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Jaapi

2026-09-23T12:11:18Z

106.222.226.246:

{{short description|Traditional conical hat of Assam, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2020}}
{{Infobox instrument
| name = Jaapi
| image = Jaapi of Assam.jpg
| image_size = 300 px
| alt =
| caption = A jaapi
| background =
| names =
| related =
*''Khofri'' ([[Lower Assam]], India)
*''Chattri'' ([[Terai]], Nepal)
*''Mathal'' ([[Bangladesh]])
*''Talari'' ([[Orissa]], India)
*''[[Nón lá]]'' ([[Vietnam]])
*''Do'un'' ([[Cambodia]])
*''Koup '' ([[Laos]])
*''khamauk'' ([[Myanmar]])
*''dǒulì'' ([[China]])
}}
'''Jaapi''' or '''Japi''' ([[Bodo language|Bodo]]: Khofri) is an [[Asian conical hat]]. It is made from tightly woven [[bamboo]] and/or cane and ''tokou paat'' ([[Trachycarpus martianus]]) a large, [[Palm (plant)|palm]] leaf. The word ''jaapi'' derives from ''jaap'' meaning a bundle of ''tokou'' leaves. In the past, plain jaapis were used by ordinary people in Assam and by farmers for protection from the sun, while ornate decorative jaapis were worn as a status symbol by the royalty and nobility. Decorative ''sorudoi jaapi'' are made with intricate cloth designs (primarily red, white, green, blue, and black) that are integrated into the weaving. The upper metal component attached to the top of a jaapi is known in Assamese as ''sula'' (Assamese: চূলা), described as a metal, cap-like ornament fixed to the top of the jaapi.<ref>{{cite web |title=চূলা |url=https://www.xobdo.org/dic/%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE |website=Xobdo |access-date=14 June 2026}}</ref> The ''Sula'' of Japis used by royalty and nobles were made of silver and gold.<ref>Bhuyan, S.K, "Satsari Assam Buranji,p.199</ref> Besides East and Southeast Asia, rain hats, similar to Jaapi, are spread throughout East India and Nepal, including [[Bengal]], [[Terai]], [[Chhattisgarh]] and [[Odisha]]. Tribes of [[Arunachal Pradesh]] like [[Mishmi people|Mishmi]] and [[Adi people|Adi]] also wear similar traditional headgear made of bamboo or cane.

[[File:Tribal Rain hat Chattisgarh.png|thumb|Rain hat worn in tribal areas of Chattisgarh, similar to Japi.]]

==History==

The earliest recorded evidence for the use of the conical hat as a royal item is found in accounts of the [[Chutia kingdom]]. During negotiations with the Ahom king [[Suhungmung]] in 1523, the Chutia king offered among his presents an object mentioned as ''kup ngiun chon kham'' in the Tai-Ahom text. Golap Chandra Barua translated the object as a "silver lipped umbrella (Japi)".<ref name="Chutia-Japi">"Then the Sutiyâ king desired to send silver and gold lipped Jâpi (''Kup-ngiun-kham''), gold bracelets (''Mao-kham''), gold basket (''Liu-kham''), gold box (''Khup-kham''), gold foot bangles (''Khu-tin-kham''), gold pirâ (''Kham-ku''), horse (''Ma''), elephant (''Chang-pai''), and two Âroans (''Phra-nun'') and Xorais (''Phun'') to the Ahom king." {{harvcol|Jacquesson|p=12}}; {{harvcol|Barua|1939|p=56}}; [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.452171/page/n59/mode/1up?q=%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BF Goswami, Hemchandra, ''Purani Asam Buranji'', "সোণৰ খাপৰ চিকন জাপি এটা", p. 41]; [https://books.google.co.in/books?id=YELHow5lP9kC&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BF Mahanta, S., ''Assam Buranji'', D.H.A.S., 1945, p. 9]; Bhuyan, S. K., ''Deodhai Assam Buranji'', "সোণৰ পাত বন্ধা জাপি ১ টা", p. 17; {{harvcol|Khanikar|1991|p=100}}.</ref> Barua's ''Ahom-Assamese-English Dictionary'' independently defines the Ahom word ''kup'' as "a wicker hat serving as an umbrella".<ref>{{cite book |last=Barua |first=Golap Chandra |title=Ahom-Assamese-English Dictionary |publisher=Assam Administration |location=Calcutta |year=1920 |page=17 |url=https://archive.org/details/ahom-assamese-english_dictionary |quote=A wicker hat serving as an umbrella.}}</ref> The parallel Assamese chronicle traditions likewise identify the object explicitly as a ''japi'', describing it variously as ''সোণৰ পাত বন্ধা জাপি'' ("a japi bound or faced with gold leaf") and ''সোণৰ খাপৰ চিকন জাপি'' ("a fine/beautiful japi with a gold layer/casing").<ref name="Chutia-Japi"/> In both descriptions, the object itself remains a ''japi'', while the gold qualifies its ornamentation or covering: ''পাত বন্ধা'' refers to binding or facing with gold leaf or sheet, whereas ''খাপ'' can denote a covering, casing, or layer.<ref>{{cite book
|last=Bronson
|first=Miles
|title=A Dictionary in Assamese and English
|publisher=American Baptist Mission Press
|location=Sibsagar
|year=1867
|page=139
|url=https://archive.org/details/adictionaryinas00brongoog
|quote=খাপ ... খলপা ...a layer or division of things placed one above another.}}</ref> After the annexation of [[Sadiya]] in 1524, the Ahom king received further treasure and booty which included japis.{{sfn|Mahanta|1945|p=10}} In 1524–25, the Ahom king presented some of the silver japis obtained from the Chutia king, together with other gifts, to Phukloimung, a chief from [[Mongkawng]],{{efn|Mongkawng was a [[Shan people|Shan]] polity in present-day [[Kachin State]] of [[Myanmar]] (called Nora in the [[Buranji]]s)}} during negotiations following his attack on Sadiya. Barua's translation records twenty "Japis (hats) with silver tips" being presented to Phukloimung,<ref>{{harvcol|Barua|1939|p=58}}</ref> while the ''Deodhai Assam Buranji'' describes another version of the gift as "ৰূপৰ চূলাৰে জাপি দুটা" (two japis with silver ''sula'').<ref>Bhuyan, S. K., ''Deodhai Assam Buranji'', "পাছে আমাৰ ৰজাদেৱে দিলে ফুক্লইমুং নৰাৰজালৈ নাংখামপই নামে কন্যা এজনী, ধন্যবাদ হাতী এটা, ৰূপৰ চূলাৰে জাপি দুটা।"</ref>{{sfn|Bhuyan|1960|p=62}}

Precious-metal fittings continued to be recorded on objects explicitly identified as ''japis'' in the Ahom chronicles. Later descriptions of Ahom court attire state that the Buragohain, Borgohain and Borpatragohain used ''Pani Japis'' and ''Tupi Japis'' with gold ''sula'', whereas the Borphukan used japis with silver ''sula''.<ref>Bhuyan, S. K., ''Satsari Assam Buranji'', p. 199.</ref> The use of gold or silver in the description of a royal object therefore did not necessarily alter the category of the object being named. The same Ahom sources refer to royal umbrellas presented by the Chutia king as ''chong-kham'' ("gold umbrella") and ''chong-ngiun'' ("silver umbrella").<ref>{{harvcol|Jacquesson|p=9}}</ref> A later royal "gold umbrella" associated with [[Supatphaa|Gadadhar Singha]] which is preserved at Bengenaati Satra in Majuli<ref>{{cite web |title=Satras of Assam |publisher=Department of Tourism, Government of Assam |url=https://tourismcorporation.assam.gov.in/portlet-sub-innerpage/satras-of-assam-0 |quote=Bengena-ati also preserves the royal gold umbrella and gilded robe belonging to the Ahom king Swargadeo Gadadhar Singha.}}</ref> is essentially a gold-plated folding wooden umbrella. Together with the explicit references to japis furnished with gold or silver ''sula'', these examples show a broader tradition of describing court objects by their precious-metal coverings, fittings or ornamentation.

During the Ahom period, the ''Jaapi-hajiya Khel'', the occupational guild responsible for making japis, was monopolised by [[Chutia people|Chutias]].<ref>"The Chutias were engaged in all kind of technical jobs of the Ahom kingdom. For example, the Khanikar Khel (guild of engineers) was always manneed by the Sutiyas. The Jaapi-Hajiya Khel (guild for making Jaapis) was also monopolished by them." {{harvcol|Dutta|1985|p=30}}</ref> Apart from this, the [[Baro-Bhuyan]]s of Central Assam are also said to have used japis. According to the ''Satsari Buranji'', the Ahom kings adopted the ''Tongali'', ''Hasoti'' and ''Tokou-patia Japi'' from the Baro-Bhuyans.{{sfn|Bhuyan|1960|p=135}}

== Regional context ==

The ''jaapi'' belongs to a wider tradition of woven bamboo-and-leaf headgear used by agricultural communities across eastern and northeastern India.

