Bahmani Sultanate

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"Bahmani" redirects here. For places in Iran, see Bahmani, Iran.

Bahmani Sultanate

1347–1527
Bahmani Sultanate, 1470 CE.[1]
Bahmani Sultanate, 1470 CE.[1]
StatusSultanate
Capital
Common languagesPersian (official) [2]
Marathi
Deccani Urdu
Telugu
Kannada
Religion
Sunni Islam[3][4]
GovernmentMonarchy
Sultan 
• 1347–1358
Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah
• 1525–1527
Kalim-Allah Shah
Historical eraLate Medieval
• Established
3 August 1347
• Disestablished
1527
CurrencyTaka
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Delhi Sultanate
Musunuri Nayaks
Vijayanagara Empire
Deccan sultanates
Portuguese India
Today part ofIndia

The Bahmani Sultanate was a Sunni Muslim empire that ruled the Deccan Plateau in South India. The Bahmani Sultanate came to power in 1347 during the Rebellion of Ismail Mukh after Ismail Mukh abdicated in favor of Zafar Khan, who would establish the Bahmani Sultanate. The Bahmani Sultanate would be distinguished off its perpetual wars with its neighbors, including its rival, the Vijayanagara Empire, which would outlast the Sultanate.[5]

The Sultanate would begin its decline under the reign of Mahmood Shah. In 1518, the Bahmani Sultanate split up into the Deccan sultanates, ending its 180 year rule over the Deccan.[6][7]

Origin[edit]

Zafar Khan, the founder of the Bahmani Sultanate, was an Afghan, or Turk.[8][9][10][11] According to the medieval historian Ferishta, his obscurity makes it difficult to track his origin, but he is nonetheless stated as of Afghan birth.[12][13] Ferishta further writes, Zafar Khan had earlier been a servant of a Brahmin astrologer at Delhi named Gangu (hence the name Hasan Gangu),[14][15][16] and says that he from North India.[17][18] Historians have not found any corroboration for the legend,[19][20] but Barani, who was the court chronicler of Sultan Firuz Shah, as well as some other scholars have also called him as Hasan Gangu.[21][22]

Another legend traces the ancestry of Bahmanids to the mythological Persian hero Bahman Shah, which seems implausible. The claim of his descent from this half-mythical hero was an attempt to mark him out for the honour of royalty by later poets and historians, but it was not Hasan Gangu himself who claimed this.[23] According to a third version, Bahman is a corrupted personalized form of Brahman,[24] and Hasan Gangu was a Brahman who became Muslim.[25][26][27]

Zafar Khan or Hasan Gangu was among the inhabitants of Delhi who were forced to migrate to the Deccan, to build a large Muslim settlement in the region of Daulatabad.[28]

History[edit]

Further information: History of the Bahmani Sultanate

Barani states that Hasan Gangu was "born in very humble circumstances. For the first thirty years of his life he was nothing more than a field laborer."[29] He was made a commander of a hundred horsemen by the Sultan who was pleased with his honesty. This sudden rise in the military and socio-economic ladder was common in this era of Muslim India.[30] Zafar Khan was a man of ambition and looked forward to the adventure. He had long hoped to employ his body of horsemen in the Deccan region for slaying and plundering Hindus, as the Deccan was seen as the place of bounty in Muslim imagination at the time.[31] He was rewarded with an Iqta for taking part in the conquest of Kampili.[32] He made various raids against neighboring Hindus until he could gain influence and wealth and became a powerful military chief.[33]

Rise[edit]

