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{{short description|Early medieval empire in the Indian subcontinent}}
[[Image:Pala.JPG|thumb|left|200px|The location of Pala in eastern India.]]
{{other uses|Palas (disambiguation)}}
The '''Pala Empire''' was a dynasty in control of the northern and eastern [[Indian subcontinent]], mainly the  [[Bihar]] and [[Bengal]] regions, from the 8th to the 12th century. The name ''Pala'' ([[Bengali language|Modern]] পাল ''pal'') means "protector" and was used as an ending to the names of all Pala monarchs.
{{EngvarB|date=February 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{Infobox former country
| conventional_long_name = Pāla Empire
| common_name            = Palas
| image_flag            =
| flag_border            = no
| era                    = [[Post-classical history|Post-classical]]
| GDP_PPP                =
| status                = Empire
| government_type        = Monarchy
| year_start            = 750 CE<ref name="Majumdar1977"/>
| year_end              = 1161 CE{{sfn|Sengupta|2011|pp=39–49}}
| p2                    = Gauda Kingdom
| flag_p2                = Map_of_the_Shashankas.png
| p1                    = Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty
| flag_p1                = Map_of_the_Gurjara-Pratiharas_(circa_800-950_CE).png
| s1                    = Chero dynasty
| s2                    = Sena dynasty
| flag_s2                = Map_of_the_Senas.png
| s3                    = Karnat Dynasty
| s4                    = Pithipatis of Bodh Gaya
| today                  = {{ubl|[[India]]|[[Bangladesh]]|[[Nepal]]}}
| image_map              = {{Continental Asia in 800 CE|center|||Map of the Pala Empire in Asia.png|none|0.95}}
| image_map_caption    =The Pala Empire and contemporary Asian polities {{Circa|800}}
| image_map2            =
{{Location map+
|South Asia
|overlay_image= Map of the Pala Empire.png
| width=290  <!--  DO NOT CHANGE MAP SIZE (290) AS THIS WILL DISPLACE THE LABELS  -->
| float = center
| border  =none
| nodiv  = 1
| mini    = 1
| relief  = yes
| places  =
{{Annotation|text-align=center|230|5|[[South Asia|<span style="color:rgba(79,49,28,0.9)">South Asia<br />800-900</span>]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=10|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|125|180|[[Pallava dynasty|<span style="color:rgba(79,49,28,0.9)">PALLAVAS</span>]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|115|225|[[Pandyan dynasty|<span style="color:rgba(79,49,28,0.9)">PANDYAS</span>]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|125|200|[[Chola dynasty|<span style="color:rgba(79,49,28,0.9)">CHOLAS</span>]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|105|210|[[Chera dynasty|<span style="color:rgba(79,49,28,0.9)">CHERAS</span>]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|70|34|[[Hindu Shahis|<span style="color:rgba(79,49,28,0.9)">HINDU<br />SHAHIS</span>]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|150|155|[[Eastern Ganga dynasty|<span style="color:rgba(79,49,28,0.9)">KALINGAS</span>]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|100|40|[[Utpala dynasty|<span style="color:rgba(79,49,28,0.9)">UTPALAS</span>]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|170|45|[[Tibetan Empire|<span style="color:rgba(79,49,28,0.9)">TIBETAN<br />EMPIRE</span>]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|140|2|[[Tang Dynasty|<span style="color:#006400FF">TANG DYNASTY</span>]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|80|105|[[Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty|<span style="color:rgba(79,49,28,0.9)">GURJARA-<br />PRATIHARAS</span>]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|125|135|[[Kalachuris of Tripuri|<span style="color:rgba(79,49,28,0.9)">KALACHURIS</span>]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|70|65|[[Emirate of Multan|<span style="color:#006400FF">MULTAN<br />EMIRATE</span>]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|45|100|[[Habbari dynasty|<span style="color:#006400FF">HABBARI<br />EMIRATE</span>]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|95|165|[[Rashtrakuta dynasty|<span style="color:rgba(79,49,28,0.9)">RASHTRAKUTAS</span>]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|5|55|[[Saffarid dynasty|<span style="color:#006400FF">SAFFARIDS</span>]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|190|127|[[Mallabhum kingdom|<span style="color:rgba(79,49,28,0.9)">Mallabhum</span>]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}}


{{Annotation|262|250|[[Template:South Asia in 600 CE|<span style="color:#4F311CFF"> ◁  </span>]][[Template:South Asia in 1000|<span style="color:#4F311CFF"> ▷ </span>]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=12|color=#000000}}
== List of rulers ==
| caption=
{{List of Pala rulers}}
}}
| image_map_alt          = Pala Empire.
| image_map2_caption    = {{center|The Pala Empire in the ninth century CE.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |date=1978 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |page=146, map XIV.2 (g)|isbn=0226742210 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=183}}</ref><ref name="A Brief History of India">{{cite book |last1=Daniélou |first1=Alain |title=A Brief History of India |date=11 February 2003 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-1-59477-794-3 |page=144 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xlwoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT144 |language=en|quote="[[Dharmapala (emperor)|Dharmapala]]'s empire, which stretched from the [[Gulf of Bengal]] to [[Delhi]] and from [[Jalandhar]]a to the [[Vindhya Mountains]]."}}</ref>}}
| map_width              = 270px
| capital                = {{collapsible list


| [[Bikrampur]] | [[Pataliputra]] | [[Gauḍa (city)|Gauda]]<ref>{{cite book | author=Michael C. Howard | date=2012 | title=Transnationalism in Ancient and Medieval Societies: The Role of Cross-Border Trade and Travel | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6QPWXrCCzBIC&pg=PA72 | publisher=McFarland | pages=72 | isbn=978-0-7864-9033-2 }}</ref> | [[Munger|Monghyr]] (Devapala) | [[Somapura]] (Dharampala) | Mahipal in present-day [[Murshidabad district]] (Mahipala I){{sfn|Huntington|1984|p=56}} | Ramavati in [[Varendra]] (Ramapala and successors) }}
| common_languages      = [[Sanskrit]],{{sfn|Sengupta|2011|p=102 |ps=:Sanskrit continued to be the language under Sasanka, the Pala dynasty and the Sen dynasty.}} [[Bengali language#Early|Proto-Bengali]]<ref name="Bajpai2020">{{cite book|last=Bajpai|first=Lopamudra Maitra|title=India, Sri Lanka and the SAARC Region: History, Popular Culture and Heritage|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yg8HEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA141|year=2020|publisher=Taylor & Francis|location=Abingdon|isbn=978-1-00-020581-7|page=141}}</ref>
| religion              = [[Mahayana|Mahayana Buddhism]], [[Vajrayana|Tantric Buddhism]], [[Shaivism]]<ref name="AS_2009">{{cite book |author=Alexis Sanderson |author-link=Alexis Sanderson |chapter=The Śaiva Age: The Rise and Dominance of Śaivism during the Early Medieval Period |editor=Shingo Einoo |title=Genesis and Development of Tantrism |publisher=Institute of Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo |year=2009 |isbn=9784903235080 |pages=108–115 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iggRAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA108 }}</ref>
| title_leader          = Emperor
| leader1                = [[Gopala (Pala king)|Gopala]] (first)
| year_leader1          = {{circa|750|770}}<ref name="Majumdar1977"/>
| leader2                = [[Madanapala (Pala dynasty)|Madanapala]] (last)
| year_leader2          = 1139–1161
}}


The '''Pāla Empire''' (r. 750–1161&nbsp;CE)<ref name="Majumdar1977"/>{{sfn|Sengupta|2011|pp=39–49}} was an imperial power during the [[Post-classical history|post-classical period]] in the [[Indian subcontinent]],<ref name="Sen1999">{{cite book|author=Sailendra Nath Sen|title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA280|year=1999|publisher=New Age International|isbn=978-81-224-1198-0|pages=280–}}</ref> which originated in the region of [[Bengal]]. It is named after its ruling dynasty, whose rulers bore names ending with the suffix ''Pāla'' ("protector" in [[Prakrit]]). The empire was founded with the election of [[Gopala|Gopāla]] as the emperor of [[Gauda Kingdom|Gauda]] in late eighth century CE.<ref name="Majumdar1977">{{cite book |author=R. C. Majumdar |author-link=R. C. Majumdar |date=1977 |title=Ancient India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XNxiN5tzKOgC&pg=PA268 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |pages=268– |isbn=978-81-208-0436-4}}</ref> The Pala stronghold was located in Bengal and eastern [[Bihar]], which included the major cities of [[Gauḍa (city)|Gauḍa]], [[Bikrampur|Vikramapura]], [[Pataliputra|Pāṭaliputra]], [[Munger|Monghyr]], [[Somapura]], Ramavati ([[Varendra]]), [[Tamralipta|Tāmralipta]] and [[Jaggadala]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Satish Kumar |first1=Satish |last2=Jha |first2=Tushar |title=Contours of the Political Legitimation Strategy of the Rulers of Pala Dynasty in Bengal- Bihar (Ce 730 to Ce 1165) |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |date=2017 |volume=78 |pages=49–58 |jstor=26906068 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26906068}}</ref>
{{multistub|history|Asia}}
 
