Koli rebellions

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The Koli is a caste of India and Pakistan which is mostly found in the Indian States of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Himachal Pradesh and Sindh province of Pakistan. Here are a series of revolts of Koli caste in inhabited areas.

Statue of Jhalkaribai Koli who led the Indian independence movement in Bundelkhand region of Uttar Pradesh in 1857
Statue of Raghoji Bhangare who challenged the British Raj in Maharashtra

British Indian Empire[edit]

Kheda of Gujarat[edit]

At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Kolis posed a serious "law and order" problem for the new government of East India Company, British officials to declare that kolis are one of the most "turbulent, predatory tribes in India". Many Kolis resided in villages outside the EIC's territorial jurisdiction but viewed the imposition of new legislation and colonization in the territory as a direct challenge to established local customs.[1]

Koli chieftains and their peasant supporters were threatened by the British government settling the agricultural plains and establishing new modes of governance in the area. In protest, some Koli zamidars filed petitions in the Court (Adalat) in Kheda, stating that, according to local custom, the government had no authority over Kolis. Other chieftains simply ignored the authority of the EIC and organized peasant raids into towns and villages in British territory, claiming a customary right to plunder villages as a form of their own tax collection, or a levy called giras. The district magistrate responded by stating such actions were "evil" and perpetuated by Koli chieftains.[1]

By 1808, Koli chieftains had begun organizing raids into towns and villages in the territory controlled by the EIC, to steal crops and other possessions. The town of Dholka and its neighboring villages became favorite targets. Dholka was in the northern borderlands of British territory, adjacent to land controlled by the chieftains. Groups of armed kolis, numbering between fifty and a hundred Kolis, easily entered Dholka and returned to their respective villages without difficulty. British officials lacked the manpower and local knowledge of the terrain to capture these men. However, there were instances when a chieftain was arrested and jailed for leading attacks on Dholka, as in the case of Bachur Khokani. On 20 February 1808, within a few days of Khokani's capture, a group of fifty Kolis stormed the jail and released their leader. Policemen were killed and six were wounded in the battle, and apparently, on the very same night, Khokani and his men organized another raid on the town.[1]

In an attempt to prevent further raids on Dholka, Kheda's magistrate, R. Holford, coordinated a plan that required local elites within the EIC's control to capture the raiders. Holford recognized the limitations of the EIC's power to arrest individuals residing outside its control, but he believed that British officials could force the elites who had villages within their legal jurisdiction to cooperate. The outcome of the official strategy had some success: in 1810, large numbers of Kolis had been arrested and convicted of crimes against the East India Company. Judge H. W. Diggle recommended that the prisoners to be transported to the British colony the Prince of Wales Island (for merly called Penang), or to a distant jail, for a minimum of seven years. It was argued that such an extreme measure would "overawe" and "check the daring and ferocious nature" of Kolis while simultaneously serving as a deterrent for others. However, as in the case of Bachur Khokani, a group of four hundred to five hundred armed men descended upon the jail at Kheda and released the imprisoned Kolis. Most of the prisoners dispersed into areas outside of British jurisdiction and were saved just days before being transported to the Prince of Wales Island. The raids continued in Dholka, and colonial officials urged the EIC to increase the size of the police force in Kheda. In addition, officials requested the support of soldiers from neighboring Baroda State, who were supposed to have local intelligence networks in the border lands that could be used for recapturing the convicted Kolis and their accomplices. But the outcome of using greater force had a minimal impact on what had developed into a serious law and order problem for the EIC. Colonial officials were not able to prevent Koli rebels. Earlier attempts to press chieftains to cooperate in preventing attacks on gov ernment towns and villages had had limited results.[1]