Template:South Asia in 1400 Before the establishment of his kingdom, he was Governor of Deccan and a commander on behalf of Tughlaq. During the rebellion by the Amirs of the Deccan, led by the elderly Afghan, Ismail Mukh, also known as Nasir-ud-din Ismail Shah. On 3 August 1347, the Afghan noble Nasir-ud-Din Ismail Shah, whom the rebel amirs of the Deccan placed on the throne of Daulatabad in 1345) abdicated in favor of Zafar Khan, resulting the establishment of the Bahmani Kingdom with its headquarters at Hasanabad (Gulbarga). the Sultan of Delhi had besieged the rebels at the citadel of Daulatabad. As another rebellion had begun in Gujarat, the Sultan left and installed Shaikh Burhan-ud-din Bilgrami and Malik Jauhar and other nobles in charge of the siege. Meanwhile, as these nobles were unable to stop the Deccani amirs from pursuing the imperial army, Hasan Gangu, a native of Delhi, then being pursued by the governor of Berar, Imad-ul-Mulk, and was the leader to whom the Deccani Amirs had re-assembled, attacked and slew Imad-ul-Mulk and marched on towards Daulatabad. Here Hasan Gangu and the Deccani amirs put to flight the imperial forces which had been left to besiege. The rebels at Daulatabad had the sense to see Hasan Gangu as the man of the hour, and the proposal to crown Hasan Gangu, entitled Zafar Khan, was accepted without a dissentient voice on 3 August 1347.[34][35][36][37][38] His revolt was successful, and he established an independent state on the Deccan within the Delhi Sultanate's southern provinces with its headquarters at Hasanabad (Gulbarga) and all his coins were minted at Hasanabad.[39][40]

With the support of the influential Indian Chishti Sufi Shaikhs, he was crowned "Alauddin Bahman Shah Sultan – Founder of the Bahmani Dynasty".[41] They bestowed upon him a robe allegedly worn by the Prophet.

The extension of the Sufi's notion of spiritual sovereignty lent legitimacy to the planting of the Sultanate's political authority, where the land, people, and produce of the Deccan were merited state protection, no longer available for plunder with impunity. These Sufis legitimized the transplantation of Indo-Muslim rulership from one region in South Asia to another, converting the land of the Bahmanids into being recognized as Dar ul-Islam, while it was previously considered Dar ul-Harb.[42]

Alauddin was succeeded by his son Mohammed Shah I.[43] His conflicts with the Vijayanagar empire were singularly savage wars, as according to the historian Ferishta, "the population of the Carnatic was so reduced that it did not recover for several ages."[44] The Bahmanids' aggressive confrontation with the two main Hindu kingdoms of the southern Deccan, Warangal and Vijayanagara, made them renowned among Muslims as warriors of the faith.[45]

The Vijayanagara empire and the Bahmanids fought over the control of the Godavari-basin, Tungabadhra Doab, and the Marathwada country, although they seldom required a pretext for declaring war,[46] as military conflicts were almost a regular feature and lasted as long as these kingdoms continued.[47] Military slavery involved captured slaves from Vijayanagara and having them embrace a Deccani identity by converting them to Islam and integrating into the host society, so they could begin military careers within the Bahmanid empire.[48][49]

Ghiyasuddin succeeded his father Muhammad II at the age of seventeen, but was blinded and imprisoned by a Turkic slave called Taghalchin,[50][51] who had held a grudge on the Sultan for the latter's refusal to appoint him as a governor. He had lured the Sultan into putting himself in the former's power, using the beauty of his daughter, who was accomplished in music and arts, and had introduced her to the Sultan at a feast.[52][53] He was succeeded by Shamsuddin, who was a puppet king under Taghalchin. Firuz and Ahmed, the sons of the fourth sultan Daud, marched to Gulbarga to avenge Ghiyasuddin. Firuz declared himself the sultan, and defeated Taghalchin's forces. Taghalchin was killed and Shamsuddin was blinded.[54]

Dakhani Horseman

Taj ud-Din Firuz Shah became the sultan in 1397.[55] Firuz Shah fought against the Vijayanagara Empire on many occasions and the rivalry between the two dynasties continued unabated throughout his reign, with victories in 1398 and 1406, but a defeat in 1419. One of his victories resulted in his marriage to Deva Raya's daughter.

