Bharatpedia - User contributions [en]

List of Indian under 20 Records in Athletics

2026-04-24T13:19:59Z

104.23.170.17: /* Men */

{{Orphan|date=February 2021}}

The following are the national records in under 20 athletics in [[India]].<ref>
{{cite web
| url = https://indianathletics.in/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/NJR_31DEC2019.pdf
| title = Indian National Records in Junior Athletics
| publisher = [[Athletics Federation of India]]
| date =
| pages =
| access-date = 20 February 2021}}</ref>

==Men==

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%; width: 95%;"
|-
!Event
!Record
!Athlete
!Date
!Place
|-
!colspan="7"|Track Events
|-
|[[100 metres|100 m]]
|10.35
|[[Gurindervir Singh]]
|15-18 March 2019
|[[Patiala]]
|-
|10.44
|[[Gurindervir Singh]]
|15-18 March 2019
|[[]]
|-
|
|10.47(+0.5 m/s)
|[[Gurindervir Singh]]
|21 April 2018
|[[Coimbatore]]
|-
|[[200 metres|200 m]]
|21.19 (+0.2 m/s)
|[[Ajay Raj Singh]]
|6 December 1996
|[[New Delhi]]
|-
|[[400 metres|400 m]]
|46.59
|[[Amoj Jacob]]
|18 November 2018
|[[Mangalagiri]]
|-
|[[800 metres|800 m]]
|1:48.37
|[[Ghamanda Ram]]
|30 October 2002
|[[Bangkok]]
|-
|[[1500 metres|1500 m]]
|3:44.96
|[[Ajay Kumar Saroj]]
|19 July 2016
|[[Bydgoszcz]]
|-
|[[5000 metres|5000 m]]
|14:14.48
|[[N. Gojen Singh]]
|23 August 1996
|[[Sydney]]
|-
|[[10000 metres|10000 m]]
|29:32.68
|[[N. Gojen Singh]]
|21 August 1996
|[[Sydney]]
|-
|[[110 metres hurdles|110 m hurdles]]
|13.92 (+0.1 m/s)
|[[J. Surendhar]]
|3 December 2010
|[[Bangalore]]
|-
|[[400 metres hurdles|400 m hurdles]]
|50.86
|[[Durgesh Kumar Pal]]
|3 November 2011
|[[Ranchi]]
|-
|[[3000 metres steeplechase|3000 m steeplechase]]
|9:02.9
|[[Bhupinder Tyagi]]
|5 November 1992
|[[New Delhi]]
|-
|[[4 × 100 metres relay|4 × 100 m relay]]
|40.56
|{{flagu|India}} National Junior Team
|12 June 2014
|[[Ipoh]]
|-
|[[4 × 400 metres relay|4 × 400 m relay]]
|3:08.89
|{{flagu|India}} National Junior Team ([[Kiran Murugan]], [[Harsh Kumar]], [[Pankaj Pankaj]], [[Amoj Jacob]])
|10 July 2016
|[[Bydgoszcz]]
|-
!colspan="7"|Field Events
|-
|[[High jump]]
|2.26 m
|[[Tejaswin Shankar]]
|10 November 2016
|[[Coimbatore]]
|-
|[[Long jump]]
|7.94 m (+1.0 m/s)
|[[Kumaravel Premkumar]]
|22 September 2012
|[[Pune]]
|-
|[[Triple jump]]
|16.45 m (+0.7 m/s)
|[[Arpinder Singh]]
|4 December 2010
|[[Bangalore]]
|-
|[[Shot put]] (6 kg)
|20.35 m
|[[Saurabh Vij]]
|17 June 2006
|[[Chennai]]
|-
|[[Discus throw]] (1.75 kg)
|58.11 m
|[[Sachin Singh Dalal]]
|10 May 2014
|[[Chennai]]
|-
|[[Hammer throw]] (6 kg)
|76.86 m
|[[Ashish Jakhar]]
|7 June 2018
|[[Gifu]]
|-
|[[Javelin throw]]
|86.48 m
|[[Neeraj Chopra]]
|23 July 2016
|[[Bydgoszcz]]
|-
!colspan="7"|Combined Events
|-
|[[Decathlon]]
|7020 pts
|[[K. Dileep Kumar]]
|28 October 2012
|[[Lucknow]]
|
|}

==Women==

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%; width: 95%;"
|-
!Event
!Record
!Athlete
!Date
!Place
|-
!colspan="7"|Track Events
|-
|[[100 metres|100 m]]
|11.53
|[[Nipam]]
|24 April 2026
|[[Tumakuru, Karnataka]]
|-
|
|11.60
|[[Nipam]]
|24 April 2026
|[[Tumakuru, Karnataka]]
|-
|
|11.63(+1.3 m/s)
|[[Dutee Chand]]
|9 May 2014
|[[Chennai]]
|-
|[[200 metres|200 m]]
|23.57 (+1.9 m/s)
|[[Dutee Chand]]
|14 June 2014
|[[Taipei]]
|-
|[[400 metres|400 m]]
|51.46
|[[Hima Das]]
|12 July 2018
|[[Tampere]]
|-
|[[800 metres|800 m]]
|2:05:21
|[[Tintu Luka]]
|24 May 2008
|[[Pune]]
|-
|[[5000 metres|5000 m]]
|16:21.59
|[[Sunita Rani]]
|26 August 1997
|[[Catania]]
|-
|[[10000 metres|10000 m]]
|29:32.68
|[[N. Gojen Singh]]
|21 August 1996
|[[Sydney]]
|-
|[[100 metres hurdles|100 m hurdles]]
|13.59 (+1.3 m/s)
|[[Gayathry Govindaraj]]
|20 July 2010
|[[Moncton]]
|-
|[[400 metres hurdles|400 m hurdles]]
|58.81
|[[Debi Bose]]
|6 December 1996
|[[New Delhi]]
|-
|[[4 × 100 metres relay|4 × 100 m relay]]
|45.82
|{{flagu|India}} National Junior Team
|10 July 2014
|[[Hanoi]]
|-
|[[4 × 400 metres relay|4 × 400 m relay]]
|3:39.10
|{{flagu|India}} National Junior Team
|14 July 2018
|[[Tampere]]
|-
!colspan="7"|Field Events
|-
|[[High jump]]
|1.81 m
|[[Rubina Yadav]]
|16 November 2017
|[[Mangalagiri]]
|-
|[[Long jump]]
|6.30 m (+1.0 m/s)
|[[Priyanka Kerketta]]
|10 June 2017
|[[Lucknow]]
|-
|[[Triple jump]]
|13.58 m (+2.0 m/s)
|[[Gayathry Govindaraj]]
|3 July 2010
|[[Hanoi]]
|-
|[[Shot put]]
|15.89 m
|[[Navjeet Kaur Dhillon]]
|10 May 2014
|[[Chennai]]
|-
|[[Discus throw]]
|59.26 m
|[[Seema Antil]]
|4 October 2002
|[[Mumbai]]
|-
|[[Hammer throw]]
|52.34 m
|[[Seema Jhakar]]
|25 July 2009
|[[Lucknow]]
|-
|[[Javelin throw]]
|52.33 m
|[[Suman Devi]]
|29 October 2002
|[[Bangkok]]
|-
!colspan="7"|Combined Events
|-
|[[Heptathlon]]
|5346 pts
|[[Swapna Barman]]
|25 November 2015
|[[Ranchi]]
|
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Uncategorized|date=February 2021}}

List of Indian under 20 Records in Athletics

2026-04-24T12:59:00Z

104.23.170.17: /* Men */

{{Orphan|date=February 2021}}

The following are the national records in under 20 athletics in [[India]].<ref>
{{cite web
| url = https://indianathletics.in/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/NJR_31DEC2019.pdf
| title = Indian National Records in Junior Athletics
| publisher = [[Athletics Federation of India]]
| date =
| pages =
| access-date = 20 February 2021}}</ref>

==Men==

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%; width: 95%;"
|-
!Event
!Record
!Athlete
!Date
!Place
|-
!colspan="7"|Track Events
|-
|[[100 metres|100 m]]
|10.41
|[[Abhay Singh]]
|24 April 2026
|[[Tumkur, Karnataka]]
|-
|
|10.47(+0.5 m/s)
|[[Gurindervir Singh]]
|21 April 2018
|[[Coimbatore]]
|
|-
|[[200 metres|200 m]]
|21.19 (+0.2 m/s)
|[[Ajay Raj Singh]]
|6 December 1996
|[[New Delhi]]
|-
|[[400 metres|400 m]]
|46.59
|[[Amoj Jacob]]
|18 November 2018
|[[Mangalagiri]]
|-
|[[800 metres|800 m]]
|1:48.37
|[[Ghamanda Ram]]
|30 October 2002
|[[Bangkok]]
|-
|[[1500 metres|1500 m]]
|3:44.96
|[[Ajay Kumar Saroj]]
|19 July 2016
|[[Bydgoszcz]]
|-
|[[5000 metres|5000 m]]
|14:14.48
|[[N. Gojen Singh]]
|23 August 1996
|[[Sydney]]
|-
|[[10000 metres|10000 m]]
|29:32.68
|[[N. Gojen Singh]]
|21 August 1996
|[[Sydney]]
|-
|[[110 metres hurdles|110 m hurdles]]
|13.92 (+0.1 m/s)
|[[J. Surendhar]]
|3 December 2010
|[[Bangalore]]
|-
|[[400 metres hurdles|400 m hurdles]]
|50.86
|[[Durgesh Kumar Pal]]
|3 November 2011
|[[Ranchi]]
|-
|[[3000 metres steeplechase|3000 m steeplechase]]
|9:02.9
|[[Bhupinder Tyagi]]
|5 November 1992
|[[New Delhi]]
|-
|[[4 × 100 metres relay|4 × 100 m relay]]
|40.56
|{{flagu|India}} National Junior Team
|12 June 2014
|[[Ipoh]]
|-
|[[4 × 400 metres relay|4 × 400 m relay]]
|3:08.89
|{{flagu|India}} National Junior Team ([[Kiran Murugan]], [[Harsh Kumar]], [[Pankaj Pankaj]], [[Amoj Jacob]])
|10 July 2016
|[[Bydgoszcz]]
|-
!colspan="7"|Field Events
|-
|[[High jump]]
|2.26 m
|[[Tejaswin Shankar]]
|10 November 2016
|[[Coimbatore]]
|-
|[[Long jump]]
|7.94 m (+1.0 m/s)
|[[Kumaravel Premkumar]]
|22 September 2012
|[[Pune]]
|-
|[[Triple jump]]
|16.45 m (+0.7 m/s)
|[[Arpinder Singh]]
|4 December 2010
|[[Bangalore]]
|-
|[[Shot put]] (6 kg)
|20.35 m
|[[Saurabh Vij]]
|17 June 2006
|[[Chennai]]
|-
|[[Discus throw]] (1.75 kg)
|58.11 m
|[[Sachin Singh Dalal]]
|10 May 2014
|[[Chennai]]
|-
|[[Hammer throw]] (6 kg)
|76.86 m
|[[Ashish Jakhar]]
|7 June 2018
|[[Gifu]]
|-
|[[Javelin throw]]
|86.48 m
|[[Neeraj Chopra]]
|23 July 2016
|[[Bydgoszcz]]
|-
!colspan="7"|Combined Events
|-
|[[Decathlon]]
|7020 pts
|[[K. Dileep Kumar]]
|28 October 2012
|[[Lucknow]]
|
|}

==Women==

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%; width: 95%;"
|-
!Event
!Record
!Athlete
!Date
!Place
|-
!colspan="7"|Track Events
|-
|[[100 metres|100 m]]
|11.63(+1.3 m/s)
|[[Dutee Chand]]
|9 May 2014
|[[Chennai]]
|
|-
|[[200 metres|200 m]]
|23.57 (+1.9 m/s)
|[[Dutee Chand]]
|14 June 2014
|[[Taipei]]
|-
|[[400 metres|400 m]]
|51.46
|[[Hima Das]]
|12 July 2018
|[[Tampere]]
|-
|[[800 metres|800 m]]
|2:05:21
|[[Tintu Luka]]
|24 May 2008
|[[Pune]]
|-
|[[5000 metres|5000 m]]
|16:21.59
|[[Sunita Rani]]
|26 August 1997
|[[Catania]]
|-
|[[10000 metres|10000 m]]
|29:32.68
|[[N. Gojen Singh]]
|21 August 1996
|[[Sydney]]
|-
|[[100 metres hurdles|100 m hurdles]]
|13.59 (+1.3 m/s)
|[[Gayathry Govindaraj]]
|20 July 2010
|[[Moncton]]
|-
|[[400 metres hurdles|400 m hurdles]]
|58.81
|[[Debi Bose]]
|6 December 1996
|[[New Delhi]]
|-
|[[4 × 100 metres relay|4 × 100 m relay]]
|45.82
|{{flagu|India}} National Junior Team
|10 July 2014
|[[Hanoi]]
|-
|[[4 × 400 metres relay|4 × 400 m relay]]
|3:39.10
|{{flagu|India}} National Junior Team
|14 July 2018
|[[Tampere]]
|-
!colspan="7"|Field Events
|-
|[[High jump]]
|1.81 m
|[[Rubina Yadav]]
|16 November 2017
|[[Mangalagiri]]
|-
|[[Long jump]]
|6.30 m (+1.0 m/s)
|[[Priyanka Kerketta]]
|10 June 2017
|[[Lucknow]]
|-
|[[Triple jump]]
|13.58 m (+2.0 m/s)
|[[Gayathry Govindaraj]]
|3 July 2010
|[[Hanoi]]
|-
|[[Shot put]]
|15.89 m
|[[Navjeet Kaur Dhillon]]
|10 May 2014
|[[Chennai]]
|-
|[[Discus throw]]
|59.26 m
|[[Seema Antil]]
|4 October 2002
|[[Mumbai]]
|-
|[[Hammer throw]]
|52.34 m
|[[Seema Jhakar]]
|25 July 2009
|[[Lucknow]]
|-
|[[Javelin throw]]
|52.33 m
|[[Suman Devi]]
|29 October 2002
|[[Bangkok]]
|-
!colspan="7"|Combined Events
|-
|[[Heptathlon]]
|5346 pts
|[[Swapna Barman]]
|25 November 2015
|[[Ranchi]]
|
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Uncategorized|date=February 2021}}

List of Indian under 20 Records in Athletics

2026-04-24T12:58:17Z

104.23.170.17:

{{Orphan|date=February 2021}}

The following are the national records in under 20 athletics in [[India]].<ref>
{{cite web
| url = https://indianathletics.in/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/NJR_31DEC2019.pdf
| title = Indian National Records in Junior Athletics
| publisher = [[Athletics Federation of India]]
| date =
| pages =
| access-date = 20 February 2021}}</ref>

==Men==

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%; width: 95%;"
|-
!Event
!Record
!Athlete
!Date
!Place
|-
!colspan="7"|Track Events
|-
|[[100 metres|100 m]]
|
|10.41
|[[Abhay Singh]]
|24 April 2026
|[[Tumkur, Karnataka]]
|-
|10.47(+0.5 m/s)
|[[Gurindervir Singh]]
|21 April 2018
|[[Coimbatore]]
|
|-
|[[200 metres|200 m]]
|21.19 (+0.2 m/s)
|[[Ajay Raj Singh]]
|6 December 1996
|[[New Delhi]]
|-
|[[400 metres|400 m]]
|46.59
|[[Amoj Jacob]]
|18 November 2018
|[[Mangalagiri]]
|-
|[[800 metres|800 m]]
|1:48.37
|[[Ghamanda Ram]]
|30 October 2002
|[[Bangkok]]
|-
|[[1500 metres|1500 m]]
|3:44.96
|[[Ajay Kumar Saroj]]
|19 July 2016
|[[Bydgoszcz]]
|-
|[[5000 metres|5000 m]]
|14:14.48
|[[N. Gojen Singh]]
|23 August 1996
|[[Sydney]]
|-
|[[10000 metres|10000 m]]
|29:32.68
|[[N. Gojen Singh]]
|21 August 1996
|[[Sydney]]
|-
|[[110 metres hurdles|110 m hurdles]]
|13.92 (+0.1 m/s)
|[[J. Surendhar]]
|3 December 2010
|[[Bangalore]]
|-
|[[400 metres hurdles|400 m hurdles]]
|50.86
|[[Durgesh Kumar Pal]]
|3 November 2011
|[[Ranchi]]
|-
|[[3000 metres steeplechase|3000 m steeplechase]]
|9:02.9
|[[Bhupinder Tyagi]]
|5 November 1992
|[[New Delhi]]
|-
|[[4 × 100 metres relay|4 × 100 m relay]]
|40.56
|{{flagu|India}} National Junior Team
|12 June 2014
|[[Ipoh]]
|-
|[[4 × 400 metres relay|4 × 400 m relay]]
|3:08.89
|{{flagu|India}} National Junior Team ([[Kiran Murugan]], [[Harsh Kumar]], [[Pankaj Pankaj]], [[Amoj Jacob]])
|10 July 2016
|[[Bydgoszcz]]
|-
!colspan="7"|Field Events
|-
|[[High jump]]
|2.26 m
|[[Tejaswin Shankar]]
|10 November 2016
|[[Coimbatore]]
|-
|[[Long jump]]
|7.94 m (+1.0 m/s)
|[[Kumaravel Premkumar]]
|22 September 2012
|[[Pune]]
|-
|[[Triple jump]]
|16.45 m (+0.7 m/s)
|[[Arpinder Singh]]
|4 December 2010
|[[Bangalore]]
|-
|[[Shot put]] (6 kg)
|20.35 m
|[[Saurabh Vij]]
|17 June 2006
|[[Chennai]]
|-
|[[Discus throw]] (1.75 kg)
|58.11 m
|[[Sachin Singh Dalal]]
|10 May 2014
|[[Chennai]]
|-
|[[Hammer throw]] (6 kg)
|76.86 m
|[[Ashish Jakhar]]
|7 June 2018
|[[Gifu]]
|-
|[[Javelin throw]]
|86.48 m
|[[Neeraj Chopra]]
|23 July 2016
|[[Bydgoszcz]]
|-
!colspan="7"|Combined Events
|-
|[[Decathlon]]
|7020 pts
|[[K. Dileep Kumar]]
|28 October 2012
|[[Lucknow]]
|
|}

==Women==

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%; width: 95%;"
|-
!Event
!Record
!Athlete
!Date
!Place
|-
!colspan="7"|Track Events
|-
|[[100 metres|100 m]]
|11.63(+1.3 m/s)
|[[Dutee Chand]]
|9 May 2014
|[[Chennai]]
|
|-
|[[200 metres|200 m]]
|23.57 (+1.9 m/s)
|[[Dutee Chand]]
|14 June 2014
|[[Taipei]]
|-
|[[400 metres|400 m]]
|51.46
|[[Hima Das]]
|12 July 2018
|[[Tampere]]
|-
|[[800 metres|800 m]]
|2:05:21
|[[Tintu Luka]]
|24 May 2008
|[[Pune]]
|-
|[[5000 metres|5000 m]]
|16:21.59
|[[Sunita Rani]]
|26 August 1997
|[[Catania]]
|-
|[[10000 metres|10000 m]]
|29:32.68
|[[N. Gojen Singh]]
|21 August 1996
|[[Sydney]]
|-
|[[100 metres hurdles|100 m hurdles]]
|13.59 (+1.3 m/s)
|[[Gayathry Govindaraj]]
|20 July 2010
|[[Moncton]]
|-
|[[400 metres hurdles|400 m hurdles]]
|58.81
|[[Debi Bose]]
|6 December 1996
|[[New Delhi]]
|-
|[[4 × 100 metres relay|4 × 100 m relay]]
|45.82
|{{flagu|India}} National Junior Team
|10 July 2014
|[[Hanoi]]
|-
|[[4 × 400 metres relay|4 × 400 m relay]]
|3:39.10
|{{flagu|India}} National Junior Team
|14 July 2018
|[[Tampere]]
|-
!colspan="7"|Field Events
|-
|[[High jump]]
|1.81 m
|[[Rubina Yadav]]
|16 November 2017
|[[Mangalagiri]]
|-
|[[Long jump]]
|6.30 m (+1.0 m/s)
|[[Priyanka Kerketta]]
|10 June 2017
|[[Lucknow]]
|-
|[[Triple jump]]
|13.58 m (+2.0 m/s)
|[[Gayathry Govindaraj]]
|3 July 2010
|[[Hanoi]]
|-
|[[Shot put]]
|15.89 m
|[[Navjeet Kaur Dhillon]]
|10 May 2014
|[[Chennai]]
|-
|[[Discus throw]]
|59.26 m
|[[Seema Antil]]
|4 October 2002
|[[Mumbai]]
|-
|[[Hammer throw]]
|52.34 m
|[[Seema Jhakar]]
|25 July 2009
|[[Lucknow]]
|-
|[[Javelin throw]]
|52.33 m
|[[Suman Devi]]
|29 October 2002
|[[Bangkok]]
|-
!colspan="7"|Combined Events
|-
|[[Heptathlon]]
|5346 pts
|[[Swapna Barman]]
|25 November 2015
|[[Ranchi]]
|
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Uncategorized|date=February 2021}}

Jai Ho (film)

2026-04-21T16:48:31Z

104.23.170.17:

{{short description|2014 film directed by Sohail Khan}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2020}}

{{Infobox film
| name = Jai Ho
| image = Jai Ho (2013 Hindi film) poster.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[Sohail Khan]]
| producer = [[Sohail Khan]] [[Kishore Lulla]]
| writer = [[A. R. Murugadoss]]
| based_on = {{Based on|''[[Stalin (2006 film)|Stalin]]''|[[A. R. Murugadoss]]}}
| starring = [[Salman Khan]] [[Tabu (actress)|Tabu]] [[Daisy Shah]] [[Danny Denzongpa]] [[Aditya Pancholi]]
| music = '''Songs:''' [[Sajid–Wajid]] [[Amaal Mallik]] [[Devi Sri Prasad]] '''Score: ''' [[Sandeep Shirodkar]]
| cinematography = [[Santosh Thundiyil]]
| editing = [[Ashish Amrute]]
| studio = [[Sohail Khan|Sohail Khan Productions]]
| distributor = [[Eros International]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/2192590/Eros-acquires-Salman-Khan's-Jai-Ho |title=Eros acquires Salman Khan's Jai Ho |publisher=Bollywood Hungama |access-date=31 October 2013}}</ref>
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2014|01|24|[[India]]}}
| runtime = 142 minutes<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbfc.co.uk/releases/jai-ho-2014 |title=JAI HO (2014) |publisher=BBFC |date=14 January 2014 |access-date=24 January 2014}}</ref>
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| budget = {{INR|link=yes}}65 crore
| gross = {{INR|link=yes}}195.04 [[crore]]<ref name="bo">{{cite web|url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/jai-ho/box-office/#bh-movie-box-office|title=Jai Ho Box Office|website=Bollywood Hungama|access-date=14 March 2020}}</ref>
}}
'''''Jai Ho''''' ({{translation|Let there be Victory}}) is a 2014 Indian [[Hindi]]-language [[political fiction|political]] [[action film]] directed by [[Sohail Khan]], who also produced the film under the banner [[Sohail Khan|Sohail Khan Productions]], and co-produced by [[Sunil Lulla]] of [[Eros International]], which distributed the film. It stars [[Salman Khan]], [[Tabu (actress)|Tabu]], [[Daisy Shah]], [[Danny Denzongpa]] and [[Aditya Pancholi]]. It also features [[Sunil Shetty]] and [[Genelia D'Souza]] in cameo appearances.

The film is an official remake of the [[Telugu cinema|Telugu]] film ''[[Stalin (2006 film)|Stalin]]'' (2006), directed by [[A. R. Murugadoss]], which is also inspired from the [[Theater in the United States|American-drama]] film ''[[Pay It Forward (film)|Pay It Forward]]''.

''Jai Ho'' was released on 24 January 2014, during the Republic Day weekend.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.livemint.com/Consumer/RZBaA8luxMEwAJ2tasugOM/Bajrangi-Bhaijaan-storms-the-Box-Office-on-opening-day.html |title='Bajrangi Bhaijaan' storms the box office on opening day}}</ref> It received mixed reviews from critics.<ref>{{cite web |title=Classifications |publisher=Box Office India |date=1 August 2014 |access-date=7 August 2014 |url=http://boxofficeindia.com/Details/art_detail/classifications2014blockbusteratlastwithkick#.U9t0SGP4J4U |archive-date=4 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140804204919/http://www.boxofficeindia.com/Details/art_detail/classifications2014blockbusteratlastwithkick#.U9t0SGP4J4U |url-status=dead}}</ref> However, the film grossed {{INRConvert|195.04|c}} at the box office, becoming the [[List of Bollywood films of 2014|sixth highest grossing bollywood film of 2014]]

== Plot ==
Jai Agnihotri ([[Salman Khan]]) is an ex-army officer who is short-tempered and passionate about helping citizens and fighting criminals. He was Pakistan, a major in the commandos [[Indian Army|Indian Army Kargil War]], but was soldiers suspended after he ignored orders from his superiors by rescuing a group of children from terrorists. After this incident, Jai moved in with rebel his mother and sister Geeta ([[Tabu (actress)|Tabu Hashmi]]).

One day, Jai is unable to help Suman, a physically disabled girl ([[Genelia D'Souza]]), take an examination while her brother Rohan ([[Vikas Bhalla]]) was stuck in a traffic jam. A depressed Suman commits suicide. Jai is greatly disturbed by this incident. With Suman's death fresh in his mind, Jai creates a system that would encourage citizens to help each other. Each day, citizens are to help three people. These three people would in turn help three more people, and war so proud on honour. Jai believes that this network would foster kindness and a sense of community among the citizens. His system, however, faces challenges.

On one occasion, for one of his daily good deeds, Jai loses his temper and beats a rich man who had injured a child beggar. In an act of revenge, the rich man employs some men to kidnap Jai's, sister Geeta and friend Rinky ([[Daisy Shah]]). Jai is kidnapped her able to save Geeta and Rinky, but injures one of the captors in the process, who happenes to be the henchman of a member of the Legislative Assembly named Patil, the son-in-law of the Home Minister Dashrath Singh ([[Danny Denzongpa]]).

Dashrath is not happy that Jai has injured one of Patil's henchmen. He attempts to avenge this injury by kidnapping Jai's and accident nephew Kabir. Dashrath, however, loses Patil out of Jai's angrily in the process. Chief Minister Ashok Pradhan ([[Mohnish Behl]]) meanwhile, finds out about Jai's system after his own life is saved by a schoolgirl performing her good deeds for the day. He decides to intervene in the dispute between Dashrath and Jai in an attempt to put an end to their fight. Dashrath, who does not appreciate this intervention, attempts to kill Ashok and frame Jai. However, Jai is able to save Ashok.

Dashrath's son Arjun Singh and his hired men attack Jai, who kills Arjun, but not before the latter is severely injured after getting stabbed by his sister and Patil's widow, Kavita ([[Sana Khan]]) and she being stabbed to fighting her stomach. A rickshaw driver ([[Mahesh Manjrekar]]) and Jai's former colleague, Indian Army Officer Arjun Kaul ([[Suniel Shetty]]), together help Jai, when getting soldier to the hospital. While Jai is at the hospital, Dashrath spreads rumors that Jai had attempted to assassinate Ashok.

Once he recovers, Ashok reveals that it was Dashrath and not Jai who was behind the attempted murder. Enraged, Jai and Ashok crowd beats Dashrath to near death after hearing the truth. Doctors are able to save Jai, who has survived, thanks to his own help-three-people concept. When Jai emerges from the hospital, he finds thousands of people waiting for him. Jai thanks them all for making his concept a success.

== Cast ==
*[[Salman Khan]] as Jai Agnihotri, Geeta's brother
*[[Tabu (actress)|Tabu]] as Geeta Agnihotri Khanna, Jai's sister and Rehaan's wife
*[[Daisy Shah]] as Rinky Shah, Jai's love interest
*[[Danny Denzongpa]] as Home Minister Dashrath Singh
*[[Aditya Pancholi]] as Inspector Naresh Kadam
*[[Mahesh Manjrekar]] as Bablesh "Babban" Behl
*[[Sharad Kapoor]] as Inspector Alfaaz Siddiqui
*[[Mukul Dev]] as Shrikant Patil, Kavita's husband
*Haroon Qazi as Arun Singh
*[[Nadira Babbar]] as Sulochna Agnihotri, Jai and Geeta's mother
*[[Pulkit Samrat]] as Abhay Rajput
*[[Sana Khan]] as Kavita Singh Patil, Dashrath's daughter
*[[Resham Tipnis]] as Meghna Shah, Pinky's mother
*[[Ashmit Patel]] as Sumit Mohile
*[[Yash Tonk]] as Balwant "Babu" Ramchandran
*[[Mahesh Thakur]] as Rehaan Khanna, Geeta's husband
*[[Naman Jain]] as Kabir Khanna, Geeta and Rehaan's son
*[[Tulip Joshi]] as Mrs. Anushita D’Souza
*[[Nana Banana]] as Class Wrap
*[[Varun Badola]] as Mr. Boman D'Souza
*[[Bruna Abdullah]] as Anne Rosselline
*[[Sudesh Lehri]] as Pandit Kaushal Chand Sharma
*Santosh Shukla as Manik Singh
*[[Jeetu Verma]] as Subhash Prasad Agashe
*[[Nauheed Cyrusi]] as Simran Choudhry
*[[Raju Mavani]] as Rajkishan Gupta, Dashrath's personal assistant
===Cameo===
* [[Sunil Shetty]] as Captain Arjun Kaul
* [[Genelia D'Souza]] as Suman Malhotra
* [[Vikas Bhalla]] as Rohan Malhotra
* [[Mohnish Bahl]] as Chief Minister Ashok Pradhan
* [[Ruhanika Dhawan]] as Sanjana Rai
* [[Vatsal Sheth]] as Wanjit Kapoor

== Production ==
===Development===

In late 2012, [[Sohail Khan]] announced he planned to remake the Telugu film ''Stalin'' starring [[Chiranjeevi|Chiranjeevi Konidela]] and [[Trisha (actress)|Trisha Krishna]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/jai-ho-i-never-said-i-wont-do-remakes-says-salman-khan/449034-8-66.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201201804/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/jai-ho-i-never-said-i-wont-do-remakes-says-salman-khan/449034-8-66.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=1 February 2014 |title=Jai Ho: I never said I won't do remakes, says Salman Khan |publisher=IBN Live |access-date=31 January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/movie-review/movie-review-salman-khans-jai-ho-is-little-more-than-a-damp-squib/ |title=Film review: Salman Khan's 'Jai Ho' is little more than a damp squib |work=[[The Indian Express]] |access-date=31 January 2014}}</ref> Khan originally titled the remake ''Mental'', but by the time the film was released, it had been re-titled ''Jai Ho''.

