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Republic of China (1912–1949)
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Template:History of the Republic of China
The Republic of China (ROC) (Chinese: 中華民國), or simply China (中國), was a sovereign state based in Mainland China from 1912 to 1949.[lower-alpha 1] It was first established in 1 January 1912, when it was proclaimed in the 1911 Revolution against the Manchu-led Qing dynasty, until 7 December 1949, after its ruling party Kuomintang (KMT) was defeated by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) at the de facto end of the Chinese Civil War,[lower-alpha 14] which resulted in a retreat of its central government to Taiwan, a territory which it took control of from the Empire of Japan in October 1945 after its surrender in World War II. The CCP-led People's Republic of China (PRC) then took over the governance of Mainland China with its capital in Beijing upon its establishment in 1 October 1949, while the ROC is now based on the island of Taiwan with its capital in Taipei, where it retains actual rule over the Taiwan Area with the political status of Taiwan remaining in dispute to this day.
The Republic was declared on 1 January 1912 after the 1911 Revolution overthrew the Qing dynasty, the last imperial dynasty of China. Sun Yat-sen, its founder and provisional president, served only briefly before handing over the presidency to Yuan Shikai, the leader of the Beiyang Army. Yuan quickly became authoritarian and used his military power to control the administration, which consequently became known as the "Beiyang government." Yuan even attempted to replace the Republic with his own imperial dynasty until popular unrest forced him to back down. When Yuan died in 1916, the country fragmented between the various local commanders of the Beiyang Army. This began the Warlord Era of decentralized conflicts between rival warlord cliques. The most powerful of these cliques, notably the Zhili and Fengtian cliques, at times used their control of Beijing to assert claims to govern the entire Republic.
Meanwhile, the Kuomintang (KMT or Nationalists), under Sun's leadership, attempted multiple times to establish a rival national government in Canton. Sun was finally able to take Canton with the help of weapons, funding, and advisors from the Soviet Union. As a condition of Soviet support, the KMT formed the "First United Front" with the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). CCP members joined the KMT and the two parties cooperated to build a revolutionary base in Canton. Sun planned to use this base to launch a military campaign northwards and reunify the rest of China. Sun's death in 1925 precipitated a power struggle that eventually resulted in the rise of General Chiang Kai-shek to Chairman of the KMT. Thanks to strategic alliances with warlords and help from Soviet military advisors, Chiang was able to lead a successful "Northern Expedition". By 1927, Chiang felt secure enough to end the alliance with the Soviet Union and purged the Communists from the KMT. In 1928, the last major independent warlord pledged allegiance to the Nationalist government in Nanjing.
While there was relative prosperity during the following ten years under Chiang Kai-shek, the Republic of China continued to be destabilized by the Chinese Civil War, revolts by the KMT's warlord allies, and steady territorial encroachments by Japan. Although heavily damaged by the purge, the CCP gradually rebuilt its strength by focusing on organizing peasants in the countryside. Warlords who resented Chiang's attempts to take away their autonomy and incorporate their military units into the National Revolutionary Army repeatedly led devastating uprisings, most significantly the Central Plains War. In 1931, the Japanese invaded Manchuria. They continued a series of smaller territorial encroachments until 1937, when they launched a full-scale invasion of the Republic of China.
World War II devastated China, leading to enormous loss of life and material destruction. The war between China and Japan continued until the surrender of Japan at the end of World War II in 1945, which led to Taiwan being placed under Chinese administration. In the aftermath of World War II, civil war resumed between the areas liberated by the Republic of China and those liberated by the Communists. The Communist People's Liberation Army managed to defeat the larger and better-armed National Revolutionary Army due to better military tactics and corruption of the ROC leadership. In 1949, the ROC repeatedly moved its capital to avoid the Communist advance—first to Guangzhou, followed by Chongqing, Chengdu, and lastly, Taipei. In October 1949, the CCP proclaimed the People's Republic of China. Remnants of the ROC government would hang on in Mainland China until late 1951.
The ROC was a founding member of the League of Nations and later the United Nations (including its Security Council seat) where it maintained until 1971, when the People's Republic of China took over its membership. It was also a member of the Universal Postal Union and the International Olympic Committee. At a population of 541 million in 1949, it was the world's most populous country. Covering 11.4 million square kilometres (4.4 million square miles) of its previously claimed territory,[2] it consisted of 35 provinces, 1 special administrative region, 2 regions, 12 special municipalities, 14 leagues, and 4 special banners.
Names[edit]
During the mainland period, the country was known in English as "China" or the "Republic of China". Internally, Zhongguo (Chinese: 中國; lit. 'middle country'), Zhonghua or Jung-hwa (Chinese: 中華; lit. 'middle and beautiful'), or Minguo (Chinese: 民國; lit. 'people's country') were used as short forms of the official country name Zhonghua Minguo (Chinese: 中華民國; lit. 'Chinese people's state') in Chinese.[3][4][5] Both "Beiyang government" (from 1912 to 1928), and "Nationalist government" (from 1928 to 1949) used the name "Republic of China" as their official name.Template:Sfnb The People's Republic of China (PRC), which rules mainland China today, considers ROC as a country that ceased to exist since 1949; thus, the history of ROC before 1949 is often referred to as Republican Era (simplified Chinese: 民国时期; traditional Chinese: 民國時期) of China.[6][7][8][9] The ROC, now based in Taiwan, today considers itself a continuation of the country, thus referring to the period of its mainland governance as the Mainland Period (traditional Chinese: 大陸時期; simplified Chinese: 大陆时期) of the Republic of China in Taiwan.[10]
Significance of the name[edit]
The country's official Chinese name Chunghwa Minkuo, stemmed from the party manifesto of Tongmenghui in 1905, which says the four goals of the Chinese revolution was "to expel the Manchu rulers, to revive Chunghwa, to establish a Republic, and to distribute land equally among the people. (Chinese: 驅除韃虜, 恢復中華, 創立民國, 平均地權; pinyin: Qūchú dálǔ, huīfù Zhōnghuá, chuànglì mínguó, píngjūn dì quán)." The convener of Tongmenghui and Chinese revolutionary leader Sun Yat-sen proposed the name Chunghwa Minkuo as the assumed name of the new country when the revolution succeeded. After the Xinhai revolution overthrew the Qing dynasty in 1911–12, Sun further explained the meaning of the country's Chinese name in detail in 1916:
Do you know the meaning of Chunghwa Minkuo? Why don't we call it Chunghwa Konghekuo (Chinese: 中華共和國; pinyin: Zhōnghuá Gònghéguó; lit. 'Chinese republic')[lower-alpha 15] but rather Chunghwa Minkuo (Chinese: 中華民國; pinyin: Zhōnghuá Mínguó; lit. 'Chinese people's state')? The meaning of the Chinese character "Min" (Chinese: 民; pinyin: Mín; lit. 'people') is the result of my decade-long research. Republics in Europe and the Americas were founded before this state. With our state founded in the 20th century, we shall have the spirit of innovation but not be satisfied with mimicking those founded in the 18th and 19th centuries. A republic as a representative form of government is universal across the world. For example, despite the dichotomy of the nobles and the slaves, Greece calls its state a republican dictatorship. While the United States, with its fourteen states, sets an example of large-scale democracy, Switzerland almost practices pure democracy. As our state transforms from absolutism to representative democracy, how can we fail to innovate and fall behind other nations? Our nation should thrive to see the world, to see the brightness of democracy, to better pursue fuller democracy on our soils. Under the flag of representative systems, our people only have the right to be politically represented. If we are to pursue democracy, we will possess the rights of initiatives, nullification, and recall. But such people's rights are not appropriate to be exercised on a provincial basis but rather be on a county-wide basis. Local finance should be autonomous, while the central government's finance is funded by localities. All kinds of the rest the industries should avoid the shortcomings of American-styled trust monopolies and should be controlled by the central government. If so, within a few years, a grave, bright Republic of China will be among the top republics in the world.
