Vaisheshika

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{{Short description|Ancient Indian philosophy}}
{{EngvarB|date=April 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2015}}
{{Hindu philosophy}}
'''Vaisheshika''' or '''Vaiśeṣika''' ({{lang-sa|वैशेषिक}}) is one of the six schools of [[Indian philosophy]] ([[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic]] systems) from ancient India. In its early stages, the Vaiśeṣika was an independent [[philosophy]] with its own metaphysics, epistemology, logic, ethics, and soteriology.<ref>Amita Chatterjee (2011), Nyāya-vaiśeṣika Philosophy, The Oxford Handbook of World Philosophy, {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195328998.003.0012}}</ref> Over time, the Vaiśeṣika system became similar in its philosophical procedures, ethical conclusions and soteriology to the [[Nyaya|Nyāya]] school of Hinduism, but retained its difference in epistemology and metaphysics.

The [[epistemology]] of the Vaiśeṣika school of Hinduism, like [[Buddhism]], accepted only two reliable means to knowledge: perception and inference.<ref name=dpsb/><ref name=eliottjag/> the Vaiśeṣika school and Buddhism both consider their respective scriptures as indisputable and valid means to knowledge, the difference being that the scriptures held to be a valid and reliable source by Vaiśeṣikas were the [[Vedas]].

The Vaisheshika school is known for its insights in [[Naturalism (philosophy)|naturalism]].<ref>Dale Riepe (1996), Naturalistic Tradition in Indian Thought, {{ISBN|978-8120812932}}, pages 227-246</ref><ref name="Kak">Kak, S. 'Matter and Mind: The Vaisheshika Sutra of Kanada' (2016), Mount Meru Publishing, Mississauga, Ontario, {{ISBN|978-1-988207-13-1}}.</ref> It is a form of [[atomism]] in natural philosophy.<ref name=jganeri>[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/early-modern-india/#VaiAto Analytical philosophy in early modern India] J Ganeri, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</ref> It postulated that all objects in the physical universe are reducible to ''paramāṇu'' ([[atom]]s), and one's experiences are derived from the interplay of substance (a function of atoms, their number and their spatial arrangements), quality, activity, commonness, particularity and inherence.<ref name=olil>Oliver Leaman, ''Key Concepts in Eastern Philosophy.'' Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415173629}}, 1999, page 269.</ref> Everything was composed of atoms, qualities emerged from aggregates of atoms, but the aggregation and nature of these atoms was predetermined by cosmic forces. [[Ajivika]] [[metaphysics]] included a theory of atoms which was later adapted in the Vaiśeṣika school.{{sfn|Basham|1951|pp=262-270}}

According to the Vaiśeṣika school, knowledge and liberation were achievable by a complete understanding of the world of experience.<ref name=olil/>

Vaiśeṣika [[Darśana|darshana]] was founded by [[Kanada (philosopher)|Kaṇāda Kashyapa]] around the 6th to 2nd century BC.{{Sfn|Jeaneane D. Fowler|2002|pp=98-99}}<ref>Oliver Leaman (1999), ''Key Concepts in Eastern Philosophy.'' Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415173629}}, page 269</ref><ref>J Ganeri (2012), The Self: Naturalism, Consciousness, and the First-Person Stance, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0199652365}}</ref>

==Overview==
Although the Vaisheshika system developed independently from the [[Nyaya|Nyaya school]] of Hinduism, the two became similar and are often studied together. In its classical form, however, the Vaishesika school differed from the Nyaya in one crucial respect: where Nyaya accepted four sources of valid knowledge, the Vaishesika accepted only two.<ref name=dpsb/><ref name=eliottjag/>

The [[epistemology]] of Vaiśeṣika school of Hinduism accepted only two reliable means to knowledge – [[perception]] and [[inference]].<ref name=dpsb/>

Vaisheshika espouses a form of [[atomism]], that the reality is composed of five substances (examples are earth, water, air, fire, and space). Each of these five are of two types, explains Ganeri,<ref name=jganeri/> (paramāṇu) and composite. A paramāṇu is that which is indestructible, indivisible, and has a special kind of dimension, called “small” (aṇu). A composite is that which is divisible into paramāṇu. Whatever human beings perceive is composite, and even the smallest perceptible thing, namely, a fleck of dust, has parts, which are therefore invisible.<ref name=jganeri/> The Vaiśeṣikas visualized the smallest composite thing as a “triad” (tryaṇuka) with three parts, each part with a “dyad” (dyaṇuka). Vaiśeṣikas believed that a dyad has two parts, each of which is an atom. Size, form, truths and everything that human beings experience as a whole is a function of parmanus, their number and their spatial arrangements.

