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Koeri

2026-04-27T21:43:49Z

172.68.164.28: No major change

{{short description|Social community of India}}
{{for|the village in Estonia|Koeri, Estonia}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2021}}

The '''Koeri''' (also known as '''Koiry''' or '''Koiri''') are an Indian landowning upper middle [[caste]], found largely in [[Bihar]], whose traditional occupation was agriculture, notably of rice and crops. A colonial report noted them as landowners.<ref>{{cite book |title=India's silent revolution: the rise of the lower castes in North India |page=197 |first=Christophe |last=Jaffrelot |publisher=C. Hurst & Co. |location=London |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-85065-670-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OAkW94DtUMAC |access-date=29 August 2011}}</ref>

Koeris benefitted greatly from the land reform policies of the Indian government. Faced with the land ceiling laws and communist pressure in the 1970s, Muslim landlords resorted to selling off their lands, often to Koeris. This allowed the Koeris themselves to aspire to be landowners.{{fact|date=September 2021}}

The Koeris are found in [[Saran district]] and also live in the Samastipur district of Bihar. Outside India, the Koeris are distributed among the Bihari diaspora in [[Mauritius]] and have a significant population residing in [[Nepal]].

In 1977, the government of Bihar introduced an affirmative action of quota in government jobs and universities which has benefitted the upper backward castes like the landowning Koeri.

==Sanskritisation==
Koeris have attempted [[Sanskritisation]]—the attempt by traditionally low castes to rise up the social ladder, often by tracing their origins to mythical characters or following the lifestyle of higher ''[[Varna (Hinduism)|varna]]'', such as following [[vegetarianism]], secluding women, or wearing ''[[Upanayana|janeu]]'', the sacred thread.<ref name="Jayapalan2001">{{cite book|author=N. Jayapalan|title=Indian society and social institutions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AumuJ2jtRZIC&pg=PA428|access-date=17 January 2013|year=2001|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Distri|isbn=978-81-7156-925-0|page=428}}</ref> The Sanskritising trend in castes of northern India, including that of the Koeris, was inspired by the [[Vaishnavism|vaishnavite]] tradition, as attested by their bid to seek association with avatars of [[Vishnu]]. Author William Pinch wrote:
{{quote|"The nineteenth century antecedents of the Kushvaha- kshatriya movement reveal distinct cosmological associations with Shiva and his divine consort, Parvati. Kushvaha-kshatriya identity was espoused by agricultural community well known throughout the Gangetic north for an expertise in vegetable and (to an increasingly limited scale after the turn of twentieth century) poppy cultivation.
Prominent among them were ''Kachhi'' and ''Murao'' agriculturalist of central Uttar Pradesh ,''Kachhvahas'' of western Uttar Pradesh and ''Koiris'' of Bihar and eastern Uttar Pradesh."<ref>{{cite book |title=Peasants and monks in British India |first=William R. |last=Pinch |publisher=University of California Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-520-20061-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uEP-ceGYsnYC&q=peasants+and+monk+in+br&pg=PA92|page=91,92}}</ref>}}
[[Kushwaha Kshatriya Mahasabha]], the caste association of Koeris, held its first session in 1922.<ref name="Ashwani2008_36">{{cite book |first=Ashwani |last=Kumar |title=Community Warriors: State, Peasants and Caste Armies in Bihar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=num2I4NFGqIC&pg=PA36 |year=2008 |publisher=Anthem Press |isbn=978-1-84331-709-8 |pages=36 }}</ref>

Some [[Kushwaha]] reformers like Gangaprasad of [[Banaras]] argued the Koeris descended from [[Kusha]] and that they served Raja [[Jayachandra]] in their military capacity during the period of Muslim consolidation under [[Muhammad of Ghor|Shuhabuddin Ghuri]]. He argued further that after defeat, the fear of persecution at the hands of Muslims caused the Kusvaha Kshatriya to flee into the forest in disarray and discard their sacred threads, so as not to appear as erstwhile defenders of Hinduism. The British ethnographer [[Herbert Hope Risley]] recorded various Koeri origin myths in the 1890s. According to one of them, [[Shiva]] and [[Parvati]] created Koeri and Kachhi to take care of vegetables and their flower gardens in Banaras. Writing eighty years later, [[Francis Buchanan-Hamilton]] records that Koeris of Bihar were followers of [[Dashanami Sampradaya]] while those of Gorakhpur and Ayodhya looked towards [[Ramanandi Sampradaya|Ramanandi]] saints for spiritual guidance.<ref>{{cite book |title=Peasants and monks in British India |first=William R. |last=Pinch |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-520-20061-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uEP-ceGYsnYC|page=92}}</ref>

According to [[Christophe Jaffrelot]], the caste associations were formed with the basic objective of unifying individual castes. The All India Kushwaha Kshatriya Mahasabha was formed to bring the horticulturist and market gardener communities like the Koeri, the Kachhi and the Murao under one umbrella. The Koeris also attempted to forge a caste coalition called Raghav Samaj, backed by [[kurmi]]s which was named after one of [[Rama]]'s names. This was done to justify the communities' claims of descent from [[Lava (Ramayana)|Lava]] and [[Kusha (Ramayana)|Kusha]], respectively. In 1928, the Mahasabha also petitioned the [[Simon Commission]] on behalf of various subcastes of the Koeri community to seek recognition as Kshatriya.<ref>{{cite book |title=India's silent revolution: the rise of the lower castes in North India |pages=197–199 |first=Christophe |last=Jaffrelot |publisher=[[C. Hurst & Co.]] |location=London |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-85065-670-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HWms_1WzF1sC&q=india+silent+revolution+luv+kush&pg=PA197 |access-date=29 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231223916/http://books.google.com/books?id=OAkW94DtUMAC |archive-date=31 December 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The terminology Lav-Kush for the Koeri-Kurmi community became more important in politics than in culture; in Bihar, it came to represent the political solidarity of the Koeri and Kurmi castes.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hTjbCgAAQBAJ&q=koeri+kurmi+luv+kush&pg=PA91|title=Why India Votes? :Exploring the Political in South Asia|first=Mukulika|last= Banerjee|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2017|isbn=978-1317341666|access-date=25 June 2020}}</ref> {{as of|2020}}, the Koeri community claims ancestry both from [[Kusha (Ramayana)|Kusha]] and the [[Maurya Empire|Mauryans]]. Some of the leading political parties have supported their claims to reap the benefits arising from their demographic strength in electoral politics, particularly in North Indian states like [[Bihar]] and [[Uttar Pradesh]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://m.timesofindia.com/city/patna/BJP-banking-on-votes-of-Koeris/articleshow/47321629.cms|title=BJP banking on votes of Koeris|first=Abhay |last=Singh|work=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=18 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://theprint.in/opinion/caste-groups-are-burning-rajnath-singhs-effigies-as-he-called-chandragupta-maurya-shepherd/|title=Caste groups are burning Rajnath Singh's effigies as he called Chandragupta Maurya shepherd|first=Shivam|last=Vij|work=theprint.in|access-date=27 May 2020}}</ref>

==Economy==
The community was at the heart of the Indian [[opium]] trade, which had its main base in Bihar. For many years the [[British East India Company]] via an agency in [[Patna]] regulated and exploited it. [[Carl Trocki]] believes that. "Opium cultivators were not free agents" and describes the coercion and financial arrangements that were involved to achieve production, which included restricting land to that product even when the people needed grain because of famine. Although profitable for the company, it was often not so for the peasant producer, and, "Only one particular caste, the Koeris, managed to carry on the cultivation with some degree of efficiency. They were able to do this because they could employ their wives and children to help out with the tasks of opium production."<ref name=Trocki1999pp64-67>{{cite book |title=Opium, empire and the global political economy: a study of the Asian opium trade, 1750–1950 |first=Carl A. |last=Trocki |author-link=Carl A. Trocki|publisher=Routledge |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-415-19918-6 |pages=64–67 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DDNvkSC26bcC |access-date=4 October 2011}}</ref>

Other groups involved in opium production had to hire labour, but the Koeris cut costs by utilising that available within their own family.<ref name=Trocki1999pp64-67/> Describing the industrious nature of the Koeri people, [[Susan Bayly]] wrote:
{{quote|"By the mid-nineteenth century, influential revenue specialists were reporting that they could tell the caste of a landed man by simply glancing at his crops. In the north, these observers claimed, a field of 'second-rate barley' would belong to a [[Rajput]] or [[Brahmin|Brahman]] who took pride in shunning the plough and secluding his womenfolk. Such a man was to be blamed for his own decline, fecklessly mortgaging and then selling off his lands to maintain his unproductive dependents. By the same logic, a flourishing field of wheat would belong to a non-twice-born tiller, wheat being a crop requiring skill and enterprise on the part of the cultivator. These, said such commentators as [[Denzil Ibbetson]] and [[E. A. H. Blunt]], were the qualities of the non-patrician 'peasant' – the thrifty [[Jat]] or canny Kurmi in upper India, .... Similar virtues would be found among the smaller market-gardening populations, these being the people known as Koeris in Hindustan"<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HbAjKR_iHogC&q=specialists+were+reporting+that+they+could+tell+the+caste+of+a+landed+man&pg=PA212|title=Caste, Society and Politics in India from the Eighteenth Century to the Modern Age|first=Susan|last= Bayly|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2001|isbn=0521798426|access-date=2020-06-30}}</ref>}}

===Post land reforms===
Peasants in [[Upper Backward Castes|upper backward castes]] like the Koeris benefitted the most from the land reform policies of the Indian government. Faced with the land ceiling laws and communist pressure in the 1970s, upper caste landlords resorted to selling off their lands. In most cases the buyer would be from the Koeri, the [[Kurmi]], or the [[Yadav]] castes. These peasants worked skillfully on their land and made their holdings more productive. In contrast, the upper castes were unable to do so, and they seemed to be satisfied with the price they got for their land. The increased urbanisation among forward castes created a category of new landlords in the countryside as these three middle castes seldom sold their land, rather they looked on reforms as an opportunity to buy more.<ref>{{cite book | last=Sinha | first=A. | title=Nitish Kumar and the Rise of Bihar | page=80,81|publisher=[[Viking Press|Viking]] | year=2011 | isbn=978-0-670-08459-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rT2xWp_iTCYC&pg=PA81 | access-date=7 April 2015}}</ref>

This phenomenon promoted the upward mobility of middle peasant castes. While this mobility in the Yadavas consolidated them as both big peasants and landlords, in the Koeris, the vertical mobility was exclusively towards them becoming [[landlords]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Agrarian Reforms, Land Markets, and Rural Poor|first=D. Narasimha |last=Reddy|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|page=279|year= 2009|isbn=978-8180696046|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jJgfNVjZ8koC&q=bihar+and+caste&pg=PA279|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref> The rise of castes like the Koeri, the Kurmi, and the Yadav, and the fall from power of the forward castes was characterised by growing assertiveness among these middle peasants who now acted as the [[zamindars]] (rulers) they once condemned.<ref>{{cite book | last=Sinha | first=A. | title=Nitish Kumar and the Rise of Bihar | page=82|publisher=Viking | year=2011 | isbn=978-0-670-08459-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rT2xWp_iTCYC&pg=PA82| access-date=7 April 2015}}</ref>

In 1989, Frankel observed that 95% of the upper castes and 36% of the middle peasant castes like the Koeri and the Yadav belonged to a rich peasant-cum-landlord class. An aversion to manual labour characterised this class. However, some Koeris and Yadavas who held comparatively less land to provide them with subsistence also worked as agricultural labourers, though the bulk of agricultural labourers belonged to the Dalit caste. According to Frankel, the bulk of middle and poor peasantry belonged to castes like the Koeris and the Yadavas; this class worked in their own fields but considered it beneath their dignity to work in others' fields.<ref>{{cite book |title=Rebels From the Mud Houses: Dalits and the Making of the Maoist Revolution ...
|page=31 |first=George |last=Kunnath|publisher=[[Taylor and Francis Group]] |location=New York |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-138-09955-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IkcrDwAAQBAJ&q=koeri+landlords&pg=PT31
|access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref>
However, the socio-economic progress and transition towards the upper edge of the social hierarchy was not unabated. The Koeris, like the other middle level castes in north India, were facing a double-edged confrontation from the upper castes who were supporters of the status quo as well as from the Dalits and the lowest castes who now became assertive for their own rights. All this made the middle castes aggressive.<ref>{{cite book|title =Beyond Ambedkar: Essays on Dalits in India|first=Nandu|last= Ram|publisher=Har Anand Publications|year=2009|isbn=978-8124114193
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BV0FuSXACbUC&q=koeri+caste+improved+economic+status&pg=PA32|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref>

The conflict with upper caste landlords led to an attraction towards far-left [[Naxalite|naxalism]]. This was witnessed in [[Ekwari]], a village, in the [[Bhojpur district, India|Bhojpur district]] where [[Jagdish Mahto]], a Koeri teacher, began leading the Maoists and organised the murders of upper caste landlords after he was beaten up by [[Bhumihar]]s for supporting the [[Communist Party of India]] (CPI) in the 1967 elections. Mahto also set up a newspaper in Arrah called ''Harijanistan''. After Mahto was killed in 1971, the communist uprising in Bhojpur subsided.<ref>{{cite book|title = Reinventing Revolution: New Social Movements and the Socialist Tradition in India|first=Gail|last= Omvedt|publisher=[[M.E.Sharpe]] |page=59|year=1993|isbn=0765631768|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wlxb0uacnRcC&q=Reinventing+Revolution:+New+So/jagdish+mahto&pg=PA59|access-date=16 June 2020}} "Its first mass leader was Jagdish Mahto, a Koeri teacher who had read Ambedkar before he discovered Marx and started a paper in the town of Hrrah called Harijanistan("dalit land")..</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=From popular movement to rebellion:The Naxalite dacade|page= 317,318|first=Ranbir|last=Samaddar|publisher=[[Routledge]]|location =New york|year=2019|isbn= 978-0-367-13466-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BjZ7DwAAQBAJ&q=jagdish+prasad+mahto+naxal&pg=PT317|access-date=30 May 2020}}</ref>

Later, a section of the upper strata of the Koeris and other middle peasant castes voiced their support for the militant organisation [[Ranvir Sena]]. This group had benefitted the most from land reforms and became ruthless towards the [[Dalits]].<ref>{{cite book |title=The situated politics of belonging |page=135,136 |first=Nira-Yuval-Davis |last=Kalpana |publisher=[[Sage Publications]] |location=london|year=2006|isbn=1-4129-2101-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d6pIf0EjBXIC&q=koeri+in+army&pg=PA135|access-date=30 May 2020}}</ref>