On 20 October 1923, Sun again stressed that Chunghwa Minkuo means a state "of the people".[11]
Relevance in Taiwan politics[edit]
The Taiwanese politician Mei Feng criticised the official English name of the state, "Republic of China," which fails to translate the Chinese character "Min" (Chinese: 民; pinyin: people) according to Sun Yat-sen's original interpretations, and stated the name should instead be translated as "the People's Republic of China." That would be the same as the current official name of mainland China under communist rule.[12] To avoid confusion, the ROC government in Taiwan began to put "Taiwan" next to its official name in 2005.[13]
History[edit]
Overview[edit]
A republic was formally established on 1 January 1912 following the Xinhai Revolution, which itself began with the Wuchang uprising on 10 October 1911, successfully overthrowing the Qing dynasty and ending over two thousand years of imperial rule in China.[14] From its founding until 1949, the republic was based on mainland China. Central authority waxed and waned in response to warlordism (1915–1928), a Japanese invasion (1937–1945), and a full-scale civil war (1927–1949), with central authority strongest during the Nanjing Decade (1927–1937), when most of China came under the control of the authoritarian, one-party military dictatorship of the Kuomintang (KMT).[15]
In 1945, at the end of World War II, the Empire of Japan surrendered control of Taiwan and its island groups to the Allies; and Taiwan was placed under the Republic of China's administrative control. The communist takeover of mainland China in 1949, after the Chinese Civil War, left the ruling Kuomintang with control over only Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu, and other minor islands. With the loss of the mainland, the ROC government retreated to Taiwan and the KMT declared Taipei the provisional capital.[16] Meanwhile, the CCP took over all of mainland China[17][18] and founded the People's Republic of China (PRC) in Beijing.
1912–1916: Founding[edit]
In 1912, after over two thousand years of imperial rule, a republic was established to replace the monarchy.[14] The Qing dynasty that preceded the republic had experienced instability throughout the 19th century and suffered from both internal rebellion and foreign imperialism.[19] A program of institutional reform proved too little and too late. Only the lack of an alternative regime prolonged the monarchy's existence until 1912.[20][21]
The Chinese Republic grew out of the Wuchang Uprising against the Qing government, on 10 October 1911, which is now celebrated annually as the ROC's national day, also known as "Double Ten Day". Sun Yat-sen had been actively promoting revolution from his bases in exile.[22] He then returned and on 29 December, Sun Yat-sen was elected president by the Nanjing assembly,[23] which consisted of representatives from seventeen provinces. On 1 January 1912, he was officially inaugurated and pledged "to overthrow the despotic government led by the Manchu, consolidate the Republic of China and plan for the welfare of the people".[24] Sun's new government lacked military strength. As a compromise, he negotiated with Yuan Shikai the commander of the Beiyang Army, promising Yuan the presidency of the republic if he were to remove the Qing emperor by force. Yuan agreed to the deal.[25] On 12 February 1912, regent Empress Dowager Longyu signed the abdication decree on behalf of the Xuantong Emperor, ending several millennia of Chinese monarchical rule.[26] Song Jiaoren led the Kuomintang Party to electoral victories by fashioning his party's program to appeal to the gentry, landowners, and merchants. Song was assassinated on 20 March 1913, at the behest of Yuan Shikai.[27]
Yuan was elected president of the ROC in 1913.[19][28] He ruled by military power and ignored the republican institutions established by his predecessor, threatening to execute Senate members who disagreed with his decisions. He soon dissolved the ruling Kuomintang (KMT) party, banned "secret organizations" (which implicitly included the KMT), and ignored the provisional constitution. An attempt at a democratic election in 1912 ended with the assassination of the elected candidate by a man recruited by Yuan. Ultimately, Yuan declared himself Emperor of China in 1915.[29] The new ruler of China tried to increase centralization by abolishing the provincial system; however, this move angered the gentry along with the provincial governors, who were usually military men.
1916–1927: Warlord Era[edit]
Yuan's changes to government caused many provinces to declare independence and become warlord states. Increasingly unpopular and deserted by his supporters, Yuan abdicated in 1916 and died of natural causes shortly thereafter.[30][31] China then declined into a period of warlordism. Sun, having been forced into exile, returned to Guangdong in the south in 1917 and 1922, with the help of warlords, and set up successive rival governments to the Beiyang government in Beijing, having re-established the KMT in October 1919. Sun's dream was to unify China by launching an expedition against the north. However, he lacked the military support and funding to turn it into a reality.[32]
Meanwhile, the Beiyang government struggled to hold onto power, and an open and wide-ranging debate evolved regarding how China should confront the West. In 1919, a student protest against the government's weak response to the Treaty of Versailles, considered unfair by Chinese intellectuals, led to the May Fourth movement, whose demonstrations were against the danger of spreading Western influence replacing Chinese culture. It was in this intellectual climate that the influence of Marxism spread and became popular, leading to the founding of the CCP in 1921.[33]
After Sun's death in March 1925, Chiang Kai-shek became the leader of the Kuomintang. In 1926, Chiang led the Northern Expedition with the intention of defeating the Beiyang warlords and unifying the country. Chiang received the help of the Soviet Union and the CCP. However, he soon dismissed his Soviet advisers, being convinced that they wanted to get rid of the KMT and take control.[34] Chiang decided to purge the Communists, killing thousands of them. At the same time, other violent conflicts were taking place in China: in the South, where the CCP had superior numbers, Nationalist supporters were being massacred. Such events eventually led to the Chinese Civil War between the Nationalists and Communists.
