya and the daughter of Lataraja donated a lamp to the temple of Rajadityesvara for the merit of her brother.<ref name="Epigraphia Indica and record of the Archæological Survey of India, Volume 7, page 167">''Epigraphia Indica and record of the Archæological Survey of India, Volume 7, page 167''</ref> He had at least two daughters: Viramadevi and Anupama. Uttamasili does not appear to have lived long enough to succeed to the Chola throne.

He bore numerous epithets such as ''Viranarayana'', ''Virakirti'', ''Vira-Chola'', ''Vikrama-Chola'', ''Irumadi-Sola'' (Chola with two crowns alluding to the Chola and the Pandya kingdoms), ''Devendran'' (lord of the gods), ''Chakravartin'' (the emperor), ''Panditavatsalan'' (fond of learned men), ''Kunjaramallan'' (the wrestler with elephants) and ''Surachulamani'' (the crest jewel of the heroes).

Parantaka I died in 955. His second son [[Gandaraditya]] succeeded him.

==Inscriptions==
[[File:Thiuvotriyur2.jpg|left|thumb|[[Thyagaraja Temple, Tiruvottiyur|Thyagaraja Temple]]]]
[[File:Ekapada Trimurti.jpg|left|thumb|Sculpture in [[Tiruvottiyur]].]]
The following is an inscription of Parantaka I from [[Tiruvottiyur|Tiruvorriyur]]. It is important as it shows that his dominions included regions beyond [[Thondaimandalam]]:

{{Cquote|{{center|''..record of the Chola king Maduraikonda Parakesarivarman(Parantaka) dated in his 34th year. Records gift of lamp to the temple of Tiruvorriyur Mahadeva by Maran Parameswaran alias Sembiyan Soliyavarayan of Sirukulattur in Poyyurkurram, a sub-division of Tenkarai-nadu. Refers to a military officer who destroyed Sitpuli and destroyed Nellore.<ref name="South Indian shrines: illustrated, page 55">''South Indian shrines: illustrated, page 55''</ref>''}}}}

Here we have his son [[Arinjaya]] making a donation. Once again it is from [[Tiruvottiyur|Tiruvorriyur]]:

{{Cquote|{{center|''On the eleventh slab. Records in the 30th year of Maduraikonda Parakesarivarman(Parantaka) dated in his 30th year, gift of gold for a lamp by Arindigai-perumanar, son of Chola-Perumanadigal (i.e Parantaka), to the god Siva at Adhigrama.<ref name="South Indian shrines: illustrated, page 57">''South Indian shrines: illustrated, page 57''</ref>''}}}}

We also have several inscriptions of his son [[Rajaditya]] from Tirunavalur. One such inscription is the following from the temple of Rajadityesvara in Tirunavalur. The temple was also called ''Tiruttondîsvaram'':<ref name="A topographical list of inscriptions in the Tamil Nadu and Kerala states, Volume 2, page 393">''A topographical list of inscriptions in the Tamil Nadu and Kerala states, Volume 2, page 393''</ref>

{{Cquote|{{center|''A record in the 29th year of the Chola king Maduraikonda Parakesarivarman. Records gift of 20 sheep for offerings and of two lamps to the shrines of Rajadityesvara and Agastyesvara by a servant of Rajadityadeva.<ref name="A topographical list of the inscriptions of the Madras Presidency, collected till 1915, page 232">''A topographical list of the inscriptions of the Madras Presidency, collected till 1915, page 232''</ref>''}}}}

== Chola-Chera Perumal relations (c. 9th-10th centuries AD) ==
[[File:Cola-Cera_Perumal_relations_(c._9th-10th_centuries_AD).png|700px|Cola-Cera Perumal relations (c. 9th-10th centuries AD)]]

== See also ==
* [[Battle of Takkolam]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* Venkata Ramanappa, M. N. (1987). ''Outlines of South Indian History''. (Rev. edn.) New Delhi: Vikram.
* Early Chola temples: to Rajaraja I, A.D. 907–985 By S. R. Balasubrahmanyam
* South Indian Inscriptions: Miscellaneous inscriptions in Tamil (4 pts. in 2) By Eugen Hultzsch, Hosakote Krishna Sastri, V. Venkayya, Archaeological Survey of India
* A topographical list of the inscriptions of the Madras Presidency, collected till 1915: with notes and references, Volume 1 By Vijayaraghava Rangacharya
* A topographical list of inscriptions in the Tamil Nadu and Kerala states, Volume 2 By T. V. Mahalingam
* Nilakanta Sastri, K. A. (1935). ''The CōĻas'', University of Madras, Madras (Reprinted 1984).
* Nilakanta Sastri, K. A. (1955). ''A History of South India'', OUP, New Delhi (Reprinted 2002).
* South Indian shrines: illustrated By P. V. Jagadisa Ayyar

{{S-start}}
{{Succession box|title=[[Chola]]|before=[[Aditya I]]|after=[[Gandaraditya]] |years=907–955 CE}}
{{S-end}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Parantaka 01}}
[[Category:Chola kings]]
[[Category:900s births]]
[[Category:955 deaths]]
[[Category:10th-century Hindus]]
[[Category:10th-century Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:Year of birth uncertain]]

Parantaka I

2026-09-11T06:43:36Z

2401:4900:CAE8:3612:6CEF:4DFF:FE8D:E8C3:

{{Use Indian English|date=October 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
{{More footnotes needed|date=September 2020}}{{Infobox royalty
| name = Parantaka I
| title = Parakesari, Maduraium Eelamum Konda Parakesarivarman, Veera Cholan, Irumudi Cholan
| image = Parantaka territories.png
| caption = [[Chola Empire]] under Parantaka Chola I in 915 CE
| succession = [[Chola Empire|Chola Emperor]]
| reign = 907 CE - 955 CE
| predecessor = [[Aditya I]]
| successor = [[Gandaraditya]]
| spouse = 11 Total<ref>{{cite book|title=Volume 1 of Early Chola Art, S. R. Balasubrahmanyam|author=S. R. Balasubrahmanyam|publisher=Asia publ. house, 1966|page=165}}</ref> Including: Ko "Kizhan Adigal" Iravi Nili Solamadeviyar
| spouse-type = Queen
| issue = [[Rajaditya Chola|Rajaditya]] [[Gandaraditya]] Uttamasili [[Arinjaya Chola|Arinjaya]] Viramadevi Anupama.
| house = [[Cholas]]
| father = [[Aditya I]]
| mother = Tribhuvanamadeviyar
| birth_name = Veera Narayanan
| birth_date = 873 CE
| birth_place = [[Tiruvottiyur]], [[Chola Empire]] (Modern day [[Chennai]] [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]])
| death_date = 955 CE (aged 82)
| death_place = [[Tiruvottiyur]], [[Chola Empire]] (Modern day [[Chennai]] [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]])
| burial_place =
| religion = [[Hinduism]]
| dynasty = [[Chola]]
}}
{{Chola history}}
'''Parantaka Chola I''' ([[Tamil language|Tamil]] : பராந்தக சோழன் I) (873 CE–955 CE) was a [[Chola Empire|Chola]] emperor who ruled for forty-eight years, annexing [[Pandyan dynasty|Pandya]] by defeating [[Maravarman Rajasimha II|Rajasimhan II]] and in the [[Deccan]] won the Battle of Vallala against [[Rashtrakuta dynasty|Rashtrakutas]] which happened before 916 CE.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=K.A. |first=Nilakanta Sastri |title=A History of South India from Prehistoric to the Fall of Vijayanagar |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1955 |pages=Page=168 |language=English}}</ref><ref name="sen2">{{Cite book |last=Sen |first=Sailendra |title=A Textbook of Medieval Indian History |publisher=Primus Books |year=2013 |isbn=978-9-38060-734-4 |pages=46–49}}</ref> The best part of his reign was marked by increasing success and prosperity.

==Invasion of the Pandya kingdom ==
Parantaka I continued the expansion started by his father, and invaded the [[Pandya]] kingdom in 915. He captured the Pandyan capital [[Madurai]] and assumed the title Madurain-konda (Capturer of Madurai). The Pandyan ruler [[Maravarman Rajasimha II|Maravarman Rajasinha II]] sought the help of [[Kassapa V of Anuradhapura|Kassapa V]] of [[Anuradhapura Kingdom|Anuradhapura]] who sent an army to his aid. Parantaka I defeated the combined army at the battle of [[Vellore]]. The Pandya king fled into exile in Sri Lanka and Parantaka I completed his conquest of the entire Pandya country.

Parantaka I spent many years in the newly conquered country reducing it to subjugation, and when he felt he had at last achieved his aim, he wanted to celebrate his victory by a coronation in [[Madurai]] in which he was to invest himself with the insignia of [[Pandya dynasty|Pandyan monarchy]]. However he was failed in this attempt by the Pandyan king, who had carried them away and left them in the safe custody of the Lankan king. Towards the end of his reign, Parantaka I tried to capture them by invading Lanka. [[Mahavamsa]] records that the Lankan king Udaya IV took the Pandya crown and the jewels and hid himself in the [[Sri Pada|Rohana]] hills. Parantaka I's armies had to return empty handed.

After his exploits in the Pandya country and in Lanka, he took the title of ''Maduraiyum Eelamum Konda Parakesarivarman'' – Parakesarivarman who conquered Madurai and Sri Lanka.<ref>K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, ''The Cholas'', Vol. 1, pp. 144–147.</ref>

== Lankan Expedition ==
Towards the end of his reign, Parantaka tried to recapture Pandya regalia by invading Lanka. Although the Cholas were victorious in battle and conquered the northern provinces, but failed to retrieve the insignia.<ref>{{cite journal|last=GEIGER|first=WILH|title=The Trustworthiness of Mahavamsa|url=https://buddhismloot.lib.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-ENG/gei.htm#:~:text=All%20these%20facts%20are%20told,somtimes%20also%20exaggerations%20may%20occur|pages=221|journal=THE Indian Historical Quarterly}}{{dead link|date=June 2026}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/CholasI |title=Cholas I |pages=154}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sastri |first=K. Nilakanta |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=63vJPQAACAAJ |title=The Pandyan Kingdom |date=July 1974 |publisher=Ind-U. S. Incorporated |isbn=978-0-88253-426-8 |pages=82 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Pillay |first=Kolappa Pillay Kanakasabhapathi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ukHRAAAAMAAJ |title=South India and Ceylon |date=1963 |publisher=University of Madras |pages=62–63 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Spencer |first=George W. |date=1976 |title=The Politics of Plunder: The Cholas in Eleventh-Century Ceylon |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2053272 |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=408–409 |doi=10.2307/2053272 |jstor=2053272 |issn=0021-9118}}</ref> Now, at that time, the Senapati here (in Ceylon) was absent in a rebellious border province. The king had him fetched and sent him forth to begin the war. The Senapati set forth, delivered battle and fell in the fight. Thereupon, the king (Udaya) took the crown and the rest and betook himself to Rohana. The Chola troops marched forward, but upon finding no way to enter Rohana, they withdrew and returned to their own country. Although the Chola forces retreated with a large amount of plunder, Sri Lankan sources claims a successful counter-invasion by Ceylon and they were able to recover the loot - an event entirely unmentioned in the Chola records.<ref name=":2" /><ref>Spencer 1976, p. 409</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/CholasI |title=Cholas I |pages=148}}</ref> During his Lankan campaign (c. 946–947 CE), Parantaka I defeated the Sinhalese forces and sacked Anuradhapura, although he was unable to secure lasting control over the region.<ref>{{cite book
|last=de Silva
|first=K. M.
|title=A History of Sri Lanka
|year=1981
|publisher=University of California Press
|page=42 |url=https://archive.org/details/srilankahistory0000desi/page/42/mode/1up
|access-date=2026-03-31
}}</ref> [[Mahavamsa]] also records that the Lankan king Udaya IV took the Pandya crown and the jewels and hid himself in the [[Sri Pada|Rohana]] hills. After his exploits in the Pandya country and in Lanka, he took the title of ''Maduraiyum Eelamum Konda Parakesarivarman'' – Parakesarivarman who conquered Madurai and Sri Lanka.

==War against Rashtrakutas ==
=== Background ===

[[Aditya I]] had two sons, namely Parantaka I and Kannara Deva. The eldest son was Parantaka, born to a Chera wife; the youngest son was Kannara Devan, born to a Rashtrakuta wife. Following Aditya I's death, Rashtrakuta king [[Krishna II]] tried to exert his influence in the Chola country by placing his grandson Kannara Deva on the throne.<ref name="Sastri 1955">{{Cite book |last=Sastri |first=K. A. Nilakanta |url=http://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.4293 |title=Colas |date=1955}}</ref>
=== Battle of vallala ===
[[Aditya I]] had two sons namely Parantaka I and Kannara Deva. The eldest son was Parantaka, born to a Chera wife; the youngest son was Kannara Devan, born to Rashtrakuta wife. After the death of Aditya I, Rashtrakuta king [[Krishna II]] tried to establish his influence in the Chola country by placing his grandson Kannara Deva on the throne. But in 907 AD, Parantaka became the king. Disappointed by this, [[Krishna II]] invaded the Chola country. On Rashtrakuta side, prince [[Indra III]] lead the battle, while the Chola side was led by King Parantaka and Prince [[Rajaditya Chola|Rajaditya]]. During 911 CE in the battle of Vallala,<ref name=":1" /> a large number of Rashtrakuta soldiers died and their army began to weaken. Krishna II withdrew and his forces retreated. The Cholas advanced further and attacked the Rashtrakutas and chased away from their territory. Eventually the Cholas defeated the Rashtrakutas. Parantaka Chola's early series of victories would also includes this Rashtrakuta War.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dutta |first=Vidhan |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=QXlSEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA34&dq=Parantaka+2&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwibrp3M-diSAxWRU2wGHcgLLuIQ6AF6BAgPEAM#v=onepage&q=Parantaka%202&f=false |title=A Glimpse of the Former Glory of India- The Chola Empire |date=2025-03-15 |publisher=Blue Rose Publishers |language=en}}</ref>
=== Conflict with Rashtrakuta feudatories ===

==== Banas and Vaidumbas ====

During the early phase of Parantaka I’s conflict with the Rashtrakuta Empire and its allies, campaigns were directed against the Bana and Vaidumba chiefs. According to K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, the Bana rulers Vikramaditya II and his son Vijayaditya III were defeated in these campaigns, leading to the incorporation of Bana territory under Chola control, at times administered through loyal subordinates. The Vaidumbas, who were associated with the Banas, also appear to have been reduced to submission during this period, with some chiefs seeking refuge in Rashtrakuta domains. These events are generally placed in the early decades of Parantaka I’s reign.<ref>{{cite book
|last=Sen
|first=Sailendra Nath
|title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization
|year=1990
|publisher=Wiley Eastern Ltd.
|page=439
|url=https://archive.org/details/ancientindianhistoryandcivilization/page/n439/mode/1up
|access-date=2026-04-01
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
|last=Sastri
|first=K. A. Nilakanta
|title=The Colas
|year=1955
|publisher=University of Madras
|page=142
|url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.4293/page/n142/mode/1up
|access-date=2026-04-01
}}</ref>

==== Against Nolamba king Iriva Nolamba Diliparaja ====

During the 29th year of Parantaka I's reign, Chola influence appears to have extended into regions near Nolambavadi. A Kannada inscription from this regnal year (c. 936 CE) of parantaka I, found at Bairakur in present-day Karnataka, indicates a possible conflict between Parantaka I and the Nolamba ruler Iriva Nolamba Diliparaja, a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta Empire. While the evidence is not conclusive, some historians suggest that this encounter may have ended in favour of the Cholas, pointing to a possible success of Parantaka I over a Rashtrakuta subordinate.<ref>{{cite web |title=Dates of the Pallava Kings of the 8th and 9th Centuries |author=N. Sethuraman |publisher=Epigraphical Society of India (Conference Paper) |year=1995 |url=https://sethuramanepigraphist.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Dates_0f_the_Pallava_Kings_of_the_8th_and_9th_Centuries.pdf |access-date=2026-04-01}}</ref>

=== Initial encounter with krishna III ===
Some historians note that the struggle between Parantaka I and the Rashtrakutas was not uniformly favourable to the latter. The Kanyakumari inscription of Virarajendra states that Parantaka I defeated Krishna III.<ref>{{Cite web |title=South Indian Inscriptions Volume_3 - Misc.Inscriptions in Tamil @ whatisindia.com |url=https://www.whatisindia.com/inscriptions/south_indian_inscriptions/volume_3/introduction1.html |access-date=2026-02-14 |website=www.whatisindia.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
|editor=E. Hultzsch
|title=South Indian Inscriptions, Volume III, Parts I & II
|publisher=Archaeological Survey of India
|year=1987
|url=https://indianhistorybooks4.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/99999990037356-south-indian-inscriptions-vol-3-pt-1-and-pt-2-279p-inscriptions-south-india-english-1987.pdf
|access-date=2026-04-01
}}</ref> Historian A. S. Altekar interprets this reference as possibly relating to an earlier engagement before 944 CE, suggesting that Parantaka I achieved a temporary success against Krishna III before the renewed Rashtrakuta invasion that culminated in the Battle of Takkolam (c. 949 CE). K. A. Nilakanta Sastri also questioned the early dating of the Siddhalingamadam inscription attributing the conquest of Kanchi and Tanjavur to Krishna III in 944–45, arguing that firm Rashtrakuta occupation of Tondaimandalam occurred only after the Battle of Takkolam.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Altekar |first=A. s |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.57217 |title=Rashtrakutas And Their Times |date=1934}}</ref><ref name="Sastri 1955"/><ref name="Cholas I"/>
===Battle of Takkolam===
At the height of his success, Parantaka's dominions comprised almost the whole of the Tamil country right up to [[Nellore]] in Andhra Pradesh. It is clear from other Chola grants that Parantaka I was a great militarist who had made extensive conquests. He may have had it recorded, but those records are lost to us. He is known to have defeated the kings of Deccan kingdoms by 912 CE and completed at least temporarily the conquests started by his father Aditya. Later in 949 CE, Rashtrakuta king [[Krishna III]] waged war against Cholas, so Parantaka sent an army under his son [[Rajaditya Chola|Rajaditya]] but the Cholas were defeated and crown prince Rajaditya was killed in the battlefield while sitting on elephant.

