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Bhumihar

2026-04-16T20:12:26Z

104.22.48.134:

{{Short description|Caste of India}}

{{Use British English|date=March 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2014}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
|group =Bhumihar
|region1 =[[East India]]
|pop1 =Estimated 2.43% of [[Bihar]]i population (i.e. over 7.2 million) plus significant population in [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Jharkhand]], and [[West Bengal]]
|ref1 =<ref name="Kumar05">{{cite news | url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Cities/Patna/Bhumihars_rooted_to_the_ground_in_caste_politics/articleshow/msid-1001601,curpg-2.cms | title=Bhumihars rooted to the ground in caste politics |last=Kumar |work=[[The Times of India]] | date=25 January 2005 | access-date=2008-04-05 }}</ref>
|languages =[[Hindi]], [[Bhojpuri]], [[Magadh]]i, [[Maithili language|Maithili]], [[Angika]], [[Bajjika dialect|Bajjika]], [[Bundeli]]
|religions =[[Hinduism]]
}}

'''Bhumihars''', also locally called '''Bhuinhar'''<ref>{{cite book |last=Freitag |first=Sandra B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9zKBWJejblgC&pg=PA8 |title=Culture and Power in Banaras: Community, Performance, and Environment, 1800-1980 |publisher=University of California Press |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-52008-094-2 |page=8}}</ref> '''<ref name="Ravindra2012">{{cite book |last=Jain |first=Ravindra K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cy6pAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 |title=Nation, Diaspora, Trans-nation: Reflections from India |publisher=Routledge |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-136-70414-7 |page=4}}</ref>''', are a [[Hindu]] [[Indian caste system|caste]] mainly found in [[Bihar]] (including the [[Mithila (region)|Mithila]] region),<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A0i94Z5C8HMC&pg=PA33 |title=Anthropology of Ancient Hindu Kingdoms: A Study in Civilizational Perspective |first=Makhan |last=Jha |page=33 |publisher=MD Publications |year=1997 |isbn=9788175330344 }}</ref> the [[Purvanchal]] region of [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Jharkhand]] .

They have traditionally been a land-owning group of eastern India, and controlled some small [[princely state]]s and [[zamindari]] estates in the region in the early 20th century. They played an important role in the [[peasant movement]]s and [[politics of Bihar]]. They [[Brahmin|Shudra]] status, although their ''[[Varna (Hinduism)|varna]]'' has been subject to much debate.<ref name="Arvind1982">{{cite book |last=Das |first=Arvind N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GL_yRdwbQP8C&pg=PA51 |title=Agrarian Movements in India: Studies on 20th Century Bihar |publisher=Psychology Press |year=1982 |isbn=978-0-7146-3216-2 |pages=51–52}}</ref>

== Etymology ==

The word ''bhūmihār'' is of relatively recent origin, first used in the records of [[United Provinces of Agra and Oudh]] in 1865. It derives from the words ''bhūmi'' ("land") and ''hāra'' ("one who seizes or confiscates"),<ref>{{Cite web|title=MW Cologne Scan|url=https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/csl-apidev/servepdf.php?dict=MW&page=1289|access-date=2021-08-03|website=www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de}}</ref> referring to the caste's landowner status. The term ''Bhumihar Brahmin'' was adopted by the community in the late 19th century to emphasise their claim of belonging to the priestly [[Brahmin]] class.<ref name="Ashwani2008_125">{{cite book |first=Ashwani |last=Kumar |title=Community Warriors: State, Peasants and Caste Armies in Bihar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=num2I4NFGqIC&pg=PA125 |year=2008 |publisher=Anthem Press |isbn=978-1-84331-709-8 |pages=125–127 }}</ref> The alternate name ''Babhan'' has been described as an [[apabhramsha]] for ''brāhmaṇ'' (Brahmin).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sinha |first1=Gopal Sharan |first2=Ramesh Chandra |last2=Sinha |date=September 1967 |title=Exploration in Caste Stereotypes |jstor=2575319 |journal=Social Forces |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=42–47 |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |doi=10.1093/sf/46.1.42}}</ref>

== History ==

As with many castes in India, there are numerous [[myth of origin|myths regarding the origins]] of the Bhumihar community. One legend states that they are the offspring of a union between [[ Rajputs in Bihar|Rajput]] men and Brahmin women, while according to another, they derive from [[Brahman]]-[[Buddhist]]s who lost their high position in Hindu society. The Bhumihars themselves dislike these narratives involving "hybridity" or "fallen status", and claim to be pure Brahmins.<ref name="Ashwani2008_125"/>

[[File:Majaraja of Benares and Suite, 1870s.jpg|thumb|right|Ruler of the [[Benares State]] in 1870s]]
By the 16th century, the Bhumihars controlled vast stretches of land in eastern India, particularly in north Bihar. By the late eighteenth century, along with [[Rajputs in Bihar|Bihari Rajputs]], they had established themselves as the most prominent landholders of the region.<ref name="Anand1998">{{cite book |first=Anand A. |last=Yang |title=Bazaar India: Markets, Society, and the Colonial State in Gangetic Bihar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D5lQutvzAp4C&pg=PA139 |year=1998 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-91996-9 |page=139}}</ref> Oral legends suggest that along with Muslims and Rajputs, they displaced the [[Bhar]] and [[Chero dynasty|Chero]] natives of the region.<ref name="Anand1989">{{cite book |first=Anand A. |last=Yang |title=The Limited Raj: Agrarian Relations in Colonial India, Saran District, 1793-1920 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ck4jmD7H34UC&pg=PA57 |year=1989 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-05711-1 |page=57}}</ref> The weakening of the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] suzerainty over the region gave rise to several small Bhumihar states. For example, the revenue contractors for the Mughal province of [[Awadh]] declared themselves the [[Maharaja]] of [[Benares State|Benares]]. They successfully defended their independence against the [[Nawab of Awadh]] in the 1750s and 1760s, before becoming a British dependency.<ref name="CABayly1988">{{cite book |first=Christopher A. |last=Bayly |title=Rulers, Townsmen and Bazaars: North Indian Society in the Age of British Expansion, 1770-1870 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xfo3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA17 |date=19 May 1988 |publisher=CUP Archive |isbn=978-0-521-31054-3 |pages=17–18}}</ref> Other [[princely state]]s and [[zamindari|fiefdoms]] ruled by Bhumihars included [[Bettiah Raj|Bettia]], [[Tekari Raj|Tekari]], [[Hathwa Raj|Hathwa]], Tamukhi, [[Sheohar]], [[Mahishadal]], [[Pakur]] and [[Maheshpur Raj|Maheshpur]].{{cn|date=June 2023}}