''Parama'' means "most distant, remotest, extreme, last" and ''aṇu'' means "atom, very small particle", hence ''paramāṇu'' is essentially "the most distant or last small (i.e. smallest) particle".

Vaisheshika postulated that what one experiences is derived from ''dravya'' (substance: a function of atoms, their number and their spatial arrangements), ''guna'' (quality), ''karma'' (activity), ''samanya'' (commonness), ''vishesha'' (particularity) and ''samavaya'' (inherence, inseparable connectedness of everything).<ref name=olil/><ref>M Hiriyanna (1993), Outlines of Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120810860}}, pages 228-237</ref>

==Epistemology==
Hinduism identifies six ''[[Pramāṇa]]s'' as [[epistemology|epistemically]] reliable means to accurate knowledge and to truths:<ref>P Bilimoria (1993), Pramāṇa epistemology: Some recent developments, in Asian philosophy - Volume 7 (Editor: G Floistad), Springer, {{ISBN|978-94-010-5107-1}}, pages 137-154</ref> ''Pratyakṣa'' (perception), ''Anumāna'' (inference), ''Upamāna'' (comparison and analogy), ''Arthāpatti'' (postulation, derivation from circumstances), ''Anupalabdhi'' (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof) and ''Śabda'' (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts).<ref name=dpsb/><ref name=eliottjag>
*Eliot Deutsch (2000), in Philosophy of Religion : Indian Philosophy Vol 4 (Editor: Roy Perrett), Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0815336112}}, pages 245-248;
*John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791430675}}, page 238</ref><ref name=gflood>[[Gavin Flood]], An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0521438780}}, page 225</ref> Of these {{IAST|Vaiśeṣika}} epistemology considered only ''pratyakṣa'' ([[perception]]) and {{IAST |''anumāna''}} ([[inference]]) as reliable means of valid knowledge.<ref>{{harvnb|Chattopadhyaya|1986|p=170}}</ref> Nyaya school, related to Vaiśeṣika, accepts four out of these six.<ref name=dpsb>DPS Bhawuk (2011), Spirituality and Indian Psychology (Editor: Anthony Marsella), Springer, {{ISBN|978-1-4419-8109-7}}, page 172</ref>
*'''''Pratyakṣa''''' (प्रत्यक्ष) means perception. It is of two types: external and internal. External perception is described as that arising from the interaction of five senses and worldly objects, while internal perception is described by this school as that of inner sense, the mind.<ref name=kamal>MM Kamal (1998), The Epistemology of the Carvaka Philosophy, Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies, 46(2): 13-16</ref><ref>B Matilal (1992), Perception: An Essay in Indian Theories of Knowledge, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0198239765}}</ref> The ancient and medieval texts of Hinduism identify four requirements for correct perception:<ref name=kpmat/> ''Indriyarthasannikarsa'' (direct experience by one's sensory organ(s) with the object, whatever is being studied), ''Avyapadesya'' (non-verbal; correct perception is not through [[hearsay]], according to ancient Indian scholars, where one's sensory organ relies on accepting or rejecting someone else's perception), ''Avyabhicara'' (does not wander; correct perception does not change, nor is it the result of deception because one's sensory organ or means of observation is drifting, defective, suspect) and ''Vyavasayatmaka'' (definite; correct perception excludes judgments of doubt, either because of one's failure to observe all the details, or because one is mixing inference with observation and observing what one wants to observe, or not observing what one does not want to observe).<ref name=kpmat>Karl Potter (1977), Meaning and Truth, in Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 2, Princeton University Press, Reprinted in 1995 by Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|81-208-0309-4}}, pages 160-168</ref> Some ancient scholars proposed "unusual perception" as ''pramāṇa'' and called it internal perception, a proposal contested by other Indian scholars. The internal perception concepts included ''pratibha'' (intuition), ''samanyalaksanapratyaksa'' (a form of induction from perceived specifics to a universal), and ''jnanalaksanapratyaksa'' (a form of perception of prior processes and previous states of a 'topic of study' by observing its current state).<ref>Karl Potter (1977), Meaning and Truth, in Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 2, Princeton University Press, Reprinted in 1995 by Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|81-208-0309-4}}, pages 168-169</ref> Further, the texts considered and refined rules of accepting uncertain knowledge from ''Pratyakṣa-pranama'', so as to contrast ''nirnaya'' (definite judgment, conclusion) from ''anadhyavasaya'' (indefinite judgment).<ref>Karl Potter (1977), Meaning and Truth, in Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 2, Princeton University Press, Reprinted in 1995 by Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|81-208-0309-4}}, pages 170-172</ref>
*'''''Anumāna''''' (अनुमान) means inference. It is described as reaching a new conclusion and truth from one or more observations and previous truths by applying reason.<ref>W Halbfass (1991), Tradition and Reflection, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|0-7914-0362-9}}, page 26-27</ref> Observing smoke and inferring fire is an example of ''Anumana''.<ref name=kamal/> In all except one Hindu philosophies,<ref>Carvaka school is the exception</ref> this is a valid and useful means to knowledge. The method of inference is explained by Indian texts as consisting of three parts: ''pratijna'' (hypothesis), ''hetu'' (a reason), and ''drshtanta'' (examples).<ref name=jl4647>James Lochtefeld, "Anumana" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A-M, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN|0-8239-2287-1}}, page 46-47</ref> The hypothesis must further be broken down into two parts, state the ancient Indian scholars: ''sadhya'' (that idea which needs to proven or disproven) and ''paksha'' (the object on which the ''sadhya'' is predicated). The inference is conditionally true if ''sapaksha'' (positive examples as evidence) are present, and if ''vipaksha'' (negative examples as counter-evidence) are absent. For rigor, the Indian philosophies also state further epistemic steps. For example, they demand ''Vyapti'' - the requirement that the ''hetu'' (reason) must necessarily and separately account for the inference in "all" cases, in both ''sapaksha'' and ''vipaksha''.<ref name=jl4647/><ref>Karl Potter (2002), Presuppositions of India's Philosophies, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|81-208-0779-0}}</ref> A conditionally proven hypothesis is called a ''nigamana'' (conclusion).<ref>Monier Williams (1893), Indian Wisdom - Religious, Philosophical and Ethical Doctrines of the Hindus, Luzac & Co, London, page 61</ref>