The Pālas were astute diplomats and military conquerors. Their army was noted for its vast [[war elephant]] corps. Their navy performed both mercantile and defensive roles in the [[Bay of Bengal]].<ref name=":0">{{cite book |author=Raj Kumar |date=2003 |title=Essays on Ancient India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qvnjXOCjv7EC |publisher=Discovery Publishing House |page=199 |isbn=978-81-7141-682-0}}</ref> At its zenith under emperors [[Dharmapala (emperor)|Dharmapala]] and [[Devapala (Pala dynasty)|Devapala]] in the early ninth century, Pala empire was the dominant power in the northern Indian subcontinent, with its territory stretching across the [[Gangetic plain]] to include some parts northeastern India, [[Nepal]] and [[Bangladesh]].<ref name="Majumdar1977"/><ref>{{cite book |author=Sailendra Nath Sen |date=1999 |title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA280 |publisher=New Age International |pages=280– |isbn=978-81-224-1198-0}}</ref>  Dharmapala also exerted a strong cultural influence through Buddhist scholar [[Atiśa|Atis Dipankar]] in Tibet, as well as in Southeast Asia. Pala control of North India was ultimately ephemeral, as they struggled with the [[Gurjara-Pratihara]]s and the [[Rashtrakuta]]s for the control of [[Kannauj]] and were defeated. After a short-lived decline, Emperor [[Mahipala I]] defended imperial bastions in Bengal and Bihar against South Indian [[Chola Empire|Chola]] invasions. Emperor [[Ramapala]] was the last strong Pala ruler, who gained control of [[Kamarupa]] and [[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]]. The empire was considerably weakened with many areas engulfed and their heavy dependence on [[Samanta]]s being exposed through [[Varendra rebellion|11th century rebellion]]. It finally led to the rise of resurgent Hindu [[Sena dynasty|Senas]] as sovereign power in 12th century and final expulsion of the Palas from Bengal by their hands marking the end of last major Buddhist imperial power in the subcontinent.<ref name="Sailendra1999" /><ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Furui |first=Ryosuke |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jfKLwwEACAAJ |title=Land and Society in Early South Asia: Eastern India 400-1250 AD |date=2020 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-138-49843-3 |pages=173–174 |language=en}}</ref>
 
The Pala period is considered one of the golden eras of Bengali history. The Palas brought stability and prosperity to Bengal after centuries of civil war between warring divisions. They advanced the achievements of previous Bengali civilisations and created outstanding works of arts and architecture. The [[Charyapada]] in [[Abahattha|Proto-Bengali language]] was written by Buddhist [[Mahasiddha]]s of [[Tantra|tantric]] tradition, which laid the basis of several eastern Indian languages in their rule. Palas built grand temples and monasteries, including the [[Somapura Mahavihara]] and [[Odantapuri]], and patronised the great universities of [[Nalanda]] and [[Vikramashila]]. The empire enjoyed relations with the [[Srivijaya Empire]], the [[Tibetan Empire]] and the [[Arab]] [[Abbasid Caliphate]]. [[Islam]] first arrived in Bengal during this period as a result of flourishing mercantile and intellectual contacts with Middle-East. The Pala legacy is still reflected in [[Tibetan Buddhism]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dahiya|first=Poonam Dalal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tbU6DwAAQBAJ|title=ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA EBOOK|date=2017-09-15|publisher=McGraw-Hill Education|isbn=978-93-5260-673-3|pages=411–414|language=en}}</ref>
 
== History ==
 
=== Origins ===
[[File:Vishnu with His Consorts, Lakshmi and Sarasvati, 11-12th century, Bihar or Bengal, Pala period.jpg|thumb|Vishnu with His Consorts, Lakshmi and Sarasvati, 11–12th century, Bihar or Bengal, Pala period]]
According to the Khalimpur copper plate inscription, the first Pala king [[Gopala]] was the son of a warrior named Vapyata. The ''Ramacharitam'' attests that [[Varendra]] ([[North Bengal]]) was the fatherland (''Janakabhu'') of the Palas. The ethnic origins of the dynasty are unknown, although later records claim that Gopala was a [[Kshatriya]] or descended from the legendary [[Solar dynasty]]. The ''Ballala-Carita'' states that the Palas were Kshatriyas, a claim reiterated by [[Taranatha]] in his ''History of Buddhism in India'' as well as Ghanaram Chakrabarty in his ''[[Dharmamangalkavya|Dharmamangala]]'' (both written in the 16th century CE). The ''Ramacharitam'' also attests the fifteenth Pala emperor, [[Ramapala]], as a Kshatriya. According to [[Nitish Sengupta]], such claims of belonging to the legendary Solar dynasty seems to be unreliable and appear to be an attempt to cover up the humble origins of the dynasty. The Pala dynasty has also been branded as [[Śudra]] in some sources such as ''[[Mañjuśrī-mūla-kalpa|Manjushri-Mulakalpa]]''; this might be because of their Buddhist leanings.{{sfn|Bagchi|1993|p=37}} According to K. N. Sahay, "we can claim Palas also as [[Kayastha]]s".<ref>{{cite book | author=Keshari N. Sahay | date=2001 | title=Ambastha Kayastha : The Evolution of a Family and Its Socio-cultural Dimensions | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MWpuAAAAMAAJ | publisher=Commonwealth Publishers (Original from: the University of Michigan) | page=11 | isbn=978-8-1716-9660-4 | quote=Domanadasa, ancestor of the great Vaidya Kulina Vamanadasa, married in the Kayastha Pala family. Pala was also a Kayastha surname and we can claim Palas also as Kayasthas.}}</ref>
 
[[André Wink]] mentions that the founder, Gopala was elected, and "definitely not of royal blood but probably of a line of brahmans which transformed itself into kshatriyas". According to Wink, the Palas patronized Buddhism right from the beginning, which is evident from their copper plates. Wink also mentions that [[Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak|Abul Fazl]] "describes these kings as Kayastha".<ref>{{cite book| last=Wink |first=Andre |year=1991 |title=Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World, Volume 1 |publisher=Brill Academic Publishers |isbn=978-90-04-09509-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bCVyhH5VDjAC|pages=265, 269}}</ref>
 
=== Establishment ===
After the fall of [[Shashanka]]'s kingdom, the Bengal region was in a state of anarchy. There was no central authority, and there was constant struggle between petty chieftains. The contemporary writings describe this situation as ''matsya nyaya'' ("fish justice" i.e. a situation where the big fish eat the small fish). Gopala ascended the throne as the first Pala king during these times. The Khalimpur copper plate suggests that the ''prakriti'' (people) of the region made him the king.{{sfn|Sengupta|2011|pp=39–49}} Taranatha, writing nearly 800 years later, also writes that he was democratically elected by the people of Bengal. However, his account is in form of a legend, and is considered historically unreliable. The legend mentions that after a period of anarchy, the people elected several kings in succession, all of whom were consumed by the [[Naga (mythology)|Naga]] queen of an earlier king on the night following their election. Gopal, however managed to kill the queen and remained on the throne.<ref name="Biplab2005">{{cite book | author=Biplab Dasgupta | author-link = Biplab Dasgupta | date=2005 | title=European Trade and Colonial Conquest | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YRRnRK8lEYEC&pg=PA341 | publisher=Anthem Press | pages=341– | isbn=978-1-84331-029-7}}</ref> The historical evidence indicates that Gopala was not elected directly by his citizens, but by a group of feudal chieftains. Such elections were quite common in contemporary societies of the region.{{sfn|Sengupta|2011|pp=39–49}}<ref name="Biplab2005"/>
 
Gopala's ascension was a significant political event as the several independent chiefs recognised his political authority without any struggle.<ref name="Sailendra1999">{{cite book | author=Sailendra Nath Sen | date=1999 | title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA278 | publisher=New Age International | pages=277–287 | isbn=978-81-224-1198-0}}</ref>
 
===Imperial expansion and consolidation===
{{see also | Kannauj#The Kannauj Triangle |Tripartite Struggle}}
[[File:Indian Kanauj triangle map.svg|thumb|right|An illustration of the [[Kannauj]] triangle]]
 