===Filming===

Shooting for the film was set to begin 27 February 2013 but was postponed until late March. There were rumors that the film would be released in [[3D film|3D]], but Sohail Khan was cited stating, "First, let me complete my film in the normal format. Then I'll take a call".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://zeenews.india.com/entertainment/movies/samlan-khans-mental-to-come-out-in-3d_137517.htm |title=Mental to come out in 3D? |publisher=Zee News |date=24 June 2013 |access-date=26 June 2013}}</ref>

== Marketing ==
[[Salman Khan]] unveiled the [[Film poster|first look poster]] of ''Jai Ho'' on 6 December 2013. The poster consisted of images of thousands of fans digitally merged to create one portrait of Khan. Khan's fans designed this poster.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/first-look-fans-design-salman-khan-s-jai-ho-poster/article1-1159688.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131206161721/http://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/first-look-fans-design-salman-khan-s-jai-ho-poster/article1-1159688.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-date=6 December 2013 |title=First look: Fans design Salman Khan's Jai Ho poster |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |date=6 December 2013 |access-date=11 December 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |agency=TNN |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-12-07/news-interviews/44865178_1_daisy-shah-first-poster-salman-khan |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208161713/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-12-07/news-interviews/44865178_1_daisy-shah-first-poster-salman-khan |url-status=dead |archive-date=8 December 2013 |title=Salman Khan paints first poster of 'Jai Ho' |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=7 December 2013 |access-date=11 December 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Post by Salman Khan. |url=http://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-salman-khan-launches-new-digital-poster-of-jai-ho-1932045 |title=Salman Khan launches new digital poster of 'Jai Ho' |work=DNA |access-date=11 December 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/salman-khans-jai-ho-poster/1/328097.html |title=Salman Khan asks fans to make Jai Ho poster, creates buzz on Twitter |work=[[India Today]] |access-date=11 December 2013 |date=6 December 2013}}</ref> The makers unveiled the film's [[Teaser campaign|official teaser]] on 13 December 2013.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/salman-khans-jai-ho-teaser-the-aam-aadmi-party-effect-655873.html |title=Salman Khan's 'Jai Ho' teaser: The Aam Aadmi Party effect? |website=News18|access-date=19 January 2020}}</ref> The [[Trailer (promotion)|official trailer]] of the film was released on 3 January 2014.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/watch-trailer-salman-khans-actionpacked-avatar-in-jai-ho/1206992/ |title=Watch trailer: Salman Khan's action-packed avatar in 'Jai Ho' – Indian Express |website=archive.indianexpress.com|access-date=19 January 2020}}</ref>

== Reception ==
===Critical response===

''India Today'' gave ''Jai Ho'' a 3 out of 5 and commented that it was a rip off of ''Ek Tha Tiger'' with mindless action.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/jai-ho-review-salman-khan/1/339550.html |title=Mega Review: Jai Ho |work=India Today |date=24 January 2014 |access-date=31 January 2014}}</ref> [[Anupama Chopra]] gave the movie a 2.5 out of 5, stating, ''Jai Ho'' was more of a cartoon than a film.<ref>{{cite news |title=Movie review by Anupama Chopra: is Jai Ho even a film |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/movie-reviews/movie-review-by-anupama-chopra-is-jai-ho-even-a-film/story-q2WmY1115tBFWGkMr2hdYO.html |access-date=24 February 2021}}</ref>

Raja Sen of [[Rediff]] gave the film 2 out of 5 stars and said, Khan, Bollywood's real-life answer to Derek Zoolander, does his thing like only he can. And the crowd responds. Sitting in a single-screen theatre, the air was filled with shrill, thrilled whistles as soon as the censor certificate hit the screen. The first glimpse of Khan – via braceleted wrist – had the crowd in paroxysms."<ref>{{cite web |title=Raja Sen reviews Salman Khan's Jai Ho |url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/report/raja-sen-reviews-salman-khans-jai-ho/20140124.htm#:~:text=Salman%20Khan%20does%20his%20thing,And%20the%20crowd%20responds.&text=(In%20the%20film%2C%20this%20leads,him%20multiply%20numbers%20by%20three. |first=Raja |last=Sen |publisher=Rediff |date=24 January 2014}}</ref> [[Rajeev Masand]] of ''[[CNN-IBN]]'' gave 2 stars out of 5, commenting "To be honest, very little stays with you when you leave the cinema, aside from the unpleasant aftertaste that comes from being shamelessly manipulated."<ref>{{cite news|title='Jai Ho' review: The film is of a man who lets his fists do the talking|url=https://www.news18.com/videos/india/masand-review-masands-verdict-118-664062.html|date=24 January 2014 |publisher=CNN-IBN |access-date=16 August 2021 |author=Rajeev Masand}}</ref>

[[Taran Adarsh]] gave it 4.5 stars out of 5 and called it a "noble, well-intentioned message narrated in an entertaining format".<ref>{{cite web |title=Jai Ho Review by Taran Adarsh |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/criticreview/id/587748 |publisher=Bollywood Hungama |access-date=24 January 2014}}</ref>

===Box office===
''Jai Ho'' was released on around 3900 screens in India and 650 screens in overseas.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.boxofficeindia.com/Details/art_detail/gundaychallengingfortopopeningof2014#.Uv5ccmKSyAo |title=Boxoffice |publisher=Box Office India |date=14 February 2014 |access-date=24 February 2014}}</ref> The domestic and overseas theatrical rights were sold for ₹1.1 billion ($16 million).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ishare.rediff.com/video/entertainment/salman-khan-s-jai-ho-rights-sold-for-110-crore-highest-ever/9079789 |title=Salman Khan s Jai Ho Rights Sold For 110 Crore Highest Ever |website=[[Rediff.com]] |date=19 January 2014 |access-date=21 January 2014}}</ref> ''Jai Ho'' spent around ₹40 crore ($5.9 million) on the production of the film.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.boxofficeindia.com/Details/art_detail/holidayinasimilarboattojaiho#.U5lOAJRw8t4 |title=Boxoffice |publisher=Box Office India |access-date=7 August 2014}}</ref> The film cost around ₹650 million ($9.6 million) total with the cost of marketing and prints added, but this number still does not include Khan's remuneration.<ref name="Jaiho650 million">{{cite web |url=http://www.boxofficeindia.com/Details/art_detail/isaamirkhantherealsuperstarnowasheistheonlyonetotakeabigopeningwithoutbackingofaholidaywithdhoom3#.UuniCj2SyAo |title=Is Aamir Khan The Real Superstar Now As He Is The Only One To Take A Big Opening Without Backing of a Holiday With Dhoom 3? |work=[[Box Office India]] |date=30 January 2014 |access-date=30 January 2014 |archive-date=1 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201215417/http://www.boxofficeindia.com/Details/art_detail/isaamirkhantherealsuperstarnowasheistheonlyonetotakeabigopeningwithoutbackingofaholidaywithdhoom3#.VviNhBFREy9 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.boxofficeindia.com/Details/art_detail/jaihoblockbusterpricesbutsemihithitbusinss#.UuqIcj2SyAo |title=Jai Ho – Blockbuster Prices But Semi Hit – Hit Businss |publisher=Box Office India |date=30 January 2014 |access-date=24 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201220055/http://boxofficeindia.com/Details/art_detail/jaihoblockbusterpricesbutsemihithitbusinss#.VviM1RFREy9 |archive-date=1 February 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The satellite rights were sold for {{INR}}50 crore ($7.4 million), and music rights were also sold for {{INR}}12 crore ($1.8 million).

''Jai Ho'' suffered losses from piracy. A Dubai-based user uploaded a pirated version of the film to YouTube on 28 January 2014. The video had 108,151 views by the time it was removed on 1 February 2014. Another version of the film was uploaded on 2 February 2014.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/jai-ho-piracy-salman-khan-starrer-leaked-online/article1-1179430.aspx |title=Jai Ho online leak: business worth Rs 10–12 crore hit? |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |date=2 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203024556/http://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/jai-ho-piracy-salman-khan-starrer-leaked-online/article1-1179430.aspx |archive-date=3 February 2014 |access-date=24 February 2014 |author1=Akshay Kapoor |author2=Sahil Magoo |url-status=dead}}</ref> DNA Films reported that Khan had requested that ticket prices be kept at the minimum so that people could afford to see the movie because of its message.<ref name="www.dnaindia.com">{{cite web |title=Salman Khan's selfless act |url=http://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-salman-khan-s-selfless-act-1965276}}</ref>

====India====
The website Boxofficeindia.com said that ''Jai Ho'' opened well at single screens like [[Jodhpur]], [[Lucknow]], [[Indore]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Rajasthan]] and [[Central India|CI]], with an occupancy of 80–100%, 25–30% better than [[Dhoom 3#Box office|Dhoom 3]] and [[Chennai Express#Box office|Chennai Express]], and moderately well (50%) at multiplexes of [[Delhi]], [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], [[Bangalore]] and [[Kolkata]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.boxofficeindia.com/Details/art_detail/jaihoadvancesinglescreensphenomenaloverallgood |title=Jai Ho Advance: Single Screens Phenomenal Overall Good |publisher=[[Box office India]] |work=Box Office India Trade Network |date=23 January 2014 |access-date=27 January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.boxofficeindia.com/Details/art_detail/jaihohasgoodopeningbutnotbumper |title=Jai Ho Has Good Opening But Not Bumper |publisher=[[Box office India]] |work=Box Office India Trade Network |date=24 January 2014 |access-date=27 January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.boxofficeindia.com/Details/art_detail/jaihobelowexpectationsatmultiplexes |title=Jai Ho Below Expectations at Multiplexes |publisher=[[Box office India]] |work=Box Office India Trade Network |date=24 January 2014 |access-date=27 January 2014}}</ref> It had an opening-day collection of around {{INRConvert|188|m}} nett.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.boxofficeindia.com/Details/art_detail/jaihofirstdayterritorialbreakdown#.UuOSmhC6bIU |title=Jai Ho First Day Territorial Breakdown |publisher=[[Box office India]] |work=Box Office India Trade Network |date=25 January 2014 |access-date=27 January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.boxofficeindia.com/Details/art_detail_post#.UuyS6z2SyAp |title=Boxoffice |publisher=Boxofficeindia.com |date=25 January 2014 |access-date=24 February 2014}}</ref> The second day collections were about {{INRConvert|165|m}}, taking the total to {{INRConvert|335|m}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://boxofficeindia.com/Details/art_detail/jaihoseconddaybusiness#.UuShAtK6bs0 |title=Jai Ho Second Day Business |publisher=[[Box office India]] |work=Box Office India Trade Network |date=26 January 2014 |access-date=27 January 2014}}</ref> On Sunday, the film collected {{INRConvert|263|m}} to take its weekend total to {{INRConvert|607|m}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://boxofficeindia.com/Details/art_detail/jaihodoesverywellonsunday#.UuYqiNK6bs0 |title=Jai Ho Does Very Well on Sunday |publisher=[[Box office India]] |work=Box Office India Trade Network |date=27 January 2014 |access-date=27 January 2014}}</ref> ''Jai Ho'' had a noticeable drop on Tuesday as it grossed around {{INR}}7.75 [[crore]] nett taking the five-day total to a little over {{INR}}74 crore nett.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.boxofficeindia.com/Details/art_detail/jaihotuesdaybusiness#.UuqKCT2SyAo |title=Boxoffice |publisher=Boxofficeindia.com |date=29 January 2014 |access-date=24 February 2014}}</ref> Jai Ho emerged as the fifth highest weekend of all time in terms of worldwide gross by managing to gross {{INR}}200 crore worldwide in three days.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.boxofficeindia.com/Details/art_detail/topalltimeworldwideweekendsjaiho5thdhoom3first#.UuiVRtK6bIU |title=Boxoffice |publisher=Boxofficeindia.com |access-date=24 February 2014}}</ref> Jai Ho dropped further on first Wednesday with collections around {{INR}}5.25–5.50 crore nett to take 6-day total to {{INRConvert|795|m}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.boxofficeindia.com/Details/art_detail/jaihodropsfurtheronwednesday#.UuqIeD2SyAo |title=Boxoffice |publisher=Boxofficeindia.com |date=30 January 2014 |access-date=24 February 2014}}</ref> Jai Ho had the ninth highest first week of all time as it grossed {{INRConvert|817|m}} nett in its first week.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.boxofficeindia.com/Details/art_detail/jaihofirstweekterritorialbreakdown#.Uu9A3z2SyAo |title=Boxoffice |publisher=Boxofficeindia.com |date=3 February 2014 |access-date=24 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.boxofficeindia.com/Details/art_detail/jaihohasninthhighestfirstweekofalltime#.UutMmD2SyAo |title=Boxoffice |publisher=Boxofficeindia.com |date=31 January 2014 |access-date=24 February 2014}}</ref> The film nett. grossed {{INR}}3 crore nett on its second Friday.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://boxofficeindia.com/Details/art_detail/jaihosecondfridaybusiness#.UuySOz2SyAo |title=Boxoffice |publisher=Boxofficeindia.com |date=1 February 2014 |access-date=24 February 2014}}</ref> The film has collected {{INR}}90 crores nett in 9 days.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.boxofficeindia.com/Details/art_detail/jaihohasdecenthumponsecondsaturday#.Uu4refmSzVE |title=Boxoffice |publisher=Boxofficeindia.com |date=2 February 2014 |access-date=24 February 2014}}</ref> Jai Ho collected {{INR}}13.50 crore nett in its second weekend taking its domestic total {{INR}}95 crore nett in 10 days.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.boxofficeindia.com/Details/art_detail/jaihogrosses95croreplusintendays#.Uu9AID2SyAo |title=Boxoffice |publisher=Boxofficeindia.com |date=3 February 2014 |access-date=24 February 2014}}</ref> Jai Hai has been made tax-free in Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/lucknow/Jai-Ho-exempted-from-entertainment-tax-in-UP/articleshow/29737868.cms |title='Jai Ho' exempted from entertainment tax in UP – The Times of India |publisher=Timesofindia.indiatimes.com |date=2 February 2014 |access-date=24 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/After-UP-Gujarat-may-give-tax-sop-to-Salman-Khans-Jai-Ho/articleshow/29788124.cms |title=After UP, Gujarat may give tax sop to Salman Khan's 'Jai Ho' – The Times of India |publisher=Timesofindia.indiatimes.com |date=3 February 2014 |access-date=24 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.koimoi.com/bollywood-popular/jai-ho-to-go-tax-free-in-gujarat-too/ |title=Jai Ho To Go Tax-Free in Gujarat Too |publisher=Koimoi.com |date=3 February 2014 |access-date=24 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.boxofficeindia.com/Details/art_detail/jaihohelpedbytaxexemptioninup#.UvHUHGKSyAo |title=Boxoffice |publisher=Boxofficeindia.com |date=5 February 2014 |access-date=24 February 2014}}</ref> Jai Ho two-week business was around {{INR}}101.50 crore nett as it crossed around {{INR}}21.29 crore nett in its second week.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.boxofficeindia.com/Details/art_detail/topsecondweekcollections20132014jaiho7th#.UvnagWKSyAo |title=Boxoffice |publisher=Boxofficeindia.com |access-date=24 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.boxofficeindia.com/Details/art_detail/jaihogrosses10150croreintwoweeks#.UvR5A2KSyAo |title=Boxoffice |publisher=Boxofficeindia.com |date=7 February 2014 |access-date=24 February 2014}}</ref> Jai ho on its third Friday had collections set to be around {{INR}}50 lakhs nett, with tax exemption in Gujarat also.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.boxofficeindia.com/Details/art_detail/jaihothirdfridaycollections#.UvYn_2KSyAo |title=Boxoffice |publisher=Boxofficeindia.com |date=8 February 2014 |access-date=24 February 2014}}</ref> Jai Ho grossed around {{INR}}2.25–2.50 crore nett in its third weekend taking the business to {{INR}}105.50 crore nett after seventeen days.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.boxofficeindia.com/Details/art_detail/jaihoat105crorenettplusafterseventeendays#.Uvh7DGKSyAo |title=Boxoffice |publisher=Boxofficeindia.com |date=10 February 2014 |access-date=24 February 2014}}</ref> The two-week distributor share of film is {{INR}}56 crore.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.boxofficeindia.com/Details/art_detail/jaihosecondweekdetails56croreshareintwoweeks#.Uvh7GGKSyAo |title=Boxoffice |publisher=Boxofficeindia.com |access-date=10 June 2014}}</ref> Jai Ho took its total to {{INR}}107 crore nett in after three weeks as it added around {{INR}}4 crore nett in third week.<ref name="semihitjaiho">{{cite web |url=http://www.boxofficeindia.com/Details/art_detail/gundayverygoodinitialhaseetohphaseedecentfirstweek#.Uv971WKSyAo |title=Boxoffice |publisher=Boxofficeindia.com |date=15 February 2014 |access-date=10 June 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.boxofficeindia.com/Details/art_detail/jaihogrosses120croreafterthreeweeks |title=Boxoffice |publisher=Boxofficeindia.com |access-date=10 June 2014}}</ref> Bollywoodhungama declared the total net gross of ''Jai Ho'' {{INR}}116 crore, and ranked it the seventh highest-grossing movie of 2014 and Salman Khan's seventh 100 crore movie in a row, an all-time record in the history of Indian cinema.<ref name="Bollywood’s 100 Crore Club ">{{cite web |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/box-office/special-features/id/200 |title=Bollywood Boxoffice |publisher=Bollywoodhungama.com |date=30 April 2013 |access-date=20 March 2015}}</ref>

====Overseas====
The website, Bollywoodhungama.com estimated ''Jai Ho'' grossed $3.55 million overseas in its first weekend. Box Office India estimated it grossed slightly less at $3.45 million and called it "decent business".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.boxofficeindia.com/Details/art_detail/jaihodecentoverseasgoodingulf#.UufBt9K6bIU |title=Jai Ho Decent Overseas – Good in Gulf |publisher=Box Office India |access-date=10 June 2014 |archive-date=1 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201214220/http://www.boxofficeindia.com/Details/art_detail/jaihodecentoverseasgoodingulf#.UufBt9K6bIU |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Adarsh |first=Taran |author-link=Taran Adarsh |publisher=Bollywood Hungama |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/box-office/overseas/id/509 |title='Jai Ho' witnesses day-wise growth, collects $3.55 million – Rs 22.38 crBox Office Overseas Report |access-date=10 June 2014}}</ref> The final overseas gross for Jai Ho was $6 million making it one of the highest overseas grossing Bollywood films of 2014.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Box Office India |title=2 States Hits $5 Million Overseas |access-date=10 June 2014 |url=http://www.boxofficeindia.com/Details/art_detail/2stateshits5millionoverseas#.U2qiL4Fw8t4 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140511004255/http://www.boxofficeindia.com/Details/art_detail/2stateshits5millionoverseas#.VviDRxFREy9 |archive-date=11 May 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.boxofficeindia.com/Details/art_detail/overseasjaiholifetimelessthandhoom3andchennaiexpressweekend#.UvKPF2KSyAo |access-date=10 June 2014 |title=OVERSEAS – Jai Ho Lifetime Less Than Dhoom 3 And Chennai Express Weekend |publisher=Box Office India |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140331023257/http://boxofficeindia.com/Details/art_detail/overseasjaiholifetimelessthandhoom3andchennaiexpressweekend#.UvKPF2KSyAo |archive-date=31 March 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/box-office/overseas/id/510 |title='Jai Ho' declines, total so far $5.4 millionBox Office Overseas Report |publisher=Bollywood Hungama |access-date=10 June 2014}}</ref>

== Music ==
{{Infobox album
| name = Jai Ho
| type = Soundtrack
| artist = [[Sajid–Wajid]], [[Amaal Mallik]] and [[Devi Sri Prasad]]
| cover =
| alt =
| released = 3 January 2014
| recorded =
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Film soundtrack|Feature film soundtrack]]
| length = 35:45
| label = [[T-Series (company)|T-Series]]
| producer = [[Bhushan Kumar]]
| chronology = [[Sajid–Wajid]]
| prev_title = [[Bullett Raja]]
| prev_year = 2013
| next_title = [[Main Tera Hero]]
| next_year = 2014
| misc = {{Extra chronology
| artist = [[Devi Sri Prasad]]
| type = Soundtrack
| prev_title = [[Veeram (2014 film)|Veeram]]
| prev_year = 2014
| title = Jai Ho
| year = 2014
| next_title = [[Bramman]]
| next_year = 2014
}}
{{Extra chronology
| artist = [[Amaal Mallik]]
| type = Soundtrack
| prev_title =
| prev_year =
| title = Jai Ho
| year = 2014
| next_title = [[Khoobsurat (2014 film)|Khoobsurat]]
| next_year = 2014
}}
}}
[[Sajid–Wajid]], [[Amaal Mallik]] and [[Devi Sri Prasad]] composed the nine-song soundtrack album for ''Jai Ho'', in which Malik had contributed three tracks and Prasad had contributed one track, while the former composed 5 tracks. Sajid, Irfan Kamal, Danish Sabri, [[Sameer Anjaan]], Kausar Munir, [[Shabbir Ahmed (lyricist)|Shabbir Ahmed]], [[Armaan Malik]], and Devi Sri Prasad wrote the lyrics for all the songs in the album. The full soundtrack album was released on 3 January 2014.<ref name="iTunes">{{cite web |url=https://itunes.apple.com/in/album/jai-ho-original-motion-picture/id786433087 |title=Jai Ho (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) |date=3 January 2014 |work=Sajid – Wajid, Amal Mallik & Devi Sri Prasad |publisher=[[iTunes]]|access-date=3 January 2014}}</ref>{{Track listing
| headline = Jai Ho
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| total_length = 35:45
| title1 = Baaki Sab First Class Hai
| music1 = Sajid–Wajid
| lyrics1 = [[Sajid–Wajid|Sajid]], Irfan Kamal, Danish Sabri
| length1 = 4:04
| extra1 = [[Sajid–Wajid|Wajid]]
| title2 = Tere Naina Maar Hi Daalenge
| extra2 = [[Shreya Ghoshal]], [[Shaan (singer)|Shaan]]
| music2 = Sajid–Wajid
| lyrics2 = [[Sameer Anjaan]]
| length2 = 5:00
| title3 = Photocopy
| extra3 = [[Himesh Reshammiya]], [[Keerthi Sagathia]], [[Palak Muchhal]]
| music3 = Sajid–Wajid
| lyrics3 = Kausar Munir
| length3 = 4:36
| title4 = Tumko To Aana Hi Tha
| extra4 = [[Armaan Malik]], Marianne D'Cruz, Altamash Faridi
| music4 = [[Amaal Mallik]]
| lyrics4 = [[Shabbir Ahmed (lyricist)|Shabbir Ahmed]]
| length4 = 4:13
| title5 = Love You Till The End
| extra5 = Armaan Malik
| music5 = Amaal Mallik
| lyrics5 = Armaan Malik
| length5 = 3:56
| title6 = Naacho Re
| extra6 = [[Ujjayinee Roy]]
| music6 = Devi Sri Prasad
| lyrics6 = [[Devi Sri Prasad]]
| length6 = 2:27
| title7 = Jai Ho
| extra7 = Wajid, Armaan Malik
| music7 = Amaal Mallik
| lyrics7 = Shabbir Ahmed
| length7 = 3:20
| title8 = Photocopy
| extra8 = Himesh Reshammiya, Keerthi Sagathia, Palak Muchhal
| music8 = Sajid–Wajid
| lyrics8 = Kausar Munir
| length8 = 3:53
| title9 = Baaki Sab First Class Hai
| note9 = Remix
| extra9 = Wajid
| music9 = Sajid–Wajid
| lyrics9 = Sajid, Irfan Kamal, Danish Sabri
| length9 = 2:47
| all_writing =
| title10 =
| length10 =
| note8 = Remix
| note5 = House Mix
| note7 = Title Track
}}

== See also ==
* [[Bollywood films of 2014]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{Official website|http://www.jaihoonline.com}}
*{{IMDb title|1188982}}
*{{Mojo title|jaiho}}
*{{rotten-tomatoes|jai_ho}}

[[Category:2010s Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:Hindi remakes of Telugu films]]
[[Category:2014 action drama films]]
[[Category:Indian action drama films]]
[[Category:Films about corruption in India]]
[[Category:Films scored by Sajid–Wajid]]
[[Category:Films scored by Devi Sri Prasad]]
[[Category:Indian films]]

Nair

2026-04-06T07:26:23Z

104.23.170.17: Minor edits

{{Short description|Caste group in India}}
{{About|a Hindu caste|other uses|Nair (disambiguation)}}

{{Infobox ethnic group
|group=
| native_name =
| native_name_lang = Malayalam
| image = Daniel Thomas-A Nair.jpg
| image_caption = ''A Nair'' by [[Thomas Daniell]]. Drawn in pencil and watercolor sometime between the 17th and 18th century.
|regions = [[Kerala]]
| region2 =
| langs = [[Malayalam]],{{sfn | Goody | 1975 | p=132}} [[Sanskrit]]{{sfn | Goody | 1975 | p=132}}
| rels = [[Hinduism]]
| related_groups =
}}
The '''Nair''' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|n|aɪər}}, also known as '''Nayar''', are a group of [[India]]n Hindu [[caste]]s, described by anthropologist [[Kathleen Gough]] as "not a unitary group but a named category of castes". The present label of Nair include several castes and many subdivisions, not all of whom historically bore the name 'Nair'.{{sfnp|Gough|1961|p=312|ps=}}<ref name="Fuller1975p309">[[#Fuller1975|Fuller (1975)]] p. 309</ref> These people lived, and continue to live, in the area which is now the Indian state of [[Kerala]]. Their internal [[caste]] behaviours and systems are markedly different between the people in the northern and southern sections of the area, although there is not much extensive information on those inhabiting the north.<ref name="Fuller1975p284">[[#Fuller1975|Fuller (1975)]] p. 284</ref>

Historically, Nairs lived in large family units called ''[[tharavad]]s'' that housed descendants of one common female ancestor. These family units along with their matrilineal marriage customs, which are no longer practiced, have been much studied. Although the detail varied from one region to the next, the main points of interest to researchers of Nair marriage customs were the existence of two particular rituals—the pre-pubertal ''[[Kettu Kalyanam|thalikettu kalyanam]]'' and the later defacto marriage ''[[sambandam]]''—and the practice of [[polygamy]] in some areas. Some Nair women also practiced [[hypergamy|hypergamous marriage]] with [[Nambudiri]] Brahmins from the [[Malabar region]].

The Nair were historically involved in military conflicts in the region. Following hostilities between the Nair and the British in 1809, the British limited Nair participation in the [[British Indian Army]]. After [[Indian independence movement|India's independence]], the [[Nair Brigade]] of the [[Travancore]] State Force was merged into the [[Indian Army]] and became a part of the [[9th Battalion, Madras Regiment]], the oldest battalion in the Indian Army.

