Afghans

From Bharatpedia, an open encyclopedia


For the historical ethnic group, see Afghan (ethnonym). For other uses of the term, see Afghan.
Afghans
افغان
Map of the Afghan Diaspora in the World.svg
Map of the Afghan diaspora in the world (includes Afghans of any ethnicity, ancestry or citizenship).
  Afghanistan
  + 1,000,000
  + 100,000
  + 10,000
  + 1,000
Total population
48 million (est.)
Regions with significant populations
Diaspora:
6,085,784+
 Iranc. 3 million (2023)[1][2]
 Pakistan1,285,754 (2022)[3]
 Germany377,000 (2022)[4]
 United States300,000 (2022)[5]
 United Arab Emirates300,000 (2023)[6]
 Russia150,000 (2017)[7]
 Turkey129,323 (2021)[8]
 Canada125,305 (2022)[9][10]
 United Kingdom79,000 (2019)[11]
 Sweden60,858 (2020)[12]
 Australia59,797 (2021)[13]
 Netherlands51,830 (2021)[14]
 France41,174 (2021)[15]
 Greece21,456 (2021)[16]
 Ukraine20,000 (2001)[17]
 Denmark18,018 (2017)[18]
 India15,806 (2021)[19]
 Belgium15,000 (2018)[20]
  Switzerland14,523 (2021)[21]
 Finland12,044 (2021)[22]
 Italy11,121-12,096 (2021)[23]
 Norway10,475 (2010)[24]
 Uzbekistan10,000 (2022)[25]
 Israel10,000 (2012)[26]
 Indonesia7,629 (2021)[citation needed]
 Tajikistan6,775 (2021)[27]
 Qatar4,000 (2012)[28]
 Japan3,509 (2020)[29]
 New Zealand3,414 (2013)[30]
 Malaysia2,661 (2021)[31]
 Kazakhstan2,500+ (2021)[32][33]
 Romania2,384 (2020)[34]
 Kyrgyzstan2,000 (2002)[35]
 Ireland1,200 (2019)[36]
 Ecuador300–2,500 (2018)[37]
 Portugal883[38][39]
Languages
Pashto, Dari and other languages of Afghanistan
Religion
Predominantly: Islam
(Sunni and Shia)
Minority: Hinduism, Sikhism, Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Judaism and Baháʼí Faith
Related ethnic groups
Pashtuns, Tajiks, Hazaras and Uzbeks

Afghans (Pashto: افغانان‎, romanized: afghanan; Persian/Template:Lang-prs; Persian: افغانستانی‎) or Afghan people are nationals or citizens of Afghanistan, or people with ancestry from there.[40][41] Afghanistan is made up of various ethnicities, of which Pashtuns, Tajiks, Hazaras and Uzbeks are the largest. The two main languages spoken by Afghans are Pashto and Dari (the Afghan dialect of the Persian language), and many Afghans are bilingual in speaking fluent Pashto and Dari.[42][43]

Background[edit]

Main article: Afghan (ethnonym)

The earliest mention of the name Afghan (Abgân) is by Shapur I of the Sassanid Empire during the 3rd century CE,[44][45][46] In the 4th century the word "Afghans/Afghana" (αβγανανο) as reference to a particular people is mentioned in the Bactrian documents found in Northern Afghanistan.[47][48] The word 'Afghan' is of Persian origin to refer to the Pashtun people.[49] In the past, several scholars sought a connection with “horse,” Skt.aśva-, Av.aspa-, i.e.the Aśvaka or Aśvakayana the name of the Aśvakan or Assakan, ancient inhabitants of the Hindu Kush region, however according to some linguists, it would be extremely difficult to reconcile either Aśvaka or Aśvakayana with the world Afghan.[citation needed]

As an adjective, the word Afghan also means "of or relating to Afghanistan or its people, language or culture". According to the 1964 Constitution of Afghanistan, all Afghans citizens are equal in rights and obligations before the law.[50] The fourth article of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan which was valid until 2021 states that citizens of Afghanistan consist of Pashtun, Tajik, Hazara, Uzbek, Turkmen, Baloch, Pashayi, Nuristani, Aimaq, Arab, Kyrgyz, Qizilbash, Gurjar, Brahui, and members of other ethnicities.[51] There are political disputes regarding this: there are members of the non-Pashtun ethnicities of Afghanistan that reject the term Afghan being applied to them, and there are Pashtuns in Pakistan that wish to have the term Afghan applied to them.[52][53][54][55][56]

the pre-nation state, historical ethnonym Afghan was used to refer to a member of the Pashtun ethnic group. Due to the changing political nature of the state, such as the British-drawn border with Pakistan (then British India) the meaning has changed, and term has shifted to be the national identity of people from Afghanistan from all ethnicities.[57][58][59]