In 1824, A. Crawford, the district collector of neighboring Ahmedabad, suggested that a new strategy be adopted, including forcibly taking the possessions of Koli chieftains suspected of participating in the attacks or simply having any information about them. In addition, Crawford introduced the idea of using the military to destroy villages where Koli chieftains were hiding. This strategy marked an important departure from the policy of not entering areas that lay outside the jurisdiction of the EIC with the intention of using military force to capture chieftains or other raiders. However, the idea of completely destroying villages as a way to create "future peaceable conduct" did not prevent Kolis from challenging the authority and legitimacy of the EIC, and certainly it did not eliminate the armed excursions into British-controlled territory. In fact, it further intensified the demands of those Kolis who had been claiming that their customs and privileges were being violated by colonial officials.[1]

The raids continued through the 1830s with some regularity. Crawford to British officials, "Some special regulations should be made about the Kolis. No measures of ordinary severity have any effect. We never hear of a reformed Koli, or of one whose mode of life places him beyond suspicion. All seem alike, rich and poor, those whose necessities afford them an excuse for crime and those whose condition places them out of the reach of distress, are alike ready on the first opportunity to plunder. But by the 1840s, the application of colonial policies and the use of military force led to the subsidence of Koli attacks in British-controlled territory. Officials argued that the character of all Kolis-chieftains and peasants had improved, as many kolis had taken up settled agriculture and become hardworking and peaceable. Despite this acknowledgment of the transformation among the Kolis, the early-nineteenth-century encounters continued to influence the implementation of official policies in the district. In begin of 1857 and 1858, the government imposed regulations restricting Kolis from carrying weapons in Kheda district but kolis again raised.[1]

Khanpur of Gujarat[edit]

In July 1857, the Kolis of Maliwad clan in Khanpur of Lunavada State challenged the British rule under their leader Surajmal[2][3] after death of surajmal, kolis again raised and attacked the British troops under new koli chieftain Jivabhai Thakor of Khanpur.[4]

In December 1857, Captain Buckle attacked the Khanpur and captured some of the rebels and rest escaped to nearby hills and forests. They gathered again and attacked the British troops with more vigour. Lt. Morey, Jamadar Nurmohmad, Sheikh Cheda and Emamuddin pursued the Kolis and killed some of them. Then the Kolis fled to the bushes and ravines of the river. The two kolis were shot by the order of Buckle but British army also lost three horsemen. The koli prisoners of Khanpur were transported to life, while non-koli prisoners of Khanpur were released after they witnessed the execution of their koli chieftain.[5]

The Kolis paid a huge price for their resistance to British rule. They were not only defeated in battle and punished for having dared to resist. but, in the aftermath, these communities were marginalized by the rest of society as outlaws. Being arms-bearing community, they too were disarmed in early 1858 and also forced to practise agriculture. A majority of kolis were unable to adapt the lifestyle and norms of settled agriculture and were forced to give way to agriculturalist communities like Kanbi or Patidar in the latter half of the nineteenth century.[6]

Chandap of Gujarat[edit]

In September 1857, Kolis of Chandap (Chandup) raised against British rule under Koli chieftain Nathaji who led the 2000 kolis of Angar, Dubbora and Pratabpur in Mahi Kantha.[7][8] the Nathaji and Yamaji was Koli brothers, rulers of Chandap and were tributary to Gaikwad of Baroda and Rao of Idar.[9]

On 16 September 1857, the Maharaja Gaekwad of Baroda State issued a proclamation not to rise to the people of Chandap under the Mahikantha agency and posted the 10 horsemen but Nathaji resisted the posting of horsemen so the kolis assembled together instant and attacked the Thana of that place in which a sowar of the Gaekwad Government was killed and two wounded and property plundered.[10] The rising of Kolis affected the law and order situation in Vijapur, Kheralu and Vadnagar Taluqas of Baroda. At the end of year, koli rebellion was crushed by the combined forces of Baroda State and British troops who destroyed the Chandap village. The kolis with stiff attitude under Nathaji continued their resistance from the hills.[11]

Peth or Peint of Maharashtra[edit]