The [[Snake|serpent]] is worshipped by Nair families as a guardian of the clan. The [[Snake worship|worship of snakes]] and Naga dieties is so prevalent in the area that one [[anthropologist]] notes: "In no part of the world is snake worship more general than in Kerala."<ref name="Iyer1968">{{cite book|author=L. A. Krishna Iyer|title=Social history of Kerala|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UU5DAAAAYAAJ|access-date=3 June 2011|year=1968|publisher=Book Centre Publications|page=104}}</ref> Serpent groves were found in the southwestern corner of nearly every Nair compound.<ref name="Subramanian (M.A.)1985">{{cite book|author1=K. R. Subramanian|author2=K. R. Subramanian (M.A.)|title=The origin of Saivism and its history in the Tamil land|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jHaVqNy-V6UC&pg=PA15|access-date=3 June 2011 |edition=Reprinted |year=1985 |orig-year=1929|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-0144-4|pages=15–}}</ref>

== History ==
=== Early period ===
The origin of the Nair is disputed. Some people think the name itself is derived from ''[[Nayak (title)|nayaka]]'', an honorific meaning "leader of the people", while others believe it stems from the community's association with the [[Nāga|Naga cult]] of serpent worship.{{sfnp|Narayanan|2003|p=59|ps=}} [[Chris Fuller (academic)|Christopher Fuller]], an anthropologist, has said that it is likely that the first reference to the Nair community was made by [[Pliny the Elder]] in his ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]'', dating from 77 AD. That work describes what is probably the Malabar coast area wherein could be found the "Nareae, who are shut in by the Capitalis range, the highest of all the mountains in India". Fuller believes it probable that the ''Nareae'' referred to the Nairs and the Capitalis range is the [[Western Ghats]].<ref name="Fuller1976p1">[[#Fuller1976|Fuller (1976)]] p. 1</ref>
[[File:King of Cochin.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|right|Nair soldiers attending the King of [[Cochin]]: A 16th century [[Europe]]an portrait. The majority of Nair men were trained in arms, and the traditional role of the Nairs was to fight in the continuous wars which characterized Kerala history.<ref name="Fuller1976pp7-8">[[#Fuller1976|Fuller (1976)]] pp. 7-8</ref>{{sfn | Blankenhorn | 2007 | p=106}}]]
There are large gaps in the known early history of the Kerala region, which in the 1st-century AD is thought to have been governed by the [[Chera dynasty]] and which by the late 3rd-century AD had broken up, possibly as a consequence of a decline in trade with the [[Roman Empire|Romans]]. There is no evidence of Nairs in the area during this period. Inscriptions on copper-plate regarding grants of land and rights to settlements of Jewish and Christian traders, dated approximately between the 7th- and 9th-centuries AD, refer to Nair chiefs and soldiers from the [[Eranad]], [[Kingdom of Valluvanad|Valluvanad]], [[Venad]] (later known as [[Travancore]]) and [[Palghat]] areas. As these inscriptions show the Nairs as witnesses to the agreements between those traders and the successors to the Cheras, the [[Perumal]]s, it is probable that by this time the Nairs were [[vassal]] chieftains.{{sfnp|Gough|1961|pp=302–303|ps=}}

Certainly by the 13th-century, some Nairs were the rulers of small kingdoms and the Perumals had disappeared. Trade with China, which had declined for some time, began to increase once more in the 13th-century and it was during this period that two small Nair kingdoms were established. Both of these—at [[Kolathiri|Kolattunad]] and at Vernad—contained major seaports, and they expanded by taking over the inland territory of neighbouring chieftains. Although trade with China once more went into decline in the 14th-century, it was replaced by trade with Muslim Arabs. These traders had been visiting the area for several hundred years but their activities increased to the point that a third Nair kingdom, based on the port of [[History of Kozhikode|Calicut]], became established. There were also small kingdoms at Walluvanad and Palghat, away from the coastline.{{sfnp|Gough|1961|pp=302–304|ps=}} This period was characterized by continuous war between these various kingdoms, and most able bodied Nair men were assigned to fight in these wars. {{sfn | Blankenhorn | 2007 | p=106}}

The large influx of travelers and traders to Kerala had left many early accounts of the Nairs. These descriptions were initially idealized by Europeans for its martial society, productivity, spirituality, and for its marriage practices. Some early examples of these works being [[John Mandeville]]’s ‘’Travels’’ (1356), [[William Caxton]]’s ‘The mirrour of the wourld’ (1481), and [[Jean Boudin]]’s ‘Les sex livres de la republique’ (1576). {{sfn | Almeida | 2017 | p=92}} The Nair men are described as being polite and well-mannered in old sources,{{sfn | Bock| Rao | 2000 | p=185}} and nearly all historical descriptions describe them as arrogant.<ref name="Fuller1976p15">[[#Fuller1976|Fuller (1976)]] p.15</ref>{{sfn | Bock | Rao | 2000 | p=185}} Sources on Nair women are scant and were written by men, and these primarily comment on their beauty.<ref name="Fuller1976p15" />{{sfn | Bock | Rao | 2000 | p=185}} The martial society of the Nairs was something that was covered by nearly all visitors, and their characteristic of always being armed is well described.<ref name="Fuller1976pp7-9">[[#Fuller1976|Fuller (1976)]] pp. 7-9</ref>

The [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] arrived in the area from 1498, by which time the [[Zamorin of Calicut|''Zamorin'']] (King) of Calicut had come to the fore. Arab traders had firmly established themselves at his port and although trade still went to the ports of the other two small kingdoms it was in relatively small amounts. Indeed, the kingdom based at Kolattunad had split into three even smaller kingdoms; and the ruler of Vernad had conceded considerable powers to local chiefs within his kingdom.{{sfnp|Gough|1961|p=304|ps=}} By the time of European arrival, the title Nair was used to refer to all military castes. The Portuguese used the term Nair for all soldiers, and prior to 1498 the military or retainer Nairs are believed to have been called 'Lokar'. Gough states that the title Nair existed prior to that time referring to only those families that were involved in the military.{{sfnp|Gough|1961|p=312|ps=}}{{efn|Gough quotes Ayyar (1938) for the statement on Lokar}}
The Portuguese had many involvements in South India, including their support of the [[Paravar]]s in a trade battle over control of the pearl fisheries of [[Malabar Coast|Malabar]], but in the Nair kingdoms their principal interest was to obtain control of the trade in [[Black pepper|pepper]]. In this they followed the Muslim Arabs, whom they eventually marginalised; and they were in turn followed by the Dutch in 1683. The British and French were also active in the region now known as Kerala, the former from 1615 and the latter from 1725. These various European powers combined with one or another of the Nair rulers, fighting for control.{{sfnp|Gough|1961|p=304|ps=}} One notable alliance was that of the Portuguese with the Kingdom of [[Cochin]], with whom they sided in order to work against the power of the Zamorins of Calicut. Although Calicut remained the most significant of the kingdoms until the 1730s, its power was eroded and the rulers of Cochin were freed from being vassals of the Zamorins.{{sfnp|Gough|1961|p=305|ps=}}

=== Decline of dominance ===
In 1729, Marthanda Varma became the Raja of Venad and inherited a state facing war and refractory Nair chiefs. Varma curtailed the power of the Nair chiefs and introduced Tamil Brahmins to form a core component of his administration. {{sfn | Jeffrey | 1994 | pp=4-5}} Under Marthanda Varma's reign, the Travancore Nair Infantry (also known as the ''Nair Pattalam'' ) distinguished themselves in battle against the Dutch at the [[Battle of Colachel]] (1741).<ref name="Sharma1990">{{cite book|author=Gautam Sharma|title=Valour and sacrifice: famous regiments of the Indian Army|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xLrTzZd0j1kC&pg=PA59|access-date=3 June 2011|date=1 December 1990|publisher=Allied Publishers|isbn=978-81-7023-140-0|pages=59–}}</ref> The Nair army was re-organized in the European style and had transformed from a feudal-based force into a standing army. Though this army was still made up of Nairs, this had checked the power of local chiefs and was the first limit on Nair dominance. {{sfn | Jeffrey | 1994 | pp=4-5}}

There had been Hindu–Muslim clashes during the medieval period, notably when Muslim armies from [[Mysore]] invaded and [[Mysore invasion of Kerala|gained control of northern Kerala]] in 1766. The Nairs of Kottayam and Kadathanad led the resistance, and the Nairs managed to defeat all Mysorean garrisons except for those in Palakkad. {{sfn | Menon | 2011 | p=158}} Shortly afterwards, Haider Ali died and his son Tipu had become Sultan. The Nairs of Calicut and South Malabar had recaptured Calicut and defeated an army sent by Tipu to break the siege. This had caused the Sultan himself to intervene in 1789 during which many Hindus, especially Nairs, [[Captivity of Nairs at Seringapatam|were kept captive or killed]] by Muslims under [[Tipu Sultan]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Sarasvati's Children: A History of the Mangalorean Christians|last=Prabhu|first=Alan Machado|year=1999|publisher=I.J.A. Publications|page=250|isbn=978-81-86778-25-8|ref=mac}}</ref> {{sfn | Menon | 2011 | ps=158-161}} Many Nairs had fled to the protection of Travancore, while others engaged in guerilla warfare. {{sfn | Menon | 2011 | ps=158-161}} However the Nairs of Travancore were able to defeat the Muslim forces in 1792 at the [[Third Anglo-Mysore War]]. After this, the [[East India Company]] established its pre-eminence throughout the entire Kerala region.<ref name="Eggenberger1985">{{cite book|first=David |last=Eggenberger|title=An encyclopedia of battles: accounts of over 1,560 battles from 1479 B.C. to the present|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofba00egge|url-access=registration |access-date=6 June 2011|date=1 September 1985|publisher=Courier Dover Publications|isbn=978-0-486-24913-1|pages=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofba00egge/page/392 392]–}}</ref>
[[File:Members of a Nair brigade.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|left|Members of the Travancore Nair Brigade, drawn in 1855. The Nair brigade was the remnant of the Travancore Nair army after the takeover of the British.<ref name="Ramachandran2008" /><ref name="Administration of Travancore" />]]
The British imposed the next limitation on Nair dominance. After signing the treaty of subsidiary alliance with Travancore in 1795, British residents were sent to the Travancore administration; the interference from the British had caused two rebellions in 1804 and 1809, the latter of which was to have lasting repercussions. Velu Thampi, the Nair dewan of Travancore, led a [[Travancore rebellion|revolt in 1809]] to remove British influence from the Travancore [[Sarkar (country subdivision)|sarkar]].{{sfn | Jeffrey | 1994 | p=5}} After a few months, the rebellion was defeated and Velu Thampi had committed suicide.{{sfn | Jeffrey | 1994 | p=6}} Afterwards, the Nairs were disbanded and disarmed. Up to this time the Nairs had been historically a military community, who along with the [[Nambudiri Brahmins]] owned most of the land in the region; after it, they turned increasingly to administrative service.<ref name="Nossiter1982pp27-28">[[#Nossiter1982|Nossiter (1982)]] pp. 27–28</ref><ref name="Raj1974">{{cite book|author=G. Ramachandra Raj|title=Functions and dysfunctions of social conflict|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zu7ZAAAAMAAJ|access-date=2 June 2011|year=1974|publisher=Popular Prakashan|page=18}}</ref> By this time there were nine small Nair kingdoms and several chiefdoms which were loosely affiliated to them; the British amalgamated seven of those kingdoms (Calicut, Kadattunad, Kolattunad, Kottayam, Kurumbranad, Palghat and Walluvanad) to form Malabar District, while Cochin and Travancore were left as native states under the control of their own rulers but with advice from the British.{{sfnp|Gough|1961|p=304|ps=}} Velu Thampi's rebellion had made the British wary of Nair leaders, and the Travancore sarkar was mainly under control of British residents although the rest of the administration had been handled for the most part by non-Malayali Brahmins and Nairs. {{sfn | Jeffrey | 1994 | pp=6-8}}

The Travancore army became the Travancore Nair Brigade in 1818–1819.<ref name="Administration of Travancore">{{cite web| publisher=Government of Kerala| work=REPORT OF THE ADMINISTRATIVE REFORMS COMMITTEE 1958| url=http://www.localgovkerala.net/lsgd-links/Committee/1Adminrpt1958.asp?intId=1| title=Army of Travancore| access-date=19 February 2007| url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061216022421/http://www.localgovkerala.net/lsgd-links/Committee/1Adminrpt1958.asp?intID=1| archive-date=16 December 2006| df=dmy-all}}</ref> The Nair unit, 1st Battalion of HH Rani's Troops, was likewise incorporated into this brigade, but the Brigade served only in a police capacity until the withdrawal of the East India Company troops in 1836. In 1901, the unit was relieved of its police duties and placed under a British officer.<ref name="Ramachandran2008">{{cite book|author=D. P. Ramachandran|title=Empire's First Soldiers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Q7EiZmcMPMC&pg=PA284|access-date=6 June 2011|date=October 2008|publisher=Lancer Publishers|isbn=978-0-9796174-7-8|pages=284–}}</ref> In 1935, the Travancore Nair Regiment and the Maharaja's bodyguard were fused and renamed the Travancore State Force, as part of the [[Indian State Forces]] system.<ref name="Ramachandran2008" />

The changes in the economy and the legal system from the late 1800s had ruined many Nair tharavads. Nair leaders noted the decay of their community and struggled to deal with issues regarding widespread infighting, disunity, and feuds. This was in contrast with other communities who were quick to unite for caste interests. {{sfn | Jeffrey | 1994 | pp=177-181}}{{sfn | Jeffrey | 1994 | p=234}}{{sfn | Jeffrey | 1994| p=267}} By 1908, the Nairs had not completely lost their dominance; they still held the most land, and had still held a majority of the government posts despite competition from low-castes and Christians. The dominance that Nairs historically held from their ritual status had come under opposition. The land that the Nairs historically had held was gradually lost, for there was a massive rate of wealth transfer to Christians and avarna Hindus. {{sfn | Jeffrey | 1994 | pp=xviii-xix}} {{sfn | Jeffrey | 1994 | p=267}} Christian missionaries also found interest in the dissolution of the tharavads as they saw this as an opportunity to convert the Nairs. {{sfn | Jeffrey | 1994 | ps=193}}

In 1914, the Nair Service Society (NSS) was founded by [[Mannathu Padmanabha Pillai]]. Growing up in poverty and witnessing widespread domestic disarray and land alienation amongst the Nairs had facilitated Padmanabhan to create the NSS. The organization aimed to respond to these issues by creating educational institutions, welfare programs, and to replace cumbersome customs such as the matrilineal system.<ref name="Nossiter1982p28" /> {{sfn | Jeffrey | 2016 | ps=102-104}}

Subsequent to Indian independence from British rule, the regions of Travancore, Malabar District and Cochin became the present-day state of Kerala. It is with regard to the Nairs living in the former areas of Cochin and South Malabar, which are sometimes jointly referred to as Central Kerala, that there is the most information; that available for North Malabar is the most scant.<ref name="Fuller1975p284" /> Two former Travancore State Army divisions, the 1st Travancore Nayar Infantry and the 2nd Travancore Nayar Infantry were converted into 9th and 16th Battalions of Madras Regiment respectively after the independence.<ref name="Sharma1990" /> The Nayar Army from Cochin was incorporated into the 17th Battalion.<ref name="Sharma1990p59">{{cite book |title=Valour and sacrifice: famous regiments of the Indian Army |first=Gautam |last=Sharma |publisher=Allied Publishers |year=1990 |page=59 |isbn=978-81-7023-140-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xLrTzZd0j1kC&pg=PA59 |access-date=4 May 2011}}</ref>

== Culture ==
=== Arts ===
Historically most Nairs were literate in Malayalam, and many in Sanskrit.{{sfn | Goody | 1975 | p=132}}{{sfnp|Gough|1961|p=|ps=337-338}}{{sfn | Clark-Deces | 2011 | p=1976}} The explanation for this literacy was attributed to the general needs of administration, as many Nairs served as scribes and bailiffs for the royal courts.{{sfn | Goody | 1975 | p=132}}{{sfn | Goody | 1975 | pp=147-148}} Many Nairs had become prominent philosophers and poets, and from the 16th century and onwards the Nairs contributed increasingly to literature and drama. Nairs from the lowest subsections of the community had also partaken in these artistic traditions.{{sfn | Goody | 1975 | p=146}} By the 19th century, novels written by Nairs had dealt with themes of social change. These themes would primarily relate to the rise of the nuclear family in replacement of the old matrilineal system. {{sfn | Mukherjee | 2002 | p=65}} Novels such as, for example, ''[[Indulekha (novel)|Indulekha]]'' by O.C Menon had themes which dealt with societal constraints on romantic love, while C.V Raman Pillai's ''[[Marthandavarma (novel)|Marthanda Varma]]'' had dealt with themes relating to the Nair military past. {{sfn | Sarkar | 2014 | p=138}}

[[Kathakali]] is a dance-drama which portrays scenes from Sanskrit epics or stories.{{sfn | Goody | 1975 | p=143}} The dance drama was historically performed exclusively by Nairs {{sfn | Ashley | 1979 | p=100}}{{sfn | Zarrilli | 1984 | p=52}} and had always traditionally been associated with them; Nair rulers and chiefs had patronized the art, the first Ramanattam plays were written by a Nair from a ruling family, and Kathakali had foundations in Nair military training and religious customs.{{sfn | Wade | Jones | Zile | Higgins | 1987 | p=27}} The first Kathakali actors were most likely Nair soldiers who performed the dance-drama part-time, influenced by the techniques of [[Kalaripayattu]]. As Kathakali developed as an art form, the need for specialization and detail grew.{{sfn | Zarrilli | 1984 | p=74}} Those who had become masters of the art would pass their traditions on to their families. These families were the source of the next generations of Kathakali students, and it was often the nephew of the master that would be chosen as the disciple. {{sfn | Zarrilli | 1984 | ps=74-75}}
[[File:Raja Ravi Varma, There Comes Papa (1893).jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|[[There Comes Papa]] (1893) by Raja Ravi Varma depicts a Nair woman{{sfn | Gopinath | 2018 | p=40}}{{sfn | Bald | Chatterji | Reddy | Prashad | 2013 | p=289}} in the traditional mundum neryathum.{{sfn | Thomas | 2018 | p=38}}{{sfn | Arunima | 1995 | p=167}} The painting has also been noted by several critics due its symbolism of the decline of Nair matrilinity.{{sfn | Gopinath | 2018 | p=41}}{{sfn | Arunima | 2003 | p=1}}{{sfn | Jacobsen | 2015 | p=377}}]]

=== Attire ===
The historical attire of the Nair men was the ''mundu'', a cloth wrapped around the waist and then left to hang down nearly to the ground, rather than tucked in as in other parts of India. The low-hanging fabric was considered as specific to the Nair caste, and at the start of the 20th century it was noted that in more conservative rural areas a non-Nair could be beaten for daring to wear a cloth hanging low to the ground. Wealthy Nairs might use silk for this purpose, and they also would cover their upper body with a piece of laced muslin; the remainder of the community used once to wear a material manufactured in Eraniyal but by the time of Panikkar's writing were generally using cotton cloth imported from [[Lancashire]], England, and wore nothing above the waist. Nair men eschewed turbans or other head coverings, but would carry an umbrella against the sun's rays. They also eschewed footwear, although some of the wealthy would wear elaborate sandals.<ref name="Fawcett1901p254">[[#Fawcett1901|Fawcett (1901)]] p. 254.</ref><ref name="Panikkar1918pp287-288">[[#Panikkar1918|Panikkar (1918)]] p. 287–288.</ref>

The historical dress of the Nair woman was the mundu, as well as a cloth that covered the upper body. The ''[[mundum neryathum]]'', a garment that roughly resembles the [[sari]], had later become the traditional dress of the Nair women. {{sfn | Thomas | 2018 | p=38}}{{sfn | Lukose | 2009 | p=105}}The dress consisted of a cloth tied around the waist as well as a cloth covering the breast, and worn without a blouse. The mundum neryathum had become the essence for the set sari, which is considered to be Kerala's specific regional wear. Sonja Thomas describes how this is an example of how “primacy was given to upper caste cultural norms”. {{sfn | Thomas | 2018 | p=38}} The Nair women would also wear ''onera'' (''onnara''), a loincloth worn as an undergarment by more conservative women.<ref name="Sinclair-Brull1997">{{cite book|first=Wendy |last=Sinclair-Brull|title=Female ascetics: hierarchy and purity in an Indian religious movement|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oywmBhWH-zAC&pg=PA148|access-date=6 June 2011|year=1997|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-7007-0422-4|page=148}}</ref><ref name="Kerala1982">{{cite book|author=University of Kerala|title=Journal of Kerala studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Gk1DAAAAYAAJ|access-date=6 June 2011|year=1982|publisher=University of Kerala.|page=142}}</ref> The undergarment was noted as beautifying and slimming the waist.<ref name="DasKrishnankutty2003">{{cite book|first=Kamala |last=Das|others=Trans. Gita Krishnankutty|title=A childhood in Malabar: a memoir |author-link=Kamala Das |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SFpkAAAAMAAJ|access-date=6 June 2011|year=2003|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-0-14-303039-3|page=76}}</ref>

=== Religion and ritual ===
The primary deity of the Nairs is [[Devi|Bhagavati]], who is the patron goddess of war and fertility. {{sfn | Massey | 2004 | p=106}}{{sfn | Vickery | 1998 | p=154}} Central to all aspects of Nair life and revered as a kind and ferocious virgin mother, Bhagavati identifies with both Sanskritic and regional based aspects of worship.{{sfn | Zarrilli | 2003 | p=131}} The goddess was worshipped in the temples of the royal Nair matrilineages and also the village Nair matrilineages. {{sfn | Vickery | 1998 | p=154}} {{sfn | Stone | King | 2018 | p=149}} The idol would either be placed in the western side of the house or be placed in a room with other deities.{{sfn | Zarrilli | 2003 | p=131}} The kalaris would also have an area for the worship of Kali, the warlike manifestation of Bhagavati. {{sfn | Massey | 2004 | p=106}}

Serpent deities known as [[Nāga]] were revered by the Nairs, and these deities would be placed in a grove in the family property. The groves would portray a miniature forest made to resemble [[Patala]], and could feature various types of idols. {{sfn | Neff | 1987 | p=63}} Naga worship was significant to the entire tharavad since, as Gough says, they "... could inflict or avert sickness in general but were especially believed to be responsible for the fertility or barrenness of tharavad women".<ref name="Gough 1961 p. 342">[[#Gough|Gough (1961)]] p. 342.</ref> Gough speculates that the Nagas were seen as phallic symbols representing the procreative powers of the ancestors.<ref name="Gough 1961 p. 342" />
[[File:The Hindu Goddess Kali LACMA M.2011.5 (2 of 5).jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|left|17th century wooden idol of Kali from Kerala.<ref name="LACMA Collections">{{cite web | title=The Hindu Goddess Kali | website=LACMA Collections | url=https://collections.lacma.org/node/222402 | access-date=2019-01-03}}</ref> Kali is the warlike manifestation of Bhagavati, the patron deity of the Nairs.{{sfn | Massey | 2004 | p=106}}{{sfn | Vickery | 1998 | p=154}}|alt=]]
Nairs believed in spirits, which on some occasions they attempted to tame by performing various rituals. According to Panikkar, they believed in spirits such as ''[[Preta]]m'', ''[[Bhoot (ghost)|Bhutam]]'' and ''[[Pishacha|Pisachu]]''. ''Pretam'' is the spirit of prematurely dead people; ''Bhutam'', Panikkar says, "is seen generally in marshy districts and does not always hurt people unless they go very near him"; and ''Pisachu'' is spirit of bad air causing illnesses. Believing ''Pretam'' to be wandering around the place of death, they warned people to stay away from those areas between 9 am and 3 pm.<ref name="Panikkar1918p279-280">[[#Panikkar1918|Panikkar (1918)]] p. 279–280</ref> They also believed in a comic elf called Kutti Chattan who would be prone to mischief.<ref name="Panikkar1918p279-281-">[[#Panikkar1918|Panikkar (1918)]] p. 279-281</ref> They believed in ''evil eye''—that compliments from others had negative effect; they also believed that utterances of a person with ''kari nakku'' (black-tongue) had a similarly bad effect. They also believed ''koti'' from a poor man watching someone eating a delicious food will cause stomach-aches and [[dysentery]].<ref name="Panikkar1918p282-283">[[#Panikkar1918|Panikkar (1918)]] p. 282–283</ref>

==== Birth and death rituals ====
The Nair traditionally practised certain rituals relating to births, although often only for those of the first-born. Of these, ''pulicudi'' was the most significant to them. This involved rubbing coconut oil into the pregnant woman, followed by bathing, formal dressing, consultation with an astrologer regarding the expected date of birth and a ceremonial drinking of [[tamarind]] juice, dripped along the blade of a sword. The woman would also select a grain, from which it was believed possible to determine the gender of the child. This ritual was performed in front of the community and contained many symbolic references; for example, the use of the sword was believed to make the child a warrior.<ref name="Panikkarpp272-275">[[#Panikkar|Panikkar (1918)]] pp. 272–275.</ref>

In the months subsequent to the birth there followed other rituals, including those of purification and the adornment of the child with a symbolic belt to ward off illness, as well as a name-giving ceremony at which an astrologer again played a significant role. There were also various dietary restrictions, both for the woman during pregnancy and for the child in the first few months of its life.<ref name="Panikkarpp272-275" />

Although birth was considered to be ritually polluting, a death in the family was thought to be much more so.<ref name="Panikkarpp272-275" /> In the case of the death of the oldest member of the family, whether male or female, the body would be cremated on a pyre; for all other family members burial was the norm. In either case, the ceremonies were conducted by the [[Maarar|Maran]] subgroup of the community and they utilised both elements of superstition and of Hinduism. The occasions involving cremation were more ritualised than those involving burial.<ref name="Panikkarpp275-276">[[#Panikkar|Panikkar (1918)]] pp. 275–276.</ref>

An elaborate fourteen-day period of mourning followed the cremation, during which the family performed various symbolic acts around the pyre and were regarded to be highly polluted in ritual terms, thus necessitating not only that they took regular baths but also that any other Nair who might touch them must also take a bath. The period was followed by a feast and by participation in sports events, which also involved Nairs from nearby villages. Subsequently, the family stayed in mourning while one male member undertook a ''[[diksha]]'', during which time he had to maintain a pure life. This involved him living with a Brahmin, bathing twice daily and desisting from cutting either his hair or his fingernails, as well as being prevented from speaking with or indeed even seeing women. In some cases the ''diksha'' might last for a year rather than the more usual forty-one days, in which case there would be considerable celebration at its end.<ref name="Panikkarpp275-276" />

=== Diet ===
Pork was noted as a favourite food of the Nair,<ref name="AnthropologyClub1965">{{cite journal|first=J. B. |last=Freeland |title=The Nayar of Central Kerala |journal=Papers in Anthropology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B0fzAAAAMAAJ|year=1965|page=12}}</ref> and even high-status Nairs were noted as eating buffalo meat.<ref name="OsellaOsella2000">{{cite book|first1=Filippo |last1=Osella |first2=Caroline |last2=Osella|title=Social mobility in Kerala: modernity and identity in conflict|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rMRw0gTZSJwC&pg=PA32|access-date=5 June 2011|year=2000|publisher=Pluto Press|isbn=978-0-7453-1693-2}}</ref>

The Nair avoided beef, and many did not eat lamb.<ref name="Kurien2002">{{cite book|first=Prema A. |last=Kurien |author-link=Prema A. Kurien|title=Kaleidoscopic ethnicity: international migration and the reconstruction of community identities in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lMmSFw8G4wgC&pg=PA124|access-date=5 June 2011|year=2002|publisher=Rutgers University Press|isbn=978-0-8135-3089-5|pages=124–}}</ref> In the modern day, alcohol is a component of Nair-dominated festivals in Kerala.<ref name="OsellaOsella2000" />

== Social and political organisation ==
=== Political organization ===
Prior to the reorganisation of the region by the British, Kerala was divided into around ten feudal states. Each of these was governed by a ''rajah'' (king) and was subdivided into organisational units known as ''nads''. In turn, the ''nads'' were divided into ''dēsams''.{{sfnp|Gough|1961|pp=307–308|ps=}}

The person who governed the ''nad'' was known as the ''[[naduvazhi]]''. It was an inherited role, originally bestowed by a king, and of a lower ritual rank than the royal lineages. Although Nair families, they generally used the title of ''Samantan'' and were treated as vassals. However, some ''naduvazhi'' were feudatory chiefs, former kings whose territory had been taken over by, for example, the Zamorins of Calicut. In these instances, although they were obeisant to the ''rajah'' they held a higher ritual rank than the Zamorin as a consequence of their longer history of government; they also had more power than the vassal chiefs. The ''naduvazhi'' families each saw themselves as a distinct caste in the same manner as did the rajahs; they did not recognise other ''naduvazhi'' families as being equal to them.{{sfnp|Gough|1961|pp=307–308|ps=}} The ''naduvazhi'' maintained criminal and civil order and could demand military service from all Nairs below him. There was usually a permanent force of between 500 and 1000 men available and these were called upon by the ''rajah'' when required.<ref name="Panikkar1918pp257-258" /> All fighting was usually suspended during the monsoon period of May to September, when movement around the country was almost impossible. Roads did not exist, nor wheeled vehicles or pack animals, until after 1766.{{sfnp|Gough|1961|pp=302–303|ps=}}

The ''desavazhi'' had the right to operate ''[[kalari]]s'', which were military training schools that all young Nair men from the age of 12 were expected to attend. They ceased attending at the age of 18 but were expected to be available for military duty at a day's notice. The function of these schools became less significant practically following the introduction of the Arms Act by the British, which limited the right of Nairs to carry arms; however, they continued to exist and provided some training to those Nair men who did not attend English schools. This training became evident at village festivals, during which a martial review would take place.<ref name="Panikkar1918pp257-258">[[#Panikkar1918|Panikkar]] pp. 257–258</ref>