Afghanistani and Afghanese[edit]

Less commonly Afghanistani (افغانستانی) is an alternative identity marker for citizens of the country Afghanistan. The term "Afghanistani" refers to someone who possesses the nationality of Afghanistan,[60] regardless of what race, ethnic, religious background.[61][62] In multiethnic Afghanistan, the term "Afghan" has always been associated with Pashtun people. Some non-Pashtun citizens such as Tajiks, Hazaras, and Uzbeks have viewed it as a part of Pashtun hegemony that devised to erase their ethnic identity.[63][64] The term Afghanistani has been used among some refugees and diasporas, particularly among non-Pashtuns.[65][66][67][68]

History[edit]

Afghanistan has never been or dawlat-e milli.[69][70] \[71][72] The local groups and communities across Afghanistan have rather strong local and regional identification as a tribes or ethnic groups (Pashtun, Tajik, Hazara, Uzbek or others). For the past two centuries, Afghanistan rulers have tried to create a state that represents Pashtuns.[73] Early efforts were made to create a strong centralized government based on a national identity of "Afghan," which privileged Pashtuns beyond their ethnic boundaries at state level as a whole. Non-Pashtun ethnic groups were not yet ready to accept a centralized state system let alone accepting a new national identity.[74][75] They did not have overall or even wider identification with Afghanistan as a whole, not to mention national identity or citizenship that was not given to them by the central government.[76]

Etymology[edit]

From a more limited, ethnological point of view, "Afḡhān" is the term by which the Persian-speakers of Afghanistan (and the non-Pashtō-speaking ethnic groups generally) designate the Pashtūn. The equation Afghans = Pashtūn has been propagated all the more, both in and beyond Afghanistan, because the Pashtūn tribal confederation has maintained its hegemony in the country, numerically and politically.[77]

National Identity[edit]

Afghanistan's early efforts to create a sort of national identity began in 1919, after receiving its independence from the British Empire.[78] This was the time when Afghanistan completely regain control over its sovereignty. Especially, the Hazara people who are still considered second-class citizens.[79][80][81] After the fall of monarchy in 1973,[82] Mohammed Daoud Khan, a staunch partisan of Pashtunistan,[83] who saw the country not as Afghanistan but a Pashtunistan, a land uniting Pashtuns from NWFP and FATA with Afghanistan.[84][85][86] Despite implementing some social and educational progress,[87][88] he failed to create a national identity.[89] After the Saur Revolution, the central governments tried to advocate for a broader Afghan identity through the use of modern education, but their efforts met with limited success.[90] One of the most common hurdles for fostering a common national identity was the fact they ethnic groups such as Hazara, Uzbeks, or Tajiks could not identify with elements of an identity that had strong base in Pashtun ethnicity that ruled the country.[91][92][93]

Other identifiers: Afghani and Afghanese[edit]

The term Afghani refers to the unit of Afghan currency. The term is also often used in the English language (and appears in some dictionaries) for a person or thing related to Afghanistan, although some have expressed the opinion that this usage is incorrect.[94] A reason for this usage can be because the term "Afghani" (افغانی) is in fact a valid demonym for Afghans in the overall Persian language and in Hindustani, whereas "Afghan" is derived from Pashto. Thus "Afghan" is the anglicized term of "Afghani" when translating from Dari or Hindi-Urdu, but not Pashto.[95] Another variant is Afghanese, which has been seldom used in place of Afghan.[96][97][98]

Ethnicities[edit]

Ethnolinguistic groups in Afghanistan and its surroundings (1982)
Main article: Ethnic groups in Afghanistan

Afghans come from various ethnic backgrounds. Pashtuns form a plurality of the population, while Tajiks, Hazaras and Uzbeks are the next largest and altogether the four form almost 95% of the population. They are of diverse origins including of Iranian, Turkic and Mongol ethnolinguistic roots.[99]

Religions[edit]