The distinctive Bhumihar caste [[ethnic identity development|identity]] was largely created through military service.<ref name="Susan2001">{{cite book |first=Susan |last=Bayly |title=Caste, Society and Politics in India from the Eighteenth Century to the Modern Age |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HbAjKR_iHogC&pg=PA203 |date=22 February 2001 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-79842-6 |page=203}}</ref> During early days of [[Company rule in India|British expansion]] in India, Bhumihars under [[Maharaja Chait Singh|Raja of Banaras, Cheyt singh]] participated in revolts against the [[East India Company]].<ref name="Pradeep2005">{{cite book |first=Pradeep |last=Barua |title=The State at War in South Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FIIQhuAOGaIC&pg=PA76 |year=2005 |publisher=U of Nebraska Press |isbn=0-8032-1344-1 |page=76}}</ref> After his defeat, the Company started recruiting Bhumihar [[sepoy]]s in large numbers until the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]].<ref name="Kaushik2004">{{cite book |first=Kaushik |last=Roy |title=India's Historic Battles: From Alexander the Great to Kargil |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jpXijlqeRpIC&pg=PA98 |year=2004 |publisher=Orient Blackswan |isbn=978-81-7824-109-8 |page=98}}</ref>

In [[History of India (1947–present)| post independence India]], according to author Rumela Sen, majority of upper caste households, including those of Bhumihars, had such landholdings which qualified them as "middle peasants". Though there existed few big landholders among them, but vast majority of them had economic status similar to middle peasants of [[Koeri]], [[Kurmi]] and the [[Yadav]] caste.<ref name="Sen">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EtEiEAAAQBAJ|title=Farewell to Arms: How Rebels Retire Without Getting Killed|author=Rumela Sen|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2021|isbn=978-0197529867|pages=48–49|access-date=12 July 2022|quote=the majority of these high-caste households were small landlords with landholdings that might also qualify them as "middle peasants." Their economic status was very similar to the middle peasant households among the backward-caste (Bania, Yadav, Kurmi, and Koeri). Although the Maoists identified these backward castes as a sympathetic class, some landowning, backward-caste households actually had economic interests in common with the upper-caste farming families.|archive-date=12 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220712115253/https://books.google.com/books/about/Farewell_to_Arms.html?id=EtEiEAAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> The general categorisation of all the Bhumihars being landlords is thus not a factually correct idea, as in urban areas latter were found to be engaged in variety of occupation. The upper crust among Bhumihars in urban areas were professionals and bureaucrats but many of them also worked as [[factory worker]]s, [[coal miner]]s and even load carriers (''Mazdoors'' or the labourers).<ref>{{cite book|title= India after Naxalbari: Unfinished History|author=Bernard D'Mello
|publisher=NYU Press|year=2018|
isbn=978-1583677087|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=8K07DwAAQBAJ&q=india+after+naxalbari|quote=
Nevertheless, the Bhumihars in Bihar are certainly not all "casteist" landlords. In the villages, there are Bhumihar landlords, but there are also Bhumihars who are small landowners. Of course, they consider it below their dignity to labor in the fields, especially ploughing the land, and as a result of their caste loyalty, they are politically on the same side as the big landowners of their caste. In urban areas, Bhumihars can be professionals, teachers, bureaucrats, judges, factory workers, coal miners, and even loading mazdoors.}}</ref>

=== Varna status ===

Among various narratives regarding their origin, composition and varna status, one states that there is an element of a low caste tribe called "Bhuyans" who gained land and assimilated with the Bhumihars.<ref>{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=rkjqDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA242|last=George|first=A|year=2016|title=Social Ferment in India|place=United Kingdom|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|page=242|isbn=9781474291125 }}</ref> Many communities do not give them the ritual status of priestly Brahmins, as most of them were cultivators during the British Raj.<ref name="Arvind1982"/> Some of the early censuses of British India categorised Bhumihars of Bihar as [[Shudra]]s, the lowest of the four [[varna in Hinduism|varnas]]. This was considered insulting, especially since several [[zamindar]]s (land-owning aristocrats) were Bhumihars.<ref name="Jeffrey2013">{{cite book |first=Jeffrey |last=Witsoe |title=Democracy against Development: Lower-Caste Politics and Political Modernity in Postcolonial India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sQcGAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA31 |date=5 November 2013 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-06350-8 |page=31}}</ref> Unlike the Brahmans or Rajputs, the Bhumihars did not participate in the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857|rebellion against British rule in India]] in 1857, but to their dismay, they were classified as belonging to the [[Vaishya|third ''varna'']] in the ad-hoc census of 1865 and the regular census of 1881.<ref>KUMAR, PURUSHOTTAM. “BHUMIHARS STRUGGLE FOR BRAHMIN STATUS (1857-1911).” Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, vol. 56, Indian History Congress, 1995, pp. 739–41, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44158695.</ref>

Like many other castes, the Bhumihars followed the process of [[sanskritisation]] to achieve their end. The Bhumihar zamindars and princely state rulers established caste-based associations (''sabha''s) to form a community network and to advance their claims to Brahmin status. The ''Pradhan Bhumihar Brahman Sabha'' ("Chief Assembly of Bhumihar Brahmins") was established in [[Patna]] in 1889. Its objective was "to improve moral, social and educational reforms of the community and to represent the wants of the community to the government".<ref>{{cite book |title=Action Sociology and Development |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l2Qt9tv2nSkC&pg=PA121 |date=1 January 1992 |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |isbn=978-81-7022-726-7 |page=121}}</ref> The Bhumihar Brahmin Mahasabha ("great assembly") was established in 1896.<ref>{{cite book |first=Ramacandra |last=Kshirasagara |title=Dalit Movement in India and Its Leaders, 1857-1956 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wx218EFVU8MC&pg=PA385 |date=1 January 1994 |publisher=M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. |isbn=978-81-85880-43-3 |page=385}}</ref> The local ''Bhumihar Brahmin Sabha''s included the ones at [[Muzaffarpur]] (1899), Patna (1899), [[Gaya, India|Gaya]] (1900) and Saran (1908).<ref name="Ashwini2008_210"/>

These associations made numerous petitions to be classified as Brahmins in the [[census of India prior to independence|1901 census report]].<ref name="William1996">{{cite book |first=William R. |last=Pinch |title=Peasants and Monks in British India |url=http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft22900465;chunk.id=s1.3.13;doc.view=print |date=19 May 1996 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-91630-2 |pages=83–84}}</ref> Persistent pressure from the Mahasabha, who glorified the history of the community, led to official recognition of the Bhumihars as Brahmins in the later Raj censuses. According to Ashwani Kumar, the Bhumihar claim to Brahmin status means that today "unlike other upper castes, [they] guard the local caste hierarchy more zealously for they perpetually feel the pressure of being dislocated and discredited in the topsy-turvy world of caste."<ref name="Ashwani2008_125"/>

