Editing Nuclear power in India

{{Use Indian English|date=May 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}
{{short description|Overview of nuclear power in India}}
{{India nuke plant map}}
[[Nuclear power]] is the fifth-largest source of [[electricity in India]] after coal, gas, [[hydroelectricity]] and [[wind power]]. {{As of|2020|11}}, [[India]] has 23 [[nuclear reactor]]s in operation in 7 [[nuclear power plant]]s, with a total installed capacity of 7,480 MW.<ref name=KudankulamComissioning>{{cite web|url=http://www.mumbaimirror.com/news/india/Kudankulam-nuclear-plant-begins-power-generation/articleshow/24524616.cms |title=Kudankulam nuclear plant begins power generation |work=Mumbai Mirror|date=22 October 2013 |access-date=29 January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cea.nic.in/reports/monthly/installedcapacity/2018/installed_capacity-03.pdf |title=India Installed Capacity|access-date=5 June 2018}}</ref> 
Nuclear power produced a total of 43 [[TWh]] in 2020-21, contributing 3.11% of total power generation in India (1,382 TWh).<ref>https://npcil.nic.in/content/302_1_AllPlants.aspx</ref> 10 more reactors are under construction with a combined generation capacity of 8,000 MW.

In October 2010, India drew up a plan to reach a nuclear power capacity of 63 GW in 2032.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/news-by-industry/energy/power/India-eyeing-63000-MW-nuclear-power-capacity-by-2032-NPCIL/articleshow/6730724.cms |title=India eyeing 64,000 MW nuclear power capacity by 2032: NPCIL |work=The Economic Times | date=11 October 2010}}</ref> However, following the 2011 [[Fukushima nuclear disaster]] there have been numerous anti-nuclear protests at proposed nuclear power plant sites.<ref name=nukeindia/>
There have been mass protests against the [[Jaitapur Nuclear Power Project]] in Maharashtra and the [[Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant]] in Tamil Nadu, and a proposed large nuclear power plant near Haripur was refused permission by the [[Government of West Bengal]].<ref name=nukeindia/>
A [[Public Interest Litigation]] (PIL) has also been filed against the government’s civil nuclear programme at the Supreme Court.<ref name=nukeindia>{{cite web |url=http://www.asiasentinel.com/blog/indias-rising-nuclear-safety-concerns/ |title=India's Rising Nuclear Safety Concerns |author=Siddharth Srivastava |date=27 October 2011 |work=Asia Sentinel }}</ref><ref name="insideclimatenews1">{{cite web |url=http://insideclimatenews.org/news/20111024/india-nuclear-energy-expansion-grassroots-uprising-jaitapur-maharashtra-tamil-nadu-west-bengal-fukushima |title=Prospects Dim for India's Nuclear Power Expansion as Grassroots Uprising Spreads |author=Ranjit Devraj |date=25 October 2011 |work=Inside Climate News }}</ref>

Nuclear power in India has suffered from generally low capacity factors. 
As of 2017, the lifetime weighted energy [[availability factor]] of the Indian fleet is 63.5%.<ref>{{cite web |title=PRIS - Lifetime factors - Energy Availability |url=https://pris.iaea.org/PRIS/WorldStatistics/LifeTimeEnergyAvailabilityFactor.aspx |website=pris.iaea.org |publisher=IAEA PRIS |access-date=18 March 2019}}</ref>
However, capacity factors have been improving in recent years. The availability factor of Indian reactors was 69.4% in the years 2015-2017.<ref>{{cite web |title=PRIS - Last three years factors - Energy Availability |url=https://pris.iaea.org/PRIS/WorldStatistics/ThreeYrsEnergyAvailabilityFactor.aspx |website=pris.iaea.org |publisher=IAEA PRIS |access-date=18 March 2019}}</ref>
One of the main reasons for the low capacity factors is lack of nuclear fuel.

India has been making advances in the field of [[thorium]]-based fuels, working to design and develop a prototype for an atomic reactor using thorium and low-[[enriched uranium]], a key part of [[India's three stage nuclear power programme]].<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2009/10/20/business/global/20renthorium.html?_r=1 |title=Considering an Alternative Fuel for Nuclear Energy |work= The New York Times | first=Lisa|last=Pham |date=20 October 2009}}</ref> done in the [[fusion power]] area through the [[ITER]] initiative.

==History==
{{Bar graph
| title       = Nuclear power generation<ref>{{cite web|title=BP Statistical Review of World Energy June 2017|url=https://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/en/corporate/pdf/energy-economics/statistical-review-2017/bp-statistical-review-of-world-energy-2017-full-report.pdf|publisher=BP|access-date=1 March 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=BP Statistical Review of World Energy |url=https://www.bp.com/en/global/corporate/energy-economics/statistical-review-of-world-energy.html |website=BP global |publisher=BP |access-date=5 January 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
| float       = right
| bar_width   = 16
| width_units = em
| data_max    = 40
| label_type  = Year
| data_type   = Generation (TWh)
| label1      = 2005
| data1       = 
| label2      = 2006
| data2       = 17.7
| label3      = 2007
| data3       = 17.7
| label4      = 2008
| data4       = 15.0
| label5      = 2009
| data5       = 16.8
| label6      = 2010
| data6       = 23.0
| label7      = 2011
| data7       = 32.3
| label8      = 2012
| data8       = 33.1
| label9      = 2013
| data9       = 33.1
| label10      = 2014
| data10       = 34.5	
| label11      = 2015
| data11       = 38.4	
| label12      = 2016
| data12       = 38.0	
| label13      = 2017
| data13       = 37.4	
| label14      = 2018
| data14       = 39.1
}}

===Early nuclear physics research===
As early as 1901, the [[Geological Survey of India]] (GSI) had recognised India as potentially having significant deposits of radioactive ores, including [[pitchblende]], [[uranium]] and [[thorianite]]. In the ensuing 50 years, however, little to no effort was made to exploit those resources.<ref>{{cite news| last=Srinivasan| first=N. R.|title=Uranium Minerals of India| url=http://www.currentscience.ac.in/Downloads/article_id_019_05_0141_0142_0.pdf | access-date=25 August 2017| newspaper=[[Current Science]]| date=May 1950}}</ref> During the 1920s and 1930s, Indian scientists maintained close links to their counterparts in Europe and the United States, and were well aware of the latest developments in physics. Several Indian physicists, notably [[Daulat Singh Kothari]], [[Meghnad Saha]], [[Homi J. Bhabha]] and [[R. S. Krishnan]], conducted pioneering research in [[nuclear physics]] in Europe during the 1930s.

By 1939, Meghnad Saha, the Palit Professor of Physics at the [[University of Calcutta]], had recognised the significance of the discovery of [[nuclear fission]], and had begun to conduct various experiments in his laboratory related to nuclear physics. In 1940, he incorporated nuclear physics into the university's post-graduate curriculum.<ref name="Saha_Institute">{{cite web|title=Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics - History |url=http://www.saha.ac.in/web/about-sinp/brief-history|website=Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics|access-date=25 August 2017}}</ref> In the same year, the [[Sir Dorabji Tata Trust]] sanctioned funds for installing a [[cyclotron]] at the University of Calcutta, but various difficulties likely related to the war delayed the project.<ref name="Calcutta_Nuclear_Physics_Institute">{{cite news|title=Nuclear Physics at the Calcutta University| url=http://www.currentscience.ac.in/Downloads/article_id_017_05_0169_0170_0.pdf | access-date=25 August 2017| newspaper=[[Current Science]]| date=May 1948}}</ref> In 1944, Homi J. Bhabha, a distinguished nuclear physicist who had established a research school at the [[Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore]], wrote a letter to his distant cousin [[J. R. D. Tata]], the chairman of the [[Tata Group]]. He requested funds to establish a research institute of fundamental physics, "with special reference to cosmic rays and nuclear physics." The [[Tata Institute of Fundamental Research]] (TIFR) was inaugurated in [[Mumbai]] the following year.<ref name="INSA_Bhabha_Bio">{{cite web|title=Homi J. Bhabha (1909-1966) |url=http://insaindia.res.in/BM/BM2_7010.pdf|website=Indian National Science Academy|access-date=25 August 2017}}</ref>

===Establishment of atomic energy in India===
Following the [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|atomic bombing of Hiroshima]] in August 1945, R.S. Krishnan, a nuclear physicist who had studied under [[Norman Feather]] and [[John Cockroft]], and who recognised the massive energy-generating potential of uranium, observed, "If the tremendous energy released from atomic explosions is made available to drive machinery, etc., it will bring about an industrial revolution of a far-reaching character." He further noted, however, the difficulties in harnessing nuclear power for peaceful usage, "...a great deal more research work is needed before atomic power can be put to industrial use."<ref>{{cite news| last=Krishnan| first=R. S.|title=Atomic Energy| url=http://www.currentscience.ac.in/Downloads/article_id_014_08_0185_0187_0.pdf | access-date=20 February 2017| newspaper=[[Current Science]]| date=August 1945}}</ref>

In March 1946, the Board of Scientific and Industrial Research (BSIR), under the [[Council of Scientific and Industrial Research]] (CSIR), set up an Atomic Research Committee under Bhabha's leadership to explore India's atomic energy resources and to suggest ways to develop and harness them, along with establishing contacts with similar organisations in other nations.<ref name = "Atomic_Research"/> At the same time, the [[University of Travancore]]'s research council met to discuss [[Travancore]]'s future industrial development. Among other matters, the council made recommendations for developing the state's resources of [[monazite]], a valuable [[thorium]] ore, and [[ilmenite]], with regard to their applications in atomic energy. The council suggested the project could be undertaken by an all-India programme.<ref name = "Atomic_Research">{{cite news|title=University of Travancore - Council of Research|url=http://www.currentscience.ac.in/Downloads/article_id_015_03_0089_0090_0.pdf | access-date=25 August 2017| newspaper=[[Current Science]]| date=March 1946}}</ref> This was followed by the deputation of Bhabha and Sir [[Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar]], the Director of the CSIR, to Travancore in April 1947 and the establishment of a working relationship with the kingdom's ''dewan'', Sir [[C. P. Ramaswami Iyer]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Atomic Research - Science Notes and News|url=http://www.currentscience.ac.in/Downloads/article_id_016_04_0133_0134_0.pdf | access-date=25 August 2017| newspaper=[[Current Science]]| date=April 1947}}</ref>