==Civic and religious contributions==
{{Unreferenced section|date=September 2020}}
Although was engaged for the greater part of his long reign in warlike operations, yet he was not unmindful of the victories of peace. The internal administration of his country was a matter in which he took a keen interest. He laid out the rules for the conduct of the village assemblies in an inscription. The village institutions of South India, of course, date from a much earlier period than that of , but he introduced many salutary reforms for the proper administration of local self-Government.

[[Image:parantaka territories late.png|thumb|Chola Territories c. 950]]

The [[Indian copper plate inscriptions|copper-plate inscriptions]] detail Parantaka I's promotion of agricultural prosperity by the digging of numerous canals all over the country.

He also utilised the spoils of war to donate to numerous temple charities. He is reported to have covered the [[Chidambaram]] [[Shiva|Siva]] Temple with golden roof. "''Thillaiyambalathhukku pon koorai veiyntha thevan''" He was a devout Saiva (follower of Siva) in religion.

A record obtained from the ancient temple at Anbil near [[Tiruchirappalli]], sung by nayanmars, which has fragmented documents dating back to at least six thousand years,{{Original research inline|date=September 2020}} informs that instituted some services in the temple with one hundred and eight servitors. However, these documents might be the information about an earlier Parantaka I since lived before only one thousand years. These servitors worked on ancient jaiminiya recension of samaveda and continuously performed many rituals like the live vasantayaagam, somayagam, atiratram, agnihotram etc.

==Personal life==
From his inscriptions we can gather a few details about Parantaka I's personal life. He had many wives, of whom no fewer than eleven appear in the inscriptions. He was religious but secular and encouraged various faiths. We find various members of his family building temples and regularly making donations to various shrines across the kingdom. Kotanta Rama, incidental with Rajaditya, was the eldest son of Parantaka I. There is an inscription of him from Tiruvorriyur making a donation for some lamps during the 30th year of his father.<ref name="South Indian shrines: illustrated, page 56">''South Indian shrines: illustrated, page 56''</ref> Besides him he had several other sons; [[Arinjaya|Arikulakesari]], [[Gandaraditya]] and Uttamasili.

Parankata had the [[Chera Perumals]] as his close allies and the relationship was further strengthened by two marriages. The king is assumed to have married two distinct [[Ko Kizhan Adikal Ravi Neeli|Chera princesses]] (the mothers of his two sons, [[Rajaditya Chola|Rajaditya]] and [[Arinjaya Chola|Arinjaya]]).<ref>George Spencer, 'Ties that Bound: Royal Marriage Alliance in the Chola Period', ''Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on Asian Studies'' (Hong Kong: Asian Research Service, 1982), 723.</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The early Chōḷas history, art, and culture|author=S. Swaminathan|publisher=Sharada Pub. House, 1998|page=23}}</ref>

A member of the retinue of ''pillaiyar (prince) Rajadittadeva'' gave a gift to the [[Vishnu]] temple at Tirunavalur/Tirumanallur in the 32nd year of Parantaka I.<ref name="Early Chola temples: Parantaka I to Rajaraja I, A.D. 907-985, page 64">''Early Chola temples: Parantaka I to Rajaraja I, A.D. 907–985, page 64''</ref> Tirunavalur was also known as "Rajadittapuram" after [[Rajaditya]].<ref name="South Indian Inscriptions: Miscellaneous inscriptions in Tamil (4 pts. in 2), page 198">''South Indian Inscriptions: Miscellaneous inscriptions in Tamil (4 pts. in 2), page 198''</ref> It is assumed that a large number of warriors from the aristocratic families of the Chera kingdom were part of the contingent of this Chera-Chola prince.<ref name=":0">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala: Brahmin Oligarchy and Ritual Monarchy: Political and Social Conditions of Kerala Under the Cēra Perumāḷs of Makōtai (c. AD 800 - AD 1124).'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 96-100.</ref> In the 39th year of Parantaka I, his daughter-in-law, Mahadevadigal, a queen of Rajaditya and the daughter of Lataraja donated a lamp to the temple of Rajadityesvara for the merit of her brother.<ref name="Epigraphia Indica and record of the Archæological Survey of India, Volume 7, page 167">''Epigraphia Indica and record of the Archæological Survey of India, Volume 7, page 167''</ref> He had at least two daughters: Viramadevi and Anupama. Uttamasili does not appear to have lived long enough to succeed to the Chola throne.

He bore numerous epithets such as ''Viranarayana'', ''Virakirti'', ''Vira-Chola'', ''Vikrama-Chola'', ''Irumadi-Sola'' (Chola with two crowns alluding to the Chola and the Pandya kingdoms), ''Devendran'' (lord of the gods), ''Chakravartin'' (the emperor), ''Panditavatsalan'' (fond of learned men), ''Kunjaramallan'' (the wrestler with elephants) and ''Surachulamani'' (the crest jewel of the heroes).

Parantaka I died in 955. His second son [[Gandaraditya]] succeeded him.

==Inscriptions==
[[File:Thiuvotriyur2.jpg|left|thumb|[[Thyagaraja Temple, Tiruvottiyur|Thyagaraja Temple]]]]
[[File:Ekapada Trimurti.jpg|left|thumb|Sculpture in [[Tiruvottiyur]].]]
The following is an inscription of Parantaka I from [[Tiruvottiyur|Tiruvorriyur]]. It is important as it shows that his dominions included regions beyond [[Thondaimandalam]]:

{{Cquote|{{center|''..record of the Chola king Maduraikonda Parakesarivarman(Parantaka) dated in his 34th year. Records gift of lamp to the temple of Tiruvorriyur Mahadeva by Maran Parameswaran alias Sembiyan Soliyavarayan of Sirukulattur in Poyyurkurram, a sub-division of Tenkarai-nadu. Refers to a military officer who destroyed Sitpuli and destroyed Nellore.<ref name="South Indian shrines: illustrated, page 55">''South Indian shrines: illustrated, page 55''</ref>''}}}}

Here we have his son [[Arinjaya]] making a donation. Once again it is from [[Tiruvottiyur|Tiruvorriyur]]:

{{Cquote|{{center|''On the eleventh slab. Records in the 30th year of Maduraikonda Parakesarivarman(Parantaka) dated in his 30th year, gift of gold for a lamp by Arindigai-perumanar, son of Chola-Perumanadigal (i.e Parantaka), to the god Siva at Adhigrama.<ref name="South Indian shrines: illustrated, page 57">''South Indian shrines: illustrated, page 57''</ref>''}}}}

We also have several inscriptions of his son [[Rajaditya]] from Tirunavalur. One such inscription is the following from the temple of Rajadityesvara in Tirunavalur. The temple was also called ''Tiruttondîsvaram'':<ref name="A topographical list of inscriptions in the Tamil Nadu and Kerala states, Volume 2, page 393">''A topographical list of inscriptions in the Tamil Nadu and Kerala states, Volume 2, page 393''</ref>

{{Cquote|{{center|''A record in the 29th year of the Chola king Maduraikonda Parakesarivarman. Records gift of 20 sheep for offerings and of two lamps to the shrines of Rajadityesvara and Agastyesvara by a servant of Rajadityadeva.<ref name="A topographical list of the inscriptions of the Madras Presidency, collected till 1915, page 232">''A topographical list of the inscriptions of the Madras Presidency, collected till 1915, page 232''</ref>''}}}}

== Chola-Chera Perumal relations (c. 9th-10th centuries AD) ==
[[File:Cola-Cera_Perumal_relations_(c._9th-10th_centuries_AD).png|700px|Cola-Cera Perumal relations (c. 9th-10th centuries AD)]]

== See also ==
* [[Battle of Takkolam]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* Venkata Ramanappa, M. N. (1987). ''Outlines of South Indian History''. (Rev. edn.) New Delhi: Vikram.
* Early Chola temples: to Rajaraja I, A.D. 907–985 By S. R. Balasubrahmanyam
* South Indian Inscriptions: Miscellaneous inscriptions in Tamil (4 pts. in 2) By Eugen Hultzsch, Hosakote Krishna Sastri, V. Venkayya, Archaeological Survey of India
* A topographical list of the inscriptions of the Madras Presidency, collected till 1915: with notes and references, Volume 1 By Vijayaraghava Rangacharya
* A topographical list of inscriptions in the Tamil Nadu and Kerala states, Volume 2 By T. V. Mahalingam
* Nilakanta Sastri, K. A. (1935). ''The CōĻas'', University of Madras, Madras (Reprinted 1984).
* Nilakanta Sastri, K. A. (1955). ''A History of South India'', OUP, New Delhi (Reprinted 2002).
* South Indian shrines: illustrated By P. V. Jagadisa Ayyar

{{S-start}}
{{Succession box|title=[[Chola]]|before=[[Aditya I]]|after=[[Gandaraditya]] |years=907–955 CE}}
{{S-end}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Parantaka 01}}
[[Category:Chola kings]]
[[Category:900s births]]
[[Category:955 deaths]]
[[Category:10th-century Hindus]]
[[Category:10th-century Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:Year of birth uncertain]]

Rajadhiraja I

2026-09-11T06:11:30Z

2401:4900:CAE8:3612:6CEF:4DFF:FE8D:E8C3:

{{Short description|Chola Emperor from 1044–1052}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2017}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Rajadhiraja I
| title = Rajakesarivarman, Maharajadhiraja, Yuddhamalla, Jayankonda Chola, Kalyanapuramkonda Chola, Vijayarajendra Chola, [[Someshvara I|Ahavamalla]] Kulantaka, Yaanai Mel Thunjiya Thevar
| image = Coin_of_Rajadhiraja_Chola.png
| alt = rajadhiraja territories
| caption = Coin of Rajadhiraja I
| succession = [[Chola Empire|Chola Emperor]]
| reign = 1044 CE – 1052 CE<ref name="sen2">{{Cite book |last=Sen |first=Sailendra |title=A Textbook of Medieval Indian History |publisher=Primus Books |year=2013 |isbn=978-9-38060-734-4 |pages=46–49}}</ref>
| predecessor = [[Rajendra Chola I|Rajendra I]]
| successor = [[Rajendra Chola II|Rajendra II]]
| spouse = Trailokyamahadevi
| spouse-type = Queen
| issue = *Madhurandhagan
*Kandaradithan
| house = [[Cholas]]
| father = [[Rajendra Chola I|Rajendra I]]
| mother = Mukkokilan Adigal
| birth_name = Ilaval Sundaran
| birth_date = 994 C.E.
| birth_place = [[Thanjavur]], [[Chola Empire]] (modern day [[Thanjavur]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]])
| death_date = 1052 C.E. (aged 58)<ref name="sen2"/>
| death_place = [[Koppam]], [[Western Chalukya Empire]] (modern day [[Koppal]], [[Karnataka]], [[India]])
| religion = [[Hinduism]]
| succession2 = Co-Regent of the [[Chola Empire]]
| reign2 = 1018 CE - 1044 CE
| cor-type2 = Emperor
| coronation2 = [[Rajendra Chola I|Rajendra I]]
| predecessor2 = [[Rajendra Chola I|Rajendra I]]
| successor2 = [[Rajendra Chola II|Rajendra II]]
| dynasty = [[Chola]]
| succession3 = [[Chola empire|Chola Viceroy of Pandya]]
| reign3 = 1018 CE - 1044 CE
| cor-type3 = Governor
| predecessor3 = [[Rajendra Chola I]]
| successor3 = [[Rajendra Chola II]]
}}

'''Rajadhiraja I''' (994 CE - 1052 CE) was a [[Chola]] emperor, the most skilled military commander among the Chola rulers and the successor of his father, [[Rajendra Chola I|Rajendra I]]. He was the only Chola emperor who was killed while leading his army in war, and although he had a short reign, he helped his father conquer several territories as well as to maintain the Chola authority over most of [[Sri Lanka]], [[Chalukya dynasty|Eastern Chalukya]] and [[Kalinga (historical kingdom)|Kalinga]], among others. He also established imperial relations with overseas allies despite a series of revolts in the territory.

Rajadhiraja Chola proved capable of maintaining the vast and expansive empire with territories even outside the shores of India. Records also show that the king was a skilled commander on the battlefield, leading his soldiers from the front lines. He earned the title ''Jayamkonda Solan'' (The Victorious Cholan) after numerous victories. Towards the end of his reign, he sacked the [[Western Chalukya Empire|Western Chalukyan]] capital Kalyanapuram and assumed the title ''Kalyanapuramkonda Chola'' and performed a Virabhisheka (anointment of heroes) under the name ''Vijaya Rajendra Cholan'' (the victorious Rajendra Cholan).<ref>{{cite book|title=Gangaikondacholapuram|author=Irāmaccantiran̲ Nākacāmi|publisher=State Department of Archaeology, Government of Tamil Nadu, 1970 - Gangaikondacholapuram (India) - 61 pages|page=8}}</ref>
{{Chola history}}

== Regency ==

Rajadhiraja Chola was made co-regent in 1018, when he was only 24.<ref name=sastri165/> From that day onward, he and his father, Rajendra I, ruled together. From the inscriptions of Rajadhiraja it is evident that Rajadhiraja ruled in full regal status in the lifetime of his father. Rajadhiraja was at the forefront of most of his father's military campaigns.

==Military campaigns==

===Revolts in Lanka===
{{Main|Chola occupation of Sri Lanka (993–1077)}}
[[File:Rajendra map new.svg|thumb|Map of the [[Chola dynasty|Chola Empire]] under Rajadhiraja I (c. 1045 C.E.)]]
The Buddhist text ''[[Mahavamsa]]'' shows that the years following the defeat and deportation of the [[Sinhalese people|Sinhalese]] king [[Mahinda V]] by Rajendra in 1017 CE were filled with revolt and anarchy due uprisings by the Sinhalese subjects against the reign of the Chola invaders. Mahinda was captured and transported to the Chola country as prisoner where he died 12 years later. Mahinda's son Kassapa had formed the resistance against the Chola occupiers and the revolts were centered on Kassapa.<ref name=sastri165>See Sastri, KAN, ''A History of South India'', p165</ref>

Kassapa managed to face off the almost 95,000 strong Chola army for over six months and push them northwards from the Rohana area in southern [[Sri Lanka]] he then crowned himself Vikramabahu in 1029 C.E.<ref name=sastri165/> Cholas never intended to subjugate the entire island of Sri Lanka and only occupied the whole island for a period of about 10 years. Sinhalese resistance was assisted by various [[Pandya]]n princes against their common enemy. Pandyas had a very close political as well as marital relationship with the Sinhalese.

