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List of Indian inventions and discoveries

2026-05-25T05:25:06Z

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{{Short description|Indian inventions}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2025}}
{{Science and technology in India}}

This''' list of Indian inventions and discoveries''' details the inventions, scientific discoveries and contributions of India, including those from the historic [[Indian subcontinent]] and the modern-day [[Republic of India]]. It draws from the whole [[culture of India|cultural]] and [[history of Indian science and technology|technological
of India|cartography]], [[History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent|metallurgy]], [[Indian logic|logic]], [[Indian mathematics|mathematics]], [[History of measurement systems in India|metrology]] and [[Mining in India|mineralogy]] were among the branches of study pursued by [[:Category:Indian academics|its scholars]].<ref>{{citation |first=Meera |last=Nanda |title=Hindutva's science envy |url=http://www.frontline.in/science-and-technology/hindutvas-science-envy/article9049883.ece |newspaper=Frontline |date=16 September 2016 |access-date=14 October 2016}}</ref> During recent times [[science and technology in the Republic of India]] has also focused on [[Automobile industry in India|automobile engineering]], [[Information technology in India|information technology]], [[Communications in India|communications]] as well as research into [[Indian Space Research Organisation|space]] and [[Indian Antarctic Programme|polar]] technology.

For the purpose of this list, the [[invention]]s are regarded as technological firsts developed within territory of India, as such does not include foreign technologies which India acquired through contact or any Indian origin living in foreign country doing any breakthroughs in foreign land. It also does not include not a new idea, indigenous alternatives, low-cost alternatives, technologies or discoveries developed elsewhere and later invented separately in India, nor inventions by Indian emigres or [[Indian diaspora]] in other places. Changes in minor concepts of design or style and artistic innovations do not appear in the lists.

== Ancient India ==
{{See also|History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent|List of inventions and discoveries of the Indus Valley Civilisation|Timeline of Indian innovation}}

=== Agriculture ===
* [[Indigo|Indigo dye]] – Indigo, a blue pigment and a dye, was used in India, which was also the earliest major, old world, centre for its production and processing.<ref name=k&c>Kriger & Connah (2006), page 120</ref> The ''Indigofera tinctoria'' variety of Indigo was domesticated in India.<ref name=k&c/> Indigo, used as a dye, made its way to the [[ancient Greece|Greeks]] and the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] via various trade routes, and was valued as a luxury product.<ref name=k&c/>
* [[Jute|Jute cultivation]] – Jute has been cultivated in India since ancient times.<ref name=ebjute/> Raw jute was exported to the [[western world]], where it was used to make [[rope]]s and cordage.<ref name=ebjute>Encyclopædia Britannica (2008). ''jute''.</ref> The Indian jute industry, in turn, was modernised during the British Raj in India.<ref name=ebjute/> The region of [[Bengal]] was the major centre for Jute cultivation, and remained so before the modernisation of India's jute industry in 1855, when [[Kolkata]] became a centre for jute processing in India.<ref name=ebjute/>
* [[Sugar]] – Sugarcane was originally from tropical [[South Asia]] and [[Southeast Asia]],<ref name=Kiple/> with different species originating in India, and ''S. edule'' and ''S. officinarum'' from [[New Guinea]].<ref name=Kiple>{{cite web |url=http://www.cambridge.org/us/books/kiple/sugar.htm|title=World history of Food – Sugar|author=Kenneth F.Kiple & Kriemhild Conee Ornelas|publisher=Cambridge University Press|access-date=9 January 2012}}</ref> The process of producing crystallised sugar from sugar cane, in India, dates to at least the beginning of the common era, with 1st century CE Greek and Roman authors writing on Indian sugar.<ref>Book Two of Dioscorides' ''Materia Medica''. The book is downloadable from links at the Wikipedia [[Dioscorides]] page.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://archive.org/details/de-materia-medica|title=de materia medica|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> The process was soon transmitted to China with travelling Buddhist monks.<ref name=Kieschnick1>Kieschnick (2003)</ref> Chinese documents confirm at least two missions to India, initiated in 647 CE, for obtaining technology for sugar-refining.<ref name=Kieschnick11>Kieschnick (2003), page 258</ref> Each mission returned with results on refining sugar.<ref name=Kieschnick11/>

=== Construction, civil engineering and architecture ===
[[File:Sanchi2.jpg|thumb|The Great Stupa at [[Sanchi]] (4th–1st century BCE). The dome shaped stupa was used in India as a commemorative monument associated with storing sacred relics.]]
[[File:Hanuman and Ravana in Tholu Bommalata, the shadow puppet tradition of Andhra Pradesh, India.JPG|thumb|[[Hanuman]] and [[Ravana]] in ''Tolu Bommalata'', the [[shadow puppet]] tradition of [[Andhra Pradesh]], India]]
* [[Stepwell]] – While the early history of stepwells is poorly understood, water structures in Western India were their likely predecessor.<ref name=Livingston&Bach20>Livingston & Beach, 19</ref> The three features of stepwells in the subcontinent are evident from one particular site, abandoned by 2500 BCE, which combines a bathing pool, steps leading down to water, and figures of some religious importance into one structure.<ref name=Livingston&Bach20/>
* [[Stupa]] – The origin of the stupa can be traced to 3rd-century BCE India.<ref name=Ency>Encyclopædia Britannica (2008). ''Pagoda''.</ref> It was used as a commemorative monument associated with storing sacred relics.<ref name=Ency/> The stupa architecture was adopted in [[Southeast Asia|Southeast]] and [[East Asia]], where it evolved into the [[pagoda]], a Buddhist monument used for enshrining sacred relics.<ref name=Ency/>
* Residential [[University]] – [[Nalanda]] ({{transliteration|sa|ISO|Nālandā}}, {{IPA|sa|naːlən̪d̪aː|pron}}) was a renowned ''[[mahavihara]]'' ([[Buddhism|Buddhist]] monastic university) in ancient [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]] (modern-day [[Bihar]]), eastern [[India]].{{sfn|Asher|2015|pp=1–5}}{{sfnp|Kumar|2018}}<ref name="nalandagoi">{{cite web |date=15 June 2023 |title=History {{!}} District Nalanda, Government of Bihar {{!}} India |url=https://nalanda.nic.in/en/history/ |access-date=2 June 2023 |website=nalanda.nic.in}}</ref> Considered by historians to be the world's first residential university<ref>{{cite web |title=UNESCO Nominations |url=https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/nominations/1502.pdf |website=UNESCO |access-date=2 June 2023}}</ref> and among the greatest centres of learning in the ancient world, it was located near the city of Rajagriha (now [[Rajgir]]) and about {{convert|90|km|mi|0}} southeast of Pataliputra (now [[Patna]]) and operated from 427 until 1197 CE.{{sfn|Pinkney|2015|pp=111–149}}

=== Finance and banking ===
* [[Cheque|Cheque/Check]] – There is early evidence of using cheques/checks. In India, during the [[Maurya Empire]] (from 321 to 185 BC), a commercial instrument called the "Adesha" was in use, which was an order on a banker desiring him to pay the money of the note to a third person (now known as or referred to as a "Negotiable Instrument").<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://m.rbi.org.in/Scripts/PublicationsView.aspx?id=155|title=Reserve Bank of India – Publications}}</ref>

=== Games ===
{{Main|Traditional games of South Asia}}
* [[Atya-patya]] – This variation of tag was being played as early as 100 CE, and was possibly invented by farmers as a way of practicing driving away birds. It was later used as a form of military training in [[Kerala]] in close relation to the martial art of [[kalaripayattu]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Arasu |first=S. T. |date=2020-07-04 |title=Galah Panjang and its Indian roots |url=https://www.gosports.com.my/news/galah-panjang-and-its-indian-roots/ |access-date=2023-08-06 |website=On the sport. Be part of it }}</ref>
* [[Blindfold chess]] – [[List of games that Buddha would not play|Games prohibited by Buddha]] includes a variant of ashtapada game played on imaginary boards. ''Akasam astapadam'' was an ''ashtapada'' variant played with no board, literally "astapadam played in the sky". A correspondent in the [[American Chess Bulletin]] identifies this as likely the earliest literary mention of a blindfold chess variant.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CqJJAAAAYAAJ&dq=brahmajala+sutta+games&pg=RA2-PA104|title=American Chess Bulletin|first1=Hartwig|last1=Cassell|first2=Hermann|last2=Helms|date=28 May 1916|publisher=H. Cassell and H. Helms.|via=Google Books}}</ref>
* [[Carrom]] – The game of carrom originated in [[India]].<ref>History of Physical Education, p.209, SR Tiwari, APH Publishing</ref> One carrom board with its surface made of glass is still available in one of the palaces in [[Patiala, India]].<ref>{{cite web|title=All India Carrom Federation|url=http://www.indiancarrom.com/brief-of-the-game.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150216055759/http://indiancarrom.com/brief-of-the-game.htm|archive-date=16 February 2015|access-date=2 February 2015}}</ref> It became very popular among the masses after [[World War I]]. State-level competitions were being held in the different states of India during the early part of the twentieth century. Serious carrom tournaments may have begun in [[Sri Lanka]] in 1935 but by 1958, both India and Sri Lanka had formed official federations of carrom clubs, sponsoring tournaments and awarding prizes.<ref>{{cite web|title=Carrom.org|url=http://www.carrom.org/game/?subcat=10/|access-date=2 February 2015|archive-date=1 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150201211242/http://www.carrom.org/game/?subcat=10%2F|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* [[Chaturanga]] – The precursor of [[chess]] originated in India during the [[Gupta dynasty]] (c. 280{{ndash}}550 CE).<ref name=Murray1913>Murray (1913)</ref><ref name=Forbes1860>Forbes (1860)</ref><ref name=JonesAj121>Jones, William (1807). "On the Indian Game of Chess". pages 323{{ndash}}333</ref><ref name=LindeGM>Linde, Antonius (1981)</ref> Both the [[Persian people|Persians]] and [[Arab]]s ascribe the origins of the game of Chess to the Indians.<ref name=JonesAj121/><ref name=Wilkinson>Wilkinson, Charles K (May 1943)</ref><ref name=Bird48>Bird (1893), page 63</ref> The words for "chess" in [[Old Persian]] and [[Arabic]] are ''chatrang'' and ''[[shatranj]]'' respectively – terms derived from ''[[chaturanga|caturaṅga]]'' in [[Sanskrit]],<ref name=Whyld>Hooper & Whyld (1992), page 74</ref><ref name=SBI106>Sapra, Rahul (2000). "Sports in India". Students' Britannica India (Vol. 6). Mumbai: Popular Prakashan. p. 106. {{ISBN|0-85229-762-9}}.</ref> which literally means an ''army of four divisions'' or ''four corps''.<ref name=Meri>Meri (2005), page 148</ref><ref name=Basham208>Basham (2001), page 208</ref> Chess spread throughout the world and many variants of the game soon began taking shape.<ref name=Britannica1>Encyclopædia Britannica (2002). ''Chess: Ancient precursors and related games''.</ref> This game was introduced to the [[Near East]] from India and became a part of the princely or courtly education of [[Persian Empire|Persian]] nobility.<ref name=Meri/> [[Buddhist]] pilgrims, [[Silk Road]] traders and others carried it to the [[Far East]] where it was transformed and assimilated into a game often played on the intersection of the lines of the board rather than within the squares.<ref name=Britannica1/> Chaturanga reached Europe through Persia, the [[Byzantine empire]] and the expanding [[Arabian]] empire.<ref name=Basham208/><ref name=ChessEurope>Encyclopædia Britannica (2007). ''Chess: Introduction to Europe''.</ref> [[Muslims]] carried Shatranj to [[North Africa]], [[Sicily]], and Spain by the 10th century where it took its final modern form of chess.<ref name=Britannica1/>
* [[Kabaddi]] – The game of ''kabaddi'' originated in India during prehistory.<ref name=Alter88>Alter, page 88</ref> Suggestions on how it evolved into the modern form range from wrestling exercises, military drills, and collective self-defence but most authorities agree that the game existed in some form or the other in India during the period between 1500 and 400 BCE.<ref name=Alter88/>
* [[Kalaripayattu]] – One of the world's oldest form of martial arts is [[Kalaripayattu]] that developed in the southwest state of [[Kerala]] in India.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Meera |first1=Sethumadhavan |last2=Vinodan |first2=A. |title=Attitude towards alternative medicinal practices in wellness tourism market |journal=Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Insights |date=23 September 2019 |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=278–295 |doi=10.1108/JHTI-06-2018-0037 }}</ref> It is believed to be the oldest surviving martial art in India, with a history spanning over 3,000 years.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Radhakrishnan |first=S. Anil |date=2021-01-10 |title=Kalaripayattu academy braces for action |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Thiruvananthapuram/kalaripayattu-academy-braces-for-action/article33539155.ece |access-date=2021-05-17 }}</ref>
* [[Kho-kho]] – This is one of the oldest variations of [[Tag (game)|tag]] in the world, having been played since as early as the fourth century BCE.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-05-29 |title=The Evolution of Kho Kho Mats in India: A Historical Overview |url=https://www.news18.com/sports/the-evolution-of-kho-kho-mats-in-india-a-historical-overview-7947775.html |access-date=2023-08-06 |website=News18 }}</ref>
* [[Ludo (board game)|Ludo]] – [[Pachisi]] originated in India by the 6th century.<ref name=EncartaP>MSN Encarta (2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20150115060615/http://encarta.co.uk/encyclopedia_781530306/Pachisi.html ''Pachisi''].</ref> The earliest evidence of this game in India is the depiction of boards on the caves of Ajanta.<ref name=EncartaP/> A variant of this game, called Ludo, made its way to England during the British Raj.<ref name=EncartaP/>
* [[Mallakhamba]] – It is a traditional sport, originating from the [[Indian subcontinent]], in which a [[gymnast]] performs aerial [[yoga]] or [[gymnastic]] postures and [[wrestling]] grips in concert with a vertical stationary or hanging wooden pole, cane, or rope.The earliest literary known mention of Mallakhamb is in the 1135 CE Sanskrit classic ''[[Manasollasa]]'', written by [[Someshvara III]]. It has been thought to be the ancestor of [[Pole dance|Pole Dancing]].
* [[Nuntaa (game)|Nuntaa]], also known as Kutkute.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://justnewsbd.com/details_archive.php?jnewsbd=MTIwNjM= |script-title=bn:মজার খেলা নুনতা |language=bn |date=19 September 2012 |access-date=2013-05-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130623164335/http://justnewsbd.com/details_archive.php?jnewsbd=MTIwNjM= |archive-date=23 June 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* [[Seven stones]] – An Indian subcontinent game also called Pitthu is played in rural areas has its origins in the Indus Valley Civilization.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Terra cotta discs {{!}} Harappa|url=https://www.harappa.com/slide/terra-cotta-discs|access-date=2021-03-07|website=harappa.com}}</ref>
* [[Snakes and ladders]] – Vaikunta pali Snakes and ladders originated in India as a game based on morality.<ref name=Augustyn>Augustyn, pages 27{{ndash}}28</ref> During British rule of India, this game made its way to England, and was eventually introduced in the United States of America by game-pioneer [[Milton Bradley]] in 1943.<ref name=Augustyn/>
* [[Suit (cards)|Suits]] game: Kridapatram is an early [[Suit (cards)|suits]] game, made of painted rags, invented in Ancient India. The term ''kridapatram'' literally means "painted rags for playing."<ref name="McManus">{{cite book|author=James McManus|title=Cowboys Full: The Story of Poker|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=drHJelHmhsgC&pg=PA34|date=27 October 2009|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=978-0-374-29924-8|page=34}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last = Carlisle| first = Rodney| title = Encyclopedia of Play in Today's Society| publisher = [[SAGE Publications]]| year = 2009| page = 31| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=7DiB3z2fBpAC&pg=PA31| isbn = 978-1-4129-6670-2}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last = Quackenbos| title = Illustrated History of Ancient Literature, Oriental and Classical| publisher = READ BOOKS| year = 2010| page = 60| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=GzgsRtvtp_gC&pg=PA60| isbn = 978-1-4455-7978-8}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last = Kapoor| first = Subodh| title = The Indian encyclopaedia: biographical, historical, religious, administrative, ethnological, commercial and scientific – Vol 6| publisher = Genesis Publishing Pvt Ltd| year = 2002| page = 1786| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=q5ZM0nZXZEkC&pg=PA1786| isbn = 978-81-7755-257-7}}</ref><ref name="Townsend">{{Citation | last = Townsend| first = George| title = The manual of dates: a dictionary of reference to all the most important events in the history of mankind to be found in authentic records| publisher = Routledge, Warne, & Routledge| year = 1862| page = 184| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=HKQZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA184}}</ref> Paper playing cards first appeared in East Asia during the 9th century.<ref name="McManus"/><ref>{{Cite book | last =Needham | first =Joseph | author-link =Joseph Needham | year =2004 | title =Science & Civilisation in China | publisher =Cambridge University Press | volume =V:1 | isbn =978-0-521-05802-5|pages=131{{ndash}}132}}</ref> The medieval Indian game of ''[[ganjifa]]'', or playing cards, is first recorded in the 16th century.<ref name="Schwartz">{{cite book|author=David G. Schwartz|title=Roll the bones: the history of gambling|date=5 October 2006|publisher=Gotham Books|isbn=978-1-59240-208-3|url=https://archive.org/details/rollboneshistory00schw}}</ref>
* [[Vajra-mushti]] – refers to a wrestling where [[knuckleduster]] like weapon is employed.The first literary mention of vajra-musti comes from the ''Manasollasa'' of the [[Chalukya]] king Someswara III (1124–1138), although it has been conjectured to have existed since as early as the [[Maurya Empire|Maurya dynasty]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vajra-musti Indian Sport |url=https://www.topendsports.com/sport/list/vajramushti.htm |access-date=2022-07-21 |website=www.topendsports.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Kesting |first=Stephan |date=2012-03-13 |title=The Ancient Vale Tudo of India: Vajramushti |url=https://www.grapplearts.com/the-ancient-vale-tudo-of-india-vajramushti/ |access-date=2022-07-21 |website=Grapplearts }}</ref>

=== Textile and material production ===
* [[Button (clothing)|Button]] – Ornamental buttons—made from [[seashell]]—were used in the [[Indus Valley civilization]] for ornamental purposes by 2000 BCE.<ref name=Hesse&Hesse>Hesse, Rayner W. & Hesse, Rayner W. Jr. (2007). ''Jewelrymaking Through History: An Encyclopedia''. Greenwood Publishing Group. 35. {{ISBN|0-313-33507-9}}.</ref> Some buttons were carved into geometric shapes and had holes pierced into them so that they could be attached to clothing by using a thread.<ref name=Hesse&Hesse/> Ian McNeil (1990) holds that: "The button, in fact, was originally used more as an ornament than as a fastening, the earliest known being found at Mohenjo-daro in the [[Indus Valley]]. It is made of a curved shell and about 5000 years old."<ref>McNeil, Ian (1990). ''An encyclopaedia of the history of technology''. Taylor & Francis. 852. {{ISBN|0-415-01306-2}}.</ref>
[[File:Nepali charka in action.jpg|thumb|A [[w:Demographics of Nepal|Nepali]] [[w:Spinning wheel|Charkha]] in action]]
* [[Calico (textile)|Calico]] – Calico had originated in the subcontinent by the 11th century and found mention in Indian literature, by the 12th-century writer Hemachandra. He has mentioned calico fabric prints done in a lotus design.<ref name=eb-calico>Encyclopædia Britannica (2008). ''calico''</ref> The Indian textile merchants traded in calico with the Africans by the 15th century and calico fabrics from [[Gujarat]] appeared in [[Egypt]].<ref name=eb-calico/> Trade with Europe followed from the 17th century onward.<ref name=eb-calico/> Within India, calico originated in [[Kozhikode]].<ref name=eb-calico/>
* [[Carding|Carding devices]] – Historian of science [[Joseph Needham]] ascribes the invention of bow-instruments used in textile technology to India.<ref name=Baber1/> The earliest evidence for using bow-instruments for carding comes from India (2nd century CE).<ref name=Baber1/> These carding devices, called ''kaman'' and ''dhunaki'' would loosen the texture of the fibre by the means of a vibrating string.<ref name=Baber1/>
* [[Cashmere wool|Cashmere]] – The fibre cashmere fibre also known as ''pashm'' or ''pashmina'' for its use in [[Kashmir shawl|the handmade shawls of Kashmir, India]].<ref>Encyclopædia Britannica (2008). ''cashmere''.</ref> The woolen shawls made from wool in Indian administered [[Kashmir]] find written mention between the 3rd century BCE and the 11th century CE.<ref name=ebpasm>Encyclopædia Britannica (2008). ''kashmir shawl''.</ref>
* [[Spinning wheel#Charkha|Charkha]] (Spinning wheel): invented in India, between 500 and 1000 CE.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Smith | first1 = C. Wayne | last2 = Cothren | first2 = J. Tom | title = Cotton: Origin, History, Technology, and Production | publisher = John Wiley & Sons | volume = 4 | date = 1999 | pages = viii | url = http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-0471180459.html | isbn = 978-0471180456 | quote = The first improvement in spinning technology was the spinning wheel, which was invented in India between 500 and 1000 A.D. | archive-date = 1 April 2017 | access-date = 8 April 2016 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170401042540/http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-0471180459.html | url-status = dead }}</ref>
* [[Chintz]] – The origin of Chintz is from the printed all cotton fabric of calico in India.<ref name=eb-chintz>Encyclopædia Britannica (2008). ''chintz''</ref> The origin of the word ''chintz'' itself is from the [[Hindi language]] word चित्र् (chitr), which means an image.<ref name=eb-chintz/><ref name="Hāṇḍā">Hāṇḍā (1998), page 133</ref>
* [[Cotton|Cotton cultivation]] – Cotton was cultivated by the inhabitants of the [[Indus Valley civilisation]] by the [[5th millennium BCE]]{{snd}}[[4th millennium BCE]].<ref>Stein (1998), page 47</ref> The Indus cotton industry was well developed and some methods used in cotton spinning and fabrication continued to be practised until the modern industrialisation of India.<ref>Wisseman & Williams (1994), page 127</ref> Well before the [[Common Era]], the use of cotton textiles had spread from India to the [[Mediterranean]] and beyond.<ref>The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. ''cotton''.</ref>
* [[Cotton gin|Single roller cotton gin]] – The [[Ajanta Caves]] of India yield evidence of a single roller cotton gin in use by the 5th century.<ref>Angela Lakwete: ''Inventing the Cotton Gin: Machine and Myth in Antebellum America'', The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003, {{ISBN|0-8018-7394-0}}, p. 5</ref> This cotton gin was used in India until innovations were made in form of foot powered gins.<ref name=Babergin>Baber (1996), page 56</ref> The cotton gin was invented in India as a mechanical device known as ''charkhi'', more technically the "wooden-worm-worked roller". This mechanical device was, in some parts of India, driven by water power.<ref name=Baber1>Baber (1996), page 57</ref>
* [[Worm drive]] [[cotton gin]] – The worm drive later appeared in the [[Indian subcontinent]], for use in roller [[cotton gin]]s, during the [[Delhi Sultanate]] in the thirteenth or fourteenth centuries.<ref name="india">[[Irfan Habib]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=K8kO4J3mXUAC&pg=PA53 ''Economic History of Medieval India, 1200–1500'', page 53], [[Pearson Education]]</ref>
* [[Crank (mechanism)|Crank]] Handle [[Cotton Gin]] – The incorporation of the [[Crank (mechanism)|crank]] handle in the cotton gin, first appeared in either the late [[Delhi Sultanate]] or the early [[Mughal Empire]] (15-16th century CE).<ref>[[Irfan Habib]] (2011), [https://books.google.com/books?id=K8kO4J3mXUAC&pg=PA53 ''Economic History of Medieval India, 1200–1500'', pp. 53–54], [[Pearson Education]]</ref>
* [[Palampore]] – {{lang|hi|पालमपोर्}} (Hindi language) of Indian origin<ref name=eb-interior-design>Encyclopædia Britannica (2008). ''interior design''</ref> was imported to the western world—notable England and [[Colonial America]]—from India.<ref name=eb-crewel-work>Encyclopædia Britannica (2008). ''crewel work''</ref><ref name=eb-quilting >Encyclopædia Britannica (2008). ''quilting''</ref> In 17th-century England these hand painted cotton fabrics influenced native crewel work design.<ref name=eb-crewel-work/> Shipping vessels from India also took palampore to colonial America, where it was used in [[quilting]].<ref name=eb-quilting/>
* [[Prayer flags]] – The [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] [[sūtra]]s, written on cloth in India, were transmitted to other regions of the world.<ref name=Baker1>Barker, page 13</ref> These sutras, written on banners, were the origin of prayer flags.<ref name=Baker1/> Legend ascribes the origin of the prayer flag to the [[Shakyamuni Buddha]], whose prayers were written on battle flags used by the ''[[Deva (Buddhism)|devas]]'' against their adversaries, the ''[[Asura (Buddhism)|asuras]]''.<ref name=Beer60>Beer, page 60</ref> The legend may have given the Indian ''[[bhikku]]'' a reason for carrying the 'heavenly' banner as a way of signyfying his commitment to ''[[ahimsa]]''.<ref name=wise-11-12>Wise, page 11{{ndash}}12</ref> This knowledge was carried into [[Tibet]] by 800 CE, and the actual flags were introduced no later than 1040 CE, where they were further modified.<ref name=wise-11-12/> The Indian monk [[Atisha]] (980{{ndash}}1054 CE) introduced the Indian practice of printing on cloth prayer flags to Tibet.<ref name=Beer60/>
* [[Shellac]] - a biopolymer resin that is secreted by an insect called [[Kerria lacca|lac bug]] onto tree trunks, it has multiple uses such as wood polishing, drug coating, candies etc. its name is derived from [[lakh]] word.
* Roller [[sugar mill]] – Geared sugar [[Roller mill|rolling mills]] first appeared in Mughal India, using the principle of rollers as well as [[worm gear]]ing, by the 17th century.<ref name="K8kO4J3mXUAC page 53">[[Irfan Habib]] (2011), [https://books.google.com/books?id=K8kO4J3mXUAC&pg=PA53 ''Economic History of Medieval India, 1200–1500'', p. 53], [[Pearson Education]]</ref>

=== Well-being ===
{{See also|Indian physical culture}}
* [[Indian club]]s: The Indian club—which appeared in Europe during the 18th century—was used long by India's native soldiery before its introduction to Europe.<ref name=tadd95>Todd, Jan (1995). [http://www.la84foundation.org/SportsLibrary/IGH/IGH0306/IGH0306c.pdf ''From Milo to Milo: A History of Barbells, Dumbells, and Indian Clubs''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120731101012/http://www.la84foundation.org/SportsLibrary/IGH/IGH0306/IGH0306c.pdf |date=31 July 2012 }}. Accessed in September 2008. Hosted on the [[LA84 Foundation|LA84 Foundation Sports Library]].</ref> During the [[British Raj]] the British officers in India performed [[calisthenic]] exercises with clubs to keep in physical condition.<ref name=tadd95/> From Britain the use of club swinging spread to the rest of the world.<ref name=tadd95/>
* [[Shampoo]] – The word ''[[wikt:Shampoo|shampoo]]'' in English is derived from [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] {{Transliteration|hi|ISO|cā̃po}} ({{lang|hi|चाँपो}} {{IPA|hns|tʃãːpoː|ipa}}),<ref>{{Transliteration|hi|ISO|cā̃po}} ({{lang|hi|चाँपो}} {{IPA|hns|tʃãːpoː|ipa}}) is the [[imperative mood|imperative]] of {{Transliteration|hi|ISO|cā̃pnā}} ({{lang|hi|चाँपना}} {{IPA|hns|tʃãːpnaː|ipa}}), "to smear, knead the muscles, massage the head and hair"</ref> and dates to 1762.<ref>{{cite web
| title = Online Etymology Dictionary
| url = http://www.etymonline.com/
| author = Douglas Harper
| access-date = 14 July 2007
}}</ref> A variety of herbs and their extracts were used as shampoos since ancient times in India, evidence of early herbal shampoo have been discovered from Indus Valley Civilization site of Banawali dated to 2750–2500 BCE.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bisht|date=1993|title=Paleobotanical and pollen analytical investigations|url=http://nmma.nic.in/nmma/nmma_doc/Indian%20Archaeology%20Review/Indian%20Archaeology%201993-94%20A%20Review.pdf|journal=Indian Archaeology a Review 1993–1994|pages=143–144}}</ref> A very effective early shampoo was made by boiling [[Sapindus]] with dried [[Indian gooseberry]] (aamla) and a few other herbs, using the strained extract. Sapindus, also known as soapberries or soapnuts, is called ''Ksuna'' (Sanskrit: क्षुण)<ref>[http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/cgi-bin/tamil/recherche kSuNa], Sanskrit Lexicon, Monier-Williams Dictionary (1872)</ref> in ancient Indian texts and its fruit pulp contain saponins, a natural surfactant. The extract of Ksuna, creates a lather which Indian texts identify as ''phenaka'' (Sanskrit: फेनक),<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=phenaka&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes phenaka], Spoken Sanskrit, University of Koeln, Germany</ref> leaves the hair soft, shiny and manageable. Other products used for hair cleansing were shikakai ([[Acacia concinna]]), soapnuts ([[Sapindus]]), [[hibiscus]] flowers,<ref name=rahman>Rahman, {{Google books|4bnaAAAAMAAJ|History of Indian Science, Technology and Culture}}, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195646528}}, page 145</ref><ref>[http://www.tnsmpb.tn.gov.in/images/HIBISCUS%20ROSA%20SINENSIS.pdf Tamil Nadu Medicinal plants board] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721161928/http://www.tnsmpb.tn.gov.in/images/HIBISCUS%20ROSA%20SINENSIS.pdf |date=21 July 2011 }}</ref> ritha ([[Sapindus mukorossi]]) and arappu (Albizzia amara).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://agritech.tnau.ac.in/forestry/forestry_nursery_albizzia_amara.html|title=Forestry :: Nursery Technologies|website=agritech.tnau.ac.in}}</ref> [[Guru Nanak]], the founding prophet and the first [[Sikh Guru|Guru]] of [[Sikhism]], made references to soapberry tree and soap in 16th century.<ref>Khushwant Singh, Hymns of Guru Nanak, Orient Longman, {{ISBN|978-8125011613}}</ref> Washing of hair and body massage (champu) during a daily strip wash was an indulgence of early colonial traders in India. When they returned to Europe, they introduced their newly learnt habits, including the hair treatment they called shampoo.<ref>Virginia Smith (2007), Clean: A History of Personal Hygiene and Purity, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0199297795}}</ref>
* [[Yoga]] – Yoga as a physical, mental, and spiritual practice originated in [[ancient India]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/varun_ag/www/bose_real_inventor.pdf|title=bose real inventor|access-date=3 November 2015|archive-date=13 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200313052106/http://web.mit.edu/varun_ag/www/bose_real_inventor.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Medicine ===
[[File:A statue of Sushruta at RACS, Melbourne.jpg|thumb|A statue of [[Sushruta]] (600 BCE), author of [[Sushruta Samhita]] and the founding father of [[History of surgery#India|surgery]], at [[Royal Australasian College of Surgeons]] (RACS) in [[Melbourne]], [[Australia]]]]
* [[Angina pectoris]] – The condition was named "hritshoola" in ancient India and was described by [[Sushruta]] (6th century BCE).<ref name="Dwivedi&Dwivedi07">{{cite journal|last1=Dwivedi |first1=Girish |last2=Dwivedi |first2=Shridhar |year=2007 |url=http://medind.nic.in/iae/t07/i4/iaet07i4p243.pdf |title=Sushruta – the Clinician – Teacher par Excellence |journal=The Indian Journal of Chest Diseases and Allied Sciences |volume=49 |pages=243{{ndash}}4 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081010045900/http://medind.nic.in/iae/t07/i4/iaet07i4p243.pdf |archive-date=10 October 2008 }}</ref>
* [[Ayurveda|Ayurvedic]] and [[Siddha medicine]] – Ayurveda and Siddha are ancient systems of medicine practised in South Asia. Ayurvedic ideas can be found in the Hindu text<ref>{{Cite book|title = Asceticism and Healing|last = Zysk|first = K. G.|publisher = Oxford University Press|year = 1991|isbn = 978-0-19-505956-4|location = London, New York, Delhi}}</ref> (mid-first millennium BCE). Ayurveda has evolved over thousands of years, and is still practised today. In an internationalised form, it can be thought of as a [[complementary and alternative medicine]]. In village settings, away from urban centres, it is simply "medicine." The Sanskrit word आयुर्वेदः (''āyur-vedaḥ'') means "knowledge ''(veda'') for longevity (''āyur'')".<ref name="Chopra75">{{Harvnb|Chopra|2003|p = 75}}</ref> Siddha medicine is mostly prevalent in South India, and is transmitted in Tamil, not Sanskrit, texts. Herbs and minerals are basic raw materials of the Siddha therapeutic system whose origins may be dated to the early centuries CE.<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Siddha Quest for Immortality|last = Zvelebil|first = Kamil V.|publisher = Mandrake of Oxford|year = 1996|isbn = 978-1-869928-43-8|location = Oxford}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|jstor = 604837|title = The Doctrine of the Three Humors in Traditional Indian Medicine and the Alleged Antiquity of Tamil Siddha Medicine|last = Scharf|first = Hartmut|date = 1999|journal = Journal of the American Oriental Society|doi = 10.2307/604837|volume=119|issue = 4|pages=609{{ndash}}629}}</ref>
* [[Caesarian section]] – The [[Sanskrit]] medical treatise ''[[Sushruta Samhita]]'', composed in the early 1st millennium CE, mentions post-mortem caesarean sections.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lurie |first1=Samuel |title=The changing motives of cesarean section: from the ancient world to the twenty-first century |journal=Archives of Gynecology and Obstetrics |date=April 2005 |volume=271 |issue=4 |pages=281–285 |doi=10.1007/s00404-005-0724-4 |pmid=15856269 }}</ref> The first available non-mythical record of a C-section is the mother of [[Bindusara]] (born {{circa|320 BC}}, ruled 298 – {{circa|272 BC}}), the 2nd [[Mauryan empire|Mauryan]] ''Samrat'' ([[emperor]]) of India, accidentally consumed poison and died when she was close to delivering him. [[Chanakya]], Chandragupta's teacher and adviser, made up his mind that the baby should survive. He cut open the belly of the queen and took out the baby, thus saving the baby's life.<ref name="Lurie">{{cite journal | vauthors = Lurie S | title = The changing motives of cesarean section: from the ancient world to the twenty-first century | journal = Archives of Gynecology and Obstetrics | volume = 271 | issue = 4 | pages = 281–285 | date = April 2005 | pmid = 15856269 | doi = 10.1007/s00404-005-0724-4 | s2cid = 26690619 }}</ref>
*[[Diabetes]]: Physicians [[Sushruta]] and [[Charaka]] distinguished the two different types of diabetes, which is latter dubbed as [[Type 1 diabetes|Type I]] and [[Type 2 diabetes|Type II]] diabetes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Roy|first1=CK|last2=Ojha|first2=JK|last3=Bajpai|first3=HS|date=Jan 1993|title=A review of the history of prameha and diabetes mellitus|journal=Ancient Science of Life|volume=12|issue=3–4|pages=394–398|pmc=3336561|pmid=22556618}}</ref>
*[[Ganja]] was used as herb for ayurverdic medicine development for last 2,000 years. The Sushruta Samhita, an ancient medical treatise, recommends cannabis plant extract for treating respiratory ailments and diarrhoea.
* [[Leprosy]]: Kearns & Nash (2008) state that the first mention of leprosy is described in the Indian medical treatise ''[[Sushruta Samhita]]'' (6th century BCE).<ref name="k&n08">Kearns & Nash (2008)</ref> However, ''The Oxford Illustrated Companion to Medicine'' holds that the mention of leprosy, as well as ritualistic cures for it, were described in the ''[[Atharva-veda]]'' (1500{{ndash}}1200 BCE), written before the ''Sushruta Samhita''.<ref>Lock; Last & Dunea (2001), page 420</ref>
* [[Calculus (medicine)|Lithiasis treatment]] – The earliest operation for treating lithiasis, or the formations of stones in the body, is also given in the ''Sushruta Samhita'' (6th century BCE).<ref name=Lock836/> The operation involved exposure and going up through the floor of the bladder.<ref name=Lock836>Lock; Last & Dunea (2001), page 836</ref>
* [[Otoplasty]] – Ear surgery was developed in [[History of India|ancient India]] and is described in the medical compendium, the {{Transliteration|sa|[[Sushruta Samhita]]}} (Sushruta's Compendium, {{circa|500 AD}}). The book discussed otoplastic and other [[plastic surgery]] techniques and procedures for correcting, repairing and reconstructing ears, [[Rhinoplasty|noses]], lips, and genitalia that were amputated as criminal, religious, and military punishments. The ancient Indian [[Medicine|medical]] knowledge and plastic surgery techniques of the {{Transliteration|sa|Sushruta Samhita}} were practiced throughout Asia until the late 18th century; the October 1794 issue of the contemporary British ''[[Gentleman's Magazine]]'' reported the practice of [[rhinoplasty]], as described in the {{Transliteration|sa|Sushruta Samhita}}. Moreover, two centuries later, contemporary practices of otoplastic praxis were derived from the techniques and procedures developed and established in antiquity by Sushruta.{{sfn|Rinzler|2009|p=151}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wujastyk |first=Dominik |title=The Roots of Ayurveda |publisher=Penguin |year=2003 |isbn=0-140-44824-1 |edition=3 |pages=63–100}}</ref>
* [[Tonsillectomy]] – Tonsillectomies have been practiced for over 2,000 years, with varying popularity over the centuries.<ref name="McNeill1960">{{cite journal | vauthors = McNeill RA | title = A History of Tonsillectomy: Two Millennia of Trauma, Haemorrhage and Controversy | journal = The Ulster Medical Journal | volume = 29 | issue = 1 | pages = 59–63 | date = June 1960 | pmid = 20476427 | pmc = 2384338 }}</ref> The earliest mention of the procedure is in "Hindu medicine" from about 1000 [[BCE]]
* [[Turmeric]] used for wound healing. Analyses of pots discovered near New Delhi uncovered residue from turmeric, ginger and garlic that dates back as early as 2500 BCE. It was around 500 BCE that turmeric emerged as an important part of Ayurvedic medicine.<ref>{{cite web | title=What is the History of Turmeric? | Stories | website=[[PBS]] | url=https://www.pbs.org/food/stories/turmeric-history }}</ref>

=== Equestrianism ===
* [[Stirrup|Toe stirrup]] – The earliest known manifestation of the stirrup, which was a toe loop that held the big toe was used in India in as early as 500 BCE<ref name=Chamberlin80>Chamberlin (2007), page 80</ref> or perhaps by 200 BCE according to other sources.<ref name=Hobson103>Hobson (2004), page 103</ref><ref name=woods2p52>Woods & Woods (2000), pages 52{{ndash}}53</ref> This ancient stirrup consisted of a looped rope for the big toe which was at the bottom of a saddle made of fibre or leather.<ref name=woods2p52/> Such a configuration made it suitable for the warm climate of most of India where people used to ride horses barefoot.<ref name=woods2p52/> A pair of megalithic double bent iron bars with curvature at each end, excavated in [[Stone circles of Junapani|Junapani]] in the central Indian state of [[Madhya Pradesh]] have been regarded as stirrups although they could as well be something else.<ref name=EIA336>"16.17.4: Stirrups". ''Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology'' (Vol. 1). Edited by Amalananda Ghosh (1990). page 336</ref> Buddhist carvings in the temples of Sanchi, [[Mathura, Uttar Pradesh|Mathura]] and the [[Bhaja Caves|Bhaja caves]] dating back between the 1st and 2nd century BCE figure horsemen riding with elaborate saddles with feet slipped under girths.<ref name=Azzaroli156>Azzaroli (1985), page 156</ref><ref name=Addington45>Addington (1990), page 45</ref><ref name=Barua17>Barua (2005), pages 16{{ndash}}17</ref> [[John Marshall (archaeologist)|Sir John Marshall]] described the Sanchi relief as "the earliest example by some five centuries of the use of stirrups in any part of the world".<ref name=Barua17/> In the 1st century CE horse riders in northern India, where winters are sometimes long and cold, were recorded to have their booted feet attached to hooked stirrups.<ref name=Hobson103/> However the form, the conception of the primitive Indian stirrup spread west and east, gradually evolving into the stirrup of today.<ref name=woods2p52/><ref name=Addington45/>

=== Metallurgy, gems and other commodities ===
* [[Crucible steel]] by the [[Wootz steel|Wootz process]] – Perhaps as early as 300 BCE—although certainly by 200 BCE—high quality steel was being produced in southern India, by what Europeans would later call the crucible technique.<ref name=Juleff>{{cite journal | last1 = Juleff | first1 = G | year = 1996 | title = An ancient wind powered iron smelting technology in Sri Lanka | doi = 10.1038/379060a0 | journal = [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | volume = 379 | issue = 6560| pages = 60{{ndash}}63 | bibcode = 1996Natur.379...60J | s2cid = 205026185 }}</ref> Wootz steel is an ultra-high carbon steel, with a natural inclusion of carbide forming [[Vanadium]] (~0.005%), resulting in the formation of [[nanomaterials]] in its microstructure and characterised by exhibiting properties such as superplasticity and high impact hardness.<ref>{{cite web|title=WOOTZ STEEL: AN ADVANCED MATERIAL OF THE ANCIENT WORLD|url=http://materials.iisc.ernet.in/~wootz/heritage/WOOTZ.htm|website=materials.iisc.ernet.in|access-date=23 July 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190211082829/http://materials.iisc.ernet.in/~wootz/heritage/WOOTZ.htm|archive-date=11 February 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref> Archaeological and [[Tamil language]] [[Sangam literature|literary]] evidence suggests that this manufacturing process was already in existence in South India well before the common era, with [[wootz steel]] exported from the [[Chera]] dynasty and called ''Seric Iron'' in Rome, and later known as [[Damascus steel]] in Europe.<ref name=Srinivasan>Srinivasan 1994</ref><ref name=Griffiths>Srinivasan & Griffiths</ref><ref name="dli">{{cite journal |last1=Sasisekaran |first1=B |last2=Raghunatha Rao |first2=B |title=Technology of Iron and Steel in Kodumanal – An Ancient Industrial Centre in Tamilnadu |journal=Indian Journal of History & Science |volume=34 |issue=4 |date=1999 |pages=263–272 |url=http://www.dli.gov.in/rawdataupload/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005b66_263.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923215550/http://www.dli.gov.in/rawdataupload/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005b66_263.pdf |archive-date=23 September 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=A great past in bright colours |url=http://www.frontlineonnet.com/fl2720/stories/20101008272006400.htm |newspaper=Frontline |date=8 October 2010 |location=India |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110203113057/http://frontlineonnet.com/fl2720/stories/20101008272006400.htm |archive-date= 3 February 2011 }}</ref> Reproduction research undertaken by Prof. J.D Verhoeven and Al Pendray identified the role of impurities within the local ore, in carbide formation, and repeated thermal cycling of blades, in the pattern creation, and reproduced Wootz steel blades with patterns microscopically and visually identical to ancient blade patterns.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sherby |first1=Oleg D. |last2=Wadsworth |first2=Jeffrey |title=Ancient blacksmiths, the Iron Age, Damascus steels, and modern metallurgy |journal=Journal of Materials Processing Technology |date=November 2001 |volume=117 |issue=3 |pages=347–353 |doi=10.1016/S0924-0136(01)00794-4 |osti=790393 |url=https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc718386/ }}</ref>
* [[Diamond cut|Diamond cutting and polishing]] – The technology of cutting and polishing diamonds was invented in India, Ratnapariksha, a text dated to 6th century talks about diamond cutting and Al-Beruni speaks about the method of using lead plate for diamond polishing in the 11th century CE.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Keene|first=Manuel|date=1981|title=THE LAPIDARY ARTS IN ISLAM|url=https://www.penn.museum/sites/expedition/the-lapidary-arts-in-islam/|access-date=31 July 2020|website=Penn Museum}}</ref>
* [[Diamond cut|Diamond drills]] – in the 12th century BCE or 7th century BCE, Indians not only innovated use of diamond tipped drills but also invented double diamond tipped drills for bead manufacturing.<ref name=":0" />
* [[Dockyard]] – The world's earliest enclosed dockyard was built in the Harappan port city of [[Lothal]] circa 2600 BC in Gujarat, India.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |title=Archaeological remains of a Harappa Port-Town, Lothal |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5918/ |access-date=2022-02-10 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=9 March 2020 |title=This is Modi govt's plan for India's first National Maritime Museum in Gujarat's Lothal |website=[[ThePrint]] |url=https://theprint.in/india/governance/this-is-modi-govts-plan-for-indias-first-national-maritime-museum-in-gujarats-lothal/376488/}}</ref>
* [[Draw bar]] – The draw bar was applied to sugar-milling, with evidence of its use at [[Delhi]] in the [[Mughal Empire]] by 1540, but possibly dating back several centuries earlier to the [[Delhi Sultanate]].<ref name="Habib53">[[Irfan Habib]] (2011), [https://books.google.com/books?id=K8kO4J3mXUAC&pg=PA53 ''Economic History of Medieval India, 1200–1500'', page 53], [[Pearson Education]]</ref>
* [[Etched carnelian beads]] – are a type of ancient decorative beads made from [[carnelian]] with an etched design in white. They were made according to a technique of alkaline-etching developed by the [[Harappa|Harappans during the 3rd millennium BCE]] and were widely disperced from China in the east to Greece in the west.<ref>For the etching technique, see {{cite journal|last1=MacKay|first1=Ernest|date=1925|title=Sumerian Connexions with Ancient India|journal=The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland|issue=4|pages=699|jstor=25220818}}</ref><ref name="FeniXX réédition numérique">{{cite book|last1=Guimet|first1=Musée|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-HpYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA355|title=Les Cités oubliées de l'Indus: Archéologie du Pakistan|date=2016|publisher=FeniXX réédition numérique|isbn=9782402052467|page=355|language=fr}}</ref><ref>"Such beads occur fairly largely on all the principal sites of the Harappan civilisation." in {{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.532513/page/n49/mode/2up|title=Pakistan Archaeology No.2|date=1965|page=21}}</ref>
* [[Glassblowing]] – Rudimentary form of glass blowing from [[Indian subcontinent]] is attested earlier than Western Asian counterparts(where it is attested not earlier than 1st century BCE) in the form of [[Indo-Pacific beads]] which uses glass blowing to make cavity before being subjected to [[Tube drawing|tube drawn technique]] for bead making dated more than 2500 BP.<ref>{{Cite web|date=17 November 2020|first=M. T.|last=Saju|title=Indians made glass blown beads 2,500 years ago|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/indians-made-glass-blown-beads-2500-years-ago/articleshow/79256112.cms|access-date=2021-03-06|website=The Times of India}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Francis |first1=Peter |title=Glass Beads in Asia Part Two. Indo-Pacific Beads |journal=Asian Perspectives |date=1990 |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=1–23 |jstor=42928207 }}</ref> Beads are made by attaching molten glass gather to the end of a blowpipe, a bubble is then blown into the gather.<ref name="Wood 2012 248"/> The glass blown vessels were rarely attested and were imported commodity in 1st millennium CE though.
* [[History of ferrous metallurgy|Iron working]] – Iron works were developed in India, around the same time as, but independently of, [[Anatolia]] and the [[Caucasus]]. Archaeological sites in India, such as [[Malhar]], Dadupur, Raja Nala Ka Tila and Lahuradewa in present-day [[Uttar Pradesh]] show iron implements in the period between 1800 BCE—1200 BCE.<ref name="Tewari">{{cite web|url=http://antiquity.ac.uk/projgall/tewari/tewari.pdf |title=The origins of Iron Working in India: New evidence from the Central Ganga plain and the Eastern Vindhyas by Rakesh Tewari (Director, U.P. State Archaeological Department) |publisher=antiquity.ac.uk|access-date=13 April 2015}}</ref> Early iron objects found in India can be dated to 1400 BCE by employing the method of [[radiocarbon dating]]. [[Nail (fastener)|Spikes]], [[knife|knives]], [[dagger]]s, [[arrow]]-heads, [[bowl (vessel)|bowls]], [[spoon]]s, [[saucepan]]s, [[axe]]s, [[chisel]]s, tongs, door fittings etc. ranging from 600 BCE to 200 BCE have been discovered from several archaeological sites of India.<ref name="Ceccarelli">Marco Ceccarelli (2000). ''International Symposium on History of Machines and Mechanisms: Proceedings HMM Symposium''. Springer. {{ISBN|0-7923-6372-8}}. pp 218</ref> Some scholars believe that by the early 13th century BCE, iron smelting was practised on a bigger scale in India, suggesting that the date the technology's inception may be placed earlier.<ref name="Tewari" /> In [[Southern India]] (present day [[Mysore]]) iron appeared as early as 11th to 12th centuries BCE; these developments were too early for any significant close contact with the northwest of the country.<ref name="UCP">I. M. Drakonoff (1991). ''Early Antiquity''. University of Chicago Press. {{ISBN|0-226-14465-8}}. pp 372</ref> In the time of [[Chandragupta II]] Vikramaditya (375{{ndash}}413 CE), corrosion-resistant iron was used to erect the [[Iron pillar of Delhi]], which has withstood corrosion for over 1,600 years.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Balasubramaniam | first1 = R. | year = 2000 | title = On the Corrosion Resistance of the Delhi Iron Pillar | url = http://home.iitk.ac.in/%7Ebala/journalpaper/journal/journalpaper_17.pdf | journal = Corrosion Science | volume = 42 | issue = 12| pages = 2103{{ndash}}29 | doi=10.1016/s0010-938x(00)00046-9| bibcode = 2000Corro..42.2103B }}</ref>
* [[Lost-wax casting]] – Metal casting by the [[Indus Valley civilization]] began around 3500 BC in the [[Mohenjodaro]] area,<ref name=Kuppuram>{{cite book |first=Govindarajan |last=Kuppuram |title=Ancient Indian Mining, Metallurgy, and Metal Industries |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GAnVuQAACAAJ |year=1989 |publisher=Sundeep Prakashan |isbn=978-81-85067-28-5}}</ref> which produced one of the earliest known examples of lost-wax casting, a bronze figurine named the "[[Dancing Girl (prehistoric sculpture)|dancing girl]]"(c. 2300–1751 BCE).<ref name=Kuppuram/><ref name=Krishnan>{{cite book |first=M.V. |last=Krishnan |title=Cire perdue casting in India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VxhUAAAAMAAJ |year=1976 |publisher=Kanak Publications}}</ref> Other examples include the buffalo, bull and dog found at Mohenjodaro and [[Harappa]],<ref name="Agrawal">{{cite book |last=Agrawal |first=D. P. |title=Ancient Metal Technology and Archaeology of South Asia. A Pan-Asian Perspective |year=2000 |publisher=Aryan Books International |location=New Delhi |isbn=978-81-7305-177-7}}</ref><ref name=Krishnan/><ref name=Kenoyer>Kenoyer, J. M. & H. M.-L. Miller, (1999). Metal Technologies of the Indus Valley Tradition in Pakistan and Western India., in ''The Archaeometallurgy of the Asian Old World''., ed. V. C. Pigott. Philadelphia: The University of Pennsylvania Museum.</ref> two [[copper]] figures found at the Harappan site [[Lothal]] in the district of Ahmedabad of Gujarat,<ref name=Kuppuram/> and likely a covered cart with wheels missing and a complete cart with a driver found at [[Chanhudaro]].<ref name=Agrawal/><ref name=Kenoyer/>
* [[Rain gauge]] – People living in [[India]] began to record rainfall in 400 BCE.<ref name="Strangeways">Ian Strangeways, A History of rain gauges, TerraData, 2010</ref> The readings were correlated against expected growth. In the [[Arthashastra]], used for example in [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]], precise standards were set as to grain production. Each state storehouse was equipped with a rain gauge to classify land for taxation purposes.<ref>Kosambi (1982) The Culture and Civilization of Ancient India in Historical Outline, p. 153, {{ISBN|978-0-7069-1399-6}}</ref>
* Seamless [[celestial globe]] – Considered one of the most remarkable feats in [[metallurgy]], it was invented in India in between 1589 and 1590 CE.<ref name=Kamarustafa48>Kamarustafa (1992), page 48</ref><ref name=Emilie/> Before they were rediscovered in the 1980s, it was believed by modern metallurgists to be technically impossible to produce metal globes without any [[wikt:seam|seams]], even with modern technology.<ref name=Emilie>{{Cite book|first=Emilie|last=Savage-Smith|author-link =Emilie Savage-Smith|title=Islamicate Celestial Globes: Their history, Construction, and Use|publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.|year=1985}}</ref>
* [[Stoneware]] – bangles have been excavated at Indus Valley Civilization sites of [[Harappa]] and [[Mohenjo-daro|Mohenjo Daro]]; kiln fired, at a temperature, above {{convert|1150|C}}, several hundred decrees above the temperature necessary for earthenware, these are the earliest known stoneware ceramics.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Satyawadi|first1=Sudha|title=Proto-Historic Pottery of Indus Valley Civilization; Study of Painted Motif|date=1 July 1994|publisher=D.K. Printworld|isbn=978-8124600306|pages=324}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Blackman |first1= M. James |display-authors=etal. |title=The Production and Distribution of Stoneware Bangles at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa as Monitored by Chemical Characterization Studies|date=1992|publisher=Prehistory Press|location=Madison, WI, USA|pages=37–44}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Mark Kenoyer|first1=Jonathan|title=Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization|date=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=260}}</ref>
* [[Touchstone (assaying tool)|Touchstone]] – The touchstone was used during the [[Indus Valley civilization#Chronology|Harappa period of the Indus Valley civilization]] ca. 2600–1900 BC for testing the purity of soft metals.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Gold: A Cultural Encyclopedia|last=Venable|first=Shannon L.|publisher=ABC-CLIO, LLC|year=2011|isbn=978-0313-384318|location=Santa Barbara, CA|pages=264}}</ref>
* [[Tube drawing|Tube drawn]] technology: Indians used tube drawn technology for glass bead manufacturing which was first developed in the 2nd century BCE.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wood |first1=Marilee |first2=Laure |last2=Dussubieux |first3=Peter |last3=Robertshaw |title=The Glass of Chibuene, Mozambique: New Insights into Early Indian Ocean Trade |journal=South African Archaeological Bulletin |volume=67 |issue=195 |date=2012 |pages=59–74 |url=https://search.informit.org/doi/10.3316/informit.617320154390031 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wood |first1=Marilee |last2=Panighello |first2=Serena |last3=Orsega |first3=Emilio F. |last4=Robertshaw |first4=Peter |last5=van Elteren |first5=Johannes T. |last6=Crowther |first6=Alison |last7=Horton |first7=Mark |last8=Boivin |first8=Nicole |title=Zanzibar and Indian Ocean trade in the first millennium CE: the glass bead evidence |journal=Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences |date=August 2017 |volume=9 |issue=5 |pages=879–901 |doi=10.1007/s12520-015-0310-z |doi-access=free |bibcode=2017ArAnS...9..879W |hdl=11858/00-001M-0000-0029-7CD9-0 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Wood 2012 248">{{cite journal |last1=Wood |first1=Marilee |title=Interconnections: glass beads and trade in southern and eastern Africa and the Indian Ocean - 7th to 16th centuries AD |journal=Azania |date=June 2012 |volume=47 |issue=2 |pages=248 |doi=10.1080/0067270X.2012.680307 |url=http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-162650 }}</ref>
* [[Tumble finishing|Tumble polishing]] – Indians innvoted polishing method in the 10th century BCE for mass production of polished stone beads.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kenoyer |first1=J. Mark |last2=Vidale |first2=Massimo |title=A New Look at Stone Drills of the Indus Valley Tradition |journal=MRS Proceedings |date=1992 |volume=267 |article-number=495 |doi=10.1557/PROC-267-495 }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last1=Gwinnett |first1=A. John |last2=Gorelick |first2=Leonard |title=Bead Manufacture at Hajar Ar-Rayhani, Yemen |journal=The Biblical Archaeologist |date=1991 |volume=54 |issue=4 |pages=187–196 |doi=10.2307/3210280 |jstor=3210280 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gwinnett |first1=A. John |last2=Gorelick |first2=L. |title=Beads, Scarabs, and Amulets: Methods of Manufacture in Ancient Egypt |journal=Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt |date=1993 |volume=30 |pages=125–132 |doi=10.2307/40000232 |jstor=40000232 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bellina |first1=B. |title=The elaboration of political models in maritime Southeast Asia and of pan-regional culture: Contribution from Khao Sek stone ornament craft system study |journal=Archaeological Research in Asia |date=March 2018 |volume=13 |pages=13–24 |doi=10.1016/j.ara.2017.06.002 }}</ref>

=== Metrology ===
* [[Standardisation]] – The oldest applications and evidence of standardisation come from the Indus Valley Civilisation in the 5th millennium BCE characterised by the existence of weights in various standards and categories as<ref name=Kenoyer265/> well as the Indus merchants usage of a centralised weight and measure system. Small weights were used to measure luxury goods, and larger weights were used for buying bulkier items, such as food grains etc.<ref name=Kenoyer265>Kenoyer, 265</ref> The weights and measures of the Indus civilisation also reached [[Persia]] and [[Central Asia]], where they were further modified.<ref name=Iwata2254_quote>In the third millennium BCE the Indus measuring system was further developed in the ancient regions of Iran and Afghanistan – Iwata, 2254.</ref>
<blockquote> A total of 558 weights were excavated from Mohenjodaro, Harappa, and [[Chanhudaro|Chanhu-daro]], not including defective weights. They did not find statistically significant differences between weights that were excavated from five different layers, each about 1.5 m in thickness. This was evidence that strong control existed for at least a 500-year period. The 13.7-g weight seems to be one of the units used in the Indus valley. The notation was based on the [[Binary numeral system|binary]] and [[decimal]] systems. 83% of the weights which were excavated from the above three cities were cubic, and 68% were made of [[chert]].<ref name=Iwata2254>Iwata2254</ref> </blockquote>
* [[Technical standards]] – Technical standards were being applied and used in the [[Indus Valley civilisation]] since the 5th millennium BCE to enable gauging devices to be effectively used in [[angular measurement]] and [[measurement]] in construction.<ref name=Baber_b>Baber, 23</ref> Uniform units of length were used in the planning and construction of towns such as [[Lothal]], [[Surkotada]], [[Kalibangan]], [[Dholavira]], [[Harappa]], and [[Mohenjo-daro]].<ref name=Iwata2254/> The weights and measures of the Indus civilisation also reached [[Persia]] and [[Central Asia]], where they were further modified.<ref name=Iwata2254_quote/>

=== Weapons ===
* Metal cylinder [[rocket]]: In the 16th century, [[Akbar]] was the first to initiate and use metal cylinder rockets known as ''bans'', particularly against [[war elephant]]s, during the Battle of Sanbal.<ref>{{cite web |author=MughalistanSipahi |date=19 June 2010 |title=Islamic Mughal Empire: War Elephants Part 3 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Lbzr26t8H2U |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211213/Lbzr26t8H2U |archive-date=2021-12-13 |access-date=28 November 2012 |via=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=History channel is low reliability source. Textx sources also preferred over video|date=May 2024}}
* [[Mysorean rockets]] – One of the first iron-cased [[rocket]]s were deployed by [[Hyder Ali]]'s army, ruler of the South Indian [[Kingdom of Mysore]].<ref>Roddam Narasimha (1985), [http://nal-ir.nal.res.in/2382/01/tr_pd_du_8503_R66305.pdf Rockets in Mysore and Britain, 1750{{ndash}}1850 A.D.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927182042/http://nal-ir.nal.res.in/2382/01/tr_pd_du_8503_R66305.pdf |date=27 September 2007 }}, National Aeronautical Laboratory and Indian Institute of Science"Hyder Ali, prince of Mysore, developed war rockets with an important change: the use of metal cylinders to contain the combustion powder. Although the hammered soft iron he used was crude, the bursting strength of the container of black powder was much higher than the earlier paper construction. Thus a greater internal pressure was possible, with a resultant greater thrust of the propulsive jet. The rocket body was lashed with leather thongs to a long bamboo stick. Range was perhaps up to three-quarters of a mile (more than a kilometre). Although individually these rockets were not accurate, dispersion error became less important when large numbers were fired rapidly in mass attacks. They were particularly effective against cavalry and were hurled into the air, after lighting, or skimmed along the hard dry ground. Hyder Ali's son, [[Tippu Sultan]], continued to develop and expand the use of rocket weapons, reportedly increasing the number of rocket troops from 1,200 to a corps of 5,000. In battles at [[Seringapatam]] in 1792 and 1799 these rockets were used with considerable effect against the British." – Encyclopædia Britannica (2008). ''rocket and missile''.</ref>
* [[Rocket artillery]] - The first true rocket artillery was developed by [[Tipu Sultan]] and was notably in use during the [[Anglo-Mysore Wars]].<ref name="Riper2007">{{cite book |author=A. Bowdoin Van Riper |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k8CxJeFzCdQC&pg=PA14 |title=Rockets and Missiles: The Life Story of a Technology |date=29 October 2007 |publisher=JHU Press |isbn=978-0-8018-8792-5 |pages=14–}}</ref><ref name="Roddam">{{cite report |last=Narasimha |first=Roddam |date=27 July 2011 |title=Rockets in Mysore and Britain, 1750–1850 A.D. |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/37179995 |publisher=National Aeronautical Laboratory and Indian Institute of Science }}</ref>

=== Philosophy and logic ===
* [[Catuṣkoṭi|Catuskoti (Tetralemma)]] – The four-cornered system of logical argumentation with a suite of four distinct functions that refers to a logical proposition P, with four possibilities that can arise. The tetralemma has many [[Epistemology|logico-epistemological]] applications and has been made ample use of by the Indian philosopher [[Nagarjuna|Nāgarjuna]] in the [[Madhyamaka]] school. The tetralemma also features prominently in the Greek [[Skepticism|skepticist]] school of [[Pyrrhonism]], the teachings of which are based on Buddhism. According to [[Christopher I. Beckwith]], the founder of the Pyrrhonist school lived in India for 18 months and likely learned the language, which allowed him to carry these teachings to Greece.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Beckwith|first=Christopher I.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RlCUBgAAQBAJ|title=Greek Buddha: Pyrrho's Encounter with Early Buddhism in Central Asia|date=2015-06-09|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-6632-8}}</ref> However, other scholars, such as [[Stephen Batchelor (author)|Stephen Batchelor]]<ref>[[Stephen Batchelor (author)|Stephen Batchelor]] "Greek Buddha: Pyrrho's encounter with early Buddhism in central Asia", ''Contemporary Buddhism'', 2016, pp 195–215</ref> and Charles Goodman<ref>Charles Goodman, "Neither Scythian nor Greek: A Response to Beckwith's Greek Buddha and Kuzminski's "Early Buddhism Reconsidered"", ''Philosophy East and West'', University of Hawai'i Press Volume 68, Number 3, July 2018 pp. 984–1006</ref> question Beckwith's conclusions about the degree of Buddhist influence on Pyrrho
* [[Trairūpya]] – Trairūpya is a logical argument that contains three constituents which a logical ‘sign’ or ‘mark’ (linga) must fulfill to be 'valid source of knowledge' ([[pramana]]):
#It should be present in the case or object under consideration, the ‘subject-locus' (pakṣa)
#It should be present in a ‘similar case’ or a homologue (sapakṣa)
#It should not be present in any ‘dissimilar case’ or heterologue (vipakṣa)
:When a ‘sign’ or ‘mark’ (linga) is identified, there are three possibilities: the sign may be present in all, some, or none of the sapakṣas. Likewise, the sign may be present in all, some or none of the vipakṣas. To identify a sign, we have to assume that it is present in the pakṣa, however; that is the first condition is already satisfied. Combining these, Dignaga constructed his ‘Wheel of Reason’ (Sanskrit: [[Hetucakra]]).<ref>Ganeri, Jonardon & Tiwari, Heeraman (eds.), (1988). ''The Character of Logic in India''. Albany, NY, USA: State University of New York Press. {{ISBN|0-7914-3739-6}} (HC:acid free), p.7-8</ref>
* [[Jaina seven-valued logic]] – The ''Saptabhangivada'', the seven predicate theory may be summarized as follows:<ref name=Ganeri>{{cite journal |last1=Ganeri |first1=Jonardon |title=Jaina Logic and the Philosophical Basis of Pluralism |journal=History and Philosophy of Logic |date=December 2002 |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=267–281 |doi=10.1080/0144534021000051505 |url=https://philarchive.org/rec/JONJLA }}</ref>

:The seven predicate theory consists in the use of seven claims about sentences, each preceded by "arguably" or "conditionally" ({{transliteration|sa|syat}}), concerning a single object and its particular properties, composed of assertions and denials, either simultaneously or successively, and without contradiction. These seven claims are the following.

# Arguably, it (that is, some object) exists ({{transliteration|sa|syad asty eva}}).
# Arguably, it does not exist ({{transliteration|sa|syan nasty eva}}).
# Arguably, it exists; arguably, it doesn't exist ({{transliteration|sa|syad asty eva syan nasty eva}}).
# Arguably, it is non-assertible ({{transliteration|sa|syad avaktavyam eva}}).
# Arguably, it exists; arguably, it is non-assertible ({{transliteration|sa|syad asty eva syad avaktavyam eva}}).
# Arguably, it doesn't exist; arguably, it is non-assertible ({{transliteration|sa|syan nasty eva syad avaktavyam eva}}).
# Arguably, it exists; arguably, it doesn't exist; arguably it is non-assertible ({{transliteration|sa|syad asty eva syan nasty eva syad avaktavyam eva}}).