Firuz Shah expanded the nobility by enabling Hindus and granting them high office.[56] In his reign, Sufis such as Gesudaraz, a Chishti saint who had immigrated from Dehli to Daulatabad, were prominent in court and daily life.[57] He was the first author to write in the Dakhni dialect of Urdu.[58] The Dakhni language became widespread, practised by various milieus from the court to the Sufis. It was established as a lingua franca of the Muslims of the Deccan, as not only the aspect of a dominant urban elite, but an expression of the regional religious identity.[59]

Firuz Shah was succeeded by his younger brother Ahmad Shah I Wali. Bidar was made the capital of the sultanate in 1429.[60] Ahmad Shah's reign was marked by relentless military campaigns and expansionism. He imposed destruction and slaughter on Vijayanagara and finally captured the remnants of Warangal.[61]

Coinage of Ala al-Din Ahmad Shah II, who reigned from 1435-1458

Alauddin Ahmad II succeeded his father to the throne in 1436.[62] He ordered the construction of the Chand Minar. For the first half-century after the establishment of the Bahmanids, the original North Indian colonists and their sons had administered the empire quite independent of either the non-Muslim Hindus, or the Muslim foreign immigrants.

However, the later Bahmani Sultans, mainly starting from his father Ahmad Shah Wali I, began to recruit foreigners from overseas, whether because of depletion among the ranks of the original settlers, or the feelings of dependency upon the Persian courtly model, or both.[63] This resulted in factional strife that first became acute in the reign of his son Alauddin Ahmad Shah II.[64] In 1446, the powerful Dakhani nobles persuaded the Sultan that the Persians were responsible for the failure of the Konkan invasion.[65]

The Sultan, drunk, condoned a terrible massacre of Persian Shi'a Sayyids by the Sunni Dakhani nobles and their Sunni Abyssinian slaves.[66] A few survivors escaped the massacre dressed in women's clothing and convinced the Sultan of their innocence.[67] Ashamed of his own folly, the Sultan punished the Dakhani leaders who were responsible for the massacre, putting them to death or throwing them in prison, and reduced their families to beggary.[68] It is noteworthy that the accounts of the violent events included exaggerations as it came from the pen of the chroniclers who were themselves mainly foreigners and products of Safavid Persia.[69]

Mahmud Gawan Madrasa was built by Mahmud Gawan, the Wazir of the Bahmani Sultanate as the centre of religious as well as secular education.[70]

The eldest sons of Humayun Shah, Nizam-Ud-Din Ahmad III and Muhammad Shah III Lashkari ascended the throne successively, while they were young boys. The vizier Mahmud Gawan ruled as regent during this period, until Muhammad Shah reached age. Mahmud Gawan is known for setting up the Mahmud Gawan Madrasa, a center of religious as well as secular education.[70] Gawan was considered a great statesman, and a poet of repute.

Mahmud Gawan was caught in a struggle between a rivalry between two groups of nobles, the Dakhanis and the Afaqis. The Dakhanis made the ruling indigenous Muslim elite of the Bahmanid dynasty, being descendants of Sunni immigrants from Northern India, while the Afaqis were foreign newcomers from the West such as Gawan, who were mostly Shi'is.[71][72] The Dakhanis believed that the privileges, patronage and positions of power in the Sultanate should have been reserved solely for them, based on their ethnic origin and their sense of pride of having launched the Bahmanid empire.[73][74]

The divisions included sectarian religious divisions where the Afaqis were looked upon heretics by the Sunnis as the former were Shi'as,[75] while Eaton cites a linguistic divide where the Dakhanis spoke Dakhni while the Afaqis favored the Persian language.[76] Although Mahmud Gawan was a foreigner, he attempted to reconcile the factions and strengthen the Sultanate by allotting offices to the Dakhanis.

Nonetheless, Mahmud Gawan found it difficult to win their confidence; the party strife could not be stopped and his opponents eventually managed to poison the ears of the Sultan.[77] Mahmud Gawan was executed by Muhammad Shah III, an act that the latter regretted until he died in 1482.[78] Upon his death, Nizam-ul-Mulk Bahri, the father of the founder of the Nizam Shahi dynasty became the regent of the king.[79] Nizam-ul-Mulk, as leader of the Dakhani party, led a cold-blooded massacre of Iranian Georgians and Turkmens in the capital of Bidar.[80][81]

Later rulers and decline[edit]