During Rajadhiraja's reign this became very acute as Vikramabahu launched an all out attack on the Tamil armies to expel them from the island. He was assisted by a Pandya prince Vikarama Pandya and Jagatpala, a prince from the distant [[Kanauj]] in North India. Rajadhiraja's forces battled and killed these princes.<ref name=sastri167>See Sastri, KAN, ''A History of South India'', p167</ref>

The version of the ''Mahavamsa'' has to be taken in the right perspective in that it states itself to be a Buddhist chronicle and its point of view is only supposed to favour Buddhist subjects. We cannot expect it to speak in very complimentary terms about non-Buddhist kings. In any case, at least in war, the Cholas were known to be very uncompromising with their enemies and believed in eliminating them rather than setting them free. whether it was the "Chalukyas", "Pandyas" or the "Sinhalese kings"... their treatment was the same, which the ''Mahavamsa'' chroniclers found inhuman.

The Chola provinces in Lanka were a separate administrative division of the empire. The deep southern half was however a Sinhalese stronghold in perpetual conflict with the Cholas. Prince Kitti, son of Vikramabahu became Vijayabahu in 1058 CE and took over the leadership of the resistance. The generals of Cholas executed the captured Lankan generals along with their family members.<ref>See Mendis, GC, p53</ref>

===Continuing Chalukya Wars===

Rajadhiraja, eager to subdue the rising power of the [[Western Chalukyas]] and to restore Chola influence with the [[Eastern Chalukyas]] in [[Vengi]], personally led an expedition into the Telugu country in 1046 CE.<ref name="Indian History by Reddy p.56">Indian History by Reddy p.56</ref> He defeated the Western Chalukya forces in a battle at Dannada on the river [[Krishna River|Krishna]] and set fire to their fort.<ref name=sastri168>See Sastri, KAN, ''A History of South India'', p168</ref> This expedition was followed by number of raids into the Chalukya country by the Chola army in which they captured several generals and feudatories of Chalukya, demolished the Chalukya palace at Kampali. The victorious Chola forces crossed the Krishna river and erected a victory pillar at a place called Yetagiri.<ref name="Indian History by Reddy p.56"/><ref name=sastri168/> After more fighting, [[Basavakalyan|Kalyani]], the capital of Chalukya, which is identified as Kalyan or Basavakalyan in Bidar was sacked.<ref name="Indian History by Reddy p.56"/> Cholas also placed a victory pillar in [[Kolhapur]] or Kollapuram in [[Maharashtra]].The victorious Rajadhiraja entered the capital of the vanquished Chalukyas and his coronation was performed at 'Kalyanapura', subsequent to which he assumed the title ''Vijayarajendra''.<ref name=sastri168/><ref>Inscriptions in the Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram records that a Dwarapala sculpture from Kalyanapura was brought to the temple by Rajadhiraja after his capture of the capital of the Chalukyas. See P.V. Jagadisa Ayyar, p 353</ref><ref>See Richard Davis, p 51</ref> [[Someshvara I]] was banished to places like Rodda, Kadambalige and Kogali 1000 territories in the Nolambavadi areas[**].

In 1050 CE Chalukya king Someshvara reneged on his payment of tribute to his Chola overlords and usurped the Chalukya throne from the Chola viceroy in Kalyani (modern Basavakalyan).<ref name=sastri168/> He also sent an expedition to Vengi in order to re-inforce Western Chalukyan hegemony over the Eastern Chalukyas, whom they always regarded as their dominions. It is also speculated that Someshvara I 'may' have captured [[Kanchi]] and Kalinga. However, according to Nilakanta Sastri and Majumdar, these are baseless claims because Someshvara I had as his feudatories the Uchangi Pandyas and the [[Nolamba]] Pallavas who had provided shelter to his predecessors Jayasimha-II and Satyashraya. The Nolamba Pallavas pompously held the birudas 'Lord of Kanchi', which may lead one to believe that the feudatories of the Chalukyas were ruling from Kanchi or occupying Kanchipuram, both of which presumptions are false. Also, the Cholas were controlling Kalinga through the Vengi Kings like Vimaladitya and Raja Raja Narendra who were related to the Chola Kings. While Someshvara-I did destabilise Vengi by temporarily displacing Rajaraja Narendra, this act also initially disturbed Chola connections with Kalinga. This however, was short-lived for immediately Rajadhiraja-I set off for war against Someshvara-I and that too not at Vengi or Kalinga but by the Chalukya capital itself. But that was after thoroughly preparing himself for war before which he undertook in 1052, the task of anointing his younger brother [[Rajendra Chola II]] as co-regent in preference to his own sons. The latter seems to have ascended the throne in 12th for he has the title Rajakesari from then on. When these tasks were completed, in 1054 Rajadhiraja invaded the Chalukyan territory[**].

Rajadhiraja invaded Rattamandalam (southern [[Karnataka]]) and immediately seized many of the southern parts of Chalukyan territory like Uchangi, Nulambavadi, Kadambalige, Kogali etc. These developments shook Someshvara-I, who had given himself the title of Trailokyamalla after installing his puppet in Vengi and he had to rush back to save his own kingdom and he had no option but to march against the marauding Chola armies. The two armies met at a place called Koppam on the banks of the Krishna River[**].

=== Inscriptions ===
[[File:Vedhagireeswarar temple with the tank.jpg|left|thumb|[[Vedagiriswarar Temple]] in [[Chengalpattu]]]]
[[File:Bhoganandishwara Temple1.jpg|left|thumb|[[Bhoganandishwara Temple]] in [[Chikballapur District|Chikballapur]]]]
Rajadhiraja's inscriptions begin with the introduction ''tingaler-taru''.<ref>{{cite book|title=South Indian Shrines: Illustrated|author=P. V. Jagadisa Ayyar|publisher=Asian Educational Services, 1982 - Hindu shrines - 638 pages|page=53}}</ref> The following is an inscription from the Svetaranyesvara temple in Tiruvenkadu, a few miles from Vaitheeswaran temple. It mentions the king's father, i.e., emperor [[Rajendra Chola I|Rajendra I]]

{{Cquote|''A record in the 30th year of the reign of Rajakesari Varma alias Udaiyar Rajadhiraja Deva (I)''

''Records that one Ambalan Seyyavayar set up the image of Picchadevar (Bhikshatana), gave lands for its requirements, presented gold and silver ornaments, opened a charity house and provided for its maintenance. The same person is said to have obtained lands for the temple from the king's father (Rajendra I), who was pleased to take Purvadesam, [[Ganga]] and [[Kadaram]].<ref>{{cite book|title=A Topographical List of Inscriptions in the Tamil Nadu and Kerala States: Thanjavur District|author=T. V. Mahalingam|publisher=Indian Council of Historical Research, 1992|page=565}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Transactions, Volumes 1-5|author=Archaeological Society of South India|year=1955|page=115}}</ref>''
}}

There is another inscription of the king his 29th regnal year from the Manimangalam village about donation of land which speaks on a detailed way his military achievements. Inscription goes on to describe the following:

a. Appointment of his 7 relatives as governors to Chera, Chalukya, Pandya, Ganga, Ceylon, Pallava and Kanyakubja (Kannauj – UP).

b. Victorious war against ahavamalla, vikki, vijayaditya who are Someswarar I, Vikramaditya VI and Vijayaditya respectively of Western Chalukya and the burning of Kollipakai.

c. His exploits at Ceylon where he attacked its four kings (Vikramabahu, Veera Salamegan, Vikrama Pandya and Srivallabha madanaraja) . Out of four, vira salamegan had initially ruled over Kannauj. Rajadhiraja while sacking Ceylon had seized his elder sister and his wife and also went on to cut the nose of his mother.

d. On his second raid to chalukyan kingdom, he went on to burn Kampili and he died on the battle field at Kopam. There is one inscription by Western Chalukya which was inscribed in Annigere which talks of a wicked chozha who had abandoned his religious practices and burned Jaina temples and ultimately yielded his head to someswara.<ref name="Rajadhiraja Inscription">{{cite web |url=https://wanderingfakhir.in/f/rajadhiraja-inscription-from-manimangalam |publisher=Wandering Fakhir|title=Rajadhiraja inscription from Manimangalam}}</ref>

Another inscription of the king from a temple in [[Chingleput|Chengalpattu]] district is as follows,

{{Cquote|''On the west and south bases shrine in Adhipursivara temple.''
''A record of the Chola king Rajakesari Varma alias Udaiyar Rajadhiraja Deva (I). Records in his thirty first year, a sale of land by the assembly of the brahmadeya villages of Sundarasola-chatuvedimangalam and Vanavanmahadevi-chaturvedimangalm. It was purchased by Nagalavvaichchani alias Ariyammai, wife of Prabhakara Bhatta, a resident of Megalapuram in the Arya-desa and a devotee of the temple of Tiruvorriyurudaiaya Mahadeva. The purchased land was given to the matha called Rajendrasolan which was built by that lady. Records also other sales of land to the same lady and for the same purpose, by residents of Ennoor in Navalur-nadu, which was a sub-division of Pularkottam and by the merchants (nagarattaar) of Tiruvorriyur in the years thirty-one and twenty-seven of the same reign.<ref>{{cite book|title=A Topographical List of Inscriptions of the Madras Presidency, Volume I, with Notes and References|author=V. Rangacharya|publisher=Asian Educational Services, New Delhi|year=1985|page=434}}</ref>
}}

From an inscription from the 29th year of his reign from the Rajagopala Perumal temple we understand that he defeated several warriors of the Chalukyan army, the most notable being Vikki (Vikramaditya), ''Vijayadityan'' and Sangamayan. In addition, it also shows the various kingdoms that acknowledged his supremacy. Here is an excerpt:

{{Cquote|''...he cut-off on the battle-field the head of Manabharanan,...seized in battle (the [[Kongu Chera dynasty|Kongu Chera]]) Vira Kerala whose ankle rings were wide and was pleased to get him trampled down by his furious elephant,...he sent the undaunted king of Venad [back] to the country of Cheras...he captured the salai at [[Kandalur salai|Kandalur]],...when Ahavamallan became afraid;...when two warriors of great courage Vikki and Vijayadityan...retreated...'' ''the tribute paid without remissions by the Villavar ([[Chera Perumals|Chera]]), Minavar (Pandya), the Chalukkyas, Kausalar, Vanganar, Konganar, Sindurar, Pangalar and Andhirar and other kings and the riches collected...were gladly given away to those versed in the four Vedas (i.e to the Brahmins). In order to be famed in the whole world, he followed the path of Manu and performed the [[ashwamedha|Horse-Sacrifice]]...In the 29th year (of the reign) of this king Rajakesari Varma, alias the lord Sri Rajadhiraja Deva, who was seated on the royal (throne and who had obtained) very great fame (under the name) Jayangonda Cholan, we, the great assembly of Manimangalam, alias Rajachulamani Chaturvedi-mangalam, in Maganur-nadu, (a subdivision) of Chengattu-kottam, (a district) of Jayangonda Chola Mandalam''<ref name="The Chālukyas of Kalyāṇa and the Kalachuris, page 157">''The Chālukyas of Kalyāṇa and the Kalachuris,'' page 157</ref>
}}

Here is an excerpt of an inscription from the [[Chikballapur District|Chikballapur]] district of [[Karnataka]]. It gives a brief overview of some of the king's exploits while he was still a co-regent of his predecessor (original in [[Tamil language|Tamil]] and [[Grantha alphabet]]):

{{Cquote|''In the 32nd year of the reign of Ko Rajakesari Varma alias Sri Rajadhiraja Deva of bright intellect, who...was born to render conspicuous the ancient race of the hot-rayed god (i.e., the Solar Race); who caused his umbrella, planted under the shadow of his father's white umbrella, to cast its shade over the entire kingdom of his father, who conquered with his army Ganga of the prosperous north, Lanka of the south, Makotai of the west and Kadaram of the east; who swayed his scepter over every region; who cut-off on the battle-field the beautiful head which was adorned with large jewels and was never without the golden crown, of Manabharanan, the renowned king of the south (Pandya); who sent the king of Venad to heaven [or back to the Chera country]; who killed the king of Kalingam on the battle-field; who caused to be destroyed the Kandalur Salai on the sea coast; and who acquired great fame under the praiseworthy name of 'Jayangonda Cholan'

''The officer Vira Vichchadira (Vidyadhara) Muvendavelar...gave for the god Maha Nandiswara Udaya Mahadeva, on the Nandi hill in Kalavara Ndu, a plate of gold weighing by the standard of the city, 2.5 kalanju and 1 manjadi, as an ornament to be worn by the god for as long as the sun and the moon exist.''<ref name="Epigraphia Carnatica, Volume 10, Part 1, page 202">''Epigraphia Carnatica,'' Volume 10, Part 1, page 202</ref>
}}

Here is the inscription from [[Kolar]] in Karnataka:

{{Cquote|''In the 35th year...Ko Parakesari Varma alias Vijaya Rajendra Deva, who having taken the head of Vira Pandya, the [Kandalur] Salai of the Chera, Lanka and Rattapadi [the Chalukya] Seven and Half Lakh (country), and set up a pillar of victory at Kalliyanapuram, took his seat on the throne of heroes and got himself anointed as 'Vijaya Rajendra'...in the Kuvalala Nadu of Vijaya Rajendra Mandalam.''<ref name="Epigraphia Carnatica, Volume 10, Part 1, page 42">''Epigraphia Carnatica,'' Volume 10, Part 1, page 42</ref>
}}

Sometime after he ascended the throne, he placed [[Rajendra Chola II]] as a co-regent. [[Rajendra Chola II]] would reign alongside Rajadhiraja until the latter's death after which he ascended the throne.

==Death and legacy==
[[File:KOPPAL FORT6.JPG|left|thumb|[[Koppal|Koppam]] the site of Rajadhiraja's death. ]]One of the greatest and bravest warriors in the Chola dynasty and perished alone in a northern battlefield during the [[Battle of Koppam]]. Rajadhiraja died atop his elephant, he came to be known as Yanai-mel-thunjina Devar (the king who died sitting on top of the elephant). From the time he was chosen heir-apparent by his father to the day he died on the battlefield, Rajadhiraja led the life of a warrior king and led many campaigns in person. Rajadhiraja was first and foremost a soldier and his great military talent led to him being chosen as heir-apparent and succeeding his father.