===Rain hats of Northeast India===

[[File:Tiyuh Mishmi hat.png|thumb|The traditional Tiyuh hat of Miju [[Mishmi people|Mishmi]] tribe.]]
Among the [[Boro people|Boros]], a comparable rain protector is known as the ''khophri''.<ref>[https://bododimasaarchive.org/node/1700 Bodo tribe Khofri hat from Udalguri district]</ref> It is made from split bamboo, with dried wild leaves placed between the woven layers and its edges reinforced with cane or bamboo. Traditionally worn by both men and women, it is particularly associated with work such as tilling, transplanting rice and preparing paddy fields during the rainy season.<ref>{{cite thesis
|last=Narzary
|first=Sibisan
|title=Material Culture of the Boros: With Special Reference to Cultivation
|type=M.Phil. dissertation
|publisher=Bodoland University
|location=Kokrajhar
|year=2019
|pages=37–39
|url=https://repository.tribal.gov.in/bitstream/123456789/74194/1/IIPA_2019_dissertaion_0028.pdf
|access-date=19 July 2026
}}</ref> Among the Bodos, a Kherai ritual dance known as ''Khopri Sibnai'' involves a large headgear made from bamboo strips and dried leaves; the dancer also carries a shield and sword.<ref>{{cite journal
|last=Hajowary
|first=Tapasi
|title=The Dance Forms of a Doudini in Kherai Festival of the Bodos of Assam: An Analytical Study from Religious Perspective
|journal=ShodhKosh: Journal of Visual and Performing Arts
|year=2022
|volume=3
|issue=2
|page=24
|doi=10.29121/shodhkosh.v3.i2.2022.148
|quote=This dance is also known as Khopri Sibnai dance. Khopri is a large head gear made of bamboo strips and dried leaves.
|doi-access=free
}}</ref> It is said that [[Bishnu Prasad Rabha]] introduced the Jaapi dance into Bihu through the film ''Joymoti'', drawing from tribal dances including the Bodo ''Khofri Sibnai Mwsanai''.<ref>{{cite news
|last=Nayak
|first=Arunav Kumar
|title=Bishnu Rabha: The Man and the Legend
|work=The Sentinel
|date=20 June 2024
|url=https://www.sentinelassam.com/more-news/editorial/bishnu-rabha-the-man-and-the-legend
|access-date=21 July 2026
}}</ref>

Related forms are found elsewhere in Northeast India. The [[Monpa people|Monpas]] of [[Arunachal Pradesh]] use a shallow conical hat formed from two woven layers with dried banana-stem material inserted for waterproofing.<ref>{{cite web
|title=Bamboo and Cane Culture of Meghalaya
|url=https://ignca.gov.in/divisionss/janapada-sampada/northeastern-regional-centre/bamboo-and-cane-culture-of-meghalaya/
|publisher=[[Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts]]
|access-date=19 July 2026
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|title=Bamboo and Cane Culture of Arunachal Pradesh
|url=https://ignca.gov.in/divisionss/janapada-sampada/northeastern-regional-centre/introduction-bamboo-and-cane-culture-of-arunachal-pradesh/
|publisher=[[Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts]]
|access-date=19 July 2026
}}</ref> The [[Adi people|Adi]], including the Galo or formerly Adi-Gallong groups, also manufacture several forms of coiled cane headgear. The ''bolup'', for example, consists of a sturdy semi-elliptical bowl surrounded by a horizontal, boat-shaped rim, although such hats function principally as protective or decorative headgear rather than as broad agricultural rain hats. The [[Mishmi people|Mishmis]] of eastern Arunachal Pradesh likewise have a tradition of woven cane and bamboo hats. Ethnographic collections record hats belonging to the Mishmi and Idu Mishmi communities, while documentation supported by the Department of Tourism of Arunachal Pradesh identifies cane-hat making as part of the Idu Mishmis' wider traditions of bamboo weaving.<ref>{{cite web |title=Traditional Cane Hats of the Idu Mishmis |url=https://artsandculture.google.com/asset/traditional-cane-hats-of-the-idu-mishmis/NQEyU29kMygBzA |website=[[Google Arts & Culture]] |publisher=Banglanatak |year=2022 |access-date=19 July 2026 }}</ref>

===Rain hats of eastern and central South Asia===
[[File:Rain hat Chattisgarh.png|thumb|Khumri Rain hat from Chattisgarh]]
Comparable agricultural rain hats also occur farther west and south in eastern India as well as the Terai region of Nepal. Among the [[Tharu people]] of the [[Terai]] in southern Nepal, a broad bamboo-and-dried-leaf field hat or parasol known as the ''chattri'' is worn while cultivating paddy. Resting on the head like a hands-free umbrella, it protects the wearer from both monsoon rain and the sun.<ref>{{cite web |title=7 Nepali topi types used in Nepal besides Dhaka topi |url=https://english.onlinekhabar.com/nepali-topi-types.html |website=Onlinekhabar English |date=2 January 2022 |access-date=19 July 2026 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Tharu Essentials That Built a Culture: Inside Traditional Life in Bardiya |url=https://bardiyanaturelodge.com/tharu-essentials-that-built-a-culture-inside-traditional-life-in-bardiya/ |website=Bardiya Nature Lodge |access-date=19 July 2026 }}</ref> Nineteenth-century descriptions of Tharu material life also mention the use of umbrellas made from leaves as protection from the sun.<ref>{{cite book |title=Gazetteer of the Province of Oudh |volume=2 |year=1877 |publisher=Government Press |location=Lucknow }}</ref> Among the Chuktia Bhunjia people of [[Odisha]], the ''chhatel'' or ''mayer'' is a broad, flat conical rain hood made by enclosing layers of [[Bauhinia vahlii|siali leaves]] between two interlaced bamboo frames; it was traditionally used while sowing and transplanting paddy.<ref>{{cite journal
|last1=Sabar
|first1=Bhubaneswar
|last2=Pradhan
|first2=Paramatap
|title=Material Culture of Chuktia Bhunjia Tribes of Odisha: An Anthropological Interpretation
|journal=Man in India
|year=2025
|volume=105
|issue=1–2
|page=60
|url=https://www.arfjournals.com/image/catalog/Journals%20Papers/MII/2025/No.%201-2%20%282025%29/3-Material%20Culture%20of%20Bhunjia%20Tribe.pdf
|access-date=19 July 2026
}}</ref> Bamboo-and-leaf rain hats known as ''palari'' in [[Ganjam district|Ganjam]] and ''chhatur'' in [[Kalahandi district|Kalahandi]] are similarly worn by farmers, labourers and herders; comparable forms have been reported across eastern India.<ref>{{cite web
|last=Sainath
|first=P.
|author-link=P. Sainath
|title=Make in India – with bamboos and leaves
|url=https://ruralindiaonline.org/article/make-in-india---with-bamboos-and-leaves
|website=[[People's Archive of Rural India]]
|date=6 July 2017
|access-date=19 July 2026
}}</ref> In neighbouring [[Bangladesh]], a bamboo agricultural hat called the ''mathal'' is also traditionally used in farm work.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia
|last=Banu
|first=Zinat Mahrukh
|title=Bamboo Craft
|encyclopedia=[[Banglapedia]]
|url=https://en.banglapedia.org/index.php/Bamboo_Craft
|access-date=19 July 2026
}}</ref> Comparable rainwear was formerly used among the Adivasi communities of [[Bastar]] in present-day [[Chhattisgarh]]. Local rain hats called ''chettris'', together with leaf raincoats called ''sonas'', were made from dried [[Shorea robusta|sal]] leaves and worn when travelling to village markets during rainfall.<ref>{{cite report |title=Investment Opportunities in Chhattisgarh |chapter=Tribal Life |pages=18–19 |publisher=Government of Chhattisgarh }}</ref> In other parts of central India, ethnographic collections record the ''khumari'' or ''khumri'', described as a traditional rain hat, together with related rain shields or raincoats known as ''khumri'' or ''chhateli''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mohanta |first1=Basanta Kumar |last2=Tripathy |first2=Byomakesh |chapter=Role of Ethnographic Museum of IGNTU, Amarkantak for Conservation of the Tribal Cultural Heritage of Central India |title=Recent Researches on the Tribes of Central India |volume=2 |year=2016 |publisher=Aayu Publications |location=New Delhi |pages=484–494 |isbn=978-93-85161-18-6 }}</ref> Mahul leaves continue to be used locally in Chhattisgarh to improvise hats that protect cattle herders from heavy rain.<ref>{{cite news |last=Niyogi |first=Deepanwita Gita |title=Forest Dweller on Growing Up With Mahul Leaves |url=https://www.thequint.com/news/india/photos-chhattisgarh-tribal-mahul-leaf-hat-man-tiger-reserve |work=The Quint |date=16 September 2023 |access-date=19 July 2026 }}</ref>

These regional forms share the use of locally available bamboo, cane and leaves, layered construction for waterproofing, and an association with cultivation under monsoon conditions. The Assamese ''jaapi'' developed its own distinctive varieties and acquired additional courtly, ceremonial and decorative functions within Assam.

==Cultural symbol==
Today the jaapi is an important symbol of Assam and its culture. It is used during [[Bihu dance]], as protection against the elements, offered as a sign of respect in ceremonies, and placed as a decorative item around the house especially in the walls as a welcome sign.{{sfn|Handoo|2003|p=46}}<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=reuQbFK9Rz4C&dq=jAPI+WORN+Bihu+dance,&pg=PA98|title=Assam General Knowledge|publisher=Bright Publications|isbn=9788171994519|pages=98}}</ref>

==Types==
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
* Sorudoi japi: Used by women, especially brides.
* Bordoi japi: Used by royalty since ancient times (Kamrupa).
* Panidoi/Haluwa japi: Used by farmers in fields.
* Garakhiya japi: Used by cattle herders.
* Pitha japi: Used as hoods, sometimes during cultivation.
* Tupi/Varun japi: Used in rain as protective hats.
{{div col end}}

==Gallery==
<gallery mode>
File:Varun Japi.jpg|Upper metal part of an ancient Varun (Tupi) Japi known as ''Sula'', used during the rule of Sutiya kings, kept in the Gharmora Satra.
File:Jaapi.jpg|Sarudaya jaapi.
File:Japi.JPG|A jaapi at Kalakhetra, Guwahati.
File:Jaapi,Dhemaji.jpg|Jaapis made in Dhemaji.
File:Talari rain hat Orissa.jpg|Rain hat called Talari worn in Orissa, similar to Japi.
File:Nepal Rain Hat.png|Rain hat in Terai region of Nepal, similar to Japi.
File:Mathal Rain hat.png|Rain hat, similar to Japi, called Mathal worn in Bengal region.
</gallery>