Muhammad Shah II was succeeded by his son Mahmood Shah Bahmani II, the last Bahmani ruler to have real power.[82] In 1501, Mahmud Shah Bahmani united his amirs and wazirs in an agreement to wage annual Jihad against Vijayanagara. The expeditions were financially ruinous.[83]

The independent Nizam Shahi Sultanate was founded by the son of the regent of Muhammad Shah II, Nizam-ul-Mulk Bahri

The last Bahmani Sultans were puppet monarchs under their Barid Shahi Prime Ministers, who were de facto rulers. After 1518 the sultanate broke up into five states: Nizamshahi of Ahmednagar, Qutb Shahi of Golconda (Hyderabad), Barid Shahi of Bidar, Imad Shahi of Berar, Adil Shahi of Bijapur. They are collectively known as the "Deccan Sultanates".[6]

The south Indian Emperor Krishnadevaraya of the Vijayanagara Empire defeated the last remnant of Bahmani Sultanate power after which the Bahmani Sultanate collapsed.[84]

Historiography[edit]

Modern scholars like Sherwani, and Eaton have based their accounts of the Bahmani dynasty mainly upon the medieval chronicles of Firishta, and Syed Ali Tabatabai. Other contemporary works were Sivatatva Chintamani and Guru Charitra. Afanasy Nikitin traveled this kingdom. He contrasts the huge "wealth of the nobility with the wretchedness of the peasantry and the frugality of the Hindus".[85]

Culture[edit]

The dynasty patronized Indo-Muslim and Persian culture from Northern India and the Middle East.[86] However, the society of the Bahmnanis were dominated prominently by Iranians, Afghans, and Turks.[87] They also had considerable and social influence such as with the celebration of Nowruz by Bahmani rulers.[87] This also comes as Mohammed Shah I ascended the throne on Nowruz.[88] According to Khafi Khan and Ferishta, musicians flocked to the court from Lahore, Delhi, Persia and Khorasan.[89]

The Bahmani Sultans were patrons of the Persian language, culture and literature, and some members of the dynasty became well-versed in that language and composed its literature in that language.[90]

Bahmani Tombs in Bidar district

The first sultan, Alauddin Bahman Shah is noted to have captured 1,000 singing and dancing girls from Hindu temples after he battled the northern Carnatic chieftains. The later Bahmanis also enslaved civilian women and children in wars; many of them were converted to Islam in captivity.[91][92]

The craftspersons of Bidar were so famed for their inlay work on copper and silver that it came to be known as Bidri.[93] Firuz Shah, having a passion for languages, married a large number of Indians of various ethnicities, Georgians, Iranians and Arabs, to practise speaking their languages with them. In addition he was known for speaking several Indian languages.[94][95]


Architecture[edit]

Haft Gumbaz, tomb of Taj-ud-Din Firuz Shah

The Persianate Indo-Islamic style of architecture developed during this period was later adopted by the Deccan Sultanates as well.

The Gulbarga Fort, Haft Gumbaz, and Jama Masjid in Gulbarga, Bidar Fort and Madrasa Mahmud Gawan[70] in Bidar, are the major architectural contributions.

The later rulers are buried in an elaborate tomb complex, known as the Bahmani Tombs.[96] The exterior of one of the tombs is decorated with coloured tiles. Arabic, Persian and Urdu inscriptions are inscribed inside the tombs.[96][97]

The Bahmani rulers made some beautiful tombs and mosques in Bidar and Gulbarga. They also built many forts at Daulatabad, Golconda and Raichur. The architecture was highly influenced by Persian architecture. They invited architects from Persia, Turkey and Arabia. Some of the magnificent structures built by the Bahmanis were the Jami Masjid at Gulbarga, Chandand Minar and the Mahmud Gawan Madrasa at Bidar.[citation needed]

Turquoise Throne[edit]

Main article: Takht-i-Firoza

The Turquoise Throne (Hindustani: Takht-e-firozā, Hindi: तख़्त-ए-फ़िरोज़ा) was a famous jeweled royal throne mentioned by Firishta. It was the seat of the Sultans of the Bahmani Empire of Deccan in India since Mohammed Shah I (reigned 1358CE–1375CE). It was a gift by Musunuri Kapaya Nayaka, then Rai (i.e. king) of Telangana.[98]:77–78 It was mentioned by Firishta that on March 23rd, 1363CE,[lower-alpha 1] this throne replaced the earlier Throne made of silver on which Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah, the first Bahmani sultan used to sit.

