.svg)
Editing Jainism
Content that violates any copyrights will be deleted. Encyclopedic content must be verifiable. Work submitted to this Wiki can be edited, used, and redistributed—by anyone—subject to certain terms and conditions.
| Latest revision | Your text | ||
| Line 7: | Line 7: | ||
'''Jainism''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|dʒ|eɪ|n|ɪ|z|əm}} {{respell|JAY|nih|zəm}}), also known as '''Jain Dharma''', is an [[Indian religions|Indian religion]]. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four [[tirthankara]]s (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current time cycle being [[Rishabhadeva]], whom the tradition holds to have lived millions of years ago, the twenty-third ''tirthankara'' [[Parshvanatha]], whom historians date to the 9th century BCE, and the twenty-fourth ''tirthankara'' [[Mahāvīra|Mahavira]], around 600 BCE. Jainism is considered to be an eternal ''[[dharma]]'' with the ''tirthankaras'' guiding every time cycle of the [[Jain cosmology|cosmology]]. The three main pillars of Jainism are ''[[Ahimsa in Jainism|ahiṃsā]]'' (non-violence), ''[[anekāntavāda]]'' (non-absolutism), and ''[[aparigraha]]'' (asceticism). | '''Jainism''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|dʒ|eɪ|n|ɪ|z|əm}} {{respell|JAY|nih|zəm}}), also known as '''Jain Dharma''', is an [[Indian religions|Indian religion]]. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four [[tirthankara]]s (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current time cycle being [[Rishabhadeva]], whom the tradition holds to have lived millions of years ago, the twenty-third ''tirthankara'' [[Parshvanatha]], whom historians date to the 9th century BCE, and the twenty-fourth ''tirthankara'' [[Mahāvīra|Mahavira]], around 600 BCE. Jainism is considered to be an eternal ''[[dharma]]'' with the ''tirthankaras'' guiding every time cycle of the [[Jain cosmology|cosmology]]. The three main pillars of Jainism are ''[[Ahimsa in Jainism|ahiṃsā]]'' (non-violence), ''[[anekāntavāda]]'' (non-absolutism), and ''[[aparigraha]]'' (asceticism). | ||
Jain monks take five main vows: ''[[ahiṃsā]]'' (non-violence), ''[[satya]]'' (truth), ''[[Achourya|asteya]]'' (not stealing), ''[[brahmacharya]]'' (chastity), and ''[[aparigraha]]'' (non-possessiveness). These principles have affected Jain culture in many ways, such as leading to a predominantly [[ | Jain monks, after positioning themselves in the sublime state of soul consciousness, take five main vows: ''[[ahiṃsā]]'' (non-violence), ''[[satya]]'' (truth), ''[[Achourya|asteya]]'' (not stealing), ''[[brahmacharya]]'' (chastity), and ''[[aparigraha]]'' (non-possessiveness). These principles have affected Jain culture in many ways, such as leading to a predominantly [[vegetarianism|vegetarian]] lifestyle. ''[[Parasparopagraho Jīvānām|Parasparopagraho jīvānām]]'' (the function of souls is to help one another) is the faith's motto, and the ''[[Ṇamōkāra mantra]]'' is its most common and basic prayer. | ||
Jainism is one of the oldest religions | Jainism is one of the world's oldest religions in practice to this day. It has two major ancient sub-traditions, [[Digambara]]s and [[Śvētāmbara]]s, with different views on ascetic practices, gender, and the texts that can be considered canonical; both have [[mendicant]]s supported by [[Laity|layperson]]s (''[[Śrāvaka (Jainism)|śrāvakas]]'' and ''śrāvikas''). The Śvētāmbara tradition in turn has three sub-traditions: Mandirvāsī, Deravasi, and Sthānakavasī.{{sfn|Long|2009|pp=20–22}} The religion has between four and five million followers, known as '''Jains''', who reside mostly in [[Jainism in India|India]], where they number around 4.5 million as per the 2011 census. Outside India, some of the largest communities are in [[Jainism in Canada|Canada]], [[Jainism in Europe|Europe]], and the [[Jainism in the United States|United States]], with [[Jainism in Japan|Japan]] hosting a fast-growing community of converts.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Archana|first=K. C.|date=2020-02-23|title=Jainism Gains Traction In Japan, Thousands Travel To India To Transition From Zen To Jain|url=https://www.indiatimes.com/trending/human-interest/jainism-gains-traction-in-japan-thousands-travel-to-india-to-transition-from-zen-to-jain-506991.html|access-date=2021-05-18|website=[[The Times of India]] |language=en-IN}}</ref> Major festivals include ''[[Paryushana]]'' and ''Das Lakshana'', ''[[Jain festivals#Ashtanhika Parv|Ashtanika]]'', ''[[Mahavir Janma Kalyanak]]'', ''[[Akshaya Tritiya]]'', and ''[[Diwali (Jainism)|Dipawali]]''. | ||
==Beliefs and philosophy== | ==Beliefs and philosophy== | ||
{{Main|Jain philosophy}} | {{Main|Jain philosophy}} | ||
[[File:Ahimsa Jainism.svg|thumb|upright|The hand symbolizes [[Ahimsa in Jainism|''Ahiṃsā'']], the wheel ''[[dharmachakra]]'', the resolve to halt ''saṃsāra'' (transmigration).]] | [[File:Ahimsa Jainism.svg|thumb|upright|The hand symbolizes [[Ahimsa in Jainism|''Ahiṃsā'']], the wheel ''[[dharmachakra]]'', the resolve to halt ''saṃsāra'' (transmigration).]] | ||
Jainism is [[transtheistic]] and forecasts that the universe evolves without violating the law of [[ | Jainism is [[transtheistic]] and forecasts that the universe evolves without violating the law of [[substance dualism]],{{sfn|Yandell|1999|p=243}} and the actual realization of this principle plays out through the phenomena of both [[Psychophysical parallelism|parallelism]] and [[Interactionism (philosophy of mind)|interactionism]].{{sfn|Sinha|1944|p=20}} | ||
===''Dravya'' (Ontological facts)=== | ===''Dravya'' (Ontological facts)=== | ||
{{Main|Dravya}} | {{Main|Dravya}} | ||
''Dravya'' means substances or entity in [[Sanskrit]].{{sfn|Grimes|1996|pp=118–119}} | ''Dravya'' means substances or entity in [[Sanskrit]].{{sfn|Grimes|1996|pp=118–119}} The universe is made up of six eternal substances: sentient beings or souls (''[[Jīva (Jainism)|jīva]]''), non-sentient substance or matter (''[[pudgala]]''), the principle of motion (''[[Dharma (Jainism)|dharma]]''), the principle of rest (''[[adharma]]''), space (''[[Ākāśa (Jainism)|ākāśa]]''), and time (''[[kāla (time)|kāla]]'').{{sfn|Grimes|1996|pp=118–119}}{{sfn|Nemicandra|Balbir|2010|p=1 of Introduction}} The last five are united as the ''ajiva'' (non-living).{{sfn|Grimes|1996|pp=118–119}} Jains distinguish a substance from a complex body, or thing, by declaring the former a simple indestructible element, while the latter is a compound made of one or more substances that can be destroyed.{{sfn|Champat Rai Jain|1917|p=15}} | ||
===''Tattva'' (Soteriological facts)=== | ===''Tattva'' (Soteriological facts)=== | ||
| Line 65: | Line 65: | ||
===Salvation, liberation=== | ===Salvation, liberation=== | ||
{{Main|Moksha (Jainism)|Ratnatraya|Gunasthana}} | {{Main|Moksha (Jainism)|Ratnatraya|Gunasthana}} | ||
Purification of soul and liberation can be achieved through the path of three jewels:{{sfn|Vijay K. Jain|2011|p=6}}{{sfn|Cort|2001a|pp=6–7}}{{sfn|Fohr|2015|pp=9–10, 37}} ''Samyak Darśana'' (Correct View), meaning faith, acceptance of the truth of soul (''jīva'');{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=141–147}} ''Samyak Gyana'' (Correct Knowledge), meaning undoubting knowledge of the ''tattvas'';{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=148, 200}} and ''Samyak Charitra'' (Correct Conduct), meaning behavior consistent with the Five vows.{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=148, 200}} Jain texts often add ''samyak | Purification of soul and liberation can be achieved through the path of three jewels:{{sfn|Vijay K. Jain|2011|p=6}}{{sfn|Cort|2001a|pp=6–7}}{{sfn|Fohr|2015|pp=9–10, 37}} ''Samyak Darśana'' (Correct View), meaning faith, acceptance of the truth of soul (''jīva'');{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=141–147}} ''Samyak Gyana'' (Correct Knowledge), meaning undoubting knowledge of the ''tattvas'';{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=148, 200}} and ''Samyak Charitra'' (Correct Conduct), meaning behavior consistent with the Five vows.{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=148, 200}} Jain texts often add ''samyak tap'' (Correct Asceticism) as a fourth jewel, emphasizing belief in ascetic practices as the means to liberation ([[moksha]]).{{sfn|Cort|2001a|p=7}} The four jewels are called ''Moksha Marg'' (the path of liberation).{{sfn|Cort|2001a|pp=6–7}} | ||