Early in 1947, plans were made to establish a Uranium Unit under the Geological Survey of India, to focus on identifying and developing resources of uranium-bearing minerals.<ref>{{cite news|title=Uranium Unit of the Geological Survey - Science Notes and News|url=http://www.currentscience.ac.in/Downloads/article_id_016_03_0101_0102_0.pdf | access-date=26 August 2017| newspaper=[[Current Science]]| date=March 1947}}</ref> In June 1947, two months before [[Indian Independence Act 1947|Indian independence]], [[Chakravarti Rajagopalachari]], then Minister for Industry, Supply, Education and Finance in the [[Interim Government of India]], established an Advisory Board for Research in Atomic Energy. Chaired by Bhabha and placed under the CSIR, the Advisory Board included Saha, Bhatnagar and several other distinguished scientists, notably Sir [[K. S. Krishnan]], the co-discoverer of the [[Raman effect]], geologist [[Darashaw Nosherwan Wadia]] and [[Nazir Ahmed (physicist)|Nazir Ahmed]], a student of [[Ernest Rutherford]]. A Joint Committee comprising the above scientists and three representatives of the Travancore government was set up to determine how best to utilise Travancore's resources of monazite.<ref>{{cite news|title=Atomic Energy Research - Science Notes and News|url=http://www.currentscience.ac.in/Downloads/article_id_016_06_0196_0198_0.pdf | access-date=25 August 2017| newspaper=[[Current Science]]| date=June 1947}}</ref> Following the independence and partition of India, Travancore briefly declared itself independent before acceding to the new [[Dominion of India]] in 1949 after a period of intense negotiations, while Ahmad departed for [[Pakistan]], where he would eventually head that nation's atomic energy agency.

On 23 March 1948, Prime Minister [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] introduced the Atomic Energy Bill in the Indian Parliament,<ref>{{cite news|title=Atomic Energy in India - Science Notes and News|url=http://www.currentscience.ac.in/Downloads/article_id_017_04_0134_0135_0.pdf | access-date=25 August 2017| newspaper=[[Current Science]]| date=April 1948}}</ref> and it was subsequently passed as the Indian Atomic Energy Act. Modelled on the British Atomic Energy Act 1946, the Act granted sweeping powers to the central government over nuclear science and research, including surveying for atomic minerals, the development of such mineral resources on an industrial scale, conducting research regarding the scientific and technical problems connected with developing atomic energy for peaceful purposes, the training and education of the necessary personnel and the fostering of fundamental research in the nuclear sciences in Indian laboratories, institutes and universities.<ref name="INSA_Bhabha_Bio"/> Around the same time, the [[Government of West Bengal]] sanctioned the construction of a nuclear physics institute under the University of Calcutta; the cornerstone was laid in May 1948,<ref>{{cite news|title=Nuclear Physics at the Calcutta University - Science Notes and News|url=http://www.currentscience.ac.in/Downloads/article_id_017_05_0169_0170_0.pdf | access-date=2 September 2017| newspaper=[[Current Science]]| date=May 1948}}</ref> and the institute was inaugurated on 11 January 1950 by [[Irène Joliot-Curie]].<ref name="Saha_Institute"/>

With effect from 1 June 1948, the Advisory Board for Research in Atomic Energy, together with its parent organisation the CSIR, was folded into the new [[Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (India)|Department of Scientific Research]] and placed directly under the Prime Minister. On 3 August 1948, the [[Atomic Energy Commission of India]] (AEC) was established and made separate from the Department of Scientific Research, with Bhabha as its first chairman.<ref>{{cite news|title=Department of Scientific Research - Science Notes and News|url=http://www.currentscience.ac.in/Downloads/article_id_017_08_0251_0253_0.pdf | access-date=25 August 2017| newspaper=[[Current Science]]| date=August 1948}}</ref> In January 1949, the AEC met to formulate a uniform under- and post-graduate university syllabus for theoretical and fundamental physics and chemistry, to guarantee sufficient numbers of nuclear scientists and to ensure they would receive consistent levels of training and education.<ref>{{cite news|title=Atomic Energy Commission - Science Notes and News|url=http://www.currentscience.ac.in/Downloads/article_id_018_03_0063_0063_0.pdf | access-date=3 September 2017| newspaper=[[Current Science]]| date=March 1949}}</ref> In the same year, the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research was designated by the CSIR as the hub for all major nuclear science research projects. In 1950, the government announced it would purchase all available stocks of uranium and beryllium minerals and ores, and declared large rewards for any significant discoveries of the same.<ref>{{cite news|title=Government to Purchase Uranium Stocks - Science Notes and News |url=http://www.currentscience.ac.in/Downloads/article_id_019_08_0236_0236_0.pdf | access-date=3 September 2017| newspaper=[[Current Science]]| date=August 1950}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Rewards for Discovery of Uranium and Beryl Ores - Science Notes and News|url=http://www.currentscience.ac.in/Downloads/article_id_019_05_0145_0145_1.pdf | access-date=3 September 2017| newspaper=[[Current Science]]| date=May 1950}}</ref> On 3 January 1954, the Atomic Energy Establishment, Trombay (AEET) was established by the Atomic Energy Commission to consolidate all nuclear reactor research and technology-related developments; on 3 August, the Atomic Energy Commission and all its subordinate agencies, including the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research and the nuclear research institute at Calcutta University, were transferred to the new [[Department of Atomic Energy]] and placed under the direct charge of the Prime Minister's Office.<ref name="INSA_Bhabha_Bio"/> In May 1956, construction began at Trombay on a uranium metal plant and a fuel element fabrication facility for the research reactors; the uranium plant came into operation in January 1959, followed by the fuel element facility in February 1960.<ref name="TOI_Directory"/><ref>{{cite journal |title=Editorial |journal=The Bombay Technologist |date=1 February 1957 |volume=7 |issue=1 |page=3 |url=http://www.bombaytechnologist.org/index.php/bombaytechnologist/article/view/129189 |access-date=12 June 2020 |language=en |issn=0067-9925}}</ref> The AEET (renamed the [[Bhabha Atomic Research Centre]] in 1967, after Bhabha's death) was formally inaugurated by Nehru in January 1957.<ref name="TOI_Directory"/> With the expanding scope of Indian nuclear research, the 1948 Atomic Energy Act was amended in 1961, and was passed as the new Atomic Energy Act, coming into force in September 1962.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://rsdebate.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/548590/1/PQ_36_13121961_U270_p2194_p2195.pdf#search=atomic%20atomic | title=Rajya Sabha Debates (1961) - Proposal to amend the Atomic Energy Act| publisher=Government of India|date=13 December 1961 | access-date=22 June 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://rsdebate.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/550731/1/PD_40_30081962_17_p4395_p4425_8.pdf#search=atomic%20atomic | title=Rajya Sabha Debates (1962) - THE ATOMIC ENERGY BILL, 1962| publisher=Government of India|date=30 August 1962 | access-date=22 June 2018 }}</ref><ref name="TOI_Directory">{{cite book |editor1-last=Lal |editor1-first=Sham |date=1978 |title=The Times of India Directory & Year Book, Including Who's Who: 1978 |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015020142546;view=1up;seq=3 |publisher=Times of India Press |pages=149–153}}</ref>