=== Mathematics ===
{{See also|Indian mathematics}}
{| class="wikitable Unicode" border="1" style="text-align:left; font-size:100%;" align=right
|-
! rowspan=2 | Number System
! colspan=10 | Numbers
|-
! 0 || 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9
|-
!style="font-size: 75%;"| Tamil
| ೦ || ௧ || ௨ || ௩ || ௪ || ௫ || ௬ || ௭ || ௮ || ௯
|-
!style="font-size: 75%;"| Gurmukhi
| o || ੧ || ੨ || ੩ || ੪ || ੫ || ੬ || ੭ || ੮ || ੯
|-
!style="font-size: 75%;"| Odia
| ୦ || ୧ || ୨ || ୩ || ୪ || ୫ || ୬ || ୭ || ୮ || ୯
|-
! style="font-size: 75%;" | Bengali
| ০ || ১ || ২ || ৩ || ৪ || ৫ || ৬ || ৭ || ৮ || ৯
|-
! style="font-size: 75%;" | Assamese
| ০ || ১ || ২ || ৩ || ৪ || ৫ || ৬ || ৭ || ৮ || ৯
|-
!style="font-size: 75%;"| Devanagari
| ० || १ || २ || ३ || ४ || ५ || ६ || ७ || ८ || ९
|-
!style="font-size: 75%;"| Gujarati
| ૦ || ૧ || ૨ || ૩ || ૪ || ૫ || ૬ || ૭ || ૮ || ૯
|-
!style="font-size: 75%;"| Tibetan
| ༠ || ༡ || ༢ || ༣ || ༤ || ༥ || ༦ || ༧ || ༨ || ༩
|-
!style="font-size: 75%;"| Telugu
| ౦ || ౧ || ౨ || ౩ || ౪ || ౫ || ౬ || ౭ || ౮ || ౯
|-
!style="font-size: 75%;"| Kannada
| ೦ || ೧ || ೨ || ೩ || ೪ || ೫ || ೬ || ೭ || ೮ || ೯

|-
!style="font-size: 75%;"| Malayalam
| ൦ || ൧ || ൨ || ൩ || ൪ || ൫ || ൬ || ൭ || ൮ || ൯
|-
!style="font-size: 75%;"| Burmese
| ၀ || ၁ || ၂ || ၃ || ၄ || ၅ || ၆ || ၇ || ၈ || ၉
|-
!style="font-size: 75%;"| Khmer
| ០ || ១ || ២ || ៣ || ៤ || ៥ || ៦ || ៧ || ៨ || ៩
|-
!style="font-size: 75%;"| Thai
| ๐ || ๑ || ๒ || ๓ || ๔ || ๕ || ๖ || ๗ || ๘ || ๙
|-
!style="font-size: 75%;"| Lao
| ໐ || ໑ || ໒ || ໓ || ໔ || ໕ || ໖ || ໗ || ໘ || ໙
|-
!style="font-size: 75%;"| Balinese
| ᭐ || ᭑ || ᭒ || ᭓ || ᭔ || ᭕ || ᭖ || ᭗ || ᭘ || ᭙
|-
!style="font-size: 75%;"| Santali
| ᱐ || ᱑ || ᱒ || ᱓ || ᱔ || ᱕ || ᱖ || ᱗ || ᱘ || ᱙
|-
!style="font-size: 75%;"| Javanese
| ꧐ || ꧑ || ꧒ || ꧓ || ꧔ || ꧕ || ꧖ || ꧗ || ꧘ || ꧙

|}
[[File:Trig functions on unit circle.svg|thumb|right|The half-chord version of the sine function was developed by the Indian mathematician [[Aryabhatta]].]]
[[File:Brahmaguptra's theorem.svg|thumb|Brahmagupta's theorem (598{{ndash}}668) states that ''AF'' = ''FD''.]]
* [[0 (number)|Zero]] – Zero and its operation are first defined by (Hindu astronomer and mathematician) Brahmagupta in 628.<ref>{{Cite web| first=Jessie | last=Szalay |title=Who Invented Zero?|url=https://www.livescience.com/27853-who-invented-zero.html|access-date=2021-05-18|website=livescience.com|date=18 September 2017}}</ref> The Babylonians used a space, and later a zero glyph, in their written [[Sexagesimal]] system, to signify the 'absent',<ref>{{cite web|url=http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/about/zero.jsp|title=The History of Zero|author=Nils-Bertil Wallin|date=19 November 2002|publisher=Yale Center for the Study of Globalization|access-date=26 December 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160825124525/http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/about/zero.jsp|archive-date=25 August 2016}}</ref> the Olmecs used a positional zero glyph in their [[Vigesimal]] system, the Greeks, from [[Ptolemy]]'s [[Almagest]], a ''ō'', in a [[Sexagesimal]] system. The Chinese used a blank, in the written form of their decimal [[Counting rods]] system. A dot, rather than a blank, was first seen to denote zero, in a decimal system, in the [[Bakhshali manuscript]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://home.ubalt.edu/ntsbarsh/zero/zero.htm|title=Zero in Four Dimensions|author=Dr. Hossein Arsham|publisher=University of Baltimore|access-date=26 December 2011}}</ref> The usage of the zero in the Bakhshali manuscript has been dated between the 8th and 11th centuries, making it the earliest known usage of a written zero, in a decimal place value system.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Devlin |first1=Hannah |title=Much ado about nothing: ancient Indian text contains earliest zero symbol |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2017/sep/14/much-ado-about-nothing-ancient-indian-text-contains-earliest-zero-symbol |work=The Guardian |date=13 September 2017 }}</ref>
* [[Hindu–Arabic numeral system|Hindu number system]] – With [[decimal]] place-value and a symbol for zero, this system was the ancestor of the widely used [[Arabic numeral]] system. It was developed in the Indian subcontinent between the 1st and 6th centuries CE.<ref name="st-and">{{cite web|url=http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/HistTopics/Indian_numerals.html|title=Indian numerals|publisher=www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk|access-date=13 April 2015}}</ref><ref name="google">{{cite book|title=Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the Other Indo-Aryan Languages|author=Salomon, R.|date=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press, USA|isbn=9780195099843|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=El4-AQAAIAAJ|page=61|access-date=13 April 2015}}</ref>
* Law of signs in multiplication – The earliest use of notation for negative numbers, as [[subtrahend]], is credited by scholars to the Chinese, dating back to the 2nd century BCE.<ref name=Smith>Smith (1958), pp. 257{{ndash}}258</ref> Like the Chinese, the Indians used negative numbers as subtrahend, but were the first to establish the "law of signs" with regards to the multiplication of positive and negative numbers, which did not appear in Chinese texts until 1299.<ref name=Smith /> Indian mathematicians were aware of negative numbers by the 7th century,<ref name=Smith /> and their role in mathematical problems of debt was understood.<ref name=bourbaki49>Bourbaki (1998), page 49</ref> Mostly consistent and correct rules for working with negative numbers were formulated,<ref name=ebcal>Britannica Concise Encyclopedia (2007). ''algebra''</ref> and the diffusion of these rules led the Arab intermediaries to pass it on to Europe.,<ref name=bourbaki49/> for example (+)×(-)=(-),(-)×(-)=(+) etc.
* [[Sign convention]] – Symbols, signs and mathematical notation were employed in an early form in India by the 6th century when the mathematician-astronomer Aryabhata recommended the use of letters to represent unknown quantities.<ref name=Bell96>Bell (1992), page 96</ref> By the 7th century Brahmagupta had already begun using abbreviations for unknowns, even for multiple unknowns occurring in one complex problem.<ref name=Bell96/> Brahmagupta also managed to use abbreviations for square roots and cube roots.<ref name=Bell96/> By the 7th century fractions were written in a manner similar to the modern times, except for the bar separating the [[numerator]] and the [[denominator]].<ref name=Bell96/> A dot symbol for [[negative numbers]] was also employed.<ref name=Bell96/> The [[Bakhshali Manuscript]] displays a cross, much like the modern '+' sign, except that it symbolised subtraction when written just after the number affected.<ref name=Bell96/> The '=' sign for equality did not exist.<ref name=Bell96/> Indian mathematics was transmitted to the Islamic world where this notation was seldom accepted initially and the scribes continued to write mathematics in full and without symbols.<ref name=Bell97>Bell (1992), page 97</ref>
* Modern [[elementary arithmetic]] – Modum indorum or the method of the Indians for arithmetic operations was popularised by Al-Khwarizmi and Al-Kindi by means of their respective works such as in Al-Khwarizmi's on the Calculation with Hindu Numerals (ca. 825), On the Use of the Indian Numerals (ca. 830)<ref>{{cite web|title=Al-Kindi biography|url=http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Al-Kindi.html|website=www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071026091801/http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Al-Kindi.html|archive-date=26 October 2007}}</ref> as early as the 8th and 9th centuries.They, amongst other works, contributed to the diffusion of the Indian system of arithmetic in the Middle-East and the West.The significance of the development of the positional number system is described by the French mathematician Pierre Simon Laplace (1749{{ndash}}1827) who wrote:
<blockquote>"It is India that gave us the ingenuous method of expressing all numbers by the means of ten symbols, each symbol receiving a value of position, as well as an absolute value; a profound and important idea which appears so simple to us now that we ignore its true merit, but its very simplicity, the great ease which it has lent to all computations, puts our arithmetic in the first rank of useful inventions, and we shall appreciate the grandeur of this achievement when we remember that it escaped the genius of Archimedes and Apollonius, two of the greatest minds produced by antiquity."</blockquote>
* [[Chakravala method]] – The Chakravala method, a cyclic algorithm to solve [[Indeterminate equation|indeterminate]] [[quadratic equation]]s is commonly attributed to [[Bhāskara II]], (c. 1114 – 1185 CE)<ref name=SBI200>"Bhaskaracharya II". ''Students' Encyclopedia India'' (2000). (Volume 1: Adb Allah ibn al Abbas – Cypress). p. 200. {{ISBN|0-85229-760-2}}</ref><ref name=Kumar23>Kumar (2004), page 23</ref><ref name=Singh05-385>Singh, Manpal (2005), page 385</ref> although some attribute it to [[Jayadeva (mathematician)|Jayadeva]] (c. 950~1000 CE).<ref name=Plofker474>Plofker (2007), page 474</ref> Jayadeva pointed out that Brahmagupta's approach to solving equations of this type would yield infinitely large number of solutions, to which he then described a general method of solving such equations.<ref name=Goonatilake127>Goonatilake (1998), page 127 – 128</ref> Jayadeva's method was later refined by Bhāskara II in his ''[[Bijaganita]]'' treatise to be known as the Chakravala method, ''[[chakra]]'' (derived from ''cakraṃ'' चक्रं) meaning 'wheel' in [[Sanskrit]], relevant to the cyclic nature of the algorithm.<ref name= Goonatilake127/><ref name=Baber34>Baber (1996), page 34</ref> With reference to the Chakravala method, E. O. Selenuis held that no European performances at the time of Bhāskara, nor much later, came up to its marvellous height of mathematical complexity.<ref name=SBI200/><ref name= Goonatilake127/><ref name=RaoKA252>Rao K. A. (2000), page 252</ref>
* [[Trigonometric function]]s – The [[Trigonometry|trigonometric]] functions ''sine'' and ''versine'' originated in [[Indian astronomy]] along with the ''cosine'' and '' inversine '', adapted from the full-chord Greek versions (to the modern half-chord versions). They were described in detail by [[Aryabhata]] in the late 5th century, but were likely developed earlier in the [[Pancha-Siddhantika|Siddhantas]], astronomical treatises of the 3rd or 4th century.<ref name=Pingree1>Pingree (2003): {{blockquote|"Geometry, and its branch trigonometry, was the mathematics Indian astronomers used most frequently. In fact, the Indian astronomers in the third or fourth century, using a pre-Ptolemaic Greek table of chords, produced tables of sines and versines, from which it was trivial to derive cosines. This new system of trigonometry, produced in India, was transmitted to the Arabs in the late eighth century and by them, in an expanded form, to the Latin West and the Byzantine East in the twelfth century."}}</ref><ref name=MactutorTrigo>J. J. O'Connor and E.F. Robertson (1996). [http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Trigonometric_functions.html Trigonometric functions] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120084848/http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Trigonometric_functions.html |date=20 January 2013 }}. [[MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive]]</ref> Later, the 6th-century astronomer [[Varahamihira]] discovered a few basic trigonometric formulas and identities, such as sin^2(x) + cos^2(x) = 1.<ref name="www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk"/>
* [[Mean value theorem]] – A special case of this [[theorem]] for inverse interpolation of the sine was first described by [[Parameshvara]] (1380–1460), from the [[Kerala School of Astronomy and Mathematics]] in [[India]], in his commentaries on [[Govindasvāmi]] and [[Bhāskara II]].<ref>J. J. O'Connor and E. F. Robertson (2000). [https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Paramesvara/ Paramesvara], ''[[MacTutor History of Mathematics archive]]''.</ref>
* [[Bhāskara I's sine approximation formula]]
* [[Madhava series]] – The infinite series for {{pi}} and for the trigonometric [[sine]], [[cosine]], and [[arctangent]] is now attributed to Madhava of Sangamagrama (c. 1340 – 1425) and his Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics.<ref name=Goonatilake37>Goonatilake (1998), page 37</ref><ref name=Amma182>Amma (1999), pp. 182{{ndash}}183</ref> He made use of the series expansion of <math>\arctan x</math> to obtain an infinite series expression for {{pi}}.<ref name=Goonatilake37/> Their rational approximation of the ''error'' for the finite sum of their series are of particular interest. They manipulated the error term to derive a faster converging series for {{pi}}.<ref name=roy>Roy (1990)</ref> They used the improved series to derive a rational expression,<ref name=roy/><math>104348/33215</math> for {{pi}} correct up to eleven decimal places, ''i.e.'' <math>3.1415926539214</math>.<ref name=Borwein107>Borwein (2004), page 107</ref><ref name=Plofker481>Plofker (2007), page 481</ref> Madhava of Sangamagrama and his successors at the [[Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics]] used geometric methods to derive large sum approximations for sine, cosine, and arctangent. They found a number of special cases of series later derived by Brook Taylor series. They also found the second-order Taylor approximations for these functions, and the third-order Taylor approximation for sine.<ref name=bressoud>Bressoud (2002)</ref><ref name=Plofker>Plofker (2001)</ref><ref name=katz>Katz (1995)</ref>
* [[Power series]] – The Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics or the Kerala school was a school of mathematics and astronomy founded by Madhava of Sangamagrama in Tirur, Malappuram, Kerala, India. Their work, completed two centuries before the invention of calculus in Europe, provided what is now considered the first example of a power series (apart from geometric series). However, they did not formulate a systematic theory of differentiation and integration.{{sfn|Stillwell|2004|p=173}}
* Finite difference [[interpolation]] – The Indian mathematician [[Brahmagupta]] presented what is possibly the first instance<ref>{{cite book|last=Van Brummelen|first=Glen|author-link=Glen Van Brummelen|title=The mathematics of the heavens and the earth: the early history of trigonometry|year=2009|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=9780691129730|pages=329}} (p.111)</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Meijering|first=Erik|title=A Chronology of Interpolation From Ancient Astronomy to Modern Signal and Image Processing|journal=Proceedings of the IEEE|date=March 2002|volume=90|issue=3|pages=319{{ndash}}342|doi=10.1109/5.993400|bibcode=2002IEEEP..90..319M |url=http://infoscience.epfl.ch/record/63085}}</ref> of finite difference interpolation around 665 CE.<ref name="Gupta">{{cite journal|last=Gupta|first=R. C. |title=Second-order interpolation in Indian mathematics upto the fifteenth century|journal=Indian Journal of History of Science|volume=4|issue=1 & 2|pages=86{{ndash}}98}} Reprinted as: {{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-981-13-1229-8_27 |chapter=Second-Order Interpolation in Indian Mathematics up to the Fifteenth Century |title=Gaṇitānanda |date=2019 |last1=Ramasubramanian |first1=K. |pages=263–276 |isbn=978-981-13-1228-1 }}</ref>
* [[Algebra|Algebraic abbreviations]] – The mathematician [[Brahmagupta]] had begun using abbreviations for unknowns by the 7th century.<ref name=Bell96/> He employed abbreviations for multiple unknowns occurring in one complex problem.<ref name=Bell96/> Brahmagupta also used abbreviations for [[square roots]] and [[cube roots]].<ref name=Bell96/>
* [[Permutation#Generation in lexicographic order|Systematic generation of all permutations]] – The method goes back to [[Narayana Pandit]]a in 14th-century India, and has been rediscovered frequently.{{sfn|Knuth|2005|pp=1–26}}
* Discovered by the Indian mathematician, Brahmagupta (598{{ndash}}668 CE):<ref name=Plofker419-436>Plofker (2007), pp. 419{{ndash}}436</ref><ref name=Joseph306>Joseph (2000), page 306</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://jwilson.coe.uga.edu/EMT725/Class/Brooks/Brahmagupta/Brahmagupta.html|title=Brahmagupta's Formula|author=Kala Fischbein, Tammy Brooks|publisher=University of Georgia|access-date=3 November 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://mathworld.wolfram.com/BrahmaguptaMatrix.html|title=Brahmagupta Matrix|author=Weisstein, Eric W|publisher=Mathworld|access-date=3 November 2011}}</ref>
** [[Brahmagupta–Fibonacci identity]]
** [[Brahmagupta formula]]
** [[Brahmagupta theorem]]
* [[Combinatorics]] – the [[Vyākhyāprajñapti|Bhagavati Sutra]] had the first mention of a combinatorics problem; the problem asked how many possible combinations of tastes were possible from selecting tastes in ones, twos, threes, etc. from a selection of six different tastes (sweet, pungent, astringent, sour, salt, and bitter). The Bhagavati is also the first text to mention the [[Binomial coefficient|choose function]].<ref name="India">{{cite web|title=India|url=http://binomial.csueastbay.edu/India.html|access-date=2008-03-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071114201718/http://binomial.csueastbay.edu/India.html|archive-date=2007-11-14|url-status=dead}}</ref> In the second century BC, [[Pingala]] included an enumeration problem in the [[Sanskrit prosody|Chanda Sutra]] (also Chandahsutra) which asked how many ways a six-syllable metre could be made from short and long notes.<ref name="Hall">{{cite web |first=Rachel|last=Hall|title=Math for Poets and Drummers-The Mathematics of Meter|date=2005-02-16|url=http://www.sju.edu/~rhall/Rhythms/poets.pdf|access-date=2008-03-05|archive-date=7 September 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080907145421/http://www.sju.edu/%7Erhall/Rhythms/poets.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Kulkarni">{{cite report |type=Preprint |last1=Kulkarni |first1=Amba |title=Recursion and Combinatorial Mathematics in Chandashaastra |date=2007 |arxiv=math/0703658 |bibcode=2007math......3658K }}</ref> Pingala found the number of metres that had <math>n</math> long notes and <math>k</math> short notes; this is equivalent to finding the [[binomial coefficients]].
* Jain texts define five different types of [[infinity]] – the infinite in one direction, the infinite in two directions, the infinite in area, the infinite everywhere, and the infinite perpetually.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Datta | first1 = Bibhutibhusan | last2 = Singh | first2 = Awadhesh Narayan | editor1-last = Kolachana | editor1-first = Aditya | editor2-last = Mahesh | editor2-first = K. | editor3-last = Ramasubramanian | editor3-first = K. | contribution = Use of permutations and combinations in India | doi = 10.1007/978-981-13-7326-8_18 | pages = 356–376 | publisher = Springer Singapore | series = Sources and Studies in the History of Mathematics and Physical Sciences | title = Studies in Indian Mathematics and Astronomy: Selected Articles of Kripa Shankar Shukla | year = 2019| isbn = 978-981-13-7325-1 | s2cid = 191141516 }}. Revised by K. S. Shukla from a paper in ''Indian Journal of History of Science'' 27 (3): 231–249, 1992, {{MR | 1189487}}. See p. 363.</ref> and the ''[[Satkhandagama]]''
* [[Fibonacci numbers]] – This sequence was first described by [[Virahanka]] (c. 700 CE), Gopāla (c. 1135), and [[Hemachandra]] (c. 1150),<ref name="google2">{{cite book|title=Toward a Global Science: Mining Civilizational Knowledge|author=Goonatilake, S.|date=1998|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=9780253333889|url=https://archive.org/details/towardglobalscie0000goon|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/towardglobalscie0000goon/page/126 126]|access-date=13 April 2015}}</ref> as an outgrowth of the earlier writings on Sanskrit prosody by [[Pingala]] (c. 200 BCE).
* [[Madhava's correction terms]] – Madhava's correction term is a mathematical expression attributed to [[Madhava of Sangamagrama]] (c. 1340 – c. 1425), the founder of the [[Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics]], that can be used to give a better approximation to the value of the mathematical constant {{pi}} (''pi'') than the partial sum approximation obtained by truncating the [[Madhava series|Madhava-Leibniz infinite series]] for {{pi}}. The Madhava-Leibniz infinite series for {{pi}}.
* [[Pascal's triangle]] – Described in the 6th century CE by [[Varahamihira]]<ref name="www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk">{{cite web|url=http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Varahamihira.html|title=Varahamihira biography|publisher=www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk|access-date=13 April 2015}}</ref> and in the 10th century by [[Halayudha]],<ref name="google3">{{cite book|title=Pascal's Arithmetical Triangle: The Story of a Mathematical Idea|author=Edwards, A.W.F.|date=2002|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|isbn=9780801869464|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sx-EkudWKTcC|page=201|access-date=13 April 2015}}</ref> commenting on an obscure reference by [[Pingala]] (the author of an earlier work on prosody) to the "Meru-prastaara", or the "Staircase of Mount Meru", in relation to binomial coefficients. (It was also independently discovered in the 10th or 11th century in Persia and China.)
* Integral solution to [[Pell's equation]] – About a thousand years before [[John Pell (mathematician)|Pell's]] time, Indian scholar Brahmagupta (598{{ndash}}668 CE) was able to find integral solutions to ''vargaprakṛiti'' (Pell's equation):<ref name=Pswamy416>Puttaswamy (2000), page 416</ref>{{sfn|Stillwell|2004|pp=72–73}} <math>\ x^2-Ny^2=1, </math> where ''N'' is a non-square integer, in his [[Brahmasphutasiddhanta|''Brâhma-sphuṭa-siddhânta'']] treatise.<ref name=sw101>Stillwell (2004), pages 72{{ndash}}73</ref>
* Ardhacheda – In the 8th century [[Jain]] mathematician [[Virasena]] is credited with a precursor to the binary logarithm. Virasena's concept of ''ardhacheda'' has been defined as the number of times a given number can be divided evenly by two. This definition gives rise to a function that coincides with the binary logarithm on the powers of two,<ref>{{citation| contribution=History of Mathematics in India|title=Students' Britannica India: Select essays|editor1-first=Dale|editor1-last=Hoiberg|editor-link1=Dale Hoiberg|editor2-first=Indu|editor2-last=Ramchandani|first=R. C.|last=Gupta|author-link=R.C Gupta|page=329|publisher=Popular Prakashan|year=2000| contribution-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-xzljvnQ1vAC&q=Virasena+logarithm&pg=PA329}}</ref> but it is different for other integers, giving the [[p-adic order|2-adic order]] rather than the logarithm.<ref>See, e.g., {{citation|title=Cryptographic Applications of Analytic Number Theory: Complexity Lower Bounds and Pseudorandomness|volume=22|series=Progress in Computer Science and Applied Logic|first=Igor|last=Shparlinski|publisher=Birkhäuser|year=2013|isbn=978-3-0348-8037-4|page=35|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z635BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA35}}.</ref>
* [[Kuṭṭaka]] – The Kuṭṭaka algorithm has much similarity with and can be considered as a precursor of the modern day [[extended Euclidean algorithm]]. The latter algorithm is a procedure for finding integers ''x'' and ''y'' satisfying the condition ''ax'' + ''by'' = [[Greatest common divisor|gcd]](''a'', ''b'').<ref>{{cite book|last1=D. E. Knuth|title=[[The Art of Computer Programming|The Art of Computer Programming Volume 2]]|date=1998|publisher=[[Pearson Education India]], 1998|isbn=9788177583359|page=342 |author1-link=D. E. Knuth }}</ref>

=== Linguistics and Literature ===
* [[Formal grammar]] / [[Formal systems]] – In his treatise [[Aṣṭādhyāyī|Astadhyayi]], [[Pāṇini|Panini]] gives formal production rules and definitions to describe the formal grammar of [[Sanskrit]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Panini biography|url=http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Panini.html|website=www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk}}</ref> In [[formal language|formal language theory]], a ''grammar'' (when the context is not given, often called a ''formal grammar'' for clarity) is a set of [[Production (computer science)|production rule]]s for [[String (computer science)|strings]] in a [[formal language]]. The rules describe how to form strings from the language's [[Alphabet (computer science)|alphabet]] that are valid according to the language's [[syntax (programming languages)|syntax]]. A grammar does not describe the [[semantics|meaning of the strings]] or what can be done with them in whatever context—only their form. The [[Backus-Naur form]], used to describe the [[Syntax (programming languages)|syntax]] of programming languages, applies similar concepts.<ref>{{cite journal|last= Ingerman|first= P. Z.|title= "Pāṇini Backus Form" suggested|journal= Communications of the ACM|volume= 10|issue= 3|page= 137|year= 1967|doi= 10.1145/363162.363165
|s2cid= 52817672|doi-access= free}}</ref>
*Sarvatobhadra Palindrome: The most complex palindrome, an example of which is in the [[Shishupala Vadha]] of [[Magha (poet)|Magha]].
<blockquote>
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-break}}

सकारनानारकास- 
कायसाददसायका । 
रसाहवा वाहसार- 
नादवाददवादना ॥

 

sakāranānārakāsa- 
kāyasādadasāyakā 
rasāhavā vāhasāra- 
nādavādadavādanā. 

{{Col-break}}

{| style="text-align:center; width:200px;"
|- style="color:red;"
| sa || kā || ra || nā || nā || ra || kā || sa
|-
| style="color:red;" | kā || ya || sā || da || da || sā || ya || style="color:red;" | kā
|-
| style="color:red;" | ra || sā || ha || vā || vā || ha || sā || style="color:red;" | ra
|-
| style="color:red;" | nā || da || vā || da || da || vā || da || style="color:red;" | nā
|-
| colspan=8 | (and the lines reversed)
|-
| style="color:red;" | nā || da || vā || da || da || vā || da || style="color:red;" | nā
|-
| style="color:red;" | ra || sā || ha || vā || vā || ha || sā || style="color:red;" | ra
|-
| style="color:red;" | kā || ya || sā || da || da || sā || ya || style="color:red;" | kā
|- style="color:red;"
| sa || kā || ra || nā || nā || ra || kā || sa
|}
{{col-end}}

{{blockquote|"[That army], which relished battle (''rasāhavā'') contained allies who brought low the bodes and gaits of their various striving enemies (''sakāranānārakāsakāyasādadasāyakā''), and in it the cries of the best of mounts contended with musical instruments (''vāhasāranādavādadavādanā'')."}}
</blockquote>

Palindromic Novel: The Ramakrishna Vilomakavyam by Dyvagnya Surya Pandita is an example of a narrative that, when read forward, relate the story of the Ramayana and, when read backward, relate the story of the Mahabharata.

=== Mining ===
* [[Diamond (gemstone)|Diamond mining]] and diamond tools: Diamonds were first recognised and mined in central India,<ref name=Dickinson1/><ref name=Hershey22>Hershey (2004), page 22</ref><ref name=Malkin12>Malkin (1996), page 12</ref> where significant alluvial deposits of the stone could then be found along the rivers [[Penner River|Penner]], [[Krishna River|Krishna]] and [[Godavari River|Godavari]]. It is unclear when diamonds were first mined in India, although estimated to be at least 5,000 years ago.<ref name=Hershey3,22>Hershey (2004), pages 3 & 23</ref> India remained the world's only source of diamonds until the discovery of diamonds in Brazil in the 18th century.<ref name=Thomas46>Thomas (2007), page 46</ref><ref name=Read17>Read (2005), page 17</ref><ref name=lee1>Lee, page 685</ref> [[Golconda]] served as an important centre for diamonds in [[central India]].<ref name=Wenk1>Wenk, pages 535{{ndash}}539</ref> Diamonds then were exported to other parts of the world, including Europe.<ref name=Wenk1/> Early references to diamonds in India come from [[Sanskrit]] texts.<ref name=Encarta11>MSN Encarta (2007). [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761557986/Diamond.html ''Diamond''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028121034/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761557986/Diamond.html |date=28 October 2009 }}. 1 November 2009.</ref> The ''[[Arthashastra]]'' of [[Kautilya]] mentions diamond trade in India.<ref name=lee1/> [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] works dating from the 4th century BCE mention it as a well-known and precious stone but don't mention the details of diamond cutting.<ref name=Dickinson1/> Another Indian description written at the beginning of the 3rd century describes strength, regularity, brilliance, ability to scratch metals, and good refractive properties as the desirable qualities of a diamond.<ref name=Dickinson1>Dickinson, pages 1{{ndash}}3</ref> A Chinese work from the 3rd century BCE mentions: "Foreigners wear it [diamond] in the belief that it can ward off evil influences".<ref name=Dickinson1/> The Chinese, who did not find diamonds in their country, initially used diamonds as a "jade cutting knife" instead of as a jewel.<ref name=Dickinson1/>
* [[Zinc mining]] and [[Zinc#Ancient use|medicinal zinc]] – Zinc was first smelted from zinc ore in India.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.australianminesatlas.gov.au/education/fact_sheets/zinc.jsp |title=Zinc-Fact sheet |publisher=Australian mines |access-date=4 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111107215623/http://www.australianminesatlas.gov.au/education/fact_sheets/zinc.jsp |archive-date=7 November 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Zinc mines of Zawar, near [[Udaipur]], [[Rajasthan]], were active during early Christian era.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tf.uni-kiel.de/matwis/amat/def_en/articles/metallurg_heritage_india/metallurgical_heritage_india.html |title=Mettalurgical heritage of India|author=Srinivasan, Ranganathan|publisher=Christian-Albrechts-University of Kiel |access-date=4 November 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dli.gov.in/rawdataupload/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005afd_33.pdf|title=Smelting furnaces in Ancient India|author=Rina Shrivastva|year=1999|publisher=Indian Journal of History & Science,34(1), Digital Library of India|access-date=4 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425052130/http://www.dli.gov.in/rawdataupload/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005afd_33.pdf|archive-date=25 April 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> There are references of medicinal uses of zinc in the [[Charaka Samhita]] (300 BCE).<ref name=Craddock>Craddock (1983)</ref> The [[Rasaratna Samuccaya]] which dates back to the Tantric period ({{circa|5th{{snd}}13th century CE}}) explains the existence of two types of ores for zinc metal, one of which is ideal for metal extraction while the other is used for medicinal purpose.<ref name=Craddock/><ref name=Biswas11>Biswas (1986), page 11</ref> India was to melt the first derived from a long experience of the old alchemy zinc by the distillation process, an advanced technique. The ancient Persians had also tried to reduce zinc oxide in an open stove, but had failed. Zawar in Tiri valley of Rajasthan is the first known old zinc smelting site in the world.{{citation needed|date=May 2024}} The distillation technique of zinc production dates back to the 12th century CE and is an important contribution of India in the world of science.

=== Space ===
* [[Periodic comet|Periodicity of comets]] – Indian astronomers by the 6th century CE believed that comets were apparitions that re-appeared periodically. This was the view expressed in the 6th century by the astronomers [[Varahamihira]] and Bhadrabahu, and the 10th-century astronomer [[Bhattotpala]] listed the names and estimated periods of certain comets, but it is unfortunately not known how these figures were calculated or how accurate they were.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ILBuYcGASxcC&pg=PA293 |page=293 |title=Exploring Ancient Skies: A Survey of Ancient and Cultural Astronomy |last1=Kelley |first1=David H. |last2=Milone |first2=Eugene F. |date=2011|publisher=Springer |isbn=9781441976246 }}</ref>
* [[Gravity|Preliminary concept of gravity]] – The concept of gravity as attracting objects towards Earth was already known to Greek scholars, [[Brahmagupta]] in sixth century CE also described gravity as an attractive force, using the term {{Transliteration|sa|ISO|gurutvākarṣaṇa}} in which heavier objects attract towards the earth.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Pickover|first1=Clifford|title=Archimedes to Hawking: Laws of Science and the Great Minds Behind Them|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780199792689|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SQXcpvjcJBUC&pg=PA105|date=2008-04-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Bose|first1=Mainak Kumar|title=Late classical India|publisher=A. Mukherjee & Co.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nbItAAAAMAAJ&q=gravity|year=1988}}</ref><ref>*{{cite book
| first= Amartya | last= Sen| title= The Argumentative Indian| date= 2005| page= 29 | publisher= Allen Lane | isbn= 978-0-7139-9687-6}}</ref>
* [[Tychonic system]] – A similar model was implicitly mentioned in the Hindu astronomical treatise ''[[Tantrasamgraha]]'' ({{Circa|1500 CE}}) by [[Nilakantha Somayaji]] of the [[Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ramasubramanian |first1=K. |last2=Srinivas |first2=M. D. |last3=Sriram |first3=M. S. |title=Modification of the earlier Indian planetary theory by the Kerala astronomers (c. 1500 AD) and the implied heliocentric picture of planetary motion |journal=Current Science |date=1994 |volume=66 |issue=10 |pages=784–790 |jstor=24098820 }}</ref>{{sfn|Joseph|2000|p=408}}
* Reduction of the [[ecliptic]]: [[Achyutha Pisharadi]] discovered the techniques.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=B. |first1=E. |title=Review of The Contributions of Kerala to Sanskrit Literature |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |date=1960 |volume=80 |issue=4 |pages=392 |doi=10.2307/595925 |jstor=595925 }}</ref>

=== Miscellaneous ===
* [[Hookah]] or water pipe: according to Cyril Elgood (PP.41, 110), the physician Irfan Shaikh, at the court of the Mughal emperor [[Akbar]] I (1542{{endash}}1605) invented the Hookah or water pipe used most commonly for smoking [[tobacco]].<ref name="iranica">{{cite web | url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/galyan- | title=ḠALYĀN |publisher=[[Encyclopedia Iranica]] | date=15 December 2000 | access-date=19 December 2012 | author=Razpush, Shahnaz | pages=261–265 | volume=X}}</ref><ref name="Sivaramakrishnan4-5">{{cite book |title=Tobacco and Areca Nut|last=Sivaramakrishnan |first=V. M. |year=2001 |publisher=Orient Blackswan |location=[[Hyderabad (India)|Hyderabad]] |isbn=81-250-2013-6 |pages=4–5}}</ref><ref name="Blechynden215">{{cite book |title=Calcutta, Past and Present |last=Blechynden |first=Kathleen |year=1905 |publisher=University of California |location=Los Angeles |page=215}}</ref><ref name="RousseletLouis">{{cite book |title=India and Its Native Princes: Travels in Central India and in the Presidencies of Bombay and Bengal |url=https://archive.org/details/indiaitsnativepr00loui |last=Rousselet |first=Louis |year=1875 |publisher=Chapman and Hall |location=London |page=[https://archive.org/details/indiaitsnativepr00loui/page/290 290]|isbn=9788120618879 }}</ref>
* [[Punch (drink)]] a [[mixed drink]] containing fruits or fruit juice that can be both alcoholic and non-alcoholic originated in the Indian subcontinent before making its way into England by passage through the [[East India Company]].<ref name="Language">Edwards, Graham and Sue. ''The Language of Drink'', Alan Sutton Publishing, 1988.</ref> This beverage is very popular among the world with many varietal flavors and brands throughout the [[beverage industry]].

== Modern India ==
=== Metallurgy, manufacturing, and industry ===
* Carbon nitride solar reactor – In September 2021, A team from the [[Institute of Nano Science and Technology|Institute of Nano Science and Technology (INST), Mohali]], has fabricated a prototype reactor which operates under natural sunlight to produce hydrogen at a scale of around 6.1 litres in eight hours. They have used an earth-abundant chemical called carbon nitrides as a catalyst for the purpose.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/chandigarh/mohali-institute-develops-reactor-for-cost-effective-production-of-hydrogen-using-sunlight-water-318138|title=Mohali institute develops reactor for cost-effective production of hydrogen using sunlight, water|work=Tribuneindia News Service }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://dst.gov.in/large-scale-reactor-developed-cost-effective-production-hydrogen-using-sunlight-and-water | title=Large-scale reactor developed for cost-effective production of hydrogen using sunlight and water | Department of Science & Technology }}</ref>
* [[Substation|Micro-substation]], Tata power along with Nissin Electric demonstrated world's first microsubstation in Tata's Rohini plant, New Delhi that will provide cheap electricity to consumers.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://nissin.jp/e/news/pdf/release240919.pdf#:~:text=A%20micro%20substation%20consists%20of%20protective%20devices%2C,without%20installing%20a%20conventional%20large%2Dscale%20distribution%20substation | title=Demonstration Project of India’s First Micro Substation With Power Voltage Transformer (PVT) | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241014031500/https://nissin.jp/e/news/pdf/release240919.pdf | archive-date=2024-10-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/energy/power/tata-power-ddl-collaborates-with-japanese-firm-to-install-indias-first-micro-substation/articleshow/122029053.cms?from=mdr | title=Tata Power-DDL collaborates with Japanese firm to install India's first micro substation | work=The Economic Times | date=23 June 2025 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.business-standard.com/companies/news/tata-power-ddl-nissin-electric-install-india-s-first-micro-substation-125062301094_1.html | title=Tata Power-DDL, Nissin Electric to install India's first micro substation }}</ref>
* [[National Metallurgical Laboratory#R&D|NML Magnetherm process]] is a large scale magnesium producing process, it is a kind of electrothermal process that produces at pilot scale of 300–450 kg raw material producing ~40 kg Magnesium/batch. A pilot plant is being constructed at Jamshedpur for using this process.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326264547_Development_of_magnesium_metal_production_technology_at_CSIR-NML_Jamshedpur#:~:text=CSIR%2DNational%20Metallurgical%20Laboratory%20(CSIR,developed%20highly%20guarded%20Magnetherm%20process | title=Development of magnesium metal production technology at CSIR-NML, Jamshedpur | website=www.researchgate.net | date=July 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://money.rediff.com/news/market/rs-10-crore-magnesium-plant-launched-in-jamshedpur/18955720241126#:~:text=CSIR%2DNML%20lays%20foundation%20for,of%20rediff.com%20India%20Limited. | title=Rs 10 Crore Magnesium Plant Launched in Jamshedpur }}</ref>
* Contactless Handwasher, is a device which provides automated touchless handwashing process, major advantage of this type of system is that it uses very less water and hand Washing for 2000 people requires only one soap refill.It was developed by [[Central Mechanical Engineering Research Institute|CSIR-CMERI]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cmeri.res.in/technology/contactless-hand-washer | title=Contactless Hand Washer | CSIR-Central Mechanical Engineering Research Institute }}</ref>
* Hydrogen DRI steel, Jindal Steel is making world's first hydrogen based DRI process in its steel plants in Angul.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.businesstoday.in/markets/company-stock/story/jindal-stainless-shares-first-green-hydrogen-project-420077-2024-03-05 | title=Jindal Steel shares in news today as firm commences its first green hydrogen project - BusinessToday | date=5 March 2024 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.hydrogennewsletter.com/india-the-worlds-second-largest-producer-of-crude-steel-go-green-with-green-hydrogen/ | title=India - the world's second-largest producer of crude steel goes green with Green Hydrogen | date=16 March 2024 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.mercomindia.com/jindal-and-open-steel-plant-in-haryana | title=Jindal and Hygenco Open Green Hydrogen Facility at Steel Plant in Haryana - Mercom India }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cnbctv18.com/market/jindal-steel-and-power-share-price-bets-big-on-green-hydrogen-with-investment-in-odisha-facility-19476708.htm | title=Jindal Steel bets big on Green Hydrogen with investment in Odisha facility - CNBC TV18 | date=16 September 2024 }}</ref>
* High ash coal gasification (coal to methanol) – The central government gave the country world's first 'coal to methanol' (CTM) plant built by the [[Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited]] (BHEL). The plant was inaugurated in BHEL's Hyderabad unit, The pilot project is the first that uses the gasification method for converting high-ash coal into methanol. Handling of high ash and heat required to melt this high amount of ash is a challenge in the case of Indian coal, which generally has high ash content. Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited has developed the fluidized bed gasification technology suitable for high ash Indian coals to produce syngas and then convert syngas to methanol with 99% purity.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://thelogicalindian.com/trending/coal-to-methanol-bhel-33320 | title=First of Its Kind! Central Government Inaugurates India's 'Coal to Methanol' Plant Made by BHEL | date=17 January 2022 | last1=Saxena | first1=Akanksha }}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref>
* [[Magnetically controlled shunt reactor|Controlled shunt reactor]] – In 2002, [[Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited]] has successfully developed a first-of-its-kind in the world device for improving power transfer capability and reducing transmission losses in the country's highest rating (400 kV) transmission lines.The device is called Controlled Shunt Reactor.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/bhel-develops-device-to-reduce-td-losses/articleshow/28959774.cms|title=Bhel develops device to reduce T&D losses| newspaper=The Times of India |date=21 November 2002|via=Press Trust of India}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/bhel-to-supply-device-for-high-voltage-systems/story-KIzepl351g9Xw0XREukAqI.html|title=The first-of-its-kind Controlled Shunt Reactor (CSR) has been developed by BHEL in-house, said a BHEL release. The device, which operates automatically, depending on system requirement in less than 10 milliseconds, improves power transfer capability of transmission lines| newspaper=The Hindustan Times |date=7 October 2006|via=HT Correspondent, Bhopal}}</ref>
* [[Defence Metallurgical Research Laboratory|DMR 1700]] steel – For several high-technology applications, such as military hardware and aerospace, need to possess ultrahigh strength (UHS; minimum yield strength of 1380 MPa (200 ksi)) coupled with high fracture toughness in order to meet the requirement of minimum weight while ensuring high reliability.
* [[Defence Metallurgical Research Laboratory|DMR SN 742]] is a nickel-based superalloy developed by the Defence Metallurgical Research Laboratory (DMRL) in India. It is specifically designed for aero-engine applications, such as high-pressure compressors (HPC) and turbine rotors (HPT) in gas turbine engines.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.iadb.in/2022/02/23/development-of-nickel-base-superalloy-components-for-aeroengine-applications/ | title=Development of Nickel-Base Superalloy & Components for Aeroengine Applications | Indian Aerospace and Defence Bulletin - News for aerospace and defence in India | date=23 February 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4902841|title=Effect of Heterogenization on the Microstructure Evolution and High Temperature Deformation Behaviour of a Nickel Base Superalloy by balasundar ilangovan, P. Mahesh, Satheesh Kumar S.S., Balasundar I, Vanitha C :: SSRN|ssrn=4902841 |last1=Balasundar |first1=Ilangovan |last2=P. |first2=Mahesh |last3=Kumar |first3=S. S. |last4=Balasundar |first4=I. |last5=Vanitha |first5=C. }}</ref>
* GTM-900 is a high-temperature alpha-beta titanium alloy developed by [[National Aerospace Laboratories]] and [[Defence Metallurgical Research Laboratory|DMRL]] used for components like compressor blades due to its strength and creep resistance at elevated temperatures.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nal.res.in/hi/node/2078 | title=High strain rate behavior of GTM-900 titanium alloy - CSIR - NAL }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=https://nopr.niscpr.res.in/bitstream/123456789/20553/1/IJEMS%209(5)%20351-358.pdf | title=Wear behaviour of titanium alloy GTM-900 under dry sliding | website=nopr.niscpr.res.in}}</ref>
* TITAN 26A and TITAN 29A, These are high-performance titanium-based alloys which are known for their high strength, creep resistance, and corrosion resistance, particularly in high-temperature environments.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.drdo.gov.in/drdo/high-temperature-titanium-alloys-components | title=High Temperature Titanium Alloys & Components | Defence Research and Development Organisation - DRDO, Ministry of Defence, Government of India }}</ref>
* Magnesium-lithium alloy grade(Mg-9Li-7.5Al-1.2Sn), ISRO has successfully mastered melting and casting of this alloy using inert atmosphere. It is now possible to melt up to 20 kg of this alloy and gave stable properties up to 1000C.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.inae.in/wp-content/themes/fortuna-child/img/Metallurgy%20REPORT.pdf | title=Successes and gaps in our metallurgical R&D efforts | website=www.inae.in}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.ias.ac.in/article/fulltext/boms/017/06/0733-0745 | title=Development of ultra riot magnesium-lithium alloys | website=www.ias.ac.in}}</ref>
* [[Jindal Stainless Limited|JD-1]] alloy – A special lightweight alloy developed by [[Jindal Stainless Limited|Jindal Defence]] with a minimum guaranteed hardness of 500 HB. It can be used in aerospace, small arms, and engineering solutions. It is mainly used in armoured jacket.
* [[Polymetallic nodules]], India is considered a pioneer in the exploration of polymetallic nodules, In 1981, Indian scientists recovered manganese nodules, marking the beginning of deep sea exploration in the country.In 1987, India became the first country to receive Pioneer Investor status from the International Seabed Authority (ISA).<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.idsa.in/issuebrief/indias-deep-sea-mining-endeavours-MSrivastava-270923#:~:text=In%201987%2C%20India%20became%20the%20first%20country,and%20developmental%20activities%20for%20the%20polymetallic%20nodules | title=India's Deep Sea Mining Endeavours: A Search for Climate Solutions in Deep Waters | Manohar Parrikar Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://drs.nio.res.in/drs/bitstream/handle/2264/754/Refresher_Course_Mar_Geol_Geophys_2007_Lecture_Notes_52.pdf;jsessionid=CE99C6BA341E8AE14A9E5076EDED73A4?sequence=2|title=Indian exploration for polymetallic nodules in the Central Indian Ocean |website=drs.nio.res.in}}</ref>
* Sorption-enhanced steam methane reforming (SESMR) – In April 2022, the scientists from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology (CSIR-IICT), Hyderabad developed a fluidized bed reactor (FBR) facility in Hyderabad to perform sorption enhanced steam methane reforming (SESMR) to achieve clean hydrogen in its purest form. The team of scientists have designed a hybrid material to simulate capturing carbon dioxide in-situ (onsite) and converting it into clean hydrogen from non-fuel grade bioethanol.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.mercomindia.com/indian-scientists-produce-clean-h2-with-carbon-capture-efficiency | title=Indian Scientists Produce Clean H2 with Carbon Capture Efficiency of 99.58% - Mercom India }}</ref>
* [[Harichand Megha Dalaya|Spray-drying buffalo milk]] – The collective consensus of dairy experts worldwide was that buffalo milk could not be spray-dried due to its high fat content. Harichand Megha Dalaya & his invention of the spray dry equipment, led to the world's first buffalo milk spray-dryer, at Amul Dairy in Gujarat.
* [[Neem-coated urea]] is an agriculture fertilizer in which the urea is neem oil-coated. The coating of neem slows the nitrification of urea thereby helps in increased absorption of nutrients in the soil as well as reduces groundwater pollution.<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1038/s41598-022-12708-1 | title=A benchmark study on economic impact of Neem Coated Urea on Indian agriculture | date=2022 | last1=Ramappa | first1=K. B. | last2=Jadhav | first2=Vilas | last3=Manjunatha | first3=A. V. | journal=Scientific Reports | volume=12 | issue=1 | page=9082 | pmid=35641568 | pmc=9156691 | bibcode=2022NatSR..12.9082R }}</ref>
* Jackal steel – An advanced grade high-strength, low-alloy steel. The technology of Jackal steel has been passed on to Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL) and MIDHANI for its bulk production.
* High-Rise Pantograph – The new-design world record pantograph, developed completely in-house for use in DFC & other freight routes with height of {{convert|7.5|m}}.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.irgreenri.gov.in/tractiondistribution.html | title=New Technological Developments in Electric Traction | access-date=21 April 2023 | archive-date=30 October 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231030050919/http://www.irgreenri.gov.in/tractiondistribution.html | url-status=dead }}</ref>
* Commercial [[Carbon capture and utilization|CCU]] plant: Tuticorin Alkali Chemicals and Fertilizers Limited (TFL) partnered with Carbon Clean to create the world's first fully commercial CCU plant. The 10 MW facility captures coal-fired boiler flue gas and uses it to deliver industrial quality {{CO2}}. The 10 MW facility captures coal-fired boiler flue gas and uses it to deliver industrial quality {{CO2}}.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.edie.net/partner-content/in-action-the-worlds-first-fully-commercial-carbon-capture-and-utilisation-plant/ | title=In action: The world's first fully commercial carbon capture and utilisation plant - edie | date=14 January 2021 }}</ref> The technology has been developed by Carbon Clean Solutions, headquartered in London – a start-up by two Indian engineers focusing on carbon dioxide separation technology.There are many chemicals exported out of India where {{CO2}} is the raw material.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.voanews.com/a/indian-factory-uses-envronmentally-friendly-technology-to-utilize-carbon-emissions/3665619.html | title=Technology Helps Indian Factory Convert Carbon Emissions | date=6 January 2017 }}</ref>
* Triple-stack container freight train<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n5H8pSxzTsA | title=RDSO triple stack container trials on WDFC_DFCCIL | website=[[YouTube]] | date=10 March 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jYsjLlOds1I | title=Trials to reduce per-unit logistics cost by Indian Railways | website=[[YouTube]] | date=17 October 2023 }}</ref> – In order to ensure new streams of traffic and commodities and to bring about a modal shift, the DFC is undertaking trials for running smaller than usual containers, known as dwarf containers (where the container height is lower by 660 mm than normal containers), in triple-stack formation to further improve the profitability of train operations. It may be possible to run these as double-stack on conventional routes and triple-stack on routes with high-rise OHE, once the trials are successfully completed.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.globalrailwayreview.com/article/132297/innovative-logistics-stacking-small-containers-optimised-loading/ | title=Innovative logistics: Stacking small containers for optimised loading }}</ref>

=== Medicine ===
* [[Cervical cerclage]] – was first described by [[V. N. Shirodkar]] in [[Bombay]] in 1955.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Goulding E, Lim B | title = McDonald transvaginal cervical cerclage since 1957: from its roots in Australia into worldwide contemporary practice | journal = BJOG | volume = 121 | issue = 9 | pages = 1107 | date = August 2014 | pmid = 25047486 | doi = 10.1111/1471-0528.12874 | s2cid = 21004646 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
* [[Cholera toxin]] – Cholera toxin was discovered in 1959 by Indian microbiologist [[Sambhu Nath De]].<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1002/path.1700630417 | title=An experimental study of the action of cholera toxin | year=1951 | last1=De | first1=S. N. | last2=Sarkar | first2=J. K. | last3=Tribedi | first3=B. P. | journal=The Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology | volume=63 | issue=4 | pages=707–717 | pmid=14898376 }}</ref>
* [[In vitro fertilisation]] – the second successful birth of a 'test tube baby' occurred in India just 67 days after Louise Brown was born. The girl, named Durga, was conceived in vitro using a method developed independently by [[Subhash Mukhopadhyay (physician)|Subhash Mukhopadhyay]], a physician and researcher from [[Kolkata]]. Mukhopadhyay had been performing experiments on his own with primitive instruments and a household refrigerator.<ref>{{cite magazine |date=19 October 1978 |title=India reveals deep-frozen test-tube baby |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bik2nThZSYoC&pg=PA159 |magazine=[[New Scientist]] |page=159 |access-date=4 September 2021 |vauthors=Jayaraman KS}}</ref> However, state authorities prevented him from presenting his work at scientific conferences,<ref>{{cite web |date=5 October 2010 |title=Test tube triumph & tragedy – Nobel for UK scientist stirs memory of a Bengal doctor |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/test-tube-triumph-tragedy-nobel-for-uk-scientist-stirs-memory-of-a-bengal-doctor/cid/472542 |access-date=22 May 2012 |work=[[The Telegraph (India)|The Telegraph]]}}</ref> and it was many years before Mukhopadhyay's contribution was acknowledged in works dealing with the subject.<ref>{{cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nkEko0DybuQ |title=Test Tube Baby |date=23 August 2013 |publisher=Educational Multimedia Research Centre, Kolkata |access-date=4 September 2021 |website=[[YouTube]]}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=September 2021}}
* NexCAR19, is designed to target cancer cells carrying the CD19 protein, a marker on cancer cells, enhancing precision in treatment.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mallapaty |first1=Smriti |title=Cutting-edge CAR-T cancer therapy is now made in India — at one-tenth the cost |journal=Nature |date=28 March 2024 |volume=627 |issue=8005 |pages=709–710 |doi=10.1038/d41586-024-00809-y |pmid=38514877 |bibcode=2024Natur.627..709M }}</ref>
* [[Oral rehydration therapy|Oral Rehydrated Solution (ORS)]], In 1952 [[Hemendra Nath Chatterjee]]<ref name="auto">{{Cite journal|title=Magic bullet: the history of oral rehydration therapy|first=J. N.|last=Ruxin|date=28 October 1994|journal=Medical History|volume=38|issue=4|pages=363–397|doi=10.1017/s0025727300036905|pmid=7808099|pmc=1036912}}</ref> was an Indian scientist from West Bengal known for the earliest publication of a formula for Orally Rehydrated Saline (ORS) for diarrhea.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.deccanherald.com/science/ors-the-salt-that-saved-millions-of-lives-952547.html | title=ORS: The salt that saved millions of lives }}</ref> According to his paper,<ref name="auto" /> he treated 186 patients with his oral glucose with an oral glucose-sodium electrolyte solution and was able to rehydrate his patients with mild to moderately severe cholera.
* [[post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis]] – In 1922, Brahmachari also discovered a new, deadly form of [[leishmaniasis]]. He called it dermal leishmanoid, marked by the appearance of sudden eruptions on the face of the patients without fever or other complaints. He observed it as a disease in partially cured cases of kala-azar, along with those who had no history of the disease at all.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brahmachari|first=U. N.|date=April 1922|title=A New Form of Cutaneous Leishmaniasis—Dermal Leishmanoid|journal=The Indian Medical Gazette|volume=57|issue=4|pages=125–127 |pmc=5186533|pmid=29008368}}</ref> It has since been termed as [[post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis]].
* [[Visceral leishmaniasis|Visceral leishmaniasis, treatment of]] – The Indian (Bengali) medical practitioner [[Upendranath Brahmachari]] (19 December 1873 – 6 February 1946) was nominated for the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] in 1929 for his discovery of 'ureastibamine ([[antimony|antimonial]] [[Chemical compound|compound]] for treatment of [[kala azar]]) and a new disease, post-kalaazar dermal leishmanoid.'<ref name="nobel_foundation_UPB">[[Nobel Foundation]] (2008). [http://nobelprize.org/nomination/medicine/nomination.php?action=show&showid=2791 ''The Nomination Database for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1901{{ndash}}1951'']</ref> Brahmachari's cure for Visceral leishmaniasis was the urea salt of para-amino-phenyl stibnic acid which he called Urea Stibamine.<ref name="Vigyan_prasar_UNB">[http://www.vigyanprasar.gov.in/scientists/UNBrahmachari.htm ''Upendra Nath Brahmachari: A Pioneer of Modern Medicine in India'']. Vigyan Prasar: Government of India</ref> Following the discovery of Urea Stibamine, Visceral leishmaniasis was largely eradicated from the world, except for some underdeveloped regions.<ref name="Vigyan_prasar_UNB" />
* [[Urea]] stibamine – Sir [[Upendranath Brahmachari]] synthesised [[urea]]-stibamine (carbostibamide) in 1922 and determined that it was an effective treatment for [[kala-azar]] (visceral leishmaniasis).
* LACC1 is a Peptidoglycan Editing Factor (PgeF) enzyme, acts as a molecular editor by detecting and removing these misincorporated amino acids. CSIR–CCMB team’s discovery of PgeF enzyme opens doors for new antibiotics and insights into autoinflammatory diseases<ref>https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/telangana/2025/Jul/24/csirccmb-scientists-find-proofreading-enzyme-in-bacteria</ref>

=== Electronics and communications ===
* [[Ashwin Gumaste#Developed products and technologies|Carrier Ethernet Switch Router (CESR)]] are high capacity routers which provides carrier class Ethernet service which does Layer 2 and layer 3 functionality within one single layer and also it uses cut-through switching, developed by IIT Bombay in 2011 and technology was transferred to [[Electronics Corporation of India|ECIL]].<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.ecil.co.in/ECR/ECR.pdf | title=Carrier Ethernet Switch Router ECR-1000 Series | website=www.ecil.co.in}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | doi=10.1109/ICCNC.2013.6504117 | chapter=Circuit performance in a packet network: Demonstrating integrated Carrier Ethernet Switch Router (CESR) + Optical Transport Network (OTN) | title=2013 International Conference on Computing, Networking and Communications (ICNC) | date=2013 | last1=Bidkar | first1=S. | last2=Mehta | first2=S. | last3=Bhamare | first3=D. | last4=Bajaj | first4=N. | last5=Medhekar | first5=A. | last6=Gumaste | first6=A. | pages=400–407 | isbn=978-1-4673-5288-8 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://fundamatics.net/article/carrier-ethernet-switch-routers-from-concepts-to-products-to-sales-and-beyond/ | title=Carrier Ethernet Switch Routers: From Concepts to Products, to Sales, and Beyond – Fundamatics | date=13 November 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://rnd.iitb.ac.in/node/1138 | title=The Gigabit Networking laboratory at IIT Bombay has been instrumental in two key technology developments in the telecom arena: The CESR and the TCC. | IITBombay }}</ref>
* Direct-to-Mobile (D2M) technology, developed by Saankya Labs and IIT Kanpur, This tech will enable mobile users to stream videos on their smartphones without an active internet connection.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-01-20 |title=Explained: What is D2M tech that will allow mobile users to watch videos without internet connection |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/gadgets-news/explained-what-is-d2m-tech-that-will-allow-mobile-users-to-watch-videos-without-internet-connection/articleshow/107002537.cms |access-date=2025-02-26 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
* [[Quantum entanglement|Entanglement]]-based [[Quantum key distribution|QKD]], DRDO and IIT Delhi demonstrated 1 km distance of quantum communication using quantumn entanglement based Quantum key distribution.<ref>{{Cite web | title=MSN | url=https://www.msn.com/en-in/news/india/drdo-iit-delhi-demonstrate-quantum-communication/ar-AA1GVmFg?ocid=BingNewsVerp | access-date=2026-01-10 | website=www.msn.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.business-standard.com/technology/tech-news/drdo-iit-delhi-quantum-secure-communication-test-2025-125061601296_1.html | title=Hack-proof communication? DRDO, IIT Delhi test quantum entanglement tech }}</ref>
* [[Horn antenna]] or microwave horn, One of the first horn antennas was constructed by [[Jagadish Chandra Bose]] in 1897.<ref>{{cite web
| last = Rodriguez
| first = Vincente
| title = A brief history of horns
| work = In Compliance Magazine
| publisher = Same Page Publishing
| date = 2010
| url = http://www.incompliancemag.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=487:a-brief-history-of-horns-from-early-history-to-latest-developments&catid=24:current-issue&Itemid=126
| access-date = 2010-11-12}}</ref><ref name="Emerson">{{cite book |doi=10.1109/MWSYM.1997.602853 |chapter=The work of Jagadis Chandra Bose: 100 years of mm-wave research |title=1997 IEEE MTT-S International Microwave Symposium Digest |date=1997 |last1=Emerson |first1=D.T. |volume=2 |pages=553–556 |isbn=0-7803-3814-6 }}</ref>
* Low Mobility Large cell (LMLC), is a feature of 5G and is designed to enhance the signal transmission range of a basestation several times, helping service providers cost-effectively expand coverage in rural areas.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://telecom.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/telecom-carriers-may-enhance-coverage-once-5gi-5g-standard-merge-ng-subramaniam/89407176 | title=Telecom carriers may enhance coverage once 5Gi, 5G standards merge: NG Subramaniam - ET Telecom }}</ref>
* Phantom connectivity, a system for providing a higher level security to data communication in computer networks developed by [[ISRO]]. Phantom connectivity model enables organization to copy users download data from Internet to Intranet without connecting both the networks.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://patents.google.com/patent/WO2008004248A1/en | title=A system and method for secured data communication in computer networks by phantom connectivity }}</ref>
* [[Radio|Radiowave communication]] – In November 1894, the Indian physicist, [[Jagadish Chandra Bose]], demonstrated publicly the use of radio waves in [[Kolkata|Calcutta]].<ref>"[http://ethw.org/Jagadish_Chandra_Bose Jagadish Chandra Bose"] (biography), Engineering and Technology History Wiki (ethw.org)</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hong |first=Sungook |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WNWMEAAAQBAJ |title=Wireless: From Marconi's Black-Box to the Audion |date=2010-01-22 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-51419-4 |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Waveguide]] – [[Jagadish Chandra Bose]] researched [[millimetre wave]]lengths using waveguides, and in 1897 described to the Royal Institution in London his research carried out in Kolkata.<ref name="Emerson" />

=== Computers and programming languages ===
* Autolay, is an interactive GUI CAD software for the design of aircraft composite components developed by [[Aeronautical Development Agency]], this tool was developed in late 1980's and used by all big aerospace companies such as [[Boeing]], [[Airbus]] and [[Dassault Systèmes]]<ref>{{cite book | url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.5555/645465.653819 | isbn=978-0-444-81564-4 | title=AUTOLAY - an Interactive Graphics System for the Design of Aircraft Composite Components | date=24 February 1993 | pages=205–214 | last1=Mudur | first1=S. P. | last2=Pattanaik | first2=S. N. | publisher=North-Holland }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/autolay-software-makes-ada-a-global-leader/articleshow/1478879143.cms | title=Autolay software makes ADA a global leader | work=The Times of India | date=29 July 2001 }}</ref>
* [[Haptik|chatbot-based conversational AI]], one of early modern AI/ML based chatbot was released by [[Haptik|Haptik.ai]] in 2013, when chatbots were not common.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.firstpost.com/tech/news-analysis/inside-haptik-ai-a-made-in-india-and-for-india-personal-assistant-and-end-to-end-chatbot-platform-4128927.html | title=Inside Haptik.ai, a made in India and for India personal assistant and end to end chatbot platform | work=Firstpost | date=10 October 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cnbctv18.com/technology/haptik-co-founder-aakrit-vaish-users-will-interact-with-the-internet-voice-first-potentially-4249401.htm | title=Haptik co-founder Aakrit Vaish: Users will interact with the internet voice first potentially - CNBC TV18 | date=27 August 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.expresscomputer.in/artificial-intelligence-ai/pioneering-conversational-ai/29485/ | title=Pioneering conversational AI | date=15 October 2018 }}</ref>
* [[File Transfer Protocol]] (FTP) – A standard communication protocol used for the transfer of computer files from a server to a client on a computer network. FTP is built on a client–server model architecture using separate control and data connections between the client and the server. [[Abhay Bhushan]] drafted the initial File Transfer Protocol ({{IETF RFC|114}}), in April 1971, while a student at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=FTP Is Almost 50 Years Old—and It's Ready to Retire |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/ftp-is-almost-50-years-oldand-its-ready-to-retire/ |access-date=2022-08-10 |website=Vice.com |date=29 September 2020 }}</ref>
* Fragalyst, is a software for analysis of fragments from an explosion or blast developed by [[Central Institute of Mining and Fuel Research|CSIR-CIMFR]], the technology allows us to visualize the blast & fragments in a computer GUI.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286832552|title=Fragalyst 3.0: An indigenous fragmentation assessment tool based on digital image analysis - application and analysis}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://scicomsoftware.com/fragment-analysis/ | title=Fragment Analysis – SCI COM Software }}</ref>
* [[Julia (programming language)|Julia]] is a high-level, dynamic programming language. Its features are well suited for numerical analysis and computational science. [[Viral B. Shah]] an Indian computer scientist contributed to the development of the language in Bangalore while also actively involved in the initial design of the Aadhaar project in India using [[India Stack]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://qz.com/india/963225/julia-an-indian-computer-scientist-built-a-new-programming-language-from-bengaluru | title=Not just "IT coolies": An Indian computer scientist built a new programming language in Bengaluru | date=20 April 2017 }}</ref>
* [[Kojo (programming language)|Kojo]] – A [[programming language]] and [[integrated development environment]] (IDE) for computer programming and learning. Kojo is an [[open-source software]]. It was created, and is actively developed, by Lalit Pant, a computer programmer and teacher living in [[Dehradun]], India.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kogics.net/sf:kojo |title=Kojo home page |access-date=29 August 2012 |archive-date=5 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150405062458/http://www.kogics.net/sf:kojo |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://wiki.kogics.net/forum/t-263574 |title=Interview: Scala Learning Environment on the NetBeans Platform |date=19 February 2010 |author=Geertjan Wielenga |publisher=DZone |access-date=29 August 2012}}</ref>
* [[RISC-V]] ISA (microprocessor) implementations (a US standard, not from India, but some implementations are such as those below):
** [[SHAKTI (microprocessor)|SHAKTI]] – Open Source, Bluespec System [[Verilog]] definitions, for FinFET implementations of the ISA, have been created at [[IIT Madras]], and are hosted on [[GitLab]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 Jul 2021 |title=India's home-grown microprocessor Shakti is now part of tech-giant Altair's offerings |url=https://www.iitm.ac.in/happenings/press-releases-and-coverages/indias-home-grown-microprocessor-shakti-now-part-tech-giant}}</ref>
** [[VEGA Microprocessors]] – India's first indigenous 64-bit, superscalar, out-of-order, multi-core RISC-V Processor design, developed by [[C-DAC]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Aufranc (CNXSoft) |first=Jean-Luc |date=2022-02-04 |title=India goes RISC-V with VEGA processors – CNX Software |url=https://www.cnx-software.com/2022/02/04/india-goes-risc-v-with-vega-processors/ |access-date=2022-07-13 |website=CNX Software – Embedded Systems News }}</ref>
* [[TCS BaNCS]], was one of the first core banking software started implemented in late 1970s and released in early 80s.
* [[Visual J Sharp|Visual J#]] – A transitional [[programming language]] for programmers of [[Java (programming language)|Java]] and [[Visual J++]] languages, so they could use their existing knowledge and applications on [[.NET Framework]]. It was developed by the [[Hyderabad, Telangana|Hyderabad]]-based [[HITEC City#Microsoft Hyderabad Campus|Microsoft India Development Center at HITEC City]] in India.<ref>S Prasanna, [http://www.expresscomputeronline.com/20020729/indnews3.shtml Microsoft's VJ#.Net is made in India] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131128170355/http://computer.financialexpress.com/20020729/indnews3.shtml |date=28 November 2013 }}, ''Express Computer'', 29 July 2002 – invalid link !</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Hindu Business Line : Microsoft lines up big plans for Hyderabad centre|url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/bline/2002/08/15/stories/2002081500530700.htm|website=thehindubusinessline.com}}</ref>

=== Construction, civil engineering and architecture ===
* Coal Mine to PSP, [[Coal India]] will turn abandoned mines or de-coaled mine to [[Pumped-storage hydroelectricity|Pumped Storage Projects(PSP)]] with help of [[NHPC]] hence saving huge amount of capital for development of reservoir or dams.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.livemint.com/companies/news/coal-india-and-nhpc-join-forces-to-convert-abandoned-mines-into-pump-storage-projects-boosting-energy-transition-11695059193255.html | title=CIL, NHPC may convert old mines to pump storage | work=mint | date=18 September 2023 | last1=Baruah | first1=Rituraj }}</ref>
* {{CO2}}-treated-C&D, researchers at the Centre for Sustainable Technologies (CST) at IISc are exploring ways to store carbon dioxide from industrial flue gas in excavated soil from Construction and Demolition (C&D) waste. They are investigating the effects of injecting carbon dioxide gas into clayey soil, which is typically excavated from construction sites. This process has resulted in better stabilization of clay through the use of cement and lime, as well as a reduction in the surface area, pore volume, and lime reactivity of the clay in the soil, thereby improving the bulk engineering performance of the material.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.msn.com/en-in/news/other/carbon-dioxide-to-replace-natural-sand-in-construction/ar-BB1kF1Y4 | title=MSN | website=[[MSN]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://techxplore.com/news/2024-03-paving-paths-sustainable.html | title=Paving new paths for sustainable construction }}</ref>
* (I)-TM Tunneling technique:(I)-TM as Himalayan tunnelling method for tunnelling through the Himalayan geology to build tunnels in Jammu and Kashmir. Engineers decided to provide rigid supports using 'ISHB' as against the lattice girder method used in the New Austrian Tunnelling Method.ISHB uses nine-metre pipes in the mountains. It is called pipe roofing. Engineers made an umbrella using these perforated poles and filled them with PU grout.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://infra.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/railways/engineers-develop-new-tunnelling-method-for-kashmir-rail-link-project/104652328 | title=Engineers develop new tunnelling method for Kashmir rail link project - ET Infra }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/engineers-develop-new-tunnelling-method-for-kashmir-rail-link-project/articleshow/104627683.cms?from=mdr | title=Engineers develop new tunnelling method for Kashmir rail link project | newspaper=The Times of India | date=22 October 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.metrorailnews.in/engineers-develop-himalayan-tunnelling-method-for-katra-banihal-section-of-the-kashmir-rail-link-project/ | title=Engineers Develop Himalayan Tunnelling Method for Katra-Banihal Section of the Kashmir rail Link Project | date=23 October 2023 }}</ref>
* [[Plastic road]] are made entirely of plastic or of composites of plastic with other materials. Plastic roads are different from standard roads in the respect that standard roads are made from asphalt concrete, which consists of mineral aggregates and asphalt. Most plastic roads sequester [[plastic waste]] within the asphalt as an aggregate. Plastic roads first developed by [[Rajagopalan Vasudevan]] in 2001<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-02-09 |title=This Indian Genius Created Roads With Plastic Waste, Now Entire World Uses His Technique |url=https://www.indiatimes.com/technology/science-and-future/meet-padma-shree-r-vasudevan-who-made-roads-stronger-with-waste-plastic-that-saves-our-planet-505994.html |access-date=2022-07-25 |website=IndiaTimes }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Lee |first=Chermaine |title=Could plastic roads make for a smoother ride? |url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20210302-could-plastic-roads-make-for-a-smoother-ride |access-date=2022-07-25 |website=www.bbc.com |date=3 March 2021 }}</ref>
* Rib & spine/Spine & Wing technique, [[National Highways Authority of India|NHAI]] has developed a flyover design which allows to save cost, time, minimum material usage and allows light under the flyover using the same technique.
* [[Steel]] [[slag]] [[road]], world's first steel slag road NH-66 was constructed by [[Central Road Research Institute]] under CSIR.<ref>bituminous steel slag road is constructed with 28% less thickness compared to conventional bituminous roads on NH-66</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/infrastructure/steel-slag-road-technology-a-boon-to-bro-niti-aayog-member/articleshow/99054404.cms?from=mdr | title=Steel slag road technology a boon to BRO: Niti Aayog member | work=The Economic Times | date=28 March 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.financialexpress.com/business/roadways-india-gets-its-first-steel-slag-road-on-nh-66-mumbai-goa-national-highway-know-all-about-this-groundbreaking-eco-friendly-initiative-3364017/ | title=India's first National Highway Steel Slag road section on NH-66 Mumbai-Goa National Highway inaugurated! Know all about this groundbreaking eco-friendly initiative | date=14 January 2024 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.globalconstructionreview.com/india-hails-success-of-first-steel-slag-road/ | title=India hails success of first 'steel-slag road' | date=4 April 2022 }}</ref>
* waterproof roads, zydex industries has developed waterproof road by forming a skin like layer that is water resistant using inhouse silane nanotechnology.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/companies/zydex-industries-develops-nanotechnology-solution-for-durable-roads/article66396007.ece | title=Zydex Industries develops nanotechnology solution for durable roads | date=18 January 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.constructionweekonline.in/business/potholes-to-become-history-with-smooth-ride-breakthrough-by-zydex | title=Potholes to become history with smooth ride; breakthrough by Zydex - Construction Week India | date=19 January 2023 }}</ref>

=== Food ===
* [[Butter chicken]] was invented in [[Moti Mahal (restaurant)|Moti Mahal]] restaurant in Daryaganj of [[New Delhi|Delhi]] in 1950's.
* Butter garlic prawns are prawns fried in garlic and dipped in butter curry. Originally from Mumbai, they're usually eaten with bread or pasta.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.flavorsofmumbai.com/butter-garlic-pepper-prawns/ | title=Butter Garlic Prawns, Butter Garlic Prawns with Pepper Recipe | Prawns Recipe - Flavors of Mumbai | date=24 June 2011 }}</ref>
* [[Chicken 65]] is a spicy, deep-fried chicken from [[Chennai]], first invented by Hotel Buhari.
* [[Chicken lollipop]] is a fried chicken appetizer, believed to have originated in eastern India.
* [[Indian filter coffee|Filter Coffee]] was developed in [[Coorg]] in [[Karnataka]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2026}}
* Honey chilli potato is an indian starter that originated in Indo-Chinese restaurants of [[Kolkata]].<ref>{{cite web | title=Fact check: Honey Chilli Potato is the unhealthiest snack, claims a social media post! Here's the truth | work=The Times of India | date=16 December 2020 | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/health-fitness/diet/fact-check-honey-chilli-potato-is-the-unhealthiest-snack-claims-a-social-media-post-heres-the-truth/articleshow/79742397.cms }}</ref>
* [[List of instant foods|Instant]] [[Momo (food)|momos]], popularly known as '''Frozen Momos''', were introduced in 2021 by the food brand Prasuma and are similar to noodles in their preparation through oil and hot water.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://hospitality.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/restaurants/prasuma-momos-to-expand-to-140-cities-by-mar-2022/84823522 | title=Prasuma Momos to expand to 140 cities by Mar 2022 - ET HospitalityWorld }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | title=ITC plans acquire 100% of Prasuma over 3 years, expanding footprint in frozen and ready-to-cook foods | url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/business/itc-plans-to-acquire-100-of-prasuma-over-three-years-12932876.html | access-date=2026-01-10 | website=www.moneycontrol.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.business-standard.com/content/press-releases-ani/prasuma-makes-history-as-the-first-and-only-indian-food-brand-to-win-an-international-taste-award-124022000651_1.html | title=Prasuma Makes History as the First and Only Indian Food Brand to Win an International Taste Award }}</ref>

=== Finance and banking ===
* [[Payments bank]] is an Indian new model of banks conceptualised by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) without issuing credit.

=== Paleontology ===
* In 2024, one of the longest snakes to ever exist, [[Vasuki indicus]], was discovered by scientists from the [[Indian Institutes of Technology|Indian Institute of Technology]]. The snake was estimated to be between 10.9 and 15.2 metres in length and lived 47 million years ago. The fossilised vertebrae of Vasuki indicus were discovered in a lignite mine in [[Gujarat]]. It was likely a slow moving predator who killed its prey through constriction.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ghosh |first1=Sahana |title=Meet Vasuki indicus, among the longest snakes that ever lived |journal=Nature India |date=22 April 2024 |doi=10.1038/d44151-024-00048-0 }}</ref>
* In 2018, scientists from the [[Geological Survey of India]] and the Indian Institute of Technology discovered the fossil remains of a previously unknown dinosaur species in the [[Thar Desert]] region of Jaisalmer, Rajasthan. The dinosaur is named [[Tharosaurus indicus]], after the Thar Desert and India.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/india/iit-scientist-unearth-ancient-indian-dinosaur-heres-what-they-discovered-about-the-earliest-dinosaur-tharosaurus-indicus/articleshow/102523489.cms?from=mdr | title=IIT scientist unearth ancient Indian dinosaur; here's what they discovered about the earliest dinosaur, Tharosaurus Indicus | newspaper=The Economic Times | date=8 August 2023 }}</ref>

=== Zoology ===
* The world's first white tiger was Mohan, a mutant Bengal tiger captured in 1951 by Maharaja Martand Singh of Rewa. These type of tiger are found in [[White Tiger Safari & Zoo Mukundpur]]

=== Genetics ===
* [[Amrapali (mango)|Amrapali]] mango – A named mango cultivar introduced in 1971 by Dr. Pijush Kanti Majumdar at the Indian Agriculture Research Institute in Delhi.
* Asmon, is a plant based drug that is used to treat bronchial asthma developed by [[Council of Scientific and Industrial Research|CSIR]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.csir.res.in/csir-milestones | title=CSIR Milestones | Council of Scientific & Industrial Research }}</ref>
* Mynvax – The world's first "warm" COVID-19 vaccine, developed by [[Indian Institute of Science|IISc]], capable of withstanding {{convert|37|°C}} for a month and neutralise all coronavirus variants of concern.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Petrus Jansen van Vuren, et al (2022)|year= 2022|last1= Van Vuren|first1= Petrus Jansen|last2= McAuley|first2= Alexander J.|last3= Kuiper|first3= Michael J.|last4= Singanallur|first4= Nagendrakumar B.|last5= Bruce|first5= Matthew P.|last6= Riddell|first6= Shane|last7= Goldie|first7= Sarah|last8= Mangalaganesh|first8= Shruthi|last9= Chahal|first9= Simran|last10= Drew|first10= Trevor W.|last11= Blasdell|first11= Kim R.|last12= Tachedjian|first12= Mary|last13= Caly|first13= Leon|last14= Druce|first14= Julian D.|last15= Ahmed|first15= Shahbaz|last16= Khan|first16= Mohammad Suhail|last17= Malladi|first17= Sameer Kumar|last18= Singh|first18= Randhir|last19= Pandey|first19= Suman|last20= Varadarajan|first20= Raghavan|last21= Vasan|first21= Seshadri S.|journal= Viruses|volume= 14|issue= 4|page= 800|doi= 10.3390/v14040800|pmid= 35458530|pmc= 9031315|doi-access= free}}</ref>
* [[ZyCoV-D]] vaccine – The world's first DNA-based vaccine for humans.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mallapaty |first1=Smriti |title=India's DNA COVID vaccine is a world first – more are coming |journal=Nature |date=9 September 2021 |volume=597 |issue=7875 |pages=161–162 |doi=10.1038/d41586-021-02385-x |pmid=34475553 |bibcode=2021Natur.597..161M |s2cid=237401121 }}</ref>

=== Metrology ===
[[File:Crescograph - Jagadish Chandra Bose Museum - Bose Institute - Kolkata 2011-07-26 4040 Cropped.JPG|thumb|150px|Crescograph, Bose Institute, Kolkata]]
* [[Crescograph]] – The crescograph, a device for measuring growth in plants, was invented in the early 20th century by the Bengali scientist Sir [[Jagadish Chandra Bose]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.edsanders.com/bose|title=Jagadis Bose Research on Measurement of Plant Growth|access-date=5 August 2008}}</ref><ref>Geddes, pages 173{{ndash}}176</ref>
* [[Shearing interferometer]] – Invented by M.V.R.K. Murty, a type of Lateral [[Shearing Interferometer]] utilises a laser source for measuring refractive index.<ref>{{cite web|title=Definition of Murty interferometer|url=http://www.photonics.com/EDU/Term.aspx?TermID=5627|website=Photonics.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Riley|first1=M. E.|last2=Gusinow|first2=M. A.|title=Laser beam divergence utilizing a lateral shearing interferometer|journal=Applied Optics|date=1 October 1977|volume=16|issue=10|pages=2753{{ndash}}6|doi=10.1364/AO.16.002753|pmid=20174226|bibcode=1977ApOpt..16.2753R}}</ref>

=== Rocket science and jet propulsion===
* [[Advanced Technology Vehicle|Advanced Technology Vehicle - Scramjet]], the ISRO has twice successfully test fired a modified Rohini 560 rocket, with added, 2nd stage, air-breathing, [[Scramjet]] engines.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.isro.gov.in/ISROflightexperimentAirBreathingPropulsionSystem.html | title=ISRO conducts flight experiment of Air Breathing Propulsion System }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.indiatoday.in/science/story/isro-successfully-conducts-second-test-of-air-breathing-propulsion-technology-2570706-2024-07-23 | title=Isro successfully conducts second test of Air Breathing Propulsion Technology | date=23 July 2024 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/isro-conducts-experimental-flight-of-air-breathing-propulsion-system/article68432854.ece | title=ISRO conducts experimental flight of air-breathing propulsion system | newspaper=The Hindu | date=23 July 2024 }}</ref>
* [[Small Satellite Launch Vehicle]], is a multi-stage solid propellent rocket that is cost-effective and very less complex used to deliver micro-satellites less than 500 kg weight. it is innovative as its three stages are solid propellent making it very efficient.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/editorial/space-to-learn-the-hindu-editorial-on-the-failure-of-isros-maiden-small-satellite-launch-vehicle-mission/article65750371.ece | title=Space to learn: The Hindu Editorial on the failure of ISRO's maiden small satellite launch vehicle mission | newspaper=The Hindu | date=9 August 2022 }}</ref>
* [[Solid Fuel Ducted Ramjet]], is a jet propulsion technology which uses solid propellant, developed by [[Defence Research and Development Organisation]].

=== Weapon systems ===
[[File:DRDO_AIP_(Air_Independent_Propulsion)_model_for_Kalvari-class_submarine.jpg|200px|thumb|A diagram of the fuel-cell AIP module developed by the DRDO of India, it can power ships or any other marine transport]]

* [[Advanced Towed Artillery Gun System|ATAGS]] – Bharat Forge and the DRDO has developed world's first electric artillery gun<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.forbesindia.com/article/take-one-big-story-of-the-day/can-atags-give-indias-military-a-muchneeded-boost-the-answer-is-yes/85813/1 | title=Can ATAGS Give India's Military a Much-needed Boost? The Answer is Yes }}</ref>
* [[Bhargavastra (counter drone system)|Bhargavastra]], is the world's first kind of multi-micro-missile system to counter swarm drones, low-cost portable system developed by Solar Defence and Aerospace.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/nagpur/nagpur-based-solar-group-develops-worlds-first-guided-micro-missile-counter-drone-system/articleshow/117276446.cms | title=Nagpur-based Solar Group develops world's first guided micro-missile counter-drone system | work=The Times of India | date=16 January 2025 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/what-is-bhargavastra-india-low-cost-and-indigenous-micro-missile-air-defence-system-1747226428-1 | title=What is Bhargavastra? India's Low Cost and Indigenous Micro-Missile Air Defence System | date=14 May 2025 }}</ref>
* Critical Situation Response Vehicle (CSRV) – The Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF) has made and inducted a bomb/bulletproof armoured vehicle. The latest all-terrain highly sophisticated vehicle 'CSRV' has given a shot in the arm to the Central Reserve Police Force engaged in counter-terror operations.
* E-bomb – The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) has been developing an e-bomb which will emit electromagnetic shock waves that destroy electronic circuits and communication networks of enemy force.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/india-developing-e-bomb-to-paralyze-networks/articleshow/22127411.cms | title='India developing E-bomb to paralyze networks' | newspaper=The Times of India | date=29 August 2013 }}</ref> The tow bodies in Lakshya-2 Weapon Delivery Configuration carry High Energy Weapon Payload.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.drdo.gov.in/lakshya-2 | title=LAKSHYA-2 | Defence Research and Development Organisation - DRDO, Ministry of Defence, Government of India }}</ref>
* Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell air-independent propulsion (PAFC AIP) is a 270 kilowatt phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC) air-independent propulsion (AIP) system to power the Kalvari-class submarines is developed by the [[Naval Materials Research Laboratory]] of Indian Defence Research and Development Organisation in collaboration with [[Larsen & Toubro]] and [[Thermax]]. The patent is owned by [[DRDO]]. Its application is considered to be wide and it can also power ships in future.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://patents.google.com/patent/WO2017145068A1/en | title=Air independent propulsion system for submarines based on phosphoric acid fuel cell with onboard hydrogen generator }}</ref>
* [[Photonic radar]], On 29 June 2025, DRDO announced that it has completed building the photonic radar for fighter jets, which will replace AESA Radar, such type of radars cannot be easily jammed.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.thedefensenews.com/news-details/DRDO-Develops-First-Indigenous-Photonic-Radar-Trials-Soon/ | title=DRDO Develops First Indigenous Photonic Radar, Trials Soon | date=29 June 2025 }}</ref> The radar is made out of multiple Photonic Transmit Receive modules. In 2022, they tested the radar which was able to image small objects, measuring just 3 x 4 cm (1.2 x 1.6 in).<ref>{{cite web | url=https://raksha-anirveda.com/drdo-makes-significant-progress-in-photonic-radar-development/ | title=DRDO Makes Significant Progress in Photonic Radar Development | date=22 November 2022 }}</ref>
* [[Ramjet]] [[artillery shells]], IIT Madras with support of Army Technology Board(ATB) has developed world's first ramjet-powered shells for 155m artillery guns.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/in-a-1st-in-world-army-set-to-deploy-ramjet-powered-shells-for-155mm-artillery-guns/articleshow/126330397.cms|title=In a 1st in world, Army set to deploy ramjet-powered shells for 155mm artillery guns|date=9 January 2026|via=The Economic Times - The Times of India}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thedefensepost.com/2026/01/05/india-ramjet-powered-artillery/|title=India to Become First Army to Field Ramjet-Powered 155mm Artillery Shells|first=Ethan M.|last=Encarnacion|date=5 January 2026}}</ref>
* [[Combat helmet|Rifle-rated ballistic helmet]], [[MKU (company)|MKU]] has developed what it bills as "a first-of-its-kind rifle-rated ballistic helmet", MKU states that the Kavro Doma 360 is "the first anti-rifle helmet in the world that does not have bolts or any metal parts"<ref>{{cite web | url=https://euro-sd.com/2023/11/news/35083/mku-unveils-rifle-rated-helmet/ | title=Milipol Paris 2023: MKU unveils 'first-of-its-kind' rifle-rated ballistic helmet - European Security & Defence | date=16 November 2023 }}</ref>

=== Automotive innovations ===
* [[CNG]] car/vehicle – [[Bajaj Auto]] launched the first 'commercial' lot of its CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) autorickshaws in Delhi on 29 May 2000. By 1 December 2002, the last diesel bus had disappeared from Delhi's roads, all buses were running on CNG. At the beginning of 2005, 10,300 CNG busses, 10,000 CNG taxis and 10,000 CNG cars run on Delhi's roads.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.product-life.org/en/archive/cng-delhi | title=CNG Delhi – the world's cleanest public bus system running on CNG }}</ref>
* [[Bajaj Discover|DTS-Si]], stands for ‘Digital Twin Spark-Swirl induction’ system. Some of Bajaj’s bike engines have the patented ‘DTS Si’ (Digital Twin Spark-Swirl induction) technology. Bajaj Auto claims that new engine with swirl induction gives better mileage under ideal (standard) test conditions that are higher than some of the 100cc motorcycles offer.<ref>{{cite web | title=Bajaj Auto's DTS-Si engine offers 109km/L | url=https://www.dnaindia.com/business/report-bajaj-auto-s-dts-si-engine-offers-109kml-1114552 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=DTS Si: How Digital Twin Spark-Swirl Induction System Works? Read This | date=5 May 2017 | url=https://carbiketech.com/dts-si-tecchnology/ }}</ref>
* [[Air conditioning|Helmet AC]] - Featuring a plastic top and built-in-fan-like structure, the AC helmets are powered by a battery pack, which is worn by the traffic police officials on their waist. These helmets work for around 8 hours on a single full charge.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/auto/news/ac-helmet-what-is-it-and-how-is-it-different-from-a-riding-helmet/articleshow/102934911.cms | title=AC Helmet: What is it and how is it different from a riding helmet | newspaper=The Times of India | date=22 August 2023 }}</ref>
* [[Man Mohan Suri|Suri Transmission]], is a hydromechanical transmission unit for diesel locomotives developed by Man Mohan Suri.