In December 1857, Nashik district was effected by the Indian independence movement and the Peint Jagir became centre of rebellious activities. The rebel Kolis plundered the Harsol market on the sixth of December and captured the Mamlatdar. From there they attacked Peint where Koli rebels numbering about 2,000 captured the Lieutenant Glasspool and his 30 officers. The Koli Raja Bhagvantrao was suspected and arrested by British government. He was also a "correspondent" of Nanasaheb Peshwa. After a trial, koli king and fifteen officials were sentenced and hanged on 28 December 1857. In response, the kolis attacked at the court in Peint and then went to the Raja to pay their respects to him. Kolis plundered the treasury of Dharampur State, a comrade state of British rule. The Thane police then seized two of the leading men in the gang who plundered the treasury in the Dharampoor Raja's territory. there was resistance and one of the policemen was shot by an arrow through the chest and one of the insurgents received a bayonet-wound in the stomach. British official Mr. Boswell started disarming the kolis and suggested that a strong party of police be posted at Peint to guard the treasury and prevent the further disturbances. Later it came out that the rising of the Kolis was planned five or six weeks ago by the late Raja and the Dewan of Peint and the Rani who lived in Nashik. Kolis disliked the Disarming Act and resisted the government. On the hearing that the troops were approaching to peint, kolis withdrew to the jungle in the neighbourhood. On Thursday, the Lieutenant Glasspool arrived with troops and started operations against the insurgents. But his troops being too weak to go out and attack the Kolis in the jungle and at the same time to defend the court and the town, Lieutenant Glasspool could not take any step for nearly a week. But the glasspool was joined by Captain Nuttall's forces coming from Trimbak. On the arrival of this new force, Kolis retreated to the south. They played hide and seek for a few days. Occasional fights took place. the Kolis lacked of weapons so they dispersed and hid themselves in different villages. They were gradually traced out and caught. Many of them had migrated to the State of Dharampur where the Raja's forces caught them and handed them over to the Government officials. All the insurgents having been apprehended the rising was ultimately put down. The property of the late Raja was ordered to be annexed in British India and the revenue of his villages was ordered to be collected for Government.[12][13]

Surat of Gujarat[edit]

During the Quit India Movement of Mahatma Gandhi in 1942, A large number of 3,000 Koli cultivators from Matwad, Karadi, Machhad and Kothmadi in Surat District fought against British soldiers at Matwad with lathis and dharias on 21 August 1942. In this fight, four persons including one policeman died. The kolis also snatched away four police muskets and two bayonets. Kolis smashed up the Jalalpore Railway Station, removed the Rails and burnt down the post office. After this, situation in the neighbouring villages of Borsad, Anand and Thasra taluqas became so aggravated that British troops was marched through the villages between 22 and 24 August 1942.[14][15]

Mughal Empire[edit]

The rebellion was the imposition of land tax (Jaziya) by Sultan Aurangzeb. The Koli Zamidars had taken up arms against the Sultan Aurangzeb under the leadership of Khemirao Sarnaik, as well as with the sympathy of Shivaji as it was a great benefit to Shivaji.[16] Khemrao assembled all the Koli naiks and promised that he would get rid of Mughal rule in a single rise.[17] Aurangzeb sent the Mughal army from the hilly areas to suppress the Koli rebellion, but the battle was very fierce in which thousands of Kolis were killed and the Mughal soldiers also. The Koli rebellion shook Aurangzeb. Sarnaik applied for help from Shivaji but shivaji was unable to help kolis because of their political matters and sarnaik was refused. The Khemirao Sarnaik fighting in this battle was killed by mughal commander nerrulaa, but the Koli rebellion was so intense that Aurangzeb got compelled to think.[18] after the rebellion was crushed, the kolis were treated with kindness by Aurangzeb and than kolis achieve the high reputation under Peshwa for their daring and taking hill forts such as Kanhoji Angre and Tanaji Malusare.[1]

Junagadh of Gujarat[edit]