==Main principles== | ==Main principles== | ||
| Line 87: | Line 87: | ||
The second main principle of Jainism is ''anekāntavāda'',{{sfn|Charitrapragya|2004|pp=75–79}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=229–231}} from ''anekānta'' ("many-sidedness") and ''vada'' ("doctrine").{{sfn|Charitrapragya|2004|pp=75–79}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=229–231}} The doctrine states that truth and reality are complex and always have multiple aspects. It further states that reality can be experienced, but cannot be fully expressed with language. It suggests that human attempts to communicate are ''Naya'', "partial expression of the truth".{{sfn|Charitrapragya|2004|pp=75–79}} According to it, one can experience the taste of truth, but cannot fully express that taste through language. It holds that attempts to express experience are ''syāt'', or valid "in some respect", but remain "perhaps, just one perspective, incomplete".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |first=Mark Owen |last=Webb |url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/jain/ |title=Jain philosophy |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221042158/http://www.iep.utm.edu/jain/ |archive-date=21 February 2015 |access-date=22 February 2015 |url-status=live |encyclopedia=[[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |issn=2161-0002}}</ref> It concludes that in the same way, spiritual truths can be experienced but not fully expressed.{{sfn|Charitrapragya|2004|pp=75–79}} It suggests that the great error is belief in ''ekānta'' (one-sidedness), where some relative truth is treated as absolute.{{sfn|Schwartz|2018}} The doctrine is ancient, found in Buddhist texts such as the ''Samaññaphala Sutta''. The Jain Agamas suggest that Mahāvīra's approach to answering all metaphysical philosophical questions was a "qualified yes" (''syāt'').{{sfn|Matilal|1990|pp=301–305}}{{sfn|Balcerowicz|2015|pp=205–218}} These texts identify ''anekāntavāda'' as a key difference from the [[Buddha]]'s teachings. The Buddha taught the Middle Way, rejecting extremes of the answer "it is" or "it is not" to metaphysical questions. The Mahāvīra, in contrast, taught his followers to accept both "it is", and "it is not", qualified with "perhaps", to understand Absolute Reality.{{sfn|Matilal|1998|pp=128–135}} The permanent being is conceptualized as ''[[Jiva (Jainism)|jiva]]'' (soul) and ''[[ajiva]]'' (matter) within a dualistic ''anekāntavāda'' framework.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=90–99, 104–105, 229–233}} | The second main principle of Jainism is ''anekāntavāda'',{{sfn|Charitrapragya|2004|pp=75–79}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=229–231}} from ''anekānta'' ("many-sidedness") and ''vada'' ("doctrine").{{sfn|Charitrapragya|2004|pp=75–79}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=229–231}} The doctrine states that truth and reality are complex and always have multiple aspects. It further states that reality can be experienced, but cannot be fully expressed with language. It suggests that human attempts to communicate are ''Naya'', "partial expression of the truth".{{sfn|Charitrapragya|2004|pp=75–79}} According to it, one can experience the taste of truth, but cannot fully express that taste through language. It holds that attempts to express experience are ''syāt'', or valid "in some respect", but remain "perhaps, just one perspective, incomplete".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |first=Mark Owen |last=Webb |url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/jain/ |title=Jain philosophy |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221042158/http://www.iep.utm.edu/jain/ |archive-date=21 February 2015 |access-date=22 February 2015 |url-status=live |encyclopedia=[[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |issn=2161-0002}}</ref> It concludes that in the same way, spiritual truths can be experienced but not fully expressed.{{sfn|Charitrapragya|2004|pp=75–79}} It suggests that the great error is belief in ''ekānta'' (one-sidedness), where some relative truth is treated as absolute.{{sfn|Schwartz|2018}} The doctrine is ancient, found in Buddhist texts such as the ''Samaññaphala Sutta''. The Jain Agamas suggest that Mahāvīra's approach to answering all metaphysical philosophical questions was a "qualified yes" (''syāt'').{{sfn|Matilal|1990|pp=301–305}}{{sfn|Balcerowicz|2015|pp=205–218}} These texts identify ''anekāntavāda'' as a key difference from the [[Buddha]]'s teachings. The Buddha taught the Middle Way, rejecting extremes of the answer "it is" or "it is not" to metaphysical questions. The Mahāvīra, in contrast, taught his followers to accept both "it is", and "it is not", qualified with "perhaps", to understand Absolute Reality.{{sfn|Matilal|1998|pp=128–135}} The permanent being is conceptualized as ''[[Jiva (Jainism)|jiva]]'' (soul) and ''[[ajiva]]'' (matter) within a dualistic ''anekāntavāda'' framework.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=90–99, 104–105, 229–233}} | ||
According to | According to Paul Dundas, in contemporary times the ''anekāntavāda'' doctrine has been interpreted by some Jains as intending to "promote a universal religious tolerance", and a teaching of "plurality" and "benign attitude to other [ethical, religious] positions". Dundas states this is a misreading of historical texts and Mahāvīra's teachings.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=232–234}} According to him, the "many pointedness, multiple perspective" teachings of the Mahāvīra is about the nature of [[Absolute (philosophy)|absolute reality]] and human existence.{{sfn|Sethia|2004|pp=86–91}} He claims that it is not about condoning activities such as killing animals for food, nor violence against disbelievers or any other living being as "perhaps right".{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=232–234}} The five vows for Jain monks and nuns, for example, are strict requirements and there is no "perhaps" about them.{{sfn|Long|2009|pp=98–106}} Similarly, since ancient times, Jainism co-existed with Buddhism and Hinduism according to Dundas, but Jainism disagreed, in specific areas, with the knowledge systems and beliefs of these traditions, and vice versa.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=233}} | ||
===Non-attachment (''aparigraha'')=== | ===Non-attachment (''aparigraha'')=== | ||
| Line 132: | Line 132: | ||
===Food and fasting=== | ===Food and fasting=== | ||
{{Main|Jain vegetarianism|Fasting in Jainism}} | {{Main|Jain vegetarianism|Fasting in Jainism}} | ||