=== Mathematics ===
{{See also|Indian mathematics}}

* [[AKS primality test]] and [[Agrawal's conjecture]]– The AKS primality test is a [[deterministic algorithm|deterministic]] [[primality test|primality-proving]] [[algorithm]] created and published by three [[Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur]] computer scientists, [[Manindra Agrawal]], [[Neeraj Kayal]], and [[Nitin Saxena]] on 6 August 2002 in a paper titled [http://www.cse.iitk.ac.in/users/manindra/algebra/primality_v6.pdf ''PRIMES is in P''].<ref name=CrandallPomerance200>Crandall & Pomerance (2005), pages 200{{ndash}}201</ref><ref name=WeissteinAKSpt>{{MathWorld|urlname=AKSPrimalityTest|title=AKS Primality Test}}</ref> Commenting on the impact of this discovery, [[Paul Leyland]] noted: "One reason for the excitement within the mathematical community is not only does this algorithm settle a long-standing problem, it also does so in a brilliantly simple manner. Everyone is now wondering what else has been similarly overlooked".<ref name=WeissteinAKSpt/><ref name=Crandall03>Crandall & Papadopoulos (2003), page 2</ref>
* [[Basu's theorem]] – The Basu's theorem, a result of [[Debabrata Basu]] (1955) states that any complete sufficient statistic is independent of any ancillary statistic.<ref name="Nitis325">Nitis (2000), page 325</ref><ref name="Boos1">Boos & Oliver (1998)</ref>
* [[Dattaraya Ramchandra Kaprekar|Kaprekar Constants]]: Numbers 495 and 6174. The Indian mathematician [[Dattaraya Ramchandra Kaprekar|D.R.Kaprekar]] discovered the number 6174 is reached after repeatedly subtracting the smallest number from the largest number that can be formed from any four digits not all the same. The number 495 is similarly reached for three digits number.
* [[Kosambi–Karhunen–Loève theorem]] (also known as the [[Karhunen–Loève theorem]]) The Kosambi-Karhunen-Loève theorem is a representation of a stochastic process as an infinite linear combination of [[orthogonal function]]s, analogous to a [[Fourier series]] representation of a function on a bounded interval. Stochastic processes given by infinite series of this form were first<ref name="Raju">{{Citation |first=C.K. |last=Raju |title=Kosambi the Mathematician |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |volume=44 |year=2009 |issue=20 |pages=33{{ndash}}45 }}</ref> considered by [[Damodar Dharmananda Kosambi]].<ref name="Kosambi">{{Citation |first=D. D. |last=Kosambi |title=Statistics in Function Space |journal=Journal of the Indian Mathematical Society |volume=7 |year=1943 |pages=76{{ndash}}88 |mr=9816 }}.</ref>
* [[Kosaraju's algorithm]] is a linear time algorithm to find the strongly connected components of a directed graph. Aho, Hopcroft and Ullman credit it to S. Rao Kosaraju and Micha Sharir. Kosaraju suggested it in 1978.
* [[Multivariate statistics|Multivariate Statistical Theory]], is one of the base foundational concept of statistics was developed by [[C. R. Rao]] in 1952 when he was in [[Indian Statistical Institute]], Kolkata.
* [[Parthasarathy–Ranga Rao–Varadarajan determinants]] or PRV determinants,<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://math.iisc.ac.in/~khare/papers/KRP-tribute.pdf | title=KRP'S contributions in lie theory | website=math.iisc.ac.in}}</ref> [[K. R. Parthasarathy (probabilist)|K. R. Parthasarathy]] along with [[R. Ranga Rao (mathematician)|R. Ranga Rao]] and [[Veeravalli S. Varadarajan]] discovered these class of determinants in ''Representations of Complex Semi-Simple Lie Groups and Lie Algebras'', the paper has subsequently often been referred to as the “PRV paper”.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Parthasarathy | first1=K. R. | last2=Rao | first2=R. Ranga | last3=Varadarajan | first3=V. S. | title=Representations of Complex Semi-Simple Lie Groups and Lie Algebras | journal=Annals of Mathematics | date=1967 | volume=85 | issue=3 | pages=383–429 | doi=10.2307/1970351 | jstor=1970351 | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1970351 | url-access=subscription }}</ref>
* [[Parthasarathy's theorem]]. is a generalization of Von Neumann's minimax theorem created by [[Thiruvenkatachari Parthasarathy]].
* [[block design|Partial Balanced Incomplete Block Designs (BIBD)]] was developed by [[Raj Chandra Bose]] and Kesavan Raghavan Nair in 1939.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Bose_Raj/ | title=Raj Chandra Bose - Biography }}</ref>
* [[Ramanujan theta function]], [[Ramanujan prime]], [[Ramanujan summation]], [[Ramanujan graph]] and [[Ramanujan's sum]] – Discovered by the Indian mathematician [[Srinivasa Ramanujan]] in the early 20th century.<ref>Berndt & Rankin (2001)</ref>
* [[Score test|Rao's Score Test]] was first published in 1948 in ''Sankhya: The Indian Journal of Statistics'' titled ''On Distributions of the Maximum Likelihood Estimates'' by [[C. R. Rao]].<ref>{{cite arXiv | eprint=2406.19956 | last1=Bera | first1=Anil K. | last2=Bilias | first2=Yannis | title=Three Scores and 15 Years (1948-2023) of Rao's Score Test: A Brief History | date=2024 | class=econ.EM }}</ref>
* [[Samarendra Nath Roy|Roy’s Largest Root Test]], proposed the test in 1953 as part of his "union-intersection principle", a unified approach to multivariate hypothesis testing.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.wisdom.weizmann.ac.il/~nadler/Roys_Largest_Root/Distribution_Roy.html | title=On the Distribution of Roy's Largest Root }}</ref>
* [[Samarendra Nath Roy|Roy-Hotelling Theorem]], is used to connects the eigenvalues of matrices in multivariate statistics proposed in 1953.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=706a588d834e03bc3380a00c54931f087c052637 | title=Simultaneous test procedures in multivariate analysis of variance | website=citeseerx.ist.psu.edu}}</ref>
* [[Seshadri constant]] – In [[algebraic geometry]], a Seshadri constant is an invariant of an ample line bundle L at a point P on an [[algebraic variety]].The name is in honour of the Indian mathematician [[C. S. Seshadri]].
* [[Sieve of Sundaram]], is a prime number generation algorithm that was developed by Indian math student S. P. Sundaram.
* [[Shrikhande graph]] – [[Graph (discrete mathematics)|Graph]] invented by the Indian mathematician [[S.S. Shrikhande]] in 1959.
* [[Standard monomial theory]], C. S. Seshadri introduced a concept named ''Standard Monomials'' in 1978.

=== Applied science and Technology ===
* Bipyrazole Organic Crystals, the piezoelectric molecules developed by [[Indian Institutes of Science Education and Research|IISER]] scientists recombine following mechanical fracture without any external intervention, autonomously self-healing in milliseconds with crystallographic precision.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/science-and-environment/indian-scientists-make-breakthrough-discovery-of-material-that-repairs-itself-1012430.html|title = Indian scientists make breakthrough discovery of material that repairs itself|date = 24 July 2021}}</ref>
* SEBEX 2, is a high performance explosive, it is said to be 2.01 times more lethal than TNT and most powerful non-nuclear explosives in the world. The Indian Navy has certified the explosive.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.news18.com/explainers/whats-indias-new-explosive-sebex-2-that-will-improve-lethality-of-warheads-military-tech-explained-8951573.html | title=What's India's New Explosive SEBEX 2 That Will Improve Lethality of Warheads? Military Tech Explained | date=2 July 2024 }}</ref>
* [[magnetic]] [[superatoms]], In 2009 a team of Harish Chandra Research Institute, Allahabad discovered magnetic superatoms.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/allahabad/researchers-discover-magnetic-superatom/articleshow/4702563.cms | title=Researchers discover 'magnetic superatom' | work=The Times of India | date=25 June 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/lucknow/indians-scientists-discover-magnetic-superatoms/ | title=Indians scientists discover magnetic superatoms | date=3 August 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.rediff.com/money/report/scientists-discover-magnetic-superatom/20090625.htm | title=Scientists discover magnetic superatom }}</ref>
* [[Silica fiber|Silica fiber based composite]] or Silica-Silica composite, In 2012 [[ISRO]] developed world's first pure silica fiber composite without carbon element known as ''silica fiber-silica matrix composite'' and also a new technology for developing silica fibres by sol-gel process. These fibres can be used for high temperature insulation up to 1500C and cheaper than Carbon fiber composite. Silica-silica composite are prepared by leaching glass cloth with hydrochloric acid, rinsing to remove acid therefrom, vacuum drying, moulding and treating with ethyl silicate and cationic starch binder further drying and sintering.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.isro.gov.in/media_isro/pdf/capacitybuilding/ISROIPRApril2024.pdf | title=Capacity Building and Public Outreach (CBPO) | website=www.isro.gov.in}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.vssc.gov.in/SilicaFibres.html | title=Silica Fibres }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://allindianpatents.com/patents/253851-high-purity-porous-silica-fiber-silica-matrix-composite-and-a-method-of-manufacturing-thereof.html | title=Indian Patents. 253851:HIGH PURITY POROUS SILICA FIBER - SILICA MATRIX COMPOSITE AND a METHOD OF MANUFACTURING THEREOF }}</ref> The patent was filed by VSSC in 2005 and was granted in 2012.
* Single-crystalline Scandium Nitride, that has the ability to convert infrared light into energy, Scientists based in Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research (JNCASR), Bengaluru have discovered a novel material that can emit, detect, and modulate infrared light with high efficiency making it useful for solar and thermal energy harvesting and for optical communication devices.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.electronicsforu.com/news/whats-new/this-material-can-convert-infrared-light-to-renewable-energy | title=This Material Can Convert Infrared Light to Renewable Energy | date=11 July 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://thelogicalindian.com/trending/indian-researchers-discover-material-which-turns-infrared-light-into-renewable-energy-36452 | title=Groundbreaking! Indian Researchers Discover Material Which Turns Infrared Light into Renewable Energy | date=10 July 2022 | last1=Sarkar | first1=Snehadri }}</ref>
* Low-threshold gain lasers, researchers from IISER, Bhopal have made a breakthrough in field of low threshold gain lasers using crystals of cesium lead bromide they are able to produce high-intensity lasers with very low energy output.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bhopal/iiser-bhopal-breakthrough-to-produce-high-intensity-lasers/articleshow/98530310.cms | title=IISER Bhopal breakthrough to produce high-intensity lasers | newspaper=The Times of India | date=10 March 2023 }}</ref>
* [[Indian Ocean Dipole]] is an unusual pattern in the ocean-atmosphere system of the equatorial Indian Ocean that influences the monsoon and can offset the adverse impact of El Nino. It is typically characterized by cooler than normal eastern equatorial Indian Ocean and warmer than normal west and unusual equatorial easterly winds. It was discovered in Centre for Atmospheric And Oceanic Sciences, [[Indian Institute of Science|IISc.]] team led by NH Saji in 1999.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://eprints.iisc.ac.in/17757/|title = A dipole mode in the tropical Indian Ocean|journal = Nature|date = 23 September 1999|volume = 401|issue = 6751|pages = 360–363|last1 = Saji|first1 = N. H.|last2 = Goswami|first2 = B. N.|last3 = Vinayachandran|first3 = P. N.|last4 = Yamagata|first4 = T.|doi = 10.1038/43854|pmid = 16862108|bibcode = 1999Natur.401..360S|s2cid = 4427627}}</ref>
* [[Iron]] [[Ion]] [[Electric battery|battery]],In 2019 world's 1st iron-ion battery was first invented by team of researchers in IIT Madras.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/iit-madras-registers-initial-success-with-iron-ion-battery/article28976853.ece | title=IIT Madras registers initial success with iron ion battery | newspaper=The Hindu | date=10 August 2019 | last1=Prasad | first1=R. }}</ref>
* Solution combustion synthesis (SCS) was accidentally discovered in 1988 at Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bengaluru, India. SCS involves an exothermic redox chemical reaction between an oxidizer like metal nitrate and a fuel in an aqueous medium.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://ipc.iisc.ac.in/includes/kcpbook/SCS-Part-I.pdf | title=Solution Combustion Synthesis of Nanoceramic Materials: A Bibliography | website=ipc.iisc.ac.in}}</ref>
* [[Defluoridation|Nalgonda Technique]] is a technique for defluoridation to reduce the fluoride levels in water developed by [[National Environmental Engineering Research Institute]], Nagpur.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24095996 | jstor=24095996 | title=Defluoridation of potable water by Nalgonda technique | last1=Nawlakhe | first1=W. G. | last2=Paramasivam | first2=R. | journal=Current Science | date=1993 | volume=65 | issue=10 | pages=743–748 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=https://wedc-knowledge.lboro.ac.uk/resources/conference/22/dahi.pdf | title=Defluoridation using the Nalgonda Technique in Tanzania | website=wedc-knowledge.lboro.ac.uk}}</ref>
* Electrically Excited Synchronous Motor (EESM) or Rare earth free motor: In 2021 deep-tech startup Chara Technologies has built scalable, cloud-controlled electric vehicle motors free of toxic rare-earth metals, thus cutting a massive dependency on imports to accelerate electric mobility in India.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/renewables/bounce-ties-up-with-deep-tech-start-up-chara-for-local-production-of-ev-motors/articleshow/85211729.cms | title=Bounce ties up with deep-tech start-up Chara for local production of EV motors | newspaper=The Economic Times | date=10 August 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/small-biz/entrepreneurship/an-electric-motor-from-bengaluru-can-break-chinas-rare-earth-mineral-hegemony/articleshow/97966989.cms?from=mdr | title=An electric motor from Bengaluru can break China's rare earth mineral hegemony }}</ref>
* [[Methanol fuel|MD-15]] is a new methanol fuel grade in which Methanol is blended with diesel. Research Design and Standards Organisation (RDSO), in collaboration with the Indian Oil Corporation Ltd (IOCL), has developed a special cost-effective fuel that would not only minimize IR's dependency on diesel, but will also be emit fewer pollutants. IOCL developed the composition, adding 14% additives (developed indigenously by IOCL) along with 71% mineral diesel, 15% methanol. MD-15 fuelled engine has shown superior performance, emission and combustion characteristics than the mineral diesel fuelled engine.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.news18.com/india/md-15-the-new-fuel-that-may-replace-diesel-in-indian-railways-locomotives-save-rs-2280-crore-8647015.html | title=MD-15: The New Fuel that May Replace Diesel in Indian Railways' Locomotives, Save Rs 2,280 Crore | date=3 November 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/ioc-facility-for-blended-fuel-to-come-up-in-chennai/articleshow/99830461.cms | title=IOC: Facility for blended fuel to come up in Chennai | newspaper=The Times of India | date=28 April 2023 }}</ref>
* [[Photon Multiplicity Detector]], is a detector for study of [[Quark-gluon plasma]] and [[photons]] developed by [[Institute of Physics, Bhubaneswar|Institute of Physics]] and [[Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre]], PMD is used in [[Large Hadron Collider]] to measure the multiplicity of photons.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://inis.iaea.org/records/kr9b1-6ks44 | title=INDIA: Photon multiplicity detector | date=January 1995 | volume=35 | issue=1 | pages=14–15 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://india.web.cern.ch/alice/detectors_pmd/pmd.html | title=Pmdpage }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/science/indian-researchers-celebrate-2025-breakthrough-prize-in-fundamental-physics-for-award-winning-cern-experiments-article-13048764.html | title=Indian researchers celebrate 2025 breakthrough prize in fundamental physics for award-winning CERN experiments }}</ref>
* Phytorid Wastewater Treatment Technology, is a solution for sustainable wastewater treatment, developed by NEERI (CSIR), It is particularly useful for regions lacking advanced sewage infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.cseindia.org/static/mount/recommended_readings_mount/19-Phytorid-Wastewater-Treatment-Technology.pdf | title=Phytorid Technology for Treatment of Sewage | website=www.cseindia.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.ijert.org/research/domestic-wastewater-treatment-using-phytorid-technology-IJERTCONV5IS13165.pdf | title=Domestic Wastewater Treatment using Phytorid Technology | website=www.ijert.org}}</ref>
* [[Unified Payments Interface]] – An instant real-time bank to bank [[Internet Protocol|payments protocol]] system developed by National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI) facilitated by QR code and Virtual Private Address(VPA) or UPI ID. UPI has able to make India a cashless and cardless economy, also strain on ATM infrastructure has reduced significantly.
* [[Digital rupee]] (e₹) or eINR or e-rupee is a world's first digital national currency, to be issued by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) as a central bank digital currency (CBDC). Digital Rupee is using blockchain distributed-ledger technology. Digital rupee users to hit 50,000 by Jan-end on better acceptance.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/money-and-banking/number-of-cbdc-retail-users-estimated-to-touch-50000-by-jan-end/article66356886.ece | title=CBDC-R users to hit 50,000 by Jan-end on better acceptance | date=9 January 2023 }}</ref>

=== Sciences ===
[[File:Ammonium Nitrite 3D.JPG|thumb|Bengali Chemist [[Prafulla Chandra Roy]] synthesised NH4NO2 in its pure form.]] [[File:Ramaplot.png|thumb|A [[Ramachandran plot]] generated from the protein [[PCNA]], a human [[DNA clamp]] [[protein]] that is composed of both [[beta sheet]]s and [[alpha helix|alpha helices]] ([[Protein Data Bank|PDB]] ID 1AXC). Points that lie on the axes indicate [[N-terminus|N-]] and [[C-terminus|C-terminal]] residues for each subunit. The green regions show possible angle formations that include [[Glycine]], while the blue areas are for formations that don't include Glycine.]]
* [[Ammonium nitrite|Ammonium nitrite, synthesis in pure form]] – [[Prafulla Chandra Roy]] synthesised NH4NO2 in its pure form, and became the first scientist to have done so.<ref name=vigyanprasar_pcray/> Prior to Ray's synthesis of Ammonium nitrite it was thought that the compound undergoes rapid thermal decomposition releasing nitrogen and water in the process.<ref name=vigyanprasar_pcray/>
* [[Bhabha scattering]] – In 1935, Indian nuclear physicist [[Homi J. Bhabha]] published a paper in the ''[[Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences|Proceedings of the Royal Society, Series A]]'', in which he performed the first calculation to determine the cross section of electron-positron scattering.<ref name="Penneyp39"/> Electron-positron scattering was later named Bhabha scattering, in honour of his contributions in the field.<ref name="Penneyp39">Penney (1967), page 39</ref>
* Bhatnagar-Mathur Magnetic Interference Balance: Invented jointly by [[Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar]] and K.N. Mathur in 1928, the so-called 'Bhatnagar-Mathur Magnetic Interference Balance' was a modern instrument used for measuring various magnetic properties.<ref name="Vigyan_prasar_Shanti_Swaryp">[http://www.vigyanprasar.gov.in/scientists/ssbhatnagar/ShantiSwarupBhatnagar.htm ''Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131018015234/http://www.vigyanprasar.gov.in/scientists/ssbhatnagar/ShantiSwarupBhatnagar.htm |date=18 October 2013 }}. Vigyan Prasar: Government of India.</ref> The first appearance of this instrument in Europe was at a [[Royal Society]] exhibition in London, where it was later marketed by British firm Messers Adam Hilger and Co, London.<ref name="Vigyan_prasar_Shanti_Swaryp" />
* [[Bose–Einstein statistics]], [[Bose–Einstein condensate|condensate]] – On 4 June 1924 the Indian physicist [[Satyendra Nath Bose]] mailed a short manuscript to [[Albert Einstein]] entitled [http://www.ias.ac.in/jarch/jaa/15/3-7.pdf ''Planck's Law and the Light Quantum Hypothesis''] seeking Einstein's influence to get it published after it was rejected by the prestigious journal ''[[Philosophical Magazine]]''.<ref name=Rigden143>Rigden (2005), pages 143{{ndash}}144</ref> The paper introduced what is today called ''Bose statistics'', which showed how it could be used to derive the Planck blackbody spectrum from the assumption that light was made of [[photons]].<ref name=Rigden143/><ref name=Fraser238>Fraser (2006), page 238</ref> Einstein, recognizing the importance of the paper translated it into German himself and submitted it on Bose's behalf to the prestigious ''[[Zeitschrift für Physik]]''.<ref name=Rigden143/><ref name=Fraser238/> Einstein later applied Bose's principles on particles with mass and quickly predicted the ''Bose-Einstein condensate''.<ref name=Fraser238/><ref name=Dauxois297>Dauxois & Peyrard (2006), pages 297{{ndash}}298</ref>
* [[Boson]]: Satyendra Nath Bose's research led to the discovery of the [[Boson]], one of the [[elementary particles]] on the [[Standard Model]] of [[Particle Physics]].
* [[Braunstein-Ghosh-Severini Entropy]] – This modelling of entropy using network theory is used in the analysis of [[quantum gravity]] and is named after Sibasish Ghosh and his teammates, [[Samuel L. Braunstein]] and Simone Severini.
* [[Dual-phase steel]], was publicly first described in "Microstructure and tensile properties of high strength duplex ferrite–martensite (DFM) steels" by P.C. Chakraborti and M.K. Mitra.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chakraborti |first1=P.C. |last2=Mitra |first2=M.K. |title=Microstructure and tensile properties of high strength duplex ferrite–martensite (DFM) steels |journal=Materials Science and Engineering: A |date=September 2007 |volume=466 |issue=1–2 |pages=123–133 |doi=10.1016/j.msea.2007.02.042 |bibcode=2007MSEnA.466..123C }}</ref>
* [[Galena|Galena, applied use in electronics of]] – Bengali scientist Sir [[Jagadish Chandra Bose]] effectively used Galena crystals for constructing radio receivers.<ref name=tifr>[http://www.tifr.res.in/~outreach/biographies/scientists.pdf "Indian Scientists"] (November 2004), Science Popularisation and Public Outreach Committee, [[Tata Institute of Fundamental Research]].</ref> The Galena receivers of Bose were used to receive signals consisting of [[shortwave]], [[Electromagnetic spectrum#Visible radiation (light)|white light]] and [[ultraviolet light]].<ref name=tifr/> In 1904 Bose patented the use of Galena Detector which he called ''Point Contact Diode using Galena''.<ref name=Sarkar94>Sarkar (2006), page 94</ref>
* [[Mahalanobis distance]] – Introduced in 1936 by the Indian (Bengali) statistician [[Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis]] (29 June 1893 – 28 June 1972), this distance measure, based upon the correlation between variables, is used to identify and analyze differing pattern with respect to one base.<ref>Taguchi & Jugulum (2002), pages 6{{ndash}}7</ref>
* [[Nitrite|Mercurous nitrite]] – The compound mercurous nitrite was discovered in 1896 by the Bengali chemist Prafulla Chandra Roy, who published his findings in the ''[[Asiatic Society|Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal]]''.<ref name=vigyanprasar_pcray>[http://www.vigyanprasar.gov.in/scientists/pcray/PCRay.htm "Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927173458/http://www.vigyanprasar.gov.in/scientists/pcray/PCRay.htm |date=27 September 2007 }}, Viyan Prasar, Department of Science and Technology, Government of India.</ref> The discovery contributed as a base for significant future research in the field of chemistry.<ref name=vigyanprasar_pcray/>
* [[Ramachandran plot]], Ramachandran map, and Ramachandran angles: The Ramachandran plot and Ramachandran map were developed by [[Gopalasamudram Narayana Iyer Ramachandran]], who published his results in the ''[[Journal of Molecular Biology]]'' in 1963. He also developed the Ramachandran angles, which serve as a convenient tool for [[communication]], representation, and various kinds of [[data analysis]].<ref name=Ramakrishnan>Ramakrishnan (2001)</ref>
* [[Raman effect]] – The Encyclopædia Britannica (2008) reports: "change in the wavelength of light that occurs when a light beam is deflected by molecules. The phenomenon is named for [[Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman]], who discovered it in 1928. When a beam of light traverses a dust-free, transparent sample of a chemical compound, a small fraction of the light emerges in directions other than that of the incident (incoming) beam. Most of this scattered light is of unchanged wavelength. A small part, however, has wavelengths different from that of the incident light; its presence is a result of the Raman effect."<ref>"Raman effect".''Encyclopædia Britannica'' (2008)</ref>
* [[Raychaudhuri equation]] – Discovered by the [[Bengali people|Bengali]] physicist [[Amal Kumar Raychaudhuri]] in 1954. This was a key ingredient of the [[Penrose-Hawking singularity theorems]] of [[general relativity]].<ref>Naresh (2005)</ref>
* [[Saha ionization equation]] is an expression that relates the ionization state of a gas in thermal equilibrium to the temperature and pressure.
* Periodicity in Nuclear Properties: A sharp pattern is discovered by an Indian researcher regarding the nuclear properties of chemical elements. The remarkable deviations are noticed near the magic numbers.<ref name=ShadabKAS20>{{cite journal|title=PERIODICITY IN NUCLEAR PROPERTIES|journal=International Research Journal of Natural and Applied Sciences|author=Shadab, K. A.|volume=7|issue=5|pages=18–61|year=2020}}</ref>
* Process of formation of the E layer of the ionosphere and night sky luminiscence: Discovered by the Indian physicist, Sisir Kumar Mitra.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Awakening Indians to India|date=2003|publisher=Central Chinmaya Mission Trust|others=All India Chinmaya Yuva Kendra|isbn=81-7597-175-4|edition=1st|location=Mumbai, India|oclc=296288988}}{{page needed|date=August 2024}}</ref>

=== Space ===
[[File:Direct evidence of lunar water.jpg|thumb|right|350px|Direct evidence of lunar water in the Moon atmosphere obtained by the Chandrayaan-1's Altitudinal Composition (CHACE) output profile]]
* [[Chandrasekhar limit]]: [[Subramanyan Chandrasekhar]] discovered the maximum mass of a stable [[white dwarf]] star.
* [[Lunar water]] – Although the presence of water ice on the Moon has been conjectured by various scientists since the 1960s, inconclusive evidence of free water ice had also been identified. The first incontrovertible evidence of water on the Moon was provided by the payload Chace carried by the [[Moon Impact Probe]] released by [[Chandrayaan-1]] in 2009,<ref>{{cite news|title=MIP detected water on Moon way back in June: ISRO Chairman|url=http://m.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/mip-detected-water-on-moon-way-back-in-june-isro-chairman/article24854.ece|newspaper=The Hindu|date=25 September 2009|author=Staff Reporter}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Did India beat NASA to find water on moon?|url=http://m.ndtv.com/sci-tech/did-india-beat-nasa-to-find-water-on-moon-402138|work=m.ndtv.com|access-date=29 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161130035434/http://m.ndtv.com/sci-tech/did-india-beat-nasa-to-find-water-on-moon-402138|archive-date=30 November 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Chandrayaan-1 {{!}} Indian space probe|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Chandrayaan-1|website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> confirmed and established by [[NASA]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Chandrayaan first discovered water on moon, but… {{!}} Latest News & Updates at Daily News & Analysis|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/scitech/report-chandrayaan-first-discovered-water-on-moon-but-1292942|work=dna|date=25 September 2009}}</ref>
* [[Quasi-normal mode]]s of [[black holes]] – [[C. V. Vishveshwara]] discovered the [[quasi-normal mode]]s of black holes.<ref>Vishveshwara, C.V., Nature, 1970, 227, 936</ref> These modes of black hole vibrations are one of the main targets of observation using the gravitational wave detector.
* [[Saha ionisation equation]] – The Saha equation, derived by the Bengali scientist [[Meghnad Saha]] (6 October 1893 – 16 February 1956) in 1920, conceptualises [[ionisation]]s in context of stellar atmospheres.<ref>Narlikar (2002), page 188</ref>

==See also==
* [[Timeline of Indian innovation]]
* [[History of science and technology in India]]
* [[Timeline of historic inventions]]
* [[List of Indian mathematicians]]
* [[List of Indian scientists]]
* [[List of Indian physicists]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

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{{refend}}

==External links==
* [http://www.themysteriousindia.net/ancient-india-inventions-science-technology/ Ancient India's Inventions In Science And Technology]
* [http://www.indianscience.org/essays/essays.shtml Essays on Indian Science and Technology.]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140224120624/http://www.sciencecongress.nic.in/html/pdf/e-book/oct-nov-2012.pdf P. K. Ray, SCIENCE, CULTURE AND DEVELOPMENT – A CONNECTED PHENOMENA, Everyman's Science Vol.]
* ''History of Science in South Asia'' ([http://hssa-journal.org hssa-journal.org]). HSSA is a peer-reviewed, open-access, online journal for the history of science in India.

{{Inventions|state=collapsed}}
{{Indianscience|state=uncollapsed}}

{{South Asian topics}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Indian Inventions And Discoveries}}
[[Category:Science and technology in India|Inventions]]
[[Category:Indian inventions| ]]
[[Category:Lists of inventions or discoveries]]
[[Category:India science and technology-related lists]]
[[Category:India history-related lists|Inventions and discoveries]]

Amritsar

2026-05-24T16:07:52Z

206.84.229.26:

{{short description|Metropolis in Punjab, India}}
{{about|the city|the district|Amritsar district}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2026}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Amritsar
| native_name = {{nativename|pa|Amritsar}}
| native_name_lang = iso 15919
| settlement_type = [[Metropolis]]
| image_skyline = {{multiple image
| border = infobox
| total_width = 290
| image_style =
| perrow = 1/3/2/2
| image1 = Golden Temple Amritsar Gurudwara (cropped).jpg
| caption1 = [[Golden Temple]]
| image2 = Baba Atal Amritsar (cropped).jpg
| caption2 = [[Gurdwara Baba Atal]]
| image3 = MAHARAJA RANJIT SINGH STATUE-AMRITSAR-PUNJAB-10.jpg
| caption3 = Maharaja Ranjit Singh Chowk in [[Heritage Street Amritsar|Heritage Street]]
| image4 = Another look at the obelisk which commemorates the Jallianwala Bagh massacre (27161747959).jpg
| caption4 = [[Jallianwala Bagh]]
| image5 = Bhagwan Valmiki Tirath Sthal 05.jpg
| caption5 = [[Bhagwan Valmiki Tirath Sthal]]
| image6 = Summer Palace of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, Amritsar, Punjab,India.jpg
| caption6 = [[Ram Bagh Palace]]
| image7 = Zamzama - Front View- Gobindgarh Fort, Amritsar.jpg
| caption7 = [[Gobindgarh Fort]]
| image8 = Amritsar 9124.jpg
| caption8 = [[Partition Museum]]
}}
| image_size =
| image_caption =
| image_map = {{maplink|display=||frame=yes||frame-width=270|frame-height=280 |frame-align=center|zoom=12|type=point|id=Q180422|marker-colour=#ffd700|title=[[Golden Temple]] }}
| pushpin_map = India Punjab#India
| mapframe-zoom = 12
| nicknames = {{collapsible list|title=Nicknames|The Holy City|Ambarsar|Sifti Da Ghar|Guru Nagari|Golden City}}
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_caption = Location of the city center in Punjab
| pushpin_relief = yes
| mapframe-wikidata =
| coordinates = {{coord|31.64|74.86|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = [[Country]]
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and union territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = {{flagicon image|Emblem of Punjab (India) on a white background (1).png}} [[Punjab, India|Punjab]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Amritsar district|Amritsar]]
| established_title = 
| established_date = 1574
| founder = [[Guru Ram Das]]
| government_type = Municipality
| governing_body = [[Amritsar Municipal Corporation]]
| area_footnotes = <ref>{{cite web|title=Amritsar City|url=http://www.urbanmobilityindia.in/Upload/Conference/46709088-0a0e-42af-969c-9bd63bededf9.pdf|access-date=23 November 2020|archive-date=2 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702024324/http://www.urbanmobilityindia.in/Upload/Conference/46709088-0a0e-42af-969c-9bd63bededf9.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
| area_rank = [[List of cities in Punjab and Chandigarh|2nd in Punjab]]
| area_total_km2 = 139
| population_total = 1159227
| population_as_of = 2011
| leader_title1 = Mayor
| leader_name1 = Jatinder Singh Bhatia
([[Aam Aadmi Party|AAP]])
| leader_title2 = Deputy Commissioner
| leader_name2 = Dalwinderjit Singh, IAS<ref>{{cite web |title=Sh. Dalwinderjit Singh, IAS - District Amritsar |url=https://amritsar.nic.in/whoswho/smt-sakshi-sawhney/ |website=[[Government of Punjab, India]] |access-date=9 January 2026}}</ref>
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_metro =
| population_metro_footnotes =
| population_demonym = Amritsariya, Ambarsariya,<ref>{{cite book |title=Vishveshvaranand Indological Journal |date=1981 |publisher=Vishveshvaranand Vedic Research Institute |page=66 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Fc5AAAAIAAJ&q=%22ambarsariya%22 |language=en}}</ref> Amritsari
| population_urban_footnotes = <ref name=districtcensus>{{Cite web |date=2011 |title=District Census Handbook: Amritsar |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/982/download/2942/DH_2011_0315_PART_A_DCHB_AMRITSAR.pdf |website=censusindia.gov.in |publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]] |access-date=9 January 2024 |archive-date=9 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240109060628/https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/982/download/2942/DH_2011_0315_PART_A_DCHB_AMRITSAR.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
| population_blank1_title = Metro rank
| population_blank1 = [[List of million-plus agglomerations in India|44th]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 143-001
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| area_code = 91 183 XXX XXXX
| registration_plate = PB-01 (commercial vehicles), PB-02, PB-17, PB-89
| website = {{URL|amritsarcorp.com}}
}}

'''Amritsar''',{{efn|{{IPA|pa|ˌəmːˈɾɪt̪.səɾ|lang}}{{audio|Amritsar.ogg|}}}} also known as '''Ambarsar''',{{efn|{{IPA|pa|əmbaɾ.səɾ}}}} is the second-[[List of cities in Punjab, India by population|largest city]] in the [[India|Indian]] state of [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], after [[Ludhiana]]. Located in the [[Majha]] region, it is a major cultural, transportation and economic centre. The city is the administrative headquarters of the [[Amritsar district]]. It is situated {{convert|217|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} north-west of [[Chandigarh]], and {{Convert|455|km|abbr=on}} north-west of [[New Delhi]]. It is {{convert|28|km|mi|1|abbr=on}} from the [[India–Pakistan border|India-Pakistan border]], and {{Convert|47|km|abbr=on}} north-east of [[Lahore]], [[Pakistan]].

According to the 2011 census, the city had a population of 1,132,383. It is one of the ten municipal corporations in the state; Karamjit Singh Rintu is serving as the [[mayor]] of the city.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.punjabdata.com/Municipal-Corporations-In-Punjab.aspx|title=List of Municipal Corporation in Punjab|website=www.punjabdata.com|access-date=28 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180114190106/http://www.punjabdata.com/Municipal-Corporations-In-Punjab.aspx|archive-date=14 January 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> According to the United Nations, as of 2018, Amritsar is the second-most populous city in Punjab and the most populous metropolitan region in the state, with a population of roughly 2 million. Amritsar is the centre of the Amritsar Metropolitan Region.

Amritsar is the economic capital of Punjab. It is a major tourist centre with nearly a hundred thousand daily visitors. The city has been chosen as one of the heritage cities for the [[Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana]] (HRIDAY) program of the [[Government of India]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Introduction|url=http://hridayindia.in/|website=HRIDAY official website|access-date=30 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150826075658/http://hridayindia.in/|archive-date=26 August 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> It is home to the [[Golden Temple]], the holiest site and most-visited [[Gurdwara|gurudwara]] in [[Sikhism]]. The city is also known for its food, and for the manufacture of wooden [[Chessboard|chessboards]] and [[Chess piece|chess pieces]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Bagga |first=Neeraj |date=6 September 2018 |title=Permit raj checkmates chessboard industry|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/business/permit-raj-checkmates-chessboard-industry/648342.html |work=[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)|The Tribune]] |access-date=27 April 2019 |archive-date=28 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428014406/https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/business/permit-raj-checkmates-chessboard-industry/648342.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

== Etymology ==
The city takes it take from '''Amṛta Sarovara''' (Sanskrit for Pool of Nectar) which is the pool that surrounds [[Golden Temple]] at Gurdwara Shri Harmindir Sahib .
The term ''Amritsar'' was previously sometimes known as '''Rāmdāspur''' after [[Guru Ram Das]], the fourth Sikh guru who is credited with founding the city.<ref name="McLeod1990p28" /> The name ''Amritsar'' was often mispronounced as Ambarsar in rural dialects; the latter name has since become a colloquial term for the city.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Indian Studies: Past and Present |publisher=Ramakrishna Maitra |year=1962 |volume=3 |pages=192 |quote=Amritsar, the principal place of [[Sikhs|Sikh]] worship, was not established at Ram-Raoni, but, in fact, Ram-Raoni was established near the Sikh place of worship at Amritsar (called Ambarsar by illiterate people), which had been founded by Guru Ramdas in 1574, one hundred and seventy-four years before the Ram-Raoni came into existence.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Madra |first1=Amandeep Singh |title=Sicques, Tigers or Thieves: Eyewitness Accounts of the Sikhs (1606-1810) |last2=Singh |first2=P. |publisher=Springer |year=2016 |isbn=9781137119988 |pages=86 |quote=Amritsar (q.v.), the city that includes the Harimandar Sahib Temple complex, was not established at Ram-Raoni (q.v.), as stated by Polier, which is nearby. Amritsar, pronounced Ambarsar by unlettered rural dialects of Punjab, was founded by Guru Ramdas (q.v.) in 1574, 174 years before the Ram-Raoni developed. The town had earlier been called Ramdaspur, Chakk Ramdas, or simply Chakk Guru (q.v.), and was marked as such in eighteenth-century maps of the area.}}</ref>

==Mythology==
The [[Bhagwan Valmiki Tirath Sthal]] situated at Amritsar is believed to be the ashram site of Maharishi [[Valmiki]], the writer of the ''[[Ramayana]]''.<ref>{{Cite news |date=22 November 2016 |title=Valmiki Tirath Sthal temple-cum-panorama to be opened on Dec 1 |work=Business Standard India |agency=Press Trust of India |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/valmiki-tirath-sthal-temple-cum-panorama-to-be-opened-on-dec-1-116112200989_1.html |url-status=live |access-date=17 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803194031/https://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/valmiki-tirath-sthal-temple-cum-panorama-to-be-opened-on-dec-1-116112200989_1.html |archive-date=3 August 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last= |title=Ram Tirth Temple, Indian Ram Tirth Temple, Ram Tirth Temple in India |url=http://www.indianmirror.com/temples/ram-tirth.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161010043925/http://www.indianmirror.com/temples/ram-tirth.html |archive-date=10 October 2016 |access-date=17 March 2022}}</ref> As per the Ramayana, [[Sita]] gave birth to [[Lava (Ramayana)|Lava]] and [[Kusha (Ramayana)|Kusha]], sons of [[Rama]] at Ramtirath ashram. Numerous people visit Ramtirath Temple, Located 12 Km west of Amritsar on Chogawan road, dates back to the period of Ramayana, Rishi Valmiki's hermitage. at the annual fair. The nearby cities [[Lahore]] and [[Kasur]] were believed to be founded by Lava and Kusha, respectively. It is believed that during the [[Ashvamedha|ashvamedha yajna]] by Rama, Lava and Kusha caught the ritual horse and tied [[Hanuman]] to a tree near to today's [[Durgiana Temple]].{{Cn|date=May 2023}}

==History==
===Founding of Amritsar city===
[[File:Amritsar Overhead Panorama View Artwork circa 1860's.jpg|thumb|Overhead panoramic view artwork of Amritsar, {{Circa|1850s}}–1890s|left]]
In the Sikh tradition, [[Guru Ram Das]], the fourth Sikh guru, is credited with founding the holy city of Amritsar in 1574.<ref name="McLeod1990p28">{{cite book|author=W.H. McLeod|title=Textual Sources for the Study of Sikhism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7xIT7OMSJ44C&pg=PA28|year=1990|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-56085-4|pages=28–29|access-date=16 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170214213114/https://books.google.com/books?id=7xIT7OMSJ44C&pg=PA28|archive-date=14 February 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="ShackleMandair2013xv">{{cite book|author1=Christopher Shackle|author2=Arvind Mandair|title=Teachings of the Sikh Gurus: Selections from the Sikh Scriptures|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VvoJV8mw0LwC|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-45101-0|pages=xv–xvi|access-date=29 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170305055518/https://books.google.com/books?id=VvoJV8mw0LwC|archive-date=5 March 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Mann |first=Gurinder Singh |title=The Making of Sikh Scripture |date=3 May 2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780198029878 |pages=9 |chapter=Table 1. Towns Associated with the Sikh Gurus}}</ref> Two versions of stories exist regarding the land where Guru Ram Das settled. In one, based on a ''Gazetteer'' record, the land was purchased, with Sikh donations, for 700 rupees from the owners of the village of Tung.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Louis E. Fenech|author2=W. H. McLeod|title=Historical Dictionary of Sikhism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xajcAwAAQBAJ|year=2014|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|isbn=978-1-4422-3601-1|page=67|access-date=16 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170305055342/https://books.google.com/books?id=xajcAwAAQBAJ|archive-date=5 March 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

According to historical Sikh records, the site was chosen by [[Guru Amar Das]] and called Guru Da Chakk. The latter guru had asked Ram Das to find land to start a new town, and to create a man-made pool as its central point.<ref name="Arshi1989p5">{{cite book|author=Pardeep Singh Arshi|title=The Golden Temple: history, art, and architecture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rcmfAAAAMAAJ|year=1989|publisher=Harman|isbn=978-81-85151-25-0|pages=5–7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Louis E. Fenech|author2=W. H. McLeod|title=Historical Dictionary of Sikhism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xajcAwAAQBAJ|year=2014|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|isbn=978-1-4422-3601-1|page=33|access-date=16 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170305055342/https://books.google.com/books?id=xajcAwAAQBAJ|archive-date=5 March 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> After his coronation, Guru Ram Das in 1574, who faced hostile opposition from the sons of Guru Amar Das,<ref name="Mandair2013p38">{{cite book|author=Arvind-Pal Singh Mandair|title=Sikhism: A Guide for the Perplexed|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jn_jBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA38|year=2013|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-1-4411-5366-1|pages=38–40|access-date=29 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170214211014/https://books.google.com/books?id=Jn_jBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA38|archive-date=14 February 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> founded the town; it was named after him as "Ramdaspur". He first completed the pool, and built his new official Guru centre and home next to it. He invited merchants and artisans from other parts of India to settle into the new town with him. The town expanded during the time of Guru Arjan Dev, financed by donations and constructed by volunteers. The town grew to become the city of Amritsar. After the son of [[Guru Ram Das]] built the [[gurdwara]] [[Golden Temple|Harmandir Sahib]], the pool area developed further as a temple complex. In 1604 Guru Ram Das's son installed the scripture of Sikhism inside the new temple.<ref name="ShackleMandair2013xv"/>

The period and achievements of construction between 1574 and 1604 are described in ''Mahima Prakash Vartak'', a semi-historical Sikh [[hagiography|hagiographic]] text likely composed in 1741. It is the earliest known document dealing with the lives of all the ten Gurus.<ref name="McLeod1990p28"/>
[[File:Ranjit Singh at Harmandir Sahib - August Schoefft - Vienna 1850 - Princess Bamba Collection - Lahore Fort.jpg|thumb|Maharaja Ranjit Singh listening to [[Guru Granth Sahib]] being recited near the [[Akal Takht]] and [[Golden Temple, Amritsar]], [[Punjab, India]]. Painting by [[August Schoefft]], 1850|alt=|left]]

In 1762 and 1766–1767, Ahmad Shah of the [[Durrani Empire]] invaded the [[Sikh Confederacy]]. He besieged Amritsar, massacred the populace, and destroyed the city.{{sfn|Dupree|1980|p=338-339}}

===Old walled city===
[[File:Photo of an Amritsar street scene, by Felice Beato, circa 1858–59.jpg|thumb|Photo of an Amritsar street scene, by [[Felice Beato]], {{Circa|1858}}–59]]
During the reign of the [[Sikh Empire]], in 1822 Maharaja [[Ranjit Singh]] fortified the city, starting from a wall at Katra Maha Singh area.<ref name=":1" />

Among the ''Katras'' (fortified residential societies) constructed by Maharaja Ranjit Singh within the city were the following:<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Fauja |title=The City of Amritsar: A Study of Historical, Cultural, Social, and Economic Aspects |publisher=Oriental Publishers & Distributors |year=1978 |pages=78–82}}</ref>

* Katra Moti Ram
* Katra Kanwar Kharak Singh (also known as 'Katra Nikkai')
* Katra Fateh Singh Kallianwala
* Katra Ahluwalia<ref>{{Cite news |last=Teja |first=Charanjit Singh |date=26 August 2020 |title=Katra Ahluwalia, a glimpse of grand past, faces ravages & wrath of time |work=The Tribune |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/amritsar/katra-ahluwalia-a-glimpse-of-grand-past-faces-ravages-wrath-of-time-131544 |access-date=14 July 2023 |archive-date=14 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230714121032/https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/amritsar/katra-ahluwalia-a-glimpse-of-grand-past-faces-ravages-wrath-of-time-131544 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=28 January 2022 |title=Katra Ahluwalia: A Legacy of the Sikh-Misl Era |url=https://www.sikh-news.com/r/a/katra-ahluwalia-sikh-misl-era-10853 |access-date=14 July 2023 |website=Sikh News |language=en |archive-date=14 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230714055437/https://www.sikh-news.com/r/a/katra-ahluwalia-sikh-misl-era-10853 |url-status=usurped }}</ref>
[[File:Map of Amritsar, with the city perimeter captioned in Perso-Arabic script marking the twelve historical gates of the old city-wall, ca.1831–35.jpg|thumb|Map of Amritsar, with the city perimeter captioned in Perso-Arabic script marking the twelve historical gates of the old city-wall, ca.1831–35]]
Later, [[Sher Singh]] continued with construction of the city wall, adding twelve gates. He also had built a fort named ''Dhoor Kot''; its fortification were yards broad and 7 yards high. The circumference of the walled city was around five miles. The twelve gates constructed during this era were known as (including later renamings):<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=19 January 2019 |title=6 historical gates of Amritsar to be restored to old glory |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/chandigarh/6-historical-gates-of-amritsar-to-be-restored-to-old-glory/story-z3V38dtwpNsOoQTqkxo4cI.html |access-date=14 July 2023 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en |archive-date=14 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230714055434/https://www.hindustantimes.com/chandigarh/6-historical-gates-of-amritsar-to-be-restored-to-old-glory/story-z3V38dtwpNsOoQTqkxo4cI.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Bawa |first=J. S. |title=The Heritage of Amritsar |publisher=Faqir Singh |year=1977 |pages=45}}</ref>

# Lahori Darwaza (Lahori Gate)<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" />
# Khazana Darwaja (Khazana Gate)<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" />
# Deori Hakiman (Gate Hakeema/Darwaza Hakeema Wala)<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" />
# Gilwali Darwaza – no longer extant<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" />
# Darwaza Rangar Nanglian (Gate Bhagatawala) – no longer extant<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" />
# Darwaza Ramgarhian (Chattiwind Gate) – later restored<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite news |last=Jaiswar |first=P.K. |date=9 November 2006 |title=Ramgarhia and Ahluwalia gates to get a new lease of life |work=The Tribune |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/2006/20061109/aplus1.htm#3 |access-date=14 July 2023 |archive-date=14 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230714202525/https://www.tribuneindia.com/2006/20061109/aplus1.htm#3 |url-status=live }}</ref>
# Darwaza Ahluwalia (Darwaza Gheo Mandi) – was no longer extant but has since been restored<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" />
# Doburji Darwaza (Sultanwind Gate or Delhi Darwaza)<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" />
# Deorhi Kalan<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" />
# Darwaza Rambagh<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" />
# Deorhi Shazada (Hathi Darwaza/Darwaza Sehzada)<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" />
# Darwaza Lohgarh – no longer extant<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" />

When the British annexed Punjab in 1849, Amritsar was a walled city. The British built a thirteenth gate in 1866 known as ''Hall Gate, Neighborhood in Amritsar, Punjab.''<ref name=":1">{{cite news |title=Gates to the grand past |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/amritsar/gates-to-the-grand-past-153187 |access-date=2 February 2021 |work=Tribune |date=9 October 2020 |language=en |archive-date=30 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201130101619/https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/amritsar/gates-to-the-grand-past-153187 |url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:Map of Amritsar with the locations of Sikh sites labelled, as published in the Mahan Kosh (1930).jpg|thumb|Map of Amritsar with the locations of Sikh sites labelled, as published in the ''[[Mahan Kosh]]'' (1930)]]
The British rulers would later demolish some of the walls and gates or reconstruct some.<ref name=":1" /> An entire new wall of the city was completed in 1885.<ref name=":1" /> Many surviving gates have since been renamed and no longer bear their mid-19th century names, while others have since been demolished.<ref name=":1" />

===Jallianwala Bagh massacre===
[[File:Jallianwallah.jpg|thumb|The Jallianwala Bagh in 1919, months after the massacre]]
[[File:BulletMarks.JPG|thumb|Bullet marks on the walls of the park premises]]

The [[Jallianwala Bagh massacre]], involving the killings of hundreds of Indian civilians on the orders of British Colonel [[Reginald Dyer|Reginald Edward Harry Dyer]], took place on 13 April 1919 in the heart of Amritsar, the holiest city of the Sikhs, on a day sacred to them as the birth anniversary of the [[Khalsa]] (Vaisakhi day).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Collett |first1=Nigel |title=The Butcher of Amritsar: General Reginald Dyer |date=15 October 2006 |publisher=A&C Black |isbn=978-1-85285-575-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XuQC5pgzCw4C&pg=PA263 |language=en}}</ref>

In Punjab, during [[World War I]] (1914–18), there was considerable social unrest, particularly among the Sikhs. First, they opposed the demolition of a boundary wall of Gurdwara Rakab Ganj, a historic gurdwara near Parliament House in New Delhi. Later, they were disturbed about the activities and trials of the [[Ghadarite]]s, almost all of whom were Sikhs. In India as a whole, political activity had arisen during the strains of war. Two leaders had emerged: [[Mahatma Gandhi]] (1869–1948), who after a period of struggle as a young man against the British in [[South Africa]] had returned to India in January 1915 to work there for change and [[Annie Besant]] (1847–1933), head of the [[Theosophical Society of India]]. On 11 April 1916 she established the [[Indian Home Rule Movement|Home Rule League]] with the goal of autonomy for India. In December 1916, the [[Indian National Congress]], at its annual session held at [[Lucknow]], passed a resolution asking the king to issue a proclamation announcing that it is the "aim and intention of British policy to confer self-government on India at an early date".<ref>''Proceedings of the Lucknow Session of the Indian National Congress, 1916,'' cited by {{cite book|last=Pasricha|first=Ashu|title=The Political Thought of Annie Besant (Encyclopaedia of Eminent Thinkers, Vol. 25)|year=2008|publisher=Concept Publishing|isbn=978-8180695858|page=84}}</ref>

On 10 April 1919, Satya Pal and Saifuddin Kitchlew, two popular proponents of the [[Satyagraha]] movement led by Gandhi, were called to the deputy commissioner's residence. There they were arrested and transported by car to Dharamsetla, a hill town, now in Himachal Pradesh. A general strike arose in response in Amritsar. Excited groups of citizens soon merged into a crowd of about 50,000 marching to protest these arrests to the deputy commissioner. The crowd, however, was stopped by British colonial forces and fired upon near the railway foot-bridge. The official version reported that the number of casualties were 12 dead and between 20 and 30 wounded. Based on evidence presented to an inquiry of the Indian National Congress, fatalities were reported as between 20 and 30.{{Cn|date=May 2023}}

Three days later, on 13 April, the traditional festival of Baisakhi, thousands of unarmed Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims gathered in the [[Jallianwala Bagh]]. An hour after the meeting began as scheduled at 16:30, Dyer arrived with a group of sixty-five Gurkha soldiers (from the [[9th Gorkha Rifles]]) and twenty-five Baluchi soldiers (from the [[59th Scinde Rifles (Frontier Force)|59th Scinde Rifles]]). Without warning the crowd to disperse, Dyer blocked the main exits from the Bagh and ordered his troops to begin shooting toward the densest sections of the crowd; the firing continued for approximately ten minutes. A British government inquiry into the massacre placed the death toll at 379.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Welle (www.dw.com)|first=Deutsche|title=The Jallianwala massacre – when British troops killed hundreds of unarmed Indians {{!}} DW {{!}} 13 April 2019|url=https://www.dw.com/en/the-jallianwala-massacre-when-british-troops-killed-hundreds-of-unarmed-indians/a-48313295|access-date=5 January 2021|website=DW.COM|language=en-GB|archive-date=8 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210108173914/https://www.dw.com/en/the-jallianwala-massacre-when-british-troops-killed-hundreds-of-unarmed-indians/a-48313295|url-status=live}}</ref> The Indian National Congress, on the other hand, estimated that approximately 1,000 people were killed.<ref name=":0" />

===Operation Blue Star===
[[File:Statue of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, Amritsar 01.jpg|thumb|Statue of [[Maharaja Ranjit Singh]] in Amritsar|left]]
Amritsar was a center of unrest in the late 20th century. In the 1980s, Sikh [[insurgents|militants]] occupied the Golden Temple there. Prime Minister of India, [[Indira Gandhi]], ordered [[Operation Blue Star]] (1 – 6 June 1984), an Indian military operation<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2004/jun/03spec.htm |title=Operation Bluestar, 20 Years On |work=Rediff.com |date=6 June 1984 |access-date=17 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090803203653/http://www.rediff.com/news/2004/jun/03spec.htm |archive-date=3 August 2009 |url-status=live }}</ref> to remove the militants from the temple. The operation was carried out by [[Indian army]] troops equipped with [[tank]]s and armoured vehicles.<ref>{{cite book| last = Ahmad| first = Ishtiaq| title = State, Nation, and Ethnicity in the Contemporary South Asia| publisher = [[Continuum International Publishing Group]]| year = 1996| page = 130| isbn = 978-1-85567-578-0}}</ref> While militarily successful, the operation aroused immense controversy. The government's justification for the timing and style of the attack are hotly debated.<ref>{{cite book| last = Praagh| first = David Van| title = The Greater game: India's Race With Destiny and China| publisher = [[McGill-Queen's University Press]] (MQUP)| year = 2003| location = India| url =https://archive.org/details/greatergameindia0000vanp| url-access = registration| isbn = 978-0-7735-1639-7}}</ref> ''[[India Today]]'' magazine has ranked Operation Blue Star as among the Top 10 Political Disgraces in India.<ref>{{cite web |author=Gunjeet K. Sra |url=http://indiatoday.digitaltoday.in/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&&issueid=85&id=23078&sectionid=3&Itemid=1&page=in&latn=2 |title=10 Political Disgraces |publisher=Indiatoday.digitaltoday.in |date=19 December 2008 |access-date=9 August 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081220230342/http://indiatoday.digitaltoday.in/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&&issueid=85&id=23078&sectionid=3&Itemid=1&page=in&latn=2 |archive-date=20 December 2008 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Official reports put the number of deaths among the Indian army at 83, with 493 civilians killed, including Sikh militants,<ref name=terrorincontext>{{cite book|title=Terrorism in Context|author=Martha Crenshaw|publisher=[[Penn State Press]]|year=1995|isbn=978-0-271-01015-1|page=385}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Singh|first=Pritam|title=Federalism, Nationalism and Development: India and the Punjab Economy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mQLDcjhNoJwC&q=Blue%20Star&pg=PR4|access-date=29 July 2010|year=2008|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-45666-1|pages=44}}</ref> while independent estimates place the numbers upwards of 5,000 people, a majority of them pilgrims, including women and children.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Karim |first1=Afsir |title=Counter Terrorism, the Pakistan Factor |date=1991 |publisher=Lancer Publishers |isbn=978-8170621270 |pages=33–36 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QoqwQb38SQEC |access-date=10 June 2021 |archive-date=30 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330072148/https://books.google.com/books?id=QoqwQb38SQEC |url-status=live }}</ref> In addition, the [[Central Bureau of Investigation|CBI]] is considered responsible for seizing historical artefacts and manuscripts in the [[Sikh Reference Library]] before burning it down.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kaur|first1=Jaskaran|last2=Crossette|first2=Barbara|title=Twenty years of impunity: the November 1984 pogroms of Sikhs in India|page=16|url=http://ensaaf-org.jklaw.net/publications/reports/20years/20years-2nd.pdf|edition=2nd|year=2006|publisher=Ensaaf|location=Portland, OR|isbn=978-0-9787073-0-9|access-date=7 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119015130/http://ensaaf-org.jklaw.net/publications/reports/20years/20years-2nd.pdf|archive-date=19 January 2012|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=david>{{cite book| last = Westerlund| first = David| title = Questioning The Secular State: The Worldwide Resurgence of Religion in Politics.| publisher = C. Hurst & Co| year = 1996| page = 1276| isbn =978-1-85065-241-0 }}</ref> Four months after the operation, on 31 October 1984, Indira Gandhi was assassinated by two of her Sikh bodyguards in what is viewed as an act of vengeance. Following her assassination, more than 17,000 Sikhs were killed in the [[1984 anti-Sikh riots]].<ref name="SAGE">{{cite book|title=The SAGE Encyclopedia of War: Social Science Perspectives|quote=around 17,000 Sikhs were burned alive or killed|first=Paul|last=Joseph|page=433|publisher = SAGE|isbn=978-1483359885|date=11 October 2016}}</ref>

==Geography==
Amritsar is located at {{Coord|31.63|N|74.87|E}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fallingrain.com/world/IN/23/Amritsar.html |title=Falling Rain Genomics, Inc – Amritsar |publisher=Fallingrain.com |access-date=17 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120811181822/http://www.fallingrain.com/world/IN/23/Amritsar.html |archive-date=11 August 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> with an average elevation of {{Convert|234|m|abbr=}} in the Majha region of the state of Punjab in North India and lies about {{Convert|15|mi|abbr=}} east of the border with [[Pakistan]]. Administrative towns includes [[Ajnala, India|Ajnala]], [[Attari]], [[Beas City|Beas]], [[Budha Theh]], [[Chheharta Sahib]], [[Jandiala Guru]], [[Majitha]], [[Rajasansi]], [[Ramdass]], [[Rayya (Punjab)|Rayya]], [[Verka Town]] and [[Baba Bakala]].{{Cn|date=May 2023}}

===Climate===
Typically for Northwestern India, Amritsar has a [[semi-arid climate#Hot semi-arid climates|hot semi-arid climate]] (Köppen ''BSh'') bordering on a monsoon-influenced [[humid subtropical climate]] (''Cwa''). Temperatures in Amritsar usually range from {{Convert|-1 to 45|C|F}}. It experiences four primary seasons: winter (December to March), when temperatures can drop to {{convert|-1|C|F|0}}; summer (April to June), when temperatures can reach {{convert|45|C|F|0}}; monsoon (July to September); and post-monsoon (October to November). Annual rainfall is about {{convert|726.0|mm|in|1}}.<ref>{{cite web
| title = Amritsar Climate Normals 1981-2010
| url = http://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/1981-2010%20CLIM%20NORMALS%20(STATWISE).pdf#%5B%7B%22num%22%3A131%2C%22gen%22%3A0%7D%2C%7B%22name%22%3A%22Fit%22%7D%5D
| publisher = Indian Meteorological Department, Pune
| access-date = 31 March 2020
| archive-date = 5 February 2020
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200205040301/http://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/1981-2010%20CLIM%20NORMALS%20(STATWISE).pdf#%5B%7B%22num%22%3A131%2C%22gen%22%3A0%7D%2C%7B%22name%22%3A%22Fit%22%7D%5D
| url-status = live
}}</ref> The lowest recorded temperature is {{convert|-3.6|C|F}}, was recorded on 9 December 1996 and the highest temperature, {{convert|48.0|C|F|1}}, was recorded on 23 May 2013.<ref>{{cite web
| title = Amritsar Climate Normals 1981-2010
| url = http://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/1981-2010%20CLIM%20NORMALS%20(STATWISE).pdf#%5B%7B%22num%22%3A131%2C%22gen%22%3A0%7D%2C%7B%22name%22%3A%22Fit%22%7D%5D
| publisher = Indian Meteorological Department, Pune
| access-date = 31 March 2020
| archive-date = 5 February 2020
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200205040301/http://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/1981-2010%20CLIM%20NORMALS%20(STATWISE).pdf#%5B%7B%22num%22%3A131%2C%22gen%22%3A0%7D%2C%7B%22name%22%3A%22Fit%22%7D%5D
| url-status = live
}}</ref> The official weather station for the city is the [[Sri Guru Ram Dass Jee International Airport|civil aerodrome]] at [[Rajasansi]]. Weather records here date back to 15 November 1947.<ref>{{cite web |title=Amritsar Climate Data |publisher=India Meteorological Department |url=https://www.imd.gov.in/pages/city_weather_main.php?id=42182 |access-date=13 April 2026}}</ref>

{{Amritsar weatherbox}}Amritsar has been ranked 39th best "National Clean Air City" (under Category 1 >10L Population cities) in India according to 'Swachh Vayu Survekshan 2024 Results' <ref>{{Cite web |date= |title=7th September 2024 |url=https://prana.cpcb.gov.in/ncapServices/robust/fetchFilesFromDrive/Swachh_Vayu_Survekshan_2024_Result.pdf |website=Swachh Vayu Sarvekshan 2024}}</ref>

==Demographics==

{{see also|List of cities in Punjab and Chandigarh}}
{{Historical population
|align = center
| source = <ref name="censusindia1">{{cite web |url=http://www.populstat.info/Asia/indiat.htm |title=Historical Census of India |access-date=29 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130217053707/http://www.populstat.info/Asia/indiat.htm|archive-date=17 February 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dyson |first=Tim |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/3581/chapter/144864586 |title=A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day |date=27 September 2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780191867484 |pages=94–122 |chapter=6 Company and Crown: c.1821 to c.1871 |volume=1 |doi=10.1093/oso/9780198829058.003.0006}}</ref>
| 1868 | 133925
| 1871 | 136000
| 1881 | 151896
| 1891 | 136766
| 1901 | 162429
| 1911 | 152756
| 1921 | 160218
| 1931 | 264840
| 1941 | 391010
| 1951 | 336114
| 1961 | 390055
| 1971 | 454805
| 1981 | 594844
| 1991 | 708835
| 2001 | 979801
| 2011 | 1159227
}}

[[File:Hamandir Sahib (Golden Temple).jpg|thumb|The Golden Temple, in Amritsar, is the holiest site in Sikhism]]

In 1871–72, Amritsar was the 11th most populous city in British India with a population of 136,000 and had a larger population than Lahore (99,000).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dyson |first=Tim |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/3581/chapter/144864586 |title=A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day |date=27 September 2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780191867484 |pages=94–122 |chapter=6 Company and Crown: c.1821 to c.1871 |volume=1 |doi=10.1093/oso/9780198829058.003.0006}}</ref> As of the [[2011 census of India|2011 census]], Amritsar municipality had a population of 1,159,227.<ref name="districtcensus" /> The municipality had a [[human sex ratio|sex ratio]] of 884 females per 1,000 males and 119,592 (10.32%) of the population were under six years old, with the child sex ratio being 826 females per 1000 males.<ref name="districtcensus" /> Literacy was 83.81%; male literacy was 86.52% and female literacy was 80.76%.<ref name="districtcensus" /> The [[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes|scheduled caste]] population is 21.76%.

===Religion===
{{bar box
|title=Religion in Amritsar City (2011)<ref name="Religion"/>
|titlebar=#Fcd116
|left1=Religion
|right1=Percent
|float=left
|bars=
{{bar percent|[[Hinduism]]|darkorange|49.36}}
{{bar percent|[[Sikhism]]|darkkhaki|48.00}}
{{bar percent|[[Christianity]]|dodgerblue|1.23}}
{{bar percent|[[Islam in Punjab, India|Islam]]|green|0.51}}
{{bar percent|Other or not stated|black|0.90}}
}}

According to [[2011 Census of India]], [[Hinduism]] and [[Sikhism]] are the main religions of the Amritsar city followed by 49.36% and 48.00% of the population, respectively. Christianity is followed by 1.23% and Islam 0.51%. Around 0.9% of the population of the city stated 'No Particular Religion' or other religion.<ref name="Religion">{{cite web |title=Table C-01 Population by Religious Community: Punjab |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/11389/download/14502/DDW03C-01%20MDDS.XLS |website=censusindia.gov.in |publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]] |access-date=9 January 2024 |archive-date=14 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314224307/https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/11389/download/14502/DDW03C-01%20MDDS.XLS |url-status=live }}</ref>

Amritsar is the holiest city in Sikhism and about 30 million people visit it each year for pilgrimage.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Harmandir Sahib in Amritsar - Pilgrimage - GCSE Religious Studies Revision|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z3b42hv/revision/1 |access-date=5 January 2021 |work=BBC |language=en-GB|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210108193218/https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z3b42hv/revision/1 |archive-date=8 January 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |first1=Srishti |last1=Chaudhary |first2=Raphael |last2=Reichel |date=13 June 2023 |title=Amritsar: The Indian city where no one goes hungry |url=https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20230612-amritsar-the-indian-city-where-no-one-goes-hungry |work=BBC |access-date=15 June 2023 |archive-date=14 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230614182004/https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20230612-amritsar-the-indian-city-where-no-one-goes-hungry |url-status=live }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable collapsible sortable"
|+ Religious groups in Amritsar City (1868−2011){{efn|1881-1941: Data for the entirety of the town of Amritsar, which included Amritsar Municipality and Amritsar Cantonment.<ref name="Census1941"/>{{rp|32}}|name="Amritsar1881to1941"}}
! rowspan="2" |[[Religion in India|Religious]] group
! colspan="2" |1868<ref name="Census1868">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25057644 |jstor=saoa.crl.25057644 |access-date=23 June 2024 |title=Report on the census of the Punjab taken on 10th January, 1868. |year=1868 |pages=66 |last1=(India) |first1=Punjab }}</ref>
! colspan="2" |1881<ref name="Census1881">{{cite web |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25057656 |jstor=saoa.crl.25057656 |access-date=14 January 2024 |title=Census of India, 1881 Report on the Census of the Panjáb Taken on the 17th of February 1881, vol. I. |year=1881 |archive-date=15 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240115015937/https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25057656 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Census1881B">{{cite web |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25057657 |jstor=saoa.crl.25057657 |access-date=14 January 2024 |title=Census of India, 1881 Report on the Census of the Panjáb Taken on the 17th of February 1881, vol. II. |year=1881 |archive-date=15 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240115015938/https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25057657 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|520}}
! colspan="2" |1891<ref name="Census1891">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/site/SAOA/SouthAsiaOpenArchivesSAOA/CensusReports-1891-26575632/|title=Census of India, 1891 General Tables British Provinces and Feudatory States Vol I|access-date=17 January 2023|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117090448/https://www.jstor.org/site/SAOA/SouthAsiaOpenArchivesSAOA/CensusReports-1891-26575632/|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|68}}
! colspan="2" |1901<ref name="Census1901">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/site/SAOA/SouthAsiaOpenArchivesSAOA/CensusReports-1901-26575826/|title=Census of India, 1901 Volume I-A India Part II-Tables|access-date=17 January 2023|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117090447/https://www.jstor.org/site/SAOA/SouthAsiaOpenArchivesSAOA/CensusReports-1901-26575826/|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|44}}
! colspan="2" |1911<ref name="Census1911">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/site/SAOA/SouthAsiaOpenArchivesSAOA/CensusReports-1911-26575903/|title=Census of India, 1911 Volume XIV Punjab Part II Tables|access-date=17 January 2023|archive-date=7 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221007223437/https://www.jstor.org/site/SAOA/SouthAsiaOpenArchivesSAOA/CensusReports-1911-26575903/|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|20}}
! colspan="2" |1921<ref name="Census1921">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/site/SAOA/SouthAsiaOpenArchivesSAOA/CensusReports-1921-26575918/|title=Census of India, 1921 Volume XV Punjab and Delhi Part II Tables|access-date=17 January 2023|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117090446/https://www.jstor.org/site/SAOA/SouthAsiaOpenArchivesSAOA/CensusReports-1921-26575918/|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|23}}
! colspan="2" |1931<ref name="Census1931">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/site/SAOA/SouthAsiaOpenArchivesSAOA/CensusReports-1931-26575928/|title=Census of India, 1931 Volume XVII Punjab Part II Tables|access-date=17 January 2023|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117090447/https://www.jstor.org/site/SAOA/SouthAsiaOpenArchivesSAOA/CensusReports-1931-26575928/|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|26}}
! colspan="2" |1941<ref name="Census1941">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/site/south-asia-open-archives/saoa/censusofindia1941-28216851/|title=CENSUS OF INDIA, 1941 VOLUME VI PUNJAB|access-date=17 January 2023|archive-date=11 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221011130147/https://www.jstor.org/site/south-asia-open-archives/saoa/censusofindia1941-28216851/|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|32}}
! colspan="2" |2011<ref name="Religion"/>
|-
![[Population (human biology)|{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}]]
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
|-
| [[Islam]] [[File:Star and Crescent.svg|15px]]
| 61,193
| {{Percentage | 61193 | 133925 | 2 }}
| 75,891
| {{Percentage | 75891 | 151896 | 2 }}
| 63,366
| {{Percentage | 63366 | 136766 | 2 }}
| 77,795
| {{Percentage | 77795 | 162429 | 2 }}
| 71,851
| {{Percentage | 71851 | 152756 | 2 }}
| 71,180
| {{Percentage | 71180 | 160218 | 2 }}
| 132,362
| {{Percentage | 132362 | 264840 | 2 }}
| 184,055
| {{Percentage | 184055 | 391010 | 2 }}
| 5,862
| {{Percentage | 5862 | 1159227 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Hinduism]] [[File:Om.svg|15px]]
| 49,115
| {{Percentage | 49115 | 133925 | 2 }}
| 61,274
| {{Percentage | 61274 | 151896 | 2 }}
| 56,652
| {{Percentage | 56652 | 136766 | 2 }}
| 65,117
| {{Percentage | 65117 | 162429 | 2 }}
| 58,720
| {{Percentage | 58720 | 152756 | 2 }}
| 65,313
| {{Percentage | 65313 | 160218 | 2 }}
| 98,001{{efn|name=ad-dharmi|1931-1941: Including [[Ad-Dharmi]]s}}
| {{Percentage | 98001 | 264840 | 2 }}
| 144,522{{efn|name=ad-dharmi}}
| {{Percentage | 144522 | 391010 | 2 }}
| 572,189
| {{Percentage | 572189 |1159227 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Sikhism]] [[File:Khanda.svg|15px]]
| 19,267
| {{Percentage | 19267 | 133925 | 2 }}
| 13,876
| {{Percentage | 13876 | 151896 | 2 }}
| 15,751
| {{Percentage | 15751 | 136766 | 2 }}
| 17,860
| {{Percentage | 17860 | 162429 | 2 }}
| 20,357
| {{Percentage | 20357 | 152756 | 2 }}
| 21,478
| {{Percentage | 21478 | 160218 | 2 }}
| 32,009
| {{Percentage | 32009 | 264840 | 2 }}
| 58,779
| {{Percentage | 58779 | 391010 | 2 }}
| 556,431
| {{Percentage | 556431 | 1159227 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Christianity]] [[File:Christian cross.svg|15px]]
| 130
| {{Percentage | 130 | 133925 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 848
| {{Percentage | 848 | 136766 | 2 }}
| 1,104
| {{Percentage | 1104 | 162429 | 2 }}
| 1,128
| {{Percentage | 1128 | 152756 | 2 }}
| 1,446
| {{Percentage | 1446 | 160218 | 2 }}
| 1,819
| {{Percentage | 1819 | 264840 | 2 }}
| 2,611
| {{Percentage | 2611 | 391010 | 2 }}
| 14,280
| {{Percentage | 14280 | 1159227 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Buddhism]] [[File:Dharma_Wheel_(2).svg|15px]]
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 133925 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 136766 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 162429 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 152756 | 2 }}
| 5
| {{Percentage | 5 | 160218 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 264840 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 773
| {{Percentage | 773 | 1159227 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Jainism]] [[File:Jain_Prateek_Chihna.svg|15px]]
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 9
| {{Percentage | 9 | 151896 | 2 }}
| 143
| {{Percentage | 143 | 136766 | 2 }}
| 532
| {{Percentage | 532 | 162429 | 2 }}
| 652
| {{Percentage | 652 | 152756 | 2 }}
| 738
| {{Percentage | 738 | 160218 | 2 }}
| 604
| {{Percentage | 604 | 264840 | 2 }}
| 974
| {{Percentage | 974 | 391010 | 2 }}
| 1,143
| {{Percentage | 1143 | 1159227 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Zoroastrianism]] [[File:Faravahar.svg|15px]]
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 5
| {{Percentage | 5 | 136766 | 2 }}
| 19
| {{Percentage | 19 | 162429 | 2 }}
| 48
| {{Percentage | 48 | 152756 | 2 }}
| 58
| {{Percentage | 58 | 160218 | 2 }}
| 41
| {{Percentage | 41 | 264840 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
|-
| [[Judaism]] [[File:Star_of_David.svg|15px]]
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 136766 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 152756 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 160218 | 2 }}
| 4
| {{Percentage | 4 | 264840 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
|-
| Others
| 4,220
| {{Percentage | 4220 | 133925 | 2 }}
| 846
| {{Percentage | 846 | 151896 | 2 }}
| 1
| {{Percentage | 1 | 136766 | 2 }}
| 2
| {{Percentage | 2 | 162429 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 152756 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 160218 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 264840 | 2 }}
| 79
| {{Percentage | 79 | 391010 | 2 }}
| 8,549
| {{Percentage | 8549 | 1159227 | 2 }}
|-
! Total population
! 133,925
! {{Percentage | 133925 | 133925 | 2 }}
! 151,896
! {{Percentage | 151896 | 151896 | 2 }}
! 136,766
! {{Percentage | 136766 | 136766 | 2 }}
! 162,429
! {{Percentage | 162429 | 162429 | 2 }}
! 152,756
! {{Percentage | 152756 | 152756 | 2 }}
! 160,218
! {{Percentage | 160218 | 160218 | 2 }}
! 264,840
! {{Percentage | 264840 | 264840 | 2 }}
! 391,010
! {{Percentage | 391010 | 391010 | 2 }}
! 1,159,227
! {{Percentage | 1159227 | 1159227 | 2 }}
|}

{{Pie chart
|thumb = right
|caption = Languages spoken in Amritsar city (2011)<ref name="languages"/>
|label1 = [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] |value1 = 91.12 |color1 = pink
|label2 = [[Hindi]] |value2 = 7.90 |color2 = orange
|label3 = Others |value3 = 0.98 |color3 = grey
}}

At the time of the 2011 census, 91.12% of the population spoke [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] and 7.90% [[Hindi]] as their first language.<ref name="languages">{{cite web |title=Table C-16 Population by Mother Tongue: Punjab (Town) |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/10229/download/13341/DDW-C16-TOWN-STMT-MDDS-0300.XLSX |website=censusindia.gov.in |publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]] |access-date=9 January 2024 |archive-date=23 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323160934/https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/10229/download/13341/DDW-C16-TOWN-STMT-MDDS-0300.XLSX |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Government and politics==
===Politics===
The city is part of the [[Amritsar (Lok Sabha constituency)]].