Main article: Religion in Afghanistan
The Masjid-e-Kabud, popularly known as the Blue Mosque, in Mazar-i-Sharif, Balkh Province, Afghanistan, April 3, 2012

The Afghan people of all ethnicities are predominantly and traditionally followers of Islam, of whom most are of the Sunni branch. Other religious minorities include the Afghan Hindus, Afghan Sikhs, Afghan Jews and Afghan Christians.[100]

Culture[edit]

Main article: Culture of Afghanistan

Afghan culture has existed for over three millennia, dating back to the time of the Achaemenid Empire in 500 BCE. Afghans have both common cultural features and those that differ between regions with each of the 34 provinces having its own unique distinctive cultures partly as a result of geographic obstacles that divide the country. Afghanistan's culture is historically linked to nearby Persia, including both countries following the Islamic religion, the Solar Hijri calendar and speaking similar languages, this is due to Iran and Afghanistan being culturally close to each other for thousands of years.

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ↑ "Iran provides residency permits to one million Afghan refugees". Ariana News. Retrieved 2023-01-28.
  2. ↑ "More than 600,000 Afghans return home in past year". Ariana News.
  3. ↑ "Situations". data2.unhcr.org. Retrieved 2023-06-05.
  4. ↑ "Rohdatenauszählung ausländische Bevölkerung".
  5. ↑ "Welcome allied-media.com - BlueHost.com". Allied-media.com. Retrieved 2022-12-24.
  6. ↑ Shahbandari, Shafaat. "Afghans take hope from UAE's achievements". Gulf News. Retrieved 2013-11-05.
  7. ↑ "Moscow's 'Little Kabul'". Radio Free Europe / Radio Liberty.
  8. ↑ "The Afghan refugee crisis brewing on Turkey's eastern border". The New Humanitarian. Retrieved 2021-08-13.
  9. ↑ "Canada Census Profile 2021". Census Profile, 2021 Census. Statistics Canada Statistique Canada. 7 May 2021. Retrieved 3 January 2023.
  10. ↑ "Permanent Residents – Monthly IRCC Updates – Canada – Admissions of Permanent Residents by Country of Citizenship". Statistics Canada. Retrieved 3 January 2022.
  11. ↑ Template:ONSCoB2019
  12. ↑ "Foreign-born persons by country of birth, age, sex and year". Statistics Sweden. Retrieved 2021-07-29.
  13. ↑ "People in Australia who were born in Afghanistan". Australian Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved 27 February 2023.
  14. ↑ "CBS Statline".
  15. ↑ "Afghanistan. Comment sont répartis les réfugiés afghans dans le monde ?".
  16. ↑ Calcea, Nicu. "How the US and the UK accept far fewer Afghan refugees than other countries". New Statesman. Retrieved 2023-06-05.
  17. ↑ "Афганська громада України". Retrieved 2021-07-29.
  18. ↑ "Denmark". Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Afghanistan). Retrieved 2021-07-30. The number of Afghan immigrants living in Denmark per January 1st 2017 is 13240. There are also 4778 persons who are descendants of Afghan immigrants.
  19. ↑ "Rohdatenauszählung ausländische Bevölkerung".
  20. ↑ "Bevölkerung nach Staatsangehörigkeit und Geburtsland".
  21. ↑ Calcea, Nicu. "How the US and the UK accept far fewer Afghan refugees than other countries". New Statesman. Retrieved 2023-06-05.
  22. ↑ "Foreigners in Finland". Statistics Finland. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  23. ↑ Istituto Nazionale di Statistica. Cittadini Stranieri. Popolazione residente e bilancio demografico al 31 dicembre 2019 [Foreign Citizens. Resident population and demographic balance as in 31 Dec 2019] (Report) (in italiano). Rome: Istat. Retrieved 15 August 2021. Italia - Asia Centro-Meridionale
    Afghanistan [...] Totale: 11121     [Italy - Center-Southern Asia
    Afghanistan [...] Total: 11,121]
  24. ↑ Statistics Norway – Persons with immigrant background by immigration category and country background. 1 January 2010 Archived 2010-10-28 at the Wayback Machine
