Battle of Kandalur Salai

2021-08-12T08:44:02Z

2401:4900:4C18:DE6D:0:0:628:719D:

{{Use Indian English|date=August 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Battle of Kandalur salai<br />Capture of Kandalur salai
| partof =
| image = Suchindram inscription of Rajaraja I.jpg
| image_size =
| caption = Inscription of Chola emperor Rajaraja from Suchindram, Kanyakumari (15th regnal year)
| date = c. 988 CE<ref name=":1" />
| place = Kandalur, south Kerala.
| casus =
| territory =
| result = Decisive Chola victory.
| combatant1 = * [[Chola dynasty]]
| combatant2 = * Members of Kandalur salai
* [[Chera Perumal dynasty|Chera Perumals]] (?)
* [[Ay dynasty]] (?)
| commander1 =
| commander2 =
| strength1 =
| strength2 =
| casualties1 =
| casualties2 =
| notes =
}}

The '''Battle of Kandalur salai''' (c. 988 CE), also spelled '''Kanthaloor shala''', was a naval engagement of the [[Chola Empire|Cholas]] under [[Raja Raja Chola I|Rajaraja I]] (985—1014 CE) against the "Brahmin salai" at Kandalur in south [[Kerala]].<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0">Noburu Karashmia (ed.), ''A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations.'' New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2014. 122-24.</ref> The exact location of Kandalur—somewhere south [[Kerala]]—is a subject of scholarly debate.<ref name=":1">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ&dq=perumals+of+kerala&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi3zvqI1b3uAhVBgOYKHcR9D8MQ6AEwAXoECAoQAQ Perumals of Kerala: Brahmin Oligarchy and Ritual Monarchy].'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013 [1972]. 115 - 117.</ref><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 135.</ref> The above (988 CE) event is sometimes assumed to be identical with the "conquest of [[Vizhinjam]] by a general of Rajaraja", before the burning of [[Sri Lanka|Lanka]], given in the Tiruvalangadu Grant/Plates.<ref name=":1" />

The phrase "Kandalur salai kalamarutta" is again used as a title with distinction of three other Chola kings also ([[Rajendra Chola I|Rajendra]], [[Rajadhiraja Chola|Rajadhiraja]] and [[Kulottunga I|Kulottunga]]).<ref name=":4">Narayanan, M.G.S. 'Kantalur Salai-New Light on Aryan Expansion in South India.' ''Proceedings of the Indian History Congress'', vol. 32, 1970, pp. 125–136.</ref>

== Assessment of the title ==
The so-called salais were considered prized possessions as they are claimed to have been sacked by many kings of south India.<ref name=":1" /> The character of the salais were re-examined in the 1970 paper 'Kantalur Salai-New Light on Aryan Expansion in South India' by historian M. G. S. Narayanan.<ref>Narayanan, M. G. S., 'Kantalur Salai-New Light on Aryan Expansion in South India,' Proceedings of Indian History Congress, 1970. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44141058</ref>

{{cquote|It is now clear that the salai (or ghatika or kalakam or kalam) was a peculiar institution... A multipurpose training centre for celibate arms-bearing Brahmins (Chathar/Chathirar) in material and spiritual fields (including military training to equip them to serve the chieftain or the king and vedic and sastraic studies)... The salai played a significant role in the expansion of religion and culture...
| author = M. G. S. Narayanan (1970)
| book = Perumals of Kerala
}}

=== Older assessments ===
Different views were expressed by early scholars regarding the character of "salai" (such as naval base - military training centre - cantonment - ammunition depot).<ref name=":2" />

# Dr. Hultzsch - (1) "built a jewell-like hall at Kandalur" or (2) "cut the vessel [kalam] in the hall at Kandalur" (3) "destroyed ships [kalam] at Kandalur [harbour]"<ref name=":4" />
# Gopinatha Rao - "destroyed/discontinued/transferred the Brahmin feeding [kalam] at Kandalur Feeding House or Hall [salai] "<ref name=":4" />
# Desikavinayakam Pillai - "regulation of the Brahmin feeding at Kandalur Feeding House [salai]"<ref name=":4" />
#[[K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|K. A. N. Sastri]] - "destroyed ships at Kandalur [harbour]"<ref name=":4" />
# Elamkulam P. N. Kunjan Pillai - "discontinued/destroyed the feeding [kalam] of the armed Brahmins [Chathar] at Kandalur"..<ref name=":4" />