Besides campaigning for the Brahmin status, the caste associations also played an important role in general welfare of the community. In 1899, the Bhumihar Brahmin Mahasabha, with financial aid from a zamindar, established a college at Muzaffarpur. This was accredited to award degrees in the following year and it was a significant development because education in the area was improving rapidly but students desirous of furthering it had to travel to [[Bhagalpur]], [[Calcutta]] or Patna. By 1920, 10 per cent of Bhumihars in Bihar were literate, making them one of the few literate castes; in this achievement, however, they were well behind the [[Kayastha]]s (33 per cent) and some other groups.<ref>{{cite book |title=Education and Social Changes in Bihar, 1900-1921: A Survey of Social History of Bihar from Lord Curzon to Noncooperation Movement |first=Shreedhar Narayan |last=Pandey |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1975 |isbn=9780842609869 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9PX938QYfmsC&pg=PA6 |pages=6–7, 161, 172–173}}</ref> In the first half of the 20th century, the Bhumihars suffered increasing economic hardships due to the steady fragmentation of land rights among heirs and the decline in agricultural prices during the [[Great Depression in India|Great Depression]]. During this period, the Bhumihar associations served as community networks that facilitated access to English education and urban employment.<ref name="Jeffrey2013"/> As with the Rajputs, Kayasthas and other high castes of Bihar – and as opposed to the methods used by most lower castes – neither the Mahasabha nor any other formal body exercised power to make and enforce caste rules.<ref>{{cite book |title=Education and Social Changes in Bihar, 1900-1921: A Survey of Social History of Bihar from Lord Curzon to Noncooperation Movement |first=Shreedhar Narayan |last=Pandey |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1975 |isbn=9780842609869 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9PX938QYfmsC&pg=PA171 |page=171}}</ref>

The Bhumihar Brahmin Mahasabha held annual sessions in different parts of present-day Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Among its prominent leaders was [[Sahajanand Saraswati]], a leader of the Bhumihar Brahmin Sabha of Patna. During the Balia session of 1914, Sahajanand defended the Brahmin status of the Bhumihars, using quotes from Hindu scriptures to argue that priestly functions do not alone define Brahmins. In 1916, he published a book titled ''Bhumihar Brahmin Parichay'' ("Introduction to Bhumihar Brahmins"), which outlined these arguments. He classified Brahmins into two categories – begging (''yachak'') and non-begging (''ayachak'') – and stated that the Bhumihars were among the non-begging Brahmins. The Bhumihars of [[Uttar Pradesh]] attempted to popularise the term "Bhumihar Brahmin", while discarding the term "Babhan". However, the term "Babhan" remained popular in Bihar.<ref name="Ashwini2008_210">{{cite book |first=Ashwani |last=Kumar |title=Community Warriors: State, Peasants and Caste Armies in Bihar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=num2I4NFGqIC&pg=PA210 |year=2008 |publisher=Anthem Press |isbn=978-1-84331-709-8 |page=210}}</ref> The recognised Brahmins did not favour the Bhumihar attempts to claim an equal status, and even stopped going to Bhumihar homes to perform ceremonies.<ref name="Sinha1991">{{cite book |first=Arun |last=Sinha |title=Against the few: struggles of India's rural poor |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mS25AAAAIAAJ |year=1991 |publisher=Zed Books |isbn=978-0-86232-718-7}}</ref>

== Political influence ==
The Bhumihars were influential in the politics of Bihar since the British days upto earlier decades of post independence India. Noted Bhumihar princely state rulers included [[Harendra Kishore Singh]] (Raja of [[Bettiah Raj|Bettiah]]) and [[Vibhuti Narayan Singh]] (Raja of the [[Benares State|Benares]]). However, in the latter years, the [[Other Backward Class|OBC]] consolidation in the state of Bihar led the dominant OBC castes like the [[Koeri]], [[Kurmi]] and [[Yadav]] to take lead in acquisition of political power; they replaced the castes, the Bhumihars, [[Rajput]]s, [[Brahmin]] and [[Kayastha]] in the political circle. By 1990s, there emerged two political blocs in the state, led by [[Lalu Prasad Yadav]] and [[Nitish Kumar]] respectively, which represented these three castes.<ref>{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=IVxODwAAQBAJ&pg=PT66|last=Kumar|first=S.|year=2018|title=Post-Mandal Politics in Bihar: Changing Electoral Patterns|place=India|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=9789352805860 }}</ref>

The Bhumihars have also played a pioneering role in organising [[peasant movement|peasant]], [[list of communist parties in India|leftist]] and [[Indian independence movement|independence]] movements since the 1910s.<ref name="ToI2004_eye">{{cite news | url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/767453.cms | title=BJP, Cong eye Bhumihars as Rabri drops ministers | first= Abhay |last=Singh |work=[[The Times of India]] | date=6 July 2004 | access-date=2014-11-11 }}</ref> In 1914 and 1916, the Bhumihars of Pipra and Turkaulia revolted against [[indigo revolt|indigo cultivation]].<ref name="Judith1974">{{cite book |first=Judith M. |last=Brown |title=Gandhi's Rise to Power: Indian Politics 1915-1922 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HUo4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA55 |date=26 September 1974 |publisher=CUP Archive |isbn=978-0-521-09873-1 |page=55}}</ref> When [[Mahatma Gandhi]] launched a [[Champaran Satyagraha|satyagraha]] against indigo cultivation in [[Motihari]] in 1917, a number of Bhumihar intellectuals joined the protest. These included [[Shri Krishna Singh (politician)|Shri Krishna Singh]] (or Sinha), Ram Dayalu Singh, Ramnandan Mishra, Shilbhadra Yaji, [[Karyanand Sharma]] and Sahajanand Saraswati.<ref name="ET2004_poster">{{cite news |url=http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2004-03-16/news/27368418_1_bhumihars-caste-political-space |title=These days, their poster boys are goons |date=16 March 2004 |access-date=2014-11-11 |work=The Economic Times }}</ref>