==See also==
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
*[[Conical Asian hat]]
*[[Culture of Assam]]
*[[List of hat styles]]
*[[List of headgear]]
*[[Textiles and dresses of Assam]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin}}
* {{Citation |last=Dutta |first=Sristidhar |title=The Mataks and their Kingdom |publisher=Chugh Publications |place=Allahabad |year=1985}}
*{{citation|last=Khanikar|first=S|title=Chutia Jaatir Itihax aru Luko-Sanskriti|year=1991}}
*{{citation|last=Barua|first=G.C|title=Ahom Buranji|year=1939|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.450867/page/56/mode/1up}}
* {{citation|last=Bhuyan|first=Surjya K.|title=Satsari Buranji|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.452953/page/n86/mode/1up|year=1960}}
* {{citation|last=Jacquesson|first=Francois|title=Ahom Buranji Translation : Chutia-Ahom wars|url=https://archive.org/details/ahom-buranji-translations
}}
* {{citation|last=Handoo|first=Jawaharlal|title=Folklore in the Changing Times|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i8VuAAAAMAAJ&q=Japi+is+a+traditional+symbol+of+Assamese+folk+culture|publisher=Indhira Gandhhi Rashtriya Manav Sangrahalaya|year=2003|location=Original from Indiana University}}
* {{citation |last=Mahanta |first=S |title=Assam Buranji.D.H.A.S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YELHow5lP9kC |year=1945}}
{{refend}}

{{Hats}}
{{Clothing}}
{{Clothing in South Asia}}
{{Assam}}

[[Category:History of Asian clothing]]
[[Category:Pointed hats]]
[[Category:Textiles and clothing of Assam]]
[[Category:Bamboo weaving]]

Jaapi

2026-09-23T12:10:25Z

106.222.226.246:

{{short description|Traditional conical hat of Assam, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2020}}
{{Infobox instrument
| name = Jaapi
| image = Jaapi of Assam.jpg
| image_size = 300 px
| alt =
| caption = A jaapi
| background =
| names =
| related =
*''Khofri'' ([[Lower Assam]], India)
*''Chattri'' ([[Terai]], Nepal)
*''Mathal'' ([[Bangladesh]])
*''Talari'' ([[Orissa]], India)
*''[[Nón lá]]'' ([[Vietnam]])
*''Do'un'' ([[Cambodia]])
*''Koup '' ([[Laos]])
*''khamauk'' ([[Myanmar]])
*''dǒulì'' ([[China]])
}}
'''Jaapi''' or '''Japi''' ([[Bodo language|Bodo]]: Khofri) is an [[Asian conical hat]]. It is made from tightly woven [[bamboo]] and/or cane and ''tokou paat'' ([[Trachycarpus martianus]]) a large, [[Palm (plant)|palm]] leaf. The word ''jaapi'' derives from ''jaap'' meaning a bundle of ''tokou'' leaves. In the past, plain jaapis were used by ordinary people in Assam and by farmers for protection from the sun, while ornate decorative jaapis were worn as a status symbol by the royalty and nobility. Decorative ''sorudoi jaapi'' are made with intricate cloth designs (primarily red, white, green, blue, and black) that are integrated into the weaving. The upper metal component attached to the top of a jaapi is known in Assamese as ''sula'' (Assamese: চূলা), described as a metal, cap-like ornament fixed to the top of the jaapi.<ref>{{cite web |title=চূলা |url=https://www.xobdo.org/dic/%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE |website=Xobdo |access-date=14 June 2026}}</ref> The ''Sula'' of Japis used by royalty and nobles were made of silver and gold.<ref>Bhuyan, S.K, "Satsari Assam Buranji,p.199</ref> Besides East and Southeast Asia, rain hats, similar to Jaapi, are spread throughout East India and Nepal, including [[Bengal]], [[Terai]], [[Chhattisgarh]] and [[Odisha]]. Tribes of [[Arunachal Pradesh]] like [[Mishmi people|Mishmi]] and [[Adi people|Adi]] also wear similar traditional headgear made of bamboo or cane.

[[File:Tribal Rain hat Chattisgarh.png|thumb|Rain hat worn in tribal areas of Chattisgarh, similar to Japi.]]

==History==

The earliest recorded evidence for the use of the conical hat as a royal item is found in accounts of the [[Chutia kingdom]]. During negotiations with the Ahom king [[Suhungmung]] in 1523, the Chutia king offered among his presents an object mentioned as ''kup ngiun chon kham'' in the Tai-Ahom text. Golap Chandra Barua translated the object as a "silver lipped umbrella (Japi)".<ref name="Chutia-Japi">"Then the Sutiyâ king desired to send silver and gold lipped Jâpi (''Kup-ngiun-kham''), gold bracelets (''Mao-kham''), gold basket (''Liu-kham''), gold box (''Khup-kham''), gold foot bangles (''Khu-tin-kham''), gold pirâ (''Kham-ku''), horse (''Ma''), elephant (''Chang-pai''), and two Âroans (''Phra-nun'') and Xorais (''Phun'') to the Ahom king." {{harvcol|Jacquesson|p=12}}; {{harvcol|Barua|1939|p=56}}; [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.452171/page/n59/mode/1up?q=%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BF Goswami, Hemchandra, ''Purani Asam Buranji'', "সোণৰ খাপৰ চিকন জাপি এটা", p. 41]; [https://books.google.co.in/books?id=YELHow5lP9kC&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BF Mahanta, S., ''Assam Buranji'', D.H.A.S., 1945, p. 9]; Bhuyan, S. K., ''Deodhai Assam Buranji'', "সোণৰ পাত বন্ধা জাপি ১ টা", p. 17; {{harvcol|Khanikar|1991|p=100}}.</ref> Barua's ''Ahom-Assamese-English Dictionary'' independently defines the Ahom word ''kup'' as "a wicker hat serving as an umbrella".<ref>{{cite book |last=Barua |first=Golap Chandra |title=Ahom-Assamese-English Dictionary |publisher=Assam Administration |location=Calcutta |year=1920 |page=17 |url=https://archive.org/details/ahom-assamese-english_dictionary |quote=A wicker hat serving as an umbrella.}}</ref>{{EFN|Comparable terms are used for ordinary woven conical hats elsewhere in the Tai-speaking world. In Thailand, ''ngop'' (งอบ) is described as an agricultural hat constructed with woven bamboo strips and used for protection from the sun and rain, while ''kub'' or ''kup'' (กุบ/กุ๊บ) are recorded as regional names for this type of headgear in northern Thailand.<ref>{{cite web |title=งอบ: ภูมิปัญญาไม่ร้อนหัวของชาวนาไทย ที่หมวกอื่นทำไม่ได้ |website=Ramkhamhaeng University Library |date=25 November 2025 |url=https://www.lib.ru.ac.th/onlineexhibition/?p=18925 |language=th}}</ref> The traditional Lao ''koup'' is similarly a conical hat made on a bamboo frame and associated particularly with agricultural work and protection from the weather.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Traditional Conical Hat of Laos |website=Phoenix Voyages |url=https://phoenixvoyages.com/the-traditional-conical-hat-of-laos/}}</ref> Thai sources describe these forms as agricultural or protective headgear rather than royal regalia; documented Thai royal headgear instead includes a separate crown tradition, represented by the ''Phra Maha Phichai Mongkut'' or Great Crown of Victory, one of the principal regalia of kingship.<ref>{{cite web |title=Wan Chatra Mongkol: Thai Coronation Day |website=Thailand Foundation |date=4 May 2024 |url=https://thailandfoundation.or.th/th/wan-chatra-mongkol-thai-coronation-day-%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%89%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A5/}}</ref>}} The parallel Assamese chronicle traditions likewise identify the object explicitly as a ''japi'', describing it variously as ''সোণৰ পাত বন্ধা জাপি'' ("a japi bound or faced with gold leaf") and ''সোণৰ খাপৰ চিকন জাপি'' ("a fine/beautiful japi with a gold layer/casing").<ref name="Chutia-Japi"/> In both descriptions, the object itself remains a ''japi'', while the gold qualifies its ornamentation or covering: ''পাত বন্ধা'' refers to binding or facing with gold leaf or sheet, whereas ''খাপ'' can denote a covering, casing, or layer.<ref>{{cite book
|last=Bronson
|first=Miles
|title=A Dictionary in Assamese and English
|publisher=American Baptist Mission Press
|location=Sibsagar
|year=1867
|page=139
|url=https://archive.org/details/adictionaryinas00brongoog
|quote=খাপ ... খলপা ...a layer or division of things placed one above another.}}</ref> After the annexation of [[Sadiya]] in 1524, the Ahom king received further treasure and booty which included japis.{{sfn|Mahanta|1945|p=10}} In 1524–25, the Ahom king presented some of the silver japis obtained from the Chutia king, together with other gifts, to Phukloimung, a chief from [[Mongkawng]],{{efn|Mongkawng was a [[Shan people|Shan]] polity in present-day [[Kachin State]] of [[Myanmar]] (called Nora in the [[Buranji]]s)}} during negotiations following his attack on Sadiya. Barua's translation records twenty "Japis (hats) with silver tips" being presented to Phukloimung,<ref>{{harvcol|Barua|1939|p=58}}</ref> while the ''Deodhai Assam Buranji'' describes another version of the gift as "ৰূপৰ চূলাৰে জাপি দুটা" (two japis with silver ''sula'').<ref>Bhuyan, S. K., ''Deodhai Assam Buranji'', "পাছে আমাৰ ৰজাদেৱে দিলে ফুক্লইমুং নৰাৰজালৈ নাংখামপই নামে কন্যা এজনী, ধন্যবাদ হাতী এটা, ৰূপৰ চূলাৰে জাপি দুটা।"</ref>{{sfn|Bhuyan|1960|p=62}}

Precious-metal fittings continued to be recorded on objects explicitly identified as ''japis'' in the Ahom chronicles. Later descriptions of Ahom court attire state that the Buragohain, Borgohain and Borpatragohain used ''Pani Japis'' and ''Tupi Japis'' with gold ''sula'', whereas the Borphukan used japis with silver ''sula''.<ref>Bhuyan, S. K., ''Satsari Assam Buranji'', p. 199.</ref> The use of gold or silver in the description of a royal object therefore did not necessarily alter the category of the object being named. The same Ahom sources refer to royal umbrellas presented by the Chutia king as ''chong-kham'' ("gold umbrella") and ''chong-ngiun'' ("silver umbrella").<ref>{{harvcol|Jacquesson|p=9}}</ref> A later royal "gold umbrella" associated with [[Supatphaa|Gadadhar Singha]] which is preserved at Bengenaati Satra in Majuli<ref>{{cite web |title=Satras of Assam |publisher=Department of Tourism, Government of Assam |url=https://tourismcorporation.assam.gov.in/portlet-sub-innerpage/satras-of-assam-0 |quote=Bengena-ati also preserves the royal gold umbrella and gilded robe belonging to the Ahom king Swargadeo Gadadhar Singha.}}</ref> is essentially a gold-plated folding wooden umbrella. Together with the explicit references to japis furnished with gold or silver ''sula'', these examples show a broader tradition of describing court objects by their precious-metal coverings, fittings or ornamentation.