== Location of Kandalur salai ==
The exact location of Kandalur is a subject of scholarly debate. It is possible the original Kandalur salai was located near the [[Ay dynasty|Ay]] headquarters [[Vizhinjam]] and the deity was later shifted to [[Thiruvananthapuram|Trivandrum]] (after the [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] raids of the 10th-11th centuries).<ref name=":1" />

* Original location:— a village around 20 km east of Vizhinjam with a Shiva temple called Kandalur Salai.<ref name=":1" />
* Shifted location:— within the city of [[Thiruvananthapuram|Trivandrum]] (Valiya Salai Temple)<ref name=":1" />

== Raid by Rajaraja I (c. 988 CE) ==
As per historian K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, the capture was the first military achievement of king [[Rajaraja I|Rajaraja]]'s reign. The success was summed up in the famous phrase "Kandalur salai kalamarutta", which precedes Rajaraja's name in several of his inscriptions from the 4th regnal year (988 CE) onwards.<ref name=":1" /><ref>K. A. N. Sastri, ''History of South India.'' Oxford, 1955. p. 164-9.</ref>

* The Kandalur salai belonged to the [[Ay dynasty|Ay chief]], a vassal of the [[Chera dynasty|Chera Perumal kings]], in the mid-860s (865 CE).<ref name=":4" />
*It is possible that at the time of the raid, the salai may have been under control of the [[Chera/Perumals of Makotai|Chera Perumal]] king of Kerala, Bhaskara Ravi.<ref name=":1" /> If that was the case, the campaign can be viewed as part of Rajaraja's early battles against the Cheras, Pandyas and the rulers of [[Sri Lanka]].<ref name=":0" />

* However, some historians argue that Kandalur salai, which only later Chola inscriptions (1048 CE) claim to have belonged to the Chera Perumals, may have been held by the [[Pandyan dynasty|Pandyas]] when it was attacked by Rajaraja I.<ref>K. A. N. Sastri, ''History of South India.'' Oxford, 1955.</ref><ref name=":3">Venkayya, V., ''South Indian Inscriptions'', (Madras), Vol II, Intn, p. 2.</ref>
*A hero stone inscription was unearthed from a village near [[Tiruvannamalai]] in November, 2009. It supports the view that a military engagement indeed took place at Kandalur.<ref name="hindu1">{{cite web|last=Subramanian|first=T. S.|date=2009-11-27|title=Unearthed Stone Ends Debate|url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-fridayreview/Unearthed-stone-ends-debate/article15940697.ece|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|website=The Hindu|publisher=}}</ref> It has a eulogy that talks about Rajaraja "beheading the Malai Alargal of Kandalur Salai".<ref name="hindu1" />

== References to Kandalur salai ==
''Corrections by [[M. G. S. Narayanan]] on [[K. A. Nilakanta Sastri]] are employed.''

* 865 CE — Huzur Office/Parthivapuram Plates of [[Ay dynasty|Ay]] chieftain Karunantatakkan Srivallabha (a vassal of the Pandya king [[Srimara Srivallabha]]).<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4" />
* 988 CE — first Chola reference to the fall of Kandalur salai ("Kandalur salai kalamarutta").<ref name=":1" />
* 1018-19 CE — Chola ([[Rajadhiraja Chola|Rajadhiraja]] and [[Rajendra Chola I|Rajendra]]) campaigns in Kerala.
{{cquote|
"...confined the undaunted king of [[Venad|Venatu]] [back] to Che[ra]natu [from the [[Ay dynasty|Ay country]]].... and put on a fresh garland of [[Thiruvanchikulam Temple|Vanchi]] after capturing Kantalur Salai while the strong Villavan [the Chera king] hid himself in terror inside the jungle..."
}}
* 1048 CE – Velur and Tiruppangili inscriptions – Kandalur salai is mentioned as 'Cheralan Velaikkelu Kantalur Chalai'.<ref name=":3" />

* ''Kalingattupparani'' (III-21) mentions [[Kulottunga I|Kulottunga Chola]]'s victory of over the Bow Emblem and the Chola capture of Kantalur Salai.
* c. 1102 — c.1118 CE – Jatavarman Parakrama [[Pandya dynasty|Pandya]] mentions the capture of Kantalur Salai (for his Chola overlord [[Vikrama Chola]]).

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:988]]
[[Category:10th century in India]]
[[Category:History of Kerala]]
[[Category:10th-century conflicts|Kandalur Salai]]
[[Category:Naval history of India]]
[[Category:Chera dynasty]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Chola Empire|Kandalur Salai]]
[[Category:Military orders (monastic society)]]

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Battle of Kandalur Salai