===Syllogism===
The syllogism of the {{IAST |Vaiśeṣika}} school was similar to that of the [[Nyāya]] school of Hinduism, but the names given by {{IAST |Praśastapāda}} to the 5 members of syllogism are different.<ref>{{harvnb|Radhakrishnan|2006|p=75ff}}</ref>

==Literature==
The earliest systematic exposition of the Vaisheshika is found in the [[Vaisheshika Sutra|{{IAST |Vaiśeṣika Sūtra}}]] of {{IAST |Kaṇāda}} (or {{IAST |Kaṇabhaksha}}). This treatise is divided into ten books. The two commentaries on the {{IAST |Vaiśeṣika Sūtra}}, {{IAST |Rāvaṇabhāṣya}} and {{IAST |Bhāradvājavṛtti}} are no more extant. [[Prashastapada|{{IAST|Praśastapāda}}]]’s {{IAST |Padārthadharmasaṁgraha}} (c. 4th century) is the next important work of this school. Though commonly known as {{IAST |bhāṣya}} of {{IAST |Vaiśeṣika Sūtra}}, this treatise is basically an independent work on the subject. The next Vaisheshika treatise, Candra’s {{IAST |Daśapadārthaśāstra}} (648) based on {{IAST |Praśastapāda}}’s treatise is available only in Chinese translation. The earliest commentary available on {{IAST |Praśastapāda}}’s treatise is {{IAST |Vyomaśiva}}’s {{IAST |Vyomavatī}} (8th century). The other three commentaries are {{IAST |Śridhara}}’s {{IAST |Nyāyakandalī}} (991), Udayana’s {{IAST |Kiranāvali}} (10th century) and {{IAST |Śrivatsa}}’s {{IAST |Līlāvatī}} (11th century). {{IAST |Śivāditya}}’s {{IAST |Saptapadārthī}} which also belongs to the same period, presents the {{IAST |Nyāya}} and the {{IAST |Vaiśeṣika}} principles as a part of one whole. {{IAST |Śaṁkara Miśra}}’s {{IAST |Upaskāra}} on {{IAST |Vaiśeṣika Sūtra}} is also an important work.<ref>{{harvnb|Radhakrishnan|2006|pp=180–81}}</ref>