Gopala's empire was greatly expanded by his son [[Dharmapala (emperor)|Dharmapala]] and his grandson [[Devapala (Pala dynasty)|Devapala]]. Dharmapala was initially defeated by the [[Gurjara-Pratihara|Pratihara]] ruler [[Vatsraja|Vatsaraja]]. Later, the [[Rashtrakuta]] king [[Dhruva Dharavarsha|Dhruva]] defeated both Dharmapala and Vatsaraja. After Dhruva left for the Deccan region, Dharmapala built a mighty empire in the northern India.<ref>{{cite book | author=Bindeshwari Prasad Sinha |author-link=Bindeshwari Prasad Sinha | year=1977 | title=Dynastic History of Magadha | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gYO25eaDrqUC&pg=PA179 | location=New Delhi | publisher=Abhinav Publications | pages=175–176 | isbn=978-81-7017-059-4}}</ref> He defeated Indrayudha of [[Kannauj]], and installed his own nominee Chakrayudha on the throne of Kannauj. Several other smaller states in North India also acknowledged his suzerainty, as far as [[Jalandhar]]a.<ref name="A Brief History of India">{{cite book |last1=Daniélou |first1=Alain |title=A Brief History of India |date=11 February 2003 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-1-59477-794-3 |page=144 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xlwoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT144 |language=en|quote="[[Dharmapala (emperor)|Dharmapala]]'s empire, which stretched from the [[Gulf of Bengal]] to [[Delhi]] and from [[Jalandhar]]a to the [[Vindhya Mountains]]."}}</ref> Soon, his expansion was checked by Vatsaraja's son [[Nagabhata II]], who conquered Kannauj and drove away Chakrayudha. Nagabhata II then advanced up to [[Munger]] and defeated Dharmapala in a pitched battle. Dharmapala was forced to surrender and to seek alliance with the [[Rashtrakuta dynasty|Rashtrakuta]] emperor [[Govinda III]], who then intervened by invading northern India and defeating Nagabhata II.<ref>{{cite book |author1=John Andrew Allan |author2=Sir T. Wolseley Haig |date=1934 |title=The Cambridge Shorter History of India |publisher=Macmillan Company |page=143 |quote=Dharmapala dethroned Indraraja, king of Kanauj, and installed Chakrayudha ... Dharmapala therefore invaded Kanauj and placed his own nominee on the throne of Indrayudha, ... Dharmapala was obliged soon to meet other rivals in the persons of the Gurjara kings, Vatsaraja and Nagabhata II ... Dharmapala quickly lost his dominant position and was forced to seek alliance with Govinda III against Nagabhata.}}</ref><ref name="Sinha1977p177" /><ref>{{cite book | author=Bindeshwari Prasad Sinha |author-link=Bindeshwari Prasad Sinha | year=1977 | title=Dynastic History of Magadha | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gYO25eaDrqUC&pg=PA179 | location=New Delhi | publisher=Abhinav Publications | page=179 | isbn=978-81-7017-059-4 | quote=Nāgabhaṭa-II defeated Cakrāyudha and occupied Kanauj ... battle between the king of Vaṅga and Nāgabhaṭa in which the latter emerged victorious ... may have been fought at Mudgagiri (Monghyr in Bihar). If so, it shows the utter humiliation of Dharmapāla and strengthens the suspicion that as a revenge he might have surrendered to and welcomed Govinda III when he invaded North India.}}</ref> The Rashtrakuta records show that both Chakrayudha and Dharmapala recognised the Rashtrakuta suzerainty. In practice, Dharmapala gained control over North India after Govinda III left for the Deccan. He adopted the title ''Paramesvara Paramabhattaraka Maharajadhiraja''.<ref name="Sailendra1999"/>
 
Dharmapala was succeeded by his son Devapala, who is regarded as the most powerful Pala Emperor.<ref name="Sailendra1999"/> His expeditions resulted in the invasion of [[Pragjyotisha]] (present-day Assam) where the king submitted without giving a fight and the [[Utkala Kingdom|Utkala]] (present-day Northern Odisha) whose king fled from his capital city.<ref>Bhagalpur Charter of Narayanapala, year 17, verse 6, ''[[The Indian Antiquary]]'', XV p. 304.</ref> The inscriptions of his successors also claim several other territorial conquests by him, but these are possibly exaggerated (see the [[#Geography|Geography]] section below).{{sfn|Sengupta|2011|pp=39–49}}<ref name="Sinha1977p185">{{cite book | author=Bindeshwari Prasad Sinha |author-link=Bindeshwari Prasad Sinha | year=1977 | title=Dynastic History of Magadha | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gYO25eaDrqUC&pg=PA185 | location=New Delhi | publisher=Abhinav Publications | page=185 | isbn=978-81-7017-059-4 }}</ref>
 
His oldest son, Rajyapala predeceased him, and as so [[Mahendrapala]], his next older son succeeded him. He possibly maintained his father's vast territories and carried out further campaigns against the Utkalas and the Hunas.<ref>Bhattacharya, Suresh Chandra, ''Pāla Kings in the Badal Praśasti — A Stock-Taking'', Journal of Ancient Indian History, University of Calcutta, [https://s3.ap-south-1.amazonaws.com/calcutta-university/departmental-journals/H00405.pdf Vol. XXIV], 2007-08, pp. 73-82.</ref> He passed his empire intact to his younger brother [[Shurapala I]], who held sway over a considerably large territory encompassing Bengal, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, proven by his Mirzapur copperplate.<ref name="The Pala-Sena and Others">{{cite journal |last1=Sanyal |first1=Rajat |title=The Pala-Sena and Others |journal=History of Ancient India Vol 5 Political History and Administration (C. Ad 750-1300) (Regional Powers and Their Interactions) |date=1 January 2014 |url=https://www.academia.edu/43895337 |volume=5}}</ref>
What happened in Gopala II's rule, the son of Surapala I, is still unknown. After Gopala II, Dharmapala's line came to an end for reasons which are not known yet. Dharmapala's descendants, if any, were passed over as Dharmapala's younger brother, Vakapala's lineage assumed the throne.
 
=== First period of decline ===
[[File:Vigrahapala Dramma drawing.jpg|thumb|Coinage of [[Vigrahapala I (Pala dynasty)|Vigrahapala I]] or [[Vigrahapala II|II]]: the profile of the ruler and the altar with attendants of [[Indo-Sasanian coinage]] appear in a stylized manner. Ninth century CE.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ray |first1=Himanshu Prabha |title=Negotiating Cultural Identity: Landscapes in Early Medieval South Asian History |date=26 June 2019 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-000-22793-2 |page=164 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qkyfDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT164 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Sharma |first1=Ram Sharan |title=Early Medieval Indian Society (pb) |date=2003 |publisher=Orient Blackswan |isbn=978-81-250-2523-8 |page=137 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i_sIE1sO5kwC&pg=PA137 |language=en}}</ref>]]
Shortly afterwards, the empire gradually started disintegrating. Vakapala's grandson and Jayapala's son, [[Vigrahapala I]] abdicated the throne after a brief rule, and became an ascetic. Vigrahapala's son and successor [[Narayanapala]] proved to be a weak ruler. During his 54-year long reign, [[Mihira Bhoja]] defeated the Palas.<ref name=Sen>Sen, S.N., 2013, A Textbook of Medieval Indian History, Delhi: Primus Books, {{ISBN|9789380607344}}</ref>{{rp|20}} Encouraged by the Pala decline, the King Harjara of [[Assam]] assumed imperial titles.<ref name="Sailendra1999"/>
 
Naryanapala's son [[Rajyapala]] ruled for at least 32 years, and constructed several public utilities and lofty temples.<ref>{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N2tlKzxwhY8C&pg=PA50 | title=Ancient India, History and Archaeology | isbn=9788170173045 | last1=Ganguly | first1=Dilip Kumar | year=1994 }}</ref> Earlier it was thought that his son [[Gopala III]] lost Bengal after a few years of rule, and then ruled only Bihar. However, it has been debunked by his Bhagalpur inscription, in which he granted a Brahmin two villages in ''Pundrabardhanabhukti '' in Northern Bengal, signaling his control over it. His son and the next king, [[Vigrahapala II]], had to bear the invasions from the [[Chandela]]s and the [[Kalachuris of Tripuri|Kalachuris]]. During his reign, the Pala empire disintegrated into smaller kingdoms like Gauda, Radha, Anga and Vanga. Kantideva of [[Harikela]] (eastern and southern Bengal) also assumed the title ''Maharajadhiraja'', and established a separate kingdom, later ruled by the [[Chandra dynasty]].<ref name="Sailendra1999"/> The Gauda state (West and North Bengal) was ruled by the [[Kamboja Pala dynasty]]. The rulers of this dynasty also bore names ending in the suffix -pala (e.g. [[Rajyapala Kamboja|Rajyapala]], [[Narayanapala (Kamboja)|Narayanapala]] and [[Naya Pala (Kamboja)|Nayapala]]). However, their origin is uncertain, and the most plausible view is that they originated from a Pala official who usurped a major part of the Pala kingdom along with its capital.<ref name="Sailendra1999"/>{{sfn|Sengupta|2011|pp=39–49}}
 