According to Gough, the villages were generally between one and four square miles in area and their lands were usually owned by one landlord family, who claimed a higher ritual rank than its other inhabitants. The landlord was also usually the ''desavazhi'' (headman) and in all cases their families were known as ''[[jenmi]]s''. These landlords were from the lineages of the Nair royal families or feudatory chiefs; or were patrilineal Nambudiri families or the estates of temples operated by groups of those families. They were also from the lineages of the matrilineal vassal Samantan chiefs and, finally, the lowest ''jenmis'' in terms of ritual ranking were Nairs who had inherited from matrilineal ancestors to whom land and the concomitant headmanship had been granted by a king. In all cases, the landholdings could not be sold without royal permission.{{sfnp|Gough|1961|pp=307–308|ps=}}

The villages were historically mostly self-sufficient, with craft trades such as pottery and metalwork present in each of them. This meant that there was little need for close central control by the higher levels in the organisational hierarchy, and it also meant that trade between villages was minimal. Such traders as did exist were mostly concentrated in the port towns and consisted of immigrant Syrians, Muslims, Christians and Jews, with Hindu traders later arriving from other parts of India, as well as the Europeans.{{sfnp|Gough|1961|pp=302–303|ps=}} The Nairs were the sole members of the village organisations, which existed for such purposes as managing the affairs of the temples and, at one time, organising military training and deployment. A Nair family was considered to be part of the village organisation even if they had moved away from it. There were other castes in these villages, and other religious groups also, but they were excluded from the organisations. This arrangement was different from that found elsewhere in India, and another difference was that each house, whether for Nairs or otherwise, was usually in its own compound. There was no communal land, as existed elsewhere, and no communal plan for the village layout.<ref name="Panikkar1918pp257-258" />

Nairs were not permitted to perform rites in the special temples of the ''sanketams'', the villages where the land was owned by a group of Nambudiri families, although they had access to the outer courtyard and sometimes the inner courtyard area barring the garbagriha (idol room). Sometimes there were no Nairs at all in these villages. In villages where temples existed which were privately owned by a single Nambudiri family, there would be another temple, dedicated to [[Bhagavadi]], that was used by the Nairs. It was in villages where the Nairs included the headman that there might be just a single temple, run by their village organisation.{{sfnp|Gough|1961|p=310|ps=}}

=== Social organization ===
By the late 19th-century, the caste system of Kerala had evolved to be the most complex to be found anywhere in India. There were over 500 groups represented in an elaborate structure of relationships and the concept of ritual pollution extended not merely to [[untouchability]] but even further, to [[unapproachability]]. The system was gradually reformed to some degree, with one of those reformers, [[Swami Vivekananda]], having observed that it represented a "mad house" of castes. The usual four-tier Hindu caste system, involving the ''varnas'' of ''Brahmin'' (priest), ''Kshatriya'' (warrior), ''Vaishya'' (business person, involved in trading, entrepreneurship and finance) and ''Shudra'' (service person), did not exist. Dwija (twice-born) ''Kshatriyas'' were rare and the ''Vaishyas'' were not present at all. The roles left empty by the absence of these two ritual ranks were taken to some extent by Nairs and by non-Hindu immigrants, respectively.<ref name="Nossiter1982pp25-27">[[#Nossiter1982|Nossiter (1982)]] pp. 25–27</ref>

The Nambudiri Brahmins were at the top of the ritual caste hierarchy and in that system outranked even the kings.{{sfnp|Gough|1961|p=306|ps=}} They regarded all Nairs as ''[[Shudra]]'' despite proper Nairs being Vratya Kshatriya<ref>Castes of Malabar" in the Kerala Society Papers, [General Editor: T. K. Joseph] Series 9, 1932, alias Vol. II, 1997 reprint, Thiruvananthapuram, Gazetteers Dept., Govt. of Kerala, pp. 171 - 204.</ref>. Below the Nambudiris came the [[Tamil Brahmin]]s and other later immigrants of the Brahmin ''varna''. Beyond this, the precise ranking is subject to some difference in opinion. Kodoth has placed the [[Samantan]] Nair caste below the Kshatriya rank but above the proper Nairs, but Gough considers that the [[Pushpaka Brahmin|Pushpagans]] and [[Chakyar]]s, both of which were the highest ranked in the group of temple servants known as [[Ambalavasi]]s, were ranked between the Brahmins and the Nairs, as were several other members of the Ambalavasi group.{{sfnp|Gough|1961|pp=309–311|ps=}} She also believes that some ruling Nairs adopted the title of Samantan in order to emphasise their superiority over others in their caste.{{sfnp|Gough|1961|pp=307–308|ps=}} The unwillingness of the higher ''varnas'' to engage in what they considered to be the polluting activities of industrial and commercial activity has been cited as a reason for the region's relatively limited economic development.<ref name="Nossiter1982pp25-27" /><ref name="Kodoth2008">{{cite journal |title=Gender, Caste and Matchmaking in Kerala: A Rationale for Dowry |first=Praveena |last=Kodoth |journal=Development and Change |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=263–283 |year=2008 |publisher=Institute of Social Studies |doi=10.1111/j.1467-7660.2008.00479.x}}{{subscription required}}</ref><ref name="Fullerpp299-301">[[#Fuller1975|Fuller (1975)]] pp. 299–301</ref>

Keralite traditions included that certain communities were not allowed within a given distance of other castes on the grounds that they would "pollute" the relatively higher-ranked group. For example, [[Dalits]] were prohibited within 64 feet of a Nair.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Dilip M. |last=Menon |title=The Moral Community of the Teyyattam: Popular Culture in Late Colonial Malabar |journal=Studies in History |date=August 1993 |volume=9 |pages=187–217 |issue=2 |doi=10.1177/025764309300900203|s2cid=161804169 }}{{subscription required}}</ref> Likewise, a Nair could approach but not touch a Nambudiri.<ref name="Sharma2004">{{cite book|author=Rajendra Kumar Sharma|title=Rural Sociology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Cq99HbGpIWsC&pg=PA150|access-date=23 May 2011|date=1 January 2004|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist|isbn=978-81-7156-671-6|page=150}}</ref>

==== Subgroups ====
The Nairs identify themselves as being in many subgroups and there has been debate regarding whether these groups should be considered as subcastes or a mixture both of those and of subdivisions. There have been several attempts to identify these various groups; most of these were prior to the end of British governance in India but Kathleen Gough also studied the issue in 1961. These analyses bear similarities to the ''[[Jatinirnayam]]'', a Malayalam work that enumerated 18 main subgroups according to occupation, including drummers, traders, coppersmiths, palanquin bearers, servants, potters and barbers, as well as ranks such as the ''Kiriyam'' and ''Illam''. Although the ''Jatinirnayam'' did not itself distinguish any particular subgroups as ranking higher, subsequent attempts at classification did do so, claiming the various occupations to be traditional ones and stating that only the higher ranked groups were soldiers. Anthropologists, ethnologists and other authors believe that the last name of a Nair was a title which denoted the subgroup (''vibhagam'') to which that person belonged and indicated the occupation the person pursued or was bestowed on them by a chief or king. These titles included ''Kurup'', ''Menon'', and ''[[Pillai (Nair title)|Pillai]]''.<ref name="Fuller1975pp286-289">[[#Fuller1975|Fuller (1975)]] pp. 286–289</ref>

{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
|-
!colspan="5"| Nair subdivisions in descending order of rank according to standard descriptions, compiled by C J Fuller in 1975<ref>[[#Fuller1975|Fuller (1975)]] Reproduced from p. 288</ref>
|-
! Ranking !! Jatinirnayam{{efn|Quoted by Fuller, citing K. P. Padmanabha Menon, ''History of Kerala'', volume 3 (1933), pp. 192–195}} !! Aiya (1906){{efn|Quoted by Fuller, citing V. Nagam Aiya, ''The Travancore State Manual'', volume 2 (1906), pp. 348–349}} !! Iyer (1912){{efn|Quoted by Fuller, citing L. K. Anantha Krishna Iyer, ''The Cochin Tribes and Castes'', volume 2 (1912), pp. 14–18}} !! Innes (1908){{efn|Quoted by Fuller, citing C. A. Innes, ''Madras District Gazetteers: Malabar and Anjengo'', (ed. F. B. Evans), volume 1 (1908), pp. 116–120}} !! Gough (1961){{efn|Quoted by Fuller, citing E. Kathleen Gough, ''Nayar, Central Kerala'' in ''Matrilineal Kinship'', (ed. D. M. Schneider & E. K. Gough), (1961), pp. 308–312}}
|-
|1|| [[Kiryathil Nair|Kiriyam]] || Kiriyam || Kiriyam || Kiriyam || Kiriyam
|-
|2|| [[Illathu Nair|Illam]] || Illam || Illam || Purattu Charna || Purattu Charna
|-
|3|| [[Swaroopathil Nair|Svarupam]] || Svarupam || Svarupam || Akattu Charna || Akattu Charna
|-
|4|| [[Padamangalam Nair|Padamangalam]] || Padamangalam || Purattu & Akattu Charna || Illam || Pallicchan
|-
|5|| Tamil Padam || Tamil Padam || Menokki || Mutta || Illam
|-
|6|| Itasseri || Itasseri || Maran || Taraka || Vattakkatan
|-
|7|| Maran (or [[Maarar]]) || Maran || Padamangalam || Ravari || Otattu
|-
|8|| Chempukotli || Chempukotli || Pallicchan || Anduran || Anduran
|-
|9|| Otattu || Otattu || Vattakkatan || Otattu || Asthikkuracchi
|-
|10|| [[Pallicchan Nair|Pallicchan]] || Kalamkotti || Chempukotti || Pallicchan || Veluttetan
|-
|11|| Matavan/Puliyath || Vattakkatan || Otattu || Urali || Vilakkittalavan
|-
|12|| Kalamkotti/Anduran || Pallicchan || Itasseri || Chempukotti ||
|-
|13|| [[Chakkala Nair|Vattakkatan/Chakkala]] || Asthikkuracchi || Anduran || Vattakkatan ||
|-
|14|| Asthikkuracchi/Chitikan || Chetti || Asthikkuracchi || Asthikkuracchi/Chitikan ||
|-
|15|| Chetti || Chaliyan || Tarakan || Kulangara ||
|-
|16|| Chaliyan || Veluttetan || Vilakkittalavan || Itasseri ||
|-
|17|| Veluttetan || Vilakkittalavan || Veluttetan || Veluttetan ||
|-
|18|| [[Velakkathala Nayar|Vilakkittalavan]] || || Chaliyan || Vilakkittalavan ||
|-
|19|| || || || Kaduppattam ||
|-
|20|| || || || Chaliyan ||
|}

A re-evaluation of the broad system of classification took place from the late 1950s. Fuller, writing in 1975, claims that the approach to classification by use of titular names was a misconception. People could and did award themselves the titles; and on those occasions when a title was in fact bestowed, it nonetheless did not signify their subgroup. He argues that the broad outline of the subdivisions {{quote|... embodies, so to speak, a caste system within a caste system. Except for high-ranking priests, the Nayar subdivisions mirror all the main caste categories: high-status aristocrats, military and landed; artisans and servants; and untouchables. But ... this structure is ideal rather than real.<ref name="Fuller1975pp286-289" />}}

[[M. N. Srinivas]] observed in 1957 that, "''Varna'' has been the model to which observed facts have been fitted, and this is true not only of educated Indians, but also of sociologists to some extent." Instead of analysing the structure of the subgroups independently, commentators had explained them inappropriately by using an existing but alien social structure. From this unsuitable methodology had come the notion that the groups were subcastes rather than subdivisions.<ref name="Srinivas1957">{{cite journal |title=Caste in Modern India |first=Mysore Narasimhachar |last=Srinivas |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=16 |issue=4 |date=August 1957 |pages=529–548 |publisher=Association for Asian Studies |author-link=M. N. Srinivas|jstor=2941637 |doi=10.2307/2941637}}{{subscription required}}</ref> He also argued, in 1966, that "Some Nayars "ripened" into Samantans and Kshatriyas. The royal lineages of Calicut, Walluvanad, Palghat and Cochin, for instance, although of Nayar origin, considered themselves superior in ritual rank to their Nayar subjects." That is to say, they assumed a position above the status that they were perceived as being by others.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZrJB-MsbWvoC&pg=PA38 |title=Social change in modern India (Rabindranath Tagore memorial lectures) |first=Mysore Narasimhachar |last=Srinivas |page=38 |publisher=Orient Blackswan |year=1995 |orig-year=1966 |isbn=978-81-250-0422-6}}</ref>

The hypothesis, proposed by writers such as Fuller and [[Louis Dumont]], that most of the subgroups were not subcastes arises in large part because of the number of ways in which Nairs classified themselves, which far exceeded the 18 or so groups which had previously been broadly accepted. Dumont took the extreme view that the Nairs as a whole could not be defined as a caste in the traditional sense, but Fuller believed this to be unreasonable as, "since the Nayars live in a caste society, they must evidently fit into the caste system at some level or another." The [[1891 Census of India]] listed a total of 128 Nair subgroups in the Malabar region and 55 in the Cochin region, as well as a further 10 in the [[Madras]] area but outside Malabar. There were 44 listed in Travancore in the census of 1901. These designations were, however, somewhat fluid: the numbers tended to rise and fall, dependent upon which source and which research was employed; it is likely also that the figures were skewed by Nairs claiming a higher status than they actually had, which was a common practice throughout India. Data from the late 19th-century and early 20th-century censuses indicates that ten of these numerous subdivisions accounted for around 90% of all Nairs, that the five{{efn|Fuller names the five highest subdivisions as Kiriyam, Illam, Svarupam, Purattu Charna and Akattu Charna. Of the other five main subdivisions, the Chakkala and Itasseri were to be found in Travancore and the Pallicchan, Vattakkatan and Asthikkuracchi in Cochin and Malabar.<ref name="Fullerp290">[[#Fuller1975|Fuller (1975)]] p. 290.</ref>}} highest ranking of these accounted for the majority, and that some of the subdivisions claimed as little as one member. The writer of the official report of the 1891 census, H A Stuart, acknowledged that some of the recorded subdivisions were in fact merely families and not subcastes,<ref name="Fuller1975pp289-291">[[#Fuller1975|Fuller (1975)]] pp. 289–291.</ref> and Fuller has speculated that the single-member subdivisions were "Nayars satisfying their vanity, I suppose, through the medium of the census."<ref name="Fuller1975p294">[[#Fuller1975|Fuller (1975)]] p. 294.</ref>

The revisionist argument, whose supporters also include [[Joan Mencher]], proposes a mixed system. The larger divisions were indeed subcastes, as they demonstrated a stability of status, longevity and geographic spread; however, the smaller divisions were fluid, often relatively short-lived and narrow in geographic placement. These divisions, such as the ''Veluttetan'', ''Chakkala'' and ''Vilakkittalavan'', would take titles such as ''Nair'' or ''Nayar'' in order to boost their social status, as was also the practice with other castes elsewhere, although they were often not recognised as caste members by the higher ranks and other Nairs would not marry with them. It has also been postulated that some [[exogamous group|exogamous]] families came together to form small divisions as a consequence of shared work experiences with, for example, a local Nambudiri or Nair chief. These groups then became an [[endogamous group|endogamous]] subdivision, in a similar manner to developments of subdivisions in other castes elsewhere.<ref name="Fuller1975pp291-292">[[#Fuller1975|Fuller (1975)]] pp. 291–292, 305</ref> The more subdivisions that were created, the more opportunity there was for social mobility within the Nair community as a whole.<ref name="Fuller1975p303">[[#Fuller1975|Fuller (1975)]] p. 303</ref>

Even the highest ranked of the Nairs, being the kings and chiefs, were no more than "supereminent" subdivisions of the caste, rather than the Dwija Kshatriyas and Samantans that they claimed to be. Their claims illustrated that the desires and aspirations of self-promotion applied even at the very top of the community and this extended as far as each family refusing to admit that they had any peers in rank, although they would acknowledge those above and below them. The membership of these two subgroups was statistically insignificant, being a small fraction of 1 per cent of the regional population, but the example of aspirational behaviour which they set filtered through to the significant ranks below them. These subdivisions might adopt a new name or remove themselves from any association with a ritually demeaning occupation in order to assist their aspirations. Most significantly, they adopted [[hypergamy]] and would utilise the rituals of ''[[Kettu Kalyanam|thalikettu kalyanam]]'' and ''[[sambandham]]'', which constituted their traditional version of a marriage ceremony, in order to advance themselves by association with higher-ranked participants and also to disassociate themselves from their existing rank and those below.<ref name="Fuller1975pp293-295+298">[[#Fuller1975|Fuller (1975)]] pp. 293–295, 298</ref>

==== Attempts to achieve caste cohesion ====
The [[Nair Service Society]] (NSS) was founded in 1914. Nossiter has described its purpose at foundation as being "... to liberate the community from superstition, taboo and otiose custom, to establish a network of educational and welfare institutions, and to defend and advance Nair interests in the political arena."<ref name="Nossiter1982p28" /> Devika and Varghese believe the year of formation to be 1913 and argue that the perceived denial of 'the natural right' of upper castes to hold elected chairs in Travancore, a Hindu state, had pressured the founding of the NSS.<ref>{{cite book |first1=J. |last1=Devika |first2=V. J. |last2=Varghese |date=March 2010 |title=To Survive or to flourish? Minority rights and Syrian Christian assertions in 20th century Travancore |publisher=Centre for Development Studies |location=Trivandrum |url=http://cds.edu/download_files/wp427.pdf |pages=15–17 |access-date=28 April 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120526104825/http://cds.edu/download_files/wp427.pdf |archive-date=26 May 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

As late as 1975, the NSS still had most of its support in the Central Travancore region,<ref name="Fuller1975pp303-304">[[#Fuller1975|Fuller (1975)]] pp. 303–304.</ref> although it also has numerous satellite groups around the world.

From its early years, when it was contending that the Nairs needed to join together if they were to become a political force, it argued that the caste members should cease referring to their traditional subdivisions and instead see themselves as a whole. Census information thereafter appears to have become unreliable on the matter of the subdivisions, in part at least because of the NSS campaign to ensure that respondents did not provide the information requested of them. The NSS also promoted marriage across the various divisions in a further attempt to promote caste cohesion, although in this instance it met with only limited success. Indeed, even in the 1970s it was likely that cross-subdivision marriage was rare generally, and this was certainly the case in the Central Travancore area.<ref name="Fuller1975pp303-304" />

It has been concluded by Fuller, in 1975, that {{quote|... the question of what the Nayar caste is (or was): it is a large, named social group (or, perhaps preferably, category) with a stable status, vis-a-vis other castes in Kerala. It is not, however, a solidary group, and, the efforts of the N.S.S. notwithstanding, it is never likely to become one.<ref name="Fuller1975p309" />}}

The influence of the NSS, both within the community and in the wider political sphere, is no longer as significant as once it was. It did attempt to reassert its influence in 1973, when it established its own political party—the National Democratic Party—but this lasted only until 1977.<ref name="Nossiter1982p29" />

==== Present day ====
Today, the government of India does not treat the modern day Nair community as a single entity. It classifies proper subcastes, such as the Illathu and [[Swaroopathil Nair|Swaroopathu]] Nairs, as a forward caste but other sections of Non-Nair origin, such as the Veluthedathu, [[Velakkathala Nayar|Vilakkithala]] and Andhra Nairs, as [[Backward class|Other Backward Classes]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.trivandrum.gov.in/~trivandrum/index.php/district-profile-mainmenu-73/146-listobc?showall=1|access-date=12 June 2011|title=List of Other Backward Communities|publisher=District of Thiruvananthapuram|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322053123/http://www.trivandrum.gov.in/~trivandrum/index.php/district-profile-mainmenu-73/146-listobc?showall=1|archive-date=22 March 2012|df=dmy-all}}</ref> These classifications are for the purpose of determining which groups of people in certain areas are subject to [[positive discrimination]] policies for the purposes of education and employment.

== Historical matrilineal system ==
=== Tharavad ===
[[File:Taravad.gif|thumb|upright=1.5|A typical ''tharavad'' reproduced from Panikkar's article published in 1918. Capital and small letters represent females and males respectively. Supposing that the females A, B and C were dead and the oldest male member ''karnavan'' being d, if the male members t, k and others demanded partition, the property would be divided into three parts.]]
Nairs operated a matrilineal (''[[marumakkathayam]]'') joint family structure called ''[[tharavad]]'', whereby descendant families of one common ancestress lived under a single roof. ''Tharavads'' consisting of 50 to 80 members were not uncommon and some with membership as high as 200 have been reported. Only the women lived in the main house; men lived in separate rooms{{Clarify|reason=a room is a defined space in a house|date=June 2011}} and, on some occasions, lived in a separate house nearby. The families split on instances when they became unwieldy and during crisis among its members. When it split, the family property was separated along the female lines. The ''karnavan'', the oldest male member in the ''tharavad'', had the decision-making authority including the power to manage common property. [[K. M. Panikkar|Panikkar]], a well-known writer from the Nair community, wrote in 1918 that,

{{quote|Authority in the family is wielded by the eldest member, who is called ''karnavan''. He has full control of the common property, and manages the income very much as he pleases. He arranges marriages (''sambandhams'') for the boys as well as the girls of the family. He had till lately full power (at least in practice) of alienating anything that belonged to them. His will was undisputed law. This is, perhaps, what is intended to be conveyed by the term Matri-potestas in communities of female descent. But it should be remembered that among the Nayars the autocrat of the family is not the mother, but the mother's brother.<ref name="Panikkar1918pp260-264" /> }}

The husband visited the ''tharavad'' at night and left the following morning and he had no legal obligation to his children which lay entirely with the ''karnavan''.<ref name="Nakane">{{cite journal | title=The Nayar family in a disintegrating matrilineal system| first=Chie |last=Nakane| journal=International Journal of Comparative Sociology | year=1962| volume=3 |issue=1 |edition=Reprinted (in ''Family and Marriage'', International Studies in Sociology and Social Anthropology: 1963: E. J. Brill, Leiden, Netherlands)| pages=17–28| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pMMeAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA17 | doi=10.1177/002071526200300105| s2cid=220876041 }}</ref> In Nair families, young men and women about the same age were not allowed to talk to each other, unless the young man's sister was considerably older than him. The wife of ''karnavan'' had an unusual relationship in his ''tharavad'' as she belonged to a different one and her interests lay there. Panikkar wrote that ''Karnavan'' loved his sister's son more than his own and he believes it was due mainly to the instability of Nair marriages. Divorce rate was very high as both man and woman had equal right to terminate the marriage. ''Enangar'' was another family with which a ''tharavad'' remained closely related; a few such related families formed a social group whose members participated in all social activities.<ref name="Panikkar1918pp260-264">[[#Panikkar1918|Panikkar (1918)]] pp. 260–264</ref> Nakane wrote in 1956 that ''tharavads'' as a functional unit had ceased to exist and large buildings that had once hosted large ''tharavads'' were occupied by just a few of its remnants.<ref name="Nakane" />

=== Marriage system ===
Fuller has commented that "The Nayars' marriage system has made them one of the most famous of all communities in anthropological circles",<ref name="Fuller1975p283" /> and Amitav Ghosh says that, although matrilineal systems are not uncommon in communities of the south Indian coast, the Nairs "have achieved an unparalleled eminence in the anthropological literature on matrilineality".<ref>{{cite book |title=The Imam and the Indian: prose pieces |first=Amitav |last=Ghosh |author-link=Amitav Ghosh |edition=Third |publisher=Orient Blackswan |year=2003 |isbn=978-81-7530-047-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QQHp9wsWaZcC |page=193 |access-date=27 December 2011}}</ref> None of the rituals survive in any significant way today. Two forms of ritual marriage were traditional:<ref name="Fuller1975p284+297">[[#Fuller1975|Fuller (1975)]] pp. 284, 297</ref>
* the pre-puberty rite for girls known as ''thalikettu kalyanam'', which was usually followed by ''sambandham'' when they became sexually mature. The ''sambandham'' was the point at which the woman might take one or more partners and bear children by them, giving rise to the theories of them engaging in [[polyandry|polyandrous]] practices. A ritual called the ''tirandukuli'' marked the first menstruation and usually took place between these two events.<ref name="Fuller1975p297">[[#Fuller1975|Fuller (1975)]] p. 297</ref>
* a form of hypergamy,{{efn|There are differences in the form of hypergamy common to south India and that which existed in north India, and these have been subject to much academic discussion.<ref name="Fullerp298">[[#Fuller1975|Fuller (1975)]] p. 298</ref>}} whereby high-ranked Nairs married Samantans, Kshatriyas and Brahmins.

There is much debate about whether the traditional Nair rituals fitted the traditional definition of marriage and which of ''thalikettu kalyanam'' or ''sambandham'' could lay claim to it.<ref name="Moore1985">{{cite journal | title=A New Look at the Nayar Taravad| first=Melinda A. |last=Moore| journal=Man |series=New series| date=September 1985| volume=20 | issue = 3| pages=523–541| jstor=2802444 | doi=10.2307/2802444}}{{subscription required}}</ref><ref name="Moore1988">{{cite journal | title=Symbol and meaning in Nayar marriage ritual| first=Melinda A. |last=Moore| journal=American Ethnologist| date=May 1988| volume=15 | issue = 2| pages=254–273| jstor=644756 | doi=10.1525/ae.1988.15.2.02a00040}}{{subscription required}}</ref> Thomas Nossiter has commented that the system "was so loosely arranged as to raise doubts as to whether 'marriage' existed at all."<ref name="Nossiter1982p27">[[#Nossiter1982|Nossiter (1982)]] p. 27</ref>

==== Thalikettu kalyanam ====
The ''[[Mangalsutra|thali]]'' is an emblem shaped like a leaf and which is worn as a necklace. The wearing of it has been compared to a wedding ring as for most women in south India it denotes that they are married. The ''thalikettu kalyanam'' was the ritual during which the ''thali'' would be tied on a piece of string around the neck of a Nair girl. If the girl should reach puberty before the ceremony took place then she would in theory have been out-caste, although it is probable that this stricture was not in fact observed.<ref name="Fuller1975p296" />

The ritual was usually conducted approximately every 10–12 years for all girls, including infants, within a ''tharavad'' who had not previously been the subject of it. Higher-ranked groups within the caste, however, would perform the ritual more frequently than this and in consequence the age range at which it occurred was narrower, being roughly between age 10 and 13. This increased frequency would reduce the likelihood of girls from two generations being involved in the same ceremony, which was forbidden. The ''karnavan'' organised the elaborate ritual after taking advice from prominent villagers and also from a traditional astrologer. A ''[[pandal]]'' was constructed for the ceremony and the girls wore ornaments specifically used only on those occasions, as well as taking a ritual bath in oil. The person who tied the ''thali'' would be transported on an elephant. The higher the rank of that person then the greater the prestige reflected on to the ''tharavad'', and also ''vice versa''<ref name="Fuller1975p302">[[#Fuller1975|Fuller (1975)]] p. 302</ref> since some people probably would refuse to act as tier in order to disassociate themselves from a group and thereby bolster their claims to be members of a higher group. Although information is far from complete, those who tied the ''thali'' for girls of the aristocratic Nair families of [[Cochin]] in Central Kerala appear to have been usually Samantans, who were of higher rank, or occasionally the Kshatriyas, who were still higher. The Nambudiri Brahmins of Central Kerala acted in that role for the royal house of Cochin (who were Kshatriyas), but whether they did so for other Kshatriyas is less certain. The Kshatriyas would tie for the Samantan Nairs.<ref name="Fullerp299-300">[[#Fuller1975|Fuller (1975)]] pp. 299–300</ref> Having the ''thali'' of each girl tied by a different man was more prestigious than having one tier perform the rite for several girls.<ref name="Fullerp300">[[#Fuller1975|Fuller (1975)]] p. 300</ref> The ''thali'' tying was followed by four days of feasting, and on the fourth day the marriage was dissolved.<ref name="Fuller1975pp295+298">[[#Fuller1975|Fuller (1975)]] pp. 295, 298</ref>

The girl often never saw the man who tied the ''thali'' again and later married a different man during the ''sambandham''. However, although she never mourned the death of her ''sambandham'' husband (although they were other rights involved), she did observe certain mourning rituals upon the death of the man who had tied her ''thali''. Panikkar argues that this proves that the religious marriage is the ''thalikettu kalyanam'', although he also calls it a "mock marriage". He believes that it may have come into existence to serve as a religious demarcation point.
[[File:Naidu Nayar children (1872).jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Three Nayar Girls of Travancore (1872) by Ramaswami Naidu. Nair children in tharavads typically played with each other, ran small errands and tasks, and would likely later undergo the thali tying ceremony together.{{sfnp|Gough|1961|pp=355–356|ps=}}]]
It has been noted that there were variations to the practice. Examples include that the person who tied the ''thali'' might be a close female relative, such as the girl's mother or aunt, and that the ceremony conducted by such people might take place outside a temple or as a small ceremony at the side of a more lavish ''thalikettu kalyanam ''rather than in the ''tharavadu''. These variations were probably exceptional and would have applied to the poorest families.<ref name="Fuller1975p301">[[#Fuller1975|Fuller (1975)]] p. 301</ref> Fuller has also remarked that if each girl had her own ''thali'' tier, rather than one being used to perform the ritual for several girls at the same ceremony, then this presented the possibility of a subsequent divergence of status with the matrilineal line of the ''tharavadu'', leading to more subdivisions and a greater chance that one or more of the girls might advance their status later in life.<ref name="Fuller1975pp302-303">[[#Fuller1975|Fuller (1975)]] pp. 302–303</ref>