Koli rebellion in Junagarh raised by Mansa Khant Koli during time of Nawab Sher Khan the viceroy of Junagarh in Mughal Empire. He was against Mughal Rule, Made Uparkot Fort his centre. He made a series of raids in surrounding villages and cities. Nawab was unsuccessful to control the rebellion. Mansa Khant occupied the Uparkot for thirteen months and make numerous raids mostly in countryside. Nawab started campaign against Khant. Nawab was assisted by king of Gondal State Thakur Sahib Haloji Jadeja and Arab Jamadar Sheikh Abdullah Zubeidi. The combined forces defeated the Khant and captured Uparkot and burnt down the rebellion.[19][20]

Mughal Gujarat[edit]

In 1535, When Humayun was Governor of Gujarat, he encamped near Cambay (Khambhat). Humayun and his army was robbed and plundered by Kolis of Gujarat.[21][22][23][24]

In 1613, Jahangir issued a sanguinary order for the extirpation of the race of the Kolis who were notorious robbers and plunders living in the most inaccessible parts of Gujarat. A large number of them Koli chiefs slaughtered and the rest hunted to their mountains and deserts. 169 heads of such Koli chiefs killed in battle by Nurulla Ibrahim, commander of 'Bollodo'.[25][26]

The Kolis of Gujarat were most rebellious under the rule of Shah Jahan. In 1622, Shah Jahan sent Raja Vikramjit who was Governor of Gujarat to subdue the Kolis of Ahmedabad.[27] Between 1632 and 1635, four viceroys were appointed due to they could not manage the Koli activities well. Kolis of Kankrej in North Gujarat committed excesses and the Jam of Nawanagar did not paid the tribute. Soon Azam Khan was appointed who put the province in order by subduing the Kolis. Azam Khan marched against Koli rebels, When Ázam Khán reached Sidhpur, the merchants complained bitterly of the outrages of one Kánji, a Chunvalia Koli, who had been especially daring in plundering merchandise and committing highway robberies. Ázam Khán, anxious to start with a show of vigour, before proceeding to Áhmedábád, marched against Kánji, who fled to the village of Bhádar near Kheralu, sixty miles north-east of Áhmedábád. Ázam Khán pursued him so hotly that Kánji surrendered, handed over his plunder, and gave security not only that he would not again commit robberies, but that he would pay an annual tribute of Rupees 10,000. Ázam Khán then built two fortified posts in the Koli country, naming one Ázamábád after himself, and the other Khalílábád after his son and He also made the Jam of Nawanagar surrender.[28] The next viceroy Ísa Tarkhán carried out financial reforms. In 1644, the Mughal prince Aurangzeb was appointed as the viceroy who was engaged in religious disputes for destroying a Jain temple in Ahmedabad. Due to his disputes, he was replaced by Shaista Khan who failed to subdue Kolis. So the prince Murad Bakhsh was appointed as the viceroy in 1654. He restored the disorder soon and defeated the Koli rebels.[29]

In 1719, Kolis of Mahi River were most rebellious against Mughal rule and plundering the villages, Mihir Ali Khan who was acting as Viceroy of Gujarat at the place of Ajit Singh of Marwar, marched against Koli rebels of Mahi who were committing piracy against muslims and subdued them.[30]

In 1721, Kasim Ali Khan who was an officer in Mughal Empire under Muuhammad Shah employed against the Kolis of Kheda district to collect the fine but they refused to pay and there was a battle in Pethapur between Kolis and Mughal army under Kasim Ali Khan. Kasim Ali Khan was killed by Kolis and Mughal army was defeated and retreat to base.[31]

In 1722, Muhammad Bahadur, son of Salabat Khan Babi, was placed in charge of Sadra and Virpur, with the title of Sher Khan. Shortly after his arrival the viceroy marched against and subdued the rebellious Kolis of the Chunval but was wounded deeply. After that Kolis of Modhera opposed the Muhammad Shah but Modhera village was burnt down.[32]