During the Ahom period, the ''Jaapi-hajiya Khel'', the occupational guild responsible for making japis, was monopolised by [[Chutia people|Chutias]].<ref>"The Chutias were engaged in all kind of technical jobs of the Ahom kingdom. For example, the Khanikar Khel (guild of engineers) was always manneed by the Sutiyas. The Jaapi-Hajiya Khel (guild for making Jaapis) was also monopolished by them." {{harvcol|Dutta|1985|p=30}}</ref> Apart from this, the [[Baro-Bhuyan]]s of Central Assam are also said to have used japis. According to the ''Satsari Buranji'', the Ahom kings adopted the ''Tongali'', ''Hasoti'' and ''Tokou-patia Japi'' from the Baro-Bhuyans.{{sfn|Bhuyan|1960|p=135}}

== Regional context ==

The ''jaapi'' belongs to a wider tradition of woven bamboo-and-leaf headgear used by agricultural communities across eastern and northeastern India.

===Rain hats of Northeast India===

[[File:Tiyuh Mishmi hat.png|thumb|The traditional Tiyuh hat of Miju [[Mishmi people|Mishmi]] tribe.]]
Among the [[Boro people|Boros]], a comparable rain protector is known as the ''khophri''.<ref>[https://bododimasaarchive.org/node/1700 Bodo tribe Khofri hat from Udalguri district]</ref> It is made from split bamboo, with dried wild leaves placed between the woven layers and its edges reinforced with cane or bamboo. Traditionally worn by both men and women, it is particularly associated with work such as tilling, transplanting rice and preparing paddy fields during the rainy season.<ref>{{cite thesis
|last=Narzary
|first=Sibisan
|title=Material Culture of the Boros: With Special Reference to Cultivation
|type=M.Phil. dissertation
|publisher=Bodoland University
|location=Kokrajhar
|year=2019
|pages=37–39
|url=https://repository.tribal.gov.in/bitstream/123456789/74194/1/IIPA_2019_dissertaion_0028.pdf
|access-date=19 July 2026
}}</ref> Among the Bodos, a Kherai ritual dance known as ''Khopri Sibnai'' involves a large headgear made from bamboo strips and dried leaves; the dancer also carries a shield and sword.<ref>{{cite journal
|last=Hajowary
|first=Tapasi
|title=The Dance Forms of a Doudini in Kherai Festival of the Bodos of Assam: An Analytical Study from Religious Perspective
|journal=ShodhKosh: Journal of Visual and Performing Arts
|year=2022
|volume=3
|issue=2
|page=24
|doi=10.29121/shodhkosh.v3.i2.2022.148
|quote=This dance is also known as Khopri Sibnai dance. Khopri is a large head gear made of bamboo strips and dried leaves.
|doi-access=free
}}</ref> It is said that [[Bishnu Prasad Rabha]] introduced the Jaapi dance into Bihu through the film ''Joymoti'', drawing from tribal dances including the Bodo ''Khofri Sibnai Mwsanai''.<ref>{{cite news
|last=Nayak
|first=Arunav Kumar
|title=Bishnu Rabha: The Man and the Legend
|work=The Sentinel
|date=20 June 2024
|url=https://www.sentinelassam.com/more-news/editorial/bishnu-rabha-the-man-and-the-legend
|access-date=21 July 2026
}}</ref>

Related forms are found elsewhere in Northeast India. The [[Monpa people|Monpas]] of [[Arunachal Pradesh]] use a shallow conical hat formed from two woven layers with dried banana-stem material inserted for waterproofing.<ref>{{cite web
|title=Bamboo and Cane Culture of Meghalaya
|url=https://ignca.gov.in/divisionss/janapada-sampada/northeastern-regional-centre/bamboo-and-cane-culture-of-meghalaya/
|publisher=[[Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts]]
|access-date=19 July 2026
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|title=Bamboo and Cane Culture of Arunachal Pradesh
|url=https://ignca.gov.in/divisionss/janapada-sampada/northeastern-regional-centre/introduction-bamboo-and-cane-culture-of-arunachal-pradesh/
|publisher=[[Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts]]
|access-date=19 July 2026
}}</ref> The [[Adi people|Adi]], including the Galo or formerly Adi-Gallong groups, also manufacture several forms of coiled cane headgear. The ''bolup'', for example, consists of a sturdy semi-elliptical bowl surrounded by a horizontal, boat-shaped rim, although such hats function principally as protective or decorative headgear rather than as broad agricultural rain hats. The [[Mishmi people|Mishmis]] of eastern Arunachal Pradesh likewise have a tradition of woven cane and bamboo hats. Ethnographic collections record hats belonging to the Mishmi and Idu Mishmi communities, while documentation supported by the Department of Tourism of Arunachal Pradesh identifies cane-hat making as part of the Idu Mishmis' wider traditions of bamboo weaving.<ref>{{cite web |title=Traditional Cane Hats of the Idu Mishmis |url=https://artsandculture.google.com/asset/traditional-cane-hats-of-the-idu-mishmis/NQEyU29kMygBzA |website=[[Google Arts & Culture]] |publisher=Banglanatak |year=2022 |access-date=19 July 2026 }}</ref>

===Rain hats of eastern and central South Asia===
[[File:Rain hat Chattisgarh.png|thumb|Khumri Rain hat from Chattisgarh]]
Comparable agricultural rain hats also occur farther west and south in eastern India as well as the Terai region of Nepal. Among the [[Tharu people]] of the [[Terai]] in southern Nepal, a broad bamboo-and-dried-leaf field hat or parasol known as the ''chattri'' is worn while cultivating paddy. Resting on the head like a hands-free umbrella, it protects the wearer from both monsoon rain and the sun.<ref>{{cite web |title=7 Nepali topi types used in Nepal besides Dhaka topi |url=https://english.onlinekhabar.com/nepali-topi-types.html |website=Onlinekhabar English |date=2 January 2022 |access-date=19 July 2026 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Tharu Essentials That Built a Culture: Inside Traditional Life in Bardiya |url=https://bardiyanaturelodge.com/tharu-essentials-that-built-a-culture-inside-traditional-life-in-bardiya/ |website=Bardiya Nature Lodge |access-date=19 July 2026 }}</ref> Nineteenth-century descriptions of Tharu material life also mention the use of umbrellas made from leaves as protection from the sun.<ref>{{cite book |title=Gazetteer of the Province of Oudh |volume=2 |year=1877 |publisher=Government Press |location=Lucknow }}</ref> Among the Chuktia Bhunjia people of [[Odisha]], the ''chhatel'' or ''mayer'' is a broad, flat conical rain hood made by enclosing layers of [[Bauhinia vahlii|siali leaves]] between two interlaced bamboo frames; it was traditionally used while sowing and transplanting paddy.<ref>{{cite journal
|last1=Sabar
|first1=Bhubaneswar
|last2=Pradhan
|first2=Paramatap
|title=Material Culture of Chuktia Bhunjia Tribes of Odisha: An Anthropological Interpretation
|journal=Man in India
|year=2025
|volume=105
|issue=1–2
|page=60
|url=https://www.arfjournals.com/image/catalog/Journals%20Papers/MII/2025/No.%201-2%20%282025%29/3-Material%20Culture%20of%20Bhunjia%20Tribe.pdf
|access-date=19 July 2026
}}</ref> Bamboo-and-leaf rain hats known as ''palari'' in [[Ganjam district|Ganjam]] and ''chhatur'' in [[Kalahandi district|Kalahandi]] are similarly worn by farmers, labourers and herders; comparable forms have been reported across eastern India.<ref>{{cite web
|last=Sainath
|first=P.
|author-link=P. Sainath
|title=Make in India – with bamboos and leaves
|url=https://ruralindiaonline.org/article/make-in-india---with-bamboos-and-leaves
|website=[[People's Archive of Rural India]]
|date=6 July 2017
|access-date=19 July 2026
}}</ref> In neighbouring [[Bangladesh]], a bamboo agricultural hat called the ''mathal'' is also traditionally used in farm work.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia
|last=Banu
|first=Zinat Mahrukh
|title=Bamboo Craft
|encyclopedia=[[Banglapedia]]
|url=https://en.banglapedia.org/index.php/Bamboo_Craft
|access-date=19 July 2026
}}</ref> Comparable rainwear was formerly used among the Adivasi communities of [[Bastar]] in present-day [[Chhattisgarh]]. Local rain hats called ''chettris'', together with leaf raincoats called ''sonas'', were made from dried [[Shorea robusta|sal]] leaves and worn when travelling to village markets during rainfall.<ref>{{cite report |title=Investment Opportunities in Chhattisgarh |chapter=Tribal Life |pages=18–19 |publisher=Government of Chhattisgarh }}</ref> In other parts of central India, ethnographic collections record the ''khumari'' or ''khumri'', described as a traditional rain hat, together with related rain shields or raincoats known as ''khumri'' or ''chhateli''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mohanta |first1=Basanta Kumar |last2=Tripathy |first2=Byomakesh |chapter=Role of Ethnographic Museum of IGNTU, Amarkantak for Conservation of the Tribal Cultural Heritage of Central India |title=Recent Researches on the Tribes of Central India |volume=2 |year=2016 |publisher=Aayu Publications |location=New Delhi |pages=484–494 |isbn=978-93-85161-18-6 }}</ref> Mahul leaves continue to be used locally in Chhattisgarh to improvise hats that protect cattle herders from heavy rain.<ref>{{cite news |last=Niyogi |first=Deepanwita Gita |title=Forest Dweller on Growing Up With Mahul Leaves |url=https://www.thequint.com/news/india/photos-chhattisgarh-tribal-mahul-leaf-hat-man-tiger-reserve |work=The Quint |date=16 September 2023 |access-date=19 July 2026 }}</ref>

These regional forms share the use of locally available bamboo, cane and leaves, layered construction for waterproofing, and an association with cultivation under monsoon conditions. The Assamese ''jaapi'' developed its own distinctive varieties and acquired additional courtly, ceremonial and decorative functions within Assam.