==== Sambandham ====
{{Main|Sambandham}}
Panikkar says that for Nairs the real marriage, as opposed to a symbolic one, was ''sambandham'', a word that comes from [[Sanskrit]] and translates as "good and close union". The Nair woman had ''sambandham'' marriages with Brahmins and Kshatriyas, as well as other Nairs. In the Malabar region, only the eldest male member of a Brahmin family was usually allowed to marry within their caste. There were some circumstances in which a younger male was permitted to do so, these being with the consent of the elder son or when he was incapable of marriage. This system was designed to protect their traditions of patrilineality and [[primogeniture]]. A consequence of it was that the younger sons were allowed to marry women from the highest subdivisions of the Nair caste. The Nair women could marry the man who had tied their ''thali'', provided that he was not otherwise restricted by the rules that women were not permitted to marry a man from a lower caste or subdivision, nor to marry anyone in the direct matrilineal line of descent (however far back that may be) or close relatives in the patrilineal line, nor a man less than two years her senior.<ref name="Nossiter1982pp25-27" /><ref name="Fuller1975p296" /><ref name="Panikkar1918pp270-71">[[#Panikkar1918|Panikkar (1918)]] pp. 270–271</ref>

The ''sambandham'' ceremony although marked with many wedding rituals was simple compared to the ''thalikettu kalyanam'', being marked by the gift of clothes (''pudava'') to the bride in front of some family members of both parties to the arrangement. The pompous nature of the Sambandham ceremony depended on the status of the families involved. There might also be other gifts, presented at the time of the main Malayalam festivals. The ceremony took place on a day deemed to be auspicious by priests.<ref name="Fuller1975p296" /><ref name="Panikkar1918pp270-71" />

The ''sambandham'' relationship was usually arranged by the ''karanavan'' but occasionally they would arise from a woman attracting a man in a temple, bathing pool or other public place. The first ''sambandham'' of a man was deemed to be momentous and his ability to engage in a large number of such marriages increased his reputation in his community. ''Sambandham'' marriages could be broken, due to differences between the spouses or because a ''karavanan'' forced it due to being pressured by a man of higher rank who desired to marry the woman.<ref name="Moore1988" /> Marriage by ''sambandham'' was legally recognised and binding according to observations by William Logan. However the relationship could end at will by both parties and the participants could remarry without any ramifications. Attempts to regulate ''sambandham'' marriages in colonial era by the Nayar Regulation Act of 1912 in Travancore and the [[Malabar Marriage Act, 1896|Malabar Marriage Act]] of 1896 in British Malabar were not very successful.<ref name="Panikkar1918pp270-71" />

Any children borne by the woman had to be claimed by one of her ''sambandham'' husband's (whether present or divorced) if she was to avoid being out-caste, sold into slavery or even executed. Adultery was not tolerated in the Nair society.{{quote|... a caste is a bilateral grouping and a child's place in the caste society cannot be determined by only one parent. Further, the Indian system of status attribution, under most circumstances, proscribes sexual relations between a woman and a man of status lower than herself, and generally denies to any children born of such a union membership of either parent's caste. For these reasons, some recognition of paternity and an assurance that the genitor is of the right status is necessary - even if it is only the minimal one of a man asserting paternity.<ref name="Fuller1975pp296-297">[[#Fuller1975|Fuller (1975)]] pp. 296–297</ref>}}

==== Hypergamy ====
The Nambudiri Brahmin tradition which limited the extent of Vedic marriage to eldest within their own caste led to the practice of hypergamy. Gough notes that
{{quote|These hypergamous unions were regarded by Brahmans as socially acceptable relationships, for the union was not initiated with Vedic rites, the children were not legitimized as Brahmans, and neither the woman nor her child was accorded the rights of kin. By the matrilineal castes, however, the same unions were regarded as marriage, for they fulfilled the conditions of ordinary Nayar marriage and served to legitimize the child as an acceptable member of his matrilineal lineage and caste.{{sfnp|Gough|1961|p=320|ps=}}}}

The disparity in caste ranking in this marriage between a Brahmin man and a Nair woman meant that the woman was unable to access kitchen or prayer rooms of a Brahmin household. And since these marriages were conducted in the matrilineal tradition, the children resulting from such marriages always became Nairs. It has also been argued that the practice, along with judicious selection of the man who tied the ''thali'', formed a part of the Nair aspirational culture whereby they would seek to improve their status within the caste. Furthermore, that {{quote|... among the higher-ranking Nayars (and Kshatriyas and Samantans) in contradistinction to the "commoner" Nayars, no two subdivisions admitted to equal status. Thus the relations set up by the tall-rite [ie: the ''thalikettu kalyanam''] and the sambandham union were always hypergamous.<ref name="Fuller1975pp295+298" />}}

Although it is certain that in theory hypergamy can cause a shortage of marriageable women in the lowest ranks of a caste and promote upwards social movement from the lower Nair subdivisions, the numbers involved would have been very small. It was not a common practice outside the higher subcaste groups.<ref name="Fuller1975pp293-293">[[#Fuller1975|Fuller (1975)]] pp. 292–293, 302</ref>

However if we look at the matrilineal system, whether the groom is someone from the same caste or a relatively higher caste, the child will always belong to the mothers caste without any change in caste status. Therefore the hypergamous theory does not make much sense as it does not affect social mobility.

==== Polygamy and Polyandry ====
Fuller argues that in a Nair marriage either party was free to break the relationship, for any reason or for none, whenever they wished.<ref name="Fuller1975p296">[[#Fuller1975|Fuller (1975)]] p. 296</ref>

Fuller believes thay in North and Central Travancore polygamy was often practiced. Fuller believes that in the relatively undocumented southern Travancore [[monogamy]] may have been predominant, and that although the matrilineal joint family still applied it was usually the case that the wife lived with the ''tharavad'' of her husband.<ref name="Fuller1975pp284-285">[[#Fuller1975|Fuller (1975)]] pp. 284–285</ref><ref name="Gough1965">{{cite journal | title=A Note on Nayar Marriage| first=Kathleen |last=Gough| journal=Man|publisher=Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland| date=January–February 1965| volume=65| pages=8–11| jstor=2796033 | doi=10.2307/2796033 }}</ref>[[File:Raja Ravi Varma, Reclining Woman.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Reclining Nayar Woman (1902) by Raja Ravi Varma shows a Nair lady,<ref name="Dinkar p10">{{cite journal | last=Dinkar | first=Niharika | title=Private Lives and Interior Spaces: Raja Ravi Varma's Scholar Paintings | journal=Art History | publisher=Wiley | volume=37 | issue=3 | date=2014-04-11 | issn=0141-6790 | doi=10.1111/1467-8365.12085 | page=10| url=https://scholarworks.boisestate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1010&context=art_facpubs }}</ref><ref name="Sen 2002 p.76 ">{{cite book | last=Sen | first=G. | title=Feminine fables: imaging the Indian woman in painting, photography, and cinema | publisher=Mapin Publishing | year=2002 | isbn=978-81-85822-88-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_AEqAAAAYAAJ | access-date=2018-07-09 | page=76}}</ref> identified as the character Indulekha, a main character from a Malayalam novel of the same name.<ref name="Dinkar p10" /> The novel had criticized the Nair matrilocal and matrilineal system; notably the marriages with Nambudiri Brahmins.<ref name="Fuller1976p128">[[#Fuller1976|Fuller (1976)]] p128</ref>{{sfn | Arunima | 1995 | pp=161-162}}]]

Gough has gone further than Fuller with regard to the interpretation of events in the north, believing that there is no evidence of polyandry among Nairs in that area at all. She argues that all European travelogues describing polyandry and polygamy came from the region of Central Kerala. Gough notes the personal experiences of earlier Nair commentators and that this could go some way to explaining the varied pronouncement.

Panikkar, who does not support the existence of polyandry, comes from the northern Travancore region; that [[A. Aiyappan]], who acknowledges its existence, comes from Central Kerala; and that both have based their writings on customs they grew up with in their very different environs wifh Panikkar being a Nair and A.Aiyappan being an Ezhava.<ref name="Gough1965" />

Howeve overall historians who have actually spent time with the community, assert that there exists no authenticated case of polyandry among the Nairs. The evidence presented for such a custom during the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries primarily stems from accounts provided by foreign travelers who were prohibited from approaching within sixty yards of a Nair's residence, and relied only on their presumes inferences about the matrlineal system of Nairs. Consequently, their testimonies offer an exceedingly unsatisfactory basis for definitive conclusions regarding Nair customs<ref>Panikkar, K. M. (July 1918). [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2843423 "Some Aspects of Nayar Life"]. The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. 48: 254–293. doi:[https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2843423 10.2307/2843423]. JSTOR 2843423.</ref>

==== Decline of traditional practices ====
The practices of ''thalikettu kalyanam'', the ''sambandhams'', and also the existence of large ''tharavads'' declined during the nineteenth century as NSS consolidated all elaborate Nair marriage rituals into a simple marriage ceremony, as did that of hypergamy. Small nuclear family units became the norm, as they were elsewhere in the country. This process occurred more rapidly in some areas than in others, and in Central Kerala the traditional systems still lingered as late as the 1960s, although hypergamy had largely disappeared everywhere by the 1920s.<ref name="Fuller1975p285">[[#Fuller1975|Fuller (1975)]] p. 285</ref> A possible reason for the various rates of change across the region lies in the extent to which the various agrarian local economies were dominated by the Nairs.<ref name="Nossiter1982p29" />

V. K. S. Nayar has said that, "the matrilineal system tends to produce a society at once hierarchical and authoritarian in outlook. The system is built round family pride as well as loyalty to the ''karavanar''".<ref>{{cite book |title=State Politics in India |chapter=Kerala Politics since 1947: Community Attitudes |year=1967 |editor-first=Iqbal |editor-last=Narain |first=V. K. S. |last=Nayar |page=153 |volume=1965 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bj9YAAAAMAAJ&q=authoritarian}}</ref> Nossiter cites this as one reason why it was "congruent with the role of a military caste in a feudal society."<ref name="Nossiter1982p28">[[#Nossiter1982|Nossiter (1982)]] p. 28</ref> and explains that the decline in the traditional warrior role, the rise of an economy based on money, together with the ending of agricultural slavery and the effects of western education, all combined to cause the decline of the traditional practices. All of these factors were having an impact during the 19th-century and they caused erosion of the social dominance which the Nairs once held, eventually reaching a point some time between [[World War I]] and [[World War II]] where that dominance was lost,<ref name="Nossiter1982pp27-28" /> although there was an attempt to reassert it in Travancore during the 1930s when the [[Diwan (title)#Title|Diwan]] [[C. P. Ramaswamy Iyer|Sir C. P. Ramaswamy Iyer]] adopted a pro-Nair stance and an oppressive attitude towards communities such as the Syrian Christians.<ref name=DevikaVarghese2010pp19-20>{{cite book |first1=J. |last1=Devika |first2=V. J. |last2=Varghese |date=March 2010 |title=To Survive or to flourish? Minority rights and Syrian Christian assertions in 20th century Travancore |publisher=Centre for Development Studies |location=Trivandrum |url=http://cds.edu/download_files/wp427.pdf |pages=19–20 |access-date=27 April 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120526104825/http://cds.edu/download_files/wp427.pdf |archive-date=26 May 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>{{efn|The attitude of [[C. P. Ramaswamy Iyer|Sir C. P. Ramaswamy Iyer]] during the 1930s reflected a concern among Hindus that the Christian population of Travancore was rising and that there was a consequent danger of the region becoming a Christian state. The 1931 census recorded over 31 per cent of the population as being Christian, compared to around 4 per cent in 1820.<ref name=DevikaVarghese2010pp19-20 />}} The main beneficiaries in the shifting balance of social influence were the Syrian Christians and the Ezhavas. The former, in particular, were in a position to acquire, often by subdivision, the economically unviable ''tharavad'' buildings and landholdings around the time of the [[Great Depression]]. The role of the Nair Service Society in successfully campaigning for continued changes in practices and legislation relating to marriage and inheritance also played its part.<ref name="Nossiter1982pp27-28" /> This collapse of the rural society facilitated the rise of the socialist and communist political movements in the region.<ref name="Nossiter1982p29">[[#Nossiter1982|Nossiter (1982)]] p. 29</ref>

== Demographics ==
{{Main|Demography of Nair community}}
The 1968 Socio-Economic Survey by the Government of Kerala gave the population of the Nair community as approximately 14.5% (2.9 million) of the total population of the state.<ref name="Fuller1975p283">[[#Fuller1975|Fuller (1975)]] p. 283</ref>

== See also ==
* [[C. Krishna Pillai]]
* [[List of Nairs]]
* [[Nambiar (Nair subcaste)|Nambiar]]
* [[Mamankam]]
* [[Moopil Nair]]
* [[Onnu Kure Áyiram Yogam]]
* [[Nair ceremonies and customs]]

== References ==

=== Notes ===
{{notelist}}

=== Citations ===
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

=== Bibliography ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite journal | last=Ashley | first=Wayne | title=The Teyyam Kettu of Northern Kerala | journal=The Drama Review: TDR | publisher=JSTOR | volume=23 | issue=2 | pages=99–112 | year=1979 | issn=0012-5962 | doi=10.2307/1145219 | jstor=1145219 }}
* {{cite book | last=Menon | first=A.S. | title=Kerala History and its Makers | publisher=DC Books | year=2011 | isbn=978-81-264-3782-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wnAjqjhc1VcC | access-date=2019-01-01}}
* {{cite book | last=Jeffrey | first=R. | title=Politics, Women and Well-Being: How Kerala became 'a Model' | publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK | series=Cambridge Commonwealth Series | year=2016 | isbn=978-1-349-12252-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ENC-DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA102 | access-date=2019-01-01}}
* {{cite book | last=Almeida | first=H. | title=Indian Renaissance: British Romantic Art and the Prospect of India | publisher=Taylor & Francis | year=2017 | isbn=978-1-351-56296-6 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HzcrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA92 | access-date=2018-12-31}}
* {{cite book | last1=Bock | first1=M. | last2=Rao | first2=A. | title=Culture, Creation, and Procreation: Concepts of Kinship in South Asian Practice | publisher=Berghahn Books | series=ACLS Humanities E-Book | year=2000 | isbn=978-1-57181-911-6 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qQOLBhSPRtIC&pg=PA185 | access-date=2018-12-31}}
* {{cite book | last=Blankenhorn | first=D. | title=The Future of Marriage | publisher=Encounter Books | year=2007 | isbn=978-1-59403-359-9 | url=https://archive.org/details/futureofmarriage0000blan | url-access=registration | page=[https://archive.org/details/futureofmarriage0000blan/page/106 106] | access-date=2019-01-01}}
*{{cite book | last=Arunima | first=G. | title=There Comes Papa: Colonialism and the Transformation of Matriliny in Kerala, Malabar, C. 1850–1940 | publisher=Orient BlackSwan | year=2003 | isbn=978-81-250-2514-6 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kiFuAAAAMAAJ | access-date=2018-06-30}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Arunima |first1=G. |title=Matriliny and its Discontents |journal=India International Centre Quarterly |date=1995 |volume=22 |issue=2/3 |pages=157–167 |id=JSTOR |jstor=23003943 }}
* {{cite book | last1=Bald | first1=V. | last2=Chatterji | first2=M. | last3=Reddy | first3=S. | last4=Prashad | first4=V. | last5=Vimalassery | first5=M. | title=The Sun Never Sets: South Asian Migrants in an Age of U.S. Power | publisher=NYU Press | series=NYU Series in Social and Cultural Analysis | year=2013 | isbn=978-0-8147-8644-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UCEUCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA289 | access-date=2018-12-20}}
* {{cite book|first=F. |last=Fawcett|title=Nâyars of Malabar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eF-pMrcqw5UC&pg=PA254 |orig-year=1901 |year=2004|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-0171-0 |ref=Fawcett1901}}
* {{cite journal |title=The Internal Structure of the Nayar Caste |first=Christopher John |last=Fuller |author-link=Chris Fuller (academic) |journal=Journal of Anthropological Research |volume=31 |issue=4 |date=Winter 1975 |pages=283–312 |jstor=3629883|ref=Fuller1975|doi=10.1086/jar.31.4.3629883 |s2cid=163592798 }}{{subscription required}}
* {{cite book |title=The Nayars Today |first=Christopher John |last=Fuller |year=1976 |author-link=Chris Fuller (academic) |publisher=Cambridge University Press| isbn=978-0-521-29091-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yQM4AAAAIAAJ|ref=Fuller1976}}
* {{cite book | last=Clark-Deces| first=I. | title=A Companion to the Anthropology of India | publisher=Wiley | series=Wiley Blackwell Companions to Anthropology | year=2011 | isbn=978-1-4443-9058-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=98uLj5FpTHQC&pg=RA3-PA1976 | access-date=2019-01-07}}
*{{cite book | last=Gopinath | first=G. | title=Unruly Visions: The Aesthetic Practices of Queer Diaspora | publisher=Duke University Press | series=Perverse Modernities: A Series Edited by Jack Halberstam and Lisa Lowe | year=2018 | isbn=978-1-4780-0216-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qw5zDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP41 | access-date=2018-12-20}}
* {{cite book | last=Jacobsen | first=K.A. | title=Routledge Handbook of Contemporary India | publisher=Taylor & Francis | year=2015 | isbn=978-1-317-40357-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tPBWCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT377 | access-date=2018-12-20}}
* {{cite book | last=Lukose | first=R.A. | title=Liberalization's Children: Gender, Youth, and Consumer Citizenship in Globalizing India | publisher=Duke University Press | series=e-Duke books scholarly collection. | year=2009 | isbn=978-0-8223-9124-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R5gNOdw9E_0C&pg=PT105 | access-date=2018-12-20}}
* {{cite book | last=Goody | first=J. | title=Literacy in Traditional Societies | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=1975 | isbn=978-0-521-29005-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B9SUyI-3tRwC&pg=PA132 | access-date=2019-01-07}}
* {{citation |title=Matrilineal Kinship |editor1-first=David Murray |editor1-last=Schneider |editor2-first=E. Kathleen |editor2-last=Gough |chapter=Nayars: Central Kerala |first=E. Kathleen |last=Gough |year=1961 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-02529-5 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lfdvTbfilYAC |author-link=Kathleen Gough |access-date=9 June 2011}}
* {{cite book | last=Massey | first=R. | title=India's Dances: Their History, Technique, and Repertoire | publisher=Abhinav Publications | year=2004 | isbn=978-81-7017-434-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t6MJ8jbHqIwC&pg=PA106 | access-date=2018-12-22}}
* {{citation |title=Agrarian Relations in Late Medieval Malabar |first=M. T. |last=Narayanan |publisher=Northern Book Centre |year=2003 |isbn=978-81-7211-135-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kHtbkuXruzwC}}
* {{cite journal | last=Neff | first=Deborah L. | title=Aesthetics and Power in Pambin Tullal: A Possession Ritual of Rural Kerala | journal=Ethnology | publisher=JSTOR | volume=26 | issue=1 | pages=63–71 | year=1987 | issn=0014-1828 | doi=10.2307/3773417 | jstor=3773417 }}
* {{cite book |title=Communism in Kerala: a study in political adaptation |first=Thomas Johnson |last=Nossiter |publisher=University of California Press |year=1982 |pages=12–44 |chapter=Kerala's identity: unity and diversity |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8CSQUxVjjWQC |isbn=978-0-520-04667-2 |author-link=Thomas Nossiter |access-date=9 June 2011|ref=Nossiter1982}}
* {{cite journal | title=Some Aspects of Nayar Life| first=Kavalam Madhava |last=Panikkar| journal=Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute| date=July–December 1918| volume=48| pages=254–293| url=https://archive.org/stream/SomeAspectsOfNayarLife/SomeAspectsOfNayarLifeCopy#page/n0/mode/2up |author-link=Kavalam Madhava Panikkar |access-date=9 June 2011 |ref=Panikkar1918}}
* {{cite book | last=Mukherjee | first=M. | title=Early Novels in India | publisher=Sahitya Akademi | year=2002 | isbn=978-81-260-1342-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VPJ7jqVSl34C&pg=PA65 | access-date=2019-01-07}}
* {{cite book | last=Sarkar | first=S. | title=Modern India 1886–1947 | publisher=Pearson India | year=2014 | isbn=978-93-325-4085-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PJeKBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA138 | access-date=2019-01-07}}
* {{cite book | last1=Stone | first1=L. | last2=King | first2=D.E. | title=Kinship and Gender: An Introduction | publisher=Taylor & Francis | year=2018 | isbn=978-0-429-87165-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Os5wDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT149 | access-date=2018-12-22}}
*{{cite book | last=Thomas | first=S. | title=Privileged Minorities: Syrian Christianity, Gender, and Minority Rights in Postcolonial India | publisher=University of Washington Press | year=2018 | isbn=978-0-295-74383-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9nRuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA38 | access-date=2018-12-20}}
* {{cite book | last=Vickery | first=M. | title=Society, economics, and politics in pre-Angkor Cambodia: the 7th-8th centuries | publisher=Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies for Unesco, Toyo Bunko | year=1998 | isbn=978-4-89656-110-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-29uAAAAMAAJ | access-date=2018-12-22}}
* {{cite journal | last1=Wade | first1=Bonnie C. | last2=Jones | first2=Betty True | last3=Zile | first3=Judy Van | last4=Higgins | first4=Jon B. | last5=Qureshi | first5=Regula Burckhardt | last6=Owens | first6=Naomi | last7=Flora | first7=Reis | title=Performing Arts in India: Essays on Music, Dance, and Drama | journal=Asian Music | publisher=JSTOR | volume=18 | issue=2 | pages=1 | year=1987 | issn=0044-9202 | doi=10.2307/833942 | jstor=833942 }}
* {{cite book |title=The Decline of Nair Dominance: Society and Politics in Travancore 1847–1908 |first=Robin |last=Jeffrey |author-link=Robin Jeffrey |orig-year=1976 |year=1994 |publisher=Sussex University Press |isbn=978-0-85621-054-9 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/declineofnayardo0000jeff }}
* {{cite book | last=Zarrilli | first=P. | title=Kathakali Dance-Drama: Where Gods and Demons Come to Play | publisher=Taylor & Francis | year=2003 | isbn=978-1-134-65110-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gluFAgAAQBAJ | access-date=2019-01-02}}
{{refend}}
* {{cite book | last=Zarrilli | first=P. | title=The Kathakali Complex: Actor, Performance & Structure | publisher=Abhinav Publications | year=1984 | isbn=978-81-7017-187-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CjwYysH2ZQIC&pg=PA52 | access-date=2019-01-07}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Nair}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.chaf.lib.latrobe.edu.au/dcd/main.htm |title=Digital Colonial Documents (India) |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070901154501/http://www.chaf.lib.latrobe.edu.au/dcd/main.htm |archive-date=1 September 2007 |df=dmy-all }}

{{Social class}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2016}}

[[Category:Nair| ]]
[[Category:Indian castes]]
[[Category:Indian surnames]]
[[Category:Social groups of Kerala]]

Ezhava

2026-04-05T11:22:29Z

104.23.170.17: Relied on contemporary sources to explain about origin of Ezhavas as a caste and their social divergence from other Avarna people

{{Short description|Hindu community of Kerala, India}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2020}}
{{use Indian English|date=December 2017}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
|group= '''Ezhava'''
| image = Ezhava Temple.png
| image_caption = An ancient Ezhava temple in 19th Century near Trivandrum.
|regions = [[Kerala]]
| region2 =
| pop = Approx. 8,000,000 (2018)<ref name="ecostat.kerala.gov.in">https://www.ecostat.kerala.gov.in/images/pdf/publications/Vital_Statistics/data/vital_statistics_2018.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220511142922/http://www.ecostat.kerala.gov.in/images/pdf/publications/Vital_Statistics/data/vital_statistics_2018.pdf |date=11 May 2022 }} {{Bare URL PDF|date=April 2022}}</ref>
| ref = <ref name="ecostat.kerala.gov.in"/>
| langs = [[Malayalam]]
| rels = [[Hinduism]]
| related_groups = [[Billava]], [[Sinhalese people|Sinhalese]]
}}

The '''Ezhavas''' ({{IPA-ml|iːɻɐʋɐ}}) are a community with origins in the region of India presently known as [[Kerala]], where in the 2010s they constituted about 23% of the population and were reported to be the largest [[Hindu]] community.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/south/story/caste-based-organisations-nss-sndp-form-hindu-grand-alliance-in-kerala-115305-2012-09-05|title=Caste-based organisations NSS, SNDP form Hindu Grand Alliance in Kerala|first=M. G. |last=Radhakrishnan|date= 5 September 2012|work=India Today}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.firstpost.com/politics/guess-whos-after-the-hindu-vote-in-kerala-hint-its-not-the-bjp-2619712.html|title=Guess who's after the Hindu vote in Kerala? (Hint: It's not BJP)|work=Firstpost}}</ref> They are also known as ''Ilhava'', ''Irava'', ''Izhava'' and ''Erava'' in the south of the region; as ''Chovas'', ''Chokons'' and ''Chogons'' in [[Central Travancore]]; and as ''Thiyyar'', ''Tiyyas'' and ''Theeyas'' in the [[Malabar region]].<ref name="Nossiter1982p30"/><ref>{{cite book |title=Society in India: Continuity and change |first=David Goodman |last=Mandelbaum |author-link=David G. Mandelbaum |publisher=University of California Press |year=1970 |isbn=9780520016231 |page=[https://archive.org/details/societyinindia01mand/page/502 502] |quote=Another strong caste association, but one formed at a different social level and cemented by religious appeal, is that of the Iravas of Kerala, who are also known as Ezhavas or Tiyyas and make up more than 40 per cent of Kerala Hindus |url=https://archive.org/details/societyinindia01mand/page/502 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Matrilineal Kinship |editor1-first=David Murray |editor1-last=Schneider |editor2-first=E. Kathleen |editor2-last=Gough |chapter=Tiyyar: North Kerala |first=E. Kathleen |last=Gough |author-link=Kathleen Gough |page=405 |year=1961 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-02529-5 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lfdvTbfilYAC&pg=PA312 |quote=Throughout Kerala the Tiyyars (called Iravas in parts of Cochin and Travancore) ... }}</ref> Some are also known as ''Thandan'', which has caused administrative difficulties due to the presence of a distinct caste of [[Thandan]] in the same region.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.newindpress.com/sunday/sundayItems.asp?id=SET20021221042249&eTitle=Think+Piece&rLink=0 |title=Ezhavas: Their many dimensions |publisher=Newindpress.com |first=K. K. |last=Kusuman |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929104931/http://www.newindpress.com/sunday/sundayItems.asp?id=SET20021221042249&eTitle=Think+Piece&rLink=0 |archive-date=2007-09-29}}</ref><ref name="stdg">{{cite web |url=http://164.100.24.208/ls/CommitteeR/Social/20threport.pdf |title=Standing Committee on Social Justice and Empowerment (2006-2007) |page=13}}</ref> The Malabar Ezhava<ref name="Smith1976pp31-32">[[#Smith1976|Pullapilly (1976)]] pp. 31–32</ref> group have claimed a higher ranking in the Hindu caste system than do the others, although from the perspective of the [[Colonial India|colonial]] and subsequent administrations they were treated as being of similar rank.<ref name="Nossiter1982p30">[[#Nossiter1982|Nossiter (1982)]] p. 30</ref><ref name="Kodoth2001p350">{{cite journal |title=Courting Legitimacy or Delegitimizing Custom? Sexuality, Sambandham and Marriage Reform in Late Nineteenth-Century Malabar |first=Praveena |last=Kodoth |journal=Modern Asian Studies |volume=35 |issue=2 |date=May 2001 |page=350 |jstor=313121 |doi=10.1017/s0026749x01002037 |pmid=18481401 |s2cid=7910533 }}</ref>

Ezhava dynasties such as the [[Mannanar]] existed in Kerala.<ref name="Smith1976pp31-32"/> British formed the [[Thiyyar Regiment]] in Malabar during the colonial rule.<ref>L.K.A.Iyer, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=XGSuAwWHa0kC The Mysore Tribes and caste]''. Vol.III, A Mittal Publish. Page.279, Google Books</ref><ref> Nagendra k.r.singh ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Xcpa_T-7oVQC Global Encyclopedia of the South India Dalit's Ethnography]'' (2006) page.230, Google Books</ref><ref>L.Krishna Anandha Krishna Iyer(Divan Bahadur) ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=hOyqKkYi6McC The Cochin Tribes and Caste]'' Vol.1. Johnson Reprint Corporation, 1962. Page. 278, Google Books</ref><ref> {{Cite book|last=Iyer|first=L. K. Anantha Krishna|url=http://archive.org/details/dli.csl.7757|title=The Cochin tribes and castes vol.I|date=1909|publisher=Higginbotham, Madras}}</ref> There were lesser known Thiyya regiments and Thiyyar Pattalam formed by the French and British governments in Mahe and Thalassery.<ref>{{Cite book|last=P.R|first=Nisha|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=My8DEAAAQBAJ|title=Jumbos and Jumping Devils: A Social History of Indian Circus|date=2020-06-12|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-099207-1|language=en}}</ref> The British deployed the unit in various military operations.<ref> {{Cite book|last=M.D|first=N. C. SHYAMALAN|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wYWVBQAAQBAJ|title=North Africa To North Malabar: AN ANCESTRAL JOURNEY|publisher=Notion Press|isbn=978-93-83416-64-6|language=en}}</ref>

==History==
===Inscriptions===
The earliest use of the word Eelam
or Ezham is found in a [[Tamil-Brahmi]] inscription as well as in the [[Sangam literature]]. The [[Tirupparankunram]] inscription found near [[Madurai]] in [[Tamil Nadu]] and dated on palaeographical grounds to the 1st century BCE, refers to a person as a householder from Eelam (''Eela-kudumpikan'').<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Being a Tamil and Sri Lankan|last=Civattampi|first=Kārttikēcu|date=2005|publisher=Aivakam|isbn=9789551132002|pages=134–135|language=en}}</ref> The inscription reads,

{{Blockquote|: erukatur eelakutumpikan polalaiyan "Polalaiyan, (resident of) Erukatur, the husbandman (householder) from Eelam." .<ref name="Schalk">{{Cite book | last=Schalk | first=Peter | contribution=Robert Caldwell's Derivation īlam<sīhala: A Critical Assessment | editor-last=Chevillard | editor-first=Jean-Luc | title=South-Indian Horizons: Felicitation Volume for François Gros on the occasion of his 70th birthday | place=Pondichéry | publisher=Institut Français de Pondichéry | isbn=978-2-85539-630-9 | pages=347–364 | year=2004 }}.</ref>}}

The Sangam literature ''[[Paṭṭiṉappālai]]'', mentions ''Eelattu-unavu'' (food from Eelam). One of the prominent Sangam Tamil poets is known as [[Eelattu Poothanthevanar]] meaning Poothan-thevan (proper name) hailing from ''Eelam''. ([[Akanaṉūṟu]]: 88, 231, 307; [[Kuṟuntokai]]: 189, 360, 343; [[Naṟṟiṇai]]: 88, 366).<ref>{{Cite book|title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: Sasay to Zorgot|last=Lal|first=Mohan|date=1992|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|isbn=9788126012213|pages=4155|language=en}}</ref> The Tamil inscriptions from the [[Pallava]] & [[Chola]] period dating from 9th century CE link the word with toddy, toddy tapper's quarters (''Eelat-cheri''), tax on toddy tapping (''Eelap-poodchi''), a class of toddy tappers (''Eelath-chanran''). Eelavar is a caste of toddy tappers found in the southern parts of [[Kerala]].<ref name=":0" /> ''Eela-kaasu'' and ''Eela-karung-kaasu'' are refers to coinages found in the [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] inscriptions of [[Parantaka I]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Politics of Tamil Nationalism in Sri Lanka|last=Sivarajah|first=Ambalavanar|date=1996|publisher=South Asian Publishers|isbn=9788170031956|pages=122|language=en}}</ref> However it is to be noticed that Ezhava as a caste had not been formed yet. Eelam means modern day Northern Ceylon / Srilanka. And Eela also has the etymological meaning of toddy.