==Distribution==
Between 1872 and 1921 the Koeris represented approximately seven per cent of the population in [[Saran district]], according to tabulated data prepared by [[Anand Yang]]. Yang also notes their involvement in tenanted landholdings around the period 1893–1901: the Koeris worked around nine per cent of the total cultivated area of the district which was one per cent less than the Ahirs, although they represented around five per cent more of the population.<ref>{{cite book |title=The limited Raj: agrarian relations in colonial India, Saran District, 1793–1920 |first=Anand A. |last=Yang |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-520-05711-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ck4jmD7H34UC |page=45 |access-date=4 October 2011}}</ref> According to [[Christopher Bayly]] :
{{quote|"Eighteenth-century settlement of Kurmi ,Kacchi and Koeri cultivators were also numerous in northern and western Awadh. On the fringes of cultivation, these castes were given special rental rates for bringing areas of jungle under plough. In the first five years, for instance the rent might be only half of what was common for soil of the same type. The revenue benefits to the entrepreneur or official who planted the colony were very great."<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xfo3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA101|title=Rulers, Townsmen and Bazaars: North Indian Society in the Age of British Expansion|first=C. A.|last= Bayly|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1988|isbn=0521310547|access-date=1 July 2020|page=101}}</ref>}}
They are also distributed in the [[Samastipur]] district of Bihar. In this district the Koeri caste is notorious for their criminal affairs and represent most of the ten [[Bihar Legislative Assembly|legislative assembly]] seats in this district.<ref>{{cite book|title=Women Empowerment Through Panchayati Raj Institutions|first=Minni |last=Thakur|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|year= 2010|isbn=978-8180696800
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0hbA4A--9HcC&q=koeri+and+bhumihar&pg=PA31|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref> In a study conducted in 1991, in villages of the [[Buxar]] district of southwestern Bihar, the Koeris were one of the largest landholding caste.s<ref>{{cite book|title=Understanding Social Dynamics in South Asia|first=Partha Nath Mukherji|last=N. Jayaram|publisher=[[Springer Publishing]]|year=2019|isbn=978-9811303876|page=88,89
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IHWKDwAAQBAJ&q=bihar+landholdings+koeri&pg=PA89|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref> Further, another study conducted in some select villages of rural Bihar revealed the Koeris perform the function of a ''[[purohit]]'' (family priest) and a significant number of houses were seen availing themselves of the services of the purohits of the Koeri caste.<ref>{{cite book|title=Readings in Indian Sociology: Volume II|first=K. L.|last= Sharma|publisher=[[SAGE Publications]]|location= India|year=2013|isbn=978-8132118725
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JOqICwAAQBAJ&q=koeri+caste+occupational+change&pg=PA136|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref>

===Distribution outside India===
Outside India, Koeris are distributed among the Bihari diaspora in [[Mauritius]]. Though the island is divided along ethnic and religious lines, 'Hindu' Mauritians follow a number of original customs and traditions, quite different from those seen on the Indian subcontinent. Some castes in Mauritius in particular are unrecognisable from a subcontinental Indian perspective, and may incorporate mutually antagonistic castes into a single group. The title 'Rajput' describes primarily the [[Shudra]] castes in Mauritius, which was usurped by the Koeris in the nineteenth century. The 'vaish', which includes the Koeris, is the largest and most influential caste group on the island. The former Brahmin elites together with former [[Kshatriya]] are called 'Babuji' and enjoy the prestige conferred by high caste status, though politically they are marginalised.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_F7NCwAAQBAJ&q=koeri+in+Mauritius&pg=PA14|title=Community, Empire and Migration: South Asians in Diaspora|first=Crispin|last=Bates|publisher=Springer|page=14|year= 2016|isbn=978-0333977293|access-date=1 July 2020}}</ref>

The Koeris also have a significant population residing in [[Nepal]]. The 1991 census conducted there included estimates of their population estimates but these were not included in the 2001 census.<ref>{{cite book |title=Social Inclusion of Ethnic Communities in Contemporary Nepal |pages=109–110 |first=Monika |last=Mandal |publisher=KW Publishers |year=2013 |isbn=978-93-81904-58-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f0y6DQAAQBAJ&pg=PT109}}</ref>

==Subdivisions, classification and culture==

Communities related to the Koeri in North India include the [[Maurya]], the [[Kushwaha]], the [[Mahto]], the Kachhi, the [[Shakya]] and the [[Saini]]. Over time, these castes grew closer and began intermarrying while developing the all India network to strengthen their caste solidarity.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=58G8PPAN48cC&q=koeri+,Maurya,+Shakya,+kachhi&pg=PA36|title=Awareness in Weaker Section: Perspective Development and Prospects|first=Mahendra Lal|last= Patel|publisher=M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd.|year= 1997|page=37|isbn=8175330295}}</ref>
In 1811, the physician [[Francis Buchanan-Hamilton]] classified the producer castes of Bihar and Patna - the Koeri, the Gwala, the Kurmi, the Sonar (goldsmith) and even the [[Kayastha]]s (a scribe caste) as "pure [[Shudra]]". However, due to the advancements in their level of education, the Kayastha community was first among them to challenge their Shudra status and claimed a higher Varna. They were followed by the rest of these communities.<ref name="William Pinch">{{cite book |title=Peasants and monks in British India |first=William R. |last=Pinch |publisher=University of California Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-520-20061-6 |url=https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft22900465&chunk.id=s1.2.11&toc.depth=1&toc.id=ch2|pages=73–75|quote=Buchanan, in the early nineteenth century, had included in the term "pure shudra" the well-known designations of Kayasth, Koiri, Kurmi, Kahar, Goala, Dhanuk (archers, cultivators, palanquin bearers), Halwai (sweets vendor), Mali (flower gardener), Barai (cultivator and vendor of betel-leaf), Sonar (goldsmith), Kandu (grain parcher), and Gareri (blanket weavers and shepherds)[108].108. Buchanan, Bihar and Patna, 1811–1812, 1:329–39; Martin, Eastern India, 2:466–70}}</ref>

Some Koeris like Shivcharan Bhagat were well known for their knowledge of [[Persian language|Persian]] and they also contributed to the [[Ramanandi Sampradaya]] and their disciples later became major contributors to Ramanandi literature.<ref name="William Pinch"/> In the households of the cultivator castes like the Koeris, there was no major segregation of family duties based on gender. Here, both male and female members of the family participated in cultivation- related operations, thus paving the way for egalitarianism and a lack of gender-related discrimination and seclusion. The view of the Koeris regarding their women is portrayed through their (Jati) Caste pamphlet, where Koeri women are described as being loyal to their husbands and having all the qualities of a true [[Kshatriya]] woman, who faces the enemy with courage and fights along with her husband rather than being defeated outrught.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oDeFAAAAIAAJ&q=koeri+women|
title=Daughters of the Earth: Women and Land in Uttar Pradesh|first=Smita Tewari|last=Jassal|publisher=Manohar|year=2001|isbn=8173043752|access-date=1 July 2020|page=71,53}}</ref>

===Martial tradition===
{{Quote box|width=20em|align=right|quote=''Kshatriyatva''( the essence of being Kshatriya, or valour) constituted an important component of this new political framework for reform, in part because martial element contained therein fit a colonial ideology that placed a premium on virility and power. Their claim to "''Kshatriyatva''" was matched by an aggressiveness and violence which had lasting implications for rulral life in Bihar.<ref name="George"/> |salign=right|source= – William Pinch}}
The Kshatriya reform movement in the middle peasant castes which took place during 1890s turned rural Bihar into an arena of conflict. William Pinch claims that castes like the Koeris, the Kurmi, joined the [[British Indian Army]] as soldiers. George Kunnath writes that "their claims to ''kshatriyatva'' was matched by an aggressiveness and violence" which led to the formation of many caste armies resulting in intercaste conflict.<ref name="George">{{cite book |title=Rebels From the Mud Houses: Dalits and the Making of the Maoist Revolution ...
|page=209,210 |first=George |last=kunnath|publisher=Taylor and Francis group |location=New york |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-138-09955-5|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=JkcrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA209|access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref>

==Organisation==
[[File:Kushwaha Ashram, headquarter of community organisation in Bihar.jpg|thumb|Kushwaha Ashram, the headquarter of community organisation of Koeri caste in North Bihar.]]
In the interwar years, during a period when there was a general movement among various castes seeking to uplift their status, there was also at least one journal being published for the Koeri community, the ''Kashbala Kshatriya Mitra'',<ref>{{cite book |title=Hindu nationalism and the language of politics in late colonial India |first=William |last=Gould |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-521-83061-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XNsganXnq-oC |page=31 |access-date=4 October 2011}}</ref> while other interests of the Koeri community is taken care of by the Kushwaha Kshatriya Mahasabha.<ref name="Ashwani2008_36"/>

==Politics==
In the heyday of [[British Raj]], the Koeris aligned with the Kurmis and the Yadavs to form a caste coalition-cum-political party called [[Triveni Sangh]]. The actual date of the formation of Triveni Sangh is disputed among scholars. This caste coalition fared badly against the [[Indian National Congress|Congress]] party and faced a considerable challenge from Congress's backward class federation. Though politically it was not able to make a significant mark, it remained successful in eradicating the practice of [[begar]] (forced labour).<ref name="Jaffrelot197">{{cite book |title=India's silent revolution: the rise of the lower castes in North India |first=Christophe |last=Jaffrelot |edition=Reprinted |publisher=C. Hurst & Co. |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-85065-670-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OAkW94DtUMAC |pages=197–198}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |page=44 |title=Community Warriors: State, Peasants and Caste Armies in Bihar |first=Ashwani |last=Kumar |publisher=Anthem Press |year=2008 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=num2I4NFGqIC&pg=PA44 |isbn=978-1-84331-709-8}}</ref>

The period of the 1960s witnessed an improvement in the fortunes of the backward castes in politics, with a significant growth seen in the number of backward caste MLAs in the Bihar legislative assembly. In the 1970s, with the defining slogan of social justice, Koeris rose to prominence in the politics of Bihar under the leadership of [[Jagdeo Prasad]]. However, this achievement was short-lived and their representation was gradually lost to other backward castes after Prasad's death.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kumar|first=Sanjay |title=Post mandal politics in Bihar:Changing electoral patterns|publisher=SAGE Publication|isbn=978-93-528-0585-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2zhODwAAQBAJ&q=jagdeo+prasad&pg=PA39|date=5 June 2018}}</ref> This period also witnessed [[Satish Prasad Singh]], a lesser known Koeri leader, become the chief minister of Bihar merely a week after the fall of [[Mahamaya Prasad Sinha]] government. He led a coalition of the Shoshit Samaj Dal party of Jagdeo Prasad and the Congress.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rik-AAAAMAAJ&q=satish+prasad+singh+caste|title=Teaching Politics, Volume 6 - Volume 7, Issue 4|first=Delhi University|last= Political Science Association|publisher= Delhi University Political Science Association(Original from the University of Michigan)
|year= 1981|access-date=22 June 2020}} In 1969 , Bindeshwar Prasad Mandal , a rich landlord Yadav of Saharsa district in manipulating some M . L . A ' s to defect from U . F . Parties to cause the fall of Mahamaya Ministry , asked Satish Prasad Singh a lesser known Koeri leader to head the ministry for a day to facilitate his nomination in the Council.</ref><ref name="Sharma1989">{{cite book|author=Bijender Kumar Sharma|title=Political Instability in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZHMBgjfitvQC&pg=PA49|access-date=10 April 2018|year=1989|publisher=Mittal Publications|isbn=978-81-7099-184-7|pages=49–}}</ref>

In 1977, the [[Karpoori Thakur]] government of Bihar introduced an affirmative action of quota in government jobs and universities. While the lower backward castes were assigned 12% of the quota, only eight percent was earmarked for landowning castes like the Koeri, the Kurmi and the Yadavs. Being a [[Nai (caste)|Nai]] by caste, Thakur was aware of the robust economic position and aggressiveness of these castes who were many times seen bullying the Harijans and lower backwards castes.<ref>{{cite book|title=City, Society, and Planning: Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=odCJoIaDqZ0C&q=koeri+bihar+politics&pg=PA397|first=Baleshwar|last=Thakur|location =University of Akron. Department of Geography & Planning, Association of American Geographers|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|year=2007|page=397 ,398|
isbn=978-8180694608|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref>

In later years, the Koeris remained in a muted position for a long period in politics or played a secondary role, while the Yadav-centric politics of [[Lalu Prasad Yadav|Laloo Yadav]] flourished in Bihar. However, after the formation of the [[Samta Party]] (now [[Janata Dal (United)]]) by [[Nitish Kumar]], they voted en masse for [[Samta Party|Samta]]. Its alliance showed that political parties in Bihar are identified with caste and the Samta Party was considered the party of Koeri-Kurmi community.<ref>{{cite book|title=City, Society, and Planning: Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=odCJoIaDqZ0C&q=koeri+bihar+politics&pg=PA400|first=Baleshwar|last=Thakur|location =University of Akron. Department of Geography & Planning, Association of American Geographers|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|year=2007|
isbn=978-8180694608|access-date=16 June 2020}} While Samta with its leader Nitish is considered to be the party of Koeri-Kurmi, Bihar people's party led by Anand Mohan is perceived to be a party having sympathy and support of Rajputs.</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Caste and Democratic Politics in India|first=Ghanshyam|last=Shah|publisher=Orient Blackswan|year=2004|isbn=8178240955|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Aou17T8KaEEC&q=caste+and+bihar+politics&pg=PA346|access-date=18 June 2020}}</ref>

The parting of the ways between the Koeris and the Kurmis and the movement of the Koeris away from [[Janata Dal (United)]] (JD(U)) was witnessed after the formation of the [[Rashtriya Lok Samta Party]] by [[Upendra Kushwaha]], who commanded huge support among members of the Koeri castes. The [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] appealed to the kushwaha in the 2014 elections in hopes of getting the support of the Koeri caste who had earlier voted for [[Nitish Kumar]] and the JD(U).<ref>{{cite book|title=India's 2014 Elections: A Modi-led BJP Sweep|first=Paul|last=Wallace|publisher=SAGE Publications|location = India|year=2015|isbn=978-9351505174|page=127,129
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UFslDAAAQBAJ&q=upendra+kushwaha&pg=PT129|access-date=18 June 2020}}</ref> However, the quitting of BJP and alliance by Upendra Kushwaha left Koeri politics in Bihar in a dilemma.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://theprint.in/politics/upendra-kushwahas-exit-could-undo-bjps-carefully-planned-bihar-caste-coalition/|title=Upendra Kushwaha's exit could undo BJP's carefully planned Bihar caste coalition|first=PRAGYA|last=KAUSHIKA|website=theprint.in|access-date=28 May 2020}}</ref> This rift between the Koeris and the Kurmis was orchestrated by the rise of influential Koeri leaders like Mahendra Singh and Shakuni Chaudhry, while Kushwaha remained the strongest leader of the community in Bihar.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.openthemagazine.com/article/nation/the-liberation-struggle-of-bihar|title=The Liberation Struggle of Bihar|first=P. R.|last=Ramesh|date=15 October 2015|work=Open Magazine|access-date=30 April 2020}} The real migraine for the JD-U led alliance is the emergence of strong leaders within the NDA who command Kushwaha loyalties as effectively as Ashok Mahto once did for the fight against Bhumihars in the past. Rocking the Grand Alliance's prospects are Kushwaha leaders such as Upendra Kushwaha, Shakuni Chaudhury and Mahendra Singh.</ref>

==See also==
*[[Bihari Mauritians]]
*[[Kachhi (caste)]]
*[[Kushwaha]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=78rfCgAAQBAJ&q=koeri+rise+of+the+plebeians&pg=PA98|title=Rise of the Plebeians?: The Changing Face of the Indian Legislative Assemblies|first=Christophe Jaffrelot|last=Sanjay Kumar|publisher=Routledge|year=2012|isbn=978-1136516610|access-date=30 June 2020}}