  25. ↑ Afghanistan's Ghani Visits Uzbekistan on Mission to Plug Into Central Asia, Eurasianet
  26. ↑ Arbabzadah, Nushin. "The story of the Afghan Jews is one of remarkable tolerance". The Guardian. Retrieved 2017-04-12.
  27. ↑ "Afghanistan Situation". UNHCR. Retrieved 2022-01-10.
  28. ↑ Snoj, Jure. "Population of Qatar by nationality". bq magazine. Archived from the original on 12 February 2017.
  29. ↑ "Statistics on foreign residents in Japan (formerly registered alien statistics) - statistics table", Immigration Services of Japan (in Japanese){{citation}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
  30. ↑ "2013 Census ethnic group profiles". archive.stats.govt.nz.
  31. ↑ "Afghan refugees in Malaysia find hope in Theatre of the Oppressed". Turkey: TRT World. Retrieved 2021-07-29.
  32. ↑ ""Салт-дәстүрін аялай білген халық" - ақпараттық-танымдық сайт - Еl.kz".
  33. ↑ ""Босқындарды қабылдауға үзілді-кесілді қарсымын" - Қазақстандағы ауған диаспорасының басшысы".
  34. ↑ "Romania: Refugee and migrant figures for 2020". Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  35. ↑ IFRC document
  36. ↑ "Up to 500 relatives of Afghans in State to be offered temporary residency". The Irish Times.
  37. ↑ "Los afganos latinoamericanos". www.trt.net.tr. TRT Español.
  38. ↑ "Um ano depois, um quarto dos refugiados afegãos saiu de Portugal".
  39. ↑ "Portugal: New agency for migration and asylum".
  40. ↑ Garner, Bryan (2009). Garner's Modern American Usage (third ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-19-538275-4.
  41. ↑ Siegal, Allan M.; Connolly, William (2015). The New York Times Manual of Style and Usage (fifth ed.). New York: Crown Publishing Group. p. 18. ISBN 978-1-336-02484-7.
  42. ↑ "The Constitution of Afghanistan". Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. Archived from the original on 29 August 2021. Retrieved 2 September 2020.
  43. ↑ "Article Sixteen of the 2004 Constitution of Afghanistan". 2004. Archived from the original on 28 October 2013. Retrieved 13 June 2012. Pashto and Dari are the official languages of the state. Uzbek, Turkmen, Baluchi, Pashai, Nuristani and Pamiri are – in addition to Pashto and Dari – the third official language in areas where the majority speaks them
  44. ↑ "History of Afghanistan". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 2010-11-22.
  45. ↑ "Afghan and Afghanistan". Abdul Hai Habibi. alamahabibi.com. 1969. Retrieved 2010-10-24.
  46. ↑ Noelle-Karimi, Christine; Conrad J. Schetter; Reinhard Schlagintweit (2002). Afghanistan -a country without a state?. University of Michigan, United States: IKO. p. 18. ISBN 3-88939-628-3. Retrieved 2010-09-24. The earliest mention of the name 'Afghan' (Abgan) is to be found in a Sasanid inscription from the 3rd century, and it appears in India in the form of 'Avagana'...
  47. ↑ Balogh, Dániel. Hunnic Peoples in Central and South Asia: Sources for their Origin and History. Barkhuis. p. 144. ISBN 978-94-93194-01-4. [ To Ormuzd Bunukan , ... greetings and homage from ... ) , Pithe ( sot ] ang ( ? ) of Parpaz ( under ) [ the glorious ) yabghu of [ Heph ] thal , the chief ... of the Afghans
  48. ↑ Sims-Williams, Nicholas. Bactrian documents from northern Afghanistan. Oxford: The Nour Foundation in association with Azimuth Editions and Oxford University Press. ISBN 1-874780-92-7.
  49. ↑ "Definition of AFGHAN". www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2020-11-25.
  50. ↑ "Article 1 of the 1964 Constitution of Afghanistan". Government of Afghanistan. Archived from the original on 2011-09-17. Retrieved June 13, 2012.