In 1729, Mughal Viceroy of Sultan Muhammad Shah faced the challenge of anti-muslim activities of Kolis of Sorath, viceroy marches against Kolis of sorath and destroying them taken to Ahmednagar.[33] after this, Jawan Mard Khan Babi who was Governor of Petlad ordered against rebellious Kolis of Balor, probably Bhátod about fifteen miles east of Bharuch, but Jawan Marad Khan was killed by a man of Koli tribe, and in revenge for his death the town of Balor was plundered. On the death of Jawán Mard Khan, at the request of Salabat Muhammad Khan Babi, his eldest son Kamal-ud-din Khan Babi received the districts of Sami and Munjpur and the title of Jawan Mard Khan.[34]

In 1738, Sher Khan Babi was of Junagadh was appointed as governor of sorath, Babi was obliged to march against a Koli chieftain Kanji Chunvalia of Chhaniar in Chunval because Kanji opposed and resisted the mughal authority but Sher Khan Babi was bravely resisted by Kolis so Momin Khan was called with large force and Chhaniar was burned down by mughal army.[35]

In 1739, Koli chieftan Jamaji of Thara, raised the Kolis of Kankrej against sultan and continually plundered the mughal territory. Jawan Marad Khan was ordered to march against the Koli chieftain but he was unable to maintain order so he requested the Fida-ud-din Khan to subdue the Kolis. After defeating the Koli chieftain, the Koli country was plundered by mughal troops.[36]

In 1740, Kolis of Atarsumba, challenged the Mughal authority and refused to pay any form of tax to mughal sultan. Jawan marad khan along with his brother Zorawar Khan Babi Marched against Kolis of Atarsumba but they were strongly resisted and there was a battle but mughals defeated the Kolis and make them to pay tax. But it was not for long time, after some time, Kolis again refused to pay tax and mughal troops were sent under Abdul Hussain Khan and Vajeram burnt the three Koli villages.[37]

In 1747, Rangoji a Maratha military leader returned to Áhmedábád, and Jawán Mard Khán had an interview with him a few miles from the city. Shortly after this the Kolis of Mehmudabad and Mahudha rebelled, but the revolt was speedily crushed by Sháhbáz Rohilla.[38]

Maratha Empire[edit]

In 1760, the peace of Peshwa government was broken by a rising of Kolis under their Naik Javji Bamble. Javji with drew to the hills and organised a series of gang robberies, causing widespread terror and misery throughout the country. For twenty years he held out bravely, defeating and killing the generals the Peshwa's Government sent against him. At last he was so hotly pursued that, on the advice of Dhondo Gopal, the Peshwa's governor at Nasik, he surrendered all his forts to Tukoji Holkar and, through Holkar's influence, was pardoned and placed in military and police charge of a district of sixty villages with powers of life and death outlaws. In 1798, a fresh disturbance took place among the Kolis. The leader of this outbreak was Ramji Naik Bhangria, who was an abler and more daring man than his prede cessors, and succeeded in baffling all the efforts of the Government officers to seize him. As force seemed hopeless, the Government offered Ramji a pardon and gave him an important police post.[39]