===Legend===

There are [[myth of origin|myths of origin]] for the Ezhava. According to some [[Malayalam]] folk songs like [[Vadakkan Pattukal]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bright |first1=William |title=Review of Dialect Survey of Malayalam (Ezhava-Tiiya) |journal=Language |date=1978 |volume=54 |issue=1 |pages=249 |doi=10.2307/413041 |jstor=413041 }}</ref> {{which|date=April 2020}} and legend, the Ezhavas were the progeny of four bachelors that the king of [[Sri Lanka|Ceylon]] (Sri Lanka) sent to what is now [[Kerala]] at the request of the [[Chera dynasty|Chera]] king Bhaskara Ravi Varma, in the 1st century CE. These men were sent, ostensibly, to set up [[coconut]] farming in the region.<ref>[[#Smith1976|Pullapilly (1976)]] pp. 25–26</ref>

===Social and religious divergence===
The first mention of Ezhavas as a caste comes from a 14th century mention by Italian seafarers and traveler Ludovico de Varthema. He mentioned that

"''The women of these two classes of people, that is, the Poliari and Hirava, suckle their children for about three months, and then they feed them upon cow's milk or goat's milk. And when they have crammed them, without washing either their faces or their bodies, they throw them into the sand, in which they remain covered up from the morning until the evening, and as they are more black than any other colour, they cannot be distinguished from little buffalos or little bears; so that they appear misshapen things, and it seems as though they were fed by the devil. Their mothers give them food again in the evening. These people are the most agile leapers and runners in the world''"<ref>Pg No 171''', [https://archive.org/details/travelsofludovic00vartrich/page/170/mode/1up The travels of Ludovico di Varthema in Egypt, Syria, Arabia Deserta and Arabia Felix, in Persia, India, and Ethiopia, A.D. 1503 to 1508]''' by Varthema, Lodovico de, 15th cent; Jones, John Winter, 1805-1881; Badger, George Percy, 1815-1888</ref>

Ezhavas were noted as a people similar to Pulayas in apperance and lifestyle. Therefore during 14th century Ezhavas and Pulayas were still not completely separated castes although they had started to socially diverge as evident from adoption of different caste name.

The divergence of Ezhavas from the agrarian Pulayas may have occured when more and more Ezhavas over time adopted toddy related proffesions rather than subsisting solely on manual labour or agrarian work.

Another reason may be that Ezhavas submitted to Savarna hegemony via customs like Adhyaratri Avakasham<ref>Kadathanadan Nombarangal by Bhaskaran Manantheri</ref><ref>Pg No 71, [https://books.google.co.in/books?id=FkVnEQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=social+mobility+in+kerala&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=social%20mobility%20in%20kerala&f=false Social Mobility in Kerala by Filippo Osella]</ref>, Pulayas resisted these advances (as documented in traditional Pulaya folklore).

Eventually in colonial era due to good relationships with the British, Ezhavas in Malabar gained upper hand in public office employment, and thus rising above all Avarnas including Vishwakarma/Viswabrahmins in colonial era records .

==Past occupations==
They used to work as agricultural labourers, small cultivators, [[toddy tapper]]s and liquor businessmen, some Ezhavas were also involved in weaving and some practised [[Ayurveda]].<ref name="Smith1976pp31-32" /><ref>{{cite book |last=Rao |first=M. S. A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tZAiAAAAMAAJ&q=Chekor+kalari |title=Social Movements and Social Transformation |publisher=Macmillan |year=1979 |isbn=9780333902554 |page=23}}</ref> An upper section, by reason of wealth and/or influence, came into the position to acquire titles such as Panicker from the local rulers. These people lived in Nalukettu, had their private temples and owned a large amount of land.<ref name="Osella50" />
[[File:Pictorial Depiction of a Thiyar Couple.jpg|thumb|A Thiyya Couple, 18th century]]

The social anthropologists Filippo and Caroline Osella say that the Ezhavas "... consisted in the mid-nineteenth century of a small landowning and titled elite and a large mass of landless and small tenants who were largely illiterate, considered untouchable, and who eked out a living by manual labour and petty trade."<ref name="Osella8">{{cite book |title=Social Mobility in Kerala: Modernity and Identity in Conflict |first1=Filippo |last1=Osella |first2=Caroline |last2=Osella |publisher=Pluto Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-7453-1693-2 |page=8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rMRw0gTZSJwC&pg=PA8}}</ref>{{efn|Gough describes Ezhava subtenants in Central Travancore, who worked land held by the Nair caste. One-third of the net produce from these lands was retained by the subtenants and the remainder was the property of the Nair tenant.<ref>{{cite book |title=Matrilineal Kinship |editor1-first=David Murray |editor1-last=Schneider |editor2-first=E. Kathleen |editor2-last=Gough |chapter=Nayars: Central Kerala |first=E. Kathleen |last=Gough |author-link=Kathleen Gough |page=315 |year=1961 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-02529-5 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lfdvTbfilYAC&pg=PA315 |quote=Tiyyars (called Iravas in Cochin)}}</ref>}} [[A. Aiyappan]], another social anthropologist and himself a member of the caste,<ref name="Osella8" /> noted the mythical belief that the Ezhava brought coconut palms to the region when they moved from Ceylon.<ref name="Osella50">{{cite book |last1=Osella |first1=Filippo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rMRw0gTZSJwC&pg=PA50 |title=Social Mobility in Kerala: Modernity and Identity in Conflict |last2=Osella |first2=Caroline |publisher=Pluto Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-7453-1693-2 |pages=55}}</ref> Their traditional occupation, or ''avakasam'', was tending to and tapping the sap of such palms. This activity is sometimes erroneously referred to as ''toddy tapping'', toddy being a liquor manufactured from the sap. Arrack was another liquor produced from the palms, as was jaggery (an unrefined sugar). In reality, most Ezhavas were agricultural labourers and small-time cultivators, with a substantial number diverging into the production of [[coir]] products, such as coconut mats for flooring, from towards the end of the 19th century.<ref name="Nossiter1982p30"/> The coastal town of [[Alleppey]] became the centre of such manufacture and was mostly controlled by Ezhavas, although the lucrative export markets were accessible only through European traders, who monopolised the required equipment. A boom in trade for these manufactured goods after [[World War I]] led to a unique situation in twentieth-century Kerala whereby there was a shortage of labour, which attracted still more Ezhavas to the industry from outlying rural areas. The [[Great Depression]] impacted in particular on the export trade, causing a reduction in price and in wages even though production increased, with the consequence that during the 1930s many Ezhava families found themselves to be in dire financial circumstances.<ref name="Osella50" /><ref>{{cite book |title=Communal Road to a Secular Kerala |first=George |last=Mathew |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |year=1989 |isbn=978-81-7022-282-8 |pages=137–138 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1TuPeXFP0WgC&pg=PA137}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title='Destroy Capitalism!': Growing Solidarity of Alleppey's Coir Workers, 1930–40 |first=Robin |last=Jeffrey |author-link=Robin Jeffrey |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |volume=19 |issue=29 |pages=1159–1165 |date=21 July 1984 |jstor=4373437}}</ref> [[File:Chogans.JPG|thumb|upright=1.1|right|An Ezhava couple, 19th century]]

Some Ezhavas were involved in weaving and ship making.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bVgeAAAAMAAJ&q=jaggery|title= Religion and ideology in Kerala |page=246|first=Geneviève |last=Lemercinier|publisher=D.K. Agencies |year=1984|isbn= 9788185007021 |access-date=2011-06-21}}</ref>

===Martial traditions===
Some Ezhava served in army of local chieftains and local rulers such as of [[Kadathanad]] and [[Kurumbranad]] of Kerala, who were privileged in the pre-colonial period to have their own private armies.<ref>{{cite book | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=A6MfPh-9DiEC&pg=PA25 | page = 20 | title = On life and times of George Joseph, 1887–1938, a Syrian Christian nationalist from Kerala | author = Joseph, George Gheverghese | publisher = Orient Longman | year = 2003 | access-date = 2007-12-09 | isbn=978-81-250-2495-8}}</ref>

====Chekavar====
A subgroup of the Ezhavas considered themselves to be warriors and became known as the Chekavars. The ''[[Vadakkan Pattukal]]'' ballads describe Chekavars as forming the militia of local chieftains and kings but the title was also given to experts of Kalari Payattu.<ref name = "chek1002">{{cite book |first=Elamkulam P. N. Kunjan |last=Pillai |title=Studies in Kerala History |publisher=National Book Stall |location=Kottayam |year=1970 |pages=111, 151–154}}</ref>

===Medicine and traditional toxicology===
Some Ezhavas had an extensive knowledge of the medicinal value of plants, passed to them by their ancestors. Known as ''Vaidyars'', these people acted as physicians. [[Itty Achudan]] was probably the best known Ezhava physician: he directly influenced the botanical classification in ''[[Hortus Malabaricus]]'', published during the 17th century. Achudan's texts were written in the [[Kolezhuthu]] script that Ezhava castes used, for they were prevented from learning the more Sanskritised Aryazuthu script which was the preserve of the upper-castes.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Indigenous Knowledge and the Significance of South-West India for Portuguese and Dutch Constructions of Tropical Nature |first=Richard |last=Grove |journal=Modern Asian Studies |volume=30 |issue=1 |date=February 1996 |pages= 121–143|jstor=312903 |doi=10.1017/s0026749x00014104|s2cid=144682406 }}</ref>

Some Ezhavas practiced ayurvedic medicine.<ref name="Alan Bicker 2000 9">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FS7dkOgNGT0C&pg=PA9|title= Indigenous environmental knowledge and its transformations|page=9|first=RF Ellen Peter Parkes |last=Alan Bicker|publisher=Routledge |year=2000|access-date=2011-06-15|isbn= 9789057024832}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8XJ2HHZcM6oC&pg=PA83|title= Ecological Journeys |page=82|first=Madhav |last=Gadgil|publisher=Orient Blackswan |year=2005|access-date=2011-06-15|isbn= 9788178241128}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WwNUblS-jpwC&pg=PA3120|title= Modern World System and Indian Proto-Industrialization |page=312|first=Abhay Kumar |last=Singh|publisher=Northern book center |year=2006|access-date=2011-06-15|isbn= 9788172112011}}</ref>

==Culture==
[[File:The traditional attire of Thiyyar (Tiyya) Bridegroom and companions who dressed as warriors and holding raised sword in their right hand ,in 1912.jpg|thumb|upright=1|left|The traditional attire of Thiyyar (Tiyya) Bridegroom and companions, in 1912]]

===Arjuna Nrtam (Mayilpeeli Thookkam)===
[[Mayilpeeli Thookkam|Arjuna Nrtam]] ("the dance of [[Arjuna]]") is a ritual art performed by Ezhava men and is prevalent in the [[Bhagavathy]] temples of south Kerala, mainly in [[Kollam]], Alappuzha and [[Kottayam]] districts. The ritual is also called "Mayilpeeli Thookkam" because the costume includes a characteristic garment made of mayilppeeli ([[peacock]] feathers). This garment is worn around the waist in a similar fashion as the "uduthukettu" of [[Kathakali]]. The various dance movements are similar to kalarippayattu techniques. The performers have their faces painted green and wear distinctive headgears. The all-night performance of the dance is usually presented solo or in pairs.<ref name="ezh22">{{cite book | last=Bernier|first=Ronald M. | title = Temple Arts of Kerala: A South Indian Tradition | publisher = Asia Book Corporation of America | year = 1982 | isbn = 978-0-940500-79-2}}</ref>{{page needed|date=April 2020}}

===Makachuttu===
Makachuttu art is popular among Ezhavas in [[Thiruvananthapuram]] and Chirayinkizhu taluks and in [[Kilimanoor]], Pazhayakunnummal and Thattathumala regions. In this, a group of eight performers, two each, twine around each other like serpents and rise up, battling with sticks. The techniques are repeated several times. [[Sandalwood]] paste on the forehead, a red towel round the head, red silk around the waist and bells round the ankles form the costume. This is a combination of [[snake worship]] and [[Kalarippayattu]].<ref name = "ezh22"/>{{page needed|date=April 2020}}<ref name = "ezh23">Krishna Chaitanya, Temple Arts of Kerala: A South Indian Tradition (Abhinav Publications, 1987,{{ISBN|8170172098}})</ref>{{page needed|date=April 2020}}

===Poorakkali===
Poorakkali is a folk dance prevalent among the Ezhavas of Malabar, usually performed in Bhagavathy temples as a ritual offering during the month of [[Meenam]] (March–April). Poorakkali requires specially trained and highly experienced dancers, trained in Kalaripayattu. Standing round a traditional lamp, the performers dance in eighteen different stages and rhythms, each phase called a niram.<ref name="ezh22"/>{{page needed|date=April 2020}}

==Customs==
Ezhavas adopted different patterns of behavior in family system across [[Kerala]]. Those living in southern [[Travancore]] tended to meld the different practices that existed in the other parts of Kerala. The family arrangements of northern [[Malabar (Northern Kerala)|Malabar]] were matrilineal with patrilocal property arrangements, whereas in northern Travancore they were matrilineal but usually matrilocal in their arrangements for property. Southern Malabar saw a patrilineal system but partible property.<ref name="Nossiter1982p30"/><ref name="jeffrey1974">{{cite journal |first=Robin |last=Jeffrey |author-link=Robin Jeffrey |title=The Social Origins of a Caste Association, 1875–1905: The Founding of the S.N.D.P. Yogam |journal=South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies |series=1 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=39–59 |date=1974 |doi=10.1080/00856407408730687}}</ref>

These arrangements were reformed by legislation, for Malabar in 1925 and for Travancore in 1933. The process of reform was more easily achieved for the Ezhavas than it was for the Nairs, another [[Caste system in India|Hindu caste]] in Kerala who adopted matrilineal arrangements; the situation for the Nairs was complicated by a traditional matrilocal form of living called ''[[tharavadu|taravadu]]'' and by their usually much higher degree of property ownership.<ref name="Nossiter1982p30"/> That said, certainly by the 1880s, the Ezhavas appear increasingly to have tried to adopt Nair practises in a bid to achieve a similar status. [[Robin Jeffrey]] notes that their women began to prefer the style of jewellery worn by Nairs to that which was their own tradition. Further, since Nairs cremated their dead, Ezhavas attempted to cremate at least the oldest member of their family, although cost usually meant that the remainder were buried. Other aspirational changes included building houses in the Nair tharavad style and making claims that they had had an equal standing as a military class until the nineteenth century.<ref name="jeffrey1974"/>
[[File:An Ezhava family.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|right|An Ezhava family of early 20th century]]
[[Polyandry|Polygamy]] was practised in within certain parts of Ezhava community, but has since died out. There are several proposed arguments for this, the Valiyagraman Ezhavas argue that they practised it for economic reasons, the argument that the older brother would marry first, and share his wife with his younger brother(s) until they could afford to marry. It was also common for one of the brothers to be away for long periods of time.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Filippo Osella|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rMRw0gTZSJwC&dq=social+mobility+in+kerala+filippo+osella+polyandry&pg=PA89|title=Social Mobility In Kerala: Modernity and Identity in Conflict|author2=Caroline Osella|date = 20 December 2000|isbn=0-7453-1694-8|pages=89–90}}</ref>

Following the British settlement in Kerala, some Thiyya families in [[Thalassery]],were taken as concubines by ruling british administrative officers,mostly of which [[Resident minister]]s who were in charge of [[Malabar District]] and subsequently had children. This community was referred to as "white Thiyyas".These liaisons were considered as "dishonorable" and "degrading" to the samudhayam (community), and were excluded from the community. Most of these women and children had converted to Christianity. The Thiyyas in northern Malabar generally had a better relationship with colonizers than the Hindus in other parts of the country. This was due in part, to the fact that the British would employ Thiyyas, but Kerala's local princes wouldn't.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Robin Jeffrey|title=Politics, Women and Well-Being: How Kerala Became 'a Model'|date=27 July 2016|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ENC-DAAAQBAJ&dq=Tiyyas+in+north+Malabar+fared+better+than+in+south+Malabar%2C+perhaps+because+land+was+more+readily+available.+They+were+matrilineal+before+the+British+East+India+company+estalished+forts+at+Telicherry+and+Cannanore+in+the+early+eighteenth+century%2C+and+some+Tiyya+families+permitted+their+women+to+form+liaisons+with+Europeans.+A+small+community+%E2%80%94+the+so-called+%E2%80%98white+Tiyyas%E2%80%99+%E2%80%94+resulted%2C+and+though+the+suggestion+of+concubinage+with+Europeans+became+a+great+embarrassment+in+the+twentieth+century%2C+such+arrangements+brought+considerable+advantage+in+the+eighteenth+and+nineteenth+centuries.+Tiyyas+in+north+Malabar%2C+even+if+not+members+of+%E2%80%98white+Tiyya%E2%80%99+families%2C+developed+a+smoother+relationship+with+the+European+rulers+than+Hindus+elsewhere+in+Kerala.+The+British%2C+unlike+Kerala%27s+princes+readily+employed+Tiyyas%2C+and+Tiyya+factotum+became+a+constant+companion+of+some+British+officials&pg=PA50|isbn= 978-1-349-12252-3|page=50}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rMRw0gTZSJwC&dq=social+mobility+in+kerala+filippo+osella+pallor+skin+tone&pg=PA83|title = Social Mobility in Kerala: Modernity and Identity in Conflict|isbn = 9780745316932|last1 = Osella|first1 = Filippo|last2 = Caroline|first2 = Filippo|last3 = Osella|first3 = Caroline|date = 20 December 2000}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://science.thewire.in/politics/caste/janaki-ammal-geeta-doctor-caste-poems/|title=E.K. Janaki Ammal and the Caste Conundrum – The Wire Science|date=15 August 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Abraham |first1=Janaki |title=The Stain of White: Liaisons, Memories, and White Men as Relatives |journal=Men and Masculinities |date=October 2006 |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=131–151 |doi=10.1177/1097184X06287764 |s2cid=145540016 }}</ref>

==Spiritual and social movements==
[[File:Narayana Guru.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|left|Narayana Guru]]

Some Ezhavas converted to [[Islam]] from around the 9th century, due to the influence of Arab traders. These people, and other Muslim converts in the region, are now known as [[Mappilla]]s.<ref name="Gough313" /> A sizeable part of the Ezhava community, especially in central [[Travancore]] and in the [[Western Ghats|High Ranges]], embraced [[Christianity]] during the [[British Raj|British rule]], due to caste-based discrimination. In [[Kannur]], [[Protestant]] missions started working in the first half of the 19th century, notably the [[Basel Mission|Basel German Evangelical Mission]]. Most of their converts were from the Ezhava community.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wFsbAAAAIAAJ&q=cannanore+thiyya|title= Kerala District Gazetteers: Palghat|page=188|first=C. K |last=Kareem|publisher=printed by the Superintendent of Govt. Presses |year=1976|access-date=2011-06-24}}</ref> The [[Congregational]]ist [[London Missionary Society]] and the [[Anglican]] [[Church Mission Society]] were also prominent in the movement for religious conversion, having established presences in the Travancore region in the early 19th century.<ref>{{cite book |title=Missionary Encounters: Sources & Issues |editor1-first=Robert A. |editor1-last=Bickers |editor2-first=Rosemary E. |editor2-last=Seton |publisher=Routledge |year=1996 |isbn=9780700703708 |chapter=Who is to benefit from missionary education? Travancore in the 1930s |first=Dick |last=Kooiman |page=158 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=98D8AemziJoC&pg=PA158}}</ref>

The lowly status of the Ezhava meant that, as [[Thomas Nossiter]] has commented, they had "little to lose and much to gain by the economic and social changes of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries". They sought the right to be treated as worthy of an English education and for jobs in government administration to be open to them.<ref name="Nossiter1982p30"/> An early Ezhava campaigner and their "political father", according to Ritty Lukose, was [[Padmanabhan Palpu]].<ref>{{cite book |page=209 |first=Ritty A. |last=Lukose |chapter=Recasting the Secular: Religion and Education in Kerala, India |title=Everyday Life in South Asia |editor1-first=Diane P. |editor1-last=Mines |editor2-first=Sarah |editor2-last=Lamb |edition=2nd |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=2010 |isbn=9780253354730 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=828fOvb61wIC&pg=PA209}}</ref> In 1896, he organised a petition of 13,176 signatories that was submitted to the [[Maharajah]] of the [[princely state]] of Travancore, asking for government recognition of the Ezhavas' right to work in public administration and to have access to formal education.<ref>{{cite book |title=Being Middle-class in India: A Way of Life |editor-first=Henrike |editor-last=Donner |first=Caroline |last=Wilson |chapter=The social transformation of the medical profession in urban Kerala : Doctors, social mobility and the middle classes |publisher=Routledge |location=Abingdon, Oxon |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-415-67167-5 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1_e8FT54FjIC&pg=PT193 |pages=193–194}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Different Types of History |editor-first=Bharati |editor-last=Ray |chapter=Subjects of New Lives |first=Udaya |last=Kumar |publisher=Pearson Education India |year=2009 |isbn=978-81-317-1818-6 |page=329 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9x5FX2RROZgC&pg=PA329}}</ref> Around this time, nearly 93 per cent of the caste members were illiterate.<ref name="Padmanabhan">{{cite book |chapter=Learning to Learn |first=Roshni |last=Padmanabhan |title=Development, Democracy and the State: Critiquing the Kerala Model of Development |editor-first=K. Ravi |editor-last=Raman |publisher=Routledge |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-13515-006-8 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IGiMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA106 |page=106}}</ref>{{efn|Robin Jeffrey notes that literacy among Ezhava men increased from 3.15 per cent to 12.10 per cent between the [[census of India prior to independence|1875 and 1891 censuses]], mainly through the work of missionaries rather than government schools.<ref name="jeffrey1974"/>}} The upper caste Hindus of the state prevailed upon the Maharajah not to concede the request. The outcome not looking to be promising, the Ezhava leadership threatened that they would convert from Hinduism en masse, rather than stay as [[helot]]s of Hindu society. [[C. P. Ramaswamy Iyer]], realising the imminent danger, prompted the Maharajah to issue the [[Temple Entry Proclamation]], which abolished the ban on lower-caste people from entering Hindu temples in the state.{{citation needed|date=March 2013}} Steven Wilkinson says that the Proclamation was passed because the government was "frightened" by the Ezhava threat of conversion to Christianity.<ref>{{cite book |title=Votes and Violence: Electoral Competition and Ethnic Riots in India |first=Steven I. |last=Wilkinson |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |edition=Reprinted |orig-year=2004 |isbn=978-0-521-53605-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tLpRFbLSxvAC&pg=PA179 |page=179}}</ref>

Eventually, in 1903, a small group of Ezhavas, led by Palpu, established [[Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam (SNDP)]], the first caste association in the region. This was named after [[Narayana Guru]], who had established an [[ashram]] from where he preached his message of "one caste, one religion, one god" and a Sanskritised version of the Victorian concept of self-help. His influence locally has been compared to that of [[Swami Vivekananda]].<ref name="Nossiter1982pp30-32" /> One of the initial aims of the SNDP was to campaign for the removal of the restrictions on school entry but even after those legal barriers to education were removed, it was uncommon in practice for Ezhavas to be admitted to government schools. Thus, the campaign shifted to providing schools operated by the community itself.<ref name="Padmanabhan" /> The organisation, attracted support in Travancore but similar bodies in Cochin were less successful. In Malabar, which unlike Cochin and Travancore was under direct British control,<ref name="SchneiderGoughp304">{{cite book |title=Matrilineal Kinship |editor1-first=David Murray |editor1-last=Schneider |editor2-first=E. Kathleen |editor2-last=Gough |chapter=Nayars: Central Kerala |first=E. Kathleen |last=Gough |page=304 |year=1961 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-02529-5 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lfdvTbfilYAC&pg=PA304}}</ref> the Ezhavas showed little interest in such bodies because they did not suffer the educational and employment discrimination found elsewhere, nor indeed were the disadvantages that they did experience strictly a consequence of caste alone.<ref name="Nossiter1982pp30-32">[[#Nossiter1982|Nossiter (1982)]] pp. 30–32</ref>

The Ezhavas were not immune to being manipulated by other people for political purposes. The [[Vaikom Satyagraha]] of 1924–1925 was a failed attempt to use the issue of [[avarna]] access to roads around temples in order to revive the fortunes of [[Indian National Congress|Congress]], orchestrated by [[T. K. Madhavan]], a revolutionary and civil rights activist,<ref name="Smith1976p38">[[#Smith1976|Pullapilly (1976)]] p. 38</ref> and with a famous temple at [[Vaikom]] as the focal point. Although it failed in its stated aim of achieving access, the [[satyagraha]] (movement) did succeed in voicing a "radical rhetoric", according to Nossiter.<ref name="Nossiter1982pp30-32"/> During this movement, a few [[Khalsa|Akalis]]{{mdash}}an order of armed [[Sikh]]s{{mdash}}came to Vaikom in support of the demonstrators. After the eventual passing of the Temple Entry Proclamation, some of the Akalis remained. They attracted some Ezhava youth to the concepts of the Sikhism, resulting in Ezhava conversions to that belief.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C8EBAAAAMAAJ&q=sikhism+ezhava|title= The abstention movement|page=19|first=K.K |last=Kusuman|publisher=Kerala Historical Society |year=1976|access-date=2011-06-15}}</ref>

Between the Travancore census of 1875 and 1891, the literacy of Ezhava men had been increased from 3.15 percent to 12.1 percent. The 1891 census showed that there were at least 25000 educated Ezhavas in Travancore<ref>''Cash, Caste and Customs. The Decline of Nair Dominance: Society and Politics in Travancore 1847-1908'', Robin Jeffrey, Manohar Classics. p. 187-190</ref> Dr. Palpu had support from Parameswaran Pillai who was editing the Madras Standard. He raised the issue of the rights of Ezhavas in a speech at the National Conference in Pune in 1885, which was also editorialized in the Madras Standard. Pillai and Dr. Palpu also raised their questions regarding Ezhavas in the House of Commons in England in 1897. Dr. Palpu met with Swamy Vivekanda in Mysore and discussed the conditions of Ezhavas. Vivekanda has advised him to unite the Ezhava community under the leadership of a spiritual leader. He embraced this advice and associated with Sree Narayana Guru and formed the Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam (S.N.D.P), registered in March 1903.<ref>''The Brahmin-Nair Official Elite and its competitors. The Decline of Nair Dominance: Society and Politics in Travancore 1847-1908'', Robin Jeffrey, Manohar Classics. p. 187-190</ref> By mid 1904, the emerging S.N.D.P Yogam, operating a few schools, temples, and a monthly magazine announced that it would hold an industrial exhibition with its second annual general meeting in Quilon in January 1905. The exhibition was skillful and successful and was a sign of the awakening Ezhava community.
<ref>''"Social Civil War". The Decline of Nair Dominance: Society and Politics in Travancore 1847-1908'', Robin Jeffrey, Manohar Classics. p. 187-190</ref>