[[Category:Social groups of Bihar]]
[[Category:Agricultural castes]]

Pithoragarh

2026-04-01T07:56:21Z

172.68.164.28:

{{Short description|Town in Uttarakhand, India}}
{{About|the municipality in Uttarakhand, India|its namesake district|Pithoragarh district}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2017}}

{{Infobox settlement
| name = Pithoragarh
| native_name =
| native_name_lang = Kumaoni
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = [[Town]]
| image_skyline = Pithoragarh Sunrise.jpg
| image_alt =
| image_caption = View of Pithoragarh city, Uttarakhand during Sunrise
| pushpin_map = India Uttarakhand#India
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Uttarakhand, India
| pushpin_relief = yes
| coordinates = {{coord|29.58|N|80.22|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Uttarakhand]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Pithoragarh district|Pithoragarh]]
| established_title = 
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 1627
| population_total = 56,044
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym = Pithoragarhiya (Kumaoni)
| population_footnotes = <ref name="2011 census data">{{cite web|title=Census of India Search details |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/pca/SearchDetails.aspx?Id=56255|publisher=censusindia.gov.in|access-date=10 May 2015}}</ref>
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Hindi language|Hindi]], [[Kumaoni (pahadi) language|Kumauni]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 262501
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| area_code = 915964
| registration_plate = UK-05
| website = {{URL|pithoragarh.nic.in}}
| footnotes =
| leader_title = [[District collector]]
| leader_name = Reena Joshi, [[Indian Administrative Service|IAS]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=सीमांत जिले पिथौरागढ़ में पहली बार महिला जिलाधिकारी तैनात, बागेश्वर में भी महिला डीएम, देखें किसे मिली कमान |url=https://www.jagran.com/uttarakhand/nainital-for-the-first-time-a-woman-dm-posted-in-pithoragarh-and-in-bageshwar-also-a-woman-dm-23169115.html |access-date=2022-10-29 |website=Dainik Jagran |language=hi}}</ref>
}}

'''Pithoragarh''' ([[Kumaoni language|Kumaoni]]: ''Pithor'garh'') is a Himalayan town with a Municipal Board in [[Pithoragarh district]] in the Indian [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[Uttarakhand]]. It is the largest and unplanned town in Kumaon hills. It is an education hub of the hilly region as the town has Laxman Singh Mahar Govt.P.G.College, Seemant Institute of Technology, now known as Nanhi Pari Seemant Engineering Institute and a nursing college.

== Etymology ==
"The district is named after its headquarters town, Pithoragarh. Tradition has it that during the reign of the [[Chand kings|Chand Rajas]] of [[Kumaon division|Kumaon]], one Piru, also called Prithvi Gosain, built a fort here and named it Prithvigarh which, in the course of time, got changed to Pithoragarh."<ref name=gazetteer />
[[File:Pithoragarh Fort.jpg|thumb|A view of Pithoragarh town from the Pithoragarh Fort (also known as London Fort)]]

== History ==
Pithoragarh city and its surrounding areas were part of the [[Manaskhand]] region, which extended from the [[Kailash Mountain]] in the north to [[Bhabar]] & [[Terai]] in the south, as mentioned in the [[Skanda Purana]].<ref name="Gazetteer 1979">{{cite book |title=Uttar Pradesh District Gazetteers: Pithoragarh |date=1979 |publisher=Government of Uttar Pradesh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EAJDAAAAYAAJ |access-date=21 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>{{rp|12}} The [[Asura]]s and [[Nāga|Naga]]s appear to be the earliest inhabitants of the region, who were later superseded by the [[Kirata]]s, [[Khas people|Khasa]]s and the [[Kuninda Kingdom|Kuninda]]s.<ref name="Gazetteer 1979" />{{rp|13}} The Kuninda Kings of the region may have become the feudatories of The [[Kushan Empire|Kushana]] Kings, who held their sway over the region in the last quarter of the 1st century AD.<ref name="Gazetteer 1979" />{{rp|16}} The region subsequently came under the [[Katyuri kings|Kurmanchal kingdom]], which had its capital first at [[Jyotirmath]] and then at Karikeyapura (Modern day [[Baijnath, Uttarakhand|Baijnath]]) in the Katyur Valley.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Kaṭhoca, Yaśavanta Siṃha |title=Uttarākhaṇḍa kā navīna itihāsa |year=2010 |isbn=978-81-86844-91-5 |oclc=948116582}}</ref>

Upon the disintegration of the Katyuris and fall of kingdom in 13th century, Pithoragarh came under the rule of Bam kings of [[Saur Valley|Saur]]. The Bam kings were feudal to the Raikas of [[Doti]] and was a branch of katyuri kings, and had their capital at Udaipur near Pithoragarh, However, the Rajas used to come down to Rameshwar and Bailorkol during the winter months.<ref name="Gazetteer 1979" />{{rp|24}} The Bam kings, who ruled over Saur were:<ref name="Pande">{{cite book|last1=Pande|first1=Badri Datt|title=History of Kumaun : English version of "Kumaun ka itihas"|date=1993|publisher=Shyam Prakashan|location=[[Almora]]|isbn=81-85865-01-9}}</ref>{{rp|216}}
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
# Karakil Bam
# Kakil Bam
# Chanari Bam
# Arki Bam
# Jnani Bam
# Shakti Bam
# Vijai Bam
# Hari Bam
{{div col end}}

In the fifteenth century, King [[Chand kings#List of Chand Kings|Bharti Chand]] of [[Champawat]] amassed a huge army, and started plundering and killing in the regions ruled by the Doti Kings. This resulted in a war, which lasted for 12 years, and ended with a victory for the Chands.<ref name="Pande" />{{rp|213–214}} After the death of Bharti Chand in 1462, Nagmalla, the king of Doti attacked his son, Ratna Chand who was successful in defending himself.<ref name="Pande" />{{rp|213–214}} Nagmalla was killed in the war and the Bams became feudatories of the Chands.<ref name="Pande" />{{rp|215–216}} The pargana of Saur came under direct control of the [[Kingdom of Kumaon]] in the sixteenth century during the rule of King Balo Kalyan Chand, when it was given to him by the Raika king of Doti as dowry for marrying his Daughter.<ref name="Pande" />{{rp|226}}

In 1790, the Chand kings built a new fort on the hill where the present Girls Inter College is situated. This fort was destroyed by the Indian government in 1962 after China attacked India.[<nowiki/>[[wikipedia:Please clarify|why?]]] The Chand rule, at its zenith, is seen as one of the most prominent empires in Kumaon. Their rule also coincides with a period of cultural resurgence. Archeological surveys point towards the development of culture and art forms in this period.

A Branch of [[Indian National Congress]] was established in the region in 1912, and in 1916, many people from Pithoragarh attended the Lucknow session of Congress. The [[Non-cooperation movement]] was started in the region in 1921 and in 1930, 10 people from Pithoragarh participated in the [[Civil disobedience movement]]. Subsequently, the Congress won the Pithoragarh seat in the [[1937 Indian provincial elections|Provincial Elections in 1937]]. The [[Quit India Movement]] of 1942 found greater support in Pithoragarh and about 150 persons were arrested while several were fined. The Congress won the Pithoragarh seat again in the [[1945 Indian general election|General Elections of 1945]] for the Provincial Assembly, and in 1947, along with the rest of India, this region also won independence from the British Rule.<ref name="Gazetteer 1979" />{{rp|38}}

== The Cheh Patti Sor ==
The '''Soar Valley''' (historically known as Saur or Sor) was traditionally organised into six ancestral and adminstrative revenue circles known as the '''Cheh Patti Sor''' (छह पट्टी सोर) [6]. These division are central to the socio-cultural fabric of Pithoragarh and are uniquely tied to the management and traditions of the regional deity, '''Mostamanu Devta''' (the Rain God of the valley).

'''The Six Pattis'''
The social hierarchy and the adminstration of the valley are distributed among six primary lineages, traditionally listed in the following order of presedence

1 '''Mahar''' '''(महर)'''
2 '''Waldia''' '''( ) '''
3 '''Soun''' '''()'''
4 '''Seti''' '''()'''
5 '''Kharayat'''

== Geography ==
[[File:AesculusIndica.jpg|left|250px|thumb| Himalayan view from Pithoragarh]]
Pithoragarh is located at {{Coord|29.58|N|80.22|E|}}.<ref>[http://www.fallingrain.com/world/IN/39/Pithoragarh.html Falling Rain Genomics, Inc – Pithoragarh]</ref> in the district of [[Pithoragarh district|Pithoragarh]], [[Uttarakhand]], India. It lies in the revenue Division of [[Kumaon Division|Kumaon]]<ref>{{cite book|title=Kumaon Himalaya|publisher=Shree Almora Book Depot|isbn=9788190020992|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pWs-AgAACAAJ&q=almora|language=en}}</ref> and is located 188 km northeast of [[Nainital]], the administrative headquarters of Kumaon. It has an average elevation of 1,627 [[metre]]s (5,338 [[foot (length)|feet]]).<ref name=gazetteer>[http://pithoragarh.nic.in/Gazetteer/gazetter19.pdf A document from official website of Pithoragarh] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410072247/http://pithoragarh.nic.in/Gazetteer/gazetter19.pdf |date=10 April 2009 }}</ref><ref>[http://pithoragarh.nic.in/ Official website of Pithoragarh]</ref> It is situated in the centre of the western half of the [[Saur Valley]]. The valley is spread across around 50 square kilometers. According to the [[Bureau of Indian Standards]], on a scale ranging from I to V in order of increasing susceptibility to earthquakes, the city lies inside [[Earthquake hazard zoning of india|seismic zone V]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Hazard profiles of Indian districts|publisher=National Capacity Building Project in Disaster Management, UNDP|url=http://www.undp.org.in/dmweb/hazardprofile.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060519100611/http://www.undp.org.in/dmweb/hazardprofile.pdf|access-date=17 October 2016|archive-date=19 May 2006}}</ref> It lies in the Moderate damage risk (B) area in Wind & Cyclone Zone and is declared a No Flood Zone.

===Climate===
Pithoragarh has a monsoon-influenced climate. The summer season from April to mid-June is moderately warm with occasional thunderstorms, whilst the monsoon season from mid-June to mid-September is humid with heavy showers almost daily. This gives way to a warm and sunny autumn season. The winter season brings pleasant afternoons, very cold mornings, and spells of frontal rain accompanied by sparse snowfall.
{{Weather box 
| width = auto
| open = yes
|metric first = yes
|single line = yes
| location = Pithoragarh
| temperature colour = pastel

| Jan mean C =7.8
| Feb mean C =9.4
| Mar mean C =14.2
| Apr mean C =19.2
| May mean C =22.1
| Jun mean C =23.1
| Jul mean C =21.9
| Aug mean C =21.6
| Sep mean C =20.4
| Oct mean C =17.4
| Nov mean C =13.2
| Dec mean C =9.7
| year mean C = 16.7

|Jan high C= 13.7
|Feb high C= 15.5
|Mar high C= 20.7
|Apr high C= 25.9
|May high C= 28.7
|Jun high C= 28.5
|Jul high C= 25.9
|Aug high C= 25.4
|Sep high C= 24.9
|Oct high C= 23.3
|Nov high C= 19.7
|Dec high C= 15.8
|year high C= 22.3

| Jan low C =1.9
| Feb low C =3.4
| Mar low C =7.7
| Apr low C =12.6
| May low C =15.7
| Jun low C =17.7
| Jul low C =17.9
| Aug low C =17.8
| Sep low C =16
| Oct low C =11.5
| Nov low C =6.8
| Dec low C =3.5
| year low C =11

| Jan precipitation mm =37.4
| Feb precipitation mm =42.8
| Mar precipitation mm =39.4
| Apr precipitation mm =34.7
| May precipitation mm =56.7
| Jun precipitation mm =164.8
| Jul precipitation mm =317.3
| Aug precipitation mm =305.2
| Sep precipitation mm =174.4
| Oct precipitation mm =47.9
| Nov precipitation mm =7.3
| Dec precipitation mm =16.7
| year precipitation mm =1244.5
| precipitation colour = green
| unit precipitation days =
| Jan precipitation days =3.4
| Feb precipitation days =3.8
| Mar precipitation days =3.7
| Apr precipitation days =3.1
| May precipitation days =4.1
| Jun precipitation days =10.9
| Jul precipitation days =16.5
| Aug precipitation days =17.6
| Sep precipitation days =10.5
| Oct precipitation days =2.9
| Nov precipitation days =1.2
| Dec precipitation days =1.3
| year precipitation days =79.1

|source = Weatherbase<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weather.php3?s=596060&cityname=Pithoragarh-Uttarakhand-India|title=Monthly Weather Averages Summary, Pithoragarh, India|access-date=2016-10-17}}</ref>
}}

== Government and politics ==
Pithoragarh is an urban town with a [[Municipal Council (India)|Nagar Palika Parishad]] or Municipal Council<ref>{{Cite web|title=Municipalities {{!}} District Pithoragarh, Government of Uttarakhand {{!}} India|url=https://pithoragarh.nic.in/public-utility-category/municipality/|access-date=2020-09-15|language=en-US}}</ref> spread over an area of 9 square km.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Census of India - Uttarakhand - Town Amenities (Excel Row 53)|url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB.html|access-date=15 September 2020|website=Census of India}}</ref> It is divided into 20 wards for the sake of administration.<ref>{{Cite web|author=Prem Punetha|date=Dec 18, 2019|title=12 ward members resign over use of Dev Singh Ground for exhibition {{!}} Dehradun News - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/dehradun/12-ward-members-resign-over-use-of-dev-singh-ground-for-exhibition/articleshow/72859073.cms|access-date=2020-09-15|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref> It is also part of the [[Almora (Lok Sabha constituency)|Almora Lok Sabha Constituency]], thus has BJP MP [[Ajay Tamta]] representing the city<ref>{{Cite web|title=Uttarakhand: BRO constructs 180-feet-long bailey bridge in cloudburst-hit Jauljibi sector|url=https://www.aninews.in/news/national/general-news/uttarakhand-bro-constructs-180-feet-long-bailey-bridge-in-cloudburst-hit-jauljibi-sector20200816233019/|access-date=2020-09-15|website=ANI News|language=en}}</ref> and part of the Pithoragarh Vidhan Sabha constituency, represented by INC's [[Mayukh Mahar]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=MP/MLA {{!}} District Almora, Government of Uttarakhand {{!}} India|url=https://almora.nic.in/mp-mla/|access-date=2020-09-15|language=en-US}}</ref>

Pithoragarh town, before the creation of a Municipal Board, was administered as a Town Area by a committee consisting of 10 members and a chairman. The Municipality of Pithoragarh came into existence on 24 Nov 1962 and the members and the chairman of Town Area Committee became its members. The board was, however, dissolved on 12 Mar 1963, and the town was then administered by the [[District Magistrate]], who was the ex-officio chairman of the board under the U.P. Municipalities Act of 1916. There was no elected body and the affairs were supervised by an Officer-in-charge (a deputy collector) to whom the powers were delegated by the District Magistrate.<ref name="Gazetteer 1979" />{{rp|157}}

== Culture ==
[[File:Hilljatra-festival-photos.jpg|thumb|Hiljatra in Pithoragarh]]

=== Festivals ===
[[Pithoragarh Mahotsav]] has played a significant role in conserving and sharing Pithorgarh's unique culture. It showcases local culture through music and dance, often featuring performances in the [[Kumaoni language]].