===Early research reactors===
At a meeting of the Atomic Energy Commission on 15 March 1955, the decision was made to construct a small nuclear reactor at Trombay. The reactor would be used for training personnel for the operation of future reactors and for research, including experiments in nuclear physics, studying the effects of irradiation and the production of isotopes for medical, agricultural and industrial research.<ref name="First_Reactor_Apsara">{{cite news|title=India's First Atomic Reactor - Science Notes and News|url=http://www.currentscience.ac.in/Downloads/article_id_025_08_0245_0245_0.pdf | access-date=3 September 2017| newspaper=[[Current Science]]| date=August 1956}}</ref> In October 1955, an agreement was signed by the [[United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority]] and the Indian Department of Atomic Energy, under which Britain would supply uranium fuel elements for a [[swimming pool reactor]] to be designed by India.<ref name="First_Reactor_Apsara"/> The agreement further ensured the "close cooperation and mutual assistance between the Department and the Authority in the promotion and development of the peaceful uses of atomic energy," and provided for future design and collaboration in the construction of a [[high flux reactor]] at a later date.<ref>{{cite web|title=Agreement with U.K. on Atomic Energy |url=http://pib.nic.in/archive/docs/DVD_06/ACC%20NO%20093-BR/PRI-1955-12-23-488.pdf |website=Press Information Bureau of India - Archive |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808193914/http://pib.nic.in/archive/docs/DVD_06/ACC%20NO%20093-BR/PRI-1955-12-23-488.pdf|archive-date=8 August 2017}}</ref> Named ''Apsara'', the reactor was housed in a 100 x 50 x 70 concrete building. India's and Asia's first nuclear reactor, ''Apsara'' reached criticality at 3:45 p.m on 4 August 1956 and was inaugurated by Prime Minister Nehru on 20 January 1957.<ref name="First_Reactor_Apsara"/><ref>[http://barc.gov.in/reactor/index.html Bhabha Atomic Research Centre]</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.nti.org/facilities/818/ |title=Apsara Research Reactor |access-date=12 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150419042039/http://www.nti.org/facilities/818/ |archive-date=19 April 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In April 1955, the Canadian government under Prime Minister [[Louis St. Laurent]] offered to assist in building an [[NRX]]-type reactor for India under the [[Colombo Plan]], of which both India and Canada were then members. Prime Minister St. Laurent expressed hopes the reactor would serve India well in the development of peaceful atomic research and development. On behalf of the Indian government, Nehru formally accepted the offer that September, stating the reactor would be made available to any accredited foreign scientists, including those from other Colombo Plan member states.<ref>{{cite web|title=Canadian Offer of Atomic Reactor |url=http://pib.nic.in/archive/docs/DVD_06/ACC%20NO%20093-BR/PRI-1955-09-16-497.pdf |website=Press Information Bureau of India - Archive |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808193914/http://pib.nic.in/archive/docs/DVD_06/ACC%20NO%20093-BR/PRI-1955-09-16-497.pdf |archive-date=8 August 2017}}</ref><ref name="ccnr.org">[http://www.ccnr.org/exports_3.html Exporting Disaster ~ The Cost of Selling CANDU Reactors (3)]. Ccnr.org. Retrieved on 2013-12-06.</ref><ref name="Fuhrmann 93–95">{{cite book|last=Fuhrmann|first=Matthew|title=Atomic Assistance: How "Atoms for Peace" Programmes Cause Nuclear Insecurity|date=24 July 2012|publisher=Cornell University Press|location=Texas|isbn=978-0801478116|pages=93–95|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WHXfP25eMq4C&q=Rapp-1+reactor&pg=PA94}}</ref> On 28 April 1956, Nehru and the Canadian High Commissioner to India [[Escott Reid]] signed an agreement for a "Canada-India Colombo Plan Atomic Reactor Project." Under the terms of the agreement, Canada would provide a 40 MW [[CIRUS reactor]] for solely research purposes, including the initial manufacture and engineering of the reactor, and would also provide technical expertise, including training Indian personnel in its operation. India would supply the reactor site and foundation, and would also pay all "internal" costs, including the construction of the reactor complex, the costs of local labour and any shipping and insurance fees.<ref name="CIRUS_Agreement">{{cite web|title=Agreement on the Canada-India Colombo Plan Atomic Reactor Project|url=http://pib.nic.in/archive/docs/DVD_16/ACC%20NO%20284-BR/EXT-1956-05-03_5540.pdf |website=Press Information Bureau of India - Archive |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808193914/http://pib.nic.in/archive/docs/DVD_16/ACC%20NO%20284-BR/EXT-1956-05-03_5540.pdf |archive-date=8 August 2017}}</ref> Under Article II of the agreement, India would make the reactor facilities available to other Colombo Plan nations. Article III stipulated that the "reactor and any products resulting from its use will be employed for peaceful purposes only;"<ref name="CIRUS_Agreement"/> at the time, however, there were no effective safeguards to ensure this clause.<ref name="ccnr.org"/><ref name="Fuhrmann 93–95"/> A further agreement was made with the United States government to supply 21 tons of [[heavy water]] for the reactor.<ref>{{cite web|title=Atomic Research for Peaceful Uses|url=http://pib.nic.in/archive/docs/DVD_06/ACC%20NO%20094-BR/PRI-1956-08-06-617.pdf |website=Press Information Bureau of India - Archive |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808193914/http://pib.nic.in/archive/docs/DVD_06/ACC%20NO%20094-BR/PRI-1956-08-06-617.pdf|archive-date=8 August 2017}}</ref> Construction of the reactor began later in 1956, with Indian technical personnel sent to Chalk River for training.<ref>{{cite web|title=Canada-India Colombo Plan Atomic Reactor |url=http://pib.nic.in/archive/docs/DVD_16/ACC%20NO%20284-BR/EXT-1956-04-27_5542.pdf |website=Press Information Bureau of India - Archive |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808193914/http://pib.nic.in/archive/docs/DVD_16/ACC%20NO%20284-BR/EXT-1956-04-27_5542.pdf|archive-date=8 August 2017}}</ref> CIRUS was completed in early 1960 and after achieving criticality in July 1960, was inaugurated by Nehru in January 1961.<ref name="Can_Ind_Survey">{{cite web|title=Nuclear Power Station Survey: Canada-India Joint Survey |url=http://pib.nic.in/archive/docs/DVD_08/ACC%20NO%20101-BR/PRI-1961-08-05-1218.pdf |website=Press Information Bureau of India - Archive |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808193914/http://pib.nic.in/archive/docs/DVD_08/ACC%20NO%20101-BR/PRI-1961-08-05-1218.pdf|archive-date=8 August 2017}}</ref> Construction of a third research reactor, ZERLINA (Zero Energy Reactor for Lattice Investigations and New Assemblies) began at Trombay in 1958; ZERLINA was also commissioned in 1961.<ref>{{cite web|title=Atomic Research for Asian Welfare |url=http://pib.nic.in/archive/docs/DVD_48/ACC%20NO%20929-BR/FIN-1960-01-06_4474.pdf |website=Press Information Bureau of India - Archive |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808193914/http://pib.nic.in/archive/docs/DVD_48/ACC%20NO%20929-BR/FIN-1960-01-06_4474.pdf|archive-date=8 August 2017}}</ref>

===Beginnings of commercial nuclear power===
In September 1955, the question of building a commercial nuclear power station was raised in Parliament.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://rsdebate.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/580674/1/PQ_10_07091955_U211_p2263_p2263.pdf | title=Rajya Sabha Debates (1955) - Atomic Power Station| publisher=Government of India |date=7 September 1955| access-date=21 June 2018 }}</ref> Shortly after the [[Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant|world's first commercial nuclear power plant]] came online at [[Obninsk]] in the [[Soviet Union]], the Soviets invited a number of Indian experts to visit it; the United States concurrently offered training in atomic energy to Indian technical and scientific personnel.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://rsdebate.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/581491/1/PQ_10_28091955_U432_p5015_p5015.pdf#search=Atomic%20atomic | title=Rajya Sabha Debates (1955) - Indian Experts' Visit to Russian Atomic Plant| publisher=Government of India|date=28 September 1955 | access-date=21 June 2018 }}</ref> In August 1957, members of the Gujarat Chamber of Commerce in [[Ahmedabad]] (then in [[Bombay State]]) requested an atomic power station for their city, by which time the Indian government was actively considering the construction of at least "one or more large Atomic Power Stations to generate electricity."<ref>{{cite web | url=http://rsdebate.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/573571/1/PQ_18_12091957_S658_p5225_p5227.pdf | title=Rajya Sabha Debates (1957) - Setting up of an Atomic Reactor at Ahmedabad| publisher=Government of India|date=12 September 1957 | access-date=21 June 2018 }}</ref> By November 1958, the Atomic Energy Commission had recommended construction of two nuclear power stations, each consisting of two units and able to generate 500 MW of power, for a total generating capacity of 1000 MW; the government decided that a minimum of 250 MW of electricity generated from nuclear reactors would be incorporated into the Third Five Year Plan (1961-1966).<ref>{{cite web | url=http://rsdebate.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/568259/1/PQ_23_27111958_S107_p348_p349.pdf#search=null%20atomic | title=Rajya Sabha Debates (1958) - Atomic Power Stations to be set up in India| publisher=Government of India|date=27 November 1958 | access-date=22 June 2018 }}</ref>

In February 1960, it was decided the first power plant would be erected in Western India, with locations in Rajasthan, near Delhi and near Madras noted for future commercial reactors.<ref>{{cite web|title=Atomic Power Stations |url=http://pib.nic.in/archive/docs/DVD_07/ACC%20NO%20100-BR/PRI-1960-02-22-1060.pdf |website=Press Information Bureau of India - Archive |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808193914/http://pib.nic.in/archive/docs/DVD_07/ACC%20NO%20100-BR/PRI-1960-02-22-1060.pdf|archive-date=8 August 2017}}</ref> In September, the Punjab government requested a nuclear power station for their state.<ref name="site_search">{{cite web | url=http://rsdebate.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/544915/1/PQ_43_23041963_U39_p239_p239.pdf#search=null%20atomic | title=Rajya Sabha Debates (1963) - Installation of Atomic Power Station in Punjab| publisher=Government of India|date=23 April 1963 | access-date=2 July 2018 }}</ref> On 11 October 1960, the Indian government issued a tender for India's first nuclear power station near [[Tarapur, Maharashtra]] and consisting of two reactors, each generating around 150 MW of electricity and to be commissioned in 1965.<ref>{{cite web|title=India's First Atomic Power Station - Global Tenders Invited|url=http://pib.nic.in/archive/docs/DVD_07/ACC%20NO%20100-BR/PRI-1960-10-11-1128.pdf |website=Press Information Bureau of India - Archive |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808193914/http://pib.nic.in/archive/docs/DVD_07/ACC%20NO%20100-BR/PRI-1960-10-11-1128.pdf|archive-date=8 August 2017}}</ref> In August 1961, the Indian and Canadian governments agreed to conduct a joint study on building a Canada-India nuclear power plant in [[Rajasthan]]; the reactor would be based on the [[CANDU reactor]] at [[Douglas Point Nuclear Generating Station|Douglas Point]] and would generate 200 MW of energy.<ref name="Can_Ind_Survey"/> By this time, seven responses to India's global tender for the Tarapur power station had been received: three from the United States, two from the UK and one each from France and Canada.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://rsdebate.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/551551/1/PQ_40_16081962_S373_p1765_p1766.pdf#search=atomic%20atomic | title=Rajya Sabha Debates (1962) - Tarapur Atomic Power Project| publisher=Government of India|date=16 August 1962 | access-date=22 June 2018 }}</ref>

The agreement for India's first nuclear power plant at Rajasthan, RAPP-1, was signed in 1963, followed by RAPP-2 in 1966. These reactors contained rigid safeguards to ensure they would not be used for a military programme. RAPP-1 began operation in 1972. Due to technical problems the reactor had to be downrated from 200 MW to 100 MW.{{citation needed|date=April 2013}} The technical and design information were given free of charge by [[Atomic Energy of Canada Limited]] to India.{{citation needed|date=April 2013}} The United States and Canada [[Smiling Buddha#United States and Canada|terminated their assistance]] after the detonation of India's first nuclear explosion in 1974.