List of Bahmani Shahs[edit]

Titular Name Personal Name Reign
Independence from Sultan of Delhi, Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
Shah
شاہ
Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah
علاء الدین حسن بہمن شاہ 		Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah I
حسن گنگو 		3 August 1347 – 11 February 1358
Shah
شاہ
 Mohammad Shah I
محمد شاہ بہمنی 		11 February 1358 – 21 April 1375
Shah
شاہ
Ala-ud-Din Mujahid Shah
علاء الدین مجاہد شاہ 		Mujahid Shah 21 April 1375 – 16 April 1378
Shah
شاہ 		Dawood Shah
داود شاہ بہمنی 		16 April 1378 – 22 May 1378
Shah
شاہ 		Mohammad Shah II
محمود شاہ بہمنی 		21 May 1378 – 20 April 1397
Shah
شاہ 		Ghiyath-ad-din Shah
عیاث الدین شاہ بہمنی
 20 April 1397 – 14 June 1397
Shah
شاہ 		Shams-ad-din Shah
شمس الدین شاہ بہمنی
Puppet King Under Lachin Khan Turk 		14 June 1397 – 15 November 1397
Shah
شاہ
Taj-ud-Din Feroze Shah
تاج الدین فیروز شاہ 		Feroze Shah
فیروز خان 		24 November 1397 – 1 October 1422
Shah
شاہ 		Ahmed Shah Wali Bahmani
احمد شاہ ولی بہمنی 		1 October 1422 – 17 April 1436
Shah
شاہ
Ala-ud-Din Ahmed Shah
علاء الدین احمد شاہ 		Ala-ud-Din Ahmed Shah Bahmani
علاء الدین احمد شاہ بہمنی 		17 April 1436 – 6 May 1458
Shah
شاہ
Ala-ud-Din Humayun Shah
علاء الدین ھمایوں شاہ 		Humayun Shah Zalim Bahmani
ھمایوں شاہ ظالم بہمنی 		7 May 1458 – 4 September 1461
Shah
شاہ 		Nizam Shah Bahmani
نظام شاہ بہمنی 		4 September 1461 – 30 July 1463
Shah
شاہ
Muhammad Shah Lashkari
محمد شاہ لشکری 		Muhammad Shah Bahmani III
محمد شاہ بہمنی دوئم 		30 July 1463 – 26 March 1482
Vira Shah
ویرا شاہ 		Mahmood Shah Bahmani II
محمود شاہ بہمنی دوئم
Puppet King Under Nizam-ul-Mulk Bahri 		26 March 1482 – 27 December 1518
Shah
شاہ 		Ahmed Shah Bahmani II
احمد شاہ بہمنی دوئم
Puppet King Under Amir Barid I 		27 December 1518 – 15 December 1520
Shah
شاہ
Ala-ud-Din Shah
علاء الدین شاہ 		Ala-ud-Din Shah Bahmani II
علاء الدین شاہ بہمنی دوئم
Puppet King Under Amir Barid I 		28 December 1520 – 5 March 1523
Shah
شاہ 		Waliullah Shah Bahmani
ولی اللہ شاہ بہمنی
Puppet King Under Amir Barid I 		5 March 1522 – 1526
Shah
شاہ 		Kaleemullah Shah Bahmani
کلیم اللہ شاہ بہمنی
Puppet King Under Amir Barid I 		1525–1527
Dissolution of the Sultanate into 5 Kingdoms namely; Bidar Sultanate; Ahmednagar Sultanate; Bijapur Sultanate; Golconda Sultanate and Berar Sultanate.