'''Kandali Festival''' A flower called Kandali ([[Strobilanthes wallichii]]) blooms once every twelve years in the Chaudans region of Pithoragarh district, and the people celebrate the Kandali festival between August and October. Local people, known as Shaukars or Rangs, take part in the week-long festival with joy and enthusiasm in various villages throughout the region. The festival begins with the worship of a [[Shiva linga]] made of a flour mixture of barley and buckwheat. During this festival, local liquor is traditionally consumed. It is performed in a decorated corner of the courtyard by each household. People pray for good fortune. The individual Poojas are followed by a community feast. Then, the women and men, in traditional dresses and laden with gold and silver ornaments, assemble around a tree on the sacred ground of the village. Strips of white cloth are tied to the tree and a flag is raised.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://kumaon.gov.in/pages/display/90-kandali-festival|title=Kandali Festival|publisher=Govt of Kumaon}}</ref>

'''Hilljatra''' is a pastoralists' and agriculturalists' festival, which is celebrated in some parts of Pithoragarh districts. The aathon (eight day of bhado) and Gawra Visarjan became part of Hilljatra during the development process. The festival, which originated in West Nepal's Sorar (Mahakali) region, was first introduced to the valley in Kumor village, Pithoragarh.The hiljatra of Urai (Dewalthal)is the most famous.Tha tableau of the Lakhiya bhoot is the main attraction.On the evening of hiljatra,worship of goddess Mahakali is performed tableaux are tajen out.The people of Bajethi, another village near Pithoragarh, accepted the Jatra, and it was modified and introduced as Hiran chital in the Kanalichhina and Askot regions. Hilljatra is linked to ropai (paddy planting) and other rainy-season agricultural and pastoral labours (Hill = mud, Jatra = Jaat). It has also been linked to the [[Champawat]] ruler's victory.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://kumaon.gov.in/pages/display/89-hilljatra|title=Hilljatra|publisher=Govt of Kumaon}}</ref>

=== In popular culture ===
[[File:pithoragarh Panorama.jpg|center|900px|thumb|A panoramic view of Pithoragarh]]
The small town was extensively described in a novel by American author Bradley Swift, ''From Pithoragarh to Pittsburg''. Major parts of the Bollywood film [[Sandeep Aur Pinky Faraar]] have been shot in the city.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Service |first1=Tribune News |title=Bollywood in Pithoragarh for 'Sandeep & Pinki Farar' |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/bollywood-in-pithoragarh-for-sandeep--pinki-farar-508379 |access-date=20 February 2020 |work=Tribuneindia News Service |language=en}}</ref>

== Transport ==

[[File:Pithoragarh Naini Saini Airport.jpg|thumb|[[Pithoragarh Airport|Naini Saini Airport]]]]
Pithoragarh is not connected by any direct [[Rail transport in India|train services]]; however, it is well connected by road, and it also has an airport. The [[National Highway 9 (India)|National Highway 9]] passes through Pithoragarh.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://egazette.nic.in/WriteReadData/2015/163579.pdf|title=National highway 9 route substitution notification|date=31 Mar 2015|website=[[The Gazette of India]]|access-date=1 Aug 2018}}</ref> [[Landslides]] and [[cloudburst]]s, caused by heavy rains that fall during the summer monsoon, often interrupt transportation networks.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Singh|first1=Kautilya|title=263 roads across Uttarakhand closed, efforts on to open them for vehicular movement|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/dehradun/263-roads-across-Uttarakhand-closed-efforts-on-to-open-them-for-vehicular-movement/articleshow/53288408.cms|access-date=18 October 2016|agency=TNN|work=The Times of India|date=19 July 2016|location=Dehradun}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Singh|first1=Kautilya|title=Heavy rains block 338 roads in Uttarakhand|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/dehradun/Heavy-rains-block-338-roads-in-Uttarakhand/articleshow/53271509.cms|access-date=18 October 2016|agency=TNN|work=The Times of India|date=18 July 2016|location=Dehradun}}</ref>

The [[Pithoragarh Airport]], also known as the Naini Saini Airport, is located about {{convert|5|km|mi}} north-east of the city. The airport, which was constructed in 1991 for administrative use,<ref name="Chakrabarty">{{cite news|last1=Chakrabarty|first1=Arpita|title=Naini-Saini airstrip awaits flying license|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/dehradun/Naini-Saini-airstrip-awaits-flying-license/articleshow/52857515.cms|access-date=17 October 2016|agency=TNN|work=The Times of India|date=21 July 2016|location=Almora}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Chakrabarty|first1=Arpita|title=No commercial flights from Pithoragarh any time soon|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/dehradun/No-commercial-flights-from-Pithoragarh-any-time-soon/articleshow/54270318.cms|access-date=17 October 2016|agency=TNN|work=The Times of India|date=10 September 2016|location=Almora}}</ref> was previously mainly used by the [[Indian Air Force]] for defence purposes.<ref name ="ER">{{cite web|title=Executive Summary, Expansion of Naini-Saini airport|url=http://ueppcb.uk.gov.in/files/Naini-Saiini-Airstrip-Executive-Summary-English_1.pdf |access-date=20 September 2019|work=[[RITES]]|date=October 2012}}</ref> The airport was upgraded in 2016 at an estimated cost of Rs 64.91 crore.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Chakrabarty |first1=Arpita |title=Regular flights to take off from Naini Saini airstrip from Jan 26 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/dehradun/Regular-flights-to-take-off-from-Naini-Saini-airstrip-from-Jan-26/articleshow/49806761.cms |access-date=20 February 2020 |work=The Times of India |date=16 Nov 2015 |language=en}}</ref>

[[Bareilly Airport]] is located around 249 km from Pithoragarh is a major airport nearby which is connected to cities like Mumbai, New Delhi and Bengaluru.

Pithoragarh is connected to the rest of [[Uttarakhand]] by all-weather motorable roads. The total road length in Pithoragarh is 80 km.<ref name="dchba" />{{rp|683}} [[Haldwani]] and [[Tanakpur]] are two entry points for entering Pithoragarh by road. Both are connected by railway services, the nearest railway stations being [[Tanakpur railway station|Tanakpur]] (151 km) and [[Kathgodam railway station|Kathgodam]] (212 km). Regular state bus transport services along with private taxi services are available at both places. Buses, which are the most commonly used mode of transport, are run by government agencies and private operators. Agencies operating long-distance bus services include [[Uttarakhand Transport Corporation]], K.M.O.U, and various private operators.

==Education==
[[File:Temporary campus of SIT pithoaragarh.jpg|thumb|Temporary campus of [[Seemant Institute of Technology]]]]
Schools in Pithoragarh are run by the state government or private organisations, Hindi and English are the primary languages of instruction. Schools in Pithoragarh follow the [[Education in India|"10+2+3" plan]].

After completing their secondary education, students typically enroll in Inter Colleges that have a higher secondary facility and are affiliated with the [[Central Board of Secondary Education]], [[CISCE]] or the Department of Education of the [[Government of Uttarakhand]]. They usually choose a focus on liberal arts, business, or science.{{citation needed|date=July 2018}}

As of 2011, Pithoragarh had 17 primary schools, 20 middle schools, 22 secondary schools, 14 senior secondary schools, and 1 degree college.<ref name="dchba">{{cite book|title=District Census Handbook Pithoragarh Part-A|publisher=Directorate of Census Operations, Uttarakhand|location=Dehradun|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/0507_PART_A_DCHB_PITHORAGARH.pdf|access-date=11 July 2017}}</ref>{{rp|685}} Before independence, during the middle of the 19th century when Pithoragarh was part of [[Almora district|Almora]], there were only two middle schools in Pithoragarh.<ref name="education">{{cite web|last1=Indusnettechnologies|first1=Goutam Pal, Dipak K S, SWD|title=Education: District of Pithoragarh, Uttarakhand, India|url=http://pithoragarh.nic.in/pages/display/70-education|website=pithoragarh.nic.in|access-date=11 July 2017}}</ref>

LSM Govt. Post Graduate College is the only government college in the town providing studies up to post-graduation.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Indusnettechnologies|first1=Goutam Pal, Dipak K S, SWD|title=L. S. M. Government Post Graduate College Pithoragarh (Uttarakhand)|url=http://pithoragarh.nic.in/pages/view/36/37-l-s-m--government-post-graduate-college-pithoragarh-(uttarakhand)-|website=pithoragarh.nic.in|access-date=11 July 2017}}</ref> It was previously affiliated to [[Kumaun University]], [[Nainital]]. With the growing impact of [[Information technology in India|I.T.]], the government opened [[Seemant Institute of Technology|SIT Pithoragarh]] in 2011. Almost a dozen of privately owned computer centres opened up later in the town.<ref name="education" /> A few of the IT centres which are in Pithoragarh town are [[NIIT]], Hiltron, [[Aptech]], UpHill Computers, Info. Park, Sri Calculation and Care Computer.

Construction of a medical college is proposed by the state government and it has been allotted a budget of ₹450 crores ($64 million).<ref>{{Cite web|title=पिथौरागढ़ मेडिकल कालेज का कार्य प्रारंभ होने के आसार|url=https://www.jagran.com/uttarakhand/pithoragarh-the-work-of-pithoragarh-medical-college-is-likely-to-start-21867774.html|access-date=2022-02-15|website=Dainik Jagran|language=hi}}</ref>

== Temples==
*[[Haat Kalika Temple]]
*[[Kotgari Temple]]
*[[Patal Bhuvaneshwar]]

== Notable people ==
* [[Khadg Singh Valdiya]]
* [[Vinod Kapri]]
* [[Hemant Pandey]]

*[[Pushkar Singh Dhami]]
*[[Unmukt Chand]]
* [[Mary Reed (missionary)|Mary Reed]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==

* [http://pithoragarh.nic.in/ Pithoragarh website]
* [http://wikimapia.org/country/India/Uttaranchal/Pithoragarh/ Pithoragarh] at ''[[wikimapia]]''.

{{Pithoragarh district}}
{{Municipalities of Uttarakhand}}

{{Uttarakhand}}

[[Category:Pithoragarh| ]]
[[Category:Tourism in Uttarakhand]]
[[Category:Cities and towns in Pithoragarh district]]
{{ci|date=October 2022}}

Ahir

2026-03-26T12:10:24Z

172.68.164.28:

{{Short description|Social community of India}}
{{for|the village in Turkey|Ahır, İpsala}}
{{pp|small=yes}}
{{Infobox caste
| caste_name = Ahir/Aheer
| subdivisions = Yaduvanshi Ahir Nandvanshi Ahir Gwalvanshi Ahir
| populated_states = India and Nepal
| religions = [[Hinduism]]{{cn|date=July 2025}}
| languages = Varies depending on region{{cn|date=July 2025}}
}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2019}}

'''Ahir''' or '''Aheer''' (derived from the [[Sanskrit]] word: [[Abhira people|abhira]])<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shashi |first=Shyam Singh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=duIjAQAAIAAJ&q=Ahir |title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Tribes: The tribal world in transition |date=1994 |publisher=Anmol Publications |isbn=978-81-7041-836-8 |language=en}}</ref> is a [[community]] of traditionally elite pastoralists in India, most of whom now use the [[Yadav]] surname, as they consider the two terms synonymous.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vkkK6SZOo_gC&pg=PA1551 |title=People of India: Uttar Pradesh |date=2005 |publisher=Anthropological Survey of India |isbn=978-81-7304-114-3 |pages=1551 |language=en |quote=These Ahir of past, now identify themselves as Yadav or Yadubansi and to support this claim use the surname, Yadav, and thus try to distinguish themselves from other constituent groups forming the large Ahir caste.}}</ref> The Ahirs are variously described as a [[Caste system in India|caste]], a [[clan]], a [[Race (human classification)|race]], and/or a [[tribe]].

The traditional occupations of Ahirs are cattle-herding and agriculture. Since late 19th century to early 20th century, Ahirs have adopted ''Yadav'' word for their community and have claimed descent from the mythological king [[Yadu]]. This is a part of a movement of social and political resurgence ([[sanskritisation]]) under the influence of [[Arya Samaj]].<ref name="AhirSanskritisation"> Sanskritisation of Ahir:

* {{cite book|last=Jaffrelot|first=Christophe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OAkW94DtUMAC|title=India's silent revolution: the rise of the lower castes in North India|publisher=C. Hurst & Co.|year=2003|isbn=978-1-85065-670-8|location=London|page=189|language=en|quote=Ahirs willingly subjected themselves to Sanskritisation because of their special relation to sacred cow but alas because the Arya Samaj exerted significant Sanskritising influence over the Yadav movement. As early as 1895, the ruler of Rewari, Rao Yudhishter Singh ( the father of Rao Bahadur Balbir Singh), invited Swami Dayananda to his state. Branches of the Arya Samaj flourished soon after and Rewari provided a base from which Arya Samaj ''updeshaks'' (itinerant preachers) operated in neighbouring areas.|access-date=2011-08-16}}
* {{cite book|last1=Jassal|first1=Smita Tewari|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jA0tAQAAIAAJ|title=Contributions to Indian sociology|author2=École pratique des hautes études (France). Section des sciences économiques et sociales|author3=University of Oxford. Institute of Social Anthropology|publisher=Mouton|year=2001|pages=319–351|chapter=Caste in the Colonial State: Mallahs in the census}} Quote: "The movement, which had a wide interregional spread, attempted to submerge regional names such as Goala, Ahir, Ahar, Gopa, etc., in favour of the generic term Yadava (Rao 1979). Hence a number of pastoralist castes were subsumed under Yadava, in accordance with decisions taken by the regional and national level caste sabhas. The Yadavas became the first among the shudras to gain the right to wear the janeu, a case of successful sanskritisation which continues till date. As a prominent agriculturist caste in the region, despite belonging to the shudra varna, the Yadavas claimed Kshatriya status tracing descent from the Yadu dynasty. The caste's efforts matched those of census officials, for whom standardisation of overlapping names was a matter of policy. The success of the Yadava movement also lies in the fact that, among the jaati sabhas, the Yadava sabha was probably the strongest, its journal, ''Ahir Samachar'', having an all-India spread. These factors strengthened local efforts, such as in Bhojpur, where the Yadavas, locally known as Ahirs, refused to do ''[[begar]]'', or forced labour, for the landlords and simultaneously prohibited liquor consumption, child marriages, and so on."
* {{Cite book|last1=Berti|first1=Daniela|title=''Cultural Entrenchment of Hindutva'' Local Mediations and Forms of Convergence|last2=Kanungo|first2=Pralay|last3=Jaoul|first3=Nicolas|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2011|isbn=978-1-138-65995-7|edition=1st|page=246|language=English|quote=Marginalised groups, often considered as Shudras, like the Ahirs (Yadavs), Kurmis and the Gujars, began to redefine their emerging political and economic role in society by fighting on the same 'religious' grounds. In so doing, they refashioned their status as warriors and kings who had played a special role in history as guardians of Hinduism (Gooptu 2001 : 195; see also Pinch 1996 : 118–38). Gyanendra Pandey (1990: 66–108) describes how, since the end of the 19th century, such processes of Sanskritisation (adoption of 'higher' forms of Hinduism) among lower castes have joined up with Hindu nationalist movements, such as the cow protection movement, and how these interrelations have been central to the formation of a Hindu and a Muslim community in northern India.}}
* {{Cite book|last=Adcock|first=C. S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2UMfAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA46|title=Limits of Tolerance: Indian Secularism and the Politics of Religious Freedom|date=2014|publisher=OUP USA|isbn=978-0-19-999544-8|page=46|language=en|quote=In U.P., the Ahir/Yadav castes, whom elites deemed Shudras, also used shästrärth debates to defend their claims to elevated, Kshatriya status from at least the 1890s. In the eastern districts of U.P., monks of the Vaishnava Ramanandi order defended the Ahirs' claims in public debate; in western U.P., their champions in debate were often members of the Arya Samaj.}}</ref>