==The Categories or ''Padārtha''==
According to the Vaisheshika school, all things that exist, that can be cognized and named are {{IAST |''[[padārtha]]''}}s (literal meaning: the meaning of a word), the objects of experience. All objects of experience can be classified into six categories, ''dravya'' (substance), {{IAST |''guṇa''}} (quality), ''karma'' (activity), {{IAST |''sāmānya''}} (generality), {{IAST |''viśeṣa''}} (particularity) and {{IAST |''samavāya''}} (inherence). Later {{IAST |Vaiśeṣika}}s ({{IAST |Śrīdhara}} and Udayana and {{IAST |Śivāditya}}) added one more category ''[[abhava]]'' (non-existence). The first three categories are defined as ''artha'' (which can perceived) and they have real objective existence. The last three categories are defined as {{IAST |''budhyapekṣam''}} (product of intellectual discrimination) and they are logical categories.<ref>{{harvnb|Radhakrishnan|2006|pp=183–86}}</ref>

#''[[Dravya]]'' (substance): The substances are conceived as 9 in number. They are, {{IAST |''pṛthvī''}} (earth), ''ap'' (water), ''tejas'' (fire), {{IAST |''vāyu''}} (air), {{IAST |''ākaśa''}} (ether), {{IAST |''kāla''}} (time), ''dik'' (space), {{IAST |''ātman''}} (self or soul) and ''manas'' (mind). The first five are called {{IAST
|''bhūta''}}s, the substances having some specific qualities so that they could be perceived by one or the other external senses.<ref>{{harvnb|Chattopadhyaya|1986|p=169}}</ref>
# ''[[Guṇa]]'' (quality): The {{IAST |Vaiśeṣika Sūtra}} mentions 17 {{IAST |guṇa}}s (qualities), to which {{IAST |Praśastapāda}} added another 7. While a substance is capable of existing independently by itself, a {{IAST |guṇa}} (quality) cannot exist so. The original 17 {{IAST |guṇa}}s (qualities) are, {{IAST |''rūpa''}} (colour), ''rasa'' (taste), ''gandha'' (smell), {{IAST |''sparśa''}} (touch), {{IAST |''saṁkhyā''}} (number), {{IAST |''parimāṇa''}} (size/dimension/quantity), {{IAST |''pṛthaktva''}} (individuality), {{IAST |''saṁyoga''}} (conjunction/accompaniments), {{IAST |''vibhāga''}} (disjunction), ''{{transl|sa|paratva}}'' (priority), ''aparatva'' (posteriority), ''buddhi'' (knowledge), ''sukha'' (pleasure), {{IAST |''duḥkha''}} (pain), {{IAST |''icchā''}} (desire), {{IAST |''dveṣa''}} (aversion) and ''prayatna'' (effort). To these {{IAST |Praśastapāda}} added ''gurutva'' (heaviness), ''dravatva'' (fluidity), ''sneha'' (viscosity), ''dharma'' (merit), ''adharma'' (demerit), {{IAST |''śabda''}} (sound) and {{IAST |''saṁskāra''}} (faculty).<ref>{{harvnb|Radhakrishnan|2006|p=204}}</ref>
# ''[[Karma]]'' (activity): The ''karma''s (activities) like {{IAST |guṇa}}s (qualities) have no separate existence, they belong to the substances. But while a quality is a permanent feature of a substance, an activity is a transient one. {{IAST|''Ākāśa''}} (ether), {{IAST |''kāla''}} (time), ''dik'' (space) and {{IAST |''ātman''}} (self), though substances, are devoid of ''karma'' (activity).<ref>{{harvnb|Radhakrishnan|2006|pp=208–09}}</ref>
# ''[[Samanya_Upanishads|Sāmānya]]'' (generality): Since there are plurality of substances, there will be relations among them. When a property is found common to many substances, it is called {{IAST |''sāmānya''}}.<ref>{{harvnb|Radhakrishnan|2006|p=209}}</ref>
# {{IAST |''Viśeṣa''}} (particularity): By means of {{IAST |''viśeṣa''}}, we are able to perceive substances as different from one another. As the ultimate atoms are innumerable so are the {{IAST |''viśeṣa''}}s.<ref>{{harvnb|Radhakrishnan|2006|p=215}}</ref>
# {{IAST |''Samavāya''}} (inherence): {{IAST |Kaṇāda}} defined {{IAST |''samavāya''}} as the relation between the cause and the effect. {{IAST |Praśastapāda}} defined it as the relationship existing between the substances that are inseparable, standing to one another in the relation of the container and the contained. The relation of {{IAST |''samavāya''}} is not perceivable but only inferable from the inseparable connection of the substances.<ref>{{harvnb|Radhakrishnan|2006|pp=216–19}}</ref>