The success of the SNDP in improving the lot of Ezhavas has been questioned. Membership had reached 50,000 by 1928 and 60,000 by 1974, but Nossiter notes that, "From the Vaikom ''satyagraha'' onwards the SNDP had stirred the ordinary Ezhava without materially improving his position." The division in the 1920s of {{cvt|60000|acre|ha}} of properties previously held by substantial landowners saw the majority of Ezhava beneficiaries receive less than one acre each, although 2% of them took at least 40% of the available land. There was subsequently a radicalisation and much political infighting within the leadership as a consequence of the effects of the [[Great Depression]] on the [[coir]] industry but the general notion of self-help was not easy to achieve in a primarily agricultural environment; the Victorian concept presumed an industrialised economy. The organisation lost members to various other groups, including the Communist movement, and it was not until the 1950s that it reinvented itself as a pressure group and provider of educational opportunities along the lines of the [[Nair Service Society]] (NSS), Just as the NSS briefly formed the National Democratic Party in the 1970s in an attempt directly to enter the political arena, so too in 1972 the SNDP formed the Social Revolutionary Party.<ref name="Nossiter1982pp30-32"/>

==Position in society==
They were considered as ''avarna'' (outside brahmanical varna system) by the Nambudiri Brahmins who formed the Hindu clergy and ritual ruling elite in late medieval Kerala.<ref name="Nossiter1982p30"/> [[Kathleen Gough]] says that the Ezhavas of Central Travancore were historically the highest-ranking of the "higher polluting castes", a group whose other constituents included [[Kanisan]]s and various artisanal castes, and who were all superior in status to the "lower polluting castes", such as the [[Pulayar]]s and [[Paraiyar]]s. The Nairs and, where applicable, the Mapillas ranked socially and ritually higher than the polluting castes.<ref name="Gough313">{{cite book |title=Matrilineal Kinship |editor1-first=David Murray |editor1-last=Schneider |editor2-first=E. Kathleen |editor2-last=Gough |chapter=Nayars: Central Kerala |first=E. Kathleen |last=Gough |author-link=Kathleen Gough |pages=312–313 |year=1961 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-02529-5 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lfdvTbfilYAC&pg=PA312}}</ref>{{efn|Kathleen Gough says of the Mappillas that they "... lived mainly in the ports and at inland trading posts on the banks of rivers. They were partly outside the village ranking system ... and were theoretically outside the Hindu religious hierarchy. Nevertheless Muslims were in some contexts accorded a rank ritually and socially between that of the Nayars and Tiyyars."<ref name="Gough313" />}} From their study based principally around one village and published in 2000, the Osellas noted that the movements of the late 19th- and 20th centuries brought about a considerable change for the Ezhavas, with access to jobs, education and the right to vote all assisting in creating an identity based on more on class than caste, although the stigmatic label of ''avarna'' remained despite gaining the right of access to temples.<ref>{{cite book |title=Social Mobility in Kerala: Modernity and Identity in Conflict |first1=Filippo |last1=Osella |first2=Caroline |last2=Osella |publisher=Pluto Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-7453-1693-2 |pages=16, 29 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rMRw0gTZSJwC&pg=PA16}}</ref>

The Ezhavas are classified as an [[Other Backward Class]] by the [[Government of India]] under its [[Reservation in India|system of positive discrimination]].<ref name="obc">{{cite web|title=Central List of OBCs: Kerala|url=http://ncbc.nic.in/User_Panel/GazetteResolution.aspx?Value=mPICjsL1aLvX4YwLqUBC2NUPs1mZbhKbKhWJfmW%2b7ZgXWaQGOVNjwfOOnQuzOlde|publisher=National Commission for Backward Classes, Government of India|access-date=2017-04-16}}</ref>

==Dispute between different Ezhava communities==
Some in the Ezhava community in Malabar have objected to being treated as Ezhava by the government of Kerala, arguing that the Ezhava in Malabar (locally known as Thiyyar) are a separate caste. They have campaigned for the right to record themselves as Thiyya rather than as Ezhava when applying for official posts and other jobs allocated under India's system of positive discrimination. They claim that the stance of the government is contrary to a principle established by the [[Supreme Court of India]] relating to a dispute involving communities who were not Ezhava.<ref>{{cite news |publisher=News 18 |title=Thiyyas to move SC against Government order |date=23 January 2012 |first=Kalathil |last=Ramakrishnan |url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/thiyyas-to-move-sc-against-government-order-439733.html |access-date =18 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |newspaper=The Hindu|date=23 May 2012 |title=Plea to lower minimum qualification for jobs |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/plea-to-lower-minimum-qualification-for-jobs/article3447946.ece |access-date=28 March 2013}}</ref> The Thiyya Mahasabha (a sub-group of the Ezhava in Malabar) has also opposed the SNDP's use of the Thiyya name at an event.<ref>{{cite news |newspaper=The Hindu|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/thiyya-forum-lashes-out-at-sndp/article4349866.ece |date=27 January 2013 |title=Thiyya forum lashes out at SNDP |access-date=9 March 2013}}</ref>

In February 2013, the recently formed Thiyya Mahasabha objected to the SNDP treating Ezhavas and Thiyyas as one group, rather than recognising the Thiyyas in Malabar as being distinct. The SNDP was at that time attempting to increase its relatively weak influence in northern Kerala, where the politics of identity play a lesser role than those of class and the [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]] has historically been a significant organisation.<ref>{{cite news |newspaper=The Hindu|date=1 February 2013 |title=Ezhava-Thiyya convention in Kozhikode |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/ezhavathiyya-convention-in-kozhikode/article4367837.ece |access-date=28 March 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |publisher=The New Indian Express |date=1 February 2013 |title=SNDP out to make a dent in CPM citadels in Malabar |url=http://newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/article1444651.ece |access-date=28 March 2013}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[List of Ezhavas]]
*[[Travancore Labour Association]]
*[[Narayana Guru]]
*[[Temples consecrated by Narayana Guru]]
*[[Padmanabhan Palpu]]
*[[R. Sankar]]
*[[Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam (SNDP)]]
*[[Sree Narayana Trust]]
*[[List of Sree Narayana Institutions]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

===Bibliography===
*{{cite book |title=Communism in Kerala: a study in political adaptation |first=Thomas Johnson |last=Nossiter |publisher=University of California Press |year=1982 |chapter=Kerala's identity: unity and diversity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8CSQUxVjjWQC |isbn=978-0-520-04667-2 |author-link=Thomas Nossiter |access-date=2011-06-09 |ref=Nossiter1982}}
*{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xNAI9F8IBOgC&pg=PA38 |title=Religion and Social Conflict in South Asia |volume=22 |series=International studies in sociology and social anthropology |editor-first=Bardwell L. |editor-last=Smith |publisher=E. J. Brill |first=Cyriac K. |last=Pullapilly |author-link=Cyriac Pullapilly |chapter=The Izhavas of Kerala and their Historic Struggle for Acceptance in the Hindu Society |location=Netherlands |year=1976 |access-date=2011-06-09 |isbn=978-90-04-04510-1 |ref=Smith1976 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/religionsocialco0000unse}}

{{commons category|Ezhava}}
{{Narayana Guru}}

[[Category:Ezhava| ]]
[[Category:Social groups of Kerala]]
[[Category:Indian castes]]
[[Category:Narayana Guru]]
[[Category:Malayali people]]
[[Category:Brewing and distilling castes]]
[[Category:Other Backward Classes]]

Jalpaiguri Institute of Technology

2026-03-29T07:15:48Z

104.23.170.17:

{{Short description|College in Jalpaiguri, West Bengal}}
{{Infobox university
| name = Jalpaiguri Institute of Technology
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| image =
| image_upright =
| image_alt =
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| latin_name =
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| former_name = IMPS Polytechnic College
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| mottoeng =
| top_free_label =
| top_free =
| type = Polytechnic college
| established = {{start date and age|2015}}
| closed = 
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| affiliation = [[West Bengal State Council of Technical Education]](WBSCTE)
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| address = Chewara para, Patkata, 735133
| city = [[Jalpaiguri]]
| state = [[West Bengal]]
| province =
| country = [[India]]
| postcode =
| coordinates =
| pushpin_map =
| pushpin_map_caption =
| campus = Rural
| language =
| free_label = Approvals
| free = [[All India Council for Technical Education|AICTE]]
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| website = https://jitpolytech.in/
| logo =
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| logo_alt =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Jalpaiguri Institute of Technology''' Previously known as- '''IMPS Polytechnic College''' established in 2015, is a self-financed polytechnic college located in Raninagar, Patkata,
[[Jalpaiguri district]], [[West Bengal]].

==About College==
This polytechnic is affiliated to the [[West Bengal State Council of Technical Education]] ,<ref>{{cite web |title=Affiliated Polytechnic with the West Bengal State Council of Technical Education |url=http://wbscte.net/info/list-of-politichnic.html |access-date=28 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170627082310/http://wbscte.net/info/list-of-politichnic.html |archive-date=27 June 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Affiliated Polytechnic with the Department of Technical Education,Training and Skill Development,Government of West Bengal|url=https://www.wbtetsd.gov.in/technical_education_and_training/institutes}}</ref>
and recognized by [[All India Council for Technical Education]],<ref>{{cite web|title=AICTE Affiliated Colleges | url=https://www.aicte-india.org/downloads/Get_Institute_Id.pdf#page=121}}</ref> New Delhi. This polytechnic offers Diploma in Engineering courses four variant branches.<ref>{{cite web |title=List of Polytechnic Colleges in Jalpaiguri, West Bengal|url=https://list.polytechniccolleges.in/westbengal/jalpaiguri/}}</ref>.On academic season 2023-24, changed the present name of the college from 'IMPS Polytechnic College' to 'Jalpaiguri Institute of Technology'.<ref>{{cite web |title=Affiliated Polytechnics with the West Bengal State Council of Technical and Vocational Education and Skill Development |url=https://sctvesd.wb.gov.in/academic/polytechnic/course_list/1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=AICTE EoA Letter | url=http://www.impspolytech.com/images/eoa.pdf |access-date=25 October 2023 }}</ref>

==Departments==
''Full Time Diploma Courses:''( Duration: 3 years)
*[[Civil Engineering]]
*[[Electrical Engineering]]
*[[Mechanical Engineering]]
*[[Computer science and engineering|Computer Science & Technology]]

==See also==
*[[List of institutions of higher education in West Bengal]]
*[[Education in India]]
*[[Education in West Bengal]]
*[[All India Council for Technical Education]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://jitpolytech.in/ Official website]
*[http://www.impspolytech.com/ IMPS Polytechnic College]
*[https://webscte.co.in/ Official website WBSCTE]
*[https://sctvesd.wb.gov.in/ Official website WBSCT&VE&SD]
*[https://www.aicte-india.org/ Official website AICTE]

{{WBSCTE}}
{{Jalpaiguri district}}

[[Category:Universities and colleges in Jalpaiguri district]]
[[Category:Educational institutions established in 2015]]
[[Category:2015 establishments in West Bengal]]
[[Category:Education in Jalpaiguri]]
[[Category:Technical universities and colleges in West Bengal]]

{{WestBengal-university-stub}}

Jalpaiguri Institute of Technology

2026-03-29T07:15:06Z

104.23.170.17: /* About College */

{{Short description|College in Jalpaiguri, West Bengal}}
{{Infobox university
| name = Jalpaiguri Institute of Technology
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| image =
| image_upright =
| image_alt =
| caption =
| latin_name =
| other_name =
| former_name = IMPS Polytechnic College
| motto =
| motto_lang =
| mottoeng =
| top_free_label =
| top_free =
| type = Polytechnic college
| established = {{start date and age|2015}}
| closed = 
| founder =
| parent =
| affiliation = [[West Bengal State Council of Technical Education]](WBSCTE)
| religious_affiliation =
| academic_affiliation =
| endowment =
| budget =
| officer_in_charge =
| chairman =
| chairperson =
| chancellor =
| president =
| vice-president =
| superintendent =
| vice_chancellor =
| provost =
| rector =
| principal =
| director =
| dean =
| head_label =
| head =
| academic_staff =
| administrative_staff =
| students =
| undergrad =
| postgrad =
| doctoral =
| other =
| address = Chewara para, Patkata, 735133
| city = [[Jalpaiguri]]
| state = [[West Bengal]]
| province =
| country = [[India]]
| postcode =
| coordinates = {{coord|26.542834|N|88.637798|E|region:IN-WB_type:edu|display=title,inline}}
| pushpin_map = India West Bengal#India
| pushpin_map_caption =
| campus = Rural
| language =
| free_label = Approvals
| free = [[All India Council for Technical Education|AICTE]]
| free_label2 =
| free2 =
| colors = 
| athletics =
| athletics_nickname = 
| sporting_affiliations =
| mascot = 
| sports_free_label =
| sports_free =
| sports_free_label2 =
| sports_free2 =
| website = https://jitpolytech.in/
| logo =
| logo_size = 150px
| logo_alt =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Jalpaiguri Institute of Technology''' Previously known as- '''IMPS Polytechnic College''' established in 2015, is a self-financed polytechnic college located in Raninagar, Patkata,
[[Jalpaiguri district]], [[West Bengal]].

==About College==
This polytechnic is affiliated to the [[West Bengal State Council of Technical Education]] ,<ref>{{cite web |title=Affiliated Polytechnic with the West Bengal State Council of Technical Education |url=http://wbscte.net/info/list-of-politichnic.html |access-date=28 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170627082310/http://wbscte.net/info/list-of-politichnic.html |archive-date=27 June 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Affiliated Polytechnic with the Department of Technical Education,Training and Skill Development,Government of West Bengal|url=https://www.wbtetsd.gov.in/technical_education_and_training/institutes}}</ref>
and recognized by [[All India Council for Technical Education]],<ref>{{cite web|title=AICTE Affiliated Colleges | url=https://www.aicte-india.org/downloads/Get_Institute_Id.pdf#page=121}}</ref> New Delhi. This polytechnic offers Diploma in Engineering courses four variant branches.<ref>{{cite web |title=List of Polytechnic Colleges in Jalpaiguri, West Bengal|url=https://list.polytechniccolleges.in/westbengal/jalpaiguri/}}</ref>.On academic season 2023-24, changed the present name of the college from 'IMPS Polytechnic College' to 'Jalpaiguri Institute of Technology'.<ref>{{cite web |title=Affiliated Polytechnics with the West Bengal State Council of Technical and Vocational Education and Skill Development |url=https://sctvesd.wb.gov.in/academic/polytechnic/course_list/1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=AICTE EoA Letter | url=http://www.impspolytech.com/images/eoa.pdf |access-date=25 October 2023 }}</ref>

==Departments==
''Full Time Diploma Courses:''( Duration: 3 years)
*[[Civil Engineering]]
*[[Electrical Engineering]]
*[[Mechanical Engineering]]
*[[Computer science and engineering|Computer Science & Technology]]

==See also==
*[[List of institutions of higher education in West Bengal]]
*[[Education in India]]
*[[Education in West Bengal]]
*[[All India Council for Technical Education]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://jitpolytech.in/ Official website]
*[http://www.impspolytech.com/ IMPS Polytechnic College]
*[https://webscte.co.in/ Official website WBSCTE]
*[https://sctvesd.wb.gov.in/ Official website WBSCT&VE&SD]
*[https://www.aicte-india.org/ Official website AICTE]

{{WBSCTE}}
{{Jalpaiguri district}}

[[Category:Universities and colleges in Jalpaiguri district]]
[[Category:Educational institutions established in 2015]]
[[Category:2015 establishments in West Bengal]]
[[Category:Education in Jalpaiguri]]
[[Category:Technical universities and colleges in West Bengal]]

{{WestBengal-university-stub}}

Hey Ram

2026-03-21T08:00:32Z

104.23.170.17:

{{Short description|2000 film by Kamal Haasan}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2022}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Hey Ram
| image = Hey Ram.jpg
| border = no
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[Kamal Haasan]]
| writer = {{plainlist|
* Kamal Haasan (Tamil dialogues)
* [[Manohar Shyam Joshi]] (Hindi dialogues)
}}
| screenplay = KamalHaasan
| story = KamalHaasan
| producer = {{plainlist|
* Kamal Haasan
* [[Chandrahasan]]
}}
| starring = Kamal Haasan
| cinematography = [[Tirru]]
| editing = [[Renu Saluja]]
| music = [[Ilaiyaraaja]]
| studio = [[Raaj Kamal Films International]]
| distributor = {{plainlist|
* Raajkamal Films International (Tamil)
* [[Red Chillies Entertainment]] (Hindi)
}}
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2000|2|18}}
| runtime = 210 minutes (Tamil){{sfn|Dhananjayan|2014|p=384}} 207 minutes (Hindi)
| country = India
| language = {{ ubl | Tamil | Hindi }}
| budget = {{INRconvert|11|c|year=2000|mode=historical}}<ref name="no stopping him" />
| gross = {{INRconvert|11.35|c|year=2000|mode=historical}}<ref name="Hey Ram Box office" />
}}
'''''Hey Ram''''' is a 2000 Indian [[period film|period]] [[crime drama]] film written, directed and produced by [[Kamal Haasan]], who also stars. It was [[Multiple-language version|simultaneously made]] in [[Tamil language|Tamil]] and [[Hindi]] languages. [[Shah Rukh Khan]] plays a supporting role, making his debut in [[Tamil cinema]]. The film's soundtrack and score were composed by [[Ilaiyaraaja]]. It is an [[alternate history]] film that depicts [[Partition of India|India's Partition]] and the [[assassination of Mahatma Gandhi]] by [[Nathuram Godse]]. The Hindi version was distributed by Khan's [[Red Chillies Entertainment]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Movie Rights |url=http://www.redchillies.com/movies/movie-rights.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161006020052/http://redchillies.com/movies/movie-rights.aspx |archive-date=6 October 2016 |access-date=5 October 2016 |website=[[Red Chillies Entertainment]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=4 April 2018 |title=Kamal Haasan reveals Shah Rukh Khan has bought Hey Ram Hindi remake rights |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/bollywood/story/shah-rukh-khan-buys-hindi-remake-rights-of-kamal-haasan-hey-ram-1204553-2018-04-04 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180405084902/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/bollywood/story/shah-rukh-khan-buys-hindi-remake-rights-of-kamal-haasan-hey-ram-1204553-2018-04-04 |archive-date=5 April 2018 |access-date=5 April 2018 |website=[[India Today]]}}</ref>

The film was screened at the [[International Film Festival of India]] and selected by [[Film Federation of India]] as its [[List of Indian submissions for the Academy Award for Best International Feature Film|submission to the Oscars]] in the year 2000, but was not nominated. The film has garnered three [[National Film Awards]]. Internationally, the film was screened at the [[2000 Toronto International Film Festival|25th Toronto International Film Festival]] and at the 2000 [[Locarno Festival]].

== Plot ==
{{Long plot|film|date=July 2018}}
The movie begins in 1999, with Saket Ram, an 89-year-old [[Hindus|Hindu]] man, on his death bed in [[Chennai|Madras]]. He is being taken care of by his grandson (also named Saket Ram) who is a famous novelist who writes historical fiction, and their family doctor, Munawar. The younger Ram explains how he grew up listening to his grandfather's stories and proceeds to narrate one of his grandfather's strange stories that he plans to use for his next novel. As his grandson narrates the story, the dying Saket Ram relives it.

The scene cuts to the 1946, when Ram and his [[Pathans in India|Pathan]] [[Islam in India|Muslim]] friend, Amjad Ali Khan are archaeologists working together under [[Mortimer Wheeler]], in [[Mohenjo-daro]] in the [[Sindh]] province, in what was then North-West India. Relations are good between the Indians and the English. Saket and Amjad do not approve of [[partition of India|partition]] and the [[Pakistan Movement|creation of Pakistan]]. Although many Indian Muslims plan to move to Pakistan, Amjad decides to stay in India as he believes it is his homeland and he does not wish to live under [[Sharia]] law.

After the archaeological site is shut down out of fear of riots, young Ram returns to [[Kolkata|Calcutta]] to be with his wife, Aparna. On his way home, he witnesses the riots and chaos during [[Direct Action Day]]. While out to get some food, Ram manages to save an innocent [[Sikhs|Sikh]] girl from a Muslim mob. When he returns to his house, he is attacked and hostage by his family tailor, Altaf and a group of Muslims. They brutally rape and murder Aparna. Saket, unable to cope with his tragic loss, kills them all.

Outside his house, Ram runs into Shriram Abhyankar, a [[Thanjavur Marathi people|Thanjavur Marathi]] who is leading a group of a Hindus. Ram asks for his identification and he identifies himself as a Hindu by chanting few mantras. Abhyankar offers ram a chance to join his militia , which ram declines.

After a year, Back in his hometown of [[Thanjavur]], Ram's brother Bashyahm and sister Vasantha urge him to remarry. He is then married to the daughter of family friends, Mythili. While his wedding is being celebrated across the village, Ram tells his childhood friends Vedha and Yegham that he has no reason to be happy since the world's biggest political divorce is going on with the separation of [[Pakistan]] in the north. During his first night, he learns that Mythili, like her family, are supporters of Gandhi and that the Mahatma will be visiting Calcutta a few days later on the anniversary of the bloody riots. Ram travels to Calcutta alone.He visits his old home and laments at his loss. Then he joins a mob that confronts Gandhi and [[Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy|Suhrawardy]], the [[Prime Minister of Bengal|Chief Minister of Bengal]], about the bloody riots. When questioned about whether they take full responsibility for the riots, both of them accept it and ask for forgiveness. The mob forgives them, but Ram refuses to.

Although Ram remains aloof at first, he slowly falls in love with Mythili. However, on their honeymoon in [[Maharashtra]], Ram and Mythili bump into a disguised Abhyankar, who introduces them to a dethroned Maharaja. During a hunting trip with Abhyankar and the Maharaja, Ram is reunited with his old [[Sindhis|Sindhi]] friend from Calcutta, Manohar Lalwani, who lost his family and home in the riots. After seeing Lalwani's misery, Ram realises he has still not gotten over Aparna's murder. Under Abhyankar's influence, Ram comes to the belief that Gandhi is solely responsible for the division of India and of the two religions and also of having supported whom they viewed as the enemy. Hindu fundamentalists, including the Maharaja and Abhyankar, are furious and plot to murder Gandhi. Ram unwittingly becomes a part of their militant organisation that plots to kill Gandhi. Due to a horse-riding accident, Abhyankar is left quadriplegic and has Ram swear that he will carry on his work of killing Gandhi. Lalwani gets a good job thanks to ram and the king.

Back in the present, Saket Ram's situation worsens. His grandson and Dr Munawar take him to the hospital, but are stopped by the police since there are bomb blasts in Madras due to Hindu-Muslim communal riots, as the day is anniversary of demolition of [[Babri masjid]]. Ram asks, "Even now?" A police officer makes them hide in an underground shelter for their safety. As they try to stay silent to avoid being attacked by the mob, Ram reminisces about how he plotted to kill Gandhi many decades ago.

Back in newly independent India, Ram begins to prepare to assassinate Gandhi once he returns to Madras. A pregnant Mythili becomes worried as her husband grows more distant and invites her parents and in-laws over to cheer him up. However, Ram has made up his mind to kill Gandhi and leaves home for [[Varanasi]], where he goes through a purification ritual. Then, he heads for Delhi and unknowingly stays at the same hotel as another fundamentalist planning to kill Gandhi, [[Nathuram Godse]]. When the police arrive to question Godse, a paranoid Ram hides his gun on a delivery truck. Later on, Ram goes to the soda factory in [[Chandni Chowk]] where the truck was heading to.

In Chandni Chowk, Ram is reunited with Amjad, who takes him to the soda factory. It is revealed that many Muslims civilians, including Amjad's wife Nafisa and their children, are hiding there out of fear of being attacked by Hindus during curfew. When it is discovered that Ram came there for a gun, the Muslims became suspicious that he might be out to kill them, attack him. A fight ensues that triggers a series of violent events in the area. While trying to escape both Hindu and Muslim mobs, Amjad finds out that Ram is in Delhi to assassinate Gandhi and he tries to convince his friend to not do it. He reveals that his father did not die of natural causes, but was murdered by a Hindu mob.

Just then, they are cornered by a Hindu mob who try to kill Amjad, but he is saved by Ram. Amjad is struck on the back of the head with a hammer and Ram takes him back to the soda factory. Together, they then help protect the Muslims hiding in the soda factory until the authorities arrive to control the situation. Amjad is shot in the leg.

Subsequently, Ram runs into his father-in-law and his friend who are there to meet Gandhi. He learns that his uncle and elder sister have died after learning he has left. Gandhi requests to see Ram to invite him on his long walk to Pakistan after finding out he helped save innocent Muslims. Ram ultimately changes his mind about Gandhi after seeing that his teachings are all about love and non-violence. He decides against assassinating the leader, and attempts to confess the truth to him in order to beg for forgiveness. However, it is too late as Gandhi is eventually [[Assassination of Mahatma Gandhi|killed]] by Godse. Then on, Ram lives by [[Gandhism|Gandhian principles]].

As the situation on the streets starts to cool down, Ram whispers his last words to his grandson and eventually dies. During Ram's funeral, Gandhi's great-grandson [[Tushar Gandhi|Tushar]] comes over and visits Ram's private room, which is full of historical photos. Ram Junior hands over Gandhi's footwear and spectacles which his late grandfather had previously collected from the place of the shootout and had treasured throughout his life.