While a section of Bhumihars were landowners, the vast majority belonged to [[tenantry]]. Starting in 1914, two factions emerged in the Bhumihar Mahasabha: the landowner-dominated faction led by [[Ganesh Dutt]], and the tenant-dominated faction led by Sahajanand Saraswati. Sahajanand came from a zamindar family, which had been reduced to tenant status. He attracted a large number of followers who, as tenants, were exploited by the rich landlords. His support for the [[non-cooperation movement]] also alarmed the landlords, who were loyal to the British colonial administration. The growing differences between the two factions resulted in a split in the Mahasabha, in 1925-26. Sahajanand established an ashram at [[Bihta]], which started attracting tenants and peasants from other castes as well. When the rich Bhumihar landlords stopped supporting Sahajanand's activities, he declared that caste associations were a means to continue their supremacy.<ref name="Arvind1982"/> He established a caste-agnostic peasants movement, which later evolved into [[All India Kisan Sabha]]. In Bihar, Kisan Sabha, as well as the [[Communist Party of India]] (which was heavily inspired by Kisan Sabha), were identified as Bhumihar-dominated organisations for years.<ref name="Jeffrey2013"/>

After Sahajanand gave up [[caste politics in India|caste politics]], [[Ganesh Dutt]] emerged as the leader of Bhumihar Mahasabha. He later entered the [[Bihar Legislative Council]], and distributed patronage to other members of his caste. This patronage was extended further, when Shri Krishna Singh became the Premier and [[Chief Minister of Bihar]].<ref name="Sajjad2014">{{cite book |first=Mohammad |last=Sajjad |title=Muslim Politics in Bihar: Changing Contours |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0iVHBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA22 |date=13 August 2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-55982-5 |page=22}}</ref> His tenure saw the rise of a number of influential Bhumihar leaders including Mahesh Prasad Sinha, Krishnakant Singh, L. P. Shahi, Basawan Sinha, and [[Kailashpati Mishra]].<ref name="Ashwni2009"/> Singh also worked for the welfare of the lower castes. He was the first chief minister in India to abolish the zamindari system.<ref name="ToI2004_eye"/> He also led [[Dalit]]s' entry into [[Baidyanath Temple]].<ref name="Kumar05" />

After Shri Krishna Singh's death in 1961, the Bhumihar political hegemony gradually declined. A small number of Bhumihar leaders continued to play a significant role in the state unit of the [[Indian National Congress]]. These included Ramashray Prasad Singh, Rajo Singh, Ramjatan Sinha, Shyam Sunder Singh Dhiraj and Maha Chandra Singh.<ref name="Ashwni2009">{{cite book |first=Ashwani |last=Kumar |title=Community Warriors |year=2006 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7CyND7ebqUAC&pg=PA128 |publisher=Anthem Press |isbn=978-0-85728-684-0 |page=128}}</ref> The Congress parliamentarians [[Ganga Sharan Singh (Sinha)]] and [[Shyam Nandan Prasad Mishra]] also belonged to the Bhumihar community.<ref name="Sinha2003">{{cite book |first=Bindeshwari Prasad |last=Sinha |title=Kayasthas in making of modern Bihar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ryhuAAAAMAAJ |year=2003 |publisher=Impression Publication |page=vi |quote=J.P's most intimate friend was Ganga Sharan Singh, a Bhumihar }}</ref><ref name="ET2004_poster"/>

The Bhumihar influence in Bihar politics declined considerably after electoral defeat of Congress in the [[1990 Bihar Legislative Assembly election]]. The backward [[Other Backward Class|OBC]] castes like [[Yadav]], led by [[Lalu Prasad Yadav]], replaced them in the political circles. In the [[1999 Indian general election]], only three Bhumihars were elected: [[C. P. Thakur]] ([[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]), Kailashpati Mishra (BJP) and Rajo Singh (Congress). A few Bhumihar leaders also emerged in the political parties dominated by the [[Other Backward Class|OBC]]s. These included [[Akhilesh Prasad Singh]] ([[Rashtriya Janata Dal|RJD]]) and Arun Kumar (Samata Dal; now [[Rashtriya Lok Samata Party]]).<ref name="Ashwni2009"/>

As their power in the electoral politics declined, a number of Bhumihars were attracted to [[Ranvir Sena]], a private militia established in 1994.<ref name="Ashwni2009"/> The group has carried out armed operations against the [[Naxalite|Naxals]] in the region, and has been involved in atrocities against the lower castes, such as the [[Laxmanpur Bathe]] massacre.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/no-gentlemen-in-this-army/article3494007.ece |title=No gentlemen in this army |first=Ashwani |last=Kumar |date=6 June 2012 |work=The Hindu }}</ref> The Ranvir Sena which employed Bhumihar youths emerged as the most dreaded caste army in Bihar. It was named after the 19th century chieftain, Ranvir Chaudhary, who became a cult figure among Bhumihars after taking on powerful [[Rajput]] Zamindars.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1Qwd4I6Q5uMC&pg=PA56|title=Bihar in Flames|author1=S.K. Ghosh|author2=Srikanta Ghosh|publisher=APH Publishing|year=2000|isbn=8176481602|access-date=23 May 2022|page=56}}</ref>

== Influence in other fields ==

Being one of the early literate groups of British India, the Bhumihar community produced several prominent literary figures. These include [[Ramdhari Singh Dinkar]], [[Rambriksh Benipuri]] and [[Gopal Singh Nepali]].<ref name="ET2004_poster"/>

== Customs and traditions ==

== Common surnames ==
In Bihar, the Bhumihars started using the surname [[Sharma]] and the title [[Pandit]] in the 20th century.<ref name="NLGupta1974">{{cite book |first=N. L. |last=Gupta |title=Transition from capitalism to socialism and other essays |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4JVWAAAAMAAJ |year=1974 |publisher=Kalamkar Prakashan |page=165 }}</ref> Other common traditional Brahmin surnames used by the Bhumihars include Mishra, Chaudhary, Dikshit, Tivan, Pathak, Pande and Upadhyaya.<ref name="Virendra1992">{{cite book |first=Virendra Prakash |last=Singh |title=Community And Caste In Tradition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tOXZAAAAMAAJ |year= 1992 |publisher=Commonwealth Publishers |isbn=978-81-7169-242-2}}</ref> It is also common for Bhumihars to affix [[Singh]] (usually identified with Kshatriyas, especially Rajputs) to their name.<ref>{{cite book |title=Asian Studies at Hawaii |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YfiAAAAMAAJ |year=1978 |publisher=Asian Studies Program, University of Hawaii |page=64 }}</ref><ref name="Virendra1992"/>

== See also ==
*[[List of Bhumihar Babhan]] (Notable people)