The practice of non-violence towards all living beings has led to Jain culture being [[Jain vegetarianism|vegetarian]]. Devout Jains practice [[lacto-vegetarianism]], meaning that they eat no eggs, but accept dairy products if there is no violence against animals during their production. [[Veganism]] is encouraged if there are concerns about animal welfare.{{sfn|Voorst|2015|p=105}} Jain monks, nuns and some followers avoid [[root | The practice of non-violence towards all living beings has led to Jain culture being [[Jain vegetarianism|vegetarian]]. Devout Jains practice [[lacto-vegetarianism]], meaning that they eat no eggs, but accept dairy products if there is no violence against animals during their production. [[Veganism]] is encouraged if there are concerns about animal welfare.{{sfn|Voorst|2015|p=105}} Jain monks, nuns and some followers avoid [[root vegetables]] such as potatoes, onions, and garlic because tiny organisms are injured when the plant is pulled up, and because a bulb or tuber's ability to sprout is seen as characteristic of a higher living being.{{sfn|Sangave|1980|p=260}}{{efn|In Jainism, the ''ahiṃsā'' precept for a mendicant requires avoidance of touching or disturbing any living being including plants. It also mandates never swimming in water, nor lighting or fire or extinguish one, nor thrashing arms in the air as such actions can torment or hurt other beings that live in those states of matter.{{sfn|Taylor|2008|pp=892–894}}}} Jain monks and advanced laypeople avoid eating after sunset, observing a vow of ''ratri-bhojana-tyaga-vrata''.{{sfn|Jaini|2000|p=285}} Monks observe a stricter vow by eating only once a day.{{sfn|Jaini|2000|p=285}} | ||
Jains fast particularly during festivals.{{sfn|Wiley|2009|p=85}} This practice is called ''upavasa'', ''tapasya'' or ''vrata'',{{sfn|Wiley|2009|pp=85–86}} and may be practiced according to one's ability.{{sfn|Ram Bhushan Prasad Singh|2008|pp=92–94}} Digambaras fast for ''Dasa-laksana-parvan'', eating only one or two meals per day, drinking only boiled water for ten days, or fasting completely on the first and last days of the festival,{{sfn|Wiley|2009|p=72}} mimicking the practices of a Jain mendicant for the period.{{sfn|Wiley|2009|p=72}} Śvētāmbara Jains do similarly in the eight day ''paryusana'' with ''samvatsari-pratikramana''.{{sfn|Wiley|2009|pp=72, 85–86}} The practice is believed to remove karma from one's soul and provides merit (''punya'').{{sfn|Wiley|2009|p=85}} A "one day" fast lasts about 36 hours, starting at sunset before the day of the fast and ending 48 minutes after sunrise the day after.{{sfn|Wiley|2009|p=85}} Among laypeople, fasting is more commonly observed by women, as it shows her piety and religious purity, gains merit earning and helps ensure future well-being for her family. Some religious fasts are observed in a social and supportive female group.{{sfn|Wiley|2009|p=86}} Long fasts are celebrated by friends and families with special ceremonies.{{sfn|Wiley|2009|p=86}} | Jains fast particularly during festivals.{{sfn|Wiley|2009|p=85}} This practice is called ''upavasa'', ''tapasya'' or ''vrata'',{{sfn|Wiley|2009|pp=85–86}} and may be practiced according to one's ability.{{sfn|Ram Bhushan Prasad Singh|2008|pp=92–94}} Digambaras fast for ''Dasa-laksana-parvan'', eating only one or two meals per day, drinking only boiled water for ten days, or fasting completely on the first and last days of the festival,{{sfn|Wiley|2009|p=72}} mimicking the practices of a Jain mendicant for the period.{{sfn|Wiley|2009|p=72}} Śvētāmbara Jains do similarly in the eight day ''paryusana'' with ''samvatsari-pratikramana''.{{sfn|Wiley|2009|pp=72, 85–86}} The practice is believed to remove karma from one's soul and provides merit (''punya'').{{sfn|Wiley|2009|p=85}} A "one day" fast lasts about 36 hours, starting at sunset before the day of the fast and ending 48 minutes after sunrise the day after.{{sfn|Wiley|2009|p=85}} Among laypeople, fasting is more commonly observed by women, as it shows her piety and religious purity, gains merit earning and helps ensure future well-being for her family. Some religious fasts are observed in a social and supportive female group.{{sfn|Wiley|2009|p=86}} Long fasts are celebrated by friends and families with special ceremonies.{{sfn|Wiley|2009|p=86}} | ||
| Line 231: | Line 231: | ||
[[File:Sculpture panel showing a Jain stupa and torana, Mathura 75-100 CE.jpg|thumb|290px|''Sivayasa Ayagapata'', with stupa fragment, [[Kankali Tila]], 75-100 CE.]] | [[File:Sculpture panel showing a Jain stupa and torana, Mathura 75-100 CE.jpg|thumb|290px|''Sivayasa Ayagapata'', with stupa fragment, [[Kankali Tila]], 75-100 CE.]] | ||
All four [[Indian religions|Dharmic religions]], viz., Jainism, Hinduism, Sikhism and Buddhism, | All four [[Indian religions|Dharmic religions]], viz., Jainism, Hinduism, Sikhism and Buddhism, share concepts and doctrines such as karma and rebirth, with similar festivals and monastic traditions.{{sfn|Solomon|Higgins|1998|pp=11–22}}{{sfn|Appleton|2016|pp=1–21, 25–27, 57–58, 82–84}}{{sfn|McFaul|2006|pp=27–28}} They do not believe in eternal heaven or hell or judgment day, and leave it up to individual discretion to choose whether or not to believe in gods, to disagree with core teachings, and to choose whether to participate in prayers, rituals and festivals. They all consider values such as non-violence to be important,{{sfn|Shaw|Demy|2017}}{{rp|p. 635|quote=Ahiṃsā (to do no harm) is a significant aspect of three major religions: Jainism, Hinduism and Buddhism}} link suffering to craving, individual's actions, intents, and karma, and believe spirituality is a means to enlightened peace, bliss and eternal liberation (''moksha'').{{sfn|Solomon|Higgins|1998|pp=18–22}}{{sfn|McFaul|2006|pp=27–40}} | ||
Jainism differs from both Buddhism and Hinduism in its ontological premises. All believe in impermanence, but Buddhism incorporates the premise of ''[[anatta]]'' ("no eternal self or soul"). Hinduism incorporates an eternal unchanging ''[[Atman (Hinduism)|atman]]'' ("soul"), while Jainism incorporates an eternal but changing ''[[Jiva (Jainism)|jiva]]'' ("soul").{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=87–88}}{{sfn|Wiley|2004|pp=2–5}}{{sfn|Long|2013|pp=122–125}} In Jain thought, there are infinite eternal ''jivas'', predominantly in cycles of rebirth, and a few ''siddhas'' (perfected ones).{{sfn|Hiriyanna|1993|pp=157–158, 168–169}} Unlike Jainism, Hindu philosophies encompass [[advaita|nondualism]] where all souls are identical as Brahman and posited as interconnected one{{sfn|Hiriyanna|1993|pp=54–62, 77–82, 132}}{{sfn|Perrett|2013|pp=247–248}}{{sfn|Bartley|2013|pp=1–10, 76–79, 87–98}} | Jainism differs from both Buddhism and Hinduism in its ontological premises. All believe in impermanence, but Buddhism incorporates the premise of ''[[anatta]]'' ("no eternal self or soul"). Hinduism incorporates an eternal unchanging ''[[Atman (Hinduism)|atman]]'' ("soul"), while Jainism incorporates an eternal but changing ''[[Jiva (Jainism)|jiva]]'' ("soul").{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=87–88}}{{sfn|Wiley|2004|pp=2–5}}{{sfn|Long|2013|pp=122–125}} In Jain thought, there are infinite eternal ''jivas'', predominantly in cycles of rebirth, and a few ''siddhas'' (perfected ones).{{sfn|Hiriyanna|1993|pp=157–158, 168–169}} Unlike Jainism, Hindu philosophies encompass [[advaita|nondualism]] where all souls are identical as Brahman and posited as interconnected one{{sfn|Hiriyanna|1993|pp=54–62, 77–82, 132}}{{sfn|Perrett|2013|pp=247–248}}{{sfn|Bartley|2013|pp=1–10, 76–79, 87–98}} | ||
| Line 271: | Line 271: | ||