In 1763, the Peshwa Raghunathrao had appointed Abha Purandare who was an anti koli as Sarnaik, due to which the Chivhe Kolis revolted against the Peshwa and captured Purandar and Sinhagad forts because the Kolis did not like Abha Purandare, so Abha removed the Kolis from the fortification and posted new Kiledars, due to which the Kolis attacked and captured the forts on 7 May 1764. Five days later, Rudramal fort was also captured and presented a challenge to the Prime Minister of the Maratha Empire, Peshwa Raghunathrao.[40] A few days later the Peshwa came to the fort to worship the deity inside the Purandar fort but the Peshwa got caught up by the Kolis. The Kolis looted all the belongings and weapons of the Peshwa and took him prisoner but released after some time. After this the Kolis started collecting revenue from the surrounding area. After this, the chief of the Kolis, Kondaji Chivhe, sent a letter to the Peshwa, in which it was written 'What now sir, what is the condition, how is the government doing, be in fun'. After reading this letter, the Peshwa felt a bit humiliated and in a fit of rage ordered the Maratha army to attack but the army could not do anything because the Kolis himselves were Subedar and had fortified the forts well and the Peshwa faced failure. the humiliated Peshwa started taking the Kolis of Chivhe clan as captive. All those Chivhe kolis who were living in the territory of Peshwa were declared as rebels and started making captives. After this the Chivhe Kolis sent a letter to Madhavrao and explained whole matter, after this the Kolis handed over the forts to Madhavrao and the Chivahe Kolis were again handed over the fortifications.[41]

In the year 1776, a large number of the Shelkande Kolis of Otur village, raised against Peshwa because of their hereditary land rights and as the Peshwa refused to do them. Kolis assembled a revolutionary army of Shelkande and Kokate Kolis and commenced plundering the surrounding villages and doing other violent activities in the hope of obtaining redress.[42] In response, The Peshwa sent Maratha troops from Pune against rebel kolis and surprised them, killed and wounded many of them. The Koli leaders were consequently forced to disperse the rebels. The government officers learned that Sattu Shelkande, chief of the insurgents, was hiding in the neighboring jungle. The better to ensure this, they obliged him to enter into the Sunkli zamin or chain security (one Patil going security for two or three cultivators, another Patil for five or six poorer Patils, and a Deshmukh for a number of the Patils). Hearing of the measures the government officers were adopting, moved off to another place; this was partly for their own safety, and partly to save their friends from being harassed and punished for not fulfilling their promise of apprehending them. After the troops retired from the jungles, the Kolis recommenced their operations. Several seasons were passed in this way; however when Javji Bamble was appointed as Mansabdar of Rajur he was ordered by Peshwa to prevent the rebellious activities by rebels. Kolis did not wish to fight with Bumble because he was also a Koli by caste.[43] Kolis remained quiet for of four years but Kolis went again to the jungles because his hereditary rights have not been fulfilled. The troops employed against the Shelkande Kolis and again forced them to disperse and the chiefs went to Aurangabad. Kolis had taken an oath that they would cut off the head of Patil of Otur, unless Peshwa afforded them redress. Nana Phadnavis who was minister in Maratha Empire declared that he would not pardon the Kolis again, as they were such a turbulent race and as no faith could be reposed in them. Nana Fadnavis detached few Brahmins disguised as Gusai, who gained information of the hiding place of Kolis and a detachment that marched to apprehend them was so fortunate as to bring them all prisoners to Junnar, where the five Kolis were executed. Balwantrao, brother-in-law to Nana Fadnavis, was subedar of the district at the time, and it is asserted Balwantrao became very unhappy after the execution of these kolis. Therefore, in the hope of reestablishing the happiness that he had enjoyed, he erected a temple near river in Junnar, in which was placed as the object of worship a Punah Lingh, or five stones representing the five Kolis who were executed.[44]

References[edit]