The Belagami inscription states that the Chola king died valiantly on the battlefield. A damaged inscription from Navali, dated to 1066 CE, records a gift made by one of his subordinates. These inscriptions have been cited as evidence concerning the death of Rajadhiraja Chola I in the Battle of Koppam.<ref>Gopal, B. R. ''The Chalukyas of Kalyana and the Kalachuris''. p. 168.</ref>

==Personal life==
{{Unreferenced section|date=January 2022}}
Rajadhiraja employed his uncle and his brothers in important offices of state and constituted them as subordinate rulers of regions of his empire. We know of the title (Trilokyam Udaiyar) rather than the actual name of a queen. His queens do not figure prominently in his records. Apart from ''Vijaya Rajendra'', he took the titles of ''Virarajendra Varman'', ''Ahavamally Kulantaka'' and ''Kalyanapurangondachola''. His children seem to have been overlooked in the succession to the Chola throne for a brief time.{{Citation needed|date=January 2022}}

==Officials==

Vira-Vichchadira (Vidyadhara)-Muvendavelan was a prominent military officer of Rajadhiraja. He has made several generous donations to the various temples in Kalavara Nadu, a sub-division of Nigarili-Chola-Mandalam (part of present-day [[Karnataka]]) where he was deployed.<ref name="Epigraphia Carnatica, Volume 10, Part 1, page 202"/> Vettan Panachanadi-Vānan alias Madurāntaka-tTamil-pperaiyan of Tandāngurai in Vilānādu belonging to the Pandikulasani valanadu of Sola-mandalam was the overseer of the dandanayakas.<ref name="Epigraphia Carnatica, Volume 10, Part 1, page 35">''Epigraphia Carnatica, Volume 10, Part 1, page 35''</ref> Santi Kuttan Tiruvalan Tirumud Kunran alias Vijaya Rajendra Acharyan, an actor was in charge of the troupe that were responsible for enacting the Rajarajeswara Natakam (a musical), in the [[Brihadeeswarar Temple]], [[Thanjavur]].<ref name="Bharatanatyam, the Tamil heritage, page 42">''Bharatanatyam, the Tamil heritage, page 42''</ref><ref name="Middle Chola temples: Rajaraja I to Kulottunga I (A.D. 985-1070), page 266">''Middle Chola temples: Rajaraja I to Kulottunga I (A.D. 985–1070), page 266''</ref> Velala Madurantakam alias Dandanayakan Rajadhiraja Ilangovelan was another officer from Nadar, a village of Tiraimur-nadu which was a sub-division of Uyyakondan-valanadu in Sola-mandalam. He has donated 90 sheep to a temple in [[Tiruvottiyur|Tiruvorriyur]] during the 3rd year of the reign of [[Rajendra Chola II]] when the latter was still a co-regent of the king.<ref name="South Indian shrines: illustrated, page 53">''South Indian shrines: illustrated, page 53''</ref>

== Religion ==
Like his father, he too was a devout of [[Shaivism|Shaivisim]]. The [[Shaiva Siddhanta]] school of thought was prevalent and the Bhakti poetry of the [[Nayanars]] were encouraged and sang in the temples. We have a record dated in the twenty eighth year of the king's reign from the Adhipurisvara temple in [[Tiruvottiyur|Tiruvorriyur]] which mentions the Tiruttondatogai of [[Sundarar]] and the names of the sixty three Nayanars.<ref>{{cite book|title=South Indian Shrines: Illustrated|author=P. V. Jagadisa Ayyar|page=52|publisher=Asian Educational Services, 1982 - Hindu shrines - 638 pages}}</ref>

== Notes ==
{{reflist|2}}

{{S-start}}
{{Succession box|title=[[Chola]]|before=[[Rajendra Chola I]]|after=[[Rajendra Chola II]] |years=1018–1052 CE}}
{{s-end}}

== References ==
* {{cite book |author=Scharfe, Hartmut |title=The state in Indian tradition |publisher=E.J. Brill |location=Leiden |year=1989 |isbn=90-04-09060-6 }}
*{{cite book |author=Mendis, G. C. |title=The early history of Ceylon, and its relations with India and other foreign countries |publisher=AMS Press |location=New York |year=1975 |isbn=0-404-54851-2 }}
* Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (1935). ''The CōĻas'', University of Madras, Madras (Reprinted 1984).
* Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (1955). ''A History of South India'', OUP, New Delhi (Reprinted 2002).
* {{cite book |author=Richard Davis |title=Lives of Indian images |url=https://archive.org/details/livesofindianima0000davi |url-access=registration |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, N.J |year=1997 |isbn=0-691-00520-6 }}
* South Indian shrines: illustrated By P. V. Jagadisa Ayyar
* The Chālukyas of Kalyāṇa and the Kalachuris By Balakrishnan Raja Gopal

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chola, Rajadhiraja}}
[[Category:Chola kings]]
[[Category:1052 deaths]]
[[Category:11th-century Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:Hindu monarchs]]
[[Category:Indian military leaders]]

Parantaka II

2026-09-11T04:34:57Z

2401:4900:CAE8:3612:6CEF:4DFF:FE8D:E8C3:

{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2017}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Parantaka II
| title = Rajakesari, Maduraikonda Rajakesari Varman, Pon Maaligai Thunjiya Thevar
| image =
| image_size = 200px
| caption = Statue of Parantaka II found in [[Puliyur]]
| succession = [[Chola Empire|Chola Emperor]]
| reign = 958 CE – 973 CE
| predecessor = [[Gandaraditya| Gandaraditya Chola]]
| successor = [[Uttama Chola]]
| spouse = Vanavan Madevi
| spouse-type = Queen
| issue = [[Aditya II]] [[Kundavai Pirāttiyār|Kundavai]] [[Rajaraja I]]
| house = [[Cholas]]
| father = [[Arinjaya]]
| mother = Kalyani (princess of Vaidumba family)<ref>{{cite book|title=Social and Cultural History of Tamilnad: To A.D. 1336|author=N. Subrahmanian|publisher=Ennes|page=130|year=1993}}</ref>
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [[Thanjavur]], [[Chola Empire]] (modern day [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]])
| death_date = 980 CE
| death_place = [[Kanchipuram]], [[Chola Empire]] (Modern day [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]])
| burial_place =
| religion = [[Hinduism]]
| succession2 = Co-Regent of the [[Chola Empire]]
| reign2 = 957 CE (few months)
| cor-type2 = Emperor
| coronation2 = [[Arinjaya Chola]]
| predecessor2 = [[Gandaraditya| Gandaraditya Chola]]
| reign3 = 955 CE – 958 CE
| cor-type3 = Emperor
| coronation3 = [[Gandaraditya| Gandaraditya Chola]]
| successor3 = [[Aditya II]]
| dynasty = [[Chola dynasty|Chola]]
}}
{{Chola history}}

'''Parantaka II''' (r. 958 – 973 CE) was a [[Chola dynasty|Chola emperor]]. He is also known as '''Sundara Chola''' as he was considered an epitome of male beauty.<ref name="Early Chola temples:Parantaka I to Rajaraja I, A.D. 907-985">''Early Chola temples:Parantaka I to Rajaraja I, A.D. 907-985''</ref><ref name="Journal of Indian museums, Volumes 14-16, page 35">''Journal of Indian museums, Volumes 14-16, page 35''</ref><ref name="A Topographical List of Inscriptions in the Tamil Nadu and Kerala States: Nilgiris District, Pudukkottai District, Ramanathapuram District, Salem District, page 41">''A Topographical List of Inscriptions in the Tamil Nadu and Kerala States: Nilgiris District, Pudukkottai District, Ramanathapuram District, Salem District, page 41''</ref> He was the son of [[Arinjaya|Arinjaya Chola]] and queen Kalyani, a princess of Vaidumba family.<ref>{{cite book|title=Social and Cultural History of Tamilnad: To A.D. 1336|author=N. Subrahmanian|publisher=Ennes|page=130|year=1993}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=2011-09-19|title=The Vaidumbas were an Andhra dynasty who ruled in the ninth century AD|url=https://www.preservearticles.com/notes/the-vaidumbas-were-an-andhra-dynasty-who-ruled-in-the-ninth-century-ad/11839|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-10-09|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Journal of Tamil Studies, Issues 9-10|author=International Association of Tamil Research, International Institute of Tamil Studies|publisher=International Institute of Tamil Studies|year=1976|page=78}}</ref> Parantaka II ascended the Chola throne despite the fact that his cousin [[Uttama (Chola dynasty)|Madurantaka Uttama Chola]], the son of [[Gandaraditya|Gandaraditya Chola]](the elder brother of [[Arinjaya Chola]]) was alive and he had equal if not more claim to the Chola throne.<ref>{{cite book|title=Glimpses of History|author=Xavier Pinto, E.G. Myall|publisher=Frank Brothers|page=91}}</ref> During his reign, Parantaka Sundara Chola defeated the Pandyas and Ceylon and then recaptured the [[Tondaimandalam]] from [[Rashtrakuta dynasty|Rashtrakutas]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/CholasI |title=Cholas I}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Aiyangar |first=S. Krishnasvami |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.69991 |title=Ancient India And South Indian History And Culture Vol.1 (ancient India) |date=1941}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=B.R Gopal |url=http://archive.org/details/sgw.chalukyasofkalya0000brgo |title=The Chalukyas Of Kalyana And The Kalachuris |date=1981 |publisher=Karnataka University Dharwad |others=Servants of Knowledge |language=English}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=_p5B-PUf-_sC&pg=PA43&dq=cholas+fought+bravery+takkolam&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjr6NiE4oiUAxUGe2wGHdCrNIkQ6AF6BAgREAM#v=onepage&q=Parantaka%20ll&f=false |title=Career's Indian History |publisher=Bright Publications |language=en}}</ref>

When Parantaka II became king, the [[Chola]] kingdom had shrunk to the size of a small principality. The [[Pandya]]s in the south had revived their fortunes and had defeated the Chola armies and occupied their ancestral lands.

During Parantaka II's reign, the foundations were laid for the success of the Chola Empire a generation later. A few territories in the north were recovered. The [[Pandya]]n ruler Vira Pandya was defeated and [[Madurai]] was taken. An expedition was made to gain control of Sri Lanka but it was not successful.<ref>{{cite book|title=Portraits of a Nation: History of Ancient India: History|author=kamlesh kapur|publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd |page=592}}</ref>Parantaka II waged war against [[Rashtrakutas]] and successfully regained Tondaimandalam.

== Early life ==
According to the Anbil plates Arinjaya was succeeded by his son. After coming to power Sundara Chola aka Parantaka II first directed his attention to the south against Vira Pandya, who had repulsed Gandaraditya's attempt to restore Chola supremacy in the Pandya country.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Cholas (revised 2nd ed.)|author=Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta|publisher=University of Madras|year=1955|page=153}}</ref>

== Pandyan War ==
[[File:Sundara territories.png|thumb|Territories under Parantaka II]]
Immediately after becoming king, Parantaka II's attention was directed towards the growing strength of the [[Pandya dynasty|Pandyas]] in the south. Vira Pandya, having repulsed [[Gandaraditya I|Gandaraditya's]] attempts to restore Chola supremacy in the [[Pandya dynasty|Pandyan kingdom]], was ruling as an independent potentate. The invading Chola army met the Pandyas at Chevur.

The Leyden [[Tamil Copper-plate inscriptions|copperplate inscriptions]] tell us in that war, "Parantaka II caused rivers of blood to flow". Other inscriptions mention that Parantaka and his young son, [[Aditya Karikalan]] (also referred to as Aditha II) defeated Vira Pandya and made him flee to the hills surrounding the battlefield.<ref>{{cite book|title=Early Cholas: Mathematics Reconstructs the Chronology|author=N. Sethuraman|publisher=Sethuraman|year=1980|page=68}}</ref> The young son Aditha, who took to the battlefield at the age of "twelve" and who was a "very abhimanyu" in valour, is profusely praised for having conducted himself in battlefield with as much ease as he was at "military training sessions".

It is also possible that [[Aditya Karikalan]] killed Vira Pandya in that battle. Aditha's inscriptions use the epithet "''Vira Pandyan Thalai Konda Adithha Karikalan''" - "...took the head of Vira Pandya".{{citation needed|date=February 2018}} After the battle of Chevur, Parantaka II's armies continued their thrust into the Pandya country. The Pandya king had the Sinhalese king [[Mahinda IV of Anuradhapura|Mahinda IV]] as his ally and the Lankan troops supported the Pandya army in the battlefield c. 959 CE. Parantaka II's armies also invaded Lanka to neutralise this support. The especially wicked nature of this coalition is noted by chola panegyrists to be "wicked force of age of kali, that were duly uprooted by the king.". As a procedure for de-recognizing the rogue kingdoms Parantaka II also seized the royal insignia of pandyans like fish emblem, throne, gem studded crown and ancient pearl necklace.

Sundara Chola called himself ''Maduraikonda Rajakesari'', that is the Royal Lion who took Madurai and ''Madhurantaka'' (destroyer of Madurai) in order to commemorate his victories over the Pandyas.<ref>{{cite book|title=Rājarājeśvaram: The Pinnacle of Chola Art|author=Balasubrahmanyam Venkataraman|publisher=Mudgala Trust|year=1985|page=14}}</ref>

Although the Chola armies won the battle, the war was still not won. Parantaka II did not succeed in re-establishing the Chola power over the Pandya lands.

== Success against Rashtrakutas (Recovery of Tondaimandalam) ==

Parantaka II next concentrated in his war against [[Rashtrakuta dynasty|Rashtrakutas]]. Some documents provide an interesting account of military acumen and gallantry exhibited during the war by a certain chola commander belonging to one of the 98 divisions of troop velaikkaras. The commander who is praised to be a devotee at feet of lord at thillai and who was "a very murugan at war", is credited to have on two occasions almost singlehandedly pulverized big battalions of the enemy thereby causing their defeat. This commander who is glorified in these deccan wars is at the instance of lord finally given up his uniform to become a saint at tirruvottriyur and take the name ottriyur atikalar there upon producing some very good works on saiva siddantam prior to attaining lord's beatitude.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dutta |first=Vidhan |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=QXlSEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA34&dq=Parantaka+1&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjJ_rXlxMySAxUPUGcHHbXDCnUQ6AF6BAgPEAM#v=onepage&q=Parantaka%201&f=false |title=A Glimpse of the Former Glory of India- The Chola Empire |date=2025-03-15 |publisher=Blue Rose Publishers |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Madras_District_Gazetteers/TTQKoe4eXzgC?hl=en |title=Madras District Gazetteers |date=1962 |publisher=Superintendent, Government Press |language=en}}</ref>[[File:Devikarumari Amman temple Thiruverkadu3.JPG|left|thumb|Central shrine at [[Vedapureeswarar temple, Thiruverkadu|Vedapureeswarar temple]]]]

==Sri Lankan Expedition==

Sundara Chola Parantaka also waged war against the Sinhala ruler in [[Sri Lanka]]. The expedition was led by his general and his relative the [[Irukkuvel]] chief Parantaka Siriyavelar. However this expedition did not end well for the [[Chola]]s as both Siriyavelar and the [[Chola]] King's brother in law, the Bana chief fell in battle.<ref name="wijetunga">{{cite book|title=Sri Lanka and the Choḷas|author=Wijetunga Mudalige Karunaratna Wijetunga|publisher=Sarvodaya Vishva Lekha Publishers|year=2003|pages=60–61}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=A Manual of the Pudukkóttai State, Volume 1|author=K. R. Venkatarama Ayyar|publisher=Printed at the Sri Brihadamba State Press|year=1938|page=604}}</ref>

== Aditya II’s (Karikala's) Assassination ==

Parantaka II's last days appear to have been clouded by a personal tragedy, as his son and ''parakesi'' [[Aditya Chola II|Aditya II]] was assassinated by a group of conspirators. The Udayarkudi inscription, made by one Bharathan alias Vyazha Gajamallan, names Soman, Ravidasan alias Panchavan Brahmadirajan and Paramesvaran alias Irumudi Chola Brahmadirajan as the conspirators/traitors responsible for the assassination.<ref name="udayarkudi">{{cite book | title=No 27, The Udayarkudi Inscription of Rajakesarivarman| last=Sastri|first=K.A. Nilakanta | publisher= Epigraphia India Vol XXI |pages=165-170}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://guruguha.org/udayarkudi-inscription-an-in-depth-assessment-translated-article/ |title=Udayarkudi Inscription – An In-depth Assessment ( Translated article) |last=Kudavoiyal |first=Balasubramanian |date=11 November 2018 |access-date=15 May 2023 |quote=The narrative of the above inscription upon examination makes it very clear that that only other three brothers namely Soman ( his alias is not decipherable in the inscription), Ravidasan alias Panchavan Brahmadirajan and Paramesvaran alias Irumudi Chola Brahmadirajan were the culprits/traitors who assassinated Aditya Karikala and since the other referred individuals are dealt with as ‘others’ (‘evargal’) it becomes obvious that these ‘others’ were only relatives of the 3 brothers and were not complicit otherwise to the said murder.}}</ref>

There is also a conjecture by one R.V. Srinivasan made in 1971 that [[Rajaraja I]] and his sister [[Kundavai]] were responsible for the killing.<ref name="Srinivasan">{{cite book | title=A Note on the Accession of Raja Raja |first=R.V. Srinivasan | publisher=Vivekananda College Magazine |pages=13}}</ref> However, no physical evidence to support this claim has been found to date.

== Uttama’s ascension ==

After the assassination of Aditya II, it seems that [[Uttama Chola|Uttama]] forced Parantaka II to make him the heir-apparent. Arulmozhivarman (or [[Rajaraja|Rajaraja I]]), Parantaka II's second son did not protest, anxious to avoid a civil war. It was apparently part of the compromise that Uttama was to succeed the throne only if he accepted to be succeeded, not by his own children but by Arulmozhivarman. The Thiruvalangadu copperplate inscription states that Madhurantaka Uttama Chola made Arulmozhi the heir-apparent.