The second–first century BCE. Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves are rich with carvings of ''tirthanakars'' and deities with inscriptions including the [[Hathigumpha inscription|Elephant Cave inscription]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.proel.org/index.php?pagina=alfabetos/dravidi |title=Dravidi Or Kalinga Syllabary |work=proel.org |access-date=13 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181201132912/http://www.proel.org/index.php?pagina=alfabetos%2Fdravidi |archive-date=1 December 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2016|p=460}} Jain cave temples at [[Badami cave temples|Badami]], [[Mangi-Tungi]] and the Ellora Caves are considered important.{{sfn|Owen|2012a|p=50}} The [[Sittanavasal Cave]] temple is a fine example of Jain art with an early cave shelter, and a medieval rock-cut temple with excellent fresco paintings comparable to Ajantha. Inside are seventeen stone beds with second century BCE. [[Tamil-Brahmi]] inscriptions.<ref>{{cite web |first=S. S. |last=Kavitha |url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/preserving-the-past/article100194.ece |title=Preserving the past |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=3 February 2010 |access-date=15 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103060244/http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/preserving-the-past/article100194.ece |archive-date=3 January 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> The eighth century [[Kalugumalai Jain Beds|Kazhugumalai temple]] marks the revival of Jainism in South India.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hindu.com/2003/09/15/stories/2003091503060500.htm |title=Arittapatti inscription throws light on Jainism |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=15 September 2003 |access-date=15 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131123051449/http://www.hindu.com/2003/09/15/stories/2003091503060500.htm |archive-date=23 November 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> | The second–first century BCE. Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves are rich with carvings of ''tirthanakars'' and deities with inscriptions including the [[Hathigumpha inscription|Elephant Cave inscription]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.proel.org/index.php?pagina=alfabetos/dravidi |title=Dravidi Or Kalinga Syllabary |work=proel.org |access-date=13 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181201132912/http://www.proel.org/index.php?pagina=alfabetos%2Fdravidi |archive-date=1 December 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2016|p=460}} Jain cave temples at [[Badami cave temples|Badami]], [[Mangi-Tungi]] and the Ellora Caves are considered important.{{sfn|Owen|2012a|p=50}} The [[Sittanavasal Cave]] temple is a fine example of Jain art with an early cave shelter, and a medieval rock-cut temple with excellent fresco paintings comparable to Ajantha. Inside are seventeen stone beds with second century BCE. [[Tamil-Brahmi]] inscriptions.<ref>{{cite web |first=S. S. |last=Kavitha |url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/preserving-the-past/article100194.ece |title=Preserving the past |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=3 February 2010 |access-date=15 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103060244/http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/preserving-the-past/article100194.ece |archive-date=3 January 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> The eighth century [[Kalugumalai Jain Beds|Kazhugumalai temple]] marks the revival of Jainism in South India.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hindu.com/2003/09/15/stories/2003091503060500.htm |title=Arittapatti inscription throws light on Jainism |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=15 September 2003 |access-date=15 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131123051449/http://www.hindu.com/2003/09/15/stories/2003091503060500.htm |archive-date=23 November 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> | ||
<gallery caption="Jain temples of varied styles in India and abroad"> | <gallery mode="packed" caption="Jain temples of varied styles in India and abroad"> | ||
File:Jain Temple Ranakpur.jpg|[[Ranakpur Jain Temple]] | File:Jain Temple Ranakpur.jpg|[[Ranakpur Jain Temple]] | ||
File:Delwada.jpg|[[Dilwara Temples]] | File:Delwada.jpg|[[Dilwara Temples]] | ||
| Line 321: | Line 321: | ||
| caption2 = [[Jain flag]] | | caption2 = [[Jain flag]] | ||
}} | }} | ||
Jain icons and arts incorporate symbols such as the [[swastika]], [[Om#Jainism|''Om'']], and the ''Ashtamangala''. In Jainism, ''Om'' is a condensed reference to the initials "A-A-A-U-M" of the five parameshthis: "''Arihant'', ''[[Ashiri]]'', ''[[Acharya]]'', ''[[Upajjhaya]]'', ''Muni''",<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/om.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19991001132837/http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/om.html |title=Om – Significance in Jainism |publisher=Department of Computer Science of [[Colorado State University]] |archive-date=October 1, 1999 |access-date=September 23, 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=410–411}} or the five lines of the [[Namokara Mantra|''Ṇamōkāra'' Mantra]].{{ | Jain icons and arts incorporate symbols such as the [[swastika]], [[Om#Jainism|''Om'']], and the ''Ashtamangala''. In Jainism, ''Om'' is a condensed reference to the initials "A-A-A-U-M" of the five parameshthis: "''Arihant'', ''[[Ashiri]]'', ''[[Acharya]]'', ''[[Upajjhaya]]'', ''Muni''",<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/om.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19991001132837/http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/om.html |title=Om – Significance in Jainism |publisher=Department of Computer Science of [[Colorado State University]] |archive-date=October 1, 1999 |access-date=September 23, 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=410–411}} or the five lines of the [[Namokara Mantra|''Ṇamōkāra'' Mantra]].{{cn|date=January 2023}} The ''[[Ashtamangala]]'' is a set of eight auspicious symbols:{{sfn|Titze|1998|p=234}} in the Digambara tradition, these are [[chatra (umbrella)|chatra]], ''[[dhvaja]]'', ''[[kalasha]]'', [[fly-whisk]], [[mirror]], chair, [[hand fan]] and vessel. In the Śvētāmbar tradition, they are Swastika, ''[[Srivatsa]]'', ''[[Nandavarta]]'', ''Vardhmanaka'' (food vessel), ''Bhadrasana'' (seat), ''[[Kalasha]]'' (pot), ''Darpan'' (mirror) and pair of fish.{{Sfn|Titze|1998|p=234}} | ||
[[File:Stambha of Parshwanath Jain Mandir, Belgachhiya 18.jpg|thumb|A symbol to represent the Jain community was chosen in 1975 as part of the commemoration of the 2,500th anniversary of | [[File:Stambha of Parshwanath Jain Mandir, Belgachhiya 18.jpg|thumb|A symbol to represent the Jain community was chosen in 1975 as part of the commemoration of the 2,500th anniversary of Mahavira’s ''nirvana''.]] | ||
The hand with a wheel on the palm symbolizes [[Ahimsa in Jainism|''ahimsā'']]. The wheel represents the ''[[dharmachakra]]'', which stands for the resolve to halt the ''saṃsāra'' (wandering) through the relentless pursuit of ''ahimsā''. The five colours of the [[Jain flag]] represent the ''[[Pañca-Parameṣṭhi]]'' and the five vows.{{sfn|Vijay K. Jain|2012|p=iv}} The [[swastika]]'s four arms symbolise the four realms in which rebirth occurs according to Jainism: humans, heavenly beings, hellish beings and non-humans.{{sfn|Cort|2001a|p=17}}{{sfn|Jansma|Jain|2006|p=123}} The three dots on the top represent the three jewels mentioned in ancient texts: correct faith, correct understanding and correct conduct, believed to lead to spiritual perfection.{{sfn|Cort|2001a|pp=17–18}} | The hand with a wheel on the palm symbolizes [[Ahimsa in Jainism|''ahimsā'']]. The wheel represents the ''[[dharmachakra]]'', which stands for the resolve to halt the ''saṃsāra'' (wandering) through the relentless pursuit of ''ahimsā''. The five colours of the [[Jain flag]] represent the ''[[Pañca-Parameṣṭhi]]'' and the five vows.{{sfn|Vijay K. Jain|2012|p=iv}} The [[swastika]]'s four arms symbolise the four realms in which rebirth occurs according to Jainism: humans, heavenly beings, hellish beings and non-humans.{{sfn|Cort|2001a|p=17}}{{sfn|Jansma|Jain|2006|p=123}} The three dots on the top represent the three jewels mentioned in ancient texts: correct faith, correct understanding and correct conduct, believed to lead to spiritual perfection.{{sfn|Cort|2001a|pp=17–18}} | ||