Family tree[edit]

See also[edit]

Template:Karnataka History

References[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ↑ Firishta mentioned that the Sultan Bahman Shah first sat on the new throne (i.e. takht-e-firoza) on Nowruz, the Persian new year following the autumnal solstice in 764AH.[98]:102

Citations[edit]

  1. ↑ Schwartzberg, Joseph E. (1978). A Historical atlas of South Asia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 147, map XIV.3 (k). ISBN 0226742210.
  2. ↑ Ansari 1988, pp. 494–499.
  3. ↑ Farooqui Salma Ahmed (2011). A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: From Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Dorling Kindersley Pvt. Ltd. ISBN 9788131732021.
  4. ↑ Rā Kulakarṇī, A.; Nayeem, M. A.; De Souza, Teotonio R. (1996). Medieval Deccan History: Mediaeval Deccan History: Commemoration Volume in Honour of Purshottam Mahadeo Joshi. p. 40. ISBN 9788171545797.
  5. ↑ George C. Kohn (2006). Dictionary of Wars. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 9781438129167.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Haig, 1925, pp. 425-426.
  7. ↑ history of the decan. Mittal Publications. 1990. p. 15.
  8. ↑ Jenkins, Everett (2015). The Muslim Diaspora (Volume 1, 570-1500): A Comprehensive Chronology of the Spread of Islam in Asia, Africa, Europe and the Americas, Volume 1. McFarland. p. 257. ISBN 9781476608884. Zafar Khan alias Alauddin Hasan Gangu ('Ala al-Din Hasan Bahman Shah), an Afghan or a Turk soldier, revolted against Delhi and established the Muslim Kingdom of Bahmani on August 3 in the South (Madura) and ruled as Sultan Alauddin Bahman Shah.
  9. ↑ Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (2004). A History of India. Psychology Press. p. 181. ISBN 9780415329200. The Bahmani sultanate of the Deccan Soon after Muhammad Tughluq left Daulatabad, the city was conquered by Zafar Khan, a Turkish or Afghan officer of unknown descent, had earlier participated in a mutiny of troops in Gujarat.
  10. ↑ Wink, André (2020). The Making of the Indo-Islamic World C.700-1800 CE. Cambridge University Press. p. 87. ISBN 9781108417747.
  11. ↑ Kerr, Gordon (2017). A Short History of India: From the Earliest Civilisations to Today's Economic Powerhouse. Oldcastle Books Ltd. p. 160. ISBN 9781843449232. In the early fourteenth century, the Muslim Bahmani kingdom of the Deccan emerged following Alauddin's conquest of the south. Zafar Khan, an Afghan general and governor appointed by Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq, was victorious against the troops of the Delhi Sultanate, establishing the Bahmani kingdom with its capital at Ahsanabad (modern-day Gulbarga).
  12. ↑ Scott, Jonathan (2016). Ferishta's History of Dekkan from the first Mahummedan conquests: with a continuation from other native writers, of the events in that part of India, to the reduction of its last monarchs by the emperor Aulumgeer Aurungzebe: also, the reigns of his successors in the empire of Hindoostan to the present day: and the history of Bengal, from the accession of Aliverdee Khan to the year 1780. hansebooks. p. 15. ISBN 9783743414709. Some Authors write that he was descended from Bahman, one of the ancient kings of Persia. And I have seen a pedigree of him, fo derived (?), in the royal library of Ahmednagar: but am inclined to believe, such lineage was only framed upon his accession to royalty, by flatterers and poets, and that his origin is too obscure to be authentically traced. The apellation of Bahmani, he certainly took in compliment to Kango Brahmin, which is often pronounced Bhamen, and by tribe he was an Afghan.
  13. ↑ Wink, Andre (1991). Indo-Islamic society: 14th - 15th centuries. BRILL. p. 144. ISBN 9781843449232.
  14. ↑ Bhattacharya, Sachchidananada. A Dictionary of Indian History (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1972) p. 100