== Parantaka II's death and legacy ==

Parantaka II, heart broken by the personal tragedy died in [[Kanchipuram]] at his golden palace (c. 980 CE). He was thereafter known as "''Pon maligai thunjina thevar''" – "the king who died in the golden palace".<ref>{{cite book|title=Early Chola Temples: Parantaka I to Rajaraja I, A.D. 907-985|author=S. R. Balasubrahmanyam|publisher=Orient Longman, 1971 - Architecture, Chola - 351 pages|page=106}}</ref> Parantaka II continued the chola legacy of absolutely professional and democratic management. This is seen from many inscriptions of his and his illustrious son [[Aditya Chola II|Aditya II]], which describe reforms carried out professionally at universities, councils, military and navy. Parantaka was well supported by his management councillors. Thus we know from an inscription of his how a certain [[Aniruddha Brahmarayar|Aniruddha Brahmarayan]] who was a follower of jaiminiya sutra of samaveda(''jaiminiya sutrattu aniruddha bhramarayar'') and who was a "servitor at the feet of lord of river girt arankam(srirangam),i.e lord vishnu", who belonged to royal council being felicitated for selfless service.

One of his queens, Vanavanmahadevi, a princess from the clan of [[Malaiyaman]], committed suicide by jumping into the fire, inspite for serval oppositions by the noble men at the king's death and her image was perhaps installed at the [[Thanjavur]] Temple by her daughter Kundavai.<ref>{{cite book|title=Woman, Her History and Her Struggle for Emancipation|author=B. S. Chandrababu, L. Thilagavathi|publisher=Bharathi Puthakalayam|year=2009|pages=135–136}}</ref> Another queen, a [[Chera dynasty|Chera]] princess survived him until 1001 CE.

During Parantaka II's reign, literature [[Tamil language|Tamil]] received encouragement. The [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] work on [[Tamil language|Tamil]] grammar, ''Virasoliyam'' eulogises him as a patron of letters and of [[Buddhism]]. The eulogy furnishes evidence for the friendly relationship between the Chola monarchs and the Buddhists.

== Inscriptions ==
The following is an inscription of Parantaka II from the [[Thiruvisanallur Sivayoginathar Temple|Sivayoginathar Temple]] in [[Thiruvisanallur]],[[File:Thiruvisanallur (7).jpg|left|thumb|Sculptures at [[Thiruvisanallur Sivayoginathar Temple|Sivayoginathar Temple]] ]]{{Cquote|quote=<div style="text-align: center;">''(Verse 2) ..The King named Siruvela who was the light of the Irungola race and foremost(member) in the family of the daughter of the (king) Pirantaka gave with delight a lamp to Hara(Siva) whose abode was at Srivisalura.''
''(Verse 3) May the Maheswaras protect the lamp presented with delight in the prosperous fifth year of(reign of) the best of kings, the illustrious Sundara Chola, by him who bore the name Siruvela, to Isa(Siva) who was pleased to dwell in the abode (temple) of Srivisalura(situated) in the virtuous village named Nimbagrhara on the northern bank of the (river) Kaveri.<ref name=raosahib>{{cite book|title=South Indian Inscriptions, Volume III, Miscellaneous inscriptions from the Tamil Country|author=Rao Sahib H. Krishna Sastri|publisher=The Director General, Archaeological Survey On India, Janpath, New Delhi|year=1987|pages=257–258}}</ref>''
</div>}}

The term ''foremost in the family of the king Pirantaka's daughter'' indicates the alliance between the [[Chola]] and [[Irukkuvel]] families and the chief Siriyavela might have been the King's son-in-law or his daughter's father-in-law.<ref>{{cite book|title=Volume 1 of Early Chola Art|author=S. R. Balasubrahmanyam|publisher=Asia publ. house|year=1966|page=171}}</ref><ref name=wijetunga/>

Here is another inscription of Parantaka II from the [[Vedapureeswarar temple, Thiruverkadu|Vedapureeswarar temple]] in [[Tiruverkadu]] (north wall of the central shrine),

{{Cquote|quote=<div style="text-align: center;">''A record in the seventh year of the Perumal Sundara Choladeva, who drove the Pandya into the forest.''
''Records gift of lands for offerings to the temple of Srikudittittai-Udaiyar in Vadagarai-vembarrur by the king's general (senapati) Pirantakan Siriyavelar alias Tirukkarrali Pichchan.<ref>{{cite book|title=A Topographical List of Inscriptions of the Madras Presidency, Volume II, with Notes and References|author=V. Rangacharya|publisher=Asian Educational Services, New Delhi|year=1985|page=1246}}</ref>''
</div>}}

== In popular culture ==

* Sundara Chola, forms a main character in ''[[Kalki Krishnamurthy]]’s 1955 historical fiction novel [[Ponniyin Selvan]].'' In his story, Kalki imagines Parantaka II to be a powerless ruler - handicapped by a debilitating illness. He is caught between opposing forces of his love for his children and his dependence on powerful courtiers.
* Indian actor [[Prakash Raj]] plays his role in ''[[Mani Ratnam]]'s 2022 film'' ''[[Ponniyin Selvan: I]]'' which is based on [[Ponniyin Selvan|Kalki's novel]].

==Notes==
{{reflist|30em}}

== References ==
* Nilakanta Sastri, K. A. (1935). ''The CōĻas'', University of Madras, Madras (Reprinted 1984).
* Nilakanta Sastri, K. A. (1955). ''A History of South India'', OUP, New Delhi (Reprinted 2002).
* Early Chola temples: Parantaka I to Rajaraja I, A.D. 907-985 By S. R. Balasubrahmanyam
* Journal of Indian museums, Volumes 14-16 By Museums Association of India
* A Topographical List of Inscriptions in the Tamil Nadu and Kerala States: Nilgiris District, Pudukkottai District, Ramanathapuram District, Salem District By T. V. Mahalingam {{S-start}}
{{Succession box|title=[[Chola]]|before=[[Gandaraditya]]|after=[[Uttama Chola]] |years=957–970 CE}}
{{s-end}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Parantaka Chola 02}}
[[Category:Chola kings]]
[[Category:970s deaths]]
[[Category:Year of birth uncertain]]
[[Category:10th-century Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:10th-century Hindus]]

Parantaka II

2026-09-11T04:33:11Z

2401:4900:CAE8:3612:6CEF:4DFF:FE8D:E8C3:

{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2017}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Parantaka II
| title = Rajakesari, Maduraikonda Rajakesari Varman, Pon Maaligai Thunjiya Thevar
| image =
| image_size = 200px
| caption = Statue of Parantaka II found in [[Puliyur]]
| succession = [[Chola Empire|Chola Emperor]]
| reign = 958 CE – 973 CE
| predecessor = [[Gandaraditya| Gandaraditya Chola]]
| successor = [[Uttama Chola]]
| spouse = Vanavan Madevi
| spouse-type = Queen
| issue = [[Aditya II]] [[Kundavai Pirāttiyār|Kundavai]] [[Rajaraja I]]
| house = [[Cholas]]
| father = [[Arinjaya]]
| mother = Kalyani (princess of Vaidumba family)<ref>{{cite book|title=Social and Cultural History of Tamilnad: To A.D. 1336|author=N. Subrahmanian|publisher=Ennes|page=130|year=1993}}</ref>
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [[Thanjavur]], [[Chola Empire]] (modern day [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]])
| death_date = 980 CE
| death_place = [[Kanchipuram]], [[Chola Empire]] (Modern day [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]])
| burial_place =
| religion = [[Hinduism]]
| succession2 = Co-Regent of the [[Chola Empire]]
| reign2 = 957 CE (few months)
| cor-type2 = Emperor
| coronation2 = [[Arinjaya Chola]]
| predecessor2 = [[Gandaraditya| Gandaraditya Chola]]
| reign3 = 955 CE – 958 CE
| cor-type3 = Emperor
| coronation3 = [[Gandaraditya| Gandaraditya Chola]]
| successor3 = [[Aditya II]]
| dynasty = [[Chola dynasty|Chola]]
}}
{{Chola history}}

'''Parantaka II''' (r. 958 – 973 CE) was a [[Chola dynasty|Chola emperor]]. He is also known as '''Sundara Chola''' as he was considered an epitome of male beauty.<ref name="Early Chola temples:Parantaka I to Rajaraja I, A.D. 907-985">''Early Chola temples:Parantaka I to Rajaraja I, A.D. 907-985''</ref><ref name="Journal of Indian museums, Volumes 14-16, page 35">''Journal of Indian museums, Volumes 14-16, page 35''</ref><ref name="A Topographical List of Inscriptions in the Tamil Nadu and Kerala States: Nilgiris District, Pudukkottai District, Ramanathapuram District, Salem District, page 41">''A Topographical List of Inscriptions in the Tamil Nadu and Kerala States: Nilgiris District, Pudukkottai District, Ramanathapuram District, Salem District, page 41''</ref> He was the son of [[Arinjaya|Arinjaya Chola]] and queen Kalyani, a princess of Vaidumba family.<ref>{{cite book|title=Social and Cultural History of Tamilnad: To A.D. 1336|author=N. Subrahmanian|publisher=Ennes|page=130|year=1993}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=2011-09-19|title=The Vaidumbas were an Andhra dynasty who ruled in the ninth century AD|url=https://www.preservearticles.com/notes/the-vaidumbas-were-an-andhra-dynasty-who-ruled-in-the-ninth-century-ad/11839|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-10-09|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Journal of Tamil Studies, Issues 9-10|author=International Association of Tamil Research, International Institute of Tamil Studies|publisher=International Institute of Tamil Studies|year=1976|page=78}}</ref> Parantaka II ascended the Chola throne despite the fact that his cousin [[Uttama (Chola dynasty)|Madurantaka Uttama Chola]], the son of [[Gandaraditya|Gandaraditya Chola]](the elder brother of [[Arinjaya Chola]]) was alive and he had equal if not more claim to the Chola throne.<ref>{{cite book|title=Glimpses of History|author=Xavier Pinto, E.G. Myall|publisher=Frank Brothers|page=91}}</ref> During his reign, Parantaka Sundara Chola defeated the Pandyas and Ceylon and then recaptured the [[Tondaimandalam]] from [[Rashtrakuta dynasty|Rashtrakutas]].

When Parantaka II became king, the [[Chola]] kingdom had shrunk to the size of a small principality. The [[Pandya]]s in the south had revived their fortunes and had defeated the Chola armies and occupied their ancestral lands.

During Parantaka II's reign, the foundations were laid for the success of the Chola Empire a generation later. A few territories in the north were recovered. The [[Pandya]]n ruler Vira Pandya was defeated and [[Madurai]] was taken. An expedition was made to gain control of Sri Lanka but it was not successful.<ref>{{cite book|title=Portraits of a Nation: History of Ancient India: History|author=kamlesh kapur|publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd |page=592}}</ref>Parantaka II waged war against [[Rashtrakutas]] and successfully regained Tondaimandalam.

== Early life ==
According to the Anbil plates Arinjaya was succeeded by his son. After coming to power Sundara Chola aka Parantaka II first directed his attention to the south against Vira Pandya, who had repulsed Gandaraditya's attempt to restore Chola supremacy in the Pandya country.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Cholas (revised 2nd ed.)|author=Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta|publisher=University of Madras|year=1955|page=153}}</ref>

== Pandyan War ==
[[File:Sundara territories.png|thumb|Territories under Parantaka II]]
Immediately after becoming king, Parantaka II's attention was directed towards the growing strength of the [[Pandya dynasty|Pandyas]] in the south. Vira Pandya, having repulsed [[Gandaraditya I|Gandaraditya's]] attempts to restore Chola supremacy in the [[Pandya dynasty|Pandyan kingdom]], was ruling as an independent potentate. The invading Chola army met the Pandyas at Chevur.

The Leyden [[Tamil Copper-plate inscriptions|copperplate inscriptions]] tell us in that war, "Parantaka II caused rivers of blood to flow". Other inscriptions mention that Parantaka and his young son, [[Aditya Karikalan]] (also referred to as Aditha II) defeated Vira Pandya and made him flee to the hills surrounding the battlefield.<ref>{{cite book|title=Early Cholas: Mathematics Reconstructs the Chronology|author=N. Sethuraman|publisher=Sethuraman|year=1980|page=68}}</ref> The young son Aditha, who took to the battlefield at the age of "twelve" and who was a "very abhimanyu" in valour, is profusely praised for having conducted himself in battlefield with as much ease as he was at "military training sessions".

It is also possible that [[Aditya Karikalan]] killed Vira Pandya in that battle. Aditha's inscriptions use the epithet "''Vira Pandyan Thalai Konda Adithha Karikalan''" - "...took the head of Vira Pandya".{{citation needed|date=February 2018}} After the battle of Chevur, Parantaka II's armies continued their thrust into the Pandya country. The Pandya king had the Sinhalese king [[Mahinda IV of Anuradhapura|Mahinda IV]] as his ally and the Lankan troops supported the Pandya army in the battlefield c. 959 CE. Parantaka II's armies also invaded Lanka to neutralise this support. The especially wicked nature of this coalition is noted by chola panegyrists to be "wicked force of age of kali, that were duly uprooted by the king.". As a procedure for de-recognizing the rogue kingdoms Parantaka II also seized the royal insignia of pandyans like fish emblem, throne, gem studded crown and ancient pearl necklace.

Sundara Chola called himself ''Maduraikonda Rajakesari'', that is the Royal Lion who took Madurai and ''Madhurantaka'' (destroyer of Madurai) in order to commemorate his victories over the Pandyas.<ref>{{cite book|title=Rājarājeśvaram: The Pinnacle of Chola Art|author=Balasubrahmanyam Venkataraman|publisher=Mudgala Trust|year=1985|page=14}}</ref>

Although the Chola armies won the battle, the war was still not won. Parantaka II did not succeed in re-establishing the Chola power over the Pandya lands.

== Success against Rashtrakutas (Recovery of Tondaimandalam) ==

Parantaka II next concentrated in his war against [[Rashtrakuta dynasty|Rashtrakutas]]. Some documents provide an interesting account of military acumen and gallantry exhibited during the war by a certain chola commander belonging to one of the 98 divisions of troop velaikkaras. The commander who is praised to be a devotee at feet of lord at thillai and who was "a very murugan at war", is credited to have on two occasions almost singlehandedly pulverized big battalions of the enemy thereby causing their defeat. This commander who is glorified in these deccan wars is at the instance of lord finally given up his uniform to become a saint at tirruvottriyur and take the name ottriyur atikalar there upon producing some very good works on saiva siddantam prior to attaining lord's beatitude.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dutta |first=Vidhan |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=QXlSEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA34&dq=Parantaka+1&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjJ_rXlxMySAxUPUGcHHbXDCnUQ6AF6BAgPEAM#v=onepage&q=Parantaka%201&f=false |title=A Glimpse of the Former Glory of India- The Chola Empire |date=2025-03-15 |publisher=Blue Rose Publishers |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Madras_District_Gazetteers/TTQKoe4eXzgC?hl=en |title=Madras District Gazetteers |date=1962 |publisher=Superintendent, Government Press |language=en}}</ref>[[File:Devikarumari Amman temple Thiruverkadu3.JPG|left|thumb|Central shrine at [[Vedapureeswarar temple, Thiruverkadu|Vedapureeswarar temple]]]]

==Sri Lankan Expedition==

Sundara Chola Parantaka also waged war against the Sinhala ruler in [[Sri Lanka]]. The expedition was led by his general and his relative the [[Irukkuvel]] chief Parantaka Siriyavelar. However this expedition did not end well for the [[Chola]]s as both Siriyavelar and the [[Chola]] King's brother in law, the Bana chief fell in battle.<ref name="wijetunga">{{cite book|title=Sri Lanka and the Choḷas|author=Wijetunga Mudalige Karunaratna Wijetunga|publisher=Sarvodaya Vishva Lekha Publishers|year=2003|pages=60–61}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=A Manual of the Pudukkóttai State, Volume 1|author=K. R. Venkatarama Ayyar|publisher=Printed at the Sri Brihadamba State Press|year=1938|page=604}}</ref>

== Aditya II’s (Karikala's) Assassination ==

Parantaka II's last days appear to have been clouded by a personal tragedy, as his son and ''parakesi'' [[Aditya Chola II|Aditya II]] was assassinated by a group of conspirators. The Udayarkudi inscription, made by one Bharathan alias Vyazha Gajamallan, names Soman, Ravidasan alias Panchavan Brahmadirajan and Paramesvaran alias Irumudi Chola Brahmadirajan as the conspirators/traitors responsible for the assassination.<ref name="udayarkudi">{{cite book | title=No 27, The Udayarkudi Inscription of Rajakesarivarman| last=Sastri|first=K.A. Nilakanta | publisher= Epigraphia India Vol XXI |pages=165-170}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://guruguha.org/udayarkudi-inscription-an-in-depth-assessment-translated-article/ |title=Udayarkudi Inscription – An In-depth Assessment ( Translated article) |last=Kudavoiyal |first=Balasubramanian |date=11 November 2018 |access-date=15 May 2023 |quote=The narrative of the above inscription upon examination makes it very clear that that only other three brothers namely Soman ( his alias is not decipherable in the inscription), Ravidasan alias Panchavan Brahmadirajan and Paramesvaran alias Irumudi Chola Brahmadirajan were the culprits/traitors who assassinated Aditya Karikala and since the other referred individuals are dealt with as ‘others’ (‘evargal’) it becomes obvious that these ‘others’ were only relatives of the 3 brothers and were not complicit otherwise to the said murder.}}</ref>

There is also a conjecture by one R.V. Srinivasan made in 1971 that [[Rajaraja I]] and his sister [[Kundavai]] were responsible for the killing.<ref name="Srinivasan">{{cite book | title=A Note on the Accession of Raja Raja |first=R.V. Srinivasan | publisher=Vivekananda College Magazine |pages=13}}</ref> However, no physical evidence to support this claim has been found to date.