===Recent developments===
After successful commissioning of Kudankulam units 1 & 2, an agreement was made with Russia in June 2017 for the units 5 & 6 (2 x 1000 MW) with an estimated cost of INR 250 million (3.85 million US$) per MW.<ref name= TOI>{{cite news |title=Units 5, 6 at Kudankulam nuclear power plant to cost Rs 50000-crore |url= http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/energy/power/units-5-6-at-kudankulam-nuclear-power-plant-to-cost-rs-50000-crore/articleshow/58959079.cms|newspaper=The Times of India|date=2 June 2017 |access-date=1 July 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Recalling Kudankulam's Bumpy Ride as Reactor 2 Comes On |url= https://thewire.in/51430/kudankulam-power-lwr-nsg-npcil/ |access-date=31 July 2017}}</ref> Earlier, India had also entered in to an agreement with Russia in October 2016 for the units 3 & 4 (2 x 1000 MW) with an estimated cost of INR 200 million (3.08 million US$) per MW.<ref name= TOI/>

==Nuclear fuel reserves==
India's domestic [[natural uranium|uranium]] reserves are small and the country is dependent on uranium imports to fuel its nuclear power industry. Since early 1990s, [[Russia]] has been a major supplier of nuclear fuel to India.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.expressindia.com/news/fullstory.php?newsid=65381 |title= Russia fulfills promise, supplies uranium to India |work= [[The Indian Express]] |publisher= [[Indian Express Limited]] |access-date= 22 August 2010 |archive-date= 19 February 2009 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090219072754/http://www.expressindia.com/news/fullstory.php?newsid=65381 |url-status= dead }}</ref> Due to dwindling domestic uranium reserves,<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.livemint.com/2008/06/30222448/Uranium-shortage-holding-back.html |title=Uranium shortage holding back India's nuclear power drive - Corporate News |publisher=livemint.com |date=30 June 2008 |access-date=22 August 2010}}</ref> electricity generation from nuclear power in India declined by 12.83% from 2006 to 2008.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://powermin.gov.in/JSP_SERVLETS/internal.jsp# |title=Ministry of Power |publisher=Powermin.gov.in |access-date=22 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110318100250/http://powermin.gov.in/JSP_SERVLETS/internal.jsp |archive-date=18 March 2011 |url-status=dead  }}</ref> Following a [[Indo-US civilian nuclear agreement#NSG waiver|waiver]] from the [[Nuclear Suppliers Group]] (NSG) in September 2008 which allowed it to commence international nuclear trade,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.outlookindia.com/pti_news.asp?id=321896 |title=news.outlookindia.com |publisher=Outlookindia.com |access-date=22 August 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080922045157/http://www.outlookindia.com/pti_news.asp?id=321896 |archive-date=22 September 2008}}</ref> India has signed bilateral deals on civilian nuclear energy technology cooperation with several other countries, including [[France]],<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.rediff.com/news/2008/jan/25france.htm |title=India, France agree on civil nuclear cooperation |publisher=Rediff.com |access-date=22 August 2010}}</ref> the [[United States]],<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.livemint.com/2008/10/09005930/Bush-signs-IndiaUS-nuclear-de.html?d=1|title=Bush signs India-US nuclear deal into law - Home |publisher=livemint.com |date=9 October 2008 |access-date=22 August 2010}}</ref> the [[United Kingdom]],<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE61C21E20100213?type=politicsNews |title=UK, India sign civil nuclear accord |publisher=Reuters |date= 13 February 2010 |access-date=22 August 2010}}</ref> [[Canada]],<ref>{{cite web |url= https://montrealgazette.com/news/Canada+India+reach+nuclear+deal/2281106/story.html |title=Canada, India reach nuclear deal |work=Montreal Gazette |date=29 November 2009 |access-date=22 August 2010}}</ref> and [[South Korea]].<ref>{{cite news| url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-07-25/india/29811954_1_nuclear-cooperation-agreement-nuclear-energy-bilateral-agreement | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121105234223/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-07-25/india/29811954_1_nuclear-cooperation-agreement-nuclear-energy-bilateral-agreement | url-status=dead | archive-date=5 November 2012 | work=[[The Times of India]] | title=India, South Korea ink civil nuclear deal | date=25 July 2011}}</ref> India has also uranium supply agreements with Russia,<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/2010/03/11/stories/2010031153801800.htm |title= India to get 510 tonnes of uranium from Kazakhstan, Russia |publisher= Hindu Business Line |access-date= 22 October 2010 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20101208124811/http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/2010/03/11/stories/2010031153801800.htm |archive-date= 8 December 2010 |url-status= dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7883223.stm |title=South Asia &#124; Russia agrees India nuclear deal |work=BBC News |date=11 February 2009 |access-date=22 August 2010}}</ref> [[Mongolia]],<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.financialexpress.com/news/India-signs-civil-nuclear-deal-with-Mongolia/516967/ |title= India, Kazakhstan sign nuclear pact |work= [[The Financial Express (India)|The Financial Express]] |publisher=[[Indian Express Limited]]}}</ref> [[Kazakhstan]],<ref>{{cite news|author=Sanjay Dutta |url= http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Business/Kazakh_oil_deals_hang_in_balance/articleshow/4019306.cms |title=Kazakh nuclear, oil deals hang in balance |work=The Times of India |date=23 January 2009 |access-date=22 August 2010}}</ref> [[Argentina]]<ref>[http://www.thehindu.com/business/Economy/article792992.ece India, Argentina ink agreement on peaceful uses of N-energy], ''[[The Hindu]]''</ref> and [[Namibia]].<ref name="Repbulikein 02092009"/> An Indian private company won a uranium exploration contract in [[Niger]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://taurianresources.co.in/default/content/view/1/36/lang,english/ |title=Indian firm acquires uranium mining rights in Niger &#124; Uranium, Niger, Company, Bajla, Government |publisher=taurianresources.co.in |access-date=22 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511140914/http://taurianresources.co.in/default/content/view/1/36/lang,english/ |archive-date=11 May 2011 |url-status=dead  }}</ref>

In March 2011 large deposits of uranium were discovered in the [[Tummalapalle uranium mine|Tummalapalle belt]] in [[Andhra Pradesh]] and in the [[Bhima River|Bhima basin]] in [[Karnataka]] by the Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research (AMD) of India.
The Tummalapalle belt uranium reserves promises to be one of the world's top 20 uranium reserves discoveries.
44,000 tonnes of natural uranium have been discovered in the belt so far, which is estimated to have three times that amount.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/states/andhra-pradesh/article1554078.ece |location=Chennai, India |work=The Hindu|first=T. S. |last=Subramanian |title=Massive uranium deposits found in Andhra Pradesh |date=20 March 2011 |access-date=8 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024220949/http://www.thehindu.com/news/states/andhra-pradesh/article1554078.ece |archive-date=24 October 2012 |url-status=dead  }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.ibtimes.com/massive-uranium-deposit-found-andhra-pradesh-india-299977 |location=USA |work=International Business Times |first=Monami |last=Thakur |title=Massive uranium deposits found in Andhra Pradesh |date=19 July 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/india/8647745/Largest-uranium-reserves-found-in-India.html |location=New Delhi, India |work=The Telegraph |first=Rahul |last=Bedi |title=Largest uranium reserves found in India |date=19 July 2011}}</ref> 
The natural uranium deposits of the [[Bhima River|Bhima basin]] has better grade of natural uranium ore, even though it is smaller than the Tummalapalle belt.

In recent years, India has shown increased interest in thorium fuels and fuel cycles because of large deposits of [[thorium]] (518,000 tonnes) in the form of [[monazite]] in beach sands as compared to very modest reserves of low-grade [[uranium]] (92,000 tonnes).<ref>http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/TE_1450_web.pdf</ref>

[[Kazakhstan]] is the largest supplier of uranium to India providing 5,000 tonnes during 2015-19.<ref>{{cite web |title='We may scale up supply of uranium to India': Kazakhstan ambassador Bulat Sarsenbayev |first=Rezaul H |last=Laskar |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/kazakhstan-may-scale-up-supply-of-uranium-to-india/story-cY7NEz4HU6GulmGFlmo3KO.html |work=Hindustan Times |access-date=27 April 2019 |language=en |date=25 April 2019}}</ref>

==Nuclear agreements with other nations==
As of 2016, India has signed civil nuclear agreements with 14 countries: Argentina, Australia, Canada, Czech Republic, France, Japan, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, Namibia, Russia, South Korea, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Vietnam.<ref name="w-n">{{cite web|title=Nuclear Power in India|url=http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-g-n/india.aspx|publisher=world-nuclear.org|access-date=4 May 2017}}</ref> The 48-nation NSG granted a waiver to India on 6 September 2008 allowing it to access civilian nuclear technology and fuel from other countries.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://svaradarajan.blogspot.com/2008/09/dateline-vienna-thirty-words-that-saved.html|title=Dateline Vienna: Thirty words that saved the day |publisher=Siddharth Varadarajan |access-date=1 October 2012}}</ref> India is the only country with known [[List of states with nuclear weapons|nuclear weapons]] which is not a party to the [[Non-Proliferation Treaty]] (NPT) but is still allowed to carry out nuclear commerce with the rest of the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5geN2RWjoN4oJhPibc7rhkyxMXfzg |title=AFP: India energized by nuclear pacts |date=1 October 2008 |access-date=2 October 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520182512/http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5geN2RWjoN4oJhPibc7rhkyxMXfzg |archive-date=20 May 2011 }}</ref>

