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| {{Short description|System to specify locations on Earth}} | | {{no sources|date=November 2019}} |
| {{Broader|Spatial reference system}}
| | [[File:WorldMapLongLat-eq-circles-tropics-non.png|thumb|440px|Map of [[Earth]] showing lines of [[latitude]] (horizontally) and [[longitude]] (vertically), Eckert VI projection; [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/resources/the-world-factbook/graphics/ref_maps/political/pdf/world.pdf large version] (pdf, 1.8MB)]] |
| {{Use dmy dates|date=May 2019}}
| | A '''geographical coordinate system''' is a [[coordinate system]]. This means that every place can be specified by a set of three numbers, called coordinates. |
| {{Geodesy}}
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| [[File:FedStats Lat long.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|Longitude lines are perpendicular to and latitude lines are parallel to the Equator.]] | |
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| The '''geographic coordinate system''' ('''GCS''') is a [[spherical coordinate system|spherical]] or [[ellipsoidal coordinates (geodesy)|ellipsoidal coordinate system]] for measuring and communicating [[position (geometry)|positions]] directly on the [[Earth]] as [[latitude]] and [[longitude]].<ref name="chang2016">{{cite book |last1=Chang |first1=Kang-tsung |title=Introduction to Geographic Information Systems |date=2016 |publisher=McGraw-Hill |isbn=978-1-259-92964-9 |page=24 |edition=9th}}</ref> It is the simplest, oldest and most widely used of the various of [[spatial reference system]]s that are in use, and forms the basis for most others. Although latitude and longitude form a coordinate [[tuple]] like a [[cartesian coordinate system]], the geographic coordinate system is not cartesian because the measurements are angles and are not on a planar surface.<ref name="Taylor2002">{{cite web |last=Taylor |first=Chuck |title=Locating a Point On the Earth |url=http://home.hiwaay.net/~taylorc/bookshelf/math-science/geodesy/positioning/index.html |access-date=4 March 2014 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303212325/http://home.hiwaay.net/~taylorc/bookshelf/math-science/geodesy/positioning/index.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>{{sps|date=March 2022}}
| | A full circle can be divided into 360 degrees (or 360°); this was first done by the Babylonians; Ancient Greeks, like [[Ptolemy]] later extended the theory. |
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| A full GCS specification, such as those listed in the [[EPSG code|EPSG]] and ISO 19111 standards, also includes a choice of [[geodetic datum]] (including an [[Earth ellipsoid]]), as different datums will yield different latitude and longitude values for the same location.<ref name="epsg">{{cite web |title=Using the EPSG geodetic parameter dataset, Guidance Note 7-1 | url=https://epsg.org/guidance-notes.html |website=EPSG Geodetic Parameter Dataset |publisher=Geomatic Solutions |access-date=15 December 2021}}</ref>
| | Today, degrees are divided further. There are minutes, and seconds; 1 minute (or 1') in this context is 1/60 of a degree; 1 second (or 1") is 1/60 of a minute. |
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| == History ==
| | The first concept needed is called ''latitude'' (Lat, or the Greek symbol "phi", <math>\scriptstyle{\phi}\,\!</math>). For it, the Earth is cut up into 180 circles, from the [[Equator]] at 0°. The [[Geographical pole|poles]] are at 90°, the [[North Pole]] is at 90° N(orth), the [[South Pole]] is at 90° S(outh). Places with the same latitude are on a circle, around the Earth. |
| {{Further|History of geodesy|history of longitude|history of prime meridians}} | |
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| The [[invention]] of a geographic coordinate system is generally credited to [[Eratosthenes]] of [[Cyrene, Libya|Cyrene]], who composed his now-lost ''[[Geography (Eratosthenes)|Geography]]'' at the [[Library of Alexandria]] in the 3rd century BC.<ref>{{Citation |last=McPhail |first=Cameron |title=Reconstructing Eratosthenes'<!--sic--> Map of the World |pages=20–24 |url = https://ourarchive.otago.ac.nz/bitstream/handle/10523/1713/McPhailCameron2011MA.pdf |year=2011 |publisher=University of Otago |location=[[Dunedin]] }}.