== Uttama’s ascension ==

After the assassination of Aditya II, it seems that [[Uttama Chola|Uttama]] forced Parantaka II to make him the heir-apparent. Arulmozhivarman (or [[Rajaraja|Rajaraja I]]), Parantaka II's second son did not protest, anxious to avoid a civil war. It was apparently part of the compromise that Uttama was to succeed the throne only if he accepted to be succeeded, not by his own children but by Arulmozhivarman. The Thiruvalangadu copperplate inscription states that Madhurantaka Uttama Chola made Arulmozhi the heir-apparent.

== Parantaka II's death and legacy ==

Parantaka II, heart broken by the personal tragedy died in [[Kanchipuram]] at his golden palace (c. 980 CE). He was thereafter known as "''Pon maligai thunjina thevar''" – "the king who died in the golden palace".<ref>{{cite book|title=Early Chola Temples: Parantaka I to Rajaraja I, A.D. 907-985|author=S. R. Balasubrahmanyam|publisher=Orient Longman, 1971 - Architecture, Chola - 351 pages|page=106}}</ref> Parantaka II continued the chola legacy of absolutely professional and democratic management. This is seen from many inscriptions of his and his illustrious son [[Aditya Chola II|Aditya II]], which describe reforms carried out professionally at universities, councils, military and navy. Parantaka was well supported by his management councillors. Thus we know from an inscription of his how a certain [[Aniruddha Brahmarayar|Aniruddha Brahmarayan]] who was a follower of jaiminiya sutra of samaveda(''jaiminiya sutrattu aniruddha bhramarayar'') and who was a "servitor at the feet of lord of river girt arankam(srirangam),i.e lord vishnu", who belonged to royal council being felicitated for selfless service.

One of his queens, Vanavanmahadevi, a princess from the clan of [[Malaiyaman]], committed suicide by jumping into the fire, inspite for serval oppositions by the noble men at the king's death and her image was perhaps installed at the [[Thanjavur]] Temple by her daughter Kundavai.<ref>{{cite book|title=Woman, Her History and Her Struggle for Emancipation|author=B. S. Chandrababu, L. Thilagavathi|publisher=Bharathi Puthakalayam|year=2009|pages=135–136}}</ref> Another queen, a [[Chera dynasty|Chera]] princess survived him until 1001 CE.

During Parantaka II's reign, literature [[Tamil language|Tamil]] received encouragement. The [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] work on [[Tamil language|Tamil]] grammar, ''Virasoliyam'' eulogises him as a patron of letters and of [[Buddhism]]. The eulogy furnishes evidence for the friendly relationship between the Chola monarchs and the Buddhists.

== Inscriptions ==
The following is an inscription of Parantaka II from the [[Thiruvisanallur Sivayoginathar Temple|Sivayoginathar Temple]] in [[Thiruvisanallur]],[[File:Thiruvisanallur (7).jpg|left|thumb|Sculptures at [[Thiruvisanallur Sivayoginathar Temple|Sivayoginathar Temple]] ]]{{Cquote|quote=<div style="text-align: center;">''(Verse 2) ..The King named Siruvela who was the light of the Irungola race and foremost(member) in the family of the daughter of the (king) Pirantaka gave with delight a lamp to Hara(Siva) whose abode was at Srivisalura.''
''(Verse 3) May the Maheswaras protect the lamp presented with delight in the prosperous fifth year of(reign of) the best of kings, the illustrious Sundara Chola, by him who bore the name Siruvela, to Isa(Siva) who was pleased to dwell in the abode (temple) of Srivisalura(situated) in the virtuous village named Nimbagrhara on the northern bank of the (river) Kaveri.<ref name=raosahib>{{cite book|title=South Indian Inscriptions, Volume III, Miscellaneous inscriptions from the Tamil Country|author=Rao Sahib H. Krishna Sastri|publisher=The Director General, Archaeological Survey On India, Janpath, New Delhi|year=1987|pages=257–258}}</ref>''
</div>}}

The term ''foremost in the family of the king Pirantaka's daughter'' indicates the alliance between the [[Chola]] and [[Irukkuvel]] families and the chief Siriyavela might have been the King's son-in-law or his daughter's father-in-law.<ref>{{cite book|title=Volume 1 of Early Chola Art|author=S. R. Balasubrahmanyam|publisher=Asia publ. house|year=1966|page=171}}</ref><ref name=wijetunga/>

Here is another inscription of Parantaka II from the [[Vedapureeswarar temple, Thiruverkadu|Vedapureeswarar temple]] in [[Tiruverkadu]] (north wall of the central shrine),

{{Cquote|quote=<div style="text-align: center;">''A record in the seventh year of the Perumal Sundara Choladeva, who drove the Pandya into the forest.''
''Records gift of lands for offerings to the temple of Srikudittittai-Udaiyar in Vadagarai-vembarrur by the king's general (senapati) Pirantakan Siriyavelar alias Tirukkarrali Pichchan.<ref>{{cite book|title=A Topographical List of Inscriptions of the Madras Presidency, Volume II, with Notes and References|author=V. Rangacharya|publisher=Asian Educational Services, New Delhi|year=1985|page=1246}}</ref>''
</div>}}

== In popular culture ==

* Sundara Chola, forms a main character in ''[[Kalki Krishnamurthy]]’s 1955 historical fiction novel [[Ponniyin Selvan]].'' In his story, Kalki imagines Parantaka II to be a powerless ruler - handicapped by a debilitating illness. He is caught between opposing forces of his love for his children and his dependence on powerful courtiers.
* Indian actor [[Prakash Raj]] plays his role in ''[[Mani Ratnam]]'s 2022 film'' ''[[Ponniyin Selvan: I]]'' which is based on [[Ponniyin Selvan|Kalki's novel]].

==Notes==
{{reflist|30em}}

== References ==
* Nilakanta Sastri, K. A. (1935). ''The CōĻas'', University of Madras, Madras (Reprinted 1984).
* Nilakanta Sastri, K. A. (1955). ''A History of South India'', OUP, New Delhi (Reprinted 2002).
* Early Chola temples: Parantaka I to Rajaraja I, A.D. 907-985 By S. R. Balasubrahmanyam
* Journal of Indian museums, Volumes 14-16 By Museums Association of India
* A Topographical List of Inscriptions in the Tamil Nadu and Kerala States: Nilgiris District, Pudukkottai District, Ramanathapuram District, Salem District By T. V. Mahalingam {{S-start}}
{{Succession box|title=[[Chola]]|before=[[Gandaraditya]]|after=[[Uttama Chola]] |years=957–970 CE}}
{{s-end}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Parantaka Chola 02}}
[[Category:Chola kings]]
[[Category:970s deaths]]
[[Category:Year of birth uncertain]]
[[Category:10th-century Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:10th-century Hindus]]

Parantaka I

2026-09-11T04:29:13Z

2401:4900:CAE8:3612:6CEF:4DFF:FE8D:E8C3:

{{Use Indian English|date=October 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
{{More footnotes needed|date=September 2020}}{{Infobox royalty
| name = Parantaka I
| title = Parakesari, Maduraium Eelamum Konda Parakesarivarman, Veera Cholan, Irumudi Cholan
| image = Parantaka territories.png
| caption = [[Chola Empire]] under Parantaka Chola I in 915 CE
| succession = [[Chola Empire|Chola Emperor]]
| reign = 907 CE - 955 CE
| predecessor = [[Aditya I]]
| successor = [[Gandaraditya]]
| spouse = 11 Total<ref>{{cite book|title=Volume 1 of Early Chola Art, S. R. Balasubrahmanyam|author=S. R. Balasubrahmanyam|publisher=Asia publ. house, 1966|page=165}}</ref> Including: Ko "Kizhan Adigal" Iravi Nili Solamadeviyar
| spouse-type = Queen
| issue = [[Rajaditya Chola|Rajaditya]] [[Gandaraditya]] Uttamasili [[Arinjaya Chola|Arinjaya]] Viramadevi Anupama.
| house = [[Cholas]]
| father = [[Aditya I]]
| mother = Tribhuvanamadeviyar
| birth_name = Veera Narayanan
| birth_date = 873 CE
| birth_place = [[Tiruvottiyur]], [[Chola Empire]] (Modern day [[Chennai]] [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]])
| death_date = 955 CE (aged 82)
| death_place = [[Tiruvottiyur]], [[Chola Empire]] (Modern day [[Chennai]] [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]])
| burial_place =
| religion = [[Hinduism]]
| dynasty = [[Chola]]
}}
{{Chola history}}
'''Parantaka Chola I''' ([[Tamil language|Tamil]] : பராந்தக சோழன் I) (873 CE–955 CE) was a [[Chola Empire|Chola]] emperor who ruled for forty-eight years, annexing [[Pandyan dynasty|Pandya]] by defeating [[Maravarman Rajasimha II|Rajasimhan II]] and in the [[Deccan]] won the Battle of Vallala against [[Rashtrakuta dynasty|Rashtrakutas]] which happened before 916 CE.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=K.A. |first=Nilakanta Sastri |title=A History of South India from Prehistoric to the Fall of Vijayanagar |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1955 |pages=Page=168 |language=English}}</ref><ref name="sen2">{{Cite book |last=Sen |first=Sailendra |title=A Textbook of Medieval Indian History |publisher=Primus Books |year=2013 |isbn=978-9-38060-734-4 |pages=46–49}}</ref> The best part of his reign was marked by increasing success and prosperity.

==Invasion of the Pandya kingdom ==
Parantaka I continued the expansion started by his father, and invaded the [[Pandya]] kingdom in 915. He captured the Pandyan capital [[Madurai]] and assumed the title Madurain-konda (Capturer of Madurai). The Pandyan ruler [[Maravarman Rajasimha II|Maravarman Rajasinha II]] sought the help of [[Kassapa V of Anuradhapura|Kassapa V]] of [[Anuradhapura Kingdom|Anuradhapura]] who sent an army to his aid. Parantaka I defeated the combined army at the battle of [[Vellore]]. The Pandya king fled into exile in Sri Lanka and Parantaka I completed his conquest of the entire Pandya country.

Parantaka I spent many years in the newly conquered country reducing it to subjugation, and when he felt he had at last achieved his aim, he wanted to celebrate his victory by a coronation in [[Madurai]] in which he was to invest himself with the insignia of [[Pandya dynasty|Pandyan monarchy]]. However he was failed in this attempt by the Pandyan king, who had carried them away and left them in the safe custody of the Lankan king. Towards the end of his reign, Parantaka I tried to capture them by invading Lanka. [[Mahavamsa]] records that the Lankan king Udaya IV took the Pandya crown and the jewels and hid himself in the [[Sri Pada|Rohana]] hills. Parantaka I's armies had to return empty handed.

After his exploits in the Pandya country and in Lanka, he took the title of ''Maduraiyum Eelamum Konda Parakesarivarman'' – Parakesarivarman who conquered Madurai and Sri Lanka.
== Lankan Expedition ==
Towards the end of his reign, Parantaka tried to recapture Pandya regalia by invading Lanka. Although the Cholas were victorious in battle and conquered the northern provinces, but failed to retrieve the insignia.<ref>{{cite journal|last=GEIGER|first=WILH|title=The Trustworthiness of Mahavamsa|url=https://buddhismloot.lib.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-ENG/gei.htm#:~:text=All%20these%20facts%20are%20told,somtimes%20also%20exaggerations%20may%20occur|pages=221|journal=THE Indian Historical Quarterly}}{{dead link|date=June 2026}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/CholasI |title=Cholas I |pages=154}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sastri |first=K. Nilakanta |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=63vJPQAACAAJ |title=The Pandyan Kingdom |date=July 1974 |publisher=Ind-U. S. Incorporated |isbn=978-0-88253-426-8 |pages=82 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Pillay |first=Kolappa Pillay Kanakasabhapathi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ukHRAAAAMAAJ |title=South India and Ceylon |date=1963 |publisher=University of Madras |pages=62–63 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Spencer |first=George W. |date=1976 |title=The Politics of Plunder: The Cholas in Eleventh-Century Ceylon |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2053272 |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=408–409 |doi=10.2307/2053272 |jstor=2053272 |issn=0021-9118}}</ref> Now, at that time, the Senapati here (in Ceylon) was absent in a rebellious border province. The king had him fetched and sent him forth to begin the war. The Senapati set forth, delivered battle and fell in the fight. Thereupon, the king (Udaya) took the crown and the rest and betook himself to Rohana. The Chola troops marched forward, but upon finding no way to enter Rohana, they withdrew and returned to their own country. Although the Chola forces retreated with a large amount of plunder, Sri Lankan sources claims a successful counter-invasion by Ceylon and they were able to recover the loot - an event entirely unmentioned in the Chola records.<ref name=":2" /><ref>Spencer 1976, p. 409</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/CholasI |title=Cholas I |pages=148}}</ref> During his Lankan campaign (c. 946–947 CE), Parantaka I defeated the Sinhalese forces and sacked Anuradhapura, although he was unable to secure lasting control over the region.<ref>{{cite book
|last=de Silva
|first=K. M.
|title=A History of Sri Lanka
|year=1981
|publisher=University of California Press
|page=42 |url=https://archive.org/details/srilankahistory0000desi/page/42/mode/1up
|access-date=2026-03-31
}}</ref> [[Mahavamsa]] also records that the Lankan king Udaya IV took the Pandya crown and the jewels and hid himself in the [[Sri Pada|Rohana]] hills. After his exploits in the Pandya country and in Lanka, he took the title of ''Maduraiyum Eelamum Konda Parakesarivarman'' – Parakesarivarman who conquered Madurai and Sri Lanka.