India and Mongolia signed a crucial civil nuclear agreement on 15 June 2009 for supply of Uranium to India, during Prime Minister [[Manmohan Singh]]'s visit to Mongolia making it the fifth nation in the world to seal a civil nuclear pact with India. The [[MoU]] on "development of cooperation in the field of peaceful uses of [[radioactive]] [[mineral]]s and nuclear energy" was signed by senior officials in the department of atomic energy of the two countries.<ref name="Financial Express 15092009">{{cite news |title=India signs civil nuclear deal with Mongolia |author=Bureau|url= http://www.financialexpress.com/news/india-signs-civil-nuclear-deal-with-mongolia/516967/0 |newspaper= The Financial Express |date=15 September 2009 |access-date=13 August 2011}}</ref>

On 2 September 2009, India and Namibia signed five agreements, including one on civil nuclear energy which allows for supply of uranium from the African country. This was signed during President [[Hifikepunye Pohamba]]'s five-day visit to India in May 2009. Namibia is the fifth largest producer of uranium in the world. The Indo-Namibian agreement in peaceful uses of nuclear energy allows for supply of uranium and setting up of nuclear reactors.<ref name="Repbulikein 02092009">{{cite news |title=India, Namibia sign uranium supply deal |url-access=registration |url= http://www.republikein.com.na/die-mark/india-namibia-sign-uranium-supply-deal.92293.php |newspaper=Republikein Online |date=2 September 2009 |access-date=21 August 2011}}</ref>

On 14 October 2009, India and Argentina signed an agreement in New Delhi on civil nuclear cooperation and nine other pacts to establish strategic partnership. According to official sources, the agreement was signed by Vivek Katju, Secretary in the Ministry of External Affairs and Argentine foreign minister Jorge Talana. Taking into consideration their respective capabilities and experience in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy, both India and Argentina have agreed to encourage and support scientific, technical and commercial cooperation for mutual benefit in this field.<ref name="IPCS 30102009">{{cite web |url= http://www.ipcs.org/article/india/argentina-indias-seventh-nuclear-destination-2996.html |title=Argentina -India's seventh nuclear destination |author=Chatterjee, Amit Kumar |date=30 October 2009 |work=India - Articles (#2996) |publisher=Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies |access-date=21 August 2011}}</ref><ref name="OneIndia 14102009">{{cite news |title=India signs N-pact with Argentina |url= http://news.oneindia.in/2009/10/14/india-signs-n-pact-with-argentina.html |newspaper=OneIndia (online) |date=14 October 2009 |access-date=21 August 2011}}</ref>

The Prime Ministers of India and Canada signed a civil nuclear cooperation agreement in [[Toronto]] on 28 June 2010 which when all steps are taken, will provide access for Canada's nuclear industry to India's expanding nuclear market and also fuel for India's reactors. Canada is one of the [[List of countries by uranium production|world's largest exporters of uranium]]<ref name="IndiaStand 06042010">{{cite web |url=http://www.indiastand.com/articles/indo-canada-nuclear-accord/ |title=Indo-Canada Nuclear Accord |author=Sinha, Mohnish |date=6 April 2010 |publisher=IndiaStand |access-date=21 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726012124/http://www.indiastand.com/articles/indo-canada-nuclear-accord/ |archive-date=26 July 2011 |url-status=dead  }}</ref> and Canada's [[Pressurised heavy water reactor|heavy water nuclear technology]] is marketed abroad with [[CANDU]]-type units operating in India, Pakistan, Argentina, South Korea, Romania and China. On 6 November 2012, India and Canada finalised their 2010 nuclear export agreement, opening the way for Canada to begin uranium exports to India.<ref>{{cite news |title=India and Canada finalise conditions of nuclear deal |url= https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-20231759 |access-date=18 November 2012 |newspaper=BBC |date=6 November 2012}}</ref>

On 16 April 2011, India and Kazakhstan signed an inter-governmental agreement for Cooperation in Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, that envisages a legal framework for supply of fuel, construction and operation of atomic power plants, exploration and joint mining of uranium, exchange of scientific and research information, reactor safety mechanisms and use of radiation technologies for healthcare. PM Manmohan Singh visited Astana where a deal was signed. After the talks, the Kazakh President [[Nursultan Nazarbayev|Nazarbaev]] announced that his country would supply India with 2100 tonnes of uranium and was ready to do more. India and Kazakhstan already have civil nuclear cooperation since January 2009 when [[Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited]] (NPCIL) and Kazakh nuclear company [[KazAtomProm]] signed an MoU during the visit of Nazarbaev to Delhi. Under the contract, KazAtomProm supplies uranium which is used by Indian reactors.<ref name="TOI 17042011">{{cite news |title=India, Kazakhstan ink civil nuclear cooperation deal |url= http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-04-17/india/29427543_1_civil-nuclear-agreement-nuclear-energy-highly-prospective-region |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120922083923/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-04-17/india/29427543_1_civil-nuclear-agreement-nuclear-energy-highly-prospective-region |url-status= dead |archive-date= 22 September 2012 |date=17 April 2011 |newspaper=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=21 August 2011}}</ref><ref name="IE 16042011">{{cite news |title=India, Kazakh ink nuke and oil pacts |url= http://www.indianexpress.com/news/india-kazakh-ink-nuke-and-oil-pacts/777068/0 |newspaper= The Indian Express |date=16 April 2009 |access-date=21 August 2011}}</ref>

South Korea became the latest country to sign a nuclear agreement with India after it got the waiver from the Nuclear Suppliers' Group (NSG) in 2008. On 25 July 2011 India and South Korea signed a nuclear agreement, which will allow South Korea with a legal foundation to participate in India’s nuclear expansion programme, and to bid for constructing nuclear power plants in India.<ref name="Asian Scientist 26072011">{{cite news |title=India & South Korea Sign Civil Nuclear Agreement |author=Sriniwas, Laxman |url= http://www.asianscientist.com/topnews/india-south-korea-sign-civil-nuclear-agreement/ |newspaper=Asian Scientist (online)26 July 2011 |access-date=21 August 2011}}</ref>

In 2014, India and Australia signed a civil nuclear agreement which allows the export of uranium to India. This was signed in New Delhi during [[Australian Prime Minister]] [[Tony Abbott]]'s meeting with the [[Indian Prime Minister]] [[Narendra Modi]] on 4 September 2014. Australia is the third largest producer of uranium in the world. The agreement allows supply of uranium for peaceful generation of power for civil use in India.<ref>{{cite web|title=India and Australia seal nuclear deal, Abbott meets Modi|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/India-and-Australia-seal-nuclear-deal-Abbott-meets-Modi/articleshow/41779635.cms|work=The Times of India|access-date=6 September 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Australia to power India's energy market as Tony Abbott settles terms for uranium trade|url=https://www.smh.com.au/federal-politics/political-news/australia-to-power-indias-energy-market-as-tony-abbott-settles-terms-for-uranium-trade-20140905-10cq6y.html|work=The Sydney Morning Herald|access-date=6 September 2014}}</ref>

India's Prime Minister Narendra Modi and UK Prime Minister David Cameron signed Civil Nuclear Agreement on 12 Nov 2015.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/PM-Modi-in-UK-India-signs-civil-nuclear-agreement-with-Britain/articleshow/49759683.cms |title=India signs civil nuclear agreement with Britain |newspaper=The Times of India |date=12 November 2015 }}</ref>

===Reactor agreements===
After the [[Nuclear Suppliers Group]] agreed to allow nuclear exports to India, France was the first country to sign a civilian nuclear agreement with India, on 30 September 2008.<ref name="IE 01102008">{{cite news |title=India, France ink nuclear deal, first after NSG waiver |author=Samanta, Pranab Dhal |url= http://www.indianexpress.com/news/india-france-ink-nuclear-deal-first-after-nsg-waiver/368048/0 |newspaper= The Indian Express |date=1 October 2008 |access-date=21 August 2011}}</ref> During the December 2010 visit of the [[French President]] [[Nicolas Sarkozy]] to India, framework agreements were signed for the [[Jaitapur Nuclear Power Project|setting up]] two third-generation [[European Pressurised Reactor|EPR]] reactors of 1650&nbsp;MW each at [[Jaitapur]], [[Maharashtra]] by the French company [[Areva]]. The deal caters for the first set of two of six planned reactors and the supply of nuclear fuel for 25 years.<ref name="WSJ 06122010">{{cite news|title=Areva and NPCIL Sign Nuclear Agreement |author1=Yep, Eric |author2=Jagota, Mukesh |name-list-style=amp |url=http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:LV1MaFnmkXkJ:online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748704156304576002761899077484.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121130081133/http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:LV1MaFnmkXkJ:online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748704156304576002761899077484.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=30 November 2012 |newspaper=The Wall Street Journal - Business (online) |date=6 December 2010 |access-date=21 August 2011 }}</ref> The contract and pricing is yet to be finalised. Construction is unlikely to start before 2014 because of regulatory issues and difficulty in sourcing major components from Japan due to India not being a signatory to the [[Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.livemint.com/2011/11/29004029/Jaitapur-nuclear-plant-work-ma.html |title=Jaitapur nuclear plant work may not start before 2014 |author=Makarand Gadgil |work=livemint.com |publisher=The Wall Street Journal|date=29 November 2011 |access-date=29 November 2011}}</ref>

In November 2016 Japan signed a nuclear cooperation agreement with India. [[Nuclear power in Japan|Japanese nuclear plant builders]] saw this as potential lifeline given that domestic orders had ended following the [[Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster]], and India is proposing to build about 20 new reactors over the next decade.<ref name=jt-20161111>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/12/business/international/japan-india-nuclear-deal.html |title=Japan's Nuclear Industry Finds a Lifeline in India After Foundering Elsewhere |author=Jonathan Soble |newspaper=The Japan Times |date=11 November 2016 |access-date=17 November 2016}}</ref>