=== Revival under Mahipala I ===
[[File:INDIA, Medieval. Palas. Mahipala I and later. Circa 988-1161.jpg|thumb|Coin of the Pala Empire, [[Mahipala]] and later. Circa 988–1161&nbsp;CE]]
Mahipala I recovered northern and eastern Bengal within three years of ascending the throne in 978&nbsp;CE.H also recovered his capital, Gauda, which had been lost to he Kambojas. He also recovered the northern part of the present-day [[Burdwan division]]. During his reign, [[Rajendra Chola I]] of the [[Chola Empire]] frequently invaded Bengal from 1021 to 1023&nbsp;CE to get Ganges water and in the process, succeeded to humble the rulers, acquiring considerable booty. The rulers of Bengal who were defeated by Rajendra Chola were Dharmapal, Ranasur and Govindachandra, who might have been feudatories under Mahipala I of the Pala Dynasty.{{sfn|Sengupta|2011|p=45}} Rajendra Chola I also defeated Mahipala, and obtained from the Pala king "elephants of rare strength, women and treasure".<ref>{{cite book |author=John Keay |author-link=John Keay |date=2000 |title=India: A History |publisher=Grove Press |page=220 |isbn=978-0-8021-3797-5}}</ref> Mahipala also gained control of north and south Bihar, probably aided by the invasions of [[Mahmud of Ghazni]], which exhausted the strength of other rulers of North India. He may have also conquered [[Varanasi]] and surrounding area, as his brothers Sthirapala and Vasantapala undertook construction and repairs of several sacred structures at Varanasi. Later, the Kalachuri king [[Gangeyadeva]] annexed Varanasi after defeating the ruler of Anga, which was probably Mahipala's son Nayapala.<ref name="Sailendra1999"/>
 
=== Second period of decline ===
[[File:Crowned Buddha, Bihar, Pala Empire, 10th-11th century.jpg|thumb|Bronze crowned Buddha, Bihar, Pala Empire, 10th–11th century]]
Nayapala, the son of Mahipala I, defeated the Kalachuri king Karna (son of Ganggeyadeva) after a long struggle. The two later signed a peace treaty at the mediation of the Buddhist scholar [[Atiśa]]. During the reign of Nayapala's son Vigrahapala III, Karna once again invaded Bengal but was defeated. The conflict ended with a peace treaty, and Vigrahapala III married Karna's daughter Yauvanasri. Vigrahapala III was later defeated by the invading [[Western Chalukya Empire|Chalukya]] king [[Vikramaditya VI]]. Vigrahapala III also faced another invasion led by the [[Somavaṃśī dynasty|Somavamsi]] king Mahasivagupta Yayati of Orissa. Subsequently, a series of invasions considerably reduced the power of the Palas. The Varmans occupied eastern Bengal during his reign.<ref name="Sailendra1999"/>{{sfn|Sengupta|2011|pp=39–49}}
 
The successor and older son of Vighrahapala III by his wife Yauvanashri, Mahipala II's reign is well-documented by [[Sandhyakar Nandi]] in ''[[Ramacharitam]]''. Mahipala II imprisoned his brothers Ramapala and Surapala II, on the suspicion that they were conspiring against him. Soon afterwards, he faced a [[Varendra Rebellion|rebellion of vassal chiefs from the Kaibarta]] (fishermen). A chief named Divya (or Divvoka) killed him and occupied the Varendra region. The region remained under the control of his successors Rudak and Bhima. Surapala II escaped to Magadha and died after a short reign. He was succeeded by his brother Ramapala, who launched a major offensive against Divya's nephew Bhima. He was supported by his maternal uncle Mathana and cousin Sivarajadeva of the Rashtrakuta dynasty, as well as several feudatory chiefs of south Bihar and south-west Bengal. Ramapala conclusively defeated Bhima, killing him and his family in a cruel manner.<ref name="Sailendra1999"/>{{sfn|Sengupta|2011|pp=39–49}}
 
=== Revival under Ramapala ===
[[File:Avalokiteshvara and Scenes from the Buddha's Life (a), Maitreya and Scenes from the Buddha's Life (b), Two Folios from a Prajnaparamita (The Perfection of Wisdom) LACMA M.72.1.19a-b (1 of 4).jpg|thumb|800px|center|{{center|[[Maitreya]] and scenes from the Buddha's life. Folios were probably from the Pala period under [[Ramapala]], considered the last great ruler of the Pala dynasty.}}]]
After gaining control of Varendra, Ramapala tried to revive the Pala empire with some success. He ruled from a new capital at Ramavati, which remained the Pala capital until the dynasty's end. He reduced taxation, promoted cultivation and constructed public utilities. He brought [[Kamarupa]] and [[Rarh region|Rar]] under his control, and forced the Varman king of east Bengal to accept his suzerainty. He also struggled with the Ganga king for control of present-day Orissa; the Gangas managed to annex the region only after his death. Ramapala maintained friendly relations with the Chola king Kulottunga to secure support against the common enemies: the Ganas and the Chalukyas. He kept the Senas in check, but lost Mithila to a Karnataka chief named Nanyuadeva. He also held back the aggressive design of the Gahadavala ruler Govindacharndra through a matrimonial alliance, by marrying off his cousin Kumaradevi to the king.<ref name="Sailendra1999"/>{{sfn|Sengupta|2011|pp=39–49}}
 
=== Final decline ===
 
Ramapala was the final strong Pala Emperor, although his son Kumarapala managed to keep most of his territories. After his death, a rebellion broke out in Kamarupa during his son Kumarapala's reign. The rebellion was crushed by Vaidyadeva, minister of Kumarapala. Vaidyadeva also won a naval war in southern Bengal for his liege. but after Kumarapala's death, Vaidyadeva practically created a separate kingdom.<ref name="Sailendra1999"/> Kumarapala's son, Gopala IV ascended the throne as a child, and according to the Rajibpur copperplate inscription, his uncle Madanpala acted as his regent.<ref>{{Cite journal | url=https://www.academia.edu/18488352 | title=Rajibpur Copper Plate Inscriptions of Gopāla IV and Madanapāla | journal=Pratna Samiksha: A Journal of Archaeology |series=New Series | date=January 2015 | last1=Furui | first1=Ryosuke }}</ref> Gopala IV either died in battle or was murdered by Madanapala. During Madanapala's rule, the Varmans in east Bengal declared independence, and the [[Eastern Ganga dynasty|Eastern Gangas]] renewed the conflict in Orissa. Madanapala captured Munger from the Gahadavalas, but was defeated by Vijayasena, who gained control of southern and eastern Bengal. Two rulers, named Govindapala and Palapala ruled over the Gaya district from around 1162&nbsp;CE to 1200&nbsp;CE, but there is no concrete evidence about their relationship to the imperial Palas. The Pala dynasty was replaced by the [[Sena dynasty]].{{sfn|Sengupta|2011|pp=39–49}} The descendants of the Palas, who claimed the status of Kshatriya, "almost imperceptibly merged" with the [[Bengali Kayastha|Kayastha]] caste.<ref name="AlHind">{{cite book | author=Andre Wink| title=Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World, Volume 1| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bCVyhH5VDjAC| access-date=3 September 2011| year=1991| publisher=Brill Academic Publishers| isbn=978-90-04-09509-0| page=269}}</ref><ref name="RiseofIslam">{{cite book|first=Richard Maxwell |last=Eaton|title=The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gKhChF3yAOUC|year=1996|publisher=University of California Press|pages=102–103|isbn=978-0-52020-507-9}}</ref>
 
== Geography ==
[[File:Vishnu Flanked by His Personified Attributes, early 9th century CE, Pala period, Bihar, India.jpg|thumb|Vishnu Flanked by His Personified Attributes, early 9th century CE, Pala period, Bihar, India]]
The borders of the Pala Empire kept fluctuating throughout its existence. Though the Palas conquered a vast region in North India at one time, they could not retain it for long due to constant hostility from the Gurjara-Pratiharas, the Rashtrakutas and other less powerful kings.{{sfn|Bagchi|1993|p=4}}
 