{|class=wikitable sortable style=width:65%;
! style="width: 15%; font-size:75%" |Constituency number
! style="width: 25%;" | Constituency name
! style="width: 15%;" |Reserved for ([[Scheduled Castes|SC]]/None)
! style="width: 30%;" |Electors (2017)<ref name=election2017>{{cite web |url=http://ceopunjab.nic.in/English/Elections/SE/VS2017/D03-Electors%20and%20Polling%20Stations%20VS%202017.pdf |title=Electors and Polling Stations - VS 2017 |access-date=24 June 2021 |archive-date=10 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200110074310/http://ceopunjab.nic.in/English/Elections/SE/VS2017/D03-Electors%20and%20Polling%20Stations%20VS%202017.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>{{update after|2022|02}}
! style="width: 15%;" |District<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ceopunjab.nic.in/English/lpac.aspx |title=List of Parliamentary Constituencies and Assembly Constituencies in the State of Punjab as determined by the delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituency notification dated 19th June, 2006 |date=19 June 2006 |access-date=24 June 2021 |archive-date=26 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210626090207/http://ceopunjab.nic.in/English/lpac.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
|15
|[[Amritsar North Assembly Constituency|Amritsar North]]
|None
|{{formatnum:175908}}
|[[Amritsar (Lok Sabha constituency)|Amritsar]]
|-
|16
|[[Amritsar West Assembly Constituency|Amritsar West]]
|SC
|{{formatnum:179766}}
|[[Amritsar (Lok Sabha constituency)|Amritsar]]
|-
|17
|[[Amritsar Central Assembly Constituency|Amritsar Central]]
|None
|{{formatnum:135954}}
|[[Amritsar (Lok Sabha constituency)|Amritsar]]
|-
|18
|[[Amritsar East Assembly Constituency|Amritsar East]]
|None
|{{formatnum:153629}}
|[[Amritsar (Lok Sabha constituency)|Amritsar]]
|-
|19
|[[Amritsar South Assembly Constituency|Amritsar South]]
|None
|{{formatnum:148809}}
|[[Amritsar (Lok Sabha constituency)|Amritsar]]
|-
|20
|[[Attari Assembly Constituency|Attari]]
|SC
|{{formatnum:173543}}
|[[Amritsar (Lok Sabha constituency)|Amritsar]]
|}

=== Amritsar Municipal Corporation ===
Amritsar was notified as a city on 29 March 1977 under the Punjab Municipal Corporation Act, 1976, following which the Municipal Corporation replaced the earlier Municipal Committee.

The city’s first local administrative body was established as a Town Committee in 1858, which was later upgraded to a Municipal Committee in 1868.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Joshi |first=S.N. |date=1988 |title=Priorities of Municipal Committee, Amritsar (1868 - 1873) |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44148413 |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=49 |pages=372–377 |issn=2249-1937}}</ref> The first election to the Municipal Corporation was conducted in 1991, when the city was divided into 50 wards. Sh. O. P. Soni was elected Mayor<ref>{{Cite web |last=PTI |date=5 February 2022 |title=From Amritsar's first Mayor to Deputy CM, OP Soni eyeing sixth term as MLA |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2022/Feb/05/from-amritsars-first-mayor-to-deputy-cm-op-soni-eyeing-sixth-term-as-mla-2415675.html |access-date=21 January 2026 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> on 25 June 1991, with S. Raminder Singh Bularia as Senior Deputy Mayor and Sh. Subash Sharma as Deputy Mayor. This elected body remained in office until its dissolution on 18 June 1996.

Subsequently, the number of wards was increased to 60, and elections were held on 28 May 1997. Sh. Subash Sharma, S. Lakha Singh, and Kumari Raj Sharma were elected as Mayor, Senior Deputy Mayor, and Deputy Mayor respectively. Following the resignation of Sh. Subash Sharma, Sh. Brij Mohan Kapur was elected Mayor on 18 October 2000.

The third municipal election took place on 27 April 2002, with the mayoral election held on 15 June 2002. Sh. Sunil Dutti, Sh. Sawinder Singh, and Sh. Om Parkash were elected as Mayor, Senior Deputy Mayor, and Deputy Mayor respectively.

Prior to the fourth municipal election, the number of wards was increased to 65. Elections were held on 8 August 2007, and the election for the office of Mayor took place on 6 September 2007. Sh. Shwait Malik was elected Mayor, with Sh. Ajaybir Pal Singh Randhawa as Senior Deputy Mayor and Sh. Kashmir Singh as Deputy Mayor.

To enhance representation, 33 per cent of seats in the Municipal Corporation are reserved for women on a rotational basis. Seats are also reserved for Scheduled Castes and Backward Classes in accordance with government policy.

The present Municipal House was constituted on 19 September 2012. Sh. Bakshi Ram Arora was elected Mayor, Sh. Avtar Singh (Trucka Wala) as Senior Deputy Mayor, and Sh. Avinash Jolly as Deputy Mayor.

==== List Of Mayors ====
The Mayor of Amritsar is the elected head of the Municipal Corporation of Amritsar and is regarded as the first citizen of the city. The position is primarily ceremonial, as executive authority rests with the Municipal Commissioner. The mayor represents the city in official functions and presides over meetings and deliberations of the Municipal Corporation, ensuring orderly conduct and upholding the dignity of the office.
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+
!S. No.
!Name
!Took Office
!Left Office
!Tenure
!Party
!Ward No.
!Reference
|-
|1
|[[Om Parkash Soni|Om Prakash Soni]]
|25 June 1991
|18 June 1996
|4 years- 359 days
|INC
|
|<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Amritsar Municipal Corporation |url=https://www.amritsarcorp.com/historyMCA.htm}}</ref>
|-
|2
|Subash Sharma
|28 May 1997
|18 October 2000
|3 years- 143 days
|BJP
|
|<ref name=":5" />
|-
|3
|Brij Mohan Kapur
|18 October 2000
|27 April 2002
|1 year- 191 days
|BJP
|
|<ref name=":5" />
|-
|4
|[[Sunil Dutti]]
|15 June 2002
|2007
|5 years
|INC
|
|<ref name=":5" />
|-
|5
|[[Shwait Malik]]
|6 September 2007
|2012
|5 years
|BJP
|
|<ref name=":5" />
|-
|6
|Bakshi Ram Arora
|19 September 2012
|2017
|5 years
|BJP
|
|<ref name=":5" />
|-
|7
|Karamjit Singh Rintu
|23 January 2018
|27 January 2025
|7 years- 361 days
|AAP
|
|<ref name=":5" />
|-
|8
|Jatinder Singh
|27 January 2025
|Incumbent
|359 days
|AAP
|26
|<ref name=":5" />
|}

==== Current Members ====
The Amritsar Municipal Corporation consists of 85 councillors, who are directly elected for a five-year term. The council is headed by a mayor. The most recent municipal elections were conducted on 21 December 2024. Jatinder Singh of the [[Aam Aadmi Party]] currently serves as the Mayor of Amritsar. The positions of Senior Deputy Mayor and Deputy Mayor are held by Priyanka Sharma and Anita Devi respectively, both of whom are members of the Aam Aadmi Party.
{| class="wikitable"
|+
! colspan="4" |Mayor- Jatinder Singh
!
|-
! colspan="4" |Senior Deputy Mayor- Priyanka Sharma
!
|-
! colspan="4" |Junior Deputy Mayor- Anita Rani
!
|-
!Ward Number
!Name of Councillor
!Party
!Remarks
!
|-
|1
|Kuljit Kaur
| rowspan="2" |[[Aam Aadmi Party]]
|
|
|-
|2
|Amarjit Singh
|
|
|-
|3
|Navdeep Kaur
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|
|
|-
|4
|Mandeep Singh Aujla
|[[Aam Aadmi Party]]
|Elected as independent councilor; later joined AAP<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=Times of India. Retrieved 14 January 2025 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/in-amritsar-mayoral-election-aap-gains-ground-despite-having-fewer-councillors-than-factionalism-hit-congress/articleshow/117243310.cms}}</ref>
|
|-
|5
|Kriti Arora
| rowspan="2" |[[Bharatiya Janata Party|Bhartiya Janta Party]]
|
|
|-
|6
|Amandeep Aery
|
|
|-
|7
|Kajal Devi
| rowspan="2" |[[Aam Aadmi Party]]
|
|
|-
|8
|Balwinder Singh
|
|
|-
|9
|Shobit Kaur
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|
|
|-
|10
|Shruti Vij
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party|Bhartiya Janta Party]]
|
|
|-
|11
|Priyanka Sharma
|[[Aam Aadmi Party]]
|
|
|-
|12
|Narinder Singh
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|
|
|-
|13
|Gurwinder Kaur
|[[Aam Aadmi Party]]
|
|
|-
|14
|Rajkanwal Preetpal Singh Sandhu
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|
|
|-
|15
|Rama Devi
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party|Bhartiya Janta Party]]
|
|
|-
|16
|Sandeep Sharma
| rowspan="3" |[[Indian National Congress]]
|
|
|-
|17
|Anita Kumari
|
|
|-
|18
|Navdeep Singh
|
|
|-
|19
|Navjeet Kaur
|[[Aam Aadmi Party]]
|
|
|-
|20
|Gurinder Singh
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|
|
|-
|21
|Kulwinder Kaur
|[[Aam Aadmi Party]]
|
|
|-
|22
|Sujinder Bidlan
| rowspan="4" |[[Indian National Congress]]
|
|
|-
|23
|Kulwinder Kaur
|
|
|-
|24
|Satnam Singh Sabha
|
|
|-
|25
|Monika Sharma
|
|
|-
|26
|Jatinder Singh
| rowspan="2" |[[Aam Aadmi Party]]
|
|
|-
|27
|Preet Kaur
|Elected as [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]] councilor, later joined AAP<ref name=":6" />
|
|-
|28
|Saurabh Madaan Mithu
| rowspan="2" |[[Indian National Congress]]
|
|
|-
|29
|Shweta Devi
|
|
|-
|30
|Avtar Singh
|[[Shiromani Akali Dal]]
|
|
|-
|31
|Sukhbir Kaur
| rowspan="3" |[[Aam Aadmi Party]]
|
|
|-
|32
|Jagmeet Singh Ghulli
|Elected as independent councilor; later joined AAP<ref name=":6" />
|
|-
|33
|Ashnoor Kaur
|
|
|-
|34
|Amritpal Singh
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|
|
|-
|35
|Amarji Kaur
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|
|
|-
|36
|Ashok Kumar
| rowspan="5" |[[Aam Aadmi Party]]
|
|
|-
|37
|Gurjit Kaur
|
|
|-
|38
|Bhagwant Singh
|
|
|-
|39
|Manpreet Kaur
|
|
|-
|40
|Gurwinder Singh
|
|
|-
|41
|Sukhwinder Kaur
| rowspan="2" |[[Indian National Congress]]
|
|
|-
|42
|Gagandeep Singh
|
|
|-
|43
|Inderjit Singh
|[[Shiromani Akali Dal]]
|
|
|-
|44
|Jaswinder Singh Gill
| rowspan="3" |[[Indian National Congress]]
|
|
|-
|45
|Sukhbir Kaur
|
|
|-
|46
|Navpreet Singh
|
|
|-
|47
|Kiranjit Kaur
|[[Aam Aadmi Party]]
|
|
|-
|48
|Ashwani Kumar
| rowspan="2" |[[Indian National Congress]]
|
|
|-
|49
|Ritu Kundra
|
|
|-
|50
|Ritu Devi
|[[Aam Aadmi Party]]
|
|
|-
|51
|Sarita Devi
| rowspan="5" |[[Indian National Congress]]
|
|
|-
|52
|Vikas Soni
|
|
|-
|53
|Komal Shah
|
|
|-
|54
|Amit Kumar
|
|
|-
|55
|Kulbir Kaur
|
|
|-
|56
|Varinder Vicky Datta
|[[Aam Aadmi Party]]
|
|
|-
|57
|Manju Mehra Pappal
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|
|
|-
|58
|Jarnail Singh
|[[Aam Aadmi Party]]
|
|
|-
|59
|Gurmeet Kaur
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|
|
|-
|60
|Gaurav Gill
| rowspan="2" |[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|
|
|-
|61
|Rajni Devi
|
|
|-
|62
|Sameer Dutta
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|
|
|-
|63
|Usha Rani
|[[Aam Aadmi Party]]
|Elected as independent councilor; later joined AAP<ref name=":6" />
|
|-
|64
|Nitu Tangri
|[[Independent politician|Independent]]
|
|
|-
|65
|Neeraj Chaudhary
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|
|
|-
|66
|Virat Devgan
| rowspan="2" |[[Aam Aadmi Party]]
|
|
|-
|67
|Anita Devi
|Elected as independent councilor; later joined AAP<ref name=":6" />
|
|-
|68
|Vikas Gill
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|
|
|-
|69
|Gurpreet Kaur
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|
|
|-
|70
|Vijay Kumar Bhagat
| rowspan="2" |[[Aam Aadmi Party]]
|Elected as independent councilor; later joined AAP<ref name=":6" />
|
|-
|71
|Surjit Kaur
|
|
|-
|72
|Avtar Singh
| rowspan="2" |[[Indian National Congress]]
|Elected as [[Indian National Congress|INC]] councilor; later joined AAP, then returned to INC<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |title=The Tribune. Retrieved 19 August 2025. |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/amritsar/fresh-setback-to-cong-as-two-party-councillors-join-aap/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Tribune. Retrieved 20 August 2025. |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/amritsar/councillor-does-u-turn-rejoins-cong-hours-after-leaving-party/}}</ref>
|
|-
|73
|Kuldeep Singh
|
|
|-
|74
|Paramjeet Kaur Dhillon
|[[Shiromani Akali Dal]]
|
|
|-
|75
|Kashmir Singh
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|
|
|-
|76
|Sukhbir Singh
|[[Aam Aadmi Party]]
|
|
|-
|77
|Sunita Devi
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|
|
|-
|78
|Anita Sharma
| rowspan="2" |[[Aam Aadmi Party]]
|Elected as independent councilor; later joined AAP<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Tribune. Retrieved 20 August 2025. |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/amritsar/another-independent-councillor-joins-aap/}}</ref>
|
|-
|79
|Shivali Devi
|Elected as [[Indian National Congress|INC]] councilor; later joined AAP<ref name=":7" />
|
|-
|80
|Raman Kumar
| rowspan="2" |[[Indian National Congress]]
|
|
|-
|81
|Nisha Dhillon
|
|
|-
|82
|Sandeep Singh
|[[Aam Aadmi Party]]
|
|
|-
|83
|Nagwant Kaur
|[[Shiromani Akali Dal]]
|
|
|-
|84
|Rashpal Singh
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|
|
|-
|85
|Natasha Gill
|[[Aam Aadmi Party]]
|Elected as independent councilor; later joined AAP<ref name=":6" />
|
|}

==== Administrative setup ====
Source:<ref>{{Cite web |title=Administrative Setup {{!}} District Amritsar, Government of Punjab {{!}} India |url=https://amritsar.nic.in/administrative-setup/ |access-date=19 December 2025 |language=en-US}}</ref>

===== Tehsils =====
Amritsar district is divided into 6 Tehsils:
# [[Ajnala, India|Ajnala]]
# Amritsar-I
# Amritsar-II
# [[Baba Bakala]]
# [[Majitha]]
# Lopoke

===== Blocks =====
Amritsar district is divided into 10 blocks
# [[Ajnala, India|Ajnala]]
# [[Attari]]
# [[Chogawan]]
# [[Harsha Chhina|Harsha China]]
# [[Jandiala Guru]]
# [[Majitha]]
# [[Rayya, Amritsar|Rayya]]
# Tarsika
# [[Verka Town|Verka]]
# Ramdas

===Civic utilities===
==== Medical facilities ====
* [[Dr. Vidyasagar Institute of Mental Health]], a government mental hospital<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/offtrack/story/20050523-psychiatrist-turns-run-down-mental-hospital-in-amritsar-into-institute-of-repute-787585-2005-05-23|title=Psychiatrist turns run-down mental hospital in Amritsar into institute of repute|last=Vinayak|first=Ramesh|website=India Today|date=23 May 2005|access-date=14 January 2020|archive-date=13 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200113093710/https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/offtrack/story/20050523-psychiatrist-turns-run-down-mental-hospital-in-amritsar-into-institute-of-repute-787585-2005-05-23|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Government Medical College, Amritsar|Government Medical College]]
* [[Sri Guru Ram Das University of Health Sciences, Sri Amritsar|Sri Guru Ram Das University of Health Sciences]]

== Economy ==
{{main|Economy of Amritsar}}

Amritsar is the second-largest city and district of Punjab. It is also one of the fastest-growing cities of Punjab.{{cn|date=August 2023}} In the mid-1980s the city was famous for its textile industry. Amritsar's trade and industry faced a blow during militancy period in 1980s, but there are still many textile mills, knitting units and embroidery factories functional in the city. It is famous for its pashmina shawls, woolen clothes, blankets, etc. Among handicrafts, the craft of the [[Thathera]]s of [[Jandiala Guru]] in [[Amritsar district]] got enlisted on [[UNESCO]]'s [[UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists|List of Intangible Cultural Heritage]] in 2014,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/traditional-brass-and-copper-craft-of-utensil-making-among-the-thatheras-of-jandiala-guru-punjab-india-00845|title=UNESCO - Traditional brass and copper craft of utensil making among the Thatheras of Jandiala Guru, Punjab, India|website=ich.unesco.org|language=en|access-date=1 July 2019|archive-date=7 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211007132215/https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/traditional-brass-and-copper-craft-of-utensil-making-among-the-thatheras-of-jandiala-guru-punjab-india-00845|url-status=live}}</ref> and the effort to revive this craft under the umbrella of Project Virasat is among India's biggest government-sponsored craft revival programs.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/age-old-craft-of-thatheras-to-get-new-life/articleshow/64715430.cms|title=Jandiala utensils: Age-old craft of thatheras to get new life|date=24 June 2018|first1=Yudhvir|last1=Rana|work=The Times of India|language=en|access-date=1 July 2019|archive-date=2 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190702083822/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/age-old-craft-of-thatheras-to-get-new-life/articleshow/64715430.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> Tourism and hospitality have recently become the backbone of local economy due to heavy tourist arrivals. Hundreds of small and some large hotels have sprung up to cater to the increased tourist inflow. Restaurants, taxi operators, local shopkeepers have all benefited from the tourist boom.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}

==Tourism==
{{main|Tourism in Amritsar}}

{{div col|colwidth=26em}}
* [[Golden Temple]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/asia/india/articles/real-marigold-hotel-selina-scott-india/|title=The Real Marigold Hotel: What a month in India taught me about the country's poverty, history and serenity|work=The Telegraph|access-date=31 July 2018|language=en-GB|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180731150319/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/asia/india/articles/real-marigold-hotel-selina-scott-india/|archive-date=31 July 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> and Heritage Street<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/amritsars-heritage-street-in-a-shambles/articleshow/65076282.cms|title='Amritsar's Heritage Street in a shambles'|work=The Times of India|access-date=31 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180815120604/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/amritsars-heritage-street-in-a-shambles/articleshow/65076282.cms|archive-date=15 August 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
*[[Khalsa College, Amritsar|Khalsa College]]
*[[Durgiana Temple|Durgiana Mandir]] and Bada Hanuman Mandir<ref>{{Cite book|last=Raj|first=Rishi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rn-DDwAAQBAJ&q=durgiana+temple&pg=PP15|title=Jallianwala Bagh and Wagah Border|date=January 2020|publisher=Prabhat Prakashan|language=en}}</ref>
*Mata Lal Devi Mandir, Model Town<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Minahan|first1=Robert|last2=Mandir|first2=Allen S.|date=March 2010|title=Letters|journal=Spine|volume=35|issue=6|pages=720–721|doi=10.1097/brs.0b013e3181d32398|pmid=24736511|issn=0362-2436|doi-access=free}}</ref>
*Shri Ram Tirath and [[Bhagwan Valmiki Tirath Sthal|Valmiki Tirath]]<ref>{{Cite web|last=Pioneer|first=The|title=Punjab to transform 30 places as tourist attraction centers|url=https://www.dailypioneer.com/2018/state-editions/punjab-to-transform-30-places-as-tourist-attraction-centers.html|access-date=8 February 2021|website=The Pioneer|language=en|archive-date=28 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210928135436/https://www.dailypioneer.com/2018/state-editions/punjab-to-transform-30-places-as-tourist-attraction-centers.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
*Shivala Bagh Bhaiyan<ref>{{Cite book|last=Singh|first=Fauja|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H7ABAAAAMAAJ&q=Shivala+Amritsar|title=The City of Amritsar: A Study of Historical, Cultural, Social, and Economic Aspects|date=1978|publisher=Oriental Publishers & Distributors|language=en}}</ref>
* Punjab State War Heroes' Memorial & Museum<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/punjab/amritsar-war-memorial-s-kargil-gallery-to-open-on-july-15/story-MGamGdZn2WfggMUVwAlYEP.html|title=Amritsar: War memorial's Kargil gallery to be thrown open on July 15|date=14 June 2018|work=hindustan times|access-date=31 July 2018|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180730235147/https://www.hindustantimes.com/punjab/amritsar-war-memorial-s-kargil-gallery-to-open-on-july-15/story-MGamGdZn2WfggMUVwAlYEP.html|archive-date=30 July 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Sadda Pind<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/amritsar/-sadda-pind-free-entry-ticket-for-meritorious-students/598986.html|title=Sadda Pind: Free entry ticket for meritorious students|date=1 June 2018|work=The Tribune|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180731183559/https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/amritsar/-sadda-pind-free-entry-ticket-for-meritorious-students/598986.html|archive-date=31 July 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/punjab/heritage-project-know-real-punjab-at-sadda-pind/story-J6NOlN55BX4FIvED8TTEyO.html|title=Heritage project: Know real Punjab at 'Sadda Pind'|date=23 October 2016|work=hindustan times|access-date=31 July 2018|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180731183512/https://www.hindustantimes.com/punjab/heritage-project-know-real-punjab-at-sadda-pind/story-J6NOlN55BX4FIvED8TTEyO.html|archive-date=31 July 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Urban Haat Food Street<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/punjab/as-punjab-govt-gears-up-to-open-lahore-like-food-street-in-amritsar-no-takers-for-existing-one/story-SoUktiQq5G1qVyScHzn4PL.html|title=As Punjab govt gears up to open Lahore-like food street in Amritsar, no takers for existing one|date=26 February 2018|work=hindustan times|access-date=31 July 2018|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180731213147/https://www.hindustantimes.com/punjab/as-punjab-govt-gears-up-to-open-lahore-like-food-street-in-amritsar-no-takers-for-existing-one/story-SoUktiQq5G1qVyScHzn4PL.html|archive-date=31 July 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Gobindgarh Fort]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.india.com/news/india/punjab-18th-century-gobindgarh-fort-thrown-open-to-the-public-after-completion-of-its-restoration-work-1984869/|title=18th century Gobindgarh Fort thrown open to public after completion of its restoration work|last=Dangwal|first=Sandhya|date=2 April 2017|work=India.com|access-date=31 July 2018|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180731183410/http://www.india.com/news/india/punjab-18th-century-gobindgarh-fort-thrown-open-to-the-public-after-completion-of-its-restoration-work-1984869/|archive-date=31 July 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Ram Bagh Palace]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/amritsar/asi-lifts-photography-ban-tourists-cheer/621657.html|title=ASI lifts photography ban, tourists cheer|last=Bagga|first=Neeraj|date=16 July 2018|work=The Tribune|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180731183623/https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/amritsar/asi-lifts-photography-ban-tourists-cheer/621657.html|archive-date=31 July 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> and
**Maharaja Ranjit Singh Museum
* [[Wagah]] border<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/pune/crowd-heads-for-wagah-border-on-long-independence-day-weekend/articleshow/59981252.cms|title=Crowd heads for Wagah border on long Independence Day weekend|work=The Times of India|access-date=31 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180815120615/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/pune/crowd-heads-for-wagah-border-on-long-independence-day-weekend/articleshow/59981252.cms|archive-date=15 August 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Gurudwara Shaheed Ganj Sahib
* [[Partition Museum]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/arts-culture/the-partition-museum-opening-up-about-the-pain-1.694671|title=The Partition Museum: Opening up about the pain|work=The National|access-date=31 July 2018|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180731183631/https://www.thenational.ae/arts-culture/the-partition-museum-opening-up-about-the-pain-1.694671|archive-date=31 July 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.asianage.com/india/all-india/260218/tales-of-47-move-trudeau-at-partition-museum.html|title=Tales of '47 move Trudeau at Partition Museum|date=26 February 2018|work=The Asian Age|access-date=31 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180731213243/http://www.asianage.com/india/all-india/260218/tales-of-47-move-trudeau-at-partition-museum.html|archive-date=31 July 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Jallianwala Bagh]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/punjab/shaheed-udham-singh-s-10-foot-high-statue-to-be-inaugurated-at-jallianwala-bagh-on-march-13/story-tegw9gevQk1G66594NlAlJ.html|title=Shaheed Udham Singh's 10-foot high statue to be inaugurated at Jallianwala Bagh on March 13|date=10 March 2018|work=hindustan times|access-date=31 July 2018|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180731183411/https://www.hindustantimes.com/punjab/shaheed-udham-singh-s-10-foot-high-statue-to-be-inaugurated-at-jallianwala-bagh-on-march-13/story-tegw9gevQk1G66594NlAlJ.html|archive-date=31 July 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Pul Kanjri]]
* [[VR Ambarsar]], Circular Road
*[[Mall of Amritsar]], near Hyatt
*[[Jang-e-Azadi Memorial]] near [[Kartarpur, India]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/cm-opens-second-phase-of-jang-e-azadi-memorial-at-kartarpur/articleshow/63193135.cms|title=Amarinder Singh opens second phase of Jang-e-Azadi memorial at Kartarpur|work=The Times of India|access-date=31 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180825220232/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/cm-opens-second-phase-of-jang-e-azadi-memorial-at-kartarpur/articleshow/63193135.cms|archive-date=25 August 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
{{div col end}}

==Transport==
===Air===
[[File:Sri Guru Ram Dass Jee International Airport, Amritsar.jpg|thumb|[[Sri Guru Ram Das Ji International Airport]]]]
Amritsar hosts [[Sri Guru Ram Das Ji International Airport]]. The airport is connected to other parts of India and other countries with direct international flights to cities and is the 12th busiest airport in the country in terms of international traffic.<ref>{{cite tweet|user=networkthoughts|number=1223996410070228999|title=Top 20 airports in #India by passenger traffic in 2019 International, Domestic and Total|date=2 February 2020|accessdate=22 January 2021}}</ref> It serves Amritsar and several other districts in Punjab and neighbouring states.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}

===Rail===
[[Amritsar Junction railway station]] is the main station serving Amritsar. It is the busiest railway station in Indian state of Punjab and one of the highest revenue-generating station of [[Northern Railways]]. Due to high traffic at the [[Amritsar Junction railway station]], [[Indian Railways]] has planned to develop two satellite stations-Chheharta and Bhagtanwala, in order to decongest traffic at this station. As many as 6 trains would be shifted to Chheharta railway station in the first phase.<ref>{{cite news |title=City railway station all set to be decongested soon |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/amritsar/city-railway-station-all-set-to-be-decongested-soon-871380 |access-date=22 January 2021 |work=Tribuneindia News Service |date=7 December 2019 |language=en |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308202307/https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/amritsar/city-railway-station-all-set-to-be-decongested-soon-871380 |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Indian Railway Stations Development Corporation]] has also planned to make the Amritsar Junction railway station a world-class railway station on lines of the international airport based on PPP model. The project has received an overwhelming response with bids from 7 private firms, including [[GMR Group|GMR]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Wow! Indian Railways receives "overwhelming" response for Nagpur, Amritsar, Gwalior, Sabarmati station projects |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/infrastructure/railways/wow-indian-railways-receives-overwhelming-response-for-nagpur-amritsar-gwalior-sabarmati-station-projects/2009006/ |access-date=16 August 2020 |work=The Financial Express |date=30 June 2020 |archive-date=30 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200730035656/https://www.financialexpress.com/infrastructure/railways/wow-indian-railways-receives-overwhelming-response-for-nagpur-amritsar-gwalior-sabarmati-station-projects/2009006/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Road===
Amritsar is located on the historic [[Grand Trunk Road]] (G.T. Road), also known as [[National Highway 1 (India, old numbering)|NH 1]] now renumbered as [[National Highway 3 (India)|National Highway 3]]. An expressway by name of [[Delhi–Amritsar–Katra Expressway]] at the cost of {{INR}}25,000 [[crore]] is approved under [[Bharatmala]] scheme which will cut the travel time from Amritsar to [[New Delhi]] by road from current 8 hours, to 4 hours.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Nag |first1=Devanjana |title=Delhi-Amritsar-Katra Expressway: Amritsar to Delhi in 4 hours! Phase 1 of expressway to cost Rs 25,000 crore |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/infrastructure/roadways/delhi-amritsar-katra-expressway-amritsar-to-delhi-in-4-hours-phase-1-of-expressway-to-cost-rs-25000-crore/1979806/ |access-date=22 January 2021 |work=The Financial Express |date=3 June 2020 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308190518/https://www.financialexpress.com/infrastructure/roadways/delhi-amritsar-katra-expressway-amritsar-to-delhi-in-4-hours-phase-1-of-expressway-to-cost-rs-25000-crore/1979806/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Another expressway, called [[Amritsar–Jamnagar Expressway]] is under construction which will connect Amritsar to [[Jamnagar]] in [[Gujarat]]. Additionally, [[National Highway 54 (India)|NH 54]] (Old NH15), [[National Highway 354 (India)|NH 354]] and [[National Highway 503A (India)|NH 503A]] connect Amritsar to other parts of state and rest of India.
A [[ring road]] will also be built surrounding all 4 sides of Amritsar<ref>{{cite news |title=शहर के चारों तरफ बनेगा रिग रोड हाईवे, सरकार ने दी मंजूरी |url=https://www.jagran.com/punjab/amritsar-ring-road-will-built-outside-amritsar-20457941.html |access-date=22 January 2021 |work=Dainik Jagran |date=30 June 2020 |language=hi |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308200245/https://www.jagran.com/punjab/amritsar-ring-road-will-built-outside-amritsar-20457941.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

{{INR}} 450,000,000 is being spent to expand the Amritsar-[[Jalandhar]] stretch of G.T. Road to four lanes. In 2010, elevated road with four lanes connected to the National highway for better access to the [[Golden Temple]] has been started.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2006/20060401/punjab1.htm |title=The Tribune, Chandigarh, India – Punjab |publisher=Tribuneindia.com |access-date=17 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120920051821/http://www.tribuneindia.com/2006/20060401/punjab1.htm |archive-date=20 September 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Amritsar MetroBus===
[[File:ISBT Amritsar.jpg|thumb|right|Amritsar Inter State Bus Stand]]
Amritsar has a [[bus rapid transit]] service, the [[Amritsar Metrobus]] which was launched on 28 January 2019. 93 fully air-conditioned [[Tata Marcopolo]] buses are used for the service connecting places like{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}
* [[Golden Temple]]
* [[Jallianwala Bagh]]
* [[Guru Nanak Dev University]]
* [[Golden Gate]]
* [[India Gate]], Amritsar
* [[Durgiana Temple]]
* [[Khalsa College, Amritsar|Khalsa College]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.punjabtribune.com/news/82781-navjot-singh-sidhu-launches-brts-project-full-throttle-.aspx|title=Navjot Singh Sidhu launches BRTS project full throttle|website=www.punjabtribune.com|access-date=3 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306043711/http://www.punjabtribune.com/news/82781-navjot-singh-sidhu-launches-brts-project-full-throttle-.aspx|archive-date=6 March 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Metro bus gets lukewarm response | website=The Tribune | date=31 January 2019 | url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/amritsar/metro-bus-gets-lukewarm-response/721687.html | access-date=6 November 2019 | archive-date=6 November 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191106082218/https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/amritsar/metro-bus-gets-lukewarm-response/721687.html | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tatamotors.com/press/tata-motors-commences-delivery-of-new-ac-buses-with-automatic-transmission-in-amritsar-for-new-brts-operations/|title=Tata Motors commences delivery of new AC buses, with Automatic Transmission in Amritsar, for new BRTS operations|website=Tata Motors Limited|date=15 December 2016|access-date=6 November 2019|archive-date=11 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180711195721/https://www.tatamotors.com/press/tata-motors-commences-delivery-of-new-ac-buses-with-automatic-transmission-in-amritsar-for-new-brts-operations/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

== Educational institutions ==
[[File:Khalsa College-Monumentos de Amritsar-India16.JPG|alt=|thumb|200x200px|[[Khalsa College, Amritsar|Khalsa College]]]]

* [[BBK DAV College for Women, Amritsar|BBK DAV College for Women]]
* [[D.A.V College]]
* [[D.A.V Public School]]
* [[Delhi Public School Society|Delhi Public School]]
* [[Government Medical College, Amritsar|Government Medical College]]
* [[Guru Nanak Dev University]]
* [[Khalsa College, Amritsar|Khalsa College]]
* [[Khalsa College of Law]]
* [[Indian Institute of Management, Amritsar|Indian Institute of Management]]
* [[Spring Dale Senior School]]

==Sister cities==
Following cities are [[sister cities]] of Amritsar:
*[[Bakersfield, California|Bakersfield]], [[California]], United States<ref>{{cite web|title=Sister Cities|url=https://bakersfieldsistercity.org/?page_id=22|website=bakersfieldsistercity.org|publisher=Bakersfield Sister City Project Corporation|access-date=18 February 2020|archive-date=22 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922214234/https://www.bakersfieldsistercity.org/?page_id=22|url-status=dead}}</ref>
*[[Sandwell]], [[West Midlands (region)|West Midlands]], England, United Kingdom<ref>{{cite web|title=Sandwell Economic Prospectus|url=https://cmis.sandwell.gov.uk/cmis5/Document.ashx?czJKcaeAi5tUFL1DTL2UE4zNRBcoShgo=EYiXoKQbJaKk7svJJ1%2FfLvnRltWVGfTdSYDMeQ0RcNe8X5YIbvU6wA%3D%3D&mCTIbCubSFfXsDGW9IXnlg%3D%3D=hFflUdN3100%3D&kCx1AnS9%2FpWZQ40DXFvdEw%3D%3D=hFflUdN3100%3D&uJovDxwdjMPoYv%2BAJvYtyA%3D%3D=ctNJFf55vVA%3D&FgPlIEJYlotS%2BYGoBi5olA%3D%3D=NHdURQburHA%3D&d9Qjj0ag1Pd993jsyOJqFvmyB7X0CSQK=ctNJFf55vVA%3D&WGewmoAfeNR9xqBux0r1Q8Za60lavYmz=ctNJFf55vVA%3D&WGewmoAfeNQ16B2MHuCpMRKZMwaG1PaO=ctNJFf55vVA%3D|website=sandwell.gov.uk|publisher=Sandwell Metropolitan Borough Council|page=18|access-date=7 May 2020}}{{Dead link|date=August 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
*[[Thetford]], [[Norfolk, England]], United Kingdom<ref>{{cite web|title=UK town to be Amritsar's twin city in memory of Maharaja Duleep Singh|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/uk-town-to-be-amritsar-s-twin-city-in-memory-of-maharaja-duleep-singh-616711|website=tribuneindia.com|publisher=Tribune India|date=7 July 2018|access-date=18 February 2020|archive-date=18 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200218100056/https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/uk-town-to-be-amritsar-s-twin-city-in-memory-of-maharaja-duleep-singh-616711|url-status=live}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[List of people from Amritsar]]
* [[Amritsar Ring Road]]
* [[Amritsar train disaster]], a major accident that occurred during Dussehra 2018
* [[Tarn Taran District]]
* Sports facilities:
** [[Gandhi Sports Complex Ground]], cricket stadium


== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Bibliography===
*{{cite book |title=Afghanistan |first=Louis |last=Dupree |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1980}}

== External links ==
{{Wikivoyage|Amritsar}}
{{Commons category|Amritsar}}
{{Wikiquote}}

* [http://amritsar.nic.in/ Official Website of District of Amritsar]
* [https://www.amritsarcorp.com/ Official Website of Amritsar Municipal Corporation]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150505063818/http://hridayindia.in/amritsar/ Amritsar HRIDAY city]

{{Amritsar district}}
{{Punjab (Indian state)}}
{{Portalbar|Punjab|India}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Amritsar| ]]
[[Category:Metropolitan cities in India]]
[[Category:Cities and towns in Amritsar district]]
[[Category:Former capitals in India]]
[[Category:Holy cities]]
[[Category:Populated places along the Silk Road]]
[[Category:Sikh places]]
[[Category:Populated places established in 1574]]

Talk:Narendra Modi

2026-05-24T13:34:02Z

206.84.229.26: /* The information may be outdated */ new section

== The information may be outdated ==

I think page need to be updated.

[[Special:Contributions/206.84.229.26|206.84.229.26]] ([[User talk:206.84.229.26|talk]]) 19:04, 24 May 2026 (IST)

West Bengal

2026-05-09T06:15:25Z

206.84.229.26: Page updated to new information

{{Short description|State in eastern India}}
{{Redirect|Paschimbanga|text=For other uses, see [[Bangla (disambiguation)]] and [[Bengal (disambiguation)]]}}
{{About|the Indian State in Eastern India created in 1947|the Indian Province that existed between 1905 and 1911|Western Bengal Province}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2025}}
{{Infobox Indian state or territory
| name = West Bengal
| image_skyline = {{Multiple image
|border = infobox
|total_width = 270
|image_style =
|perrow = 1/2/2/2/2/2/2/2/1
|image1 = Dakhineshwar Temple beside the Hoogly, West Bengal.JPG
|caption1 = [[Dakshineswar Kali Temple]]
|image2 = Morgan House Kalimpong 2.jpg
|caption2 = [[Morgan House, Kalimpong|Morgan House]]
|image3 = Bbbagh.png
|caption3 = [[Writers' Building]]
|image4 = Ramakrishna Belur Math, Howrah.jpg
|caption4 = [[Belur Math]]
|image5 = Shyamrahi Temple.jpg
|caption5 = [[Shyam Ray Temple]]
|image6 = Victoria Memorial situated in Kolkata.jpg
|caption6 = [[Victoria Memorial, Kolkata|Victoria Memorial]]
|image7 = Howrah Station.jpg
|caption7 = [[Howrah railway station|Howrah Station]]
|image8 = Darjeeling.jpg
|caption8 = [[Darjeeling]]
|image9 = The Eden Gardens panoramic view.jpg
|caption9 = [[Eden Gardens]]
|image10 = Rasmancha Arnab Dutta 2011.JPG
|caption10 = [[Rasmancha]]
|image11 = Jor Bangla Temple Arnab Dutta 2011.JPG
|caption11 = [[Jor Bangla Temple|Jor Bangla]]
|image12 = Nizamat Imambara 2.jpg
|caption12 = [[Nizamat Imambara]]
|image13 = Firoze Minar at Gaur in Malda district 10.jpg
|caption13 = [[Firoz Minar]]
|image14 = Sundarban Tiger.jpg
|caption14 = [[Bengal Tiger]] [[Sundarbans|in the Sundarbans]]
|image15 = বাগবাজার সার্বজনীন দুর্গোৎসব ২০১৮.jpg
|caption15 = [[Durga Puja]]
|image16 = কোচবিহার রাজবাড়ি.jpg
|caption16 = [[Cooch Behar Palace]]
}}
| type = State
| image_seal = Emblem of West Bengal (2018-present).svg
| etymology = Western side of [[Bengal Presidency|United Bengal]]
| nickname = "Hub of all Cultural traits"
| motto = [[Satyameva Jayate]] (Truth Alone Triumphs){{force singular}}
| image_map = IN-WB.svg
| coordinates = {{Coord|22.57|N|88.37|E|type:adm1st_scale:3000000_region:IN-WB|display=inline,title}}
| region = East India
| before_was = [[Bengal Presidency|Bengal Province]]
| formation_date3 = formation
| formation_date4 = 15 August 1947
| capital = Kolkata
| largestcity = capital
| metro = Kolkata Metropolitan Region
| anthem = [[Banglar Mati Banglar Jol]] (''The Soil of Bengal, The Water of Bengal'')<ref>{{cite news |title=West Bengal Assembly passes resolution declaring Rabindranath Tagore composition as state anthem |url=https://scroll.in/latest/1055604/west-bengal-assembly-passes-resolution-declaring-rabindranath-tagore-composition-as-state-anthem |access-date=8 September 2023 |work=Scroll.in |date=7 September 2023}}</ref>
| districts = [[List of districts of West Bengal|23 (5 divisions)]]
| Governor = [[R. N. Ravi]]
| Chief_Minister = [[Suvendu Adhikari]]
| Chief_secretary = Dushyant Nariala, [[Indian Administrative Service|IAS]]
| legislature_type = Unicameral
| assembly = [[West Bengal Legislative Assembly]]
| assembly_seats = 294 seats
| rajya_sabha_seats = 16 seats
| lok_sabha_seats = 42 seats
| judiciary = [[Calcutta High Court]]
| area_total_km2 = 88752
| area_rank = 13th
| length_km = 320
| width_km = 623
| elevation_m =
| elevation_max_m = 3,636
| elevation_max_point = [[Sandakphu]]<ref>{{cite web |date=25 December 2008 |title=Sandakphu |url=http://www.sandakphu.com/sandakphu/Sandakphu.htm |access-date=24 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081225044655/http://www.sandakphu.com/sandakphu/Sandakphu.htm |archive-date=25 December 2008}}</ref>
| elevation_min_m = 0
| elevation_min_point = [[Bay of Bengal]]
| population_footnotes = <ref>{{Cite web |date=July 2020 |title=Population Projections for India and States (2011–2036), Report of the Technical Group on Population Projections. |url=https://main.mohfw.gov.in/sites/default/files/Population%20Projection%20Report%202011-2036%20-%20upload_compressed_0.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240730211004/https://main.mohfw.gov.in/sites/default/files/Population%20Projection%20Report%202011-2036%20-%20upload_compressed_0.pdf |archive-date=30 July 2024 |access-date=2 May 2026 |publisher=National Commission on Population, Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Nirman Bhawan, New Delhi – 110011}}</ref>
| population_total = {{Increase}} ~106031000
| population_as_of = 2026 est.
| population_rank = 4th
| population_density = 1,194
| population_urban = 31.87%
| population_rural = 68.13%
| population_demonym = [[Bengalis|Bengali]]
| 0fficial_Langs = [[Bengali language|Bengali]]<ref name=nclmanurep2010/>{{*}}[[English language|English]]
| additional_official = [[Nepali language|Nepali]]{{*}}[[Urdu]]{{*}}[[Hindi]]{{*}}[[Odia language|Odia]]{{*}}[[Santali language|Santali]]{{*}}[[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]{{*}}[[KRNB lects|Kamtapuri]]{{*}}[[Rangpuri language|Rajbanshi]]{{*}}[[Kurmali language|Kurmali]]{{*}}[[Kurukh language|Kurukh]]{{*}}[[Telugu language|Telugu]]<ref name=nclmanurep2010/>
| official_script = [[Bengali–Assamese script]]
| GDP_footnotes = <ref>{{Cite web |last=Bhattacharya |first=Smt. Chandrima |date=5 February 2026 |title=Budget Statement {{!}} Government of West Bengal |url=https://finance.wb.gov.in/writereaddata/Budget_Speech/2026-2027_English_I.pdf |url-status=live |access-date=29 April 2026}}</ref>
| GDP_total = {{increase}} {{INRConvert|21.48|lc}}
| GDP_year = 2026-27 FY
| GDP_rank = 6th
| GDP_per_capita = {{Increase}}~{{INRConvert|202700|lk=r}} (2026 est.){{Efn|Based on an estimated population of 106 million for West Bengal in 2026,<ref>{{Cite web |date=July 2020 |title=Population Projections for India and States (2011–2036), Report of the Technical Group on Population Projections. |url=https://main.mohfw.gov.in/sites/default/files/Population%20Projection%20Report%202011-2036%20-%20upload_compressed_0.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240730211004/https://main.mohfw.gov.in/sites/default/files/Population%20Projection%20Report%202011-2036%20-%20upload_compressed_0.pdf |archive-date=30 July 2024 |access-date=2 May 2026 |publisher=National Commission on Population, Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Nirman Bhawan, New Delhi – 110011}}</ref> the per capita figure has been calculated approximately.}}
| GDP_per_capita_rank = 24th
| HDI = {{Increase}} 0.635 {{color|#fc0|Medium}}<ref>{{cite web |title=India: Subnational HDI |url=https://globaldatalab.org/shdi/table/shdi/IND/ |website=Global Data Labs |access-date=8 June 2025}}</ref>
| HDI_year = 2022
| HDI_rank = 27th
| literacy = 82.6%<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.mospi.gov.in/sites/default/files/publication_reports/AnnualReport_PLFS2023-24L2.pdf |title=Annual Report, Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) (July 2023 – June 2024) |date=23 September 2024 |publisher=National Sample Survey Office, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of India |pages=A-10 |chapter=Appendix-A: Detailed tables, Table (7): Literacy rate (in per cent) of persons of different age groups for each State/UT (persons, age-group (years): 7 & above, rural+urban (column 6))}}</ref>
| literacy_year = 2024
| literacy_rank = 25th
| sex_ratio = 950[[female|♀]]/1000 [[male|♂]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/prov_data_products_wb.html |title=Sex ratio, 0–6 age population, literates and literacy rate by sex for 2001 and 2011 at a glance for West Bengal and the districts: provisional population totals paper 1 of 2011: West Bengal |publisher=Government of India:Ministry of Home Affairs |access-date = 29 January 2012 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120107060612/http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/prov_data_products_wb.html |archive-date = 7 January 2012}}</ref>
| sexratio_year = 2011
| sexratio_rank = 8th
| iso_code = IN-WB
| registration_plate = WB
| website = wb.gov.in
| mammal = [[Fishing cat]]
| bird = [[White-throated kingfisher]]
| fish = [[Ilish]]
| flower = [[Nyctanthes arbor-tristis|Night-flowering jasmine]]
| tree = [[Alstonia scholaris|Chhaatim tree]]
| fruit = [[Mango]]
| image_highway = SH IN-WB.png
| SH_numbers = [[List of state highways in West Bengal|WB SH1 – WB SH15]]
| footnotes = {{ref|cap|^}}The [[Bengal Presidency|Province of Bengal]] was split into two states i.e. West Bengal and East Bengal (present-day Bangladesh) by the ''Indian Independence Act 1947''{{sfn|Mukherjee|1987|p=230}} {{ref|cap|††}} [[Partition of Bengal (1947)]]
}}

'''West Bengal'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|b|ɛ|n|ˈ|ɡ|ɔː|l}}; [[Bengali language|Bengali]]: {{Transliteration|bn|iso|Pôścimbôṅgô|italics=inherit}}, {{IPA|bn|ˈpoʃtʃimˈbɔŋɡo|pron|LL-Q9610 (ben)-Titodutta-পশ্চিমবঙ্গ.wav}}, abbr. '''WB'''}} is a state in the [[East India|eastern part]] of India. It is situated along the [[Bay of Bengal]]. It had a population of over 91 million inhabitants within an area of {{convert|88752|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} as of 2011. The population estimate as of 2026 is 106 million.<ref>{{Cite web |date=July 2020 |title=Population Projections for India and States (2011–2036), Report of the Technical Group on Population Projections. |url=https://main.mohfw.gov.in/sites/default/files/Population%20Projection%20Report%202011-2036%20-%20upload_compressed_0.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240730211004/https://main.mohfw.gov.in/sites/default/files/Population%20Projection%20Report%202011-2036%20-%20upload_compressed_0.pdf |archive-date=30 July 2024 |access-date=2 May 2026 |publisher=National Commission on Population, Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Nirman Bhawan, New Delhi – 110011}}</ref> West Bengal is the [[List of states and union territories of India by population|fourth-most populous]] and [[List of states and union territories of India by area|thirteenth-largest state by area]] in India, as well as the [[List of first-level administrative divisions by population|eighth-most populous country subdivision]] of the world. As a part of the [[Bengal region]] of the [[Indian subcontinent]], it borders [[Bangladesh]] in the east, and [[Nepal]] and [[Bhutan]] in the north. It also borders the Indian states of [[Jharkhand]], [[Odisha]], [[Bihar]], [[Sikkim]] and [[Assam]]. The state capital is [[Kolkata]], the [[List of metropolitan areas in India|third-largest metropolis]], and [[List of cities in India by population|seventh largest city by population]] in India. West Bengal includes the [[Darjeeling Himalayan hill region]], the [[Ganges delta]], the [[Rarh region]], the coastal [[Sundarbans]] and the [[Bay of Bengal]]. The state's main ethnic group are the [[Bengalis]].

The area's early history featured a succession of [[List of Indian monarchs|Indian empires]], internal squabbling, and a tussle between [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]] for dominance. Ancient Bengal was the site of several major [[Janapadas]], while the earliest cities date back to the [[Vedic period]]. The region was part of several ancient pan−Indian empires, including the [[Vanga kingdom|Vangas]], [[Maurya Empire|Mauryans]], and the [[Gupta Empire|Guptas]]. The citadel of [[Gauḍa (city)|Gauḍa]] served as the capital of the [[Gauda kingdom]], the [[Pala Empire]], and the [[Sena Empire]]. [[Islam]] was introduced through trade with the [[Abbasid Caliphate]], but following the [[Ghurid Empire|Ghurid]] conquests led by [[Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji|Bakhtiyar Khalji]] and the establishment of the [[Delhi Sultanate]], the Muslim faith spread across the entire Bengal region. During the [[Bengal Sultanate]], the territory was a major [[trading nation]] in the world, and was often referred by the Europeans as the "richest country to trade with". It was absorbed into the [[Mughal Empire]] in 1576. Simultaneously, some parts of the region were ruled by several [[Hindu Rashtra|Hindu states]], and [[Baro-Bhuyan]] landlords, and part of it was briefly overrun by the [[Suri Empire]]. Following the death of Emperor [[Aurangzeb]] in the early 1700s, the [[proto-industrialization|proto-industrialised]] [[Mughal Bengal]] became a semi-independent state under the [[Nawabs of Bengal]], and showed signs of the first [[Industrial Revolution]].<ref name="ray">{{cite book |author=Indrajit Ray |year=2011 |title=Bengal Industries and the British Industrial Revolution (1757–1857) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CHOrAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA57 |publisher=Routledge |pages=57, 90, 174 |isbn=978-1-136-82552-1 |access-date=7 February 2021 |archive-date=16 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116112335/https://books.google.com/books?id=CHOrAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA57 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="sengupta">Shombit Sengupta, [http://www.financialexpress.com/archive/bengals-plunder-gifted-the-british-industrial-revolution/576476/ Bengals plunder gifted the British Industrial Revolution] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801120317/http://www.financialexpress.com/archive/bengals-plunder-gifted-the-british-industrial-revolution/576476/ |date=1 August 2017}}, ''[[The Financial Express (India)|The Financial Express]]'', 8 February 2010</ref> The region was later annexed into the [[Bengal Presidency]] by the [[British East India Company]] after the [[Battle of Buxar]] in 1764.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Chaudhury |first1=Sushil |last2=Mohsin |first2=KM |year=2012 |chapter=Sirajuddaula |chapter-url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Sirajuddaula |editor1-last=Islam |editor1-first=Sirajul |editor1-link=Sirajul Islam |editor2-last=Jamal |editor2-first=Ahmed A. |title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh |edition=Second |publisher=[[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150614191817/http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Sirajuddaula |archive-date=14 June 2015}}</ref>{{sfn|Campbell|Watts|1760|loc=}} From 1772 to 1911, Calcutta was the capital of all of East India Company's territories and then the capital of the entirety of [[British Raj|India]] after the establishment of the [[Viceroyalty#British Empire|Viceroyalty]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pletcher |first1=Kenneth |title=The Geography of India: Sacred and Historic Places |date=15 August 2010 |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc |isbn=978-1-61530-142-3 |pages=17, 150 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mjr0X-8jrLAC&pg=PA17}}</ref> From 1912 to India's Independence in 1947, it was the capital of the [[Bengal Presidency|Bengal Province]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Chattopadhyay |first1=Aparajita |last2=Ghosh |first2=Saswata |title=Population Dynamics in Eastern India and Bangladesh: Demographic, Health and Developmental Issues |date=1 May 2020 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-981-15-3045-6 |page=6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZsjgDwAAQBAJ&dq=bengal+presidency+calcutta+1912+to+1947&pg=PA6}}</ref>

The region was a hotbed of the [[Indian independence movement]] and has remained one of India's great artistic and intellectual centres.<ref name="Lochtefeld 2001 771">{{cite book |last=Lochtefeld |first=James G |date=2001 |title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Volume 2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g6FsB3psOTIC |publisher=The [[Rosen Publishing]] Group, Inc |page=771 |isbn=9780823931804 |access-date=12 August 2020 |archive-date=2 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202001200/https://books.google.com/books?id=g6FsB3psOTIC |url-status=live}}</ref> Following widespread [[Direct Action Day|religious violence]], the [[British Bengal Legislative Council|Bengal Legislative Council]] and the [[Bengal Legislative Assembly (1937—1947)|Bengal Legislative Assembly]] voted on the [[Partition of Bengal (1947)|Partition of Bengal]] in 1947 along religious lines into two independent [[dominions#India, Pakistan and Bangladesh|dominions]]: West Bengal, a Hindu-majority Indian state, and [[East Bengal]], a Muslim-majority province of [[Pakistan]] which later became the independent Bangladesh. The state was also flooded with [[East Bengali refugees|Hindu refugees]] from East Bengal (present-day Bangladesh) in the decades following the 1947 [[partition of India]], transforming its landscape and shaping its politics.<ref>{{citation |last1=Talbot |first1=Ian |last2=Singh |first2=Gurharpal |title=The Partition of India |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-67256-6 |year=2009 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/in/academic/subjects/history/twentieth-century-regional-history/partition-india?format=PB&isbn=9780521672566 |pages=115–117}}</ref><ref>{{citation|last1=Tan |first1=Tai Yong |last2=Kudaisya |first2=Gyanesh |title=The Aftermath of Partition in South Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O5zEtBxk72wC |year= 2002 |orig-year=2000 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-203-45060-4 |pages=172–175}}</ref> The early and prolonged exposure to British administration resulted in an expansion of [[Western culture|Western education]], culminating in developments in science, institutional education, and social reforms in the region, including what became known as the [[Bengali Renaissance]]. Several [[List of rulers of Bengal|regional and pan−Indian empires]] throughout [[History of Bengal|Bengal's history]] have shaped its [[Culture of Bengal|culture]], [[Bengali cuisine|cuisine]], and [[Architecture of Bengal|architecture]].

Post-Indian independence, as a [[welfare state]], West Bengal's economy is based on [[agricultural production]] and [[small and medium-sized enterprises]].<ref name=undp_Bengal>{{cite book |title=West Bengal Human Development Report 2004 |date=May 2004 |url=http://www.undp.org.in/hdrc/shdr/WB/ |format=PDF|access-date= 26 August 2006 |publisher=Development and Planning Department, Government of West Bengal |isbn=81-7955-030-3 |pages=4–6 |chapter=Introduction and Human Development Indices for West Bengal|chapter-url= http://www.undp.org.in/hdrc/shdr/WB/WB%20HDR%202004/Chap1.pdf|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060527075941/http://www.undp.org.in/hdrc/shdr/WB/|archive-date= 27 May 2006|url-status= dead}}</ref> The state's cultural heritage, besides varied folk traditions, ranges from stalwarts in literature including Nobel-laureate [[Rabindranath Tagore]] to scores of musicians, film-makers and artists. For several decades, the state underwent [[political violence]] and [[economic stagnation]] after the beginning of communist rule in 1977 before it rebounded.<ref name="WB1"/> In 2023–24, the [[economy of West Bengal]] is the [[List of Indian states and union territories by GDP|sixth-largest state economy]] in India with a gross state domestic product (GSDP) of {{INRConvert|17.19|lc}},<ref name="EcoSur">{{cite web |url=https://finance.wb.gov.in/writereaddata/Fiscal_Policy/FRBM23_Part1.pdf |title=Financial Statements 2023–24, Government of West Bengal |work=[[Government of West Bengal]] |pages=21 |date=1 February 2023 |access-date=1 February 2023 |url-status=live |archive-date=23 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223100803/https://finance.wb.gov.in/writereaddata/Fiscal_Policy/FRBM23_Part1.pdf}}</ref> and has the country's [[List of Indian states and union territories by GDP per capita|20th-highest GSDP per capita]] of {{INRConvert|121267}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/Publications/PDFs/0HBS19112022_FLFE4F2F9158294692B030A251E00555F8.PDF |title=Handbook of Statistics of Indian States 2021–22 |work=[[Reserve Bank of India]] |pages=37–42 |access-date=11 November 2022 |archive-date=29 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220129151430/https://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/Publications/PDFs/0HSIS241121FL7A6B5C0ECBC64B0ABF0A097B1AD40C83.PDF |url-status=live}}</ref> as of 2020–21. Despite being one of the fastest-growing major economies, West Bengal has struggled to attract [[foreign direct investment]] due to adverse land acquisition policies, poor [[infrastructure]], and [[red tape]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.investindia.gov.in/state/west-bengal |title=Invest in West Bengal – Business Opportunities, Industries, FDI |access-date=14 November 2022 |archive-date=14 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221114150827/https://www.investindia.gov.in/state/west-bengal |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fdi.finance/states/west-bengal |title=FDI in India | FDI Consultant | FDI Companies | FDI Opportunities 2022 |access-date=14 November 2022 |archive-date=14 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221114150827/https://www.fdi.finance/states/west-bengal |url-status=live}}</ref> It also has the [[List of Indian states and territories by Human Development Index|26th-highest ranking]] among Indian states in [[human development index]], with the index value being lower than the Indian average.<ref name="snhdi-gdl">{{cite web |title=Sub-national HDI – Area Database |url=https://ceda.ashoka.edu.in/hdi-how-states-fare-in-human-development/ |website=Global Data Lab |date= 15 June 2021|access-date=7 March 2023}}</ref><ref name=undp_Bengal>{{cite book |title=West Bengal Human Development Report 2004 |date=May 2004 |url=http://www.undp.org.in/hdrc/shdr/WB/ |format=PDF|access-date= 26 August 2006 |publisher=Development and Planning Department, Government of West Bengal |isbn=81-7955-030-3 |pages=4–6 |chapter=Introduction and Human Development Indices for West Bengal|chapter-url= http://www.undp.org.in/hdrc/shdr/WB/WB%20HDR%202004/Chap1.pdf|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060527075941/http://www.undp.org.in/hdrc/shdr/WB/|archive-date= 27 May 2006|url-status= dead}}</ref> The state government debt of {{INRConvert|6.47|lc|nolink=yes}}, or 37.67% of GSDP, has dropped from 40.65% since 2010–11.<ref>{{cite web |title=State Finances: A Risk Analysis |url=https://www.rbi.org.in/Scripts/BS_ViewBulletin.aspx?Id=21070 |work=[[Reserve Bank of India]] |access-date=16 June 2022 |language=en |date=16 June 2022}}</ref><ref name="EcoSur" /> West Bengal has three [[List of World Heritage Sites in India|World Heritage sites]] and ranks as the eight-most visited [[Tourism in West Bengal|tourist destination]] in India and third-most visited [[States and union territories of India|state of India]] globally.{{sfn|UNESCO|2012}}<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://tourism.gov.in/sites/default/files/2023-07/India%20Tourism%20Statistics%20at%20a%20glance%202023%20-%20English%20version.pdf |title=India Tourism Statistics at a Glance 2023 |page=21 |journal=[[Government of India]] |access-date=27 September 2023 |archive-date=18 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191218062858/http://tourism.gov.in/sites/default/files/Other/India%20Tourism%20Statistics%202018.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>

== Etymology ==
{{Main|Names of Bengal}}

The origin of the name [[Bengal]] (''Bangla'' and ''Bongo'' in [[Bengali language|Bengali]]) is unknown. One theory suggests the word derives from "Bang", the name of a [[Dravidian peoples|Dravidian]] tribe that settled the region around 1000{{nbsp}}BCE.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/4.htm |title=Bangladesh: early history, 1000 B.C.–A.D. 1202 |date=September 1988 |work=Bangladesh: A country study |publisher=[[Library of Congress]] |location=Washington, D.C. |access-date = 2 March 2012 |quote=Historians believe that Bengal, the area comprising present-day Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal, was settled in about 1000 B.C. by Dravidian-speaking peoples who were later known as the Bang. Their homeland bore various titles that reflected earlier tribal names, such as Vanga, Banga, Bangala, Bangal and Bengal. |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170615070625/http://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/4.htm |archive-date = 15 June 2017}}</ref> The Bengali word ''Bongo'' might have been derived from the ancient [[Vanga kingdom|kingdom of ''Vanga'']] (or ''Banga''). Although some early [[Sanskrit literature]] mentions the name ''Vanga'', the region's early history is obscure.<ref>{{cite book |last=Marshman |first=John Clark |author-link = John Clark Marshman |title=Outline of the History of Bengal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=845eAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA1 |year=1865 |publisher=[[John Clark Marshman]] |page=1 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171204062800/https://books.google.com/books?id=845eAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA1 |archive-date = 4 December 2017}}</ref>

In 1947, at the end of [[British Raj|British rule]] over the [[Indian subcontinent]] the [[British Bengal Legislative Council|Bengal Legislative Council]] and the [[Bengal Legislative Assembly (1937—1947)|Bengal Legislative Assembly]] voted on the [[Partition of Bengal (1947)|Partition of Bengal]] along religious lines into two separate entities: West Bengal, which continued as an [[States and union territories of India|Indian state]] and [[East Bengal]], a province of [[Pakistan]], which came to be known be as [[East Pakistan]] and later became the independent [[Bangladesh]].{{sfn|Mukherjee|1987|p=230}}{{sfn|Chakrabarty|2004|p=142}}

In 2011 the [[Government of West Bengal]] proposed a change in the official name of the state to Paschim Banga ({{langx|bn|পশ্চিমবঙ্গ}} ''Pôshchimbônggô'').<ref>{{cite news |title=West Bengal may be renamed PaschimBanga |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2373155.ece |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |location=Chennai, India |date=19 August 2011 |access-date = 7 February 2012 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120121204545/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2373155.ece |archive-date = 21 January 2012}}</ref> This is the native name of the state, literally meaning "western Bengal" in the native Bengali language. In August 2016 the [[West Bengal Legislative Assembly]] passed another resolution to change the name of West Bengal to "Bengal" in [[English language|English]] and "Bangla" in Bengali. Despite the [[Trinamool Congress]] government's efforts to forge a consensus on the name change resolution, the [[Indian National Congress]], the [[Left Front (West Bengal)|Left Front]] and the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] opposed the resolution.<ref name="namec">{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/Assembly-drops-West-renames-State-as-Bengal/article14596751.ece |title=Assembly drops West, renames State as Bengal |date=29 August 2016 |work=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=4 January 2018 |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161225084838/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/Assembly-drops-West-renames-State-as-Bengal/article14596751.ece|archive-date=25 December 2016}}</ref> However, the central government has turned down the proposal maintaining the state should have one single name for all languages instead of three and it should not be the same as that of any other territory (pointing out that the name 'Bangla' may create confusion with neighbouring [[Bangladesh]]).<ref name="namec" /><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2017/mar/29/foreign-ministry-turns-down-mamata-banerjees-bangla-for-west-bengal-1587394--1.html |title=Foreign ministry turns down Mamata Banerjee's 'Bangla' for West Bengal |work=[[The New Indian Express]]|access-date=20 December 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171222051528/http://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2017/mar/29/foreign-ministry-turns-down-mamata-banerjees-bangla-for-west-bengal-1587394--1.html|archive-date=22 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/west-bengal-to-send-another-proposal-to-centre-on-changing-its-name/story-VaJhR4kFv9WhaYEk6QmQKI.html |title=West Bengal to send another proposal to Centre on changing its name |date=8 September 2017 |work=[[Hindustan Times]]|access-date=20 December 2017 |language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171222051404/http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/west-bengal-to-send-another-proposal-to-centre-on-changing-its-name/story-VaJhR4kFv9WhaYEk6QmQKI.html|archive-date=22 December 2017}}</ref>

== History ==
{{Main|History of Bengal|History of rulers of Bengal|History of West Bengal}}

=== Ancient and classical period ===
[[File:Sasanka Deva king of Gauda circa 600-630.jpg|thumb|alt=A coin of the King Shashanka showing the obverse and reverse sides |Coin of the King [[Shashanka]], who created the first separate political entity in [[Bengal]], called the [[Gauda kingdom]]]]
[[Stone Age]] tools dating back 20,000 years have been excavated in the state, showing human occupation 8,000 years earlier than scholars had thought.<ref>{{cite news |title=History of Bengal just got a lot older |first=Sebanti |last=Sarkar |url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1080328/jsp/frontpage/story_9067406.jsp |newspaper=[[The Telegraph (Calcutta)|The Telegraph]] |location=Calcutta, India |date=28 March 2008 |access-date = 13 September 2010 |quote=Humans walked on Bengal's soil 20,000 years ago, archaeologists have found out, pushing the state's pre-history back by some 8,000 years. |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110912042911/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1080328/jsp/frontpage/story_9067406.jsp |archive-date = 12 September 2011}}</ref> According to the Indian epic ''[[Mahabharata]]'' the region was part of the Vanga kingdom.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sen |first=S. N. |title=Ancient Indian History And Civilization |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC |year=1999 |publisher=New Age International |isbn=978-81-224-1198-0 |pages=273–274 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160101213233/https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC |archive-date = 1 January 2016}}</ref> Several [[Vedic]] realms were present in the Bengal region, including [[Vanga]], [[Rarh region|Rarh]], [[Pundravardhana]] and the [[Suhma kingdom]]. One of the earliest foreign references to Bengal is a mention by the [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greeks]] around 100{{nbsp}}BCE of a land named [[Gangaridai]] located at the mouths of the [[Ganges]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Dilip K. |last=Chakrabarti |year=2001 |title=Archaeological Geography of the Ganga Plain: The Lower and the Middle Ganga |pages=154–155 |publisher=Permanent Black |location=Delhi |isbn=978-81-7824-016-9}}</ref> Bengal had overseas trade relations with [[Suvarnabhumi]] (Burma, Lower Thailand, the Lower [[Malay Peninsula]] and [[Sumatra]]).<ref>{{cite book |title=Foreign trade and commerce in ancient India |last=Prasad |first=Prakash Chandra |year=2003 |publisher=Abhinav Publications |location=New Delhi |isbn=978-81-7017-053-2 |page=28 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mFW3sXnzEQ4C&q=ancient+history+of+bengal+trade&pg=PA231 |access-date=21 October 2020 |archive-date=2 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202001159/https://books.google.com/books?id=mFW3sXnzEQ4C&q=ancient+history+of+bengal+trade&pg=PA231 |url-status=live}}</ref> According to the Sri Lankan chronicle ''[[Mahavamsa]],'' [[Prince Vijaya]] ({{circa|543|505 BCE}}), a Vanga kingdom prince, conquered [[Lanka]] (modern-day Sri Lanka) and named the country [[Sinhala kingdom]].<ref>{{cite book |first2=Mabel |last2=Haynes Bode |last1=Geiger |first1=Wilhelm |author-link=Wilhelm Geiger |title=Mahavamsa: Great Chronicle of Ceylon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nX2af3kcregC&q=wilhelm+geiger |year=2003 |orig-date=1908 |publisher=[[Asian Educational Services]] |location=New Delhi |isbn=978-81-206-0218-2 |chapter=Chapter VI: The Coming of Vijaya |chapter-url=http://lakdiva.org/mahavamsa/chap006.html |pages=51–54 |access-date=21 October 2020 |archive-date=2 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202001207/https://books.google.com/books?id=nX2af3kcregC&q=wilhelm+geiger |url-status=live}}</ref>

The kingdom of [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]] was formed in the 7th{{nbsp}}century BCE, consisting of the regions now comprising [[Bihar]] and Bengal. It was one of the four main kingdoms of India at the time of the lives of [[Mahavira]], the principal figure of [[Jainism]] and [[Gautama Buddha]], founder of [[Buddhism]]. It consisted of several [[janapada]]s, or kingdoms.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Settlement_in_Bengal |title=Settlement in Bengal (Early Period) |last=Sultana |first=Sabiha |access-date = 12 June 2015 |work=[[Banglapedia]] |publisher=[[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]] |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150614193503/http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Settlement_in_Bengal |archive-date = 14 June 2015}}</ref> Under [[Ashoka]], the [[Maurya Empire]] of Magadha in the 3rd{{nbsp}}century BCE extended over nearly all of [[South Asia]], including [[Afghanistan]] and parts of [[Balochistan]]. From the 3rd to the 6th{{nbsp}}centuries CE, the kingdom of Magadha served as the seat of the [[Gupta Empire]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Mookerji |first=Radhakumud |title=The Gupta Empire |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uYXDB2gIYbwC |year=1959 |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |isbn=978-81-208-0440-1 |pages=11, 113}}</ref>

[[File:Asia 800ad.jpg|thumb|left|alt=A map showing the extent of the Pala Empire |The [[Pala Empire]] was an imperial power during the [[Classical India|Late Classical period]] on the [[Indian subcontinent]], which originated in the region of [[Bengal]].]]
Two kingdoms—Vanga or Samatata, and Gauda—are said in some texts to have appeared after the end of the Gupta Empire although details of their ascendancy are uncertain.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sen |first=Sailendra Nath |title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA275 |date=1 January 1999 |publisher=New Age International |isbn=978-81-224-1198-0 |page=275 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151231212731/https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA275 |archive-date = 31 December 2015}}</ref> The first recorded independent king of Bengal was [[Shashanka]], who reigned in the early 7th{{nbsp}}century.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Shashanka |title=Shashanka |access-date = 12 June 2015 |work=[[Banglapedia]] |publisher=[[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]] |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150614200631/http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Shashanka |archive-date = 14 June 2015}}</ref> Shashanka is often recorded in Buddhist annals as an intolerant Hindu ruler noted for his persecution of the Buddhists. He murdered [[Rajyavardhana]], the Buddhist king of [[Thanesar]], and is noted for destroying the [[Bodhi tree]] at [[Bodh Gaya|Bodhgaya]], and replacing Buddha statues with Shiva [[lingams]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Intolerance debate: How some historical brutalities are more special than others |url=http://scroll.in/article/774898/intolerance-debate-how-some-historical-brutalities-are-more-special-than-others |website=Scroll.in |access-date = 25 December 2015 |language=en-US |first=Tony |last=Joseph |date=11 December 2015 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151225181534/http://scroll.in/article/774898/intolerance-debate-how-some-historical-brutalities-are-more-special-than-others |archive-date = 25 December 2015}}</ref> After a period of anarchy,<ref>{{cite book |last=Bagchi |first=Jhunu |title=The History and Culture of the Pālas of Bengal and Bihar, Cir. 750 A.D.-cir. 1200 A.D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J7RKoMeAtpUC |publisher=Abhinav Publications |isbn=978-81-7017-301-4 |year=1993 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160423230909/https://books.google.com/books?id=J7RKoMeAtpUC |archive-date = 23 April 2016}}</ref>{{rp|36}} the [[Pala Empire|Pala dynasty]] ruled the region for four hundred years beginning in the 8th{{nbsp}}century. A shorter reign of the Hindu [[Sena dynasty]] followed.<ref>{{cite book |last=Khan |first=Muhammad Mojlum |title=The Muslim Heritage of Bengal: The Lives, Thoughts and Achievements of Great Muslim Scholars, Writers and Reformers of Bangladesh and West Bengal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-2s9BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA16 |date=21 October 2013 |publisher=Kube Publishing Limited |isbn=978-1-84774-062-5 |pages=15–16|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180126080958/https://books.google.com/books?id=-2s9BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA16|archive-date=26 January 2018}}</ref>

[[Rajendra Chola I]] of the [[Chola dynasty]] invaded some areas of Bengal between 1021 and 1023.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sengupta |first=Nitish K. |title=Land of Two Rivers: A History of Bengal from the Mahabharata to Mujib |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kVSh_TyJ0YoC&pg=PA45 |publisher=[[Penguin Books India]] |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-14-341678-4 |page=45 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160101213233/https://books.google.com/books?id=kVSh_TyJ0YoC&pg=PA45 |archive-date = 1 January 2016}}</ref>