</ref> A century later, [[Hipparchus#Geography|Hipparchus]] of [[Nicaea]] improved on this system by determining latitude from stellar measurements rather than solar altitude and determining longitude by timings of [[lunar eclipse]]s, rather than [[dead reckoning]]. In the 1st or 2nd century, [[Marinus of Tyre]] compiled an extensive gazetteer and [[equirectangular projection|mathematically plotted world map]] using coordinates measured east from a [[prime meridian]] at the westernmost known land, designated the [[Fortunate Isles]], off the coast of western Africa around the [[Canary Islands|Canary]] or [[Cape Verde|Cape Verde Islands]], and measured north or south of the island of [[Rhodes]] off [[Asia Minor]]. [[Ptolemy]] credited him with the full adoption of longitude and latitude, rather than measuring latitude in terms of the length of the [[midsummer]] day.<ref>{{Citation |last=Evans |first=James |title=The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=LVp_gkwyvC8C&pg=PA102 |pages = 102–103 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |location=Oxford, England |isbn=9780199874453 }}.</ref> | | The other concept is called ''longitude'' (Long, or the Greek symbol "lambda", <math>\scriptstyle{\lambda}\,\!</math>), sometimes referred to as "meridian". The 0° longitude line (or zero meridian) goes through the [[Royal Observatory]] in [[Greenwich]]. Greenwich is a part of [[London]]. Then lines are drawn in a similar way; the opposite (or "antipodal") meridian of Greenwich is considered both 180°W(est), and 180°E(ast). |
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| Ptolemy's 2nd-century [[Ptolemy's Geography|''Geography'']] used the same prime meridian but measured latitude from the [[Equator]] instead. After their work was translated into [[Arabic language|Arabic]] in the 9th century, [[Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī|Al-Khwārizmī]]'s ''[[Book of the Description of the Earth]]'' corrected Marinus' and Ptolemy's errors regarding the length of the [[Mediterranean Sea]],{{NoteTag|The pair had accurate absolute distances within the Mediterranean but underestimated the [[circumference of the Earth]], causing their degree measurements to overstate its length west from Rhodes or Alexandria, respectively.}} causing [[medieval Arabic cartography]] to use a prime meridian around 10° east of Ptolemy's line. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following [[Maximus Planudes]]' recovery of Ptolemy's text a little before 1300; the text was translated into [[Latin]] at [[Republic of Florence|Florence]] by [[Jacobus Angelus]] around 1407.<!--more sources at linked pages-->
| | The third number is the height, altitude, or depth. This is given with respect to some fixed (usually easily calculable point). One of these is called [[mean sea level]]. |
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| In 1884, the [[United States]] hosted the [[International Meridian Conference]], attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the [[Royal Observatory, Greenwich|Royal Observatory]] in [[Greenwich, England]] as the zero-reference line. The [[Dominican Republic]] voted against the motion, while France and [[Brazil]] abstained.<ref>{{cite web |author=Greenwich 2000 Limited |url = http://wwp.millennium-dome.com/info/conference.htm |title=The International Meridian Conference |publisher=Wwp.millennium-dome.com |date=9 June 2011 |access-date=31 October 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120806065207/http://wwp.millennium-dome.com/info/conference.htm |archive-date=6 August 2012 }}</ref> France adopted [[Greenwich Mean Time]] in place of local determinations by the [[Paris Observatory]] in 1911.
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| ==Latitude and longitude==
| | [[Category:Coordinate systems]] |
| [[File:Latitude_and_longitude_graticule_on_a_sphere.svg|thumb|300px|right|Diagram of the latitude (φ) and longitude (λ) angle measurements in the GCS.]] | | [[Category:Geocodes]] |
| {{Main|Latitude|Longitude}}
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| The "latitude" (abbreviation: Lat., [[Phi|φ]], or phi) of a point on Earth's surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through (or close to) the center of the Earth.{{NoteTag|Alternative versions of latitude and longitude include geocentric coordinates, which measure with respect to Earth's center; geodetic coordinates, which model Earth as an [[ellipsoid]]; and geographic coordinates, which measure with respect to a plumb line at the location for which coordinates are given.}} Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called [[circle of latitude|parallels]], as they are parallel to the Equator and to each other. The [[North Pole]] is 90° N; the [[South Pole]] is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the [[Equator]], the [[fundamental plane (spherical coordinates)|fundamental plane]] of all geographic coordinate systems. The Equator divides the globe into [[Northern Hemisphere|Northern]] and [[Southern Hemisphere]]s.