No records are available about the exact boundaries of original kingdom established by Gopala, but it might have included almost all of the [[Bengal]] region.<ref name="Sailendra1999"/> The Pala empire extended substantially under Dharmapala's rule. Apart from Bengal, he directly ruled the present-day Bihar. The kingdom of Kannauj (present-day Uttar Pradesh) was a Pala dependency at times, ruled by his nominee Chakrayudha.<ref name="Sailendra1999"/> While installing his nominee on the Kannauj throne, Dharmapala organised an imperial court. According to the Khalimpur copper plate issued by Dharmapala, this court was attended by the rulers of Bhoja (possibly [[Vidarbha]]), [[Matsya (tribe)|Matsya]] (Jaipur region), [[Madra]] (East Punjab), [[Kuru (kingdom)|Kuru]] (Delhi region), [[Yadu]] (possibly Mathura, Dwarka or Simhapura in the Punjab), [[Yavana]], [[Avanti (India)|Avanti]], [[Gandhara]] and Kira ([[Kangra Valley]]).{{sfn|Sengupta|2011|pp=39–49}}<ref name="Sinha1977p177">{{cite book | author=Bindeshwari Prasad Sinha | author-link=Bindeshwari Prasad Sinha | year=1977 | title=Dynastic History of Magadha | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gYO25eaDrqUC&pg=PA177 | location=New Delhi | publisher=Abhinav Publications | page=177 | isbn=978-81-7017-059-4 | quote=Dharmapāla after defeating Indrāyudha and capturing Kanuaj made it over to Cakrāyudha, who was a vassal king of Kanuaj subordinate to Dharmapāla ... Dharmapāla was thus acknowledged paramount ruler of almost whole of North India as the Bhojas of Berar, Kīra (Kangra district), Gandhāra (West Punjab), Pañcāla (Ramnagar area of U.P.), Kuru (eastern Punjab), Madra (Central Punjab), Avanti (Malwa), Yadus (Mathura or Dwarka or Siṁhapura in the Punjab), Matsya (a part of Rajputana) were his vassals.}}</ref> These kings accepted the installation of Chakrayudha on the Kannauj throne, while "bowing down respectfully with their diadems trembling".{{sfn|Paul|1939|p=38}} This indicates that his position as a sovereign was accepted by most rulers, although this was a loose arrangement unlike the empire of the [[Maurya Empire|Mauryas]] or the [[Gupta Empire|Guptas]]. The other rulers acknowledged the military and political supremacy of Dharmapala, but maintained their own territories.{{sfn|Sengupta|2011|pp=39–49}} The poet Soddhala of Gujarat calls Dharmapala an ''Uttarapathasvamin'' ("Lord of the North") for his suzerainty over North India.{{sfn|Bagchi|1993|p=39–40}}
 
[[File:Badal Pillar Inscription.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The Badal Pillar Inscription of [[Narayanapala]]]]
The epigraphic records credit Devapala with extensive conquests in hyperbolic language. The Badal pillar inscription of his successor Narayana Pala states that by the wise counsel and policy of his Brahmin minister Darbhapani, Devapala became the suzerain monarch or Chakravarti of the whole tract of Northern India bounded by the Vindhyas and the Himalayas. It also states that his empire extended up to the two oceans (presumably the [[Arabian Sea]] and the [[Bay of Bengal]]). It also claims that Devpala defeated [[Utkala Kingdom|Utkala]] (present-day Northern Odisha), the [[Huna people|Hunas]], the Kambojas, the [[Dravidian peoples|Dravidas]], the [[Kamarupa]] (present-day Assam), and the Gurjaras:<ref name="Sailendra1999"/>
* The Gurjara adversary may have been [[Mihira Bhoja]], who was defeated by Devapala.
* The identity of the Huna king is uncertain.
* The identity of the Kamboja prince is also uncertain. While an ancient country with the name [[Kambojas|Kamboja]] was located in what is now Afghanistan, there is no evidence that Devapala's empire extended that far. Kamboja, in this inscription, could refer to the Kamboja tribe that had entered North India (see [[Kamboja Pala dynasty]]).
* The Dravida king is usually identified with the Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha. Some scholars believe that the Dravida king could have been the Pandya ruler Shri Mara Shri Vallabha, since "Dravida" usually refers to the territory south of the Krishna river. According to this theory, Devapala could have been helped in his southern expedition by the Chandela king Vijaya. In any case, Devapala's gains in the south, if any, were temporary.
 
Devapala is also believed to have led an army up to the Indus river in Punjab.<ref name="Sailendra1999"/>
 
His sons and grandson probably managed to keep the core area of the empire intact. However, the empire started disintegrating shortly after. Narayanapala lost control of Assam and Orissa. It was thought he also briefly lost control over Magadha and north Bengal, although it has now been debunked. Gopala III suffered serious reverses at the hands of the Chandra king, and ruled only from a part of northern Bengal. The Pala empire disintegrated into smaller kingdoms during the reign of Vigrahapala II. Mahipala recovered parts of Bengal, Bihar and up to Varansi. His successors lost east and south Bengal again. The last strong Pala ruler, Ramapala, gained control of Bengal, Bihar, Assam and parts of Orissa.<ref name="Sailendra1999"/> By the time of Madanapala's death, the Pala kingdom was confined to parts of central and east Bihar along with northern Bengal.<ref name="Sailendra1999"/>
 
== Administration ==
{{South Asia in 1000}}
The Pala rule was monarchial. The king was the centre of all power. Pala kings would adopt imperial titles like ''Parameshwara'', ''Paramvattaraka'', ''Maharajadhiraja''. Pala kings appointed Prime Ministers. The '''Line of Garga''' served as the Prime Ministers of the Palas for 100 years.
* Garga
* Darvapani (or Darbhapani)
* Someshwar
* Kedarmisra
* Bhatta Guravmisra
 
Pala Empire was divided into separate ''Bhukti''s (Provinces). Bhuktis were divided into ''[[Vishaya]]''s (Divisions) and ''Mandala''s (Districts). Smaller units were ''Khandala'', ''Bhaga'', ''Avritti'', ''Chaturaka'', and Pattaka. Administration covered widespread area from the grass root level to the imperial court.{{sfn|Paul|1939|p=122–124}}
 
The Pala copperplates mention following administrative posts:{{sfn|Paul|1939|p=111–122}}
 
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|
* ''Raja''
* ''Rajanyaka''
* ''Ranaka'' (possibly subordinate chiefs)
* ''Samanta'' and ''Mahasamanta'' (Vassal kings)
* ''Mahasandhi-vigrahika'' (Foreign minister)
* ''Duta'' (Head Ambassador)
* ''Rajasthaniya'' (Deputy)
* ''Aggaraksa'' (Chief guard)
* ''Sasthadhikrta'' (Tax collector)
* ''Chauroddharanika'' (Police tax)
* ''Shaulkaka'' (Trade tax)
* ''Dashaparadhika'' (Collector of penalties)
* ''Tarika'' (Toll collector for river crossings)
* ''Mahaksapatalika'' (Accountant)
* ''Jyesthakayastha'' (Dealing documents)
* ''Ksetrapa'' (Head of land use division) and ''Pramatr'' (Head of land measurements)
* ''Mahadandanayaka'' or ''Dharmadhikara'' (Chief justice)
* ''Mahapratihara''
* ''Dandika''
* ''Dandapashika''
* ''Dandashakti'' (Police forces)
* ''Khola'' (Secret service).
* Agricultural posts like ''Gavadhakshya'' (Head of dairy farms)
* ''Chhagadhyakshya'' (Head of goat farms)
* ''Meshadyakshya'' (Head of sheep farms)
* ''Mahishadyakshya'' (Head of Buffalo farms) and many other like ''Vogpati''
* ''Vishayapati''
* ''Shashtadhikruta''
* ''Dauhshashadhanika''
* ''Nakadhyakshya''
}}
 
== Culture ==
 
=== Religion ===
[[File:Nalanda.jpg|thumb|[[Nalanda]] is considered one of the first great universities in recorded history. It reached its height under the Palas.]]
[[File:Atisha.jpg|right|thumb|[[Atisha]] was a Buddhist teacher who helped establish the [[Sarma (Tibetan Buddhism)|Sarma]] lineages of [[Tibetan Buddhism]].]]
 
==== Buddhism ====
The Palas were patrons of [[Mahayana Buddhism]]. A few sources written much after Gopala's death mention him as a Buddhist, but it is not known if this is true.{{sfn|Huntington|1984|p=39}} The subsequent Pala kings were definitely Buddhists. Taranatha states that Gopala was a staunch Buddhist, who had built the famous monastery at [[Odantapuri]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Taranatha |author-link=Taranatha |date=1869 |translator=Anton Schiefner |title=Târanâtha's Geschichte des Buddhismus in Indien |series=Geschichte des Buddhismus in Indien |trans-title=History of Buddhism in India |language=de |publisher=Imperial Academy of Sciences |location=St. Petersburg |page=206 |quote=Zur Zeit des Königs Gopâla oder Devapâla wurde auch das Otautapuri-Vihâra errichtet.|hdl=2027/uva.x004196825 }}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=May 2016|reason=Unable to locate in Schiefner a description of Gopala as Buddhist, and it only says Odantapuri was built during the time of Gopala *or Devapala*}} Dharmapala made the Buddhist philosopher [[Haribhadra (Buddhist philosopher)|Haribhadra]] his spiritual preceptor. He established the [[Vikramashila]] monastery and the [[Somapura Mahavihara]]. Taranatha also credits him with establishing 50 religious institutions and patronising the Buddhist author Haribhadra. Devapala restored and enlarged the structures at Somapura Mahavihara, which also features several themes from the epics ''[[Ramayana]]'' and ''[[Mahabharata]]''. Mahipala I also ordered construction and repairs of several sacred structures at Saranath, Nalanda and Bodh Gaya.<ref name="Sailendra1999"/> The ''Mahipala geet'' ("songs of Mahipala"), a set of folk songs about him, are still popular in the rural areas of Bengal.
 