[[Islam]] was introduced through trade with the [[Abbasid Caliphate]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Raj Kumar |date=2003 |title=Essays on Ancient India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qvnjXOCjv7EC |publisher=Discovery Publishing House |page=199 |isbn=978-81-7141-682-0}}</ref> Following the [[Ghurid Empire|Ghurid]] conquests led by [[Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji]] and the establishment of the [[Delhi Sultanate]], it spread across the entire Bengal region. [[Mosque]]s, [[madrasa]]s and [[khanqah]]s were built throughout these stages. During the Islamic [[Bengal Sultanate]], founded in 1352, Bengal was a major world [[trading nation]] and was often referred by the Europeans as the richest country with which to trade.<ref>Nanda, J. N (2005). {{cite book |year=2005 |title=Bengal: the unique state |publisher=Concept Publishing Company. p. 10. |isbn=978-81-8069-149-2 |quote=Bengal [...] was rich in the production and export of grain, salt, fruit, liquors and wines, precious metals and ornaments besides the output of its handlooms in silk and cotton. Europe referred to Bengal as the richest country to trade with.}}</ref> Later, in 1576, it was absorbed into the [[Mughal Empire]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Banu |first=U. A. B. Razia Akter |title=Islam in Bangladesh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XyzqATEDPSgC |date=January 1992 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|BRILL]] |isbn=978-90-04-09497-0 |pages=2, 17 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140101175100/http://books.google.com/books?id=XyzqATEDPSgC |archive-date = 1 January 2014}}</ref>

=== Medieval and early modern periods ===
[[File:Firoz Minar.JPG|thumb|alt=Firoz Minar a red stone tower at Gauda |[[Firoz Minar]] at [[Gauḍa (city)|Gauḍa]] was built during the [[Bengal Sultanate]].]]
Subsequent Muslim conquests helped spread Islam throughout the region.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Islam,_Bengal |title=Islam (in Bengal) |access-date = 26 October 2006 |work=[[Banglapedia]] |publisher=Asiatic Society of Bangladesh |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150723091245/http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Islam,_Bengal |archive-date = 23 July 2015}}</ref> It was ruled by dynasties of the Bengal Sultanate and feudal lords under the Delhi Sultanate for the next few hundred years. The Bengal Sultanate was interrupted for twenty years by a Hindu uprising under [[Raja Ganesha]]. In the 16th{{nbsp}}century, Mughal general [[Islam Khan I|Islam Khan]] conquered Bengal. Administration by governors appointed by the court of the Mughal Empire gave way to semi-independence under the [[Nawab]]s of [[Murshidabad]], who nominally respected the sovereignty of the Mughals in [[Delhi]]. Several independent Hindu states were established in Bengal during the Mughal period, including those of [[Pratapaditya]] of [[Jessore District]] and [[Raja Sitaram Ray]] of [[Bardhaman]]. Following the death of Emperor [[Aurangzeb]] and the Governor of Bengal, [[Shaista Khan]], the [[proto-industrialization|proto-industrialised]] [[Mughal Bengal]] became a semi-independent state under the [[Nawabs of Bengal]], and showed signs of the world's first [[Industrial Revolution]].<ref name="ray" /><ref name="sengupta" /> The [[Koch dynasty]] in northern Bengal flourished during the 16th and 17th{{nbsp}}centuries; it weathered the Mughals and survived until the advent of the British colonial era.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5lH40gT7xvYC&pg=PA44 |title=Bangladesh: Politics, Economy and Civil Society |last=Lewis |first=David |date=31 October 2011 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-1-139-50257-3 |language=en |page=44}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N2tlKzxwhY8C&pg=PA41 |title=Ancient India, History and Archaeology |last=Ganguly |first=Dilip Kumar |date=1994 |publisher=Abhinav Publications |isbn=9788170173045 |language=en |page=41 |access-date=12 August 2020 |archive-date=2 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202001202/https://books.google.com/books?id=N2tlKzxwhY8C&pg=PA41 |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Colonial period ===
[[File:Pope1880BengalPres2.jpg|thumb|alt=An map of Bengal in 1880 |An 1880 map of Bengal]]
Several European traders reached this area in the late 15th{{nbsp}}century. The [[British East India Company]] defeated [[Siraj ud-Daulah]], the last independent Nawab, in the [[Battle of Plassey]] in 1757. The company gained the right to collect revenue in Bengal [[subah (province)|subah]] (province) in 1765 with the signing of the treaty between the East India company and the Mughal emperor following the [[Battle of Buxar]] in 1764.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Sirajuddaula |title=Sirajuddaula |access-date = 12 June 2015 |last1=Chaudhury |first1=S |last2=Mohsin |first2=KM |work=Banglapedia |publisher=[[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]] |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150614191817/http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Sirajuddaula |archive-date = 14 June 2015}}</ref> The [[Bengal Presidency]] was established in 1765; it later incorporated all British-controlled territory north of the [[Central Provinces]] (now [[Madhya Pradesh]]), from the mouths of the Ganges and the [[Brahmaputra]] to the [[Himalaya]]s and the [[Punjab region|Punjab]]. The [[Bengal famine of 1770]] claimed millions of lives due to tax policies enacted by the British company.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/f/fiske/john/f54u/chapter9.html |title=The famine of 1770 in Bengal |access-date = 26 October 2006 |last=Fiske |first=John |work=The Unseen World, and Other Essays |publisher=University of Adelaide Library Electronic Texts Collection |location=Adelaide |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061205020541/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/f/fiske/john/f54u/chapter9.html |archive-date = 5 December 2006}}</ref> Calcutta, the headquarters of the East India company, was named the capital of British-held territories in India in 1773.<ref>{{harvnb|Arnold-Baker|2015|p=504}}</ref> The failed [[Indian rebellion of 1857]] started near Calcutta and resulted in a transfer of authority to the [[British monarchy|British Crown]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Baxter|1997|p=32}}</ref> administered by the [[Viceroy of India]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Bayly|1987|pp=194–197}}</ref>
[[File:Subhas Chandra Bose NRB.jpg|130px|thumb|left|[[Subhas Chandra Bose]], a leading freedom fighter of India]]
The [[Bengal Renaissance]] and the [[Brahmo Samaj]] socio-cultural reform movements significantly influenced the cultural and economic life of Bengal.<ref>{{harvnb|Sarkar|1990|p=95}}</ref> Between 1905 and 1911 an [[Partition of Bengal (1905)|abortive attempt]] was made to divide the province of Bengal into two zones.<ref>{{Harvnb|Baxter|1997|pp=39–40}}</ref> Bengal suffered from the [[Bengal famine of 1943|Great Bengal famine]] in 1943, which claimed three{{nbsp}}million lives during World War{{nbsp}}II.<ref>{{cite book |title=India |last=Wolpert |first=Stanley |author-link = Stanley Wolpert |year=1999 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |location=Berkeley, California, US |isbn=978-0-520-22172-7 |page=14 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nHnOERqf-MQC |access-date = 2 March 2012 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130509231648/http://books.google.com/books?id=nHnOERqf-MQC |archive-date = 9 May 2013}}</ref> Bengalis played a major role in the [[Indian independence movement]], in which [[Revolutionary movement for Indian independence|revolutionary groups]] such as [[Anushilan Samiti]] and [[Jugantar]] were dominant.<ref name="Lochtefeld 2001 771"/> Armed attempts against the British Raj from Bengal reached a climax when news of [[Subhas Chandra Bose]] leading the [[Indian National Army]] against the British reached Bengal. The Indian National Army was subsequently routed by the British.<ref>{{harvnb|Chandra|Mukherjee|Mukherjee|Panikkar|1989|p=26}}</ref>

=== Indian independence and afterwards ===

When India [[History of the Republic of India|gained independence]] in 1947, Bengal was partitioned along religious lines. The western part went to the [[Dominion of India]] and was named West Bengal. The eastern part went to the [[Dominion of Pakistan]] as a province called [[East Bengal]] (later renamed East Pakistan in 1956), becoming the independent nation of [[Bangladesh]] in 1971.<ref>{{cite web |first=Sirajul |last=Islam |url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Partition_of_Bengal,_1947 |title=Partition of Bengal, 1947 |work=[[Banglapedia]] |publisher=Asiatic Society of Bangladesh |access-date = 12 June 2015 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150702002256/http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Partition_of_Bengal,_1947 |archive-date = 2 July 2015}}</ref> In 1950 the Princely State of Cooch Behar merged with West Bengal.<ref name="Doldrums" /> In 1955 the former [[French India|French enclave]] of [[Chandannagar]], which had passed into Indian control after 1950, was integrated into West Bengal; portions of Bihar were also subsequently merged with West Bengal. Both West and East Bengal experienced large influxes of refugees during and after the [[Partition of India|partition]] in 1947. Refugee resettlement and related issues continued to play a significant role in the politics and socio-economic condition of the state.<ref name="Doldrums">Sailen Debnath, ''West Bengal in Doldrums'' {{ISBN|978-81-86860-34-2}}; & Sailen Debnath ed. ''Social and Political Tensions in North Bengal since 1947,'' {{ISBN|81-86860-23-1}}</ref>

[[File:Darjeeling Himalayan Railway.jpg|thumb|alt= A photograph of the engine and several cars of the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway with people on either side of it |The [[Darjeeling Himalayan Railway]] was designated a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]] in 1999.]]
During the 1970s and 1980s, severe power shortages, strikes and a violent [[Marxist]]–[[Maoist]] movement by groups known as the [[Naxalites]] damaged much of the infrastructure, leading to a period of [[economic stagnation]] and [[deindustrialisation]].<ref name="WB1">—{{citation |last=Banerjee |first=Partha Sarathi |date=5 February 2011 |title=Party, Power and Political Violence in West Bengal |journal=[[Economic and Political Weekly]] |volume=46 |issue=6 |pages=16–18 |jstor=27918111 |issn=0012-9976}} —{{citation |last=Donner |first=Henrike |year=2004 |title=The significance of Naxalbari: accounts of personal involvement and politics in West Bengal |publisher=[[University of Cambridge]] |location=United Kingdom |page=14 |url=https://researchonline.lse.ac.uk/id/eprint/21343/ |access-date=13 July 2020 |archive-date=18 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200918082502/https://researchonline.lse.ac.uk/id/eprint/21343/ |url-status=live}} —{{citation |last=Banerjee |first=Debdas |date=20 February 1982 |title=Industrial Stagnation in Eastern India: A Statistical Investigation |journal=[[Economic and Political Weekly]] |volume=17 |issue=8 |pages=286–298 |jstor=4370702}} —{{cite news |title=Murder, most foul – the people of Bengal created the darkness that envelops them |url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1081005/jsp/opinion/story_9927371.jsp |work=[[The Telegraph (Kolkata)|The Telegraph]] |last=Mukherjee |first=Rudrangshu |access-date=4 March 2012 |date=5 October 2008 |location=Kolkata |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118211018/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1081005/jsp/opinion/story_9927371.jsp |archive-date=18 January 2012}}</ref> The [[Bangladesh Liberation War]] of 1971 resulted in an influx of millions of refugees to West Bengal, causing significant strains on its infrastructure.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hindle|1996|pp=63–70}}</ref> The [[1974 smallpox epidemic of India|1974 smallpox epidemic]] killed thousands. West Bengal politics underwent a major change when the Left Front won the 1977 assembly election, defeating the incumbent Indian National Congress. The Left Front, led by the [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]], governed the state for the next three decades.<ref name=longcommu>{{cite news |first=Soutik |last=Biswas |title=Calcutta's colourless campaign |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4909832.stm |publisher=[[BBC]] |date=16 April 2006 |access-date = 15 February 2012 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120214053922/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4909832.stm |archive-date = 14 February 2012}}</ref>

The state's economic recovery gathered momentum after the [[Government of India|central government]] introduced [[economic liberalisation in India|economic liberalisations]] in the mid-1990s. This was aided by the advent of [[Information technology in India|information technology]] and [[Business process outsourcing|IT-enabled services]]. Beginning in the mid-2000s, armed insurgents conducted minor terrorist attacks in some parts of the state.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.voanews.com/bangla/archive/2005-07/2005-07-22-voa10.cfm |title=Maoist on rise in West Bengal |access-date = 11 September 2006 |last=Ghosh Roy |first=Paramasish |date=22 July 2005 |work=VOA Bangla |publisher=[[Voice of America]] |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071212062125/http://www.voanews.com/bangla/archive/2005-07/2005-07-22-voa10.cfm |archive-date = 12 December 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/terroristoutfits/MCC.htm |title=Maoist Communist Centre (MCC) |access-date = 11 September 2006 |work=Left-wing extremist group |publisher=South Asia Terrorism Portal |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120212092516/http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/terroristoutfits/MCC.htm |archive-date = 12 February 2012}}</ref> Clashes with the administration took place at several controversial locations over the issue of industrial land acquisition.<ref>{{cite news |title=Several hurt in Singur clash |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2007/jan/28singur.htm |work=[[Rediff.com]] |date=28 January 2007 |access-date = 15 March 2007 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071211194310/http://www.rediff.com/news/2007/jan/28singur.htm |archive-date = 11 December 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Red-hand Buddha: 14 killed in Nandigram re-entry bid |url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1070315/asp/frontpage/story_7519166.asp |newspaper=[[The Telegraph (Kolkata)|The Telegraph]] |location=Calcutta, India |date=15 March 2007 |access-date = 15 March 2007 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070317192827/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1070315/asp/frontpage/story_7519166.asp |archive-date = 17 March 2007}}</ref> This became a decisive reason behind the defeat of the ruling Left Front government in the 2011 assembly election.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2011/05/2011513143311330487.html |title=Defeat rocks India's elected communists |publisher=Rediff India Abroad |date=13 May 2011 |access-date = 29 July 2014 |last=Bhaumik |first=Subir |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140404051617/http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2011/05/2011513143311330487.html |archive-date = 4 April 2014}}</ref> Although the economy was severely damaged during the unrest in the 1970s, the state has managed to revive its economy steadily throughout the years.<ref>{{cite news |title=Is West Bengal's economy actually reviving under Mamata Banerjee? |url=https://scroll.in/article/806031/is-west-bengals-economy-actually-reviving-under-mamata-banerjee |url-status = live |website=scroll.in|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161206213236/http://scroll.in/article/806031/is-west-bengals-economy-actually-reviving-under-mamata-banerjee |archive-date = 6 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=West Bengal tax revenue up 19% on greater efficiency |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/business/economy/west-bengal-tax-revenue-up-19-on-greater-efficiency/ |work=[[The Indian Express]] |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170904151454/http://indianexpress.com/article/business/economy/west-bengal-tax-revenue-up-19-on-greater-efficiency/ |archive-date = 4 September 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Revenue collection: Mamata Banerjee's West Bengal beats rest of India in growth |url=http://www.financialexpress.com/archive/revenue-collection-mamata-banerjees-west-bengal-beats-rest-of-india-in-growth/1199313/ |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170904152758/http://www.financialexpress.com/archive/revenue-collection-mamata-banerjees-west-bengal-beats-rest-of-india-in-growth/1199313/ |archive-date = 4 September 2017 |newspaper=[[The Financial Express (India)|Financial Express]]}}</ref> The state has shown improvement regarding ''[[bandh]]s'' ([[industrial action|strikes]])<ref>{{cite web |title=Bharat Bandh gets mixed response from India, West Bengal surprises with business-as-usual attitude |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/bharat-bandh-draws-mixed-response-from-india-354340-2016-11-28 |work=[[India Today]] |date=28 November 2016 |access-date = 5 September 2017 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161130090013/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/bharat-bandh-draws-mixed-response-from-india/1/821300.html |archive-date = 30 November 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=No bandh in Bengal tomorrow : Mamata |url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/no-bandh-in-bengal-tomorrow-mamata-116090101229_1.html |publisher=Business Standard|url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170904152809/http://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/no-bandh-in-bengal-tomorrow-mamata-116090101229_1.html |archive-date = 4 September 2017 |newspaper=[[Business Standard]] India |date=September 2016 |agency=Press Trust of India}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Zero-strike work culture has resulted in no days loss: Moloy Ghatak |newspaper=The Economic Times |url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/zero-strike-work-culture-has-resulted-in-no-days-loss-moloy-ghatak/articleshow/53783890.cms |url-status = live |publisher=[[India Times]] |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170910063200/http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/zero-strike-work-culture-has-resulted-in-no-days-loss-moloy-ghatak/articleshow/53783890.cms |archive-date = 10 September 2017}}</ref> and educational infrastructure.<ref>{{cite web |title=Silent Resurrection~I |url=http://www.thestatesman.com/opinion/silent-resurrectioni-1502457879.html |publisher=[[The Statesman (India)|The Statesman]]|url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170828103410/http://www.thestatesman.com/opinion/silent-resurrectioni-1502457879.html |archive-date = 28 August 2017 |date=24 August 2017}}</ref> Significant strides have been made in reducing unemployment,<ref>{{cite web |title=Report on Fifth Annual Employment-Unemployment Survey (2015–16) |url=http://labourbureaunew.gov.in/UserContent/EUS_5th_1.pdf |publisher=[[Ministry of Labour and Employment (India)|Ministry of Labour and Employment]] |page=120 |access-date = 24 November 2016 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161125043238/http://labourbureaunew.gov.in/UserContent/EUS_5th_1.pdf |archive-date = 25 November 2016}}</ref> though the state suffers from substandard healthcare services,<ref>{{cite web |last=Shah |first=Mansi |title=Waiting for health care: a survey of a public hospital in Kolkata |url=http://ccs.in/ccsindia/downloads/intern-papers-08/Waiting-for-Healthcare-A-survey-of-a-public-hospital-in-Kolkata-Mansi.pdf |publisher=[[Centre for Civil Society]] |access-date = 31 January 2012 |year=2007 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110813070438/http://ccs.in/ccsindia/downloads/intern-papers-08/Waiting-for-Healthcare-A-survey-of-a-public-hospital-in-Kolkata-Mansi.pdf |archive-date = 13 August 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wbhealth.gov.in/Externally_Aided_Projects/HSDI-DFID%20Programme%20Memorandum.pdf |title=West Bengal: health systems development initiative programme memorandum |publisher=[[Government of West Bengal]] |access-date = 4 March 2012 |date=15 January 2005 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120313061115/http://www.wbhealth.gov.in/Externally_Aided_Projects/HSDI-DFID%20Programme%20Memorandum.pdf |archive-date = 13 March 2012}}</ref> a lack of socio-economic development,<ref>{{cite web |title=Impact of social sector development in West Bengal – Midnapore and Birbhum districts |url=http://planningcommission.nic.in/reports/sereport/ser/wbm_indx.htm |publisher=[[Planning Commission (India)|Planning Commission of India]] |access-date = 4 March 2012 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120307135928/http://planningcommission.nic.in/reports/sereport/ser/wbm_indx.htm |archive-date = 7 March 2012}}</ref> poor infrastructure,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1100613/jsp/business/story_12560050.jsp |title=ADB pep pill for Bengal |work=[[The Telegraph (Kolkata)|The Telegraph]] |location=Kolkata |date=13 June 2010 |access-date = 4 March 2012 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120119151005/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1100613/jsp/business/story_12560050.jsp |archive-date = 19 January 2012}}</ref> unemployment and civil violence.<ref>{{cite news |title=Six killed as farmers and communists clash in West Bengal |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/nov/12/india.randeepramesh |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=12 November 2007 |access-date = 4 March 2012 |location=London |first=Randeep |last=Ramesh |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130901025553/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/nov/12/india.randeepramesh |archive-date = 1 September 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=West Bengal political violence continues |url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics/nation/West-Bengal-political-violence-continues/articleshow/4871906.cms |date=8 August 2009 |work=[[The Economic Times]] |location=New Delhi |access-date = 4 March 2012 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180725065905/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics/nation/West-Bengal-political-violence-continues/articleshow/4871906.cms |archive-date = 25 July 2018 |url-status = live}}</ref> In 2006 the state's healthcare system was severely criticised in the aftermath of the [[West Bengal blood test kit scam]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://indiankanoon.org/doc/22370108/ |title=Unknown vs The State of West Bengal on 14 November, 2014 |website=indiankanoon.org|access-date=19 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181119132558/https://indiankanoon.org/doc/22370108/|archive-date=19 November 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/defective-bloodtest-kits-in-west-bengal-8815 |title=Defective blood-test kits in West Bengal|access-date=19 November 2018 |language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181119060108/https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/defective-bloodtest-kits-in-west-bengal-8815|archive-date=19 November 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Geography ==
{{Main|Geography of West Bengal|Climate of West Bengal}}

[[File:Kalinagar Floods B.JPG|thumb|left|Many areas remain flooded during the heavy rains brought by a [[monsoon]].]]
West Bengal is on the [[Siliguri Corridor|eastern bottleneck of India]], stretching from the Himalayas in the north to the [[Bay of Bengal]] in the south. The state has a total area of {{convert|88752|km2|sqmi|0}}.<ref name="2011 pp tableA2">{{cite web |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/prov_data_products_wb.html |title=Area, population, decennial growth rate and density for 2001 and 2011 at a glance for West Bengal and the districts: provisional population totals paper 1 of 2011: West Bengal |publisher=Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India |access-date = 26 January 2012 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120107060612/http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/prov_data_products_wb.html |archive-date = 7 January 2012}}</ref> The [[Darjeeling Himalayan hill region]] in the northern extreme of the state is a part of the eastern [[Himalayas]] mountain range. In this region is [[Sandakfu]], which, at {{convert|3636|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, is the highest peak in the state.<ref>{{cite news |title=Top of world in kingdom of cloud |last=Pal |first=Supratim |url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1070514/asp/ranchi/story_7772890.asp |newspaper=[[The Telegraph (Kolkata)|The Telegraph]] |location=Kolkata |date=14 May 2007 |access-date = 16 February 2012 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130731124809/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1070514/asp/ranchi/story_7772890.asp |archive-date = 31 July 2013}}</ref> The narrow [[Terai region]] separates the hills from the [[North Bengal plains]], which in turn transitions into the [[Ganges delta]] towards the south. The Rarh region intervenes between the Ganges delta in the east and the [[western plateau and high lands]]. A small coastal region is in the extreme south, while the [[Sundarbans]] [[mangrove]] forests form a geographical landmark at the Ganges delta.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vFp8FjOaT8QC |title=Impact of Climate Change on Natural Resource Management-west bengal |language=en |access-date=13 December 2017 |isbn=9789048135813 |last1=Jana |first1=Bipal Kr |last2=Majumder |first2=Mrinmoy |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media]] |date=27 June 2010 |archive-date=2 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202001159/https://books.google.com/books?id=vFp8FjOaT8QC |url-status=live}}</ref>

The main river in West Bengal is the [[Ganges]], which divides into two branches. One branch enters Bangladesh as the ''[[Padma River|Padma]]'', or ''Pôdda'', while the other flows through West Bengal as the [[Bhagirathi River]] and [[Hooghly River]]. The [[Farakka barrage]] over the Ganges feeds the Hooghly branch of the river by a feeder canal. Its [[Sharing the water of the Ganges|water flow management]] has been a source of lingering dispute between India and Bangladesh.<ref>{{cite book |last=Jayapalan |first=N |title=Foreign policy of India |year=2001 |publisher=Atlantic Publishers and Distributors |location=New Delhi |isbn=978-81-7156-898-7 |page=344}}</ref> The [[Teesta River|Teesta]], [[Torsa River|Torsa]], [[Jaldhaka River|Jaldhaka]] and [[Mahananda River|Mahananda]] rivers are in the northern hilly region. The western plateau region has rivers like the Damodar, [[Ajay River|Ajay]] and [[Kangsabati River|Kangsabati]]. The Ganges delta and the Sundarbans area have numerous rivers and creeks. [[Pollution of the Ganges]] from indiscriminate waste dumped into the river is a major problem.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.in/2006/08/04/stories/2006080402921900.htm |title=Alarming rise in bacterial percentage in Ganga waters |access-date = 4 March 2012 |date=4 August 2006 |newspaper=[[The Hindu Business Line]] |location=Chennai |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130507072352/http://www.thehindubusinessline.in/2006/08/04/stories/2006080402921900.htm |archive-date = 7 May 2013}}</ref> [[Damodar River|Damodar]], another tributary of the Ganges and once known as the "Sorrow of Bengal" (due to its frequent floods), has several dams under the [[Damodar Valley Project]]. At least nine districts in the state suffer from [[arsenic contamination of groundwater]], and as of 2017 an estimated 1.04{{nbsp}}crore people were afflicted by arsenic poisoning.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/kolkata/104-cr-hit-by-arsenic-contamination-in-bengal/article17530242.ece |title=1.04 cr hit by arsenic contamination in Bengal |author= |date=19 March 2017 |work=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=26 January 2018 |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170318215525/http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/kolkata/104-cr-hit-by-arsenic-contamination-in-bengal/article17530242.ece|archive-date=18 March 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

West Bengal's climate varies from [[tropical savanna climate|tropical savanna]] in the southern portions to humid subtropical in the north. The main seasons are summer, the rainy season, a short autumn and winter. While the summer in the delta region is noted for excessive humidity, the western highlands experience a dry summer like northern India. The highest daytime temperatures range from {{convert|38|to|45|°C|°F|0}}.<ref name=webindia>{{cite web |url=http://www.webindia123.com/westbengal/land/climate.htm |title=Climate |access-date = 5 September 2006 |work=West Bengal: Land |publisher=Suni System (P) Ltd |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060523204949/http://www.webindia123.com/westbengal/land/climate.htm |archive-date = 23 May 2006}}</ref> At night, a cool southerly breeze carries moisture from the Bay of Bengal. In early summer, brief [[squall]]s and thunderstorms known as ''Kalbaisakhi'', or Nor'westers, often occur.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?id=kal-baisakhi1 |title=kal Baisakhi |access-date = 5 September 2006 |work=Glossary of Meteorology |publisher=[[American Meteorological Society]] |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060830065710/http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?id=kal-baisakhi1 |archive-date = 30 August 2006}}</ref> West Bengal receives the [[Climate of India#Monsoon|Bay of Bengal branch]] of the [[South Asian monsoon|Indian Ocean monsoon]] that moves in a southeast to northwest direction. Monsoons bring rain to the whole state from June to September. Heavy rainfall of above {{convert|250|cm|in}} is observed in the [[Darjeeling district|Darjeeling]], [[Jalpaiguri district|Jalpaiguri]], and [[Cooch Behar district]]. During the arrival of the monsoons, low pressure in the Bay of Bengal region often leads to the formation of storms in the [[#Coastal plain|coastal areas]]. Winter (December–January) is mild over the plains with average minimum temperatures of {{convert|15|°C|°F|0}}.<ref name=webindia /> A cold and dry northern wind blows in the winter, substantially lowering the humidity level. The Darjeeling Himalayan Hill region experiences a harsh winter, with occasional snowfall.<ref>{{cite news |title=Under 7-inch snow, Sandakphu a hot favourite among tourists now |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/under-7-inch-snow-sandakphu-a-hot-favourite-among-tourists-now/articleshow/57599065.cms |newspaper=[[Times of India]] |access-date = 2 July 2017 |date=12 March 2017 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170820145045/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/under-7-inch-snow-sandakphu-a-hot-favourite-among-tourists-now/articleshow/57599065.cms |archive-date = 20 August 2017}}</ref>

=== Flora and fauna ===
{{Multiple image
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| header =
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| header_background =
| footer =
| footer_align = 
| footer_background =
| width = 220
| image1 = Panthera tigris tigris.jpg
| width1 =
| alt1 = Photograph of a Bengal Tiger
| caption1 = A [[Royal Bengal tiger]]
| image2 = Arabari.jpg
| width2 =
| alt2 = Photograph of a Sal tree
| caption2 = [[Sal tree]]s in the [[Arabari]] forest in West [[Midnapur]]
}}

The "India State of Forest Report 2017", recorded forest area in the state is {{convert|16847|sqkm|sqmi|abbr=on}},<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/bengal-green-cover-up-by-just-21-sq-km-aided-by-plantations/articleshow/62894709.cms |title=Bengal green cover up by just 21 sq km, aided by plantations |last=Mukherjee |first=Krishnendu |date=13 February 2018 |work=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=7 May 2018 |archive-date=22 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190822115039/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/bengal-green-cover-up-by-just-21-sq-km-aided-by-plantations/articleshow/62894709.cms |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://fsi.nic.in/isfr2017/west-bengal-isfr-2017.pdf |title=West Bengal |website=fsi.nic.in |access-date=22 August 2019 |archive-date=13 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190713075340/http://fsi.nic.in/isfr2017/west-bengal-isfr-2017.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> while in 2013, forest area was {{convert|16805|sqkm|sqmi|abbr=on}}, which was 18.93% of the state's geographical area, compared to the then national average of 21.23%.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fsi.org.in/cover_2013/sfr_forest_cover.pdf |title=Forest cover |work=India state of forest report 2013 |publisher=Forest Survey of India, Ministry of Environment & Forests, Government of India |access-date = 21 July 2014 |page=17 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140714212158/http://www.fsi.org.in/cover_2013/sfr_forest_cover.pdf |archive-date = 14 July 2014}}</ref> Reserves and protected and unclassed forests constitute 59.4%, 31.8% and 8.9%, respectively, of forested areas, as of 2009.<ref name="fsiwbforest">{{cite web |url=http://www.fsi.nic.in/sfr_2009/westbengal.pdf |title=Forest and tree resources in states and union territories: West Bengal |work=India state of forest report 2009 |publisher=Forest Survey of India, Ministry of Environment & Forests, Government of India |access-date = 4 March 2012 |pages=163–166 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130501210225/http://www.fsi.nic.in/sfr_2009/westbengal.pdf |archive-date = 1 May 2013}}</ref> Part of the world's largest mangrove forest, the [[Sundarban]]s in southern West Bengal.<ref>{{cite news |first=Sadiq |last=Islam |title=World's largest mangrove forest under threat |url=http://archives.cnn.com/2001/fyi/student.bureau/06/29/sundarbans/index.html |publisher=[[CNN]] |date=29 June 2001 |access-date = 31 October 2006 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070822215926/http://archives.cnn.com/2001/fyi/student.bureau/06/29/sundarbans/index.html |archive-date = 22 August 2007}}</ref>

From a [[phytogeographic]] viewpoint, the southern part of West Bengal can be divided into two regions: the [[Gangetic plain]] and the [[littoral]] mangrove forests of the Sundarbans.<ref name=Mukherji>{{cite book |last=Mukherji |first=S.J. |year=2000 |title=College Botany Vol. III: (chapter on Phytogeography) |publisher=New Central Book Agency |location=Calcutta |pages=345–365}}</ref> The alluvial soil of the Gangetic plain, combined with favourable rainfall, makes this region especially fertile.<ref name=Mukherji /> Much of the vegetation of the western part of the state has similar species composition with the plants of the [[Chota Nagpur Plateau|Chota Nagpur plateau]] in the adjoining state of Jharkhand.<ref name=Mukherji /> The predominant commercial tree species is ''Shorea robusta'', commonly known as the [[sal tree]]. The coastal region of [[Purba Medinipur]] exhibits coastal vegetation; the predominant tree is the ''[[Casuarina]]''. A notable tree from the Sundarbans is the ubiquitous ''sundari'' (''Heritiera fomes''), from which the forest gets its name.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/452 |title=Sundarbans National Park |work=World heritage list |publisher=[[UNESCO World Heritage Centre]] |access-date = 4 March 2012 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120306224515/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/452 |archive-date = 6 March 2012}}</ref>

The distribution of vegetation in northern West Bengal is dictated by elevation and [[Precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]]. For example, the foothills of the Himalayas, the ''[[Dooars]]'', are densely wooded with sal and other tropical evergreen trees.<ref name=India123>{{cite web |url=http://www.webindia123.com/westbengal/land/forest.htm#N |title=Natural vegetation |access-date = 31 October 2006 |work=West Bengal |publisher=Suni System (P) Ltd |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060523204956/http://www.webindia123.com/westbengal/land/forest.htm#N |archive-date = 23 May 2006}}</ref> Above an elevation of {{convert|1000|m|ft}}, the forest becomes predominantly subtropical. In Darjeeling, which is above {{convert|1500|m|ft}}, temperate forest trees like [[oak]]s, [[conifer]]s and [[rhododendron]]s predominate.<ref name=India123 />

3.26% of the geographical area of West Bengal is protected land, comprising fifteen wildlife sanctuaries and five national parks—[[Sundarbans National Park]], [[Buxa Tiger Reserve]], [[Gorumara National Park]], [[Neora Valley National Park]] and [[Singalila National Park]].<ref name="fsiwbforest" /> Extant wildlife includes [[Indian rhinoceros]], [[Indian elephant]], deer, [[leopard]], [[gaur]], tiger and [[crocodile]]s, as well as many bird species. Migratory birds come to the state during the winter.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.indiainbusiness.nic.in/indian-states/westbengal/General.htm |title=West Bengal: General Information |access-date = 25 August 2006 |work=India in Business |publisher=Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060819094729/http://www.indiainbusiness.nic.in/indian-states/westbengal/General.htm |archive-date = 19 August 2006}}</ref> The high-altitude forests of Singalila National Park shelter [[barking deer]], [[red panda]], [[chinkara]], [[takin]], [[serow]], [[pangolin]], [[minivet]] and [[kalij pheasant]]s. The Sundarbans are noted for a reserve project devoted to conserving the endangered [[Bengal tiger]], although the forest hosts many other endangered species such as the [[Gangetic dolphin]], river [[terrapin]] and estuarine crocodile.<ref name=hdrchap10>{{harvnb|West Bengal Human Development Report|2004|loc=Ch. 10: Problems of Specific Regions|pp=200–203}}</ref> The mangrove forest also acts as a natural fish nursery, supporting [[coastal fish]]es along the Bay of Bengal.<ref name=hdrchap10 /> Recognising its special conservation value, the Sundarbans area has been declared a [[World Network of Biosphere Reserves|Biosphere Reserve]].<ref name="fsiwbforest" />

== Government and politics ==
{{Main|Government of West Bengal|Politics of West Bengal}}

{{See also|List of Chief Ministers of West Bengal}}
West Bengal is governed through a [[parliamentary system]] of [[representative democracy]], a feature the state shares with other Indian states. [[Universal suffrage]] is granted to residents. There are two branches of government. The legislature, the West Bengal Legislative Assembly, consists of elected members and special office bearers such as the Speaker and Deputy Speaker, who are elected by the members. Assembly meetings are presided over by the Speaker or the Deputy Speaker in the Speaker's absence. The [[judiciary]] is composed of the [[Calcutta High Court]] and a system of lower courts. [[Executive (government)|Executive authority]] is vested in the Council of Ministers headed by the [[Chief Minister of West Bengal|Chief Minister]] although the titular head of government is the [[Governor of West Bengal|Governor]]. The Governor is the [[Head of State]] appointed by the [[President of India]]. The leader of the party or coalition with a majority in the Legislative Assembly is appointed as the Chief Minister by the Governor. The Council of Ministers is appointed by the Governor on the advice of the Chief Minister. The Council of Ministers reports to the Legislative Assembly. The Assembly is [[unicameral]] with 295 [[Member of the Legislative Assembly|members]], or MLAs,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://legislativebodiesinindia.gov.in/States%5Cwestbengal%5Cwesbengal-w.htm |title=West Bengal legislative assembly |access-date = 28 October 2006 |work=Legislative bodies in India |publisher=National Informatics Centre, India |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160313022603/http://legislativebodiesinindia.gov.in/states/westbengal/wesbengal-w.htm |archive-date = 13 March 2016}}</ref> including one nominated from the [[Anglo-Indian]] community. Terms of office run for five years unless the Assembly is dissolved before the completion of the term. Auxiliary authorities known as ''[[Panchayati raj in India|panchayat]]s'', for which local body elections are regularly held, govern local affairs. The state contributes 42 seats to the [[Lok Sabha]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ceowestbengal.nic.in/news_pdf/gazette123.pdf |title=Notification: order no. 18 |author=Delimitation Commission |date=15 February 2006 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |location=New Delhi |pages=23–25 |access-date = 11 February 2012 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110813092204/http://ceowestbengal.nic.in/news_pdf/gazette123.pdf |archive-date = 13 August 2011}}</ref> and 16 seats to the [[Rajya Sabha]] of the [[Indian Parliament]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://rajyasabha.nic.in/rsnew/rsat_work/chapter-2.pdf |title=Composition of Rajya Sabha |work=Rajya Sabha at work |publisher=[[Rajya Sabha]] Secretariat |location=New Delhi |pages=24–25 |access-date = 15 February 2012 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160305020442/http://rajyasabha.nic.in/rsnew/rsat_work/chapter-2.pdf |archive-date = 5 March 2016}}</ref>

[[Politics in West Bengal]] is dominated by the [[Trinamool Congress]] (TMC), [[Bharatiya Janata Party, West Bengal|Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP), [[Indian National Congress]] (INC), and the [[Left Front (West Bengal)|Left Front]] alliance (led by the [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]] or CPI(M)). Following the [[2011 West Bengal state assembly election|West Bengal State Assembly Election in 2011]], the Trinamool Congress and Indian National Congress coalition under [[Mamata Banerjee]] of the Trinamool Congress was elected to power with 225 seats in the legislature.<ref>{{cite web |title=Statewise results – West Bengal |url=http://eciresults.nic.in/statewiseS25.htm |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date = 13 May 2011 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110516052659/http://eciresults.nic.in/Statewises25.htm |archive-date = 16 May 2011}}</ref>

Prior to this, West Bengal was ruled by the Left Front for 34 years (1977–2011), making it the world's longest-running democratically elected [[communist]] government.<ref name="longcommu" /> Banerjee was re-elected twice as Chief Minister in the [[2016 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]] and [[2021 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]] with 211 and 215 seats respectively, an absolute majority by the Trinamool Congress.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/kolkata/TMC-registers-strong-wins-in-Bengal-by-elections/article16675192.ece |title=TMC registers strong wins in Bengal by-elections |date=22 November 2016 |work=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=4 January 2018 |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161124161817/http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/kolkata/TMC-registers-strong-wins-in-Bengal-by-elections/article16675192.ece|archive-date=24 November 2016}}</ref> The state has one autonomous region, the [[Gorkhaland Territorial Administration]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.outlookindia.com/items.aspx?artid=728097 |title=Gorkhaland Territorial Administration Agreement signed |publisher=[[Outlook (Indian magazine)|Outlook]] |date=18 July 2011 |access-date = 16 March 2012 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120603154514/http://news.outlookindia.com/items.aspx?artid=728097 |archive-date = 3 June 2012}}</ref>

{{multiple image
| align = center
| direction =
| title = Main offices in West Bengal
| image1 = Governor's House.jpg
| caption1 = [[Raj Bhavan, Kolkata|Raj Bhavan]], the residence of the governor of the state
| image2 = West Bengal State Legislative Assembly House, Kolkata.jpg
| caption2 = [[West Bengal Legislative Assembly]]
| image3 = Calcutta High Court.jpg
| caption3 = [[Calcutta High Court]], highest court in West Bengal
| image4 = Nabanna - HRBC Building with Multistorey Car Park - Sibpur - Howrah 2015-03-09 6834.JPG
| caption4 = [[Nabanna (building)|Nabanna]], temporary office of the [[Chief Minister of West Bengal]]
| image5 = Writer's Building & St. Andrew's Church (14653055458).jpg
| caption5 = [[Writers' Building]], West Bengal Government Secretariat
| total_width = 1130
}}

== Districts and cities ==
=== Districts ===
{{Main|List of districts of West Bengal}}

[[File:WestBengalDistricts numbered.svg|right|thumb|Districts of West Bengal]]
[[File:Wbvillagehut1.JPG|thumb|A hut in a village in the [[Hooghly district]]]]
{{as of|2023|11|1|post=,}} West Bengal is divided into [[List of districts of West Bengal|23 districts]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://wb.gov.in/government-district-and-localgovt.aspx |title=District Profiles |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170422161508/https://wb.gov.in/portal/web/guest/district |archive-date = 22 April 2017}}</ref>
 
{| class="sortable wikitable"
|-
! District !! Population !! Growth rate !! Sex ratio !! Literacy !! Density per square Kilometer
|- style="vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;"
| [[North 24 Parganas district|North 24 Parganas]] || 10,009,781 || 12.04 || 955 || 84.06 || 2445
|- style="vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;"
| [[South 24 Parganas district|South 24 Parganas]] || 8,161,961 || 18.17 || 956 || 77.51 || 819
|- style="vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;"
| [[Purba Bardhaman district|Purba Bardhaman]] || 4,835,432 ||{{endash}} || 945 || 74.73 || 890
|- style="vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;"
| [[Paschim Bardhaman district|Paschim Bardhaman]] || 2,882,031 ||{{endash}}|| 922 || 78.75 || 1800
|- style="vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;"
| [[Murshidabad district|Murshidabad]] || 7,103,807 || 21.09 || 958 || 66.59 || 1334
|- style="vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;"
| [[Paschim Medinipur district|West Midnapore]] || 5,913,457 || 13.86 || 966 || 78.00 || 631
|- style="vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;"
| [[Hooghly district|Hooghly]] || 5,519,145 || 9.46 || 961 || 81.80 || 1753
|- style="vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;"
| [[Nadia district|Nadia]] || 5,167,600 || 12.22 || 947 || 74.97 || 1316
|- style="vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;"
| [[Purba Medinipur district|East Midnapore]] || 5,095,875 || 15.36 || 938 || 87.02 || 1081
|- style="vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;"
| [[Howrah district|Howrah]] || 4,850,029 || 13.50 || 939 || 83.31 || 3306
|- style="vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;"
| [[Kolkata district|Kolkata]] || 4,496,694 || −1.67 || 908 || 86.31 || 24306
|- style="vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;"
| [[Maldah district|Maldah]] || 3,988,845 || 21.22 || 944 || 61.73 || 1069
|- style="vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;”
| [[Jalpaiguri district|Jalpaiguri]] || 3,872,846 || 13.87 || 953 || 73.25 || 622
|- style="vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;"
| [[Alipurduar district|Alipurduar]]{{efn|name=b|Was created after the 2011 Census}}|| 1,700,000|| {{Endash}}|| {{Endash}}|| {{Endash}}||400
|- style="vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;"
| [[Bankura district|Bankura]] || 3,596,292 || 12.64 || 954 || 70.95 || 523
|- style="vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;"
| [[Birbhum district|Birbhum]] || 3,502,404||16.15||956||70.68 || 771
|- style="vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;"
| [[Uttar Dinajpur district|North Dinajpur]] || 3,007,134||23.15 ||939 ||59.07 || 958
|- style="vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;"
| [[Purulia district|Purulia]] ||2,930,115||15.52 || 957||64.48 || 468
|- style="vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;"
| [[Cooch Behar district|Cooch Behar]] || 2,819,086|| 13.71 || 942|| 74.78 || 832
|- style="vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;"
| [[Darjeeling district|Darjeeling]] || 1,846,823|| 14.77 || 970 || 79.56 || 586
|- style="vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;"
| [[Dakshin Dinajpur district|Dakshin Dinajpur]] || 1,676,276||11.52 || 956 ||72.82 || 755
|- style="vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;"
| [[Kalimpong district|Kalimpong]]{{efn|name=b}} || 202,239 ||{{Endash}}|| {{Endash}} || {{Endash}} ||270
|- style="vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;"
| [[Jhargram district|Jhargram]]{{efn|name=b}} || 1,136,548 || {{Endash}} || {{Endash}} || {{Endash}} || 374
|}
{{notelist}}
Each district is governed by a [[district collector]] or district magistrate, appointed by either the [[Indian Administrative Service]] or the [[West Bengal Civil Service]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wbja.nic.in/wbja_adm/files/The%2520West%2520Bengal%2520Panchayat%2520Act,%25201973.pdf |title=Section 2 of West Bengal Panchayat Act, 1973 – West Bengal Judicial Academy |publisher=West Bengal Judicial Academy |access-date = 26 January 2018|url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161222081452/http://wbja.nic.in/wbja_adm/files/The%20West%20Bengal%20Panchayat%20Act,%201973.pdf |archive-date = 22 December 2016}}</ref> Each district is subdivided into sub-divisions, governed by a [[Sub-Divisional Magistrate]], and again into blocks. Blocks consists of panchayats (village councils) and town municipalities.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.webel-india.com/blocks%20n%20grampanchayats.doc |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131207132226/http://www.webel-india.com/blocks%20n%20grampanchayats.doc |url-status = dead |archive-date = 7 December 2013 |title=Directory of district, sub division, panchayat samiti/ block and gram panchayats in West Bengal, March 2008 |date=March 2008 |publisher=West Bengal Electronics Industry Development Corporation Limited, Government of West Bengal |page=1 |format=DOC |access-date = 15 February 2012}}</ref>

===Cities===
The capital and largest city of the state is [[Kolkata]]—the [[List of most populous metropolitan areas in India|third-largest]] [[urban agglomeration]]<ref name=uapop2011>{{cite web |url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/india2/Million_Plus_UAs_Cities_2011.pdf |title=Urban agglomerations/cities having population 1 million and above |year=2011 |work=Provisional population totals, census of India 2011 |publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India|The Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India]] |access-date = 26 January 2012 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111215163132/http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/india2/Million_Plus_UAs_Cities_2011.pdf |archive-date = 15 December 2011}}</ref> and the [[List of most populous cities in India|seventh-largest city]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/India2/Table_2_PR_Cities_1Lakh_and_Above.pdf |title=Cities having population 1 lakh and above, census 2011 |work=Provisional population totals, census of India 2011 |publisher=The Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India |access-date = 18 October 2011 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120507135928/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/India2/Table_2_PR_Cities_1Lakh_and_Above.pdf |archive-date = 7 May 2012}}</ref> in India. [[Asansol]] is the second-largest city and urban agglomeration in West Bengal.<ref name=uapop2011 />

Major [[Planned Community|planned]] cities of West Bengal include [[Bidhannagar]], [[New Town, Kolkata|New Town]], [[Kalyani, West Bengal|Kalyani]], [[Haldia]], [[Durgapur]] and [[Kharagpur]]. Kolkata has some planned neighbourhoods like [[New Garia]], [[Tollygunge]], and [[Lake Town, Kolkata|Lake Town]]. [[Siliguri]] is an economically important city, strategically located in the northeastern Siliguri Corridor (Chicken's Neck) of India.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://thediploma0t.com/2013/11/geographys-curse-indias-vulnerable-chickens-neck/ |title=Geography's Curse: India's Vulnerable 'Chicken's Neck' |author=Ankit Panda |work=[[The Diplomat (magazine)|The Diplomat]] |access-date = 10 December 2017 |language=en-US |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171021172825/https://thediplomat.com/2013/11/geographys-curse-indias-vulnerable-chickens-neck/ |archive-date = 21 October 2017}}</ref> Other larger cities in West Bengal are [[Barrackpore]], [[Baharampur]], [[Basirhat]], [[Barddhaman]], [[Howrah]], [[Chandannagar]], [[Jalpaiguri]], [[Haldia]] and [[Purulia]] etc.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/India2/Table_2_PR_Cities_1Lakh_and_Above.pdf |title=2011 Census of India |website=censusindia.gov.in|archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20130723151530/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/India2/Table_2_PR_Cities_1Lakh_and_Above.pdf|archive-date =23 July 2013|url-status =live}}</ref> 

== Economy ==
{{Main|Economy of West Bengal}}

{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; width:240px; margin:0 0 1em 1em; background:#f4f5f6; border:#c6c7c8 solid; font-size:90%;"
| colspan="2" style="background:#c2d6e5; text-align:center;"| '''Net State Domestic Product at Factor Cost at Current Prices (2004–05 Base)'''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/PublicationsView.aspx?id=13592 |title=Net state domestic product at factor cost—state-wise (at current prices) |date=15 September 2011 |access-date = 7 February 2012 |work=Handbook of statistics on Indian economy |publisher=[[Reserve Bank of India]] |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120309001542/http://rbi.org.in/scripts/PublicationsView.aspx?id=13592 |archive-date = 9 March 2012}}</ref> 
(figures in [[crore]]s of [[Indian rupee]]s)
|-
! Year || Net State Domestic Product
|-
| 2004–2005 || 190,073
|-
| 2005–2006 || 209,642
|-
| 2006–2007 || 238,625
|-
| 2007–2008|| 272,166
|-
| 2008–2009 || 309,799
|-
| 2009–2010 || 366,318
|}
[[File:OberoiGrandHotelKolkata gobeirne.jpg|alt=The Grand Hotel in Kolkata|left|thumb|The [[Grand Hotel (Kolkata)|Grand Hotel]] in Kolkata. Tourism, especially from Bangladesh, is an important part of West Bengal's economy.]]
{{As of|2015}}, West Bengal has the sixth-highest [[GSDP]] in India. GSDP at current prices (base 2004–2005) has increased from Rs 2,086.56 billion in 2004–05 to Rs 8,00,868 crores in 2014–2015,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://niti.gov.in/content/gsdp-current-prices-2004-05-series-2004-05-2014-15 |title=GSDP at current prices, 2004–05 series (2004–05 to 2014–15) |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160718072000/http://niti.gov.in/content/gsdp-current-prices-2004-05-series-2004-05-2014-15 |archive-date = 18 July 2016}}</ref> reaching Rs 10,21,000 crores in 2017–18.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/centre-accepts-bengal-gdp-has-crossed-rs-10-lakh-crore/articleshow/65252359.cms |title=Centre accepts Bengal GDP has crossed Rs 10L cr |date=3 August 2018 |work=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=15 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180806041003/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/centre-accepts-bengal-gdp-has-crossed-rs-10-lakh-crore/articleshow/65252359.cms|archive-date=6 August 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> GSDP per cent growth at current prices varied from a low of 10.3% in 2010–2011 to a high of 17.11% in 2013–2014. The growth rate was 13.35% in 2014–2015.<ref name="niti.gov.in">{{cite web |url=http://niti.gov.in/content/gsdp-current-prices-percent-growth-2004-05-2014-15 |title=GSDP at current prices, Percent growth (2004–05 to 2014–15) |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160717122724/http://niti.gov.in/content/gsdp-current-prices-percent-growth-2004-05-2014-15 |archive-date = 17 July 2016}}</ref> The state's per capita income has lagged the all India average for over two decades. As of 2014–2015, per capita NSDP at current prices was Rs{{nbsp}}78,903.<ref name="niti.gov.in" /> Per-capita NSDP growth rate at current prices varied from 9.4% in 2010–2011 to a high of 16.15% in 2013–2014. The growth rate was 12.62% in 2014–2015.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://niti.gov.in/content/capita-nsdp-current-prices-percent-growth-2004-05-2014-15 |title=Per Capita NSDP at current prices, Percent growth (2004–05 to 2014–15) – NITI Aayog |work=niti.gov.in |access-date = 25 July 2016 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160716175641/http://niti.gov.in/content/capita-nsdp-current-prices-percent-growth-2004-05-2014-15 |archive-date = 16 July 2016}}</ref>

In 2015–2016, the percentage share of Gross Value Added (GVA) at factor cost by economic activity at the constant price (the base year 2011–2012) was Agriculture-Forestry and Fishery—4.84%, Industry 18.51% and Services 66.65%. It has been observed that there has been a slow but steady decline in the percentage share of industry and agriculture over the years.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dospiwb.org.in/downloads/eco_review_1516.pdf |title=Economic Review 2015–16 |url-status = usurped |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160815122427/http://www.dospiwb.org.in/downloads/eco_review_1516.pdf |archive-date = 15 August 2016}}</ref> Agriculture is the leading economic sector in West Bengal. Rice is the state's principal food crop. Rice, potato, [[jute]], sugarcane and wheat are the state's top five crops.<ref name=ibef2011 />{{rp|14}} Tea is produced commercially in northern districts; the region is well known for [[Darjeeling tea|Darjeeling]] and other high-quality teas.<ref name=ibef2011 />{{rp|14}} State industries are localised in the Kolkata region, the mineral-rich western highlands, and the [[Haldia Port]] region.<ref name=wbidcindinf>{{cite web |url=http://www.wbidc.com/about_wb/industrial_infrastructure.htm |title=Industrial infrastructure |publisher=West Bengal Industrial Development Corporation |access-date = 5 March 2012 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120405152957/http://www.wbidc.com/about_wb/industrial_infrastructure.htm |archive-date = 5 April 2012}}</ref> The Durgapur-Asansol colliery belt is home to a number of steel plants.<ref name=wbidcindinf /> Important manufacturing industries include: engineering products, electronics, electrical equipment, cables, steel, leather, textiles, jewellery, frigates, automobiles, railway coaches and wagons. The Durgapur centre has established several industries in the areas of tea, sugar, [[chemical]]s and [[fertiliser]]s. Natural resources like tea and jute in nearby areas have made West Bengal a major centre for the jute and tea industries.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ibef.org/states/west-bengal.aspx |title=About West Bengal State: Tourism, Industries, Agriculture, Economy & Geography |website=IBEF|access-date=4 January 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161209223506/http://www.ibef.org/states/west-bengal.aspx|archive-date=9 December 2016}}</ref>

Years after independence, West Bengal is dependent on the central government for help in meeting its demands for food; food production remained stagnant, and the [[Indian green revolution]] bypassed the state. However, there has been a significant increase in food production since the 1980s and the state now has a surplus of grains.<ref name="hdrchap1">{{harvnb|West Bengal Human Development Report|2004|loc=Ch. 1: Introduction and Human Development Indices for West Bengal|pp=4–6}}</ref> The state's share of total industrial output in India was 9.8% in 1980–1981, declining to 5% by 1997–1998. In contrast, the service sector has grown at a rate higher than the national rate.<ref name=hdrchap1 /> The state's total financial debt stood at {{INRConvert|1918350|m}} as of 2011.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://m.economictimes.com/default_pwa.cms?article=10453111 |title=Mamata seeks debt restructuring plan for West Bengal |newspaper=[[The Economic Times]] |location=New Delhi |date=22 October 2011 |access-date = 4 March 2012}}{{dead link|date=April 2024|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>

[[File:PaddyandjuteBengal.JPG|thumb|left|Freshly sown saplings of rice in a [[rice|paddy]]; in the background are stacks of [[jute]] sticks.|alt=Brown jute sticks stacked in groups with small green saplings of rice in the foreground]]
In the period 2004–2010, the average [[gross domestic product|gross state domestic product]] (GSDP) growth rate was 13.9% (calculated in Indian rupee terms) lower than 15.5%, the average for all states of the country.<ref name=ibef2011>{{cite web |url=http://www.ibef.org/download/West_Bengal_271211.pdf |title=West Bengal |date=November 2011 |publisher=[[India Brand Equity Foundation]] |access-date = 6 February 2012 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120517130353/http://www.ibef.org/download/West_Bengal_271211.pdf |archive-date = 17 May 2012}}</ref>{{rp|4}}

The economy of West Bengal has witnessed many surprising changes in direction. The agricultural sector in particular rose to 8.33% in 2010–11 before tumbling to −4.01% in 2012–13.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/1151016/jsp/opinion/story_48178.jsp |title=Figures matter |work=[[The Telegraph (Kolkata)|The Telegraph]]|access-date=3 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180203124403/https://www.telegraphindia.com/1151016/jsp/opinion/story_48178.jsp|archive-date=3 February 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> Many major industries such as the Uttarpara [[Hindustan Motors]] car manufacturing unit, the jute industry, and the Haldia Petrochemicals unit experienced shutdowns in 2014. In the same year, plans for a 300 billion Jindal Steel project was mothballed. The tea industry of West Bengal has also witnessed shutdowns for financial and political reasons.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/kolkata/a-year-of-shutdowns-in-bengals-industry/article6737583.ece |title=A year of shutdowns in Bengal's industry |last=Dutta |first=Indrani |date=30 December 2014 |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=3 February 2018 |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X |archive-date=8 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200108113052/https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/kolkata/a-year-of-shutdowns-in-bengals-industry/article6737583.ece |url-status=live}}</ref> The tourism industry of West Bengal was negatively impacted in 2017 because of the [[Gorkhaland]] agitation.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/darjeeling-fears-continuing-gorkhaland-agitation-to-hurt-festive-tourism-business/articleshow/59322627.cms |title=Darjeeling fears continuing Gorkhaland agitation to hurt festive tourism business |last=Sarkar |first=Debasis |date=26 June 2017 |work=[[The Economic Times]]|access-date=3 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180203125752/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/darjeeling-fears-continuing-gorkhaland-agitation-to-hurt-festive-tourism-business/articleshow/59322627.cms|archive-date=3 February 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

However, over the years due to effective changes in the stance towards industrialisation, ease of doing business has improved in West Bengal.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/business/ease-of-doing-business-improves-in-west-bengal/article23281313.ece |title='Ease of doing business improves in West Bengal |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |date=17 March 2018 |access-date=18 March 2018 |archive-date=2 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200102111444/https://www.thehindu.com/business/ease-of-doing-business-improves-in-west-bengal/article23281313.ece |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/business-environment-satisfactory-in-west-bengal-survey-118031700564_1.html |title=Business environment satisfactory in West Bengal: Survey |newspaper=[[Business Standard India]] |date=17 March 2018 |agency=Press Trust of India|access-date=18 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180318120524/http://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/business-environment-satisfactory-in-west-bengal-survey-118031700564_1.html|archive-date=18 March 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.financialexpress.com/industry/west-bengal-bags-top-spot-in-ease-of-doing-business-heres-the-full-ranking-list/1101880/ |website=The Financial Express |title=West Bengal bags top spot in Ease of Doing Business; Here's the full ranking list |date=17 March 2018|access-date=18 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180318120559/http://www.financialexpress.com/industry/west-bengal-bags-top-spot-in-ease-of-doing-business-heres-the-full-ranking-list/1101880/|archive-date=18 March 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> Steps are being taken to remedy this situation by promoting West Bengal as an investment destination. [[Kolkata Leather Complex|A leather complex]] has been built in Kolkata. Smart cities are being planned close to Kolkata, and major roadway projects are in the offing to revive the economy.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ibef.org/states/west-bengal-presentation |title=Industrial Development in West Bengal, GSDP of West Bengal |website=IBEF|access-date=3 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180901113112/https://www.ibef.org/states/west-bengal-presentation|archive-date=1 September 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> West Bengal has been able to attract 2% of the [[foreign direct investment]] in the last decade.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.economist.com/asia/2012/01/07/the-city-that-got-left-behind |url-access=subscription |date=7 January 2012 |title=The city that got left behind |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |language=en|access-date=31 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180201020058/http://www.economist.com/node/21542446|archive-date=1 February 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Transport ==
{{See also|Transport in West Bengal|List of airports in West Bengal}}
<gallery mode="packed" style="font-size:88%; line-height:130%; border-bottom:1px #aaa solid;" heights="150">
File:External view of Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose International Airport.jpg|[[Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose International Airport]] is a hub for flights to and from Bangladesh, East Asia, Nepal, Bhutan and north-east India.
File:Durgapur Xpressway.jpg|[[Durgapur Expressway]]
File:SBSTC bus in karunamoyee.jpg|An [[South Bengal State Transport Corporation|SBSTC]] bus in Karunamoyee
File:Sealdah bound metro approaching Central Park.jpg|[[Kolkata Metro]], India's first metro rail system
</gallery>
As of 2011, the total length of surface roads in West Bengal was over {{convert|92023|km|mi|0|abbr=off}};<ref name="ibef2011" />{{rp|18}} [[National highways of India|national highways]] comprise {{convert|2578|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://morth.nic.in/showfile.asp?lid=366 |title=Statewise Length of national highways in India |access-date = 9 February 2012 |work=National Highways |publisher=Department of Road Transport and Highways; Ministry of Shipping, Road Transport and Highways; Government of India |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121022105130/http://www.morth.nic.in/showfile.asp?lid=366 |archive-date = 22 October 2012}}</ref> and state highways {{convert|2393|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}.<ref name=ibef2011 />{{rp|18}} As of 2006, the road density of the state was {{convert|103.69|km/km2|abbr=off}}, higher than the national average of {{convert|74.7|km/km2|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Chattopadhyay |first=Suhrid Sankar |date=January–February 2006 |title=Remarkable Growth |journal=The Hindu; Frontline |volume=23 |issue=2 |url=http://www.flonnet.com/fl2302/stories/20060210004209800.htm |url-status = dead |access-date = 15 October 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120319050538/http://www.flonnet.com/fl2302/stories/20060210004209800.htm |archive-date = 19 March 2012}}</ref>

As of 2011, the total railway route length was around {{convert|4481|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}.<ref name=ibef2011 />{{rp|20}} Kolkata is the headquarters of three zones of the [[Indian Railways]]—[[Eastern Railway (India)|Eastern Railway]] and [[South Eastern Railway (India)|South Eastern Railway]] and the Kolkata Metro, which is the newly formed 17th{{nbsp}}zone of the Indian Railways.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Kolkata-Metro-is-now-the-17th-zone-of-Indian-Railways/articleshow/7186301.cms?referral=PM |work=[[The Times of India]] |title=Kolkata Metro is now the 17th zone of Indian Railways |date=29 December 2010 |access-date=26 January 2018 |archive-date=2 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202001156/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Kolkata-Metro-is-now-the-17th-zone-of-Indian-Railways/articleshow/7186301.cms?referral=PM |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Geography : Railway Zones |url=http://www.irfca.org/faq/faq-geog.html |access-date = 31 August 2007 |work=IRFCA.org |publisher=Indian Railways Fan Club |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070819043943/http://www.irfca.org/faq/faq-geog.html |archive-date = 19 August 2007}}</ref> The [[Northeast Frontier Railway]] (NFR) serves the northern parts of the state. The [[Kolkata metro]] is the country's first underground railway.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=[[Kolkata Metro]] |url=http://www.kolmetro.com/ |title=About Kolkata Metro |access-date = 1 September 2007 |url-status = usurped |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070820234733/http://www.kolmetro.com/ |archive-date = 20 August 2007}}</ref> The [[Darjeeling Himalayan Railway]], part of NFR, is a UNESCO [[World Heritage Site]].<ref>{{cite web |publisher=[[UNESCO World Heritage Centre]] |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/944 |title=Mountain Railways of India |access-date = 30 April 2006 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060503143242/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/944/ |archive-date = 3 May 2006}}</ref>

[[Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose International Airport]] at [[Dum Dum]], Kolkata, is the state's largest airport. [[Bagdogra Airport]] near Siliguri is a [[customs airport]] that offers international service to Bhutan and Thailand, besides regular domestic service. [[Kazi Nazrul Islam Airport]], India's first private sector airport, serves the twin cities of Asansol-Durgapur at [[Andal]], [[Paschim Bardhaman]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Profile on Kazi Nazrul Islam International Airport |url=http://centreforaviation.com/profiles/newairports/kazi-nazrul-islam-international-airport |access-date = 5 August 2014 |newspaper=Centre for Asia Pacific Aviation |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140808044706/http://centreforaviation.com/profiles/newairports/kazi-nazrul-islam-international-airport |archive-date = 8 August 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Mishra |first1=Mihir |title=Air India operates inaugural flight between Durgapur & Kolkata |url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/articleshow/47329679.cms |access-date = 19 May 2015 |newspaper=[[The Economic Times]] |date=18 May 2015 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170802091136/http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/articleshow/47329679.cms |archive-date = 2 August 2017}}</ref>

Kolkata is a major river port in eastern India. The [[Kolkata Port Trust]] manages the Kolkata and the [[Haldia]] docks.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kolkataporttrust.gov.in/ |title=Port info: cargo statistics |access-date = 9 February 2012 |work=Kolkata Port Trust |publisher=[[Kolkata Port Trust]], India |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120119114809/http://kolkataporttrust.gov.in/ |archive-date = 19 January 2012}}</ref> There is passenger service to [[Port Blair]] on the [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]]. [[Cargo ship]] service operates to [[ports in India]] and abroad, operated by the [[Shipping Corporation of India]]. Ferries are a principal mode of transport in the southern part of the state, especially in the Sundarbans area. Kolkata is the only city in India to have [[Trams in Kolkata|trams]] as a mode of transport; these are operated by the Calcutta Tramways Company.<ref>{{cite news |title=Intra-city train travel |url=http://timesfoundation.indiatimes.com/articleshow/657741.cms |access-date = 31 August 2007 |work=reaching India |publisher=[[Times Internet Limited]] |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071016221039/http://timesfoundation.indiatimes.com/articleshow/657741.cms |archive-date = 16 October 2007}}</ref>

Several government-owned organisations operate bus services in the state, including: the [[Calcutta State Transport Corporation]], the [[North Bengal State Transport Corporation]], the [[South Bengal State Transport Corporation]], the [[West Bengal Surface Transport Corporation]] and the [[Calcutta Tramways Company]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/economy/logistics/bengal-transport-dept-to-offer-vrs-to-over-4000-employees/article3377172.ece |title=Bengal transport dept to offer VRS to over 4,000 employees |last=Pramanik |first=Ayan |date=2 May 2012 |work=[[The Hindu Business Line]] |access-date = 10 December 2017 |language=en |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180126080958/http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/economy/logistics/bengal-transport-dept-to-offer-vrs-to-over-4000-employees/article3377172.ece |archive-date = 26 January 2018}}</ref> There are also private bus companies. The railway system is a nationalised service without any private investment.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irfca.org/faq/faq-hist.html |title=[IRFCA] Indian Railways FAQ: IR History: Early Days – 1 |website=www.irfca.org |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20050307181407/http://irfca.org/faq/faq-hist.html |archive-date = 7 March 2005}}</ref> Hired forms of transport include metered taxis and [[auto rickshaw]]s, which often ply specific routes in cities. In most of the state, [[cycle rickshaw]]s and in Kolkata, [[Pulled rickshaw#India|hand-pulled rickshaws]] and [[electric rickshaw]]s are used for short-distance travel.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MexGAwAAQBAJ&q=kolkata+autorickshaws&pg=PA221 |title=Sustainability Science for Social, Economic, and Environmental Development |last=Nilanjan |first=Ghosh |date=31 January 2014 |publisher=IGI Global |isbn=978-1-4666-4996-5 |language=en |access-date=21 October 2020 |archive-date=2 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202001211/https://books.google.com/books?id=MexGAwAAQBAJ&q=kolkata+autorickshaws&pg=PA221 |url-status=live}}</ref>

== Demographics ==
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| image1 = Dakshineswar Kali Temple, Dakshineswar, West Bengal, India (2007).jpg
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{{Historical population
| source = Census of India<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/PCA/A2_Data_Table.html |title=A-02: Decadal variation in population 1901–2011 |publisher= Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India |access-date=8 August 2019 |archive-date=8 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190808131957/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/PCA/A2_Data_Table.html |url-status=live}} [https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/43352/download/47040/19%20A-2%20West%20Bengal.pdf Alt URL]</ref>
| 1901 |16940088
| 1911 |17998769
| 1921 |17474348
| 1931 |18897036
| 1941 |23229552
| 1951 |26299980
| 1961 |34926279
| 1971 |44312011
| 1981 |54580647
| 1991 |68077965
| 2001 |80176197
| 2011 |91276115}}

According to the provisional results of the 2011 national census, West Bengal is the fourth-most-populous state in India with a population of 91,347,736 (7.55% of India's population).<ref name="2011 pp tableA2" /> The state's 2001–2011 decennial population growth rate was 13.93%,<ref name="2011 pp tableA2" /> lower than the 1991–2001 growth rate of 17.8%<ref name="2011 pp tableA2" /> and lower than the national rate of 17.64%.<ref name="indiastatesprov2011">{{cite web |title=Table 1: Distribution of population, sex ratio, density and decadal growth rate of population: 2011 |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/prov_results_paper1_india.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120212184630/http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/prov_results_paper1_india.html|archive-date=12 February 2012|access-date=16 February 2012 |work=Provisional population totals paper 1 of 2011 India: series 1 |publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India|Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India]]}}</ref> The gender ratio is 947 females per 1,000 males.<ref name="indiastatesprov2011" /> As of 2011, West Bengal had a population density of {{convert|1029|PD/km2}} making it the second-most densely populated state in India, after Bihar.<ref name="indiastatesprov2011" />

The literacy rate is 77.08%, higher than the national rate of 74.04%.<ref>{{cite web |title=Table 2(3): Literates and literacy rates by sex : 2011 |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/prov_results_paper1_india.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120212184630/http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/prov_results_paper1_india.html|archive-date=12 February 2012|access-date=16 February 2012 |work=Provisional population totals paper 1 of 2011 India: series 1 |publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India|Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India]]}}</ref> Data from 2010 to 2014 showed the life expectancy in the state was 70.2 years, higher than the national value of 67.9.<ref>{{cite web |title=Contents 2010–14 |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Vital_Statistics/SRS_Life_Table/1.CONTENTS-2010-14.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161113174353/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Vital_Statistics/SRS_Life_Table/1.CONTENTS-2010-14.pdf|archive-date=13 November 2016|access-date=12 January 2017 |publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Abridged Life Tables- 2010–14 |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Vital_Statistics/SRS_Life_Table/2.Analysis_2010-14.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170110123124/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Vital_Statistics/SRS_Life_Table/2.Analysis_2010-14.pdf|archive-date=10 January 2017|access-date=12 January 2017 |publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]] |page=5}}</ref> The proportion of people living below the poverty line in 2013 was 19.98%, a decline from 31.8% a decade prior.<ref>{{cite web |year=2013 |title=Table 162, Number and Percentage of Population Below Poverty Line |url=http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/PublicationsView.aspx?id=15283|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407102043/http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/PublicationsView.aspx?id=15283|archive-date=7 April 2014|access-date=20 April 2014 |publisher=[[Reserve Bank of India]], Government of India}}</ref> [[Scheduled castes and tribes]] form 28.6% and 5.8% of the population, respectively, in rural areas and 19.9% and 1.5%, respectively, in urban areas.<ref name="hdrchap1" />

In September 2017, West Bengal achieved 100% electrification, after some remote villages in the Sunderbans became the last to be electrified.<ref>{{cite news |date=3 November 2017 |title=Bengal is 100% electrified now |work=[[The Times of India]], Kolkata}}</ref>

As of September 2017, of 125 towns and cities in Bengal, 76 have achieved [[open defecation free]] (ODF) status. All towns in the districts of: Nadia, North 24 Parganas, Hooghly, Bardhaman and East Medinipur are ODF zones, with Nadia becoming the first ODF district in the state in April 2015.<ref>{{cite news |last=Chakrabarti |first=Suman |date=6 September 2017 |title=76 Bengal towns free of open defecation |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Dutta |first=Saptarshi |date=7 September 2017 |title=With 76 Towns And Cities Already Open Defecation Free, West Bengal Aims To Reach The 100% Mark by the End of This Year |url=https://swachhindia.ndtv.com/with-76-towns-and-cities-already-open-defecation-free-west-bengal-aims-to-reach-the-100-mark-by-the-end-of-this-year-11586/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181017163154/https://swachhindia.ndtv.com/with-76-towns-and-cities-already-open-defecation-free-west-bengal-aims-to-reach-the-100-mark-by-the-end-of-this-year-11586/|archive-date=17 October 2018|access-date=16 October 2018 |website=[[NDTV India|NDTV]]}}</ref>

A study conducted in three districts of West Bengal found that accessing private health services to treat illness had a catastrophic impact on households. This indicates the importance of the public provision of health services to mitigate poverty and the impact of illness on poor households.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kanjilal |first=Barun |author2=Swadhin Mondal |author3=Moumita Mukherjee |author4=Debjani Barman |author5=Arnab Mondal |date=October 2008 |title=Catastrophic Health Care Payment: how much protected are the users of public hospitals? |url=http://www.futurehealthsystems.org/publications/fhs-india-research-brief-4-catastrophic-health-care-payment.html|url-status=live |journal=FHS Research Brief |issue=4|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130309062513/http://www.futurehealthsystems.org/publications/fhs-india-research-brief-4-catastrophic-health-care-payment.html|archive-date=9 March 2013}}</ref>

The latest Sample Registration System (SRS) statistical report shows that West Bengal has the lowest [[fertility rate]] among Indian states. West Bengal's total fertility rate was 1.6, lower than neighbouring Bihar's 3.4, which is the highest in the entire country. Bengal's TFR of 1.6 roughly equals that of Canada.<ref>{{cite web |date=25 December 2014 |title=Why West Bengal is like Canada, and Bihar like Swaziland |url=http://www.livemint.com/Politics/1rl0WtFHAUyrXy1KcwGYlK/Why-West-Bengal-is-like-Canada-and-Bihar-like-Swaziland.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160724083636/http://www.livemint.com/Politics/1rl0WtFHAUyrXy1KcwGYlK/Why-West-Bengal-is-like-Canada-and-Bihar-like-Swaziland.html|archive-date=24 July 2016}}</ref>

[[Bengali people|Bengalis]], consisting of [[Bengali Hindus]], [[Bengali Muslims]], [[Bengali Christians]] and a few [[Bengali Buddhists]], comprise the majority of the population.<ref>{{cite book |title=Ethnic realignments: a comparative study of government influences on identity |last=Hoddie |first=Matthew |year=2006 |publisher=[[Lexington Books]] |isbn=978-0-7391-1325-7 |pages=114–115 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6ka0nMJgKbYC |access-date = 16 February 2012 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130510061300/http://books.google.com/books?id=6ka0nMJgKbYC |archive-date = 10 May 2013}}</ref> [[Marwari people|Marwari]], [[Maithils|Maithili]] and [[Bhojpuri people|Bhojpuri]] speakers are scattered throughout the state; various indigenous ethnic Buddhist communities such as the [[Sherpa (people)|Sherpas]], [[Bhutia]]s, [[Lepcha people|Lepchas]], [[Tamang people|Tamangs]], [[Hyolmo people|Yolmos]] and ethnic [[Tibetan people|Tibetans]] can be found in the Darjeeling Himalayan hill region. Native [[Khortha language|Khortha]] speakers are found in [[Malda district]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sl_dDVctycgC&q=angika+in+west+bengal&pg=PA481 |title=International Encyclopedia of Linguistics: AAVE – Esperanto |date=10 March 2018 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |via=Google Books |isbn=978-0-19-513977-8 |access-date=21 October 2020 |archive-date=2 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202001146/https://books.google.com/books?id=sl_dDVctycgC&q=angika+in+west+bengal&pg=PA481 |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Surjapuri language|Surjapuri]], a language considered to be a mix of Maithili and Bengali, is spoken across northern parts of the state.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zc77I8CMgTYC&q=surjapuri+west+bengal&pg=PA508 |title=The Handbook of Historical Sociolinguistics |first1=Juan Manuel |last1=Hernández-Campoy |first2=Juan Camilo |last2=Conde-Silvestre |date=15 February 2012 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |via=Google Books |isbn=978-1-118-25726-5 |access-date=21 October 2020 |archive-date=2 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202001146/https://books.google.com/books?id=zc77I8CMgTYC&q=surjapuri+west+bengal&pg=PA508 |url-status=live}}</ref> The Darjeeling Hills are mainly inhabited by various Gorkha communities who overwhelmingly speak [[Nepali language|Nepali]] (also known as Gorkhali), although there are some who retain their ancestral languages like [[Lepcha language|Lepcha]]. West Bengal is also home to indigenous tribal [[Adivasi]]s such as: [[Santhal people|Santhal]], [[Munda people|Munda]], [[Oraon people|Oraon]], [[Bhumij people|Bhumij]], [[Lodha]], [[Kol (people)|Kol]] and [[Toto people|Toto]].