1927–1937: Nanjing decade[edit]
Chiang Kai-shek pushed the CCP into the interior and established a government, with Nanjing as its capital, in 1927.[35] By 1928, Chiang's army overthrew the Beiyang government and unified the entire nation, at least nominally, beginning the so-called Nanjing decade.[36]
Sun Yat-sen envisioned three phases for the KMT rebuilding of China – military rule and violent reunification; political tutelage; and finally a constitutional democracy.[37] In 1930, after seizing power and reunifying China by force, the "tutelage" phase started with the promulgation of a provisional constitution.[38] In an attempt to distant themselves from the Soviets, the Nationalist Government sought assistance from Germany. Chiang Kai-chek was influenced by European fascist movements, and launched the Blue shirts and the New Life Movement in conscious imitation of them.[39][40] Several major government institutions were founded during this period, including the Academia Sinica and the Central Bank of China. In 1932, China sent its first team to the Olympic Games. Campaigns were mounted and laws passed to promote the rights of women. In the 1931 Civil Code, women were given equal inheritance rights, banned forced marriage and gave women the right to control their own money and initiate divorce.[41] No nationally unified women's movement could organize until China was unified under the Kuomintang Government in Nanjing in 1928; women's suffrage was finally included in the new Constitution of 1936, although the constitution was not implemented until 1947.[42] Addressing social problems, especially in remote villages, was aided by improved communications. The Rural Reconstruction Movement was one of many that took advantage of the new freedom to raise social consciousness.[citation needed] The Nationalist government published a draft constitution on 5 May 1936.[43]
Continual wars plagued the government. Those in the western border regions included the Kumul Rebellion, the Sino-Tibetan War, and the Soviet Invasion of Xinjiang. Large areas of China proper remained under the semi-autonomous rule of local warlords such as Feng Yuxiang and Yan Xishan, provincial military leaders, or warlord coalitions.[36] Nationalist rule was strongest in the eastern regions around the capital Nanjing. The Central Plains War in 1930, the Japanese aggression in 1931, and the Red Army's Long March in 1934 led to more power for the central government, but there continued to be foot-dragging and even outright defiance, as in the Fujian Rebellion of 1933–34.[citation needed]
Reformers and critics pushed for democracy and human rights, but the task seemed difficult if not impossible. The nation was at war and divided between Communists and Nationalists. Corruption and lack of direction hindered reforms. Chiang told the State Council: "Our organization becomes worse and worse... many staff members just sit at their desks and gaze into space, others read newspapers and still others sleep."[44]
1937–1945: Second Sino-Japanese War[edit]
Few Chinese had any illusions about Japanese desires on China. Hungry for raw materials and pressed by a growing population, Japan initiated the seizure of Manchuria in September 1931 and established the ex-Qing emperor Puyi as head of the puppet state of Manchukuo in 1932. The loss of Manchuria, and its potential for industrial development and war industries, was a blow to the Kuomintang economy. The League of Nations, established at the end of World War I, was unable to act in the face of Japanese defiance.
The Japanese began to push south of the Great Wall into northern China and the coastal provinces. Chinese fury against Japan was predictable, but anger was also directed against Chiang and the Nanjing government, which at the time was more preoccupied with anti-Communist extermination campaigns than with resisting the Japanese invaders. The importance of "internal unity before external danger" was forcefully brought home in December 1936, when Chiang Kai-shek, in an event now known as the Xi'an Incident, was kidnapped by Zhang Xueliang and forced to ally with the Communists against the Japanese in the Second Kuomintang-CCP United Front.
Chinese resistance stiffened after 7 July 1937, when a clash occurred between Chinese and Japanese troops outside Beiping (Later Beijing) near the Marco Polo Bridge. This skirmish led to open, although undeclared, warfare between China and Japan. Shanghai fell after a three-month battle during which Japan suffered extensive casualties in both its army and navy. The capital, Nanjing, fell in December 1937, which was followed by mass murders and rapes known as the Nanjing Massacre. The national capital was briefly at Wuhan, then removed in an epic retreat to Chongqing, the seat of government until 1945. In 1940, the Japanese set up the collaborationist Wang Jingwei regime, with its capital in Nanjing, which proclaimed itself the legitimate "Republic of China" in opposition to Chiang Kai-shek's government, although its claims were significantly hampered due to its being a puppet state controlling limited amounts of territory.
The United Front between the Kuomintang and the CCP had salutary effects for the beleaguered CCP, despite Japan's steady territorial gains in northern China, the coastal regions and the rich Yangtze River Valley in central China. After 1940, conflicts between the Kuomintang and Communists became more frequent in the areas not under Japanese control. The Communists expanded their influence wherever opportunities presented themselves through mass organizations, administrative reforms and the land- and tax-reform measures favoring the peasants and, the spread of their organizational network, while the Kuomintang attempted to neutralize the spread of Communist influence. Meanwhile, northern China was infiltrated politically by Japanese politicians in Manchukuo using facilities such as the Wei Huang Gong.
After its entry into the Pacific War during World War II, the United States became increasingly involved in Chinese affairs. As an ally, it embarked in late 1941 on a program of massive military and financial aid to the hard-pressed Nationalist Government. In January 1943, both the United States and the United Kingdom led the way in revising their unequal treaties with China from the past.[45][46] Within a few months a new agreement was signed between the United States and the Republic of China for the stationing of American troops in China as part of the common war effort against Japan. The United States sought unsuccessfully to reconcile the rival Kuomintang and Communists, to make for a more effective anti-Japanese war effort. In December 1943, the Chinese Exclusion Acts of the 1880s, and subsequent laws, enacted by the United States Congress to restrict Chinese immigration into the United States were repealed. The wartime policy of the United States was meant to help China become a strong ally and a stabilizing force in postwar East Asia. During the war, China was one of the Big Four Allies of World War II and later one of the Four Policemen, which was a precursor to China having a permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council.[47]
In August 1945, with American help, Nationalist troops moved to take the Japanese surrender in North China. The Soviet Union—encouraged to invade Manchuria to hasten the end of the war and allowed a Soviet sphere of influence there as agreed to at the Yalta Conference in February 1945—dismantled and removed more than half the industrial equipment left there by the Japanese. Although the Chinese had not been present at Yalta, they had been consulted and had agreed to have the Soviets enter the war, in the belief that the Soviet Union would deal only with the Kuomintang government. However, the Soviet presence in northeast China enabled the Communists to arm themselves with equipment surrendered by the withdrawing Japanese army.
1945–1949: Defeat in the Chinese Civil War[edit]
In 1945, after the end of the war, the Nationalist Government moved back to Nanjing. The Republic of China emerged from the war nominally a great military power but actually a nation economically prostrate and on the verge of all-out civil war. The problems of rehabilitating the formerly Japanese-occupied areas and of reconstructing the nation from the ravages of a protracted war were staggering. The economy deteriorated, sapped by the military demands of foreign war and internal strife, by spiraling inflation, and by Nationalist profiteering, speculation, and hoarding. Starvation came in the wake of the war, and millions were rendered homeless by floods and unsettled conditions in many parts of the country.