The Palas developed the Buddhist centres of learnings, such as the Vikramashila and the [[Nalanda]] universities. Nalanda, considered one of the first great universities in recorded history, reached its height under the patronage of the Palas. Noted Buddhist scholars from the Pala period include [[Atisha]], [[Santaraksita]], [[Saraha]], [[Tilopa]], Bimalamitra, Dansheel, Dansree, Jinamitra, Jnanasrimitra, Manjughosh, Muktimitra, Padmanava, Sambhogabajra, Shantarakshit, Silabhadra, Sugatasree and Virachan.
 
As the rulers of [[Gautama Buddha]]'s land, the Palas acquired great reputation in the Buddhist world. Balaputradeva, the Sailendra king of Java, sent an ambassador to him, asking for a grant of five villages for the construction of a monastery at Nalanda.<ref name="PNChopra2003">{{cite book | date=2003 |editor1=P. N. Chopra |editor2=B. N. Puri |editor3=M. N. Das |editor4=A. C. Pradhan | title=A Comprehensive History of Ancient India (3 Vol. Set) | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gE7udqBkACwC&pg=PA201 | publisher=Sterling | pages=200–202 | isbn=978-81-207-2503-4 }}</ref> The request was granted by Devapala. He appointed the Brahmin Viradeva (of [[Nagarahara]], present-day Jalalabad) as the head of the Nalanda monastery. The Buddhist poet Vajradatta (the author of Lokesvarashataka), was in his court.<ref name="Sailendra1999"/> The Buddhist scholars from the Pala empire travelled from Bengal to other regions to propagate Buddhism. Atisha, for example, preached in [[Tibet]] and [[Sumatra]], and is seen as one of the major figures in the spread of 11th-century Mahayana Buddhism.
 
==== Shaivism ====
 
The Palas continued to patronize [[Shaivism]], and epigraphic evidence suggests that Mahipala I and Nayapala were initiated as Shaivites by their royal preceptors. Vigrahapala III's Amagachi inscription describes him as "devoted to Śiva worship", and this tradition continued under his successor Ramapala. Poet [[Sandhyakar Nandi]] describes Ramapala's son Madanapala as a devotee of Shiva.<ref name="AS_2009"/>
 
The Palas supported the [[Saiva]] ascetics, typically the ones associated with the Golagi-Math.{{sfn|Bagchi|1993|p=19}} Besides the images of the Buddhist deities, the images of [[Vishnu]], [[Shiva|Siva]] and [[Sarasvati]] were also constructed during the Pala dynasty rule.<ref name="KC1987">{{cite book | author=Krishna Chaitanya | date=1987 | title=Arts of India | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8EGUpX1O0hoC&pg=RA1-PA62 | publisher=Abhinav Publications | pages=38 | isbn=978-81-7017-209-3 }}</ref>
 
Devapala built a temple dedicated to Shiva's consort, and Mahipala patronized a Shaivite monastery. A 1026&nbsp;CE inscription recording renovations of Buddhist structures at Sarnath by Pala princes states that Mahipala I had them built "hundreds" of temples of Shiva, Chitraghanta, and other deities in Varanasi.<ref name="AS_2009"/>
 
Narayanapala's Bhagalpur inscription suggests that he built several Shiva temples, and records his grant of a village to [[Pashupata Shaivism|Pashupata]]s.<ref name="AS_2009"/> Narayanapala also attended a sacrifice by his Brahmin minister.{{sfn|Bagchi|1993|p=100}} Nayapala's Siyan inscription suggests that he built several temples dedicated to Shiva and his various aspects (such as [[Bhairava]]), plus temples dedicated to the [[Navadurga|Nine Durgas]], the [[Matrikas|Mother Goddess]], [[Vishnu]], and [[Lakshmi]]. Despite this, it is unlikely that Nayapala had rejected Buddhist teachings, since Taranatha states that he had a Buddhist preceptor.<ref name="AS_2009"/>
 
Madanapala's queen Chitramatika, gifted land to a [[Brahmin|brahmana]] named Vateshvara-svami Sharma as his remuneration for reciting the [[Mahabharata]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Shahanara Husain |title=The Social Life of Women in Early Medieval Bengal |publisher=Asiatic Society of Bangladesh |year=1985 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e0YiAAAAMAAJ |oclc=14166072 |page=65 }}</ref>
 
=== Literature ===
The Palas patronised several [[Sanskrit]] scholars, some of whom were their officials. The ''Gauda riti'' style of composition was developed during the Pala rule. Many [[Tantric Buddhism|Buddhist Tantric]] works were authored and translated during the Pala rule. Besides the Buddhist scholars mentioned in the Religion section above, [[Jimutavahana]], [[Sandhyakar Nandi]], [[Madhava-kara]], [[Suresvara]] and [[Chakrapani Datta]] are some of the other notable scholars from the Pala period.<ref name="Sailendra1999"/>
 
The notable Pala texts on philosophy include ''Agama Shastra'' by Gaudapada, ''Nyaya Kundali'' by Sridhar Bhatta and ''Karmanushthan Paddhati'' by Bhatta Bhavadeva. The texts on medicine include
* ''Chikitsa Samgraha'', ''Ayurveda Dipika'', ''Bhanumati'', ''Shabda Chandrika'' and ''Dravya Gunasangraha'' by [[Chakrapani Datta]]
* ''Shabda-Pradipa'', ''Vrikkhayurveda'' and ''Lohpaddhati'' by Sureshwara
* ''Chikitsa Sarsamgraha'' by Vangasena
* ''Sushrata'' by Gadadhara Vaidya
* ''Dayabhaga'', ''Vyavohara Matrika'' and ''Kalaviveka'' by Jimutavahana
 
Sandhyakar Nandi's semi-fictional epic ''[[Ramacharitam]]'' (12th century) is an important source of Pala history.
 
A form of the proto-[[Bengali language]] can be seen in the ''[[Charyapada]]''s composed during the Pala rule.<ref name="Sailendra1999"/>
 
=== Art and architecture ===
[[File:Khasarpana Lokesvara.jpg|Sculpture of Khasarpana Lokesvara from Nalanda|thumb]]
The Pala school of sculptural art is recognised as a distinct phase of the Indian art, and is noted for the artistic genius of the Bengal sculptors.<ref>{{cite book |last=Chowdhury |first=AM |year=2012 |chapter=Pala Dynasty |chapter-url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Pala_Dynasty |editor1-last=Islam |editor1-first=Sirajul |editor1-link=Sirajul Islam |editor2-last=Jamal |editor2-first=Ahmed A. |title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh |edition=Second |publisher=[[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]]}}</ref> It is influenced by the [[Gupta art]].<ref name="Mehta1981">{{cite book | author=Rustam Jehangir Mehta | date=1981 | title=Masterpieces of Indian bronzes and metal sculpture | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UQw4AQAAIAAJ | publisher=Taraporevala | page = 21 | isbn=9780865900479 }}</ref>
 
The Pala style was inherited and continued to develop under the [[Sena Empire]]. During this time, the style of sculpture changed from "Post-Gupta" to a distinctive style that was widely influential in other areas and later centuries.  Deity figures became more rigid in posture, very often standing with straight legs close together, and figures were often heavily loaded with jewellery; they very often have multiple arms, a convention allowing them to hold many attributes and display [[mudra]]s.  The typical form for temple images is a slab with a main figure, rather over half life-size, in very high relief, surrounded by smaller attendant figures, who might have freer [[tribhanga]] poses. Critics have found the style tending towards over-elaboration.  The quality of the carving is generally very high, with crisp, precise detail.  In east India, facial features tend to become sharp.<ref>Harle, 212-216; Craven, 170, 172-176</ref>
 
Much larger numbers of smaller bronze groups of similar composition have survived than from previous periods.  Probably the numbers produced were increasing.  These were mostly made for domestic shrines of the well-off, and from monasteries.  Gradually, Hindu figures come to outnumber Buddhist ones, reflecting the terminal decline of Indian Buddhism, even in east India, its last stronghold.<ref>Harle, 212; Craven, 176</ref>
 
<gallery>
File:Lalita statue.jpg|A basalt statue of [[Tripura Sundari|Lalita]] flanked by [[Gaṇeśa]] and [[Kārttikeya]]
File:Carved Conch.jpg|Carved [[shankha]]s
File:Nswag, india bengala occidentale, periodo pala (760-1142) varana che libera la dea della terra bhudevi, X sec..JPG|Sculpture of [[Varaha]] avatar of Lord [[Vishnu]]
File:Standing Rishabhanatha.jpg|[[Tirthankara|Jina]] [[Rishabhanatha]]
</gallery>
 