There are a small number of [[Ethnic communities in Kolkata|ethnic minorities]] primarily in the state capital, including : [[Overseas Chinese|Chinese]], [[Tamil people|Tamils]], [[Maharashtrians]], [[Odia people|Odias]], [[Malayalis]], [[Gujarati people|Gujaratis]], Anglo-Indians, [[Armenians in India|Armenians]], [[Jews]], [[Punjabis]] and [[Parsi people|Parsis]].<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last = Banerjee |editor1-first = Himadri |editor2-last = Gupta |editor2-first = Nilanjana |editor3-last = Mukherjee |editor3-first = Sipra |title=Calcutta mosaic: essays and interviews on the minority communities of Calcutta |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cSTEOx_Lw9MC |access-date = 29 January 2012 |year=2009 |publisher=Anthem Press |isbn=978-81-905835-5-8 |page=3 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130509233321/http://books.google.com/books?id=cSTEOx_Lw9MC&dq |archive-date = 9 May 2013}}</ref> India's sole [[Chinatown]] is in eastern Kolkata.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last = Banerjee |editor1-first = Himadri |editor2-last = Gupta |editor2-first = Nilanjana |editor3-last = Mukherjee |editor3-first = Sipra |title=Calcutta mosaic: essays and interviews on the minority communities of Calcutta |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cSTEOx_Lw9MC |access-date = 29 January 2012 |year=2009 |publisher=Anthem Press |isbn=978-81-905835-5-8 |pages=9–10 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130509233321/http://books.google.com/books?id=cSTEOx_Lw9MC&dq |archive-date = 9 May 2013}}</ref>

=== Languages ===

[[File:Language Map of West Bengal (2011 Census).svg|200px|thumb|Languages spoken by district 
'''Bengali'''
{{legend|#1ee6b2|50–60%}}
{{legend|#00d19b|60–70%}}
{{legend|#009e75|70–80%}}
{{legend|#006b4f|80–90%}}
{{legend|#005239|90–100%}}
'''Nepali'''
{{legend|#f6c6e4|30–40%}}
{{legend|#e986c4|50–60%}}
]]

{{Pie chart
|label1=[[Bengali language|Bengali]] |value1=86.22
|label2=[[Hindi]]|value2=6.97
|label3=[[Santali language|Santali]] |value3=2.66
|label4=[[Urdu]] |value4=1.82
|label5=[[Nepali language|Nepali]] |value5=1.27
|label6= Others |value6=1.06
|caption=Languages of West Bengal (2011)<ref name="langcensus2011">{{cite web |title=Table C-16 – Population by Mother Tongue |url=https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-16.html |website=www.censusindia.gov.in |publisher=Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India |access-date=18 September 2021 |archive-date=15 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180815035759/https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-16.html |url-status=live}}</ref>
|color4=#278d27|color2=#f97d09|color1=Red|color3=Yellow}}

The state's official languages are Bengali and English;<ref name=nclmanurep2010>—{{cite web |url=http://www.nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM52ndReport.pdf |title=Report of the Commissioner for linguistic minorities: 52nd report (July 2014 to June 2015) |pages=85–86 |publisher=Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities, Ministry of Minority Affairs, Government of India |access-date=16 February 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115133948/http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM52ndReport.pdf |archive-date=15 November 2016}} —{{cite news |last1=Singh |first1=Shiv Sahay |title=Official language status for Urdu in some West Bengal areas |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/official-language-status-for-urdu-in-some-west-bengal-areas/article3274293.ece |access-date=3 June 2019 |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=3 April 2012 |language=en-IN |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190603103658/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/official-language-status-for-urdu-in-some-west-bengal-areas/article3274293.ece |archive-date=3 June 2019 |url-status=live}} —{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/1121211/jsp/bengal/story_16301872.jsp |title=Multi-lingual Bengal |date=11 December 2012 |newspaper=[[The Telegraph (Calcutta)|The Telegraph]] |access-date=25 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180325232340/https://www.telegraphindia.com/1121211/jsp/bengal/story_16301872.jsp |archive-date=25 March 2018 |url-status=dead}} —{{cite news |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/newsscroll/kurukh-language-given-official-status-by-bengal-government/993228 |title=Kurukh language given official status by Bengal government |date=21 February 2017 |newspaper=[[Outlook (Indian magazine)|Outlook]] |access-date=12 October 2020 |archive-date=22 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122232505/https://www.outlookindia.com/newsscroll/kurukh-language-given-official-status-by-bengal-government/993228 |url-status=live}} —{{cite magazine |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/pti-feed/story/kamtapuri-rajbanshi-make-it-to-list-of-official-languages-in-1179890-2018-02-28 |title=Kamtapuri, Rajbanshi make it to list of official languages in |last=Roy |first=Anirban |date=28 February 2018 |magazine=[[India Today]] |access-date=30 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180330143710/https://www.indiatoday.in/pti-feed/story/kamtapuri-rajbanshi-make-it-to-list-of-official-languages-in-1179890-2018-02-28 |archive-date=30 March 2018 |url-status=live}} —{{cite news |date=24 December 2020 |title=West Bengal shows 'Mamata' to Telugus |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/andhra-pradesh/west-bengal-shows-mamata-to-telugus-663381 |access-date=31 December 2020 |work=[[The Hans India]] |language=en |archive-date=23 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201223184833/https://www.thehansindia.com/andhra-pradesh/west-bengal-shows-mamata-to-telugus-663381 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Nepali language|Nepali]] has additional official status in the three subdivisions of Darjeeling district.<ref name=nclmanurep2010 /> In 2012, the state government passed a bill granting additional official status to [[Hindi]], [[Odia language|Odia]], [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Santali language|Santali]] and [[Urdu]] in areas where speakers exceed 10% of the population.<ref name=nclmanurep2010 /> In 2019, another bill was passed by the government to include [[KRNB lects|Kamtapuri]], [[Kurmali]] and [[Rangpuri language|Rajbanshi]] as additional official languages in blocks, divisions or districts where the speakers exceed 10% of the population.<ref name=nclmanurep2010 /> On 24 December 2020, Chief Minister Mamata Banerjee announced [[Telugu language|Telugu]] as an additional official language.<ref name=nclmanurep2010 /> As of the 2011 census, 86.22% of the population spoke [[Bengali language|Bengali]], 5.00% Hindi, 2.66% [[Santali language|Santali]], 1.82% [[Urdu]] and 1.26% [[Nepali language|Nepali]] as their first language.<ref name="langcensus2011"/>

=== Religion ===
{{Main|Religion in West Bengal}}

{{Pie chart
| thumb = left
| caption = Religion in West Bengal (2011)<ref>{{cite web |title=Population by religion community – 2011 |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01/DDW00C-01%20MDDS.XLS |website=Census of India, 2011 |publisher=The Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150825155850/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01/DDW00C-01%20MDDS.XLS |archive-date = 25 August 2015}}</ref>
| label1 = [[Hinduism]]
| color1 = darkorange
| value1 = 70.54
| label2 = [[Islam]]
| color2 = Green
| value2 = 27.01
| label3 = [[Christianity]]
| color3 = Blue
| value3 = 0.72
| label4 = [[Buddhism]]
| color4 = Gold
| value4 = 0.31
| label5 = [[Irreligion|No religion]]
| color5 = black
| value5 = 0.25
| label6 = [[Jainism]]
| color6 = brown
| value6 = 0.07
| label7 = [[Sikhism]]
| color7 = Yellow
| value7 = 0.07
| label8 = Other Religions (inc. [[Tribal religions]], [[Judaism]] and [[Zoroastrianism]])
| color8 = Grey
| value8 = 1.03
}}

West Bengal is religiously diverse, with regional cultural and religious specificities. Although [[Hinduism in West Bengal|Hindus]] are the predominant community, the state has a large minority [[Islam in West Bengal|Muslim]] population. Christians, Buddhists and others form a minuscule part of the population. As of [[2011 Census of India|2011]], [[Hinduism]] is the most common religion, with adherents representing 70.54% of the total population.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thestatesman.com/news/opinion/bengal-s-topsy-turvy-population-growth/93152.html |title=Bengal's topsy-turvy population growth |author=B.P. Syam Roy |newspaper=The Statesman |date=28 September 2015 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160910125228/http://www.thestatesman.com/news/opinion/bengal-s-topsy-turvy-population-growth/93152.html |archive-date = 10 September 2016}}</ref> Muslims, the second-largest community, comprise 27.01% of the total population,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-opinion/could-it-take-two-to-tango-with-mamata/article8287103.ece |title=Could it take two to tango with Mamata? |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160229221950/http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-opinion/could-it-take-two-to-tango-with-mamata/article8287103.ece |archive-date = 29 February 2016 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |date=26 February 2016 |last1=Singh |first1=Shiv Sahay}}</ref> Three of West Bengal's districts: [[Murshidabad district|Murshidabad]], [[Malda district|Malda]] and [[Uttar Dinajpur district|Uttar Dinajpur]], are Muslim-majority. [[Sikhism]], [[Christianity]], Buddhism and other religions make up the remainder.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/ |title=Data on Religion |access-date = 26 August 2006 |work=Census of India (2001) |publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India|Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India]] |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070812142520/http://www.censusindia.net/religiondata/ |archive-date = 12 August 2007}}</ref> Buddhism remains a prominent religion in the Himalayan region of the [[Darjeeling district|Darjeeling hills]]; almost the entirety of West Bengal's Buddhist population is from this region.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zq2uCwAAQBAJ&q=Most+of+West+Bengal%27s+Buddhist+population+is+from+Darjeeling+hills&pg=PA50 |title=Buddhist Revival in India: Aspects of the Sociology of Buddhism |last1=Ling |first1=Trevor |last2=Axelrod |first2=Steven |date=19 June 1980 |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] |isbn=978-1-349-16310-6 |language=en |access-date=21 October 2020 |archive-date=2 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202001207/https://books.google.com/books?id=Zq2uCwAAQBAJ&q=Most+of+West+Bengal%27s+Buddhist+population+is+from+Darjeeling+hills&pg=PA50 |url-status=live}}</ref> Christianity is mainly found among the tea garden tribes at tea plantations scattered throughout the Dooars of Darjeeling, [[Jalpaiguri district|Jalpaiguri]] and [[Alipurduar district|Alipurduar]] districts.

The Hindu population of West Bengal is 64,385,546 while the Muslim population is 24,654,825, according to the 2011 census.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Bengal-beats-India-in-Muslim-growth-rate/articleshow/48675987.cms |title=Bengal beats India in Muslim growth rate |date=26 August 2015 |last=Seni |first=Saibal |work=[[The Times of India]]|url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170721165614/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Bengal-beats-India-in-Muslim-growth-rate/articleshow/48675987.cms |archive-date = 21 July 2017}}</ref>

{{clear}}

== Culture ==
{{See also|Bengalis|Culture of West Bengal|Culture of Darjeeling}}

=== Literature ===
{{Main|Bengali literature|History of Bengali literature}}

{{multiple image
| align = right
| image1 = Rabindranath Tagore.jpg
| width1 = 150
| alt1 = Portrait of Rabindranath Tagore
| caption1 = [[Rabindranath Tagore]] is Asia's first [[Nobel laureate]] and the composer of [[Jana Gana Mana|India's national anthem]].
| image2 = Swami Vivekananda-1893-09-signed.jpg
| width2 = 152
| alt2 = A portrait of Swami Vivekanada
| caption2 = [[Swami Vivekananda]] was a key figure in introducing [[Vedanta]] and [[Yoga]] to Europe and the US,<ref>{{cite book |last=Georg |first=Feuerstein |author-link = Georg Feuerstein |title=The Yoga Tradition |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=2002 |page=600 |isbn=978-3-935001-06-9}}</ref> raising interfaith awareness and making [[Hinduism]] a world religion.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clarke |first=Peter Bernard |title=New Religions in Global Perspective |url=https://archive.org/details/newreligionsglob00clar |url-access = limited |publisher=Routledge |year=2006 |page=[https://archive.org/details/newreligionsglob00clar/page/n224 209] |isbn=978-0-7007-1185-7}}</ref>
}}

The Bengali language boasts a rich literary heritage it shares with neighbouring Bangladesh. West Bengal has a long tradition of folk literature, evidenced by the ''[[Charyapada]]'', a collection of Buddhist mystic songs dating back to the 10th and 11th{{nbsp}}centuries; ''[[Mangalkavya]]'', a collection of Hindu narrative poetry composed around the 13th{{nbsp}}century; ''[[Shreekrishna Kirtana]]'', a pastoral [[Vaishnava]] drama in verse composed by [[Boru Chandidas]]; ''[[Thakurmar Jhuli]]'', a collection of Bengali folk and fairy tales compiled by [[Dakshinaranjan Mitra Majumder]]; and stories of [[Gopal Bhar]], a court [[jester]] in medieval Bengal. In the 19th and 20th{{nbsp}}centuries, Bengali literature was modernised in the works of authors such as [[Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay]], whose works marked a departure from the traditional verse-oriented writings prevalent in that period;<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thedailystar.net/news-detail-192109 |title=Bankim Chandra: The First Prominent Bengali Novelist |date=30 June 2011 |work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]] |access-date = 12 December 2017 |language=en |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170906035834/http://www.thedailystar.net/news-detail-192109 |archive-date = 6 September 2017}}</ref> [[Michael Madhusudan Dutt]], a pioneer in [[Bengali theatre|Bengali drama]] who introduced the use of [[blank verse]];<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e_dA0RAwd4oC |title=Dictionary of Indian Biography |last=Buckland |first=C. E. |date=1999 |publisher=Cosmo Publication |isbn=9788170208976 |language=en |access-date=12 August 2020 |archive-date=2 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202001228/https://books.google.com/books?id=e_dA0RAwd4oC |url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Rabindranath Tagore]], who reshaped [[Bengali literature]] and [[Music of Bengal|music]]. [[Indian art]] saw the introduction of [[Contextual Modernism]] in the late 19th and early 20th{{nbsp}}centuries.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://tagoreweb.in/pages/RTagore.aspx |title=TagoreWeb |website=tagoreweb.in |access-date = 12 December 2017 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170628152418/http://tagoreweb.in/pages/RTagore.aspx |archive-date = 28 June 2017}}</ref> Other notable figures include [[Kazi Nazrul Islam]], whose compositions form the [[Avant-garde music|avant-garde]] genre of ''[[Nazrul Sangeet]]'',<ref>{{cite web |url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Islam,_Kazi_Nazrul |title=Islam, Kazi Nazrul |website=Banglapedia |language=en |access-date = 12 December 2017 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170706165608/http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Islam,_Kazi_Nazrul |archive-date = 6 July 2017}}</ref> [[Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay]], whose works on contemporary social practices in Bengal are widely acclaimed,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/remembering-sarat-chandra-chattopadhyay-the-awara-masiha-on-his-139th-birth-anniversary/ |title=Remembering Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay, the 'Awara Masiha' |date=15 September 2015 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |access-date = 12 December 2017 |language=en-US |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170612121318/http://indianexpress.com/article/india/remembering-sarat-chandra-chattopadhyay-the-awara-masiha-on-his-139th-birth-anniversary/ |archive-date = 12 June 2017}}</ref> and [[Manik Bandyopadhyay]], who is considered one of the leading lights of modern Bengali fiction.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thedailystar.net/news/manik-bandopadhyay-taking-the-road-less-travelled |title=Manik Bandopadhyay Taking the road less travelled |date=22 May 2013 |work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]] |access-date = 13 December 2017 |language=en |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171213143146/http://www.thedailystar.net/news/manik-bandopadhyay-taking-the-road-less-travelled |archive-date = 13 December 2017}}</ref> In modern times, [[Jibanananda Das]] has been acknowledged as "the premier poet of the post-Tagore era in India".<ref>{{cite book |last=Mookerjea-Leonard |first=Debali |date=2008 |editor=R. Victoria Arana |title=The Facts on File Companion to World poetry, 1900 to the Present |url=https://archive.org/details/factsonfilecompa00aran |url-access = limited |publisher=[[Facts on File, Inc.]] |location=New York City |page=[https://archive.org/details/factsonfilecompa00aran/page/n140 128] |isbn=978-0-8160-6457-1}}</ref> Other writers include: [[Bibhutibhushan Bandopadhyay]], best known for his work ''[[Pather Panchali]]''; [[Tarashankar Bandopadhyay]], well known for his portrayal of the lower strata of society;<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sen |first1=Sukumar |title=History of Bengali Literature |edition=3rd |year=1979 |orig-date=1960 |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |location=New Delhi |isbn=978-81-7201-107-9 |page=345}}</ref> [[Manik Bandopadhyay]], a pioneering novelist; and [[Ashapurna Devi]], [[Shirshendu Mukhopadhyay]], [[Saradindu Bandopadhyay]], [[Buddhadeb Guha]], [[Mahashweta Devi]], [[Samaresh Majumdar]], [[Sanjeev Chattopadhyay]], [[Shakti Chattopadhyay]], [[Buddhadeb Basu]],<ref>{{harvnb|Datta|1988|p=1213}}</ref> [[Joy Goswami]] and [[Sunil Gangopadhyay]].<ref>{{harvnb|Datta|1988|p=1367}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Bardhan|2010|p=}}</ref>

=== Music and dance ===
{{Main|Music of West Bengal}}

{{multiple image
| perrow = 2
| total_width = 450
| caption_align = center
| image1 = 394 baul-singers-sml.jpg
| caption1 = Baul singers at [[Basanta-Utsab]], [[Shantiniketan]]
| image2 = Dance with Rabindra Sangeet - Kolkata 2011-11-05 6669.JPG
| caption2 = Dance with [[Rabindra Sangeet]]
}}

[[File:Mahisasuramardini - Chhau Dance - Kolkata 2016-03-29 3278.JPG|thumb|[[Chhau dance|Chhau Dance]]]]
A notable music tradition is the Baul music, practised by the [[Baul]]s, a sect of mystic [[minstrel]]s.<ref>{{cite book |last=Openshaw |first=Jeanne |title=Seeking Bauls of Bengal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AvsQjPPu_okC |date=25 July 2002 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-81125-5 |pages=1–6 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160609180102/https://books.google.com/books?id=AvsQjPPu_okC |archive-date = 9 June 2016}}</ref> Other folk music forms include [[Gombhira]] and [[Bhawaiya]]. Folk music in West Bengal is often accompanied by the [[ektara]], a one-stringed instrument. [[Shyama Sangeet]] is a genre of devotional songs, praising the Hindu goddess [[Kali]]; [[kirtan]] is devotional group songs dedicated to the god [[Krishna]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Guha-Thakurta |first=P. |title=The Bengali Drama: Its Origin and Development |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qaFBDexuKd4C&pg=PA26 |date=5 September 2013 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-136-38553-7 |page=26}}</ref> Like other states in northern India, West Bengal also has a heritage in [[Hindustani classical music|North Indian classical music]]. [[Rabindrasangeet]], songs composed and set to words by Rabindranath Tagore, and [[List of works of Kazi Nazrul Islam|Nazrul geeti]] (by Kazi Nazrul Islam) are popular. Also prominent are [[Dwijendralal Ray|Dwijendralal]], [[Atulprasad Sen|Atulprasad]] and [[Rajanikanta Sen|Rajanikanta]]'s songs, and ''adhunik'' or modern music from films and other composers.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7GZuAAAAMAAJ |title=Calcutta, the Living City: The past |last=Chaudhuri |first=Sukanta |date=1990 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=9780195625851 |language=en |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170803015752/https://books.google.com/books?id=7GZuAAAAMAAJ |archive-date = 3 August 2017}}</ref> From the early 1990s, [[Indian rock#Rock scenes|new genres]] of music have emerged, including what has been called Bengali ''Jeebonmukhi Gaan'' (a modern genre based on realism). Bengali dance forms draw from folk traditions, especially those of the tribal groups, as well as the broader [[Indian classical dance|Indian dance traditions]]. [[Chau dance|Chhau dance]] of Purulia is a rare form of masked dance.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://purulia.gov.in/distAdmin/departments/dico/chau_dance.html |title=Folk & Culture : Purulia, Famous Folk Dance "Chau" |work=The Official Website of Purulia District |access-date = 11 June 2017 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170603002555/http://purulia.gov.in/distAdmin/departments/dico/chau_dance.html |archive-date = 3 June 2017}}</ref>

=== Films ===
{{Main|Cinema of West Bengal}}

[[Cinema of West Bengal|West Bengali films]] are shot mostly in studios in the Kolkata neighbourhood of [[Tollygunge]]; the name "Tollywood" (similar to Hollywood and [[Bollywood]]) is derived from that name. The Bengali film industry is well known for its [[art film]]s, and has produced acclaimed directors like [[Satyajit Ray]] who is widely regarded as one of the greatest filmmakers of the 20th century,<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iT_L433p6tIC&q=greatest+filmmakers+of+the+20th+century+Satyajit+Ray&pg=PT33 |title=Book of Knowledge Viii, 5E |author=Tmh |publisher=[[Tata McGraw-Hill]] Education |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-07-066806-5|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160808220905/https://books.google.com/books?id=iT_L433p6tIC&pg=PT33&lpg=PT33&dq=greatest+filmmakers+of+the+20th+century+Satyajit+Ray|archive-date=8 August 2016}}</ref> [[Mrinal Sen]] whose films were known for their artistic depiction of social reality, [[Tapan Sinha]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Master filmmaker Tapan Sinha dead |url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/master-filmmaker-tapan-sinha-dead/411264/2 |date=16 January 2009 |access-date=18 March 2013 |archive-date=24 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224072607/http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/master-filmmaker-tapan-sinha-dead/411264/2 |url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Ritwik Ghatak]]. Some contemporary directors include veterans such as: [[Buddhadeb Dasgupta]], [[Tarun Majumdar]], [[Goutam Ghose]], [[Aparna Sen]], and [[Rituparno Ghosh]], and a newer pool of directors such as [[Kaushik Ganguly]] and [[Srijit Mukherji]].<ref>{{harvnb|Gooptu|2013|pp=37–50}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Gooptu|2010|pp=170–182}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Biswas |first=Premankur |date=31 October 2014 |title='Chatushkone' director Srijit Mukherji: I have gained enough confidence as a director |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/play/making-a-mark-8/ |url-status = live |work=[[The Indian Express]] |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170311150532/http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/play/making-a-mark-8/ |archive-date = 11 March 2017 |access-date = 27 September 2017}}</ref> [[Uttam Kumar]] was the most popular lead actor for decades, and his romantic pairing with actress [[Suchitra Sen]] in films attained legendary status.<ref>{{cite book |last=Chowdhury |first=S. |title=Uttam Kumar: A Life in Cinema |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |year=2021 |isbn=978-93-5435-271-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yD9cEAAAQBAJ |access-date=25 July 2022 |page=209 |archive-date=2 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202001203/https://books.google.com/books?id=yD9cEAAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Soumitra Chatterjee]], who acted in many Satyajit Ray-films, and [[Prosenjit Chatterjee]] are among other popular lead male actors. {{As of|2020}}, Bengali films have won India's annual [[National Film Award for Best Feature Film]] twenty-two times in sixty seven years, the highest among all Indian languages.

=== Fine arts ===
[[File:'Panchchura' temple, Bishnupur.jpg|thumb|alt= Panchura Temple made from terracotta |[[Shyam Ray Temple|Panchchura Temple]] in Bishnupur, one of the older examples of the terracotta arts of India.]]
There are significant examples of fine arts in Bengal from earlier times, including the terracotta art of Hindu temples and the Kalighat paintings. Bengal has been in the vanguard of modernism in fine arts. [[Abanindranath Tagore]], called the father of modern Indian art, started the Bengal School of Art, one of whose goals was to promote the development of styles of art outside the European realist tradition that had been taught in art colleges under the British colonial administration. The movement had many adherents, including: [[Gaganendranath Tagore]], [[Ramkinkar Baij]], [[Jamini Roy]] and Rabindranath Tagore. After Indian Independence, important groups such as the [[Calcutta Group]] and the Society of Contemporary Artists were formed in Bengal and came to dominate the art scene in India.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.contemporaryart-india.com/art_history_art_in_calcutta_bengal.php |title=contemporaryart-india – Art History: Bengal Region |last=Raychaudhuri |first=Baidehi Chatterjee and Roshmi |website=www.contemporaryart-india.com |access-date = 5 July 2017 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170507050409/http://www.contemporaryart-india.com/art_history_art_in_calcutta_bengal.php |archive-date = 7 May 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O3h2KfXoOPYC |title=Atlas of World Art |last=Onians |first=John |date=2004 |publisher=[[Laurence King Publishing]] |isbn=978-1-85669-377-6 |language=en |page=304 |access-date=12 August 2020 |archive-date=2 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202001150/https://books.google.com/books?id=O3h2KfXoOPYC |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Reformist heritage ===
The capital, Kolkata, was the workplace of several social reformers, including [[Raja Ram Mohan Roy]], [[Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar]] and [[Swami Vivekananda]]. Their social reforms eventually led to a cultural atmosphere that made it possible for practices like [[Sati (practice)|sati]], [[Dowry#India|dowry]], and [[Caste system in India|caste-based discrimination]], or [[untouchability]], to be abolished.<ref name="Bengali-speaking">''History of the Bengali-speaking People'' by Nitish Sengupta, p 211, UBS Publishers' Distributors Pvt. Ltd. {{ISBN|81-7476-355-4}}.</ref> The region was also home to several religious teachers, such as [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu|Chaitanya]], [[Ramakrishna]], [[A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada|Prabhupada]] and [[Paramahansa Yogananda]].<ref name="Bengali-speaking" />

=== Cuisine ===
{{Main|Cuisine of West Bengal}}

{{multiple image
| align = left
| direction =
| image1 = Pitha for Wedding- Pakan, Patishapta, Bharandash.jpg
| width1 = 200
| image2 = Shorshe Ilish.jpg
| width2 = 150
| image3 = Rasgulla - Kolkata 2011-08-02 4547.JPG
| width3 = 170
| footer = Assorted food eaten in West Bengal: ''Patisapta'', a kind of [[pitha]]; shorshe [[ilish]] (hilsha with mustard sauce) and [[rasgulla]]s in sugar syrup
}}

Rice and fish are traditional favourite foods, leading to a saying in Bengali, "''machhe bhate bangali''", that translates as "fish and rice make a Bengali".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://govdocs.aquake.org/cgi/reprint/2003/1201/12010300.pdf |title=Development of freshwater fish farming and poverty alleviation: A case study from Bangladesh |access-date = 22 October 2006 |author=Gertjan de Graaf, Abdul Latif |publisher=Aqua KE Government |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061101103614/http://govdocs.aquake.org/cgi/reprint/2003/1201/12010300.pdf |archive-date = 1 November 2006}}</ref> Bengal's vast repertoire of fish-based dishes includes [[hilsa]] preparations, a favourite among Bengalis. There are numerous ways of cooking fish depending on its texture, size, fat content and bones.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/living/story/19970915-bengalis-relish-hilsa-fish-as-imports-of-the-bangladeshi-delicacy-grow-830545-1997-09-15 |title=Bengalis relish hilsa fish as imports of the Bangladeshi delicacy grow |access-date = 10 December 2017 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180126080959/https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/living/story/19970915-bengalis-relish-hilsa-fish-as-imports-of-the-bangladeshi-delicacy-grow-830545-1997-09-15 |archive-date = 26 January 2018 |url-status = live}}</ref> Most of the people also consume eggs, chicken, mutton, and shrimp. ''[[Panta bhat]]'' (rice soaked overnight in water) with onion and green chili is a traditional dish consumed in rural areas.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/1110804/jsp/northeast/story_14328967.jsp |title=Ferment rice for a healthy morsel |website=www.telegraphindia.com |access-date = 13 December 2017 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170804113510/https://www.telegraphindia.com/1110804/jsp/northeast/story_14328967.jsp |archive-date = 4 August 2017}}</ref> Common spices found in a Bengali kitchen include [[cumin]], ajmoda (radhuni), [[bay leaf]], [[Mustard seed|mustard]], [[ginger]], [[Chili pepper|green chillies]] and [[turmeric]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tgU8AgAACAAJ |title=Bengali Cooking: Seasons and Festivals |last=Banerji |first=Chitrita |publisher=[[Serif (publisher)|Serif]] |isbn=978-1-897959-50-3 |language=en |date=December 2006 |access-date=12 August 2020 |archive-date=2 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202001150/https://books.google.com/books?id=tgU8AgAACAAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> Sweets occupy an important place in the diet of Bengalis and at their social ceremonies. Bengalis make distinctive [[confectionery|sweetmeats]] from milk products, including ''[[Rasgulla|Rôshogolla]]'', ''Chômchôm'', ''Kalojam'' and several kinds of ''[[Sandesh (confectionery)|sondesh]]''. [[Pitha]], a kind of sweet cake, bread, or dim sum, are specialties of the winter season. Sweets such as ''narkol-naru'', ''til-naru'', ''moa'' and ''payesh'' are prepared during festivals such as [[Lakshmi Puja|Lakshmi puja]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://bengalcuisine.in/sweets |title=Sweet Items {{!}} Bengal Cuisine|website=bengalcuisine.in|language=en|access-date=13 December 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171213142211/http://bengalcuisine.in/sweets|archive-date=13 December 2017}}</ref> Popular [[street food]]s include Aloor Chop, [[Beguni]], [[Kati roll]], [[biryani]], and [[phuchka]].<ref>{{cite news |first=S |last=Saha |title=Resurrected, the kathi roll – Face-off resolved, Nizam's set to open with food court |url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1060118/asp/calcutta/story_5733258.asp |newspaper=[[The Telegraph (Kolkata)]] |date=18 January 2006 |access-date = 26 October 2006 |location=Calcutta, India |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060228160826/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1060118/asp/calcutta/story_5733258.asp |archive-date = 28 February 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bangalinet.com/mobile_foodstalls.htm |title=Mobile food stalls |access-date = 26 October 2006 |publisher=Bangalinet.com |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061021122336/http://bangalinet.com/mobile_foodstalls.htm |archive-date = 21 October 2006}}</ref>

=== Clothing ===
[[File:Bangladeshi bride in Jamdani sari.jpg|thumb|alt=Photograph of a woman wearing a red Jamdani sari |[[Jamdani]] Sari of Bangladesh is very popular in West Bengal.]]
Bengali women commonly wear the ''[[sari]]'', often distinctly designed according to local cultural customs. In urban areas, many women and men wear western attire. Among men, western dress has greater acceptance. Particularly on cultural occasions, men also wear traditional costumes such as the ''[[kurta|panjabi]]'' with ''[[dhoti|dhuti]]'' while women wear ''[[salwar kameez]]'' or ''sari''.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mHcMAQAAMAAJ&q=women+in+west+bengal+prefer+salwar+kameez |title=People of India: West Bengal |last1=Singh |first1=Kumar Suresh |last2=Bagchi |first2=Tilak |last3=India |first3=Anthropological Survey of |date=2008 |publisher=[[Anthropological Survey of India]] |isbn=9788170463009 |language=en |access-date=12 August 2020 |archive-date=2 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202001206/https://books.google.com/books?id=mHcMAQAAMAAJ&q=women+in+west+bengal+prefer+salwar+kameez |url-status=live}}</ref>

West Bengal produces several varieties of cotton and silk ''saris'' in the country. Handlooms are a popular way for the state's rural population to earn a living through weaving. Every district has weaving clusters, which are home to artisan communities, each specialising in specific varieties of handloom weaving. Notable handloom saris include ''tant'', ''[[jamdani]]'', ''garad'', ''korial'', ''[[Baluchari sari|baluchari]]'', ''[[Tussar silk|tussar]]'' and muslin.<ref>{{cite web |title=Parinita – Handloom map of West Bengal |date=26 June 2015 |url=http://www.parinita.co.in/blogs/articles/35661569-handloom-map-of-west-bengal |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151022152619/http://www.parinita.co.in/blogs/articles/35661569-handloom-map-of-west-bengal |archive-date = 22 October 2015}}</ref>

=== Festivals ===
{{Main|List of festivals in West Bengal}}

[[Durga Puja]] is the biggest, most popular and widely celebrated festival in West Bengal.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.westbengaltourism.gov.in/web/guest/festival-home |title=Durga Puja |access-date = 5 March 2012 |work=Festivals celebrated throughout West Bengal |publisher=Department of Tourism, Government of West Bengal |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120116073347/https://www.westbengaltourism.gov.in/web/guest/festival-home |archive-date = 16 January 2012}}</ref> The five-day-long colourful Hindu festival includes intense celebration across the state. [[Pandal]]s are erected in various cities, towns, and villages throughout West Bengal. The city of Kolkata transforms Durga Puja. It is decked up in lighting decorations and thousands of colourful pandals are set up where effigies of the goddess Durga and her four children are displayed and worshipped. The idols of the goddess are brought in from [[Kumortuli]], where idol-makers work throughout the year fashioning clay models of the goddess. Since independence in 1947, Durga Puja has slowly changed into more of a glamorous carnival than a religious festival. Today people of diverse religious and ethnic backgrounds partake in the festivities.<ref>{{cite web |title=Durga Puja in India: Largest Open-Air Art Expo |url=http://kolkata.china-consulate.org/eng/zlgxw/t1309532.htm |website=kolkata.china-consulate.org |access-date = 25 December 2015 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151225163234/http://kolkata.china-consulate.org/eng/zlgxw/t1309532.htm |archive-date = 25 December 2015}}</ref> On [[Vijayadashami]], the last day of the festival, the effigies are paraded through the streets with riotous pageantry before being immersed into the rivers.<ref>{{cite news |title=Foreign bloggers and travel writers soak in Kolkata's festive spirit |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/Foreign-bloggers-and-travel-writers-soak-in-Kolkatas-festive-spirit/articleshow/49531930.cms |website=[[The Times of India]] |date=26 October 2015 |access-date = 25 December 2015 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160101213233/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/Foreign-bloggers-and-travel-writers-soak-in-Kolkatas-festive-spirit/articleshow/49531930.cms |archive-date = 1 January 2016}}</ref>

[[Rath Yatra]] is a Hindu festival which celebrates [[Jagannath]], a form of Krishna. It is celebrated with much fanfare in Kolkata as well as in rural Bengal. Images of Jagannath are set upon a chariot and pulled through the streets.<ref name="Betts-2013">{{cite book |title=Footprint Focus-Kolkata and West Bengal |isbn=978-1-909268-41-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aD_-AgAAQBAJ |language=en |last1=Betts |first1=Vanessa |date=30 October 2013 |publisher=Footprint Travel Guides |access-date=11 May 2018 |archive-date=2 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202001158/https://books.google.com/books?id=aD_-AgAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref>

{{multiple image
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| direction =
| image1 = Durga, Burdwan, 2011.JPG
| width1 = 200
| image2 = Mahesh Rath Yatra.jpg
| width2 = 190
| image3 = Goddess Saraswati dressed in yellow sari for Vasant Panchami Festival, Kolkata.jpg
| width3 = 170
| footer = Festivals of West Bengal: [[Durga Puja]], [[Rath Yatra]] and Goddess Saraswati dressed in a yellow sari on [[Saraswati Puja]]
| image4 = Karam puja 4.jpg
| caption4 = [[Karam festival]] in [[Jhargram]]
}}

Other major festivals of West Bengal include: [[Poila Baishakh]] the Bengali new year, [[Dolyatra]] or [[Holi]] the festival of lights, [[Nobanno|Poush Parbon]], [[Kali Puja]], [[Shakta Rash|Nabadwip Shakta Rash]], [[Saraswati Puja]], [[Diwali|Deepavali]], [[Lakshmi Puja]], [[Janmashtami]], [[Jagaddhatri]] Puja, [[Vishwakarma Puja]], [[Bhai Phonta]], [[Raksha Bandhan|Rakhi Bandhan]], [[Kalpataru Day]], [[Shivratri]], [[Ganesh Chathurthi]], Maghotsav, [[Karam festival]], [[Kartik (month)|Kartik Puja]], [[Akshay Tritiya]], Raas Yatra, [[Guru Purnima]], [[Annapurna]] Puja, [[Charak Puja]], [[Gajan (festival)|Gajan]], [[Buddha Purnima]], [[Christmas]], [[Eid ul-Fitr]], [[Eid ul-Adha]] and [[Muharram]]. [[Rabindra Jayanti]], [[Kolkata Book Fair]], [[Kolkata Film Festival]], and Nazrul Jayanti. All are important cultural events.<ref name="Betts-2013" />

[[Eid al-Fitr]] is the most important Muslim festival in West Bengal. They celebrate the end of [[Ramadan]] with prayers, alms-giving, shopping, gift-giving, and feasting.<ref name="Chakrabarti-2013">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QVOFAAAAQBAJ&q=Eid-ul-Fitr+in+West+Bengal&pg=PA182 |title=Historical Dictionary of the Bengalis |last1=Chakrabarti |first1=Kunal |last2=Chakrabarti |first2=Shubhra |date=22 August 2013 |publisher=[[Scarecrow Press]] |isbn=978-0-8108-8024-5 |language=en |access-date=21 October 2020 |archive-date=2 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202001200/https://books.google.com/books?id=QVOFAAAAQBAJ&q=Eid-ul-Fitr+in+West+Bengal&pg=PA182 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Christmas, called ''Bôŗodin'' (Great day) is perhaps the next major festival celebrated in Kolkata, after Durga Puja. Although Hinduism is the major religion in the state, people show significant passion to the festival. Just like Durga Puja, Christmas in Kolkata is an occasion when all communities and people of every religion take part. Large masses of people go to parks, gardens, museums, parties, fairs, churches and other places to celebrate the day. A lot of Hindus go to Hindu-temples and the festival is celebrated there too with Hindu rituals.<ref>{{cite web |title=YSSKendra – Christmas Celebration at Dakshineswar Ashram, December 2016 |url=https://dakshineswar.yssashram.org/article/view/280 |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=dakshineswar.yssashram.org |archive-date=2 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902113328/https://dakshineswar.yssashram.org/article/view/280 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Christmas In Belur Math: রীতিমেনেই বেলুড় মঠে বড়দিন পালন |url=https://www.etvbharat.com/bengali/west-bengal/state/howrah/christmas-celebrate-by-belur-math-monks-old-rituals/wb20211224220302236 |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=ETV Bharat News |date=24 December 2021 |language=bn |archive-date=2 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902113327/https://www.etvbharat.com/bengali/west-bengal/state/howrah/christmas-celebrate-by-belur-math-monks-old-rituals/wb20211224220302236 |url-status=live}}</ref> The state tourism department organises a gala Christmas Festival every year in [[Park Street, Kolkata|Park Street]].<ref>{{cite web |title=West Bengal Tourism |url=http://www.westbengaltourism.gov.in/web/guest/parkstreetchristmascarnival |website=www.westbengaltourism.gov.in |access-date = 25 December 2015 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151225190848/http://www.westbengaltourism.gov.in/web/guest/parkstreetchristmascarnival |archive-date = 25 December 2015}}</ref> The whole of Park Street is hung with colourful lights, and food stalls sell cakes, chocolates, Chinese cuisine, momo, and various other items. The state invites musical groups from Darjeeling and other [[North East India]] states to perform choir recitals, carols, and jazz numbers.<ref>{{cite web |title=In photos: Glimpses of a Bengali Christmas on Kolkata's Park Street |url=http://scroll.in/article/777409/in-photos-glimpses-of-a-bengali-christmas-on-kolkatas-park-street |website=Scroll.in |access-date = 25 December 2015 |language=en-US |first=Angikaar |last=Choudhury |date=23 December 2015 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151225163820/http://scroll.in/article/777409/in-photos-glimpses-of-a-bengali-christmas-on-kolkatas-park-street |archive-date = 25 December 2015}}</ref>

[[Vesak|Buddha Purnima]], which marks the birth of Gautama Buddha, is one of the most important Hindu/Buddhist festivals and is celebrated with much gusto in the Darjeeling hills. On this day, processions begin at the various Buddhist monasteries, or ''gumpas'', and congregate at the [[Chowrasta (Darjeeling)]] Mall. The Lamas chant mantras and sound their bugles, and students, as well as people from every community, carry the holy books or ''pustaks'' on their heads. Besides Buddha Purnima, [[Dashain]], or [[Dusshera]], Holi, Diwali, [[Losar]], Namsoong or the Lepcha New Year, and Losoong are the other major festivals of the Darjeeling Himalayan region.<ref name="Chakrabarti-2013" />

Each year between July and August at [[Tarakeswar]] Yatra held, nearly 10 million devotees come from various part of India bringing holy water of Ganga fin order to offer it to [[Shiva|Lord Shiva]].

Poush Mela is a popular winter festival of [[Shantiniketan]], with performances of folk music, Baul songs, dance, and theatre taking place throughout the town.<ref name="Chakrabarti-2013" />

Ganga Sagar Mela coincides with the [[Makar Sankranti]], and hundreds of thousands of Hindu pilgrims converge where the river Ganges meets the sea to bathe en{{nbsp}}masse during this fervent festival.<ref name="Betts-2013" />

== Education ==
{{Main|Education in West Bengal|Universities and colleges of West Bengal|List of institutions of higher education in West Bengal|List of schools in West Bengal}}

<gallery mode="packed" style="font-size:88%; line-height:130%; border-bottom:1px #aaa solid;" heights="150">
University of Calcutta 7383.JPG|[[University of Calcutta]], the oldest public university of India
West Bengal National University of Juridical Sciences, Kolkata (front entrance, 2006).jpg|The front entrance to the academic block of NUJS, Kolkata
RKMVERI Prajna Bhavan HR.jpg|Prajna Bhavan, housing the School of Mathematical Sciences and School of RKMVU
</gallery>
West Bengal schools are run by the state government or private organisations, including religious institutions. Instruction is mainly in English or Bengali, though [[Urdu]] is also used, especially in Central Kolkata. Secondary schools are affiliated with the [[Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations]] (CISCE), the [[Central Board of Secondary Education|Central Board for Secondary Education (CBSE)]], the [[National Institute of Open Schooling|National Institute of Open School (NIOS)]], [[West Bengal Board of Secondary Education]], or the [[West Bengal Board of Madrasah Education]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mhrd.gov.in/recognized_boards |title=Boards of secondary & senior secondary education in India |publisher=Department of School Education and Literacy, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India |access-date = 18 April 2012 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120320234548/http://mhrd.gov.in/recognized_boards |archive-date = 20 March 2012}}</ref>

As of 2016 85% of children within the 6 to 17-year age group attend school (86% do so in urban areas and 84% in rural areas). School attendance is almost
universal among the 6 to 14-year age group then drops to 70% with the 15 to 17-year age group. There is a gender disparity in school attendance in the 6 to 14-year age group, more girls than boys are attending school.
In Bengal, 71% of women aged 15–49 years and 81% of men aged 15–49 years are literate. Only 14% of women aged 15–49 years in West Bengal have completed 12 or more years of schooling, compared with 22% of men. 22% of women and 14% of men aged 15–49 years have never attended school.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://rchiips.org/NFHS/factsheet_NFHS-4.shtml |title=National Family Health Survey |website=rchiips.org|access-date=30 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180129010243/http://rchiips.org/NFHS/factsheet_NFHS-4.shtml|archive-date=29 January 2018|url-status=live}}(Select West Bengal to view the pdf format)</ref>

{{multiple image
| align = right
| image1 =
| width1 = 300
| alt1 = St. Paul's School, Darjeeling
| caption1 = [[St. Paul's School, Darjeeling]], the oldest and highest British public school in Asia
| image2 = St Josephs College, North Point, Darjeeling.jpg
| width2 = 254
| alt2 = St. Joseph's School, Darjeeling
| caption2 = [[St. Joseph's School, Darjeeling]]
}}

Some of the notable schools in the city are: [[Ramakrishna Mission Narendrapur]], [[Baranagore Ramakrishna Mission Ashrama High School|Baranagore Ramakrishna Mission]], [[Sister Nivedita Girls' School]], [[Hindu School]], [[Hare School]], [[La Martiniere Calcutta]], [[Calcutta Boys' School]], [[St. James' School (Kolkata)]], [[South Point School]], [[Techno India Group Public School]], [[St. Xavier's Collegiate School]], and [[Loreto House]], [[Loreto Convent, Asansol|Loreto Convent]], Pearl Rosary School are some of which rank among the best schools in the country.<ref>{{cite web |title=India's Best Schools, 2014 |url=http://www.rediff.com/getahead/report/career-indias-best-schools-of-2014/20140922.htm |website=Rediff.com |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150722053415/http://www.rediff.com/getahead/report/career-indias-best-schools-of-2014/20140922.htm |archive-date = 22 July 2015}}</ref> Many of the schools in Kolkata and Darjeeling are colonial-era establishments housed in buildings that are exemplars of neo-classical architecture. Darjeeling's schools include: [[St. Paul's School, Darjeeling|St. Paul's]], [[St. Joseph's School, Darjeeling|St. Joseph's]] North Point, [[Goethals Memorial School]], and Dow Hill in [[Kurseong]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://darjeeling.gov.in/edu-institute.html |title=Educational Institute |website=darjeeling.gov.in|access-date=4 January 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170706130708/http://darjeeling.gov.in/edu-institute.html|archive-date=6 July 2017}}</ref>

West Bengal has eighteen universities.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.educationobserver.com/resources/universsities/west_bengal.htm |title=UGC recognised Universities in West Bengal with NAAC accreditation status |access-date = 26 October 2006 |publisher=Education Observer |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070109172830/http://www.educationobserver.com/resources/universsities/west_bengal.htm |archive-date = 9 January 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thewbuhs.org/ |title=West Bengal University of Health Sciences |access-date = 26 October 2006 |publisher=[[West Bengal University of Health Sciences]] |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061221061019/http://www.thewbuhs.org/ |archive-date = 21 December 2006}}</ref> Kolkata has played a pioneering role in the development of the modern education system in India. It was the gateway to the revolution of European education during the British Raj.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DsXLDAAAQBAJ&q=role+of+kolkata+in+education+in+india&pg=PA29 |title=Language Policy and Education in India: Documents, Contexts and Debates |last1=Sridhar |first1=M. |last2=Mishra |first2=Sunita |date=5 August 2016 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-134-87824-6 |language=en |access-date=21 October 2020 |archive-date=2 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202001209/https://books.google.com/books?id=DsXLDAAAQBAJ&q=role+of+kolkata+in+education+in+india&pg=PA29 |url-status=live}}</ref> Sir [[William Jones (philologist)|William Jones]] established the [[Asiatic Society]] in 1794 to promote oriental studies. People such as [[Ram Mohan Roy]], [[David Hare (philanthropist)|David Hare]], [[Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar]], [[Alexander Duff (missionary)|Alexander Duff]] and [[William Carey (missionary)|William Carey]] played leading roles in setting up modern schools and colleges in the city.<ref name="Chakrabarti-2013" />

The [[University of Calcutta]], the oldest and one of the most prestigious public universities in India, has 136 affiliated colleges. [[Fort William College]] was established in 1810. The Hindu College was established in 1817. The [[Lady Brabourne College]] was established in 1939. The [[Scottish Church College]], the oldest Christian liberal arts college in South Asia, started in 1830. The [[Vidyasagar College]] was established in 1872 and was the first purely Indian-run private college in [[India]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vidyasagarcollege.edu.in/history-glory-evolution |title=History, Glory & Evolution |access-date = 1 March 2020 |publisher=[[Vidyasagar College]] |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200301131540/http://www.vidyasagarcollege.edu.in/history-glory-evolution |archive-date = 1 March 2020 |url-status = live }}</ref> In 1855 the Hindu College was renamed the Presidency College.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.caluniv.ac.in/coll.htm |title=List of Affiliated Colleges |access-date = 29 March 2008 |publisher=[[University of Calcutta]] |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080201164051/http://www.caluniv.ac.in/coll.htm |archive-date = 1 February 2008}}</ref> The state government granted it university status in 2010 and it was renamed [[Presidency University, Kolkata|Presidency University]]. [[Kazi Nazrul University]] was established in 2012. The University of Calcutta and [[Jadavpur University]] are prestigious technical universities.<ref>{{cite news |first=P |last=Mitra |title=Waning interest |url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1050831/asp/careergraph/story_5174502.asp |work=Careergraph |publisher=[[The Telegraph (Kolkata)|The Telegraph]] |date=31 August 2005 |access-date = 26 October 2006 |location=Calcutta, India |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070105111639/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1050831/asp/careergraph/story_5174502.asp |archive-date = 5 January 2007}}</ref> [[Visva-Bharati University]] at [[Santiniketan]] is a central university and an institution of national importance.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.visva-bharati.ac.in/at_a_glance/at_a_glance.htm |title=Visva-Bharati: Facts and Figures at a Glance |access-date = 31 March 2007 |publisher=Visva-Bharati Computer Centre |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070523132100/http://www.visva-bharati.ac.in/at_a_glance/at_a_glance.htm |archive-date = 23 May 2007}}</ref>
{{multiple image
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| image1 =
| width1 = 290
| alt1 = IIT Kharagpur
| caption1 = [[IIT Kharagpur]], the first IIT of India
| image2 = Indian Institute of Management Calcutta Auditorium.jpg
| width2 = 210
| alt2 = Indian Institute of Management Calcutta
| caption2 = The Auditorium at [[Indian Institute of Management Calcutta]]
}}

Other higher education institutes of importance in West Bengal include: [[St. Xavier's College, Kolkata]], [[Indian Institute of Foreign Trade]], [[Indian Institute of Management Calcutta]] (the first [[Indian Institutes of Management|IIM]]), [[Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Kolkata]], [[Indian Statistical Institute]], [[Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur]] (the first [[Indian Institutes of Technology|IIT]]), [[Indian Institute of Engineering Science and Technology, Shibpur]] (the first [[Indian Institutes of Engineering Science and Technology|IIEST]]), [[Indian Institute of Information Technology, Kalyani]], [[Medical College, Kolkata]], [[National Institute of Technology, Durgapur]], [[National Institute of Technical Teachers' Training and Research, Kolkata]], [[National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Kolkata]], and [[West Bengal National University of Juridical Sciences]]. In 2003 the state government supported the creation of [[West Bengal University of Technology]], [[West Bengal University of Health Sciences]], [[West Bengal State University]], and [[Gour Banga University]].<ref name="Naac">{{cite web |url=http://www.naac.gov.in/docs/Analysis-West_Bengal.pdf |title=NAAC accredited higher educational institution s in West Bengal |last=NAAC |website=www.naac.gov.in|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170712185317/http://www.naac.gov.in/docs/Analysis-West_Bengal.pdf|archive-date=12 July 2017|url-status=dead|access-date=7 January 2018}}</ref>

Jadavpur University (Focus area—Mobile Computing and Communication and Nano-science), and the University of Calcutta (Modern Biology) are among two of the fifteen universities selected under the "University with Potential for Excellence" scheme. University of Calcutta (Focus Area—Electro-Physiological and Neuro-imaging studies including mathematical modelling) has also been selected under the "Centre with Potential for Excellence in a Particular Area" scheme.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ugc.ac.in/page/Centres-(CPEPA).aspx |title=University Grants commission ::Centre with Potential for Excellence in Particular Area |work=ugc.ac.in |access-date = 25 July 2016 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160801082819/http://www.ugc.ac.in/page/Centres-%28CPEPA%29.aspx |archive-date = 1 August 2016}}</ref>

In addition, the state is home to [[Kalyani University]], [[The University of Burdwan]], [[Vidyasagar University]], and [[North Bengal University]] all well established and nationally renowned schools that cover education needs at the district level and the Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Kolkata. Apart from this there is a Deemed university run by the Ramakrishna mission named [[Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda University]] at Belur Math.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ugc.ac.in/stateuniversitylist.aspx?id=35&Unitype=2 |title=University |website=www.ugc.ac.in|access-date=4 January 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170913232358/http://www.ugc.ac.in/stateuniversitylist.aspx?id=35&Unitype=2|archive-date=13 September 2017}}</ref>

There are several research institutes in Kolkata. The [[Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science]] is the first research institute in Asia. [[C. V. Raman]] was awarded the Nobel Prize for his discovery (Raman Effect) done at the IACS. The [[Bose Institute]], [[Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics]], [[S. N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences]], [[Indian Institute of Chemical Biology]], [[Central Glass and Ceramic Research Institute]], [[Central Mechanical Engineering Research Institute]] Durgapur, [[Central Research Institute for Jute and Allied Fibers]], [[National Institute of Research on Jute and Allied Fibre Technology]], [[Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute]], [[National Institute of Biomedical Genomics]] (NIBMG), Kalyani, and the [[Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre]] are the most prominent.<ref name="Naac" />

Notable scholars who were born, worked, or studied in the geographic area of the state include physicists: [[Satyendra Nath Bose]], [[Meghnad Saha]],<ref name=calunivalumni>{{cite web |url=http://www.caluniv.ac.in/About%20the%20university/Some%20of%20the%20Alumni.htm |title=Some of the distinguished alumni of the University of Calcutta |publisher=[[University of Calcutta]] |access-date = 29 January 2012 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111121002631/http://caluniv.ac.in/About%20the%20university/Some%20of%20the%20Alumni.htm |archive-date = 21 November 2011}}</ref> and [[Jagadish Chandra Bose]];<ref name=calunivteachers>{{cite web |url=http://www.caluniv.ac.in/About%20the%20university/Distinguished%20Teacher.htm |title=Some of our distinguished teachers |publisher=[[University of Calcutta]] |access-date = 29 January 2012 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111121002802/http://caluniv.ac.in/About%20the%20university/Distinguished%20Teacher.htm |archive-date = 21 November 2011}}</ref> chemist [[Prafulla Chandra Roy]];<ref name=calunivalumni /> statisticians [[Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis]] and [[Anil Kumar Gain]];<ref name=calunivalumni /> physician [[Upendranath Brahmachari]];<ref name=calunivalumni /> educator [[Ashutosh Mukherjee]];<ref>{{cite book |last1=Petitjean |first1=Patrick |title=Science and empires: historical studies about scientific development and European expansion |year=1992 |publisher=[[Kluwer Academic Publishers]] |location=Dordrecht, The Netherlands |isbn=978-0-7923-1518-6 |last2=Jami |first2=Cathérine|author2-link=Cathérine Jami |last3=Moulin |first3=Anne Marie |page=62}}</ref> and Nobel laureates Rabindranath Tagore,<ref>{{cite book |title=Nobel Lectures, Literature 1901–1967 |year=1999 |publisher=[[World Scientific]] |location=Amsterdam |isbn=978-981-02-3413-3 |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1913/tagore.html |editor=Frenz, Horst |access-date = 3 February 2012 |page=134 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120202212053/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1913/tagore.html |archive-date = 2 February 2012}}</ref> C. V. Raman,<ref name=calunivteachers /> [[Amartya Sen]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~phildept/sen.html |title=Professor Amartya Sen |publisher=[[President and Fellows of Harvard College]], Harvard University |access-date = 29 January 2012 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120131203559/http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~phildept/sen.html |archive-date = 31 January 2012}}</ref> and [[Abhijit Banerjee]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/economic-sciences/2019/banerjee/facts/ |title=Abhijit Banerjee Facts |website=nobelprize.org |access-date=17 February 2020 |archive-date=8 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200608092317/https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/economic-sciences/2019/banerjee/facts/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

== Media ==
In 2005 West Bengal had 505 published newspapers,<ref name=rniindia>{{cite web |url=https://rni.nic.in/pii.asp |title=General Review |access-date = 6 March 2012 |publisher=Registrar of Newspapers for India |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121231161443/http://rni.nic.in/pii.asp |archive-date = 31 December 2012}}</ref> of which 389 were in Bengali.<ref name=rniindia /> ''[[Ananda Bazar Patrika]]'', published in Kolkata with 1,277,801 daily copies, has the largest circulation for a single-edition, regional language newspaper in India.<ref name=rniindia /> Other major Bengali newspapers are: ''[[Bartaman]]'', [[Ei Samay Sangbadpatra|''Ei Samay'']], ''[[Sangbad Pratidin]]'', ''[[Aajkaal]]'' and ''[[Uttarbanga Sambad]]''. Major English language newspapers include ''[[The Telegraph (Kolkata)|The Telegraph]]'', ''[[The Times of India]]'', ''[[Hindustan Times]]'', ''[[The Hindu]]'', ''[[The Statesman (India)|The Statesman]]'', ''[[The Indian Express]]'' and ''[[Asian Age]]''. Some prominent financial dailies such as: ''[[The Economic Times]]'', ''[[The Financial Express (India)|Financial Express]]'', ''[[Business Line]]'' and ''[[Business Standard]]'' are widely circulated. Vernacular newspapers such as those in Hindi, Nepali, [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], Odia, Urdu and Punjabi also exist.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ficci.in/spdocument/20230/FICCI_Deloitte_MEBC_East_%2520Report_2012.pdf |title=West Bengal Media |publisher=FCCI |access-date = 28 January 2018 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180127174132/http://ficci.in/spdocument/20230/FICCI_Deloitte_MEBC_East_%20Report_2012.pdf |archive-date = 27 January 2018 |url-status = dead}}</ref>

[[DD Bangla]] is the state-owned television broadcaster. [[Multi system operator]]s provide a mix of Bengali, Nepali, Hindi, English and international channels via [[Cable television|cable]]. [[:Category:24-hour television news channels|Bengali 24-hour television news channels]] include [[ABP Ananda]], [[News18 Bangla]], [[Republic Bangla]], [[Kolkata TV]], [[News Time]], [[Zee 24 Ghanta]], TV9 Bangla, [[Calcutta News (TV channel)|Calcutta News]] and [[Channel 10 (India)|Channel 10]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.moneycontrol.com/news/business/bengali-news-channel-took-5-months-to-reach-no1-position_242437.html |title=Bengali News Channel took 5 months to reach no.1 position |access-date = 7 September 2006 |publisher=News Center |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100918032628/http://www.moneycontrol.com/news/business/bengali-news-channel-took-5-months-to-reach-no1-position_242437.html |archive-date = 18 September 2010}}</ref><ref name=calcuttaweb.com>{{cite web |url=http://www.calcuttaweb.com/tvradio.shtml |title=Calcutta : Television, Radio Channels |access-date = 7 September 2006 |publisher=Calcutta Web |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061203061801/http://www.calcuttaweb.com/tvradio.shtml |archive-date = 3 December 2006}}</ref> [[All India Radio]] is a public radio station.<ref name=calcuttaweb.com /> Private [[frequency modulation|FM]] stations are available only in cities like Kolkata, Siliguri, and Asansol.<ref name=calcuttaweb.com /> [[Vodafone Idea]], [[Bharti Airtel|Airtel]], [[BSNL]], [[Jio]] are available [[cell phone|cellular]] phone providers. Broadband Internet is available in select towns and cities and is provided by the state-run BSNL and by other private companies. [[Dial-up access]] is provided throughout the state by BSNL and other providers.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Indian Telecom Services Performance Indicator Report April–June 2017 |url=http://www.trai.gov.in/sites/default/files/Performance_Indicator_Reports_28Sep2017.pdf |website=TRAI|access-date=10 October 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171007021113/http://www.trai.gov.in/sites/default/files/Performance_Indicator_Reports_28Sep2017.pdf|archive-date=7 October 2017}}</ref>

== Sports ==
{{Main|Sports in West Bengal}}

[[File:Salt Lake Stadium - Yuva Bharati Krirangan, Kolkata - Calcutta 5.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Salt Lake Stadium in Kolkata|[[Salt Lake Stadium]] (Vivekananda Yuva Bharati Krirangan), Kolkata]]
[[Cricket]] and [[association football]] are popular. West Bengal, unlike most other states of India, is noted for its passion and patronage of football.<ref name="dineo foot" /><ref name="bose foot" /><ref name="das foot" /> Kolkata is one of the major centres for football in India<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.longlivesoccer.com/indiafootball.htm |title=Football in India – A Fact File |access-date = 26 October 2006 |last=Prabhakaran |first=Shaji |date=18 January 2003 |publisher=LongLiveSoccer.com |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061023135720/http://www.longlivesoccer.com/indiafootball.htm |archive-date = 23 October 2006}}</ref> and houses top national clubs such as [[Mohun Bagan Super Giant]], [[East Bengal Club]] and [[Mohammedan Sporting Club (Kolkata)|Mohammedan Sporting Club]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/sports/football/kolkata-football-infrastructure-is-from-the-past-century-4928776/ |title=Kolkata-football infrastructure is from-the past century |access-date = 28 January 2006 |newspaper=[[Hindustan Times]] |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171108211418/http://indianexpress.com/article/sports/football/kolkata-football-infrastructure-is-from-the-past-century-4928776/ |archive-date = 8 November 2017 |url-status = live}}</ref>
[[File:Netaji Indoor Stadium - Kolkata 2014-08-25 7446-7450 Compress.jpg|thumb|right|[[Netaji Indoor Stadium]], Kolkata]]
West Bengal has several large stadiums. [[Eden Gardens]] was one of only two 100,000-seat cricket stadiums in the world;<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cricketweb.net/country/venue.php?CategoryIDAuto=12&VenueIDAuto=26 |title=India – Eden Gardens (Kolkata) |access-date = 26 October 2006 |publisher=Cricket Web |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070531223033/http://www.cricketweb.net/country/venue.php?CategoryIDAuto=12&VenueIDAuto=26 |archive-date = 31 May 2007}}</ref> renovations before the [[2011 Cricket World Cup]] reduced the capacity to 66,000.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/india/content/ground/57980.html |title=Eden Gardens |publisher=[[ESPNcricinfo|ESPN Cricinfo]] |access-date = 4 August 2017 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170708034244/http://www.espncricinfo.com/india/content/ground/57980.html |archive-date = 8 July 2017}}</ref> The stadium is the home to various cricket teams such as the [[Kolkata Knight Riders]], the [[Bengal cricket team]] and the [[East Zone cricket team|East Zone]]. The [[1987 Cricket World Cup]] final was hosted in Eden Gardens. The [[Calcutta Cricket and Football Club]] is the second-oldest cricket club in the world.<ref>{{cite news |first=Mukherji |last=Raju |title=Seven Years? Head Start |url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1050314/asp/opinion/story_4428341.asp |newspaper=[[The Telegraph (Kolkata)|The Telegraph]] |date=14 March 2005 |access-date = 26 October 2006 |location=Calcutta, India |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070930014559/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1050314/asp/opinion/story_4428341.asp |archive-date = 30 September 2007}}</ref>

[[Salt Lake Stadium|Vivekananda Yuba Bharati Krirangan]] (VYBK), is a multipurpose stadium in Kolkata, with a current capacity of 85,000. It is the largest stadium in India by seating capacity.<ref>{{cite web |title=Vivekananda Yuba Bharati Krirangan (VYBK), Kolkata |url=https://www.fifa.com/u17worldcup/destination/stadiums/stadium=5008920/index.html |website=FIFA.com|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170328105323/http://www.fifa.com/u17worldcup/destination/stadiums/stadium=5008920/index.html|archive-date=28 March 2017}}</ref> Before its renovation in 2011, it was the second-largest football stadium in the world, having a seating capacity of 120,000. It has hosted many national and international sporting events like the [[South Asian Federation Games|SAF Games]] of 1987 and the 2011 FIFA friendly football match between [[Argentina national football team|Argentina]] and [[Venezuela national football team|Venezuela]] featuring [[Lionel Messi]].<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Lionel Messi arrives in Kolkata for the friendly match against Venezuela |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/sports/football/story/lionel-messi-in-kolkata-for-venezuela-match-140078-2011-08-31 |magazine=[[India Today]] |date=31 August 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180122072043/https://www.indiatoday.in/sports/football/story/lionel-messi-in-kolkata-for-venezuela-match-140078-2011-08-31|archive-date=22 January 2018}}</ref> In 2008 legendary German goalkeeper, [[Oliver Kahn]] played his farewell match on this ground.<ref>{{cite news |title=King Kahn Bows Out in Kolkata |url=http://www.dw.com/en/king-kahn-bows-out-in-kolkata/a-3364291 |publisher=DW.com |date=27 May 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180107120535/http://www.dw.com/en/king-kahn-bows-out-in-kolkata/a-3364291|archive-date=7 January 2018}}</ref> The stadium hosted the final match of the [[2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup]].

Notable sports persons from West Bengal include former [[Indian national cricket captains|Indian national cricket team captain]] [[Sourav Ganguly]], [[Pankaj Roy]], Olympic tennis [[bronze medal]]list [[Leander Paes]] and chess [[International Grandmaster|grand master]] [[Dibyendu Barua]].<ref name="dineo foot">{{cite book |title=Soccer in South Asia: empire, nation, diaspora |year=2001 |publisher=[[Frank Cass Publishers]] |location=London |isbn=978-0-7146-8170-2 |page=71 |last1=Dineo |first1=Paul |last2=Mills |first2=James}}</ref><ref name="bose foot">{{cite book |title=The magic of Indian cricket: cricket and society in India |year=2006 |publisher=[[Psychology Press]] |isbn=978-0-415-35691-6 |page=240 |last=Bose |first=Mihir}}</ref><ref name="das foot">{{cite journal |last=Das Sharma |first=Amitabha |year=2002 |title=Football and the big fight in Kolkata |journal=Football Studies |volume=5 |issue=2 |page=57 |url=http://library.la84.org/SportsLibrary/FootballStudies/2002/FS0502g.pdf |access-date = 5 April 2012 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140211143839/http://library.la84.org/SportsLibrary/FootballStudies/2002/FS0502g.pdf |archive-date = 11 February 2014 |url-status = live}}</ref>
{{wide image|Eden Gardens Kolkata.jpg|680px|Panoramic view of the [[Eden Gardens]] Stadium during [[IPL 2008]]}}

== See also ==
*[[Bangal]]
*[[Bengali language movements in India]]
*[[Ghoti people]]
*[[List of people from West Bengal]]
*[[List of tourist attractions in West Bengal]]
*[[Outline of West Bengal]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

== Sources ==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
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{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |last=Amrita Basu |first=V. |title=Two Faces of Protest: Contrasting Modes of Women's Activism in India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZyY0Yb5BrqgC&q=communism+in+west+bengal&pg=PA25 |year=1997 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] ltd. |isbn=978-0-520-06506-2 |access-date=16 June 2009 |archive-date=2 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202001207/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZyY0Yb5BrqgC&q=communism+in+west+bengal&pg=PA25 |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last=Atul Kohli |first=I. |title=The State and Poverty in India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vxLAK8EXo84C&q=poverty+in+west+bengal&pg=PA117 |year=1987 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-37876-5 |access-date=16 June 2007 |archive-date=2 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202001211/https://books.google.com/books?id=vxLAK8EXo84C&q=poverty+in+west+bengal&pg=PA117 |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last=Bald |first=Vivek |date=2013 |title=Bengali Harlem and the Lost Histories of South Asian America |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iPXkrZeMyfIC&q=History+of+West+Bengal |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |page=318 |isbn=978-0-674-07040-0 |access-date=21 October 2020 |archive-date=2 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202001214/https://books.google.com/books?id=iPXkrZeMyfIC&q=History+of+West+Bengal |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last=Bandyopadhyay |first=Sekhar |date=2004 |title=Caste, Culture and Hegemony: Social Dominance in Colonial Bengal |publisher=SAGE Publications India |page=256 |isbn=978-81-321-0407-0}}
*{{cite book |last=Bandyopadhyay |first=Sekhar |date=2009 |title=Decolonization in South Asia: Meanings of Freedom in Post-independence West Bengal, 1947–52 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |page=256 |isbn=978-1-134-01823-9}}
*{{cite book |last=Banerjee |first=Anuradha |year=1998 |title=Environment, population, and human settlements of Sundarban Delta |publisher=Ashok Kumar Mittal |isbn=978-81-7022-739-7}}
*{{cite book |editor-last=Bhargava |editor-first=Gopal |date=2008 |title=Encyclopaedia of Art And Culture in India (West Bengal) 20th Volume |publisher=Isha Books |page=508 |isbn=978-81-8205-460-8}}
*{{cite book |last=Bose |first=Sugata |date=1993 |title=Peasant Labour and Colonial Capital: Rural Bengal Since 1770, Volume 3 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |page=203 |isbn=978-0-521-26694-9}}
*{{cite book |last=Chakrabarti |first=Ranjan |date=2013 |title=Dictionary of Historical Places: Bengal, 1757–1947 |publisher=Primus Books |page=657 |isbn=978-93-80607-41-2}}
*{{cite book |last1=Chakrabarti |first1=Kunal |last2=Chakrabarti |first2=Shubhra |title=Historical Dictionary of the Bengalis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QVOFAAAAQBAJ |date=22 August 2013 |publisher=[[Scarecrow Press]] |isbn=978-0-8108-8024-5}}
*{{cite book |last=Chatterjee |first=Partha |date=1997 |title=The Present History of West Bengal: Essays in Political Criticism |location=the University of Michigan |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |page=223 |isbn=978-0-19-563945-2}}
*{{cite book |title=A Story of Ambivalent Modernization in Bangladesh and West Bengal: The Rise and Fall of Bengali Elitism in South Asia |year=2009 |last=Chatterjee |first=Pranab |publisher=[[Peter Lang Publishing|Peter Lang]] |isbn=978-1-4331-0820-4}}
*{{cite book |last=Chatterji |first=Joya |date=2007 |title=The Spoils of Partition: Bengal and India, 1947–1967 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-1-139-46830-5}}
* Eaton, Richard Maxwell (1993). ''The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760''. [[University of California Press]], {{ISBN|0-520-08077-7}}.
*[[Government of West Bengal]], Law Department, Legislative Notification. No. 182- L – 24 January 2013. West Bengal Act XXXVI of 2012. The West Bengal Official Language (Second Amendment) Act, 2012.
*{{cite book |editor-last = Harriss-White |editor-first = Barbara |year=2008 |title=Rural Commercial Capital: Agricultural Markets in West Bengal |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]], US |isbn=978-0-19-569159-7}}
*{{cite book |last1=Inden |last2=Ronald B. |last3=Ralph W |year=2005 |title=Kinship in Bengali Culture |publisher=The [[University of Chicago Press]], 1977 |isbn=978-81-8028-018-4}}
*{{cite book |last=Jasodhara Bagchi, Sarmistha Dutta Gupta |first=V. |title=The changing status of women in West Bengal, 1970–2000: the challenge ahead |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KYYW8Un5zFAC&q=violence+west+bengal&pg=PA119 |year=2000 |publisher=Saga Publication India Pvt Ltd. |isbn=978-0-7619-3242-0 |access-date=16 June 2010 |archive-date=2 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202001210/https://books.google.com/books?id=KYYW8Un5zFAC&q=violence+west+bengal&pg=PA119 |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last=Khan |first=Muhammad Mojlum |date=2013 |title=The Muslim Heritage of Bengal: The Lives, Thoughts and Achievements of Great Muslim Scholars, Writers and Reformers of Bangladesh and West Bengal |publisher=Kube Publishing Ltd |page=384 |isbn=978-1-84774-062-5}}
*{{cite book |last1=Klass |first1=L |last2=Morton |year=1996 |title=Community Structure and industrialization in West Bengal |publisher=[[University Press of America]] Inc. |isbn=978-0-7618-0420-8 |first2=S}}
* Mallick, Ross. (1955). ''Development Policy of a Communist Government: West Bengal Since 1977'', [[Cambridge University Press]], Cambridge (Reprinted 2008) {{ISBN|978-0-521-43292-4}}.
*{{cite book |last=Marvin |first=Davis |title=Rank and rivalry: the politics of inequality in rural West Bengal |year=1983 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge |pages=xxvii, 239 |isbn=978-0-521-24657-6}}
*{{cite book |last=Mukherjee |first=Bharati |date=1991 |title=Political Culture and Leadership in India: A Study of West Bengal |publisher=Mittal Publications |page=403 |isbn=978-81-7099-320-9}}
*{{cite book |editor1=Öberg, Magnus |editor2=Strom, Kaare |title=Resources, governance and civil conflict |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eBW-KtJ28ZsC&q=Naxalite+in+west+bengal&pg=PA93 |year=2008 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-41671-9 |access-date=16 June 2004 |archive-date=2 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202001155/https://books.google.com/books?id=eBW-KtJ28ZsC&q=Naxalite+in+west+bengal&pg=PA93 |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |title=Europe Reconsidered: Perceptions of the West in Nineteenth-Century Bengal |year=2002 |last=Raychaudhuri |first=Tapan |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-566109-5 |author-link = Tapan Raychaudhuri}}
*{{cite book |editor-last1 = Raychaudhuri |editor-first1 = Ajitava |editor-last2 = Das |editor-first2 = Tuhin K. |year = 2005 |title = West Bengal economy: some contemporary issues |publisher = Jadavpur University Press, India |isbn = 978-81-7764-731-0 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=NTeHPuhTsXcC&q=politics+in+west+bengal&pg=PA45 |access-date = 21 October 2020 |archive-date = 2 February 2023 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230202001210/https://books.google.com/books?id=NTeHPuhTsXcC&q=politics+in+west+bengal&pg=PA45 |url-status = live}}
*{{cite book |last1=Roy |first1=Ananya |author-link1 = Ananya Roy |last2=AlSayyad |first2=Nezar |author-link2 = Nezar AlSayyad |year=2004 |title=Urban Informality: Transnational Perspectives from the Middle East, Latin America, and South Asia |publisher=[[Lexington Books]] |isbn=978-0-7391-0741-6 |location=Lanham, Maryland}}
*{{cite book |last=Roy |first=Dayabati |date=2013 |title=Rural Politics in India: Political Stratification and Governance in West Bengal |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |page=278 |isbn=978-1-107-51316-7}}
*{{cite book |last=Samaddar |first=Ranabir |date=1999 |title=The Marginal Nation: Transborder Migration from Bangladesh to West Bengal |location=the University of Michigan |publisher=[[SAGE Publishing|SAGE Publications]] |page=227 |isbn=978-0-7619-9283-7}}
*{{cite book |last=Sen |first=Jyotirmoy |date=1988 |title=Land Utilisation and Population Distribution: A Case Study of West Bengal, 1850–1985 |publisher=Daya Books |page=227 |isbn=978-81-7035-043-9}}
*{{cite book |last1=Sen |first1=Raj Kumar |last2=Dasgupta |first2=Asis |date=2007 |title=West Bengal Today: 25 Years of Economic Development |publisher=Deep and Deep Publications |page=380 |isbn=978-81-7629-984-8}}
*{{cite journal |last=Sunny |first=C |year=1999 |title=Poverty and social development in west bengal |journal=India Rural Development Report, NIRD |url=http://planningcommission.nic.in/reports/sereport/ser/wbm/wbm_ch2.pdf |access-date=8 May 2010 |archive-date=7 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131207093342/http://planningcommission.nic.in/reports/sereport/ser/wbm/wbm_ch2.pdf |url-status=dead}}

== External links ==
; Government
*[https://www.wbtourism.gov.in/ Official tourism site]
; General information
*{{GovPubs|West%20Bengal}}
*{{Britannica|640088|West Bengal}}
*{{OSM relation|1960177}}

{{Geographic location
|Centre = West Bengal
|North = [[Sikkim]]
|Northeast = [[Chukha District|Chukha]], [[Dagana District|Dagana]] and [[Samtse District]]s, {{flag|Bhutan}}
|East = [[Assam]] [[Rangpur Division|Rangpur]] and [[Rajshahi Division]]s, {{flag|Bangladesh}}
|Southeast = [[Khulna Division]], {{flag|Bangladesh}}
|South = ''[[Bay of Bengal]]''
|Southwest = [[Odisha]]
|West = [[Bihar]] [[Jharkhand]]
|Northwest = [[Koshi Province]], {{flag|Nepal}}
}}
{{West Bengal topics}}
{{States and territories of India}}
{{Municipalities of West Bengal}}

[[Category:West Bengal| ]]
[[Category:1947 establishments in India]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1947]]
[[Category:Bay of Bengal]]
[[Category:Bengal]]
[[Category:East India]]
[[Category:States and union territories of India]]
[[Category:Countries and territories where Bengali is an official language]]