On 25 October 1945, following the surrender of Japan, the administration of Taiwan and Penghu Islands were handed over from Japan to China.[48] After the end of the war, United States Marines were used to hold Beiping (Beijing) and Tianjin against a possible Soviet incursion, and logistic support was given to Kuomintang forces in north and northeast China. To further this end, on 30 September 1945 the 1st Marine Division, charged with maintaining security in the areas of the Shandong Peninsula and the eastern Hebei, arrived in China.[49]
In January 1946, through the mediation of the United States, a military truce between the Kuomintang and the Communists was arranged, but battles soon resumed. Public opinion of the administrative incompetence of the Nationalist government was incited by the Communists during the nationwide student protest against the mishandling of the Shen Chong rape case in early 1947 and during another national protest against monetary reforms later that year. The United States—realizing that no American efforts short of large-scale armed intervention could stop the coming war—withdrew Gen. George Marshall's American mission. Thereafter, the Chinese Civil War became more widespread; battles raged not only for territories but also for the allegiance of sections of the population. The United States aided the Nationalists with massive economic loans and weapons but no combat support.
Belatedly, the Republic of China government sought to enlist popular support through internal reforms. However, the effort was in vain, because of rampant government corruption and the accompanying political and economic chaos. By late 1948 the Kuomintang position was bleak. The demoralized and undisciplined National Revolutionary Army proved to be no match for the Communists' motivated and disciplined People's Liberation Army. The Communists were well established in the north and northeast. Although the Kuomintang had an advantage in numbers of men and weapons, controlled a much larger territory and population than their adversaries, and enjoyed considerable international support, they were exhausted by the long war with Japan and in-fighting among various generals. They were also losing the propaganda war to the Communists, with a population weary of Kuomintang corruption and yearning for peace.
In January 1949, Beiping was taken by the Communists without a fight, and its name changed back to Beijing. Following the capture of Nanjing on 23 April, major cities passed from Kuomintang to Communist control with minimal resistance, through November. In most cases the surrounding countryside and small towns had come under Communist influence long before the cities. Finally, on 1 October 1949, Communists led by Mao Zedong founded the People's Republic of China. Chiang Kai-shek declared martial law in May 1949, whilst a few hundred thousand Nationalist troops and two million refugees, predominantly from the government and business community, fled from mainland China to Taiwan. There remained in China itself only isolated pockets of resistance. On 7 December 1949, Chiang proclaimed Taipei, Taiwan, the temporary capital of the Republic of China.
During the Chinese Civil War both the Nationalists and Communists carried out mass atrocities, with millions of non-combatants killed by both sides.[50] Benjamin Valentino has estimated atrocities in the civil war resulted in the death of between 1.8 million and 3.5 million people between 1927 and 1949, including deaths from forced conscription and massacres.[51]
Government[edit]
The first Republic of China national government was established on 1 January 1912, in Nanjing, and was founded on the Constitution of the ROC and its Three Principles of the People, which state that "[the ROC] shall be a democratic republic of the people, to be governed by the people and for the people."[52]
Sun Yat-sen was the provisional president. Delegates from the provinces sent to confirm the government's authority formed the first parliament in 1913. The power of this government was limited, with generals controlling both the central and northern provinces of China, and short-lived. The number of acts passed by the government was few and included the formal abdication of the Qing dynasty and some economic initiatives. The parliament's authority soon became nominal: violations of the Constitution by Yuan were met with half-hearted motions of censure. Kuomintang members of parliament who gave up their membership in the KMT were offered 1,000 pounds. Yuan maintained power locally by sending generals to be provincial governors or by obtaining the allegiance of those already in power.
When Yuan died, the parliament of 1913 was reconvened to give legitimacy to a new government. However, the real power passed to military leaders, leading to the warlord period. The impotent government still had its use; when World War I began, several Western powers and Japan wanted China to declare war on Germany, to liquidate German holdings in China.
In February 1928, the Fourth Plenary Session of the 2nd Kuomintang National Congress, held in Nanjing, passed the Reorganization of the Nationalist Government Act. This act stipulated that the Nationalist Government was to be directed and regulated under the Central Executive Committee of the Kuomintang, with the Committee of the Nationalist Government being elected by the KMT Central Committee. Under the Nationalist Government were seven ministries—Interior, Foreign Affairs, Finance, Transport, Justice, Agriculture and Mines, and Commerce, in addition to institutions such as the Supreme Court, Control Yuan, and the General Academy.
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With the promulgation of the Organic Law of the Nationalist Government in October 1928, the government was reorganized into five different branches, or yuan, namely the Executive Yuan, Legislative Yuan, Judicial Yuan, Examination Yuan as well as the Control Yuan. The Chairman of the National Government was to be the head-of-state and commander-in-chief of the National Revolutionary Army. Chiang Kai-shek was appointed as the first chairman, a position he would retain until 1931. The Organic Law also stipulated that the Kuomintang, through its National Congress and Central Executive Committee, would exercise sovereign power during the period of "political tutelage", that the KMT's Political Council would guide and superintend the Nationalist Government in the execution of important national affairs, and that the Political Council has the power to interpret or amend the Organic Law.[53]
Shortly after the Second Sino-Japanese War, a long-delayed constitutional convention was summoned to meet in Nanjing in May 1946. Amidst heated debate, this convention adopted many constitutional amendments demanded by several parties, including the KMT and the Communist Party, into the Constitution. This Constitution was promulgated on 25 December 1946 and came into effect on 25 December 1947. Under it, the Central Government was divided into the presidency and the five yuans, each responsible for a part of the government. None was responsible to the other except for certain obligations such as the president appointing the head of the Executive Yuan. Ultimately, the president and the yuans reported to the National Assembly, which represented the will of the citizens.
Under the new constitution the first elections for the National Assembly occurred in January 1948, and the assembly was summoned to meet in March 1948. It elected the president of the republic on 21 March 1948, formally bringing an end to the KMT party rule started in 1928, although the president was a member of the KMT. These elections, though praised by at least one US observer, were poorly received by the Communist Party, which would soon start an open, armed insurrection.
Foreign relations[edit]
Before the Nationalist government was ousted from the mainland, the Republic of China had diplomatic relations with 59 countries[citation needed], including Australia, Canada, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, Estonia, France, Germany, Guatemala, Honduras, Italy, Japan, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Panama, Siam, the Soviet Union, Spain, the United Kingdom, the United States, and the Holy See. The Republic of China was able to maintain most of these diplomatic ties, at least initially following the retreat to Taiwan. Chiang Kai-shek had vowed to quickly return and "liberate" the mainland,[54][55] an assurance that became a cornerstone of the ROC's post 1949 foreign policy.