==Cultural symbol==
Today the jaapi is an important symbol of Assam and its culture. It is used during [[Bihu dance]], as protection against the elements, offered as a sign of respect in ceremonies, and placed as a decorative item around the house especially in the walls as a welcome sign.{{sfn|Handoo|2003|p=46}}<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=reuQbFK9Rz4C&dq=jAPI+WORN+Bihu+dance,&pg=PA98|title=Assam General Knowledge|publisher=Bright Publications|isbn=9788171994519|pages=98}}</ref>

==Types==
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
* Sorudoi japi: Used by women, especially brides.
* Bordoi japi: Used by royalty since ancient times (Kamrupa).
* Panidoi/Haluwa japi: Used by farmers in fields.
* Garakhiya japi: Used by cattle herders.
* Pitha japi: Used as hoods, sometimes during cultivation.
* Tupi/Varun japi: Used in rain as protective hats.
{{div col end}}

==Gallery==
<gallery mode>
File:Varun Japi.jpg|Upper metal part of an ancient Varun (Tupi) Japi known as ''Sula'', used during the rule of Sutiya kings, kept in the Gharmora Satra.
File:Jaapi.jpg|Sarudaya jaapi.
File:Japi.JPG|A jaapi at Kalakhetra, Guwahati.
File:Jaapi,Dhemaji.jpg|Jaapis made in Dhemaji.
File:Talari rain hat Orissa.jpg|Rain hat called Talari worn in Orissa, similar to Japi.
File:Nepal Rain Hat.png|Rain hat in Terai region of Nepal, similar to Japi.
File:Mathal Rain hat.png|Rain hat, similar to Japi, called Mathal worn in Bengal region.
</gallery>

==See also==
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
*[[Conical Asian hat]]
*[[Culture of Assam]]
*[[List of hat styles]]
*[[List of headgear]]
*[[Textiles and dresses of Assam]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin}}
* {{Citation |last=Dutta |first=Sristidhar |title=The Mataks and their Kingdom |publisher=Chugh Publications |place=Allahabad |year=1985}}
*{{citation|last=Khanikar|first=S|title=Chutia Jaatir Itihax aru Luko-Sanskriti|year=1991}}
*{{citation|last=Barua|first=G.C|title=Ahom Buranji|year=1939|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.450867/page/56/mode/1up}}
* {{citation|last=Bhuyan|first=Surjya K.|title=Satsari Buranji|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.452953/page/n86/mode/1up|year=1960}}
* {{citation|last=Jacquesson|first=Francois|title=Ahom Buranji Translation : Chutia-Ahom wars|url=https://archive.org/details/ahom-buranji-translations
}}
* {{citation|last=Handoo|first=Jawaharlal|title=Folklore in the Changing Times|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i8VuAAAAMAAJ&q=Japi+is+a+traditional+symbol+of+Assamese+folk+culture|publisher=Indhira Gandhhi Rashtriya Manav Sangrahalaya|year=2003|location=Original from Indiana University}}
* {{citation |last=Mahanta |first=S |title=Assam Buranji.D.H.A.S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YELHow5lP9kC |year=1945}}
{{refend}}

{{Hats}}
{{Clothing}}
{{Clothing in South Asia}}
{{Assam}}

[[Category:History of Asian clothing]]
[[Category:Pointed hats]]
[[Category:Textiles and clothing of Assam]]
[[Category:Bamboo weaving]]

Xorai

2026-09-23T12:01:09Z

106.222.226.246:

{{Short description|Assamese offering tray}}
[[File:শৰাই.JPG|thumb|A ''xorai'' on display]]
[[File:Xorai welcome to Kaziranga.jpg|thumb|Two extra-large ''xorai'' sculptures used beside a road to welcome visitors to [[Kaziranga National Park]]]]

A '''xorai''' is a traditional Assamese offering tray or dish mounted on a pedestal. Usually made of [[bell metal]] or brass, it is one of the best-known symbols of [[Assam]] and is associated with hospitality, honour, religious offerings and cultural ceremony.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://assam.gov.in/en/main/CULTURE%20OF%20ASSAM|title=Culture of Assam {{!}} ASSAM GOVERNMENT|website=assam.gov.in|access-date=2019-07-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/life-and-style/insiders-guide-assam-to-mizoram/article19854549.ece|title=Insider's guide: Assam to Mizoram|last=Mathew|first=Elizabeth|date=2017-10-13|work=The Hindu|access-date=2019-07-02|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/giving-voice-to-the-voiceless/article25133281.ece|title=Giving voice to the voiceless|last=Baruah|first=Parthajit|date=2018-10-05|work=The Hindu|access-date=2019-07-02|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> Similar ''dish-on-stand'' type articles have been in use in the region since the [[Kamarupa]] period.<ref>{{cite journal
|last1=Hazarika
|first1=Manjil
|last2=Devi
|first2=Jonali
|last3=Wunglengton
|first3=Y. S.
|last4=Sanathana
|first4=Y. S.
|display-authors=etal
|title=A Study of Pottery and Terracotta Objects from Excavations at Cotton College (1990–1992) in Guwahati, Assam
|journal=Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology
|volume=8.1
|year=2020
|pages=92–125 |url=https://www.heritageuniversityofkerala.com/JournalPDF/Volume8.1/4.pdf
}} pp. 108–109, 112–113. The authors identify the ''dish-on-stand'' among the principal forms of kaolin or "Ambari ware". Their catalogue records 90 stand/stem fragments, some interpreted as components of dishes-on-stand used in ritual and ceremonial contexts, and describes the complete form as "a more or less flat dish with decorations on the surface having splayed rim attached on top of a stand"; the vessel is interpreted as having ceremonial, decorative and domestic uses.</ref>{{efn| In his study of the excavations at [[Ambari]], Guwahati, archaeologist M. K. Dhavalikar mentions that the ''dish-on-stand'' vessel may have been used for serving {{transliteration|as|tambul}} ([[areca nut|betel nut]] and [[betel|leaf]]), as is still used today, the only difference being that the modern version is made out of metal.<ref>{{cite journal
|last=Dhavalikar
|first=M. K.
|title=Archaeology of Gauhati
|journal=Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute
|volume=31/32
|issue=1/2
|year=1971
|page=142
|jstor=42930897
|quote=Two interesting shapes are a dish-on-stand and a horn-shaped vessel. The former is found in large numbers and various sizes. It might have been used for serving ''tāmbul'' as is done today, the only difference being that the metal dish-on-stand is now used.}}</ref>}}

A xorai generally consists of a shallow circular tray or plate supported by a stem and base. It may be open or fitted with an ornamental cover. It is commonly used to offer {{transliteration|as|tamul-pan}} ([[areca nut]] and [[betel leaf]]), sweets, food, flowers, religious offerings or other ceremonial objects. In Assamese society, presenting a xorai conveys welcome, gratitude and respect.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.news18.com/photogallery/politics/rahul-gandhis-49th-birthday-glimpses-from-his-life-in-pictures-2193333.html|title=Rahul Gandhi's 49th Birthday: Glimpses from His Life in Pictures|date=2019-06-19|website=News18|access-date=2019-07-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/north-east/hima-feted-for-her-golden-track-feat/cid/1666893|title=Hima feted for her golden track feat|website=telegraphindia.com|language=en|access-date=2019-07-02}}</ref>

A related Assamese vessel is the '''{{transliteration|as|bota}}''', a bowl-like or covered container which may be used together with a xorai. Although the two objects share a related form and ceremonial function, the xorai is usually a flat or shallow tray on a pedestal, whereas a bota is more bowl-shaped.<ref>{{cite book
|last=Saikia
|first=Yasmin
|title=Fragmented Memories: Struggling to Be Tai-Ahom in India
|url=https://archive.org/details/fragmentedmemori0000saik
|publisher=Duke University Press
|location=Durham
|year=2004
|isbn=9780822334255
|access-date=5 June 2025
}}</ref>

[[Hajo]] and [[Sarthebari]] are among the principal centres of traditional bell-metal and brass craftsmanship in Assam.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/north-east/time-to-give-the-makers-a-xorai/cid/1620693|title=Time to give the makers a xorai|website=telegraphindia.com|language=en|access-date=2019-07-02}}</ref>

== History and origin ==

The xorai has been described as a long-established ceremonial object in Assam, used in royal courts, religious rituals and community ceremonies.