Russia has an ongoing agreement of 1988 vintage with India regarding establishing of two [[VVER]] 1000&nbsp;MW reactors (water-cooled water-moderated light water power reactors) at [[Koodankulam]] in [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref name="IE 21061998">{{cite news |title=Moscow Ends Atomic Power Blockade to India |author=George, Nirmala |url= http://www.expressindia.com/ie/daily/19980622/17350794.html |newspaper= The Indian Express |date=21 June 1998 |access-date=21 August 2011}}</ref> A 2008 agreement caters for provision of an additional four third generation VVER-1200 reactors of capacity 1170&nbsp;MW each.<ref name="The Hindu 12 October 2008">{{cite news |title=NPCIL to go into details with 4 reactor suppliers |author=Sasi, Anil |url= http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/todays-paper/article1638776.ece |newspaper=The Hindu (Business Online) |date=12 October 2008 |access-date=21 August 2011}}</ref> Russia has assisted in India’s efforts to design a nuclear plant for its [[Arihant class submarine|nuclear submarine]].<ref name="NTI 2010">{{cite web |url=http://www.nti.org/db/nisprofs/russia/exports/rusind/nuclovr.htm |title=Russia: Nuclear Exports to India |year=2010 |publisher=NTI |access-date=21 August 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510160340/http://www.nti.org/db/nisprofs/russia/exports/rusind/nuclovr.htm |archive-date=10 May 2011}}</ref> In 2009, the Russians stated that Russia would not agree to curbs on export of sensitive technology to India. A new accord signed in Dec 2009 with Russia gives India freedom to proceed with the [[Nuclear fuel cycle|closed fuel cycle]], which includes [[Nuclear fuel cycle#Mining|mining]], [[Nuclear fuel cycle#Fabrication|preparation]] of the fuel for use in reactors, and [[Nuclear reprocessing|reprocessing]] of [[Spent nuclear fuel|spent fuel]].<ref name="TOI 07122009">{{cite news |title=India, Russia sign nuclear deal |url= http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-12-07/india/28086609_1_kudankulam-nuclear-reactors-india-and-russia |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120922083928/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-12-07/india/28086609_1_kudankulam-nuclear-reactors-india-and-russia |url-status= dead |archive-date= 22 September 2012 |date=7 December 2009 |newspaper=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=21 August 2011}}</ref><ref name="TOI 20082011">{{cite news |title=Keep your word, we will keep ours, India tells NSG (pg 1) |author=Bagchi, Indrani |url= http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-08-11/india/29875426_1_enr-nsg-statement-nsg-decision|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120922083953/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-08-11/india/29875426_1_enr-nsg-statement-nsg-decision|url-status= dead|archive-date= 22 September 2012|date=20 August 2011 |newspaper=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=21 August 2011}}</ref>

In October 2018, India and Russia signed an agreement to construct 6 nuclear reactors. Russian state-owned reactor manufacturer Rosatom stated that it would offer its third-generation VVER reactors. The agreement is not a firm contract, but rather an agreement to work toward a firm contract.<ref name="reuters.com">{{cite web |title=Russia signs pact for six nuclear reactors on new site in India |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-india-russia-nuclear/russia-signs-pact-for-six-nuclear-reactors-on-new-site-in-india-idUSKCN1MF217 |website=Reuters |access-date=28 March 2019 |language=en |date=5 October 2018}}</ref>

The nuclear agreement with USA led to India issuing a [[Letter of Intent]] for purchasing 10,000&nbsp;MW from the USA. However, liability concerns and a few other issues are preventing further progress on the issue. Experts say that India's nuclear liability law discourages foreign nuclear companies. This law gives accident victims the right to seek damages from plant suppliers in the event of a mishap. It has "deterred foreign players like General Electric and Westinghouse Electric, a US-based unit of Toshiba, with companies asking for further clarification on compensation liability for private operators."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.power-eng.com/news/2012/02/27/india-s-nuclear-plans-losing-steam-nl-anti-nuclear-protests-hinder-plans-to-ramp-up-power-generation.html |title=India's nuclear plans losing steam; Anti-nuclear protests hinder plans to ramp up power generation |date=27 February 2012 |work=Power Engineering }}</ref> On 5 October 2018, India and Russia signed an agreement to construct 6 Russian nuclear reactors in India.<ref name="reuters.com"/>

The PHWR fleet of India, in analysis by [[M.V. Ramana]], were constructed, fueled and continue to operate, close to the price of Indian coal power stations.<ref>http://iei-asia.org/IEI-CISED-IndNukeVsOtherCosts.pdf</ref>

==Nuclear power plans==
[[File:Nuclear power percentage.svg|thumb|upright=2|Nuclear power percentage in the world]]
As of 2009, India envisages to increase the contribution of nuclear power to overall electricity generation capacity from 2.8% to 9% within 25&nbsp;years.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/slowdown-not-to-affect-indias-nuclear-plans/19/57/53400/on |title=Slowdown not to affect India's nuclear plans |work=Business Standard |date=21 January 2009 |access-date=21 August 2011}}</ref>
By 2020, India's installed nuclear power generation capacity was expected to increase to 20&nbsp;GW.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/nuclear-power-generation-to-touch-6000-mw-by-next-year/17/25/55038/on |title=Nuclear power generation to touch 6,000 Mw by next year |work=Business Standard |access-date=26 August 2010}}</ref> But the 2020 capacity will not exceed 7 GW, as the 2018 operating capacity is 6.2 GW, and [http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-g-n/india.aspx only one more reactor] is expected on line before 2020.
{{As of|2018}}, India stands [[Nuclear power by country|13th in the world]] in terms nuclear capacity.
Indigenous atomic reactors include TAPS-3, and -4, both of which are 540&nbsp;MW reactors.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.npcil.nic.in/main/PowerPlantDisplay.aspx |title= Plants Under Operation |publisher= NPCIL |access-date= 21 August 2011 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110826101106/http://npcil.nic.in/main/PowerPlantDisplay.aspx |archive-date= 26 August 2011 |url-status= dead}}</ref>

The Indian nuclear power industry is expected to undergo a significant expansion in the coming years, in part due to the passing of the [[U.S.-India Civil Nuclear Agreement]]. 
This agreement will allow India to carry out trade of nuclear fuel and technologies with other countries and significantly enhance its power generation capacity.<ref>[http://www.ptinews.com/pti%5Cptisite.nsf/0/E696AFE1CBD8BA4C652574A600103BE1?OpenDocument ]{{dead link |date=August 2010}}</ref>
When the agreement goes through, India is expected to generate an additional 25&nbsp;GW of nuclear power by 2020, bringing total estimated nuclear power generation to 45&nbsp;GW.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.livemint.com/2008/07/10012202/At-G8-Singh-Bush-reaffirm-c.html |title=At G-8, Singh, Bush reaffirm commitment to nuclear deal |publisher=livemint.com |date=10 July 2008 |access-date=22 August 2010}}</ref>

Risks related to nuclear power generation prompted Indian legislators to enact the 2010 [[Nuclear Liability Act]] which stipulates that nuclear suppliers, contractors and operators must bear financial responsibility in case of an accident.
The legislation addresses key issues such as nuclear radiation and safety regulations, operational control and maintenance management of nuclear power plants, compensation in the event of a radiation-leak accident, disaster clean-up costs, operator responsibility and supplier liability.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://thediplomat.com/2013/12/lessons-from-japan-for-india-on-nuclear-energy/|title=Lessons from Japan for India on Nuclear Energy | publisher= The Diplomat | date= 13 December 2013}}</ref>
A nuclear accident like the 2011 [[Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster]] would have dire economic consequences in heavily populated India as did the 1984 Union Carbide [[Bhopal disaster]], considered among the world's worst industrial disasters.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/news/asia/21605961-india-ratifies-last-nuclear-deal-iaea-late-addition|title=India ratifies, at last, a nuclear deal with the IAEA | work=The Economist| date=28 June 2014}}</ref>

India has already been using imported enriched uranium for light-water reactors that are currently under IAEA safeguards, but it has developed other aspects of the [[nuclear fuel cycle]] to support its reactors.
Development of select technologies has been strongly affected by limited imports.
Use of [[heavy water]] reactors has been particularly attractive for the nation because it allows Uranium to be burnt with little to no enrichment capabilities.
India has also done a great amount of work in the development of a [[India's three stage nuclear power programme|thorium centred fuel cycle]].
While uranium deposits in the nation are limited there are much greater reserves of thorium and it could provide hundreds of times the energy with the same mass of fuel.
The fact that thorium can theoretically be utilised in heavy water reactors has tied the development of the two.
A prototype reactor that would burn Uranium-Plutonium fuel while irradiating a thorium blanket is under construction at Kalpakkam by [[BHAVINI]].