  15. ↑ Cathal J. Nolan (2006). The Age of Wars of Religion, 1000-1650: An Encyclopedia of Global ..., Volym 1. pp. 437.
  16. ↑ The Discovery of India, J.L.Nehru
  17. ↑ Chopdar (1951). The History and Culture of the Indian People: The Delhi sultanate. p. 248.
  18. ↑ The Dacca University Studies: Volumes 1-2. the University of Dacca. 1935. p. 138.
  19. ↑ Chandra 2004, p. 177.
  20. ↑ Majumdar 1967, p. 248.
  21. ↑ The Dacca University Studies: Volumes 1-2. the University of Dacca. 1935. p. 139.
  22. ↑ Chopdar. History and Culture of the Indian People, Volume 06,The Delhi Sultanate. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. p. 248.
  23. ↑ Prashad, Baini (1939). The Tabaqat-i-akbari Of Khwajah Nizamuddin Ahmad Vol.iii. Banasthali. p. 3.
  24. ↑ McCann, Michael W. (15 July 1994). Rights at Work: Pay Equity Reform and the Politics of Legal Mobilization. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-55571-3.
  25. ↑ Suvorova (2000). Masnavi. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-19-579148-8.
  26. ↑ Husaini (Saiyid.), Abdul Qadir (1960). Bahman Shāh, the Founder of the Bahmani Kingdom. Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyay. pp. 59–60.
  27. ↑ Jayanta Gaḍakarī (2000). Hindu Muslim Communalism, a Panchnama. p. 140.
  28. ↑ A. Rā Kulakarṇī; M. A. Nayeem; Teotonio R. De Souza (1996). Mediaeval Deccan History: Commemoration Volume in Honour of Purshottam Mahadeo Joshi. Popular Prakashan. p. 34. ISBN 9788171545797.
  29. ↑ Gribble (1896). A History of the Deccan: Volume 1. Luzac and Company. p. 16.
  30. ↑ J.D.E 1990, p. 16.
  31. ↑ Gribble (1896). A History of the Deccan: Volume 1. Luzac and Company. p. 17.
  32. ↑ Richard Eaton (2005). A Social History of the Deccan, 1300-1761:Eight Indian Lives · Part 1, Volume 8. Cambridge University Press. p. 41. ISBN 9780521254847.
  33. ↑ Gribble (1896). A History of the Deccan: Volume 1. Luzac and Company. p. 17.
  34. ↑ Mahajan, V.D. (1991). History of Medieval India, Part I, New Delhi:S. Chand, ISBN 81-219-0364-5, pp.279–80
  35. ↑ Bhattacharya. Indian History. p. 928
  36. ↑ Thomas Wolseley Haig (1919). Historic landmarks of the Deccan. Pioneer Press.
  37. ↑ Ahmed Farooqui, Salma (2011). Comprehensive History of Medieval India: From Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson. p. 150. ISBN 9789332500983.
  38. ↑ Ibrahim Khan (1960). Anecdotes from Islam. M. Ashraf.
  39. ↑ Mahajan, V.D. (1991). History of Medieval India, Part I, New Delhi:S. Chand, ISBN 81-219-0364-5, pp.279–80
  40. ↑ Sen, Sailendra (2013). A Textbook of Medieval Indian History. Primus Books. pp. 106–108, 117. ISBN 978-9-38060-734-4.
  41. ↑ Burjor Avari (2013). Islamic Civilization in South Asia: A History of Muslim Power and Presence in the Indian Subcontinent. Routledge. p. 88. ISBN 9780415580618.
  42. ↑ Richard M. Eaton (2019). India in the Persianate Age: 1000-1765. Penguin Books Limited. ISBN 9780141966557.
  43. ↑ Prasad 1933, p. 417.
  44. ↑ Abraham Elahy (2015). the Age of Wrath:A History of the Delhi Sultanate. Penguin Books Limited.
  45. ↑ Sheila Blair, Sheila S. Blair, Jonathan M. Bloom (25 September 1996). The Art and Architecture of Islam 1250-1800. Yale University Press. p. 159. ISBN 0300064659.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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  56. ↑ John Stewart Bowman (2000). Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture. p. 275.
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  61. ↑ Bowman, John; Bowman, John Stewart (2000). Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture. p. 275. ISBN 9780231110044.
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  63. ↑ Richard Maxwell Eaton (2015). The Sufis of Bijapur, 1300-1700 : Social Roles of Sufis in Medieval India. p. 42. ISBN 9781400868155.