Mamata Banerjee

2026-05-08T05:28:01Z

206.84.229.26: She's now ex-CM

{{Short description|Chief Minister of West Bengal from 2011 to 2026}}
{{Redirect|Mamata}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2026}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Mamata Banerjee
| honorific_suffix = 
| image =
| caption = Official portrait, 2015
| alt = Official portrait, 2015
| signature = Mamata_Banerjee_Signature.png
| office = Chief Minister of West Bengal
| order = 8th
| subterm = '''Cabinet'''
| suboffice = [[First Banerjee ministry|Mamata I]] [[Second Banerjee ministry|Mamata II]] [[Third Banerjee ministry|Mamata III]]
| term_start = {{start date|2011|05|20|df=yes}}
| term_end = {{end date|2026|05|07|df=yes}}
| governor = {{Collapsible list|[[M. K. Narayanan]] [[D. Y. Patil]] ''(additional charge)'' [[Keshari Nath Tripathi]] [[Jagdeep Dhankhar]] [[La. Ganesan]] ''(additional charge)'' [[C. V. Ananda Bose]] [[R. N. Ravi]]}}
| predecessor = [[Buddhadeb Bhattacharjee]]
| successor = [[R. N. Ravi]] ''(acting administrator as Governor)''

{{Collapsed infobox section begin|Additional ministries}}
| 1blankname1 = [[Third Banerjee ministry|Ministry and Departments]]
| 1namedata1 = * [[Department of Home and Hill Affairs|Home & Hill Affairs]]
* [[Department of Personnel & Administrative Reforms (West Bengal)|Personnel & Administrative Reforms]]
* Finance & Excise
* Planning
* Statistics Program Implementation
* [[Ministry of Health & Family Welfare (West Bengal)|Health and Family Welfare]]
* [[Ministry of Land & Land Reforms (West Bengal)|Land and Land Reforms]]
* Refugee and Rehabilitation
* [[Ministry of Information & Cultural Affairs (West Bengal)|Information & Cultural Affairs]]
* [[Ministry of Minority Affairs & Madrassah Education (West Bengal)|Minority Affairs & Madrassah Education]]
* Sports & Youth Affairs
| term_start1 = {{start date|2011|05|20|df=yes}}
| term_end1 =
| predecessor1 = [[Buddhadeb Bhattacharjee]]
{{Collapsed infobox section end}}
| office2 = [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|Member]] of [[West Bengal Legislative Assembly]]
| constituency3 = [[Bhabanipur, West Bengal Assembly constituency|Bhabanipur]]
| term_start3 = {{start date|2011|11|16|df=yes}}
| term_end3 = {{start date|2021|05|02|df=yes}}
| predecessor3 = [[Subrata Bakshi]]
| successor3 = [[Sovandeb Chattopadhyay]]
| ooffice3 =
| constituency2 = [[Bhabanipur, West Bengal Assembly constituency|Bhabanipur]]
| term_start2 = {{start date|2021|10|03|df=yes}}
| term_end2 = {{start date|2026|05|04|df=yes}}
| predecessor2 = [[Sovandeb Chattopadhyay]]
| successor2 = [[Suvendu Adhikari]]
| office4 = [[All India Trinamool Congress|President of the All India Trinamool Congress]]
| term_start4 = {{Start date|2001|df=yes}}
| term_end4 =
| predecessor4 = [[Ajit Kumar Panja]]
{{Collapsed infobox section begin|Union Cabinet offices
|titlestyle = border:1px dashed purple;}}{{Infobox officeholder
| embed = yes
| office5 = [[Minister of Railways (India)|Union Minister of Railways]]
| predecessor5 = [[Lalu Prasad Yadav]]
| prime_minister5 = [[Manmohan Singh]]
| term_start5 = {{Start date|2009|05|22|df=yes}}
| term_end5 = {{End date|2011|05|19|df=yes}}
| successor5 = [[Dinesh Trivedi]]
| office6 =
| prime_minister6 = [[Atal Bihari Vajpayee]]
| predecessor6 = [[Ram Naik]]
| successor6 = [[Nitish Kumar]]
| term_start6 = {{start date|1999|10|13|df=yes}}
| term_end6 = {{end date|2001|03|15|df=yes}}
| office7 = [[Ministry of Coal|Union Minister of Coal]]
| prime_minister7 = Atal Bihari Vajpayee
| term_start7 = 9 January 2004
| term_end7 = 22 May 2004
| predecessor7 = [[Karia Munda]]
| successor7 = [[Shibu Soren]]
| office9 = [[Ministry of Mines (India)|Union Minister of Mines]]
| term_start9 = 9 January 2004
| term_end9 = 22 May 2004
| prime_minister9 = Atal Bihari Vajpayee
| predecessor9 = [[Ramesh Bais]] ([[:Category:Union ministers of state of India with independent charge|''MOS (I/C)'']])
| successor9 = Shibu Soren
| office10 = [[Union Council of Ministers#Ranking|Union Minister of State]] for [[Ministry of Education (India)|Human Resource Development]]
| term10 = 21 June 1991 — 17 January 1993<ref name="wbcmo">{{cite web|title=Chief Minister's Office – Government of West Bengal|url=http://wbcmo.gov.in/profile.aspx|website=wbcmo.gov.in|access-date=24 September 2021|archive-date=10 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240610055638/http://wbcmo.gov.in/profile.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref>
| prime_minister10 = [[P. V. Narasimha Rao]]
| minister10 = [[Arjun Singh (politician, born 1930)|Arjun Singh]]
| subterm10 = 1991—1993
| suboffice10 = Departments in-charge for:{{Bulleted list|
{{small|[[Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports#History|Youth Affairs and Sports]]}}
|{{small|[[Ministry of Women and Child Development#History|Woman and Child Development]]}}}}
| predecessor10 = [[Bhagey Gobardhan]]<ref>{{cite web|title=tcpd/cabinet_data|url=https://github.com/tcpd/cabinet_data/blob/master/TCPD_Indian_Cabinet_1990_2019.csv|work=GitHub|access-date=26 September 2021|archive-date=25 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210925191212/https://github.com/tcpd/cabinet_data/blob/master/TCPD_Indian_Cabinet_1990_2019.csv|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Sote103-('C) – Cabinet Secretariat|url=https://cabsec.nic.in/writereaddata/changeinportfolio/english/1_Upload_1574.pdf|access-date=26 September 2021|archive-date=4 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220104102945/https://cabsec.nic.in/writereaddata/changeinportfolio/english/1_Upload_1574.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
| successor10 = {{Unbulleted list| [[Mukul Wasnik]] {{small|(Youth Affairs and Sports)}}|[[Basavarajeshwari]] {{small|(Women and Child Development)}}}}
| office11 = [[Minister without portfolio#India|Union Cabinet Minister (without portfolio)]]<ref>{{cite news|title=Vajpayee reinducts Mamata Banerjee as cabinet minister without portfolio|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/glass-house/story/20030922-vajpayee-reinducts-mamata-banerjee-as-cabinet-minister-792033-2003-09-22|date=22 September 2003|work=India Today|access-date=4 January 2021|archive-date=1 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201194502/https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/glass-house/story/20030922-vajpayee-reinducts-mamata-banerjee-as-cabinet-minister-792033-2003-09-22|url-status=live}}</ref>
| term_start11 = 8 September 2003
| term_end11 = 8 January 2004<ref name="wbcmo" />
| prime_minister11 = Atal Bihari Vajpayee
| predecessor11 = [[N. Gopalaswami Ayyangar]]
| successor11 = [[Natwar Singh]]
}}
{{Collapsed infobox section end}}
| office12 = [[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha]]
| constituency12 = [[Kolkata Dakshin (Lok Sabha constituency)|Kolkata Dakshin, West Bengal]]
| term_start12 = {{start date|1991|06|19|df=yes}}
| term_end12 = {{end date|2011|05|13|df=yes}}
| predecessor12 = [[Biplab Dasgupta]]
| successor12 = [[Subrata Bakshi]]
| constituency13 = [[Jadavpur (Lok Sabha constituency)|Jadavpur, West Bengal]]
| term_start13 = {{start date|1984||}}
| term_end13 = {{end date|1989||}}
| predecessor13 = [[Somnath Chatterjee]]
| successor13 = [[Malini Bhattacharya]]
| party = [[All India Trinamool Congress]] (since 1998)
| other_party = [[Indian National Congress]] (1975–1998)
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1955|01|5|df=yes}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://164.100.47.132/LssNew/Members/bioprofilediedresigned.aspx?mpsno=39|title=Mamata Banerjee's Biodata in Lok Sabha's Document|website=loksabha.nic.in|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120525094119/http://164.100.47.132/Lssnew/Members/bioprofilediedresigned.aspx?mpsno=39|archive-date=25 May 2012}}</ref>{{efn|name=birth}}
| birth_place = [[Calcutta, West Bengal]], India
| spouse =
| parents =
| relations = [[Abhishek Banerjee (politician)|Abhishek Banerjee]] (nephew)
| alma_mater = [[University of Calcutta]]
| website =
| image_size =
| signature_size =
| footnotes = {{Collapsible list
| titlestyle = background-color:#56FF;text-align:center;
| title = Position Held
| bullets = on
| 1970–80: General-Secretary, Mahila Congress (I), West Bengal
| 1978–81: Secretary, District Congress Committee (Indira) [D.C.C. (I)], Calcutta South
| 1984: General-Secretary, All India Youth Congress (I)
| 1985–87: Member, Committee on the Welfare of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes
| 1987–88: Member, National Council, All India Youth Congress (I) Member, Consultative Committee, Ministry of Home Affairs Member, Consultative Committee, Ministry of Human Resource Development Member, Executive Committee, Congress Parliamentary Party [C.P.P. (I)]
| 1989: Member, Executive Committee, Pradesh Congress Committee [P.C.C. (I)], West Bengal
| 1990: President, Youth Congress, West Bengal
| 1993–96: Member, Committee on Home Affairs
| 1995–96: Member, Consultative Committee, Ministry of Home Affairs Member, Committee on Public Accounts
| 1996–97: Member, Committee on Home Affairs Member, Consultative Committee, Ministry of Home Affairs
| 1998–99: Chairman, Committee on Railways, Member of General Purposes Committee Member, Consultative Committee, Ministry of Home Affairs
| 1999: Leader, All India Trinamool Congress Parliamentary Party, Lok Sabha Member, General Purposes Committee
| 2001–2003: Member, Consultative Committee, Ministry of Industries
| 8 September 2003 – 8 January 2004: Union Cabinet Minister (without any portfolio)
| 2004: Member, Committee on Personnel, Public Grievances, Law & Justice
| 5 August 2006: Member, Committee on Home Affairs
| 5 August 2007: Member, Committee on Home Affairs
| 31 May 2009 – 19 July 2011: Leader, All India Trinamool Congress Parliamentary Party, Lok Sabha
}}
| nickname = {{ubl|''Didi'' ({{translation|elder sister}})}}
| source = http://wbcmo.gov.in/profile.aspx
| date = 9 October 2011
}}
{{Mamata Banerjee sidebar}}

'''Mamata Banerjee''' ({{IPA|bn|ˈmɔmot̪aˑ ˈbɔnd̪ːoˌpad̪ːʱae̯|audio=BN-Pronunciation-Mamata Banerjee.oga}}; born 5 January 1955){{efn|name=birth|Original date: 5 October 1959<ref>{{cite news |title=Mamata five years younger than official records |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/mamata-five-years-younger-than-official-records-571219 |work=NDTV |date=25 January 2012 |access-date=6 January 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=26 January 2012 |title=Mamata Banerjee five years younger than official records |website=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/mamata-banerjee-five-years-younger-than-official-records/articleshow/11641228.cms |access-date=17 September 2021 |archive-date=16 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210916221632/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/mamata-banerjee-five-years-younger-than-official-records/articleshow/11641228.cms |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=15 November 2017|title=Mamata is 5 years younger than official age|url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/economy/policy/Mamata-is-5-years-younger-than-official-age/article20388885.ece|website=Business Line|access-date=17 September 2021|archive-date=10 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240610055636/https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/economy/policy/Mamata-is-5-years-younger-than-official-age/article20388885.ece|url-status=live}}</ref>}} is an Indian politician and lawyer who served as the 8th [[List of chief ministers of West Bengal|chief minister]] of [[West Bengal]] between 2011 and 2026.<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 May 2026 |title=West Bengal: Modi's BJP conquers one of India's toughest political frontiers |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/ce8pdvp5x5ro |access-date=4 May 2026 |website=www.bbc.com |language=en-GB}}</ref> She was the first woman to hold the office. Being the founder and president of the [[All India Trinamool Congress]] (AITC or TMC), she previously served as a [[Cabinet Minister (India)|Union Cabinet Minister]].

She founded the AITC in 1998 after separating from the [[Indian National Congress (I)]], and became its second president later in 2001. She often refers to herself as ''Didi'' (meaning, ''elder sister'' in [[Bengali language|Bengali]]). She made history as the first sitting Chief Minister of India to argue as a lawyer in the Supreme Court.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/trending/trending-in-india/mamata-banerjee-poem-narendra-modi-demonetisation-decision-abolision-of-500-and-1000-notes-4372074/ |title=Mamata Banerjee's hard-hitting poem targets PM Modi's demonetisation decision, but fails to woo Netizens |date=12 November 2016 |work=The Indian Express |access-date=7 October 2017 |language=en-US |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171007121246/http://indianexpress.com/article/trending/trending-in-india/mamata-banerjee-poem-narendra-modi-demonetisation-decision-abolision-of-500-and-1000-notes-4372074/ |archive-date=7 October 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Roy|first=Sandip|date=17 October 2014|title=The 1.8 crore question: Is Mamata Banerjee India's most underrated artist?|language=en-US|work=Firstpost|url=http://www.firstpost.com/politics/the-1-8-crore-question-is-mamata-banerjee-indias-most-underrated-artist-1759725.html|url-status=dead|access-date=7 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171007124128/http://www.firstpost.com/politics/the-1-8-crore-question-is-mamata-banerjee-indias-most-underrated-artist-1759725.html|archive-date=7 October 2017}}</ref> Banerjee previously served twice as [[Minister of Railways (India)|Minister of Railways]], becoming the first woman to do so.<ref>{{Cite web|date=4 March 2020|title=Did You Know? Mamata Banerjee was India's first-ever Sports Minister|url=https://thebridge.in/featured/mamata-banerjee-sports-football/|access-date=9 December 2021|website=The Bridge|archive-date=12 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112081300/https://thebridge.in/featured/mamata-banerjee-sports-football/|url-status=live}}</ref> She was also the second female [[Ministry of Coal|Minister of Coal]], and [[Ministry of Education|Minister of Human Resource Development]], [[Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports|Youth Affairs and Sports]], [[Ministry of Women and Child Development|Women and Child Development]] in the [[Union Council of Ministers of India|cabinet]] of the [[Government of India|Indian government]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://india.gov.in/govt/loksabhampbiodata.php?mpcode=39 |title=Detailed Profile=Km. Mamata Banerjee |publisher=[[Government of India]] |access-date=11 August 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100826092154/http://india.gov.in/govt/loksabhampbiodata.php?mpcode=39 |archive-date=26 August 2010 }}</ref> She rose to prominence after opposing the erstwhile land acquisition policies for [[industrialisation]] of the [[Left Front (West Bengal)|Left Front]]-led government in West Bengal for [[Special Economic Zones]] at the cost of agriculturalists and farmers at [[Singur]].<ref name="nyt">{{cite news|last=Yardley|first=Jim|date=14 January 2011|title=The Eye of an Indian Hurricane, Eager to Topple a Political Establishment|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/15/world/asia/15india.html|url-status=live|url-access=subscription|access-date=14 January 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120113230008/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/15/world/asia/15india.html|archive-date=13 January 2012}}</ref> In [[2011 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2011]], Banerjee pulled off a landslide victory for the AITC alliance in West Bengal, defeating the 34-year-old [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]]-led [[Left Front (West Bengal)|Left Front]] government.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-13374646 |title=India: Mamata Banerjee routs communists in West Bengal |work=BBC News |date=13 May 2011 |access-date=14 May 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513200342/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-13374646 |archive-date=13 May 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Achin|first=Kurt|date=11 May 2011|title=India's West Bengal Set to End 34 Years of Communist Rule|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/indias-west-bengal-set-to-end-34-years-of-communist-rule-121723199/167457.html|access-date=9 December 2021|website=VOA|archive-date=12 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112081256/https://www.voanews.com/a/indias-west-bengal-set-to-end-34-years-of-communist-rule-121723199/167457.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="BBC">{{cite news|last=Biswas|first=Soutik|date=15 April 2011|title=The woman taking on India's communists|work=[[BBC World News]]|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-13077902|url-status=live|access-date=15 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110415062931/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-13077902|archive-date=15 April 2011}}</ref> She led her party to a landslide victory in the 2021 West Bengal assembly polls.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/elections/west-bengal-assembly/mamata-wins-west-bengal-but-loses-in-nandigram/article34466346.ece |title=Mamata wins West Bengal but loses in Nandigram |last=Singh |first=Shiv Sahay |date=2 May 2021 |website=The Hindu |access-date=11 July 2021 |archive-date=12 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112081257/https://www.thehindu.com/elections/west-bengal-assembly/mamata-wins-west-bengal-but-loses-in-nandigram/article34466346.ece |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="pratidin">{{Cite web|last=Paul|first=Paramita|date=3 May 2021|title=মমতা একা নন, বিধায়ক না হয়ে মুখ্যমন্ত্রী হওয়ার নজির অতীতেও রয়েছে এ দেশে|trans-title=Mamata is not alone, there is a precedent in this country to be the Chief Minister without being a MLA|url=https://www.sangbadpratidin.in/india/wb-assembly-polls-2021-tmc-leader-mamata-banerjee-is-not-the-first-cm-to-lose/|access-date=22 October 2021|work=Sangbad Pratidin|language=bn|archive-date=12 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112082803/https://www.sangbadpratidin.in/india/wb-assembly-polls-2021-tmc-leader-mamata-banerjee-is-not-the-first-cm-to-lose/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="2024.">{{Cite web|last=Choudhury|first=Monishankar|date=12 May 2021|title=২০২৪ সালে বিজেপি বিরোধী শিবিরের মুখ কি মমতাই?|trans-title=Is Mamata the face of the anti-BJP camp in 2024?|url=https://www.sangbadpratidin.in/editorial/will-mamata-banerjee-be-the-face-against-bjp-in-2024/|access-date=22 October 2021|work=Sangbad Pratidin|language=bn|archive-date=12 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112081258/https://www.sangbadpratidin.in/editorial/will-mamata-banerjee-be-the-face-against-bjp-in-2024/|url-status=live}}</ref>

She served as a member of [[West Bengal Legislative Assembly]] from [[Bhabanipur, West Bengal Assembly constituency|Bhabanipur]] from 2011 to 2021. She contested the [[Nandigram (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Nandigram]] assembly seat and lost to the [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]'s [[Suvendu Adhikari]] in the [[2021 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2021 state election]],<ref>{{cite news|date=2 May 2021|title=Nandigram election result 2021: Suvendu Adhikari beats Mamata by 1736 votes|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/mamata-vs-suvendu-all-eyes-on-nandigram-as-counting-underway-in-west-bengal/articleshow/82350838.cms|access-date=7 May 2021|website=The Times of India|archive-date=4 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210504030010/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/mamata-vs-suvendu-all-eyes-on-nandigram-as-counting-underway-in-west-bengal/articleshow/82350838.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>{{efn|name=details|For more details see [[2021 Nandigram Legislative Assembly election result controversy|Nandigram Controversy]]}} though her party won a large majority of seats.<ref>{{Cite news |date=3 May 2021 |title=Trinamool Congress wins big in Bengal and BJP scores less than half of what it aimed for |work=Business Insider India |url=https://www.businessinsider.in/politics/elections/news/mamata-banerjees-fate-in-west-bengal-assembly-election-results-2021-as-tmc-and-bjp-final-tally/articleshow/82347504.cms |access-date=2 August 2021 |archive-date=2 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210802144750/https://www.businessinsider.in/politics/elections/news/mamata-banerjees-fate-in-west-bengal-assembly-election-results-2021-as-tmc-and-bjp-final-tally/articleshow/82347504.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> She is the third West Bengal Chief Minister to lose an election from her own constituency, after [[Prafulla Chandra Sen]] in 1967 and [[Buddhadeb Bhattacharjee]] in 2011. She got elected as member of [[West Bengal Legislative Assembly]] again from [[Bhabanipur, West Bengal Assembly constituency|Bhabanipur constituency]] in the bypoll.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Singh |first=Shiv Sahay |date=3 October 2021 |title=Mamata Banerjee back in Bengal Assembly with Bhabanipur win |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/mamata-banerjee-wins-bhabanipur-bypoll-with-record-margin/article36802508.ece |access-date=11 January 2023 |issn=0971-751X |archive-date=11 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230111070352/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/mamata-banerjee-wins-bhabanipur-bypoll-with-record-margin/article36802508.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> Banerjee was one of the 18 [[List of female chief ministers in India|female]] Indian chief ministers.

Banerjee lost her [[Bhabanipur, West Bengal Assembly constituency|seat]] in the [[2026 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2026 assembly elections]], with the Trinamool Congress being defeated in the elections at large. Having refused to resign voluntarily, her tenure as [[Chief Minister of West Bengal|chief minister]] came to an end as the [[West Bengal Legislative Assembly|assembly]] was [[Dissolution of parliament|dissolved]] upon the conclusion of the its five-year term on 7 May 2026.

== Early life and education ==
Banerjee was born in [[Calcutta]] (now Kolkata), [[West Bengal]], to a [[Bengali Brahmin]] family.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Bag|first=Kheya|date=2011|title=Red Bengal's Rise and Fall|url=http://newleftreview.org/II/70/kheya-bag-red-bengal-s-rise-and-fall|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130330190401/http://newleftreview.org/II/70/kheya-bag-red-bengal-s-rise-and-fall|archive-date=30 March 2013|access-date=16 October 2012|journal=New Left Review|issue=70 |pages=69–98 |article-number=2909 |doi=10.64590/rqo |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Jha|first=Ajit Kumar|date=11 May 2014|title=Political Eclipse of Once Formidable Brahmins|url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/thesundaystandard/Political-Eclipse-of-Once-Formidable-Brahmins/2014/05/11/article2217601.ece|url-status=dead|access-date=7 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160507060512/http://www.newindianexpress.com/thesundaystandard/Political-Eclipse-of-Once-Formidable-Brahmins/2014/05/11/article2217601.ece|archive-date=7 May 2016}}</ref> Her parents were Promileswar Banerjee and Gayetri Devi.<ref name=":0">{{cite web|date=25 January 2021|title=Mamata's 5 years younger|url=http://www.rediff.com/news/slide-show/slide-show-1-whod-have-known-mamatas-5-years-younger/20120125.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120307151929/http://www.rediff.com/news/slide-show/slide-show-1-whod-have-known-mamatas-5-years-younger/20120125.htm|archive-date=7 March 2012|access-date=29 February 2012|website=Rediff}}</ref> Banerjee's father, Promileswar, died due to lack of medical treatment, when she was 17.<ref name="fire">{{cite news|last=Abdi|first=S.N.M.|date=5 November 2012|title=A Fire-Dweller At The Kiln|newspaper=Outlook India|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/magazine/story/a-fire-dweller-at-the-kiln/282724|url-status=live|access-date=5 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181116202427/https://www.outlookindia.com/magazine/story/a-fire-dweller-at-the-kiln/282724|archive-date=16 November 2018}}</ref>

In 1970, Banerjee completed the higher secondary board examination from Deshbandhu Sishu Sikshalay.<ref name="fire" /> She received a bachelor's degree in history from [[Jogamaya Devi College]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://jogamayadevicollege.org/history.htm |title=History of the College |publisher=Jogamayadevicollege.org |access-date=13 May 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726210012/http://www.jogamayadevicollege.org/history.htm |archive-date=26 July 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Mitra|first=Arnab|date=23 April 2011|title='My focus is always to be with the people'|website=Hindustan Times|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/archive-news/|url-status=dead|access-date=22 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110425225124/http://www.hindustantimes.com/My-focus-is-always-to-be-with-the-people/Article1-688732.aspx|archive-date=25 April 2011}}</ref> Later, she earned her master's degree in [[Islamic history]]<ref>{{cite news|date=27 May 2016|title=15 facts about Mamata Banerjee that you probably don't know|website=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/slideshows/nation-world/15-facts-about-mamata-banerjee-that-you-probably-dont-know/education/slideshow/52465489.cms|url-status=live|access-date=19 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170626174501/http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/slideshows/nation-world/15-facts-about-mamata-banerjee-that-you-probably-dont-know/education/slideshow/52465489.cms|archive-date=26 June 2017}}</ref> from the [[University of Calcutta]]. This was followed by a degree in education from [[Shri Shikshayatan College]] and a law degree from [[Jogesh Chandra Chaudhuri Law College]], [[Kolkata]].<ref name="biodata">{{cite web|title=Biographical Sketch, Member of Parliament, X Lok Sabha. BANERJEE, KUMARI MAMATA|url=http://parliamentofindia.nic.in/ls/lok10/mp52.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100726145746/http://parliamentofindia.nic.in/ls/lok10/mp52.htm|archive-date=26 July 2010|website=parliamentofindia.nic.in}}</ref>

In 1984, Mamata Banerjee prefixed her name with ‘Dr’, claiming that she had completed her doctorate. After it came to light that the University (University of East Georgia) from which Banerjee had putatively completed her PhD did not exist, she stopped prefixing her name with the ‘Dr’ title.<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 April 2016 |title=Degree row: After Mamata Banerjee, Jitendra Tomar, it's WB education minister Partha Chatterjee's thesis raises eyebrows |url=https://www.india.com/news/india/degree-row-after-mamata-banerjee-jitendra-tomar-its-wb-education-minister-partha-chatterjees-thesis-raises-eyebrows-1104727/ |website=India.com}}</ref>

Banerjee became involved with politics when she was only 15. While studying at the Jogamaya Devi College, she established Chhatra Parishad Unions, the student wing of the [[Indian National Congress|Congress (I) Party]], defeating the [[All India Democratic Students Organisation]] affiliated with the [[Socialist Unity Centre of India (Communist)]].<ref name="fire" /> She continued in the Congress (I) Party in West Bengal, serving in a variety of positions within the party and in other local political organisations.<ref>{{Cite news|date=12 May 2011|title=Trinamool Congress chief Mamata Banerjee biography|work=India Today|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/assembly-elections-2011/west-bengal/story/mamata-banerjee-biography-133631-2011-05-12|access-date=15 May 2021|archive-date=15 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210515051657/https://www.indiatoday.in/assembly-elections-2011/west-bengal/story/mamata-banerjee-biography-133631-2011-05-12|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Early political career (1984–2011) ==

=== Political career with Congress (I) ===

[[File:Mamata Banerjee photographed by Viveka Tirtha (15772151282).jpg|thumb|right|Mamata Banerjee at Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda Centre for Human Excellence and Social Sciences, Rajarhat, New Town, Kolkata]]

Banerjee began her political career in the [[Indian National Congress (Requisitionists)|Congress (I)]] party as a young woman in the 1970s. In 1975 she gained attention in the [[News media|press media]] when she danced on the car of socialist activist and politician [[Jayaprakash Narayan]] as a protest against him, during the Emergency.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Dhar|first=Sujoy|date=13 May 2011|title=Mamata's political journey: From a car dance to Chief Ministership|url=https://www.sify.com/news/mamatas-political-journey-from-a-car-dance-to-chief-ministership--news-national-lfnnQ3hibhhsi.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150527090140/http://www.sify.com/news/mamatas-political-journey-from-a-car-dance-to-chief-ministership--news-national-lfnnQ3hibhhsi.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=27 May 2015|access-date=25 December 2020|website=[[Sify]]|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=1 June 2019|title=First, show us some 'Mamata'|url=https://www.freepressjournal.in/analysis/first-show-us-some-mamata|access-date=25 December 2020|website=Free Press Journal|language=en|archive-date=8 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220608013925/https://www.freepressjournal.in/analysis/first-show-us-some-mamata|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|first1=Pradipta|last1=Mukherjee|first2=Jeanette|last2=Rodrigues|date=17 May 2016|title=From jumping on cars to hunger strikes, Mamata shakes up India's status quo|url=https://www.livemint.com/Politics/jvRw4QrDrA8yJ5V84gY3OK/From-jumping-on-cars-to-hunger-strikes-Mamata-Banerjee-shak.html|access-date=26 December 2020|website=mint|language=en|archive-date=26 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220626192221/https://www.livemint.com/Politics/jvRw4QrDrA8yJ5V84gY3OK/From-jumping-on-cars-to-hunger-strikes-Mamata-Banerjee-shak.html|url-status=live}}</ref> She quickly rose in the ranks of the local Congress group and remained the general secretary of [[Mahila Congress]] (Indira), West Bengal, from 1976 to 1980.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://profiles.incredible-people.com/mamta-banerjee/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060220084704/http://profiles.incredible-people.com/mamta-banerjee/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=20 February 2006 |title=Mamta Banerjee Profile |work=incredible-people.com }}</ref> In the [[1984 Indian general election|1984 general election]], Banerjee became one of India's youngest parliamentarians ever,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/only-mamata-banerjee-could-defeat-somnath-chatterjee-1312879-2018-08-13 |title=Only Mamata Banerjee could defeat Somnath Chatterjee |website=India Today |author=Prabhash K Dutta |date=13 August 2018 |access-date=24 March 2020 |archive-date=24 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191224160318/https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/only-mamata-banerjee-could-defeat-somnath-chatterjee-1312879-2018-08-13 |url-status=live }}</ref> defeating veteran Communist politician [[Somnath Chatterjee]], to win the [[Jadavpur (Lok Sabha constituency)|Jadavpur parliamentary Constituency]] in West Bengal. She also became the general secretary of the [[Indian Youth Congress]] in 1984. She lost her seat to [[Malini Bhattacharya]] of the [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]] in the [[1989 Indian general election|1989 general elections]] in an anti-Congress wave.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Shubham|date=27 April 2016|title=Bengal polls: Mamata Banerjee has lost only 1 election till date|url=https://www.oneindia.com/feature/bengal-polls-2016-mamata-banerjee-election-performance-since-1984-2082091.html|access-date=25 December 2020|website=Oneindia|language=en|archive-date=10 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240610055641/https://www.oneindia.com/feature/bengal-polls-2016-mamata-banerjee-election-performance-since-1984-2082091.html|url-status=live}}</ref> She was re-elected in the [[1991 Indian general election|1991 general elections]], having settled into the [[Calcutta South (Lok Sabha constituency)|Calcutta South constituency]]. She retained the Kolkata South seat in the [[1996 Indian general election|1996]], [[1998 Indian general election|1998]], [[1999 Indian general election|1999]], [[2004 Indian general election|2004]] and [[2009 Indian general election|2009 general elections]].<ref name="IndiaToday">{{cite news |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/assembly-elections-2011/west-bengal/story/trinamool-congress-chief-mamata-banerjee-a-profile-133684-2011-05-12 |title=Mamata, the street-fighting politician and Left nemesis |work=[[India Today]] |date=13 May 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518043559/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/site/story/trinamool-congress-chief-mamata-banerjee-a-profile/1/138015.html |archive-date=18 May 2011 }}</ref>

Banerjee was appointed the [[Council of Ministers of the Republic of India#Ministers of State|Union Minister of State]] for [[Ministry of Human Resource Development (India)|Human Resources Development]], [[Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports|Youth Affairs and Sports]], and [[Ministry of Women and Child Development|Women and Child Development]] in 1991 by [[Prime Minister of India|prime minister]], [[P. V. Narasimha Rao]]. As the sports minister, she announced that she would resign and protested in a rally at the [[Brigade Parade Ground]] in Kolkata, against the Government's indifference towards her proposal to improve sports in the country.<ref>{{cite news |title=Mamata mum on relations with BJP |url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2003/20030107/nation.htm#1 |date=6 January 2003 |access-date=2 December 2006 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070110111304/http://www.tribuneindia.com/2003/20030107/nation.htm#1 |archive-date=10 January 2007 }}</ref> She was discharged of her portfolios in 1993. In April 1996, she alleged that Congress (I) was behaving as a stooge of the CPI-M in West Bengal. She said that she was the lone voice of reason and wanted a "clean Congress".<ref>{{cite news |title=Trinamool Congress chief Mamata Banerjee biography |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/assembly-elections-2011/west-bengal/story/mamata-banerjee-biography-133631-2011-05-11 |website=[[India Today]] |date=12 May 2011 |access-date=26 December 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141226192616/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/mamata-banerjee-biography/1/137953.html |archive-date=26 December 2014 }}</ref>

In December 1992, Banerjee took a physically challenged girl Dipali Basak, who was allegedly raped by CPI(M) cadre Souvagya Basak, to [[Writers' Building]] to the then Chief Minister [[Jyoti Basu]] but was harassed by the police before being arrested and put on detention.<ref name="millenniumpost 2012-07-21">{{cite news |date=21 July 2012 |title=Why Bengal can never forget 21 July |website=millenniumpost.in |url=http://www.millenniumpost.in/why-bengal-can-never-forget-21-july-5597 |access-date=13 June 2021 |archive-date=1 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220601103647/http://www.millenniumpost.in/why-bengal-can-never-forget-21-july-5597 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Chaudhuri |first=Subhasish |date=23 March 2016 |title='Political pawns' Didi forgot |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/39-political-pawns-39-didi-forgot/cid/1321396 |work=[[The Telegraph (India)|The Telegraph)]] |access-date=14 August 2024}}</ref> She had sworn she would enter the building again only as chief minister.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newslaundry.com/2021/05/03/bengals-election-result-is-narendra-modis-personal-failure|title=Bengal's election result is Narendra Modi's personal failure|website=Newslaundry.com|date=3 May 2021|access-date=12 July 2021|archive-date=5 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220705224957/https://www.newslaundry.com/2021/05/03/bengals-election-result-is-narendra-modis-personal-failure|url-status=live}}</ref>

The State Youth Congress led by Mamata Banerjee organised a protest march to Writers' Building in Kolkata on 21 July 1993 against the Left Front government. They demanded that voters' ID cards be made the only required document for voting, to put a stop to CPM's "scientific rigging". [[1993 Kolkata firing|Thirteen people were shot and killed by police]] during the protest and many others were injured. Reacting to this incident the then-Chief Minister of West Bengal, Jyoti Basu, said that the "police had done a good job." During the 2014 inquiry, Justice (retired) Sushanta Chatterjee, former Chief Justice of the Orissa High Court, described the police response as "unprovoked and unconstitutional". "The commission has come to the conclusion that the case is even worse than [[Jallianwala Bagh massacre]]," said Justice Chatterjee.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/kolkata/1993-kolkata-police-firing-worse-than-jalianwallah-bagh/article10963265.ece |title=Report on Kolkata firing may spark a fresh row |first=Suvojit |last=Bagchi |date=29 December 2014 |newspaper=The Hindu |access-date=14 June 2021 |archive-date=27 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220727081954/https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/kolkata/1993-kolkata-police-firing-worse-than-jalianwallah-bagh/article10963265.ece |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/assembly-elections-2011/west-bengal/looking-back-at-july-21-1993/articleshow/8310909.cms|title=Looking back at July 21, 1993|website=The Times of India|date=14 May 2011|access-date=14 June 2021|archive-date=6 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220706003735/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/assembly-elections-2011/west-bengal/looking-back-at-july-21-1993/articleshow/8310909.cms|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/politics/what-happened-on-july-21-1993/|title=What had happened on July 21 1993 at Writers' building in West Bengal?|date=29 December 2014|access-date=14 June 2021|archive-date=1 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220601142811/https://indianexpress.com/article/india/politics/what-happened-on-july-21-1993/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/what-happened-on-july-21-1993/cid/1266400|title=What happened on July 21, 1993|website=Telegraph India|access-date=14 June 2021|archive-date=13 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613192223/https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/what-happened-on-july-21-1993/cid/1266400|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="millenniumpost 2012-07-21" />

=== Founding Trinamool Congress ===
[[File:Mamata Banerjee at Bongaon Stadium in 2008 IMG 0276.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Mamata Banerjee speaking to the elected members and party workers at Bongaon stadium after the West Bengal panchayat elections.]]
In 1997, due to difference in political views with the then [[West Bengal Pradesh Congress Committee]] president [[Somen Mitra|Somendra Nath Mitra]], Banerjee left the Congress (I) Party in West Bengal and became one of the founding members of the [[All India Trinamool Congress]], along with [[Mukul Roy]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Chaudhuri|first=Kalyan|date=4 July 2003|title=On the decline|url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/other/article30217647.ece|access-date=2 January 2021|website=Frontline|language=en|archive-date=1 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201085145/https://frontline.thehindu.com/other/article30217647.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> It quickly became the primary opposition party to the long-standing Left Front government in the state. On 11 December 1998, she controversially held a [[Samajwadi Party]] MP, [[Daroga Prasad Saroj]], by the collar and dragged him out of the well of the Lok Sabha to prevent him from protesting against the [[Women's Reservation Bill]].<ref>{{cite news |title=National Events in December 1998 |url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/revents/01/19980112.htm |work=The Hindu |location=India |access-date=12 November 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110424085700/http://www.hinduonnet.com/revents/01/19980112.htm |archive-date=24 April 2011
}}</ref>

==== Railway Minister (first tenure), 1999–2000 ====
In 1999, she joined the [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]-led [[National Democratic Alliance (India)|National Democratic Alliance]] (NDA) government and became Railways Minister.<ref name="IndiaToday" /> In 2000, Banerjee presented her first [[Railway Budget of India|Railway Budget]]. In it, she fulfilled many of her promises to her home state West Bengal.<ref name="Tribune_new_2005">{{cite news |url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2000/20000226/main2.htm#4 |title=New trains for West Bengal |work=The Tribune |location=India |date=26 February 2000 |access-date=12 November 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930043335/http://www.tribuneindia.com/2000/20000226/main2.htm#4 |archive-date=30 September 2007 }}</ref> She introduced a new biweekly New Delhi-[[Sealdah]] [[Rajdhani Express]] train and four express trains connecting various parts of West Bengal, namely the [[Howrah]]-[[Purulia]] Rupasi Bangla Express, the Sealdah-[[New Jalpaiguri]] [[Padatik Express]], the [[Shalimar, Pakistan|Shalimar]]-[[Adra, Purulia|Adra]] Aranyak Express, the Sealdah-Ajmer Ananya Superfast Express, and Sealdah-Amritsar Akal Takht Superfast Express.<ref name="Tribune_new_2005" /> She also increased the frequency of the [[Pune]]-Howrah [[Azad Hind Express]] and extended at least three express train services. Work on the Digha-Howrah Express service was also hastened during her brief tenure.<ref name="rediff_railways_2005">{{cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/business/2000/feb/25rail2.htm |title=Railways to focus on tourism, trans-Asian role, hardselling freight services |work=[[Rediff.com]] |date=25 February 2000 |access-date=12 November 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050128115957/http://www.rediff.com/business/2000/feb/25rail2.htm |archive-date=28 January 2005 }}</ref>

She also focused on developing tourism, enabling the [[Darjeeling Himalayan Railway]] section to obtain two additional locomotives and proposing the [[IRCTC|Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation Limited]]. She also commented that India should play a pivotal role in the [[Trans-Asian Railway]] and that rail links between [[Bangladesh]] and [[Nepal]] would be reintroduced. In all, she introduced 19 new trains for the 2000–2001 fiscal year.<ref name="rediff_railways_2005" />

In 2000, she and [[Ajit Kumar Panja]] resigned to protest the hike in petroleum prices,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1001001/index.htm |title=Petrol Ignites Mamata Resignation |work=[[The Telegraph (Calcutta)]] |date=1 October 2000 |access-date=24 February 2012 |location=Calcutta |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131127170851/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1001001/index.htm |archive-date=27 November 2013 }}</ref> and then withdrew their resignations without providing any reasons.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2000/20001009/nation.htm#1 |title=Mamata's antics invite criticism |work=[[Tribune India]] |date=9 October 2000 |access-date=24 February 2012 |author=Gupta, Subhrangshu |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120319001624/http://www.tribuneindia.com/2000/20001009/nation.htm#1 |archive-date=19 March 2012 }}</ref>

==== 2001 West Bengal election ====
In early 2001, after ''[[Tehelka]]''{{'s}} exposure of [[Operation West End]],<ref>{{cite news|last=Harding|first=Luke|date=21 March 2001|title=Sting on a shoestring|work=[[The Guardian]]|url=https://www.theguardian.com/g2/story/0,3604,460371,00.html|url-status=live|access-date=23 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160112063745/http://www.theguardian.com/g2/story/0%2C3604%2C460371%2C00.html|archive-date=12 January 2016}}</ref> Banerjee walked out of the NDA cabinet and allied with the Congress Party for West Bengal's 2001 elections, to protest the corruption charges levelled by the website against senior ministers of the government.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.outlookindia.com/article.aspx?211498 |title=West Bengal: Elections 2001 Countdown |work=Outlook India |date=3 May 2001 |access-date=24 February 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131207055623/http://www.outlookindia.com/article.aspx?211498 |archive-date=7 December 2013 }}</ref>

==== Minister of Coal and Mines, January 2004 – May 2004 ====
[[File:Sushree Mamata Banerjee assumes the charge of the Minister for Coal and Mines in New Delhi on January 9, 2004.jpg|thumb|Banerjee assumes the charge of the Minister for Coal and Mines in New Delhi on 9 January 2004|left]]
She returned to the [[National Democratic Alliance|NDA]] government in September 2003 as a cabinet minister without any portfolio.<ref>{{Cite news|date=22 September 2003|title=Vajpayee reinducts Mamata Banerjee as cabinet minister without portfolio|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/glass-house/story/20030922-vajpayee-reinducts-mamata-banerjee-as-cabinet-minister-792033-2003-09-22|access-date=4 January 2021|work=India Today|language=en|archive-date=1 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201194502/https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/glass-house/story/20030922-vajpayee-reinducts-mamata-banerjee-as-cabinet-minister-792033-2003-09-22|url-status=live}}</ref> Along with Mamata, her party colleague Sudip Banerjee was also inducted in the Vajpayee ministry.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Sahay|first=Tara Shankar|title=Mamata back in Cabinet, cut to size|url=https://www.rediff.com/news/2003/sep/08cab2.htm|access-date=4 January 2021|work=Rediff|language=en|archive-date=14 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220514110949/https://www.rediff.com/news/2003/sep/08cab2.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> On 9 January 2004 she took charge as Ministry of Coal and Mines.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Coal portfolio is good enough: Mamata|url=https://www.rediff.com/news/2003/sep/08cab1.htm|access-date=4 January 2021|website=Rediff|language=en|archive-date=1 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201134835/https://www.rediff.com/news/2003/sep/08cab1.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> During her short term as the minister of coal and mines, the government disallowed the sale of the [[National Aluminium Company]].<ref>{{Cite news|date=20 January 2004|title=Mamata Tantrums Now Against Nalco Sale|url=https://www.financialexpress.com/archive/mamata-tantrums-now-against-nalco-sale/97712/|access-date=31 January 2021|work=The Financial Express|language=en-US|archive-date=5 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210205011114/https://www.financialexpress.com/archive/mamata-tantrums-now-against-nalco-sale/97712/|url-status=live}}</ref> She held the [[Ministry of Coal|Coal]] and [[Ministry of Mines (India)|Mines]] portfolios till 22 May 2004.

==== 2004–2006 election setbacks ====
In Indian general election of 2004 her party aligned with the Bharatiya Janata Party. However, the alliance lost the election and she was the only Trinamool Congress member to be elected from a parliamentary seat from West Bengal.<ref name="IndiaToday" /><ref>{{Cite news|date=14 May 2004|title=Why did the NDA lose West Bengal?|url=https://www.rediff.com/election/2004/may/14mamata.htm|access-date=28 December 2020|website=Rediff|language=en|archive-date=2 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902205412/https://www.rediff.com/election/2004/may/14mamata.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Banerjee suffered further setbacks in 2005 when her party lost control of the [[Kolkata Municipal Corporation]] and the sitting mayor [[Subrata Mukherjee]] defected from her party.<ref>{{Cite news|date=5 May 2010|title=Subrata Mukherjee joins Trinamool|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/kolkata/subrata-mukherjee-joins-trinamool/story-WKZAc5mqYelTwHS9AjowiM.html|access-date=5 February 2021|work=Hindustan Times|language=en|archive-date=13 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220513054937/https://www.hindustantimes.com/kolkata/subrata-mukherjee-joins-trinamool/story-WKZAc5mqYelTwHS9AjowiM.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2006, the Trinamool Congress was defeated in West Bengal's Assembly Elections, losing more than half of its sitting members.
On 4 August 2006, Banerjee hurled her resignation papers at the [[Deputy Speaker of Lok Sabha|deputy speaker]] [[Charanjit Singh Atwal]] in [[Lok Sabha]]. She was provoked by [[Speaker of Lok Sabha|Speaker]] Somnath Chatterjee's rejection of her adjournment motion on illegal infiltration by [[Bangladeshis]] in West Bengal<ref>{{cite news|url=http://ww.itimes.com/photo/mamata-banerjee-cartoons-512c4fa31fae4|title=Mamata Banerjee cartoons |work=itimes|access-date=7 July 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160807200203/http://ww.itimes.com/photo/mamata-banerjee-cartoons-512c4fa31fae4|archive-date=7 August 2016|date=26 February 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Trinamool Congress chief Mamata Banerjee biography |date=12 May 2011 |work=India Today |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/assembly-elections-2011/west-bengal/story/mamata-banerjee-biography-133631-2011-05-11 |access-date=7 July 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160806091810/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/mamata-banerjee-biography/1/137953.html |archive-date=6 August 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Harihar |last=Swarup |title=Profile: The incorrigible Mamata |work=Tribune India |location=Chandigarh |url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2006/20061224/edit.htm#2 |access-date=7 July 2016|url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307090736/http://www.tribuneindia.com/2006/20061224/edit.htm#2 |archive-date=7 March 2016}}</ref> on the grounds that it was not in the proper format.<ref>{{cite news |title=Mamata Banerjee's unending tantrums|url=http://www.hindu.com/2005/08/08/stories/2005080804081000.htm|date=8 August 2005|access-date=2 December 2006 |location=Chennai |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070320192445/http://www.hindu.com/2005/08/08/stories/2005080804081000.htm|work=[[The Hindu]]|archive-date=20 March 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Mamata casts shame at House Paper throw at Speaker|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1050805/asp/frontpage/story_5077148.asp|date=4 August 2005|access-date=2 December 2006|location=Calcutta |work=The Telegraph|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070822234553/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1050805/asp/frontpage/story_5077148.asp|archive-date=22 August 2007}}</ref>

=== Singur, Nandigram and other movements ===
On 20 October 2005, she protested against the forceful land acquisition and the atrocities perpetrated against local farmers in the name of the [[industrial development]] policy of the [[Buddhadeb Bhattacharjee]] government in West Bengal. Benny Santoso, [[CEO]] of the [[Indonesia]]-based Salim Group, had pledged a large investment in West Bengal, and the [[West Bengal government]] had given him farmland in Howrah, sparking protests. In soaking rain, Banerjee and other Trinamool Congress members stood in front of the Taj Hotel where Santoso had arrived, shut out by the police. Later, she and her supporters followed Santoso's convoy. A planned "black flag" protest was avoided when the government had Santoso arrive three hours ahead of schedule.<ref>{{cite news
|title=Weather plays spoilsport for TMC|url=http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/oct212005/national18114720051020.asp|date=21 October 2005|access-date=2 December 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070218074247/http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/oct212005/national18114720051020.asp |archive-date=18 February 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Missing on bandh day: its champions – Mamata stays indoors, Cong scarce|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1061010/asp/bengal/story_6851157.asp|date=10 October 2006|access-date=2 December 2006|location=Calcutta|work=The Telegraph|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930041000/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1061010/asp/bengal/story_6851157.asp|archive-date=30 September 2007}}</ref>

==== Singur protest ====
{{Main|Tata Nano Singur controversy}}

In November 2006, Banerjee was forcibly stopped on her way to [[Singur]] for a rally against a proposed [[Tata Motors]] car project. Banerjee reached the West Bengal assembly and protested at the venue. She addressed a press conference at the assembly and announced a 12-hour shutdown by her party on Friday.<ref name="Trinamool_violence">{{cite news |title=Trinamool unleashes violence in West Bengal|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/181_1856399%2C000900030001.htm |date=30 November 2006 |access-date=2 December 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930015135/http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/181_1856399%2C000900030001.htm |archive-date=30 September 2007 }}</ref> After being arrested by police earlier in that day "for violating prohibitory orders" near Singur, she alleged that the administration had acted "unconstitutionally" by preventing her from entering Singur where the Tata motors proposed to set up a small car factory. She was intercepted at Hooghly and sent back.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-trinamool-congress-legislators-go-on-the-rampage-in-house-1067047|title=Trinamool Congress legislators go on the rampage in House|first=Sumanta Ray|last=Chaudhuri|date=30 November 2006|website=DNA India|access-date=13 June 2021|archive-date=13 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613101934/https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-trinamool-congress-legislators-go-on-the-rampage-in-house-1067047|url-status=live}}</ref> After this incident the Trinamool Congress MLAs protested by damaging furniture and microphones and vandalising the West Bengal Legislative Assembly Building.<ref name="Trinamool_violence" /><ref>{{cite news|date=2 December 2006|title=Heritage vandalised in Bengal House|work=[[The Times of India]]|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Heritage-vandalised-in-Bengal-House/articleshow/678018.cms|url-status=live|access-date=2 December 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103201138/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2006-12-02/india/27828165_1_bengal-house-assembly-building-benches|archive-date=3 November 2012}}</ref> A major strike was called on 14 December 2006. But all in all there was no gain. On 4 December, Banerjee began the historic 26-day hunger strike in Kolkata protesting the forcible acquisition of farmland by the government. The then-President [[A. P. J. Abdul Kalam]], who was concerned about her health, spoke to the then-Prime Minister [[Manmohan Singh]] to resolve the issue. Kalam also appealed to Banerjee to withdraw her fast as "life is precious". A letter from Manmohan Singh was faxed to [[Gopalkrishna Gandhi]], the then-Governor of West Bengal, and then it was immediately delivered to Mamata. After receiving the letter Mamata finally broke her fast at midnight on 29 December.<ref>{{cite news|date=29 December 2006|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/mamata-ends-25-day-hunger-strike/story-s7gIzBR4FvivAKFuYozrLM.html|title=Mamata ends 25-day hunger strike|website=Hindustan Times|access-date=19 June 2021|archive-date=24 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624200335/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/mamata-ends-25-day-hunger-strike/story-s7gIzBR4FvivAKFuYozrLM.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=4 December 2020|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/nation/farmers-agitation-mamata-reminds-people-of-her-26-day-hunger-strike-179907|title=Mamata Banerjee dials protesting farmers, assures TMC's support|website=The Tribune|access-date=19 June 2021|archive-date=24 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624201106/https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/nation/farmers-agitation-mamata-reminds-people-of-her-26-day-hunger-strike-179907|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=4 December 2020|url=https://www.sentinelassam.com/national-news/west-bengal-cm-mamata-banerjee-reminds-people-of-her-26-day-hunger-strike-514753|title=West Bengal CM Mamata Banerjee reminds people of her 26-day hunger strike|website=The Sentinel|access-date=19 June 2021|archive-date=24 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624200747/https://www.sentinelassam.com/national-news/west-bengal-cm-mamata-banerjee-reminds-people-of-her-26-day-hunger-strike-514753|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=4 December 2020|url=https://www.thestatesman.com/bengal/mamata-banerjee-remembers-singur-hunger-strike-context-ongoing-farmers-protest-1502938968.html|title=Mamata Banerjee remembers Singur hunger strike in context of ongoing farmers protest|website=The Statesman|access-date=19 June 2021|archive-date=24 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624201349/https://www.thestatesman.com/bengal/mamata-banerjee-remembers-singur-hunger-strike-context-ongoing-farmers-protest-1502938968.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2016 the [[Supreme Court of India|Supreme Court]] declared that the acquisition of 997 acres of land by West Bengal's Left Front government for the Tata Motors plant in Singur was illegal.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.livemint.com/Politics/Yrl5OkSielFvHttnG4AajM/CPM-govts-acquisition-of-land-for-Tata-Motors-in-Singur-ill.html?facet=amp|title=Singur case: Supreme Court declares land acquisition for Tata plant illegal|website=livemint.com|date=1 September 2016|language=en|access-date=21 June 2021|archive-date=24 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624202640/https://www.livemint.com/Politics/Yrl5OkSielFvHttnG4AajM/CPM-govts-acquisition-of-land-for-Tata-Motors-in-Singur-ill.html?facet=amp|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Nandigram protest ====
{{Main|Nandigram violence}}

In 2007 a battalion of armed police stormed the rural area of [[Nandigram]] in the district of [[Midnapore East|Purba Medinipur]] with the aim of quashing protests against the West Bengal government's plans to expropriate {{convert|10000|acre|km2}} of land for a [[Special Economic Zone]] (SEZ) to be developed by the Indonesian-based [[Salim Group]]. At least 14 villagers were shot dead and 70 more were wounded. This led to a large number of intellectuals to protest on the streets.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.oneindia.com/2007/11/30/nandigram-peoples-struggle-heroic-clark-1196438590.html|title=Nandigram people's struggle "heroic": Clark|work=One India|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120217023009/http://news.oneindia.in/2007/11/30/nandigram-peoples-struggle-heroic-clark-1196438590.html|archive-date=17 February 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.iacboston.org/india/1207-nandigram-says-no.html|title=Nandigram says 'No!' to Dow's chemical hub|work=International Action Center|author=Kirschbaum, Stevan|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090706032521/http://www.iacboston.org/india/1207-nandigram-says-no.html|archive-date=6 July 2009|access-date=14 February 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/story/246969.html |title=The Great Left Debate: Chomsky to Saddam, Iraq to Nandigram |date=5 December 2007 |work=The Indian Express |location=India |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080416093108/http://www.indianexpress.com/story/246969.html |archive-date=16 April 2008 }}</ref> CPI(M) cadres allegedly molested and raped 300 women and girls during the Nandigram invasions.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sarkar |first1=Arindam |title=Mamata promises to marry off raped girls of Nandigram |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/kolkata/mamata-promises-to-marry-off-raped-girls-of-nandigram/story-umlmKryBUWdkP6re98mV2L.html |newspaper=[[Hindustan Times]] |access-date=27 April 2019 |date=26 April 2007 |archive-date=27 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190427095714/https://www.hindustantimes.com/kolkata/mamata-promises-to-marry-off-raped-girls-of-nandigram/story-umlmKryBUWdkP6re98mV2L.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=19 December 2007|title=CPI(M) leaders raped mother and daughters in Nandigram: CBI|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/latest-headlines/story/cpim-leaders-raped-mother-and-daughters-in-nandigram-cbi-21735-2007-12-19|work=India Today|access-date=30 November 2021|archive-date=29 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211129203547/https://www.indiatoday.in/latest-headlines/story/cpim-leaders-raped-mother-and-daughters-in-nandigram-cbi-21735-2007-12-19|url-status=live}}</ref>

Banerjee wrote letters to Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh and Union Home Minister [[Shivraj Patil]] to stop what she called "state-sponsored violence" promoted by CPI(M) in Nandigram.<ref>{{Cite news| url=http://sanhati.com/articles/446/| title=You are not what you were – Ashok Mitra after 14th November, 2007| author=Mitra, Ashok| date=15 November 2007| work=Sanhati| access-date=4 November 2021| archive-date=18 December 2007| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218200129/http://sanhati.com/articles/446/| url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news| url=http://www.indiaenews.com/india/20061207/31650.htm| title='Go back Medha' posters in Kolkata| work=India eNews.com| date=7 December 2006| access-date=23 February 2010| archive-date=11 January 2007| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070111170928/http://www.indiaenews.com/india/20061207/31650.htm| url-status=dead}}</ref> Her political activism during the movement is widely believed to be one of the contributing causes to her landslide victory in [[2011 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2011]].

The CBI report on the incident vindicated CPI(M)'s stand that Buddhadeb did not order the police to open fire. They did so only to disperse the unlawful assembly after every other standard operating procedure had failed.<ref>{{cite news|last=Sen|first=Saibal|title=Nandigram firing: Full text of CBI's Nandigram chargesheet|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Nandigram-firing-Full-text-of-CBIs-Nandigram-chargesheet/articleshow/29665581.cms|access-date=17 March 2014|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|date=31 January 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201184221/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Nandigram-firing-Full-text-of-CBIs-Nandigram-chargesheet/articleshow/29665581.cms|archive-date=1 February 2014}}</ref><ref name="telegraph140307">{{cite news |title=Red-hand Buddha: 14 killed in Nandigram re-entry bid |url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1070315/asp/frontpage/story_7519166.asp |work=[[The Telegraph (Calcutta)|The Telegraph]] |date=15 March 2007 |access-date=15 March 2007 |location=Calcutta |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070317192827/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1070315/asp/frontpage/story_7519166.asp |archive-date=17 March 2007 }}</ref> But supporting the violence in Nandigram by his own party workers, Buddhadeb Bhattacharya had said earlier "They (the oppositions) have been paid back in the same coin."<ref>{{cite news|url=https://zeenews.india.com/news/nation/violent-elements-paid-back-in-their-own-coin_407133.html|title='Violent elements paid back in their own coin'|date=13 November 2007|website=Zee News|access-date=13 June 2021|archive-date=13 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613093249/https://zeenews.india.com/news/nation/violent-elements-paid-back-in-their-own-coin_407133.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rediff.com/news/2007/nov/13nandi6.htm|title=Oppn paid back in the same coin, says Bengal CM|website=Rediff.com|access-date=13 June 2021|archive-date=13 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613093249/https://www.rediff.com/news/2007/nov/13nandi6.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> There are allegations of involvement of some local TMC leaders in the Nandigram Violence.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/kolkata/mamata-conducts-massive-roadshow-in-nandigram/article34188262.ece|title=West Bengal Assembly elections | Battle for Nandigram turns personal|first=Shiv Sahay|last=Singh|date=29 March 2021|newspaper=The Hindu|access-date=8 April 2021|archive-date=10 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240610055642/https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/kolkata/mamata-conducts-massive-roadshow-in-nandigram/article34188262.ece|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=30 March 2021|url=https://bartamanpatrika.com/detailNews.php?cID=13&nID=286426&P=1&nPID=20210330|title=এখানে জিতব, এখান থেকে সরকার গড়ব, নন্দীগ্রামে আত্মবিশ্বাসী মমতা | হুইল চেয়ারেই নন্দীগ্রামের মানুষের দুয়ারে পৌঁছলেন নেত্রী|website=bartamanpatrika.com|language=bn|access-date=14 June 2021|archive-date=14 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210614052833/https://bartamanpatrika.com/detailNews.php?cID=13&nID=286426&P=1&nPID=20210330|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=29 March 2021|url=https://www.aajkaal.in/news/state/west-bengal-assembly-election-2021-cm-mamata-banerjee-and-bjp-leader-suvendu-adhikaris-poll-campaign-at-nandigram-live-update-1e3v|title='‌চটি–পুলিশকে ওঁরাই ডেকেছে, পুলিশের ড্রেসেই নন্দীগ্রামে গুলি.‌.‌.‌', ফের বিস্ফোরক মমতা‌|website=aajkaal.in|language=bn|access-date=14 June 2021|archive-date=14 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210614052820/https://www.aajkaal.in/news/state/west-bengal-assembly-election-2021-cm-mamata-banerjee-and-bjp-leader-suvendu-adhikaris-poll-campaign-at-nandigram-live-update-1e3v|url-status=dead}}</ref>
[[File:Chief Minister Government of West Bengal (20054618606).jpg|thumb|right|Mamata Banerjee, Chief Minister Government of West Bengal speaking at an event in London.]]

=== 2009–2011 electoral progress ===
Before the 2009 parliamentary elections she allied with the [[United Progressive Alliance]] (UPA) led by Indian National Congress. The alliance won 26 seats. Banerjee joined the central cabinet as the railway minister (second tenure). In the 2010 Municipal Elections in West Bengal, TMC won Kolkata Municipal Corporation by a margin of 62 seats. TMC also won Bidhan Nagar Corporation by a seven-seat margin.<ref>{{cite news|last=Singh|first=Raj|title=Who is Mamata Banerjee?|url=http://www.indiatvnews.com/politics/national/who-is-mamata-banerjee--5920.html|access-date=24 December 2014|publisher=[[India TV]]|date=20 April 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150109064644/http://www.indiatvnews.com/politics/national/who-is-mamata-banerjee--5920.html|archive-date=9 January 2015}}</ref> In 2011, Banerjee won a sweeping majority and assumed the position of chief minister of the state of West Bengal. Her party ended the 34-year rule of the Left Front.

Trinamool Congress performed well in the 2009 parliamentary election, winning 19 seats. Its allies in Congress and SUCI also won six and one seats respectively marking the best performance by any opposition party in West Bengal since the beginning of the Left's regime. Until then, the Congress victory of 16 seats in 1984, was considered their best show in opposition.

==== Railway Minister (second tenure), 2009–2011 ====
In 2009, Mamata Banerjee became the railway minister for the second time. Her focus was again on West Bengal.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/states/other-states/article1137196.ece |title=Mamata gifts new projects to north Bengal |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=29 January 2011 |access-date=24 February 2012 |location=Chennai |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131206223959/http://www.thehindu.com/news/states/other-states/article1137196.ece |archive-date=6 December 2013 }}</ref>

[[File:The President, Smt. Pratibha Devisingh Patil administering the oath as Cabinet Minister to Km. Mamata Banerjee, at a Swearing-in Ceremony, at Rashtrapati Bhavan, in New Delhi on May 22, 2009.jpg|thumb|Banerjee has sworn again as Cabinet Minister at Rashtrapati Bhawan, New Delhi at 2009.]]

She led [[Indian Railways]] to introduce a number of non-stop ''[[Duronto Express]]'' trains connecting large cities<ref name="Duronto Express">{{cite web |url=http://trak.in/news/mamata-flags-off-sealdah-new-delhi-duronto-express/5901/ |title=mamata-flags-off-sealdah-new-delhi-duronto-express |publisher=Armoks News |access-date=16 October 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091014075956/http://trak.in/news/mamata-flags-off-sealdah-new-delhi-duronto-express/5901/ |archive-date=14 October 2009 }}</ref> as well as a number of other passenger trains,<ref name="Nineteen New Trains">{{cite news |url=http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/mamata-banerjee-to-start-19-new-trainsfebruary-7/384573/ |title=Mamata Banerjee to start 19 new trains on 7 February |work=[[Business Standard]] |access-date=4 February 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303003438/http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/mamata-banerjee-to-start-19-new-trainsfebruary-7/384573/ |archive-date=3 March 2012 |date=4 February 2010 |last=Chatterji |first=Saubhadro }}</ref> including women-only trains.<ref name="Women-Only Trains">{{cite web |url=http://www.marieclaire.com/world-reports/opinion/india-women-only-trains |title=A New Way to Commute: Women-Only Trains in India |work=[[Marie Claire]] |access-date=27 January 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100128121934/http://www.marieclaire.com/world-reports/opinion/india-women-only-trains |archive-date=28 January 2010 |date=27 January 2010 }}</ref><ref name="Ladies Special Bandel">{{cite news |url=http://www.expressindia.com/latest-news/mamata-keeps-word-ladies-special-rolls-out-today-metro-link-on-track/491276/ |title=Ladies Special Rolls Out |work=[[Express India]] |access-date=16 October 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010191635/http://www.expressindia.com/latest-news/mamata-keeps-word-ladies-special-rolls-out-today-metro-link-on-track/491276/
|archive-date=10 October 2012 }}</ref><ref name="Ladies Special Mumbai">{{cite web |url=http://bombay-local.blogspot.com/2009/08/new-cst-panvel-ladies-special-trains.html |title=New CST Panvel Ladies Special |work=Bombay-Local |access-date=16 October 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091029141633/http://bombay-local.blogspot.com/2009/08/new-cst-panvel-ladies-special-trains.html |archive-date=29 October 2009 }}</ref> The Anantnag-Qadigund segment of the [[Jammu–Baramulla line]] that had been in the making since 1994<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.expressindia.com/news/ie/daily/19981010/28350834.html |work=[[The Indian Express]] |date=10 October 1998 |title=Destination nowhere |first=Arun |last=Sharma |access-date=14 August 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120318223757/http://www.expressindia.com/news/ie/daily/19981010/28350834.html |archive-date=18 March 2012 }}</ref> was inaugurated during her tenure.<ref name="Qazigund">{{cite web|url=http://pib.nic.in/release/release.asp?relid=53658|work=Press Release, Press Information Bureau, Government of India|date=28 October 2009|title=Prime Minister dedicates Anantnag-Quazigund rail line in Kashmir to nation|access-date=2 December 2009|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160112063748/http://pib.nic.in/release/release.asp?relid=53658|archive-date=12 January 2016}}</ref> She also declared the {{convert|25|km|mi|abbr=on}} long line-1 of the [[Kolkata Metro]] as an independent [[Indian Railways#Railway zones|zone]] of the Indian Railways<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/2010/12/30/stories/2010123067622400.htm |title=Kolkata Metro gets railway zone status |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=30 December 2010 |access-date=24 February 2012 |location=Chennai |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110929030204/http://www.hindu.com/2010/12/30/stories/2010123067622400.htm |archive-date=29 September 2011 }}</ref> for which she was criticised.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.asianage.com/india/rail-budget-parliament-uproar-over-kolkata-metro-plan-615 |title=Rail budget: Parliament uproar over Kolkata metro plan |work=[[Asian Age]] |date=25 February 2011 |access-date=24 February 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110324222150/http://www.asianage.com/india/rail-budget-parliament-uproar-over-kolkata-metro-plan-615 |archive-date=24 March 2011 }}</ref>

She stepped down as [[Railway Minister of India|railway minister]] to become the [[Chief Minister of West Bengal|chief minister of West Bengal]]. She commented: "The way I am leaving the railways behind, it will run well. Don't worry, my successor will get all my support."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1110518/jsp/nation/story_13996638.jsp |title=Job done, successor only has to monitor |work=[[The Telegraph (Calcutta)|The Telegraph]] |date=18 May 2011 |access-date=24 February 2012 |location=Calcutta |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131127173353/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1110518/jsp/nation/story_13996638.jsp |archive-date=27 November 2013 }}</ref> Her nominee from her party, [[Dinesh Trivedi]], succeeded her as railway minister.

Banerjee's tenure as railway minister was subsequently questioned as most of the big-ticket announcements made by her when she held the post, saw little or no progress.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://business-standard.com/india/news/mamatas-big-rail-plans2011-12-still-stuckperformance-track/467535/|title=Mamata's big rail plans of 2011–12 still stuck on performance track|access-date=13 March 2012|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120707114911/http://business-standard.com/india/news/mamatas-big-rail-plans2011-12-still-stuckperformance-track/467535/|archive-date=7 July 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> Reuters reported that "Her two-year record as railway minister has been heavily criticized for running the network into more debt to pay for populist measures such as more passenger trains."<ref>{{cite news|url=http://in.reuters.com/article/idINIndia-56950620110512|title=Special Report – "Big Sister" Mamata set to evict Left from Kolkata|last=Scrutton|first=Alistair|date=12 May 2011|work=[[Reuters]]|access-date=24 February 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303115523/http://in.reuters.com/article/idINIndia-56950620110512|archive-date=3 March 2012}}</ref> The Indian Railways became loss-making during her two-year tenure.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.rediff.com/business/slide-show/slide-show-1-budget-2011-railway-why-the-railways-under-mamata-are-incurring-loss/20110128.htm|title=Why Indian Railways is incurring losses under Mamata|date=28 January 2011|work=[[Rediff.com]]|access-date=24 February 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120120174002/http://www.rediff.com/business/slide-show/slide-show-1-budget-2011-railway-why-the-railways-under-mamata-are-incurring-loss/20110128.htm|archive-date=20 January 2012}}</ref>

== Chief Minister of West Bengal (2011–2026) ==

[[File:Mamata Banerjee with Hillary Clinton.jpg|thumb|left|Then United States secretary of State, [[Hillary Clinton]] during a meeting with West Bengal chief minister Mamata Banerjee at the [[Writers' Building|Writers']], Kolkata on 7 May 2012.]]

[[File:Chief Minister Government of West Bengal (20086289081).jpg|thumb|left|Mamata Banerjee, Chief Minister Government of West Bengal shown at an event in [[London]] on 27 July 2015.]]

In [[2011 West Bengal state assembly election|2011]], the All India Trinamool Congress along with [[Socialist Unity Centre of India|SUCI]] and the INC won the West Bengal legislative assembly election against the incumbent Left Alliance by securing 227 seats. TMC won 184 seats with the INC winning 42 seats and the SUCI secured one seat. This marked the end of the 34-year long Left Front government.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=10 June 2011 |title=The defeat of the Left Front in West Bengal, India |url=https://www.eastasiaforum.org/2011/06/10/the-defeat-of-the-left-front-in-west-bengal-india/ |access-date=11 July 2022 |website=East Asia Forum |language=en |last1=Lahiri-Dutt |first1=Kuntala |archive-date=11 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220711152314/https://www.eastasiaforum.org/2011/06/10/the-defeat-of-the-left-front-in-west-bengal-india/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

{{Listen
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Banerjee was sworn in as chief minister of West Bengal on 20 May 2011.<ref name="BBC20110520">{{cite news |title=Mamata Banerjee sworn in as West Bengal chief minister |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-13465915 |access-date=3 January 2021 |work=BBC News |date=20 May 2011 |archive-date=1 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201064250/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-13465915 |url-status=live }}</ref> As the first female chief minister of West Bengal,<ref name="BBC20110520" /> one of her first decisions was to return 400 acres of land to Singur farmers. "The cabinet has decided to return 400 acres to unwilling farmers in Singur," the chief minister said. "I have instructed the department to prepare the papers for this. If Tata-babu ([[Ratan Tata]]) wants, he can set up his factory on the remaining 600 acres, otherwise we will see how to go about it."<ref name="singur">{{cite news |title=Singur Land Given Back |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata-/Singur-land-return-kicks-off-Mamata-power-stint/articleshow/8476024.cms |access-date=30 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140108045450/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-05-21/kolkata/29567996_1_unwilling-farmers-mamata-banerjee-singur |archive-date=8 January 2014 |url-status=live |work=[[The Times of India]] }}</ref>

She has also been credited for setting up of the [[Gorkhaland Territorial Administration]].<ref name="Gorkhaland">{{cite news |title=Gorkhaland Autonomous Council |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata-/Gorkhaland-pact-Chidambaram-credits-Didi-Gurung-with-deal/articleshow/9277972.cms |date=19 July 2011 |access-date=30 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140108035912/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-07-19/kolkata/29790280_1_gjm-roshan-giri-mamata |archive-date=8 January 2014 |url-status=live |work=[[The Times of India]] }}</ref>

She began various reforms in the education and health sectors. Some of the reforms in the education sector included the release of teachers' monthly pay on the first of every month<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/2011/06/04/stories/2011060458730100.htm |location=Chennai |title=College teachers to get salary by the first of every month |date=4 June 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110825183018/http://www.hindu.com/2011/06/04/stories/2011060458730100.htm |archive-date=25 August 2011 |work=[[The Hindu]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thepeninsulaqatar.com/india/154568-mamata-effect-salaries-on-first-of-the-month.html |title=Mamata effect: Salaries on first day of the month |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120721070317/http://www.thepeninsulaqatar.com/india/154568-mamata-effect-salaries-on-first-of-the-month.html |archive-date=21 July 2012 }}</ref> and quicker pensions for retiring teachers.<ref>{{cite news |title=Quicker pensions for retiring teachers: Mamata |work=[[The Times of India]] |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-06-03/kolkata/29616471_1_school-teachers-part-time-teachers-teaching-community }}{{dead link|date=October 2024|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> In the health sector Banerjee promised: "A three-phase developmental system will be taken up to improve the health infrastructure and service."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.aalatimes.com/2011/06/13/mamata-banerjee-announces-health-sector-reform/ |title=Mamata Banerjee announced health sector reform |access-date=3 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110819080145/http://www.aalatimes.com/2011/06/13/mamata-banerjee-announces-health-sector-reform/ |archive-date=19 August 2011 |url-status=usurped }}</ref> On 30 April 2015, a representative of [[UNICEF]] India congratulated the government for making [[Nadia district|Nadia]] the first Open Defecation Free district in the country.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/mamata-declares-nadia-first-opendefecation-free-district-in-india/article7158148.ece|title=Mamata declares Nadia first 'open defecation-free' district in India|newspaper=The Hindu|date=30 April 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160112063746/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/mamata-declares-nadia-first-opendefecation-free-district-in-india/article7158148.ece|archive-date=12 January 2016}}</ref> In a statement on 17 October 2012, Banerjee attributed the increasing incidence of rape in the country to "more free interaction between men and women". She said that "Earlier if men and women would hold hands, they would get caught by parents and reprimanded but now everything is so open. It's like an open market with open options." She was criticised in the national media for these statements.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://daily.bhaskar.com/article/NAT-TOP-mamata-banerjee-blames-media-free-interaction-of-men-women-for-rising-cases-of-rape-3928213-.html|title=Mamata blames media, 'free interaction of men-women' for rising cases of rape!|date=17 October 2012|work=Daily Bhaskar|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130101054330/http://daily.bhaskar.com/article/NAT-TOP-mamata-banerjee-blames-media-free-interaction-of-men-women-for-rising-cases-of-rape-3928213-.html|archive-date=1 January 2013}}</ref>

She was also instrumental in the rollback of the petrol price hikes<ref>{{cite news |url=http://zeenews.india.com/news/west-bengal/petrol-price-cut-a-positive-step-mamata-banerjee_742058.html |work=Zee News |title=Petrol price cut a positive step: Mamata Banerjee |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131210012614/http://zeenews.india.com/news/west-bengal/petrol-price-cut-a-positive-step-mamata-banerjee_742058.html |archive-date=10 December 2013 }}</ref> and the suspension of FDI in the retail sector until a consensus is evolved.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/dont-want-govt-to-fall-but-cant-support-fdi-mamata-to-pm/883290/ |work=The Indian Express |title=Dodon't want government to fail, but can't support FDI |access-date=3 December 2011 |archive-date=10 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240610055645/https://indianexpress.com/article/political-pulse/dont-want-govt-to-fall-but-cant-support-fdi-mamata-to-pm/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In a bid to improve the law and enforcement situation in West Bengal, police commissioners were created at [[Howrah Police Commissionerate|Howrah]], [[Barrackpore Police Commissionerate|Barrackpore]], [[Asansol-Durgapur Police Commissionerate|Durgapur-Asansol]] and [[Bidhannagar Police Commissionerate|Bidhannagar]]. The total area of Kolkata Municipal Corporation was brought under the control of the [[Kolkata Police]].