===Kamrupa Period===

Pedestal or raised dish forms were present in the Brahmaputra Valley since the [[Kamarupa]] period. Archaeological studies of the early-medieval pottery tradition of [[Ambari]], Guwahati, identify the ''dish-on-stand''<ref>{{cite journal
|last1=Hazarika
|first1=Manjil
|last2=Devi
|first2=Jonali
|last3=Wunglengton
|first3=Y. S.
|last4=Sanathana
|first4=Y. S.
|display-authors=etal
|title=A Study of Pottery and Terracotta Objects from Excavations at Cotton College (1990–1992) in Guwahati, Assam
|journal=Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology
|volume=8.1
|year=2020
|pages=92–125 |url=https://www.heritageuniversityofkerala.com/JournalPDF/Volume8.1/4.pdf
}} pp. 108–109, 112–113. The authors identify the ''dish-on-stand'' among the principal forms of kaolin or "Ambari ware". Their catalogue records 90 stand/stem fragments, some interpreted as components of dishes-on-stand used in ritual and ceremonial contexts, and describes the complete form as "a more or less flat dish with decorations on the surface having splayed rim attached on top of a stand"; the vessel is interpreted as having ceremonial, decorative and domestic uses.</ref> among the principal forms of the distinctive kaolin pottery known as "Ambari ware".<ref>"It was Dhavalikar (1973: 138) who first termed the Kaolin pottery recovered from the Ambari archaeological site as the ‘Ambari ware’ [...] Principal forms of kaolin pottery include [...] dish-on-stand and horn-shaped vessels."{{harvcol|Hazarika|2020|pp=92-125}}</ref> Surviving stands and stems have also been interpreted as components of dishes-on-stand used for ceremonial, ritual and domestic purposes.<ref>{{cite journal
|last1=Hazarika
|first1=Manjil
|last2=Devi
|first2=Jonali
|last3=Wunglengton
|first3=Y. S.
|last4=Sanathana
|first4=Y. S.
|display-authors=etal
|title=A Study of Pottery and Terracotta Objects from Excavations at Cotton College (1990–1992) in Guwahati, Assam
|journal=Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology
|volume=8.1
|year=2020
|pages=92–125
}}</ref> In his study of the excavations at [[Ambari]], Guwahati, archaeologist M. K. Dhavalikar identified the ''dish-on-stand'' as one of the distinctive forms of the fine ceramic assemblage which he termed "Ambari Ware". Dhavalikar suggested that the vessel may have been used serving {{transliteration|as|tambul}} ([[areca nut|betel nut]] and [[betel|leaf]]), as in contemporary Assam, noting that the corresponding dish-on-stand like the ''{{transliteration|as|bota}}'' or ''Xorai''<ref>{{cite web
|title=Culture of Assam
|website=Assam State Portal
|publisher=Government of Assam
|url=https://usp2.amtron.in/about-us/391
|access-date=27 July 2026
|quote=Guests are offered "Tamul Paan" in a traditional bell metal serving "Bota" as a mark of honour.
}}</ref> used in modern times was made of metal.<ref>{{cite journal
|last=Dhavalikar
|first=M. K.
|title=Archaeology of Gauhati
|journal=Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute
|volume=31/32
|issue=1/2
|year=1971
|page=142
|jstor=42930897
|quote=Two interesting shapes are a dish-on-stand and a horn-shaped vessel. The former is found in large numbers and various sizes. It might have been used for serving ''tāmbul'' as is done today, the only difference being that the metal dish-on-stand is now used.}}</ref> The Ambari Ware horizon represented in the earlier excavation sequence has been dated broadly to the seventh–twelfth centuries CE. Sukanya Sharma notes that the kaolin pottery occurred abundantly in Period I at Ambari, which is approximately dated to the seventh–twelfth centuries CE, with a radiocarbon date of 1030 ± 130 CE.<ref>{{cite journal
|last=Sharma
|first=Sukanya
|title=Southeast Asian Elements in the Archaeological Evidence of Northeast India
|journal=SPAFA Journal
|volume=20
|issue=3
|year=2010
|page=24
|url=https://www.seameo-spafa.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/225_1316503644_sub.pdf
|quote=The pottery was found abundantly in period I of Ambari excavation in Guwahati. Period I is approximately dated from 7th to 12th century. The radio carbon date is 1030+130 CE.}}</ref> The discovery of kaolin pottery at these sites has been interpreted as evidence of early cultural contact with [[China]] and the transmission of ceramic ideas into [[Northeast India]].<ref>{{cite journal
|last=Sharma
|first=Sukanya
|title=Southeast Asian Elements in the Archaeological Evidence of Northeast India
|journal=SPAFA Journal
|volume=20
|issue=3
|year=2010
|page=24
|url=https://www.seameo-spafa.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/225_1316503644_sub.pdf
}}</ref>{{efn|In discussing the use of white clay in ancient South Asian ceramics, Baishali Ghosh distinguishes kaolin from the ball clay used for [[Satavahana]] terracottas and states: "Furthermore, the use of kaolin was unknown to South Asian potters until the Muslim invasion that introduced the application of kaolin through porcelain-making and pot-glazing."<ref>{{cite journal
|last=Ghosh
|first=Baishali
|title=Recovering Local Agency and Technology in the Trans-Roman-Deccani Trade
|journal=World History Connected
|volume=18
|issue=3
|year=2021
|page=7
|url=https://worldhistoryconnected.press.uillinois.edu/18.3/pdfs/06_WHC_18_3_Ghosh.pdf
|quote=Furthermore, the use of kaolin was unknown to South Asian potters until the Muslim invasion that introduced the application of kaolin through porcelain-making and pot-glazing.
}}</ref>}}

Bell metalworking was also known in the Kamrupa period. [[Birinchi Kumar Barua|B. K. Barua]], in his discussion of ornaments in early Assam, cites the ''[[Kalika Purana]]'' for the use of {{transliteration|sa|IAST|kāṃsya}}, which he identifies as bell metal.<ref>''Kalika Purana'', ch. 69, vv. 33–34: {{lang|sa|अयोमयमृते कांस्यमृते यद्भूषणं भवेत्। स्वर्णरौप्यस्य चाभावे त्वधः काये नियोजयेत्॥}} B. K. Barua renders the passage as stating that ornaments made of other metals, except iron and "bell-metal (kamsya)", were to be worn on the lower part of the body. {{cite thesis
|last=Barua
|first=Birinchi Kumar
|title=A Cultural History of Assam of the Early Period
|type=PhD thesis
|publisher=School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London
|year=1947
|page=201
}}</ref> A comparable change in material from earthenware to metal, while retaining the pedestal-tray form, is also attested elsewhere in Southeast Asia. The [[National Museum of the Philippines]] compares prehistoric earthenware pedestalled bowls with the brass ''tabak'' of the [[Maranao people|Maranao]] and [[Maguindanao people|Maguindanao]], noting their similarity in form and ceremonial serving function<ref>{{cite web
|title=Earthenware Pedestalled Bowls
|url=https://www.nationalmuseum.gov.ph/2021/12/07/earthenware-pedestalled-bowls/
|website=National Museum of the Philippines
|date=7 December 2021
|access-date=28 July 2026
}}</ref>; Cambodian museum collections likewise preserve pedestal trays in clay alongside footed and pedestal trays made of brass.<ref>{{cite web
|title=Museum Management System in Cambodia
|url=https://search.cambodiamuseum.info/index.php/searchcatalog/page_list/f.ref_en_nb/desc/
|website=National Museum of Cambodia
|access-date=28 July 2026
}}</ref>

[[File:Tamulpanor Xorai Assam.JPG|thumb|A xorai with [[gamosa]], {{transliteration|as|tamul}} ([[areca nut]]) and {{transliteration|as|paan}} ([[betel]])]]

===Late Medieval Period===

The archaeological distribution of the ''dish-on-stand'' form extended into eastern Assam. It is attested at [[Bhismaknagar]], a site generally associated with the [[Chutia kingdom]].<ref>{{cite web
|title=Remains at Bhismaknagar
|website=Archaeological Survey of India, Guwahati Circle
|url=http://asiguwahaticircle.gov.in/bhismaknagar.html
|quote=The remains are generally ascribed to the rule of the 'Chutias', a Tibeto-Burmese tribe who ruled over the region of Sadiya from 11th to 16th Century CE.
}}</ref> Tage Tada describes the ceramic assemblage from the site as predominantly red and wheel-turned and lists bowls, dishes, ''dish-on-stand'', spouted vessels, jars and decorative finials among its important forms. He further notes that the fine wheel-turned pottery bears close affinity with pottery excavated at [[Ambari]], Guwahati, which he dates to approximately the tenth–twelfth centuries.<ref>{{cite book
|last=Tada
|first=Tage
|title=Archaeological Remains of Arunachal Pradesh: Upto 16th Century A.D.
|publisher=Department of Cultural Affairs, Directorate of Research, Government of Arunachal Pradesh
|location=Itanagar
|year=2014
|page=115
}}</ref> Kaolin pottery recovered from Bhismaknagar has separately been interpreted as evidence of early cultural contact with [[China]] and the transmission of ceramic ideas into Northeast India.<ref>{{cite journal
|last=Sharma
|first=Sukanya
|title=Southeast Asian Elements in the Archaeological Evidence of Northeast India
|journal=SPAFA Journal
|volume=20
|issue=3
|year=2010
|page=24
|url=https://www.seameo-spafa.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/225_1316503644_sub.pdf
}}</ref>

The use of Xorai is recorded in Chutia, Ahom and Dimasa contexts. Its association with honour and hospitality continued through the [[Chutia kingdom|Chutia]] and [[Ahom kingdom|Ahom]] periods and remains prominent in contemporary Assamese culture.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Assam's Xorai is more than just a metal artifact|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/outlooktraveller/explore/story/70480/the-assamese-xorai-and-its-cultural-importance|work=Outlook Traveller|date=2020-06-15|access-date=2025-07-23}}{{dead link|date=August 2026|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> A passage in the ''Satsari Buranji'' refers to the Chutia king presenting two golden xorais and two pieces of cloth to Phrachengmung Gohain, indicating the use of such ceremonial objects in the political and courtly culture of the period.<ref>Bhuyan, S. K., ''Satsari Buranji'', p. 58: "{{lang|as|ফ্ৰাচেংমুঙলৈ দিলে সুবৰ্ণৰ শৰাই ২ খন, পাটি ২ টা..}}"</ref> An explicit Buranji reference to specialist bell-metal workers occurs in connection with the conquest of the [[Chutia Kingdom]]. According to the ''Banhgaria Burhagohain Buranji'', preserved in the ''Satsari Asam Buranji'', following the fall of the Chutia kingdom, the Ahoms obtained, along with people belonging to various other occupational groups, {{transliteration|as|kahar}} (bell-metal workers) from the conquered territory.<ref>{{cite book
|editor-last=Bhuyan
|editor-first=Surya Kumar
|title=Satsari Asam Buranji
|publisher=Gauhati University
|location=Gauhati
|year=1960
|page=126
}}</ref> Among the [[Dimasa people|Dimasa]], the word {{lang|dis|horai}} is used for a xorai-like vessel.<ref>{{cite web|title=horai|url=https://www.xobdo.org/dic/horai|website=Xobdo|access-date=14 June 2026}}</ref> Dimasa textile traditions also include a motif known as {{lang|dis|horaimin}}, associated with the form of the horai.<ref>{{cite web|last=ROOHI|title=Weaving in indigenous Dimasa community of Assam
|url=https://in.boell.org/en/weaving-indigenous-dimasa-community-assam|website=Heinrich Böll Stiftung|date=19 December 2019|access-date=14 June 2026}}</ref>