==The atomic theory==
According to the {{IAST |Vaiśeṣika}} school, the {{IAST |''trasareṇu''}} are the smallest ''mahat'' (perceivable) particles and defined as {{IAST |tryaṇuka}}s (triads). These are made of three parts, each of which are defined as {{IAST |dvyaṇuka}} (dyad). The {{IAST |dvyaṇuka}}s are conceived as made of two parts, each of which are defined as {{IAST |paramāṇu}} (atom). The {{IAST |paramāṇu}}s (atoms) are indivisible and eternal, they can neither be created nor destroyed.<ref>{{harvnb|Chattopadhyaya|1986|pp=169–70}}</ref> Each {{IAST |paramāṇu}} (atom) possesses its own distinct {{IAST |viśeṣa}} (individuality)<ref>{{harvnb|Radhakrishnan|2006|p=202}}</ref> and have an inhering relation which is responsible for change and motion.

The measure of the partless atoms is known as ''parimaṇḍala parimāṇa''. It is eternal and it cannot generate the measure of any other substance. Its measure is its own absolutely.<ref>{{harvnb|Dasgupta|1975|p=314}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Darshanas]]
*[[Hindu philosophy]]
*[[Hinduism]]
*[[Nyaya]] (philosophy)
*[[Padārtha]]
*[[Tarka-Sangraha]]
*[[Vaiśeṣika Sūtra]]
*[[Atomism]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|30em}}

==References==
*{{Citation
| surname1 = Chattopadhyaya
| given1 = D.
| year = 1986
| title = Indian Philosophy: A Popular Introduction
| publisher = People’s Publishing House, New Delhi
| isbn = 81-7007-023-6
}}.
*{{Citation
| surname1 = Dasgupta
| given1 = Surendranath
| year = 1975
| title = A History of Indian Philosophy, Vol. I
| publisher = Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi
| isbn = 978-81-208-0412-8
}}.

*{{Citation
| surname1 = Radhakrishnan
| given1 = S.
| year = 2006
| title = Indian Philosophy, Vol. II
| publisher = Oxford University Press, New Delhi
| isbn = 0-19-563820-4
}}.

==Further reading==
* Bimal Matilal (1977), [https://books.google.com/books?id=JyJ--9uUtx0C&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false A History of Indian Literature - Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika], Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, {{ISBN|978-3447018074}}, {{oclc|489575550}}
* Gopi Kaviraj (1961), Gleanings from the history and bibliography of the Nyaya-Vaisesika literature, Indian Studies: Past & Present, Volume 2, Number 4, {{oclc|24469380}}
*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PJbsAAAAIAAJ|title=Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|year=2002|isbn=978-1-898723-93-6|author=Jeaneane D. Fowler}}
*{{cite book|author=H. Margenau|title=Physics and Philosophy: Selected Essays|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gfrtCAAAQBAJ |year=2012 |publisher=Springer Science |isbn=978-94-009-9845-2}}
*Kak, Subhash: Matter and Mind: The Vaiśeṣika Sūtra of Kaṇāda {{ISBN|9781988207148}}
*{{cite book|last=Riepe|first=Dale Maurice |title=Naturalistic Tradition in Indian Thought|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UZZGEhp8gasC |year=1961 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass (Reprint 1996)|isbn=978-81-208-1293-2}}
*{{cite book|author1=Bart Labuschagne|author2=Timo Slootweg|title=Hegel's Philosophy of the Historical Religions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zHa3WiPqpiYC |year=2012|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=978-90-04-22618-0}}
*{{cite book|first=Chandradhar|last= Sharma|title=A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y3gQVd5WogsC |year=2000 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0365-7}}

==External links==
*[https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/vaisheshika-sutra-commentary Vaisheshika-sutra with three commentaries] English translation by Nandalal Sinha, 1923 (includes glossary)
*[https://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0310001 A summary of Vaisheshika physics]
* [http://www.shastranethralaya.org Shastra Nethralaya - Vaisheshika ]
* [http://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/1_sanskr/6_sastra/3_phil/vaisesik/vaisessu.htm GRETIL e-text of the Vaiśeṣika Sūtras]

{{Indian Philosophy}}

[[Category:Ancient Indian philosophy]]
[[Category:Āstika]]
[[Category:Atomism]]
[[Category:Epistemology]]
[[Category:Hindu philosophy]]
[[Category:Logic]]
[[Category:Metaphysics]]

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