As noted earlier, the Palas built a number of monasteries and other sacred structures. The [[Somapura Mahavihara]] in present-day Bangladesh is a [[World Heritage Site]]. It is a monastery with a {{cvt|21|acre|adj=on}} complex with 177 cells, numerous stupas, temples and a number of other ancillary buildings. The gigantic structures of other Viharas, including Vikramashila, Odantapuri, and Jagaddala are the other masterpieces of the Palas. These mammoth structures were mistaken by the forces of [[Bakhtiyar Khalji]] as fortified castles and were demolished.{{citation needed|date=March 2014}} The art of Bihar and Bengal during the Pala and Sena dynasties influenced the art of Nepal, Burma, Sri Lanka and Java.<ref name="Stella1994">{{cite book | author=Stella Kramrisch | author-link=Stella Kramrisch | date=1994 | title=Exploring India's Sacred Art Selected Writings of Stella Kramrisch | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bxPeWwFz9MkC&pg=PA208 | publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishe | pages=208 | isbn=978-81-208-1208-6 }}</ref>
 
<gallery>
File:পাহাড়পুর বৌদ্ধ বিহার 22.jpg|[[Somapura Mahavihara]], a World Heritage Site, was built by Dharmapala
File:Central Sherine deccor-Paharpur.jpg|Central shrine decor at Somapura
File:Vikramshila 2012-08-10-17.48.39.jpg|Ruins of [[Vikramashila]]
</gallery>
 
== List of Pala rulers ==
Most of the Pala inscriptions mention only the regnal year as the date of issue, without any well-known [[calendar era]]. Because of this, the chronology of the Pala kings is hard to determine.<ref name="DKGanguly"/> Based on their different interpretations of the various epigraphs and historical records, different historians estimate the Pala chronology as follows:<ref name="Susan1984">{{cite book | author=Susan L. Huntington | title=The "Påala-Sena" Schools of Sculpture | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xLA3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA32 | date=1984 | publisher=Brill Archive | isbn=90-04-06856-2 |pages=32–39 }}</ref>
 
{| class="wikitable"
!
! [[Ramesh Chandra Majumdar|RC Majumdar]] (1971)<ref>{{cite book |author=R. C. Majumdar |author-link=R. C. Majumdar |date=1971 |title=History of Ancient Bengal |publisher=G. Bharadwaj |pages=161–162}}</ref>
! AM Chowdhury (1967)<ref>{{cite book | author = Abdul Momin Chowdhury | date = 1967 | title = Dynastic history of Bengal, c. 750-1200 CE | publisher = Asiatic Society of Pakistan | pages = 272–273 }}</ref>
! [[Bindeshwari Prasad Sinha|BP Sinha]] (1977)<ref>{{cite book | author=Bindeshwari Prasad Sinha | author-link=Bindeshwari Prasad Sinha | date=1977 | title=Dynastic History of Magadha, Cir. 450–1200 A.D. | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V3KDaZY85wYC&pg=PA253 | publisher=Abhinav Publications | pages=253– | isbn=978-81-7017-059-4 }}</ref>{{failed verification|date=February 2020|reason=Page 253 is in the middle of the bibliography, and contains no list of rulers or dates.}}
! [[Dineshchandra Sircar|DC Sircar]] (1975–76)<ref>{{cite journal | title = Indological Notes - R.C. Majumdar's Chronology of the Pala Kings | author = Dineshchandra Sircar |author-link = Dineshchandra Sircar | journal = Journal of Ancient Indian History | volume = IX | year = 1975–76 | pages = 209–10 }}</ref>
! D. K. Ganguly (1994)<ref name="DKGanguly">{{cite book |author=Dilip Kumar Ganguly |title=Ancient India, History and Archaeology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N2tlKzxwhY8C&pg=PA41 |year=1994 |publisher=Abhinav |isbn=978-81-7017-304-5 |pages=33–41 }}</ref>
|-
| [[Gopala (Pala king)|Gopala I]]
| 750–770
| 756–781
| 755–783
| 750–775
| 750–774
|-
| [[Dharmapala of Bengal|Dharmapala]]
| 770–810
| 781–821
| 783–820
| 775–812
| 774–806
|-
| [[Devapala (Pala dynasty)|Devapala]]
| 810–{{circa|850}}
| 821–861
| 820–860
| 812–850
| 806–845
|-
| [[Mahendrapala]]
| colspan="4" | NA (Mahendrapala's existence was conclusively established through a copper-plate charter discovered later.)
| 845–860
|-
| [[Shurapala I]]
| colspan="3" | Deemed to be alternate name of Vigrahapala I
| 850–858
| 860–872
|-
| [[Gopala II]]
| colspan="5" | NA (copper-plate charter discovered in 1995. Text of inscription published in 2009.)
|-
| [[Vigrahapala I (Pala dynasty)|Vigrahapala I]]
| 850–853
| 861–866
| 860–865
| 858–60
| 872–873
|-
| [[Narayan Pala|Narayanapala]]
| 854–908
| 866–920
| 865–920
| 860–917
| 873–927
|-
| [[Rajyapala]]
| 908–940
| 920–952
| 920–952
| 917–952
| 927–959
|-
| [[Gopala III]]
| 940–957
| 952–969
| 952–967
| 952–972
| 959–976
|-
| [[Vigrahapala II]]
| 960–{{circa|986}}
| 969–995
| 967–980
| 972–977
| 976–977
|-
| [[Mahipala|Mahipala I]]
| 988–{{circa|1036}}
| 995–1043
| 980–1035
| 977–1027
| 977–1027
|-
| [[Naya Pala|Nayapala]]
| 1038–1053
| 1043–1058
| 1035–1050
| 1027–1043
| 1027–1043
|-
| [[Vigrahapala III]]
| 1054–1072
| 1058–1075
| 1050–1076
| 1043–1070
| 1043–1070
|-
| [[Mahipala II]]
| 1072–1075
| 1075–1080
| rowspan="2" | 1076–1078/9
| 1070–1071
| 1070–1071
|-
| [[Shurapala II]]
| 1075–1077
| 1080–1082
| 1071–1072
| 1071–1072
|-
| [[Ramapala]]
| 1077–1130
| 1082–1124
| 1078/9–1132
| 1072–1126
| 1072–1126
|-
| [[Kumarapala (Pala king)|Kumarapala]]
| 1130–1140
| 1124–1129
| 1132–1136
| 1126–1128
| 1126–1128
|-
| [[Gopala IV]]
| 1140–1144
| 1129–1143
| 1136–1144
| 1128–1143
| 1128–1143
|-
| [[Madanapala (Pala dynasty)|Madanapala]]
| 1144–1162
| 1143–1162
| 1144–1161/62
| 1143–1161
| 1143–1161
|-
| [[Govindapala]]
| 1158–1162
| NA
| 1162–1176 or 1158–1162
| 1161–1165
| 1161–1165
|-
| Palapala
| NA
| NA
| NA
| 1165–1199
| 1165–1200
|}
 
== Family tree ==
 
{{Chart top|width=100%|collapsed=yes|Pala dynasty}}
 
{{Tree chart/start|align=center|style=font-size:90%}}
 
{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |A01  | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
A01='''[[Gopala I]]'''<br><sup>(1)</sup><br><small>r. {{circa}} 8th Century</small>|boxstyle_A01=border-color:#FFD700}}
 
{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |,|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|.| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |}}
 
{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |A01  | | | | | |A02  | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
A01='''[[Dharmapala (emperor)|Dharmapala]]'''<br><sup>(2)</sup><br><small>r. {{circa}} 8th-9th<br>Century</small>|boxstyle_A01=border-color:#FFD700|
A02=Vakapala}}
 
{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |}}
 
{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |A01  | | | | | |A02  | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
A01='''[[Devapala (Pala dynasty)|Devapala]]'''<br><sup>(3)</sup><br><small>r. {{circa}} 9th Century</small>|boxstyle_A01=border-color:#FFD700|
A02=Jayapala}}
 
{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |)|-|-|-|.| | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |}}
 
{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |A01  | |A02  | |A03  | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
A01='''[[Mahendrapala]]'''<br><sup>(4)</sup><br><small>r. {{circa}} 845-860</small>|boxstyle_A01=border-color:#FFD700|
A02='''[[Shurapala I]]'''<br><sup>(5)</sup><br><small>r. {{circa}} 860-872</small>|boxstyle_A02=border-color:#FFD700|
A03='''[[Vigrahapala I]]'''<br><sup>(7)</sup><br><small>r. {{circa}} 872-873</small>|boxstyle_A03=border-color:#FFD700}}
 
{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |}}
 
{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |A01  | |A02  | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
A01='''[[Gopala II]]'''<br><sup>(6)</sup><br><small>r. {{circa}} after 872</small>|boxstyle_A01=border-color:#FFD700|
A02='''[[Narayanapala]]'''<br><sup>(8)</sup><br><small>r. {{circa}} 873-927</small>|boxstyle_A02=border-color:#FFD700}}
 
{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |}}
 
{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |A01  | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
A01='''[[Rajyapala]]'''<br><sup>(9)</sup><br><small>r. {{circa}} 927-959</small>|boxstyle_A01=border-color:#FFD700}}
 