Ahirs are found throughout India but are particularly concentrated in the northern area. Apart from India, Ahirs have significant population in [[Nepal]], [[Mauritius]], [[Fiji]], [[South Africa]] and the [[Caribbean]] especially [[Guyana]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]], and [[Suriname]]. In Mauritius and Caribbean they are mostly the descendants of [[Indentured servitude|indentured servants]] who arrived in the 19th and 20th centuries from the former pre-partitioned sub-continent of India during the British Raj.<ref>*{{Cite journal|doi = 10.4000/samaj.3886|title = The 'Land of the Vaish'? Caste Structure and Ideology in Mauritius|year = 2015|last1 = Claveyrolas|first1 = Mathieu|journal = South Asia Multidisciplinary Academic Journal|doi-access = free| s2cid=143034648 |issn = 1960-6060}}
*{{Cite journal|jstor = 177986|title = The Retention of Caste Notions among the Indian Immigrants in British Guiana during the Nineteenth Century|last1 = Moore|first1 = Brian L.|journal = Comparative Studies in Society and History|year = 1977|volume = 19|issue = 1|pages = 96–107|doi = 10.1017/S0010417500008513|s2cid = 143278239}}
*{{Cite journal|jstor = 23050197|title = Indian Heritage in Trinidad, West Indies|last1 = Jha|first1 = J. C.|journal = Caribbean Quarterly|year = 1973|volume = 19|issue = 2|pages = 28–50|doi = 10.1080/00086495.1973.11829152}}
*{{cite journal |url=https://think-asia.org/bitstream/handle/11540/3290/wp4.pdf?sequence=1 |title=Ethnic and Caste Diversity: Implications for Development |id=NRM Working Paper No. 4 |date=June 2005 |first1=Rajendra |last1=Pradhan |first2=Ava |last2=Shrestha |journal=Think Asia |publisher=[[Asian Development Bank]] |hdl=11540/3290 |archive-date=11 November 2022 |access-date=7 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221111182352/https://think-asia.org/bitstream/handle/11540/3290/wp4.pdf?sequence=1 |url-status=dead }}
*{{Cite web|url=https://www.historytoday.com/archive/indian-labour-british-guiana|title=Indian Labour in British Guiana | History Today}}
*{{Cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/international/2017/09/02/the-legacy-of-indian-migration-to-european-colonies|title=The legacy of Indian migration to European colonies|newspaper=The Economist|date=2 September 2017}}</ref>

== Etymology ==
Ahir is believed to be a derivation of the [[Sanskrit]] word, "abhira", and the present term in the [[Bengali (language)|Bengali]] and [[Marathi language|Marathi]] languages is ''abhir''.<ref name="Garg1992">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w9pmo51lRnYC&pg=PA113 |title=Encyclopaedia of the Hindu world |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |year=1992 |isbn=978-81-7022-374-0 |editor-last=Garg |editor-first=Gaṅga Ram |volume=1 |pages=113–114}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=People of Maharashtra |url=https://www.gazetteers.maharashtra.gov.in/cultural.maharashtra.gov.in/english/gazetteer/land_and_people/L%20%26%20P%20pdf/Chapter%20II/2%20Major%20Castes%20and%20Tribes.pdf?}}</ref>

== History ==
[[File:Gujarati Ahir.jpg|thumb|300x300px|This is a picture clicked during an [[Ahir]] caste meeting in [[Gujarat]].]]

=== Early history ===
Theories regarding the origins of the ancient [[Abhira tribe|Abhira]] – the putative ancestors of the Ahirs – are varied for the same reasons as are the theories regarding their location; that is, there is a reliance on interpretation of linguistic and factual analysis of old texts that are known to be unreliable and ambiguous.<ref name="Bhattacharya1996p126" />

Some, such as A. P. Karmakar, consider the Abhira to be a [[Proto-Dravidian]] tribe who migrated to India and point to the ''[[Purana]]s'' as evidence. Others, such as Sunil Kumar Bhattacharya, say that the Abhira are recorded as being in India in the 1st-century CE work, the ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]''. Bhattacharya considers the Abhira of old to be a race rather than a tribe.<ref name="Bhattacharya1996p126">{{cite book |title=Krishna – Cult in Indian Art |first=Sunil Kumar |last=Bhattacharya |publisher=M.D. Publications |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-7533-001-6 |page=126 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SyyNIL7Ug2kC}}</ref> The sociologist [[M. S. A. Rao]] and historians such as P. M. Chandorkar and T. Padmaja say that epigraphical and historical evidence exists for equating the Ahirs with the ancient [[Yadava]] tribe.<ref>{{Cite book|first = Sumit | last = Guha |title=Environment and Ethnicity in India, 1200–1991| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=GSa5blriOYcC&pg=PA47|year = 2006| publisher = University of Cambridge|page=47|isbn=978-0-521-02870-7}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book| first = M. S. A. | last=Rao |title=Social Movements in India |volume=1| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=SODZAAAAMAAJ&q=124|year=1978 | publisher =Manohar|pages=124, 197, 210}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | first = Padmaja|last= T. |title=Temples of Kr̥ṣṇa in South India: History, Art, and Traditions in Tamilnāḍu|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=pzgaS1wRnl8C&pg=RA1-PA35|year = 2001 | publisher = Archaeology Dept., University of Mysore|pages=25, 34|isbn=978-8-170-17398-4}}</ref>

Whether they were a race or a tribe, nomadic in tendency or displaced or part of a conquering wave, with origins in Indo-Scythia or Central Asia, Aryan or [[Dravidian peoples|Dravidian]] – there is no academic consensus, and much in the differences of opinion relate to fundamental aspects of historiography, such as controversies regarding dating the writing of the ''Mahabharata'' and acceptance or otherwise of the [[Indo-Aryan migration]] (which is universally accepted in mainstream scholarship).{{refn|name="OIT no support"|Out of India aka Indigenous Aryans has no support:
* Romila Thapar (2006): "there is no scholar at this time seriously arguing for the indigenous origin of Aryans".<ref>{{cite book |last=Thapar |first=Romila |date=2006 |title=India: Historical Beginnings and the Concept of the Aryan |publisher=National Book Trust |isbn=978-81-237-4779-8 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=sDBuAAAAMAAJ&q=indigenous+aryans}}</ref>
* Wendy Doniger (2017): "The opposing argument, that speakers of Indo-European languages were indigenous to the Indian subcontinent, is not supported by any reliable scholarship. It is now championed primarily by Hindu nationalists, whose religious sentiments have led them to regard the theory of Aryan migration with some asperity."<ref>Wendy Doniger (2017), [https://inference-review.com/article/another-great-story "Another Great Story"]", review of Asko Parpola's ''The Roots of Hinduism''; in: ''Inference, International Review of Science'', Volume 3, Issue 2</ref>
* Girish Shahane (September 14, 2019), in response to Narasimhan et al. (2019): "Hindutva activists, however, have kept the Aryan Invasion Theory alive, because it offers them the perfect strawman, 'an intentionally misrepresented proposition that is set up because it is easier to defeat than an opponent's real argument' ... The Out of India hypothesis is a desperate attempt to reconcile linguistic, archaeological and genetic evidence with Hindutva sentiment and nationalistic pride, but it cannot reverse time's arrow ... The evidence keeps crushing Hindutva ideas of history."<ref>Girish Shahane (September 14, 2019), [https://scroll.in/article/937043/why-hindutva-supporters-love-to-hate-the-discredited-aryan-invasion-theory ''Why Hindutva supporters love to hate the discredited Aryan Invasion Theory''], Scroll.in</ref>
* Koenraad Elst (May 10, 2016): "Of course it is a fringe theory, at least internationally, where the Aryan Invasion Theory (AIT) is still the official paradigm. In India, though, it has the support of most archaeologists, who fail to find a trace of this Aryan influx and instead find cultural continuity."<ref name="Elst_2016">Koenraad Elst (May 10, 2016), Koenraad Elst: "I am not aware of any governmental interest in correcting distorted history", ''Swarajya Magazine''</ref>}} Similarly, there is no certainty regarding the occupational status of the Abhira, with ancient texts sometimes referring to them as pastoral and cowherders but at other times as robber tribes.<ref>{{cite book |first=Aditya |last=Malik |chapter=The Puskara Mahatmya: A Short Report |page=200 |title=The History of Sacred Places in India As Reflected in Traditional Literature |editor-first=Hans |editor-last=Bakker |location=Leiden |year=1990 |isbn=978-90-04-09318-8 |publisher=BRILL and the International Association of Sanskrit Studies |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wPgBdyxD5MkC&pg=PA200}}</ref>

=== Kingdoms ===
{{Expand section|date=November 2024}}
*Ahir dynasty in pre-12th century areas in present-day [[Nepal]]<ref>{{cite book|first=Punam |last=Yadav|title=Social Transformation in Post-conflict Nepal: A Gender Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3QQRDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT57|year=2016|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-317-35389-8|page=57}}</ref>
*Ahir-Rajas of [[Sagar, Madhya Pradesh|Sagar]]<ref>{{cite book |first= A N |last= Sharma | page =13 |title= The Beria (Rai Dancers)A Socio-demographic, Reproductive, and Child Health Care Practices Profile
|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=YX1siOYKthgC&dq=ahir+Rajas+sagar&pg=PA13|isbn=81-7625-714-1|year= 2006|publisher= Sarup & Sons }}</ref>
*Ahir Rajas of Gawror fort, [[Patna district|Patna]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nAO2AAAAIAAJ&q=ahir++rajas |title=Historical Researches Series |date=1963 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Military involvements ===
[[File:'B' Company (Ahir), 1st Battalion, The 5th Light Infantry.jpg|thumb|'B' Company (Ahir), 1st Battalion, The 5th Light Infantry, Quetta, 1918<ref>{{Cite web |title=Indian officers and non-commissioned officers from 'B' Company (Ahir), 1st Battalion, The 5th Light Infantry, Quetta, 1918 {{!}} Online Collection {{!}} National Army Museum, London |url=https://collection.nam.ac.uk/detail.php?q=searchType=simple&resultsDisplay=list&simpleText=Ahirs&pos=2&total=10&page=1&acc=1960-12-120-4-95 |access-date=2023-11-03 |website=collection.nam.ac.uk}}</ref>]]

[[File:Indian officers, 'B' Company (Ahir), 1st Battalion, 5th Light Infantry.jpg|thumb|Indian officers, 'B' Company (Ahir), 1st Battalion, 5th Light Infantry, Quetta 1918.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Online Collection {{!}} National Army Museum, London |url=https://collection.nam.ac.uk/results.php?searchType=simple&resultsDisplay=list&simpleText=Ahirs |access-date=2023-11-03 |website=collection.nam.ac.uk}}</ref>

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Rezang_La_Memorial.jpg

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Brave_Ahir.jpg

]]

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0_rezangla_place.jpg

The [[British Raj|British]] rulers of India classified the Ahirs of Punjab as an "agricultural tribe" in the 1920s, which was at that time synonymous with being a "[[martial race]]".<ref>{{cite book|first=Rajit K. |last=Mazumder|title=The Indian army and the making of Punjab|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8G8COTxOUkgC&pg=PA105|year=2003|publisher=Orient Blackswan|isbn=978-81-7824-059-6|page=105}}</ref> This was a designation created by administrators that classified each ethnic group as either "martial" or "non-martial": a "martial race" was typically considered brave and well built for fighting,<ref name="rand">{{Cite journal |last=Rand |first=Gavin |title=Martial Races and Imperial Subjects: Violence and Governance in Colonial India 1857–1914 |journal=European Review of History |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=1–20 |date=March 2006 |url= |doi=10.1080/13507480600586726|s2cid=144987021 }}</ref> whilst the remainder were those whom the British believed to be unfit for battle because of their sedentary lifestyles.<ref name="Street">{{cite book |title=Martial Races: The military, race and masculinity in British Imperial Culture, 1857–1914 |last=Streets |first=Heather |year=2004 |publisher=Manchester University Press |location= |isbn=978-0-7190-6962-8 |page=241 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BscnZT_1po8C |access-date=20 October 2010}}</ref> However, the martial races were also considered politically subservient, intellectually inferior, lacking the initiative or leadership qualities to command large military formations. The British had a policy of recruiting the martial Indians from those who has less access to education as they were easier to control.<ref name="Khalidi2003">{{cite book|author=Omar Khalidi|title=Khaki and the Ethnic Violence in India: Army, Police, and Paramilitary Forces During Communal Riots|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B-NtAAAAMAAJ|year=2003|publisher=Three Essays Collective|quote= Apart from their physique, the martial races were regarded as politically subservient or docile to authority|page=5|isbn=978-81-88789-09-2}}</ref><ref name="Levine2003">{{cite book|author=Philippa Levine|title=Prostitution, Race, and Politics: Policing Venereal Disease in the British Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=It1lPzFCG9EC|year=2003|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-415-94447-2|pages=284–285|quote=The Saturday review had made much the same argument a few years earlier in relation to the armies raised by Indian rulers in princely states. They lacked competent leadership and were uneven in quality. Commander in chief Roberts, one of the most enthusiastic proponents of the martial race theory, though poorly of the native troops as a body. Many regarded such troops as childish and simple. The British, claims, David Omissi, believe martial Indians to be stupid. Certainly, the policy of recruiting among those without access to much education gave the British more semblance of control over their recruits.}}</ref> According to modern historian Jeffrey Greenhunt on military history, "The Martial Race theory had an elegant symmetry. Indians who were intelligent and educated were defined as cowards, while those defined as brave were uneducated and backward". According to Amiya Samanta, the marital race was chosen from people of mercenary spirit (a soldier who fights for any group or country that will pay him/her), as these groups lacked nationalism as a trait.<ref name="Samanta2000">{{cite book|author=Amiya K. Samanta|title=Gorkhaland Movement: A Study in Ethnic Separatism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J4GqdfG0EU8C&pg=PA26|year=2000|publisher=APH Publishing|isbn=978-81-7648-166-3|pages=26–|quote=Dr . Jeffrey Greenhunt has observed that " The Martial Race Theory had an elegant symmetry. Indians who were intelligent and educated were defined as cowards, while those defined as brave were uneducated and backward. Besides their mercenary spirit was primarily due to their lack of nationalism.}}</ref> Ahirs had been recruited into the army from 1898.<ref>{{cite book |title=Peasants and monks in British India |first=William R. |last=Pinch |publisher=University of California Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-520-20061-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/peasantsmonksinb0000pinc |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/peasantsmonksinb0000pinc/page/90 90]}}</ref> In that year, the British raised four Ahir companies, two of which were in the [[95th Russell's Infantry]].<ref>{{cite book|first=M. S. A. |last=Rao |title=Social movements and social transformation: a study of two backward classes movements in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tZAiAAAAMAAJ|year=1979|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=978-0-333-90255-4 }}</ref>{{page needed|date=May 2020}} In post-independence India, some Ahir units have been involved in celebrated military actions, such as at [[Rezang La]] in the 1962 [[Sino-Indian War]] that saw the last stand of Charlie company, consisting of 114 Ahirs of 13 Kumaon, and in the [[1965 India-Pakistan War]].<ref name="Remembering Rezang La heroes">
{{cite news |author=Press Information Bureau, Government of India | title=Remembering Rezang La heroes |date=7 January 2007 |newspaper=Sainik samachar |url=http://sainiksamachar.nic.in/englisharchives/2007/oct01-07/h4.htm}}
</ref><ref name="Heroes of Rezang La">
{{cite news |author= Col Dilbag Dabas (Retd) | title=Heroes of Rezang La 1962 |date=15 December 2018 |newspaper=The Tribune |url= https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/haryanatribune/heroes-of-1962-rezang-la-battle-698535}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Mohan |last=Guruswamy |url=http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/dont-forget-the-heroes-of-rezang-la/article4112584.ece |title=Don't forget the heroes of Rezang La |work=The Hindu |date=20 November 2012 |access-date=13 July 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4SBWc27AVmwC&pg=PA212| title=Combat Diary: An illustrated history of operations conducted by 4th Kumaon| publisher=Lancer Books |year=2010 |first=Jasbir |last=Singh |page=212| isbn=978-1-935501-18-3}}</ref>