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Banerjee had shown a keen interest in making the public aware of the state's history and culture. She named several stations of the Kolkata Metro after freedom fighters,<ref>{{cite news|title=Game of the name|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1090726/jsp/calcutta/story_11281380.jsp|access-date=29 February 2012|work=The Telegraph India|location=Calcutta|first=Soumitra|last=Das|date=26 July 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131127175711/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1090726/jsp/calcutta/story_11281380.jsp|archive-date=27 November 2013}}</ref> and plans on naming upcoming stations after religious leaders, poets, singers and the like.<ref>{{cite news|title=Didi's metro name game|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1110116/jsp/bengal/story_13447860.jsp|access-date=29 February 2012|work=The Telegraph India|location=Calcutta |first=Sanjay|last=Mandal|date=16 January 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120417051853/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1110116/jsp/bengal/story_13447860.jsp|archive-date=17 April 2012}}</ref> Mamata Banerjee has been criticised for starting controversial stipends to imams (Iman Bhatta)<ref name="Gupta">{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/mamata-muslims-and-paribartan/article8517367.ece|title=Mamata, Muslims and paribartan|last=Gupta|first=Smita|date=25 April 2016|work=The Hindu|access-date=2 January 2018|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180101140247/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/mamata-muslims-and-paribartan/article8517367.ece|archive-date=1 January 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="NDTV.com">{{Cite news|url=https://www.ndtv.com/opinion/mamata-banerjees-appeasement-policies-have-created-real-danger-1721089|title=Opinion: Mamata Banerjee's Appeasement Policies Have Created Real Danger|work=NDTV |access-date=2 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180103074037/https://www.ndtv.com/opinion/mamata-banerjees-appeasement-policies-have-created-real-danger-1721089|archive-date=3 January 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Hindustan Times">{{Cite news|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/analysis/there-s-a-method-to-the-west-bengal-madness/story-2kOsMxzXPVVV4nIANYKoNM.html|title=Bengal's people must step in to save the state from communal politics|date=11 July 2017|work=hindustantimes.com/|access-date=2 January 2018|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180103072625/http://www.hindustantimes.com/analysis/there-s-a-method-to-the-west-bengal-madness/story-2kOsMxzXPVVV4nIANYKoNM.html|archive-date=3 January 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> which was ruled unconstitutional by [[Calcutta High Court]].<ref name="firstpost.com">{{Cite news|url=http://www.firstpost.com/politics/mamatas-allowance-to-imams-unconstitutional-rules-calcutta-hc-1080409.html|title=Mamata's allowance to Imams unconstitutional, rules Calcutta HC|date=3 September 2013|work=Firstpost|access-date=2 January 2018|language=en-US|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180103081032/http://www.firstpost.com/politics/mamatas-allowance-to-imams-unconstitutional-rules-calcutta-hc-1080409.html|archive-date=3 January 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Chatterjee">{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/a-dangerous-connivance/article4585420.ece|title=A dangerous connivance|last=Chatterjee|first=Garga|date=6 April 2013|work=The Hindu|access-date=2 January 2018|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140430083844/http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/a-dangerous-connivance/article4585420.ece|archive-date=30 April 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="NDTV 2013-09-02">{{Cite news |first=Monideepa |last=Banerjie |date=2 September 2013 |title=Calcutta High Court scraps Mamata Banerjee's stipend to imams |publisher=NDTV |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/calcutta-high-court-scraps-mamata-banerjees-stipend-to-imams-533409 |access-date=2 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180103072742/https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/calcutta-high-court-scraps-mamata-banerjees-stipend-to-imams-533409 |archive-date=3 January 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Chief Minister Government of West Bengal (19892837430).jpg|thumb|left|[[Priti Patel]], then Minister of State for Employment in Government of United Kingdom, and former Home Secretary of United Kingdom meeting Mamata Banerjee, Chief Minister Government of West Bengal in London.]]

On 16 February 2012, [[Bill Gates]], of the [[Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation]], sent a letter to the West Bengal government praising Banerjee and her administration for achieving a full year without any reported cases of polio. The letter said this was not only a milestone for India but also for the whole world.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://post.jagran.com/bill-gates-appreciates-mamata-banerjee-for-polio-eradication-1329885022 |title=Bill Gates appreciates Mamata Banerjee for polio eradication |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120223041241/http://post.jagran.com/bill-gates-appreciates-mamata-banerjee-for-polio-eradication-1329885022 |archive-date=23 February 2012 |access-date=23 February 2012}}</ref>

In June 2012, she launched a [[Facebook]] page to rally and gather public support for [[A.P.J Abdul Kalam]], her party's choice for the presidential elections.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.ndtv.com/article/india/mamata-launches-facebook-page-seeks-support-for-apj-abdul-kalam-232142 |title=Mamata launches Facebook page – seeks support for APJ Abdul Kalam |date=16 June 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120616082835/http://www.ndtv.com/article/india/mamata-launches-facebook-page-seeks-support-for-apj-abdul-kalam-232142 |archive-date=16 June 2012 }}</ref> After he refused to stand for the second time, she supported [[Pranab Mukherjee]] for the post, after a long tussle over the issue, commenting she was personally a "great fan" of Mukherjee and wishing that he "grows from strength to strength".<ref>{{cite news |title=Mamata didi is a big fan of Pranab Mukherjee |url=http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2012-05-03/news/31558997_1_pranab-mukherjee-trinamool-congress-congress-party |work=Economic Times |date=3 May 2012 |access-date=26 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150226202800/http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2012-05-03/news/31558997_1_pranab-mukherjee-trinamool-congress-congress-party |archive-date=26 February 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author=R.N. Subrahmanyam|date=3 May 2012|title=Prez polls: Mamata throws surprise on Pranab Mukherjee|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/prez-polls-mamata-throws-surprise-on-pranab-mukherjee/944883/2|access-date=16 October 2012|work=The Indian Express|archive-date=10 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240610055646/https://indianexpress.com/article/news-archive/latest-news/prez-polls-mamata-throws-surprise-on-pranab-mukherjee/|url-status=live}}</ref>

She is against calling ''bandhs'' (work stoppage) although actively supported them when she was in opposition.<ref>{{cite news|date=28 February 2012|title=Mamata Banerjee admits her calls for bandh were a mistake|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/mamata-banerjee-admits-her-calls-for-bandh-were-a-mistake-469147|work=NDTV|access-date=26 September 2021|archive-date=25 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210925205930/https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/mamata-banerjee-admits-her-calls-for-bandh-were-a-mistake-469147|url-status=live}}</ref>

Her tenure was also heavily marred by the [[Saradha Group financial scandal|Saradha Scam]] – financial embezzlement which led to the imprisonment of [[Madan Mitra]] – a former minister in her cabinet, [[Kunal Ghosh]] – a party MP, and rigorous grilling of several party men holding important posts. The Saradha Group financial scandal and the [[Rose Valley financial scandal]] came to light during her tenure and her painting being sold to the firms were being scrutinised by law enforcement agencies. One of her paintings was also sold to Sudipto Sen (central figure in the [[Saradha scam]]) for {{INRConvert|1.8|c|lk=on|year=2018}}, while 20 more of her pictures were seized from other Saradha Group shareholders.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Saradha scam: Sale of Mamata Banerjee's painting for Rs 1.8 crore under CBI lens |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Saradha-scam-Sale-of-Mamata-Banerjees-painting-for-Rs-1-8-crore-under-CBI-lens/articleshow/44807114.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180628101631/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Saradha-scam-Sale-of-Mamata-Banerjees-painting-for-Rs-1-8-crore-under-CBI-lens/articleshow/44807114.cms |archive-date=28 June 2018 |access-date=12 May 2018 |work=The Times of India}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Sale of Mamata Banerjee's Paintings Under Scrutiny as CBI Asks For Trinamool Income |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/proceeds-from-mamata-banerjees-paintings-under-scrutiny-as-cbi-asks-for-trinamool-accounts-745419 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180513080903/https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/proceeds-from-mamata-banerjees-paintings-under-scrutiny-as-cbi-asks-for-trinamool-accounts-745419 |archive-date=13 May 2018 |access-date=12 May 2018 |work=NDTV}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=The 1.8 crore question: Is Mamata Banerjee India's most underrated artist? |url=https://www.firstpost.com/politics/the-1-8-crore-question-is-mamata-banerjee-indias-most-underrated-artist-1759725.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180513014451/https://www.firstpost.com/politics/the-1-8-crore-question-is-mamata-banerjee-indias-most-underrated-artist-1759725.html |archive-date=13 May 2018 |access-date=12 May 2018 |website=firstpost.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=From Rs 2 Cr to 9 Cr in 48 Hrs: Mamata Paints Bank Balance Green |url=https://www.thequint.com/news/india/painter-didi-in-trouble-cbi-quizzes-tmc-on-sale-of-mamatas-paintings |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171007121103/https://www.thequint.com/news/india/painter-didi-in-trouble-cbi-quizzes-tmc-on-sale-of-mamatas-paintings |archive-date=7 October 2017 |access-date=12 May 2018 |work=The Quint |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Das |first=Madhuparna |date=19 December 2018 |title=CBI seizes Didi's 20 paintings from chit fund firm owners |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/cbi-seizes-didis-20-paintings-from-chit-fund-firm-owners/articleshow/67155786.cms?from=mdr |access-date=22 October 2019 |newspaper=The Economic Times}}</ref> During her tenure she challenged the federal system of India when she ordered the arrest of [[Central Bureau of Investigation|CBI]] officials, who arrived in Kolkata to investigate the Saradha Group financial scandal.<ref>{{cite news |title=Kolkata police 'nab' CBI men, Mamata Banerjee at war with Centre – Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/cops-nab-cbi-men-mamata-banerjee-at-war-with-centre/articleshow/67824420.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190212043850/https://m.timesofindia.com/india/cops-nab-cbi-men-mamata-banerjee-at-war-with-centre/amp_articleshow/67824420.cms |archive-date=12 February 2019 |access-date=11 February 2019}}</ref> But CBI's attempted arrest of Kolkata Police Commissioner was also an attack on federalism.<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 February 2019 |title=CBI's Attempted Arrest of Kolkata Police Commissioner Was an Attack on Federalism |url=https://thewire.in/politics/cbis-attempted-arrest-of-kolkata-police-commissioner-was-an-attack-on-federalism |website=The Wire}}</ref>

[[File:The Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi, the Prime Minister of Bangladesh, Ms. Sheikh Hasina and the Chief Minister of West Bengal, Ms. Mamata Banerjee at Hyderabad House, in New Delhi on April 08, 2017.jpg|thumb|Prime Minister Modi, the Prime Minister of Bangladesh, Sheikh Hasina and the Chief Minister Banerjee at Hyderabad House, in New Delhi on 8 April 2017.]]

[[File:The President, Shri Ram Nath Kovind unveiling the Foundation Stone of Savitribai Public Girls Hostel and APJ Abdul Kalam International Visitors Guest House, at the 64th Annual Convocation of IIT Kharagpur, in West Bengal.JPG|thumb|left|President Kovind during a Foundation Stone laying ceremony at the 64th Annual Convocation of IIT Kharagpur, in West Bengal. The Governor of West Bengal, and the Chief Minister Mamata Banerjee are also seen.]]

In the [[2016 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2016 assembly elections]], All India Trinamool Congress won with a landslide two-thirds majority under Mamata Banerjee winning 211 seats out of total 293,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ndtv.com/elections|title=NDTV Live Results|access-date=19 May 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160517184429/http://www.ndtv.com/elections|archive-date=17 May 2016}}</ref> who has been elected as Chief Minister West Bengal for the second term.<ref>{{cite news|title=TMC storms back to power in Bengal, Cong-Left alliance loses|url=http://www.financialexpress.com/article/india-news/west-bengal-election-results-2016-counting-begins-for-294-assembly-seats/259295/|access-date=21 May 2016|agency=The Financial Express|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160520213107/http://www.financialexpress.com/article/india-news/west-bengal-election-results-2016-counting-begins-for-294-assembly-seats/259295/|archive-date=20 May 2016}}</ref> All India Trinamool Congress won with an enhanced majority contesting alone and became the first ruling party to win without an ally since 1962 in West Bengal.

In 2017 [[Kanyashree Prakalpa]], a scheme launched by her government, was ranked the best by the [[United Nations]] among 552 social sector schemes from across 62 countries.<ref>{{cite news|last=Kundu|first=Indrajit|date=7 October 2021|title=UN honours Mamata Banerjee with highest public service award for girl child project Kanyashree|work=India Today|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/mamata-banerjee-un-public-service-award-kanyashree-netherlands-984439-2017-06-23|access-date=25 September 2021|archive-date=25 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210925205929/https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/mamata-banerjee-un-public-service-award-kanyashree-netherlands-984439-2017-06-23|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Bengal Global Business Summit - 2022.jpg|thumb|left|'''Banerjee''' giving speech at ''Bengal Global Business Summit - 2022'' in Kolkata on 20 April.]]

[[File:Mamata Banerjee with UNESCO officers.jpg|thumb| Banerjee with UNESCO officers Érik Falt and Tim Curtis, during a celebration over the enlistment of [[Durga Puja]] as a intangible cultural heritage, on 1 September 2022.]]

[[File:The Union Minister for Home Affairs and Cooperation, Shri Amit Shah at the 25th Eastern Zonal Council meeting, in Kolkata on December 17, 2022 (3).jpg|thumb|Minister of Home Affairs, [[Amit Shah]] and Mamata Banerjee at the 25th Eastern Zonal Council meeting, in [[Kolkata]] on 17 December 2022.]]

In the [[2021 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2021 assembly elections]], AITC won with a landslide two-thirds majority. But, Mamata Banerjee who fought from [[Nandigram Assembly constituency|Nandigram]] lost against [[Suvendu Adhikari]] of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] by 1,956 votes.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2 May 2021|title=Nandigram: After Hours of Confusion, BJP's Suvendu Adhikari Emerges Winner|url=https://thewire.in/politics/nandigram-election-bengal-mamata-banerjee-suvendu-adhikari|work=The Wire|access-date=24 September 2021|archive-date=8 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210608203828/https://thewire.in/politics/nandigram-election-bengal-mamata-banerjee-suvendu-adhikari|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Election Commission of India|url=https://results.eci.gov.in/Result2021/ConstituencywiseS25210.htm?ac=210|access-date=2 May 2021|website=results.eci.gov.in|archive-date=3 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210503202328/https://results.eci.gov.in/Result2021/ConstituencywiseS25210.htm?ac=210|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Nandigram Election Result 2021 LIVE: Nandigram MLA Election Result & Vote Share|url=https://www.oneindia.com/nandigram-assembly-elections-wb-210/|work=Oneindia|access-date=5 October 2021|archive-date=27 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210627210242/https://www.oneindia.com/nandigram-assembly-elections-wb-210/|url-status=live}}</ref> Mamata Banerjee however challenged this outcome and the matter is sub judice.{{efn|name=details}} As her party won 213 seats out of total 292, she was elected as Chief Minister of West Bengal for the third term. Later at Raj Bhawan, she tendered her resignation to [[Jagdeep Dhankhar]].<ref name="Zee News 2021-05-03">{{Cite news |date=3 May 2021 |title=West Bengal: CM Mamata Banerjee arrives at Raj Bhavan |website=Zee News |url=https://zeenews.india.com/video/india/west-bengal-cm-mamata-banerjee-arrives-at-raj-bhavan-2359539.html |access-date=5 May 2021 |archive-date=5 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505092208/https://zeenews.india.com/video/india/west-bengal-cm-mamata-banerjee-arrives-at-raj-bhavan-2359539.html |url-status=live }}</ref> She took oath as Chief Minister on 5 May 2021.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Singh|first=Shiv Sahay|date=5 May 2021|title=Mamata Banerjee sworn in as West Bengal Chief Minister for third time|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/kolkata/mamata-sworn-in-as-bengal-cm-for-third-time/article34487107.ece|access-date=5 May 2021|issn=0971-751X|archive-date=5 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505065018/https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/kolkata/mamata-sworn-in-as-bengal-cm-for-third-time/article34487107.ece|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=5 May 2021|title=Mamata Banerjee takes oath as Bengal CM, says violence will be tackled firmly|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/mamata-banerjee-takes-oath-as-west-bengal-cm-7302681/|access-date=5 May 2021|website=The Indian Express|language=en|archive-date=5 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505082127/https://indianexpress.com/article/india/mamata-banerjee-takes-oath-as-west-bengal-cm-7302681/|url-status=live}}</ref> Her party later won 2 remaining seats and she herself won Bhabanipur by-election by a huge margin of 58,835<ref name=Constituencywise>{{Cite web|title=Election Commission of India|url=https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultByeOct2021/ConstituencywiseS25159.htm?ac=159|access-date=3 October 2021|website=results.eci.gov.in|archive-date=3 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211003142939/https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultByeOct2021/ConstituencywiseS25159.htm?ac=159|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Roundwise>{{Cite web|title=Election Commission of India|url=https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultByeOct2021/RoundwiseS25159.htm?ac=159|access-date=3 October 2021|website=results.eci.gov.in|archive-date=3 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211003174241/https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultByeOct2021/RoundwiseS25159.htm?ac=159|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=partywise>{{Cite web|title=Election Commission of India|url=https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultByeOct2021/partywiseresult-S25.htm?st=S25|access-date=3 October 2021|website=results.eci.gov.in|archive-date=3 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211003174612/https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultByeOct2021/partywiseresult-S25.htm?st=S25|url-status=live}}</ref> votes. She was sworn in as MLA on 7 October.<ref>{{Cite web|date=7 October 2021|title=বিধায়ক পদে শপথ নিলেন মমতা বন্দ্যোপাধ্যায়, প্রথা ভেঙে শপথ বাক্য পাঠ করালেন রাজ্যপাল|url=https://www.sangbadpratidin.in/kolkata/mamata-banerjee-takes-oath-as-mla/|work=Sangbad Pratidin|language=bn|access-date=7 October 2021|archive-date=7 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211007085122/https://www.sangbadpratidin.in/kolkata/mamata-banerjee-takes-oath-as-mla/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=7 October 2021|title=Mamata Banerjee, 2 other TMC MLAs take oath of office in presence of governor Jagdeep Dhankhar|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/kolkata-news/mamata-banerjee-2-other-tmc-mlas-take-oath-of-office-in-presence-of-governor-jagdeep-dhankhar-101633599454467.html|work=Hindustan Times|access-date=10 October 2021|archive-date=10 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211010024827/https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/kolkata-news/mamata-banerjee-2-other-tmc-mlas-take-oath-of-office-in-presence-of-governor-jagdeep-dhankhar-101633599454467.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=8 October 2021|title=West Bengal CM Mamata Banerjee and 2 other TMC MLAs take oath, BJP legislators skip assembly|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/mamata-and-2-other-tmc-mlas-take-oath-bjp-legislators-skip-assembly/articleshow/86852464.cms|work=The Times of India|access-date=10 October 2021|archive-date=8 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211008160752/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/mamata-and-2-other-tmc-mlas-take-oath-bjp-legislators-skip-assembly/articleshow/86852464.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>

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After winning the election, following her promises she launched the scheme '''Lakshmir Bhandar'''. In this scheme women under the age of 60 were provided the basic financial help, about 500 rupees for general and 1000 rupees to minorities.<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 November 2021 |title=Bengal Govt in Financial Fix After Launch of Flagship 'Lakshmir Bhandar' Scheme |url=https://www.news18.com/news/politics/bengal-govt-in-financial-fix-after-launch-of-flagship-lakshmir-bhandar-scheme-4400186.html |access-date=10 July 2022 |website=News18 |language=en |archive-date=10 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220710150702/https://www.news18.com/news/politics/bengal-govt-in-financial-fix-after-launch-of-flagship-lakshmir-bhandar-scheme-4400186.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The scheme turned out to be a huge success as it became massively popular.<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 August 2021 |title=On First Day, 1.23 Million Register for Lakshmi Bhandar Scheme in West Bengal |url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/on-first-day-1-23-million-register-for-lakshmi-bhandar-scheme-in-west-bengal-4095743.html |access-date=10 July 2022 |website=News18 |language=en |archive-date=10 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220710145157/https://www.news18.com/news/india/on-first-day-1-23-million-register-for-lakshmi-bhandar-scheme-in-west-bengal-4095743.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Another scheme was also projected under her leadership, '''Students Credit Card scheme''', to give financial supports in loan to intellectual students who are unable to keep higher studies due to lack of money. The loan limit was up to 10 lakh rupees, under the nominee of government of West Bengal.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Singh |first=Ronit Kumar |date=10 July 2022 |title=West Bengal Govt Distributes 'Student Credit Card' Among Beneficiaries To Help Them Pursue Higher Studies |url=https://thelogicalindian.com/trending/west-bengal-government-distributes-student-credit-card-among-students-36456 |access-date=10 July 2022 |website=thelogicalindian.com |language=en |archive-date=10 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220710145151/https://thelogicalindian.com/trending/west-bengal-government-distributes-student-credit-card-among-students-36456 |url-status=live }}</ref>

On 30 November 2021, she surpassed her immediate predecessor Buddhadeb Bhattacharjee to become the third-longest-serving Chief Minister of West Bengal. If Mamata remains in office at least till 26 October 2025, she would become the second-longest-serving Chief Minister after [[Jyoti Basu]], superseding [[Bidhan Chandra Roy]] and if remains in office till 22 September 2025, she would also be become the second-female-longest-serving Chief Minister after [[Sheila Dikshit]], superseding [[J. Jayalalithaa]].

On 18 August 2025, Chief Minister Mamata Banerjee launched the ''Shramashree'' scheme,<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 August 2025 |title=Mamata Banerjee: পরিযায়ীদের জন্য শ্রমশ্রী প্রকল্প নবান্নর! মাসে মিলবে ৫০০০ টাকা {{!}} Nabanna Shramshree Scheme |work=India Hood |url=https://indiahood.in/news/west-bengal/nabanna-announcement-shramashree-scheme-for-migrant-workers-ppd-18-08/299797/ |access-date=4 September 2025 |language=en-US}}</ref> a rehabilitation initiative aimed at Bengali-speaking migrant workers returning to West Bengal following alleged harassment in certain other states. Under the scheme, each returning worker receives a one-time travel grant of ₹5,000 and a monthly allowance of ₹5,000 for up to one year or until they secure employment. Beneficiaries are also provided with ''Khadya Sathi'' ration cards for food security, ''Swasthya Sathi'' health insurance, and their children are enrolled in state schools; those without homes are offered accommodation in community kitchens. The scheme further includes skill assessment and training under the ''Utkarsha Bangla'' initiative, with job cards issued through the ''Karmashree'' scheme. A dedicated online portal and mobile app facilitate registration, and once registered, beneficiaries are issued identity cards to access these services. State outreach camps—''[[:bn:দুয়ারে সরকার|Duare Sarkar]]'' and ''Amader Para Amader Samadhan''<ref>{{Cite web |title=দুয়ারে সরকার |url=https://ds.wb.gov.in/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250428024853/https://ds.wb.gov.in/ |archive-date=28 April 2025 |access-date=4 September 2025 |website=ds.wb.gov.in}}</ref>''(APAS)''—have been designated as venues for enrolment and awareness campaigns to encourage participation in the scheme until early November 2025.{{citation needed|date=March 2026}}

The [[Trinamool Congress|All India Trinamool Congress]] lost the [[2026 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2026 West Bengal Legislative Assembly Election]] to the [[Bharatiya Janata Party|Bhartiya Janata Party]] with Mamata Banerjee losing her seat of [[Bhabanipur, West Bengal Assembly constituency|Bhabanipur]] to [[Suvendu Adhikari]] of the BJP.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ellis-Petersen |first=Hannah |date=4 May 2026 |title=Narendra Modi’s BJP wins election in West Bengal for the first time |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2026/may/04/modis-bjp-party-win-election-west-bengal-first-time |access-date=5 May 2026 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Travelli |first=Alex |last2=Kumar |first2=Hari |last3=K.B |first3=Pragati |date=4 May 2026 |title=Modi’s B.J.P. Wins West Bengal State Election for the First Time |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2026/05/04/world/asia/india-modi-hindu-bjp-west-bengal.html |access-date=5 May 2026 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Banerjee declared the election as rigged and refused to resign, claiming she had won the election.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Chatterjee |first=Shiv Sahay Singh & Shrabana |date=5 May 2026 |title=Mamata Banerjee on West Bengal election 2026: No question of resigning as CM, we did not lose |url=https://www.thehindu.com/elections/west-bengal-assembly/no-question-of-resigning-as-cm-we-did-not-lose-elections-says-mamata/article70942822.ece |access-date=5 May 2026 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=5 May 2026 |title='I won’t resign, we haven’t lost': Mamata Banerjee rejects Bengal verdict |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/elections/assembly-elections/west-bengal/mamata-banerjee-declares-we-havent-lost-as-she-rejects-bengal-election-results-amid-allegations-of-rigging-and-violence/articleshow/130826725.cms?from=mdr |access-date=5 May 2026 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref>

Banerjee forfeited her office as the West Bengal Legislative Assembly was dissolved upon the conclusion of its term by governor R.N. Ravi on 7 May 2026.<ref name="ndtv-dissolve">{{cite news |last1=Haq |first1=Noor Ul |title=West Bengal Assembly, Cabinet Dissolved; Mamata Banerjee No Longer CM |url=https://www.ndtvprofit.com/india/west-bengal-legislative-assembly-dissolved-with-effect-from-may-7-11463163 |access-date=7 May 2026 |publisher=[[NDTV]] |date=7 May 2026}}</ref><ref name="telegraph -dissolve">{{cite news |title=Governor R N Ravi dissolves West Bengal legislative assembly effective from May 7 |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/elections/west-bengal-assembly-election-2026/governor-r-n-ravi-dissolves-west-bengal-legislative-assembly-effective-from-may-7/cid/2159487 |access-date=7 May 2026 |agency=[[Press Trust of India]] |publisher=[[The Telegraph (India)]] |date=7 May 2026}}</ref>

==Issues and protests==
=== Park Street gangrape ===
In the night of 5 February 2012, [[Suzette Jordan]] met five youths at a night club on Park Street. They offered a lift and promised to drop her home when she was leaving the nightclub. After that, she was gang-raped by the five— Kader Khan, Md. Ali, Nasir Khan, Ruman Khan and Sumit Bajaj—in a moving car and later thrown out of a car half naked, in the dead of night. Mohommad Ali and Kader Khan (then the boyfriend of Nusrat Jahan) who were absconding had political connection with TMC. Mamata Banerjee publicly dismissed the victim's complaint as a "sajano ghatana" (fabricated incident/staged story), which was widely criticized as victim-shaming as well as transferred Joint Commissioner of Police (Crime), Damayanti Sen, who identified the perpetrators, to a lower-profile post shortly after stating the complaint was genuine.<ref>https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/kolkatas-park-street-rape-survivor-dies/articleshow/46551499.cms</ref><ref>https://www.ndtv.com/video/suzette-jordan-was-made-a-victim-all-her-life-though-she-was-a-survivor-say-friends-activists-360038</ref><ref>https://www.ndtv.com/kolkata-news/judgement-in-kolkata-park-street-rape-case-likely-today-1253120</ref>

=== No NRC movement ===
No NRC movement was widespread and widely successful in [[West Bengal]]. The movement was supported and consolidated by [[All India Trinamool Congress|Trinamool Congress]]. Due to the popularity of the movement, the BJP was forced to disown and distance from All India NRC.<ref>{{Cite web |title=No Plans For Pan-India NRC For Now, Government Tells Parliament |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/no-decision-to-prepare-nrc-on-national-level-government-to-parliament-2172891 |access-date=12 March 2020 |website=NDTV.com}}</ref> [[Amit Shah]] did not refer to NRC in his visit to Kolkata on 1 March, denoting its success.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Daniyal |first1=Shoaib |title=Protest impact: Why did Amit Shah avoid any mention of NRC in Kolkata? |url=https://scroll.in/article/954948/protest-impact-why-did-amit-shah-avoid-any-mention-of-nrc-in-kolkata |access-date=11 March 2020 |website=Scroll.in |language=en-US}}</ref>

Mamata Banerjee had argued that NRC in Assam was a 'game plan' to 'divide and rule' Indians accusing the Assam Government and the Center under BJP.<ref>{{Citation |title=Mamata Banerjee on NRC Draft Released in Assam |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lASTpfPu22E |access-date=6 March 2020 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Mamata Banerjee slams NRC Final draft |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Az7QgsPg0x0 |access-date=6 March 2020 |language=en}}</ref> That the NRC would make Indians refugees in their own country.<ref>{{Cite web |title="Divide-And-Rule": Mamata Banerjee Slams Assam's Draft Citizens' List |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/mamata-banerjee-slams-assams-draft-list-of-citizens-as-divide-and-rule-policy-says-people-made-refug-1892002 |access-date=6 March 2020 |website=NDTV.com}}</ref> On 12 September 2019, Mamata Banerjee led a protest rally in Kolkata against NRC.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mamata Banerjee to hold protest rally against NRC today |url=https://www.indiablooms.com/news-details/N/54481/mamata-banerjee-to-hold-protest-rally-against-nrc-today.html |access-date=6 March 2020 |website=Indiablooms}}</ref> In the rally, she declared that "You can silence Assam but not Bengal".<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 September 2019 |title='You can silence Assam but not Bengal,' Mamata Banerjee challenges BJP after leading rally against NRC |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/you-can-silence-assam-but-not-bengal-mamata-challenges-bjp-after-leading-rally-against-nrc/story-t6z1BVGMRRSwsUuPR8ka3K.html |access-date=6 March 2020 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref> On 26 December 2019, Chief Minister Mamata Banerjee led a massive rally against NRC and CAA from Kolkata's Raja Bazar to Mullick Bazar.On that protest attacking the Modi government she said, "I don't know my mother's birth date, birth place, how will you know".<ref>{{Cite magazine |author=Manogya Loiwal |date=26 December 2019 |title=I don't know my mother's birth date, birthplace, how will you: Mamata Banerjee at CAA protest |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/mamata-banerjee-dont-know-my-mother-birthplace-birth-date-1631688-2019-12-26 |access-date=29 March 2020 |magazine=India Today |language=en}}</ref>

Park Circus ground became the major venue for anti CAA protests in Kolkata<ref name=":02">{{Cite news |last1=Singh |first1=Shiv Sahay |date=25 March 2020 |title=Kolkata's anti-CAA protesters leave placards, shoes |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/kolkatas-anti-caa-protesters-leave-placards-shoes/article31165884.ece |access-date=29 March 2020 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> where various personalities, politicians and social activists joined the protest. E.g.:P [[P. Chidambaram|P. Chidamabaram]] joined the anti CAA protests in Kolkata on 18 January 2020.<ref>{{Citation |title=P Chidambaram joins anti-CAA, NRC protest in Kolkata |date=18 January 2020 |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/p-chidambaram-joins-anti-caa-nrc-protest-in-kolkata/videoshow/73348823.cms |access-date=29 March 2020}}</ref> Singer [[Kabir Suman]], activist [[Umar Khalid]] and [[Yogendra Yadav]] also visited the venue to express their support to the protestors.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=18 January 2020 |title='It's do-or-die battle': Women protesters at Kolkata's Park Circus Maidan to continue anti-CAA stir till favourable outcome |url=https://www.firstpost.com/india/its-do-or-die-battle-women-protesters-at-kolkatas-park-circus-maidan-to-continue-anti-caa-stir-till-favourable-outcome-7925621.html |access-date=29 March 2020 |website=Firstpost}}</ref>

Women also actively participated in the anti NRC and anti CAA protest in Kolkata and staged a sit in protest in the park circus maidan on 8 January. One of the protestors said, "I want to ask Prime Minister [[Narendra Modi]] and his ministers what documents they have which prove them Indians."<ref name=":1"/> The anti NRC movement in Kolkata was characterised by placards, posters and slogans targeting the BJP and the centre.<ref name=":02"/> People have also left behind dozens of pair of shoes, scarves and dupattas in the park circus ground as a protest against NRC AND CAA.{{citation needed|date=March 2026}}

=== COVID-19 management ===
{{Main|COVID-19 pandemic in West Bengal}}

Banerjee and her government was accused of concealing facts by the opposition parties like CPI(M) and Congress, other critics and many doctors.<ref name="HuffCovid">{{cite news |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.in/entry/west-bengal-coronavirus-death-toll-mamata-banerjee-tablighi-jamaat_in_5e85646ac5b6f55ebf47d216 |date=2 April 2020 |website=[[HuffPost]] |first=Rohini |last=Chatterji |quote=Confusion prevailed on the death toll from the novel coronavirus in West Bengal with Mamata Banerjee claiming only three people had been confirmed to have died of the coronavirus. However, a state health department official told PTI the death toll was now at 7. |title=Only 3 Dead In West Bengal, Says Mamata; 54 Tablighi Jamaat Attendees Quarantined |access-date=10 April 2020}}</ref><ref name="FBCOVID">{{cite news |url=https://www.firstpost.com/india/coronavirus-outbreak-mamata-banerjee-displays-little-cooperation-even-as-opposition-unites-to-stand-behind-centre-8239541.html |quote=Again, on 2 April, while seven coronavirus deaths in the state were confirmed by its health department, the figure was soon revised to three. |title=Coronavirus Outbreak: Mamata Banerjee displays little cooperation even as Opposition unites to stand behind Centre |website=Firstpost |first=Debobrat |last=Ghose |date=8 April 2020 |access-date=9 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=ANI |date=23 April 2020 |title='Gross under-testing, misreporting of Covid data': Non-resident Bengali doctors write to Mamata Banerjee |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/gross-under-testing-misreporting-of-covid-data-non-resident-bengali-doctors-write-to-mamata-banerjee/articleshow/75316682.cms |access-date=23 April 2020 |website=The Times of India |location=Kolkata |quote=Citing a media report, the doctors said that West Bengal has conducted just 33.7 tests per million, compared to a national average of around 156.9 per million, despite having the capacity to conduct around 1,000 tests a day.}}

-{{cite news |last=Loiwal |first=Manogya |date=15 April 2020 |title=West Bengal doctors forum hits out at govt, says not enough tests being conducted |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/west-bengal-doctors-forum-hits-out-at-govt-says-not-enough-tests-being-conducted-1667141-2020-04-15 |website=indiatoday.in |location=Kolkata}}</ref> The BJP also accused Mamata of doing "appeasement" and made Covid issues related to communalism and Taglibhi Jamaat in Delhi.<ref name="IndiaTodayCovid">{{cite news |date=8 April 2020 |title=Is hiding Jamaat cases about vote bank: BJP asks Mamata on Bengal coronavirus numbers |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/video/bjp-mamata-banerjee-coronavirus-bengal-tablighi-jamaat-1664619-2020-04-08 |access-date=9 April 2020 |website=India Today |quote=The BJP has accused Mamata Banerjee of indulging in vote bank politics after the West Bengal Chief Minister refused to share update on those who attended the Tablighi Jamaat event in Delhi, identified as a hotspot for the spread of novel coronavirus.}}</ref> She blamed them for raising "false alarm" and "maligning West Bengal’s health department" over COVID-19 deaths in Bengal. Mamata Banerjee also blamed BJP's IT cell for using fake news.<ref>{{cite news |date=6 April 2020 |title='Fake news' to malign health dept: Mamata Banerjee on allegation of foul play over COVID-19 death figures |url=https://www.thestatesman.com/coronavirus/fake-news-to-malign-health-dept-mamata-banerjee-on-allegation-of-foul-play-over-covid-19-death-figures-1502874514.html |website=The Statesman}}</ref><ref>{{cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FDubAO1ytww |title=বাম বিজেপীর মিথ্যাচারের পর্দা ফাঁস |date=2 May 2020 |language=bn |via=YouTube}}</ref><ref>{{cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pxXFvfqlea8 |title=Comrade, আপনাকেই বলছি... | |date=22 April 2020 |language=bn |via=YouTube}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=17 April 2020 |title=Covid 'false alarm': FIR against West Bengal BJP MP |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/covid-false-alarm-fir-against-bengal-bjp-mp/articleshow/75190516.cms |website=Times of India}}</ref> The government later banned use of cellphones in hospitals.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Chakraborty |first1=Ajanta |last2=Ghosh |first2=Dwaipayan |last3=Banerjee |first3=Tamaghna |date=23 April 2020 |title=West Bengal: No mobile in coronavirus facilities, says health department |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/no-mobile-in-corona-facilities-health-dept/articleshow/75305469.cms |access-date=23 April 2020 |newspaper=The Times of India |location=Kolkata |quote=Union minister Babul Supriyo tweeted on the ban on mobiles in hospitals, questioning its timing. He questioned whether the person who recorded the video had been "booked". Kolkata Police responded it was completely incorrect and a misinformation.}}</ref> Many people were arrested for spreading fake news related to communalism amid the lockdown.<ref>{{cite web |date=6 April 2020 |title=QCrime: 8-Year-Old Raped, Killed; 32 Arrested in WB Over Fake News |url=https://www.thequint.com/news/india/india-crime-news-06-april-2020 |website=The Quint}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=5 April 2020 |title=In Bengal, 32 arrested in 7 days for spreading fake news amid lockdown |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/in-bengal-32-arrested-in-7-days-for-spreading-fake-news-amid-lockdown/story-kyKfmauGsoUUlqhAuhlixH.html |website=Hindustan Times}}</ref> FIR was lodged against a Bengal BJP MP. The [[National Institute for Research in Bacterial Infections]] (NIRBI) lodged complains against the West Bengal Government for not sending enough samples to them for testing.<ref>{{cite news |last=Kundu |first=Indrajit |date=13 April 2020 |title=Mamata govt not sending enough samples for Covid-19 testing, says central lab director |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/central-lab-says-mamata-govt-not-sending-enough-samples-for-covid-19-tests-as-bengal-reports-fewer-cases-1666467-2020-04-13 |access-date=14 April 2020 |website=[[India Today]] |location=[[Kolkata]] |quote=Responding to Chief Minister Mamata Banerjee’s complaints about lack of testing kits in West Bengal, Dutta said ICMR has dispatched 42,500 kits to NICED so far.}}</ref>

=== 2024 RG Kar incident and others ===
{{Main|2024 Kolkata rape and murder}}

Banerjee was widely<ref>{{Cite news |last=Dhillon |first=Amrit |date=16 August 2024 |title=Indian medics step up strike in protest at doctor's rape and murder |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/article/2024/aug/16/indian-medics-strike-protest-doctor-rape-murder-kolkata |access-date=29 September 2024 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> criticised for handling of the [[2024 Kolkata rape and murder incident|rape and murder]] of a young trainee doctor at [[R. G. Kar Medical College and Hospital]] and alleged coverup.<ref>{{Cite news |date=16 September 2024 |title=Kolkata rape-murder case: RG Kar senior medics allege evidence tampering as protesting colleagues meet Mamata Banerjee |url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/kolkata-rape-murder-case-rg-kar-senior-medics-allege-evidence-tampering-as-protesting-colleagues-meet-mamata-banerjee-11726492463973.html |work=Mint}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Ex-head of India's RG Kar College charged for alleged evidence tampering in rape case |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/india/ex-head-indias-rg-kar-college-charged-alleged-evidence-tampering-rape-case-2024-09-15/ |work=Reuters}}</ref> She was accused by the family<ref>{{Cite news |agency=ANI |date=18 September 2024 |title=R.G. Kar Medical College victim's father accuses Mamata Banerjee of inaction: 'My daughter would have been alive...' |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/west-bengal/my-daughter-would-have-been-alive-rg-kar-medical-college-victims-father-accuses-mamata-banerjee-of-inaction/article68654960.ece |access-date=29 September 2024 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |agency=ANI |date=11 September 2024 |title=R.G. Kar victim doctor's parents question Bengal CM; Not satisfied with Mamata Banerjee's role in case |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/west-bengal/not-satisfied-with-mamata-banerjees-role-in-case-rg-kar-victim-doctors-parents-question-bengal-cm/article68629063.ece |access-date=29 September 2024 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> of trying to protect the now ex-principal Sandip Ghosh<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mondal |first=Pranab |date=21 August 2024 |title=The power and peril of Dr Sandip Ghosh: From 'reserved teen' to principal who ran Kolkata college as 'fiefdom' |url=https://www.newslaundry.com/2024/08/21/the-power-and-peril-of-dr-sandip-ghosh-from-reserved-teen-to-principal-who-ran-kolkata-college-as-fiefdom |access-date=29 September 2024 |website=Newslaundry |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Sandip Ghosh indulged in 'business of dead bodies', says RG Kar medical college ex-colleague: Report |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/kolkata-rape-murder-case-rg-kar-ex-employee-accuses-sandip-ghosh-of-selling-unclaimed-bodies-report-101724225179973.html |access-date=29 September 2024}}</ref> whose involvement in the incident is being investigated by the [[Central Bureau of Investigation|CBI]]. It was followed by widespread protests related to women's rights and doctor's protests in the city of Kolkata, some other cities in India and in Bangladesh.{{Citation needed|date=March 2026}}

==== Sandeshkhali incident ====
{{main|2024 Sandeshkhali violence}}

In February 2024, several women in [[Sandeshkhali]] village came forward, first on Republic TV saying that Trinamool Congress local bloc leader and alleged strongmen Sheikh Shahjahan, Uttam Sardar and Shibu Hazra had been sexually assaulting and raping them. Mamata Bannerjee was accused by the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] leaders for keeping silence on the crime and protecting such criminal politicians and the BJP was accused of trying to turn a land-grab incident into a communal issue against Muslims with accusations of sexual assault by Sheikh Shahjahan.<ref>{{cite news |title=Sandeshkhali: BJP says Mamata Banerjee's conscience dead, questions Rahul Gandhi's 'silence' |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/sandeshkhali-bjp-says-mamata-banerjees-conscience-dead-questions-rahul-gandhis-silence-101708499091890.html |work=Hindustan Times |date=21 February 2024 |access-date=24 February 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/sandeshkhali-bengal-minister-no-woman-complained-assault-partha-bhowmick-sujit-bose-2506693-2024-02-24 |title=Trinamool minister visits Sandeshkhali, claims assault allegations 'fake' |magazine=India Today |date=24 February 2024 |access-date=24 February 2024}}</ref> He has been on the run, after Enforcement Directorate officers attempted to arrest him on a corruption case, who were [[2024 Sandeshkhali violence|attacked]] by his supporters.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Singh |first=Shiv Sanjay |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/kolkata/ed-conducts-fresh-raids-at-tmc-leader-shahjahan-sheikhs-home-again/article67771376.ece|title=ED searches Sheikh Shahjahan house, asks him to appear on January 29 |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=24 January 2024 |access-date=24 February 2024}}</ref> On 29 February 2024, at around 5:30 am (IST), Shahjahan was arrested by the West Bengal police from [[Minakhan]], [[North 24 Parganas]] by them.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.livemint.com/news/sandeshkhali-violence-west-bengal-police-arrests-tmc-leader-sheikh-shahjahan-11709172057783.html|title=Sandeshkhali violence: West Bengal Police arrests TMC leader Sheikh Shahjahan|date=29 February 2024|work=[[Livemint]]}}</ref>

==== 2026 Enforcement Directorate — I-PAC searches ====
In January 2026, the [[Enforcement Directorate]] (ED) carried out searches at the offices of the political consultancy Indian Political Action Committee (I-PAC) in [[Kolkata]] and at related locations as part of a money-laundering probe linked to an alleged coal pilferage case. During the operation on 8 January 2026, Chief Minister Mamata Banerjee visited the premises, including the residence of I-PAC director Pratik Jain and the company's office, while searches were underway. The ED alleged that Banerjee and members of her party's team removed physical documents and electronic devices from the premises, which the agency described as interference with its investigation; Banerjee and the [[Trinamool Congress]] denied the allegation, saying she was safeguarding party documents and accusing the agency of political motivation. The ED subsequently approached the Calcutta High Court and later the Supreme Court alleging obstruction of its investigation, and Kolkata Police registered FIRs and began separate inquiries related to the incident; the matter is the subject of ongoing litigation and investigation.<ref name="NDTV">{{cite news |title=Probe agency ED approaches Supreme Court in showdown with Mamata Banerjee |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/probe-agency-ed-complains-to-supreme-court-in-showdown-with-mamata-banerjee-10600365 |newspaper=NDTV |date=10 January 2026 |access-date=11 January 2026}}</ref><ref name="TOI">{{cite news |title=I-PAC raids: ED moves SC over 'interference' from Mamata govt, Bengal files counter-petition caveat |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/i-pac-raids-ed-moves-sc-over-alleged-interference-from-mamata-govt-bengal-files-counter-petition-caveat-hc-hearing-pushed-to-jan-14/articleshow/126450932.cms |newspaper=The Times of India |date=10 January 2026 |access-date=11 January 2026}}</ref><ref name="ET">{{cite news |title=ED moves Supreme Court in I-PAC case, alleges interference by Mamata Banerjee-led Bengal govt |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/india/ed-moves-supreme-court-in-i-pac-case-alleges-interference-by-mamata-banerjee-led-bengal-govt/articleshow/126453569.cms |newspaper=The Economic Times |date=10 January 2026 |access-date=11 January 2026}}</ref><ref name="IE">{{cite news |title=ED raids on I-PAC: Kolkata police start recording statements of guards, house help at Pratik Jain's house |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/kolkata/ed-raids-i-pac-kolkata-police-guards-house-prateek-jain-house-10466280/ |newspaper=The Indian Express |date=11 January 2026 |access-date=11 January 2026}}</ref>

==== 2026 Electoral Violence ====
Mamata Banerjee's party [[Trinamool Congress|TMC]] allegedly used force which caused sporadic incidents of violence during phase 1 of voting <ref>https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/bengal-votes-amid-sporadic-incidents-of-violence-in-phase-1-candidates-heckled-top-developments/articleshow/130463417.cms</ref>, Election Commission deployed central forces for West Bengal election in order to curb political violence.<ref> https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/kolkata/election-commission-deploys-additional-150-central-force-units-in-bengal-total-reaches-2550-prnt/cid/2155236</ref><ref>https://www.ndtv.com/video/tmc-goons-stopped-me-humayun-kabir-on-murshidabad-violence-1089144</ref><ref>https://www.bhaskarenglish.in/national/news/bjp-tmc-clashes-west-bengal-phase-2-polls-violence-chapra-shantipur-137813846.html</ref> [[Indian National Congress|INC]]'s [[Rahul Gandhi]] accused Trinamool of running a reign of terror in the State following the death of a Congress worker by hands of TMC workers.<ref>https://www.thehindu.com/elections/west-bengal-assembly/tmcs-reign-of-terror-prevails-in-west-bengal-rahul-gandhi/article70908217.ece</ref><ref>https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/not-democracy-but-tmcs-reign-of-thuggery-rahul-gandhi-over-killing-of-congress-worker/articleshow/130526666.cms</ref>

== Personal life and recognitions ==
Throughout her political life, Banerjee has maintained a publicly austere lifestyle, dressing in simple traditional Bengali clothes and avoiding luxuries.<ref name="taat">{{cite news|url=http://www.firstpost.com/living/mamata-saris-the-rage-in-kolkata-this-durga-puja-99919.html|title=Mamata saris the rage in Kolkata this Durga Puja|website=FirstPost|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120107080747/http://www.firstpost.com/living/mamata-saris-the-rage-in-kolkata-this-durga-puja-99919.html|archive-date=7 January 2012|url-status=dead|access-date=11 March 2012}}</ref><ref name="lifestyle">{{cite web|url=http://ibnlive.in.com/blogs/diptoshmajumdar/5/61837/mamata-express-you-cant-stop-her-anymore.html|title=Blog article in IBNLive.in.com|publisher=[[CNN-IBN]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100606192506/http://ibnlive.in.com/blogs/diptoshmajumdar/5/61837/mamata-express-you-cant-stop-her-anymore.html|archive-date=6 June 2010|url-status=dead|access-date=3 June 2010}}</ref> During an interview in April 2019, Prime minister [[Narendra Modi]] claimed that despite their political differences, Banerjee sends her own selected ''kurtas'' and sweets to him every year.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-47114401|title=On Wednesday, Bollywood star Akshay Kumar interviews PM Modi|work=[[BBC]]|access-date=25 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190409193052/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-47114401|archive-date=9 April 2019|url-status=live|quote=West Bengal chief minister and arch rival Mamata Banerjee sends him sweets and kurtas every year}}</ref>

She identifies herself as a [[Hindu]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Watch: Nusrat's Muslim, I am Hindu but we are exactly alike except she's beautiful and I am not, says Mamata |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/india/photo-gallery-watch-nusrat-s-muslim-i-am-hindu-but-we-are-exactly-alike-except-she-s-beautiful-and-i-am-not-says-mamata-banerje-2748543 |access-date=8 June 2019 |work=[[Daily News and Analysis|DNA]] |date=12 May 2019 |archive-date=14 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190614073906/https://www.dnaindia.com/india/photo-gallery-watch-nusrat-s-muslim-i-am-hindu-but-we-are-exactly-alike-except-she-s-beautiful-and-i-am-not-says-mamata-banerje-2748543 |url-status=live }}</ref> Banerjee is a self-taught painter and a poet.<ref>{{cite news|title=The poet and painter in Mamata Banerjee's looks beyond Bengal|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/the-poet-and-painter-in-mamata-banerjees-looks-beyond-bengal/1075840/0|access-date=2 April 2013|newspaper=Indian Express|date=18 February 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://aitcofficial.org/publications-by-didi/|title=Publications, Poetry and Paintings : All India Trinamool Congress|website=aitcofficial.org|language=en-US|access-date=7 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171104004315/http://aitcofficial.org/publications-by-didi/|archive-date=4 November 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Her 300 paintings were sold for ₹9crore ([[Indian Rupee|₹]]90 million, [[Pound Sterling|£]]990,000 or [[United States Dollar|US$]]1,350,000).<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.indiatimes.com/culture/who-we-are/wtf-mamata-banerjee-paintings-sold-for-9-crores-285240.html|title=WTF: Mamata Banerjee Paintings Sold For 9 Crores|work=indiatimes.com|access-date=12 May 2018|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180513081145/https://www.indiatimes.com/culture/who-we-are/wtf-mamata-banerjee-paintings-sold-for-9-crores-285240.html|archive-date=13 May 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2012, ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine named her as one of the [[Time 100|100 Most Influential People in the World]].<ref name="Time 100">{{cite magazine|title=Time 100: Mamata Banerjee, Populist|url=http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2111975_2111976_2111984,00.html|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|access-date=18 April 2012|date=18 April 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120419073120/http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0%2C28804%2C2111975_2111976_2111984%2C00.html|archive-date=19 April 2012}}</ref> ''[[Bloomberg Markets]]'' magazine listed her among the [[50 Most Influential (Bloomberg Markets ranking)|50 most influential people in the world of finance]] in September 2012.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://zeenews.india.com/business/news/finance/mamata-banerjee-among-worlds-50-influential-leaders-in-finance_59747.html |title=Mamata Banerjee among world's 50 influential leaders in finance |website=Zeenews.india.com |access-date=16 October 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131214095120/http://zeenews.india.com/business/news/finance/mamata-banerjee-among-worlds-50-influential-leaders-in-finance_59747.html |archive-date=14 December 2013 |date=6 September 2012 }}</ref> In 2018, she was conferred the Skoch Chief Minister of the Year Award.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/mamata-banerjee-is-the-skoch-chief-minister-of-the-year/articleshow/67178399.cms |title=Mamata Banerjee is the Skoch Chief Minister of the Year |website=[[The Economic Times]] |date=20 December 2018 |access-date=26 April 2019 |archive-date=6 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210206080605/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/mamata-banerjee-is-the-skoch-chief-minister-of-the-year/articleshow/67178399.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> Banerjee stepped out into the streets of Kolkata during lockdown, caused by the COVID-19 outbreak, to spread awareness among the common people.<ref>{{Cite web|date=26 March 2020|title=Didi's lessons on social distancing: Mamata Banerjee takes to Kolkata streets to fight Covid19|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/didi-s-lessons-on-social-distancing-mamata-banerjee-takes-to-kolkata-streets-to-fight-covid19/story-oMNOulx2aPn1i2bbpjvwrO.html|work=Hindustan Times|access-date=14 November 2021|archive-date=14 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211114165647/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/didi-s-lessons-on-social-distancing-mamata-banerjee-takes-to-kolkata-streets-to-fight-covid19/story-oMNOulx2aPn1i2bbpjvwrO.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=28 March 2020|title='Keep Shops Open, What Will People Eat?' Mamata Banerjee Takes to The Streets During Lockdown|url=https://www.news18.com/news/buzz/keep-shops-open-what-will-people-eat-mamata-banerjee-takes-to-the-streets-during-lockdown-2554567.html|work=News18|access-date=14 November 2021|archive-date=14 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211114165647/https://www.news18.com/news/buzz/keep-shops-open-what-will-people-eat-mamata-banerjee-takes-to-the-streets-during-lockdown-2554567.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=23 April 2020|title=Mamata Banerjee Hits Kolkata Streets Again, Urges People To Stay Indoors|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/coronavirus-lockdown-west-bengal-chief-minister-mamata-banerjee-hits-kolkata-streets-again-urges-peo-2217243|work=NDTV|access-date=14 November 2021|archive-date=14 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211114165647/https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/coronavirus-lockdown-west-bengal-chief-minister-mamata-banerjee-hits-kolkata-streets-again-urges-peo-2217243|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=24 April 2020|title=Mamata hits the streets, speaks directly to locked-down Kolkata|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/kolkata/mamata-hits-the-streets-speaks-directly-to-locked-down-kolkata-6376681/|work=The Indian Express|access-date=14 November 2021|archive-date=14 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211114165649/https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/kolkata/mamata-hits-the-streets-speaks-directly-to-locked-down-kolkata-6376681/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=24 April 2020|title=Mamata Hits Streets of Kolkata to Address Citizens Amid Lockdown|url=https://www.thequint.com/news/politics/west-bengal-news-coronavirus-mamata-banerjee-hits-kolkata-streets-talks-directly-to-citizens-to-maintain-lockdown|work=The Quint|access-date=14 November 2021|archive-date=14 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211114165647/https://www.thequint.com/news/politics/west-bengal-news-coronavirus-mamata-banerjee-hits-kolkata-streets-talks-directly-to-citizens-to-maintain-lockdown|url-status=live}}</ref> While appealing for maintaining religious harmony, Banerjee has reiterated the fact on numerous occasions that ''"''Religion is personal, but festivals are universal."<ref>{{Cite web|date=4 July 2019|title=Religion is personal, but festivals are universal says Mamata Banerjee|url=http://www.uniindia.com/religion-is-personal-but-festivals-are-universal-says-mamata-banerjee/east/news/1654080.html|work=United News of India|access-date=23 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211023082359/http://www.uniindia.com/religion-is-personal-but-festivals-are-universal-says-mamata-banerjee/east/news/1654080.html|archive-date=23 October 2021|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=7 September 2021|title=Faith may be personal but festivals are universal: Mamata Banerjee on Durga puja celebrations|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/west-bengal-durga-puja-2021-cm-mamata-banerjee-faith-festivals-covid-rules-1850248-2021-09-07|work=India Today|access-date=23 October 2021|archive-date=23 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211023000838/https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/west-bengal-durga-puja-2021-cm-mamata-banerjee-faith-festivals-covid-rules-1850248-2021-09-07|url-status=live}}</ref>

She received an Honorary D.Litt in Literature from [[St. Xavier's University, Kolkata|St. Xavier's University]] on 6 February 2023<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 February 2023 |title=West Bengal CM Mamata Banerjee conferred honorary doctorate for contributions to literature and art |url=https://www.edexlive.com/news/2023/Feb/06/west-bengal-cm-mamata-banerjee-conferred-honorary-doctorate-for-contributions-to-literature-and-art-33766.html |website=EdexLive}}</ref> and another from [[Calcutta University]] on 12 January 2018.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 January 2018 |title=Never gave up despite being hurt all my life, says emotional Mamata after accepting honorary doctorate |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/never-gave-up-despite-being-hurt-all-my-life-says-emotional-mamata-after-accepting-honorary-doctorate-1137459-2018-01-11 |website=India Today}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=11 January 2018 |title=Mamata Banerjee receives D Litt degree, says intolerance is rising in the country |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/mamata-banerjee-to-receive-d-litt-degree-calcutta-hc-to-hear-pil-today-5020036/ |website=Indian Express}}</ref> She also received an honorary doctorate from the [[Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology]], a Bhubaneshwar-based deemed university.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 September 2018 |title=Odisha varsity to confer doctorate on Mamata |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/Odisha-varsity-to-confer-doctorate-on-Mamata/articleshow/16443132.cms |website=Times of India}}</ref>

In 2021, Mamata Banerjee was invited to attend ''World Meeting for Peace'' in [[Rome]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Bengal chief minister Mamata Banerjee invited to attend peace conference in Rome|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/bengal-chief-minister-mamata-banerjee-invited-to-attend-peace-conference-at-rome-101628698080852.html|work=Hindustan Times|date=11 August 2021|access-date=26 September 2021|archive-date=25 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210925192744/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/bengal-chief-minister-mamata-banerjee-invited-to-attend-peace-conference-at-rome-101628698080852.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Mamata Banerjee invited to 'World Meeting for Peace' in Rome along with Pope, Angela Merkel|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/mamata-banerjee-invited-to-world-meeting-for-peace-1839838-2021-08-12|work=India Today|date=12 August 2021|access-date=26 September 2021|archive-date=25 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210925192743/https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/mamata-banerjee-invited-to-world-meeting-for-peace-1839838-2021-08-12|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Lack of vaccine acceptance a travel barrier: West Bengal CM Mamata Banerjee|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/cm-lack-of-vax-acceptance-a-travel-barrier/articleshow/86052006.cms|work=The Times of India|date=9 September 2021|access-date=26 September 2021|archive-date=25 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210925192739/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/cm-lack-of-vax-acceptance-a-travel-barrier/articleshow/86052006.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> She was the only Indian invited to attend the event. But in September, the [[Ministry of External Affairs (India)|Union Ministry of External Affairs]] (MEA) denied her permission to attend the peace conference stating that the event was not "commensurate in status for participation by the chief minister of a state".<ref>{{cite news|title=Centre denies permission to Mamata for trip to Rome next month|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/centre-denies-permission-to-mamata-for-trip-to-rome-next-month-101632573497938.html|work=Hindustan Times|date=25 September 2021|access-date=26 September 2021|archive-date=25 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210925195844/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/centre-denies-permission-to-mamata-for-trip-to-rome-next-month-101632573497938.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Centre Denies Mamata Banerjee Permission To Attend Peace Conference in Rome|url=https://www.thequint.com/news/politics/west-bengal-news-mamata-banerjee-says-centre-denied-her-permission-to-attend-peace-conference-in-rome|work=The Quint|date=25 September 2021|access-date=26 September 2021|archive-date=25 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210925195845/https://www.thequint.com/news/politics/west-bengal-news-mamata-banerjee-says-centre-denied-her-permission-to-attend-peace-conference-in-rome|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Centre Didn't Let Me Go To Rome Peace Meet Out Of "Jealousy": Mamata Banerjee|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/centre-did-not-let-me-to-go-to-rome-global-peace-meet-out-of-jealousy-mamata-2553629|work=NDTV|date=25 September 2021|access-date=26 September 2021|archive-date=25 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210925200631/https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/centre-did-not-let-me-to-go-to-rome-global-peace-meet-out-of-jealousy-mamata-2553629|url-status=live}}</ref> BJP MP [[Subramanian Swamy]] slammed Modi government on Banerjee's Rome visit cancelation.<ref>{{cite news|title=Modi should permit Mamata to travel to Rome: Subramanian Swamy|url=https://www.theweek.in/news/india/2021/09/26/modi-should-permit-mamata-to-travel-to-rome-subramanian-swamy.html|work=The Week|date=26 September 2021|access-date=27 September 2021|archive-date=27 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210927015445/https://www.theweek.in/news/india/2021/09/26/modi-should-permit-mamata-to-travel-to-rome-subramanian-swamy.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=কোন আইনে মমতাকে রোম যেতে বাধা দেওয়া হল? কেন্দ্রের ভূমিকা নিয়ে প্রশ্ন বিজেপি সাংসদের|url=https://www.sangbadpratidin.in/india/subramanian-swamy-questions-centres-move-to-stop-mamata-banerjees-italy-tour/|language=bn|work=Sangbad Pratidin|date=26 September 2021|access-date=27 September 2021|archive-date=26 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210926211727/https://www.sangbadpratidin.in/india/subramanian-swamy-questions-centres-move-to-stop-mamata-banerjees-italy-tour/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Subramanian Swamy: 'কোন আইনে Mamata-র রোম সফর বাতিল', কেন্দ্রকে তোপ BJP সাংসদের|url=https://zeenews.india.com/bengali/nation/subramanian-swamy-slams-narendra-modi-govt-on-mamata-banerjees-rome-visit-cancelation_406330.html|language=bn|work=Zee 24 Ghanta|date=26 September 2021|access-date=27 September 2021|archive-date=26 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210926211711/https://zeenews.india.com/bengali/nation/subramanian-swamy-slams-narendra-modi-govt-on-mamata-banerjees-rome-visit-cancelation_406330.html|url-status=live}}</ref> According to Indian Diplomat [[K. P. Fabian]], the reason cited by MEA was unconvincing.<ref>{{cite news|title=Italian organisation that invited Mamata highly prestigious: ex-envoy|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/italian-organisation-that-invited-mamata-highly-prestigious-ex-envoy/article36684864.ece|work=The Hindu|date=26 September 2021|access-date=27 September 2021|archive-date=26 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210926180130/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/italian-organisation-that-invited-mamata-highly-prestigious-ex-envoy/article36684864.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> Similarly, in December, Banerjee was denied permission by the MEA to visit [[Nepal]].<ref>{{cite news|title='Vindictive,' cries TMC as Centre bars Mamata Banerjee from visiting Nepal|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/vindictive-cries-tmc-as-centre-bars-mamata-banerjee-from-visiting-nepal-101639159824014.html|work=Hindustan Times|date=10 December 2021|access-date=11 December 2021|archive-date=10 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211210181616/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/vindictive-cries-tmc-as-centre-bars-mamata-banerjee-from-visiting-nepal-101639159824014.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

TIME magazine published its annual list of 'The 100 Most Influential People of 2021' on 15 September 2021. The list includes Mamata Banerjee among others.<ref>{{cite news|last=Dutt|first=Barkha|date=15 September 2021|title=The 100 Most Influential People of 2021. Mamata Banerjee.|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|TIME]]|url=https://time.com/collection/100-most-influential-people-2021/6096016/mamata-banerjee/|access-date=16 September 2021|archive-date=15 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210915212047/https://time.com/collection/100-most-influential-people-2021/6096016/mamata-banerjee/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=15 September 2021|title=PM Modi, Mamata Banerjee Among TIME's 100 Most Influential People|website=NDTV|agency=PTI|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/pm-modi-mamata-and-adar-poonawalla-among-time-magazines-100-most-influential-people-of-2021-2542154|access-date=16 September 2021|archive-date=15 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210915234109/https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/pm-modi-mamata-and-adar-poonawalla-among-time-magazines-100-most-influential-people-of-2021-2542154|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=16 September 2021|title=বিশ্বের ১০০ প্রভাবশালীর তালিকায় মমতা, তীব্র সমালোচনা মোদির নামে|language=bn|trans-title=Mamata in the list of 100 most influential people in the world, sharp criticism of Modi|newspaper=Bartaman|url=https://bartamanpatrika.com/detailNews.php?cID=14&nID=319131&P=1&nPID=20210916|access-date=16 September 2021|archive-date=16 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210916173559/https://bartamanpatrika.com/detailNews.php?cID=14&nID=319131&P=1&nPID=20210916|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== In popular culture ===
* ''[[Baghini (2019 Film)|Baghini]]'', a [[Cinema of West Bengal|Bengali film]], inspired by Mamata Banerjee's life, was released on 24 May 2019. It is not a [[Biographical film|biopic]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ghosh|first=Devarsi|date=15 April 2019|title='Baghini: Bengal Tigress' is inspired by Mamata Banerjee but is not a biopic, filmmakers say|url=https://scroll.in/reel/919749/baghini-bengal-tigress-is-inspired-by-mamata-banerjee-but-is-not-a-biopic-filmmakers-say|access-date=9 December 2021|website=Scroll.in|language=en-US|archive-date=9 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211209051427/https://scroll.in/reel/919749/baghini-bengal-tigress-is-inspired-by-mamata-banerjee-but-is-not-a-biopic-filmmakers-say|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Itengar|first=Shriram|date=15 April 2019|title=After Narendra Modi, Baghini: Bengal Tigress evokes Mamata Banerjee|url=https://www.cinestaan.com/articles/2019/apr/15/20107/after-narendra-modi-baghini-bengal-tigress-evokes-mamata-banerjee|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190415193949/https://www.cinestaan.com/articles/2019/apr/15/20107/after-narendra-modi-baghini-bengal-tigress-evokes-mamata-banerjee|archive-date=15 April 2019|access-date=16 April 2019|publisher=Cinestaan}}</ref>
* Former Trinamool Congress MLA Dipak Kumar Ghosh wrote a controversial book on her personal life, ''Mamata Bandopadhyayke Jemon Dekhechi''.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Deepak Ghosh |url=http://archive.org/details/mamatakejemondekhechi |title=মমতা বন্দ্যোপাধ্যায় কে যেমন দেখেছি - দীপক ঘোষ |date=2013}}</ref> It creates critical response among the Bengali readers.<ref>{{Cite web |date=31 May 2025 |title=FIR filed against BJP's Koustav Bagchi: Posting excerpts from late TMC leader's book sparks row on woman's dignity, political decorum in Bengal – Kolkata News |url=https://www.bhaskarenglish.in/local/west-bengal/kolkata/news/koustav-bagchi-complaint-for-posting-dipak-ghosh-against-mamata-banerjee-sparks-controversy-135139838.html |access-date=23 July 2025 |website=Bhaskar English |language=en}}</ref> A [[defamation]] case was also filed against Deepak Ghosh but the case has not been resolved yet.<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 March 2025 |title=Dipak Ghosh Passed Away: বিতর্ক আর রাজনীতির ঘূর্ণাবর্ত পেরিয়ে প্রয়াত একদা IAS-বিধায়ক দীপক ঘোষ... |url=https://zeenews.india.com/bengali/kolkata/retired-ias-and-controversial-ex-tmc-mla-dipak-ghosh-passed-away_571830.html |access-date=23 July 2025 |website=Zee24Ghanta.com |language=bn}}</ref> The controversial book was banned by an interim order of Civil Judge, [[Barasat]] Court on 22 July 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 July 2025 |title=মমতাকে নিয়ে লেখা বিতর্কিত বইয়ের প্রচার ও বিক্রিতে আদালতের স্থগিতাদেশ – Barasat Court Imposes Ban on Book About Deepak Ghosh, Controversial Book on Mamata Banerjee |url=https://www.thewall.in/west-bengal/barasat-court-imposes-ban-on-book-about-deepak-ghosh-controversial-book-on-mamata-banerjee/tid/167129 |access-date=23 July 2025 |website=TheWall |language=bn}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=MSN |url=https://www.msn.com/bn-in/news/national/mamata-banerjee-%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A4-%E0%A6%95-%E0%A6%A8-%E0%A7%9F-%E0%A6%A6-%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%95-%E0%A6%98-%E0%A6%B7-%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%AC-%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95-%E0%A6%A4-%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%87-banned-%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BC-%E0%A6%A8-%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A6-%E0%A6%B6-%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%A6-%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%A4-%E0%A6%B0/ar-AA1J6R3O |access-date=23 July 2025 |website=msn.com}}</ref>

== Works in arts and literature ==
[[File:Mamata Banerjee at 43rd International Kolkata Book Fair.jpg|thumb|right|Mamata Banerjee at 43rd [[International Kolkata Book Fair]] with her books in hand]]

Numerous books written by her have been published so far. In 2022, she was given ''Paschimbanga Akademy Award'' for 'Kabita Bitan' which consists of 946 poems.<ref>{{Cite news |title=সাহিত্য চর্চায় নিরলস সাধনার জন্য বাংলা আকাদেমির বিশেষ পুরস্কার পেলেন মমতা বন্দ্যোপাধ্যায় |url=https://bengali.abplive.com/district/mamata-banerjee-chief-minister-of-west-bengal-mamata-banerjee-gets-bangla-academy-award-for-literary-contribution-887048 |access-date=11 May 2022 |work=ABP Ananda |date=9 May 2022 |language=bn}}</ref>

She is also a self-taught painter.<ref>{{cite news |title=Mamata Banerjee, chief minister, painter and fighter, faces tough polls |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/elections/writer-painter-fighter-mamata-banerjee-faces-major-political-challenge-121040100095_1.html |access-date=20 May 2022 |work=Business Standard India |date=1 April 2021 |archive-date=20 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220520164813/https://www.business-standard.com/article/elections/writer-painter-fighter-mamata-banerjee-faces-major-political-challenge-121040100095_1.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Her paintings have also been auctioned several times.<ref>{{Cite news |date=14 April 2015 |title=WTF: Mamata Banerjee Paintings Sold For 9 Crores |url=https://www.indiatimes.com/culture/who-we-are/wtf-mamata-banerjee-paintings-sold-for-9-crores-285240.html |access-date=20 May 2022 |work=IndiaTimes |archive-date=13 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180513081145/https://www.indiatimes.com/culture/who-we-are/wtf-mamata-banerjee-paintings-sold-for-9-crores-285240.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

She is also a lyricist and her compositions are mostly based on '[[Durga Puja]]' and 'Motherland'. 'Maa Go Tumi Sarbojanin' sung by [[Shreya Ghoshal]] is one of her most popular songs.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Prakashan |first=Priya |date=14 October 2015 |title=Durga Puja 2015: Mamata Banerjee pens Maa Go Tumi Sarbojonin on the auspicious occasion of the Navratri |url=https://www.india.com/viral/durga-puja-2015-mamata-banerjee-pens-maa-go-tumi-sarbojonin-on-the-auspicious-occasion-of-the-navratri-629627/ |access-date=11 May 2022 |website=India.com |archive-date=10 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240610060145/https://www.india.com/viral/durga-puja-2015-mamata-banerjee-pens-maa-go-tumi-sarbojonin-on-the-auspicious-occasion-of-the-navratri-629627/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Electoral history ==
{{Main|Electoral history of Mamata Banerjee}}

===Lok Sabha===
{| class="sortable wikitable"
! Year
! Constituency
! colspan="2"|Party
! Votes
! %
! Opponent
! colspan="2"|Opponent Party
! Opponent Votes
! %
! Result
! Margin
! %
|-
! [[2009 Indian general election|2009]]
| [[Kolkata Dakshin (Lok Sabha constituency)|Kolkata Dakshin]]
| {{Party name with color|All India Trinamool Congress|rowspan=4}}
| 576,045
| 57.19
| rowspan="2"|[[Rabin Deb]]
| {{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)|rowspan=8}}
| 356,474
| 35.39
| {{yes2|Won}}
| 219,571
| 21.8
|-
! [[2004 Indian general election|2004]]
| rowspan="5"|[[Calcutta South (Lok Sabha constituency)|Calcutta South]]
| 393,561
| 51.1
| 295,132
| 38.3
| {{yes2|Won}}
| 98,429
| 12.8
|-
! [[1999 Indian general election|1999]]
| 469,103
| 58.26
| Subhankar Chakraborty
| 255,095
| 31.68
| {{yes2|Won}}
| 214,008
| 26.58
|-
! [[1998 Indian general election|1998]]
| 503,551
| 59.37
| Prasanta Kumar Sur
| 279,470
| 32.95
| {{yes2|Won}}
| 224,081
| 26.42
|-
! [[1996 Indian general election|1996]]
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=4}}
| 438,252
| 52.5
| Bharati Mukherjee
| 334,991
| 40.1
| {{yes2|Won}}
| 103,261
| 12.4
|-
! [[1991 Indian general election|1991]]
| 367,896
| 52.46
| [[Biplab Dasgupta]]
| 274,233
| 39.1
| {{yes2|Won}}
| 93,663
| 13.36
|-
! [[1989 Indian general election|1989]]
| rowspan="2"|[[Jadavpur (Lok Sabha constituency)|Jadavpur]]
| 410,288
| 46.67
| [[Malini Bhattacharya]]
| 441,188
| 50.19
| {{no2|Lost}}
| -30,900
| -3.52
|-
! [[1984 Indian general election|1984]]
| 331,618
| 50.87
| [[Somnath Chatterjee]]
| 311,958
| 47.85
| {{yes2|Won}}
| 19,660
| 3.02
|-
|}

=== West Bengal Legislative Assembly elections ===
{| class="sortable wikitable"
! Year
! Constituency
! colspan="2"|Party
! Votes
! %
! Opponent
! colspan="2"|Opponent Party
! Opponent Votes
! %
! Result
! Margin
! %
|-
![[2026 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2026]]
|[[Bhabanipur, West Bengal Assembly constituency|Bhabanipur]]
| {{Party name with color|All India Trinamool Congress|rowspan=5}}
|58,812
|42.19
|[[Suvendu Adhikari]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=3}}
|73,917
|53.02
| {{no2|Lost}}
| -15,105
| -10.83
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[2021 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2021]]
| [[Bhabanipur, West Bengal Assembly constituency|Bhabanipur ''(by-election)'']]
| 85,263
| 71.9
| Priyanka Tibrewal
| 26,428
| 22.29
| {{yes2|Won}}
| 58,835
| 49.61
|-
| [[Nandigram (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Nandigram]]
| 108,808
| 47.64
| [[Suvendu Adhikari]]
| 110,764
| 48.49
| {{no2|Lost}}
| -1,956
| -0.85
|-
! [[2016 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2016]]
| [[Bhabanipur, West Bengal Assembly constituency|Bhabanipur]]
| 65,520
| 47.67
| [[Deepa Dasmunshi]]
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
| 40,219
| 29.96
| {{yes2|Won}}
| 25,301
| 17.71
|-
! [[2011 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2011]]
| [[Bhabanipur, West Bengal Assembly constituency|Bhabanipur ''(by-election)'']]
| 73,635
| 77.46
| [[Nandini Mukherjee]]
| {{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
| 19,422
| 20.43
| {{yes2|Won}}
| 54,213
| 57.03
|-
|}

== See also ==
* [[Ma Mati Manush]]
* [[Ambikesh Mahapatra]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==
;Books
*{{Cite book|last=Paul|first=Shutapa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G_V5DwAAQBAJ|title=Didi: The Untold Mamata Banerjee|date=2018|publisher=Penguin Random House India|isbn=978-93-5305-360-4|language=en}}
*{{Cite book|last=Gupta|first=Monobina|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VcfjAAAAQBAJ|title=Didi|date=2012|publisher=Harper Collins|isbn=978-93-5116-044-1|language=en}}
*{{Cite book|last=Nielsen|first=Kenneth Bo|url=https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/29645/indias-democracies.pdf?sequence=1#page=101|title=India's Democracies|publisher=Scandinavian University Press (Universitetsforlaget)|year=2016|isbn=978-82-15-02689-3|editor-last=Ruud|editor-first=Arild Engelsen|pages=101–130|chapter=5. Mamata Banerjee. Redefining Female Leadership|editor-last2=Heierstad|editor-first2=Geir}}
*{{Cite book|last=Mitra|first=Dola|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rei6oQEACAAJ|title=Decoding Didi: Making Sense of Mamata Banerjee|date=2014|publisher=Rupa|isbn=978-81-291-3267-3|language=en}}

;Journals
*{{Cite journal|last=Kariwal|first=Yash|date=January–March 2019|title=Role of Print Media in the Construction of a Political Image of Mamata Banerjee: A Content Analysis of News Coverage in The Telegraph Newspaper|url=http://ijrar.com/upload_issue/ijrar_issue_20543201.pdf|journal=International Journal of Research and Analytical Reviews|volume=6|issue=1|issn=2349-5138|eissn=2348-1269}}

== External links ==
* [https://wb.gov.in/portal/web/guest/meet-the-chief-minister Official website (Chief Minister's office)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150811034532/http://aitcofficial.org/biography/ Official page on Trinamool Congress Party's website]
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-13297763 Profile] at ''[[BBC News]]''

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Banerjee, Mamata}}
[[Category:Mamata Banerjee| ]]
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