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==
*{{cite book |first=Ranajit |last=Guha |author-link=Ranajit Guha |title=A Subaltern studies reader, 1986–1995 |publisher=South Asia Books |year=2000|edition=2nd |isbn=978-0-19-565230-7 }}
*{{cite book |first=R. K. |last=Maitra |title=Indian Studies: past & present |year=1959 |asin=B0000CRX5I }}
*{{cite book |first=R. S.|last=Sharma |author-link=Ram Sharan Sharma |title=Rethinking India's Past
|publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-569787-2}}
*{{cite book |first=Bindeshwar |last=Ram |title=Land and society in India: agrarian relations in colonial North Bihar |publisher=Orient Blackswan |year=1998 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2b_j0mNe2FwC |isbn=978-81-250-0643-5}}
*{{cite book |first=Christopher Alan |last=Bayly |author-link=Christopher Alan Bayly |title=Recovering Liberties: Indian Thought in the Age of Liberalism and Empire (Ideas in Context) |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-10-760147-5}}
*{{cite book |first=Gautam |last=Bhadra |author-link=Gautam Bhadra |title=Subaltern Studies: Writings on South Asian History and Society |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-19-565125-6}}
*{{cite book|first=Seema |last=Alavi |title=The Eighteenth Century in India |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-19-569201-3 }}
*{{cite book |first=Sarvepalli |last=Radhakrishnan |author-link=Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan |title=The Hindu View of Life |publisher=Harper Collins |year=2009 |isbn=978-81-7223-845-2|page=81}}
* [[Radha Kumud Mukherjee]], Ancient Indian Education: Brahmanical and Buddhist, Motilal Banarsidass, New Delhi (2011).
* [[M. N. Srinivas]], Social Change in Modern India, Orient Longman, Delhi, 1995.

[[Category:Social groups of Bihar]]
[[Category:Indian castes]]
[[Category:Brahmin communities of Bihar]]

Dasharatha Maurya

2026-03-16T05:02:41Z

104.22.48.134:

{{Short description|Mauryan Emperor}}
{{about|Mauryan king|character from Hindu Epic Ramayana|Dasharatha}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2016}}
{{Infobox royalty
|succession = 4th [[List of Mauryan rulers|Mauryan emperor]]
|image =Dasaratha Maurya Empire.jpg
|caption = Emperor Dasaratha Maurya Empire
|reign = {{circa|232|224 BCE}}
|coronation =
|full name = Dasharatha Maurya
|religion = [[Ajivika]]
|predecessor = [[Ashoka]]
|successor = [[Samprati]]
|spouse =
|issue=
|dynasty = [[Maurya Empire|Maurya]]
|father =
|mother =
|birth_date = 252 BCE
|birth_place =
|death_date = 224 BCE
|death_place =
|date of burial =
|place of burial =
|title=Devanampiya}}
{{Maurya}}
'''Dasharatha''' ({{IAST3|Daśaratha}}) was a [[Mauryan Empire|Mauryan]] emperor from 232 to 224 BCE. He was a grandson of [[Ashoka]] and is commonly held to have succeeded him as the imperial ruler of [[Greater India|India]]. Dasharatha presided over a declining imperium and several territories of the empire broke away from central rule during his reign. He had continued the religious and social policies of Ashoka. Dasharatha was the last ruler of the [[Mauryan dynasty]] to have issued imperial inscriptions—thus the last Mauryan Emperor to be known from epigraphical sources.{{citation needed|date=November 2015}}

Dasharatha died in 224 BCE and was succeeded by his brother [[Samprati]].

==Background==
Dasharatha was a grandson of the Mauryan ruler [[Ashoka]].<ref name="ML">Asha Vishnu; ''Material Life of Northern India: Based on an Archaeological Study, 3rd Century B.C. to 1st Century B.C. Mittal Publications''. 1993. {{ISBN|978-8170994107}}. pg 3.</ref> He is commonly held to have succeeded his grandfather as imperial ruler in [[Greater India|India]] although some sources including the [[Vayu Purana]] have given different names and numbers of Mauryan Emperors after Ashoka.<ref name="ML"/> Of the grandsons of Ashoka, the two most frequently mentioned are [[Samprati]] and Dasharatha.<ref name="AI">Sailendra Nath Sen; ''Ancient Indian History And Civilization''. New Age International. 1999. {{ISBN|978-8122411980}}. pg 152-154.</ref> The latter is described in the [[Vishnu Purana]] as the son and imperial successor of Suyashas (a son of Ashoka).<ref name="AI"/> It has been suggested that Suyashas was an alternative name of Ashoka's son and presumptive heir [[Kunala]].<ref name="AI"/>

==Administration==
Historians [[Vincent Arthur Smith|Vincent Smith]] and [[Romila Thapar]] advanced the popular theory of a division of the Mauryan Empire amongst Kunala and Dasharatha after the death of Ashoka.<ref name="SII">Buddha Prakash; ''Studies in Indian history and civilization''. Shiva Lal Agarwala. 1962. pg 148-154.</ref> In some of the sources the division is recorded as having been between Samprati and Dasharatha, the latter holding the eastern parts with the capital at [[Pataliputra]] and the former the western imperium with the capital at [[Ujjain]].<ref name="HO">Rama Shankar Tripathi; ''History Of Ancient India. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers''. 1942. pg 179.</ref> However, Smith also wrote that "there is no clear evidence to support [the] hypothesis."<ref name="TE">Vincent A. Smith; ''The Early History of India''. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. 1999. {{ISBN|978-8171566181}}. pg 193-207.</ref>

The Vayu and [[Brahmanda Purana|Brahmanda]] Puranas mention three Mauryan rulers—Bandhupalita, Indrapalita and Dasona—whose identification is rather difficult.<ref name="AI"/> It has been suggested that they may have been members of a branch line of the Maurya dynasty whom Dasharatha had appointed as regional governors for the convenience of administration.<ref name="AI"/>

The political unity of the Mauryan Empire did not long survive Ashoka's death.<ref name="AI"/> One of Dasharatha's uncles, Jalauka, set up an independent kingdom in [[Kashmir]]. According to [[Taranatha]], another Mauryan prince, Virasena declared himself king in [[Gandhara]].<ref name="AI"/> [[Vidarbha]] also seceded. Evidence from [[Greece|Greek]] sources confirm the loss of the north-western provinces which was then ruled by the Mauryan ruler [[Sophagasenus]] (Subhagasena, probably a successor of Virasena).<ref name="AI"/> There is also much modern speculation about a possible east–west division of the empire involving Dasharatha and another Mauryan ruler.<ref name="SII"/> Epigraphic evidence indicates that Dasharatha retained imperial power in [[Magadha]].<ref name="THO">Kenneth Pletcher; ''The History of India''. The Rosen Publishing Group. 2010. {{ISBN|978-1615302017}}. pg 70.</ref> He was a weak monarch and not much of an able military leader.