==War against Rashtrakutas ==
=== Background ===

[[Aditya I]] had two sons, namely Parantaka I and Kannara Deva. The eldest son was Parantaka, born to a Chera wife; the youngest son was Kannara Devan, born to a Rashtrakuta wife. Following Aditya I's death, Rashtrakuta king [[Krishna II]] tried to exert his influence in the Chola country by placing his grandson Kannara Deva on the throne.<ref name="Sastri 1955">{{Cite book |last=Sastri |first=K. A. Nilakanta |url=http://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.4293 |title=Colas |date=1955}}</ref>
=== Battle of vallala ===
[[Aditya I]] had two sons namely Parantaka I and Kannara Deva. The eldest son was Parantaka, born to a Chera wife; the youngest son was Kannara Devan, born to Rashtrakuta wife. After the death of Aditya I, Rashtrakuta king [[Krishna II]] tried to establish his influence in the Chola country by placing his grandson Kannara Deva on the throne. But in 907 AD, Parantaka became the king. Disappointed by this, [[Krishna II]] invaded the Chola country. On Rashtrakuta side, prince [[Indra III]] lead the battle, while the Chola side was led by King Parantaka and Prince [[Rajaditya Chola|Rajaditya]]. During 911 CE in the battle of Vallala,<ref name=":1" /> a large number of Rashtrakuta soldiers died and their army began to weaken. Krishna II withdrew and his forces retreated. The Cholas advanced further and attacked the Rashtrakutas and chased away from their territory. Eventually the Cholas defeated the Rashtrakutas. Parantaka Chola's early series of victories would also includes this Rashtrakuta War.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dutta |first=Vidhan |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=QXlSEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA34&dq=Parantaka+2&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwibrp3M-diSAxWRU2wGHcgLLuIQ6AF6BAgPEAM#v=onepage&q=Parantaka%202&f=false |title=A Glimpse of the Former Glory of India- The Chola Empire |date=2025-03-15 |publisher=Blue Rose Publishers |language=en}}</ref>
=== Conflict with Rashtrakuta feudatories ===

==== Banas and Vaidumbas ====

During the early phase of Parantaka I’s conflict with the Rashtrakuta Empire and its allies, campaigns were directed against the Bana and Vaidumba chiefs. According to K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, the Bana rulers Vikramaditya II and his son Vijayaditya III were defeated in these campaigns, leading to the incorporation of Bana territory under Chola control, at times administered through loyal subordinates. The Vaidumbas, who were associated with the Banas, also appear to have been reduced to submission during this period, with some chiefs seeking refuge in Rashtrakuta domains. These events are generally placed in the early decades of Parantaka I’s reign.<ref>{{cite book
|last=Sen
|first=Sailendra Nath
|title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization
|year=1990
|publisher=Wiley Eastern Ltd.
|page=439
|url=https://archive.org/details/ancientindianhistoryandcivilization/page/n439/mode/1up
|access-date=2026-04-01
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
|last=Sastri
|first=K. A. Nilakanta
|title=The Colas
|year=1955
|publisher=University of Madras
|page=142
|url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.4293/page/n142/mode/1up
|access-date=2026-04-01
}}</ref>

==== Against Nolamba king Iriva Nolamba Diliparaja ====

During the 29th year of Parantaka I's reign, Chola influence appears to have extended into regions near Nolambavadi. A Kannada inscription from this regnal year (c. 936 CE) of parantaka I, found at Bairakur in present-day Karnataka, indicates a possible conflict between Parantaka I and the Nolamba ruler Iriva Nolamba Diliparaja, a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta Empire. While the evidence is not conclusive, some historians suggest that this encounter may have ended in favour of the Cholas, pointing to a possible success of Parantaka I over a Rashtrakuta subordinate.<ref>{{cite web |title=Dates of the Pallava Kings of the 8th and 9th Centuries |author=N. Sethuraman |publisher=Epigraphical Society of India (Conference Paper) |year=1995 |url=https://sethuramanepigraphist.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Dates_0f_the_Pallava_Kings_of_the_8th_and_9th_Centuries.pdf |access-date=2026-04-01}}</ref>

=== Initial encounter with krishna III ===
Some historians note that the struggle between Parantaka I and the Rashtrakutas was not uniformly favourable to the latter. The Kanyakumari inscription of Virarajendra states that Parantaka I defeated Krishna III.<ref>{{Cite web |title=South Indian Inscriptions Volume_3 - Misc.Inscriptions in Tamil @ whatisindia.com |url=https://www.whatisindia.com/inscriptions/south_indian_inscriptions/volume_3/introduction1.html |access-date=2026-02-14 |website=www.whatisindia.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
|editor=E. Hultzsch
|title=South Indian Inscriptions, Volume III, Parts I & II
|publisher=Archaeological Survey of India
|year=1987
|url=https://indianhistorybooks4.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/99999990037356-south-indian-inscriptions-vol-3-pt-1-and-pt-2-279p-inscriptions-south-india-english-1987.pdf
|access-date=2026-04-01
}}</ref> Historian A. S. Altekar interprets this reference as possibly relating to an earlier engagement before 944 CE, suggesting that Parantaka I achieved a temporary success against Krishna III before the renewed Rashtrakuta invasion that culminated in the Battle of Takkolam (c. 949 CE). K. A. Nilakanta Sastri also questioned the early dating of the Siddhalingamadam inscription attributing the conquest of Kanchi and Tanjavur to Krishna III in 944–45, arguing that firm Rashtrakuta occupation of Tondaimandalam occurred only after the Battle of Takkolam.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Altekar |first=A. s |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.57217 |title=Rashtrakutas And Their Times |date=1934}}</ref><ref name="Sastri 1955"/><ref name="Cholas I"/>
===Battle of Takkolam===
At the height of his success, Parantaka's dominions comprised almost the whole of the Tamil country right up to [[Nellore]] in Andhra Pradesh. It is clear from other Chola grants that Parantaka I was a great militarist who had made extensive conquests. He may have had it recorded, but those records are lost to us. He is known to have defeated the kings of Deccan kingdoms by 912 CE and completed at least temporarily the conquests started by his father Aditya. Later in 949 CE, Rashtrakuta king [[Krishna III]] waged war against Cholas, so Parantaka sent an army under his son [[Rajaditya Chola|Rajaditya]] but the Cholas were defeated and crown prince Rajaditya was killed in the battlefield while sitting on elephant.

==Civic and religious contributions==
{{Unreferenced section|date=September 2020}}
Although was engaged for the greater part of his long reign in warlike operations, yet he was not unmindful of the victories of peace. The internal administration of his country was a matter in which he took a keen interest. He laid out the rules for the conduct of the village assemblies in an inscription. The village institutions of South India, of course, date from a much earlier period than that of , but he introduced many salutary reforms for the proper administration of local self-Government.

[[Image:parantaka territories late.png|thumb|Chola Territories c. 950]]

The [[Indian copper plate inscriptions|copper-plate inscriptions]] detail Parantaka I's promotion of agricultural prosperity by the digging of numerous canals all over the country.

He also utilised the spoils of war to donate to numerous temple charities. He is reported to have covered the [[Chidambaram]] [[Shiva|Siva]] Temple with golden roof. "''Thillaiyambalathhukku pon koorai veiyntha thevan''" He was a devout Saiva (follower of Siva) in religion.

A record obtained from the ancient temple at Anbil near [[Tiruchirappalli]], sung by nayanmars, which has fragmented documents dating back to at least six thousand years,{{Original research inline|date=September 2020}} informs that instituted some services in the temple with one hundred and eight servitors. However, these documents might be the information about an earlier Parantaka I since lived before only one thousand years. These servitors worked on ancient jaiminiya recension of samaveda and continuously performed many rituals like the live vasantayaagam, somayagam, atiratram, agnihotram etc.

==Personal life==
From his inscriptions we can gather a few details about Parantaka I's personal life. He had many wives, of whom no fewer than eleven appear in the inscriptions. He was religious but secular and encouraged various faiths. We find various members of his family building temples and regularly making donations to various shrines across the kingdom. Kotanta Rama, incidental with Rajaditya, was the eldest son of Parantaka I. There is an inscription of him from Tiruvorriyur making a donation for some lamps during the 30th year of his father.<ref name="South Indian shrines: illustrated, page 56">''South Indian shrines: illustrated, page 56''</ref> Besides him he had several other sons; [[Arinjaya|Arikulakesari]], [[Gandaraditya]] and Uttamasili.

Parankata had the [[Chera Perumals]] as his close allies and the relationship was further strengthened by two marriages. The king is assumed to have married two distinct [[Ko Kizhan Adikal Ravi Neeli|Chera princesses]] (the mothers of his two sons, [[Rajaditya Chola|Rajaditya]] and [[Arinjaya Chola|Arinjaya]]).<ref>George Spencer, 'Ties that Bound: Royal Marriage Alliance in the Chola Period', ''Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on Asian Studies'' (Hong Kong: Asian Research Service, 1982), 723.</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The early Chōḷas history, art, and culture|author=S. Swaminathan|publisher=Sharada Pub. House, 1998|page=23}}</ref>

A member of the retinue of ''pillaiyar (prince) Rajadittadeva'' gave a gift to the [[Vishnu]] temple at Tirunavalur/Tirumanallur in the 32nd year of Parantaka I.<ref name="Early Chola temples: Parantaka I to Rajaraja I, A.D. 907-985, page 64">''Early Chola temples: Parantaka I to Rajaraja I, A.D. 907–985, page 64''</ref> Tirunavalur was also known as "Rajadittapuram" after [[Rajaditya]].<ref name="South Indian Inscriptions: Miscellaneous inscriptions in Tamil (4 pts. in 2), page 198">''South Indian Inscriptions: Miscellaneous inscriptions in Tamil (4 pts. in 2), page 198''</ref> It is assumed that a large number of warriors from the aristocratic families of the Chera kingdom were part of the contingent of this Chera-Chola prince.<ref name=":0">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala: Brahmin Oligarchy and Ritual Monarchy: Political and Social Conditions of Kerala Under the Cēra Perumāḷs of Makōtai (c. AD 800 - AD 1124).'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 96-100.</ref> In the 39th year of Parantaka I, his daughter-in-law, Mahadevadigal, a queen of Rajaditya and the daughter of Lataraja donated a lamp to the temple of Rajadityesvara for the merit of her brother.<ref name="Epigraphia Indica and record of the Archæological Survey of India, Volume 7, page 167">''Epigraphia Indica and record of the Archæological Survey of India, Volume 7, page 167''</ref> He had at least two daughters: Viramadevi and Anupama. Uttamasili does not appear to have lived long enough to succeed to the Chola throne.

He bore numerous epithets such as ''Viranarayana'', ''Virakirti'', ''Vira-Chola'', ''Vikrama-Chola'', ''Irumadi-Sola'' (Chola with two crowns alluding to the Chola and the Pandya kingdoms), ''Devendran'' (lord of the gods), ''Chakravartin'' (the emperor), ''Panditavatsalan'' (fond of learned men), ''Kunjaramallan'' (the wrestler with elephants) and ''Surachulamani'' (the crest jewel of the heroes).

Parantaka I died in 955. His second son [[Gandaraditya]] succeeded him.

==Inscriptions==
[[File:Thiuvotriyur2.jpg|left|thumb|[[Thyagaraja Temple, Tiruvottiyur|Thyagaraja Temple]]]]
[[File:Ekapada Trimurti.jpg|left|thumb|Sculpture in [[Tiruvottiyur]].]]
The following is an inscription of Parantaka I from [[Tiruvottiyur|Tiruvorriyur]]. It is important as it shows that his dominions included regions beyond [[Thondaimandalam]]:

{{Cquote|{{center|''..record of the Chola king Maduraikonda Parakesarivarman(Parantaka) dated in his 34th year. Records gift of lamp to the temple of Tiruvorriyur Mahadeva by Maran Parameswaran alias Sembiyan Soliyavarayan of Sirukulattur in Poyyurkurram, a sub-division of Tenkarai-nadu. Refers to a military officer who destroyed Sitpuli and destroyed Nellore.<ref name="South Indian shrines: illustrated, page 55">''South Indian shrines: illustrated, page 55''</ref>''}}}}

Here we have his son [[Arinjaya]] making a donation. Once again it is from [[Tiruvottiyur|Tiruvorriyur]]:

{{Cquote|{{center|''On the eleventh slab. Records in the 30th year of Maduraikonda Parakesarivarman(Parantaka) dated in his 30th year, gift of gold for a lamp by Arindigai-perumanar, son of Chola-Perumanadigal (i.e Parantaka), to the god Siva at Adhigrama.<ref name="South Indian shrines: illustrated, page 57">''South Indian shrines: illustrated, page 57''</ref>''}}}}

We also have several inscriptions of his son [[Rajaditya]] from Tirunavalur. One such inscription is the following from the temple of Rajadityesvara in Tirunavalur. The temple was also called ''Tiruttondîsvaram'':<ref name="A topographical list of inscriptions in the Tamil Nadu and Kerala states, Volume 2, page 393">''A topographical list of inscriptions in the Tamil Nadu and Kerala states, Volume 2, page 393''</ref>

{{Cquote|{{center|''A record in the 29th year of the Chola king Maduraikonda Parakesarivarman. Records gift of 20 sheep for offerings and of two lamps to the shrines of Rajadityesvara and Agastyesvara by a servant of Rajadityadeva.<ref name="A topographical list of the inscriptions of the Madras Presidency, collected till 1915, page 232">''A topographical list of the inscriptions of the Madras Presidency, collected till 1915, page 232''</ref>''}}}}

== Chola-Chera Perumal relations (c. 9th-10th centuries AD) ==
[[File:Cola-Cera_Perumal_relations_(c._9th-10th_centuries_AD).png|700px|Cola-Cera Perumal relations (c. 9th-10th centuries AD)]]

== See also ==
* [[Battle of Takkolam]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* Venkata Ramanappa, M. N. (1987). ''Outlines of South Indian History''. (Rev. edn.) New Delhi: Vikram.
* Early Chola temples: to Rajaraja I, A.D. 907–985 By S. R. Balasubrahmanyam
* South Indian Inscriptions: Miscellaneous inscriptions in Tamil (4 pts. in 2) By Eugen Hultzsch, Hosakote Krishna Sastri, V. Venkayya, Archaeological Survey of India
* A topographical list of the inscriptions of the Madras Presidency, collected till 1915: with notes and references, Volume 1 By Vijayaraghava Rangacharya
* A topographical list of inscriptions in the Tamil Nadu and Kerala states, Volume 2 By T. V. Mahalingam
* Nilakanta Sastri, K. A. (1935). ''The CōĻas'', University of Madras, Madras (Reprinted 1984).
* Nilakanta Sastri, K. A. (1955). ''A History of South India'', OUP, New Delhi (Reprinted 2002).
* South Indian shrines: illustrated By P. V. Jagadisa Ayyar

{{S-start}}
{{Succession box|title=[[Chola]]|before=[[Aditya I]]|after=[[Gandaraditya]] |years=907–955 CE}}
{{S-end}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Parantaka 01}}
[[Category:Chola kings]]
[[Category:900s births]]
[[Category:955 deaths]]
[[Category:10th-century Hindus]]
[[Category:10th-century Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:Year of birth uncertain]]

Parantaka I

2026-09-11T04:25:12Z

2401:4900:CAE8:3612:6CEF:4DFF:FE8D:E8C3:

{{Use Indian English|date=October 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
{{More footnotes needed|date=September 2020}}{{Infobox royalty
| name = Parantaka I
| title = Parakesari, Maduraium Eelamum Konda Parakesarivarman, Veera Cholan, Irumudi Cholan
| image = Parantaka territories.png
| caption = [[Chola Empire]] under Parantaka Chola I in 915 CE
| succession = [[Chola Empire|Chola Emperor]]
| reign = 907 CE - 955 CE
| predecessor = [[Aditya I]]
| successor = [[Gandaraditya]]
| spouse = 11 Total<ref>{{cite book|title=Volume 1 of Early Chola Art, S. R. Balasubrahmanyam|author=S. R. Balasubrahmanyam|publisher=Asia publ. house, 1966|page=165}}</ref> Including: Ko "Kizhan Adigal" Iravi Nili Solamadeviyar
| spouse-type = Queen
| issue = [[Rajaditya Chola|Rajaditya]] [[Gandaraditya]] Uttamasili [[Arinjaya Chola|Arinjaya]] Viramadevi Anupama.
| house = [[Cholas]]
| father = [[Aditya I]]
| mother = Tribhuvanamadeviyar
| birth_name = Veera Narayanan
| birth_date = 873 CE
| birth_place = [[Tiruvottiyur]], [[Chola Empire]] (Modern day [[Chennai]] [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]])
| death_date = 955 CE (aged 82)
| death_place = [[Tiruvottiyur]], [[Chola Empire]] (Modern day [[Chennai]] [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]])
| burial_place =
| religion = [[Hinduism]]
| dynasty = [[Chola]]
}}
{{Chola history}}
'''Parantaka Chola I''' ([[Tamil language|Tamil]] : பராந்தக சோழன் I) (873 CE–955 CE) was a [[Chola Empire|Chola]] emperor who ruled for forty-eight years, annexing [[Pandyan dynasty|Pandya]] by defeating [[Maravarman Rajasimha II|Rajasimhan II]] and in the [[Deccan]] won the Battle of Vallala against [[Rashtrakuta dynasty|Rashtrakutas]] which happened before 916 CE.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=K.A. |first=Nilakanta Sastri |title=A History of South India from Prehistoric to the Fall of Vijayanagar |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1955 |pages=Page=168 |language=English}}</ref><ref name="sen2">{{Cite book |last=Sen |first=Sailendra |title=A Textbook of Medieval Indian History |publisher=Primus Books |year=2013 |isbn=978-9-38060-734-4 |pages=46–49}}</ref> The best part of his reign was marked by increasing success and prosperity.