  51. ↑ "Constitution of Afghanistan". 2004. Archived from the original on 2016-08-04. Retrieved 2013-02-16. National sovereignty in Afghanistan shall belong to the nation, manifested directly and through its elected representatives. The nation of Afghanistan is composed of all individuals who possess the citizenship of Afghanistan. The nation of Afghanistan shall be comprised of Pashtun, Tajik, Hazara, Uzbek, Turkman, Baluch, Pachaie, Nuristani, Aymaq, Arab, Qirghiz, Qizilbash, Gujur, Brahwui and other tribes. The word Afghan shall apply to every citizen of Afghanistan. No individual of the nation of Afghanistan shall be deprived of citizenship. The citizenship and asylum related matters shall be regulated by law.
  52. ↑ "Who is an Afghan? Row over ID cards fuels ethnic tension". Reuters – via www.reuters.com.
  53. ↑ Moslih, Hashmatallah. "Q&A: Afghanistan's Tajiks plea for federalism". www.aljazeera.com.
  54. ↑ "Identity Politics in Afghanistan: Nation-State or State-Nation?".
  55. ↑ Valentini, Nicole. "Nation, identity and the future of Afghanistan".
  56. ↑ "Miranshah PTM Jalsa Lar Ao bar Nary لر او بر یو افغان" – via www.youtube.com.
  57. ↑ "Ask Johnson: Afghans, Afghanis, Afghanistanis". The Economist.
  58. ↑ Kieffer, Ch. M. "Afghan". Encyclopædia Iranica. Archived from the original on 16 November 2013. From a more limited, ethnological point of view, "Afḡān" is the term by which the Persian-speakers of Afghanistan (and the non-Paṧtō-speaking ethnic groups generally) designate the Paṧtūn. The equation Afghans = Paṧtūn has been propagated all the more, both in and beyond Afghanistan, because the Paṧtūn tribal confederation is by far the most important in the country, numerically and politically.
  59. ↑ "ABC NEWS/BBC/ARD poll – Afghanistan: Where Things Stand" (PDF). ABC News. Kabul, Afghanistan. pp. 38–40. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 June 2011. Retrieved 29 October 2010.
  60. ↑ "Afghanistani Definitions | What does afghanistani mean? | Best 2 Definitions of Afghanistani". www.yourdictionary.com. Retrieved 2022-05-02.
  61. ↑ Bulut, Meryem; Şahin, Kadriye. Anthropological Perspectives on Transnational Encounters in Turkey: War, Migration and Experiences of Coexistence. Transnational Press London. ISBN 978-1-912997-26-8.
  62. ↑ Bezhan, Faridullah. Afghanistani Storytelling and Writing: History, Performance and Forms. Monash Asia Institute. ISBN 978-1-876924-44-7.
  63. ↑ Rubin, Barnett R. Afghanistan in the Post-Cold War Era. OUP USA. ISBN 978-0-19-979112-5.
  64. ↑ Boon, Kristen; Lovelace, Douglas; Huq, Aziz Z. Al Qaeda, the Taliban, and Conflict in Afghanistan. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-975825-8.
  65. ↑ Calendars, Country 2020. Made In Britain With Afghanistani Parts: Afghanistani 2020 Calender Gift For Afghanistani With There Heritage And Roots From Afghanistan [check the title of this book, for instance]. Independently Published. ISBN 978-1-6506-1917-0.
  66. ↑ Bezhan, Faridullah. Afghanistani Storytelling and Writing: History, Performance and Forms [this book with title Afghanistani was published in 2006]. Monash Asia Institute. ISBN 978-1-876924-44-7.
  67. ↑ "Afghanistani mother responds to pregnant Kiwi journalist's plea". 1 News. Retrieved 2022-05-26.
  68. ↑ "راه‌حل‌های راهبردی برای پناهندگان افغانستانی [UNHCR Iran uses Afghanistani]". آژانس پناهندگان سازمان ملل در ایران (in فارسی). Retrieved 2022-05-26.
  69. ↑ Entezar, Ehsan M. Afghanistan 101: Understanding Afghan Culture. Xlibris Corporation. ISBN 978-1-4535-0152-8.
  70. ↑ A Different Kind of War: The United States Army in Operation ENDURING FREEDOM, October 2001 - September 2005. Government Printing Office. ISBN 978-0-16-086914-3.
  71. ↑ Ghani, Ashraf; Lockhart, Clare. Fixing Failed States: A Framework for Rebuilding a Fractured World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-539861-8.
  72. ↑ Modrzejewska-Leśniewska, Joanna. "Afghanistan Ordinary state, failed state, or something else?". Journal of Modern Science. 43 (4): 101–117. doi:10.13166/jms/117976. ISSN 1734-2031. S2CID 212960582.