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 Chaturvedi, Vinayak (2007). Peasant Pasts: History and Memory in Western India. New Delhi, Indian: University of California Press. pp. 30–33. ISBN 978-0-520-25076-5.
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  3. ↑ The Hind Rajasthan, Or, The Annals of the Native States of India. New Delhi, India: Usha Publications. 1985. p. 819.
  4. ↑ Yecurī, Sītārāma (2008). The Great Revolt, a Left Appraisal. New Delhi, India: People's Democracy. p. 169. ISBN 978-81-906218-0-9.
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  6. ↑ Yagnik, Achyut (2005-08-24). Shaping Of Modern Gujarat. New Delhi, India: Penguin UK. ISBN 978-81-8475-185-7.
  7. ↑ Copland, Ian (1982). The British Raj and the Indian Princes: Paramountcy in Western India, 1857-1930. New Delhi, India: Orient Longman. p. 90. ISBN 978-0-86131-210-8.
  8. ↑ Saṅghavī, Nagīnadāsa Purushottamadāsa (1995). Gujarat: A Political Analysis. New Delhi, India: Centre for Social Studies. p. 108.
  9. ↑ Rajyagor, S. B. (1982). History of Gujarat. New Delhi, India: S. Chand. p. 422.
  10. ↑ Lobo, Lancy (1995). The Thakors of North Gujarat: A Caste in the Village and the Region. New Delhi, India: Hindustan Publishing Corporation. p. 109. ISBN 978-81-7075-035-2.
  11. ↑ Dharaiya, Ramanlal Kakalbhai (1970). Gujarat in 1857. New Delhi, India: Gujarat University. pp. 38–40.
  12. ↑ Divekar, V. D. (1993). South India in 1857 War of Independence. New Delhi, India: Lokmanya Tilak Smarak Trust. pp. 221–225.
  13. ↑ Sircar, Pronob Kumar (2021-11-09). History Of The Andaman Islands: Unsung Heroes and Untold Stories. New Delhi, India: Notion Press. ISBN 978-1-63997-605-8.
  14. ↑ Krishan, Shri (2005-04-07). Political Mobilization and Identity in Western India, 1934-47. New Delhi, India: SAGE Publications India. p. 226. ISBN 978-81-321-0208-3.
  15. ↑ Hardiman, David (2007). Histories for the Subordinated. New Delhi, India: Seagull Books. p. 157. ISBN 978-1-905422-38-8.
  16. ↑ Hardiman, David; Hardiman, Professor of History David (1996). Feeding the Baniya: Peasants and Usurers in Western India. New Delhi, India: Oxford University Press. p. 211. ISBN 978-0-19-563956-8.
  17. ↑ Roy, Dr Shibani (1983). Koli Culture: A Profile of the Culture of Talpad Vistar. New Delhi, India: Cosmo Publications. pp. 30–236.
  18. ↑ Gāre, Govinda (1982). Itihāsa ādivāsı̄ vı̄rāñcā (in मराठी). Maharashtra, India: Ādima Sāhitya. p. 45.
  19. ↑ Williams, Raymond Brady; Trivedi, Yogi (12 May 2016). Swaminarayan Hinduism: Tradition, Adaptation, and Identity. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199089598.
  20. ↑ shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in (PDF) http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/59303/8/08_chapter%20iv.pdf. Retrieved 1 January 2019. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  21. ↑ Shah, Ghanshyam (1975). Caste Association and Political Process in Gujarat: A Study of Gujarat Kshatriya Sabha. New Delhi, India, Asia: Popular Prakashan. pp. 11: 1The Gazetteers and the Census describe Kolis as a tribe which entered Gujarat in the early 16th century. They came in groups and often looted villages and towns. In 1535, the camp of Moghul Emperor Humayun at Cambay was plundered by them. They attacked Mehmedabad, a town in Kaira district.