==Invasion of the Pandya kingdom==
Parantaka I continued the expansion started by his father, and invaded the [[Pandya]] kingdom in 915. He captured the Pandyan capital [[Madurai]] and assumed the title Madurain-konda (Capturer of Madurai). The Pandyan ruler [[Maravarman Rajasimha II|Maravarman Rajasinha II]] sought the help of [[Kassapa V of Anuradhapura|Kassapa V]] of [[Anuradhapura Kingdom|Anuradhapura]] who sent an army to his aid. Parantaka I defeated the combined army at the battle of [[Vellore]]. The Pandya king fled into exile in Sri Lanka and Parantaka I completed his conquest of the entire Pandya country.

Parantaka I spent many years in the newly conquered country reducing it to subjugation, and when he felt he had at last achieved his aim, he wanted to celebrate his victory by a coronation in [[Madurai]] in which he was to invest himself with the insignia of [[Pandya dynasty|Pandyan monarchy]]. However he was failed in this attempt by the Pandyan king, who had carried them away and left them in the safe custody of the Lankan king. Towards the end of his reign, Parantaka I tried to capture them by invading Lanka. [[Mahavamsa]] records that the Lankan king Udaya IV took the Pandya crown and the jewels and hid himself in the [[Sri Pada|Rohana]] hills. Parantaka I's armies had to return empty handed.

After his exploits in the Pandya country and in Lanka, he took the title of ''Maduraiyum Eelamum Konda Parakesarivarman'' – Parakesarivarman who conquered Madurai and Sri Lanka.

==War against Rashtrakutas ==
=== Background ===

[[Aditya I]] had two sons, namely Parantaka I and Kannara Deva. The eldest son was Parantaka, born to a Chera wife; the youngest son was Kannara Devan, born to a Rashtrakuta wife. Following Aditya I's death, Rashtrakuta king [[Krishna II]] tried to exert his influence in the Chola country by placing his grandson Kannara Deva on the throne.<ref name="Sastri 1955">{{Cite book |last=Sastri |first=K. A. Nilakanta |url=http://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.4293 |title=Colas |date=1955}}</ref>
=== Battle of vallala ===
[[Aditya I]] had two sons namely Parantaka I and Kannara Deva. The eldest son was Parantaka, born to a Chera wife; the youngest son was Kannara Devan, born to Rashtrakuta wife. After the death of Aditya I, Rashtrakuta king [[Krishna II]] tried to establish his influence in the Chola country by placing his grandson Kannara Deva on the throne. But in 907 AD, Parantaka became the king. Disappointed by this, [[Krishna II]] invaded the Chola country. On Rashtrakuta side, prince [[Indra III]] lead the battle, while the Chola side was led by King Parantaka and Prince [[Rajaditya Chola|Rajaditya]]. During 911 CE in the battle of Vallala,<ref name=":1" /> a large number of Rashtrakuta soldiers died and their army began to weaken. Krishna II withdrew and his forces retreated. The Cholas advanced further and attacked the Rashtrakutas and chased away from their territory. Eventually the Cholas defeated the Rashtrakutas. Parantaka Chola's early series of victories would also includes this Rashtrakuta War.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dutta |first=Vidhan |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=QXlSEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA34&dq=Parantaka+2&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwibrp3M-diSAxWRU2wGHcgLLuIQ6AF6BAgPEAM#v=onepage&q=Parantaka%202&f=false |title=A Glimpse of the Former Glory of India- The Chola Empire |date=2025-03-15 |publisher=Blue Rose Publishers |language=en}}</ref>
=== Conflict with Rashtrakuta feudatories ===

==== Banas and Vaidumbas ====

During the early phase of Parantaka I’s conflict with the Rashtrakuta Empire and its allies, campaigns were directed against the Bana and Vaidumba chiefs. According to K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, the Bana rulers Vikramaditya II and his son Vijayaditya III were defeated in these campaigns, leading to the incorporation of Bana territory under Chola control, at times administered through loyal subordinates. The Vaidumbas, who were associated with the Banas, also appear to have been reduced to submission during this period, with some chiefs seeking refuge in Rashtrakuta domains. These events are generally placed in the early decades of Parantaka I’s reign.<ref>{{cite book
|last=Sen
|first=Sailendra Nath
|title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization
|year=1990
|publisher=Wiley Eastern Ltd.
|page=439
|url=https://archive.org/details/ancientindianhistoryandcivilization/page/n439/mode/1up
|access-date=2026-04-01
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
|last=Sastri
|first=K. A. Nilakanta
|title=The Colas
|year=1955
|publisher=University of Madras
|page=142
|url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.4293/page/n142/mode/1up
|access-date=2026-04-01
}}</ref>

==== Against Nolamba king Iriva Nolamba Diliparaja ====

During the 29th year of Parantaka I's reign, Chola influence appears to have extended into regions near Nolambavadi. A Kannada inscription from this regnal year (c. 936 CE) of parantaka I, found at Bairakur in present-day Karnataka, indicates a possible conflict between Parantaka I and the Nolamba ruler Iriva Nolamba Diliparaja, a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta Empire. While the evidence is not conclusive, some historians suggest that this encounter may have ended in favour of the Cholas, pointing to a possible success of Parantaka I over a Rashtrakuta subordinate.<ref>{{cite web |title=Dates of the Pallava Kings of the 8th and 9th Centuries |author=N. Sethuraman |publisher=Epigraphical Society of India (Conference Paper) |year=1995 |url=https://sethuramanepigraphist.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Dates_0f_the_Pallava_Kings_of_the_8th_and_9th_Centuries.pdf |access-date=2026-04-01}}</ref>

=== Initial encounter with krishna III ===

Some historians note that the struggle between Parantaka I and the Rashtrakutas was not uniformly favourable to the latter. The Kanyakumari inscription of Virarajendra states that Parantaka I defeated Krishna III.<ref>{{Cite web |title=South Indian Inscriptions Volume_3 - Misc.Inscriptions in Tamil @ whatisindia.com |url=https://www.whatisindia.com/inscriptions/south_indian_inscriptions/volume_3/introduction1.html |access-date=2026-02-14 |website=www.whatisindia.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
|editor=E. Hultzsch
|title=South Indian Inscriptions, Volume III, Parts I & II
|publisher=Archaeological Survey of India
|year=1987
|url=https://indianhistorybooks4.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/99999990037356-south-indian-inscriptions-vol-3-pt-1-and-pt-2-279p-inscriptions-south-india-english-1987.pdf
|access-date=2026-04-01
}}</ref> Historian A. S. Altekar interprets this reference as possibly relating to an earlier engagement before 944 CE, suggesting that Parantaka I achieved a temporary success against Krishna III before the renewed Rashtrakuta invasion that culminated in the Battle of Takkolam (c. 949 CE). K. A. Nilakanta Sastri also questioned the early dating of the Siddhalingamadam inscription attributing the conquest of Kanchi and Tanjavur to Krishna III in 944–45, arguing that firm Rashtrakuta occupation of Tondaimandalam occurred only after the Battle of Takkolam.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Altekar |first=A. s |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.57217 |title=Rashtrakutas And Their Times |date=1934}}</ref><ref name="Sastri 1955"/><ref name="Cholas I"/>

==Extent of Parantaka I's influence==
At the height of his success, Parantaka's dominions comprised almost the whole of the Tamil country right up to [[Nellore]] in Andhra Pradesh. It is clear from other Chola grants that Parantaka I was a great militarist who had made extensive conquests. He may have had it recorded, but those records are lost to us. He is known to have defeated the kings of Deccan kingdoms by 912 CE and completed at least temporarily the conquests started by his father Aditya. Later in 949 CE, Rashtrakuta king [[Krishna III]] waged war against Cholas, so Parantaka sent an army under his son [[Rajaditya Chola|Rajaditya]] but the Cholas were defeated and crown prince Rajaditya was killed in the battlefield while sitting on elephant.

==Civic and religious contributions==
{{Unreferenced section|date=September 2020}}
Although was engaged for the greater part of his long reign in warlike operations, yet he was not unmindful of the victories of peace. The internal administration of his country was a matter in which he took a keen interest. He laid out the rules for the conduct of the village assemblies in an inscription. The village institutions of South India, of course, date from a much earlier period than that of , but he introduced many salutary reforms for the proper administration of local self-Government.

[[Image:parantaka territories late.png|thumb|Chola Territories c. 950]]

The [[Indian copper plate inscriptions|copper-plate inscriptions]] detail Parantaka I's promotion of agricultural prosperity by the digging of numerous canals all over the country.

He also utilised the spoils of war to donate to numerous temple charities. He is reported to have covered the [[Chidambaram]] [[Shiva|Siva]] Temple with golden roof. "''Thillaiyambalathhukku pon koorai veiyntha thevan''" He was a devout Saiva (follower of Siva) in religion.

A record obtained from the ancient temple at Anbil near [[Tiruchirappalli]], sung by nayanmars, which has fragmented documents dating back to at least six thousand years,{{Original research inline|date=September 2020}} informs that instituted some services in the temple with one hundred and eight servitors. However, these documents might be the information about an earlier Parantaka I since lived before only one thousand years. These servitors worked on ancient jaiminiya recension of samaveda and continuously performed many rituals like the live vasantayaagam, somayagam, atiratram, agnihotram etc.

==Personal life==
From his inscriptions we can gather a few details about Parantaka I's personal life. He had many wives, of whom no fewer than eleven appear in the inscriptions. He was religious but secular and encouraged various faiths. We find various members of his family building temples and regularly making donations to various shrines across the kingdom. Kotanta Rama, incidental with Rajaditya, was the eldest son of Parantaka I. There is an inscription of him from Tiruvorriyur making a donation for some lamps during the 30th year of his father.<ref name="South Indian shrines: illustrated, page 56">''South Indian shrines: illustrated, page 56''</ref> Besides him he had several other sons; [[Arinjaya|Arikulakesari]], [[Gandaraditya]] and Uttamasili.

Parankata had the [[Chera Perumals]] as his close allies and the relationship was further strengthened by two marriages. The king is assumed to have married two distinct [[Ko Kizhan Adikal Ravi Neeli|Chera princesses]] (the mothers of his two sons, [[Rajaditya Chola|Rajaditya]] and [[Arinjaya Chola|Arinjaya]]).<ref>George Spencer, 'Ties that Bound: Royal Marriage Alliance in the Chola Period', ''Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on Asian Studies'' (Hong Kong: Asian Research Service, 1982), 723.</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The early Chōḷas history, art, and culture|author=S. Swaminathan|publisher=Sharada Pub. House, 1998|page=23}}</ref>

A member of the retinue of ''pillaiyar (prince) Rajadittadeva'' gave a gift to the [[Vishnu]] temple at Tirunavalur/Tirumanallur in the 32nd year of Parantaka I.<ref name="Early Chola temples: Parantaka I to Rajaraja I, A.D. 907-985, page 64">''Early Chola temples: Parantaka I to Rajaraja I, A.D. 907–985, page 64''</ref> Tirunavalur was also known as "Rajadittapuram" after [[Rajaditya]].<ref name="South Indian Inscriptions: Miscellaneous inscriptions in Tamil (4 pts. in 2), page 198">''South Indian Inscriptions: Miscellaneous inscriptions in Tamil (4 pts. in 2), page 198''</ref> It is assumed that a large number of warriors from the aristocratic families of the Chera kingdom were part of the contingent of this Chera-Chola prince.<ref name=":0">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala: Brahmin Oligarchy and Ritual Monarchy: Political and Social Conditions of Kerala Under the Cēra Perumāḷs of Makōtai (c. AD 800 - AD 1124).'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 96-100.</ref> In the 39th year of Parantaka I, his daughter-in-law, Mahadevadigal, a queen of Rajaditya and the daughter of Lataraja donated a lamp to the temple of Rajadityesvara for the merit of her brother.<ref name="Epigraphia Indica and record of the Archæological Survey of India, Volume 7, page 167">''Epigraphia Indica and record of the Archæological Survey of India, Volume 7, page 167''</ref> He had at least two daughters: Viramadevi and Anupama. Uttamasili does not appear to have lived long enough to succeed to the Chola throne.

He bore numerous epithets such as ''Viranarayana'', ''Virakirti'', ''Vira-Chola'', ''Vikrama-Chola'', ''Irumadi-Sola'' (Chola with two crowns alluding to the Chola and the Pandya kingdoms), ''Devendran'' (lord of the gods), ''Chakravartin'' (the emperor), ''Panditavatsalan'' (fond of learned men), ''Kunjaramallan'' (the wrestler with elephants) and ''Surachulamani'' (the crest jewel of the heroes).

Parantaka I died in 955. His second son [[Gandaraditya]] succeeded him.

==Inscriptions==
[[File:Thiuvotriyur2.jpg|left|thumb|[[Thyagaraja Temple, Tiruvottiyur|Thyagaraja Temple]]]]
[[File:Ekapada Trimurti.jpg|left|thumb|Sculpture in [[Tiruvottiyur]].]]
The following is an inscription of Parantaka I from [[Tiruvottiyur|Tiruvorriyur]]. It is important as it shows that his dominions included regions beyond [[Thondaimandalam]]:

{{Cquote|{{center|''..record of the Chola king Maduraikonda Parakesarivarman(Parantaka) dated in his 34th year. Records gift of lamp to the temple of Tiruvorriyur Mahadeva by Maran Parameswaran alias Sembiyan Soliyavarayan of Sirukulattur in Poyyurkurram, a sub-division of Tenkarai-nadu. Refers to a military officer who destroyed Sitpuli and destroyed Nellore.<ref name="South Indian shrines: illustrated, page 55">''South Indian shrines: illustrated, page 55''</ref>''}}}}

Here we have his son [[Arinjaya]] making a donation. Once again it is from [[Tiruvottiyur|Tiruvorriyur]]:

{{Cquote|{{center|''On the eleventh slab. Records in the 30th year of Maduraikonda Parakesarivarman(Parantaka) dated in his 30th year, gift of gold for a lamp by Arindigai-perumanar, son of Chola-Perumanadigal (i.e Parantaka), to the god Siva at Adhigrama.<ref name="South Indian shrines: illustrated, page 57">''South Indian shrines: illustrated, page 57''</ref>''}}}}

We also have several inscriptions of his son [[Rajaditya]] from Tirunavalur. One such inscription is the following from the temple of Rajadityesvara in Tirunavalur. The temple was also called ''Tiruttondîsvaram'':<ref name="A topographical list of inscriptions in the Tamil Nadu and Kerala states, Volume 2, page 393">''A topographical list of inscriptions in the Tamil Nadu and Kerala states, Volume 2, page 393''</ref>

{{Cquote|{{center|''A record in the 29th year of the Chola king Maduraikonda Parakesarivarman. Records gift of 20 sheep for offerings and of two lamps to the shrines of Rajadityesvara and Agastyesvara by a servant of Rajadityadeva.<ref name="A topographical list of the inscriptions of the Madras Presidency, collected till 1915, page 232">''A topographical list of the inscriptions of the Madras Presidency, collected till 1915, page 232''</ref>''}}}}

== Chola-Chera Perumal relations (c. 9th-10th centuries AD) ==
[[File:Cola-Cera_Perumal_relations_(c._9th-10th_centuries_AD).png|700px|Cola-Cera Perumal relations (c. 9th-10th centuries AD)]]

== See also ==
* [[Battle of Takkolam]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* Venkata Ramanappa, M. N. (1987). ''Outlines of South Indian History''. (Rev. edn.) New Delhi: Vikram.
* Early Chola temples: to Rajaraja I, A.D. 907–985 By S. R. Balasubrahmanyam
* South Indian Inscriptions: Miscellaneous inscriptions in Tamil (4 pts. in 2) By Eugen Hultzsch, Hosakote Krishna Sastri, V. Venkayya, Archaeological Survey of India
* A topographical list of the inscriptions of the Madras Presidency, collected till 1915: with notes and references, Volume 1 By Vijayaraghava Rangacharya
* A topographical list of inscriptions in the Tamil Nadu and Kerala states, Volume 2 By T. V. Mahalingam
* Nilakanta Sastri, K. A. (1935). ''The CōĻas'', University of Madras, Madras (Reprinted 1984).
* Nilakanta Sastri, K. A. (1955). ''A History of South India'', OUP, New Delhi (Reprinted 2002).
* South Indian shrines: illustrated By P. V. Jagadisa Ayyar

{{S-start}}
{{Succession box|title=[[Chola]]|before=[[Aditya I]]|after=[[Gandaraditya]] |years=907–955 CE}}
{{S-end}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Parantaka 01}}
[[Category:Chola kings]]
[[Category:900s births]]
[[Category:955 deaths]]
[[Category:10th-century Hindus]]
[[Category:10th-century Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:Year of birth uncertain]]