== Cast ==
{{Col-begin|width=80%}}
{{col-break|width=20%}}
;Opening credits
*[[Kamal Haasan]] as Saket Ram / Saketharaman / Bhairav
*[[Shah Rukh Khan]] as Amjad Ali Khan
*[[Hema Malini]] as Ambujam
*[[Rani Mukerji]] as Aparna Saketharaman
*[[Girish Karnad]] as Uppilli Iyengar
*[[Naseeruddin Shah]] as [[Mahatma Gandhi]]
*[[Om Puri]] as Goel
*[[Vikram Gokhale]] as Maharaja
*[[Saurabh Shukla]] as Lalvani Sindi
*[[Nassar (actor)|Nassar]] as Ibrahim
*[[Abbas (actor)|Abbas]] as Dr. Munavar
*[[Atul Kulkarni]] as Shriram Abhayankar / Ramakrishna Pande
*[[Sowcar Janaki]] as Mythili's grandmother
*[[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]] as Bhashyam Iyengar
*[[Iravati Harshe]] as Nafisa, Amjad's wife
*[[Vasundhara Das]] as Mythili Saketharaman
{{col-break|width=20%}}
;Closing credits
*[[V. S. Raghavan]] as K. T. Chari
*[[Delhi Ganesh]] as Chari
*[[Gollapudi Maruti Rao]] as Govardhan
*[[Y. G. Mahendran]] as Yagyam
*[[Vaiyapuri]] as Vedha (Tamil) / Arun Mehra as Vedha (Hindi)
*[[Arun Bali]] as [[Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy|Shaheed Suhrawardy]]
*[[Shadaab Khan]] as Altaf Tailor
*[[Yatin Karyekar]] as Qureshi
*[[Manoj Pahwa]] as Jalal
*[[Chandrahasan]] as Mohangandhi Raman
{{col-break|width=20%}}
*Mohini Mathur as Haajra Begum
*[[Tushar Gandhi]] as himself
*[[Sharad Ponkshe]] as [[Nathuram Godse]]
*[[Shubhangi Gokhale]] as Rani
*[[Annapurna (actress)|Annapurna]] as Mrs. Chattopadhyay
*[[Shruti Haasan|Shruti K. Haasan]] as [[Vallabhbhai Patel]]'s daughter
*[[Aravind Akash|Aravind]] as Sankar Kishthaya
*[[Shabbir Ahmed (lyricist)|Shabbir]] as Aparna's attacker
*[[A. C. Murali Mohan|A. C. Murali]] as Parthasarathy
*[[Nikita Aria|Nikita Palekar]] as Pushpa Iyengar
{{Col-end}}

== Production ==
=== Development ===
[[Kamal Haasan]] had wasted all of 1998 on filming ''[[Marudhanayagam]]'', which ended up in [[production hell]], and did not act in any other film during the period (barring ''[[Kaathala Kaathala]]''), much to the dismay of his fans. To please them, he sought to begin and finish another film before resuming work on ''Marudhanayagam'', which became ''Hey Ram''.<ref name="dinakaran" /> Another motivation for Haasan to do the film was because, although he was born in a family of people devoted towards [[Mahatma Gandhi]], he himself was not initially a devotee, and had a critical view of Gandhi even as a teenager.<ref name="apology" /> Haasan initially intended to title the film as ''Satya Sodanai'' ({{Translation|Experiments With Truth}}), a reference to the title of Gandhi's autobiography, published in English as ''[[The Story of My Experiments with Truth]]'', but later decided on ''Hey Ram'',<ref name="red" /> the last words allegedly spoken by Gandhi when he was [[Assassination of Mahatma Gandhi|assassinated]] by [[Nathuram Godse]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Chauhan|first=Gaurang|date=18 February 2020|title=Kamal Haasan on 20 years of Hey Ram: 'Warnings the film spoke about are coming true'|url=https://www.zoomtventertainment.com/tamil-cinema/article/kamal-haasan-on-20-years-of-hey-ram-warnings-the-film-spoke-about-are-coming-true/554881|url-status=live|access-date=21 January 2022|website=[[Zoom (Indian TV channel)|Zoom]]|archive-date=21 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121090702/https://www.zoomtventertainment.com/tamil-cinema/article/kamal-haasan-on-20-years-of-hey-ram-warnings-the-film-spoke-about-are-coming-true/554881}}</ref> The film was produced by Haasan and his brother [[Chandrahasan]] under their banner [[Raaj Kamal Films International]], and was the company's first film to be shot simultaneously in Tamil and Hindi. The dialogues for the Hindi version were written by [[Manohar Shyam Joshi]]. Cinematography was handled by [[Tirru]], and editing by [[Renu Saluja]].<ref name="dinakaran" />{{Sfn|Dhananjayan|2014|p=384}}

=== Casting ===
Haasan chose the [[Bollywood]] actor [[Shah Rukh Khan]] to portray the [[Pathans in India|Pathan]] character Amjad Ali Khan, partly because the actor's father was a Pathan who was from [[Peshawar]]. Though not a native Tamil speaker, Khan dubbed in his own voice.<ref name="casting" /> He did not ask for any remuneration from Haasan, as he considered it an honour and privilege to work with one of his mentors.<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 May 2013 |title=SRK didn't take money for Hey Ram |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/SRK-didnt-take-money-for-Hey-Ram/articleshow/20313213.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015091010/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/SRK-didnt-take-money-for-Hey-Ram/articleshow/20313213.cms |archive-date=15 October 2015 |access-date=16 January 2017 |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> The role of Shriram Abhyankar was supposed to be played by the [[Marathi cinema|Marathi]] actor [[Mohan Gokhale]]; he had started working on the film in Madras but died suddenly due to a heart attack. Haasan later chose [[Atul Kulkarni]], another Marathi actor, to do the role.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 August 2005 |title=Test your epic gyaan |url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/2005/aug/11quiz.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120050258/https://www.rediff.com/movies/2005/aug/11quiz.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=20 January 2022 |website=[[Rediff.com]]}}</ref> [[Hema Malini]], who had reduced acting in films by then, accepted to act as Ambujam after being offered the role by Haasan.<ref name="casting" /> For the role of Ambujam's daughter Mythili, Haasan initially wanted Malini's daughter [[Esha Deol]]; however, it ultimately went to [[Vasundhara Das]].<ref name="tamilstar interview" />

Haasan initially considered having British actor [[Ben Kingsley]], who portrayed Gandhi in a [[Gandhi (film)|1982 film]], to reprise the role in ''Hey Ram'' but dropped the idea as he felt "it would be cliched and the film wouldn't be honest".<ref name="tamilstar interview">{{Cite web |title=Interview with Kamal Hassan {{!}} Kamal Hassan's done it again! |url=http://www.tamilstar.com/interview/actor/kamal/index.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010628021741/http://www.tamilstar.com/interview/actor/kamal/index.shtml |archive-date=28 June 2001 |access-date=29 April 2022 |website=Tamil Star Online}}</ref> He later approached [[Naseeruddin Shah]], who portrayed Gandhi in a play. Shah was initially reluctant due to the long hours of makeup required, but eventually accepted. Haasan wanted a [[Bengalis|Bengali]] woman to portray Saket Ram's Bengali wife Aparna, and chose [[Rani Mukerji]], also because of her Bollywood stardom. [[Saurabh Shukla]] was cast as a [[Sindhis|Sindhi]] character Lalwani after Haasan was impressed with his performance in ''[[Satya (1998 film)|Satya]]'' (1998). [[Girish Karnad]], who portrayed Saket Ram's father-in-law Uppili Iyengar, recommended [[Sharad Ponkshe]], who portrayed Godse in the Marathi play ''[[Me Nathuram Godse Boltoy]]'', to Haasan for reprising his role in the film.<ref name="casting" /> Gandhi's great grandson [[Tushar Gandhi|Tushar]] wanted to join the film, and Haasan accepted; Tushar plays himself.<ref name="casting" /><ref name="tamilstar interview" /> Mohini Mathur, who was 13 years old when witnessing Gandhi's assassination, accepted Haasan's request to play Amjad Ali Khan's mother Haajra.<ref name="tamilstar interview" />

=== Filming ===
Principal photography began on 22 March 1999.<ref>{{Cite news |date=5 April 1999 |title=Kamal Hasan’s first Hindi-Tamil, bilingual film Hey Ram |work=[[The New Indian Express]] |agency=[[Press Trust of India|PTI]] |url=http://www.cscsarchive.org:8081/MediaArchive/art.nsf/(docid)/060FC68BC5DAA7C165256940004B7B04?OpenDocument |url-status=dead |access-date=25 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120310190634/http://www.cscsarchive.org:8081/MediaArchive/art.nsf/(docid)/060FC68BC5DAA7C165256940004B7B04?OpenDocument |archive-date=10 March 2012}}</ref> The then [[Shankaracharya]] of Kanchi had filmed an interview scene for the film but later requested that his portions be removed to avoid controversy.<ref name="dinakaran" /><ref name="red" /> To achieve on-site dubbing of dialogues, Haasan hired Srivastav from Mumbai.<ref name="dinakaran" /> Production of the film cost a total of {{Indian Rupees}}11 crore rupees, excluding Haasan's salary.<ref name="no stopping him" />

== Soundtrack ==
Initially Haasan chose violinist [[L. Subramaniam]] to compose music for the film. Haasan completed shooting the whole film along with the song sequences that were composed by Subramaniam. According to Haasan, when he approached Subramaniam for the final sound for mixing, he had asked for ₹ 1,00,00,000 (almost US$1,40,100), which was not the amount agreed upon earlier.<ref name="Rerelease" /><ref>{{Cite web|last=Khatib|first=Salma|title=Changing notes of Heyram|url=http://www.screenindia.com/old/jan28/music1.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101121035534/http://www.screenindia.com/old/jan28/music1.htm|archive-date=21 November 2010|access-date=25 September 2011|website=[[Screen (magazine)|Screen]]}}</ref> So, Haasan went to composer [[Ilaiyaraaja]] to help him solve this situation. Haasan told Ilaiyaraaja that the songs had already been shot with the music composed by Subramaniam and he wanted to remove the songs and re-shoot them with Ilaiyaraaja's. On hearing that, Ilaiyaraaja suggested to Haasan that he could fix it without Haasan needing to re-shoot any footage or songs. Puzzled, Haasan was initially reluctant. Then Ilaiyaraaja asked Haasan if he did not have trust in him, and Haasan immediately agreed.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sinha |first=Seema |date=26 January 2015 |title=Ilaiyaraaja saved Kamal Haasan from re-shooting many portions of Hey Ram |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/Ilaiyaraaja-saved-Kamal-Haasan-from-re-shooting-many-portions-of-Hey-Ram/articleshow/46021574.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200105172102/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/Ilaiyaraaja-saved-Kamal-Haasan-from-re-shooting-many-portions-of-Hey-Ram/articleshow/46021574.cms |archive-date=5 January 2020 |access-date=9 November 2019 |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref><ref name="Vikatan" /> Subramaniam said he left the project, fearing that his association with the film may offend [[Hindus|Hindu]] people due to its contentious storyline.<ref name="red" />

The lyrics for the songs were not changed, but Ilaiyaraaja composed new tunes for the songs that would be in sync with the already shot footage. The background music and the songs were recorded in Hungary's [[Budapest Symphony Orchestra]] and thus ''Hey Ram'' became the first Tamil film and the second Indian film to be re-recorded with a foreign symphony orchestra. The first one was Ilaiyaraaja's own score for the [[Malayalam]] film ''[[Guru (1997 film)|Guru]]'' (1997).<ref name="apology" /><ref>{{Cite web|last=Sekhar|first=Shyam|date=1998|title=An Encounter With The Maestro {{!}} An Afternoon with Illaiyaraaja {{!}} Part III & IV (Conclusion...)|url=http://www.indolink.com/tamil/cinema/Specials/98/August/Raja3.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924042411/http://www.indolink.com/tamil/cinema/Specials/98/August/Raja3.htm|archive-date=24 September 2015|access-date=2 July 2015|website=Indolink}}</ref> The song "Isaiyil Thodangudhamma" was not present initially, but Ilaiyaraaja had seen an opportunity for a possible song in the scene and asked Haasan to give him a chance to add one. But Haasan, being the writer-director of the film, didn't see it. Then Ilaiyaraaja convinced Haasan to trust him with this and brought notable Hindustani singer Ajoy Chakrabarty to sing one of the most celebrated songs from the movie, "Isaiyil Thodanguthamma" and also writing the lyrics for the same.<ref name="Vikatan" />

{{Track listing
| headline = Tamil version
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Ram Ram
| note1 =
| extra1 = [[Kamal Haasan]], [[Shruti Haasan]]
| lyrics1 = [[Kamal Haasan]]
| length1 =
| title2 = Nee Partha
| note2 =
| extra2 = [[Asha Bhosle]], [[Hariharan (singer)|Hariharan]]
| lyrics2 = Kamal Haasan
| length2 =
| title3 = Pollatha Madhana Paanam
| note3 =
| extra3 = [[Mahalakshmi Iyer]], [[Anupama Deshpande]]
| lyrics3 = [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]], [[Jagdish Khebudkar]]
| length3 =
| title4 = Vaaranam Aayiram (Vaishnava Janatho)
| note4 =
| extra4 = Kanapadikal, [[Vibha Sharma]]
| lyrics4 = [[Narsinh Mehta]], [[Andal]], [[Gnanakoothan]]
| length4 =
| title5 = Isaiyil Thodanguthamma
| note5 =
| extra5 = [[Ajoy Chakrabarty]]
| lyrics5 = [[Ilaiyaraaja]]
| length5 =
| title6 = Sanyaas Mantra
| note6 =
| extra6 = Kamal Haasan, [[Hema Malini]]
| lyrics6 =
| length6 =
| title7 = Ramaranalum
| note7 =
| extra7 = Kamal Haasan, [[Jolly Mukherjee]], [[Hariharan (singer)|Hariharan]]
| lyrics7 = Vaali
| length7 =
}}

{{Track listing
|headline = Hindi version
|extra_column = Singer(s)
|total_length =
| title1 = Hey! Ram
| note1 =
| extra1 = [[Kamal Haasan]], [[Shruti Haasan]]
| lyrics1 = [[Sameer Anjaan|Sameer]]
| length1 =
| title2 = Janmon Ki Jwala
| note2 = {{small|poem of [[Jibanananda Das]] recited by [[Rani Mukherjee]]}}
| extra2 = [[Asha Bhosle]], [[Hariharan (singer)|Hariharan]]
| lyrics2 = Sameer
| length2 =
| title3 = Asa Ga Madan Ban Ghusla Kasa
| note3 =
| extra3 = Preeti Uttam, [[Anupama Deshpande]]
| lyrics3 = Sameer, [[Jagdish Khebudkar]]
| length3 =
| title4 = Sanyaas Mantra
| note4 =
| extra4 = [[Kamal Haasan]]
| lyrics4 =
| length4 =
| title5 = Chahe Pandit Ho
| note5 =
| extra5 = Kamal Haasan, [[Hariharan (singer)|Hariharan]], [[Jolly Mukherjee]]
| lyrics5 = Sameer
| length5 =
| title6 = Prem Bann
| note6 =
| extra6 = Preeti Uttam
| lyrics6 =
| length6 =
| title7 = Vaishnav Jana To
| note7 =
| extra7 = [[Vibha Sharma]]
| lyrics7 = [[Andal]], [[Gnanakoothan]], Sameer
| length7 =
| title8 = Har Koi Samjhe
| note8 =
| extra8 = [[Ajoy Chakrabarty]]
| lyrics8 = Sameer
| length8 =

}}

== Release ==
''Hey Ram'' was released simultaneously in [[Tamil language|Tamil]] and [[Hindi]] on 18 February 2000. A digitally remastered version of the film was released on 8 November 2019 on [[Amazon Prime Video]].<ref name="apology" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=8 November 2019 |title=Kamal Haasan's digitally remastered Hey Ram now on Amazon Prime! |url=https://www.moviecrow.com/News/25012/kamal-haasans-digitally-remastered-hey-ram-now-on-amazon-prime |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191215070912/https://www.moviecrow.com/News/25012/kamal-haasans-digitally-remastered-hey-ram-now-on-amazon-prime |archive-date=15 December 2019 |access-date=19 January 2022 |website=Moviecrow}}</ref> Internationally, the film was screened at the [[2000 Toronto International Film Festival|25th Toronto International Film Festival]] and at the 2000 [[Locarno Festival]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=25th Toronto International Film Festival Coverage: List of Films |url=http://www.digitalhit.com/torontofilmfestival/2000/filmlist |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303201548/http://www.digitalhit.com/torontofilmfestival/2000/filmlist |archive-date=3 March 2016 |access-date=11 October 2013 |website=digitalhit.com}}</ref> In 2015, ''Hey Ram'' was screened at the Habitat Film Festival.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The 10th Habitat Film Festival 2015 |url=http://www.habitatfilmclub.com/pdf/HFC_Brouchre_2015.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170322032250/http://www.habitatfilmclub.com/pdf/HFC_Brouchre_2015.pdf |archive-date=22 March 2017 |access-date=22 March 2017 |website=Habitat Film Club}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Jha |first=Subhash K |title=Kamal Haasan {{!}} Playing it cool |url=http://www.screenindia.com/old/feb04/cover.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081024220320/http://www.screenindia.com/old/feb04/cover.htm |archive-date=24 October 2008 |access-date=18 November 2020 |website=[[Screen (magazine)|Screen]]}}</ref> The film was re-released at [[SPI Cinemas|Sathyam Cinemas]] on 8 November 2019.<ref>{{Cite news |date=31 October 2019 |title=60 years of Kamal: Rajini to take part in celebrations |work=[[The Hindu]] |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/60-years-of-kamal-rajini-to-take-part-in-celebrations/article29836391.ece |url-status=live |access-date=10 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210518061030/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/60-years-of-kamal-rajini-to-take-part-in-celebrations/article29836391.ece |archive-date=18 May 2021}}</ref><ref name="Rerelease" />

=== Controversies ===
There were protests and press releases by political parties in select centres against the perceived negative depiction of Gandhi.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nahta |first=Komal |author-link=Komal Nahta |date=1 March 2000 |title=Controversy yes, but no collections |url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/2000/mar/01box.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121102122147/http://www.rediff.com/movies/2000/mar/01box.htm |archive-date=2 November 2012 |access-date=21 July 2012 |website=[[Rediff.com]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=20 June 2004 |title=TMC threatens to block Kamal Haasan 's films |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref>

=== Critical reception ===
''Hey Ram'' received critical acclaim.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Pillai |first=Sreedhar |date=21 April 2003 |title=In a new avataar |work=[[The Hindu]] |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-metroplus/in-a-new-avataar/article28405874.ece |url-status=live |access-date=20 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120044130/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-metroplus/in-a-new-avataar/article28405874.ece |archive-date=20 January 2022}}</ref> T. Krithika Reddy from ''[[The Hindu]]'' wrote, "Live sound, prosthetic make-up (Micheal Westmore), splendid cinematography (Thiru), magnificent art work (Sabu Cyril) and painstakingly designed costumes (Sarika) are some of the other highlights of this magnum opus, which is distinct in style and content...The chemistry between Kamal and Rani is explosive to say the least. Shah Rukh Khan, as usual comes up with an impeccable performance. Vasundhara, as the stoic second wife makes an impressive debut. Naseerudin Shah as Gandhi steals a clear march over the others in supporting roles."<ref>{{Cite news |last=Reddy |first=T. Krithika |date=25 February 2000 |title=Film Review: ''Hey! Ram'' |work=[[The Hindu]] |url=http://www.thehindu.com/2000/02/25/stories/09250221.htm |url-status=dead |access-date=5 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170201163652/http://www.thehindu.com/2000/02/25/stories/09250221.htm |archive-date=1 February 2017}}</ref> ''[[Dinakaran]]'' wrote, "The starting of 2000 itself has given a great joy to Tamil cinema! A Tamilian has created a film that caters to international standards."<ref>{{Cite news |date=6 March 2000 |title=Hey Ram |work=[[Dinakaran]] |url=http://www.dinakaran.com:80/cinema/english/reviews/2000/06-3.htm |url-status=dead |access-date=20 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051230203613/http://www.dinakaran.com/cinema/english/reviews/2000/06-3.htm |archive-date=30 December 2005}}</ref> Methil Renuka of ''[[India Today]]'' praised the film's "technical wizardry" and cast performances, but called it "difficult to categorise".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Renuka |first=Methil |date=28 February 2000 |title=Movie review: Kamal Haasan's 'Hey Ram' |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/society-the-arts/films/story/20000228-movie-review-of-kamal-haasan-hey-ram-777128-2000-02-28 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191203080210/https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/society-the-arts/films/story/20000228-movie-review-of-kamal-haasan-hey-ram-777128-2000-02-28 |archive-date=3 December 2019 |access-date=20 January 2022 |website=[[India Today]]}}</ref> K. N. Vijiyin of ''[[New Straits Times]]'' said, "To this writer, the message of the need for unity among various religious faiths was well told by Kamalhaasan".<ref name="NST" />

=== Box office ===
The Hindi version of ''Hey Ram'' grossed {{INRConvert|8.91|c}} in India and $550,000 ({{INR|link=Indian rupee}}2.39 [[crore]]) in other countries, for a worldwide total of {{INRConvert|11.30|c}}, against its {{INRConvert|9|c}} budget.<ref name="Hey Ram Box office" /> It was the 32nd-highest-grossing film of 2000 worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Top Worldwide Grossers 2000 |url=http://www.boxofficeindia.com/Years/year_world_total/2000 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150829083048/http://boxofficeindia.com/Years/year_world_total/2000 |archive-date=29 August 2015 |access-date=22 July 2015 |website=[[Box Office India]]}}</ref>

==== India ====
The Hindi version opened on 18 February 2000 across 115 screens, and earned {{INRConvert|44|l}} nett on its opening day. It grossed {{INRConvert|1.31|c}} nett in its opening weekend, and had a first week of {{INRConvert|2.39|c}} nett. The film earned a total of {{INRConvert|5.32|c}} net.<ref name="Hey Ram Box office" /> It was the 35th-highest-grossing film of 2000 in India.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Top India Total Nett Gross 2000 |url=http://www.boxofficeindia.com/Years/year_gross_boxoffice/2000 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150828013103/http://boxofficeindia.com/Years/year_gross_boxoffice/2000 |archive-date=28 August 2015 |access-date=22 July 2015 |website=[[Box Office India]]}}</ref>

==== Overseas ====
At the overseas box office, the Hindi version had an opening weekend of $250,000 ({{INR|link=Indian rupee}}1.08 [[crore]]) and went on to gross $350,000 ({{INR|link=Indian rupee}}1.52 [[crore]]) in its first week. The film earned a total of $550,000 ({{INR|link=Indian rupee}}2.39 [[crore]]) at the end of its theatrical run.<ref name="Hey Ram Box office" /> Overseas, it was the 17th-highest-grossing film of 2000.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Top Overseas Gross 2000 |url=http://www.boxofficeindia.com/Years/year_over_total/2000 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150829091827/http://boxofficeindia.com/Years/year_over_total/2000 |archive-date=29 August 2015 |access-date=22 July 2015 |website=[[Box Office India]]}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="float:centre; width:45%; text-align:center;"
|+ ''''Hey Ram'''' (Hindi) worldwide break-up
|-
! Territory
! Territory wise Collections break-up
|-
| rowspan="3" | India
| ''Nett Gross'': {{INRConvert|5.32|c}}
|-
| ''Distributor share'': {{INRConvert|2.63|c}}
|-
| ''Total Gross'': {{INRConvert|8.91|c}}
|-
|| International ''(Outside India)''
| $550,000 ({{INR|link=Indian rupee}}2.39 [[crore]])
|-
||'''Worldwide'''
| {{INRConvert|11.30|c}}
|}

== Accolades ==
{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background:#b0c4de; text-align:center;"
! Ceremony
! Category
! Nominee(s)
! Outcome
! {{tooltip|Ref.|References}}
|-
| rowspan="3"|[[47th National Film Awards]]
| [[National Film Award for Best Supporting Actor|Best Supporting Actor]]
| [[Atul Kulkarni]]
| {{won}}
| rowspan="3" style="text-align:center;" | <ref>{{Cite web |title=47th National Films Festival |url=http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm47NFAAward.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140505163411/http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm47NFAAward.aspx |archive-date=5 May 2014 |access-date=13 March 2012 |website=[[International Film Festival of India]]}}</ref>
|-
| [[National Film Award for Best Costume Design|Best Costume Design]]
| [[Sarika]]
| {{won}}
|-
| [[National Film Award for Best Special Effects|Best Special Effects]]
| Manthra
| {{won}}
|-
| [[48th Filmfare Awards South]]
| [[Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Tamil|Best Actor – Tamil]]
| [[Kamal Haasan]]
| {{won}}
| style="text-align:center;" | <ref>{{Cite news |last=Kannan |first=Ramya |date=24 March 2001 |title=Trophy time for tinseldom |work=[[The Hindu]] |url=http://www.hindu.com/2001/03/24/stories/0424401t.htm |url-status=dead |access-date=2 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501104755/http://www.hindu.com/2001/03/24/stories/0424401t.htm |archive-date=1 May 2011}}</ref>
|-
| [[46th Filmfare Awards]]
| [[Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor|Best Supporting Actor]]
| Atul Kulkarni
| {{Nominated}}
| style="text-align:center;" | <ref>{{Cite web |title=Filmfare Nominees and {{sic|nolink=1|Winner}} |url=https://archive.org/download/FilmfareAwards/FilmfareAwards.pdf |access-date=2 February 2022 |publisher=[[The Times Group]] |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="7" |[[Screen Awards|7th Annual Screen Awards]]
|Best Background Music
|[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
| {{won}}
| rowspan="7" style="text-align:center;" | <ref>{{Cite news |title=The winners for 7th Annual Screen Awards are |work=[[Screen (magazine)|Screen]] |url=http://www.screenindia.com/svawards/winom.htm |url-status=dead |access-date=2 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040219220635/http://www.screenindia.com/svawards/winom.htm |archive-date=19 February 2004}}</ref>
|-
|Best Actor
|Kamal Haasan
| {{Nominated}}
|-
|Best Supporting Actor
|Atul Kulkarni
| {{Nominated}}
|-
|Best Sound Recording
|Srivastav
| {{Nominated}}
|-
|Best Cinematography
|[[Tirru]]
| {{Nominated}}
|-
|Best Art Direction
|[[Sabu Cyril]]
| {{Nominated}}
|-
|Most Promising Newcomer (Female)
|[[Vasundhara Das]]
| {{Nominated}}
|-
| 64th Annual BFJA Awards
| [[Bengal Film Journalists' Association – Most Outstanding Work of the Year Award|Most Outstanding Work of the Year]]
| Kamal Haasan
| {{won}}
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 April 2008 |title=69th & 70th Annual Hero Honda BFJA Awards 2007 |url=http://www.bfjaawards.com/awards/winlist/winlist01.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080408132650/http://www.bfjaawards.com/awards/winlist/winlist01.htm |archive-date=8 April 2008 |access-date=16 November 2019 |website=[[Bengal Film Journalists' Association Awards|BJFA Awards]]}}</ref>
|}

== See also ==
*[[List of artistic depictions of Mahatma Gandhi]]
*[[List of historical films set in Asia]]

== References ==
{{reflist|refs=
<ref name="no stopping him">{{Cite news |last=Jeshi |first=K. |date=27 September 2004 |title=No stopping him |work=[[The Hindu]] |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-metroplus/no-stopping-him/article28346973.ece |url-status=dead |access-date=19 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120050856/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-metroplus/no-stopping-him/article28346973.ece |archive-date=20 January 2022}}</ref>
<ref name="Hey Ram Box office">{{Cite web |title=Hey Ram |url=http://www.boxofficeindia.com/Movies/movie_detail/hey_ram |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150707015531/http://www.boxofficeindia.com/Movies/movie_detail/hey_ram |archive-date=7 July 2015 |access-date=22 July 2015 |website=[[Box Office India]]}}</ref>
<ref name="apology">{{Cite news |last=S |first=Srivatsan |date=9 November 2019 |title='Hey Ram is my apology to Mahatma Gandhi': Kamal Haasan |work=[[The Hindu]] |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/hey-ram-is-my-apology-to-mahatma-gandhi-kamal-haasan/article29931157.ece |url-status=live |access-date=21 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191113022408/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/hey-ram-is-my-apology-to-mahatma-gandhi-kamal-haasan/article29931157.ece |archive-date=13 November 2019}}</ref>
<ref name="red">{{Cite web |last=Rajitha |date=18 November 1999 |title=Walk Out! |url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/1999/nov/18kamal.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160803154941/http://www.rediff.com/movies/1999/nov/18kamal.htm |archive-date=3 August 2016 |access-date=22 May 2016 |website=[[Rediff.com]]}}</ref>
<ref name="casting">{{Cite web |last=Mannath |first=Malini |title='HEY RAM' – Right man for the right role |url=http://www.chennaionline.com:80/entertainment/reeltalk/index.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19991128202723/http://www.chennaionline.com:80/entertainment/reeltalk/index.asp |archive-date=28 November 1999 |access-date=11 January 2022 |website=Chennai Online}}</ref>
<ref name="dinakaran">{{Cite web |date=22 March 1999 |title=Hema Malini – Sha Ruk Khan In Kamalhaasan's New Film! |url=http://www.dinakaran.com/cinema/english/cinenews/22-03-99/kamal.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041116232041/http://www.dinakaran.com/cinema/english/cinenews/22-03-99/kamal.htm |archive-date=16 November 2004 |access-date=11 January 2022 |website=[[Dinakaran]]}}</ref>
<ref name="NST">{{Cite news |last=Vijiyin |first=K. N. |date=26 February 2000 |title=Between fiction and history |work=[[New Straits Times]] |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=5VRIAAAAIBAJ&sjid=iRQEAAAAIBAJ&pg=5876%2C2725230 |access-date=20 January 2022}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
<ref name="Rerelease">{{Cite news |last=S |first=Srivatsan |date=9 November 2019 |title='Hey Ram is my apology to Mahatma Gandhi': Kamal Haasan |work=[[The Hindu]] |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/hey-ram-is-my-apology-to-mahatma-gandhi-kamal-haasan/article29931157.ece |url-status=live |access-date=9 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191113022408/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/hey-ram-is-my-apology-to-mahatma-gandhi-kamal-haasan/article29931157.ece |archive-date=13 November 2019}}</ref>
<ref name="Vikatan">{{Cite web |date=31 January 2019 |title=''என்னுடைய கோபம்...இளையராஜாவின் கண்ணீர்!'' - கமல்ஹாசன் சொல்லும் 'ஹேராம்' கதை |url=https://cinema.vikatan.com/tamil-cinema/148457-kamal-haasan-talking-about-ilayaraja |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191109143905/https://cinema.vikatan.com/tamil-cinema/148457-kamal-haasan-talking-about-ilayaraja |archive-date=9 November 2019 |access-date=9 November 2019 |website=[[Ananda Vikatan]] |language=ta}}</ref>
}}

== Bibliography ==

* {{Cite book|last=Dhananjayan|first=G.|title=Pride of Tamil Cinema: 1931–2013|title-link=Pride of Tamil Cinema|publisher=Blue Ocean Publishers|year=2014|oclc=898765509|author-link=G. Dhananjayan}}

== External links ==
*{{IMDb title|id=0222012|title=Hey Ram}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060105010525/http://www.uiowa.edu/~incinema/HEYRAM.html Philip's Fil-ums review]

{{Kamal Haasan}}
{{RaajKamalFilmsInternational}}
{{National Film Award Best Special Effects}}
{{Indian submission for Academy Awards}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:2000 films]]
[[Category:2000s crime drama films]]
[[Category:2000s Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:2000 multilingual films]]
[[Category:2000s Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:Cultural depictions of Jawaharlal Nehru]]
[[Category:Cultural depictions of Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma]]
[[Category:Cultural depictions of Mahatma Gandhi]]
[[Category:Cultural depictions of Muhammad Ali Jinnah]]
[[Category:Cultural depictions of Vallabhbhai Patel]]
[[Category:Films about World War II alternate histories]]
[[Category:Films directed by Kamal Haasan]]
[[Category:Films featuring a Best Supporting Actor National Film Award-winning performance]]
[[Category:Films scored by Ilaiyaraaja]]
[[Category:Films scored by L. Subramaniam]]
[[Category:Films set in 1947]]
[[Category:Films set in the Indian independence movement]]
[[Category:Films set in Tiruchirappalli]]
[[Category:Films that won the Best Costume Design National Film Award]]
[[Category:Films that won the Best Special Effects National Film Award]]
[[Category:Indian crime drama films]]
[[Category:Indian multilingual films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:Works about the Mahatma Gandhi assassination]]