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| The "longitude" (abbreviation: Long., [[λ]], or lambda) of a point on Earth's surface is the angle east or west of a reference [[meridian (geography)|meridian]] to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great [[ellipse]]s (often called [[great circle]]s), which converge at the North and South Poles. The meridian of the [[UK|British]] [[Royal Observatory, Greenwich|Royal Observatory]] in [[Greenwich, England|Greenwich]], in southeast London, England, is the international [[prime meridian]], although some organizations—such as the French [[Institut national de l'information géographique et forestière]]—continue to use other meridians for internal purposes. The prime meridian determines the proper [[Eastern Hemisphere|Eastern]] and [[Western Hemisphere]]s, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the [[Old World]] on a single side. The [[Antipodes|antipodal]] meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E. This is not to be conflated with the [[International Date Line]], which diverges from it in several places for political and convenience reasons, including between far eastern Russia and the far western [[Aleutian Islands]].
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| The combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of [[altitude]] or depth. The visual grid on a map formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a ''[[Graticule (cartography)|graticule]]''.<ref>{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=jPVxSDzVRP0C&q=graticule&pg=PA224 |title=Glossary of the Mapping Sciences |last=American Society of Civil Engineers |date=1 January 1994 |publisher=ASCE Publications|isbn=9780784475706|language=en|page= 224 }}</ref> The origin/zero point of this system is located in the [[Gulf of Guinea]] about {{convert|625|km|sp=us|abbr=on|sigfig=2}} south of [[Tema]], [[Ghana]], a location often facetiously called [[Null Island]].
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| == Geodetic datum ==
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| {{Main|Geodetic datum}}
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| {{further|Figure of the Earth|Reference ellipsoid|Geographic coordinate conversion|Spatial reference system}}
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| In order to be unambiguous about the direction of "vertical" and the "horizontal" surface above which they are measuring, map-makers choose a [[reference ellipsoid]] with a given origin and orientation that best fits their need for the area to be mapped. They then choose the most appropriate mapping of the [[spherical coordinate system]] onto that ellipsoid, called a terrestrial reference system or [[geodetic datum]].
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| Datums may be global, meaning that they represent the whole Earth, or they may be local, meaning that they represent an ellipsoid best-fit to only a portion of the Earth. Points on the Earth's surface move relative to each other due to continental plate motion, subsidence, and diurnal [[Earth tide|Earth tidal]] movement caused by the [[Moon]] and the Sun. This daily movement can be as much as a meter. Continental movement can be up to {{nowrap|10 cm}} a year, or {{nowrap|10 m}} in a century. A [[weather system]] high-pressure area can cause a sinking of {{nowrap|5 mm}}. [[Scandinavia]] is rising by {{nowrap|1 cm}} a year as a result of the melting of the ice sheets of the [[quaternary glaciation|last ice age]], but neighboring [[Scotland]] is rising by only {{nowrap|0.2 cm}}. These changes are insignificant if a local datum is used, but are statistically significant if a global datum is used.<ref name="OSGB">{{Citation |title=A guide to coordinate systems in Great Britain |date=2020 |series=D00659 v3.6 |access-date=17 December 2021|publisher=Ordnance Survey |url=https://www.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/documents/resources/guide-coordinate-systems-great-britain.pdf }}</ref>
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| Examples of global datums include [[World Geodetic System]] (WGS 84, also known as EPSG:4326<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://spatialreference.org/ref/epsg/4326/|title=WGS 84: EPSG Projection -- Spatial Reference|website=spatialreference.org|access-date=5 May 2020}}</ref>), the default datum used for the [[Global Positioning System]],{{NoteTag|WGS 84 is the default datum used in most GPS equipment, but other datums can be selected.}} and the [[International Terrestrial Reference System and Frame]] (ITRF), used for estimating [[continental drift]] and [[crustal deformation]].<ref name=Bolstad>{{cite book |last=Bolstad |first=Paul |title=GIS Fundamentals |year=2012 |edition = 5th |publisher=Atlas books|isbn=978-0-9717647-3-6 |page=102 |url = http://www.paulbolstad.net/5thedition/samplechaps/Chapter3_5th_small.pdf }}</ref> The distance to Earth's center can be used both for very deep positions and for positions in space.<ref name="OSGB"/>
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| Local datums chosen by a national cartographical organization include the [[North American Datum]], the European [[ED50]], and the British [[OSGB36]]. Given a location, the datum provides the latitude <math>\phi</math> and longitude <math>\lambda</math>. In the United Kingdom there are three common latitude, longitude, and height systems in use. WGS{{nbsp}}84 differs at Greenwich from the one used on published maps [[OSGB36]] by approximately 112{{nbsp}}m. The military system [[ED50]], used by [[NATO]], differs from about 120{{nbsp}}m to 180{{nbsp}}m.<ref name=OSGB/>