[[File:সঁফুৰা.JPG|thumb|A xorai]]

=== Comparative context ===

Objects comparable in broad form or ceremonial function to the xorai occur in other Asian cultures, including the [[thali]] in North India and the ''phan'' of Cambodia and Thailand. Pedestal bowls, trays and covered offering vessels are also found in Tibetan, Burmese, Indonesian and Philippine traditions. However, the Assamese xorai is distinctive in its bell-metal craftsmanship, local terminology and central role in Assamese hospitality and religious culture.<ref>{{Cite web
|title=Cultural Objects of the East: A Comparative Overview
|url=https://www.sahapedia.org/cultural-objects-east-comparative-overview
|website=Sahapedia
|access-date=2025-07-23
}}{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

High-stemmed trays, bowls and offering vessels comparable in general form to the xorai occur in several parts of Asia. Such similarities do not by themselves establish a direct line of descent for the Assamese xorai, but they indicate that pedestal vessels have long been used in religious, domestic and ceremonial settings across East, Himalayan and Southeast Asia.

[[File:Warring States Bronze Dou 02.jpg|thumb|A bronze Chinese ''dou'' vessel from the [[Warring States period]]]]

In ancient China, high-stemmed food and ritual vessels known as {{transliteration|zh|dou}} ({{lang|zh|豆}}) were used in ceremonial settings. Archaeological examples occur in Neolithic and later Chinese contexts, and the form became associated with ritual food offerings during the [[Zhou dynasty]].{{citation needed|date=June 2026}} Linguistic studies place the earliest diversification of the [[Sino-Tibetan languages]] in northern China during the Late Neolithic period.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Zhang|first1=Menghan|last2=Yan|first2=Shi|last3=Pan|first3=Wuyun|last4=Jin|first4=Li|year=2019
|title=Phylogenetic evidence for Sino-Tibetan origin in northern China in the Late Neolithic|journal=Nature|volume=569|pages=112–115|doi=10.1038/s41586-019-1153-z}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Zhang|first1=Hanzhi|last2=Ji|first2=Ting|last3=Pagel|first3=Mark|last4=Mace|first4=Ruth|year=2020
|title=Dated phylogeny suggests early Neolithic origin of Sino-Tibetan languages
|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=10|article-number=20792|doi=10.1038/s41598-020-77404-4|doi-access=free|pmc=7695722}}</ref> The [[Bodo-Garo languages]] of Assam belong to the wider Tibeto-Burman branch of this language family.<ref>{{cite book
|last=DeLancey|first=Scott|year=2012|chapter=On the Origins of Bodo-Garo|editor-last=Morey
|editor-first=Stephen|editor2-last=Post|editor2-first=Mark W.|title=North East Indian Linguistics|volume=4|publisher=Cambridge University Press India|pages=3–20}}</ref>

[[File:Spring & Autumn Bronze Dou, Xinzheng.jpg|thumb|A bronze ''dou'' vessel from the [[Spring and Autumn period]]]]

=== Tibetan and Himalayan vessels ===

Pedestal bowls, trays and offering stands are also found in Tibetan Buddhist material culture. The Rubin Museum of Himalayan Art describes stemmed offering bowls as objects used in religious rites as well as in daily consumption.<ref>{{cite web|title=Stemmed Offering Bowl|website=Rubin Museum of Himalayan Art|publisher=Rubin Museum of Himalayan Art|url=https://rubinmuseum.org/collection/sc2012-7-6-1-7/|access-date=15 June 2026}}</ref> [[Tibetan Buddhism|Tibetan Buddhist]] [[mandala]] offering sets often employ a stand or base to hold grain or other offerings arranged as a mandala.<ref>{{cite web|title=Base for an offering mandala used in Tibetan Buddhist rituals|website=National Museum of Asian Art|publisher=Smithsonian Institution|url=https://asia-archive.si.edu/object/F1998.295|access-date=15 June 2026|quote=It serves as a stand, or base, to hold offerings (usually grain), which are arranged to form a mandala.}}</ref> Other Tibetan ceremonial vessels include pedestal bowls, covered tea bowls and {{transliteration|bo|serkyem}} offering sets, which are used in offerings to protective deities and may contain tea, alcohol, grains, sweets or ritual food.<ref>{{cite web
|title=Pedestal Bowl|website=Himalayan Art Resources|url=https://www.himalayanart.org/items/3314996|access-date=15 June 2026}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Tibetan Buddhist Silver Pedestal Offering Bowl|website=Invaluable
|url=https://www.invaluable.com/auction-lot/tibetan-buddhist-silver-pedestal-offering-bowl-13-1206-c-b9d41abb7e
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260615094050/https://www.invaluable.com/auction-lot/tibetan-buddhist-silver-pedestal-offering-bowl-13-1206-c-b9d41abb7e|archive-date=15 June 2026|access-date=15 June 2026}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Serkyem Offering in Buddhism: A Comprehensive Guide|website=Evamratna|date=21 November 2023|url=https://evamratna.com/blogs/evamratna-blogs/serkyem-offering|access-date=15 June 2026}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Tea Bowl with Stand and Lid|website=Rubin Museum of Himalayan Art|publisher=Rubin Museum of Himalayan Art|url=https://rubinmuseum.org/collection/sc2013-2a-c/|access-date=15 June 2026
}}</ref>

=== Myanmar ===

Pedestal dishes and covered offering vessels are prominent in the material culture of Myanmar. The Burmese word {{transliteration|my|ban}} ({{lang|my|ဗန်း}}) means “tray”, while '{{transliteration|my|langpan}} ({{lang|my|လင်ပန်း}}) has a related meaning.<ref>{{cite web|script-title=my:ဗန်း|website=Wiktionary|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%80%97%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8|access-date=15 June 2026}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|script-title=my:လင်ပန်း|website=Wiktionary
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%80%9C%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%95%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8
|access-date=15 June 2026
}}</ref> An open Burmese pedestal dish is often called a ''kalat''. Covered offering vessels known as {{transliteration|my|hsun-ok}} are used to carry or present food and offerings in Buddhist contexts. Such vessels commonly consist of a pedestal, a bowl-like container, internal trays and a domed or spired cover; they are often made from lacquered bamboo or wood.<ref>{{cite web|title=hsun-ok; vessel-stand; bowl|website=British Museum Collection Online|publisher=The British Museum
|url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/A_1993-1117-1|access-date=15 June 2026}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Buddhist offering vessel (hsun ok)|website=Art Gallery of South Australia Collection|publisher=Art Gallery of South Australia|url=https://www.agsa.sa.gov.au/collection-publications/collection/works/buddhist-offering-vessel-hsun-ok/24828/|access-date=15 June 2026}}</ref> Covered offering vessels similar to the Burmese ''hsun-ok'' are also found in the Shan regions of northeastern Myanmar. Their form is especially associated with Buddhist offering traditions, although open pedestal trays occur more widely across mainland Southeast Asia.<ref>{{cite web|title=hsun-ok|website=British Museum Collection Online|publisher=The British Museum|url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/A_1998-0723-241
|access-date=15 June 2026}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Burmese Lacquer Hson-ok Offering Box|website=Michael Backman Ltd|url=https://www.michaelbackmanltd.com/archived_objects/burmese-lacquer-hson-ok-offering-box/|access-date=15 June 2026}}</ref>