Various dynasties of the [[South India|south]] including the [[Satavahana dynasty|Satavahana]] had been feudatories of the Mauryan Empire. These kingdoms are mentioned in Ashoka's edicts (256 BCE) and were considered part of the outer circle of the imperium—subject to the rule of the Mauryan Emperor, although doubtless enjoying a considerable degree of autonomy under their local rulers.<ref name="TE"/> The death of Ashoka began the decline of imperial power in the south. Dasharatha was able to maintain some command of the home provinces, but the distant governments, including areas in the south, broke away from imperial rule and reasserted their independence.<ref name="TE"/> The [[Mahameghavahana dynasty]] of [[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]] in central-eastern India also broke away from imperial rule after the death of Ashoka.<ref name="TE"/>

According to a [[Jain]] text, the provinces of [[Surashtra]], [[Maharashtra]], [[Andhra Pradesh|Andhra]], and the [[Mysore]] region broke away from the empire shortly after Ashoka's death, but were reconquered by Dasharatha's successor, [[Samprati]] (who supposedly deployed soldiers disguised as Jain monks).<ref name="Chandra1977">{{cite book|author=Moti Chandra|title=Trade and Trade Routes in Ancient India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rDL4kA7SWkEC&pg=PA75|year=1977|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-055-6|pages=75–}}</ref>

==Religion==
[[File:Barabar Caves - Cave Entrance with Dorjee (9227649922).jpg|left|thumb|Entrance corridor of the [[Barabar Caves|Gopika Cave]], with polished [[granite]] walls, built and dedicated by Dasharatha Maurya.]]
Ashoka had displayed divine support in his [[Ashoka inscriptions|inscriptions]]; although a [[Buddhist]] ruler, he was called [[Devanampiya (title)|Devanampiya]], which means "Beloved of the Gods" in [[Pali]].<ref name="PI">Ram Sharan Sharma; ''Perspectives in social and economic history of early India''. Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers. 1995. {{ISBN|978-8121506724}}. pg 107.</ref> The title of Devanampiya and religious adherence of the Mauryan ruler to Buddhism was continued by Dasharatha.<ref name="PI"/><ref name="SI">Lal Mani Joshi; ''Studies in the Buddhistic Culture of India During the 7th and 8th Centuries A.D.'' Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. 1977. {{ISBN|978-8120802810}}. pg 362.</ref>

Dasharatha is known to have dedicated three caves in the [[Barabar Caves|Nagarjuni Hills]] to the [[Ajivikas]]. Three inscriptions at the caves refer to him as "''Devanampiya''" and state that the caves were dedicated by him shortly after his accession.<ref>Romila Thapar; ''{{IAST|Aśoka}} and the Decline of the Maurya''. Oxford University Press. 2001. {{ISBN|0-19-564445-X}}. pg 186.</ref>

===Nagarjuni caves inscriptions by Dasaratha Maurya===
[[File: Dasaratha Maurya inscription on entrance of Vadathika cave.jpg|thumb|Dedicatory inscription of Dasaratha Maurya above the entrance of the Vadathika cave.]]
[[Dasaratha Maurya]], Ashoka's grandson and regnal successor, wrote dedicatory inscriptions in the three forming the Nagarjuni group (Gopika, Vadathi and Vapiya caves) of the [[Barabar Caves]].<ref name="HP">Buddhist Architecture par Huu Phuoc Le [https://books.google.com/books?id=9jb364g4BvoC&pg=PA102 p.102]</ref> It is generally considered that their construction dates from his reign.<ref name = "HP"/>

The three caves were offered to the [[Ajivikas]] upon the accession to the throne of Dasaratha, confirming that these were still active around 230 BCE, and that [[Buddhism]] was not the exclusive religion of the Mauryas at that time.<ref name = "HP"/>

The three caves are also characterized by an extremely advanced finish of the granite walls inside, which again confirms that the technique of "Mauryan polish" did not die out with the reign of Ashoka.<ref name = "HP"/>
{{Clr}}
{| class = "wikitable center"
|+ Inscriptions of Dasaratha (grandson of Ashoka)
|-
! scope = "col" align = center | English translation !! [[Prakrit]] in [[Brahmi]] script (original text of the Nagarjuni Caves) 
|-
| align = left |
{{Block quote | Inscription of [[Barabar Caves|Gopika cave]]: '' "The cave of Gopika, a refuge that will last as long as the sun and the moon, was dug by Devanampiya (beloved of the gods) Dasaratha at from his elevation to the throne, to make it a hermitage for the most pious Ajivikas "".<ref name = "HP" /> [[File: Dasaratha_Maurya_inscription_on_entrance_of_Gopika_cave.jpg | 30px]]

Inscription of [[Barabar Caves|Vapiyaka Cave]]: '' "Vadathi Cave, a refuge that will last as long as the sun and the moon, was dug by Devanampiya (beloved of the gods) Dasaratha during his elevation to the throne, to make it a hermitage for the most pious Ajivikas "''.<ref name =" HP "/> [[File:Vapiyaka inscription of emperor Dasaratha Maurya.jpg|30px]]

Inscription of [[Barabar Caves|Vadathika Cave]]: '' "Vadathi Cave, a refuge that will last as long as the sun and the moon, was dug by Devanampiya (beloved of the gods) Dasaratha during his elevation to the throne, to make it a hermitage for the most pious Ajivikas "''.<ref name =" HP "/> [[File:Dasaratha Maurya inscription on entrance of Vadathika cave.jpg|30px]]
}}
| align = center width = "30%" |
[[File:Dasaratha Maurya Nagarjuni caves inscriptions in Barabar.jpg|200px]]
|}

==Succession==
Samprati, who succeeded Dasharatha, was according to the [[Hindu]] [[Puranas]],<ref name="AI"/> the latter's son and according to the Buddhist and [[Jain]] sources,<ref name="AI"/> Kunala's son (making him possibly a brother of Dasharatha). The familial relationship between the two is thus not clear although evidently they were closely related members of the imperial family.<ref name="AI"/>

== Notes ==
{{reflist|30em}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|[[Maurya Dynasty]]||||}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Ashoka]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Maurya Dynasty|Maurya Emperor]]|years=232–224 BCE}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Samprati]]}}
{{s-end}}

[[Category:Mauryan emperors]]
[[Category:3rd-century BC Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:224 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Year of birth unknown]]
[[Category:Indian Buddhists]]
[[Category:Indian Buddhist monarchs]]

Kalinga War

2026-03-14T04:07:10Z

104.22.48.134:

{{Short description|Conflict in ancient India}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Kalinga War
| partof = Conquests of [[Mauryan Empire]]
| image = File:Chandragupta Maurya Empire.png
| caption = [[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]] (adjacent to the [[Bay of Bengal]]) and the [[Maurya Empire]] (blue) before the attack of [[Ashoka The Great]]
| date = {{circa|261 BCE}}, in the 8th year of [[Ashoka]]'s coronation of 268 BCE<ref name=BA30/>
| place = [[Kalinga (historical kingdom)|Kalinga]]
| territory = [[Kalinga (historical kingdom)|Kalinga]] annexed by [[Mauryan Empire]]
| result = Mauryan victory<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/AtlasOfAncientWorldsDKPublishing2009 |title=Atlas Of Ancient Worlds |date=2009 |publisher=[[DK Publishing]], 375 Hudson Street, New York |isbn=978-0-7566-4512-0 |pages=55 |language=English |quote=The third Mauyran king was Ashoka the Great (ruled 268-232 BCE). In about 265 BCE, Ashoka conquered the kingdom of Kalinga.}}</ref>
| combatant1 = [[Mauryan Empire]]
| combatant2 = [[Kalinga (historical kingdom)|Kalinga]]
| commander1 = [[Ashoka]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Stephen |first=Becky |url=http://archive.org/details/india0000step |title=India |date=2010 |publisher=North Babylon Public Library|others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-1-85733-525-5 |pages=20 |quote=Ashoka the Great, born in 304 BCE, was emperor of all of the Indian subcontinent or nearly all. His decision to extend his rule to the unconquered kingdom of Kalinga on the Bay of Bengal brought about a conversion of the man and his empire.}}</ref>
| commander2 = Unknown
| strength1 = Unknown
| strength2 = Unknown
| casualties1 = Unknown
| casualties2 = 100,000 Kalinga soldiers died, 150,000 deported (figures by Ashoka)<ref>[[Ashoka]] ({{reign|268|231}} BCE), ''[[Edicts of Ashoka]]'', [[Ashoka's Major Rock Edict|Major Rock Edict]] 13.</ref><ref>[[Radhakumud Mookerji]] (1988). ''Chandragupta Maurya and His Times''. [[Motilal Banarsidass]] Publ. {{ISBN|81-208-0405-8}}.</ref>
| casualties3 = 250,000 killed <ref>{{cite book | last1=Raychaudhuri | first1=Hemchandra | title=Political History of Ancient India: From the Accession of Parikshit to the Extinction of the Gupta Dynasty | date=2006 | publisher=Cosmo Publications | isbn=978-81-307-0291-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h1KObc_qaXYC&pg=PA252 }}</ref>
}}

The '''Kalinga War''' (ended {{circa|261 BCE}})<ref name=" BA30">Le Huu Phuoc, Buddhist Architecture, Grafikol 2009, p.30</ref> was fought in ancient India between the [[Mauryan Empire]] under [[Ashoka the Great]] and [[Kalinga (historical kingdom)|Kalinga]], an independent feudal kingdom located on the east coast, in the present-day state of [[Odisha]] and northern parts of [[Andhra Pradesh]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ringmar |first=Erik |url=http://archive.org/details/oapen-20.500.12657-24805 |page=53|title=History of International Relations - A Non-European Perspective |date=2019 |language=English |quote=Above all, the spectacular bloodshed which took place at the battle of Kalinga in 260 BCE, in which, reputedly, no fewer than a quarter of a million soldiers died, made him change his ways. Remorseful and disgusted with his previous way of life,..Ashoka the Great, 268-232 BCE, renounced violence, converted to Buddhism, and started a number of projects to improve the lot of the poor, the aged and the widowed.}}</ref> It is presumed that the battle was fought on Dhauli hills in [[Dhauli]] which is situated on the banks of [[Daya River]]. The Kalinga War was one of the largest and deadliest battles in Indian history.<ref name="WorldAtlas 2016">{{cite web | title=Greatest Battles In The History Of India | website=WorldAtlas | date=2016-09-19 | url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/greatest-battles-in-the-history-of-india.html | access-date=2019-06-28}}</ref>

This is the only major war Ashoka fought after his accession to the throne, and marked the close of the empire-building and military conquests of ancient India that began with the Mauryan Emperor [[Chandragupta Maurya]].<ref name=" Raychaudhuri 2006 p. 268">{{cite book | last=Raychaudhuri | first=H. | title=Political History of Ancient India: From the Accession of Parikshit to the Extinction of the Gupta Dynasty | publisher=Cosmo Publications | year=2006 | isbn=978-81-307-0291-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h1KObc_qaXYC&pg=PA252 | accessdate=2019-06-27 | page=268,305}}</ref> The war cost nearly 250,000 lives.<ref name=" Raychaudhuri 2006 p. 268"/>

== Background ==
According to political scientist Sudama Misra, the Kalinga [[janapada]] originally comprised the area covered by the [[Puri district|Puri]] and [[Ganjam district|Ganjam]] districts.<ref>{{cite book|author=Sudāmā Miśra|title=Janapada state in ancient India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dua1AAAAIAAJ|year=1973|publisher=Bhāratīya Vidyā Prakāśana}}</ref>

The reasons for invading Kalinga were to bring peace and for power. Kalinga was a prosperous region consisting of peaceful and artistically skilled people. The northern part of Kalinga was known as the [[Utkala Kingdom|Utkala]] (Uttar: North, Kal: Kalinga), they were the first from the region to use a navy and traveled offshore to [[Southeast Asia]] for trade. For that reason, Kalinga was able to develop several ports and a skilled navy. The culture of Kalinga was a blend of [[Adivasi|tribal religions]], [[Śramaṇa]] (i.e. [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]], [[Ajivika]] etc.) and [[Brahmanism]] co-existing peacefully.<ref name="Ramesh Prasad Mohapatra 1986 Page 10">[[Ramesh Prasad Mohapatra]](1986) Page 10. ''Military History of Orissa''. Cosmo Publications, New Delhi {{ISBN|81-7020-282-5}}</ref>