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| The latitude and longitude on a map made against a local datum may not be the same as one obtained from a GPS receiver. Converting coordinates from one datum to another requires a [[Geographic coordinate conversion#Datum transformations|datum transformation]] such as a [[Helmert transformation]], although in certain situations a simple [[Translation (geometry)|translation]] may be sufficient.<ref name=Irish>{{cite web |url = http://www.osi.ie/GetAttachment.aspx?id=25113681-c086-485a-b113-bab7c75de6fa |title=Making maps compatible with GPS |publisher=Government of Ireland 1999 |access-date=15 April 2008 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110721130505/http://www.osi.ie/GetAttachment.aspx?id=25113681-c086-485a-b113-bab7c75de6fa |archive-date=21 July 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
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| In popular GIS software, data projected in latitude/longitude is often represented as a ''Geographic Coordinate System''. For example, data in latitude/longitude if the datum is the [[North American Datum#North American Datum of 1983|North American Datum of 1983]] is denoted by 'GCS North American 1983'.
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| ==Length of a degree==
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| {{Main|Length of a degree of latitude|Length of a degree of longitude}}
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| {{See also|Arc length#Great circles on Earth}}
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| On the GRS80 or [[World Geodetic System#WGS84|WGS84]] spheroid at [[sea level]] at the Equator, one latitudinal second measures 30.715 [[metre|meters]], one latitudinal minute is 1843 meters and one latitudinal degree is 110.6 kilometers. The circles of longitude, meridians, meet at the geographical poles, with the west–east width of a second naturally decreasing as latitude increases. On the [[Equator]] at sea level, one longitudinal second measures 30.92 meters, a longitudinal minute is 1855 meters and a longitudinal degree is 111.3 kilometers. At 30° a longitudinal second is 26.76 meters, at Greenwich (51°28′38″N) 19.22 meters, and at 60° it is 15.42 meters.
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| On the WGS84 spheroid, the length in meters of a degree of latitude at latitude φ (that is, the number of meters you would have to travel along a north–south line to move 1 degree in latitude, when at latitude φ), is about
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| {{block indent|1=
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| <math>111132.92 - 559.82\, \cos 2\varphi + 1.175\, \cos 4\varphi - 0.0023\, \cos 6\varphi</math><ref name=GISS>[http://gis.stackexchange.com/questions/75528/length-of-a-degree-where-do-the-terms-in-this-formula-come-from] Geographic Information Systems - Stackexchange</ref>
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| }}
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| The returned measure of meters per degree latitude varies continuously with latitude.
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| Similarly, the length in meters of a degree of longitude can be calculated as
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| {{block indent|1=
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| <math>111412.84\, \cos \varphi - 93.5\, \cos 3\varphi + 0.118\, \cos 5\varphi</math><ref name=GISS/>
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| }}
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| (Those coefficients can be improved, but as they stand the distance they give is correct within a centimeter.)
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| The formulae both return units of meters per degree.
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| An alternative method to estimate the length of a longitudinal degree at latitude <math>\textstyle{\varphi}\,\!</math> is to assume a spherical Earth (to get the width per minute and second, divide by 60 and 3600, respectively):
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| {{block indent|1=
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| <math> \frac{\pi}{180}M_r\cos \varphi \!</math>
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| }}
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| where [[Earth radius#Meridional Earth radius|Earth's average meridional radius]] <math>\textstyle{M_r}\,\!</math> is {{nowrap|6,367,449 m}}. Since the Earth is an [[Spheroid#Oblate spheroids|oblate spheroid]], not spherical, that result can be off by several tenths of a percent; a better approximation of a longitudinal degree at latitude <math>\textstyle{\varphi}\,\!</math> is
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| {{block indent|1=
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| <math>\frac{\pi}{180}a \cos \beta \,\!</math>
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| }}
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| where Earth's equatorial radius <math>a</math> equals ''6,378,137 m'' and <math>\textstyle{\tan \beta = \frac{b}{a}\tan\varphi}\,\!</math>; for the GRS80 and WGS84 spheroids, b/a calculates to be 0.99664719. (<math>\textstyle{\beta}\,\!</math> is known as the [[Latitude#Parametric (or reduced) latitude|reduced (or parametric) latitude]]). Aside from rounding, this is the exact distance along a parallel of latitude; getting the distance along the shortest route will be more work, but those two distances are always within 0.6 meter of each other if the two points are one degree of longitude apart.