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  65. ↑ John Bowman (2000). Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture. Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231500043.
  66. ↑ Annemarie Schimmel (2022). Islam in the Indian Subcontinent. Brill. ISBN 9789004492998.
  67. ↑ Shanti Sadiq Ali (1996). The African Dispersal in the Deccan: From Medieval to Modern Times. Orient Longman. p. 46. ISBN 9788125004851.
  68. ↑ Journal of the Research Society of Pakistan: Volumes 2-3, Issues 1-2. Research Society of Pakistan. 1965. p. 10.
  69. ↑ Muhammad Suleman Siddiqi (1990). "Sufi-State Relationship Under the Bahmanids (A.d. 1348-1538)". Rivista Degli Studi Orientali. 64 (1/2): 91. JSTOR 41880628. Firishta and Tabatabai, presents a very grim picture of the locals and refer to them as permanent enemies of the Sadat. There is some exaggeration in their account but one must not forget that these accounts of unfortunate affairs are all from the pen of the aliens, who are the products of Safavid Persia.
  70. ↑ 70.0 70.1 70.2 Yazdani, 1947, pp. 91-98.
  71. ↑ Jamal Malik (2020). Islam in South Asia: Revised, Enlarged and Updated Second Edition. Brill. p. 168. ISBN 9789004422711.
  72. ↑ Burjor Avari (2013). Islamic Civilization in South Asia: A History of Muslim Power and Presence in the Indian Subcontinent. Routledge. p. 89. ISBN 9780415580618.
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  75. ↑ Wilhelm von Pochhammer (2005). India's Road to Nationhood: A Political History of the Subcontinent. Allied. p. 219. ISBN 9788177647150.
  76. ↑ Sanjay Subrahmanyam (1996). Merchant Networks in the Early Modern World. Variorum. p. 75. ISBN 9780860785071.
  77. ↑ Satish Chandra (2004). Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206-1526) - Part One. Har-Anand Publications. p. 187. ISBN 9788124110645.
  78. ↑ Yazdani, 1947, pp. 10.
  79. ↑ Radhey Shyam (1966). The Kingdom of Ahmadnagar. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 17. ISBN 9788120826519.
  80. ↑ Dr. Shivakumar V. Uppe (2022). BRIEF CULTURAL HISTORY OF BASAVAKALYANA. ISBN 9781387847860.
  81. ↑ Pran Nath Chopra, T. K. Ravindran, N. Subrahmanian (1979). History of South India: Medieval period. S. Chand. p. 75.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  82. ↑ Yazdani, 1947, pp. 10-11.
  83. ↑ John Bowman (2000). Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture. Columbia University Press. p. 276.
  84. ↑ Eaton, Richard M. A Social History of the Deccan, 1300–1761: Eight Indian Lives. p. 88.
  85. ↑ P. M. Kemp (1958). Bharat-Rus: An Introduction to Indo-Russian Contracts and Travels from Mediaeval Times to the October Revolution. ISCUS. p. 20.
  86. ↑ Victor Lieberman (2003). Strange Parallels: Volume 2, Mainland Mirrors: Europe, Japan, China, South Asia, and the Islands. p. 730. ISBN 9780521823524.
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  88. ↑ N.H, Ansari (1988). "BAHMANID DYNASTY". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 8 July 2023.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
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  92. ↑ Sewell, Robert. A Forgotten Empire (Vijayanagar) pp.57-58.
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  95. ↑ Emma J. Flatt (2019). The Courts of the Deccan Sultanates. p. 80. ISBN 9781108481939.
  96. ↑ 96.0 96.1 Yazdani, 1947, pp. 114-142.
  97. ↑ Sara Mondini (2016). "The Use of Quranic Inscriptions in the Bahmani Royal Mausoleums The Case of Three Tombstones from Ashtur". Eurasiatica. 4. doi:10.14277/6969-085-3/EUR-4-12.
  98. ↑ 98.0 98.1 Haroon Khan Sherwani (1946). "The Bahmanis Of The Deccan-An Objective Study". Krishnavas International Printers, Hyderabad Deccan.

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