| Line 330: | Line 330: | ||
{{Main|History of Jainism}} | {{Main|History of Jainism}} | ||
{{For timeline}} | {{For timeline}} | ||
Jainism is a religion founded in [[ancient India]]. Jains trace their history through twenty-four ''[[tirthankars|tirthankaras]]'' and revere [[Rishabhanatha]] as the first ''tirthankara'' (in the present time-cycle). Some artifacts found in the [[Indus Valley civilisation|Indus River Valley civilization]] have been suggested as a link to ancient Jain culture, but very little is known about the Indus Valley iconography and script. The last two ''tirthankaras'', the 23rd ''tirthankara'' [[Parshvanatha]] (c. 9th–8th century BCE) and the 24th ''tirthankara'' [[Mahavira]] (<abbr>c.</abbr> 599 – c. 527 BCE) are historical figures. Mahavira was a contemporary of the [[Buddha]]. According to Jain texts, the 22nd ''Tirthankara'' [[Neminatha]] lived about 85,000 years ago and was the cousin of [[Krishna]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bharatdiscovery.org/india/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A5_%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0|title=ऋषभनाथ तीर्थंकर | भारतकोश|website=bharatdiscovery.org}}</ref> | Jainism is a religion founded in [[ancient India]]. Jains trace their history through twenty-four ''[[tirthankars|tirthankaras]]'' and revere [[Rishabhanatha]] as the first ''tirthankara'' (in the present time-cycle). Some artifacts found in the [[Indus Valley civilisation|Indus River Valley civilization]] have been suggested as a link to ancient Jain culture, but very little is known about the Indus Valley iconography and script. The last two ''tirthankaras'', the 23rd ''tirthankara'' [[Parshvanatha]] (c. 9th–8th century BCE) and the 24th ''tirthankara'' [[Mahavira]] (<abbr>c.</abbr> 599 – c. 527 BCE) are considered historical figures{{by whom|date=November 2022}} | ||
. Mahavira was a contemporary of the [[Buddha]]. According to Jain texts, the 22nd ''Tirthankara'' [[Neminatha]] lived about 85,000 years ago and was the cousin of [[Krishna]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bharatdiscovery.org/india/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A5_%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0|title=ऋषभनाथ तीर्थंकर | भारतकोश|website=bharatdiscovery.org}}</ref> | |||
[[File:Photo of lord adinath bhagwan at kundalpur.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Rishabhanatha|Rishabhdev]], believed to have lived over 592.704×10<sup>18</sup> years ago, is considered the traditional founder of Jainism.]] | [[File:Photo of lord adinath bhagwan at kundalpur.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Rishabhanatha|Rishabhdev]], believed to have lived over 592.704×10<sup>18</sup> years ago, is considered the traditional founder of Jainism.]] | ||
===Ancient=== | ===Ancient=== | ||
| Line 338: | Line 338: | ||
{{Multiple images | {{Multiple images | ||
| image1 = Ashoka Pillar at Feroze Shah Kotla, Delhi 03.JPG | | image1 = Ashoka Pillar at Feroze Shah Kotla, Delhi 03.JPG | ||
| caption1 = Jain inscription of [[Ashoka]] ( | | caption1 = Jain inscription of [[Ashoka]] (c. 236 BCE) | ||
| image2 = Shrine with Four Jinas (Rishabhanatha (Adinatha)), Parshvanatha, Neminatha, and Mahavira) LACMA M.85.55 (1 of 4).jpg | | image2 = Shrine with Four Jinas (Rishabhanatha (Adinatha)), Parshvanatha, Neminatha, and Mahavira) LACMA M.85.55 (1 of 4).jpg | ||
| caption2 = ''Chaumukha'' Sculpture with Four Jinas (Rishabhanatha (Adinatha), Parshvanatha, Neminatha, and Mahavira), [[LACMA]], sixth century | | caption2 = ''Chaumukha'' Sculpture with Four Jinas (Rishabhanatha (Adinatha), Parshvanatha, Neminatha, and Mahavira), [[LACMA]], sixth century | ||
| Line 344: | Line 344: | ||
| align = left | | align = left | ||
}} | }} | ||
Jainism is an ancient [[Indian religion]] of obscure origins.{{sfn|Sangave|2001|p=185}}{{sfn|Rankin|Mardia|2013|p=975}}{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|p=13}} Jains claim it to be eternal, and consider the first ''tirthankara'' [[Rishabhanatha]] as the reinforcer of Jain Dharma in the current time cycle.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|p=16}} It is one of the ''[[Śramaṇa]]'' traditions of ancient India, those that rejected the [[Veda]]s,{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002b|p=639}}{{sfn|Billimoria|1988|pp=1–30}} and according to the twentieth-century scholar of comparative religion [[Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan]], Jainism was in existence before the Vedas were composed.{{sfn|Jambuvijaya|2002|p=114}}{{sfn|Pande|1957|p=353}}{{efn|Long notes that [[Ṛṣabha]], the first Tīrthaṅkara of Jainism, means "bull," and that images of bulls are found at seals from the [[Indus Valley civilization]], speculating that they may be related to Jainism.{{sfn|Long|2013|pp=53–54}}}} | Jainism is an ancient [[Indian religion]] of obscure origins.{{sfn|Sangave|2001|p=185}}{{sfn|Rankin|Mardia|2013|p=975}}{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|p=13}} Jains claim it to be eternal, and consider the first ''tirthankara'' [[Rishabhanatha]] as the reinforcer of Jain Dharma in the current time cycle.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|p=16}} It is one of the ''[[Śramaṇa]]'' traditions of ancient India, those that rejected the [[Veda]]s,{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002b|p=639}}{{sfn|Billimoria|1988|pp=1–30}} and according to the twentieth-century scholar of comparative religion [[Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan|Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan]], Jainism was in existence before the Vedas were composed.{{sfn|Jambuvijaya|2002|p=114}}{{sfn|Pande|1957|p=353}}{{efn|Long notes that [[Ṛṣabha]], the first Tīrthaṅkara of Jainism, means "bull," and that images of bulls are found at seals from the [[Indus Valley civilization]], speculating that they may be related to Jainism.{{sfn|Long|2013|pp=53–54}}}} | ||
The historicity of first twenty two tirthankaras is not determined yet.{{sfn|Sangave|2001|pp=104, 129}}{{sfn|Saraswati|1908|p=444}} The 23rd Tirthankara, [[Parshvanatha]], was a historical being,{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|p=183}}{{sfn|Jaini|1998|p=10}} dated by the Jain tradition to the ninth century BCE;{{sfn|Barnett|1957|p=7}} historians date him to the eighth or seventh century BC.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/brunch/rude-travel-down-the-sages/story-SYVGGDouZrOTgJogiul6IN.html|title=Rude Travel: Down The Sages Vir Sanghavi|date=13 September 2013}}</ref> Mahāvīra is considered a contemporary of the Buddha, in around the sixth century BCE.{{sfn|Dundas|2003a|p=383}}{{sfn|Keown|Prebish|2013|pp=127–130}} The interaction between the two religions began with the Buddha;{{sfn|Sangave|2001|p=105}} later, they competed for followers and the merchant trade networks that sustained them.{{sfn|Neelis|2010|pp=72–76}}{{sfn|Hirakawa|1993|pp=4–7}} Buddhist and Jain texts sometimes have the same or similar titles but present different doctrines.{{sfn|Qvarnström|2003|pp=ix–xi, 151–162}} | The historicity of first twenty two tirthankaras is not determined yet.{{sfn|Sangave|2001|pp=104, 129}}{{sfn|Saraswati|1908|p=444}} The 23rd Tirthankara, [[Parshvanatha]], was a historical being,{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|p=183}}{{sfn|Jaini|1998|p=10}} dated by the Jain tradition to the ninth century BCE;{{sfn|Barnett|1957|p=7}} historians date him to the eighth or seventh century BC.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/brunch/rude-travel-down-the-sages/story-SYVGGDouZrOTgJogiul6IN.html|title=Rude Travel: Down The Sages Vir Sanghavi|date=13 September 2013}}</ref> Mahāvīra is considered a contemporary of the Buddha, in around the sixth century BCE.{{sfn|Dundas|2003a|p=383}}{{sfn|Keown|Prebish|2013|pp=127–130}} The interaction between the two religions began with the Buddha;{{sfn|Sangave|2001|p=105}} later, they competed for followers and the merchant trade networks that sustained them.{{sfn|Neelis|2010|pp=72–76}}{{sfn|Hirakawa|1993|pp=4–7}} Buddhist and Jain texts sometimes have the same or similar titles but present different doctrines.{{sfn|Qvarnström|2003|pp=ix–xi, 151–162}} | ||