Uranium used for the [[India and weapons of mass destruction|weapons programme]] has been separated from the power programme, using uranium from indigenous reserves. 
This domestic reserve of 80,000 to 112,000&nbsp;tons of uranium (approx 1% of global uranium reserves) is large enough to supply all of India's commercial and military reactors as well as supply all the needs of India's nuclear weapons arsenal.
Currently, India's nuclear power reactors consume, at most, 478&nbsp;tonnes of uranium per year.<ref name="carnegieendowment.org">http://www.carnegieendowment.org/files/atomsforwarfinal4.pdf</ref>
Even if India were quadruple its nuclear power output (and reactor base) to 20&nbsp;GW by 2020, nuclear power generation would only consume 2000&nbsp;tonnes of uranium per annum. 
Based on India's known commercially viable reserves of 80,000 to 112,000&nbsp;tons of uranium, this represents a 40–50&nbsp;years uranium supply for India's nuclear power reactors (note with [[nuclear reprocessing|reprocessing]] and [[fast breeder reactor|breeder reactor technology]], this supply could be stretched out many times over). Furthermore, the uranium requirements of India's Nuclear Arsenal are only a fifteenth (1/15) of that required for power generation (approx. 32&nbsp;tonnes), meaning that India's domestic fissile material supply is more than enough to meet all needs for it strategic nuclear arsenal. Therefore, India has sufficient uranium resources to meet its strategic and power requirements for the foreseeable future.<ref name="carnegieendowment.org"/>

Former Indian President [[A. P. J. Abdul Kalam]] stated while he was in office that, "energy independence is India's first and highest priority. India has to go for nuclear power generation in a big way using [[Thorium-based nuclear power|thorium-based reactors]]. [[Thorium]], a non-fissile material is available in abundance in our country."<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.energy-daily.com/reports/Thorium_Reactors_Integral_To_Indian_Energy_Independence_999.html |title=Thorium Reactors Integral To Indian Energy Independence |work=The Energy Daily| date=8 May 2007}}</ref> India has vast [[thorium#IAEA Assessment|thorium reserves]] and quite limited [[List of countries by uranium reserves|uranium reserves]].<ref name=Guardian>{{cite news |last=Rahman|first=Maseeh |title=How Homi Bhabha's vision turned India into a nuclear R&D leader |url= https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2011/nov/01/homi-bhabha-india-thorium-nuclear?intcmp=239 |work=The Guardian|access-date=20 March 2012 |location=Mumbai |date=1 November 2011}}</ref><ref name=Physorg>{{cite news |title=A future energy giant? India's thorium-based nuclear plans |url=http://www.physorg.com/news205141972.html |publisher=Physorg.com |access-date=20 March 2012 |date=1 October 2010}}</ref>

The long-term goal of India's nuclear program has been to develop an advanced [[heavy-water]] thorium cycle. The first stage of this employs the [[pressurized heavy water reactors]] (PHWR) fueled by natural uranium, and [[light water reactors]], which produce [[plutonium]] incidentally to their prime purpose of electricity generation.
The second stage uses fast neutron reactors burning the plutonium with the blanket around the core having uranium as well as thorium, so that further plutonium (ideally high-fissile Pu) is produced as well as U-233.
The Atomic Minerals Directorate (AMD) has identified almost 12 million tonnes of [[monazite]] resources (typically with 6-7% thorium).
In stage 3, Advanced Heavy Water Reactors (AHWR) would burn thorium-plutonium fuels in such a manner that breeds U-233 which can eventually be used as a self-sustaining fissile driver for a fleet of breeding AHWRs. An alternative stage 3 is molten salt breeder reactors (MSBR), which are believed to be another possible option for eventual large-scale deployment.<ref name="w-n"/>

In June 2014, Kudankulam-1 became the single largest power generating unit in India (1000&nbsp;MWe).<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/file/Performance_Audit_on_Kudankulam_Nuclear_Power_Project,_Units_I_and_II_Department_of_Atomic_Energy.pdf |title= Performance Audit Report on Kudankulam Nuclear Power Project, Units I and II |access-date= 29 December 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/kundankulam-nuclear-power-plant-reaches-full-capacity-of-1000-mwe/ |title= Kudankulam Unit-1 hits full capacity at 1,000 MWe |date= 8 June 2014 |work= [[The Indian Express]] |access-date= 19 June 2014 }}</ref>

In January 2021, India’s atomic energy secretary K.N. Vyas announced that the 700-megawatt pressurized heavy water reactor of the Kakrapar Atomic Power Station would be the first of the 16 such units planned in the country.<ref>[https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/india-debuts-largest-nuclear-reactor-with-more-planned-101611044513338.html India debuts largest nuclear reactor with more planned], Hindustan Times, 19 Jan 2021.</ref>

==List of Nuclear power plants==
{{main|List of power stations in India#Nuclear power}}
{{see also|List of nuclear reactors#India}}
Currently, twenty-two nuclear power reactors have a total install capacity of 6,780&nbsp;MW (1.8% of total installed base).{{cn|date=September 2020}}
[[File:Kudankulam NPP.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Kudankulam power plant while still under construction in 2009.]]

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Operational nuclear power plants in India
|-
! Power station !! Operator !! State !! Type !! Units !! data-sort-type="numeric"|Total capacity<br/> (MW)
|-
| [[Kaiga Atomic Power Station|Kaiga]] || [[Nuclear Power Corporation of India|NPCIL]] || [[Karnataka]] || [[IPHWR-220]] || align="center"|220&nbsp;×&nbsp;4 || align="right"|880
|-
| [[Kakrapar Atomic Power Station|Kakrapar]] || [[Nuclear Power Corporation of India|NPCIL]] || [[Gujarat]] || [[IPHWR-220]]<br/>[[IPHWR-700]] 
| align="center" |220&nbsp;×&nbsp;2
700 ×&nbsp;1 
| align="right" |1140
|-
| [[Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant|Kudankulam]]<ref name="kudankulamFP">[http://www.firstpost.com/india/southern-power-grid-begins-drawing-power-from-kudankulam-1186225.html Southern power grid begins drawing power from Kudankulam]</ref> || [[Nuclear Power Corporation of India|NPCIL]] || [[Tamil Nadu]] || [[VVER|VVER-1000]] || align="center"|1000&nbsp;×&nbsp;2 || align="right"|2,000
|-
| [[Madras Atomic Power Station|Chennai (Kalpakkam)]] || [[Nuclear Power Corporation of India|NPCIL]] || [[Tamil Nadu]] || [[IPHWR-220]] || align="center"|220&nbsp;×&nbsp;2 || align="right"|440
|-
| [[Narora Atomic Power Station|Narora]] || [[Nuclear Power Corporation of India|NPCIL]] || [[Uttar Pradesh]] || [[IPHWR-220]] || align="center"|220&nbsp;×&nbsp;2 || align="right"|440
|-
| [[Rajasthan Atomic Power Station|Rajasthan]] || [[Nuclear Power Corporation of India|NPCIL]] || [[Rajasthan]] || [[CANDU]]<br/>[[CANDU]]<br/>[[IPHWR-220]] || align="center"|100&nbsp;×&nbsp;1 <br/> 200 x 1<br/> 220&nbsp;×&nbsp;4 || align="right"|1,180
|-
| [[Tarapur Atomic Power Station|Tarapur]] || [[Nuclear Power Corporation of India|NPCIL]] || [[Maharashtra]] || [[Boiling water reactor|BWR]]<br/>IPHWR-540 || align="center"|160 x 2<br/>540&nbsp;×&nbsp;2 || align="right"|1,400
|-
! colspan=4|Total !!  !! align="right"|7,480
|}