Under the Atlantic Charter, the Republic of China was entitled to a permanent seat on the UN Security Council (UNSC).[56][57] Though multiple objections were raised that the seat belonged to the lawful government of China, which had to many become the PRC even arguably prior to the official conclusion of the Chinese Civil War,[lower-alpha 16][58][59] the ROC retained the permanent seat reserved for China on the UNSC until 1971 when it was supplanted by the PRC.[60]
Administrative divisions[edit]
Rand McNally map of the Republic of China in 1914, after Mongolia declared its independence
Map of the first-level administrative divisions of the Republic of China in law (1945)
| Period Name (Current Name) | Traditional Chinese |
Pinyin | Abbreviation | Capital | Chinese | Modern equivalent (if applicable) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Provinces | ||||||
| Antung (Andong) | 安東 | Āndōng | 安 ān | Tunghwa (Tonghua) | 通化 | [note 1] |
| Anhwei (Anhui) | 安徽 | Ānhuī | 皖 wǎn | Hofei (Hefei) | 合肥 | |
| Chahar (Chahar) | 察哈爾 | Cháhār | 察 chá | Changyuan (Zhangjiakou) | 張垣(張家口) | [note 2] |
| Chekiang (Zhejiang) | 浙江 | Zhèjiāng | 浙 zhè | Hangchow (Hangzhou) | 杭州 | |
| Fukien (Fujian) | 福建 | Fújiàn | 閩 mǐn | Foochow (Fuzhou) | 福州 | [note 3] |
| Hopeh (Hebei) | 河北 | Héběi | 冀 jì | Tsingyuan (Baoding) | 清苑(保定) | |
| Heilungkiang (Heilongjiang) | 黑龍江 | Hēilóngjiāng | 黑 hēi | Peian (Bei'an) | 北安 | |
| Hokiang (Hejiang) | 合江 | Héjiāng | 合 hé | Chiamussu (Jiamusi) | 佳木斯 | [note 4] |
| Honan (Henan) | 河南 | Hénán | 豫 yù | Kaifeng | 開封 | |
| Hupeh (Hubei) | 湖北 | Húběi | 鄂 è | Wuchang (Wuchang) | 武昌 | |
| Hunan (Hunan) | 湖南 | Húnán | 湘 xiāng | Changsha (Changsha) | 長沙 | |
| Hsingan (Xing'an) | 興安 | Xīng'ān | 興 xīng | Hailar (Hulunbuir) | 海拉爾(呼倫貝爾) | [note 5] |
| Jehol (Rehe) | 熱河 | Rèhé | 熱 rè | Chengteh (Chengde) | 承德 | [note 6] |
| Kansu (Gansu) | 甘肅 | Gānsù | 隴 lǒng | Lanchow (Lanzhou) | 蘭州 | |
| Kiangsu (Jiangsu) | 江蘇 | Jiāngsū | 蘇 sū | Chingkiang (Zhenjiang) | 鎮江 | |
| Kiangsi (Jiangxi) | 江西 | Jiāngxī | 贛 gàn | Nanchang | 南昌 | |
| Kirin (Jilin) | 吉林 | Jílín | 吉 jí | Kirin (Jilin) | 吉林 | |
| Kwangtung (Guangdong) | 廣東 | Guǎngdōng | 粵 yuè | Canton (Guangzhou) | 廣州 | |
| Kwangsi (Guangxi) | 廣西 | Guǎngxī | 桂 guì | Kweilin (Guilin) | 桂林 | |
| Kweichow (Guizhou) | 貴州 | Guìzhōu | 黔 qián | Kweiyang (Guiyang) | 貴陽 | |
| Liaopeh (Liaobei) | 遼北 | Liáoběi | 洮 táo | Liaoyuan (Liaoyuan) | 遼源 | [note 7] |
| Liaoning (Liaoning) | 遼寧 | Liáoníng | 遼 liáo | Shenyang (Shenyang) | 瀋陽 | |
| Ningsia (Ningxia) | 寧夏 | Níngxià | 寧 níng | Yinchuan (Yinchuan) | 銀川 | |
| Nunkiang (Nenjiang) | 嫩江 | Nènjiāng | 嫩 nèn | Tsitsihar (Qiqihar) | 齊齊哈爾 | [note 8] |
| Shansi (Shanxi) | 山西 | Shānxī | 晉 jìn | Taiyuan (Taiyuan) | 太原 | |
| Shantung (Shandong) | 山東 | Shāndōng | 魯 lǔ | Tsinan (Jinan) | 濟南 | |
| Shensi (Shaanxi) | 陝西 | Shǎnxī | 陝 shǎn | Sian (Xi'an) | 西安 | |
| Sikang (Xikang) | 西康 | Xīkāng | 康 kāng | Kangting (Kangding) | 康定 | [note 9] |
| Sinkiang (Xinjiang) | 新疆 | Xīnjiāng | 新 xīn | Tihwa (Ürümqi) | 迪化(烏魯木齊) | |
| Suiyuan (Suiyuan) | 綏遠 | Suīyuǎn | 綏 suī | Kweisui (Hohhot) | 歸綏(呼和浩特) | [note 10] |
| Sungkiang (Songjiang) | 松江 | Sōngjiāng | 松 sōng | Mutankiang (Mudanjiang) | 牡丹江 | [note 11] |
| Szechwan (Sichuan) | 四川 | Sìchuān | 蜀 shǔ | Chengtu (Chengdu) | 成都 | |
| Taiwan (Taiwan) | 臺灣 | Táiwān | 臺 tái | Taipei | 臺北 | [note 12] |
| Tsinghai (Qinghai) | 青海 | Qīnghǎi | 青 qīng | Sining (Xining) | 西寧 | |
| Yunnan (Yunnan) | 雲南 | Yúnnán | 滇 diān | Kunming | 昆明 | |
| Special Administrative Region | ||||||
| Hainan (Hainan) | 海南 | Hǎinán | 瓊 qióng | Haikow (Haikou) | 海口 | |
| Regions | ||||||
| Mongolia Area (Outer Mongolia) | 蒙古 | Ménggǔ | 蒙 méng | Kulun (now Ulaanbaatar) | 庫倫 | [note 13] |
| Tibet Area (Tibet) | 西藏 | Xīzàng | 藏 zàng | Lhasa | 拉薩 | |
| Special Municipalities | ||||||
| Nanking (Nanjing) | 南京 | Nánjīng | 京 jīng | (Chinhuai District) | 秦淮區 | |
| Shanghai (Shanghai) | 上海 | Shànghǎi | 滬 hù | (Huangpu District) | 黄浦區 | |
| Harbin (Harbin) | 哈爾濱 | Hā'ěrbīn | 哈 hā | (Nangang District) | 南崗區 | |
| Mukden (Shenyang) | 瀋陽 | Shěnyáng | 瀋 shěn | (Shenhe District) | 瀋河區 | |
| Dairen (Dalian) | 大連 | Dàlián | 連 lián | (Xigang District) | 西崗區 | |
| Peiping or Peking (Beijing) | 北平 | Běipíng | 平 píng | (Xicheng District) | 西城區 | |
| Tientsin (Tianjin) | 天津 | Tiānjīn | 津 jīn | (Heping District) | 和平區 | |
| Chungking (Chongqing) | 重慶 | Chóngqìng | 渝 yú | (Yuzhong District) | 渝中區 | |
| Hankow (Hankou, Wuhan) | 漢口 | Hànkǒu | 漢 hàn | (Jiang'an District) | 江岸區 | |
| Canton (Guangzhou) | 廣州 | Guǎngzhōu | 穗 suì | (Yuexiu District) | 越秀區 | |
| Sian (Xi'an) | 西安 | Xī'ān | 安 ān | (Weiyang District) | 未央區 | |
| Tsingtao (Qingdao) | 青島 | Qīngdǎo | 膠 jiāo | (Shinan District) | 市南區 | |
- ↑ Now part of Jilin and Liaoning
- ↑ Now part of Inner Mongolia and Hebei
- ↑ Government moved to Jincheng in Kinmen County in 1949, relocated to Hsintien in Taipei County in 1956 where it was streamlined before moving back to Jincheng in 1996. The government was de facto dissolved in 2019.