Kings [[Bimbisara]] ( | Kings [[Bimbisara]] (c. 558–491 BCE), [[Ajatashatru]] (c. 492–460 BCE), and [[Udayin]] (c. 460–440 BCE) of the [[Haryanka dynasty]] were patrons of Jainism.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|p=41}} Jain tradition states that [[Chandragupta Maurya]] (322–298 BCE), the founder of the [[Mauryan Empire]] and grandfather of [[Ashoka]], became a monk and disciple of Jain ascetic [[Bhadrabahu]] in the later part of his life.{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|pp=63–65}}{{sfn|Boesche|2003|pp=7–18}} Jain texts state that he died intentionally at Shravanabelagola by fasting.{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|pp=63–65}}{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=39–46, 234–236}} Versions of Chandragupta's story appear in Buddhist, Jain, and Hindu texts.{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=4–21, 232–237}}{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|p=42}} | ||
{{Multiple image | {{Multiple image | ||
| image1 = Udayagiri Caves - Rani Gumpha 01.jpg | | image1 = Udayagiri Caves - Rani Gumpha 01.jpg | ||
| Line 370: | Line 370: | ||
Jainism faced persecution during and after the [[Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent]]. The scholarship in context of Jain relations with the ruler of [[Delhi Sultanate]] remains scarce, notwithstanding there were several instances of cordial relations of Jains with prominent rulers of the Sultanate. [[Alauddin Khalji]] (1296–1316), as attested by the Jain texts held discussions with Jain sages and once specially summoned Acharya Mahasena to Delhi.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vyEoAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT439|title=The Age of Wrath: A History of The Delhi Sultanate|publisher=Penguin UK|author=[[Burjor Avari]]|date=April 2015|isbn=9789351186588}}</ref> One more prominent Jain figure Acharya Ramachandra Suri was also honored by him. During his reign, his governor of Gujarat, [[Alp Khan]] permitted the reconstruction of the temples razed during earlier Muslim conquests and himself made huge donation for the renovation of Jain temples.<ref name=Pushpa>{{cite journal|journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|volume=54|title=The Jain Community in the Delhi Sultanate|publisher=[[Indian History Congress]]|author=Pushpa Prasad|pages= 224, 225}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Peter Jackson |author-link=Peter Jackson (historian) |title=The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lt2tqOpVRKgC&pg=PA221 |year=2003 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=288|isbn=978-0-521-54329-3}}</ref> [[Muhammad bin Tughluq]] (1325-1351) according to the Jain chronicles favoured the Jain scholars.<ref>{{cite book |author = Iqtidar Alam Khan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iGSKTttoa3IC&pg=PR17 |title=Historical Dictionary of Medieval India |publisher=Scarecrow Press |year=2008|page=101|quote=Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325-1351) is mentioned in Jain texts as showing favour to Jain scholars|isbn=9780810864016}}</ref> | Jainism faced persecution during and after the [[Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent]]. The scholarship in context of Jain relations with the ruler of [[Delhi Sultanate]] remains scarce, notwithstanding there were several instances of cordial relations of Jains with prominent rulers of the Sultanate. [[Alauddin Khalji]] (1296–1316), as attested by the Jain texts held discussions with Jain sages and once specially summoned Acharya Mahasena to Delhi.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vyEoAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT439|title=The Age of Wrath: A History of The Delhi Sultanate|publisher=Penguin UK|author=[[Burjor Avari]]|date=April 2015|isbn=9789351186588}}</ref> One more prominent Jain figure Acharya Ramachandra Suri was also honored by him. During his reign, his governor of Gujarat, [[Alp Khan]] permitted the reconstruction of the temples razed during earlier Muslim conquests and himself made huge donation for the renovation of Jain temples.<ref name=Pushpa>{{cite journal|journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|volume=54|title=The Jain Community in the Delhi Sultanate|publisher=[[Indian History Congress]]|author=Pushpa Prasad|pages= 224, 225}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Peter Jackson |author-link=Peter Jackson (historian) |title=The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lt2tqOpVRKgC&pg=PA221 |year=2003 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=288|isbn=978-0-521-54329-3}}</ref> [[Muhammad bin Tughluq]] (1325-1351) according to the Jain chronicles favoured the Jain scholars.<ref>{{cite book |author = Iqtidar Alam Khan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iGSKTttoa3IC&pg=PR17 |title=Historical Dictionary of Medieval India |publisher=Scarecrow Press |year=2008|page=101|quote=Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325-1351) is mentioned in Jain texts as showing favour to Jain scholars|isbn=9780810864016}}</ref> | ||
The [[Mughal Empire|Mughal emperors]] in general were influenced by the Jain scholars and made patronage and grants for their pilgrimage sites under [[Humayun]] (1540–1556), [[Akbar]] (1556–1605), [[Jahangir]] (1605–1627) and even [[Aurangzeb]] (1658–1707).<ref>{{Cite web |author=[[Audrey Truschke]]|title=What Aurangzeb did to preserve Hindu temples (and protect non-Muslim religious leaders) |url=https://scroll.in/article/829943/what-aurangzeb-did-to-preserve-hindu-temples-and-protect-non-muslim-religious-leaders |access-date=2022-08-13 |website=Scroll.in | The [[Mughal Empire|Mughal emperors]] in general were influenced by the Jain scholars and made patronage and grants for their pilgrimage sites under [[Humayun]] (1540–1556), [[Akbar]] (1556–1605), [[Jahangir]] (1605–1627) and even [[Aurangzeb]] (1658–1707).<ref>{{Cite web |author=[[Audrey Truschke]]|title=What Aurangzeb did to preserve Hindu temples (and protect non-Muslim religious leaders) |url=https://scroll.in/article/829943/what-aurangzeb-did-to-preserve-hindu-temples-and-protect-non-muslim-religious-leaders |access-date=2022-08-13 |website=Scroll.in |language=en-US}}</ref> Despite this, there were instances of religious bigotry during the Mughal rule towards Jains. [[Babur]] (1526–1530), the first Mughal emperor ordered the destruction of various Jain idols in [[Gwalior]].<ref>{{cite book|author1=Kurt Titze|author2=Klaus Bruhn|title=Jainism: A Pictorial Guide to the Religion of Non-violence|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=loQkEIf8z5wC|year=1998|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1534-6|pages=101–102 |quote="In 1527, the Urvahi Jinas were mutilated by the Mughal emperor Babar, a fact he records in his memoirs"}}</ref> In 1567, Akbar [[Siege of Chittorgarh (1567-1568)|ravaged the fort of Chittor]]. After the conquest of the fort, Akbar ordered the destruction of several Jain shrines and temples in Chittor.<ref>{{cite book|author=Ram Vallabh Somani|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NcIBAAAAMAAJ|title=History of Mewar, from Earliest Times to 1751 A.D.|publisher=Mateshwari|year=1976|page=221|quote=A glaring example of this sort of feeling is the destruction of several Hindu and Jain shrines, made at Chittor, during the course of invasion by the forces of Akbar|oclc=2929852}}</ref> Similarly there were instances of desecration of Jain religious shrines under [[Jahangir]], [[Shah Jahan]] and most notably under [[Aurangzeb]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=EATON |first=RICHARD M. |title=Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States |date=2000 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26198197 |journal=Journal of Islamic Studies |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=283–319 |doi=10.1093/jis/11.3.283 |jstor=26198197 |issn=0955-2340}}</ref> | ||