  73. ↑ Barfield, Thomas J. "Problems in establishing legitimacy in Afghanistan". Iranian Studies. 37 (2): 263–293. doi:10.1080/0021086042000268100. ISSN 0021-0862.
  74. ↑ Bearden, Bill. "Washington awards contracts for Federal ID cards". Card Technology Today. 12 (6): 2. doi:10.1016/s0965-2590(00)06002-3. ISSN 0965-2590.
  75. ↑ "Afghanistan's identity crisis erupts on social media". The National. Retrieved 2022-05-02.
  76. ↑ Modrzejewska-Leśniewska, Joanna. "Afghanistan Ordinary state, failed state, or something else?". Journal of Modern Science. 43 (4): 101–117. doi:10.13166/jms/117976. ISSN 1734-2031. S2CID 212960582.
  77. ↑ Foundation, Encyclopaedia Iranica. "Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica". iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 2022-05-02.
  78. ↑ Hyman, Anthony. Afghanistan Under Soviet Domination, 1964-83. Springer. ISBN 978-1-349-17443-0.
  79. ↑ Gullette, David; Croix, Jeanne Féaux de la. Everyday Energy Politics in Central Asia and the Caucasus: Citizens' Needs, Entitlements and Struggles for Access. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-30253-7.
  80. ↑ Silverstein, Jordana; Stevens, Rachel. Refugee Journeys: Histories of Resettlement, Representation and Resistance. ANU Press. ISBN 978-1-76046-419-6.
  81. ↑ Green, Nile. Afghanistan's Islam: From Conversion to the Taliban. Univ of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-29413-4.
  82. ↑ Kakar, Hasan. "The Fall of the Afghan Monarchy in 1973". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 9 (2): 195–214. doi:10.1017/S0020743800000064. ISSN 0020-7438. JSTOR 162372.
  83. ↑ Breuilly, John. The Oxford Handbook of the History of Nationalism. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-920919-4.
  84. ↑ Lieven, Anatol. Pakistan: A Hard Country. PublicAffairs. ISBN 978-1-61039-162-7.
  85. ↑ Dutt, Sagarika; Bansal, Alok. South Asian Security: 21st Century Discourses. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-61767-6.
  86. ↑ Breuilly, John. The Oxford Handbook of the History of Nationalism. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-920919-4.
  87. ↑ "Mohammad Daoud as Prime Minister, 1953-63". Archived from the original on 2021-08-30. Retrieved 2022-05-02.
  88. ↑ "Mohammad Daud Khan | prime minister of Afghanistan | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2022-05-02.
  89. ↑ Kakar, Hasan. "The Fall of the Afghan Monarchy in 1973". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 9 (2): 195–214. doi:10.1017/S0020743800000064. ISSN 0020-7438. JSTOR 162372.
  90. ↑ An Afghan dilemma : education, gender and globalization in an Islamic context / Pia Karlsson & Amir Mansory. University of Arizona Libraries. doi:10.2458/azu_acku_lc910_a3_k37_2007.
  91. ↑ Modrzejewska-Leśniewska, Joanna. "Afghanistan Ordinary state, failed state, or something else?". Journal of Modern Science. 43 (4): 101–117. doi:10.13166/jms/117976. ISSN 1734-2031. S2CID 212960582.
  92. ↑ Education and Afghan society in the twentieth century / Saif R. Samady. University of Arizona Libraries. doi:10.2458/azu_acku_pamphlet_la1081_s36_2001.
  93. ↑ "Events of 1288/March 1871–March 1872". History of Afghanistan. doi:10.1163/9789004256064_hao_com_000209. Retrieved 2022-05-02.
  94. ↑ "Chatterbox: More on 'Afghani'". Slate. Retrieved March 29, 2013.
  95. ↑ "Afghan vs. Afghani, Part 3". Slate. Retrieved October 1, 2021.
  96. ↑ George Newenham Wright (1836). A New and Comprehensive Gazetteer, Volume 3.
  97. ↑ "True Northerner 18 October 1878 — Digital Michigan Newspapers Collection".
  98. ↑ "Beauty is the quiet of the self forgotten".
  99. ↑ Anatol Lieven (2016). "The Arbiters of Afghanistan". The National Interest. Center for the National Interest (145): 28–36. JSTOR 26557334.
  100. ↑ "Afghan Culture - Religion". Cultural Atlas. Retrieved 2023-05-08.

Further reading[edit]

External links[edit]

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