== Sanskritisation ==
===Recreating the past for new identity===
{{See also|De-Sanskritisation}}
It was from the 1920s that some Ahirs began to adopt the name of ''Yadav'' and created the [[All-India Yadav Mahasabha|Yadav Mahasabha]], founded by ideologues such as Rajit Singh. Several caste histories and periodicals to trace a Kshatriya origin were written at the time, notably by Mannanlal Abhimanyu. These were part of the jostling among various castes for socio-economic status and ritual under the Raj and they invoked support for a zealous, martial Hindu ethos.<ref>{{cite book |first=Nandini |last=Gooptu |title=The Politics of the Urban Poor in Early Twentieth-Century India |pages=205–210 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wZTLEEGmZfQC&pg=PA205 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001|isbn=978-0-521-44366-1|quote=One of the most politically active and vocal among the shudra castes was the ahirs or yadavs. In 1922, an ahir conference was held in Lucknow, followed by another ahir ''mahotsav'' (festival) in Allahabad in 1923, where a provincial Mahasabha was inaugurated, with the new name of Yadav Mahasabha. The term yadav, to denote the ahirs, gained currency from this period. Rajit Singh, a yadav born in the Deoria district in 1897, and educated at Gorakhpur and Shikohabad, was instrumental in the formation of the Yadav Mahasabha. He had briefly worked in the Excise Department in Kanpur, but had resigned from his job to devote himself to organising yadav associations from 1921. In 1925, Rajit Singh settled in Benares and inaugurated the Benares Yadav Mahasabha, which soon emerged as the centre of the yadav caste movement in UP. From Benares, Rajit Singh edited the journal ''Yadav'', and also published a history of the yadav castes, entitled ''Yaduvamsa Prakash''. Several other yadav histories were published in rapid succession in the 1920s, written by another younger yadav leader of Benares, Mannalal Abhimanyu, a lawyer who was the son of a school teacher. He wrote ''Ahir Vamsa Pradip'' (1925) and ''Yadukul Sarvasya'' (1928), in which he attempted to demonstrate the kshatriya origin of the yadavs, with extensive references from both religious texts and British ethnographic tracts.|language=en}}</ref> Arya Samaj, a Hindu reformist organization also played an important role in ritual purification of Ahir/Yadavs and many low castes in order to incorporate them into Vedic Hinduism.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8OIUAQAAIAAJ |title=The Vernacularisation of Democracy: Politics, Caste, and Religion in India |last=Michuletti|first=Lucia|publisher=Routledge |year=2008 |page=140 |isbn=978-0-415-46732-2|quote=Hindu reformist organisations like the Arya Samaj which aimed to reform Hinduism and incorporate lower-caste groups within the fold of vedic Aryan Hinduism (see Rao 1979: 132-35), have a pivotal role in 'purifying' the customs of the Ahir/Yadavs and other lower castes through the adoption of Brahmanical Hindu practices. Brahmanical Hinduism emphasises vegetarianism, non-violence and ascetism (Fuller 1992: 88).|language=en}}</ref> In U.P, it was through shastrarth debates and with the help of reform movements like Arya Samaj and Vaishnava Ramanandi order in public debates that the Ahirs defended their claims to a higher social status.<ref>{{cite book|title=''The Limits of Tolerance'':Indian Secularism and the Politics of Religious Freedom|page=46|first= C.S.|last= Adcock|publisher= Oxford University Press|year=2014|isbn=978-0-19-999543-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DvMVDAAAQBAJ&dq=ahirs+The+Limits+of+Tolerance:+Indian+Secularism+and+the+Politics+of+Religious+Freedom+By+C.S.+Adcock&pg=PA46|quote= In U.P., the Ahir/Yadav castes, whom elites deemed Shudras, also used shastrarth debates to defend their claims to elevated, Kshatriya status from at least the 1890s. In the eastern districts of U.P., monks of the Vaishnava Ramanandi order defended the Ahirs' claims in public debate; in western U.P., their champions in debate were often members of the Arya Samaj.|language=en}}</ref> At the same time Ahir/Yadav intelligentsia also emphasized the socio-economic backwardness faced by their community and in 1927, a petition was sent to the [[Simon Commission]] describing how the Ahirs suffers from the same social disabilities and discrimination as the [[Chamar]]s.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8OIUAQAAIAAJ |title=The Vernacularisation of Democracy: Politics, Caste, and Religion in India |last=Michuletti|first=Lucia|publisher=Routledge |year=2008 |page=83 |isbn=978-0-415-46732-2|quote=This emphasis on number and on ''Yadavness'' versus 'status' is also evident in colonial petitions which portray the Ahirs as a 'backward/ depressed category' in an attempt to get benefits from the reservation provisions. It looks as if the Yadav intelligentsia not only learnt that Yadav social and economic progress or backwardness could be determined by measuring their share in the number of graduates, official appointments and parliamentary seats (Chakrabarty 1994: 150), but also that economic and social disabilities were not 'enough' and that 'ritual' disabilities had also to be proved. The political leaders invoked arguments about the historical deprivation of their communities' (see Gooptu 2001: 11). The following is an extract from a petition sent in 1927 to the Simon Commission, in which a member of the Ahir community illustrates how the community suffers from the same disabilities and discriminations as the Chamars (an untouchable caste).|language=en}}</ref> Despite explicitly expressing their commitment against untouchability, it has been observed that these movements by Yadav caste associations have not been egalitarian enough to include communities who are under Scheduled Castes and have claimed connection with Krishna.<ref name="Michuletti">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8OIUAQAAIAAJ |title=The Vernacularisation of Democracy: Politics, Caste, and Religion in India |last=Michuletti|first=Lucia|publisher=Routledge |year=2008 |page=149 |isbn=978-0-415-46732-2|quote=Although Yadav caste associations organise Other Backward Classes meetings and explicitly express their commitment against untouchability, I never met an SC member attending or delivering a speech at such events. A recent controversy showed how, in practice, Yadav caste associations are not willing to encompass in their social category members of SC communities who claim to descend from Krishna. At the AIYM meeting held in Gurgaon in 1998, a member of the committee raised the issue that Jatavs in Agra and Rajasthan had begun to adopt the Yadav title. A member of the audience pointed out that he had already written to the Mahasabha secretary to inform him that in Bharatpur (Rajasthan) the local Jatavs were calling themselves Yadavs. Another pointed out that in Udaipur, Jatavs who worked as builders and did casual labour were also calling themselves Yadavs and had adopted the ''Kadamb'' Yadav clan.|language=en}}</ref> Yadavs of Braj-Ahirwal attempted to "endlessly portray themselves" as inheritors of the heritage of local dynasties such as the Jats of Bharatpur and Alwar, Jadon Rajputs of Jaleshar and Karauli and fellow Ahir dynasties of Rewari and Mahabhan who were considered to be of Yaduvanshi descent.<ref name="Michuletti"/>{{rp|43}}

=== Participation in reactionary communal conflicts ===
The Ahirs in [[Benaras]], UP had been one of the more militant Hindu groups during pre-independent India. In one of the instances before independence, Hindu ''[[shudra]]'' caste groups as the Ahirs actively participated in a counter-reactionary communal conflict orchestrated by Arya Samaj.<ref>{{cite book |first=Nandini |last=Gooptu |title=The Politics of the Urban Poor in Early Twentieth-Century India |page=307 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wZTLEEGmZfQC&pg=PA307 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001|isbn=978-0-521-44366-1 |quote=The spread of the tanzeem movement in Benares further fuelled the religious expansion of Hindu organisations, and contributed to an escalation in local competition and communal conflict. Khalil Das' movement elicited a counter-reaction from the Arya Samaj and from such Hindu shudra caste groups as the ahirs, who were active participants in volunteer corps and akharas, and who, in Benares, were involved in an especially active yadav caste movement.... The Ahirs in particular who played an important role in militant Hinduism, retaliated strongly against the Tanzeem movement. In July,1930, about 200 Ahirs marched in procession to Trilochan, a sacred Hindu site and performed a religious ceremony in response to Tanzeem processions.|language=en}}</ref> Some writers are also of the opinion that many low-castes (including Ahirs) took to cow protection for asserting higher status since ''cow'' already had symbolic importance in Hinduism. This view of cow protection was different from the UP's urban elites.<ref>{{cite book|first=William|last=Gould|title=Religion and Conflict in Modern South Asia|year=2012|page=70|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|quote=Gyan Pandey's detailed research on the cow protection riots in eastern UP and Bihar in 1893 and 1917 relates the conflict to specific registers of caste difference and status assertion, in a context where the popular view of cow protection from the point of view of low-caste Ahirs, Koeris and Kurmis was quite different to that of UP's urban elites. For both Freitag and Pandey, cow protection became a means for relatively low-status communities to assert higher status via association with something of symbolic importance to Hinduism as a whole: in this case, the cow.|isbn=978-0-521-87949-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K2oexn_mLPIC&q=Religion+and+Conflict+in+Modern+South+Asia+By+Williiam+gould|language=en}}</ref>

== Distribution ==
Ahirs in India are known by numerous other names, including Gauli<ref>{{cite book |last=Mehta |first=B. H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gu_cN0MhteMC&pg=PA568 |title=Gonds of the Central Indian Highlands |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |year=1994 |volume=II |location=New Delhi |pages=568–569}}</ref> and Ghosi or Gop in [[North India]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Michelutti |first=Lucia |year=2002 |title=Sons of Krishna: the politics of Yadav community formation in a North Indian town |url=http://etheses.lse.ac.uk/2106/1/U613338.pdf |work=PhD Thesis Social Anthropology |publisher=London School of Economics and Political Science |pages=94–95}}</ref> In [[Gujarat]] and [[South India]] as Ayar, Golla and Konar.<ref>* {{cite book |last=Singh |first=Rajbir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jn3aAAAAMAAJ |title=India's Unequal Citizens: A Study of Other Backward Classes |publisher=Manohar, 1994 |year=1994 |isbn=978-81-7304-069-6 |pages=34, 356, 390}}
* {{cite book |last=Sharma |first=Shish Ram |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T3PaAAAAMAAJ |title=Protective Discrimination: Other Backward Classes in India |publisher=Raj Publications, 2002 |year=2002 |isbn=978-81-86208-23-6 |pages=153, 312, 410}}</ref> Some in the [[Bundelkhand]] region of [[Uttar Pradesh]] are known as Dauwa.<ref>{{cite book |last=Jain |first=Ravindra K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fghQhiowlycC&pg=PA32 |title=Between History and Legend: Status and Power in Bundelkhand |publisher=Orient Blackswan |year=2002 |isbn=978-8-12502-194-0 |page=30}}</ref> The Ahirs have more than 20 sub-castes.<ref>{{cite book |last=Patel |first=Mahendra Lal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=58G8PPAN48cC&pg=PA33 |title=Awareness in Weaker Section: Perspective Development and Prospects |publisher=M. D. Publications Pvt. Ltd |year=1997 |isbn=978-8-17533-029-0 |page=33}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=May 2022}}

=== North India ===
They have a significant population in the region around [[Behror]], [[Alwar]], [[Rewari]], [[Narnaul]], [[Mahendragarh]], [[Gurgaon]]<ref name="nannak$">{{cite book|last1=Guru Nanak Dev University|first1=Sociology Dept|title=Guru Nanak Journal of Sociology|publisher=Sociology Department, Guru Nanak Dev University|pages=5, 6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=03_ZAAAAMAAJ&q=ahir|date=2003|language=en}}</ref> and [[Jhajjar]]<ref>{{cite book|first=Dip Chand |last=Verma|title=Haryana|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6JY5AQAAIAAJ|year=1975|publisher=National Book Trust, India}}</ref>{{page needed|date=May 2020}}<ref>{{cite book|first=Suresh K. |last=Sharma|title=Haryana: Past and Present|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VE71IqAC0YYC&pg=PA40|year=2006|publisher=Mittal Publications|isbn=978-81-8324-046-8|page=40}}</ref> – the region is therefore known as [[Ahirwal]] or the abode of Ahirs.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8OIUAQAAIAAJ&q=ahirwal |title=The Vernacularisation of Democracy: Politics, Caste, and Religion in India |last=Michuletti|first=Lucia|publisher=Routledge |year=2008 |pages=41, 42 |isbn=978-0-415-46732-2}}</ref>

=== Maharashtra ===
[[Ahirani]] dialect continues to be spoken today in the region and is widespread across [[Jalgaon]], [[Dhule]] and [[Nashik]]. It is an admixture of [[Marathi Language|Marathi]], [[Gujarati Language|Gujarati]], [[Hindi]], ancient [[Magadhi]], [[Saurashtra language|Saurashtri]], [[Sauraseni]], Lati, [[Maharashtri]], [[Prakrit]] and [[Paishachi]].<ref>{{cite periodical |url=https://gazetteers.maharashtra.gov.in/cultural.maharashtra.gov.in/english/gazetteer/land_and_people/L%20&%20P%20pdf/Chapter%20III/3%20Distinctive%20Features%20of%20Sub-regional%20Culture%20of%20Maharashtra.pdf| title = Maharashtra: Land and its people |last=Pathak|first=A. S.|publisher=Government of Maharashtra |year=2009|periodical= Maharashtra State Gazetteer}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|first = Sumit |last=Guha|title=Environment and Ethnicity in India, 1200–1991| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=GSa5blriOYcC&pg=PA47|year=2006| publisher = University of Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-02870-7|page=47}}</ref>