The Jain community were the traditional bankers and financiers, and this significantly impacted the Muslim rulers. However, they rarely were a part of the political power during the Islamic rule period of the Indian subcontinent.{{sfn|Cort|1998|pp=85–86}} | The Jain community were the traditional bankers and financiers, and this significantly impacted the Muslim rulers. However, they rarely were a part of the political power during the Islamic rule period of the Indian subcontinent.{{sfn|Cort|1998|pp=85–86}} | ||
| Line 385: | Line 385: | ||
[[Shrimad Rajchandra]], a mystic, poet and philosopher revered amongst some Jains in [[Gujarat]] is believed to have attained ''jatismaran gnana'' (ability to recollect past lives) at the age of seven. Virchand Gandhi mentioned this feat at the Parliament of the World's Religions.<ref name="KarbhariGāndhī1911">{{cite book|author1=Bhagu F. Karbhari|author2=Vīrchand Rāghavajī Gāndhī|title=The Jain Philosophy: Collected and Ed. by Baghu F. Karbhari|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L5kWQQAACAAJ|year=1911|publisher=N.M. Tripathi & Company|pages=116–120|language=en}}</ref> | [[Shrimad Rajchandra]], a mystic, poet and philosopher revered amongst some Jains in [[Gujarat]] is believed to have attained ''jatismaran gnana'' (ability to recollect past lives) at the age of seven. Virchand Gandhi mentioned this feat at the Parliament of the World's Religions.<ref name="KarbhariGāndhī1911">{{cite book|author1=Bhagu F. Karbhari|author2=Vīrchand Rāghavajī Gāndhī|title=The Jain Philosophy: Collected and Ed. by Baghu F. Karbhari|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L5kWQQAACAAJ|year=1911|publisher=N.M. Tripathi & Company|pages=116–120|language=en}}</ref> | ||
He is best known because of his association with Mahatma Gandhi.{{ | He is best known because of his association with Mahatma Gandhi.{{snf|Salter|2002|p=145}} They were introduced in Mumbai in 1891 and had various conversations through letters while Gandhi was in South Africa. Gandhi noted his impression of Shrimad Rajchandra in his autobiography, ''[[The Story of My Experiments with Truth]]'', calling him his "guide and helper" and his "refuge in moments of spiritual crisis". Shrimad Rajchandra composed [[Atma Siddhi|Shri Atmasiddhi Shastra]], considered his magnum opus, containing the essence of Jainism in a single sitting of 1.5–2 hours.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Wiley|first=Kristi L.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/647405338|title=The A to Z of Jainism|date=2006|publisher=Vision Books|isbn=81-7094-690-5|location=New Delhi|oclc=647405338|language=en}}</ref> He expounds on the 6 fundamental truths of the soul:<ref>{{Cite book|last=Doshi|first=Manu|title=Srimad Rajachandra's Atma-Siddhi (in Gujarati and English)|publisher=Koba: Srimad Rajachandra Adhyatmik Sadhana Kendra}}</ref> | ||
# Self (soul) exists | # Self (soul) exists | ||
# It is permanent and eternal | # It is permanent and eternal | ||
# It | # It the doer of its own actions | ||
# It is the enjoyer or the sufferer of its actions | # It is the enjoyer or the sufferer of its actions | ||
# Liberation exists | # Liberation exists | ||
| Line 535: | Line 535: | ||
* {{citation |last=Robinson |first=Thomas Arthur |title=World Religions |url={{Google books|20DBvovDC0QC|plainurl=yes}} |publisher=[[Hymns Ancient and Modern|Hymns Ancient and Modern Ltd]]|date=2006|isbn=978-0-334-04014-9}} | * {{citation |last=Robinson |first=Thomas Arthur |title=World Religions |url={{Google books|20DBvovDC0QC|plainurl=yes}} |publisher=[[Hymns Ancient and Modern|Hymns Ancient and Modern Ltd]]|date=2006|isbn=978-0-334-04014-9}} | ||
* {{citation |last1=Rudolph |first1=Lloyd I. |last2=Rudolph |first2=Susanne Hoeber |title=The Modernity of Tradition: Political Development in India |url={{Google books|7guY1ut-0lwC|plainurl=yes}} |date=1984 |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |isbn=978-0-226-73137-7 }} | * {{citation |last1=Rudolph |first1=Lloyd I. |last2=Rudolph |first2=Susanne Hoeber |title=The Modernity of Tradition: Political Development in India |url={{Google books|7guY1ut-0lwC|plainurl=yes}} |date=1984 |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |isbn=978-0-226-73137-7 }} | ||
* {{cite thesis |last=Salter|first=Emma |url=http://eprints.hud.ac.uk/id/eprint/9211/|title=Raj Bhakta Marg: the path of devotion to Srimad Rajcandra. A Jain community in the twenty first century|date=September 2002 |type= Doctoral thesis |access-date=2018-09-21|via=University of Huddersfield Repository|pages=125–150 | * {{cite thesis |last=Salter|first=Emma |url=http://eprints.hud.ac.uk/id/eprint/9211/|title=Raj Bhakta Marg: the path of devotion to Srimad Rajcandra. A Jain community in the twenty first century|date=September 2002 |type= Doctoral thesis |institution= University of Wales |access-date=2018-09-21|via=University of Huddersfield Repository|pages=125–150}} | ||
* {{citation |last=Salvadori |first=Cynthia |title=Through open doors |url={{Google books|4xIRAQAAIAAJ|plainurl=yes}}|year=1989|publisher=Kenway |isbn=978-9966-848-05-5 }} | * {{citation |last=Salvadori |first=Cynthia |title=Through open doors |url={{Google books|4xIRAQAAIAAJ|plainurl=yes}}|year=1989|publisher=Kenway |isbn=978-9966-848-05-5 }} | ||
* {{citation |last=Sangave |first=Vilas Adinath |author-link=Vilas Adinath Sangave |title=Jain Community: A Social Survey |url={{Google books|FWdWrRGV_t8C|plainurl=yes}} |date=1980 |publisher=[[Popular Prakashan]] |location=Bombay |edition=2nd |isbn=978-0-317-12346-3 }} | * {{citation |last=Sangave |first=Vilas Adinath |author-link=Vilas Adinath Sangave |title=Jain Community: A Social Survey |url={{Google books|FWdWrRGV_t8C|plainurl=yes}} |date=1980 |publisher=[[Popular Prakashan]] |location=Bombay |edition=2nd |isbn=978-0-317-12346-3 }} | ||
| Line 550: | Line 550: | ||
* {{citation |last1=Sharma |first1=Ramesh Chandra |last2=Ghosal |first2=Pranati |title=Jain Contribution to Varanasi |url={{Google books|YoLXAAAAMAAJ|plainurl=yes}} |year=2006 |publisher=Jnanapravaha |isbn=978-81-246-0341-3 }} | * {{citation |last1=Sharma |first1=Ramesh Chandra |last2=Ghosal |first2=Pranati |title=Jain Contribution to Varanasi |url={{Google books|YoLXAAAAMAAJ|plainurl=yes}} |year=2006 |publisher=Jnanapravaha |isbn=978-81-246-0341-3 }} | ||
* {{citation |last1=Shaw |first1=Jeffrey M. |last2=Demy |first2=Timothy J. |title=War and Religion: An Encyclopedia of Faith and Conflict |url={{Google books|KDlFDgAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}} |year=2017 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-61069-517-6 }} | * {{citation |last1=Shaw |first1=Jeffrey M. |last2=Demy |first2=Timothy J. |title=War and Religion: An Encyclopedia of Faith and Conflict |url={{Google books|KDlFDgAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}} |year=2017 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-61069-517-6 }} | ||