=== Cambodia, Thailand and the ''phan'' ===

In Cambodia and Thailand, pedestal trays used for offerings are generally known as {{transliteration|th|phan}} or related forms such as ''pan'' and ''ban''.<ref>{{cite web|script-title=km:ពាន|website=Wiktionary|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%93|access-date=15 June 2026}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Phan (tray)|website=Wikipedia|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phan_(tray)
|access-date=15 June 2026}}</ref>{{Circular reference|date=August 2026}} Linguist Roger Blench has discussed an Austroasiatic word family for “pedestal tray” or “pedestal dish”, including Proto-Mon-Khmer *baːn, Kui ''phian'', Surin Khmer ''piːan'', T’in ''phɨan'' and Nyah Kur ''kǝbíǝn''. He compares this vocabulary with Old Chinese *bˤan, meaning “tray”, and suggests that the Khmer, Thai and Shan forms may plausibly all be regional Chinese borrowings.<ref>{{cite book
|last=Blench
|first=Roger
|chapter=Basketry in Austroasiatic
|editor-last=Alves
|editor-first=Mark
|title=Austroasiatic Linguistics in Honour of Michel Ferlus
|publisher=JSEALS Special Publication
|year=2025
|pages=87–88
|url=https://icaal.net/wp-content/uploads/2026/01/AA-Linguistics-in-Honour-of-Michel-Ferlus-2025.pdf
|access-date=15 June 2026
}}</ref> Pedestalled dishes and bowls are documented in pre-Angkorian (300–500 CE) archaeological contexts in Cambodia and northeastern Thailand.<ref>{{cite journal
|last=Heng
|first=Piphal
|title=Transition to the Pre-Angkorian period (300–500 CE): Thala Borivat and a regional perspective
|journal=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies
|volume=47
|issue=3
|year=2016
|pages=484–505
|doi=10.1017/S0022463416000369
|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-southeast-asian-studies/article/transition-to-the-preangkorian-period-300500-ce-thala-borivat-and-a-regional-perspective/AEC80A473E33ED556489658939C261D2
|access-date=15 June 2026
|url-access=subscription
}}</ref> Similar forms have also been noted among ceramics from [[Angkor Borei]].<ref>{{cite journal
|last=Stark
|first=Miriam T.
|year=2019
|title=Earthenware Ceramic Technologies of Angkor Borei, Cambodia
|journal=Udaya, Journal of Khmer Studies
|volume=14
|pages=109–132
}}</ref> Khmer inscriptions and studies of Khmer silverware also record trays and pedestal vessels among ceremonial objects.<ref>{{cite book
|last=Kong
|first=Vireak
|year=2009
|title=Khmer Silverwares
|publisher=UNESCO
|location=Phnom Penh
|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000187953
|access-date=9 June 2026
}}</ref> The Thai ''phan'' remains an important ceremonial object, including in the {{transliteration|th|Bai Sri Su Khwan}} ritual of northeastern Thailand, where food and ritual offerings are placed on such trays.<ref>{{Cite journal
|last1=Titrassamee
|first1=Songsak
|last2=Lamduan
|first2=Somchai
|last3=Phaengsoi
|first3=Kosit
|date=2014-06-12
|title=Bai Sri Su Khwan: Spirit Blessing in North-eastern Thailand
|journal=Asian Culture and History
|volume=6
|issue=2
|pages=134–138
|publisher=Canadian Center of Science and Education
|doi=10.5539/ach.v6n2p134
|issn=1916-9655
|url=https://patricklepetit.jalbum.net/ANIMISM%20AND%20RELIGION/LIBRARY/Bai_Sri_Su_Khwan_Spirit_Blessing_in_North-eastern.pdf
|access-date=2026-06-14
}} {{Dead link|date=June 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> In the [[Ahom language]], a related tray or pedestal vessel was called {{transliteration|aho|phun}} ({{lang|aho|𑜇𑜥𑜃𑜫}}). The same word could also refer to a [[maihang]], another Assamese pedestal vessel or tray.<ref>{{Cite book
|last=Barua
|first=Golap Chandra
|title=Ahom-Assamese-English Dictionary
|publisher=Baptist Mission Press
|location=Calcutta
|year=1920
|page=138
|url=https://ia801408.us.archive.org/2/items/in.ernet.dli.2015.463794/2015.463794.Ahom-assamese-english-Dictionary.pdf
|access-date=2026-06-14
}}</ref>

=== Other comparable vessels ===

Comparable pedestal trays and offering vessels are also used elsewhere in Southeast Asia. In Bali, the {{lang|ban|dulang}} is a raised tray used to carry offerings in religious and ceremonial contexts. In the southern Philippines, the [[Maranao people|Maranao]] and [[Maguindanao people|Maguindanao]] use brass pedestal vessels known respectively as {{lang|mrw|tabak}} and {{lang|mdh|tabak}} during special occasions and communal food service; these vessels evolved from earlier earthenware forms.<ref>{{cite web
|title=Earthenware Pedestalled Bowls
|website=National Museum of the Philippines
|publisher=National Museum of the Philippines
|date=7 December 2021
|url=https://www.nationalmuseum.gov.ph/2021/12/07/earthenware-pedestalled-bowls/
|access-date=15 June 2026
}}</ref> Examples of offering trays and pedestal vessels are also known from medieval Java and other parts of island Southeast Asia.<ref>{{cite web
|title=Offering tray (talam)
|website=The Metropolitan Museum of Art
|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art
|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/715081
|access-date=15 June 2026
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|title=Offering Vessel in the Form of a Female Head
|website=Los Angeles County Museum of Art
|publisher=LACMA
|url=https://collections.lacma.org/node/175545
|access-date=15 June 2026
}}</ref>

[[File:Xorai worship.webp|thumb|A xorai used in a [[namghar]]]]

== Usage ==

Xorais are used in Assamese religious, social and ceremonial life. Their principal uses include:

* offering {{transliteration|as|tamul-pan}} ([[betel nut]] and [[betel|betel leaves]]) to guests as a sign of welcome, respect and thanks;<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cricket/sourav-ganguly-speaks-about-ms-dhoni-s-position-leading-into-the-world-cup/story-9NaHPRRTs3oPUZ3lMf9LDM.html|title=Sourav Ganguly speaks about MS Dhoni's position leading into the World Cup|date=2018-10-22|website=Hindustan Times|language=en|access-date=2019-07-02}}</ref>
* placing food, offerings or ritual objects before an altar in a [[namghar]], temple or household shrine;
* holding offerings during religious ceremonies and [[Ekasarana Dharma|Neo-Vaishnavite]] observances;
* serving as a decorative symbol during traditional functions, including [[Bihu dance]] performances;
* being presented to guests, artists, public figures and dignitaries during felicitations and official ceremonies.

The Government of Assam describes the offering of {{transliteration|as|tamul-pan}} on a xorai as a customary expression of devotion, respect and friendship, and also notes its use for placing ''prasad'' and other offerings in namghars or places of worship.<ref>{{cite web
|title=Culture of Assam
|url=https://assam.gov.in/about-us/391
|website=Assam State Portal
|publisher=Government of Assam
|access-date=9 June 2026
}}</ref>

=== Tamul-pan and hospitality ===

The presentation of areca nut and betel leaf is an important form of hospitality in Assam. The practice forms part of a wider cultural tradition in South and Southeast Asia in which betel and areca are associated with greeting guests, ritual exchange, marriage ceremonies, social recognition and religious offerings.<ref>{{cite journal
|last1=Ahuja
|first1=S. C.
|last2=Ahuja
|first2=Uma
|year=2011
|title=Betel Leaf and Betel Nut in India: History and Uses
|journal=Asian Agri-History
|volume=15
|issue=1
|pages=13–35
|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/292469329_Betel_leaf_and_betel_nut_in_India_History_and_uses
|access-date=9 June 2026
}}</ref>

Comparable customs are found among neighbouring communities. In Khasi society, for example, the offering of {{lang|kha|kwai}}—areca nut and betel leaf—is described as an important form of hospitality and courtesy towards visitors.<ref>{{cite web
|title=Shikyntien Kwai: A Folklore about Betel Hospitality in Khasi Society
|url=https://www.necarf.org/home/articles/54/shikyntien-kwai-a-folklore-about-betel-hospitality-in-khasi-society
|website=NECARF
|date=14 October 2020
|access-date=9 June 2026
}}</ref> In Assam, the use of a bell-metal xorai or bota gives this wider custom a distinctive local material form.

=== Religious significance ===

Over time, the xorai became closely associated with Assamese religious life, particularly with [[Ekasarana Dharma|Neo-Vaishnavism]] and the institution of the namghar. It is used to place the [[Bhagavata Purana|Bhagavata]], religious texts, offerings and ''prasad'' in communal worship. Accounts of the Neo-Vaishnavite tradition associate the wider adoption of the xorai in namghars with the religious movement of [[Srimanta Sankardeva]] in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. In this context, the xorai is described as a symbol of common worship and the equal distribution of ''prasad'' among devotees.<ref>{{cite web
|url=https://www.gktoday.in/xorai/
|title=Xorai
|website=GKToday
|date=20 March 2021
}}</ref>

[[File:Sankaradeva.jpg|thumb|[[Srimanta Sankardev]]]]

== Manufacturing process ==

Xorais are typically crafted using [[bell metal]], an alloy of copper and tin, although brass variants are also produced. Traditional artisans, especially in [[Sarthebari]] and [[Hajo]], use manual processes involving melting, casting, hammering, shaping, polishing and engraving. The craft requires specialised skill and is often transmitted within artisan families across generations.<ref>{{Cite web
|title=Sarthebari: The Bell Metal Town of Assam
|url=https://www.india.com/travel/articles/sarthebari-the-bell-metal-town-of-assam-3521869/
|website=India.com
|access-date=2025-07-23
}}</ref>

== Symbolism and cultural significance ==

In Assamese society, the xorai is regarded as a sacred and symbolic object. It is used to present offerings to guests, elders and deities, and is associated with respect, purity, goodwill and hospitality.<ref>{{Cite web
|url=https://www.downtoearth.org.in/blog/culture/an-iconic-symbol-of-assamese-culture-the-xorai-78931
|title=An iconic symbol of Assamese culture: The Xorai
|website=Down To Earth
|access-date=2025-07-23
}}{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The cultural importance of the xorai lies partly in its movement from courtly and elite settings into broader community use. Through the offering of {{transliteration|as|tamul-pan}}, it became a widely recognised medium of honour and social exchange across the Brahmaputra Valley. In modern Assamese public culture, it is frequently treated as an emblem of collective identity and regional heritage.<ref>{{cite web
|url=https://www.gktoday.in/xorai/
|title=Xorai
|website=GKToday
|date=20 March 2021
}}</ref>

== Modern adaptations ==

While traditional uses of the xorai continue, it has increasingly been adapted as a decorative and symbolic gift in modern settings. It is presented during state ceremonies, academic convocations, cultural festivals and public felicitations. Designer versions are also produced as showpieces, awards and souvenirs.<ref>{{Cite news
|title=From Tradition to Trend: How Xorai Found Its Place in Modern Ceremonies
|url=https://www.eastmojo.com/assam/2021/10/20/xorai-symbol-of-assamese-tradition-now-a-modern-icon/
|work=EastMojo
|date=2021-10-20
|access-date=2025-07-23
}}{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

== Representation in media and events ==

The xorai is frequently displayed in Assamese literature, films, documentaries, advertisements and public events. During occasions such as [[Assam Day]], [[Rongali Bihu]], state receptions and cultural programmes, it is commonly displayed or presented to dignitaries as a cultural emblem of Assam.<ref>{{Cite web
|title=Xorai: An Emblem of Assamese Identity in Global Platforms
|url=https://www.thehillstimes.in/featured/xorai-an-emblem-of-assamese-identity
|website=The Hills Times
|access-date=2025-07-23
}}{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

== See also ==

* [[Culture of Assam]]
* [[Bell and brass metal crafts of Assam]]
* [[Traditional crafts of Assam]]
* [[Areca nut]]
* [[Betel]]
* [[Namghar]]
* [[Maihang]]

== References ==

<references />

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

[[Category:Culture of Assam]]
[[Category:Objects used in Hindu worship]]