- ↑ Now part of Heilongjiang
- ↑ Now part of Heilongjiang and Jilin
- ↑ Now part of Hebei, Liaoning, and Inner Mongolia
- ↑ Now mostly part of Inner Mongolia
- ↑ The province was abolished in 1950 and incorporated into Heilongjiang province.
- ↑ Now part of Tibet and Sichuan
- ↑ Now part of Inner Mongolia
- ↑ Now part of Heilongjiang
- ↑ Seat of government moved to Chunghsing New Village in Nantou County in 1956. Province streamlined in 1998 and government was de facto dissolved in 2018.
- ↑ Now part of the State of Mongolia and the Russian republic of Tuva. As the successor of the Qing dynasty, the Government of the Republic of China claimed Outer Mongolia before 1946, and for a short time under the Beiyang government occupied it. The Nationalist government officially recognized Mongolia's independence after the 1945 Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship due to pressure from the Soviet Union but that recognition was rescinded in 1953 during the Cold War.[62] In 2002, the Chen Shui-bian administration re-recognized Outer Mongolia as a independent country.[63]
Nobility[edit]
The Republic of China retained hereditary nobility like the Han Chinese nobles Duke Yansheng and Celestial Masters and Tusi chiefdoms like the Chiefdom of Mangshi, Chiefdom of Yongning, who continued possessing their titles in the Republic of China from the previous dynasties.[citation needed]
Military[edit]
The military power of the Republic of China was inherited from the New Army, mainly the Beiyang Army, which later split into many factions and attacked each other.[64] The National Revolutionary Army was established by Sun Yat-sen in 1925 in Guangdong with the goal of reunifying China under the Kuomintang. Originally organized with Soviet aid as a means for the KMT to unify China against warlordism, the National Revolutionary Army fought many major engagements: in the Northern Expedition against Beiyang Army warlords, in the Second Sino-Japanese War against the Imperial Japanese Army, and in the Chinese Civil War against the People's Liberation Army.[citation needed]
During the Second Sino-Japanese War, the armed forces of the CCP were nominally incorporated into the National Revolutionary Army, while remaining under separate command, but broke away to form the People's Liberation Army shortly after the end of the war. With the promulgation of the Constitution of the Republic of China in 1947 and the formal end of the KMT party-state, the National Revolutionary Army was renamed the Republic of China Armed Forces, with the bulk of its forces forming the Republic of China Army, which retreated to Taiwan in 1949 after their defeat in the Chinese Civil War. Units which surrendered and remained in mainland China were either disbanded or incorporated into the People's Liberation Army.[65]
Economy[edit]
In the early years of the Republic of China, the economy remained unstable as the country was marked by constant warfare between different regional warlord factions. The Beiyang government in Beijing experienced constant changes in leadership, and this political instability led to stagnation in economic development until Chinese reunification in 1928 under the Kuomintang.[66] After this reunification, China entered a period of relative stability—despite ongoing isolated military conflicts and in the face of Japanese aggression in Shandong and Manchuria, in 1931—a period known as the "Nanjing Decade".
Chinese industries grew considerably from 1928 to 1931. While the economy was hit by the Japanese occupation of Manchuria in 1931 and the Great Depression from 1931 to 1935, industrial output recovered to their earlier peak by 1936. This is reflected by the trends in Chinese GDP. In 1932, China's GDP peaked at 28.8 billion, before falling to 21.3 billion by 1934 and recovering to 23.7 billion by 1935.[67] By 1930, foreign investment in China totaled 3.5 billion, with Japan leading (1.4 billion) followed by the United Kingdom (1 billion). By 1948, however, the capital investment had halted and dropped to only 3 billion, with the US and Britain being the leading investors.[68]
However, the rural economy was hit hard by the Great Depression of the 1930s, in which an overproduction of agricultural goods lead to falling prices for China as well as an increase in foreign imports (as agricultural goods produced in western countries were "dumped" in China). In 1931, Chinese imports of rice amounted to 21 million bushels compared with 12 million in 1928. Other imports saw even more increases. In 1932, 15 million bushels of grain were imported compared with 900,000 in 1928. This increased competition lead to a massive decline in Chinese agricultural prices and thus the income of rural farmers. In 1932, agricultural prices were at 41 percent of 1921 levels.[69] By 1934, rural incomes had fallen to 57 percent of 1931 levels in some areas.[69]
In 1937, Japan invaded China and the resulting warfare laid waste to China. Most of the prosperous east coast was occupied by the Japanese, who committed atrocities such as the Nanjing massacre. In one anti-guerilla sweep in 1942, the Japanese killed up to 200,000 civilians in a month. The war was estimated to have killed between 20 and 25 million Chinese, and destroyed all that Chiang had built up in the preceding decade.[70] Development of industries was severely hampered after the war by devastating civil conflict as well as the inflow of cheap American goods. By 1946, Chinese industries operated at 20% capacity and had 25% of the output of pre-war China.[71]
One effect of the war with Japan was a massive increase in government control of industries. In 1936, government-owned industries were only 15% of GDP. However, the ROC government took control of many industries to fight the war. In 1938, the ROC established a commission for industries and mines to supervise and control firms, as well as instilling price controls. By 1942, 70% of Chinese industry was owned by the government.[72]
Following the surrender of Japan in World War II, Japanese Taiwan was placed under the control of the ROC. In the meantime, the KMT renewed its struggle with the communists. However, the corruption and hyperinflation as a result of trying to fight the civil war, resulted in mass unrest throughout the Republic[73] and sympathy for the communists. In addition, the communists' promise to redistribute land gained them support among the large rural population. In 1949, the communists captured Beijing and later Nanjing. The People's Republic of China was proclaimed on 1 October 1949. The Republic of China relocated to Taiwan where Japan had laid an educational groundwork.[74]
See also[edit]
- China–Soviet Union relations
- Economic history of China (1912–1949)
- History of China–United States relations to 1948
- Project National Glory
Notes[edit]
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 The state did not cease to exist in 1949. The government was relocated from Nanjing in Mainland China to Taipei of Taiwan, where it continues to be based to this day.