{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |}}
 
{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |A01  | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
A01='''[[Gopala III]]'''<br><sup>(10)</sup><br><small>r. {{circa}} 959-966</small>|boxstyle_A01=border-color:#FFD700}}
 
{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |}}
 
{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |A01  | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
A01='''[[Vigrahapala II]]'''<br><sup>(11)</sup><br><small>r. {{circa}} 966-977</small>|boxstyle_A01=border-color:#FFD700}}
 
{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |}}
 
{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |A01  | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
A01='''[[Mahipala]]'''<br><sup>(12)</sup><br><small>r. {{circa}} 977-1027</small>|boxstyle_A01=border-color:#FFD700}}
 
{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |}}
 
{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |A01  | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
A01='''[[Nayapala]]'''<br><sup>(13)</sup><br><small>r. {{circa}} 1027-1043</small>|boxstyle_A01=border-color:#FFD700}}
 
{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |}}
 
{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |A01  | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
A01='''[[Vigrahapala III]]'''<br><sup>(14)</sup><br><small>r. {{circa}} 1043-1070</small>|boxstyle_A01=border-color:#FFD700}}
 
{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |,|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|(| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |}}
 
{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |A01  | |A02  | |A03  | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
A01='''[[Mahipala II]]'''<br><sup>(15)</sup><br><small>r. {{circa}} 1070-1076</small>|boxstyle_A01=border-color:#FFD700|
A02='''[[Shurapala II]]'''<br><sup>(16)</sup><br><small>r. {{circa}} 1076-1078</small>|boxstyle_A02=border-color:#FFD700|
A03='''[[Ramapala]]'''<br><sup>(17)</sup><br><small>r. {{circa}} 1078-1126</small>|boxstyle_A03=border-color:#FFD700}}
 
{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |,|-|-|-|(| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |}}
 
{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |A01  | |A02  | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
A01='''[[Kumarapala (Pala king)|Kumarapala]]'''<br><sup>(18)</sup><br><small>r. {{circa}} 1126-1128</small>|boxstyle_A01=border-color:#FFD700|
A02='''[[Madanapala (Pala dynasty)|Madanapala]]'''<br><sup>(20)</sup><br><small>r. {{circa}} 1143-1161</small>|boxstyle_A02=border-color:#FFD700}}
 
{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |}}
 
{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |A01  | |A02  | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
A01='''[[Gopala IV]]'''<br><sup>(19)</sup><br><small>r. {{circa}} 1128-1143</small>|boxstyle_A01=border-color:#FFD700|
A02='''[[Govindapala]]'''<br><sup>(21)</sup><br><small>r. {{circa}} 1161-1165</small>|boxstyle_A02=border-color:#FFD700}}
 
{{Tree chart/end}}
 
{{Chart bottom}}
 
Note:<ref name="Susan1984"/>
* Earlier historians believed that [[Vigrahapala I (Pala dynasty)|Vigrahapala]] I and Shurapala I were the two names of the same person. Now, it is known that these two were cousins; they either ruled simultaneously (perhaps over different territories) or in rapid succession.
* AM Chowdhury rejects Govindapala and his successor Palapala as the members of the imperial Pala dynasty.
* According to BP Sinha, the Gaya inscription can be read as either the "14th year of Govindapala's reign" or "14th year after Govindapala's reign". Thus, two sets of dates are possible.
* D.K. Ganguly mentions another ruler named Indradumnyapala, who is solely known from local tradition. There is no source of his existence yet.<ref name="books.google.com">{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N2tlKzxwhY8C&pg=PA33 | title=Ancient India, History and Archaeology | isbn=9788170173045 | last1=Ganguly | first1=Dilip Kumar | year=1994 }}</ref>
* A king, Bhimapala also finds a mention in the ''Sabdapradipa''. Rajat Sanyal argues that if Govindapala and Palapala are indeed accepted as Pala kings, Bhimapala also should be, provided that he was chronologically close to Ramapala according to the wording of the text. However, both need more historical evidence.<ref name="The Pala-Sena and Others"/>
* A king named Gomindrapala finds mention in a manuscript, dated his fourth regnal year. R.C. Majumdar identifies him with Govindapala, while S.K. Saraswati suggests he is a later Pala king.<ref name="books.google.com"/>
 
{{HistoryOfSouthAsia}}
 
== Military ==
The highest military officer in the Pala empire was the ''Mahasenapati'' (commander-in-chief). The Palas recruited [[mercenary]] soldiers from a number of kingdoms, including Malava, Khasa, Huna, Kulika, Mithila, Kanrata, [[Lata (region)|Lata]], Odra and Manahali. According to the contemporary accounts, the Rashtrakutas had the best infantry, the Gurjara-Pratiharas had the finest cavalry and the Palas had the largest elephant force. The Arab merchant Sulaiman states that the Palas had an army bigger than those of the Balhara (possibly the Rashtrakutas) and the king of Jurz (possibly the Gurjara-Pratiharas). He also states that the Pala army employed 10,000–15,000 men for fuelling and washing clothes. He further claims that during the battles, the Pala king would lead 50,000 [[war elephant]]s. Sulaiman's accounts seem to be based on exaggerated reports; [[Ibn Khaldun]] mentions the number of elephants as 5,000.{{sfn|Paul|1939|p=139–143}}
 
Since Bengal did not have a good native breed of horses, the Palas imported their cavalry horses from the foreigners, including the Kambojas. They also had a navy, used for both mercantile and defence purposes.{{sfn|Paul|1939|p=143–144}}
 
== See also ==
 
* [[Middle kingdoms of India]]
* [[Nalanda]]
* [[Vikramashila]]
* [[Somapura Mahavihara]]
* [[Jagaddala Mahavihara]]
* [[Odantapuri]]
* [[Kurkihar hoard]]
 
== Sources ==
The main sources of information about the Pala empire include:{{sfn|Bagchi|1993|pp=2–3}}
 
; Pala accounts
* Various epigraphs, coins, sculptures and architecture
* ''Ramacharita'', a Sanskrit work by Abhinanda (9th century)
* ''[[Ramacharitam]]'', a Sanskrit epic by [[Sandhyakar Nandi]] (12th century)
* ''[[Subhasita Ratnakosa]]'', a Sanskrit compilation by [[Vidyakara]] (towards the end of the Pala rule)
 
; Other accounts
* ''Silsiltut-Tauarikh'' by the Arab merchant Suleiman (951&nbsp;CE), who referred to the Pala kingdom as ''Ruhmi'' or ''Rahma''
* ''Dpal dus khyi 'khor lo'i chos bskor gyi byung khungs nyer mkh'' (History of Buddhism in India) by [[Taranatha]] (1608), contains a few traditional legends and hearsays about the Pala rule
* ''[[Ain-i-Akbari]]'' by [[Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak|Abu'l-Fazl]] (16th-century)
 
== References ==
{{reflist}}
 
=== Bibliography ===
* {{cite book | first=Jhunu |last=Bagchi | date=1993 | title=The History and Culture of the Pālas of Bengal and Bihar, Cir. 750 A.D.–cir. 1200 A.D. | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J7RKoMeAtpUC&pg=PA2 | publisher=Abhinav Publications | isbn=978-81-7017-301-4 }}
*[[Roy C. Craven|Craven, Roy C.]], ''Indian Art: A Concise History'', 1987, Thames & Hudson (Praeger in USA), {{ISBN|0500201463}}
* Harle, J. C., ''The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent'', 2nd edn. 1994, Yale University Press. ([[Pelican History of Art]]), {{ISBN|0300062176}}
* {{cite book | first=Susan L. |last=Huntington | title=The "Påala-Sena" Schools of Sculpture | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xLA3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA32 | date=1984 | publisher=Brill Archive | isbn=90-04-06856-2 }}
* {{cite book |first=Pramode Lal |last=Paul |year=1939 |title=The Early History of Bengal |volume=1 |publisher=Indian Research Institute |series=Indian History |url=http://dli.ernet.in/handle/2015/503174 |access-date=28 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817073236/http://dli.ernet.in/handle/2015/503174 |archive-date=17 August 2016 |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite book | first=Nitish K. |last=Sengupta |author-link=Nitish Sengupta | date=2011 | title=Land of Two Rivers: A History of Bengal from the Mahabharata to Mujib | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kVSh_TyJ0YoC&pg=PA40 | publisher=Penguin Books India | pages=39–49 | isbn=978-0-14-341678-4 }}
 
{{West Bengal}}


[[Category:Pala Empire| ]]
[[Category:Pala Empire| ]]
[[Category:History of Bengal]]
[[Category:Former empires in Asia]]
[[Category:Kingdoms of Bihar]]
[[Category:750 establishments]]
[[Category:8th-century establishments in India]]
[[Category:12th-century disestablishments in India]]
[[Category:Empires and kingdoms of Nepal]]
[[Category:8th-century establishments in Nepal]]
[[Category:12th-century disestablishments in Nepal]]
[[Category:Buddhist dynasties of India]]
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