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| |+ Longitudinal length equivalents at selected latitudes
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| |-
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| ! style="width:100px;" | Latitude
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| ! style="width:150px;" | City
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| ! style="width:100px;" | Degree
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| ! style="width:100px;" | Minute
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| ! style="width:100px;" | Second
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| ! style="width:100px;" | ±0.0001°
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| |-
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| | 60°
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| | [[Saint Petersburg]]
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| | style="text-align:center;" | 55.80 km
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| | style="text-align:center;" | 0.930 km
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| | style="text-align:center;" | 15.50 m
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| | style="text-align:center;" | 5.58 m
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| |-
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| | 51° 28′ 38″ N
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| | [[Greenwich]]
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| | style="text-align:center;" | 69.47 km
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| | style="text-align:center;" | 1.158 km
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| | style="text-align:center;" | 19.30 m
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| | style="text-align:center;" | 6.95 m
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| |-
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| | 45°
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| | [[Bordeaux]]
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| | style="text-align:center;" | 78.85 km
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| | style="text-align:center;" | 1.31 km
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| | style="text-align:center;" | 21.90 m
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| | style="text-align:center;" | 7.89 m
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| |-
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| | 30°
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| | [[New Orleans]]
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| | style="text-align:center;" | 96.49 km
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| | style="text-align:center;" | 1.61 km
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| | style="text-align:center;" | 26.80 m
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| | style="text-align:center;" | 9.65 m
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| |-
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| | 0°
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| | [[Quito]]
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| | style="text-align:center;" | 111.3 km
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| | style="text-align:center;" | 1.855 km
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| | style="text-align:center;" | 30.92 m
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| | style="text-align:center;" | 11.13 m
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| |}
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| <!--The Equator is the [[fundamental plane (spherical coordinates)|fundamental plane]] of all geographic coordinate systems. All spherical coordinate systems define such a fundamental plane.-->
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| ==Alternate encodings==
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| Like any series of multiple-digit numbers, latitude-longitude pairs can be challenging to communicate and remember. Therefore, alternative schemes have been developed for encoding GCS coordinates into alphanumeric strings or words:
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| * the [[Maidenhead Locator System]], popular with radio operators.
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| * the [[World Geographic Reference System]] (GEOREF), developed for global military operations, replaced by the current [[Global Area Reference System]] (GARS).
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| * [[Open Location Code]] or "Plus Codes," developed by Google and released into the public domain.
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| * [[Geohash]], a public domain system based on the Morton [[Z-order curve]].
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| * [[What3words]], a proprietary system that encodes GCS coordinates as pseudorandom sets of words by dividing the coordinates into three numbers and looking up words in an indexed dictionary.
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| == See also ==
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| * {{annotated link|Decimal degrees}}
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| * {{annotated link|Geographical distance}}
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| * {{annotated link|Geographic information system}}
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| * {{annotated link|Geo URI scheme}}
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| * [[ISO 6709]], standard representation of geographic point location by coordinates
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| * {{annotated link|Linear referencing}}
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| * {{annotated link|Primary direction}}
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| * [[Planetary coordinate system]]
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| ** [[Selenographic coordinate system]]
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| * {{annotated link|Spatial reference system}}
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| == Notes ==
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| {{NoteFoot}}
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| == References ==
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| {{Reflist}}
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| === Sources ===
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| {{refbegin}}
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| * ''Portions of this article are from Jason Harris' "Astroinfo" which is distributed with [[KStars]], a desktop planetarium for [[Linux]]/[[KDE]]. See [http://edu.kde.org/kstars/index.phtml The KDE Education Project - KStars]''
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| {{refend}}
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| == External links ==
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| * {{Commons category-inline}}
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| {{-}}
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| {{Geographical coordinates |state = autocollapse }}
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| {{Authority control}}
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| [[Category:Geographic coordinate systems| ]]
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| [[Category:Cartography]]
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| [[Category:Geographic position|*]]
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| [[Category:Geodesy]]
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| [[Category:Navigation]] | |
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