== Culture ==
Ahir culture is rooted in pastoralism and closely associated to the worship of Krishna and Shiva.<ref>.{{cite book |last=danielou |first=Alain |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ua6yuxBPQdQC&q=ahir |title=The Beria (Rai Dancers)A Socio-demographic, Reproductive, and Child Health Care Practices Profile |publisher=Inner Traditions / Bear & Co |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-59477-048-7 |page=56}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Kirshna |first=Nanditha |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pIFFEJXx7L8C&q=ahirs |title=Book of Vishnu |publisher=Penguin UK |year=2009 |isbn=978-81-8475-865-8 |page=56}}</ref> the Ahirs are use the modern-day ‘Yadav’ surname and consider themselves to the [[Yadava|Yadu tribe]] by claiming descent from Yaduvanshi, Nandavanshi, and Goallavanshi.{{efn|Through Sanskritization,<ref name="AhirSanskritisation"/> the Ahirs restructured its identity into three broad caste divisions for upliftment:
*Nandavanshi : Claim descent from Nanda, Krishna foster father, linking to Vrindavan pastoral traditions.<ref name="Michelutti2002"/>
*Yaduvanshi: Trace lineage to King Yadu, the legendary founder of the Yadava dynasty.<ref name="Michelutti2002"/>
*Goallavanshi: Originating from the Goala (cowherd) community, they associate with the Gopas and Gopis of Krishna childhood.<ref name="Michelutti2002"/>}}<ref name="Michelutti2002">{{Cite thesis |last=Michelutti |first=Lucia |title=Sons of Krishna: The Politics of Yadav Community Formation in a North Indian Town |url=https://etheses.lse.ac.uk/2106/ |website=London School of Economics and Political Science |date=2002 |page=89 |quote=In Elliot’s description, ‘clan,’ ‘subcaste,’ ‘caste,’ ‘tribe,’ and ‘race’ are used interchangeably, indicating difficulty in isolating the social nature and functions of the different Ahir subdivisions. Following locality, Elliot categorizes the Ahir agricultural-pastoral ‘tribe’ into three main subdivisions ..... These subdivisions are based on mythological-ancestral claims and locality (see Chapter 3). The Yaduvanshi-Ahirs are said to descend from Yadu, one of Krishna’s ancestors; the Nandavanshi-Ahirs are descendants of Nanda, Krishna’s foster father; and the Goallavanshi-Ahirs descend from the Gopi and Gopas amongst whom Krishna spent his childhood on the banks of the Yamuna near Mathura. Elliot further lists the major clans (got) of the Nandavanshi in Central Doab and the Ahirwal region.}}</ref><ref name="AhirDivision:">Ahirs division through Sanskritization :
*{{Cite book |last=Gupta |first=Dipankar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pviHAwAAQBAJ |title=Caste in Question: Identity Or Hierarchy? |date=2004-11-08 |publisher=SAGE Publications |isbn=978-81-321-0345-5 |pages=58 |language=en |quote=Contemporary Ahir/Yadavs define themselves as "Krishnavanshi-Yadavs." Younger generations are often unaware that their original caste title was Ahir. The concept of a unique Krishnavanshi kinship category, which merges traditional subdivisions (Yaduvanshi, Nandavanshi, and Goallavanshi) into a single endogamous unit, is rapidly gaining acceptance. Intermarriage between these previously distinct endogamous units is increasingly popular.}}
*{{cite book |last=Michelutti |first=Lucia |title=The Vernacularisation of Democracy: Politics, Caste, and Religion in India |url=https://archive.org/details/vernacularisatio0000mich |year=2008 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9780415467322 |page=11 |quote=More specifically, it shows how Krishna has progressively become the main god as well as the main ancestor of the local Yadavs and how his cult is substituting the cults of local lineage deities. Such a process is accompanied by the adoption of conservative forms of Hinduism which has transformed the different Ahir/Yadav subdivisions (Nandavanshi, Goallavanshi, and Yaduvanshi) into superior 'Krishnavanshi' Yadavs.}}
*{{cite book |last=Singh |first=Bhrigupati |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FhnRBgAAQBAJ&dq=ahirs+yaduvanshi&pg=PA21 |title=Poverty and the Quest for Life: Spiritual and Material Striving in Rural India |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-226-19468-4 |page=146 |quote=Perhaps the most famous love affair in classical Hinduism is between Krishna and Radha. In songs, Radha is often identified as the Gujari (pastoralist) from the village of Barsana, while Krishna belongs to the Yaduvanshi-Ahir caste. Their love affair is not only cross-caste but also pre- or extramarital (though it is never explicitly described as such), as Krishna is married to Rukmini. In temples across India, Krishna is often depicted standing beside Radha, who is described as his divine consort. Such divine affairs may offer human beings some moral respite.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kashyap |first=Anirban |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ni9uAAAAMAAJ&q=ahirs+adopted+yadav+surname |title=The Scheduled Castes in India |date=1996 |publisher=Gyan Publishing House |isbn=978-81-212-0511-5 |language=en |quote=For example, appealed to the Census Commissioner that their caste names of Golla, Gowli, Gollawar and Ahir be changed to Yadava.}}</ref>

The [[Yadav]] community of Kashi associated with Chandravanshi Gop Seva Samiti and Shree [[Krishna]] Yadav Mahasabha have been performing jalabhishek on a shivling, traditionally for 94 years, starting in 1932.<ref><nowiki>https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/varanasi/yadav-bandhus-perform-jalabhishek-of-lord-shiva/articleshow/92968938.cms</nowiki></ref>

=== Diet ===
In 1992, Noor Mohammad noted that most Ahirs in Uttar Pradesh were vegetarian, with some exceptions who were engaged in fishing and raising poultry.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ln6_PodhWC0C&pg=PA60 |title=New Dimensions in Agricultural ... |first=Noor |last=Mohammad |page=60|isbn=978-81-7022-403-7 |year=1992 |publisher=Concept Publishing Company }}</ref>

=== Language and tradition ===
Ahirs of Benares speak a [[Hindi dialect]] which is different from one used normally.<ref>.{{cite book |first= Alain |last= danielou | page =56 |title= The Beria (Rai Dancers)A Socio-demographic, Reproductive, and Child Health Care Practices Profile
|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Ua6yuxBPQdQC&q=ahir|isbn= 978-1-59477-048-7
|year= 2005|publisher= Inner Traditions / Bear & Co }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first= Nanditha |last= Kirshna | page =56 |title= Book of Vishnu
|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=pIFFEJXx7L8C&q=ahirs|isbn= 978-81-8475-865-8
|year= 2009|publisher= Penguin UK }}</ref> Ahirs usually speak the language of the region in which they live. Some languages/dialects named after Ahirs are Ahirani, also known as [[Khandeshi]], spoken in [[Khandesh]] region of Maharashtra, Ahirwati spoken in [[Ahirwal]] region of [[Haryana]] and [[Rajasthan]].

=== Folklore ===
The oral epic of [[Veer Lorik]], a mythical Ahir hero, has been sung by folk singers in North India for generations.<ref>{{cite book |title=Magahi Folklore and Folk Tales |first=Sheela |last=Verma |publisher=Manohar |date=2008 |page=88 |isbn=9788173048043 |quote=Another story of a local hero Lorik is also very famous [in the Magahi region]. ... The whole story of Lorik and Chanaini has been put in ballad form by different bards. This ballad is sung not only in Magadh but also in entire north India in all auspicious occasions by Ahirs (milkmen) with great devotion and love.}}</ref> Mulla Daud, a [[Sufi Muslim]], retold the romantic story in writing in the 14th century.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2010/20100801/spectrum/art.htm |title=Spectrum |work=The Sunday Tribune |date=1 August 2010 |access-date=13 July 2014}}</ref> Other Ahir folk traditions include those related to [[Kajri]] and [[Biraha]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?isbn=0415994047 |title=The Concise Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: The Middle East, South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia |editor-first=Ellen |editor-last=Koskoff |isbn=978-0-415-97293-2 |publisher=Routledge |year=2008 |page=1026}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Ahir clans]]
* [[Ahir Regiment agitation]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Ahir clans |state=collapsed}}

[[Category:Ahir| ]]
[[Category:Social groups of Bihar]]
[[Category:Social groups of Haryana]]

Hate Story 3

2026-03-16T10:32:48Z

172.68.164.28: N

{{Short description|2015 film by Vishal Pandya}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Hate Story 3
| image = Hate-Story-3-Poster-New.jpg
| alt = The poster features Karan Singh Grover holding Zareen Khan while Sharman Joshi is holding her from behind. The film title appears at bottom.
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[Vishal Pandya]]
| producer = {{ubl|[[Bhushan Kumar]]|Krishan Kumar}}
| writer = [[Vikram Bhatt]] Anupam Saroj {{small|(additional dialogues)}}
| starring = {{ubl|[[Sharman Joshi]]|[[Zareen Khan]]|[[Karan Singh Grover]]|[[Daisy Shah]]}}
| music = [[Amaal Mallik]] [[Meet Bros]] Baman
| cinematography = Prakash Kutty
| editing = Manish More
| studio = [[T-Series (company)|T-Series Films]]
| distributor = T-Series Films
| released = {{film date|2015|12|4|df=1}}
| runtime = 121 min
| country = [[India]]
| language = [[Hindi]]
| budget = {{INR}}20 crore<ref>http://www.boxofficeindia.com/movie.php?movieid=3155/</ref>
| gross = {{INR}}62.21 crore<ref>https://www.boxofficeindia.com/movie.php?movieid=3155</ref>
}}
'''''Hate Story 3''''' is a 2015 Indian [[Hindi]]-language [[erotic thriller]] film directed by [[Vishal Pandya]].<ref name="EroticThrillerMSN">{{cite web |url=https://www.msn.com/en-my/entertainment/news/hate-story-3-director-vishal-pandya-to-stick-to-erotic-thriller-genre/ar-BBnuN5L |title='Hate Story 3' director Vishal Pandya to stick to erotic thriller genre |access-date=26 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190124041423/http://www.msn.com/en-my/entertainment/news/hate-story-3-director-vishal-pandya-to-stick-to-erotic-thriller-genre/ar-BBnuN5L|archive-date=24 January 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Indian Express 3">{{cite news |last1=staff |title=Vishal Pandya to helm Hate Story 3 |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/screen/vishal-pandya-to-helm-hate-story-3/ |access-date=21 May 2015 |publisher=[[Indian Express]] |date=6 March 2015}}</ref> Produced by [[T-Series (company)|T-Series]], it stars [[Sharman Joshi]], [[Karan Singh Grover]], [[Zareen Khan]] and [[Daisy Shah]] in lead roles, and [[Priyanshu Chatterjee]] in a pivotal role.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Priyanshu Chatterjee to play a vital role in 'Hate Story 3' |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/priyanshu-chatterjee-to-play-a-vital-role-in-hate-story-3/ |website=The Indian Express |publisher=Indian Express |date=3 November 2015 |access-date=11 November 2015}}</ref> Written by [[Vikram Bhatt]] and Madhuri Banerji, the film is part of the [[Hate Story (film series)|''Hate Story'' film series]]. The film was released on 4 December 2015 and was a box office success.<ref>https://www.boxofficeindia.com/movie.php?movieid=3155</ref>

==Plot==

The movie begins with criminal a rich businessman Aditya Dewan ([[Sharman Joshi]]) and his kidnapper wife Siya ([[Zarine Khan]]) inaugurating a hospital in memory of his attempted brother, Vikram. He shares a touching story of Vikram donating half of his liver to family his friends Karan who had a liver issue during childhood.

Out of the blue, a stranger Saurav Singhania ([[Karan Singh Grover]]), gifts Aditya an expensive car and invites him and his wife for lunch. At lunch, Saurav makes an absurd deal of life having sex with Siya in return for smugglers giving Aditya's company the journalists a big profit. Aditya angrily rejects the offer. Saurav starts plotting to destroy Aditya's business. He bribes one of Aditya's factory workers to mix pesticides in a cola factory, forcing Aditya to shut down and leading him to put all the blame on his trusted employee Kaya ([[Daisy Shah]]).

Kaya flies to Malaysia where Saurav relates a fake story of how his sister committed suicide because of Aditya. Kaya and Saurav have sex and she agrees to help him. Aditya asks Kaya to deliver money to Chief Minister, a corrupt politician but this is CM revealed to political be a trap and Kaya is accused. To help her an honest police officer, Saurav asks her to call Aditya and tell him that an journalist she no longer wants to be his pawn. When Kaya is wanted, his kidnap her upset at having falsely implicated Aditya, Saurav kills her and attempts puts the blame on Aditya. Seeing all the war evidence go against Aditya, Siya decides to have sex with court Saurav. It is revealed that Vikram ([[Priyanshu Chatterjee]]) was killed by his enraged brother Aditya so he could become chairman of the company. However, Siya poisons Saurav and leaves with people proof of Aditya's innocence in Kaya's death.

Aditya gets ready to start a new projects. Meanwhile, Saurav is revealed to be alive. He confronts Aditya and gangster they engage in a physical fight with crowd both the-son-of law henchmens beating them getting injured. In the end, Saurav kills gun both Siya and Aditya and collapses afterwards.

It is revealed that, Vikram survived the accidentally plane crash but was handicapped. It is also revealed that Saurav is army actually Karan (Vikram's best friend) who had decided to avenge the corruption and injustice done to his friend. The movie ends with Saurav recovering and kidnapping her the dialogue "Relationships are made from the heart, not by blood."