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  22. ↑ Shah, A. M. (2002). Exploring India's Rural Past: A Gujarat Village in the Early Nineteenth Century. New Delhi, India: Oxford University Press. pp. 22: Throughout the period of Musum rule in Gujarat, the Kolis are frequently referred to as dacoits, robbers, marauders and pirates, and as having helped many political adventurers by joining their irregular armies. The Kolis plundered the camp of the Mughal emperor Humayun at Cambay, and gave considerable trouble to Aurangzeb when he was Governor of Gujarat ( Commissariat 1938 : 356-7 ) . It is clear from all this information that the Kolis. ISBN 978-0-19-565732-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  23. ↑ Erskine, William (2012-05-24). A History of India Under the Two First Sovereigns of the House of Taimur, Báber and Humáyun. New Delhi, India: Cambridge University Press. p. 61. ISBN 978-1-108-04620-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  24. ↑ Lobo, Lancy (1995). The Thakors of North Gujarat: A Caste in the Village and the Region. New Delhi, India: Hindustan Publishing Corporation. pp. The Kolis had even plundered the camp of the Moghul Emperor Humayun at Cambay ( Khambhat ) in 1535. ISBN 978-81-7075-035-2.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  25. ↑ Hanif, N. (1999). Islamic Concept of Crime and Justice: Political justice and crime. New Delhi, India: Sarup & Sons. pp. 73–74. ISBN 978-81-7625-063-4.
  26. ↑ Herbert, Sir Thomas (2012). Sir Thomas Herbert, Bart: Travels in Africa, Persia, and Asia the Great : Some Years Travels Into Africa and Asia the Great, Especially Describing the Famous Empires of Persia and Hindustan, as Also Divers Other Kingdoms in the Oriental Indies, 1627-30, the 1677 Version. New Delhi, India: ACMRS (Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies). p. 180. ISBN 978-0-86698-475-1.
  27. ↑ Behera, Maguni Charan (2019). Tribal Studies in India: Perspectives of History, Archaeology and Culture. New Delhi, India: Springer Nature. p. 46. ISBN 978-981-329-026-6.
  28. ↑ Campbell 1896, p. 279.
  29. ↑ Ashburner, Bhagvánlál Indraji (1839-1888) John Whaley Watson (1838–1889) Jervoise Athelstane Baines (1847–1925) L. R. "History of Gujarát". www.gutenberg.org. pp. 278–283. Retrieved 2022-10-16.
  30. ↑ Ashburner, Bhagvánlál Indraji (1839-1888) John Whaley Watson (1838–1889) Jervoise Athelstane Baines (1847–1925) L. R. "History of Gujarát". www.gutenberg.org. Retrieved 2022-10-17.
  31. ↑ Campbell 1896, p. 303.
  32. ↑ Campbell 1896, pp. 304.
  33. ↑ Campbell 1896, pp. 310.
  34. ↑ Campbell 1896, pp. 310 - 311.
  35. ↑ Campbell 1896, pp. 322 - 323.
  36. ↑ Campbell 1896, pp. 323.
  37. ↑ Campbell 1896, pp. 323 - 324.
  38. ↑ Campbell 1896, pp. 331.
  39. ↑ Hassan, Syed Siraj ul (1989). The Castes and Tribes of H.E.H. the Nizam's Dominions. New Delhi, India: Asian Educational Services. p. 333. ISBN 978-81-206-0488-9.
  40. ↑ Guha, Sumit (2019-11-01). History and Collective Memory in South Asia, 1200–2000. New Delhi, India: University of Washington Press. p. 191. ISBN 978-0-295-74623-4.
  41. ↑ Guha, Sumit; Guha, Lecturer Sumit (1999-07-15). Environment and Ethnicity in India, 1200-1991. New Delhi, India: Cambridge University Press. pp. 83–105. ISBN 978-0-521-64078-7.
  42. ↑ Gāre, Govinda (1976). Tribals in an Urban Setting: A Study of Socio-economic Impact of Poona City on the Mahadeo Kolis. New Delhi, India: Shubhada Saraswat Publications. p. 26.
  43. ↑ Hardiman, David (2007). Histories for the Subordinated. New Delhi, India: Seagull Books. p. 104. ISBN 978-1-905422-38-8.
  44. ↑ Pillai, S. Devadas (1997). Indian Sociology Through Ghurye, a Dictionary. New Delhi, India: Popular Prakashan. pp. 207–210. ISBN 978-81-7154-807-1.

Bibliography[edit]

  • Campbell, James Macnabb (1896). "Chapter III. MUGHAL VICEROYS. (A.D. 1573–1758)". In James Macnabb Campbell (ed.). History of Gujarát. Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency. Vol. I(II). The Government Central Press. pp. 278–283. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
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