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Nuclear power plants and reactors under construction in India<ref name="pib-3jan19">{{cite press release |title=Proposals for New Atomic Power Plants |url=http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=187135 |publisher=Press Information Bureau |agency=Department of Atomic Energy |date=3 January 2019}}</ref>
|-
! Power station !! Operator !! State !! Type !! Units !! data-sort-type="numeric"|Total capacity<br/> (MW) !! Expected Commercial Operation
|-
| [[Madras Atomic Power Station|Chennai (Kalpakkam)]]<ref name="tripling">{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/economy/india-on-the-roadmap-of-tripling-nuclear-power-capacity/article9599683.ece|title=India on the roadmap of tripling nuclear power capacity|date=2017-03-24|newspaper=The Hindu|access-date=2017-10-14}}</ref> || [[Bhavini]] || [[Tamil Nadu]] || [[PFBR]] || align="center"|500&nbsp;×&nbsp;1 || align="right"|500 || 2022<ref name="WNA"/>
|-
| [[Kakrapar Atomic Power Station|Kakrapar Unit 4]] || [[Nuclear Power Corporation of India|NPCIL]] || [[Gujarat]] || [[IPHWR-700]] || align="center"|700&nbsp;×&nbsp;1 || align="right" |700 || 2022<ref name="WNA">{{cite web|url=http://loksabhaph.nic.in/Questions/QResult15.aspx?qref=4238&lsno=17|title=Questions : Lok Sabha|date=17 July 2019|website=Lok Sabha}}</ref>
|-
| [[Gorakhpur Nuclear Power Plant|Gorakhpur]] || [[Nuclear Power Corporation of India|NPCIL]] || [[Haryana]] || [[IPHWR-700]] || align="center"|700&nbsp;×&nbsp;2 || align="right"|1,400 ||2025<ref name="WNA"/>
|-
| [[Rajasthan Atomic Power Station|Rajasthan Unit 7 and 8]] || [[Nuclear Power Corporation of India|NPCIL]] || [[Rajasthan]] || [[IPHWR-700]] || align="center"|700&nbsp;×&nbsp;2 || align="right"|1,400 || 2022<ref name="WNA"/>
|-
| [[Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant|Kudankulam Unit 3, 4, 5 & 6]] || [[Nuclear Power Corporation of India|NPCIL]] || [[Tamil Nadu]] || [[VVER|VVER-1000]] || align="center"|1000&nbsp;×&nbsp;4 || align="right"|4,000<ref name=":1" /> || 2025-2027<ref name="WNA"/>
|-
! colspan="4" |Total !!  !! align="right" |8,000 !!
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Planned nuclear power plants in India<ref name=":1">{{cite web |url=http://www.erewise.com/current-affairs/Government-plans-to-start-work-on-19-new-Nuclear-Power-Reactors-in-12th-plan-period_3597_art52206c6d724d6.html|title=Government plans to start work on 19 new Nuclear Power Reactors in 12th plan period |publisher=Erewise |access-date=19 October 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dae.nic.in/writereaddata/parl/bud2013/lsus3776.pdf |title=Unstarred question No.3776 |publisher=Government of India |access-date=19 October 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thenewsminute.com/article/andhras-nuclear-future-proposed-plant-kovvada-faces-tough-battle-ground-51982 |title=Andhra's nuclear future: Proposed plant at Kovvada faces a tough battle on the ground |publisher=The News Minute |date=27 October 2016 |access-date=22 December 2016}}</ref>
|-
! Power station !! Operator !! State !! Type !! Units !! data-sort-type="numeric"|Total capacity<br/> (MW) !! Status !! Expected commercial operations
|-
| [[Kaiga Atomic Power Station|Kaiga]]<ref>{{cite news|url = https://www.nsenergybusiness.com/projects/kaiga-nuclear-power-plant-expansion/# | title= Kaiga Nuclear Power Plant Expansion | publisher = NS energybusiness}}</ref> || [[Nuclear Power Corporation of India|NPCIL]] || [[Karnataka]] || [[IPHWR-700]] || align="center"|700&nbsp;×&nbsp;2 || align="right"|1,400 || hold <ref>{{cite news|url = https://www.deccanherald.com/state/ngt-notice-to-centre-npcil-on-plea-against-kaiga-787040.html] | work = [[Deccan_Herald]] | title = National Green Tribunal questions the environmental clearance to expansion}}</ref> || 2026
|-
| [[Jaitapur Nuclear Power Project|Jaitapur]]<ref name=added_more>[http://energy.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/industry/indigenous-nuclear-plants-with-2800-mw-capacity-to-be-ready-by-2019/47026920 Indigenous nuclear plants with 2,800 MW capacity to be ready by 2019]. ETEnergyworld. 23 April 2015. Retrieved 2 April 2016.</ref> ||[[Nuclear Power Corporation of India|NPCIL]]||[[Maharashtra]] || [[European Pressurized Reactor|EPR]] || align="center"|1650&nbsp;×&nbsp;6 || align="right"|9,900 || Planned || 
|-
| [[Pusapatirega|Kovvada]]<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130813054354/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-07-11/visakhapatnam/40513128_1_kovvada-power-plant-koodankulam Kovvada nuclear plant to enhance its capacity]</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://in.reuters.com/article/india-westinghouse-idINKCN0YM1IV | title = Westinghouse to relocate planned nuclear plant to Andhra Pradesh, officials say | date = 1 June 2016 | website =   in.reuters.com | publisher = [[Reuters]] | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160601184726/http://in.reuters.com/article/india-westinghouse-idINKCN0YM1IV | archive-date = 1 June 2016 | url-status = live | access-date = 21 July 2016}}</ref> ||[[Nuclear Power Corporation of India|NPCIL]]||[[Andhra Pradesh]] || [[AP1000]] || align="center"|1100&nbsp;×&nbsp;6 || align="right"|6,600 || Planned || 
|-
|[[Kavali]]<ref name=":2">{{Cite news|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/current-affairs/220918/andhra-pradesh-to-get-another-nuclear-plant.html|title=Andhra Pradesh to get another nuclear plant|date=2018-09-22|work=Deccan Chronicle|access-date=2018-10-01|language=en}}</ref>
|[[Nuclear Power Corporation of India|NPCIL]]
|[[Andhra Pradesh]]
|[[VVER]]
|1000 x 6
|align="right"|6000 ||Planned||
|-
| [[Gorakhpur Nuclear Power Plant|Gorakhpur]] || [[Nuclear Power Corporation of India|NPCIL]] || Haryana ||[[IPHWR-700]] || align="center"|700&nbsp;×&nbsp;4 || align="right"|2,800<ref name="pib-3jan19"/>||Construction (x2)<br />Approved (x2)||2025 (x2) <br />
|-
| [[Banswara|Mahi Banswara]]<ref name=added_more/> || [[Nuclear Power Corporation of India|NPCIL]] || [[Rajasthan]] || [[IPHWR-700]] || align="center"|700&nbsp;×&nbsp;4 || align="right"|2,800 || Approved || 2031 (x2)<br />
|-
| [[Chutka Nuclear Power Plant|Chutka]] || [[Nuclear Power Corporation of India|NPCIL]] || [[Madhya Pradesh]] || [[IPHWR-700]] || align="center"|700&nbsp;×&nbsp;2 || align="right"|1,400 || Approved ||
|-
| [[Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant|Kudankulam Unit 5 and 6]] || [[Nuclear Power Corporation of India|NPCIL]] || [[Tamil Nadu]] || [[VVER|VVER-1000]] || align="center"|1000&nbsp;×&nbsp;2 || align="right"|2,000<ref>{{cite web |date=22 April 2019 |author=Surendra Singh |title=India to set up 12 more nuclear plants to boost power supply: DAE head |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/india-to-set-up-12-more-nuclear-plants-to-boost-power-supply-dae-head/articleshow/68996520.cms |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref> || Approved || 2025
|-
| [[Madras Atomic Power Station|Chennai]]<ref name=added_more/> || [[BHAVINI]] || [[Tamil Nadu]] || [[Fast breeder reactor#Fast breeder reactor|FBR]] || align="center"|600&nbsp;×&nbsp;2 || align="right"|1,200 || Planned ||
|-
| Tarapur || || || [[AHWR]] || align="center"|300&nbsp;×&nbsp;1 || align="right"|300 ||Planned ||
|-
! colspan=4|Total !!  !! align="right"|33,000 !! !!
|}
<small>''Note: Some sites may be abandoned if not found technically feasible or due to strategic, geopolitical, international and domestic issues.''</small>

The details of the nuclear power generation capacity in the country are given below :<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npcil.nic.in/content/302_1_AllPlants.aspx |title=Nuclear Power Generation|access-date=29 October 2019}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!  [[Fiscal year|Fiscal Year]] !! Total nuclear<br/>electricity generation !! [[Capacity factor]]
|-
| 2008–09 || align="right"|14,921 [[gigawatt hour|GW·h]] || align="right"|50%
|-
| 2009–10 || align="right"|18,798 GW·h || align="right"|61%
|-
| 2010–11 || align="right"|26,472 GW·h || align="right"|71%
|-
| 2011–12 || align="right"|32,455 GW·h || align="right"|79%
|-
| 2012–13 || align="right"|32,863 GW·h || align="right"|80%
|-
| 2013–14 || align="right"|35,333 GW·h||  align="right"|83%
|-
| 2014–15 || align="right"|37,835 GW·h||  align="right"|82%
|-
| 2015–16 || align="right"|37,456 GW·h||  align="right"|75%
|-
| 2016–17 || align="right"|37,674 GW·h||  align="right"|80%
|-
| 2017–18 || align="right"|38,336 GW·h||  align="right"|70%
|-
| 2018–19 || align="right"|37,813 GW·h||  align="right"|70%
|-
| 2019–20 || align="right"|44,720 GW·h||  align="right"|80%
|}

==Anti-nuclear protests==
Following the March 2011 [[Fukushima nuclear disaster]] in [[Japan]], populations around proposed Indian NPP sites have launched protests that had found resonance around the country.<ref name=nukeindia/> There have been mass protests against the French-backed 9,900 MW [[Jaitapur Nuclear Power Project]] in [[Maharashtra]] and the Russian-backed 2,000 MW [[Koodankulam Nuclear Power Plant]] in [[Tamil Nadu]]. The [[Government of West Bengal]] initially refused permission to a proposed 6,000 MW facility near the town of [[Haripur, West Bengal 721401|Haripur]] that intended to host 6 Russian reactors.<ref name=nukeindia/><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/mar/08/fall-nuclear-power-stations-fukushima |title=Dramatic fall in new nuclear power stations after Fukushima |author=Fiona Harvey |date=8 March 2012 |work=The Guardian |location=London}}</ref> But after stiff resistance from locals, the proposed Nuclear Power Plant planned in Haripur has been shifted to [[Kavali]] in [[Andhra Pradesh]].<ref name=":2" /> Interestingly, the Nuclear Power Plant planned at [[Kovvada, West Godavari|Kovvada]] in Andhra Pradesh was shifted from Mithi Virdi in [[Gujarat]] after locals in the Western state too showed resistance.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.firstpost.com/india/gujarats-mithivirdi-nuclear-power-plant-to-be-shifted-to-andhra-pradesh-due-to-delay-in-land-acquisition-3508721.html|title=Gujarat's Mithivirdi nuclear power plant to be shifted to Andhra Pradesh due to delay in land acquisition - Firstpost|website=www.firstpost.com|access-date=2018-10-01}}</ref>

A [[Public-interest litigation]] (PIL) has also been filed against the government’s civil nuclear program at the [[Supreme Court of India|Supreme Court]]. The PIL specifically asks for the "staying of all proposed nuclear power plants till satisfactory safety measures and cost-benefit analyses are completed by independent agencies".<ref name="insideclimatenews1"/><ref name=nukeindia_2>{{cite web |url=http://www.asiasentinel.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=3889&Itemid=614 |title=India's Rising Nuclear Safety Concerns |author=Siddharth Srivastava |date=27 October 2011 |work=Asia Sentinel |access-date=29 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004215238/http://www.asiasentinel.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=3889&Itemid=614 |archive-date=4 October 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> But the Supreme Court said it was not an expert in the nuclear field to issue a direction to the government on the nuclear liability issue.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-12-06/india/30481231_1_nuclear-regulator-nuclear-power-new-nuclear-reactors |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021053815/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-12-06/india/30481231_1_nuclear-regulator-nuclear-power-new-nuclear-reactors |url-status=dead |archive-date=21 October 2012 |work=[[The Times of India]] |title=SC steers clear of PIL on N-liability |date=6 December 2011 }}</ref>

==See also==

* [[Economics of nuclear power plants]]
* [[Energy policy of India]]
* [[Electricity sector in India]]
* [[Energy in India]]
* [[India's three-stage nuclear power programme]]
* [[List of nuclear reactors#India]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Nuclear power in India}}
{{Nuclear power by country}}
{{Asia topic|Nuclear energy in|state=expand}}
{{Anti-nuclear movement |state=expanded}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Nuclear Power in India}}
[[Category:Nuclear power in India| ]]