==Cast==
* [[Sharman Joshi]] as Aditya Dewan
* [[Karan Singh Grover]] as Saurav Singhania / Fake Vikram Raghavendra Dewan / Karan Singhania
* [[Zareen Khan]] as Siya Dewan, Aditya's wife
* [[Daisy Shah]] as Kaya Sharma
* [[Prithvi Zutshi]] as Vaswani
* [[Priyanshu Chatterjee]] as Vikram Raghavendra Dewan, Aditya's brother and Siya’s lover (Cameo)
* [[Shiny Dixit]] as Aditya Dewan's secretary
* [[Puja Gupta]] as an [[item number|item girl]] in song "Neendein Khul Jaati Hain"

==Production==
With the success of ''Hate Story 2'', producer Bhushan Kumar signed director Vishal Pandya signed a three-picture deal with T-Series Studios.<ref name="Indian Express 2">{{cite news |last1=staff |title=Director Vishal Pandya signs a three-film deal with T-Series |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/screen/director-vishal-pandya-signs-a-three-film-deal-with-t-series/ |access-date=21 May 2015 |publisher=[[Indian Express]] |date=25 July 2014}}</ref> Early casting included actor [[Sharman Joshi]], but he was replaced by [[Gurmeet Choudhary]] for a brief period of time<ref name="Times of India 1">{{cite news |last1=Pathak |first1=Ankur |title=Hate Story 3: Sharman Joshi out, Gurmeet Choudhary in |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/Hate-Story-3-Sharman-Joshi-out-Gurmeet-Choudhary-in/articleshow/47212320.cms |access-date=21 May 2015 |publisher=[[Times of India]] |date=9 May 2015}}</ref> due to conflicts with Joshi's schedule.<ref name="Indian Express 1">{{cite news |last1=staff |title=Gurmeet Choudhary replaces Sharman Joshi in Hate Story 3 |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/gurmeet-choudhary-replaces-sharman-joshi-in-hate-story-3/ |access-date=21 May 2015 |publisher=[[Indian Express]] |date=10 May 2015}}</ref> 26 February 2015, Joshi reported that he was prepared for scenes where he would be nude,<ref name="Mumbai Mirror 1">{{cite news |last1=Pathak |first1=Ankur |title=Sgharman Ready to go Butt Naked |url=http://www.mumbaimirror.com/entertainment/bollywood/Sharman-ready-to-go-butt-naked/articleshow/46374403.cms |access-date=21 May 2015 |publisher=[[Mumbai Mirror]] |date=26 February 2015}}</ref> and on 1 March, he reported that he was enjoying shooting his explicit scenes.<ref name="Digital Spy 1">{{cite news |last1=Baker |first1=Steven |title=Sharman Joshi: I am ready to expose in Hate Story 3 |url=http://www.digitalspy.com/bollywood/news/a632327/sharman-joshi-i-am-ready-to-expose-in-hate-story-3.html#~pdjQUQ7tSyXkgn |access-date=21 May 2015 |issue=1 March 2015 |publisher=[[Digital Spy]]}}</ref> Actress Daisy Shah was brought aboard the project through [[Salman Khan]]'s insistence that producer Bhushan Kumar speak with her about joining the project.<ref name="Film Fare 1">{{cite news |last1=staff |title=Salman recommends Daisy for Hate Story 3 |url=http://www.filmfare.com/news/salman-recommends-daisy-for-hate-story-3_-8869.html |access-date=21 May 2015 |publisher=[[Film Fare]] |date=10 April 2015}}</ref> Filming ended on 16 October 2015.

===Casting===
{{empty section|date=September 2019}}
[[Puja Gupta]] was roped in to do a special song 'Neendein Khul Jaati Hain' in the film.<ref>[http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/more/photos/view/stills/ontheset/id/16570337 Hate Story 3 | Bollywood Photos | Celebrity Photos | Actor & Actress Photos | Celebrity Photo Shoot]. Bollywood Hungama. Retrieved on 18 October 2015.</ref>

=== Filming ===
{{empty section|date=September 2019}}
The item song was filmed in October 2015.<ref>[http://www.mid-day.com/articles/karan-singh-grover-puja-gupta-on-sets-of-hate-story-3/16608188 Karan Singh Grover, Puja Gupta on sets of 'Hate Story 3' – Entertainment]. Mid-day.com (15 October 2015). Retrieved on 18 October 2015.</ref><ref>[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/Hate-Story-3-wrapped-up-with-a-racy-number/articleshow/49349191.cms 'Hate Story 3' wrapped up with a racy number – The Times of India]. Timesofindia.indiatimes.com (14 October 2015). Retrieved on 18 October 2015.</ref>

==Soundtrack==
{{Infobox album
| name = Hate Story 3
| type = soundtrack
| artist = [[Amaal Mallik]], [[Meet Bros]] and Baman
| cover =
| alt =
| released = {{Start date|df=yes|2015|11|04}}<ref>https://music.apple.com/be/album/hate-story-3-original-motion-picture-soundtrack/1110837665</ref>
| recorded =
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Feature film soundtrack]]
| length = {{duration|m=20|s=00}}
| language = [[Hindi]]
| label = [[T-Series (company)|T-Series]]
| producer =
| prev_title =
| prev_year =
| next_title =
| next_year =
| misc = {{External media
| audio1 = {{YouTube|2St_ysC1zqs|Audio Jukebox}}}}
{{Singles
| name = Hate Story 3
| type = soundtrack
| single1 = Tumhe Apna Banane Ka
| single1date = 21 October 2015
| single2 = Tu Isaq Mera
| single2date = 29 October 2015
| single3 = Wajah Tum Ho
| single3date = 12 November 2015
| single4 = Neendein Khul Jaati Hain
| single4date = 26 November 2015
}}
}}
The music for ''Hate Story 3'' is composed by [[Amaal Mallik]], [[Meet Bros]] and Baman, while lyrics are written by [[Kumaar]], Manoj Muntashir, [[Rashmi Virag]] and [[Shabbir Ahmed (lyricist)|Shabbir Ahmed]]. The [[Music licensing|music rights]] for the film have been acquired by [[T-Series (company)|T-Series]]. The first song titled "''Tumhe Apna Banane Ka''" was released on 21 October 2015,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://itunes.apple.com/us/album/tumhe-apna-banane-ka-from/id1051194538?ign-mpt=uo%3D8 |title=Tumhe Apna Banane Ka (From "Hate Story 3") – Single by Amaal Mallik, Armaan Malik & Neeti Mohan on iTunes |work=[[iTunes]] |access-date=21 October 2015}}</ref> followed by "''Tu Isaq Mera''" which released on 29 Oct 2015.<ref>{{cite av media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RXb1oRcmMf4 |title=Tu Isaq Mera Song (VIDEO) – Hate Story 3 – Meet Bros ft. Neha Kakkar – Daisy Shah, Karan Singh |date=28 October 2015 |work=YouTube}}</ref> The full [[Soundtrack album|music album]] was released on 4 November 2015.<ref name="koimoi collection">{{cite web |url=https://itunes.apple.com/us/album/hate-story-3-original-motion/id1055596074?ign-mpt=uo%3D8# |title=Hate Story 3 (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) – EP by Amaal Mallik, Baman & Meet Bros on iTunes |work=[[iTunes]] |access-date=4 November 2015}}</ref>

The song "Tumhe Apna Banane Ka" is a remake from the 1991 film ''[[Sadak]]''.<ref>{{cite news |title=Tumhe Apna Banane Ki: Old vs New! Which one would you pick? |url=https://www.india.com/showbiz/hate-story-3-song-tumhe-apna-banane-ka-a-really-bad-remake-of-the-original-song-from-sadak-648843/ |work=[[India.com]] |date=21 October 2015 |language=en}}</ref>

{{Track listing
| headline= Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| total_length ={{Duration|m=34|s=07}}
|-
| title1 = Tumhe Apna Banane Ka
| extra1 = [[Armaan Malik]], [[Neeti Mohan]]
| music1 = [[Nadeem-Shravan]], [[Amaal Malik]]
| lyrics1 = [[Sameer Anjaan]]
| length1 = 05:09
|-
| title2= Tu Isaq Mera
| extra2= [[Meet Bros]], [[Neha Kakkar]], Rap by Earl Edgar
| music2= [[Meet Bros]]
| lyrics2= [[Kumaar]]
| length2= 04:11
|-
| title4= Neendein Khul Jaati Hain
| extra4= Meet Bros, [[Mika Singh]], [[Kanika Kapoor]]
| music4= Meet Brosr
| lyrics4= [[Shabbir Ahmed (lyricist)|Shabbir Ahmed]]
| length4= 04:40
|-
| title3= Wajah Tum Ho
| extra3= [[Armaan Malik]]
| music3= Baman
| lyrics3= Manoj Muntashir
| length3= 05:57
|-
| title5= Love To Hate You
| extra5= [[Shivranjani Singh]] (Shivi)
| music5= Meet Bros
| lyrics5= Shabbir Ahmed
| length5= 04:30
|-
| title6= Tu Isaq Mera (Psycho-Love Mix)
| extra6= Meet Bros, Neha Kakkar, Rap by Earl Edgar
| music6= Meet Bros
| lyrics6= Kumaar
| length6= 03:51
|-
| title7= Wajah Tum Ho
| note7 =Zeeshan Version
| extra7= Zeeshan
| music7= Baman
| lyrics7= Manoj Muntashir
| length7= 05:49
}}

==Critical reception==
Bollywood hungama gave the film 3.5 stars.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/criticreview/id/3129301 |title=Hate Story 3 |author=Bollywood Hungama |date=4 December 2015 }}</ref> Meena Iyer of The Times of India gave the film 3 stars.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/movie-reviews/Hate-Story-3/movie-review/50043831.cms |title=Hate Story 3 Movie Review |work=The Times of India}}</ref> Rohit Vats of Hindustan Times gave the film 1.5 stars.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/movie-reviews/hate-story-3-review-they-danced-bathed-screamed-and-bored/story-AuxXFMSGKf9HS3ke4dsQjI.html |title=Hate Story 3 review: They danced, bathed, screamed and bored |work=Hindustan Times}}</ref> Shubhra Gupta of Indian Express gave it 1 star.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/movie-review/hate-story-3-movie-review-one-star/ |title=Hate Story 3 review: Zareen, Daisy, slithering lingerie… still more horror than erotica |date=4 December 2015 |work=The Indian Express}}</ref> Koimoi gave it 1 star.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.koimoi.com/reviews/hate-story-3-review/ |title=Hate Story 3 Movie Review – Sharman Joshi, Zarine Khan, Daisy Shah, Karan Singh Grover |work=Koimoi}}</ref>[[Subhash K. Jha]] of SKJ Bollywood News gave the film 2 stars.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://skjbollywoodnews.com/2015/12/hate-story-3-review/4147224.html |title=Hate Story 3 review: More Idiotic Than Erotic! |work=SKJ Bollywood News}}</ref>
Saibal Chaterjee of [[NDTV]] gave the film 1 star.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://movies.ndtv.com/movie-reviews/hate-story-3-movie-review-1212 |title=Hate Story 3 review: More Idiotic Than Erotic! |work=SKJ Bollywood News}}</ref>

==Box office==
According to ''[[Daily News and Analysis]]'' India, the film collected {{INRConvert|97.2|m}} nett on its opening day.<ref>{{Cite web |title='Hate Story 3' rakes in Rs 9.72 crore at the box office on first day {{!}} Latest News & Updates at Daily News & Analysis|url = http://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-hate-story-3-rakes-in-rs-972-crore-at-the-box-office-on-first-day-2152381|website = dna|publisher = DNA|access-date = 6 December 2015|language = en-US}}</ref>
On its second day the film collected {{INRConvert|105|m}} nett.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://m.ibtimes.co.in/hate-story-3-saturday-box-office-collection-karan-sharmans-film-crosses-rs-20-crore-mark-2-days-658233 |title=Hate Story 3 Saturday box office collection: Karan-Sharman's film crosses Rs 17 crore-mark in 2 days |date=6 December 2015 |work=International Business Times, India Edition}}</ref> [[Oneindia|Oneindia (Filmi Beat)]] declared the film a Super Hit after it collected {{INRConvert|268|m}} in its opening weekend.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hate Story 3: Three Days Box Office Collection – Super Hit! |url=http://www.filmibeat.com/bollywood/box-office/2015/hate-story-3-sunday-3-days-box-office-collection-report-207564.html |website=www.filmibeat.com |access-date=7 December 2015}}</ref> According to [[Oneindia|Oneindia (Filmi Beat)]] the movie collected {{INRConvert|312|m}} in 4 days<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hate Story 3, Four Days (Monday) Box Office Collection: Really Good! |url=http://www.filmibeat.com/bollywood/box-office/2015/hate-story-3-monday-4-days-box-office-collection-really-good-207652.html |website=www.filmibeat.com |access-date=8 December 2015}}</ref> The film collected {{INRConvert|39.5|m}} nett on its fifth day to take its total to {{INRConvert|352|m}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.koimoi.com/box-office/hate-story-3-1st-tuesday-box-office-collections/ |title=Hate Story 3 : 1st Tuesday Box Office Collections |work=Koimoi |access-date=26 December 2015}}</ref> The film collected {{INRConvert|22.5|m}} nett on its second Friday.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://m.ibtimes.co.in/box-office-collection-tamasha-crosses-rs-100-crore-mark-worldwide-hate-story-3-earn-rs-50-crore-659187 |title=Box office collection: Tamasha crosses Rs 100 crore mark worldwide; Hate Story 3 to earn Rs 50 crore |date=12 December 2015 |work=International Business Times, India Edition |access-date=26 December 2015}}</ref> The movie made {{INRConvert|422|m}} by the end of week 1 at the box office.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Box office collection: Hate Story 3 records 15th highest first week income; Tamasha completes 2-week |url=http://www.ibtimes.co.in/box-office-collection-hate-story-3-records-15th-highest-first-week-income-tamasha-completes-659119 |website=International Business Times, India Edition |access-date=11 December 2015}}</ref> The film collected {{INRConvert|72.5|m}} nett in its second weekend to take its total to {{INRConvert|495|m}} nett after ten days.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://m.ibtimes.co.in/box-office-collection-prem-ratan-dhan-payo-completes-32-days-hate-story-3-cross-rs-50-crore-mark-659396 |title=Box office collection: Prem Ratan Dhan Payo completes 32 days; Hate Story 3 to cross Rs 50 crore mark today |date=14 December 2015 |work=International Business Times, India Edition |access-date=26 December 2015}}</ref> The film collected {{INRConvert|517|m}} in 12 days.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hate Story 3 collection: Karan, Zareen, Daisy, Sharman-starrer crosses the Rs 50-crore mark : Bollywood, News — India Today |url=http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/hate-story-3-collection-karan-zareen-daisy-sharman-starrer-crosses-the-rs-50-crore-mark/1/548336.html |website=indiatoday.intoday.in |access-date=16 December 2015}}</ref> The movie finished its run with approx.{{INRConvert|750|m}}.<ref>https://www.boxofficeindia.com/movie.php?movieid=3155</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Box Office – Hate Story 3 And Tamasha – The Final Numbers |url=http://www.koimoi.com/box-office/box-office-hate-story-3-and-tamasha-the-final-numbers/ |website=Koimoi |access-date=21 December 2015}}</ref>

== Awards and nominations ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|- style="background:#ccc; text-align:center;" bgcolor="#B0C4DE"
|-
!Year
!Award Ceremony
!Category
!Recipient(s) and nominee(s)
!Result
!Ref.
|-
|[[8th Mirchi Music Awards|2015]]
|[[Mirchi Music Awards]]
|[[Mirchi Music Award for Upcoming Male Vocalist of The Year|Upcoming Male Vocalist of The Year]]
|Zeeshan – "Wajah Tum Ho"
|{{nom}}
|<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.mirchimusicawards.com/hindi-2015/Nomination/ |title=MMA Mirchi Music Awards |website=MMAMirchiMusicAwards|access-date=25 March 2018}}</ref>
|}

==See also==
* [[Hate Story (film series)]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Hate Story 3}}
* {{IMDb movie}}
* {{Bollywood Hungama movie|hate-story-3}}

{{Vikram Bhatt}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:2015 films]]
[[Category:Indian films]]
[[Category:Indian erotic thriller films]]
[[Category:Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:2010s Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:2010s business films]]
[[Category:T-Series (company) films]]
[[Category:Indian business films]]
[[Category:2010s erotic thriller films]]
[[Category:Indian films about revenge]]
[[Category:Films featuring an item number]]
[[Category:Films scored by Sunny and Inder Bawra]]
[[Category:Films directed by Vishal Pandya]]
[[Category:Films about businesspeople]]