Kalinga was under the rule of the [[Nanda Empire]] who ruled over the region from their capital in [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]] until their fall in 321 BCE.<ref>(Raychaudhuri & Mukherjee 1996, pp. 204-209, pp. 270–271)</ref> Ashoka's grandfather [[Chandragupta Maurya|Chandragupta]] had possibly attempted to conquer Kalinga but had been repulsed.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nagendra |first=Jaya S. |url=http://archive.org/details/indiaatglance0000nage |title=India at a glance |date=2013 |publisher=Delhi : Kalpaz Publications |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-81-7835-935-9 |pages=87 |quote=Chandragupta’s son Bindusara expanded the kingdom Turkestan down to modern Mysore and comprised most of the northern India and the Deccan. Only Kalinga remained independent.}}</ref> Ashoka set himself to the task of conquering and annexing Kalinga to the vast [[Maurya Empire]] as soon as he securely established himself as the Emperor.<ref name="Ramesh Prasad Mohapatra 1986 Page 10" /> Some scholars argue that Kalinga was a strategic threat to the Mauryas. It could interrupt communications between Mauryan capital [[Pataliputra]] and possessions in the central Indian peninsula. Kalinga also controlled the coastline for trade in the [[Bay of Bengal]].<ref name=" Roy 2015 p.15 ">{{cite book | last=Roy | first=K. | title=Military Manpower, Armies and Warfare in South Asia | publisher=Taylor & Francis | series=Warfare, Society and Culture | year=2015 | isbn=978-1-317-32128-6 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q5JECgAAQBAJ | access-date=2019-06-28 | page=15}}</ref>

==Course of the war==
{{Quote|text=No war in the history of India is as important either for its intensity or for its results as the Kalinga war of Ashoka. No wars in the annals of human history have changed the heart of the victor from one of wanton cruelty to that of exemplary piety as this one. From its fathomless womb, the history of the world may find out only a few wars to its credit which may be equal to this war and not a single one that would be greater than this. The political history of mankind is really a history of wars and no war has ended with so successful a mission of peace for the entire war-torn humanity as the war of Kalinga.|author=[[Ramesh Prasad Mohapatra]]|title=''Military History of Odisha''<ref>[[Ramesh Prasad Mohapatra]] (1986) Page 12. ''Military History of Odisha''. Cosmo Publications, New Delhi {{ISBN|81-7020-282-5}}</ref>}}

The war was completed in the eighth year of Ashoka's reign, according to his own [[Edicts of Ashoka]], probably in 261 BCE.<ref name=BA30/> After a bloody battle for the throne following the death of his father, Ashoka was successful in conquering Kalinga – but the consequences of the savagery changed Ashoka's views on war and led him to pledge to never again wage a war of conquest.

According to [[Megasthenes]], the Greek historian at the court of [[Chandragupta Maurya]], the ruler of Kalinga had a powerful army comprising infantry, cavalry and elephants.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sequeira|first=Dolly E.|title=Total History and Civics|publisher=Morning Star|year=2020|location=Delhi|pages=45, 46}}</ref> According to Indian archaeologist [[Dilip K. Chakrabarti]], the Mauryan army marched to Kalinga via [[Sarguja]], a route that was later followed by [[Samudragupta]] during his campaign against Kalinga.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chakrabarty |first=Dilip K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EIAyDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA46 |title=The Geopolitical Orbits of Ancient India: The Geographical Frames of the Ancient Indian Dynasties |date=2010-10-18 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-908832-4 |pages=42–43 |language=en |quote=The march of the Mauryan army through Sarguja and the hilly jungle which separates it from Chhattisgarh, and finally through the forests of Dandakaranya to the Kalinga coast. Of course, this reconstruction of the march of the Mauryan army from Pataliputra to the Kalinga coast is hypothetical but logical and probable in view of the fact that a few centuries later, Samudragupta of Magadha followed the same route to march to the Kalinga coast.}}</ref>

==Aftermath==
[[File: Dhauli Shanti Stupa, Bhubaneswar.jpg|thumb|left|Shanti Stupa, [[Dhauli]] hill is presumed to be the area where the Kalinga War was fought.]]
Ashoka had seen the bloodshed and felt that he was the cause of the destruction.<ref name="Roy 2015 p. 16">{{cite book | last=Roy | first=K. | title=Military Manpower, Armies and Warfare in South Asia | publisher=Taylor & Francis | series=Warfare, Society and Culture | year=2015 | isbn=978-1-317-32128-6 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q5JECgAAQBAJ | access-date=2019-06-28 | page=16}}</ref>

{{Quote|[[Devanampriya|Beloved-of-the-Gods]], King [[Priyadarsin|Priyadarsi]] (Ashoka) conquered the Kalingans eight years after his coronation. One hundred and fifty thousand were deported, one hundred thousand were killed and many more died (from other causes). After the Kalingans had been conquered, Beloved-of-the-Gods came to feel a strong inclination towards the [[Dharma]], a love for the Dharma and for instruction in Dharma. Now Beloved-of-the-Gods feels deep remorse for having conquered the Kalingans.|Ashoka|[[Edicts of Ashoka|Rock Edict]] No. 13<ref>{{cite book|last1=Allen|first1=Charles|title=Ashoka: The Search for India's Lost Emperor|date=2012|publisher=Little, Brown Book Group|isbn=9781408703885|page=82|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K4vHjbUtf_4C&pg=PT82|access-date=1 May 2018|language=en}}</ref>}}

Ashoka's response to the Kalinga War is recorded in the [[Edicts of Ashoka]]. The Kalinga War prompted Ashoka, already a non-engaged Buddhist, to devote the rest of his life to [[ahimsa]] (non-violence) and to ''dharma-vijaya'' (victory through [[dharma]]). Following the conquest of Kalinga, Ashoka ended the military expansion of the empire and began an era of more than 40 years of relative peace, harmony, and prosperity.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Narayan |first=Shovana |url=http://archive.org/details/dancelegacyofpat00nara |title=Dance legacy of Patliputra |date=1999 |publisher=Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India |others=Public Resource |isbn=978-81-230-0699-4 |pages=2 |quote=Commenting upon the achievements of Ashoka the Great, historian Radha Kamal Mukerji says “not only did Emperor Asoka achieve the consolidation of a vast Indian empire based on a unified Indian culture, but he also spread the message of universal peace and concord to the independent Dravidian countries and to the Greek rulers of Asia”.}}</ref>

==In popular culture==

* The 2001 Indian [[Hindi cinema|Hindi]]-language film ''[[Aśoka (film)|Aśoka]]'', is based on Kalinga war

* The book "Ashok and the nine unknown" by author Anshul Dupare is based on the aftermath of Kalinga war.

==See also ==

* [[List of battles by casualties]]
* [[Kalinga (historical region)]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081210080315/http://www.mssu.edu/projectsouthasia/history/primarydocs/Foreign_Views/GreekRoman/Megasthenes-Indika.htm Megasthenes: ''Indika''] (archived 10 December 2008)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140328144411/http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/ashoka.html The Edicts of King Ashoka] (archived 28 March 2014)

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:260s BC conflicts]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Maurya Empire]]
[[Category:Maurya Empire]]
[[Category:Kalinga (India)]]
[[Category:3rd century BC in India]]
[[Category:Conflicts in India]]
[[Category:Ashoka]]