* {{citation |last=Sinha |first=Jadunath |title=Indian Psychology |url=https:// | * {{citation |last=Sinha |first=Jadunath |title=Indian Psychology |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Indian_Psychology/VCwmmWXJBqEC |year=1944 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=9788120801653 }} | ||
* {{citation |last1=Solomon |first1=Robert C. |last2=Higgins |first2=Kathleen M. |title=A Passion for Wisdom: A Very Brief History of Philosophy |url={{Google books|btIm8_a8Ol8C|plainurl=yes}} |year=1998 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-511209-2 }} | * {{citation |last1=Solomon |first1=Robert C. |last2=Higgins |first2=Kathleen M. |title=A Passion for Wisdom: A Very Brief History of Philosophy |url={{Google books|btIm8_a8Ol8C|plainurl=yes}} |year=1998 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-511209-2 }} | ||
* {{citation |last=Soni |first=Jayandra |title=Basic Jain Epistemology |journal=Philosophy East and West |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=367–377 |year=2000 |jstor=1400179}} | * {{citation |last=Soni |first=Jayandra |title=Basic Jain Epistemology |journal=Philosophy East and West |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=367–377 |year=2000 |jstor=1400179}} | ||
| Line 565: | Line 565: | ||
* {{citation |last=Voorst |first=Robert E. Van |author-link=Robert E. Van Voorst |url={{Google books|mD8aCgAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}}|title=RELG: World|edition=2|publisher=[[Cengage Learning]] |date=2014|isbn=978-1-285-43468-1}} | * {{citation |last=Voorst |first=Robert E. Van |author-link=Robert E. Van Voorst |url={{Google books|mD8aCgAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}}|title=RELG: World|edition=2|publisher=[[Cengage Learning]] |date=2014|isbn=978-1-285-43468-1}} | ||
* {{citation |last=Voorst |first=Robert E. Van |author-link=Robert E. Van Voorst |title=RELG: World |url={{Google books|37TcBAAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}} |publisher=Cengage Learning |year=2015 |edition=Second |isbn=978-1-285-43468-1 }} | * {{citation |last=Voorst |first=Robert E. Van |author-link=Robert E. Van Voorst |title=RELG: World |url={{Google books|37TcBAAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}} |publisher=Cengage Learning |year=2015 |edition=Second |isbn=978-1-285-43468-1 }} | ||
* {{citation |editor-last=Vyas |editor-first=R. T. |author-link=R.T. Vyas |url={{Google books|fETebHcHKogC|plainurl=yes}} |title=Studies in Jain Art and Iconography and Allied Subjects |publisher=The Director, Oriental Institute, on behalf of the Registrar, M.S. University of Baroda, Vadodara |year=1995 |isbn=81-7017-316-7 }} | * {{citation |editor-last=Vyas |editor-first=Dr. R. T. |author-link=R.T. Vyas |url={{Google books|fETebHcHKogC|plainurl=yes}} |title=Studies in Jain Art and Iconography and Allied Subjects |publisher=The Director, Oriental Institute, on behalf of the Registrar, M.S. University of Baroda, Vadodara |year=1995 |isbn=81-7017-316-7 }} | ||
* {{cite book|last=Weber |first=Thomas |year=2004 |title=Gandhi as Disciple and Mentor |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-1-139-45657-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/gandhiasdisciple0000webe|url-access=registration}} | * {{cite book|last=Weber |first=Thomas |year=2004 |title=Gandhi as Disciple and Mentor |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-1-139-45657-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/gandhiasdisciple0000webe|url-access=registration}} | ||
* {{citation |last=Wiley |first=Kristi L. |title=Historical Dictionary of Jainism|url={{Google books|QCT-CQAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}}|year=2004| publisher=Scarecrow|isbn=978-0-8108-6558-7}} | * {{citation |last=Wiley |first=Kristi L. |title=Historical Dictionary of Jainism|url={{Google books|QCT-CQAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}}|year=2004| publisher=Scarecrow|isbn=978-0-8108-6558-7}} | ||
| Line 571: | Line 571: | ||
* {{citation |last=Williams |first=Robert |title=Jain Yoga: A Survey of the Mediaeval Śrāvakācāras |url={{Google books|LLKcrIJ6oscC|plainurl=yes}} |year=1991 |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |isbn=978-81-208-0775-4 }} | * {{citation |last=Williams |first=Robert |title=Jain Yoga: A Survey of the Mediaeval Śrāvakācāras |url={{Google books|LLKcrIJ6oscC|plainurl=yes}} |year=1991 |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |isbn=978-81-208-0775-4 }} | ||
* {{citation| last=Winternitz |first=Moriz|author-link=Moriz Winternitz|title=History of Indian Literature: Buddhist & Jain Literature| url={{Google books|Lgz1eMhu0JsC|plainurl=yes}}| year=1993 | publisher=Motilal Banarsidass| isbn=978-81-208-0265-0}} | * {{citation| last=Winternitz |first=Moriz|author-link=Moriz Winternitz|title=History of Indian Literature: Buddhist & Jain Literature| url={{Google books|Lgz1eMhu0JsC|plainurl=yes}}| year=1993 | publisher=Motilal Banarsidass| isbn=978-81-208-0265-0}} | ||
* {{citation |last=Yandell |first=Keith E. |title=Philosophy of Religion A Contemporary Introduction |url=https:// | * {{citation |last=Yandell |first=Keith E. |title=Philosophy of Religion A Contemporary Introduction |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Philosophy_of_Religion/c6aHAgAAQBAJ |year=1999 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781134827237 }} | ||
* {{citation |last=Zimmer |first=Heinrich |author-link=Heinrich Zimmer |editor-last=Campbell |editor-first=Joseph |editor-link=Joseph Campbell |title=Philosophies Of India |year=1953 |orig-date=1952 |publisher=[[Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd]] |location=London|url=https://archive.org/details/Philosophy.of.India.by.Heinrich.Zimmer |isbn=978-81-208-0739-6 }} | * {{citation |last=Zimmer |first=Heinrich |author-link=Heinrich Zimmer |editor-last=Campbell |editor-first=Joseph |editor-link=Joseph Campbell |title=Philosophies Of India |year=1953 |orig-date=1952 |publisher=[[Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd]] |location=London|url=https://archive.org/details/Philosophy.of.India.by.Heinrich.Zimmer |isbn=978-81-208-0739-6 }} | ||
| Line 585: | Line 585: | ||
== External links == | == External links == | ||
{{Commons category|Jainism}}{{Wikiquote}} | |||
*{{Citation|title=Jainism {{!}} Definition, Beliefs, History, Literature, & Facts|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Jainism|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]]}} | *{{Citation|title=Jainism {{!}} Definition, Beliefs, History, Literature, & Facts|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Jainism|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]]}} | ||
* [https://www.srikanta-sastri.org/the-original-home-of-jainism 'The Original Home of Jainism'] by [[S. Srikanta Sastri]] | * [https://www.srikanta-sastri.org/the-original-home-of-jainism 'The Original Home of Jainism'] by Dr. [[S. Srikanta Sastri]] | ||
*{{cite SEP |url-id=/jaina-philosophy |title=Jaina Philosophy |last=Gorisse |first=Marie-Hélène}} | *{{cite SEP |url-id=/jaina-philosophy |title=Jaina Philosophy |last=Gorisse |first=Marie-Hélène}} | ||
| Line 601: | Line 601: | ||
[[Category:Religions that require vegetarianism]] | [[Category:Religions that require vegetarianism]] | ||
[[Category:Transtheism]] | [[Category:Transtheism]] | ||
[[Category:Polytheism]] | |||
[[Category:History of India]] | [[Category:History of India]] | ||
[[Category: | [[Category:Āstika]] | ||
[[Category:Moksha-aligned dharmas]] | [[Category:Moksha-aligned dharmas]] | ||