- ↑ The Republic of China was proclaimed in Nanjing on January 1, and moved to Beijing on March 10 of the same year.
- ↑ From 23 April 1949, the government was evacuated to Canton, Chongqing and Chengdu in the Mainland before declaring Taipei as its temporary capital on 7 December 1949. Chengdu was captured on 27 December.
- ↑ Nanjing was still marked as the legal capital on maps published by the Ministry of the Interior after 1949, until publication was suspended in 1998.
- ↑ As wartime provisional capital during the Second Sino-Japanese War after the fall of Nanking.
- ↑ As wartime provisional capital during the Second Sino-Japanese War.
- ↑ Wuchang Uprising started.
- ↑ The last monarch of the Qing dynasty, Xuantong Emperor abdicated, formally ending the Qing dynasty.
- ↑ Chinese Communist Revolution.
- ↑ Marco Polo Bridge Incident started.
- ↑ Surrender of Japan at the end of World War II.
- ↑ Independent Tibet was annexed by the PRC on 23 May 1951.
- ↑ Left hand drive until 1946.
- ↑ The Chinese Civil War remains de jure in effect as no armistice or peace treaty was signed, although it has since been a frozen conflict with skirmishes (e.g. First Taiwan Strait Crisis, Second Taiwan Strait Crisis and Third Taiwan Strait Crisis) over the decades since 1949.
- ↑ The Chinese name was also used by the Fujian People's Government in 1933.
- ↑ The relocation to Taiwan was initially intended to be a regrouping as the KMT had not actually been wholly defeated in the rest of China in 1949 and was initially able to hold onto pockets of Chinese territory on the mainland. After losing Hainan in 1950, most KMT holdouts were soon overrun, attempts to hold parts of the Chinese coast, especially that closest to Taiwan failed and rather than returning and reconquering-by the late 1950s the only presence the ROC had in mainland China was in the remote areas of western China's wilderness were a small number of KMT loyalists held out fighting a guerilla campaign that was gradually worn down.
References[edit]
Citations[edit]
- ↑ Dreyer, June Teufel (17 July 2003). The Evolution of a Taiwanese National Identity. Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. Archived from the original on 14 January 2018. Retrieved 13 January 2018.
- ↑ "中華民國九十四年年鑑：第一篇 總論 第二章 土地 第二節 大陸地區". Government Information Office, Executive Yuan, Republic of China. Archived from the original on 29 March 2012. Retrieved 5 December 2020.
- ↑ "中华民国临时大总统对外宣言书". 孙中山故居纪念馆. Archived from the original on 6 May 2021. Retrieved 3 May 2021.
抑吾人更有进者，民国与世界各国政府人民之交际，此后必益求辑睦。
- ↑ 溫躍寬. 被西方誉成为的“民国黄金十年”. 憶庫. 2013-10-17 [2014-02-23](in Chinese).
- ↑ 中华民国纪年也称“民国纪年”。
- ↑ "Exploring Chinese History :: Database Catalog :: Biographical Database :: Republican Era- (1912–1949)". Archived from the original on 8 September 2020. Retrieved 23 November 2020.
- ↑ "民國時期（1911-1949）的目錄與學者數據庫". Harvard University. Archived from the original on 14 June 2021. Retrieved 14 June 2021.
- ↑ 吳展良. "民国时期的启蒙与批判启蒙". 臺灣大學. Archived from the original on 14 June 2021. Retrieved 14 June 2021.
- ↑ "民国时期期刊全文数据库(1911～1949)". 全国报刊索引. Archived from the original on 7 May 2021. Retrieved 3 May 2021.
- ↑ Joachim, Martin D. (1993). Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. Psychology Press. ISBN 9781560245209. Archived from the original on 10 April 2023. Retrieved 4 January 2021.
- ↑ 黎民."中華民國國號的來由和意義". 黄花岗杂志. Archived from the original on 23 October 2016.
- ↑ 梅峯."中華民國應譯為「PRC」". 开放网. Archived from the original on 17 November 2015. Retrieved 21 April 2022.2014-07-12
- ↑ BBC 中文網 (29 August 2005). "論壇：台總統府網頁加注"台灣"" (in 中文（繁體）). BBC 中文網. Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 12 March 2007.
台總統府公共事務室陳文宗上周六（7月30日）表示，外界人士易把中華民國（Republic of China），誤認為對岸的中國，造成困擾和不便。公共事務室指出，為了明確區別，決定自周六起於中文繁體、簡體的總統府網站中，在「中華民國」之後，以括弧加注「臺灣」。
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 China, Fiver thousand years of History and Civilization. City University Of Hong Kong Press. 2007. p. 116. ISBN 9789629371401. Archived from the original on 10 April 2023. Retrieved 9 September 2014.
- ↑ Roy, Denny (2004). Taiwan: A Political History. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. pp. 55, 56. ISBN 0-8014-8805-2.
- ↑ "Taiwan Timeline – Retreat to Taiwan". BBC News. 2000. Archived from the original on 24 June 2009. Retrieved 21 June 2009.
- ↑ China: U.S. policy since 1945. Congressional Quarterly. 1980. ISBN 0-87187-188-2.
the city of Taipei became the temporary capital of the Republic of China
- ↑ Introduction to Sovereignty: A Case Study of Taiwan (Report). Stanford Program on International and Cross-Cultural Education. 2004. Archived from the original on 29 April 2011. Retrieved 17 May 2023.
- ↑ 19.0 19.1 "The Chinese Revolution of 1911". US Department of State. Archived from the original on 19 October 2016. Retrieved 27 October 2016.
- ↑ Fenby 2009, pp. 89–94
- ↑ Fairbank; Goldman (1972). China. Crowell. p. 235. ISBN 0-690-07612-6.
- ↑ Wang, Yi Chu. "Sun Yat-sen". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Archived from the original on 21 March 2022. Retrieved 7 September 2022.
- ↑ "Sun Yat Sen elected president of new Republic of China". Shanghai: United Press International. 29 December 1911. Archived from the original on 1 December 2022. Retrieved 7 September 2022.
- ↑ Jonathan Fenby, The Penguin History of Modern China (2013) p. 123.
- ↑ Hsü 1970, pp. 472–474
- ↑ "The abdication decree of Emperor Puyi (1912)". alphahistory.com. 4 June 2013. Archived from the original on 10 April 2023. Retrieved 22 May 2021.
- ↑ Jonathan Fenby, "The silencing of Song." History Today (March 2013) 63#3 pp 5–7.
- ↑ Fenby 2009, pp. 123–125
- ↑ Fenby 2009, p. 131
- ↑ Fenby 2009, pp. 136–138
- ↑ Meyer, Kathryn; James H Wittebols; Terry Parssinen (2002). Webs of Smoke. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 54–56. ISBN 0-7425-2003-X. Archived from the original on 10 April 2023. Retrieved 28 October 2020.
- ↑ Pak, Edwin; Wah Leung (2005). Essentials of Modern Chinese History. Research & Education Assoc. pp. 59–61. ISBN 978-0-87891-458-6. Archived from the original on 10 April 2023. Retrieved 28 October 2020.
- ↑ Guillermaz, Jacques (1972). A History of the Chinese Communist Party 1921–1949. Taylor & Francis. pp. 22–23. Archived from the original on 10 April 2023. Retrieved 28 October 2020.
- ↑ Fenby 2009
- ↑ "民國十六年，國民政府宣言定為首都，今以臺北市為我國中央政府所在地。" (in 中文). Ministry of Education, ROC. Archived from the original on 17 May 2021. Retrieved 22 December 2012.
- ↑ 36.0 36.1 Kucha, Glenn; Llewellyn, Jennifer (12 September 2019). "The Nanjing Decade". Alpha History. Archived from the original on 10 April 2023. Retrieved 7 September 2022.
- ↑ (Fung 2000, p. 30)
- ↑ Chen, Lifu; Ramon Hawley Myers (1994). Hsu-hsin Chang, Ramon Hawley Myers (ed.). The storm clouds clear over China: the memoir of Chʻen Li-fu, 1900–1993. Hoover Press. p. 102. ISBN 0-8179-9272-3.
After the 1930 mutiny ended, Chiang accepted the suggestion of Wang Ching-wei, Yen Hsi-shan, and Feng Yü-hsiang that a provisional constitution for the political tutelage period be drafted.
- ↑ Eastman, Lloyd (2021). "Fascism in Kuomintang China: The Blue Shirts". The China Quarterly. Cambridge University Press (49): 1–31. JSTOR 652110. Retrieved 2 February 2021.
- ↑ Payne, Stanley (2021). A History of Fascism 1914–1945. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 337. ISBN 978-0299148744. Retrieved 2 February 2021.
- ↑ Hershatter, G. (2018). Women and China's Revolutions. US: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
- ↑ Nicola Spakowski, Cecilia Nathansen Milwertz:Women and Gender in Chinese Studies
- ↑ Jing Zhiren (荆知仁). 中华民国立宪史 (in 中文). 联经出版公司.
- ↑ (Fung 2000, p. 5) "Nationalist disunity, political instability, civil strife, the communist challenge, the autocracy of Chiang Kai-shek, the ascendancy of the military, the escalating Japanese threat, and the "crisis of democracy" in Italy, Germany, Poland, and Spain, all contributed to a freezing of democracy by the Nationalist leadership."
- ↑ Sino-U.S. Treaty for Relinquishment of Extraterritorial Rights in China
- ↑ Sino-British Treaty for the Relinquishment of Extra-Territorial Rights in China
- ↑ Urquhart, Brian. Looking for the Sheriff. New York Review of Books, 16 July 1998.
- ↑ Brendan M. Howe (2016). Post-Conflict Development in East Asia. Routledge. p. 71. ISBN 9781317077404. Archived from the original on 10 April 2023. Retrieved 6 December 2016.
- ↑ Jessup, John E. (1989). A Chronology of Conflict and Resolution, 1945–1985. New York: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-24308-5.
- ↑ Rummel, Rudolph (1994), Death by Government.
- ↑ Valentino, Benjamin A. Final solutions: mass killing and genocide in the twentieth century Cornell University Press. 8 December 2005. p. 88
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- ↑ Qin Xin. Taiwan army published new book uncovering secrets of Chiang Kai-shek: Plan to retake the mainland. 28 June 2006. China News Agency. China News Archived 14 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine
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- ↑ Stephen Schlesinger, "FDR's five policemen: creating the United Nations." World Policy Journal 11.3 (1994): 88-93. online Archived 4 November 2021 at the Wayback Machine
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- ↑ CHINA'S REPRESENTATION IN THE UNITED NATIONS by Khurshid Hyder - Pakistan Horizon; Vol. 24, No. 4, The Great Powers and Asia (Fourth Quarter, 1971), pp. 75-79 Published by: Pakistan Institute of International Affairs
- ↑ National Institute for Compilation and Translation of the Republic of China (Taiwan): Geography Textbook for Junior High School Volume 1 (1993 version): Lesson 10: pp. 47–49.
- ↑ 1945年「外モンゴル独立公民投票」をめぐる中モ外交交渉 (in 日本語). Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 10 April 2017.
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In October 1945, the people of Outer Mongolia voted for independence, gaining the recognition of many countries, including the Republic of China. (...) Due to a souring of relations with the Soviet Union in the early 1950s, however, the ROC revoked recognition of Outer Mongolia, reclaiming it as ROC territory. {...} Long a province of China, Mongolia declared its independence in 1921 with Soviet backing. After the Ministry of the Interior's recent decision to exclude Mongolia from the official ROC map, on 3 Oct, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs announced that Taiwan recognizes Mongolia as an independent country -- 81 years after Mongolia declared its independence.
- ↑ Schillinger, Nicolas (2016). The Body and Military Masculinity in Late Qing and Early Republican China: The Art of Governing Soldiers. Lexington Books. p. 2. ISBN 978-1498531689.
- ↑ Westad, Odd (2003). Decisive Encounters: The Chinese Civil War, 1946–1950. Stanford University Press. p. 305. ISBN 978-0-8047-4484-3.
last major GMD stronghold.
- ↑ Sun Jian, pp. 613–614[citation needed]
- ↑ Sun Jian, pp. 1059–1071
- ↑ Sun Jian, p. 1353
- ↑ 69.0 69.1 Sun Jian, page 1089
- ↑ Sun Jian, pp. 615–616
- ↑ Sun Jian, p. 1319
- ↑ Sun Jian, pp. 1237–1240
- ↑ Sun Jian, pp. 617–618
- ↑ Gary Marvin Davison (2003). A short history of Taiwan: the case for independence. Praeger Publishers. p. 64. ISBN 0-275-98131-2.
Basic literacy came to most of the school-aged populace by the end of the Japanese tenure on Taiwan. School attendance for Taiwanese children rose steadily throughout the Japanese era, from 3.8 percent in 1904 to 13.1 percent in 1917; 25.1 percent in 1920; 41.5 percent in 1935; 57.6 percent in 1940; and 71.3 percent in 1943.
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- Wilbur, Clarence Martin. Sun Yat-sen, frustrated patriot (Columbia University Press, 1976), a major scholarly biography online
- Historiography
- Yu, George T. "The 1911 Revolution: Past, Present, and Future", Asian Survey, 31#10 (1991), pp. 895–904, online Archived 2 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine historiography
- Wright, Tim (2018). Chinese Studies. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199920082.
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